lyL -^ •' i ► HISTORY CHKISTIAN CHIJECH PHILIP SCHAFP Christianus sum : Christiani nihil a me alienum puto VOL. IV. MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY From Gregory I to Gregory Vn A.D. 590-1073 NEW YOEK CHARLES SCRIBKER'S SONS 1885 COPTRICnT BT PniLU' SCUAFF. 1885 OEA.NT * r^IUES PUILADKLrillA TO HIS OLDEST AMERICAN FRIEND The Rev. GEOEGE L. PRENTISS, D.D. PROFESSOR IN THE UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR My Dear Prentiss : When, forty-five years ago, we met in tlie house of Tholuck at Halle, then in Neander's lecture-room at Berlin, and two years later in St. Peter's and on the Capitol at Eome, and wandered over the ruins of the urbs ceterna, qua nihil possis visere majus, we did not dream of ever seeing each other in your native land, still less of becoming colleagues there in the same institution of sacred learning. But this thought occurred to me even then : If Prentiss is a fair speci- men of his countrymen, I would not object to live and labor among them. I was not mistaken in you, nor disappointed in America. That Pro- vidence which shapes our ends far better than we could do ourselves, brought us together in the most congenial field of labor, where German, English, and American ideas and learning find a hospitable home and hopeful pupils. The recent festival of dedication of the new buildings on Lenox Hill marks an epoch in the history of our beloved Seminary, and makes us more willing than ever to devote the remainder of our lives to its service and welfare. May every year be a "step heaven- ward," till we reach heaven itself to meet our beloved friends and co- workers who have already passed from the theology of faith to the theology of beatific vision. Yours, in unbroken friendship. Philip Schaff. New York, Union Theological Seminary. January 1, 1885. CONTENTS. MEDIEVAL OHEISTIAE'ITY. FROM A. D. 590-1517. CHAPTER I. PAGE General Ijttroductiok to Medieval Church History. § 1. Sources and Literature, 1 § 2. The Middle Age. Limits and General character, ... 5 § 3. The Nations of Medieval Cliristianity, Kelt, Teuton, Slav, . 7 § 4. Genius of Medieval Christianity, 11 § 5. Periods of the Middle Age, 14 FOURTH PERIOD. THE CHURCH AMONG THE BARBARIANS. From Gregory I. to Gregory VII. A. D, 590—10 49 (10 73). CHAPTER II. The Conversion of the Northern and Western Barbarians, § 6. Character of Mediaeval Missions, ....... 17 I. The Conversion of England, Ireland, and Scotland. § 7. Literature, 19 § 8. The Britons, 22 1 9. The Anglo-Saxons, 27 2 10. The Mission of Gregory and Augustin. Conversion of Kent, . 30 § 11. Antagonism of the Saxon and British Clergy, .... 35 § 12. Conversion of the other Kingdoms of the Heptarchy, ... 37 i 13. Conformity to Rome Established. Wilfrid, Theodore, Bede, . 39 § 14. Conversion of Ireland. St. Patrick, St. Bridget, ... 43 (Critical Note on St. Patrick). § 15. The Irish Church after St. Patrick, 52 vii viii CONTENTS. PAGE { 1(T. Subjection of Ireland to English and Roman Rule, ... 53 J 17. Convereion of Sc-ollaud. St. Ninian and St. Kcntigern, d I 18. St. Columbaaud the Munatitcry of lona, G4 I 111. The Culdccs, ''^ 1 20. Extinction of the Keltic Church, and Triumph of Rome under King David I., "^ II. The ChnrfTsion of France, Germany, and Adjacent Countries. General Literature • • • ''i S 21. Arian ClirLstianity among the Goths and other German Tribes, . 77 J 2'J. ConviTsion of ("lovis and the IVanks, 80 2 *2:J. CoIumbaniLs and the Irish Missionaries on the Continent, . 84 I 24. (iurinan Missionaries before Boniface, 89 { 2-3. Boniface, the AiMxstle of Germany, 92 1 2C. Pupils of Boniface. Willibald, Gregory of Utrecht, Sturm of Ful.la, 100 5 27. Conversion of tlie S.ixon.s. Cliarlemagne and Alcuin. The Ile- liand and tlie Gosi)el Harmony, . . ^ . . .102 III. The Conversion of Scandinavia. General Literature, 106 5 2S. Sil)lo, . . . . . 143 148 150 155 160 171 174 I 45. The Mohammedoo Religion, ...... 133 CONTENTS. ix PAGE § 46. Mohammedan Worship, .190 § 47. Christian Polemics against Islam. Note on Mormonism, . 195 CHAPTER IV. The Papal Hierarchy and the Holy Eoman Empire. § 48. General Literature on the Papacy, 203 § 49. Chronological Table of the Popes, Anti-Popes and Emperors from Gregory I. A. D. 590 to Leo. XIII. A. D. 1878, . . 205 § 50. Gregory the Great. A. D. 590-604, 211 § 51. Gregory and the Universal Episcopate, 218 § 52. The Writings of Gregory, . . . . . .__ . .225 I 53. The Papacy from Gregory I. to Gregory II. A.D. 604-715, . 230 § 54. From Gregory II. to Zacharias. A. D. 715-741, . . ' . 231 § 55. Alliance of the Papacy with the New Monarchy of the Franks. Pepin and the Patrimony of St. Peter. A. D. 741-755, . 232 g 56. Charlemagne. . A. D. 768-814 236 § 57. Founding of the Holy Eoman Empire. A. D. 800. Charlemagne and Leo III., 250 § 58. Survey of the History of the Holy Eoman Empire, . . . 255 § 59. The Papacy and the Empire from the Death of Charlemagne to Nicolas I. A. D. 814-858. Myth of the Papess Joan, . 264 § 60. Tiie Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, 266 §61. Nicolas L April, 858— Nov. 13, 867, 273 § 62. Adrian II. and John VIII., A. D. 867-882, . . . .277 § 63. Degradation of the Papacy in the Tenth Century, . . . 279 § 64. Interference of Otho the Great, 288 § 65. Second Degradation of the Papacy from Otho I. to Henry III. A. D. 973-1046. . . " 293 § 66. Henry III. and the Synod of Sutri. Deposition of Three Eival Popes. A. D. 1046 299 CHAPTEE V. The Conflict op the Eastern and Western Churches and their Separation. § 67. Sources and Literature on the Oriental Schism, .... 304 I 68. Consensus and Dissensus between the Greek and Latin Churches, 306 § 69. Causes of Separation, 309 § 70. The Patriarch and the Pope. Photius and Nicolas, . . . 312 § 71. Progress and Completion of the Schism. Cerularius. 1054. . 317 § 72. Fruitless Attempts at Eeunion, 321 CONTEXXa CHAPTER VI. MoRAxs AND Religion. PAGE 2 73. Literature, 326 § 74. General Character of Mediajval MoraLs, .... 327 g 75. Clerical Morals 330 ? 76. Domestic Life. 333 § 77. Slavery, ... 334 § 78. FcuiLs and Private War. The Truce of God, . . 339 I 79. Tlie Ordeal, 341 § 80. The Torture, .348 i 81. Christian Charity, 355 CHAPTER Vn. MONASTICISM. 2 82. Use of Convents in the Middle Ages, 363 § 83. St. Benedict, St. l^^ilus, St. Romuald, 364 I 84. The Convent of Cluny, 367 CH.\PTER VIIL CrnjKCH Discipline. § 85. The Penitential Books, 371 i 86. Ecclesiastical Punishments. Excommunication, Anathema, In- terdict, 376 2 87. Penance and Indulgence, 381 CHAPTER IX. CnuKCH AND State. 2 88. LeRisIation . . 386 2 89. Tlie Roman Law 388 2 90. The Capitularies of Charlemagne, ' 390 § 91. English Legislation, 392 CO^"TENTS. §92. §93. §94. §95. §96. §97. §98. §99. §100. § 101. §102. §103. §104. §105. CHAPTEE X. Worship and Ceremonies. PAGE TIieMass, ^97 The Sermon, 399 Church Poetry. Greek Hymns and Hymnists, .... 402 Latin Hymnody. Literature, ...... 416 Latin Hymns and Hymnists, 420 The Seven Sacraments, 436 The Organ and the Bell, 439 The Worship of Saints, 442 The Worship of Images. Literature. Different Theories, . 447 The Iconoclastic War, and the Synod of 754, . . • 454 The Restoration of Image- Worship and the Seventh (Ecumenical Council, A. D. 787, .459 Iconoclastic Reaction and Final Triumph of Image-Worship. A. D. 842, 464 The Caroline Books and the Prankish Church, . • . 465 Evangelical Eeformers. Agobard of Lyons and Claudius of Turin, 470 CHAPTER XL Doctrinal Controversies. § 106. General Survey, § 107. I. The Procession of the Holy Spirit, . § 108. The Arguments for and against the Filioque, § 109. II. The MoNOTHELETic Controversy. Literature, § 110. The Doctrine of Two Wills in Christ, § 111. History of Monotheletism and Dyotheletism, § 112. The Sixth (Ecumenical Council. A.D. 680, § 113. The Heresy of Honorius, . . . • § 114. Concilium Quinisextum, A. D. 692, . § 115. Reaction of Monotheletism. The Maronites, . § 116. III. The Adoptionist Controversy. Literature, § 117. History of Adoptionism, § 118. Doctrine of Adoptionism, § 119. IV. The Predestinarian Controversy. Literature § 120. Gottschalk and Rabanus Maurus, ? 121. Gottschalk and Hincmar, § 122. The Contending Theories of Predestination, and the Victory Semi-Augustinianism, § 123. The Doctrine of Scotus Erigena on Predestination and Free Will § 124. V. The Eucharistic Controversies. Literature, § 125. The Two Theories of the Lord's Supper, . . • . of 475 476 484 489 490 494 499 500 507 510 511 513 517 522 525 528 530 539 543 544 cii CONTENTS. ? 12G. The Theory of Paschasius Kadbertus, 2 127. The Theory of RatramnuP, .... § 128. The Eerengar Controversy, 2 129. Berengar's Tlieory of the Lord's Supper, § 130. Lanfranc and the Triumph of Traasubstantiation, PAGE . 546 549 . 554 564 . 567 CHAPTER XII. Heretical Sects. 131. The Paulicians, 132. The Eiichites and other Sects in the East, 133. The New Manichaeans in the West, . 573 578 680 CHAPTER XIII. The State of Learning. § 134. Literature, 583 5 135. Literary Character of the early Middle Ages, . . . 585 § 136. Learning in the Eastern Church, 586 § 137. Christian Platonipm and the Pseudo-Dionysian Writings, . 589 I 138. Ignorance in the Wejt, 600 § 139. Educational Efforts of the Latin Church, .... 604 1 140. Charles the Great, and Charles the Bald, 614 2 141. King Alfred, and Education in England, .... 618 CHAPTER XIV. BioGRAPnicAL Sketches of the Ecclesiastical Writers. § 142. Chronologist List of the Principal Ecclesiastical Writers from the Sixth to Ihe Twelfth Century, 621 I. Greek Authors. § 143. St. Maximus Confessor, ........ 622 I 144. St. .Jolin of Dama.scus, 626 § 145. Photius 636 ? 146. Simeon Metaphrastes, 642 § 147. Gi^cumenius, 643 § 148. Theophylact ... 643 I 149. Michael Psellns, 646 § 150. Enthymins Zigabenus, 647 § 151. Eustnthius of Thcssalonica, 648 § 152. Nicetas Acominatos, 652 CONTENTS. xiii II. Latin Authors. PAGE § 153. Cassiodorus, G53 ^ 154. St. Gregory of Tours, . . . , 658 I 155. St. Isidore of Seville, 662 § 156. The Venerable Bede, 669 § 157. Faul the Deacon, . 677 § 158. St. Paulinus of Aquileia, 681 I 159. Alcuin, 684 § 160. St. Liudger, 691 § 161. Theodulph of Orleans, 695 I 162. St. Eigil, 699 § 163. Amalarius, 701 I 164. Einhard, 704 I 165. Smaragdus, • . . 709 § 166. Jonas of Orleans, . . . 711 I 167. Kabanus Maurns, 713 I 168. Haymo of Halberstadt, 728 I 169. Walahfrid Strabo, 729 § 170. Florus Magister of Lyons, 733 I 171. Servatus Lupus, 735 \ 172. Druthmar, • .... 739 § 173. St. Paschasius Eadbertus, 741 ^ 174. Eatramnus, . . . , 746 I 175. Hincmar of Eheims, 750 \ 176. Scotus Erigena, 761 § 177. Anastasius, 774 § 178. Eatherius of Verona, 776 I 179. Gerbert (Sylvester II.), 777 I 180. Fulbert of Chartres, ... 782 § 181. Eodulfus Glaber. Adam of Bremen 785 i 182. St. Peter Damiani, 787 Alphabetical Index 793 *l HISTORY OP MEDIAEVAL CHRISTIANITY. FEOM A.D. 590 TO 1517. CHAPTER I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. § 1. Sources and Literature. August Potthast : Blbliotheca Historica Medii Acevi. Wegweiser durch die Oeschichtsioerke des Europaischen Alittelalters von 375-1500. Ber- lin, 1862. Supplement, 1868. The mediaeval literature embraces four distinct branches. 1. The Romano-Germanic or Western Christian ; 2. The Grseco-Byzantine or Eastern Christian; 3. The Talmudic and Rabbinical ; 4. The Arabic and Mohammedan. We notice here only the first and second ; the other two will be mentioned in subdivisions as far as they are connected with church history. The Christian literature consists partly of documentary sources, partly of historical works. We confine ourselves here to the most important works of a more general character. Books referring to particular countries and sections of church history will be noticed in the progress of the narrative. I. Documentary Sources. They are mostly in Latin — the official language of the Western Church,— and in Greek, — ^the official language of the Eastern Church. 1 2 MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. (1) For the history of missions: the letters and biographies of mis- sionaries. (2j For church polity and government: the official letters of popes, j)atriarch.s, and bishops. The documents of the papal court embrace (a) Regesta [registra), the transactions of the various branches of the papal government from A. D. 1198-1572, deposited in the Vatican library, and difficult of access, (b) Epistolas decretales, which constitute the basis of the Corpus juris canonici, brought to a close in 1313. (c) The bulla {bulla, a seal or stamp of globular form, though some derive it from Pov'/.i;, rvill, decree) and briefs {breve, a short, concise summary), i. e., the official letters since the conclusion of the canon law. They are of equal authority, but the bulls diffiir from the briefs by their more solenm form. The bulls are written on parchment, and sealed with a seal of lead or gold, which is stamped on one side with the effigies of Peter and Paul, and on the other with the name of the reigning pope, and attached to the instrument by a string ; while the briefs are Avritten on paper, scaled with red was, and impressed with the seal of the fisherman or Peter in a boat. (3) For the history of Christian life : the biographies of saints, the disciplinary canons of synods, the ascetic literature. (4) For worship and ceremonies : liturgies, hymns, homilies, works of architecture, sculpture, painting, poetry, music. The Gothic cathe- drals are as striking embodiments of mediaeval Christianity as the Egyptian pyramids are of the civilization of the Pharaohs. (5) For theology and Christian learning: the works of the later fathers (beginning with Gregory I.), schoolmen, mystics, and the forerunners of the Reformation. II. DOCUMENTAUY COLLECTIONS. WOEKS OF MEDIEVAL WeITEES. (1) For the Oriental Church. Corpus Scriptorum Ilistorice Bgzanfince, opera NiEBTJHElI, Bekkeei, et al. Bonnx', 1828-78, 50 vols. 8vo. Contains a complete history of the E;u'. Wc write Dane, Swede, Pole, not Dan, etc. But the a in Slav has the continental sound, and the tendency is to get rid of mute vowels. 3) The form Slave perpetuates the etymology. But the etymology (slave=f5oaof) is untxTt-iin, ami it is well to di.stinguLsh the national name from the ordinary Blavcs, and thus avoid ofTence. The Germans also distinguish between Slaren, Sdaven. §4. GElSnUS OF MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY. 11 are isolated from the main current ; but recently they have begun to develop their resources, and seem to have a great future before them through the commanding political power of Russia in Europe and in Asia. Russia is the bearer of the destinies of Panslavism and of the Eastern Church. 5.- The Greek nationality, which figured so conspicuously in ancient Christianity, maintained its independence down to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453; but it was mixed with Slavonic elements. The Greek Church was much weakened by the inroads of -IMohammedanism, and lost the possession of the territories of primitive Christianity, but secured a ne^v and vast missionary field in Russia. § 4. Genius of 3Iedlceval Christianity. Mediaeval Christianity is, on the one hand, a legitimate con- tinuation and further development of ancient Catholicism ; on the other hand, a preparation for Protestantism. Its leading forces are the papacy, monasticism, and scholasti- cism, which were developed to their height, and then assailed by growing oj^position from within. Christianity, at its first introduction, had to do with highly civilized nations ; but now it had to lay the foundation of a new civilization among barbarians. The apostles planted churches in the cities of the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, and the word "l^agan," i. e. villager, backwoodsman, gradually came to de- note an idolater. They spoke and wrote in a language which had already a large and immortal literature ; their progress was paved by the high roads of the Roman legions; they found everywhere an established order of society and government; and their mission was to infuse into the ancient civilization a new spiritual life and to make it subservient to higher moral ends. But the missionaries of the dark ages had to visit wild woods and untilled fields, to teach rude nations the alphabet, and to lay the foundation for society, literature and art. Hence Christianity assumed the character of a strong discipli- nary institution, a training school for nations in their infancy, 12 MEDIEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. which had to be treated as children. Hence the legalistic, hier- archical, ritualistic and romantic character of mediaeval Catholi- cism. Yet in proportion as the nations were trained in the school of the church, tlicy began to assert their independence of tlie hierarchy and to develop a national literature in their own language. Compared -with our times, in Avhich thought and reflection have become the highest arbiter of human life, the middle age was an age of passion. The written law, such as it was developed in Roman society, the barbarian could not under- stand and would not obey. But he was easily impressed by the 8i)okcn law, the living Avord, and found a kind of charm in bending his will absolutely before another will. Thus the teach- ing church became the law in the land,^and formed the very foundation of all social and political organization. The middle ages are often called "the dark ages:" truly, if we compare them with ancient Christianity, which j^receded, and A\ith modern Christianity, which followed; falsely and un- justly, if the church is made responsible for the darkness. Christianity was the light that shone in the darkness of sur- rounding barbarism and heathenism, and gradually dispelled it. IndiLstrious priests and monks saved from the A^TCck of the Koman Empire the treasures of classical literature, together with the Holy Scriptures and patristic writings, and transmitted them to bettor times. The mediajval light was indeed the borrowed star and moon-light of ecclesiastical tradition, rather than the clear sun-light from the inspired pages of the New Testament ; but it was such light as the eyes of nations in their ignorance couhl bear, and it never ceased to shine till it disappeared in the day-light of tlie great Reformation. Christ had his witnesses in all ages and countries, and those shine all the brighter who were surrounded by midnight darkness. "Pause where ttp may upon tlie desert-road, Some slielter Ls in siglit, some sacred safe abode." On the other hand, the middle ages are often called, especially by li.mian Catholic writers, "the ages of faith." They abound §4. GENIUS OF MEDIAEVAL CHEISTIANITY. 13 in legends of saints, wliich had the charm of religious novels. All men believed in tlie supernatural and miraculous as readily as children do now. Heaven and hell were as real to the mind as the kingdom of France and the republic of Venice. Skep- ticism and infidelity were almost unknown, or at least suppressed and concealed. But with faith was connected a vast deal of super- stition and an entire absence of critical investigation and judg- ment. Faith was blind and unreasoning, like the faith of children. The most incredible and absurd legends were accepted without a question. And yet the morality was not a whit better, but in many respects ruder, coarser and more passionate, than in modern times. The church as a visible organization never had greater power over the minds of men. She controlled all departments of life from the cradle to the grave. She monopolized all the learning, and made sciences and arts tributary to her. She took the lead in every progressive movement. She founded universities, built lofty cathedrals, stirred up the crusades, made and unmade kings, dispensed blessings and curses to whole nations. The mediaeval hierarchy centering in Rome re-enacted the Jewish theocracy on a more comprehensive scale. It was a carnal anticipation of the millennial reign of Christ. It took centuries to rear up this imposing structure, and centuries to take it down again. The opposition came partly from the anti-Catholic sects, which, in spite of cruel persecution, never ceased to protest against the corruptions and tyranny of the jDapacy; partly from the spirit of nationality which arose in opposition to an all-absorbing hie- rarchical centralization; partly from the revival of classical and biblical learning, which undermined the reign of superstition and tradition ; and partly from the inner and deeper life of the Catholic Church itself, which loudly called for a reformation, and struggled through the severe discipline of the law to the light and freedom of the gospel. The mediaeval Church was a schoolmaster to lead men to Christ. The Reformation was an emancipation of Western Christendom from the bondage of the law, and a re-conquest of that liberty "wherewith Christ hath made us free" (Gal. v. 1). 14 MEDIiEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. § 5. Periods of the Middle Age. The Middle Age may be divided into three periods : 1. The missionary period from Gregory I. to Hildebrand or Gregory VII., A. D. 590-1073. The conversion of the northern bai-barians. The dawn of a new civilization. The origin and progress of Islam. The separation of the West from the East. Some subdivide this period by Charlemagne (800), the founder of the German-Roman Empire. 2. The palmy period of the papal theocracy from Gregory VII. to Boniface VIIL, A. D. 1073-1294. The height of the papacv, nionasticism and scholasticism. The Crusades. The conflict between the Pope and the Emperor. If we go back to the rise of Hildebrand, this period begins in 1049. 3. The decline of mediaeval Catholicism and preparation for modern Cliristianity, from Boniface VIII. to the Reformation, A. D. 1294-1517. The papal exile and schism ; the reformatory councils ; the decay of scholasticism ; the gro-svth of mysticism ; the revival of letters, and the art of printing; the discovery of America; forerunners of Protestantism; the dawn of the Reformation. Tiicsc three periods are related to each other as the wild youth, the ripe manhood, and the declining old age. But the gradual dLssolution of medirevalism was only the preparation for a new life, a destruction looking to a reconstruction. The three periods may be treated separately, or as a continuous whole. Both methods have their advantages: the first for a minute study ; the second for a connected survey of the great movements. According to our division laid down in the introduction to the first volume, the three periods of the middle ages are the fnurili, fifth and sixth periods of the general history of Chris- tianity. FOURTH PERIOD. THE CHURCH AMONG THE BARBARIANS OB THE MISSIONARY PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGE. FEOM GREGORY I. TO GREGORY VII. A. D. 590 TO 1049 (OE 1073). rOURTH PERIOD. THE CHURCH AMONG THE BARBARIANS, FEOM GREGORY I. TO GREGORY VII. A. D. 590 TO 1049. CHAPTER II. CONYEESION OF THE NORTHERN AND WESTERN BARBARIANS. § 6. Character of Medioeval Missions. The conversion of the new and savage races which enter the theatre of history at the threshold of the middle ages, was the great work of the Christian church from the sixth to the tenth century. Already in the second or third century, Christianity was carried to the Gauls, the Britons and the Germans on the borders of the Rhine. But these were sporadic eiforts with tran- sient results. The work did not begin in earnest till the sixth century, and then it went vigorously forward to the tenth and twelfth, though with many checks and temporary relapses caused by civil wars and foreign invasions. The Christianization of the Kelts, Teutons, and Slavonians was at the same time a process of civilization, and differed in this respect entirely from the conversion of the Jews, Greeks, and Romans in the preceding age. Christian missionaries laid the foundation for the alphabet, literature, agriculture, laws, and arts of the nations of Northern and Western Europe, as they now do ■ 2 17 IS FOURTH TERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. amon- the heathen nations in Asia and Africa. " The science of language," says a competent judge/ "owes more than its first impulse to Christianity. The pioneers of our science were those vcrv apostles \vho were commanded to go into all the world and I)rcach the gospel to every creature; and their true successors, tlie missionaries of the whole Christian church." The same may be said of every branch of knowledge and art of peace. The missionaries, in aiming at piety and the salvation of souls, inci- dentally promoted mental culture and temporal prosperit}-. The feeling of brotherhood inspired by Christianity broke down the partition walls between race and race, and created a brotherhood of nations. The maliajval Christianization was a wholesale conversion, or a conversion of nations under the command of their leaders. It was carried on not only by missionaries and by spiritual means, but also by politick influence, alliances of heathen princes wdth Christian ^^^ves, and in some cases (as the baptism of the Saxons under Charlemagne) by military force. It was a conversion not to the primary Christianity of inspired apostles, as laid down in the New Testament, but to the secondary Christianity of ecclesiastical tradition, as taught by the fathers, monks and popes. It w^as a baptism l)y water, rather than by fire and the Holy Spirit. The preceding instruction amounted to little or nothing; even the baptismal formula, mechanically recited in Latin, was scarcely understood. The rude barbarians, owing to the weakness of their heathen religion, readily submitted to the new religion; but some tribes yielded only to the sword of the conqueror. This superficial, wholesale conversion to a nominal Christianity must be regarded in the light of a national infant-baptism. It furnisher] the basis for a long process of Christian education. Tlie 1)nrl)arians were children in knowledge, and had to be treated like childron. Christianity assumed the form of a new law lead- ing them, as a schoolmaster, to the manhood of Christ. The missionaries of the middle ages were nearly all monies. ' Mux Milllcr, Science of Lamjuage, I. 121. § 7. LITEKATUEE. 19 They were generally men of limited education and narrow views, but devoted zeal and heroic self-denial. Accustomed to primi- tive simplicity of life, detached from all earthly ties, trained to all sorts of privations, ready for any amount of labor, and com- mandino- attention and veneration by their unusual habits, their celibacy, fastings and constant devotions, they were upon the whole the best pioneers of Christianity and civilization among the savage races of Northern and Western Europe. The lives of these missionaries are surrounded by their biographers with such a halo of legends and miracles, that it is almost impossible to sift fact from fiction. Many of these miracles no doubt were pro- ducts of fancy or fraud ; but it would be rash to deny them all. The same reason which made miracles necessary in the first introduction of Christianit}^, may have demanded them among barbarians before they were capable of appreciating the higher moral evidences. I. THE CONVEKSION OF ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND SCOTLAND. § 7. Literature. I. SOURCES. GiLDAS (Abbot of Bangor in Wales, the oldest Britisb historian, in the sixth cent.) : De e.vcidio BrUannioz conquestus, etc. A picture of the evils of Britain at the time. Best ed. by Joseph Stevenson, Lond., 1838. (English Historical Society's publications. | Nennius (Abbot of Bangor about 620) : Eulogium Britannice, sive Hlsto- ria Britonum. Ed. Stevenson, 1838. The Works of Gildas and Nennius transl. from the Latin by J. A. Giles, London, 1841. *Beda Venerabilis (d. 734): Historia Ecdesiastica gentis Anglorum; in the sixth vol. of Migne's ed. of Bedae Opera Omnia, also often sepa- rately published and translated into English. Best ed. by Stevenson, Lond., 1838; and by Giles, Lond., 1849. It is the only reliable church-history of the Anglo-Saxon period. The Anglo-Saxojj Chronicle, from the time of Cassar to 1154. A work of several successive hands, ed. by Gibson with an Engl, translation, 1823, and by Giles, 1849 (in one vol. with Bede's Eccles. History). See the Six Old English Chronicle?,, in Bohn's Antiquarian Library (1848); and Church Historians of England trans, by Jos. Stevenson, Lond. 1852-'56, 6 vols. 20 FOUKTII PERIOD, A. D. 590 TO 1049. Sir IIexby Spelmax (d. IG-il): CoiicUia, dccreta, leges, constitutiones in re ccclmarinn orbia Britannici, etc. Lond., 1639-64, 2 vols. fol. (Vol. I. reaches to the Norman conquest; vol. ii. to Henry VIII ). David Wilkixs (d. 1745): Concilia Mag/ux Britannice et ITibermce (from 44(j to 1717), Lond., 1737, 4 vols. fol. (Vol. I. from 446 to 1265). *Aktiiur West Haddax and William Stubbs: Councils and Ecclesi- (ulical Documents relating to Oreat Britain and Ireland : edited after Sprlman and Wdhins. Oxford (Clarendon Press), 1869 to '78. So far 3 vols. To be continued down to the Reformation, The Penitentials of the Irish and Anglo-Saxon Churches are col- lected and edited by F. Kuxstmanx [Die Lot. Ponitentialbiicher der Angelsachsen, 1844); Wassekschlebe:^ {Die Bmsordnungen der abendliind. Kirche, 1851); SCHMITZ {Die Bussbucher u. d. Bussdis- dpi in d. Kirche, 1883), //. ITistorical Works. (a) The Christianization of England. *J. UssHEU (d. 1655): Britannicanim Eccles. Antiquitates. Dublin, 1639; London, 1687 ; Works ed. by Elrington, 1847, Vols, V, and VI, E. Stillixgfleet (d, 1699): Origenes Britannicce; or, the Antiqu. of the British Churches. London, 1710; Oxford, 1842; 2 vols, J. LiXGARD (R. C, d, 1851) : The History and Antiquities of the Anglo- Saxon Church. London, 1806, new ed., 1845. Karl Schrodl (R. C) : Da^ crste Jahrhundcrt der englischen Kirche. Passau & Wien, 1840. Edward Ciiurtox (Rector of Crayke, Durham): The Early English Church. London, 1841 (new ed. unchanged, 1878). James Yeowell: Chronicles of the Ancient British Church anterior to the Saxon era. London, 1846. Francis Thackeray (Episcop.) : Researches into the Eccles. and Political State of Ancient Britain under the Roman Emperors. London, 1843, 2 vols. ♦Count pe Montalembert (R. C, d. 1870); The Monks of the West. Edinburgh and London, 1861-79. 7 vols. (Authorized transl. from tlic French.) The third vol. treats of the British Isles. Reintiold Pauli: Bilder aus Alt-England. Gotha, 1860. W, 1'"'. Hook: Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. London, 2nd ed,, 1861 sqfl. G. F. Maclear (D.D.. Head-master of King's College School): Conver- sion of the West. The English. London, 1878. By tlie same: The Krlfs, 1878. (Popular.) William Bright (Dr, and Prof, of Eccles. Hist., Oxford): Chapters on Earl;/ English Church THsfory. Oxford, 1878 (460 pages), John Prvce: History of the Ancient British Church. Oxford, 1878, Edward L. Cutts: Turning Points of English Church-History. London, 1878. § 7. LITERATUEE. 21 DUGALD MacColl : Earhj British Church. The Arthurian Legends. la "The Catholic Presbyterian," London and New York, for 1880, No. 3, pp. 176 sqq. (b) The CJiristianization of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland. De. Lanigan (R. C.) : Ecclesiastical History of Ireland. Dublin, 1829. William G. Todd (Episc, Trinity Coll., Dublin) : The Church of St. Patrick: An Historical Inquiry into the Independence of the Ancient Church of Ireland. London, 1844. By the same: A History of the Ancient Church of Ireland. London, 1845. By the same : Booh of Hymns of the Ancient Church of Ireland. Dublin, 1855. Ferdinand Walter : Das alte Wales. Bonn, 1859. John Cunningham (Presbyterian) : The Church History of Scotland from the Commencement of the Christian Era to the Present Day. Edinburgh, 1859, 2 vob. (Vol. I., chs. 1-6). C. Innes : Sketches of Early Scotch History, and Social Progress. Edinb. , 1861. (Refers to the history of local churches, the university and home-life in the mediaeval period.) Thomas McLauchlan (Presbyt.): The Early Scottish Church: the Ec- clesiastical History of Scotland from the First to the Twelfth Century. Edinburgh, 1865. *Dr. J. H. A. Ebrard : Die iroschottische Missionskirche des 6, 7 und 8 ten Jahrh., und ihre Verbreitung auf dem Festland. Giitersloh, 1873. Comp. Ebrard's articles Die culdeische Kirche des 6, 7 und ^ten Jahrh, in Niedner's "Zeitschrift fiir hist. Theologie" for 1862 and 1863. Ebrard and McLauchlan are the ablest advocates of the anti- Eomish and alleged semi-Protestant character of the old Keltic church of Ireland and Scotland ; but they present it in a more favor- able light than the facts warrant. *Dr. W. D. Killen (Presbyt.) : The Ecclesiastical History of Ireland from the Earliest Period to the Present Times. London, 1875, 2 vols. *Albx. Penrose Forbes (Bishop of Brechin, d. 1875): Kalendars of Scottish Saints. With Personal Notices of those of Alba, Laudonia and Stratchclyde. Edinburgh (Edmonston & Douglas), 1872. By the same : Lives of S. Ninian and S. Kentigern. Compiled in the twelfth century. Ed. from the best MSS. Edinburgh, 1874, *William Reeves (Canon of Armagh): Life of St. Columba, Founder of Hy. Written by Adamnan, ninth Abbot of that monastery. Edinburgh, 1874. *William F. Skene: Keltic Scotland. Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1876, 1877. Vol. I. treats of history and ethnology; Vol. II., of church and culture. *F. E. Warren (Fellow of St, John's Coll., Oxford) : The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church. Oxford 1881(291 pp.). 22 FOUETH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. Comp. also tlie relevant sections in the Histories of England, Scot- land, and Ireland, by Hume (Ch. I -III.), Lingard [Ch. L VIII.), Lappenbero (Vol. I.), Green (Vol. I.), Hill Burton [Hid. of Scotland, Vol. I.) ; Milman's Latin Christianity (Book IV., Ch. 3-5); Maclear's Apostles of Mediaeval Europe (Lond. 1869), Thomas Smith's Medioeval Missions (Edinb. 1880). § 8. The Britons. Literature: The works of Bede, Gildas, Nennius, Ussher, Bright, PRYCE, quoted in ^ 7. .Britain made its first appearance in secular history half a cen- tury before the Christian era, when Julius Caesar, the conqueror of Gaul, sailed with a Roman army from Calais across the chan- nel, and added the British island to tha dominion of the eternal city, though it was not fully subdued tilLthe reign of Claudius (A. D. 41-54). It figures in ecclesiastical history from the con- version of the Britons in the second centmy. Its missionary history is divided into two periods, the Keltic and the Anglo- Saxon, both catholic in doctrine, as far as developed at that time, slightly differing in discipline, yet bitterly hostile under the influence of the antagonism of race, which was ultimately over- come in England and Scotland, but is still burning in Ireland, the proper home of the Kelts. The Norman conquest made both races better Bomanists than they were before. The oldest inhabitants of Britain, like the Irish, the Scots, and the Gauls, were of Keltic origin, half naked and painted barba- rians, quarrelsome, rapacious, revengeful, torn by intestine fac- tions, which facilitated their conquest. They had adopted, under different appellations, the gods of the Greeks and Romans, and worshipped a multitude of local deities, the genii of the Avoods, rivers, and mountains; they paid special liomage to the oak, the king of the forest. They offered the fruits of the earth, the spoils of the enemy, and, in the hour of danger, human lives. Their priests, called druids,^ dwelt in huts or caverns, amid the ' Tlie word Druid or Driiidli is not from the Greek c^pvg, oak (as the elder Pliny thoiight), hut a KeUic- term drniod, meamn^snge, priest, and is equivalent to tiic niai^i in the ancient East. In the Irish Scriptures draiod is used for magi, Mutt. 2:1. § 8. THE BEITONS. 23 silence and gloom of the forest, were in possession of all educa- tion and spii'itual po%Yer, professed to know the secrets of natui'e, medicine and astrology, and practised the arts of divination. They taught, as the three principles of wisdom : " obedience to the laws of God, concern for the good of man, and fortitude under the accidents of life." They also taught the immortality of the soul and the fiction of metempsychosis. One class of the druids, who delivered their instructions in verse, were distin- guished by the title of bards, who as poets and musicians accom- panied the chieftain to the battle-field, and enlivened the feasts of peace by the sound of the harp. There are still remains of druidical temples — the most remarkable at Stonehenge on Salis- bury Plain, and at Stennis in the Orkney Islands — ^that is, cir- cles of huge stones standing in some cases twenty feet above the earth, and near them large mounds supposed to be ancient burial- places ; for men desu'e to be buried near a place of worship. The first introduction of Christianity into Britain is involved in obscurity. The legendary history ascribes it at least to ten different agencies, namely, 1) Bran, a British prince, and his son Caradog, who is said to have become acquainted with St. Paul in Rome, A.D. 51 to 58, and to have introduced the gospel into his native country on his return. 2) St. Paul. 3) St. Peter. 4) St. Simon Zelotes. 5) St. Philip. 6) St. James the Great. 7) St. John. 8) Aristobulus (Rom. xvi. 10). 9) Joseph of Arimathffia, who figures largely in the post-Norman legends of Glastonbury Abbey, and is said to have brought the holy Graal — the vessel or platter of the Lord's Supper — containing the blood of Christ, to England. 10) Missionaries of Pope Eleu- therus from Rome to King Lucius of Britain.^ ^ See Haddan & Stubbs, Coune. and Eecles. Doc. I. 22-26, and Pryce, 31 sqq. HadJan says, that " statements respecting (a) British Cliristians at Eome, (6) British Christians in Britain, (c) Apostles or apostolic men preaching in Bri- tain, in the first century — rest upon either guess, mistake or fable ;" and that " evidence alleged for the existence of a Christian church in Britain during the second century is simply unliistorical." Pr}''ce calls these early agencies "gratui- tous assumptions, plausible guesses, or legendary fables." Eusebius, Dem. Ev. in. 5, speaks as if some of the Twelve or of the Seventy had "crossed the 24 FOUETH PEEIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. But these legends cannot be traced beyond the sixth century, and are therefore destitute of all historic value. A visit of St. Paul to Britain between A. D. 63 and 67 is indeed in itself not impossible (on the assumption of a second Roman captivity), and has been advocated even by such scholar as Ussher and Stilling- fleet, but is intrinsically improbable, and destitute of all e\ddence.^ The conversion of King Lucius in the second century through correspondence "svith the Roman bishop Elcutherus (176 to 190), is related by Bede, in connection with several errors, and is a legend rather than an established fact.^ Irenaeus of Lyons, who enumerates all the churches one by one, knoAVS of none in Britain. Yet the connection of Britain with Rome and with Gaul must ocean to the bles called BritLsh ;" but the passage is rhetorical and indefinite. In his Cfiurch History he omits Britain from the apostolic mission-field. ' It is merely an inference from the well-kno^vn passage of Clement of Home, Ep. ad Corinth, c. 5, that Paul carried the gospel "to the end of the "West" (i-l TO ripfxa rrjg dvacuc). But this is far more naturally understood of a visit to Spain which Paul intended (Eom. xv. 28), and which seems confirmed by a passage in the Muratorian Fragment about 170 {" Profectionem Pauli ab urbe ad Spaniam proficiscentis") ; while there is no trace whatever of an intended or actual visit to Britain. Canon Bright calls this merely a "pious fancy" (p. 1), and Bishop Lightfoot remarks: "For the patriotic belief of some English writers, who have included Britain in the Apostle's travels, there is neither evidence nor probability " (St. Clement of Rome, p. 50). It is barely possible* however, that some Galatian converts of Paul, visiting the far West to barter the liair-cloths of their native land for the useful metal of Britain, may have first made known the gospel to the Britons in their kindred Keltic tongue. See Lightfoot, Com. on Gal., p. 246. * Book I., ch. 4 : " Lucius, king of the Britons, sent a letter to Eleutherus, entreating that by his command he might be made a Christian. lie soon ob- tained his pious request, and tlie Britons preserved the faith, which they had received, uncorrupted and entire, in peace and tranquillity, until the time of the Emperor Diocletian." Comp. the foot-note of Giles in loc. Haddan says (I. 25) : "The story of Lucius rests solely upon the later form of the Caialogu-H Pontificum Bomnnonim which was written c. A.D. 530, and which adds to the Vita Eleiitheri (A.D. 171-186) that '7/ic {Eleutherus) accepit epistolam a Lucia Britannice Rege, tU Christiamis efficeretur par ejwi mandatum.' But these words are not in the original Calnlorfu.% written shortly after A. D. 353." Beda copies the Eoman account. Gildas knows nothing of Lucius. According to other accounts, Lu- cius (Lever Maur, or the Great Light) sent Fagan and Dervan to Eome, who were ordained by Evaristus or Eleutherus, and on their return established the British church. See Lingard, History of England, 1. 46. § 8. THE BKITONS. 25 have brought it early into contact with Christianity^ About A. D. 208 Tertullian exultingly declared "that places in Britain \ not yet visited by Romans were subject to Christ."^ St. Alban, probably a Homan soldier, died as the British proto-martyr in the Diocletian persecution (303), and left the impress of his name on English history.^ Constantine, the first Christian em- peror, was born in Britain, and his mother, St. Helena, was probably a native of the country. In the Council of Aries, A. D. 314, which condemned the Donatists, we meet with three British bishops, Eborius of York (Eboracum), Restitutus of London (Londinmn), and Adelfius of Lincoln (Colpnia Londi- nensium), or Carleon in Wales, besides a presbyter and deacon.' In the Arian controversy the British chm-ches sided mth Atha- nasius and the Nicene Creed, though hesitating about the term homoousios.^ A notorious heretic, Pelagius (Morgan), was from the same island; his abler, though less influential associate, Ce- lestius, was probably an Irishman; but theii' doctrines were con- demned (429), and the Catholic faith reestablished with the assistance of two Gallic bishops.^ ]\Ionumental remains of the British church during the Roman 1 period are recorded or still exist at Canterbury (St. IMartin's), Cffirleon, Bangor, Glastonbury, Dover, Richborough (Kent), ; Reculver, Lyminge, Brixworth, and other places.^ The Roman dominion in Britain ceased about A. D. 410; the ^ Adv. Judceos 7: " Britannorum inaccessa Romanis loca, Christo vero subdita." Bishop Kaye {Tcrtidl., p. 94) understands this passage as referring to the far- thest extremities of Britain. So Burton (II. 207) : "Parts of the island which had not been visited by the Eomans." See Bright, p. 5. 2 Bede I. 7. The story of St. Alban is first narrated by Gildas in the sixth i century. Milman and Bright (p. 6) admit his historic reality. 3 Wiltsch, Handbuch der kirchl. Geogr. und Statistik I. 42 and 238, Mansi, Cone. II. 467, Haddan and Stubbs, I. c, 1. 7. Haddan identifies Colonia Londinensium with Col. Legionensium, i. e. Caerleon-on-Usk. * See Haddan and Stubbs, I. 7-10. 5 Bede I. 21 ascribes the triumph of the Catholic faith over the Pelagian heresy to the miraculous healing of a lame youth by Germanus (St. Germain), Bishop of Auxerre. Comp. also Haddan and Stubbs, I. 15-17. 6 See Haddan and Stubbs, I. 36-40. 26 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. troops Avcrc withdrawn, and the country left to govern itself. The result was a partial relapse into barbarism and a demoralization of the church. The intercourse with the Continent was cut off, and the barbarians of the North pressed heavily upon the Britons. For a century and a half we hear nothing of the British churches till the silence is broken by the querulous voice of Gildas, who informs us of the degeneracy of the clergy, the decay of religion, the introduction and suppression of the Pelagian heresy, and the mission of Palladius to the Scots m Ireland. This long isolation accounts in part for the trifling differences and the bitter antago- nism between the remnant of the old British church and the new chmx'h imported from Rome among the hated Anglo-Saxons. The difference was not doctrinal, but ritualistic and discipli- nary. The British as well as the Irish and Scotch Christians of the sixth and seventh centuries kept Easter on the very day of the full moon in March when it was Sunday, or on the next Sunday following. They adhered to the older cycle of eighty- four years in opposition to the later Dionysian cycle of ninety-five years, which came into use on the Continent since the middle of the sixth century.* They shaved the fore-part of their head from car to ear in the form of a crescent, allowing the hair to grow behind, in imitation of the aureola, instead of shaving, like the Romans, the crown of the head in a circular form, and leaving a circle of hair, which Avas to represent the Saviour's crown of thorns. They had, moreover — and this was the most important and most irritating difference — become practically independent of Rome, and transacted their business in councils without referring to the pope, who began to be regarded on the Continent as the righteous ruler and judge of all Christendom. * The British and Irish Christians were stigmatized by their Roman oppo- nents as licrctical Qiiartodecimans (Bcde III. 4) ; but the Eastern Quartodecimans ' invariably celebrated Easter on the fourteenth day of the month (hence their designation"), whether it fell on a Sunday or not ; while the Britons and Irish celebrated it always on a Sundmj between the 14th and the 20th of the month;; the Romans between the lotli and 21st. Comp. Skene, /. c. II. 9 sq. ; the elabo- rate discussion of El)rard, Die iro-schott. Mi^sionskirche, 19-77, and Killen, Ecdcs. Hist, of Ireland, I. 57 sqq. ? 9. THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 27 From these facts some historians have inferred the Eastern or Greek origin of the old British church. But there is no evidence whatever of any such connection, unless it be perhaps through the medium' of the neighboring church of Gaul, which was partly planted or moulded by Ireuaeus of Lyons, a pupil of St. Poly- carp of Smyrna, and which always maintained a sort of inde- pendence of Rome. But in the points of dispute jiLst mentioned, the Galilean chm-ch at that time agreed mth Rome. Consequently, the peculiarities of the British Christians must be traced to their insular isolation and long separation from Rome. The Western church on the Continent passed through some changes in the development of the authority of the papal see, and in the mode of calculating Easter, until the computation was finally fixed through Dionysius Exiguus in 525. The British, unacquainted with these changes, adhered to the older independence and to the older customs. They continued to keep Easter from the 14th of the moon to the 20th. This difference involved a difference in all the moveable festivals, and created great confusion in Eng- land after the conversion of the Saxons to the Roman rite. § 9. The Anglo-Saxons. LITERATURE. I. The sources for the planting of Roman Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons are several Letters of Pope Geegoey I. {Epp., Lib. VI.^7, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59; IX. 11, 108; XL 28, 29, 64, 65, 66, 76; in Migne's ed. of Gregory's Opera, Vol. IIL; also in Haddan and Stubbs, III. 5 sqq.) ; the first and second books of Bede's Ecdes. Hist.; GoscELiN^'s Life of St. Auffusfin, written in the 11th century, and contained in the Acta Sanctorum of May 26th ; and Thoene's Chronicles of St. Augustine's Abbey. See also Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, etc., the 3d vol., which comes down to A. D. 840. XL Of modern lives of St. Augustin, we mention Montalembeet, 3Ionh of the West, Vol. III. ; Dean Hook, Archbishops of Canterbunj, Vol. L, and Dean Stakley, Memorials of Canterbunj, 1st ed., 1855, 9th ed. 1880. Comp. Lit. in Sec. 7. British Christianity was always a feeble plant, and suffered greatly from the Anglo-Saxon conquest and the devastating wars 28 FOUKTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. which followed it. With the decline of the Roman power, the Britous, weakened by the vices of Roman civilization, and unable to resist the aggressions of the wild Picts and Scots from the North, called Hengist and Horsa, two brother-princes and reputed descendants of Wodan, the god of war, from Germany to their aid, A. D. 449.' From this time begins the emigration of Saxons, Angles or An Isidore of Seville in 580 {Origines XIV, 6) was tlie first to call Hibernia by the name of Scotia: "Scotia endem et Ibernia, proxima Britannios insula." => Prosper Aquitan. (A. D. 4r)5-463), Chron. ad an. 431 : "Ad Scofos in Christum crcdcntcs ordinatus a Papa Ccdesfino Palladius primus Episcopus mittitur." Comp. Vita S. Palladii in the Book of Armagh, and the notes by Haddan and Stubbs, Vol. II., Part II., pp. 290, 291. I 14. THE CONVEESION OF lEELAND. 45 that he soon abandoned the field, with his assistants, for North Britain, where he died among the Picts.^ For nearly two cen- turies after this date, we have no authentic record of papal inter- course with Ireland ; and yet during that period it took its place among the Christian countries. It was converted by two humble individuals, who probably never saw Rome, St. Patrick, once a slave, and St. Bridget, the daughter of a slave-mother.^ The Roman tradition that St. Patrick was sent by Pope Cselestine is too late to have any claim upon our acceptance, and is set aside by the entire silence of St. Patrick himself in his genuine works. It arose from confounding Patrick with Palladius. The Roman mission of Palladius failed; the independent mission of Patrick succeeded. He is the true Apostle of Ireland, and has impressed his memory in indelible characters upon the Irish race at home and abroad. St. Patrick or Patricius (died March 17, 465 or 493) was the son of a deacon, and grandson of a priest, as he confesses him- self without an intimation of the unlawfulness of clerical mar- riages.* He was in his youth carried captive into Ireland, with many others, and served his master six years as a shepherd. While tending his flock in the lonesome fields, the teachings of his childhood awakened to new life in his heart without any particular external agency. He escaped to France or Britain, was again enslaved for a short period, and had a remarkable ^ He is said to liave left in Ireland, when he withdrew, some relics of St. Peter and Paul, and a copy of the Old and New Testaments, which the Pope had given him, together with the tablets on which he himself used to write. Haddan & Stubbs, p. 291. ^ Hence Montalembert says (11. 393): "The Christian faith dawned upon Ireland by means of two slaves." The slave-trade between Ireland and Eng- land flourished for many centuries. ^ This fact is usually omitted by Roman Catholic writers. Butler says sim- ply : " His father was of a good family." Even Montalembert conceals it by calling " the Gallo-Roman ( ? ) Patrick, son of a relative of the great St. Mar- tin of Tours" (II. 390). He also repeats, without a shadow of proof, the legend that St. Patrick was consecrated and commissioned by Pope St. Celestine (p. 391 ), though he admits that " legend and history have vied in taking possession of the life of St. Patrick." 46 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. dream, M'liieh clecitled his calling. He saw a man, Yictoricius. who handed him innumerable letters from Ireland, begging him to come over and help them. He obeyed the divine monition, and devoted the remainder of his life to the conversion of Ire- land (from A.D. 440 to 493).^ " I am," he says, " greatly a debtor to God, who has bestowed his grace so largely upon me, that multitudes were born again to God througli me. The Irish, who never had the knowledge of God and Avorshipped only idols and unclean things, have lately become the people of the Lord, and are called sons of God." He speaks of having baptized many thousands of men. Armagh seems to have been for some time the centre of his mis- sionary operations, and is to this day the seat of the primacy of Ireland, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. He died in peace, and was buried in Downpatrick (or Gabhul), where he began his mission, gained his first converts and spent his de- clining ycars.^ His Roman Catholic biographers have surrounded his life with marvelous achievements, while some modern Protestant hypercritics have questioned even his existence, as there is no certain mention of his name before 634 ; unless it be " the Hymn of St. Sechnall (Sccimdinus) in praise of St. Patrick," which is assigned to 448. But if we accept his own writings, "there can be no reasonable doubt" (we say with a Pres- b}i;crian historian of Ireland) "that he preached the gospel in Hibernia in the fifth century; that he was a most zealous and efficient evangelist, and that he is eminently entitled to the honorable designation of the Apostle of Ireland." ^ ^ The dates are merely conjectural. Haddan & Stubbs (p. 295) select A. D. 440 for St. Patrick's mission (as did Tillemont & Todd), and 493 as the year of his death. According to other accounts, his mission began much earlier and Ixsted sixty years. The alleged date of the foundation of Armagh Ls A. D. 445. ^ Afterwards Armagh disputed the claims of Downpatrick. See Killen 1. 71-73. ' Killen, Vol. 1. 12. Patrick describes himself as " Jliherione constitutus episcopus." Afterwards he was called " Episcopus Scoforum," tlien " Archiaposlolus Scotorum" then "Abbat of all Ireland," and "Archbishop, First Primate, and Chief Apos- tle of Ireland." See Haddan & Stubbs, p. 295. § 14. THE CONVEESION OF IRELAND. 47 The Christianity of Patrick was substantially that of Gaul and old Britain, i. e. Catholic, orthodox, monastic, ascetic, but independent of the Pope, and differing from Kome in the age of Greo-ory I. in minor matters of polity and ritual. In his Con- fession he never mentions Rome or the Pope; he never appeals to tradition, and seems to recognize the Scriptures (including the Apocrypha) as the only authority in matters of faith. He quotes from the canonical Scriptures twenty-five times; three times from the Apocrypha. It has been conjectured that the failure and withdrawal of Palladius was due to Patrick, who had already monopolized this mission-field ; but, according to the more probable chronology, the mission of Patrick began about nine years after that of Palladius. From the end of the seventh century, the two persons were confounded, and a part of the history of Palladius, especially his connection with Pope Cselestine, was transferred to Patrick.^ With St. Patrick there is inseparably connected the most renowned female saint of Ireland, St. Bridget (or Brigid, Bri- gida. Bride), who prepared his winding sheet and survived him many years. She died Feb. 1, 523 (or 525). She is "the Mary of Ireland," and gave her name to innumerable Irish daughters, churches, and convents. She is not to be confounded with her name-sake, the widow-saint of Sweden. Her life is surrounded even by a still thicker cloud of legendary fiction than that of St. Patrick, so that it is impossible to separate the facts from the ac- cretions of a credulous posterity. She was an illegitimate child of a chieftain or bard, and a slave-mother, received holy orders, be- came deformed in answer to her own prayer, founded the famous nunnery of Kildare (i. e. the Church of the Oak),' foretold the birth of Columba, and performed all sorts of signs and wonders. 1 Haddan & Stubbs, p. 294, note : "The language of the Hymns of S. Sechnall and of S. Fiacc, and of S. Patrick's own Confessio, and the silence of Prosper, besides chronological difficulties, disprove, upon purely historical grounds, the supposed mission from Eome of S. Patrick himself; which first appears in the Scholia on S. Fiacc's Hymn." 2 The probable date of foundation is A. D. 480. Haddan & Stubbs, p. 295. 48 FOUKTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. Upon her tomb in Kildare arose the inextinguishable flame called "the Light of St. Bridget," which her nuns (like the Vestal Virgins of Rome) kept "Through long ages of darkness and storm" (Moore). Six lives of licr were published by Colgan in his Trias Thau- maturgihs, and five by the Bollandists in the Acta Sanctorum. Critical Note on St. Patrich. We have only one or two genuine documents from Patrick, both writ- ten in semi-barbarous (early Irish) Latin, but breathing an humble, devout and fervent missionary spirit without anything specifically Koman, viz. his autobiograpliical Confession (in 25 chapters), written shortly before his death (493?), and his Letter of remonstrance to Coroticus (or Ceredig), a British chieftain (nominally Christian), probably of Ceredigion or Cardigan, who had made a raid into Ireland, and sold several of Patrick's converts into slavery (10 chapters). The Confession, as con- tained in the "Book of Armagh," is alleged to have been transcribed before A. D. 807 from Patrick's original autograph, which was then partly illegible. There are four other MSS. of the eleventh century, with sundry additions towards the close, which seem to be indei^endent copies of the same original. See Haddan & Stubbs, note on p. 296. The Epistle to Coroticus is much shorter, and not so generally accepted. Both documents were first printed in 1656, then in 1668 in the Acta Sanctorum, also in Migne's Patrologia (Vol. 53), in Misa Cusack's Life of St. Patrick, in the work of Ebrard [I. c. 482 sqq.), and in Haddan & Stubbs, Councils (Vol. II., P. II., 296 sqq.). There is a difference of opinion about Patrick's nationality, whether he was of Scotch, or British, or French extraction. He begins his Confession : " I, Patrick, a sinner, the rudest and the least of all the faithful, and the most contemptible with the multitude [Ego Patricius, peccator, riisiicissi- mus et minimus omnium fidelium et contemptibilissimus apiid plurimos, or, according to another reading, contemptibilis sum apud plurimos), had for my father Calpornus (or Calphurnius), a deacon {diaconum, or diaconem), the son of Potitus [al. Photius), a presbyter {flium quondam Potiti pj-es- brjteri), who lived in the village of Bannavem (or Banaven) of Tabernia; for he had a cottage in the neighborhood where I was captured. I was then about sixteen years old ; but I was ignorant of the true God, and was led away into captivity to Hibcrnia." Bannavem of Tabernia is perhaps Banavie in Lochaber in Scotland (McLauchlan) ; others fix the § 14. THE CONVERSION OF IRELAND. 49 place of liis birth in Kilpatrick {i. e. the cell or church of Patrick), near Dunbarton on the Clyde (Ussher, Butler, Maclear) ; others, somewhere in Britain, and thus explain his epithet "Brito" or "Briton" (Joceline and Skene); still others seek it in Armoric Gaul, in Boulogne (from Bononia), and derive Brito from Brittany (Lanigan, Moore, Killen, De Vinne). He does not state the instrumentality of his conversion. Being the son of a clergyman, he must have received some Christian instruc- tion; but he neglected it till he was made to feel the power of reli- gion in communion with God while in slavery. "After I arrived in Ireland," he says (ch. 6), "every day I fed cattle, and frequently during the day I prayed ; more and more the love and fear of God burned, and my faith and my spirit were strengthened, so that in one day I said as many as a hundred prayers, and nearly as many in the night." He rep- resents his call and commission as coming directly from God through a vision, and alludes to no intervening ecclesiastical authority or episcopal consecration. In one of the oldest Irish MSS., the Book of Durrow, he is styled a presbyter. In the Epistle to Coroticus, he appears more churchly and invested with episcopal power and jurisdiction. It begins : " Fatricius, peccator indoctus, Hiberione (or Hyberione) constitutus episcopus, certissime reor, a Deo accept id quod sum : inter barbaras utique gentes pro- selytus etprofuga, ob amorem Dei." (So according to the text of Haddan & Stubbs, p. 314; somewhat different in Migne, Patrol. LIII. 814; and in Ebrard, p. 505.) But the letter does not state where or by whom he was consecrated. The " Book of Armagh " contains also an Irish hymn (the oldest monu- ment of the Irish Keltic language), called 8. Patricii Canticum jScottieum, . which Patrick is said to have written when he was about to convert the chief monarch of the island (Laoghaire or Loegaire).^ The hymn is a prayer for the special aid of Almighty God for so important a work ; it contains the principal doctrines of orthodox Christianity, with a dread of magical influences of aged women and blacksmiths, such as still prevails in some parts of Ireland, but without an invocation of Mary and the saints, such as we might expect from the Patrick of tradition and in a composition intended as a breast-plate or corselet against spirit- ual foes. The following is the principal portion : ^ The Irish was first published by Dr. Petrie, and translated by Dr. Todd. . Haddan & Stubbs (320-323) give the Irish and English in parallel columns. Some parts of tliis hymn are said to be still remembered by the Irish peasantry and repeated at bed-time as a protection from evil, or " as a religious armor to > protect body and soul against demons and men and vices." 4 50 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. " 5. I bind to myself to-day, — The Power of God to guide me, The Miglit of God to uphold me, The Wisdom of God to teach me, The Eye of God to watch over me, The Ear of God to hear me, The Word of God to give me speech. The Hand of God to protect me. The Way of God to go before me. The Shield of God to shelter me. The Host of God to defend me, Against the snares of demons, Against the temptations of vices, Against the lusts of nature, Against every man who meditates injury to me, Whether far or near, With few or with many. ' 6, I have set around me all these powers. Against every hostile savage power, Directed against my body and my soul, Against the incantations of false prophets, Against the black laws of heathenism. Against the false laws of heresy, Against the deceits of idolatry, Against the spells of women, and smiths, and druids, Against all knowledge which blinds the soul of man. '.7. Christ protect me to-day Against poison, against burning, Against drowning, against wound. That I may receive abundant reward. '8. Christ with me, Christ before me, Christ behind me, Christ within me, Christ beneath me, Christ above me, Christ at my right, Christ at my left, Christ in the fort [?. e. at home], Christ in the chariot-seat [travelling by land], Christ in the poop [travelling by Avater] . :9. Christ in the heart of every man who thinks of me, Christ in tlie mouth of every man who speaks to me, Christ in every eye that sees me, vChrist in every ear that hears me. § 14. THE CONVERSION OF IRELAND. 51 10. I bind to myself to-day The strong power of an invocation of the Trinity, The faith of the Trinity in Unity, The Creator of [the elements]. 11. Salvation is of the Lord, Salvation is of the Lord, Salvation is of Christ ; May thy salvation, O Lord, be ever with us." The fourth and last document which has been claimed as authentic and contemporary, is a Latin " Hymn in praise of St. Patrick " [Hymnus Sancti Patricii, Episcopi Scotorum) by St. Sechnall (Secundinus) which, begins thus : "Audite, omnes amantes Deum, sancta merita Viri in Christo beati Patricii Episcopi: Quomodo bonum ob actum simulatur angeli-?, Perfectamque propter uitam cequatur Apostolis." The poem is given in full by Haddan & Stubbs, 324-327, and assigned to "before A. D. 448 (?)," in which year Sechnall died. But how could he anticipate the work of Patrick, when his mission, according to the same writers, began only eight years earlier (440), and lasted till 493? The hymn is first mentioned by Tyrechanus in the " Book of Armagh." The next oldest document is the Irish hymn of St. Fiacc on St. Patrick, which is assigned to the latter part of the sixth century, {I. c. 356-361). The Senchus Mar is attributed to the age of St. Patrick ; but it is a code of Irish laws, derived from Pagan times, and gradually modified by Christian ecclesiastics in favor of the church. The Canons attributed to St. Patrick are of later date (Haddan & Stubbs, 328 sqq.). It is strange that St. Patrick is not mentioned by Bede in his Church History, although he often refers to Hibernia and its church, and is barely named as a presbyter in his Martyrology. He is also ignored by Columba and by the Roman Catholic writers, until his mediaeval biographers firom the eighth to the twelfth century Romanized him, appealing not to his genuine Confession, but to spurious documents and vague traditions. He is said to have converted all the Irish chieftains and bards, even Ossian, the blind Homer of Scotland, who sang to him his long epic of Keltic heroes and battles. He founded 365 or, according to others, 700 churches, and consecrated as many bishops, and 3,000 priests (when the whole island had probably not more than two or three hundred thousand inhabitants ; for even in the reign of Elizabeth it did not exceed 600,000).* ' See Killen, I. 76, note. Montalembert says, III. 118, note: "Irisli narra- tives know scarcely any numerals but those of three hundred and three thousand." 52 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. He changed the laws of the kingdom, healed the blind, raised nine per- sons from death to life, and expelled all the snakes and frogs from Ire- land.* His memory is celebrated March 17, and is a day of great public processions with the Irish Catholics in all parts of the world. His death is varioasly put in the year 455 (Tillemont), 464 or 465 (Butler, Killen), 493 (Ussher, Skene, Forbes, Haddan & Stubbs). Forbes [Kalendars, p. 433) and Skene [Keltic Scotland, 11. 427 sqq.) come to the conclusion that the legend of St. Patrick in its present shape is not older than the ninth century, and dissolves into three personages : Sen-Patrick, whose day in the Kalendar is the 24th of August ; Palladius, " qui est Patricius," to whom the mission in 431 properly belongs, and Patricius, whose day is the 17th of March, and who died in 493. " From the acts of these three saints, the subsequent legend of the great Apostle of Ireland was compiled, and an arbitrary chronology applied to it." § 15. The Irish Church after St. Patrick. THE MISSIONARY PERIOD. The labors of St. Patrick were carried on by his pupils and by many British priests and monks who were driven from Eng- land by the Anglo-Saxon invasion in the 5th and 6th centuries.^ There was an intimate intercourse between Ireland and Wales, where British Christianity sought refuge, and between Ireland and Scotland, where the seed of Christianity had been planted by Ninian and Kentigern. In less than a century after St. Patrick's death Ireland was covered with churches and convents for men and Avomcn. The monastic institutions were training schools of clergymen and missionaries, and workshops for trans- scribing sacred books. Prominent among these are the monas- ' A witty Irishman, who rowed me (in 1875) over Lake Killamey, told me that St. Patrick put tlie last snake into an iron box, and snnk it to the bottom of the lake, althoun^h he had solemnly promised to let the creature out. I asked him whether it was not a sin to cheat a snake ? " Not at all," was his quick reply, " he only paid him in the same coin ; for the first snake cheated the whole world." The same guide told me that Cromwell killed all the good people in Ireland, and let the bad ones live ; and when I objected tliat he must have made an exception with his ancestors, he politely replied: "No, my parents came from America." ' Petrie (Round Towers, p. 137, quoted by Killen T. 26) speaks of crowds of foreign ecclesiastics — Roman, Egyptian, Frencli, British, Saxon — who flocked into Ireland as a place of refuge in the fifth and sixth centuries. g 15. THE lEISH CHUECH AFTER ST. PATEICK. 53 teries of Armagh, Banchor or Bangor (558), Clonard (500), Clonmacnois (528), Derry (555), Glendolough (618). During: the sixth and seventh centuries Ireland excelled all other countries in Christian piety, and acquired the name of ^' the Island of Saints." We must understand this in a compa- rative sense, and remember that at that time England was just beginning to emerge from Anglo-Saxon heathenism, Germany was nearly all heathen, and the French kings — the eldest sons of the Church — were "monsters of iniquity." Ireland itself was distractecl by civil wars between the petty kings and chief- tains ; and the monks and clergy, even the women,, marched to the conflict. Adamnan with difficulty secured a law exempting women from warfare, and it was not till the ninth century that the clergy in Ireland were exempted from "expeditions and hostings " (battles). The slave-trade was in full vigor between Ireland and England in the tenth century, with the port of Bristol for its centre. The Irish piety was largely based on childish superstition. But the missionary zeal of that country is nevertheless most praiseworthy. Ireland dreamed the dream of converting heathen Europe. Its apostles went forth to Scot- land, North Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, and North Italy. " They covered the land and seas of the West. Unwea- ried navigators, they landed on the most desert islands; they overflowed the Continent with their successive immigrations. They saw in incessant visions a world known and unknown to be conquered for Christ. The poem of the Pilgrimage of St. Brandan^ that monkish Odyssey so celebrated in the middle ages, that popular prelude of the Divina Commedia, shows us the Irish monks in close contact with all the dreams and won- ders of the Keltic ideal." ^ The missionaries left Ireland usually in companies of twelve, witli a thu'teenth as their leader. This duodecimal economy was to represent Christ and the twelve apostles. The following are the most prominent of these missionary bands : * * Moatalembert, II. 397. * See Eeeves, S. Columba, latrod., p. Ixxi. 54 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. St. Coliimba, with twelve brethren, to Hy in Scotland, A.D. 563. St. Mohonna (or Macarius, Maurlcius), sent by Columba, with twelve companions, to the Picts. St. Columbanus, with twelve brethren, whose names are on record, to France and Germany, A.D. 612. St. Kilian, with twelve, to Franconia and Wiii'zburg, A. D. 680. St. Eloquius, with twelve, to Belgium, A. D. 680. St. lludbert or Rupert, with twelve, to Bavaria, A. D. 700. St. Willibrord (who studied twelve years in Ireland), with twelve, to Friesland, A.D. 692. St. Forannan, with twelve, to the Belgian^ frontier, A.D. 970. It is remarkable that this missionary activity of the Irish Church is confined to the period of her independence of the Church of Home. "We hear no more of it after the Norman conquest. The Irish Church during this missionary period of the sixth and seventh centui'ies had a peculiar character, which we learn chiefly from two documents of the eighth century, namely, the Catalogue of the Saints of Ireland,^ and the Litany of Angus the Culdee.' The Catalogue distinguishes three periods and three orders of saints: secular, monastic, and eremitical. The saints of the time of St. Patrick were all bishops full of the Holy Ghost, three hundral and fifty in number, founders of chm-ches ; they had one head, Christ, and one leader, Patrick, observed one mass and one tonsm-e from ear to ear, and kept Easter on the fourteenth moon after the vernal equinox ; they excluded neither laymen nor women ; because, founded on the Rock of Christ, they feared not the blast of temptation. They sprung from the Romans, Franks, Britons and Scots. This * Catalogus Sanctorum Hibernice, first published by Ussher from two ]MSS., and in Haddan & Stubbs, 292-294. ' Contained in the Leabliar Breac, and in the Book of Leinster. § 15. THE IRISH CHURCH AFTER ST. PATRICK. 55 order of saints continued for four reigns, from about A. D. 440 till 543. The second order, likewise of four reigns, till A. D. 599, was of Catholic Presbyters, three hundred in number, with few bishops ; they had one head, Christ, one Easter, one tonsure, as before ; but different masses and different rules, and they refused the services of women, separating them from the monasteries. The third order of saints consisted of one hundred holy pres- byters and a few bishops, living in desert places on herbs and water and the- alms of the faithful ; they had different tonsures and Easters, some celebrating the resurrection on the 14th, some on the 16th moon ; they continued through four reigns till 665. The first period may be called episcopal, though in a rather non-episcopal or undiocesan sense. Angus, in his Litany, in- vokes "seven times fifty [350] holy cleric bishops," whom "the saint [Patrick] ordained," and " three hundred pure presbyters, upon whom he conferred orders." In Nennius the number of presbyters is increased to three thousand, and in the tripartite Life of Patrick to five thousand. These bishops, even if we greatly reduce the number as we must, had no higher rank than the ancient chorepiscopi or country-bishops in the Eastern Church, of whom there were once in Asia Minor alone upwards of four hundred. Angus the Culdee gives us even one hundred and fifty-three groups of seven bishops, each group serving in the same church. Patrick, regarding himself as the chief bishop of the whole Irish people, planted a church wherever he made a few converts and could obtain a grant from the chief of a clan, and placed a bishop ordained by himself over it. " It was a congregational and tribal episcopacy, united by a federal rather than a territorial tie under regular jurisdiction. During Patrick's life, he no doubt exercised a superintendence over the whole; but we do not see any trace of the metropolitan jurisdiction of the church of Armagh over the rest." ' 1 Skene 11. 22. 5G FOUETH PEKIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. The second period was monastic and missionary. All the presbyters and deacons were monks. Monastic life was conge- nial to the soil, and had its antecedents in the brotherhoods and sisterhoods of the Druids.^ It was imported into Ireland pro- bably from France, either directly through Patrick, or from the monastery of St. Ninian at Galloway, who himself derives it from St. Martin of Tours.^ Prominent among these presbyter- monks arc the twelve apostles of Ireland headed by St. Colmnba, who carried Christianity to Scotland in 563, and the twelve companions of Columbanus, who departed from Ireland to the Continent about 612. The most famous monastery was that of Bennchar, or Bangor, founded A. D. 558 by Comgall in the county of Down, on the south side of Belfast Lough. Comgall had four thousand monks under his care.* From Bangor pro- ceeded Columbanus and other evangelists. By a primitive Keltic monastery we must not understand an elaborate stone structure, but a rude village of wooden huts or bothies (botha) on a river, with a church (ecclcm), a common eating-hall, a mill, a hospice, the whole surrounded by a wall of earth or stone. The senior monks gave themselves entirely to devotion and the transcribing of the Scriptures. The younger were occupied in the field and in mechanical labor, or the train- ing of the rising generation. These monastic communities formed a federal union, with Clu'ist as their invisible head. They were training schools of the clergy. They attracted con- verts from the surrounding heathen population, and offered them a refuge from danger and violence. They were resorted ^ Ammianns Marcellinus (XV. 9) describes tlie Druids as "bound together in brotherhoods and corporations, according to the precepts of Pythagoras." See KiUen, I. 29. * See next section. St. Patrick also is said to have been one of St. Martin's disciples ; but St. Martin lived nearly one hundred years earlier. ^ Angus the Culdee, in his Litany, invokes " forty thousand monks, with the l)lessing of God, under the rule of Comg;ill of Bangor." But this is no doubt a slip of the pen for "four tliousand." Skene II. 56. Bangor on the north- ca.stern coast of Ireland must not be confounded with Bangor on the western coa^t of Wales. § 15. THE IRISH CHURCH AFTER ST. PATRICK. 57 to by English noblemen, who, according to Bode, were hospita- bly received, furnished with books, and instructed. Some Irish clergymen could read the Greek Testament at a time when Pope Gregory I. was ignorant of Greek. There are traces of an original Latin version of the Scriptures differing from the Itala and Vulgate, esjjecially in Patrick's writings.^ But " there is no trace anywhere of any Keltic version of the Bible or any part of it. St. Chrysostom's words have been misunderstood to support such a supposition, but without ground." ^ If there had been such a translation, it would have been of little use, as the people could not read it, and depended for their scanty know- ledge of the word of God on the public lessons in the church. The "Book of Armagh," compiled by Ferdomnach, a scribe or learned monk of Armagh, in 807, gives us some idea of the literary state of the Irish Church at that time.^ It contains the oldest extant memoirs of St. Patrick, the Confession of St. Pat- rick, the Preface of Jerome to the New Testament, the Gospels, Epistles, Apocalypse and Acts, with some prefaces chiefly taken from the works of Pelaglus, and the Life of St. IMartln of Tours by Sulpicius Severiis, with a short litany on behalf of the writer. In the ninth century John Scotus Erigena, who died In France, 874, startled the Church with his rare, but eccentric, genius and pantheistic speculations. He had that power of quick repartee for which Irishmen are distinguished to this day. When asked by Charles the Bald at the dinner-table, what was the difference between a Scot and a Sot {quid distat inter Scottum ct Sottmnf), John replied : " Nothing at all but the table, please your Majesty." ^ Haddan & Stubbs, Vol. I., 170-198, give a collection of Latin Scripture quotations of British or Irish, writers from the fifth to the ninth century (Fasti- dius, St. Patrick, Gildas, Columbanus, Adamnanus, Nennius, Asser, etc.), and come to the conclusion that the Vulgate, though known to Fastidius in Britain about A. D. 420, was probably unknown to St. Patrick, writing half a century later in Ireland, but that from the seventh century on, the Vulgate gradually superseded the Irish Latin version formerly in use. * Haddan & Stubbs, I. 192; comp. p. 10. Ebrard and other writers state the contrary, but without proof. ' First published in the Swords Parish 3fagazine, 1861. 58 FOUETH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. § 16. Subjection of Ireland to English and Roman Rule. The success of the Eoman mission of Augustin among the Anglo-Saxons encouraged attempts to bring the Irish Church under the papal jurisdiction and to force upon it the ritual observances of Rome. England owes a good deal of her Chris- tianity to independent Irish and Scotch missionaries from Ban- gor and loua; but Ireland (as well as Germany) owes her llomanism, in great measure, to England. Pope Honorius (who was afterwards condemned by the sixth oecumenical council for holding the Monothelite heresy) addressed to the Irish clergy in 629 an exliortation — not, however, in the tone of authoritative dictation, but of superior wisdom and experience — to conform to the lloman mode of keeping Easter. This is the first known papal encyclical addressed to that country. A Synod was held at INIagh-Lcne, and a deputation sent to the Pope (and the three Eastern patriarchs) to ascertain the foreign usages on Easter. The deputation was treated with distinguished consideration in Rome, and, after three years' absence, reported in favor of the Roman cycle, which indeed rested on a better system of calculation. It was accordingly adojited in the South of Ireland, under the influence of the learned Irish ecclesiastic Cummian, who devoted a wliole year to the study of the controversy. A few years afterwards, Thomian, archbishop and abbot of Armagh (from 623 to 661), and the best Irish scholar of his age, introduced, after correspondence with the Pope, the Roman custom in the North, and thereby promoted his authority in opposition to the power of the abbot of lona, which extended over a portion of Ireland, and strongly favored the old custom. But at last Abbot Adamnan likewise yielded to the Roman practice before his death (704). The Norman conquest under William I., with the sanction of the Pope, united the Irish Church still more closely to Rome (1066). Gregory YIL, in an encyclical letter to the king, clergy and laity of Ireland (1084), boldly challenged their obe- 2 16. SUBJECTION OF lEELAND. 59 dience to the Vicar of the blessed Peter, and invited them to appeal to him in all matters requiring arbitration. The archbishops of Canterbury, Lanfranc and Anselm, claimed and exercised a sort of supervision over the three most important sea-ports, Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick, on the ground that the Norman settlers applied to them for bishops and priests. Their influence was exerted in favor of conformity to Eome. Clerical celibacy was more generally introduced, uniformity in ritual established, and the large number of bishoprics reduced to twenty-three under two archbishops, Armagh for the North and Cashel for the South; while the bishop of Dublin was permitted to remain under the care of the archbishop of Canterbury. This reorganization of the polity in the interest of the aggrandizement of the hierarchy was effected about 1112 at the synod of Rath- breasail, which was attended by 58 bishops, 317 priests, a large number of monks, and King Murtogh O'Brien with his nobles.' At last Ireland was invaded and conquered by England under Henry II., with the effectual aid of Pope Adrian IV. — the only Englishman that sat on the papal throne. In a curious bull of 1155, he justified and encouraged the intended invasion in the mterest of the papacy, and sent the king the ring of investi- ture as Lord of Ireland, calling upon that licentious monarch to "extirpate the nurseries of vice" in Ireland, to "enlarge the borders of the (Roman) Church," and to secure to St. Peter from each house "the annual pension of one penny" (equal in value in the twelfth century to at least two or three shillings of our present currency).* Henry carried out his design in 1171, ^ See details in Lanigan and Killen (ch. yii.). * This papal-Irish bull is not found in the Bullarium Bomanum, the editors of which were ashamed of it, and is denounced by some Irish Komanists as a mon- strous and outrageous forgery, but it is given by Matthew Paris (1155), was con- firmed by Pope Alexander III. in a letter to Henry II. (A.D. 1172), published in Ireland in 1175, printed in Baronius, Annales ad A.D. 1159, who took his copy from a Codex Vaticanus, and is acknowledged as undoubtedly genuine by Dr. Lanigan, the Eoman Catholic historian of Ireland (IV. 64), and other au- thorities; comp. Killen I. 211 sqq. It is as follows: "Adrian, Bishop, Servant of the servants of God, to his dearest son in Christ, the niustrious King of England, greeting and apostolic benediction. GO FOUKTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. and with a strong military force easily subdued the whole Irish nation, weakened and distracted by civil wars, to British rule, which has been maintained ever since. A Synod at Armagh reo-arded the subjugation as a righteous judgment for the sins of the people, and especially for the slave trade. The bishops "Full laudably and profitably hag your magnificence conceived the design of propagating your glorious renown on earth, and of completing your reward of eternal happiness in heaven, whilst as a Catholic prince you are intent on enlarging the borders of the Church, teaching the truth of the Christian faith to the ignorant and rude, extirpating the nurseries of iniquity from the field of the Lord, and for the more convenient execution of tliis purpose, requiring the counsel and favor of the Apostolic See. In which the maturer your deliberation and the greater the discretion of your procedure, by so much the happier, we trust, will be your progress, with the assistance of the Lord ; because whatever has its origin in ardent faith Smd in love of religioij always has a prosperous end and issue. " There is indeed no doubt but that Ireland and all the islands on which Christ the Sun of Righteousness has shone, and which have received the doc- trines of the Christian faith, belong to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and of the holy Roman Church, as your Excellency also acknowledges. And therefore we are the more solicitous to propagate a faithful plantation among them, and a seed pleasing to the Lord, as we have the secret conviction of conscience that a very rigorous account must be rendered of them. "You then, most dear son in Christ, have signified to us your desire to enter into the island of Ireland that you may reduce the people to obedience to laws, and extirpate the nurseries of vice, and that you are willing to pay from each house a yearly pension of one penny to St. Peter, and that you will preserve the rights of the cliurches of this land whole and inviolate. We, therefore, with that grace and acceptance suited to your pious and laudable design, and favorably assenting to your petition, hold it good and acceptable that, for ex- tending the bordei-s of the cliurch, restraining the progress of vice, for the cor- rection of manners, the planting of virtue, and the increase of the Christian religion, you enter that island, and execute therein whatever shall pertain to the honor of God and welfare of the land ; and that the people of that land receive you honorably, and reverence you as their lord — the rights of their clmrches still remaining sacred and inviolate, and saving to St. Peter the annual pension of one penny from every liouse. "If then you are resolved to carry the design you have conceived into effect- ual execution, study to train that nation to virtuous manners, and labor by yourself and otiiers whom you shall judge meet for this work, in faith, word, and life, that the church may be there adorned; that the religion of the Chris- tian faith may be planted and grow up, and that all things pertaining to the lionor of God and the salvation of souls be so ordered that j'ou may be entitled U> the fulness of eternal reward in God, and obtain a glorious renown on earth throughout all ages." § 17. THE CONVERSION OF SCOTLAND. 61 were the first to acknowledge Henry, hoping to derive benefit from a foreign regime, which freed them from petty tyrants at home. A Synod of Cashel in 1172, among other regulations, ordered that all offices of the chm'ch should hereafter in all parts of Ireland be conformed to the observances of the Church of England. A j^apal legate henceforward was constantly residing in Ireland. Pope Alexander III. was extremely gratified with this extension of his dominion, and in September, 1172, in the same tone of sanctimonious arrogance, issued a brief confirming the bull of Adrian, and expressing a hoj)e that " the barbarous nation" would attain under the government of Henry ",to some decency of manners ;" he also wrote three epistles — one to Henry II., one to the kings and nobles of Ireland, and one to its hier- archy— enjoining obedience of Ireland to England, and of both to the see of St. Peter/ § 17. The Conversion of Scotland. St. Ninian and St. Kentigern. See tlie works of Skeiste (tlie second vol.), Reeves, McLauchlan, Ebrard, CuxxiNGHAjr, mentioned in | 7. Also De. Reeves : The Cuklees of the British Islands as they appear in History, 18G4. Dr. Jos. Robertson: Statuta Ecclesice iScoticance, 1866, 2 vols. Bishop Forbes : The Kalendars of Scottish Saints, Edinb., 1872 ; Lives of S. Ninian and S. Kentigern, compiled in the 12th century, Edinb., 1874. Haddax & Stubbs: Councils and Ecclesiast. Docum., Vol. II., Part I. (Oxf., 1873), pp. 103 sqq. Scotland (Scotia) before the tenth century was comprised in the general appellation of Britain (Britannia), as distinct from Ireland (Hibernia). It was known to the Romans as Caledo- nia,^ to the Kelts as Alban ; but the name of Scotia was exclu- sively appropriated to Ireland till the tenth century. The inde- pendent history of Scotland begins with the establishment of the Scottish monarchy in the ninth century. At first it was a purely Keltic kingdom; but in the course of time the Saxon 1 KiUen, I. 226 sq. * In Gaelic, Calyddom, land of forests, or, according to others, from Kcded, i. e. hard and wild. 62 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. race and feudal institutions spread over the country, and the Keltic tribes retreated to the mountains and western islands. The names of Scot and Scotch passed over to the English-speak- ing people and their language ; while the Keltic language, for- merly Icnown as Scotch, became known as Irish. The Keltic history of Scotland is full of fable, and a battle- field of llomauists and Protestants, Episcopalians and Presby- terians, who have claimed it for their respective systems of doc- trine and church-polity. It must be disentangled from the sectarian issues of the Culdean controversy. The historian is neither a polemic nor an apologist, and should aim at nothing but the truth. Tertullian says, that certain places in Britain which the Ro- mans could not conquer were made subject to Christ. It is quite likely that the first knowledge of Christianity reached the Scots and Picts from England ; but the constant wars between them and the Britons and the decline of the Roman power were unfavorable to any mission work. The mission of Palladius to Scotland by Pope Ctelestius is as vague and uncertain as his mission to Ireland by the same Pope, and is strongly mixed up with the mission of Patrick. An Irish colony from the North-Eastern part of Ulster, which had been Christianized by Patrick, settled in Scotland towards the close of the fifth century, and continued to spread along the coasts of Argyle and as far as the islands of INIull and lona, until its progress was checked by the Northern Picts. The first distinct fact in the church history of Scotland is the apostolate of St. Nixiax at the close of the fourth century, during the reign of Theodosius in the East. We have little reliable information of him. The son of a British king, he devoted himself early to the ministry of Christ. He spent some time in Rome, where the Pope commissioned him to the aposto- late among the heathen in Caledonia, and in Gaul with Bishop Martin of Tours, who deserves special praise for his protest against the capital punishment of heretics in the case of the § 17. THE CONVERSION OF SCOTLAND. 63 Priscillianists. He began the evangelization of the Southern Plots in the Eastern districts of modern Scotland. He built a white stone church called " Candida Casa," at Whittern (Qu- hithern, Witerna) in Galloway, on the South- Western border of Scotland by the sea side, and dedicated it to the memory of St. Martin, who had died in that year (397).^ This was the beginning of " the Great Monastery " (" Magnum Monasterium ") or monastery of E,osnat, which exerted a civilizing and human- izing influence on the surrounding country, and annually at- tracted pilgrims from England and Scotland to the shrine of St. Niniari. His life has been romanized and embellished with legends. He made a new-born infant indicate its true father, and vindicate the innocence of a presbyter who had been charged by the mother with the crime of violation; he caused leeks and herbs to grow in the garden before their season; he subdued with his staff the winds and the waves of the sea; and even his relics cured the sick, cleansed the lepers, and terrified the wicked, "by all which things," says Ailred, his biographer, "the faith of believers is confirmed to the praise and glory of Christ." St. Kentigern (d. Nov. 13, 603), also called St. Mungo (the gracious one),^ the first bishop of Glasgow, labored in the sixth century for the conversion of the people in Cumberland, Wales, and on the Clyde, and re-converted the Picts, who had apostatized from the faith. He was the grandson of a heathen king in Cumbria or Strathclyde, the son of a Christian, though imbaptized mother. He founded a college of Culdees or secular monks, and several churches. He wore a hair shirt and garment of goat-skin, lived on bread and vegetables, slept on a rocky couch and a stony pillow, like Jacob, rose in the night to sing psalms, recited in the morning the whole psalter in a cold stream, retired to desert places during Lent, living on roots, was con-crucified with Christ on Good Friday, watched before ^ On Whittern and the Candida Casa, see Nicholson, History of Galloway, I. 115; Forbes, S. Ninian and S. Kentigern, 268, and Skene, II. 46. * In Welsh, Cyndcyrn means chief, Munghu dear, amiable. See Skene, II. 183. 61 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. the tomb, and spent Easter in hilarity and joy. He converted more by his silence than his speech, caused a wolf and a stag to drag the plough, raised grain from a field sown with sand, kept the rain from wetting his garments, and performed other marvels which prove the faith or superstition of his biographers in the twelfth century. Jocelyn relates also, that Kentigern went seven times to Rome, and received sundry privileges and copies of the Bible from the Pope. There is, however, no trace of such visits in the works of Gregory I., who was more interested in the Saxon mission than the Scotch. Kentigern first estab- lished his episcopal chair in Holdelni (now Hoddam), afterwards in Glasghu (Glasgow). He met St. Columba, and exchanged with him his pastoral stave.^ He attained to the age of one Imndrcd and eighty-five years, and died between A. D. 601 and 012 (probably 603).* He is buried in the crypt of the cathedral of St. Mungo in Glasgow, the best preserved of mediaeval cathe- drals in Scotland. St. Cuthbeet (d. March 20, 687), whose life has been ^vrit- ten by Bedc, prior of the famous monasteiy of Mailros (Mel- rose), afterwards bishop of Lindisfarne, and last a hermit, is another legendary saint of Scotland, and a number of churches are traced to him or bear his name.^ § 18. St. Columba and the Monastery of lona. John Jamieson (D. D.) : Aji Historical Account of the Ancient Culdecs of lona, and of their Settlements in Scotland, England and Ireland. Edinb., 1811 (p. 417). MoNTALEMBERT : Les Moines d' Occident, Vol. III., pp. 99-332 (Paris, 1868). The DtTKE OF Argyll: lona. Second ed., London, 1871 (149 pp.). *Adamnan-: Life of St. Columba, Foiindcr of Hij, ed. by William Reeves (Canon of Armagh), Edinburgh., 1874. (Originally printed for the Irish Archseolog. Society and for the Bannatyne Club, Dublin, 1856). ' The meeting of the two -^r-ints, as recorded by Jocelyn, reminds one of the meeting of St. Antony with the fabulous Paul of Thebes. ' See Forbes, Kalendars, p. 372, and Skene, II. 197. ' Forbes (p. 319) gives a list of 26. I 18. ST. COLUMBA AND THE MONASTEEY OF lONA. 65 * Skene: Celtio Scotland, II. 52 sqq. (Edinb., 1877). Comp. the Lit. in I 7. Saint Columba or Columbcille (died June 9, 597) Is the real apostle of Scotland. He is better known to us than Ninian and Kentigern. The account of Adamnan (624-704), the ninth abbot of Hy, was written a century after Columba's death from authentic records and oral traditions, although it is a panegyric rather than a history. Later biographers have romanized him like St. Patrick. He was descended from one of the reigning families of Ireland and British Dalriada, and was born at Gar- tan in the county of Donegal about A.D. 521. He received in baptism the symbolical name Colum, or in Latin Columba (Dove, as the symbol of the Holy Ghost), to which was afterwards added cille (or kill), i. e. "of the church," or "the dove of the cells," on account of his frequent attendance at public worship, or, more probably, for his being the founder of many churches.^ He entered the monastic seminaiy of Clonard, founded by St. Finnian, and afterwards another monastery near Dublin, and was ordained a priest. He planted the church at Derry in 545, the monastery of Durrow in 553, and other churches. He seems to have fondly clung all his life to his native Ireland, and to the convent of Derry. In one of his elegies, which were probably retouched by the patriotism of some later Irish bard, he sings : " Were all the tributes of Scotia [i. e. Ireland] mine, From its midland to its borders, I would give all for one little cell In my beautiful Derry. For its peace and for its purity, For the white angels that go In crowds from one end to the other, I love my beautiful Derry. ^ In the Irish calendar there are twenty saints of the name Columba, or Columbanus, Columbus, Columb. The most distinguished next to Cohmibcille is Columbanus, the Continental missionary, who has often been confounded with Columba. In the Continental hagiology, the name is used for female: saints. See Reeves, p. 248. 5 6G FOUETH PEKIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. For its quietness and purity, For heaven's angels that come and go Under every leaf of the oaks, I love my beautiful Derry. My Derry, my fair oat grove, My dear little cell and dwelling, O God, in the heavens above I Let him who profanes it be cursed. Beloved are Durrow and Derry, Beloved is Eaphoe the pure, Beloved the fertile Drumhome, Beloved are Sords and Kells ! But sweeter and fairer to me The salt sea where the sea-gulls cry When I come to Derry from far, It is sweeter and dearer to me — Sweeter to me." ^ In 563, the forty-second year of his age, Columba, prompted by a passion for travelling and a zeal for the spread of Chris- tianity/ sailed with twelve fellow-apostles to the West of Scot- land, possibly on invitation of the provincial king, to wdiom he was related by blood. He was presented with the island of Hijy commonly called lona^ near the Western coast of Scotland, about fifty miles West from Oban. It is an inhospitable island, three miles and a half long and a mile and a half broad, partly cultivated, partly covered with hill pasture, retired dells, morass ^ Montalembert, III. 112. This poem strikes the key-note of father Prout's more musical "Bells of Shandon which sound so grand on the river Lee." * "Pro Christo peregi-inare volens," says Adamnan (p. 108), who knows nothing of his excommunication and exile from Ireland in consequence of a great bat- tle. And yet it is difficult to account for this tradition. In one of the Irish Keltic poems ascribed to Columba, he laments to have been driven from Erin by his own fault and in consequence of the blood shed in his battles. See Montalembert, III. 145. ^ This is not an adaptation to Columba's Hebrew name (Neander), but a corruption of li-shona, i. e. the Holy Island (from Ti, the Keltic name for island, and hona or shona, sacred). So Dr. Lindsay Alexander and Cunningham. But Reeves (I. c. Introd., p. cxxx.) regards loua as tlie genuine form, wliich is the feminine adjective of lorn (to be pronounced like the English Yeo). The island has borne no fewer tliun thirty names. g 18. ST. COLUMBA AND THE MOXASTEEY OF lONA. 67 and rocks, now In possession of the Duke of Argyll, numbering about three hundred Protestant inhabitants, an Established Presbyterian Church, and a Free Church. The neighboring island of Staffa, though smaller and uninhabited, is more inter- esting to the ordinary tourist, and its Fingal's Cave is one of the most wonderful specimens of the architectural skill of na- ture; it looks like a Gothic cathedral, 66 feet high, 42 feet broad, and 227 feet long, consisting of majestic basalt columns, an arched roof, and an open portal towards the ocean, which dashes in and out in a constant succession of waves, sounding solemn anthems in this unique temple of nature. .Columba and his fellow-monks must have passed it on their missionary wanderings; but they were too much taken up with heaven to look upon the wonders of the earth, and the cave remained comparatively unknown to the world till 1772. Those islands wore the same aspect in the sixth century as now, with the exception of the woods, which have disappeared. Walter Scott (in the " Lord of the Isles ") has thrown the charm of his poetry over the Hebridean archipelago, from which proceeded the Christianization of Scotland.^ By the labors of Columba and his successors, lona has become one of the most venerable and interesting spots in the history of Christian missions. It was a light-house in the darkness of heathenism. We can form no adequate conception of the self- denying zeal of those heroic missionaries of the extreme North, who, in a forbidding climate and exposed to robbers and wild beasts, devoted their lives to the conversion of savages. Columba and his friends left no monuments of stone and wood ; nothing is shown but the spot on the South of the island where he landed, ^ "No two objects of interest," says the Duke of Argyll {Tona, p. 1) "could be more absolutely dissimilar in kind than the two neighboring islands, Staflfa and lona: — lona dear to Christendom for more than a thousand years; — Staffa known to the scientific and the curious only since the close of the last century. Nothing but an accident of geography could unite their names. The nvimber of those who can thoroughly understand and enjoy them both is probably very small." C8 FOUKTH TERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. and the empty stone coffin where his body was laid together with that of his servant; his bones were removed afterwards to Dun- keld. The old convent was destroyed and the monks were killed by the wild Danes and Norsemen in the tenth century. The remaining ruins of lona — a cathedral, a chapel, a nunner}^, a graveyard witli the tombstones of a number of Scottish and Nor- weo-ian and Irish kings, and three remarkable carved crosses, which were left of three hundred and sixty that (according to a vao-ue tradition) were thrown into the sea by the iconoclastic zeal of the Keformation — are all of the Eoman Catholic period which succeeded the original Keltic Christianity, and which lived on its fame. During the middle ages lona was a sort of Jerusalem of the North, where pilgrims loved to worship, and kino-s and noblemen desired to be bmned. When the celebrated Dr. Johnson, in his Tour to the Hebrides, approached lona, he felt his piety grow warmer. No friend of missions can visit that lonely spot, shrouded in almost perpetual fog, without catching new inspiration and hope for the ultimate triumph of the gospel over all obstacles.' * " nitlier came holy men from Erin to take counsel -with the Saint on the troubles of clans and monasteries which were still dear to him. Hither came also bad men red-handed from blood and sacrilege to make confession and do penance at Columba's feet. Hither, too, came chieftains to be blessed, and even kings to be ordained — for it is curious that on this lonely spot, so far distant from the ancient centres of Christendom, took place the first recorded case of a temporal sovereign seeking from a minister of the Church what appeare to have been very like formal consecration. Adamnan, as usual, connects his narrative of this event, which took place in 547, with miraculous circumstances, and with Divine direction to Columba, in his selection of Aidan, one of the early kings of the Irish Dalrladic colony in Scotland. "The fame of Columba's supernatural powers attracted many and strange visi- tors to the shores on wliich we are now looking. Nor can we fail to remember, tvith the Reilig Odhrain at our feet, how often the beautiftil galleys of that olden time came up the sound laden with the dead, — ' tlieir dark freight a van- islied life.' A grassy mound not l:ir from the present landing-place is known as the spot on which bodies were laid when they were first carried to the shore. AVc know from the account of Columl)a's own burial that the custom was to wake the body with the singing of psalms during three days and nights before laying it to its final rest. It was then borne in solemn procession to the grave. § 18. ST. COLUMBA AND THE MONASTERY OF lONA. 69 The arrival of Columba at lona was the beginning of the Keltic church in Scotland. The island was at that time on the confines of the Pictic and Scotic jurisdiction, and formed a con- venient base for missionary labors among the Scots, who were already Christian in name, but needed confirmation, and among the Picts, who were still pagan, and had their name from paint- ing their bodies and fighting naked, Columba directed his zeal first to the Picts; he visited King Brude in his fortress, and won his esteem and co-operation in planting Christianity among his people. "He converted them by example as well as by word" (Bede). He founded a large number of churches and monasteries in Ireland and Scotland directly or through his dis- ciples.^ He was involved in the wars so frequent in those days, when even women were required to aid in battle, and he availed himself of military force for the overthrow of paganism. He used excommunication very freely, and once pursued a plunderer with maledictions into the sea until the water reached to his knees. But these rough usages did not interfere with the vene- ration for his name. He was only a fair type of his countrymen. "He had," says Montalembert, "the vagabond inclination, the ardent, agitated, even quarrelsome character of the race." He had the " perfervidum ingenium Scotorum." He was manly, tall How many of such processions must have wound along the path that leads to the Reilig Odhrain ! How many fleets of galleys must have ridden at anchor on that bay below us, with all those expressive signs of mourning which belong to ships, when kings and chiefs who had died in distant lands were carried Lhher to be buried in this holy Isle ! From Ireland, from Scotland, and from distant Norway, there came, during many centuries, many royal funerals to its shores. And at this day by far the most interesting remains upon the Island are the curious and beautiful tomb-stones and crosses which lie in the Eeilig Odhrain. They belong, indeed, even the most ancient of them, to an age removed by many hundred years from Columba's time. But they represent the lasting reverence which his name has inspired during so many generations, and the desire of a long succession of chiefs and warriors through the Middle Ages and down almost to our own time, to be buried in the soil he trod." The Duke of Argyll, I. c, pp. 95-98. * See a list of churches in Reeves, p. xlix.-lxxi., and Forbes, Kalendar, etc., p. 306, 307 ; comp. also Skene, II. 127 sqq. 70 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. and handsome, incessantly active, and had a sonorous and far- reaching voice, rolling forth the Psalms of David, every syllable distinctly uttered. He could discern the signs of the weather. Adamnan ascribes to him an angelic countenance, a prophetic fore-knowledge and miracles as great as those performed by Christ, such as changing water into wine for the celebration of the eucharist, when no wine could be obtained, changing bitter fruit into sweet, drawing water from a rock, calming the storm at sea, and curing many diseases. His biography, instead of giving solid facts, teems with fabulous legends, which are told with childlike credulity. O'Donnell's biography goes still fur- ther. Even the pastoral staif of Columba, left accidentally upon the shore of lona, was transported across the sea by his prayers to meet its disconsolate owner when he landed somewhere in Ireland.^ Columba died beside the altar in the church while engaged in his midnight devotions. Several poems are ascribed to him — one in praise of the natural beauties of his chosen island, and a monastic rule similar to that of St. Benedict; but the "regula ac p'cecepta" of Columba, of which Wilfrid spoke at the synod of Whitby, probably mean discipline or observance rather than a written rule.'* The chm'ch establishment of Columba at lona belongs to the second or monastic period of the Irish church, of which it formed an integral part. It consisted of one hundred and fifty persons under the monastic rule. At the head of it stood a presbyter-abbot, who ruled over the whole province, and even the bishops, although the episcopal function of ordination was recognized.^ The monks were a family of brethren living in roramon. They were divided into three classes: the seniors, who attended to the religious services, instruction, and the tran- * Montalembert's delineation of Columba's character assumes, apparently, the truth of these biographies, and is more eloquent than true. See Skene, II. 145. ' On the regula Columbnni, see Ebrard, 147 sqq. •Bede, J/.X III. 4; V. 9. 2 18. ST. COLUMBA AND THE MONASTERY OF lONA. 71 scribing of the Scriptures ; the middle-aged, who were the work- ing brethren, devoted to agriculture, the tending of the cattle, and domestic labor; and the youth, who were alumni under in- struction. The dress consisted of a white tunica or under gar- ment, and a Camilla or outer garment and hood made of wool. Their food was bread, milk, eggs, fish, and on Sundays and fes- tivals mutton or beef. The doctrinal views and ecclesiastical customs as to the observance of Easter and the tonsure were the same as amono- the Britons and the Irish in distinction from the Roman system introduced by Augustin among the Saxons.*- The monastery of lona, says Bede, held for a long time the pre-eminence over the monasteries and churches of the Picts and Northern Scots. Columba's successors, he adds, were distin- guished for their continency, their love of God, and strict atten- tion to their rules of discipline, although they followed " uncer- tain cycles in their computation of the great festival (Easter), because they were so far away from the rest of the world, and had none to supply them with the synodical decrees on the pas- chal observance; wherefore they only practised such works of piety and chastity as they could learn from the prophetical, evangelical, and apostolical writings. This manner of keeping Easter continued among them for a hundred and fifty years, till the year of our Lord's incarnation 715." * Adamnan (d. 704), the ninth successor of Columba, in conse- quence of a visit to the Saxons, conformed his observance of Easter to the Roman Church ; but his brethren refused to follow him in this change. After his death, the community of lona became divided on the Easter question, until the Columban monks, who adhered to the old custom, were by royal command expelled (715). With this expulsion terminates the primacy of lona in the kingdom of the Picts. The monastic church was broken up or subordinated to the hierarchy of the secular clergy. ^ For a very full account of the economy and constitution of lona, see Beeves, Introduction to Life of Saint Columba, pp. c.-cxxxii. ^ H. E. III. 4. 72 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. § 19. The Culdees. After the expulsion of the Columban monks from the king- dom of the Picts in the eighth centmy, the term Culdee or Ceile De, or Kaledel, lii'st appears in history, and has given rise to much controversy and untenable theories.^ It is of doubtful origin, but probably means servants or worshippers of God.'' It was applied to anchorites, who, in entire seclusion from society, Bouo-ht the perfection of sanctity. They succeeded the Columban monks. They afterwards associated themselves into communi- ties of hermits, and were finally brought under canonical rule alon<>- with the secular clergy, until at length the name of Culdee became almost synonymous with that of secular canon. The term Culdee has been improperly applied to the whole Keltic church, and a superior purity has been claimed for it. There is no doubt that the Columban or the Keltic church of Scotland, as well as the early Irish and the early British churches, differed in many points from the mediseval and modern church of Rome, and represent a simpler and yet a very active mission- ary type of Christianity. The leading peculiarities of the ancient Keltic church, as dis- tinct from the Roman, are : * To Adamnan and to Bede, the name was entirely unknown. Skene (II. 226) says: "In tlie wliole range of ecclesiastical history there is nothing more entirely destitute of authority than the application of this name to the Columhan monks of the sixth and seventh centuries, or more utterly baseless than the fabric -wliich has been raised upon that assumption." The most learned and ingenious construction of an imaginary Protestant Culdee Church was furnished by Ebrard and McLauchlan. ^ The word Culdee is variously derived from the Gbelic Gille De, servant of God ; from tlie Keltic Cuil or Cenl, retreat, recess, and Cuildich, men of the recess ( Jamieson, McLauchlan, Cunningham) ; from the Irish Ceile De, the spouse of God (Ebrard), or the servants of God (Reeves) ; from the Irish Culla, cowl, i. e. the black monk; from the Latin Deicola, cuUores Dei (Colidei), worshippers of God the Fatlier, in distinction from Christicolce (Ocdechrisf in Irish), or ordinary Christians (Skene); from the Greek Ke\7,euTai, men of the cells (Goodall). The earliest Latin form is Kaledei. In Irish Keile as a substantive means sociiu; marifnx, also sermis. On the name, seq Braun, De Culdeis, Bonn, 1840, McLauchlan, pp. 175 sq. ; Ebrard, pp. 2 sq., and Skene, II. 238. § 19. THE CULDEES. 73 1. Independence of the Pope. lona was its Rome, and the Abbot of lona, and afterwards of Dunkeld, though a mere Pres- byter, ruled all Scotland. 2. Monasticism ruling supreme, but mixed with secular life, and not bound by vows of celibacy ; while in the Roman church the monastic system was subordinated to the hierarchy of the secular clergy. 3. Bishops without dioceses and jurisdiction and succession. 4. Celebration of the time of Easter. 5. Form of the tonsure. It has also been asserted, that the Kelts or Culdoes were opposed to auricular confession, the worship of saints and images, purgatory, transubstantiation, the seven sacraments, and that for this reason they were the forerunners of Protestantism. But this inference is not warranted. Ignorance is one thing, and rejection of an error from superior knowledge is quite ano- ther thing. The difference is one of form rather than of spirit. Owins: to its distance and isolation from the Continent, the Keltic church, while superior to the churches in Gaul and Italy — at least during the sixth and seventh centuries — in missionary zeal and success, was left behind them in other things, and adhered to a previous stage of development in truth and error. But the general character and tendency of both during that period were essentially different from the genius of Protestant Christianity. We find among the Kelts the same or even greater love for mo- nasticism and asceticism, the same superstitious belief in incredi- ble miracles, the same veneration for relics (as the bones of Columba and Aidan, which for centuries were carried from place to place), the same scrupulous and narrow zeal for outward forms and ceremonies (as the observance of the mere time of Easter, and the mode of monastic tonsure), with the only difference that the Keltic church adhered to an older and more defective calendar, and to the semi-circular instead of the circular tonsure. There is not the least evidence that the Keltic church had a higher conception of Christian freedom, or of any positive distinctive 74 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. principle of Protestantism, such as the absolute supremacy of the Bible in opposition to tradition, or justification by faith without works, or the universal priesthood of all believers. ^ Considering, then, that the peculiarities of the Keltic church arose simply from its isolation of the main current of Christian history, the ultimate triumph of Rome, with all its incidental evils, was upon the whole a progress in the onward direction. Moreover, the Culdees degenerated into a state of indolence and stagnation during the darkness of the ninth and tenth centuries, and the Danish invasion, with its devastating and disorganizing influences. We still find them in the eleventh century, aiid fre- quently at war with the Roman clergy about landed property, tithes and other matters of self-interest^^ but not on matters of doctrine, or Christian life. The old Culdee convents of St. Andrews, Dunkeld, Dunblane and Brechin were turned into the bishop's chapter with the right of electing the bishop. Married Culdees were gradually supplanted by Canons-Regu- lar. They lingered longest in Brechin, but disappeared in the thirteenth century. The decline of the Culdees was the opportunity of Rome. The Saxon priests and monl«, connected with the more civilized countries, were very active and aggres- sive, building cathedrals, monasteries, hospitals, and getting possession of the land. ' The Duke of Argyll, who is a Scotch Presbyterian, remarks (l. c. p. 41) : " It is vain to look, in the peculiarities of the Scoto-Irish Church, for the model either of primitive practice, or of any particular system. As regards the theol- ogy of Columba's time, although it was not what we now understand as Roman, neitlier assuredly was it what we understand as Protestant. Montalembert boasts, and I tliink with truth, that in Columba's Life we have proof of the practice of the auricular confession, of the invocation of saints, of confidence in their protection, of belief in transubstantiation [?], of the practices of fasting and of penance, of prayers for the dead, of the sign of the cross in familiar — and it must be added — in most superstitious use. On the other hand there is no symptom of the worship or ' cultus ' of the Virgin, and not even an allusion to Buch an idea as the universal bishopric of Home, or to any special authority as seated there." ? 20. EXTINCTION OF THE KELTIC CHUECH. 75 § 20. Extinction of the Keltic Church, and Triumph of Rome under King David I. The turningrpoint in the history of the Scotch church is the reign of tlie devout Saxon queen St. Margaret, one of the best queens of Scotland (1070-1093). She exerted unbounded influence over her illiterate husband, Malcolm III., and her sons. She was very- benevolent, self-denying, well versed in the Scriptures, zealous in reforming abuses, and given to excessive fasting, which under- mined her constitution and hastened her death. " In St. ]\Iar- garet we have an embodiment of the spirit of her age. What ostentatious humility, what almsgiving, what prayers! What piety, had it only been freed from the taint of superstition ! The Culdees were listless and lazy, while she was unwearied in doing good. The Culdees met her in disputation, but, being ignorant, they were foiled. Death could not contend with life. The Indian disappears before the advance of the white man. The Keltic Culdee disappeared before the footsteps of the Saxon priest." ^ The change was effected by the same policy as that of the Norman kings towards Ireland. The church was placed upon a territorial in the place of a tribal basis, and a parochial system and a diocesan episcopacy was substituted for the old tribal churches with their monastic jurisdiction and functional episco- pacy. Moreover the great religious orders of the Roman Church were introduced and founded great monasteries as centres of counter- influence. And lastly, the Culdees were converted from secular into regular canons and thus absorbed into the Roman system. When Turgot was appointed bishop of St. Andrews, A. D. 1107, "the whole rights of the Keledei over the whole kingdom of Scotland passed to the bishopric of St. Andrews." From the time of Queen Margaret a stream of Saxons and Normans poured into Scotland, not as conquerors but as settlers, and acquired rapidly, sometimes by royal grant, sometimes by ^ Cunningham, Church Hist, of Scotland, p. 100. 76 FOUETH PERIOD. A.D. 540 TO 1049. marriage, the most fertile districts from the Tweed to the Pent- land Fii'th. From these settlers almost every noble family of Scotland traces its descent. They brought with them English civilization and religion. The sons and successors of Margaret enriched the church by magnificent endowments. Alexander I. founded the bishoprics of Moray and Dunkeld. His younger brother, David I., the sixth sou of Malcolm III., who married Maud, a grand-niece of William the Conqueror (1110) and ruled Scotland from 1124 to 1153, founded the bishoisrics of Ross, Aberdeen, Caithness, and Brechin, and several monasteries and religious houses. The nobility followed his example of liberality to the chm'ch and the hierarchy so that in the course of, a few centuries one half of the national wealth passed into the hands of the clergy, who were at the same time in possession of all the learning. In the latter part of David's reign an active crusade com- menced against the Culdee establishments from St. Andrews to lona, until the very name gradually disappeared; the last men- tion being of the year 1332, when the usual formula of their exclusion in the election of a bishop was repeated. " Thus the old Keltic Church came to an end, leaving no ves- tiges behind it, save here and there the roofless walls of what had been a church, and the numerous old burying-grounds to the use of which the people still cling with tenacity, and where occasionally an ancient Keltic cross tells of its former state. All else has disappeared ; and the only records we have of their his- tory are the names of the saints by whom they were founded preserved in old calendars, the fountains near the old churches bearing their name, the village fairs of immemorial antiquity held on their day, and here and there a few lay families holding a small portion of land, as hereditary custodiers of the pastoral staff, or other relic of the reputed founder of the church, with some small remains of its jurisdiction." ^ ' Skene, II. 418. II. THE CONVERSION OF FEANCE, GERMANY, ETC. 77 II. THE CONVERSION OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES. General Literature. I, Germany before Christianity. Tacitus: Oermania (cap, 2, 9, 11, 27, 39-45); Annal (XIII. 57); Hist. (IV. 64). Jac. Grimm: Deutsche Mythologie. Gottingen, 2nd ed. 1854, 2 vols. A. F. OzAifAM: Les Germains avant le christianlsme. Par. 1847. K. Simrock: Deutsche Mythologie. Bonn, 2nd ed. 1864. A. Plaxck : Die Goiter unci der Gottesglaube der Deutschen. In " Jahrb. fiir Deutsche TheoL," 1866, No. 1. II. The Christianization of Germany. F. W. Eettberg: Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands. Gottingen, 1846-48, 2 vols. C. J. Hefele (R. C.) : Geschichte der Einfuhrung des Christenthums im siidwestL Deutschland. Tubingen 1837. H. E.UCKERT : Culturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes in der Zeit des Ueber' gangs aus dem Heidenthum. Leipz. 1853, 2 vols. W. Krafft: Kirchengeschichte der German. Volher. Berlin 1854 (first vol.) HiEMER (R. C): Einfuhrung des Christenthums in Deutschen Landen. Schaffhausen 1857 sqq. 4 vols. Count de Moxtalembert (R. C.) : Tlie Monies of the West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard. Edinb. and Lond. 1861 sqq. 7 vols. I. Friedrich (R. C, since 1870 Old Cath.) : Kirchengeschichte Deutsch- lands. . Eegensb. 1866, 1869, 2 vols. Charles Merivale : Conversion of the West. TJie Continental Teutons. London 1878. (Popular). G. Korber: Die Ausbreitung des Christenthums im siidlichen Baden. Heidelb. 1878. R. Cruel: Geschichte der deutschen Predigt im Mittelalter. Detmold 1879. (Chs. I. and II.) § 21. Arian Christianity among the Goths and other German Tribes. I. Editions of the remains of the Gothic Bible Version of Wulfila : by H. C. vosr DER Gabelenz and J. Loebe^ Leipz. 1836-46 ; Mass- Manx, 1855-57 ; E. Bernhardt, 1875 (with the Greek text and notes) ; and Stamm, 7th ed. 1878, and in fac-simile by Uppstrom, 1854-1868. See also Ulphil^ Opera, and Schaff, Compan. to Gr. Test., p. 150. UlphiLjE Opera ( Versio Bibliorum Gothica), in Migne's Patrolog., Tom. XVIII. pp. 462-1559 (with a Gothic glossary). II. G. Waitz : TJeber das Leben und die Lehre des Ulfila. Hanover 1840. 78 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. W. Bessel: Das Leben des Ulfilas und die Belcehrung der Gothen zum Christenthum. Gotting. 1860. W. Keafft : I. c. I. 213-326 ; and Be Fontibus Ulfilce Arianismi. 1860. A. Helfferich; Der ivest-gothlsclie Arianismus und die spanische Ket- zergeschichte. Berlin 1860. We now proceed to the conversion of the Continental Teutons, especially those of France and Germany. The first wholesale conversions of the Germanic or Teutonic race to the Christian religion took place among the Goths in the time when Arianism was at the height of power in the East Roman empire. The chief agents were clerical and other cap- tives of war whom the Goths in their raids carried with them from the provinces of the Roman empire and whom they learned to admire and love for their virtue and supposed miraculous power. Constantine the Great entered into friendly relations with them, and is reported by Eusebius and Socrates to have subjected them to the cross of Christ. It is certain that some ecclesiastical organization was effected at that time. Theophilus, a bishop of the Goths, is mentioned among the fathers of the council of Nicsea, 325. The real apostle of the Goths is Ulfilas/ who was consecrated bishop in 348 at Constantinople, and died there in 381, aged seventy years. He invented the Gothic alphabet, and translated the Bible into Gothic, but was an Arian, or rather a semi-Arian, who regarded Christ as a secondary God and the Holy Spirit merely as a sanctifying power.^ Arianism spread with great rapidity among the Visigoths, Ostrogotlis, Burgundians, and Vandals. This heretical form of Christianity, however, was more a matter of accident than pref- erence and conviction among the Germans, and soon gave way to orthodoxy when tlicy became acquainted with it. When Alaric, the famous king of the Visigoths, captured Rome (410), ^ The usual spelling. Better : Wulfila, i. e. Wolflein, Little WoJf. * In his testamentary creed, which he always held {semper sic credidi), he con- fesses faith "in God the Father and in his only begotten Son our Lord and God, and in the Holy Spirit as virtutem illuminantem et sanctificantem, nee Deum nee Dominum, scd ministrum Chrisli." Corup. Krafil, 1. c. 328 sqq. § 21. ARIAN CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE GOTHS, ETC. 79 he treated the city with marked leniency, which Augustin justly traced to the influence of the Christian faith even in heretical form. The Vandals, the rudest among the Teutonic tribes, made an exception ; they fiercely persecuted the orthodox Chris- tians in North Africa (since 430) and desolated this once flou- rishino; field of the Catholic Church, the scene of the immortal labors of St. Augustin. Their kingdom was destroyed under Justinian (534), but the Catholic Church never rose from its ruins, and the weak remnant was conquered by the sword of Islam (670). Chrysostom made a noble eifort to convert the Eastero Goths from Arianism to Catholicity, but his mission ceased after his death (407). The conversion of the Franks to Catholic Christianity and various political circumstances led to the abandonment of Arian- ism among the other Germanic tribes. The Burgundians who spread from the Rhine to the Rhone and Saone, embraced Cath- olic Christianity in 517, and were incorporated into the French kingdom in 534. The Suevi who spread from Eastern Germany into France and Spain, embraced the Catholic faith in 550. The Visigoths in Spain, through their king, Reccared the Catholic, subscribed an orthodox creed at the third Council of Toledo, A. D. 589, but the last of the Gothic kings, Roderic, was conquered by the Saracens, breaking into Spain from Africa, in the bloody battle of Xeres de la Frontera, A. D. 711. The last stronghold of Arianism were the Longobards or Lombards, who conquered Northern Italy (still called Lombardy) and at first persecuted the Catholics. They were converted to the orthodox faith by the wise influence of Pope Gregory I. (590- 616), and the Catholic queen Theodelinde (d. 625) whose hus- band Agilulf (590-616) remained Arlan, but allowed his son Adelwald to be baptized and brought up in the Catholic Church. An Arian reaction followed, but Catholicism triumphed under Grimoald (662-671), and Liutprand (773-774). Towards the close of the eighth century, Pepin and Charlemagne, in the interest 80 FOUKTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. of France and the papacy, destroyed the independence of the Lombards after a duration of about two hundred years, and transferred tlie greater part of Italy to the Eastern empire and to the Pope. In these struggles the Popes, being then (as they have been ever since) opposed from hierarchical interest to the politi- cal unity of Italy, aided the Franks and reajoed the benefit. § 22. Conversion of Clovis and the Franks. Gkegorius Tueoxexsis (d. 595) : Historia Francorum Becks, (till A. D. 591). J. W. Lobell: Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit Leipz. 1839. A. Thierry : Reeits des temps Mcrovingiens. Par. 1842, 2 vols. F. W. Rettberg: Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands. Gott, 1846, I. 258- 278. KORNHACK : Geschichte dcr Franken unter den Merovingern. Greifsw. 1863. Montalembert, I. c. II. 219 sqq. Comp. also Henri Martin: Histoire de France; Sir James Ste- phen: Lectures on the History of France (Lond. 1859); GuizoT : Histoire de la civilization en France (1830 sqq.), and his Histoire de France, 1870. The Salian Franks were the first among the Teutonic tribes which were converted to catholic or orthodox Christianity. Hence the sovereign of France is styled by the Popes " the oldest son of the church," and Rheims, where Clovis was baptized, is the holy city where most of the French kings down to Charles X. (1824) were consecrated.^ The conversion of the Franks pre- pared the way for the downfall of the Arian heresy among the other Germanic nations, and for the triumph of the papacy in the German empire under Charlemagne. The old Roman civilization of Gaul, though nominally Chris- tian, was in the last stage of consumption when the German barbarians invaded the soil and introduced fresh blood. Several savage tribes, even the Huns, passed through Gaul like a tempest, ' Witli the oil of the miraculous cruise of oil {Ampulla Rcmcnsis) which, ac- cording to Ilincmar, a dove brought from heaven at the confirmation of Clovis, and which was destroyed in 1794, but recovered in 1824. ^ 22. CONVEESION OF CLOVIS AND THE FRANKS. 81 leavino- desolation behind them, but the Franks settled there and changed Gaul into France, as the Anglo-Saxons changed Britain into England. They conquered the Gallo-Eomans, cru- elly sj)oiled and almost exterminated them in the North -Eastern districts. Before thej accepted the Christianity of the conquered race, they learned their vices. " The greatest evil of barbarian government," says Henri Martin,^ " was perhaps the influence of the greedy and corrupt Romans who insinuated themselves into the confidence of their new masters." To these degenerate Christians Montalembert traces the arts of oppression and the refinements of debauchery and perfidy which the heathen Ger- mans added to their native brutality. " The barbarians derived no advantage from their contact with the Roman world, depraved as it was under the empire. They brought with them manly virtues of which the conquered race had lost even the recollec- tion ; but they borrowed, at the same time, abject and contagious vices, of which the Germanic world had no conception. They found Christianity there ; but before they yielded to its benefi- cent influence, they had time to plunge into all the baseness and debauchery of a civilization corrupted long before it was van- quished. The patriarchal system of government which charac- terized the ancient Germans, in their relations with their children and slaves as well as with their chiefs, fell into ruin in contact with that contagious depravity," ^ The conversion of the Salian Franks took place under the lead of their victorious king Chlodwig or Clovis (Ludovicus, Louis), the son of Childeric and grandson of Merovig (hence the name of Merovingians). He ruled from the year 481 to his death in 511. With him begins the history not only of the French empire, its government and laws, but also of the French nation, its religion and moral habits. He married a Christian princess, Chlotilda, a daughter of the king of the Burgundians (493), and allowed his child to be baptized. Before the critical battle at. ^ Vol. I. p. 394, quoted by Montalembert. 2 Montalembert, Vol. II. p. 230. 6 82 FOUKTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. Tolbiac^ near Cologne against the invasion of the Allemanni, he prayed to Jesas Christ for aid after having first called upon his own gods, and promised, in case of victory, to submit to baptism together with his warriors. After the victory he was instructed by Bishop Eemigius of Rheims. AVhen he heard the story of the crucifixion of Christ, he exclaimed : " Would I had been there -\\dth my valiant Franks to avenge him !" On Christmas, in the year 496, he descended before the cathedral of Rheims into i;he baptismal basin, and three thousand of his warriors followed him as into the joys of paradise. " When they arose from the waters, as Christian disciples, one might have seen fourteen cen- turies of empire rising with them; the whole array of chivalry, the long series of the crusades, the deep philosophy of the schools, in one word all the heroism, all the liber£y, all the learning of the later ages. A great nation was commencing its career in the world — that nation was the Franks."^ But the change of religion had little or no effect on the charac- ter of Clovis and his descendants, whose history is tarnished with atrocious crimes. The ISIerovingians, half tigers, half lambs, passed with astonishing rapidity from horrible massacres to pas- sionate demonstrations of contrition, and from the confessional back again to the excesses of their native cruelty. The crimes of Clovis are honestly told by such saintly biographers as Gre- gory of Tours and Hincmar, who feel no need of any excuse for him in view of his services to religion. St. Remigius even advised the war of conquest against the Visigoths, because they were Arians. "The Franks," says a distinguished Catholic Frenchman,^ "were sad Christians. While they respected the freedom of the Catholic faith, and made external profession of it, they violated without scruple all its precepts, and at the same time the simplest * Tolbiacum, Ziilpich. * Ozanam, Etudes Germaniques, 11. 54. ^ Montalerabcrt, II. 235. Corap. also tlie grapliic description of the Mero- vingian liouse in Dean Milman's Lat. Christ., Bk. III., ch. 2 (Vol. I., p. 395, Am. ed.). g 22. CONVERSION OF CLOVIS AND THE FRANKS. 83 laws of humanity. After having prostrated themselves before the tomb of some holy martyr or confessor; after having distin- guished themselves by the choice of an ii-reproachable bishop; after having listened respectfully to the voice of a pontiff or monlt, we see them, sometimes in outbreaks of fury, sometimes by cold-blooded cruelties, give full course to the evil instincts of their savage nature. Their incredible perversity was most appa- rent in the domestic tragedies, the fratricidal executions and assassinations, of which Clovis gave the first example, and which marked the history of his son and grandson with an ineffaceable stain. Polygamy and perjury mingled in their daily life with a semi-pagan superstition, and in reading these bloody biographies, scarcely lightened by some transient gleams of faith or humility, it is difficult to believe that, in embracing Christianity, they gave up a single pagan vice or adopted a single Christian virtue. " It was against this barbarity of the soul, far more alarming than grossness and violence of manners, that the Church trium- phantly struggled. From the midst of these frightful disorders, of this double current of corruption and ferocity, the pure and resplendent light of Christian sanctity was about to rise. But the secular clergy, itself tainted by the general demoralization of the two races, was not sufficient for this task. They needed the powerful and soon preponderating assistance of the monastic army. It did not fail: the church and France owe to it the decisive victory of Christian civilization over a race much more difficult to subdue than the degenerate subjects of Rome or By- zantium. While the Franks, coming from the North, completed the subjugation of Gaul, the Benedictines were about to approach from the South, and super-impose a pacific and beneficent domi- nion upon the Germanic barbarian conquest. The junction and union of these forces, so unequal in their civilizing power, were destined to exercise a sovereign influence over the future of our country." Among these Benedictine monks, St. MAtTRTTS occupies the most prominent place. He left Monte Casino before the death 84 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. of St. Benedict (about 540), with four companions, crossed the Alps, founded Glanfcuil on the Loire, the first Benedictme mo- nastery in France, and gave his name to that noble band of scholars who, more than a thousand years after, enriched the church with the best editions of the fathers and other works of sacred learning.^ He had an interview with King Theodebert (the grandson of Clovis), was treated with great reverence and received from him a large donation of crown lands. Monastic establishments soon multiplied and contributed greatly to the civihzation of France.' § 23. Columbanus and the Irish Ilissionaries on the Continefnt. I. Sources. The works of Coltjmbajtus in Patrick Fleming's Collectanea sacra (Lovanii, 16G7), and in Migne: Patrolog., Tom. 87, pp. 1013- 1055. His life by Jonas in tlie Acta Sanct. Orel. Bened., Tom. II., Sec. II., 2-26. (Also in Fleming's Coll.) II. Works. Lanigan (R. K.): Eccles. Hist, of Ireland (1829), 11. 263 sqq. MONTALEAIBERT : 3Ion/cs of the West, II. 397 sqq. Ph. Heber: Die vorkarolingischen Glaubenshelden am Rhein, 1867. LuTOLF (R. C): Die Glaubensboten der Schweiz vor St. Gallus. Luzem, 1871. EbrARD: Die iroschottische Missionshirche (1873), pp. 25-31; 284-340. KiLiiEN: Ecclesiast. Hist, of Ireland (1875), I. 41 sqq. W. Smith and H. Wace: Diet. Christ. Biography (1877), I. 605-607. G. Hertel: Ucber des heil. Columba Leben und Wlr/cen, besonders seine Klosterregel In tlie " Zeitsclirift fiir hist. Theol.," 1875, p. 396; and another article in Briegcr's " Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengesch.," 1879, p. 145. While the Latin Benedictine monks worked their way up from the South towards the heart of France, Keltic missionaries carried their independent Christianity from the West to the North of France, the banks of the Rhine, Switzerland and Lom- * The brotherhood of St. Manr was founded in IGIS, and nmnbcred such 6chohirs as Mabillon, Montfaucon, and Ruinart. * Tlic legendary history of mona.sticism under the ^Merovingians is well told by Montalembert, II. 23G-386. 2 23. COLUMBANUS AND THE lEISH MISSIONAEIES. 85 bardy; but they were counteracted by Roman missionaries, who at last secured the control over France and Germany as well as over the British Isles. St. Columbanus^ is the pioneer of the Irish missionaries to the Continent. His life has been written with great minutenesa by Jonas, a monk of his monastery at Bobbio. He was born in Leinster, A.D. 543, in which year St. Benedict, his celebrated monastic predecessor, died at Monte Casino, and was trained in the monastery of Bangor, on the coast of Down, under the direc- tion of St. Comgall. Filled with missionary zeal, he left his native land with twelve companions, and crossed over "the sea to Gaul in 590,^ or in 585,* several years before Augustin landed in England. He found the country desolated by war; Christian virtue and discipline were almost extinct. He travelled for several years, preaching and giving an example of humility and charity. He lived for whole weeks without other food than herbs and wild berries. He liked best the solitude of the woods and caves, where even the animals obeyed his voice and received his caresses. In Burgundy he was kindly received by King Gontran, one of the grandsons of Clovis; refused the offer of wealth, and chose a quiet retreat in the Vosges mountains, first in a ruined Eoman fort at Annegray, and afterwards at Luxeuil (Luxovium). Here he established a celebrated monastery on the confines of Bm^gundy and Austrasia. A similar institution he founded at Fontaines. Several hundred disciples gathered around him. Luxeuil became the monastic capital of Gaul, a nursery of bishops and saints, and the mother of similar insti- tutions. ^ Also called Columba the younger, to distinguish him from the Scotch Co- lumba. There is a second St. Columbanus, an abbot of St. Trudo (St. Troud) in France, and a poet, who died about the middle of the ninth century. ' The date assigned by Hertel, I. c, and Meyer von Knonau, in "Allg. Deutsche Biographic," IV. 424 (1876). ' The date according to the Bollandists and Smitli's Did. of Chr. Biogr. Ebrard puts the emigration of Columbanus to Gaul in the year 594. 8G FOURTH PEEIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. Columbanas drew up a monastic rule, which in all essential points resembles the more famous rule of St. Benedict, but is shorter and more severe. It divides the time of the monks be- tween ascetic exercises and useful agricultm-al labor, and enjoins absolute obedience on severe penalties. It was afterwards super- seded by the Benedictine rule, which had the advantage of the papal sanction and patronage.^ The life of Columbanus in France was embittered and his authority weakened by his controversy with the French clergy and the court of Burgundy. He adhered tenaciously to the Irish usage of computing Easter, the Irish tonsure and costume. Besides, his extreme severity of life was a standing rebuke of the worldly priesthood and dissolute court." He was summoned before a synod in 602 or 603, and defended himself in a letter with great freedom and eloquence, and with a singular mixture of humility and pride. He calls himself (like St. Patrick) "Columbanus, a sinner," but sj^eaks with an air of authority. He pleads that he is not the originator of those ritual differences, that he came to France, a poor stranger, for the cause of Christ, and asks nothing but to be permitted to live in silence in the depth of the forests near the bones of his seventeen bretliren, whom he had already seen die. " Ah ! let us live with you in this Gaul, where we now are, since we are destined to live with each other in heaven, if we are found worthy to enter there." The letter is mixed with rebukes of the bishops, calculations of Easter and an array of Scripture quotations. At the same time he -wrote several letters to Pope Gregory I., one of which only is preserved in the writings of Columbanus. There is no record of the action of the Synod on this controversy, nor of any answer of the Pope. ^ There is a considerable difference between his Regula Monastka, in ten chapters, and liis Reguln Oxnobialis Fratrum, sive Liber de quotidianis Pcenitentiis Monachorum, in fifteen chapters. The latter is unreasonably rigorous, and im- poses corporal punishments for the sliglitest offences, even speaking at table, or cougliing at chanting. Ebrard (/. c, p. 148 sqq.) contends that tlie Regula Ornobialis, which is found only in two codices, is of later origin. Comp. Hei> tel, I. c. § 23. COLUMBANUS AND THE IKISH MISSIONARIES. 87 The conflict with the court of Burgundy is highly honorable to Columbanus, and resulted in his banishment. He rej)roved by word and writing the tyranny of queen Brunehild (or Brune- hauld) and the profligacy of her grandson Theodoric (or Thierry II.) ; he refused to bless his illegitimate children and even threat- ened to excommunicate the young king. He could not be silenced by flattery and gifts, and was first sent as a prisoner to Besangon, and then expelled from the kingdom in 610.^ But this persecution extended his usefulness. We find him next, with his Irish friends who accompanied him, on the lake of Zurich, then in Bregenz (Bregentium) on the laker of Con- stance, planting the seeds of Christianity in those charming regions of German Switzerland. His preaching was accompanied by burning the heathen idols. Leaving his disciple St. Gall at Bregenz, he crossed the Alps to Lombardy, and founded a famous monastery at Bobbio. He manfully fought there the Arian heresy, but in a letter to Boniface IV. he defended the cause of Nestorius, as condemned by the Fifth General Council of 553, and called upon the Pope to vindicate the church of Rome against the charge of heresy. He speaks very boldly to the Pope, but acknowledges Rome to be " the head of the churches of the whole world, excepting only the singular prerogative of the place of the Lord's resurrection " (Jerusalem).'^ He died in Bobbio, Nov. 21, 615. The poetry of grateful love and superstitious faith has adorned his simple life with various miracles. Columbanus was a man of considerable learnina; for his a^e. He seems to have had even some knowledge of Greek and He- brew. His chief works are his Regula IVIonastica, in ten short chapters ; seventeen Discourses ; his Epistles to the Gallic Synod on the paschal controversy, to Gregory L, and to Boniface IV. ; and a few poems. The following characteristic specimen of his ascetic view of life is from one of the discourses : " O mortal ' For a full account of this quarrel see Montalembert, II. 411 sqq. * " Roma orbis terrarum caput est ecclesiarum, salva loci Dominicas resurrectionis singulari prarogativa." 88 FOURTn PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. life ! how many hast thou deceived, seduced, and blinded ! Thou fliest and art nothing; thou appearest and art but a shade; thou risest and ai't but a vapor; thou fliest every day, and every day thou comcst; thou fliest in coming, and comest in flying, the same at the point of departure, difierent at the end; sweet to the foolish, bitter to the wise. Those who love thee know thee not, and those only know thee who despise thee. AVhat art thou, then, O human life? Thou art the way of mortals, and not their life. Thou beginnest in sin and endest in death. Thou art then the way of life and not life itself. Thou art only a road, and an unequal road, long for some, short for others; wide for these, narrow for those; jo}-x)us for some, sad for others, but for all equally rapid and without return. It is necessary, then, O miserable human life ! to fathom thee, to question thee, but not to trust in thee. We must traverse thee without dwelling in thee — no one dwells upon a great road ; we but march over it, to reach the country beyond." ^ Several of the disciples of Columbanus labored in eastern Hel- vetia and Rhoetia. SiGiSBERT separated from him at the foot of the St. Gothard, crossed eastward over the Oberalp to the source of the Rhine, and laid the foundation of the monastery of Dissentis in the Grisons, Avhich lasts to this day. St. Gj\jll (Gallus), the most celebrated of the pupils of Co- lumbanus, remained in Switzerland, and became the father of the monastery and city called after him, on the banks of the river Stcinach. He declined the bishopric of Constanz. His double struggle against the forces of nature and the gods of hea- thenism has been embellished with marvelous traits by the legen- dary poetry of the middle ages.'* When he died, ninety-five 1 Montalembcrt, II. 436. ^ See the anonymous Vita S. Gnlli in Pertz, Monumenta, IT. 123, and in the Acta Sand., Torn. VII. Octobris. Also Greith, Onichichte deraltirischen Kirche . . ah Einle'dimg in die Gesch. des Stifts St. Qallen (1857), the chapter on GiUlus, pp. 333 S(^q. 2 24. GERMAN MISSIONARIES BEFORE BONIFACE. 89 years old, A. D. 640, the whole surrounding country of the Allemanni was nominally christianized. The monastery of St. Gall became one of the most celebrated schools of learning in Switzerland and Germany, where Irish and other missionaries learned German and prepared themselves for evangelistic work in Switzerland and Southern Germany. There Notker Balbu- lus, the abbot (died 912), gave a lasting imjjulse to sacred poetry and music, as the inventor or chief promoter of the mediae- val Laudes or Prosce, among which the famous " lledia vita in mode sumus " still repeats in various tongues its solemn funeral warning throughout Christendom. Fridold or Fridolin, who probably came from Scotland, preached the gospel to the Allemanni in South Germany. But his life is involved in great obscurity, and assigned by some to the time of Clovis I. (481-511), by others more probably to that of Clovis 11. (638-656). KiLiAN or Kyllina, of a noble Irish family, is said to have been the apostle of Franconia and the first bishop of AViirzburg in the seventh century. § 24. German llisslonaries before Boniface. England derived its Anglo-Saxon population from Germany in the fifth century, and in return gave to Germany in the eighth century the Christian religion with a strong infusion of popery. Germany afterwards shook off the yoke of popery, and gave to England the Protestant Reformation. In the seventeenth century, England produced Deism, which was the first act of modern unbelief, and the forerunner of German Rationalism. The revival of evangelical theology and religion which followed in both countries, established new points of contact between these cognate races, which meet again on common groimd in the Western hemisphere to commingle in the American nationality. The conversion of Germany to Christianity and to Romanism was, like that of England, the slow work of several centuries. It was accomplished by missionaries of different nationalities, 90 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. French, Scotch-Irish, English, and Greek. It began at the close of the second century, when Irenseus spoke of Christian congregations in the tsvo Germanics,^ i. e. Germania prima and secuuda, on the upper and lower Rhine ; and it was substantially comiileted in the age of Charlemagne in the eighth century. But nearly the entire North-Eastern jjart of Germany, which was inhabited mostly by Slavonic tribes, remained heathen till the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. We must distinguish especially three stages: 1) the prepara- tory labors of Italian, French, and Scotch-Irish missionaries; 2) the consolidating romanizing work of Boniface of England and his successors; 3) the forcible military conversion of the Saxons under Charlemagne. The fourth and last missionary stage, the conversion of the Prussians and Slavonic races in North -Eastern Germany, belongs to the next period. The light of Christianity came to Germany first from the Roman empire in the Roman colonies on the Rhine. At the council of Aries in 314, there was a bishop INIaternus of Cologne with his deacon, INIacrinus, and a bishop of Treves by the name of Agrocius. In the fifth century the mysterious Severinus from the East appeared among the savages on the banks of the Danube in Bavaria as an angel of mercy, walking bare-footed in mid-winter, redeeming prisoners of war, bringing food and clothing with the comfort of the Gospel to the poor and unfortunate, and won by Ills self-denying labors universal esteem. French monks and hermits left traces of their work at St. Goar, St. Elig, Wul- fach, and other places on the charming banks of the Rhine. The efficient labors of Columbanus and his Irish companions and pupils extended from the Vosges to South Germany and Eastern Switzerland. Willebeord, an Anglo-Saxon, brought up in an Irish convent, left with twelve brethren for Holland (690), became the Apostle of the Friesians, and was consecrated 1 al ev Totg Vepuavlaic, l^pvuevat iKuXTjaiai. Adv. hccr. I. 10, 2. § 24. GERMAN MISSIONARIES BEFORE BONIFACE. 91 by the Pope the first bishop of Utrecht (Trajectum), under the name of Clemens. He developed an extensive activity of nearly fifty years till his death (739). When Boniface arrived in Germany he found nearly in all parts which he visited, especially in Bavaria and Thuringia, missionaries and bishops independent of Rome, and his object was fully as much to romanize this earlier Christianity as to convert the heathen. He transferred the conflict between the Anglo-Saxon mission of Rome and the older Keltic Christianity of Patrick and Columba and their successors from England to German soil, and repeated the role of Augustin of Caiiterbury. The old Easter controversy disappears after Columbanus, and the chief objects of dispute were freedom from popery and cleri- cal marriage. In both respects, Boniface succeeded, after a hard struggle, in romanizing Germany. The leaders of the opposition to Rome and to Bonifacius among his predecessors and contemporaries were Adelbert and Clemens. We know them only from the letters of Boniface, which represent them in a very unfavorable light. Adelbert, or Aldebert (Eldebert), was a Gaul by nation, and perhaps bishop of Soissons ; at all events he labored on the French side of the Rhine, had received episcopal ordination, and enjoyed great popularity from his preaching, being regarded as an apostle, a patron, and a worker of miracles. According to Boniface, he was a second Simon Magus, or immoral impostor, who deceived the people by false miracles and relics, claimed equal rank with the apostles, set up crosses and oratories in the fields, consecrated buildings in his own name, led women astray, and boasted to have relics better than those of Rome, and brought to him by an angel from the ends of the earth. Clemens was a Scotchman (Irishman), and labored in East Franconia. He opposed eccle- siastical traditions and clerical celibacy, and had two sons. He held marriage with a brother's widow to be valid, and had pecu- liar views of divine predestination and Christ's descent into Hades. Aldebert and Clemens were condemned without a 92 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. hearing, and excommunicated as heretics and seducers of the peoi)k° by a provincial Synod of Soissons, A. D. 744, and again in a Synod of Rome, 745, by Pope Zacharias, who con- firmed the decision of Boniface. Aldebert was at last imprisoned in the monastery of Fulda, and killed by shepherds after escaping from prison. Clemens disappeared.^ § 25. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany. I. BoxiFACics: EplstolcB et Sermones, first ed. by Serrarius, Mogunt. 1605, then by Wurdtwein, 1790, by Giles, 1842, and in Migne's Patrol. Tom. 89, pp. 593-801 (together with VitcB, etc.). Jaffe: Monumenta Mo- guntina. Berol. 18(J6. II. Biographies of Bonifacius. The oldest by Willibald, his pupil and companion (in Pertz, Monum. II. 33, and in Jfigne, I. c. p. G03) ; by Othlo, a German Benedictine monk of the eleventh cent, (in Migne, p. 634);Letzxer (1602) ; Loffler (1812); Seitees (1845); Cox (1853); J. P. MIjller (1870); Hope (1872); Aug. Werner Bonifacius iind die Romanisirung von Mitteleuropa. Leipz., 1875 ; PFAHLER(Regen8b. 1880); Otto Fischer (Leipz. 1881); Ebrard: Bonif. der Zerstorer des columbanischen Kirchenthums aiif dem Fest- lande (Giitersloh, 1882; against Fischer and very unjust to B. ; see against itZdPFFEL in the" Theol. Lit. Zeitg," 1882, No. 22). Cf. the respective sections in Neaxder, Gfrorer, Rettberg (II. 307 sqq.) On the councils of Bonif see Hefele : Conciliengeschichte, III. 458. Boniface or Wixfried^ surpassed all his predecessors on the German mission-field by the extent and result of his labors, and acquired the name of the Apostle of Germany. He was born al)out 680 from a noble family at Kirton in Wessex, the last stronghold of paganism among the Anglo-Saxon king- doms. He was brought up in the convent of Nutsal near Win- chester, and ordained priest at the age of thirty. He felt it his duty to christianize those countries from which his Anglo-Saxon * Comp. besides the Letters of Ronifoce, the works of Neander, Rettberg, Ebnird, Werner and Fischer, quoted below. ' One tliat wins peace. His Latin name Bonifacius, Benefactor, was probably liis monastic name, or given to lura by the Pope on his second visit to Rome, 723. ^25. BONIFACE, THE APOSTLE OF GERMANY. 93 forefathers had emigrated. It was a formidable task, requiring a heroic courage and indomitable perseverance. He sacrificed his splendid prospects at home, crossed the chan- nel, and began his missionary career with two or three compa- nions among the Friesians in the neighborhood of Utrecht in Holland (715). His first attempt was a failure. Eatbod, the kino- of Friesland, was at war with Charles Martel, and devas- tated the churches and monasteries which had been founded by the Franks, and by Willibrord. But far from being discouraged, he was only stimulated to greater exertion. After a brief sojourn in England, where he was offered the dignity of abbot of his convent, he left again his native land, and this time forever. He made a pilgrimage to Eome, was cordially welcomed by Pope Gregory II. and received a general commission to christianize and romanize central Europe (718). Recrossing the Alps, he visited Bavaria and Thuriugia, which had been evangelized in part by the disciples of Columban, but he was coldly received because he represented their Chris- tianity as insufficient, and required submission to Rome. He turned his steps again to Friesland where order had been restored, and assisted AVillibrord, archbishop of Utrecht, for three years. In 722 he returned to Thuringia in the wake of Charles INIartel's victorious army and preached to the heathen in Hesse who lived between the Franks and the Saxons, between the middle Rhine and the Elbe. He founded a convent at Amanaburg (Amone- burg) on the river Ohm. In 723 he paid, on invitation, a second visit to Rome, and was consecrated by Gregory II. as a missionary bishop without a dio- cese (episcopus regionarius). He bound himself on the grave of St. Peter with the most stringent oath of fealty to the Pope similar to that which was imposed on the Italian or suburban bishops.^ * The juramentum of Boniface, which he ever afterwards remembered and observed with painful conscientiousness, deserves to be quoted in full, as it con- tains his whole missionary policy (see Migne, I. c, p. 803) : "7n nomine Domini Dei Salvatoris nostri Jesu Christi, impcrante domino Leone 94 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. From this time his work assumed a more systematic character in tlic closest contact with Rome as the centre of Christendom. Fortified with letters of commendation, he attached himself for a short time to the court of Charles Martel, who pushed his schemes of conquest towards the Hessians. Aided by this secular help and the Pope's spiritual authority, he made rapid progress. By a master stroke of missionary policy he laid the axe to the root of Teutonic heathenism ; with his own hand, in the presence of a vast assembly, he cut down the sacred and inviolable oak of the Thunder-God at Gcismar (not far from Fritzlar), and built with the planks an oratory or church of St, Peter. His biog- rapher, AVillibald, adds that a sudden storm from heaven came to his aid and split the oak in four pieces of equal length. This practical sermon was the death and burial of German mythology. He received from time to time supplies of books, monks and nuns from England. The whole church of England took a deep Magno imperatore, anno 7 post consulatum ejiLS, sed et Constantini Magni imperatoris ejus fiUi anno 4, indictione 6. Promitto ego Bonijacius, Dei gratia episeopus, tibi, beatc Petre, apostolorum princeps, vicarioque tuo beato Gregorio pojpae,, et successo- ribus ejus, per Patrem et Filium, et Spiritum Sanctum, Trinitatem inseparabilem, et hoc sacratissimum corpus tuum, me omnem fidem et puritatem sanctce fidei caiholicce exhibere, et in unitate ejusdem fide i,^ Deo operante, persistere in quo omnis Christian- orum salus esse sine dixbio comprobatur, nullo modo me contra unitatem communis et universalis Ecclesice, siiadente quopiam., consentire, sed, ut dizi, fidem et puritatem meam atque concursum, tibi et utilitatibus tuce Ecclesice, cui a Domino Deo potestas ligandi solvcndlqn/i data est, et prcedicfo vicario tuo atque successoribus ejus, per omnia exhi- bere. Sed et si cognovero anfistifes contra instituta antiqua sanctorum Patrum con- versari, cum ets nullam habere communionem aut conjunctionem ; sed magis, si valuero prohibere, prokibeam ; si minus, hoc fideliter statim Domino meo aposfolico renuntiabo. Quod si, quod absit, contra hujus professionis mem seriem aliquid facere quolibet modo, seu ingenio, vet occasione, tentavero, reus vweniar in cetcrno judicio, vllinnem Ananice et Saphira; incurram, qui vorbis etiam de rebus propriis fraudem facere prcesumpsit : hoe autem indiculum sacramenti ego Bonifacivs exiguvs episeo- pus mnnu propria seripsi, atque ponens supra sacratissimum corpus sancti Petri, ita ut prwseriptum, Deo teste et judice, feci sacramentum, quod et conservare promitto." With all his devotion to the Roman See, Boniface was manly and independent enough to complain in a letter to Pope Zacharias of the scandalous heathen practices in Rome which were reported by travellers and filled the German Christians with prejudice and disobedience to Rome. See the letter in Migne, 1. c. p. 74G sqq. §25. BONIFACE, THE APOSTLE OF GEKMANY. 95 interest in his work, as we learn from bis correspondence. He founded monastic colonies near Erfurt, Fritzlar, Ohrdruf, Bisch- ofsheim, and Homburg. Tbe victory of Charles JMartel over tbe Sai-acens at Tours (732) cbecked tbe westward j)rogress of Islam and insured tbe triumpb of Christianity in central Europe. Boniface was raised to the dignity of archbishop (without a see) and papal legate by the new Pope Gregory III. (732), and thus enabled to coerce the refractory bishops. In 738 he made his third and last pilgrimage to Rome with a great retinue of monks and converts, and received authority to call a synod of bishops in Bavaria and Allemannia. On his return he founded, in concert with Duke Odilo, four Bavarian bishop- rias at Salzburg, Freising, Passau, and Ratisbon or Regensburg (739). To these he added in central Germany the sees of Wiirz- burg, Buraburg (near Fritzlar), Erfurt, Eichstadt (742). He held several synods in Mainz and elsewhere for the organization of the churches and the exercise of discipline. The number of his baptized converts till 739 is said to have amounted to many thousands. In 743 he was installed Archbishop of ]\Iainz or JNIayence (Moguntum) in the place of bishop Gervillius (Gewielieb) who was deposed for indulging in sporting propensities and for homi- cide in battle. His diocese extended from Cologne to Strasburg and even to Coire. He would have preferred Cologne, but the clergy there feared his disciplinary severity. He aided the sons of Charles Martel in reducing the Gallic clergy to obedience, exterminating the Keltic element, and consolidating the union with Rome. In 744, in a council at Soissous, w^here twenty-three bishops were present, his most energetic opponents were condemned. In the same year, in the very heart of Germany, he laid the foundation of Fulda, the greatest of his monasteries, which be- came the Monte Casino of Germany. In 753 he named Lull or Lullus his successor at INIainz. Laying aside his dignities, he became once more an humble 9G FOURTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. missionan-, and returned with about fifty devoted followers to tlie field of the bafiled labors of his youth among the Friesians, where a reaction in favor of heathenism had taken place since the death of Willibrord. He planted his tents on the banks of the river Borne near Dockum (between Franecker and Gronin- gen), waiting for a large number of converts to be confirmed. But, instead of that, he was assailed and slain, wdth his compa- nions, by armed pagans. He met the martyr's death Mith calm- ness and resignation, June 5, 754 or 755. His bones were deposited first at Utrecht, then at Mainz, and at last in Fulda. Soon after his death, an English synod chose him, together with Pope Gregory and Augustin, patron of the English church. In 1875 Pope Pius IX. directed the Catholics of Germany and England to invoke especially the aid of St. Boniface in the dis- tress of modern times. The worlvs of Boniface are epistles and sermons. The former refer to his missionary labors and policy, the latter exhibit his theological views and j:)ractical piety. Fifteen short sermons are preserved, addressed not to heathen, but to Christian con- verts; they reveal therefore not so much his missionary as his edifying activity. They are without Scripture text, and are either festal discourses explaining the history of salvation, espe- cially the full and redemption of man, or catechetical expositions of Christian doctrine and duty. We give as a characteristic specimen of the latter, the fifteenth sermon, on the renunciation of the devil in baptism : SERMON XV. " I. Listen, my brethren, and consider well what you have solemnly renounced in your baptism. You have renounced the devil and all his works, and all his pomp. But what are the works of the devil? They are pride, idolatry, envy, murder, calumny, lying, perjury, hatred, forni- cation, adultery, every kind of lewdness, theft, false witness, robbery, gluttony, drunkenness, slander, fight, malice, philters, incantations, lots, belief in witches and were-wolves, abortion, disobedience to the Master, amulets. These and other such evil things are the works of the devil, all of which you have forsworn by your baptism, as the apostle says : 2 25. BONIFACE, THE APOSTLE OF GERMANY. 97 Whosoever doetli such things deserves death, and shall not inherit the king- dom of heaven. But as we believe that, by the mercy of God, you will renounce all these things, with heart and hand, in order to become fit for grace, I admonish you, my dearest brethren, to remember what you have promised Almighty God. II. For, first, you have promised to believe in Almighty God, and in his Son, Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Spirit, one almighty God in perfect trinity. III. And these are the commandments which you shall keep and ful- fil: to love God, whom you profess, with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength, and to love your neighbor as yourselves ; for on these commandments hang the whole law and the prophets. Be pa- tient, have mercy, be benevolent, chaste, pure. Teach your sons to fear God ; teach your whole family to do so. Make peace where you go, and let him who sits in court, give a just verdict and take no presents, for presents make even a wise man blind. IV. Keep the Sabbath and go to church — to pray, but not to prattle. Give alms according to your power, for alms extinguish sins as water does fire. Show hospitality to travelers, visit the sick, take care of widows and orphans, pay your tithes to the church, and do to nobody what you would not have done to yourself. Fear God above all. Let the servants be obedient to their masters, and the masters just to their servants. Cling to the Lord's Prayer and the Creed, and communicate them to your own children and to those whose baptismal sponsors you are. Keep the fast, love what is right, stand up against the devil, and partake from time to time of the Lord's Supper. Such are the works which God commands you to do and fulfil. V. Believe in the advent of Christ, the resurrection of the body, and the judgment of all men. For then the impious shall be sepa- rated from the just, the one for the everlasting fire, the others for the eternal life. Then begins a life with God without death, a light without shadows, a health without sickness, a plenty without hunger, a happiness without fear, a joy with no misgivings. Then comes the eternal glory, in which the just shall shine like suns, for no eye has ever seen no ear has ever heard, no heart has ever dreamed, of all that which God has prepared for those whom he loves. VI. I also remind, you, my beloved brethren, that the birth-day of our Lord is approaching, in order that you may abstain from all that is worldly or lewd or impure or bad. Spit out all malice and hatred and envy ; it is poison to your heart. Keep chaste even with respect to your own wives. Clothe yourselves with good works. Give alms to the poor who belong to Christ ; invite them often to your feasts. Keep peace with all, and make peace between those who are at discord. If, with the aid of Christ, vou will truly fulfil these commands, then in this life vou can^ ■ 7 98 FOUETH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. with confidence approach the altar of God, and in the next you shall partake of the everlasting bliss." ^ Bonifacius combined the zeal and devotion of a missionary witli worldly prudence and a rare genius for organization and administration. He was no profound scholar, but a practical stiitesman and a strict disciplinarian. He was not a theologian, but an ecclesiastic, and would have made a good Pope. He selected the best situations for his bishoprics and monasteries, and his far-sighted policy has been confirmed by history. He was a man of unblemished character and untiring energy. He was incessantly active, preaching, traveling, presiding over Synods, deciding perplexing questions about heathen customs and trivial ceremonies. He wrought no miracles, such as were usually expected from a missionary in those days. His disciple and biographer apologizes for this defect, and appeals as an off- set to the invisible cures of souls wdiicli he performed.^ The weak spot in his character is the bigotry and intolerance which he displayed in his controversy with the independent missionaries of the French and Scotch-Irish schools who had ■ done the pioneer work before him. He reaped the fruits of their labors, and destroyed their further usefulness, which he might have secured by a liberal Christian policy. He hated every feature of individuality and national independence in matters of the church. To him true Christianity was identical wdth Romanism, and he made Germany as loyal to the Pope as was his native England. Pie served under four Popes, Gregory II., Grcgr)ry III., Zacharias, and Stephen, and they could not have had a more devoted and faithful agent. Those who labored W'ith- out papal authority were to him dangerous hirelings, thieves and robbers who climbed up some other way. He denounced them as false prophets, seducers of the people, idolaters and adulterers ' In Mip^ne, I. c, p. 870. A German translation in Cruel, Gesckichte der >dexU9chen Predigt im Mittdalter (1879), p. 14. * Othlo, Vita Bonif., c. 26 (Migne, I. c fol. 664). ^ 25. BONIFACE, THE APOSTLE OF GEKMANY. 99 (because they were married and defended clerical marriage).^ He encountered from them a most determined opposition, especially in Bavaria. In connection with his servile Romanism is his pedantic legalism and ceremonialism. His epistles and sermons show a considerable knowledge of the Bible, but also a contracted legalistic spirit. He has much to say about matters of outward conformity to Roman authority and usages and about small ques- tions of casuistry such as whether it was right to eat horse flesh, rabbits, storks, meat offered to idols, to marry a widow after standing god-father to her son, how often the sign of the cross should be made in preaching. In his strength and hia weak- ness, his loyalty to Rome, and in the importance of the work he accomplished, he resembled Augustin, the Roman apostle of his Anglo-Saxon ancestors. Boniface succeeded by indomitable perseverance, and his work survived him. This must be his vindication. In judging of him we should remember that the controversy between him and his French and Scotch-Irish opponents was not a controversy between Catholicism and evangelical Protestantism (which was not yet born), but between organized Catholicism or Romanism and independent Catholicism. Mediaeval Christianity was very weak, and required for its seli'-preservation a strong central power and legal discipline. It is doubtful whether in the barbarous condition of those times, and amid the commotions of almost constant civil wars, the independent and scattered labors of the anti-Roman missionaries could have survived as well and made as strong an impression upon the German nation as a consoll' dated Christianity with a common centre of unity and authority. ' The description he gives of their immorality must be taken with considerable deduction. In Ep. 49 to Pope Zacharias (A. D. 742) in Migne, I. c, p. 745, lie speaks of deacons, priests and bishops hostile to Rome, as being guilty of habitual drunkenness, concubinage, and even polygamy. I will only quote what lie says of tlie bishops : " Et inmniuntur quidam inter eos episcopi, qui, licet dicant se forniearios vel adulteros non esse, scd sunt ebriosi, et injuriosi, vel venatores, et qui pugnant in exercitu armati, et effundunt propria manu sanguinem hominum, sive paganorum, sive Christianorum." 100 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. lloman unity Mas better than undisciplined independency, but it was itself only a preparatory school for the self-governing free- dom of manhood. After Boniface had nearly completed his work, a political revolution took place in France which gave it outward support. Pepin, the major domus of the corrupt Merovingian dynasty, overthrew it with the aid of Pope Zacharias, who for his conquest of the troublesome Lombards rewarded him with the royal crown of France (753). Fifty years afterwards this political alliance of France and Germany with the Italian papacy was completed by Charlemagne and Leo III., and lasted for many centuries. Rome hud the enchantment of distance, the prestige of power and culture, and promised to furnish the strangest support to new and weak churches. Rome was also the connecting link between mediaeval and ancient civilization, and transmitted to the barbarian races the treasures of classical literature which in due time led to the revival of letters and to the Protestant Refor- mation. § 26. The Pupils of Boniface. WiUibald, Gregory of Utrecht, Sturm of Fulda, Boniface left behind him a number of devoted disciples who carried on his work. Among these we mention St. Willibald, the first bishop of Eichstadt. lie was born about A.D. 700 from a noble Anglo-Saxon family and a near relative of Boniface. In his early manhood he made a pilgrimage to Rome and to the Holy Land as far as Damascus, spent several years among the Benedictines in Monte Casino, met Boniface in Rome, joined him in Germany (A. D. 740) and became bishop of Eichstadt in Bavaria in 742. He directed his attention chiefly to the founding of monasteries after tlic Bonodiotino rule. He called to his side his brother Wunne- bald, his sister AValpurgis, and other helpers from England. He died July 7, 781 or 787. He is considered by some as the author § 26. THE PUPILS OF BONIFACE. 101 of the biography of Boniface; but it was probably the work of another \yillibald, a presbyter of Mainz. Gkegorv, Abbot of Utrecht, was related to the royal house of the IMerovingians, educated at the court, converted in his fifteenth year by a sermon of Boniface, and accompanied him on his jour- neys. After the death of Boniface he superintended the mission among the Friasians, but declined the episcopal dignity. In his old age he became lame, and was carried by his pupils to wherever hL presence was desired. He died in 781, seventy-three years old. Sturm, the first Abbot of Fulda (710 to Dec. 17, 779), was of a noble Bavarian family and educated by Boniface. With his approval he passed with two companions through the dense beech forests of Hesse in pursuit of a proper plax^e for a monastery. Singing psalms, he rode on an ass, cutting a way through the thicket" inhabited by wild beasts; at night after saying his prayers and making the sign of the cross he slept on the bare ground under the canopy of heaven till sunrise. He met no human being except a troupe of heathen slaves who bathed in the river Fulda, and afterwards a man with a horse who was well acquainted with the country. He found at last a suitable place, and took solemn possession of it in 744, after it was pre- sented to him for a monastery by Karloman at the request of Boniface, who joined him there with a large number of monks, and often resorted to this his favorite monastery. "In a vast solitude," he wrote to Pope Zacharias in 751, " among the tribes entrusted to my preaching, there is a place where I erected a convent and peopled it with monks who live according to the rule of St. Benedict in strict abstinence, without flesh and wine, without intoxicating drink and slaves, earning their living with then- own hands. This spot I have rightfully secured from pious men, especially from Karloman, the late prince of the Franks, and dedicated to the Saviomr. There I will occasionally rest my weary limbs, and repose in death, continuing faithful to the Roman Church and to the people to which I was sent?" ^ 1 Condensed translation from Epist. 75 in Migne, fol. 778. 102 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Falda received special privileges from Pope Zacharias and his Buccessors/ and became a centre of German Christianity and civilization from which proceeded the clearing of the forests, the cultivation of the soil, and the education of youths. The number of Benedictine monks was increased by large re-enforcements from Monte Casino, after an Italian journey of Sturm in 747. The later years of his life were disturbed by a controversy with Lullus of Mainz about the bones of Boniface after his martyrdom (755) and by calumniations of three monks who brought upon him the displeasure of King Pepin. He was, however, reinstated in his dignity and received the remains of his beloved teacher which repose in Fulda. Charlemagne employed him as mis- sionary among the Saxons. His bones were" deposited in the convent chui'ch. Pope Innocent II. canonized him, A. D. 1139.^ § 27. The Conversion of the Saxons. Charlemagne and Alcuin. Tlie Heliand, and the Gospel-Harmony. Funk: Die Unterwerfung der Sachsen water Karl dem Gr. 1833. A. Schaumaxn: Geschichte des niedersdchs. Volkes. Getting. 1839. Bottger: Die Einfiihrung des Christenthums in Sachsert. Hann. 1859. "\V. GlESEBRECHT; Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Vol. I. (1863), pp. 110 sqq. Of all the German tribes the fierce and warlike Saxons were the last to accept the Christian religion. They diifered in this respect very much from their kinsmen who had invaded and conquered England. But the means employed were also as different: rude force in one case, moral suasion in the other. The Saxons inhabited the districts of modern Hanover, Olden- burg, Brunswick, and Westphalia, which were covered with dense forests. They had driven the Franks beyond the Weser and the Rhine, and they were now driven back in turn by Charles Mar- ' See '' Fulda und seine Privilegien" in Jul. Harttung, Diplcmatisch-historische Forschungen, Gotha, 1879, pp. 193 sqq. * The chief source is the Vita Stitrmi by his pupil Eigil, abbot of Fulda, 818 to 822, in Mabillon, "Acta Sanct. Ord. Bcncd." Saec. VIII. Tom. 242-269. § 27. THE CONVERSION OF THE SAXONS. 103 tel, Pepin, and Charlemagne. They hated the foreign yoke of the Franks, and far-off Rome ; they hated the tithe which was imposed npon them for the support of the church. They looked upon Christianity as the enemy of their wild liberty and inde- pendence. The first efforts of Ewald, Suidbert, and other mis- sionaries were fruitless. Their conversion was at last brought about by the sword from political as well as religious motives, and was at first merely nominal, but resulted finally in a real chano-e under the silent influence of the moral forces of the Chris- tian religion. Charlemagne, who became master of the French kingdom in 768, had the noble ambition to unite the German tribes in one great empire and one religion in filial communion with Rome, but he mistook the means. He employed material force, believing that people become Christians by water-baptism, though baptized against their will. He thought that the Saxons, who were the most dangerous enemies of his kingdom, must be either subdued and christianized, or killed. He pursued the same policy tow- ards them as the squatter sovereigns would have the United States government pursue towards the wild Indians in the West- ern territories. Treaties were broken, and shocking cruelties were committed on both sides, by the Saxons from revenge and for independence, by Christians for punishment in the name of religion and civilization. Prominent among these atrocities is the massacre of four thousand five hundred captives at Verden in one day. As soon as the French army was gone, the Saxons destroyed the churches and murdered the priests, for which they were in turn put to death. Their subjugation was a work of thirty-three years, from 772 to 805. Widukind (Wittekind) and Albio (Abbio), the two most powerful Saxon chiefs, seeing the fruitlessness of the resist- ance, submitted to baptism in 785, with Charlemagne as sponsor.^ 1 "Jetzt war Sachsen besiegt;' says Giesebrecht {I. c, p. 117), "und mit Blut- gesetzen wurden das Christenthim und das Konigthum zugleich den Sachsen avfge- drungen. Mit Todesstrafen wurde die Taufe erzwungen, die hsidnmhen Gchrauche 104 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. But the Saxons were not entirely defeated till 804, when 10,000 families were driven from house and home and scattered in other provinces. Bloody laws prohibited the relapse into heathenism. The spirit of national independence was defeated, but not entirely crushed and broke out seven centuries afterwards in another form against the Babylonian tyranny of Rome under the lead of the Saxon monk, Martin Luther. The war of Charlemagne against the Saxons was the first omi- nous example of a bloody crusade for the overthrow of heathenism and the extension of the church. It was a radical departure from the apostolic method, and diametrically opposed to the spirit of the gospel. This was felt even in that age by the more enlight- ened divines. Alcuin, who represents the English school of mis- sionaries, and who expresses in his letters great respect and admiration for Charlemagne, modestly protested, though without effect, against this wholesale conversion by foi-ce, and asked him rather to make peace with the " abominable " people of the Sax- ons. He properly held that the heathen should first be instructed before they are required to be baptized and to pay tithes ; that water-baptism without faith was of no use ; that baptism implies three visible things, namely, the priest, the body, and the water, and three invisible things, namely, the Spirit, the soul, and faith ; that the Holy Spirit regenerates the soul by faith ; that faith is a free act Avhieh cannot be enforced ; that instruction, persuasion, love and self-denial are the only proper means for converting the heathen.' bedroht; jede Verletzung eines christlichen Priesters wurde, wie der Aufruhr gegen den Konitj wnd dcr Unr/ehorsam gcgen seine Bcfehle, zu einem todcswurdigen Ver- brechen gcstempelt." ' Neandcr III. 152 sqq. (Germ. ed. ; Torrev's transl. III. 76). It seems to me, from looking over Alcuin's numerous epistles to the emperor, he might have used his influence nnich more freely with hispui)il. Merivalesays (p. 131) : "Alcuin of York, exerted his influence upon those Northern missions from the centre of France, in which lie had i)lanted himself. The purity and simplicity of the English school of teachers contrasted favorably with the worldly character of the Frankish priesthood, and Charlemagne himself was impressed with the importance of intrusting the establishment of the Church throughout his North- § 27. THE CONVERSION OF THE SAXONS. 105 Cliarlemagne relaxed somewhat the severity of his laws or capitularies after the year 797. He founded eight bishoprics among the Saxons: Osnabriick, Mtinster, Minden, Paderborn, Verden, Bremen, Hildesheim, and Halberstadt. From these bishoprics and the parochial churches grouped around them, and from monasteries such as Fulda, proceeded those higher and nobler influences which acted on the mind and heart. The first monument of real Christianity among the Saxons is the "Heliand" (Heiland, i. e., Healer, Saviour) or a harmony of the GosjDels. It is a religious epos strongly resembling the older work of the Anglo-Saxon Csedmon on the Passion and Eesurrection. From this it no doubt derived its inspiration. For since Bonifacius there was a lively intercourse between the church of England and the church in Germany, and the language of the two countries was at that time essentially the same. In both works Christ appears as the youthful hero of the hmnan race, the divine conqueror of the world and the devil, and the Christians as his faithful knights and warriors. The Heliand was composed in the ninth century by one or more poets whose language points to Westphalia as their home. The doctrine is free from the worship of saints, the glorification of Peter, and from ascetic excesses, but mixed somewhat with mythological em conquests to these foreigners rather than to his own subjects. He appointed the Anglo-Saxon Willibrord to preside over the district of Estphalia, and Liud- ger, a Friesian by birth, but an Englishman by his training at York, to organize the' church in Westphalia; while he left to the earlier foundation of Fulda, which had also received its first Christian traditions from the English Boniface and his pupil Sturm, the charge of Engern or Angaria. From the teaching of these strangers there sprang up a crop of Saxon priests and missionaries; from among the youths of noble family whom the conqueror had carried off from their homes as hostages, many were selected to be trained in the monasteries for the life of monks and preachers. Eventually the Abbey of Corbie, near Ami- ens, was founded by one of the Saxon converts, and became an important centre of Christian teaching. From hence sprang the daughter-foundation of the New- Corbie or Corby, on the banks of the Weser, in the diocese of Paderborn. This abbey received its charter from Louis le Debonnaire in 823, and became no less important an institution for the propagation of the faith in the north of Ger- many, than Fulda still continued to be in the centre, and St. Gall in the South. 106 FOUKTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. reminiscences. Yilmar calls it the only real Christian epos, and a wonderful creation of the German genius.^ A little later (about 870) Otfried, a Franconian, educated at Fulda and St. Gall, produced another poetic harmony of the Gospels, which is one of the chief monuments of old high Ger- man literature. It is a life of Christ from his birth to the ascen- sion, and ends with a description of the judgment. It consists of fifteen thousand rhymed lines in strophes of four lines. Thus the victory of Christianity in Germany as well as in England, was the beginning of poetry and literature, and of true civilization. The Christianizatiou of North-Eastern Germany, among the Slavonic races, along the Baltic shores in Prussia, Livonia, and Courland, went on in the next period, chiefly through Bishop Otto of Bamberg, the apostle of Pomerauia, and the Knights of the Teutonic order, and was completed in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. III. THE COXVEESION OF SCANDINAVIA. General Literature. I. Scandinavia before Christianity. The Eddas, edit. Rask (Copenhagen, 1818); A. Munch (Christiania, 1847); Mdbius (Leipzig, 1860). N. M. Petersen : Danmarks Hutorie i Hedenold. Copenhagen, 1834-37, 3 vols. ; Den Nordiske Mythologie, Copenhagen, 1839. N. F. S. Grundtvig: Nordcns Mythologie. Copenhagen, 1839. B. Thorpe: Northern Mythology. London, 1852, 3 vols. Rasmus B. Anderson: Norse Mythology; Myths of the Eddas systematized and interpreted. Chicago, 1875. II. The Christianization of Scandinavia. Claudius (Ernhjalm : Historia Sueonum Gothorumque Ecdesice. Stock- holm, 1689, 4 vols. E. PoxTOPPiDAN: Annates Ecdesice Danicce. Copenhagen, 1741, F. Munter: Kirchcnga^chichte von Dcinemark und Norwegen. Copen- hagen and Leipzig, 1823-33, 3 vols. * Bee Ed. Sievers, Heliand. Halle, 1878. ? 28. SCANDINAVIAN HEATHENISM. 107 H. Reuterdahl: Svensha hyrkans historia. Lund, 1833, 3 vols., first volume translated into German by E. T. Mayerhof, under the title : Leben Ansgars. FuED. Helweg: Den Danske Kirkes Historie. Copenhagen, 1862. A. Jorgensen : Den nordiske Kirkes Grundloeggelse. Copenhagen, 1874. Neander : Geschichte der christlichen Kirche, Vol. IV., pp. 1-150. § 28. Scandinavian Heathenism. WheATON : History of the Northmen. London, 1831. Depping : Histoire des expeditions maritimes des Normands. Paris, 1843. 2 vols. ■ F. WorsAAE: Account of the Danes in England, Ireland, and Scotland. London, 1852 ; The Danish Conquest of England and ISformandy. London, 1863. These works are translated from the Danish. Scandinavia was inhabited by one of the wildest and fiercest, but also one of the strongest and most valiant branches of the Teutonic race, a people of robbers which grew into a people of conquerors. Speaking the same language — that which is still spoken in Iceland — and worshipping the same gods, they were split into a number of small kingdoms covering the present Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Every spring, when the ice broke in the fjords, they launched their boats or skiffs, and swept, each swarm under the leadership of its own king, down upon the coasts of the neighboring countries. By the rivers they penetrated far into the countries, burning and destroying what they could not carry away with them. When autumn came, they returned home, loaded with spoil, and they spent the winter round the open hearth, devouring their prey. But in course of time, the swarms congregated and formed large armies, and the robber-campaigns became organized expeditions for conquest; kingdoms were founded in Russia, England, France, and Sicily. In their new homes, however, the Northern vikings soon forgot both their native language and their old gods, and became the strong bearers of new departures of civilization and the valiant knights of Christianity. In the Scandinavian mythology, there were not a few ideas 108 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. which tlie Cliristian missionary could use as connecting links. It was not absolutely necessary for him to begin with a mere negation; here, too, there was an "unknown God," and many- traits indicate that, during the eighth and ninth centuries, i^eople throu'diout Scandinavia became more and more anxious to hear something about him. When a man died, he w^ent to AValhall, if he had been brave, and to Niflheim, if he had been a coward. In Walhall he lived together with the gods, in great brightness and joy, fighting all the day, feasting all the night. In Niflheim he sat alone, a shadow, surrounded with everything disgusting and de(i-radinr. Pelzel et J. DoBROWSKY : Bernim Bohemic. Scriptores. Prague. Friese: Kirchengeschichte d. KonigreicJis Polen. Breslau, 1786. Fraxz. Palacky : Geschichte von Bohmen. Prague, 3d ed., 1864 sqq., 5 vols, (down to 1520). Wattenbach: Geschichte d. christl. Kirche in Bohmen und Mdhren. Wicn, 1849. A. Feiud: Die Kirchengesch. Bohmens. Prague, 1863 sqq. Biograpliies of Cyrillus and Methodius, by J. Dobeowsky (Prague, 1823, and 1826); J. A. Gixzel [Geschichte der Slawenapostel und dcr Slau-ischcn Liiurgie. Leitmeritz, 1857); Philaret (in the Rus- sian, German translation, Mitau, 1847) ; J. E. Biley (Prague, 1863) ; DiJMMLER and F. Milkosisch (Wien, 1870). The Moravian Slavs were subjugated by Charlemagne, and the bishop of Pa.ssau was charged with the establishment of a Christian mission among them. Moymir, their chief, was con- verted and bishoprics were founded at Olmiitz and Nitra. But LcAvis the German suspected INIoymir of striving after indejDen- dence and supplanted him by Rastislaw or Radislaw. Rastis- law, however, accomplished what Moymir had only been sus- pected of. He formed an independent Moravian kingdom and defeated Lewis the German, and with the political he also broke the ecclesiastical connec^+ions with Germany, requesting the Byzan- tine emperor, Michael III., to send him some Greek missionaries. Cykii.lus and Methodius became the apostles of the Slavs. Cyrillus, whose original name was Constantinus, was born at § 34. CHRISTIANIZATION OF MORAVIA, ETC. 129 Thessalonica, in the first half of the ninth century, and studied philosophy in Constantinople, whence his by-name: the philo- sopher. Afterwards he devoted himself to the study of theology, and went to live, together with his brother Methodius, in a monastery. A strong ascetic, he became a zealous missionary. In 860 he visited the Chazares, a Tartar tribe settled on the North-Eastern shore of the Black Sea, and planted a Christian church there. He afterward labored among the Bulgarians and finally went, in company with his brother, to Moravia, on the invitation of Rastislaw, in 863. Cyrillus understood the Slavic language, and succeeded in making it available for literary purposes by inventing a suitable alphabet. He used Greek letters, with some Armenian and Hebrew, and some original letters. His Slavonic alphabet is still used with alterations in Russia, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bul- garia, and Servia. He translated the liturgy and the pericopes into Slavic, and his ability to preach and celebrate service in the native language soon brought hundreds of converts into his fold. A national Slavic church rapidly arose; the German priests with the Latin liturgy left the country. It corres- ponded well with the political plans of Rastislaw, to have a church establishment entirely independent of the German prelates, but in the difference which now developed between the Eastern and "Western churches, it was quite natural for the young Slavic church to connect itself with Rome and not with Constantinople, partly because Cyrillus always had shown a kind of partiality to Rome, partly because the jirudence and discrimination with which Pope Nicholas I. recently had interfered in the Bulgarian church, , must have made a good impression. In 868 Cyrillus and Methodius went to Rome, and a jaerfect agreement was arrived at between them and Pope Adrian II., both with respect to the use of the Slavic language in religious service and with respect to the independent position of the Slavic church, subject only to the authority of the Pope. Cyrillus died in Rome, Feb. 14, 869, but Methodius retm-ned to Mo^- 130 FOUKTII PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. ravia, having been consecrated archbishop of the Pannonian diocese. The organization of this new diocese of Pannonia was, to some extent, an encroachment on the dioceses of Passau and Salzburg, and such an encroachment must have been so much the more irritating to the German prelates, as they really had been the first to sow the seed of Christianity among the Slavs. The growing difference between the Eastern and Western churches also had its cffo(;t. The German clergy considered the use of the Slavic lanfuao-c in the mass an unwarranted innovation, and the Greek doctrine of the single procession of the Holy Spirit, still ad- hered to by ^Icthodius and the Slavic church, they considered as a heresy. Their attacks, however, had at first no practical consequences, but when Rastislaw was succeeded in 870 by Swa- topluk, and Adrian II. in 872 by John VIII., the position of Methodius became difficult. Once more, in 879, he was sum- moned to Rome, and although, this time too, a j)erfect agreement was arrived at, by which the independence of the Slavic church was confirmed, and all her natural peculiarities were acknow- lalgcd, neither the energy of INIethodius, nor the support of the Pope was able to defend her against the attacks which now were made upon her both from without and from within. Swatopluk inclined towards the German-Roman views, and Wichin one of Methodius's bishops, became their powerful champion. After the death of Swatopluk, the Moravian kingdom fell to pieces and was divided between the Germans, the Czechs of Bohe- mia, and the Magyars of Hungary ; and thereby the Slavic church lost, so to speak, its very foundation. Methodius died between 881 and 910. At the opening of the tenth century the Slavic church had entirely lost its national character. The Slavic priests were expelled and the Slavic liturgy abolished, German priests and the Latin liturgy taking their place. The expelled priests fled to Bulgaria, whither they brought the Slavic translations of ithe Bible and the liturgy. Neither Charlemagne nor Lewis the Pious succeeded in subju- § 34. CHEISTIANIZATION OF MOKAVIA, ETC. 131 gating Bohemia, and although the country was added to the dio- cese of Regensburg, the inhabitants remained pagans. But when Bohemia became a dependency of the Moravian empire and Swa- topluk married a daughter of the Bohemian duke, Borziwai, a door was opened to Christianity. Borziwai and his wife, Lud- milla, were baptized, and their children were educated in the Christian faith. Nevertheless, when Wratislav, Borziwai's son and successor, died in 925, a violent reaction took place. He left two sons, Wenzeslav and Boleslav, who were placed under the tutelage of their grandmother, Ludmilla. But their mother, Drahomira, was an inveterate heathen, and she caused the miu:- der first of Ludmilla, and then of Wenzeslav, 938. Boleslav, surnamed the Cruel, had his mother's nature and also her faith, and he almost succeeded in sweeping Christianity out of Bohemia. But in 950 he was utterly defeated by the emperor, Otto I., and compelled not only to admit the Christian priests into the country, but also to rebuild the churches which had been destroyed, and this misfortune seems actually to have changed his mind. He now became, if not friendly, at least forbearing to his Christian subjects, and, during the reign of his son and successor, Boleslav the Mild, the Christian Church progressed so far in Bohemia that an independent archbishopric was founded in Prague. The mass of the people, however, still remained barbarous, and hea- thenish customs and ideas lingered among them for more than a century. Adalbert, archbishop of Prague, from 983 to 997,^ preached against polygamy, the trade in Christian slaves, chiefly carried on by the Jews, but in vain. Twice he left his see, disgusted and discouraged ; finally he was martyred by the Prus- sian Wends. Not until 1038 archbishop Severus succeeded in enforcing laws concerning marriage, the celebration of the Lord's Day, and other points of Christian morals. About the contest between the Romano-Slavic and the Romano-Germanic churches in Bohemia, nothing is known. Legend tells that Methodius * Passio S. Adalberti, in Scriptores Rerum Prussicarum I., and Vita S. Adaiberti in Monumenta German. IV' 132 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. himself baptizal Borziwai and Ludmilla, and the first mi.ssionary work was, no doubt, done by Slavic priests, but at the time of Adalbert the Germanic tendency was prevailing. Also among the Poles the Gospel was first preached by Slavic missionaries, and Cyrillus and Methodius are celebrated in the Polish liturgy' as the apostles of the country. As the Moravian empire under Rastislaw comprised vast regions which afterward belonged to the kingdom of Poland, it is only natural that the movement started by Cyrillus and Methodius should have reached also these regions, and the naaie of at least one Slavic missionary among the Poles, Wiznach, is known to history. After the breaking up of the Moravian kingdom, Moravian nobles and priests sought refuge in Poland, and diiring the reign of duke Scmovit Christianity had become so jDowerful among the Poles, that it began to excite the jealousy of the pagans, and a violent contest took place. By the marriage between Duke Mieczyslav and the Bohemian princess Dombrowka, a sister of Boleslav the Mild, the influence of Christianity became still stronger. Dombrowka brought a number of Bohemian priests with her to Poland, 965, and in the following year Miecz}^slav Iiimself Avas converted and baptized. With characteristic arro- gance he simply demanded that all his subjects should follow his example, and the pagan idols were now burnt or thrown into the river, pagan sacrifices were forbidden and severely punished, and Christian churches Avere built. So far the introduction of Chris- tianity among the Poles was entirely due to Slavic influences, but at this time the close political connection between Duke JMieczyslav and Otto I. opened the way for a powerful German influence. Mieczyslav borrowed the whole organization of the Polish church from Germany. It was on the advice of Otto I. tliat he founded the first Polish bishopric at Posen and placed it under the authority of the archbishop of Magdeburg. German priests, representing Roman doctrines and rites, and using the ' Misxnle proprium rcgnm Polonicc, Venet. 1629 ; Ojjicia propria patronorum regni Poloniai, Antwerp, 1G27. § 34. CHRISTIANIZATION OF MORAVIA, ETC. 133 Latin language, began to work beside the Slavic priests who rep- resented Greek doctrines and rites and used the native language, and when finally the Polish church was placed wholly under the authority of Rome, this was not due to any spontaneous move- ment within the church itself, such as Polish chroniclers like to represent it, but to the influence of the German emperor and the German church. Under Mieczyslav's son, Boleslav Chrobry, the first king of Poland and one of the most brilliant heroes of Polish history, Poland, although christianized only on the surface, became itself the basis for missionary labor among other Slavic tribes. It was Boleslav who sent Adalbert of Prague "among the Wends, and when Adalbert here was pitifully martyred, Boles- lav ransomed his remains, had them buried at Gnesen (whence they afterwards were carried to Prague), and founded here an archiepiscopal see, around which the Polish church was finally consolidated. The Christian mission, however, was in the hands of Boleslav, just as it often had been in the hands of the German emperors, and sometimes even in the hands of the Pope himself, nothing but a political weapon. The mass of the population of his own realm was still pagan in their very hearts. Annually the Poles assembled on the day on which their idols had been thrown into the rivers or burnt, and celebrated the memory of their gods by dismal dirges,^ and the simplest rules of Christian morals could be enforced only by the application of the most barbarous punishments. Yea, under the political disturbances which occurred after the death of Mieez}^slav II., 1034, a general outburst of heathenism took place throughout the Polish kingdom, and it took a long time before it was fully put down. * Grimm : Deutsche Mythologie, 11. 733. 134 FOUETH PEKIOD. A.D. 590-1049. § 35. The Conversion of the Bulgarians. CoKSTANTiinjs POKPHYROGENITUS: Life of Bosilius Macedo, in Hist. Byzant. Continuatores post Theophanem. Greek and Latin, Paris, 1685. Photii Epistola, ed. Bichard. Montacutius. London, 1G47. Nicholas I.: Eesponsaad Consulta Bulgarorum, in Mansi: Coll. Condi. , Tom. XV., pp. 401-434; and in Haeduin; Coll. Concil., V., pp. 353-386. A. PiCHLER : Geschichte dcr kirchlichen Trennung zwischen dem Orient und Occident. Miinchen, 1864, I., pp. 192 sqq. Comp. the biographies of Cyrillus and Methodius, mentioned in I 34, p. 128. The Bulgarians were of Tiu-auian descent, but, having lived for centuries among Slavic nations, they had -adopted Slavic language, religion, customs and habits. Occupying the plains between the Danube and the Balkan range, they made frequent inroads into the territory of the Byzantine empire. In 813 they conquered Adrianople and carried a niuuber of Christians, among whom was the bishop himself, as prisoners to Bulgaria. Here these Christian prisoners formed a congregation and began to labor for the conversion of their captors, though not with any great success, as it would seem, since the bishop was martj^red. But in 861 a sister of the Bulgarian prince, Bogoris, Avho had been carried as a prisoner to Constantinople, and educated there in the Christian faith, returned to her native country, and her exertions for the conversion of her brother at last succeeded. JNIethodius was sent to her aid, and a picture he painted of the last judgment is said to have made an overwhelming impression on Bogoris, and determined him to embrace Christianity. He was baptized in 863, and entered immediately in correspondence wnth Photius, the patriarch of Constantinople. His baptism, however, occasioned a revolt among his subjects, and the hor- rible punishment, whicli he inflicted upon the rebels, shows how little as yet he had understood the teachings of Christianity. Meanwhile Greek missionaries, mostly monks, had entered the country, but they were intriguing, arrogant, and produced nothing i 36. THE CONVEESION OF THE MAGYAKS. 135 but confusion among the peoj)le. In 865 Bogoris addressed him- self to Pope Nicolas I., asking for Koman missionaries, and laying before the Pope one hundred and six questions con- cerning Christian doctrines, morals and ritual, which he wished to have answered. The Pope sent two bishops to Bulgaria, and gave Bogoris very elaborate and sensible answers to his questions. Nevertheless, the Roman mission did not succeed either. The Bulgarians disliked to submit to any foreign authority. They desired the establishment of an independent national church, but this was not to be gained either from, Rome or from Constantinople. Finally the Byzantine emperor, Basi- lius Macedo, succeeded in establishing Greek bishops and a Greek archbishop in the country, and thus the Bulgarian church came under the authority of the patriarch of Constantinople, but its history up to this very day has been a continuous struggle against this authority. The church is now ruled by a Holy Synod, with an independent exarch. Fearful atrocities of the Turks against the Christians gave rise io the Russo-Turkish war in 1877, and resulted in the in- dependence of Bulgaria, which by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 was constituted into "an autonomous and tributary principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan," but with a Christian government and a national militia. Religious prosel}i:ism is prohibited, and religious school-books must be previously exam- ined by the Holy Synod. But Protestant missionaries are at work amoug the people, and practically enjoy full liberty. § 36. The Conversion of the 3Iagyars. JOH. DE Thwrocz : Chronica Hungarorum, in Schwandtmr: Scriptores jRerum Hungaricarum, I. Vienna, 1746-8. Vita S. Stephani, in Act. Sanctor. September. Vita S. Adalberti, in 3Ionument. German. IV. HoRVATH : History of Hungary. Pest, 1842-46. Aug. Theiner : Monumenta vetera historica Hungariam sacram illustran- tia. Eom., 1859, 1860, 2 Tom. fol. 236 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. The Mao-yar-s, belonging to the Turanian family of nations, and allied to the Finns and the Turks, penetrated into Europe in the ninth century, and settled, in 884, in the plains between the Bu'-- and the Sereth, near the mouth of the Danube. On the instigation of the Byzantine emperor, Leo the Wise, they attacked the Bulgarians, and completely defeated them. The military renown they thus acquh'ed gave them a new opportunity'. The prankish king Arnulf invoked their aid against Swatopluk, the ruler of the JNIoravian empire. Swatopluk, too, was defeated, and his realm was divided between the victors. The Magyars, retracing their steps across the Carpathian range, settled in the plains around the Theiss and the Danube, the country which their forefathers, the Huns, once had ruled over, the present Hungary. They were a Avild and fierce race, worshij)j)ing one supreme god under the guise of various natural phenomena: the sky, the river, dc. They had no temjjlcs and no priesthood, and their sacrifices consisted of animals only, mostly horses. But the oath was kept sacred among them, and their marriages were monogamous, and inaugurated with religious rites. The first acquaintance with Christianity the IMaygars made through their connections with the Byzantine court, Avithout any further consequences. But after settling in Hungary, where they were surrounded on all sides by Christian nations, they were compelled, in 950, by the emperor, Otto I., to allow the bishop of Passau to send missionaries into their country ; and various circumstances contributed to make this mission a rapid and com- plete success. Their prince, Geyza, had married a daughter of the Tran.sylvanian prince, Gyula, and this princess, Savolta, had been educated in the Christian faith. Thus Geyza felt friendly towanls the Christians; and as soon as this became known, Christianity broke forth from the mass of the population like flowers from the earth when spring has come. The people which the INIagyai-s had subdued Avhcn settling in Hungary, and the captives whom thoy had carried along with them from Bulgaria and ]\Ioravia, Avere Christians. Hitherto these Christians had ^ 36. THE CONVEESIOX OF THE MAGYAES. 137 concealed their religion from fear of their rulers, and their chil- dren had been baptized clandestinely; but now they assembled in great multitudes around the missionaries, and the entrance of Christianity into Hungary looked like a triumphal march.' Political disturbances afterwards interrupted this progress, but only for a short time. Adalbert of Prague visited the country, and made a great impression. He baptized Geyza's son, Voik, born in 961, and gave him the name of Stephanus, 991. Adal- bert's pupil, Rodla, remained for a longer period in the country, and was held in so high esteem by the people, that they after- wards would not let him go. When Stephanus ascended the throne in 997, he determined at once to establish Christianity as the sole religion of his realm, and ordered that all JMagyars should be baptized, and that all Christian slaves should be set free. This, however, caused a rising of the pagan party under the head of Ivuppa, a relative of Stejahanas; but Kuppa was defeated at Veszprim, and the order had to be obeyed. Stephanus' marriage with Gisela, a relative of the emperor, Otto III., brought him in still closer contact with the German empire, and he, like INIieczyslav of Poland, borrowed the whole ecclesiastical organization from the German church. Ten bish- oprics were formed, and placed under the authorit}^ of the arch- bishop of Gran on the Danube (which is still the seat of the primate of Hungary) ; churches were built, schools and monaste- ries were founded, and rich revenues were j^rocured for their sup- port ; the clergy was declared the first order in rank, and the Latin language was made the official language not only in ecclesiastical, but also in secular matters. As a reward for his zeal, Stephanus was presented by Pope Silvester II. with a golden crown, and, in the year 1000, he was solemnly crowned king by the arch- bishop of Gran, while a papal bull conferred on him the title of "His Apostolic Majest}^" And, indeed, Stephanus was the apostle of the Magyars. As most of the priests and monks, ^ See the letter from Bishop Pilgrin of Passau to Pope Benedict VI. in Mansi, Concil. I. 138 FOUETH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. called from Germany, did not understand the language of the people, the king himself travelled about from town to town, preached, prayed, and exhorted all to keep the Lord's Day, the fast, and other Christian duties. Nevertheless, it took a long time before Christianity really took hold of the ISIagyars, chiefly on account of the deep gulf created between the priests and their flocks, partly by the difference of language, partly by the exceptional position which Stephanus had given the clergy iu the community, and which the clergy soon learned to utilize for selfish purposes. Twice during the eleventh century there occurred heavy relapses into paganism; in 1045, under King Andreas, and in 1060, under King Bela. § 37. The Christianization of Russia. Nestor (monk of Kieff, the oldest Kussian annalist, d. 1116) : Annates, or Chronicon (from the building of the Babylonian tower to 1093). Continued by Niphoxtes (Nifon) from 1116-1157, and by others to 1676. Complete ed. in Euss by Pogodin, 1841, and with a Latin version and glossary by Fr. 3Iiklosisch, Vindobon, 1860. German translation by Schlozer, Gottingen, 1802-9, 5 vols, (incomplete). J. G. Stritter : Mcmorice populorum olim ad Danubium, etc., incolentium ex Bijzant. Script. Petropoli, 1771. 4 vols. A collection of the Byzantine sources. N. M. Karamsix: History of Russia, 12 vols. St. Petersburg, 1816-29, translated into German and French. Ph. Strahl: Beitrdgezur rttss.Kirchen-GescMchte {vol.1.). Halle, 1827; and Geschichte d. russ Kirche (vol. I.). Halle, 1830 (incomplete). A. N. MouRAVlEFF (late chamberlain to the Czar and Under-Procurator of the Most Holy Synod) : A History of the Church of Russia (to the founding of the Holy Synod in 1721). St. Petersburg, 1840, translated into English by Eev. E. W. Blackmore. Oxford, 1862. A. P. Staxley: Lectures on the Eastern Church. Lee. IX.-XII. Lon- don, 1862. L. BoissARD: Ueglhe de Russie. Paris, 1867, 2 vols. The legend traces Christianity iu Russia back to the Apostle St. Andrew, who is especially revered by the Russians. INIou- ravieff commences his histor>' of the Russian church with these words: " The Russian church, like the other Orthodox churches of the East, had an apostle for its founder. St. Andrew, the §37. THE CHRISTIANIZATION OF RUSSIA. 139 first called of the Twelve, hailed with his blessing long before- hand the destined introduction of Christianity into our country. Ascending up and penetrating by the Dniepr into the deserts of Scythia, he planted the first cross on the hills of Kieflf, and *See you/ said he to his disciples, ' those hills ? On those hills shall shine the light of divine grace. There shall be here a great cit}^, and God shall have in it many churches to His name.' Such are the words of the holy Nestor that point from whence Chris- tian Russia has sj^rung." This tradition is an expansion of the report that Andrew labored and died a martyr in Scythia/ and nothing more. In the ninth century the Russian tribes, inhabiting the Eastern part of Europe, were gathered together under the rule of Ruric, a Varangian prince,^ who from the coasts of the Baltic penetrated into the centre of the present Russia, and was voluntarily accepted, •if not actually chosen by the tribes as their chief. He is regarded as the founder of the Russian empire, A. D. 862, Avhich in 1862 celebrated its millennial anniversary. About the same time or a little later the Russians became somewhat acquainted with Christianity through their connections with the Byzantine em- pire. The Eastern church, however, never developed any great missionary activity, and when Photius, the j)atriarch of Constantinople, in his circular letter against the Roman see, speaks of the Russians as already converted at his time (867), a few years after the founding of the empire, he certainly exagge- rates. "When, in 945, peace was concluded between the Russian grand-duke, Igor, and the Byzantine emperor, some of the Rus- sian soldiers took the oath in the name of Christ, but by far the greatest number swore by Rerun, the old Russian god. In Kiefi", on the Dniepr, the capital of the Russian realm, there was at that time a Christian church, dedicated to Elijah, and in 955 the grand-duchess, Olga, went to Constantinople and was baptized. 1 Euseb. III. 1. ^ The Varangians were a tribe of piratical Northmen who made the Slavs and Finns tributary. 1 iO FOUETH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. She did not succeed, however, in persuading her son, Svatoslav, to embrace the Christian faith. Tlie proo-ress of Christianit}'- among the Russians was slow until the grand-duke Vladimir (980-1015), a grandson of Olga, and revered as Isapostolos (" Equal to an Apostle ") with one sweep established it as the religion of the country. The narra- tive of this event by Nestor is very dramatic. Envoys from the Greek and the Roman churches, from the Mohammedans and the Jews (settled among the Chazares) came to Vladimir to per- suade him to leave his old gods. He hesitated and did not know which of the new religions he should choose. Finally he deter- mined to send wise men from among his own people to the vari- ous places to investigate the matter. The envoys were ^o power- fully impressed by a picture of the last judgment and by the service in the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, that the question at once was settled in favor of the religion of the By- zantine court. Vladimir, however, would not introduce it without compensa- tion. H.e was staying at Cherson in the Crimea, which he had just taken and sacked, and thence he sent ^vord to the emj^eror Basil, that he had determined either to adopt Christianity and receive the emperor's sister, Anne, in marriage, or to go to Con- stantinople and do to that city as he had done to Cherson. He married Anne, and was baptized on the day of his wedding, A.D. 988. As soon as he was baptized preparations were made for the baptism of liis people. The wooden image of Rerun was dragged at a horse's tail through the country, soundly flogged by all passers-by, and finally thrown into the Dniepr. Next, at a given hour, all the people of Kieff, men, women and children, descended into the river, while the grand Duke kneeled, and the Christian priests read the prayers from the top of the cliffs on the shore. Nestor, the Russian monk and annalist, thus describes the scene: " Some stood in the water up to their necks, others up to their breasts, holding their young children in their arms; the priests ^ 37. THE CHKISTIANIZATION OF KUSSIA. 141 read the prayers from the shore, naming at once whole compa- nies by the same name. It was a sight wonderfully curious and beautiful to behold ; and when the j)eople were baptized, each returned to his own home." Thus the Russian nation was converted in wholesale style to Christianity by despotic power. It is characteristic of the su- preme influence of the ruler and the slavish submission of the subjects in that country. Nevertheless, at its first entrance in Russia, Christianity penetrated deeper into the life of the people than it did in any other country, without, however, bringing about a corresponding thorough moral transformation. Only a comparatively short period elapsed, before a complete union of the forms of religion and the nationality took place. Every event in the history of the nation, yea, every event in the life of the individual was looked upon from a religious j)oint of view, and referred to some distinctly religious idea. The explanation of this striking phenomenon is due in part to Cyrill's translation of the Bible into the Slavic language, which had been driven out from ISIoravia and Bohemia by the Roman priests, and was now brought from Bulgaria into Russia, ^^'liere it took root. While the Roman church always insisted upon the exclusive use of the Latin translation of the Bible and the Latin language in divine service, the Greek church always allowed the use of the vernacular. Under its auspices there were produced translations into the Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, and Slavic lan- guages, and the effects of this principle were, at least in Russia, most beneficial. During the reign of Vladimir's successor, Ja- roslaflP, 1019—1054, not only were churches and monasteries and schools built all over the country, but Greek theological books were translated, and the Russian church had, at an early date, a religious literature in the native tongue of the people. Jaroslaff', by his celebrated code of laws, became the Justinian of Russia. The Czars and people of Russia have ever since faithfully adhered to the Oriental church which grew with the growth of the empire all along the Northern line of two Continents. As 142 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. in the "U^'est, so in Russia, monasticism was the chief institution for the spread of Christianity' among heathen savages. Hilarion (afterwards Metropolitan), Anthony, Theodosius, Sergius, Laza- rus, are prominent names in the early history of Russian monas- ticism. The subsequent history of the Russian church is isolated from the main current of history, and almost barren of events till the age of Xikon and Peter the Great. At first she was dependent on the patriarch of Constantinople. In 1325 Moscow was founded, and became, in the place of Kieff, the Russian Rome, with a metropolitan, who after the fall of Constantinople became independent (1461), and a century later was raised to the dig- nity of one of the five patriarchs of the Eastern Churdi (1587). But Peter the Great made the Northern city of his own found- ing the ecclesiastical as well as the political metropolis, and transferred the authority of the patriarchate of Moscow to the "Holy Synod" (1721), which permanently resides in St. Peters- burg and constitutes the highest ecclesiastical judicatory of Russia under the cajsaropapal rule of the Czar, the most power- ful rival of the Roman Pope. g 38. MOHAMMEDANISM. LITEEATURE. 143 CHAPTER III. MOHAMMEDANISM IN ITS RELATION TO CHRISTIANITY.* "There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his apostle." — The Koran. "There is one God and one Mediator between God and men, the man' Christ Jesus, who gave himself a ransom for all." — 1 Tim. ii. 5, 6. § 38. Literature. See A. SpREifGER's Bibliotheca Orientalls Sprengeriana. Giessen, 1857. W. MuiR : Life of Mahomet, Vol. I., eh. 1. Muir discusses especially the value of Mohammedan traditions. Ch. Fkiedrici: Bibliotheca Orientalis. London (Triibner & Co.) 1875 sqq. I. SOURCES. 1. The Koran or Al-koran, The chief source. The Mohammedan Bible, claiming to be given by inspiration to Mohammed during the course of twenty years. About twice as large as the New Testament. The best Arabic MSS., often most beautifully written, are in the Mosques of Cairo, Damascus, Constantinople, and Paris ; the largest I collection in the library of the Khedive in Cairo. Printed editions in Arabic by Hixkelmann (Hamburg, 1694) ; Moll A Osmak Ismael (St. Petersburg, 1787 and 1803) ; G. Flugel (Leipz., 1834); revised by Eedslob (1837, 1842, 1858). Arabice et Latine, ed. L. Maraccius, Patav., 1698, 2 vols., fol. {Alcorani textus universus, with notes and refutation). A lithographed edition of the Arabic text appeared at Lucknow in India, 1878 (A. H. 1296). The standard English translations : in prose by Geo. Sale (first pub!., Lond., 1734, also 1801, 1825, Philad., 1833, etc.), with a learned and valuable preliminary discourse and notes ; in the metre, but without the ^ Mahomet and Mahometanimi, is the usual, but Mohammad, Muhammad, or Mohammed, Mohammedanism, is the more correct spelling in English. Sale, Deutsch, B. Smith, Khan Bahador, and others, spell Mohammed; Sprenger^ Mohammad; Noldeke, Muhammed; Gibbon, Carlyle and Muir, retain 3Tahomet. The word means: the Praised, the Glorified, the Illustrious; but according to Sprenger and Deutsch, the Desired, perhaps with reference to the Messianic interpretation of " the Desire of all nations," Hagg. 2 : 7. See on the name, Sprenger, I. 155 sqq., and Deutsch, p. 68 note. 14-i FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. rhyme, of the original by J. M. Rodwell (Lond., 18G1, 2d cd. 1876, the Suras arrantred in chronological order). A new transl. in prose by E. H. Palmer (Oxford, 1880, 2 vols.) in M. Miiller's "Sacred Books of the East." Parts are admirably translated by EmVARD W. Lane. French translation by Sayary, Paris, 1783, 2 vols.; enlarged edition by Garcix de Tassy, 1829, in 3 vols. ; another by M. Kasimieski, Paris, 1847, and 1873. German translations by Wahl (Halle, 1828), L. Ullmann (Bielefeld, 1S40, 4th ed. 1857), and parts by Hammer von Purgstall (in the Fundgruben des Orients), and Sprexger (in Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad). 2. Secondary sources on the Life of Moh. and the origin of Islilm are the numerous poems of contemporaries, especially in Ibn Ishac, and the collections of the sayings of Moh., especially the Sahih (i e. The True, the Genuine) of Albuchdri (d. 871). Also the early Commentaries on the Koran, which explain difficult passages, recon- cile the contradictions, and insert traditional sayings and legends. See Sprenger, III. CIV. sqq. II. WORKS ox the KORAN. Th. Noldeke: GescMchte des Quorans, {History of the Koran), Gottingen, 1860 ; and his art. in the " Encycl. Brit.," 9th ed. XVI. 597-606. Garcin de Tassy: VMamisme d'apris le Goran I'enseignement doctrinal et la pratique, 3d ed. Paris, 1874. GUSTAV Weil : Hist, kritische Einleihmg in den Koran. Bielefeld und Leipz., 1844, 2d ed., 1878. Sir William Muir: The Cordn. Its Composition and Teaching; and the Testimony it bears to the Holy Scriptures. (Allahabad, 1860), 3d ed., Lond., 1878. Sprenger, I. c.. III., pp. xviii.-cxx. III. biographies op MOHAMMED. 1. Moliammcdan biographers. ZoHRi (the oldest, died after the Hegira 124). Ibn IshAc (or Ibni Ishak, d. A H. 151, or A. D. 773), ed. in Arabic from MSS. by Wiistenfeid, Gott., 1858-60, translated by Weil, Stuttff. 1864. Ibn (Tlmi) Hisham (d. A. H. 213, A. D. 835), also ed. by Wiistenfeid, and translated by Weil, 1864. Katib al Waquidi (or Wackedee, Wackidi, d. at Bagdad A. H. 207, A. D. 829), a man of prodigious learning, who collected the tradi- tions, and left six hundred chests of books (Sprenger, HI., LXXL), and his secretary, Muhammad Ibn SIad (d. A. H. 230, A. D. 852), who arranged, abridged, and completed the biographical works of 2 38. MOHAMMEDANISM. LITERATURE. 145 his master iu twelve or fifteen for. vols. ; the first vol. contains the biog- raphy of Moh., and is preferred by Muir and Sprenger to all others. German transl. by Wellhausen : Muhammed in Medina. From the Arabic of Vakidi. Berlin, 1882. Tabari (or TiBREE, d. A. H. 310, A. D. 932). called by Gibbon "the Livy of the Arabians." ■ Muir says (I., GUI.) : "To the three biographies by Ibn Hisham, by WlcKiDi, and his secretary, and by Tabari, the judicious historian of Mahomet will, as his original authorities, confine himself. He will also receive, with a similar respect, such traditions in the general collections of the earliest tradltionists — Bokhari, Muslim, Tirmidzi, etc., — as may bear upon his subject. But he will reject as evidence all later authors." Abulfeda (or Abulfida, d. 1331), once considered the chief authority, now set aside by much older sources. *Syed Ahmed Khan Bahador (member of the Royal Asiatic Society) : A Series of Essays on the Life of Mohammed. London (Triibner & Co.), 1870. He wrote also a "Mohammedan Commentary on the Holy Bible." He begins with the sentence: "In nomine Dei Miseri- cordis Miseratoris. Of all the innumerable wonders of the universe, the most marvellous is religion.'^ Syed Ameer Ali, Moulve (a Mohammedan lawyer, and brother of the former) : A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mohammed. London 1873. A defense of Moh. chiefly drawn from Ibn-Hisham (and Ibn-al Athir (1160-1223). 2. Christian Biographies. Dean Prideaux (d. 1724) : Life of Mahomet, 1697, 7th ed. Lond., 1718. Very unfavorable. Count Boulinvilliers : The Life of Mahomet. Transl. from the French. Lond., 1731. Jean Gagnier (d. 1740) : La vie de Mahomet, 1732, 2 vols., etc. Am- sterd. 1748, 3 vols. Chiefly from Abulfeda and the Sonna, He also translated Abulfeda, *Gibbon: Decline and Fall, etc. (1788), chs. 50-52. Although not an Arabic scholar, Gibbon made the best use of the sources then acces- sible in Latin, French, and English, and gives a brilliant and, upon the whole, impartial picture. *GusTAV Weil; Mohammed der Prophet, scin Leben und seine Lehre. Stuttgart, 1843. Comp, also his translation of Ibn Ishdc, and Ibn Hisham, Stuttgart, 1864, 2 vols,; and his Biblische Legenden der Muselmdnner atis arabischen Quellen und mit jud. Sagen verglichen. Frcf., 1845. The last is also transl. into English. Th. Carlyle •. The Hero as Prophet, in his Heroes Hero- Worship and 10 X40 FOUKTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. the Heroic in History. London, 1840. A mere sketch, but full of geniuri and stimulating hints. He says : " We have chosen Mahomet not as the most eminent prophet, but as the one we are freest to speak of. He is by no means the truest of prophets, but 1 esteem him a true one. Farther, as there is no danger of our becoming, any of us, Mahometans, I mean to say all the good of him I justly can. It is the way to get at his secret." "Washingtox Irving : Mahomet and His Followers. N. Y., 1850. 2 vols. Geokgic Bush: The Life oj Mohammed. New York (Harpers). *SiK William Muir (of the Bengal Civil Service) : The Life of Mahomet. With introductory chapters on the original sources for the biography of Mahomet, and on the pre-Islamite history of Arabia. Lond., 1858-1861, 4 vols. Learned, able, and fair. Abridgement in 1 vol. Lond., 1877, *A. Sprenger: First an English biography printed at Allahabad, 1851, and then a more complete one in German, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad. Nach bisher grosstentheils unbenutzten Quellen. Ber- lin, 1861-'65, 2d ed. 1869, 3 vols. This work is based on original and Arabic sources, and long personal intercourse with Mohamme- dans in India, but is not a well digested philosophical biography. *TnEOi). Noldeke: Z)as Ze6erail!fMAam7?iec?s. Hanover, 1863. Comp. his elaborate art. in Vol. XVIII. of Herzog's Real-Encycl, first ed. E. Kenan : Mahomet, et les origines de I'islamisme, in his " Etudes de I'his- toire relig.," 7th ed. Par., 1864. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire: Mahomet et le Coran. Paris, 1865. Based on Sprenger and Muir. Ch. Scroll : U Islam et son Fondateur. Paris, 1874. R. Bo-SWORTH Smith (Assistant Master in Harrow School) : Mohammed and Mohammedanism. Lond. 1874, reprinted New York, 1875. J. W. H. Stobart: Islam and its Founder. London, 1876. J. Wellhausen : Art. Moh. in the " Encycl. Brit." 9th ed. vol. XVI. 545-565. IV. history of the ARABS AND TURKS. *Jos. VON Hammer-PurgsTALL: Gcschichte des osmanischen Eeiches. Pesth, 1827-34, 10 vols. A smaller ed. in 4 vols. This standard work is the result of thirty years' labor, and brings the history down to 1774. By the same: Literaturgeschichte der Araber. Wien, 1850-57, 7 vols. *G. Weil: Gesch. der Chalifen. Mannheim, 1846-51, 3 vols. *Caussin de Perceval : Essai sur I'h isfoire des Arabes. Paris, 1848, 3 vols. *EnwARD A. Freeman (D.CL., LL.D.) : History and Conquests of the Saracens. Lond., 1856, 3d ed. 1876. Robert Durie Osborn (Major of the Bengal Staff Corps) : Islam under the Arabs. London., 1876; Islam under the KJialifs of Baghdad. London, 1877. Sir EnwARD S. Creasy : History of the Ottoman Turks from the Begin,' 2 38. MOHAMMEDANISM. LITERATURE. 147 ning of their Empire to the present Time. Lond., 2d ed. 1877. Chiefly founded on von Hammer. Th. Noldeke: Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden. Aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari ubcrsetzt. Leyden, 1879. Sir Wm. Mttir : Annals of the Early Caliphate. London 1883. V. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE MOHAMMEDANS. JOH. LUDWIG Burckhardt: Travels in Nubia, 1819; Travels in Syria and Palestine, 1823 ; Notes on the Bedouins, 1830. *Edw. VV. Lane: Modern Egyptians. Lond., 1836, 5th ed. 1871, in 2 vols. *KlCH. F. Burton: Personal narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and ■ Meccah, Lond. 1856, 3 vols. C. B. Klunzinger: Upper Egypt: its People and its Products. A de- scriptive Account of the Manners, Customs, Superstitions, ahd Occupa- tions of the People of the Nile Valley, the Desert, and the Bed Sea Coast. New York, 1878. A valuable supplement to Lane. Books of Eastern Travel, especially on Egypt and Turkey. Bahedt's Travels in Central Africa (1857), Palgrave's Arabia (1867), etc. VI. RELATION OF MOHAMMEDANISM TO JUDAISM. *Abb,AHAM Geiger: Wos hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthum aufgenorri' men ? Bonn, 1833. Hartwig Hirschfeld : Jiidische Elemente im Koran. Berlin, 1878. VII. MOHAMMEDANISM AS A RELIGION, AND IN ITS RELATION TO CHRISTIANITY. L. Maracci; Prodromus ad refutationem Alcorani. Rom., 1691, 4 vols. S. Lee: Controversial Tracts on Cliristianity and Mahometanism. 1824. J. DoLLINGER (R. C.) ; Muhammed's Religion nach ihrer innern Entwick- lung u. ihrem Einfluss auf das Leben der Vblker. Regensb. 1838. A. MoHLER (R. C) : Das Verhdltniss des Islam zum Christenthum (in hia " Gesammelte Schriften "). Regensb., 1839. C. F. Gerock : Versuch einer Darstellung der Christologie des Koran. Hamburg und Gotha, 1839. J. H. Newman (R. C.) : The Turks in their relation to Europe (written in 1853), in his " Historical Sketches." London, 1872, pp. 1-237. Dean Arthur P. Stanley : Mahometanism and its relations to the East- ern Church (in Lectures on the "History of the Eastern Church." London and New York, 1862, pp. 360-387). A picturesque sketch. Dean Milman: History of Latin Christianity. Book IV., chs. 1 and 2. (Vol. IL p. 109). Theod. Noldeke: Art. Muhammedund der Islam, in Herzog's " Real- Encyclop." Vol. XVIIL (1864), pp. 767-820. *Eman. Deutsch : Islam, in his " Liter. Remains." Lond. and N. York, 1874, pp. 50-134. The article originally appeared in the Londor^ 248 FOUKTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. " Quarterly Review " for Oct. 1869, and is also printed at the end of the New York (Harper) ed. of R. Bosworth Smith's Mohammed. Reports oftlie General M'mionary Conference at Allaluibad, 1873. J. MiJULEl.SEN Arnold (formerly chaplain at Batavia) : Mam: its His- tory, Character, and Relation to Christianity. Lond., 1874, 3d ed. GusTAV. Rosch: Die Jesusmythen des Islam, in the "Studien und Kriti- ken." Gotha, 1876. (No. III. pp. 409-454). Marcds Dods: Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ. Lond. 2d ed. 1878. Cu. A. AiKEX : Mohammedanism as a Missionary Religion. In the " Bib- liothcca Sacra," of Andover for 1879, p. 157. Aecubishop Trexch : Lectures on Mediceval Church History (Lect. IV. 45-58). London, 1877. Henry H. Jessup (Amer. Presbyt. missionary at Beirut) : The Moham- medan Missionary Problem. Philadelphia, 1879. Edouard Sayous: Jesus Christ d'aprh Mahomet. Paris 1880. G. P. Badger : Mukdmmed in Smith and Wace, III. 951-998. § 39. Statistics and Chronological Table. ESTIMATE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POPULATiox (According to Keith Johnston). In Asia, 112,739,000 In Africa, 50,416,000 In Europe, 5,974,000 Total, . 169,129,000 MOHAMMEDANS UNDER CHRISTIAN GOVERNMENTS. England in India rules over 41,000,000 Russia in Central Asia rules over 6,000,000 France in Africa rules over 2,000,000 Holland in Java and Celebes rules over 1,000,000 Total, 50,000,000 A. D. CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY. 570. Birtli of Mohammed, at INIecca. 610. Muliammed received the visions of Gabriel and began his career as a prophet. (Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons). 622. The Hrgira, or the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. Begin- ning of tlie Mohammedan era. G32. f June 8) Death of Mohammed at Medina. 632. Abu Bekr, first Cali])li or successor of Mohammed 630. Capture of Jerusalem by tlie Caliph Omar. 040. Capture of Alcxandri;- by Omar. 711. Tliaryk crosses tlie Straits from Africa to Europe, and calls the mountain Jcbel Tliaryk (Gibraltar). 732. Battle of Poitiers and Tours ; Abd-er-Rahman defeated by Charles Martel j Western Europe saved from Moslem conquest. ^ 39. MOHAMMEDANISM, STATISTICS AND CHRON. TABLE. 149 786-809. Haroun al Eashid, Caliph of Bagdad. Golden era of Mohammed- anism. (Correspondence with Charlemagne). 1063. Allp Arslan, Seljukian Turkish prince. 1096. The First Crusade. Capture of Jerusalem by Godfrey of Bouillon. 1187. Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and scourge of the Crusaders, conquers at Tiberias and takes Jerusalem, (1187) ; is defeated by Richard Coeur de Lion at Askelon, and dies 1193. DecUne of the Crusades. 1288-1326. Reign of Othman, founder of the Ottoman (Turkish) dynasty. 1453. Capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II., "the Conqueror," and founder of the greatness of Turkey. (Exodus of Greek scholars to Southern Europe; the Greek Testament brought to the West; the revival of letters.) 1492. July 2. Boabdil (or Abou Abdallah) defeated by Ferdinand at Granada ; end of Moslem rule in Spain. (Discovery of America by Columbus). 1517. Ottoman Sultan Selim I. conquers Egypt, wrests the caliphate from the Arab line of the Koreish through Motawekkel Billah, and transfers it to the Ottoman Sultans ; Ottoman caliphate never acknowledged by Persian or Moorish Moslems. (The Reformation.) 1521-1566. Solyman II. , "tlie Magnificent," marks tlie zenith of the military power of the Turks; takes Belgrade (1521), defeats the Hungarians (1526), but is repulsed from Vienna (1529 and 1532). 1571. Defeat of Selim II. at the naval battle of Lepanto by the Christian powers under Don John of Austria. Beginning of the decline of the Turkish power. 1683. Final repulse of the Turks at the gates of Vienna by John Sobieski, king of Poland, Sept. 12 ; Eastern Europe saved from Moslem rule. 1792. Peace at Jassy in Moldavia, which made the Dniester the frontier between Russia and Turkey. 1827. Annihilation of the Turko- Egyptian fieet by the combined squadrons of England, France, and Russia, in the battle of Navarino, October 20. Treaty of Adrianople, 1829. Independence of the kingdom of Greece, 1832. 1856. End of Crimean War ; Turkey saved by England and France aiding the Sultan against the aggression of Russia ; Treaty of Paris ; European agreement not to interfere in the domestic affairs of Turkey. 1878. Defeat of the Turks by Russia ; but checked by tlie interference of England under the lead of Lord Beaconsfield. Congress of the European pow- ers, and Treaty of Berlin ; independence of Bulgaria secured ; Anglo- Turkish Treaty ; England occupies Cyprus— agrees to defend the fron- tier of Asiatic Turkey against Russia, on condition that the Sultan execute fundamental reforms in Asiatic Turkey. 1880. Supplementary Conference at Berlin. Rectification and enlargement of the boundary of Montenegro and Greece. 150 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. § 40. Position of 3Iohammedanism in Church History. While new races and countries in Northern and Western Europe, unknown to the apostles, were added to the Christian Chiu-ch, we behold in Asia and Africa the opposite spectacle of the rise and progress of a rival religion which is now acknow- ledged by more than one-tenth of the inhabitants of the globe. It is called "Mohammedanism" from its founder, or "Islam," from its chief virtue, which is absolute surrender to the one true God. Like Christianity, it had its birth in the Shemitic race, the y L parent of the three monotheistic religions, but in an obscure and • gJfi^VQn desert district, and had a more rapid, though less enduring But what a difference in the means employed and the results reached ! Christianity made its conquest by peaceful missiona- ries and the power of persuasion, and carried with it the blessings of home, freedom and civilization. Mohammedanism conquered the fairest portions of the earth by the sword and cursed them by polygamy, slavery, despotism and desolation. The moving power of Christian missions was love to God and man ; the moving power of Isl^m was fanaticism and brute force. Chris- tianity has found a home among all nations and climes ; Moham- medanism, although it made a most vigorous effort to conquer the world, is after all a religion of the desert, of the tent and the caravan, and confined to nomad and savage or half-civilized nations, chiefly Arabs, Persians, and Turks. It never made an impression on Europe except by brute force ; it is only encamped, not really domesticated, in Constantinople, and Avheu it must withdraw from Europe it will leave no trace behind. Islam in its conquering march took forcible possession of the ^•A ♦ T lands of the Bible, and the Greek church, seized the throne of Constantine, overran Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, and for a long time threatened even the church of Rome and the German empire, until it was finally repulsed beneath the walls of Vienna. The Crusades which figure so prominently in the history of medieval § 40. POSITION OF MOHAMMEDANISM, ETC. 151 Christianity, originated in the desire to wrest the holy land from the followers of " the false prophet," and brought the East in contact with the West. The monarchy and the church of Spain, with their architecture, chivalry, bigotry, and inquisition, emerged from a fierce conflict with the Moors. Even the Reformation in the sixteenth century was complicated with the Turkish question, which occupied the attention of the diet of Augsburg as much as the Confession of the Evangelical princes and divines. Luther, in, one of his most popular hymns, prays for deliverance from " the murdering Pope and Turk," as the two chief enemies of the gospel * ; and the Anglican Prayer Book, in the collect for Good Friday, invokes God " to have mercy upon all Turks," as well as upon " Jews, Infidels, and Heretics." ^ The danger for Western Christendom from that quarter has long since passed away ; the " unspeakable " Turk has ceased to be unconquerable, but the Asiatic and a part of the East Euro- pean portion of the Greek church are still subject to the despotic rule of the Sultan, whose throne in Constantinople has been for more than four hundred years a standing insult to Christendom. Mohammedanism then figures as a hostile force, as a real Ish- maelite in church history ; it is the only formidable rival which Christianity ever had, the only religion which for a while at least aspired to universal empire. And yet it is not hostile only. It has not been without bene- ficial eifect upon Western civilization. It aided in the develop- ment of chivalry; it influenced Christian architecture; it stimu- lated the study of mathematics, chemistry, medicine (as is indicated by the technical terms : algebra, chemistry, alchemy) ; and the Arabic translations and commentaries on Aristotle by the Spanish * " Erhalt un.% Hen; bei deinem Wort, Und steur' des Papst's und Turken 3ford." * The words " all Jews, Turks, Infidels, and Heretics," were inserted by the framers of the Prayer Book in the first edition (1547) ; the rest of the collect is translated from the old Latin service. In the middle ages the word " infidel " denoted a Mohammedan. The Mohammetlans in turn call Christians, Jews, and all other religionists, "infidels" and "dogs." 152 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. Moors laid the ])hilo.so|)liical luundatiou of scholasticism. Even the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks brought an in- estimable blessing to the West by driving Greek scholars with the Greek Testament to Italy to inaugurate there the revival of k'tters which i)repared tlie way for the Protestant Reformation. Viewed in its relation to the Eastern Church mIucIi it robbed / of the fairest dominions, Mohammedanism Avas a well-deserved divine punisliment for the unfruitful speculations, bitter conten- tions, emi)ty ceremonialism and virtual idolatry which degraded S and disgraced tlie Christianity of the East after the fifth century. The essence of true religion, love to God and to man, was eaten out by rancor and strife, and there was left no power of ultimate resistance to the foreign conqueror. The hatred between the orthodox Eastern church and the Eastern schismatics driven from her communion, and the jealousy between the Greek and Latin churches prevented them from aiding each other in efforts to arrest the progress of the common foe. The Greeks detested the Latin Filioque as a heresy more deadly than Islam; while the Latins cared more for the supremacy of the Pope than the / triumph of Christiauity, and set up during the Crusades a rival hierarchy in the East. Even now Greek and Latin monks in ' Bethlehem and Jerusalem are apt to fight at Christmas and Eas- ter over the cradle and the grave of their common Lord and Redeemer, unless Turkish soldiers keep them in order ! ' But viewed in relation to the heathenism from which it arose or which it converted, Mahommedanism is a vast progress, and ' Anlil.isliop Trench, /.c. p. 54: "We can regard Mohammedanism in no otlier llglit than as a scourge of God upon a guilty church. He will not give his glory to anotlier. He will not suffer the Creator and the creature to be confounded ; and if those who should have been witnesses for the truth, who had been ai)pointed thereunto, forsake, forget, or deny it, He will raise up wit- nesses from quarters tlie most unlooked for, and will strengthen their hands and give victory to their arms e>on against those who bear his name, but have for- gotten liis truth." Similarly Dr. Jessup, I. c. p. 14: " The Mohammedan reli- gion arose, in tlie providence of God, as a scourge to the idolatrous Christianity, and tlie pagan systems of Asia and Africa— a protest against polytheism, and a preparation for the future conversion to a pure Christianity of the multitude § 40. POSITION OF MOHAMMEDANISM, ETC. 153 may ultimately be a stepping-stone to Christianity, like the law t of Moses which served as a schoolmaster to lead men to the gos- I pel. It has destroyed the power of idolatry in Arabia and a large ! part of Asia and Africa, and raised Tartars and Negroes from the ( rudest forms of superstition to the belief and worship of the one ; true God, and to a certain degree of civilization. It should be mentioned, however, that, according to the testi- mony of missionaries and African travelers, Mohammedanism has inflamed the simple minded African tribes with the impure fire of fanaticism and given them greater power of resistance to Christianity. Sir William Muir, a very competent judge, thinks that Mohammedanism by the poisoning influence of polygamy J and slavery, and by crushing all freedom of judgment in religion f has interposed the most eflectual barrier against the reception of / Christianity. " No system," he says, " could have been devised with more consummate skill for shutting out the nations over which it has sway, from the light of truth. Idolatrous Arabs might have been aroused to spiritual life and to the adoption of the faith of Jesus ; Mahometan Arabia is, to the human eye, sealed against the benign influences of the gospel. . . . The sword of Mahomet and the Coran are the most fatal enemies of civiliza- tion, liberty, and truth." ^ This is no doubt true of the past. But we have not yet seen the end of this historical problem. It is not impossible that Islam may yet prove to be a necessary condition for the revival of a pure Scriptiu-al religion in the East. Protestant missionaries i from England and America enjoy greater liberty under the Mo- hammedan rule than they would under a Greek or Eussian who have fallen under its extraordinary power." Carlyle calls the creed of Mo- hammed "a kind of Christianity better than that of those miserable Syrian Sects with the head full of worthless noise, the heart empty and dead. The truth of it is imbedded in portentous error and falsehood ; but the truth makes it to be believed, not the falsehood : it succeeded by its truth. A bastard kmd of Christianity, but a living kind; with a heart-life in it ; not dead, choppmg, barren logic merely." » Life, of Mahomet, IV. 321, 322. 154 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. government. The ISIohammcdan abhorrence of idolatry and image worshij), ^lohammedau simplicity and temperance are points of contact with the evangelical type of Christianity, which ' from the extreme West has established flourishing missions in the most important parts of Turkey. The Greek Church can do little or nothing with the Mohammedans ; if they are to be con- verted it must be done by a Christianity which is free from all appearance of idolatry, more simple in worship, and more vigoroas in life tiian that which they have so easily conquered and learned to despise. It is an encouraging fact that JNIohammedans have great respect for the Anglo-Saxon race. They now swear by the word of an Englishman as much as by the beard of Mohammed. Islam is still a great religious power in the East. , It rules supreme in Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, Egypt, North Africa, and makes progress among the savage tribes in the interior of the Dark Continent. It is by no means simply, as Schlegel charac- terized the system, " a prophet without miracles, a faith without mysteries, and a morality without love." It has tenacity, aggres- sive vitality and intense enthusiasm. Every traveller in the Ori- ent nuist be struck w^ith the power of its simple monotheism upon its followers. A visit to the Moslem University in the jMosque El Azhar at Cairo is very instructive. It dates from the tenth century (975), and numbers (or numbered in 1877, when I visited it) no less than ten thousand students who come from all parts of the Mohammedan world and present the appearance of a huge Sunday School, seated in small groups on the floor, studying the Koran as the beginning and end of all wisdom, and then at the stated hours for prayer rising to perform their devotions under the lead of their teachers. They live in primitive simplicity, studying, eating and sleeping on a blanket or straw mat in the same mosque, but the expression of their feces betrays the fanatic- al devotion to their creed. They support themselves, or are aided by the alms of the faithful. The teachers (over three hun- dred) receive no salary and live by private instruction or presents from rich scholars. ? 41. THE HOME, AND THE ANTECEDENTS OF ISLAM. 155 Nevertheless the power of Islam, like its symbol, the moon, is disappearing before the sun of Christianity which is rising once more over the Eastern horizon. Xearly one-third of its follow- ers are under Christian (mostly English) rule. It is essentially a politico- religions system, and Turkey is its stronghold. The Sultan has long been a " sick man," and owes his life to the for- bearance and jealousy of the Christian powers. Sooner or later he will be driven out of Europe, to Brusa or Mecca. The colos- sal empire of Russia is the hereditary enemy of Turkey, and would have destroyed her in the wars of 1854 and 1877, if Cath- olic France and Protestant England had not come to, her aid. In the meantime the silent influences of European civilization and Christian missions are undermining the foundations of Tur- key, and preparing the way for a religious, moral and social regeneration and transformation of the East. " God's mills grind slowly, but surely and wonderfully fme." A thousand years before Him are as one day, and one day may do the work of a thousand years. § 41. The Home, and the Antecedents of Islam. On the Aborigines of Arabia and its religious condition before Islam, compare the preliminary' discourse of Sale, Sect. 1 and 2; MuiR, Vol. I. ch. 2d; Spkengek, I. 13-82, and Stobaet, ch. 1. The fatherland of Islam is Arabia, a peninsula between the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. It is covered with sandy deserts, barren hills, rock-bound coasts, fertile wadies, and rich pastures. It is inhabited by nomadic tribes and traders who claim descent from five patriarchal stocks, Cush, Shem, Ishmael, Keturah, and Esau. It was divided by the ancients into Arabia Deserta, Arabia Petraea (the Sinai district with Petra as the. capital), and Arabia Felix (El- Yemen, i. e. the land on the right hand, or of the South). Most of its rivers are swelled by periodical rains and then lose themselves in the sandy plains; few reach the ocean ; none of them is navigable. It is a land of grim deserts and strips of green verdure, of drought and barren- 156 FOUKTPI PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. ness violent raius, clear skie.s, tropical Iieat, date palms, aromatic herbs, coffee, bal-sam, myrrh, frankincense, and dhurra (which takes the place of grain). Its chief animals are the camel, " the ship of the desert," an excellent breed of horses, sheep, and goats. The desert, like the ocean, is not without its grandeur. It cre- ates the impression of infinitude, it fosters silence and meditation on God and eternity. Man is there alone with God. The Ara- bian desert gave birth to some of the sublimest compositions, the ode of liberty by Miriam, the ninetieth Psalm by Moses, the book of Job, which Carlyie calls " the grandest poem written by the pen of man." The Arabs love a roaming life, are simple and temperate, cour- teous, respectful, hospitable, imaginative, fond of poetry and eloquence, careless of human life, revengeful, sensual, and fanatic- al. Arabia, protected by its deserts, was never properly con- quered by a foreign nation. The religious capital of Islam, and the birthplace of its founder — its Jerusalem and Rome — is Mecca (or Mekka), one of the oldest cities of Arabia. It is situated sixty-five miles East of Jiddali on the Red Sea, two hundred and forty-five miles South of Medina, in a narrow and sterile valley and shut in by bare hills. It numbered in its days of prosperity over one hundred thousand inhabitants, now only about forty-five thousand. It stands under the immediate control of the Sultan. The streets are broad, but unpaved, dusty in summer, muddy in wauter. The houses are built of brick or stone, three or four stories high ; the rooms better furnished than is usual in the East. They are a chief source of revenue by being let to the pilgrims. There is scarcely a garden or cultivated field in and around Mecca, and only lierc and there a thorny acacia and stunted brushwood relieves the eye. The city derives all its fruit — watermelons, dates, cucuinl)ers, limes, grapes, apricots, figs, almonds — from T4if and Wady Fatiraa, which during the pilgrimage season send more than one hundred camels daily to the capital. The inhabitants arc indolent, though avaricious, and make their living § 41. THE HOME, AND THE ANTECEDENTS OF ISLAM. 157 chiefly of the pilgrims who annually flock thither by thousands and tens of thousands from all parts of the Mohammedan world. None but Moslems are allowed to enter Mecca, but a few Chris- tian travellers — Ali Bey (the assumed name of the Spaniard, Domingo Badia y Leblich, d. 1818), Burckhardt in 1814, Bur- ton in 1852, Maltzan in 1862, Keane in 1880— have visited it in Mussulman disguise, and at the risk of their lives. To them we owe our knowledge of the place.^ The most holy place in jNIecca is Al-Kaaba, a small ob- long temple, so called irom its cubic form." To it the faces of millions of Moslems are devoutly turned in prayer five times a day. It is inclosed by the great mosque, which corresponds in importance to the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem and St. Peter's cathedral in Rome, and can hold about thirty-five thousand per- sons. It is surrounded by colonnades, chambers, domes and minarets. Near it is the bubbling well Zemzem, from which Hagar and Ishmael are said to have quenched their burning thirst. The Kaaba is much older than Mecca. Diodorus Siculus men- tions it as the oldest and most honored temple in his time. • It is supposed to have been first built by angels in the shape of a tent and to have been let down from heaven ; there Adam wor- shipped after his expulsion from Paradise; Seth substituted a structure of clay and stone for a tent; after the destruction by the deluge Abraham and Ishmael reconstructed it, and their footsteps are shown.^ It was entirely rebuilt in 1627. It con- » See Ali Bey's Travels in Asia and Africa, 1803-1S07 (1814, 3 vols.); the works of Burckhardt, and Burton mentioned before ; and Muir, I. 1-9. ' The Cube-house or Square house, Maison carree. It is also called Beit Ul- lah, (Beth-el), i. e. House of God. It is covered with cloth. See a description in Burckhardt, Travels, Lond., 1829, p. 136, Burton 11. 154, Sprenger II. 340, and Khan Bahador's Essay on the History of the Holy Mecca (a part of the work above quoted). Burckhardt gives the size: 18 paces long, 14 broad, 35 to 40 feet high. Burton : 22 paces (= 55 English feet) long, 18 paces (45 feet) broad. ' Bahador says, I. c. : " The most ancient and authentic of all the local tradi- tions of Arabia . . . represent the temple of the Kaaba as having been constructed in the 42d century A. M., or 19th century B. C, by Abraham, who was assisted in his work by his sou Ishmael." He quotes Gen. xii. 7 ; xiii. 18 in proof that 158 FOURTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. tains the famous Black Stone/ in the North-Eastern corner near the door. This is probably a meteoric stone, or of volcanic origin, and served originally as an altar. The Arabs believe that it fell from Paradise with Adam, and was as white as milk, but turned black on account of man's sins.^ It is semi- circular in shape, measures about six inches in height, and eight inches in breadth, is four or five feet from the ground, of reddish black color, polished by innumerable kisses (like the foot of the Peter-statue in St. Peter's at Rome), encased in silver, and covered with black silk and inscriptions from the Koran. It was an object of veneration from time immemorial, and is still devoutly kissed or touched by the Moslem jiilgrims on each of their seven circuits around the temple.^ Mohammed subsequently cleared the Kaaba of all relics of idolatry, and made it the place of pilgrimage for his followers. He invented or revived the legend that Abraham by divine command sent his son Ishmael with Hagar to Mecca to establish there the true worship and the pilgrim festival. He says in the Koran : " God hath appointed the Kaaba, the sacred house, to be a station for mankind," and, " Remember when we appointed the sanctuary as man's resort and safe retreat, and said, ' Take ye the station of Abraham for a place of prayer.' And we com- manded Abraham and Ishmael, ' Purify my house for those who shall go in procession round it, and those who shall bow do^vn and prostrate themselves.'"* Abraham raised " altars for God's worship on every spot where he himself had adored Him." But tlie Bible nowhere says that lie ever was in Mecca. ' It is called in Arabic Ilhajera el-Assouad, the Heavenly Stone. Muir n. 35. ' Bahador discredits this and other foolish traditions, and thinks that the Black Stone was a piece of rock from the neighboring Abba Kobais mountain, and put in its present place by Ishmael at the desire of Abraham. ' Sec pictures of the Kaaba and the Black Stone, in Bahador, and also in Mnir, II. IS, and description, II. 34 sqq. * Rodwcll's translation, pp. 446 and 648. Sprenger, II. 279, regards the Moslem legend of the Abrahamic origin of the Kaaba worship as a pure inven- tion of Mohammed, of which there is no previous trace. § 41. THE HOME, AND THE ANTECEDENTS OF ISLAM. 159 Arabia had at the time when Mohammed appeared, all the elements for a wild, warlike, eclectic religion like the one which he established. It was inhabited by heathen star-worshippers, Jews, and Christians. The heathen were the ruling race, descended from Ishmael, the bastard son of Abraham (Ibrahim), the real sons of the desert, full of animal life and energy. They had their sanctuary in the Kaaba at Mecca, which attracted annually large numbers of pilgrims long before Mohammed. The Jews, after the destruction of Jerusalem, were scattered in Arabia, especially in the district of Medina, and exerted con- siderable influence by their higher culture and rabbinical tra- ditions. The Christians belonged mostly to the various heretical sects which were expelled from the Roman empire during the violent doctrinal controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries. We find there traces of Arians, Sabellians, Ebionites, Nestorians, Eutychians, Monophysites, Marianites, and Collyridians or wor- shijipers of Mary. Anchorets and monks settled in large num- bers in Wady Feiran around Mount Serbal, and Justinian laid the foundation of the Convent of St. Catharine at the foot of Mount Sinai, which till the year 1859 harbored the oldest and most complete uncial manuscript of the Greek Scriptures of both Testaments from the age of Constantine. But it was a very superficial and corrupt ChrLstianity which had found a home in those desert regions, where even the apostle Paul spent three years after his conversion in silent preparation for his great mission. These three races and religions, though deadly hostile to each other, alike revered Abraham, the father of the faithful, as their common ancestor. This fact might suggest to a great mind the idea to unite them by a national religion monotheistic in princi- ple and eclectic in its character. This seems to have been the original project of the founder of Islam. It is made certain by recent research that there were at the 160 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. time and before the call of Mohammed a considerable number of inquirers at Mecca and Medina, who had intercourse with Eastern Christians in Syria and Abyssinia, were dissatisfied with the idolatry around them, and inclined to monotheism, which they traced to Abraham. They called themselves Hanyfs, i. e. Converts, Puritans. One of them, Omayah of Taif, we know to have been under Christian influence; others seem to have de- rived their monotheistic ideas from Judaism. Some of the early converts of ]\lohammed as, Zayd (his favorite slave), Omayah, or Umaijah (a popular poet), and Waraka (a cousin of Chadijah and a student of the Holy Scriptures of the Jews and Christians) belonged to this sect, and even Mohammed acknowledged him- self at first a Hanyf.' Waraka, it is said, believed in him, as long as he was a Hanyf, but then forsook him, and died a Chris- tian or a Jew." Mohammed consolidated and energized this reform-movement, and gave it a world-wide significance, under the new name of Isldm, i. e. resignation to God ; whence 3Ioslem (or Muslim), one who resigns himself to God. § 42. Life and Character of llohammed. Mohammed, an unschooled, self-taught, semi-barbarous son of nature, of noble birth, handsome person, imaginative, energetic, brave, the ideal of a Bedouin chief, was destined to become the political and religious reformer, the poet, prophet, priest, and king of Arabia. He was born about A. D. 570 at Mecca, the only child of a ' Sprenger I. 45 : " Die bisher unbekannt gebliebenen Hanyf en waren die Vor- Idufer des Mohammcul. Er nennt sich selbst einen Hanyf, und wdhrend der ersten Periode seines Lehramtes hat er toenig anderes gethan, als ihre Lehre bestdtigt." * According to Sprenger, I. 91 sqq., he died a Christian ; but Deutsch, I. c, p. 77, says: "Whatever Waraka was originally, lie certainly lived and died a Jew." He infers this from the fact that when asked by Chadijah for his opinion concerning INIohamincd's revelations, he cried out: "Koddm! Koddus! {{. e., KcuJosh, Holy). Verily this is the Namibs (i. e., v6/io^, Law) which came to Moses. He will be the prophet of his people." § 42. LIFE AND CHARACTEK OF MOHAMMED. 161 young widow named Amina.^ His father Abdallah had died a few months before in his twenty-fifth year on a mercantile jour- ney in Medina, and left to his orphan five camels, some sheep and a slave girl.^ He belonged to the heathen family of the Hashim, which was not wealthy, but claimed lineal descent from Ishmael, and was connected with the Koreish or Korashites, the leading tribe of the Arabs and the hereditary guardians of the sacred Kaaba.^ Tradition surrounds his advent in the Avorld with a halo of marvellous legends : he was born circumcised and with his navel cut, with the seal of prophecy written on his back in letters of light; he prostrated himself at once* on the ground, and, raising his hands, prayed for the pardon of his people ; three persons, brilliant as the sun, one holding a silver goblet, the second an emerald tray, the third a silken towel, ap- peared from heaven, Avashed him seven times, then blessed and saluted him as the' " Prince of Mankind." He was nursed by a healthy Bedouin woman of the desert. When a boy of four years he was seized with something like a fit of epilepsy, which ^ We know accurately the date of Mohammed's deatli (June 8, 032), but the year of liis birth onK by reckoning backwards ; and as his age is variously stated from sixty-one to sixty-five, there is a corresponding difference in the statements of the year of his birth. De Sacy fixes it April 20, 571, von Ham- mer 569, Muir Aug. 20, 570, Sprenger between May 13, 567, and April 13, 571, but afterwards (I. 138), April 20, 571, as most in accordance with early tra- dition. " According to Ibn Ishak and Wackidi. Bahador adopts this tradition, in the last of his essays which treats of " the Birth and Childhood of Mohammed." But according to other accounts, Abdallah died several months (seven or eighteen) after Mohammed's birth. Muir. I. 11; Sprenger, I. 138. ^ On the pedigree of Mohammed, see an essay in the work of Syed Ahmed Khan Bahador, and Muir I. 242-271. The Koreish were not exactly priests, but watched the temple, kept the keys, led the processions, and provided for the pilgrims. Hashim, Mohammed's great-grandfather (b. A. D. 442), thus addressed the Koreish : " Ye are the neighbors of God and the keepers of his house. The pilgrims who come honoring the sanctity of his temple, are his guests; and it is meet that ye should entertain them above all other guests. Yc are especially chosen of God and exalted unto this high dignity; wherefore honor his guests and refresh them." He himself set an example of munificent hospitality, and each of the Koreish contributed according to his ability. Muir I. CCXLVII. 11 152 FOUETH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Wackidi and other historians transformed into a miraculous occurrence. He was often subject to severe headaches and fever- ish convulsions, in which he fell on the ground like a drunken man and snored like a camel.^ In his sixth year he lost his mother on the return from Medina, whither she had taken him on camel's back to visit the maternal relations of his father, and was carried back to Mecca by his nurse, a faithful slave gu*l. He was taken care of by his aged grandfather, Abd al Motkalib, and after his death in 578 by his uncle Abu Talib, who had two wives and ten children, and, though poor and no believer in his nejjhew's mission, generously protected him to the end. He accompanied his uncle on a commercial journey to Syria, passing through the desert, ruined cities of old, and Jewish and Christian settlements, which must have made a deep impression on his youthful imagination. !Mohammcd made a scanty living as an attendant on caravans and by watching sheep and goats. The latter is rather a disre- putable occupation among the Arabs, and left to unmarried women and slaves ; but he afterwards gloried in it by appealing to the example of Moses and David, and said that God never calls a prophet who has not been a shepherd before. According to tradition — for, owing to the strict prohibition of images, we have no likeness of the prophet — he was of medium size, rather slender, but broad-shouldered and of strong muscles, had black eyes and hair, an oval-shaped face, white teeth, a long nose, a patriarchal beard, and a commanding look. His step was quick and firm. He wore wliite cotton stuff, but on festive occa- sions fine linen striped or dyed in red. He did everything for liimself ; to the last he mended his own clothes, and cobbled his sandals, and aided his wives in sewing and cooking. He laughed and smiled often. He had a most fertile imagination and a genius for poetry and religion, but no learning. He was an " illiterate prophet," in this respect resembling some of the ' Sprenger has a long chapter on this disease of Mohammed, which he calls with Schonlein, hysteria museularis, I. 207-268. § 42. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED. 163 prophets of Israel and the fishermen of Galilee. It is a dis- puted question among Moslem and Christian scholars whether he could even read and write.^ Probably he could not. He dictated the Koran from inspiration to his disciples and clerks. What knowledge he possessed, he picked up on the way from intercourse with men, from hearing books read, and especially from his travels. In his twenty-fifth year he married a rich widow, Chadijah (or Chadidsha), who was fifteen years older than himself, and who had previously hired him to carry on the mercantile busi- ness of her former husband. Her father was opposed to the match ; but she made and kept him drunk until the ceremony was completed. He took charge of her caravans with great suc- cess, and made several journeys. The marriage was happy and fruitful of six children, two sons and four daughters ; but all died except little F4tima, who became the mother of innumera- ble legitimate and illegitimate descendants of the prophet. He also adopted Ali, whose close connection with him became so important in the history of Islam. He was faithful to Chadi- jah, and held her in grateful remembrance after her death.- He used to say, " Chadijah believed in me when nobody else did." He married afterwards a number of wives, who caused him much trouble and scandal. His favorite wife, Ayesha, was more jealous of the dead Chadijah than any of her twelve or more ^ Sprenger discusses the question, and answers it in the affirmative, Vol. JI. 398 sqq. The Koran (29) says: "Formerly [before I sent down the book, i. e. the Koran] thou didst not read any book nor write one with thy right hand." From this, some Moslems infer that after the reception of the Koran, he was supematurally taught to read and write ; but others hold that he was ignorant of both. Syed Ahmed Khan Bahador says : " Not the least doubt now exists that the Prophet was wholly unacquainted with the art of writing, being also, as a matter of course (?), unable to read the hand- writing of others ; for which rea- son, and for this only, he was called Ummee" (illiterate). ' Sprenger attributes his faithfulness to Chadyga (as he spells the name) not to his merit, but to his dependence. She kept her fortune under her own con- trol, and gave him only as much as he needed. 1(34 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. liviu*'- rivals, for he constantly held up the toothless old woman as the model of a wife. On his commercial journeys to Syria, he became acquainted with Jews and Christians, and acquired an imperfect knowledge of their traditions. He spent much of his time in retirement, prayer, fiistinfj, and meditation. He had violent convulsions and epileptic fits, which his enemies, and at first he himself, traced to demoniacal possessions, but afterwards to the over- powering presence of God. His soul was fired with the idea of the divine unity, which became his ruling passion; and then he awolcc to the bold thought that he was a messenger of God, called to warn his countrymen to escape the judgment and the damnation of hell by forsaking idolatry and worshipping the only true God. His monotheistic enthusiasm was disturbed, though not weakened, by his ignorance and his imperfect sense of the difference between right and wrong. In his fortieth year (A.D. 610), he received the call of Ga- briel, the archangel at the right hand of God, who announced the birth of the Saviour to the Virgin Mary. The first revela- tion was made to him in a trance in the wild solitude of Mount Hira, an hour's walk from Mecca. He was directed " to cry in the name of the Lord." He trembled, as if something dreadful had happened to him, and hastened home to his wife, who told him to rejoice, for he Avould be the prophet of his people. He waited for other visions; but none came. He went up to Mount Hira again — this time to commit suicide. But as often as he approached the precij)icc, he beheld Gabriel at the end of the horizon saying to him : " I am Gabriel, and thou art Moham- med, the prophet of God. Fear not !" He then commenced his career of a prophet and founder of a new religion, which coml)incd various elements of the three religions represented in Arabia, but was animated and controlled by the fiiith in Allah, as an almighty, ever-present and working Avill, From this time on, his life was enacted before the eyes of the world, and is embodied in his deeds and in the Koran. § 42. LIFE AND CHAEACTER OF MOHAMMED. 165 The revelations coutinued from time to time for more than twenty years. When asked how they were delivered to him, he replied (as reported by Ayesha) : " Sometimes like the sound of a bell — a kind of communication which was very severe for me ; and when the sounds ceased, I found myself aware of the instructions. And sometimes the angel would come in the form of a man, and converse with me, and all his words I remem- bered." After his call, Mohammed labored first for three years among his family and friends, under great discouragements, making about forty converts, of whom his wife Chadijah was the first, his father-in-law, Abu Bakr, and the young, energetic Omar the most important. His daughter Fatima, his adopted son Ali, and his slave Zayd likewise believed in his divine mission. Then he publicly announced his determination to assume by command of God the office of prophet and lawgiver, preached to the pilgrims flocking to Mecca, attacked IMeccan idolatry, reasoned with his opponents, answered their demand for mira- cles by producing the Koran " leaf by leaf," as occasion de- manded, and provoked persecution and civil commotion. He was forced in the year 622 to flee for his life with his followers from Mecca to Medina (El-Medina an-Nabi, the City of the Pro- phet), a distance of two hundred and fifty miles North, or ten days' journey over the sands and rocks of the desert. This flight or emigration, called Hegira or Hichhra, marks the beginning of his wonderful success, and of the Mohammedan era (July 15, 622). He was recognized in Medina as prophet and lawgiver. At first he proclaimed toleration : " Let there be no compulsion in religion ;" but afterwards he revealed the opposite principle that all unbelievers must be summoned to Islam, tribute, or the sword. With an increasing army of his enthusiastic followers, he took the field against his enemies, gained in 624 his first victory over the Koreish with an army of 305 (mostly citizens of Medina) against a force twice as large, conquered several Jewish and Christian tribes, ordered IQQ FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. and watched in person the massacre of six hundred Jews in one day/ while their wives and children were sold into slavery (627), triumphantly entered Mecca (630), demolished the three hundred and sixty idols of the Kaaba, and became master of Arabia. The Koreish were overawed by his success, and now shouted : " There is but one God, and Mohammed is his prophet." The various tribes were melted into a nation, and their old hereditary feuds changed into a common fanatical hatred of the infidels, as the followers of all other religions were called. The last chapter of the Koran commands the remorseless extermina- tion of all idolaters in Arabia, unless they submit within four months. In the tenth year of the Hegira, the prophet made- his last pilgrimage to INIecca at the head of forty thousand Moslems, instructed them in all important ordinances, and exhorted them to protect the weak, the poor, and the women, and to abstain from usury. He planned a large campaign against the Greeks. But soon after his return to Medina, he died of a violent fever in the house and the arms of Ayesha, June 8, 632, in the sixty- third year of his age, and was buried on the spot where he died, which is now enclosed by a mosque. He suifered great pain, cried and wailed, turned on his couch in despair, and said to his wives when they expressed their surprise at his conduct : " Do ye not know that prophets have to suifer more than all others? One was eaten up by vermin ; another died so poor that he had nothing but rags to cover his shame; but their reward will be all the greater in the life beyond." Among his last utterances -vvere : "The Lord destroy the Jews and Christians! Let his anger be kindled against those that turn the tombs of their prophets into places of worship! O Lord, let not my tomb be an object of Avorship ! Let there not remain any faith but that of Islam throughout the whole of Arabia. . . . Gabriel, come close to me! Lord, grant me pardon and join ■ So Sprenger, III. 221. Others give seven hundred and ninety as the num- ber of Jews who were beheaded in a ditch. 5 42. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED. 167 me to thy companionship on high ! Eternity in paradise ! Pardon ! Yes, the blessed companionship on high !" ^ Omar would not believe that Mohammed was dead, and pro- claimed in ^the mosque of Medina : " The prophet has only swooned away; he shall not die until he have rooted out every hypocrite and unbeliever." But Abu Bakr silenced him and said : " Whosoever worshij)S Mohammed, let him knoAV that Mohammed is dead ; but whosoever worships God, let him know that the Lord liveth, and will never die." Abu Bakr, whom he had loved most, was chosen Calif, or Successor of Mohammed. Later tradition, and even the earliest biography, ascribe to the prophet of Mecca strange miracles, and surround his name with a mythical halo of glory. He was saluted by walking trees and stones; he often made by a simple touch the udders of dry goats distend with milk ; he caused floods of water to well up from the parched ground, or gush forth from empty vessels, or issue from betwixt the fingers; he raised the dead; he made a night journey on his steed Borak through the air from Mecca to Jerusalem, from Jerusalem to paradise and the mansions of the prophets and angels, and back again to Mecca." But he himself, in several passages of the Koran, expressly disclaims the power of miracles; he appeals to the internal proofs of his doctrine, and shields himself behind the providence of God, M'ho refuses those signs which might diminish the merit of faith and aggra- vate the guilt of unbelief.^ ^ See Sprenger, III. 552 sqq. , Muir, IV. 270 sqq. ^ This absurd story, circumstantially described by Abulfeda, is probably based on a dream which Mohammed himself relates in the Koran, Sura 17, entitled The Night Journey : " Glory be to Him who carried his servant by night from the sacred temple of Mecca to the temple that is remote" [i. e. in Jerusalem], In the Dome of the Rock on Mount Moriah, the hand-prints of the angel Ga- briel are shown in the mysterious rock which attempted to follow Mohammed to its native quarry in Paradise, but was kept back by the angel ! 'See an interesting essay on the "Miracles of Mohammed" in Tholuck's 3fisccllaneous Essays (1S39), Vol. I., pp. 1-27. Also Muir, L, pp. 65 sqq.; Sprenger, II. 413 sqq. X68 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Character of Mohammed. The Koran, if clironologically arranged, must be regarded as the best commentary on his character. While his followers re- gard him to this day as the greatest prophet of God, he was long abhorred in Christendom as a wicked impostor, as the antichrist, or tlie false prophet, predicted in the Bible, and inspired by the father of lies. The calmer judgment of recent historians inclines to the be- lief that he combined the good and bad qualities of an Oriental chief, and that in the earlier part of his life he was a sincere reformer and enthusiast, but after the establishment of his king- dom a slave of ambition for conquest. He was a better man in the period of his adversity and persecution at Mecca, than during liis prosperity and triumph at Medina. History records many examples of characters rising from poverty and obscurity to greatness, and tlien decaying under the sunshine of wealth and power. He degenerated, like Solomon, but did not repent, like the preaclier of "vanity of vanities." He had a melancholic and nervous temperament, liable to fantastic hallucinations and alternations of liigli excitement and deep depression, bordering at times on despair and suicide. The story of his early and fre- quent epileptic fits throws some light on his revelations, during which he sometimes growled like a camel, foamed at his mouth, and streamed M'ith perspiration. He ])elieved in evil spirits, omens, charms, and dreams. His mind was neither clear nor sharji, but strong and fervent, and under the influence of an exu- berant imagination. He was a poet of high order, and the Koran is the first classic in Arabic literature. He believed himself to be a pro])het, irresistibly impelled by supernatural influence to teach and warn his fellow-men. He started with the over- powering conviction of the unity of God and a horror of idola- try, and wished to rescue his countrymen from this sin of sins and from the terrors of the judgment to come ; but gradually he rose above the office of a national reformer to that of the founder 2 42. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED. 169 of a universal religion, which was to absorb the other religions, and to be propagated by violence. It is difficult to draw the line in such a character between honest zeal and selfish ambition, the fear of God and the love of power and glory. He despised a throne and a diadem, lived with his wives in a row of low and homely cottages of unbaked bricks, and aided them in their household duties; he was strictly temperate m eat- ing and drinking, his chief diet being dates and water; he was not ashamed to milk his goats, to mend his clothes and to cobble his shoes; his personal property at his death amounted to some confiscated lands, fourteen or fifteen slaves, a few camels and mules, a hundred sheep, and a rooster. This simplicity of a Bedouin Sheikh of the desert contrasts most favorably with the luxurious style and gorgeous display of Mohammed's successors, the Califs and Sultans, who have dozens of palaces and harems filled with eunuchs and women that know nothing beyond the vanities of dress and etiquette and a little music. He was easy of access to visitors who approached him with faith and reverence; patient, generous, and (according to Ayesha) as modest and bashful "as a veiled virgin." But towards his enemies he was cruel and revengeful. He did not shrink from perfidy. He believed in the use of the sword as the best mis- sionarv, and was utterly unscrupulous as to the means of success. He had great moral, but little physical courage; he braved for_ thirteen years the taunts and threats of the people, but never exposed himself to danger in battle, although he always accom- panied his forces. . Mohammed was a slave of sensual passion. Ayesha, who knew him best in his private charaeter and habits, used to say: Ihe prophet loved three things, .vomen, perfumes and food,-^he had his heart's desire of the two first, but not of the last. The mo- tives of his excess in polygamy were his scnsnallty wh.ch grew with his years, and his desire for male offspring. H.s followers exeused or justified him by the examples of Abraham, David and Solomon, and by tire diffieulties of his prophetic office, which 170 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. were so great tliat God gave him a compensation in sexual en- joyment, and endowed him with greater capacity than thirty ordinary men. For twenty-four years he had but one wife, his beloved Chadijah, Avho died in 619, aged sixty-five, but only two months after her death he married a widow named Sawda (April 619), and gradually increased his harem, especially during the last two years of his hfe. When he heard of a pretty woman, says Sprenger, he asked her hand, but was occasionally refused. He had at least fourteen legal wives, and a number of slave con- cubines besides. At his death he left nine widows. He claimed special revelations which gave him greater liberty of sexual indul- gence than ordinary Moslems (who are restricted to four wives), and exempted him from the prohibition of marrying near rela- tives.' He married by divine command, as he alleged, Zeynab, the wife of Zayd, his adopted son and bosom-friend. His wives were all widows except Ayesha. One of them was a beautiful and rich Jewess ; she was despised by her sisters, who sueeringly said: " Pshaw, a Jewess!" He told her to reply: "Aaron is my father and Moses my uncle!" Ayesha, the daughter of Abil Bakr, was his especial favorite. He married her when she was a girl of nine years, and he fifty-three years old. She brought her dc^ll-babies with her, and amused and charmed the j^rophet by her playfulness, vivacity and wit. She could read, had a co-py of the Koran, and knew more about theology, genealogy and poetry than all the other widows of Mohammed. He announced that she would be his wife also in Paradise. Yet she was not free from suspicion of unfaithfulness until ho received a revela- ^ He speaks freely of this subject in the Koran, Sur. 4, and 33. In the latter (Rodman's transl., p. 568) this scandalous passage occurs: "O Prophet! we allow thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves whom thy right liand possesseth out of the booty which God hath granted thee, and the daugh- ters of thy uncle, and of tliv paternal and maternal aunts who fled with thee to Medina, and any believing woman who hath given herself up to the Prophet, if the Propliet desired to wed her, a privilege for thee above the rest of the faith- ful." Afterwards in the same Sura (p. 569) he says : " Ye must not trouble the Apostle of God, nor marry his wives after him forever. This would be a grave ofience with God." ? 43. THE CONQUESTS OF ISLAM. 171 tion of her innocence. After his death she was the most sacred person among the Moslems and the highest authority on religious and legal questions. She survived her husband forty-seven years and died at Medina, July 13, 678, aged sixty-seven years.^ In his ambition for a hereditary dynasty, Mohammed was sadly disappointed : he lost his two sons by Chadijah, and a third one by Mary the Egyptian, his favorite concubine. To compare such a man with Jesus, is preposterous and even blasphemous. Jesus was the sinless Saviour of sinners ; Moham- med was a sinner, and he knew and confessed it. He falls far below Moses, or Elijah, or any of the prophets and apostles in moral purity. But outside of the sphere of revelation, he ranks with Confucius, and Cakya Muni the Buddha, among the greatest founders of religions and lawgivers of nations. § 43. The Conquests of Islam. " The sword," says Mohammed, " is the key of heaven and hell ; a drop of blood shed in the cause of Allah, a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting or prayer : whosoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven, and at the day of judgment his limbs shall be supj^lied by the Avings of angels and cherubim." This is the secret of his success. Idolaters had to choose between Islam, slavery, and death ; Jews and Christians were allowed to pm-chase a limited toleration by the payment of tribute, but were otherwise kept in degrading bondage. History ^ Sprenger, III. 61-87, gives a full account of fourteen wives of Mohammed, and especially of Ayesha, according to the list of Zohry and Ibn Saad. Sprenger says, p. 37: "Der Prophet hatte keine Wohnung fiir sichselbst. Sei7i Hauptqicartier war in der Hiitte der Ayischa und die offcntlichen Ge^chafte verrichtete er in der Moschee, aber er hrachte jede Nacht bei einer seiner Frcmen zu und war, ivie es scheint, auch ihr Gast beim Essen. Er ging aber taglich, wenn er bei gvter Laxine war, bei alien seinen Frauen umher, gab jeder einen Kuss, sprach einige Worte und spielte mil ih\ Wir haben gesehen, dass seine Familie neun Hi'dten besass ; dies war auch die Anzahl der Frauen, welche er bei seinem Tode kinterliess. Doch gab es Zeiten, zu denen sein Harem starker war. Er brachte dann einige seiner Schonen in den Hdnsern von Nachbarn unter. Es kam auch vor, dass zivei Frauen eine Hiitte bewohnten. Stiefkinder ivohnten, so lange siejung waren, bei ihren Miittem." 272 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. records no soldiers of greater bravery inspired by religion than the ^loslem conquerors, except CromAvell's Ironsides, and the Scotch Covenanters, who fought with pui'er motives for a nobler cause. The Califs, Mohammed's successors, who like him united the priestly and kingly dignity, carried on his conquests with the battle-cry : " Before you is paradise, behind you are death and hell." Inspu-ed by an intense fanaticism, and aided by the w^eak- ness of the Byzantine empire and the internal distractions of the Greek Church, the wild sous of the desert, who were content with the plainest food, and disciplined in the school of war, hardship and recklessness of life, subdued Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, embracing the classical soil of primitive Christianity. Thousands of Christian churches in the patriarchal dioceses of Jerusalem, Antioch and Alexandria, were ruthlessly destroyed, or converted into mosques. Twenty-one years after the death of INIohammed the Crescent ruled over a realm as large as the Roman Empire. Even Constantinople was besieged twice (GG8 and 717), although in vain. The terrible efficacy of the newly invented " Greek fire," and the unusual severity of a long winter defeated the enemy, and saved Eastern and Northern Europe from the blight of the Koran. A large number of nominal Christians who had so fiercely quarreled with each other about unfruitful subtleties of their creeds, surrendered their faith to the conqueror. In 707 the North African 2)rovinces, where once St. Augustin had directed the attention of the church to the highest problems of theology and religion, fell into the hands of the Arabs. In 711 they crossed from Africa to Spain and established an independent Califate at Cordova. The moral degeneracy and dissensions of the "Western Goths facilitated their subjugation. Encouraged by such success, the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and boasted that they would soon stable their horses in St. Peter's cathedral in Rome, but the defeat of Abd-er Rahman by Charles !Martel between Poitiers and Tours in 732 — one hundred and ten years after the Hegira — checked their progress in the West, and 2 43. THE CONQUESTS OF ISLAM. 173 \j^ 1492 — the same year iu which Columbus discovered a new Coutiueut — Ferdinand defeated the last Moslem army in Spain at the gates of Granada and drove them back to Africa. The palace and citadel of the Alhambra, with its court of lions, its delicate arabesques and fretwork, and its aromatic gardens and groves, still remains, a gorgeous ruin of the power of the Moor- ish kings. In the East the Moslems made new conquests. In the ninth century they subdued Persia, Afghanistan, and a large part of India. They reduced the followers of Zoroaster to a few scattered communities, and conquered a vast territory of Brahminism and Buddhism even beyond the Ganges. The Seliuk Turks in the eleventh century, and the Mongols in the thirteenth, adopted the religion of the Califs whom they conquered. Constantinople fell at last into the hands of the Turks in 1453, and the magni- ficent church of St. Sophia, the glory of Justinian's reign, was turned into a mosque where the Koran is read instead of the Gospel, the reader holding the drawn scimetar in his hand. From Constantinople the Turks threatened the German empire, and it was not till 1683 that they were finally defeated by Sobieski at the gates of Vienna and driven back across the Danube. With the senseless fury of fanaticism and pillage the Tartar Turks have reduced the fairest portions of Eastern Em-ope to desolation and ruin. With sovereign contempt for all other religions, they subjected the Christians to a condition of virtual servitude, treating them like " dogs," as they call them. They did not intermeddle with their internal aifairs, but made merchandise of ecclesiastical offices. The death penalty was suspended over every attempt to convert a INIussulman. Apostasy from the fiiith is also treason to the state, and merits the severest punishment in this world, as well as everlasting damnation in the world to come. After the Crimean war in 1856, the death penalty for apostasy was nominally abolished in the dominions of the Sultan, and in the Berlin Treaty of 1878 liberty of religion (more than mere toleration) was guaranteed to all existing sects in the Turkish 174 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. empire, but the old fanaticism will yield only to superior force ; and the guarantee of liberty is not understood to imply the liberty of propaganda among Moslems. Christian sects have liberty to prey on each other, but woe to them if they invade the sacred province of Islam.^ A Mohammedan tradition contains a curious prophecy that Christ, the son of Mary, will retui-n as the last Calif to judge the world.2 -pije impression is gaining ground among the Mos- lems that they Avill be unable ultimately to withstand the steady progress of Christianity and Western civilization. The Sultan, the successor of the Califs, is a mere shadow on the throne trembling for his life. The dissolution of the Turkish empirej which may be looked for at no distant future, will break the backbone of Islam, and open the way for the true solution of the Eastern question — the moral regeneration of the Lands of the Bible by the Christianity of the Bible. § 44. The Koran, and the Bible, " Mohammed's truth lay in a sacred Book, Christ's in a holy Life." — Milnes [Palm-Leaves). The Koran ^ is the sacred book, the Bible of the Mohamme- dans. It is their creed, their code of laws, their liturgy. It claims to be the product of divine inspiration by the arch- ' If Protestant missionaries enjoy more toleration and liberty in Turkey than in Roman Catholic Austria and in Greek Catholic Russia, it must be understood with the above limitation. Turkish toleration springs from proud contempt of Christianity in all its forms ; Russian and Austrian intolerance, from despotism and bigoted devotion to a particular form of Christianity. ' Among the traditional sayings of Mohammed is this (Gerock, I. c, p. 132) : " I am nearest to Jesus, both as to the beginning and the end ; for there is no propliet between me and Jesus ; and at the end of time he will be my repre- sentative and my successor. The prophets are all brethren, as they have one father, though their mothers are different. The origin of all their religions is the same, and between me and Jesus there is no other prophet." ' Arabic qurdn, i. e. the reading or that which should be read, the book. It is read over and over again in all the mosques and schools. I 44. THE KOEAN, AND THE BIBLE. 175 angel Gabriel, who performed the function assigned to the Holy Spirit in the Scriptures.^ The Mohammedans distinguish two kinds of revelations: those which were literally delivered as spoken by the angel (called Wahee Matloo, or the word of God), and those which give the sense of the inspired instruction in the prophet's own words (called Wahee Ghaw Matloo, or Hadees). The prophet is named only five times, but is addressed by Gabriel all through the book with the word Say, as the reci- pient and sacred penman of the revelations. It consists of 114 Suras == and 6,225 verses. Each Sura (except the ninth) begins with the formula (of Jewish origin) : " In the name of Allah, the God of Mercy, the Merciful." ^ 1 Sura 53 (Kodwell, p. 64) : "The Koran is no other than a revelation revealed to him: One terrible in power [Gabriel, i. e. the Strong one of God] taught it him. Endued with wisdom, with even balance stood he In the highest part of the horizon. He came nearer and approached, And was at the distance of two bows, or even closer, — And he revealed to his servant what he revealed." 1 add the view of a learned modern Mohammedan, Syed Ahmed Khan Ba- hador, who says {l. c, Essay on the Holy Koran) : "The Holy Koran was deli- vered to Mohammed neither in the form of graven tablets of stone, nor in that of cloven tongues of lire; nor was it necessary that the followers of Mohammed, like those of Moses, should be furnished with a copy or counterpart, in case the original should be lost. No mystery attended the delivery of it, for it was on Moliammed's heart that it was engraven, and it was with his tongue that it was communicated to all Arabia. The heart of Mohammed was the Sinai where he received the revelation, and his tablets of stone were the hearts of true believers." 2 Sura means either revelation, or chapter, or part of a chapter. The Mo- hammedan commentators refer it primarily to the succession of subjects or parts, like the rows of bricks in a wall. The titles of the Suras are generally taken from some leading topic or word in each, as "The Sun," "The Star," "The Charges," "The Scattering," "The Adoration," "The Spider," "Women, "Hypocrites," "Light," "Jonas," "The Cave," "The Night Journey," "The Cow," "The Battle," "The Victory." 3 "Bismillahi Wrahonani 'rrahim." According to the Ulama (the professors of religion and law), "God of mercy" means merciful in great thmgs; "the Merciful" means merciful in small things. But, according to E. W. Lane, "the first expresses an occasional sensation, the second a constant quality." In other words, the one refers to acts, the other to a permanent attribute. 176 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. The Koran is composed in imperfect metre and rhyme (which is as natural and easy in the Arabic as in the Italian language). Its language is considered the purest Arabic. Its poetry some- what resembles Hebrew poetry in Oriental imagery and a sort of parallelism or correspondence of clauses, but it loses its charm in a translation; while the Psalms and Prophets can be repro- duced in any language without losing their original force and beautv. The Koran is held in superstitious veneration, and was reo-arded till recently as too sacred to be translated and to be sold like a common book.^ Mohammed prepared and dictated the Koran from time to time as he received the revelations and progressed in his career, not for readers, but for hearers, leaving much to the suggestive action of the public recital, either from memory or from cof)ies taken down by his friends. Pleuce its occasional, fragmentary character. About a year after his death, at the direction of Abu-Bakr, his father-in-law and immediate successor, Zayd, the chief ansar or amanuensis of the Prophet, collected the scattered fragments of the Koran "from palm-leaves, and tab- lets of white stone, and from the breasts of men," but ^^•ithout any regard to chronological order or continuity of subjects. Abu-Bakr committed this copy to the custody of Haphsa, one of JNlohammed's widoAvs. It remained the standard during the ten years of Omar's califate. As the different readings of copies occasioned serious disputes, Zayd, with several Korcish, was commissioned to secure the purity of the text in the IMeccan dialect, and all previous copies were called in and burned. The recension of Zayd has been handed doM'u with scrupulous care unaltered to this day, and various readings are almost ludvuown ; the differences being confined to the vowel-points, which were ' Tliese scruples are gradually giving way, at least in India, wliere "printed copies, with inter-lineal vrrsions in Persian and Urdoo— too literal to be intel- ligihle— are commonly used." IMuir, The Cor&n, p. 48. The manuscript copies in tiie mosques, in the library of the Khedive in Cairo, and in many European libraries, are equal in caligraphic beauty to the finest mediaeval manuscripts of the Bible. g 44. THE KORAN, AND THE BIBLE. 177 invented at a later period. The Koran contains many inconsis- tencies and contradictious; but tlie expositors hold that the later command supersedes the earlier. The restoration of the chronological order of the Suras is neces- sary for a proper understandingV the gradual development of Islam in the mind and character a/ its author.' There is a con- siderable difference betAA^een the Suras of the earlier, middle, and later periods. In the earlier, the poetic, wild, and rhapsodical ele- ment predominates; in the middle, the prosaic, narrative, and missionary; in the later, the official and legislative. Mohammed began with descriptions of natm-al objects, of judgment, oriieaven and hell, impassioned, fragmentary utterances, mostly in brief sentences ; he went on to dogmatic assertions, historical statements from Jewish and Christian sources, missionary appeals and per- suasions ; and he ended with the dictatorial commands of a legislator and warrior. " He who at INIecca is the admonisher and persuader, at Medina is the legislator and the warrior, who dictates obedience, and uses other weapons than the pen of the poet and the scribe. When business pressed, as at Medina, poetry makes way for prose,^ and although touches of the poeti- cal element occasionally break forth, and he has to defend him- self up to a very late period against the charge of being merely a poet, yet this is rarely the case in the Medina Suras; and we are startled by finding obedience to God and the Apostle, God's gifts and the Apostle^ s, God's pleasure and the Apostle's, spoken of in the same breath, and epithets, and attributes, applied to Allah, openly applied to Mohammed, as in Sura IX." '^ ^ The present order, says Miiir {Cordn, p. 41), is almost a direct inversion of the natural chronological order ; the longest which mostly belong to the later period of Mohammed, being placed first, and the shortest last. "Weil, Sprenger, and Muir have paid much attention to the chronological arrangement. N61- deke also, in his Geschichte des Qorans, has fixed the order of the Suras, with a reasonable degree of certainty on the basis of Mohammedan traditions and a searching analysis of the text; and he has been mainly followed by Rodwell in his English version. ^ Tlie ornament of metre and rhyme, however, is preserved throughout. s Rodwell, p. X. Couip. Deutsch, I. c, p. 121. 12 178 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049, The materials of tlic Koran, as far as they are not productions of tlic author's own imagination, were derived from the floating traditions of Arabia and Syria, from rabbinical Judaism, and a corrupt Christianity, and adjusted to his purposes. Mohammed had, in his travels, come in contact with profes- sors of different religions, and on his first journey with camel- drivers he fell in with a Ncstorian monk of Bostra, wdio goes by different names (Bohari, Bahyra, Sergius, George), and wel- comed the youthful prophet with a presage of his future great- ness.^ His wife Chadijah and her cousin Waraka (a reputed convert to Christianity, or more probably a Jew) are said to have been well acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews and the Christians. The Koran, especially in the earlier Suras, speaks often and highly of the Scriptures; calls them "the Book of God," "the Word of God," "the Tourat" (Thora, the Pentateuch), "the Gospel" (Ynyil), and describes the Jews and Christians as "the people of the Book," or "of the Scripture," or "of the Gospel." It finds in the Scriptures prophecies of Mohammed and his suc- cess, and contains narratives of the fall of Adam and Eve, Noah and the Deluge, Abraham and Lot, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Moses and Joseph, John the Baptist, the Virgin Mary and Jesus, sometimes in the words of the Bible, but mostly distorted and interspersed with rabbinical and apocryphal fables.^ It is quite probable that portions of the Bible were read to Mo- hammed ; but it is very improbable that he read it himself; for according to the prevailing Moslem tradition he could not read at all, and there were no Arabic translations before the Moham- medan conquests, which spread the Arabic language in the con- quered countries. Besides, if he had read the Bible wdtli any degree of care, he could not have made such egregious blunders. 1 Muir, Life of Moh., I. 35 ; Stanley, p. 366. ' See a collection of these correspondences in the original Arabic and in English in Sir 'WiHiam Muir's Goran, pp. 66 sqq. Muir concludes that Mo- hammed knew the Bible, and believed in its divine origin and authority. 2 44. THE KORAN AND THE BIBLE. 179 The few allusions to Scripture phraseology — as "giving alms to be seen of men," " none forgiveth sins but God only " — may be derived from personal intercom-se and popular traditions. Jesus [Isa) is spoken of as " the Son of INIary, strengthened by the Holy Spirit." Noah {Nah), Abraham {Ib7^ahym), Moses (3Iusa), Aaron (Hanm), are often honorably mentioned, but apparently always from imperfect traditional or apocryphal sources of information.^ The Koran is unquestionably one of the great books of the world. It is not only a book, but an institution, a code of civil and religious laws, claiming divine origin and authority. It has left its impress upon ages. • It feeds to this day the devo- tions, and regulates the private and public life, of more than a hundred millions of human beings. It has many passages of poetic beauty, religious fervor, and wise counsel, but mixed with absurdities, bombast, unmeaning images, low sensuality. It abounds in repetitions and contradictions, which are not removed by the convenient theory of abrogation. It alternately attracts and repels, and is a most wearisome book to read. Gibbon calls the Koran "a glorious testimony to the unity of God," but also, very properly, an "endless, incoherent rhapsody of fable and precept and declamation, which seldom excites a sentiment or idea, which sometimes crawls in the dust, and is sometimes lost 1 Muir {Life, II. 313, 278) and Stanley (p. 366) adduce, as traces of a faint knowledge of the Canonical Gospels, the account of the birth of John the Bap- tist in the Koran, and the assumption by Mohammed of the name of Paradetus under the distorted form of Peridytus, the Illustrious. But the former does not strike me as being taken from St. Luke, else he could not have made such a glaring chronological mistake as to identify Mary with Miriam, the sister of Moses. And as to the promise of the Paraclete, which only occurs in St. John, it certainly must have passed into popular tradition, for the word occurs also in the Talmud. If Mohammed had read St. John, he must have seen that the Paraclete is the Holy Spirit, and would have identified him with Gabriel, rather than with himself. Palmer's opinion is that Mohammed could neither read nor write, but acquired his knowledge from the traditions which were then current in Arabia among Jewish and Christian tribes. The Qu.r'dn, I., p. xlvii. 180 FOUKTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. in the clouds." ' Reiske "^ denounces it as the most absui-d book and a scourge to a reader of sound common sense. Goethe, one of the best judges of literary and poetic merit, characterizes the style as severe, great, terrible, and at times truly sublime. " Detailed injunctions," he says, " of things allowed and forbid- den, legendary stories of Jewish and Christian religion, amplifi- cations of all kinds, boundless tautologies and repetitions, form the body of this sacred volume, which to us, as often as we approach it, is repellent anew, next attracts us ever anew, and fills us with admiration, and finally forces us into veneration." He finds the kernel of Islam in the second Sura, where belief and unbelief with heaven and hell, as their sure reward, are contrasted. Carlyle calls the Koran "the confused ferment of a great rude human soul; rude, untutored, that cannot even read, but fervent, earnest, struggling vehemently to utter itself in words ;" and says of Mohammedanism : " Call it not false, look not at the falsehood of it; look at the truth of it. For these twelve centuries it has been the religion and life-guidance of tlie fifth part of the whole kindred of mankind. Above all, it has been a religion heartily believed." But with all his admiration, Carlyle confesses that the reading of the Koran in English is "as toilsome a task" as he ever undertook. "A wearisome, confused jumble, crude, incondite; endless iterations, long-windedness, entanglement ; insupportable stupidity, in short, nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European through the Koran. We read it, as we might in the State- Paper Office, unreadable masses of lumber, that we may get some glimpses of a remarkable man." And yet there are Mohamme- dan doctors who are reported to have read the Koran seventy- thousand times! What a difierence of national and religious taste ! Emanuel Deutsch finds the grandeur of the Koran chiefly in its Arabic diction, " the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sono- rous nature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia ' Decline and Fall of the R. E., Cli. 50. ^ As quoted by Tholuck. I 44. THE KORAN AND THE BIBLE. 181 verba, with their crowd of prefixes and affixes, each of them affirming its own position, while consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root, which they envelop like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move round the anointed person of the king." E. H. Palmer says that the claim of the Koran to miraculous eloquence, however absurd it may sound to Western ears, was and is to the Arab incontrovertible, and he accounts for the immense influence which it has always exercised upon the Arab mind, by the fact, " that it consists not merely of the enthusiastic utterances of an individual, but of the popu- lar sayings, choice pieces of eloquence, and favorite legends cur- rent among the desert tribes for ages before this time. Arabic authors speak frequently of the celebrity attained by the ancient Arabic orators, such as Shaiban Wail; but unfortunately no specimens of their works have come down to us. The Qur'an, however, enables us to judge of the speeches which took so strong a hold upon their countrymen."^ Of all books, not excluding the Yedas, the Koran is the most powerful rival of the Bible, but falls infinitely below it in con- tents and form. Both contain the moral and religious code of the nations which own it; the Koran, like the Old Testament, is also a civil and political code. Both are oriental in style and imagery. Both have the fresh character of occasional composition growing out of a definite historical situation and specific wants. But the Bible is the genuine revelation of the only true God in Christ, reconciling the world to himself; the Koran is a mock-revela- tion without Christ and without atonement. Whatever is true in the Koran is borrowed from the Bible ; what is original, is false or frivolous. The Bible is historical and embodies the noblest aspirations of the human race in all ages to the final consummation ; the Koran begins and stops with Mohammed. The Bible combines endless variety with unity, universal appli- ^ The Qur'an, Introd. I., p. 1, J 82 FOURTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. cability with local adaptation ; the Koran is uniform and mono- tonous, confined to one country, one state of society, and one class of minds. The Bible is the book of the world, and is constantly travelling to the ends of the earth, carrying spiritual food to all races and to all classes of society; the Koran stays in the Orient, and is insipid to all who have once tasted the true word of the living God.^ Even the poetry of the Koran never rises to the grandeur and sublimity of Job or Isaiah, the lyric beauty of the Psalms, the sweetness and loveliness of the Song of Solomon, the sententious wisdom of the Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. A few instances must suffice for illustration. The first Sura, called " the Sura of Praise and Prayer," which is recited by the Mussulmans several times in each of the five daily devotions, fills for them the place of the Lord's Prayer, and contains the same number of petitions. We give it in a rhymed, and in a more literal translation : "In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate I Praise be to Allah, who the three worlds made, The Merciful, the Compassionate, The King of the day of Fate, Thee alone do we worship, and of Thee alone do we ask aid. Guide us to the path that is straight — The path of those to whom Thy love is great, Not those on whom is hate, Nor they that deviate! Amen." * " In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds ! The Compassionate, the Merciful ! King on the day of judgment ! Thee niihi do we worship, and to Thee do we cry for help. Guide Thou us on the right path, Tlie i)ath of those to whom Thou art gracious ; Not of those with whom Thou art angered, Nor of those who go astray." ^ • On this rliflTerence Ewald makes some good remarks in the first volume of his Bibliad Theology (1871), p. 418. * Translated liy Lieut. Burton. » Rodwell, The Koran (2nd ed., 1876), p. 10. 2 45. THE MOHAMMEDAN KELIGION. 183 We add the most recent version in prose : " In the name of the merciful and compassionate God. Praise belongs to God, the Lord of the worlds, the merciful, the compassionate, the ruler of the day of judgment ! Thee we serve and Thee we ask for aid. Guide us in the right path, the path of those Thou art gracious to ; not of those Thou art wroth with ; nor of those who err." ^ As this Sura invites a comparison with the Lord's Prayer infi- nitely to the advantage of the latter, so do the Koran's descrip- tions of Paradise when contrasted with St. John's vision of the heavenly Jerusalem : "Joyous on that day shall be the inmates of Paradise in their employ; In shades, on bridal couches reclining, they and their spouses : Therein shall they have fruits, and whatever they require — ' Peace !' shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord. But be ye separated this day, O ye sinners!" ^ ****** " The sincere servants of God A stated banquet shall they have Of fruits ; and honored shall they be In the gardens of delight, Upon couches face to face. A cup shall be borne round among them from a fountain, Limpid, delicious to those who drink ; It shall not oppress the sense, nor shall they therewith be drunken, And with them are the large-eyed ones with modest refraining glances, fair like the sheltered egg." ^ § 45. The Mohammedan Religion. Isl4m is not a new religion, nor can we expect a new one after the appearance of that religion which is perfect and intended for all nations and ages. It is a compound or mosaic of preexisting elements, a rude attempt to combine heathenism, Judaism and Christianity, which Mohammed found in Arabia, but in a very ^ E. H. Palmer, The Qur'dn, Oxford, 1880, Part I., p. 1. 2 Sura 36 (in Kodwell, p. 128). ^ The ostrich egg carefully protected from dust. Sura 37 (in Eodwell, p. 69). Brides and wives always figure in the Mohammedan Paradise. 184 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. inipertect form.' It is professedly a restoration of the faith of Abraliani, the common father of Isaac and of Ishmael. But it is not the genuine faith of Abraham with its Messianic hopes and a.-pirations looking directly to the gospel dispensation as its goal and fultilment, but a bastard Judaism of Ishmael, and the post-Christian and anti- Christian Judaism of the Talmud. Still less did jSIohammed know the pure religion of Jesus as laid down in the New Testament, but only a perversion and caricature of it, such as we find in the A\Tetched apocryphal and heretical Gospels. This ignorance of the Bible and the corruptions of Eastern Christianity with which the Mohammedans came in con- tact, furnish some excuse for their misbelief and stubborn preju- dices. And yet even the poor pseudo- Jewish and pseudo-Chris- tian elements of the Koran were strong enough to reform the old heathenism of Arabia and Africa and to lift it to a much higher level. The great and unquestionable merit of Islam is the breaking up of idolatry and the diffusion of monotheism. The creed of Islam is simple, and consists of six articles : God, predestination, the angels (good and bad), the books, the pro- phets, the resurrection and judgment with eternal reward and eternal punishment. GOD. Monotheism is the corner-stone of the system. It is expressed in the ever-repeated sentence : " There is no god but God (Allah, ' Luther said of the religion of the Turks: "Also isti's ein Glaub zummmen- geflicht aus der Judcn, Christen und Heiden Glauhe." Milman (II. 139) calls Mohaininodanism '' the republication of a more comprehensive Judaism with some depraved forms of Christianity." Renan describes it as "the least ori- ginal" of the religious creations of humanity. Geiger and Deutsch (both He- brews) give prominence to the Jewish element. " It is not merely parallelisms," says Deutsch, " reminiscences, allusions, technical terms, and the like, of Juda- ism, its lore and dogma and ceremony, its Halacha and Haggadah (which may most briefly be rendered by 'Law' and 'Legend'), Avhich we find in the Koran ; but we think Ishlin neither more nor less than Judaism as adapted to Arabia — plus the apostleship of Jesus and Mohammed. Nay, we verily believe that a great deal of such Christianity as has found its way into the Koran, has found it through Jewish channels" (/. c. p. 64). 2 45. THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION. 185 i. e., the true, the only God), and Mohammed is his prophet (or apostle)." ^ Gibbon calls this a " compound of an eternal truth and a necessary fiction." The first clause certainly is a great and mighty truth borrowed from the Old Testament (Deut. 6:4:); and is the religious strength of the system. But the ISIoham- medan (like the later Jewish, the Socinian, and the Unitarian) monotheism is abstract, monotonous, divested of inner life and fulness, anti-trinitarian, and so far anti-Christian. One of the last things which a Mohammedan will admit, is the divinity of Christ. Many of the divine attributes are vividly apprehended, emphasized and repeated in prayer. But Allah is a Gt>d of infi- nite power and wisdom, not a God of redeeming love to all mankind ; a despotic sovereign of trembling subjects and slaves, not a loving Father of trustful children. He is an object of reverence and fear rather than of love and gratitude. He is the God of fate who has unalterably foreordained all things evil as well as good ; hence unconditional resignation to him (this is the meaning of Islam) is true wisdom and piety. He is not a hid- den, imknowable being, but a God who has revealed himself through chosen messengers, angelic and human. Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus are his chief prophets.^ But Mo- hammed is the last and the greatest. CHRIST. The Christology of the Koran is a curious mixture of facts and apocryphal fictions, of reverence for the man Jesus and denial of his divine character. He is called " the Messiah Jesus Son of Mary," or " the blessed Son of Mary." ^ He was a ser- vant and apostle of the one true God, and strengthened by ^ Ld ildha iW Allah, tea Muhammeda rrasula 'llah. Allah is composed of the article al, '' the," and ildh, " a god," and is equivalent to the Hebrew El and Elohim. He was known to the Arabs before Mohammed, and regarded as the chief god in their pantheon. ' A similar idea is presented in the pseudo-Clementine Homilies. * Mesich Isa ben Mariam. 18G FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. tlie Holy Spirit, i. c, the angel Gabriel (Dshebril), who after- wards couve}'ed the divine revelations to Mohammed. But he is not the Son of God ; for as God has no wife, he can have no son.^ He is ever alone, and it is monstrous and blasphemous to associate another being with Allah. Some of the Mohammedan divines exempt Jesus and even his mother from sin, and first proclaimed the dogma of the immacu- late conception of Mary, for which the apocryphal Gospels pre- pared the way." By a singular anachronism, the Koran confounds the Virgin Mary with Mu-iam, " the sister of Aaron " (Harun), and Moses (Ex. xv. 20 ; Num. xxi. 1). Possibly Mohammed mav have meant another Aaron (since he calls Mary " the sister of Aaron," but not '' of Moses ") ; some of his commentators, however, assume that the sister of Moses was miraculously pre- served to give birth to Jesus.^ According to the Koran Jesus was conceived by the Virgin Mary at the appearance of Gabriel and born under a palm tree beneath which a fountain opened. This story is of Ebionite origin.* Jesus preached in tlie cradle and performed miracles ' In rude misconception or wilful perversion, Mohammed seems to have understood the Christian doctrine of the trinity to be a trinity of Father, Mary, and Jesus. The Holy Spirit is identified with Gabriel. '' God is only one God ! Far be it from his glory that he should have a son !" Sura 4, ver. 169 ; comp. 5, ver. 77. The designation and worship of Mary as ",the mother of God" may have occasioned this strange mistake. There was in Arabia in the fourth century a sect of fanatical women called Collyridians {Ko?.?ivpi6eg), who rendered divine worship to Mary. Epiphanius, Uaer. 79. ' As the Protevangdium Jacobi, the Evang. de Nativitaie Marice, the Evang. Infantum Sen-atoris, etc. Gibbon (ch. 50) and Stanley (p. 367) trace the doctrine of the immaculate conception directly to the Koran. It is said of Mary : " Re- member when the angel said : ' O Mary ! verily hath God chosen thee, and purified thee, and chosen thee above the women of the worlds.' " But this does not necessarily mean more than Luke i. 28. The Koran knows nothing of original sin in the Christian sense. ' Gerok, I. c. pp. 22-28. This would be a modification of the rabbinical fable that ordinary death and corruption had as little power over Miriam as over Moses, and that botli died by the breath of Jehovah. * Rosch (/. c, p. 439) : '' Die Geburtsgeschichte Jesa hn Koran ist nichis anderes ? 45. THE MOHAMMEDAN KELIGION. 187 iu His infancy (as in the apocryphal Gospels), and during His public ministry, or rather Allah wrought miracles through Him. Mohammed disclaims the miraculous power, and relied upon the stronger testimony of the truth of his doctrine. Jesus proclaimed the pure doctrine of the unity of God and disclaimed divine honors. The crucifixion of Jesus is denied. He was delivered by a miracle from the death intended for Him, and taken up by God into Paradise with His mother. The Jews slew one like Him, by mistake. This absurd docetic idea is supposed to be the com- mon belief of Christians.^ Jesus predicted the coming of Mohammed, w^hen he said : "O children of Israel ! of a truth I am God's apostle to you to con- firm the law which was given before me, and to announce an apostle that shall come after me whose name shall be Ahmed !" ^ Thus the promise of the Holy Ghost, " the other Paraclete," (John xiv. 16) was applied by Mohammed to himself by a sin- | gular confusion of Pamdetos {7Tapdx?:^Toc) with Peridytos {Trepc- \ xhjToz, heard all round , famous) or Ahmed [the glorified, theillus- trious), one of the prophet's names.^ Owing to this partial recognition of Christianity Mohammed (ds ein mythologischer Mijthus mis Ezech. 47 mit eingewobenen judischen Zilgen, der seine Heimath im Ebionis7nus hat." 1 Sura 4. This view of the crucifixion is no doubt derived from apocryphal sources. The Gnostic sect of Basilides supposed Simon of Cyrene, the Evangel. Barrab(B, Judas, to have been that other person who was crucified instead of Jesus. Mani {Epi^t. Fund.) says that the prince of darkness was nailed to the cross, and wore the crown of thorns. ^ Sura 61. ^ The Moslems refer also some other passages of Scripture to Mohammed and his religion, e. g. Gen. xvi. 10; xvii. 20; xxi. 12, 13; xxvii. 20 (the pro- mise of God to bless Hagar and Ishmael) ; Deut. xviii. 15, 18 (the promise to raise up a prophet like Moses) ; Isa. xxi. 67 (where Mohammed is supposed to be meant by the "rider on the camel," as distinct from Jesus, "the rider on the ass "); John iv. 21 ; 1 John iv. 23 (where he is the spirit that is of God, because he proclaimed that Jesus was a true man, not God) ; Deut. xxxii. 2 (where Sinai is said to mean the Jewish, Seir the Christian, and Paran the Mohammedan revelation). 188 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. was originally regarded not as the founder of a new religion, but as one of the chief lieretics/ The same opinion is expressed by several modern writers, Catholic and Protestant. Dollino-er says : " Islam must be considered at bottom a Christian heresy, the bastard otfspring of a Christian father and a Jewish mother and is indeed more closely allied to Christianity than Mauich^ism which is reckoned a Christian sect." ^ Stanley calls Islam an " eccentric heretical form of Eastern Christianity/' and Ewald more correctly, " the last and most powerful oifshoot of Gnosti- cism." ^ THE ETHICS OF ISLAM. Eesignation (Islam) to the omnipotent will of Allah is the chief virtue. It is the most powerful motive both in action and suti'ering, and is carried to the excess of fatalism and apathy. The use of pork and wine is strictly forbidden; prayer, fast- ing (especially during the whole month of Raraadhan), and alms- giving are enjoined. Prayer carries man half-Avay to God, fasting brings him to the door of God's palace, alms secure admittance. The total abstinence from strong drink by the whole people, even in countries where the vine grows in abundance, reveals a remarkable power of self-control, which puts many Christian nations to shame. Mohannnedauism is a great temperance society. Herein lies its greatest moral force. POLYGAMY. But on the other hand the heathen vice of polygamy and con- cubinage is perpetuated and encouraged by the example of the prophet. He restrained and regulated an existing practice, and gave it the sanction of religion. Ordinary believers are restricted to four wives (exclusive of slaves), and generally have only one ' Ro l.y .John of Damas. =,s and the mediaeval writers against Islam. Peter of CluL^ny speaks of '^ hcrcse, Saracemrum doe IsmaeUturum." Comp Gass Gennndius unci Plctho, p. 109. ^' ' ' Lectures on the Reunion of Churches, p. 7 (transl. by Oxenham, 1872) Die Lehre der Bibcl von Qott, Vol. I. (1871), p. 418. § 45. THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION. 189 or two. But Califs may fill their harems to the extent of their wealth and lust. Concubinage with female slaves is allowed to all without limitation. The violation of captive women of the enemy is the legitimate reward of the conqueror. The laws of divorce and prohibited degrees are mostly borrowed from the Jews, but divorce is facilitated and practiced to an extent that utterly demoralizes married life. Polygamy and servile concubinage destroy the dignity of wo- . man, and the beauty and peace of home. In all INIoliammedan countries woman is ignorant and degraded ; she is concealed from public sight by a veil (a sign of degradation as well as protec- tion); she is not commanded to pray, and is rarely seen in the mosques; it is even an open question whether she has a soul, but she is necessary even in jjaradise for the gratification of man's passion. A Moslem would feel insulted by an inquiry after the health of his wife or wives. Polygamy affords no protection against unnatural vices, which are said to prevail to a fearful extent among Mohammedans, as they did among the ancient heathen.^ In nothing is the infinite superiority of Christianity over Islam so manifest as in the condition of woman and family life. Woman owes everything to the religion of the gospel. The sensual element pollutes even the Mohammedan picture of heaven from which chastity is excluded. The believers are promised the joys of a luxuriant paradise amid blooming gardens, fresh fountains, and beautiful virgins. Seventy-two Houris, or black-eyed girls of blooming youth will be created for the enjoy- ment of the meanest believer ; a moment of pleasure will be pro- longed to a thousand years ; and his faculties will be increased a hundred fold. Saints and martyrs will be admitted to the spiritual joys of the divine vision. But infidels and those who refuse to fight for their faith will be cast into hell. The Koran distinguishes seven heavens, and seven hells (for ^ Rom. i. 24 sqq. See the statements of Dr. Jessup of Beirut, I. c, p- 47. 190 FOUETH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. wicked or apostate ^Mohammedans, Cliristians, Jews, Sabians, Magians, idolaters, hypocrites). Hell (Jaheunem==Gehenna) is beneath the lowest earth and seas of darkness; the bridge over it is finer than a hair and sharper than the edge of a sword; the pious pass over it in a moment, the wicked fall from it into the abyss. SLAVERY. Slavery is recognized and sanctioned as a normal condition of society, and no hint is given in the Koran, nor any effort made by Mohammedan rulers for its final extinction. It is the twin- sister of polygamy ; every harem is a slave-pen or a slave-palace. " The Koran, as a universal revelation, would have been a per- petual edict of servitude." Mohammed, by ameliorating the condition of slaves, and enjoining kind treatment upon the mas- ters, did not pave the way for its abolition, but rather riveted its fetters. The barbarous slave-trade is still carried on in all its horrors by Moslems among the negroes in Central Africa. w A R . War against unbelievers is legalized by the Koran. The fighting men are to be slain, the women and children reduced to slavery. Jews and Christians are dealt with more leniently than idolaters; but they too must be thoroughly humbled and forced to pay tribute. § 46. Mohammedan Worship. " A simple, unpartitioned room, Surmounted by an ample dome, Or, in some lands that favored lie, With centre open to the sky. But roofed with arched cloisters round, That mark the consecrated bound, And shade the niche to Mecca turned. By which two massive lights are burned ; With pulpit whence the sacred word 2 46. MOHAMMEDAN WORSHIP. 191 Expounded on great days is heard ; With fountains fresh, where, ere they pray, Men wash the soil of eartli away ; With shining minaret, thin and high, From whose fine trellised balcony, Announcement of the hour of prayer Is uttered to the silent air : Such is the Mosque — the holy place, Where faithful men of every race Meet at their ease and face to face." (From MiLNES, ^^ Palm Leaves^) In worship the prominent feature of Islam is its extreme icon- oclasm and puritanism. In this respeet, it resemblSs the ser- vice of the synagogue. The second commandment is literally understood as a prohibition of all representations of living crea- tures, whether in churches or elsewhere. The only ornament allowed is the "Arabesque," which is always taken from inani- mate nature/ The ceremonial is very simple. The mosques, like Catholic churches, are always open and frequented by worshippers, who perform their devotions either alone or in groups with covered head and bare feet. In entering, one must take oif the shoes according to the command : " Put oif thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground." Slippers or sandals of straw are usually provided for strangers, and must be paid for. There are always half a dozen claimants for "backsheesh" — the first and the last word which greets the tra- veller in Egypt and Syria. Much importance is attached to preaching.^ Circumcision is retained from the Jews, although it is not mentioned in the Koran. Friday is substituted for the Jewish Sabbath as the sacred day (perhaps because it was previously a ^ The lions in the court of the Alhambra form an exception. 2 For an interesting description of a sermon from the pulpit of Mecca, see Burton's Pilgrimage, II. 314; III. 117, quoted by Stanley, p- 379. Burton says, he had never and nowhere seen so solemn, so impressive a religious spec- tacle. Perhaps he ha.s not heard many Christian sermons. 192 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. day fur religious assemblage). It is called the prince of days, the most excellent day on Avhich man was created, and on which the last judgment will take place; but the observance is less strict than that of the Jewish Sabbath. On solemn occasions sacrifice, mostly in the nature of a thank-offering, is offered and combined with an act of benevolence to the poor. But there is no room in Islam for the idea of atonement; God forgives sins directly and arbitrarily, without a satisfaction of justice. Hence there is no priesthood in the sense of a hereditary or perpetual caste, offering sacrifices and mediating between God and the people.^ Yet there are Mufties and Dervishes, who are as powerful as any class of priests and monks. The Mus- sulmans have their saints, and pray at their white tombs. In this respect, they approach the Greeks and Roman Catholics; yet they abhor the worship of saints as idolatry. They also make much account of religious processions and pilgrimages. Their chief place of pilgrimage is Mecca. Many thousands of Moslems from Egypt and all parts of Turkey pass annually through the Arabian desert to worshij) at the holy Kaaba, and are received in triumph on their return. The supposed tomb of Moses, also, which is transferred to the Western shore of the Dead Sea, is visited by the INIoslems of Jerusalem and the neighboring country in the month of April. Prayer with prostrations is reduced to a mechanical act which is performed with the regularity of clock work. AVashing of hands is enjoined before prayer, but in the desert, sand is per- mitted as a substitute for water. There are five stated seasons for prayer : at day-break, near noon, in the afternoon, a little after sunset (to avoid the appearance of sun-Avorship), and at night-fall, besides two night prayers for extra devotion. The mueddin or muezzin (crier) announces the time of devotion from the minaret of the mosque by chanting the "Adan" or call to prayer, in these Avords : ' Gibbon's statement tlirit " the Mohammedan religion has no priest and no Bacrifice," is substantially correct. § 46. MOHAMMEDAN WOESHIIP. 193 " God is great!" (four times). "I bear witness that there is no god but God " (twice). "I bear witness that Mohammed is the Apostle of God" (twice). "Come hither to prayers!" (twice). "Come hither to salvation!" (twice). "God is great! There is no other God!" And in the early morning the crier adds : " Prayer is better than sleep !" A devout Mussulman is never ashamed to perform his devo- tion in public, whether in the mosque, or in the street, or on board the ship. Regardless of the surroundings, feeling alone with God in the midst of the crowd, his face turned to Mecca, his hands now raised to heaven, then laid on the lap, his fore- head touching the ground, he goes through his genuflexipns and prostrations, and repeats the first Sura of the Koran and the ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah, which form his rosary.^ The mosques are as well filled with men, as many Christian churches are with women. Islam is a religion for men ; women are of no account ; the education and elevation of the female sex would destroy the system. With all its simplicity and gravity, the Mohammedan wor- ship has also its frantic excitement of the Dervishes. On the celebration of the birthday of their prophet and other festivals, they work themselves, by the constant repetition of " Allah, Allah," into a state of unconscious ecstacy, " in which they plant swords in their breasts, tear live serpents with their teeth, eat bottles of glass, and finally lie prostrate on the ground for the chief of their order to ride on horseback over their bodies." ^ ^ They are given in Arabic and English by Palmer, I. c. I., Intr., p. Ixvii. sq. The following are the first ten : ^ 1. ar-Ra'hraan, the Merciful. 2. ar-Ra'him, the Compassionate. 3. al-Malik, the Ruler. 4. al-Quaddus, the Holy. 5. as-Salam, Peace. 6. al-Mu'min, the Faithful. 7. al-Muhaimun, the Protector. 8. al-Haziz, the Mighty. 9. al-Gabbar, the Repairer. 10. al-Mutakabbir, the Great. ^ Description of Dean Stanley from his own observation in Cairo, /. c, p. 385. 13 194 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. I will add a brief description of the ascetic exercises of the " Daucino- " aud " Howling " Dervishes which I witnessed in their convents at Constantinople and Cairo in 1877. The Dancing or Turning Dervishes in Pera, thirteen in num- ber some looking ignorant aud stupid, others devout and in- tensely fanatical, went first through prayers and prostrations, then threAV oif their outer garments, and in white flowing gowns, with high hats of stiff woolen stuff, they began to dance to the sound of strange music, whirling gracefully and skilfully on their toes, rino- within ruig, without touching each other or moving out of their circle, performing, in four different acts, from forty to fifty turnings in one minute, their arms stretched out or raised to heavcu, their eyes half shut, their mind apparently lost in a sort of Xirwana or j^antheistic absorption in Allah. A few hours afterward I witnessed the rare spectacle of one of these very Dervishes reeling to and fro in a state of intoxication on the street and the lower bridge of the Golden Horn. The Howling Dervishes in Scutari present a still more extra- ordinary sight, and a higher degree of ascetic exertion, but des- titute of all grace and beauty. The performance took place in a small, plain, square room, and lasted nearly two hours. As the monks came in, they kissed the hand of their leader and repeated Avith liiin long prayers from the Koran. One recited with melo- dious voice an Arabic song in praise of ISIohammed. Then, standing in a row, bowing, and raising their heads, they con- tinued to howl the fundamental dogma of Mohammedanism, La ilalui Ur Allah, for nearly an hour. Some were utterly exhausted and wet with perspiration. The exercises I saw in Cairo w^ere less protracted, but more dramatic, as the Dervishes had long hair and stood in a circle, swinging their bodies backward and forward in constant succession, and nearly touching the ground with tiieir flowing liair. In astounding feats of asceticism the Moslems are fully equal to the ancient Christian anchorites and the fakirs of India. 2 47. CHRISTIAN POLEMICS AGAINST MOHAMMEDANISM. 195 § 47. Christian Polemics against Mohammedanism. Note on 3Iormonism. See the modern Lit. in | 38, p. 143. For a list of earlier works against Mohammedanism, see J. Alb. Fabri- CIUS : Delectus argumentorum et syllabus scriptorum, qui veritatem Christ, adv. Atheos, . . . Judceos et Muhamviedanos . . , asseruerunt. Hamb., 1725, pp. 119 sqq., 735 sqq. J. G. Walch : Bibliotheca The- olog. Selecta (Jenae, 1757), Tom. I. 611 sqq. Appendix to Pri- DEAUX's Life of Mahomet. Theod. Bibliander, edited at Basle, in 1543, and again in 1550, with the Latin version of the Koran, a collection of the more important works against Mohammed under the title : Machumetis Saracenorum prineipis ejusque successorum vitm, doctrince, ac ipse Alcoran., I vol. fol. RiCHARDUS (about 1300) : Confutatio Alcorani, first publ. in Paris, 1511. JOH. DE TuRRECREMATA : Tractatus contra principales errores perfdi Mahometis et Turcorum. Rom., 1606. LUD. Maraccius (Maracci) : Prodromus ad refutationem Alcorani; in quo, per IV. prcecipuas verce religionis notas, mahumetance sectae falsitas osfendifur, christiance religionis Veritas comprobatur. Rom. (typis Congreg. de Propaganda Fide), 1691. 4 vols., small oct. ; also Pref. to his Alcorani textus universus, Petav., 1698, 2 vols. fol. Hadr. Relaistd : De Religione Mohammedica. Utrecht, 1705 ; 2nd ed. 1717; French transl., Hague, 1721. W. Gass : Gennadius und Pletho. Breslau, 1844, Part I., pp. 106-181. [Die Bestreitung des Islam im Mittelalter.) The argument of Mohammedanism against other religions was the sword. Christian Europe replied with the sword in the crusades, but failed. Greek and Latin divines refuted the false prophet with superior learning, but without rising to a higher providential view, and without any perceptible eifect. Christian polemics against Mohammed and the Koran began in the eighth century, and continued with interruptions to the sixteenth and seventeenth. John of Damascus, who lived among the Saracens (about A. D. 750), headed the line of champions of the cross against the crescent. He was followed, in the Greek Church, by Theodor of Abukara, who debated a good deal with Mohammedans in Mesopotamia, by Samonas, bishop of Gaza, Bartholomew of Edessa, John Kantakuzenus (or rather a monk Meletius, for- 296 FOUKTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. merly a ^Mohammedan, who justified his conversion, with the aid of the emperor, in four apologies and four orations), Euthymius Zio-abenus, Gennadius, patriarch of Constantinople. Prominent in the Latin church were Peter, Abbot of Clugny (twelfth century), Thomas Aquinas, Alanus ab Insulis, Eaimundus Lul- lus, Xicolaus of Cusa, Ricold or Richard (a Dominican monk who lived long in the East), Savonarola, Joh. de Turrecremata. The mediaeval writers, both Greek and Latin, represent Mo- hammed as an impostor and arch-heretic, who wove his false relio-ion chiefly from Jewish (Talmudic) fables and Christian heresies. They find him foretold in the Little Horn of Daniel, and the False Prophet of the Apocalypse. They bring him in connection with a Nestorian luonk, Sergius, or according to others, with the Jacobite Bahira, who instructed Mohammed, and might have converted him to the Christian religion, if ma- lignant Jews liad not interposed with their slanders. Thus he became the shrewd and selfish prophet of a pseudo-gospel, which is a mixture of apostate Judaism and apostate Christianity with a considerable remnant of his native Arabian heathenism. Dante places him, disgustingly torn and mutilated, among the chief heretics and schismatics in the ninth gulf of Hell, " Where is paid the fee By those who sowing discord win tlieir burden." ^ * Inferno, Canto XXVIII. 22 sqq. (Longfellow's translation) : " A cask by losing centre-piece or cant Wsis never shattered so, as I saw one Rent from the chin to where one breaketli wind. Between his legs were hanging down his entrails ; His heart was visible, and tlie dismal sack That maketh excrement of wliat is eaten. "While I was all absorbed in seeing him, He looked at me, and opened with his hands His bosom, saying: 'See now how I rend me; How mutilated, see, is Mahomet ; In front of me doth Ali weeping go, Cleft in the face from forelock unto cliin ; And all the others whom thou here beholdest, Sowers of scandal and of schism have been While living, and tlierefore are tlnis cleft asunder.'" 2 47. CHRISTIAN POLEMICS AGAINST MOHAMMEDANISM. 197 This mediaeval view was based in part upon an entire igno- rance or perversion of facts. It was then believed that Moham- medans were pagans and idolaters, and cursed the name of Christ, while it is now known, that they abhor idolatry, and esteem Christ as the highest prophet next to Mohammed. The Reformers and older Protestant divines took substantially the same view, and condemn the Koran and its author without qualification. We must remember that down to the latter part of the seventeenth century the Turks were the most dangerous enemies of the peace of Eurcjpe. Luther published, at "Witten- berg, 1540, a German translation of Richard's Confutaiio Alco- rani, with racy notes, to show "what a shameful, lying, abomi- able book the Alcoran is." He calls Mohammed "a devil and the first-born child of Satan." He goes into the question, whe- ther the Pope or Mohammed be worse, and comes to the con- clusion, that after all the Pope is worse, and the real Anti-Christ [Endechnst). " Wohlan," he winds up his epilogue, "God grant us his grace and punish both the Pope and Mohammed, together with their devils. I have done my part as a true prophet and teacher. Those who won't listen may leave it alone." Even the mild and scholarly Melanchthon identifies Mohammed with the Little Horn of Daniel, or rather with the Gog and Magog of the Apocalypse, and charges his sect with being a compound of " blasphemy, robbery, and sensuality." It is not very strange that in the heat of that polemical age the Romanists charged the Lutherans, and the Lutherans the Calvinists, and both in turn the Romanists, with holding Mohammedan heresies.^ ^ Maracci, Vivaldus, and other Roman writers point out thirteen or more heresies in which Mohammedanism and Lutheranism agree, such as iconoclasm, the rejection of tlie worship of saints, polygamy fin the case of Philip of Hesse), etc. A fanatical Lutheran wrote a book to prove that " the damned Calvinists hold six hundred and sixty-six tlieses (the apocalyptic number) in common with the Turks!" The Calvinist Reland, on the other hand, finds analogies to Romish errors in the Mohammedan prayers for the dead, visiting the graves of prophets, pilgrimages to Mecca, intercession of angels, fixed fasts, meritorious almsgiving, etc. 198 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-10-19. In the eit'-hteeutli century this view was gradually corrected. The learned Dean Prideaux still represented Mohammed as a vulgai' impostor, but at the same time as a scourge of God in just punishment of the sins of the Oriental chiu-ches who turned our holy religion "into a firebrand of hell for contention, strife and violence." He undertook his " Life of Mahomet" as a part of a "History of the Eastern Church," though he did not carry out his design. Voltaire and other Deists likewise still viewed Mohammed as an impostor, but from a disposition to trace all religion to priest- craft and deception. Spanheim, Sale, and Gagnier began to take a broader and more favorable view. Gibbon gives a calm historical narrative ; and in summing up his judgment^ he hesi- tates whether " the title of enthusiast or impostor more properly belongs to that extraordinary man. . . . From enthusiasm to imposture the step is perilous and slippery ; the daemon of Soc- rates affords a memorable instance how a wise man may deceive himself, how a good man may deceive others, how the conscience may slumber in a mixed and middle state between self-illusion and voluntary fraud." Dean Milman suspends his judgment, saying: " To the ques- tion whether Mohammed was hero, sage, impostor, or fanatic, or blended, and blended in what proportions, these conflicting elements in his character? the best reply is the reverential phrase of Islam : ' God knows.' " ' Goethe and Carlyle swung from the orthodox abuse to the opposite extreme of a pantheistic hero-worshiping over-estimate of Mohammed and the Koran by extending the sphere of reve- lation and inspiration, and obliterating the line which separates Christianity from all other religions. Stanley, R. Bosworth Smith, Emamicl Dcutsch, and others follow more or less in the track of this broad aiid charitable liberalism. Many errors and prejudices have been dispelled, and the favorable traits of Islam and its folloAvers, their habits of devotion, temperance, and ^ Lat. Chridianily, IT. 120. § 47. CHRISTIAN POLEMICS AGAINST MOHAMMEDANISM. 199 resignation, were held up to the shame and admiration of the Christian world. Mohammed himself, it is now generally con- ceded, began as an honest reformer, suffered much persecution for his faith, effectually destroyed idolatry, was free from sordid motives, lived in strict monogamy during twenty -four years of his youth and manhood, and in great simplicity to his death. The polygamy which disfigured the last twelve years of his life was more moderate than that of many other Oriental despots, Califs and Sultans, and prompted in part by motives of benevo- lence towards the widows of his followers, who had suffered in the service of his religion.^ But the enthusiasm kindled by Carlyle for the prophet of Mecca has been considerably checked by fuller information from the original sources as brought out in the learned biographies of Weil, Noldeke, Sprenger and Muir. They furnish the au- thentic material for a calm, discriminating and impartial judg- ment, which, however, is modified more or less by the religious standpoint and sympathies of the historian. Sprenger represents Mohammed as the child of his age, and mixes praise and censure, without aiming at a psychological analysis or philosophical view. Sir William Muir concedes his original honesty and zeal as a reformer and warner, but assumes a gradual deterioration to the judicial blindness of a self-deceived heart, and even a kind of Satanic inspiration in his later revelations. " We may readily admit," he says, " that at the first Mahomet did believe, or per- suaded himself to believe, that his revelations were dictated by a divine agency. In the Meccan period of his life, there cer- tainly can be traced no personal ends or unworthy motives to ^ The Mohammedan apologist, Syed Ameer Ali ( The Life and Teachings of Mohammed, London, 1873, pp. 228 sqq.), makes much account of this fact, and entirely justifies Mohammed's polygamy. But the motive of benevolence and generosity can certainly not be shown in the marriage of Ayesha (the virgin- daughter of Abu-Bakr), nor of Zeynab (the lawful wife of liis freedman Zeyd), nor of Safiya (the Jewess). Ali himself must admit that "some of Moham- med's marriages may possibly have arisen from a desire for male ofispring." The motive of sensuality he entirely ignores. 200 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. belie thi-s conclusion. The Prophet ^vas there, what he professed to be, ' a simple Preacher and a Warner ;' he was the despised and rejected teacher of a gainsaying people ; and he had appa- rently no ulterior object but their reformation. . . . But the scene altogether changes at Medina. There the acquisition of temporal power, aggrandizement, and self-glorification mingled with the grand object of the Prophet's previous life; and they were sought after and attained by precisely the same instrument- ality. JNIessages from heaven were freely brought forward to justify his political conduct, equally Avith his religious precejDts. Battles were fought, wholesale executions inflicted, and territo- ries annexed, under pretext of the Almighty's sanction. Nay, even baser actions were not only excused, but encouraged, by the pretended divine approval or command. . . . The student of history will trace for himself how the pure and lofty aspira- tions of Mahomet w'ere first tinged, and then gradually debased by a half unconscious self-deception, and how in this process truth merged into falsehood, sincerity into guile, — these opposite principles often co-existing even as active agencies in his conduct. The reader will observe that simultaneously with the anxious desire to extinguish idolatry and to promote religion and virtue in the world, there "was nurtured by the Prophet in his own heart a licentious self-indulgence ; till in the end, assuming to be the favorite of Heaven, he justified himself by 'revelations' from God in the most flagrant breaches of morality. He will remark that while Mahomet cherished a kind and tender dispo- sition, ' weeping with them that wept,' and binding to his person the hearts of his followers by the ready and self-denying ofiices of love and friendship, he could yet take pleasure in cruel and perfidious assassination, could gloat over the massacre of entire tribes, and savagely consign the innocent babe to the fires of hell. Inconsistencies such as these continually present them- selves from the jieriod of Mahomet's arrival at ]\Iedina ; and it is ])y the study of these inconsistencies that his character must be rightly comprehended. The key to many difficulties of this I 47. CHRISTIAN POLEMICS AGAINST MOHAMMEDANISM. 201 description may be found, I believe, in the chapter 'on the be- lief of Mahomet in his own insjiiratiou.' When once he had dared to forge the name of the Most High God as the seal and authority of his own words and actions, the germ was laid from which the errors of his after life freely and fatally developed themselves." ^ Note on llormonism. S O U R C^ E S . The Book of Mormon. First printed at Palmyra, N. Y., 1830. Written by the Prophet Mormon, three hundred years after Christ, upon plates of gold in the " Eeformed Egyptian " ( ? ) language, and translated by the Prophet Joseph Smith, Jan., with the aid of Urim and Thummim, into English. As large as the Old Testament. A tedious historical romance on the ancient inhabitants of the American Continent, whose ancestors emigrated from Jerusalem B. C. 600, and whose degenerate descendants are the red Indians. Said to have been written as a book of fiction by a Presbyterian minister, Samuel Spalding. The Doctrixes and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ OF THE Latter Day Saints. Salt Lake City, Utah Territory. Contains the special revelations given to Joseph Smith and Brigham Young at different times. Written in similar style and equally insipid as the Book of Mormon. A Catechism for Children by Elder John Jaques. Salt Lake City. 25th thousand, 1877. We cannot close this chapter on Oriental Mohammedanism without some remarks on the abnormal American phenomenon of Mormonism, which arose in the nineteenth century, and presents an instructive analogy to the former. Joseph Smith (born at Sharon, Vt,, 1805 ; shot dead at Nauvoo, in Illinois, 1844), the first founder, or rather Brigham Young (d. 1877), the organizer of the sect, may be called the American Moham- med, although far beneath the prophet of Arabia in genius and power. The points of resemblance are numerous and striking : the claim to a supernatural revelation mediated by an angel ; the abrogation of previous revelations by later and more convenient ones ; the embodiment of the revelations in an inspired book ; the eclectic character of the system, which is compounded of Jewish, heathenish, and all sorts of sectarian Christian elements ; the intense fanaticism and heroic endurance of the * Life o/Mah., IV. 317, 322. 202 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. early Mormons amidst violent abuse and persecution from state to state, till they found a refuge in the desert of Utah Territory, which they turned into a "-arden ; the missionary zeal in sending apostles to distant lands and importing proselytes to their Eldorado of saints from the ignorant poi)ulation of England, Wales, Norway, Germany, and Switzerland ; the union of religion with civil government, in direct opposition to the Ame- rican separation of church and state ; the institution of polygamy in defi- ance of the social order of Christian civilization. In sensuality and ava- rice Brio-ham Young surpassed Mohammed ; for he left at his death in Salt Lake City seventeen wives, sixteen sons, and twenty-eight daughters (having had in all fifty-six or more children), and property estimated at two millions of dollars.^ The government of the United States cannot touch the Mormon reli- gion ; but it can regulate the social institutions connected therewith, as lono- as Utah is a Territory under the immediate jurisdiction of Congress. Polygamy has been prohibited by law in the Territories under its con- trol, and President Hayes has given warning to foreign governments (in 1879) that Mormon converts emigrating to the United States run the risk of punishment for violating the laws of the land. President Garfield (in his inaugural address, March 4, 1881) took the same decided ground on the Mormon question, saying : " The Mormon church not only offends the moral sense of mankind by sanctiouing polygamy, but prevents the administration of justice through the ordinary instrumentalities of law. In my judgment it Is the duty of Congress, while resj^ecting to the utter- most the conscientious convictions and religious scruples of every citizen, to proliibit within its jurisdiction all criminal practices, especially of that class which destroy tlie family relations and endanger social order. Nor can any ecclesiastical organization be safely permitted to usurp in the smallest degree the functions and powers of the National Government." His successor, President Arthur, in his last message to Congress, Dec. 1884, again recommends that Congress " assume absolute political control of the Territory of Utah," and says : " I still believe that if that abomin- able practice [polygamy] can be suppressed by law it can only be by the most radical legislation consistent with the restraints of the Constitu- tion." The secular and religious press of America, with few exceptions, supports these sentiments of the chief magistrate. Since tlie annexation of Utah to the United States, after the Mexican war, " Gentiles," as the Christians are called, have entered the Mormon settlement, and half a dozen churches of different denominations have been organized in Salt Lake City. But the "Latter Day Saints" are vastly in the majority, and are spreading in the adjoining Territories. Time will sliow whether the Mormon problem can be solved without resort to arms, vr a new em'gration of the ^.lormons. ' As stated in the NavYor.'i Tribuie for Sept. 3, 1877. 2 48. GENERAL LITERATURE ON THE PAPACY. 203 CHAPTER IV. THE PAPAL HIERARCHY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. § 48. General Literature on the Papacy. *Bullarium Magnum Eomanum a Lewie M. usque ad Benedidum XIV. Luxemb., 1727-1758. 19 vols., fol. Another ed., of superior typog- raphy, under the title : Bullarum . . . Romanorum Pontificum am- plissima Collectio, opera et studio C. Cocquelines, Rom., 1738-1758, 14 Tomi in 28 Partes fol. ; new ed., 1847-72, 24 vols. Bullarn Eoniani continuatb, ed. A. A. Barberi, from Clement XIII. to Gregory XVI., Rom., 1835-1857, 18 vols. * Monumenta Germanice Historica hide ab anno Christi quingentesimo usque ad annum mUlesimum et quingentesimum ; ed. by G. H. Pertz (royal librarian at Berlin, d. 1876), continued by G. Waitz. Hannoverae, 1826-1879, 24 vols. fol. A storehouse for the authentic history of the German empire. *Anastasius (librarian and abbot in Rome about 870) : Liber Pontificalis (or, De Vitis Roman. Pontificum). The oldest collection of biogra- phies of popes down to Stephen VI., A. D. 885, but not all by Anas- tasius. This book, together with later collections, is inserted in the third volume of Muratori, Berum Ital. Scriptores (Mediol., 1723- '51, in 25 vols, fol.) ; also in Migne, Patrol. L. Tom. cxxvii. (1853). Archibald Bower (b. 1686 at Dundee, Scotland, d. 1766) : The History of the Popes, from the foundation of the See of Rome to the present time. 3rd ed. Lond., 1750-66. 7 vols-, 4to. German transl. by Rambach, 1770. Bower changed twice from Protestantism to Romanism, and back again, and wrote in bitter hostility to the papacy, but gives very ample material. Bp. Douglas of Salesbury wrote against him. Chr. F. Walch : Entwurf einer vollstdndigen Historie der riimischen Pdpste. Gottingen, 2d ed., 1758. G. J. Planck : Geschichte des Papstthums. Hanover, 1805. 3 vols. L. T. Spittler: Geschichte des Papstthums; with Notes by J. Gurlitt, Hamb., 1802, new ed. by H. E. G. Paulus. Heidelberg, 1826. J. E. Riddle : The History of the Papacy to the Period of the Reforma- tion. London, 1856. 2 vols. F. A. Gfrorer: Geschichte der Karolinger. (Freiburg, 1848. 2 vols.) ; AUgemeine Kirchengeschichte (Stuttgart, 1841-'46, 4 vols.); Gregor VII. und sein Zeitalter (Schaffhausen, 1859-'64, 8 vols.). Gfrorer began as a rationalist, but joined the Roman church, 1853, and died in 1861. 204 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D, 590-1049. *PuiL. Jaffe: Ecgesta Pontijicum Roman, ad annum 1198. Berol., 1851 ; revised ed. by Wattexbach, etc. Lips. 1881 sqq. Coutinued by PoTTHAST from 1198-1304, and supplemented by Harttuxg (see below). Im])ortunt for the chronology and acts of the popes. J. A. Wylie : 21ie Papacy. Lond., 1852. *Leopold Ranke : Die romischen Pclpsfe, Hire Kirche unci ihr Sfaat im 16 und nten Jakrhundert. 4 ed., Berlin, 1857. 3 vols. Two English translations, one hy Sarah Austin (Lond., 1840), one by E. Foster (Lond., 1847). Comp. the famous review of Macaulay in the Edinb. Review. DOLLIXGER (R. C): Die Papstfahehi des Mittelalters. Miiucheu, 1863. English translation by A. Plummer, and ed. with, notes by H. B. Smith. New York, 1872. *W. GlESEBRECHT : Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit. Braunschweig, 1855. 3rd ed., 1863 sqq., 5 vols. A political history of the German empire, but with constant reference to the papacy in its close contact with it. *Thomas Greenwood : Cathedra Petri. A Political History of the great Latin Patriarchate. London, 1856-72, 6 vols. C. DE Cherrier: Histoire de la lutte des 2^apes et des empei'eurs de la malson de swabe, de ces causes et des ses effets. Paris, 1858. 3 vols. *RUD. Baxmann : Die Politih der Pdpste von Gregor I. his Gregor VII. Elberfeld, 1868, '69. 2 vols. *F. Gregorovius : Geschichte der Stadt Rom- im Mittelalter, vom 5. bis mm 16. Jahrh. 8 vols. Stuttgart, 1859-1873. 2 ed., 1869 ff. A. V. Reumont : Geschichte der Stadt Rom. Berlin, 1867-'70, 3 vols. C. Hofler (R. C.): Die Avignonischen Pdpste, ihre Machtfiille und ihr Untcrgang. Wien, 1871. R. Zopffel : Die Papstwahlen und die mit ihnen im ndchsten Zusammen- hange stehenden Ceremonien in ihrer EntwicMung vom 11 bis 14. Jahr- hundert. Gottingen, 1872. *James Bryce (Prof, of Civil Law in Oxford) : Tlie Holy Roman Empire, London, 3rd ed., 1871, 8th ed. enlarged, 1880. W. Wattexbach : Geschichte des romischen Papstthums. Berlin, 1876. * Jul. vox Pfltjgk-Harttuxg : Acta Pontificum Bomanorum inedita. Bd. I. Urhmden der Pdpste A. D. 748-1198. Gotha, 1880. O. J. Reichel : The See of Rome in the Middle Ages. Lond. 1870. Maxdkll Crkightox : History of the Pajjacy during the Reformation. London 1882. 2 vols. J. N. Murphy (R. C.) : The Chair of Peter, or the Papacy and its Bene- fits. London 1883. ? 49. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE POPES, ETC. 205 § 49. Chronological Table of the Popes, Anti-Popes, and Roman Emperors from Gregory I. to Leo XIII. We present here, for convenient reference, a complete list of the Popes, Anti-Popes, and Roman Emperors, from Pope Gre- gory I. to Leo XIII., and from Charlemagne to Francis II., the last of the German- Roman emperors : ^ ANTI-POPES. EMPERORS. 590-604 604-606 607 608-615 615-618 619-625 625-638 638(?)-640 640-642 642-649 649-053 [G55] 654-657 657-672 672-676 676-678 678-681 682-683 683-685 685-686 686-687 687-692 687 687-701 701-705 705-707 708 708-715 715-731 731-741 St. Gregory I. (the Great). Sabinianus. Boniface III. Boniface IV. Deusdedit. Boniface V. Honorius I. Severinus. Jolin IV. Theodorus I. St. Martin I. Eugenius I. Vitalianus. Adeodatns. Donus or Dom Agatho. Leo II. Benedict II. John V. Conon. Theodoras. Sergins I. John VI. John VII. Sisinnius. Constantine I. Gregory II. Gregory III. nus I. Paschal. 741-752 Zacharias (GREEK emperors) Maurice. Pliocas. Heraclius. Constantine III. Constans II. Constantine IV. (Pogonatus.) Justinian II. Leontius. Tiberius III. Justinus II. restored PhilippicusBardanes Anastasius II. Tlieodosius III. Leo III. (the Isau- rian). (Charles Martel, d. 741, defeated the Saracens at Tours, 732.) (Pepin the Short, 582 602 610 641 668 685 694 697 705 711 713 716 718 1 This list is compiled from Jaffe [Regesta], Potthast {Bibl. Hist. Medii jEvi, Supplement, 259-267), and other sources. The whole number of popes from the Apostle Peter to Leo XIII. is 263. The emperors marked with an asterisk were crowned by the pope; the others were simply kings and emperors of Germany. 20G FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. 752 752-757 757-7G7 767-7G8 7G8 76S-772 772-795 795-816 810-817 817-824 824-827 827 827-844 844 84^847 847-855 855-858 855 858-867 867-872 872-882 882-884 884-885 885-891 891-89G 896 896-897 897 897 898-900 900-903 903 903-904 904-911 911-913 913-914 914-928 928-929 929-931 931-936 936-939 939-942 942-946 946-955 955-963 963-965 964 965-972 972-974 974-983 983-984 984-985 Steplien II. Stephen III. (11.) iPaul I. Constantine II. Thilippns. j Stephen IV. Adrian I. iLeo III. Steplien V. [Pasclial I. Eugenius 11. j Valentinus. i Gregory IV. jSergius II. iLeo IV. The mythical Benedict III. Nicola.s I. Adrian II. John VIII. Marinus I. Adrian III. Stephen VI. Formosus. j Boniface VI. (Stephen VII. 'Romanns. I Theodoras II. jJohn IX. Benedict IV. JLeo V. iChristophorus [Sergins III. |Ana.stasins III. Lando. Ljohn X. Leo VI. Stephen VIII. John XI. Leo VII. Stephen IX. Marinus II. Agapetns II. John XII. Leo VIII. Benedict V. John XIII. Benedict VI. Benedict VII. John XIV. Boniface VII. ANTI-POPES. John (diaconus) papess Joan or John VIII. Anastasius. murdered). (deposed). I (deposed), (deposed). (Boniface Vn.?) j (murdered). EMPEKORS. Roman(Patricius). KOMAX EMPERORS. *(yharlemagne. Crowned emperor at Rome, *Louis the Pious, (le Debonnaircj. Crowned em. at Rlieimt- *Lotliaire I. (crown- ed 823). (Louis the German, King of Germany, 840-876.) "Louis II. (in Italy) *Charles the Bald. *Charles the Fat. *Arnulf. Crowned emperor, (Louis the Child.) Louis III. of Pro- vence (in Italy). Conrad I. (of Fran- conia), King of Germany. Berengar (in Italy). Henry I. (the Fow- ler), King of Ger- many. The House of Saxony. *Otto I. (the Great). Crowned emperor, *Otto II. *Otto III. Crowned emperor, A. D. 741 768-814 800 814-840 816 840-855 855-875 875-881 881-887 887-899 899 901 911-918 915 918-926 936-973 962 973-983 983-1002 996 2 49. CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE POPES, ETC. 207 985-996 996-999 997-998 998-1003 1003 1003-1009 1009-1012 1012-1024 1012 1021-1033 1033-1046 1044-1046 1043-1046 101(5-1047 1047-1048 1048-1054 1054-1057 1057-105S 1058-1059 1058-1061 1061-1073 1061 1073-1085 1080-1100 1086-1087 1088-1099 1099-1118 1100 1102 1105-1111 1118-1119 1118-1121 1119-1124 1124 1124-1130 1130-1143 1130-1138 1138 1143-1144 1144-1145 1145-1153 1153-1154 1154-1159 1159-1181 1159-1164 John XV. Gregory V. Silvester II. John XVII. John XVIII. Sergius IV. Benedict VIII. John XIX. Benedict IX. Gregory VI. Clement II. Damasus II. Leo IX. Victor II. Stephen X. Benedict X. Nicolas II. Alexander II. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). Victor III. Urban II. Paschal II. Gelasius II. Calixtus II. Honorius II. Innocent II. Celestine II. Lncius II. Eugenius III. Anastasins IV. Adrian IV. Alexander III, ANTI-POPES. EMPEROR.S. Calabritanus John XVI Gregory. (deposed). Silvester III. (deposed). Cadalous (Honorius 11.) Wibeitus(ClementIII.) Theodoricus. Albertus. Maginulfns (Silves- ter IV.). Burdinus (Gregory VIIL). Theobaldus Buccape- cus (Celestine). Anacletus, II. Gregory (Victor IV.). *HenryIL (the Saint the last of the Saxon empe'rs). 1002-1024 Crowned emperor, [ 1014 1 *Conrad II. The| Honse of Franconia.^ 1024-1039 Crowned emperor,, 1027 i *Henry III. ,1039-1056 Crowned emperor, 1046 1164-1168 1168-1178 1178-1180 1181-1185 Lucius IIL 1185-1187 Urban IIL Octavianus (Victor IV.) Guide Cremensis (Paschal III.). Johannes de Struma. (Calixtus III.). Landus Titinus (Innocent III.). *Henry IV. Crowned by the An- tipope Clement. (Rudolf of Swabia, rival). (Hermann of Lux- emburg, rival). *Henry V. *Lothaire II. (the Saxon *Conrad III. The House of Hohen- staufen. (TheSwa- bian emperors.) Crowned Em. at Aix *Frederick I. (Bar- barossa). Crowned emperor, 1056-1106 1084 1077 1081 1106-1125 1125-1137 1138-1152 1152-1190 1155 208 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. 1187 Gregory VIII. 1187-1191 IClement HI. 1191-1198 1198-1216 1216-1227 1227-1241 1241 1241-1254 1254-1261 1261-1264 1265-1268 1271-1276 1276 1276 1276-127; Celestine HI. Innocent III. Honorius III. Gregory IX. Celestine IV. Innocent IV. Alexander IV. Urban IV. Clement IV. Gregory X. ANTI-POPES. EMPERORS. Innocent V. ' Adrian V. .John XXI. 1277-1280: Nicolas III. 1281-1285, Martin IV. 128-5-1 287 iHonorius IV. 1288-1292 Nicolas IV. 1294 jSt. Celestine V. 1294-1303 Boniface VIII. 1303-1304 Benedict XL 1305-1314 Clement V.^ 1316-1.334 .John XXII. 1334-1342 Benedict XII. 1342-1352Clement VI. 1352-13621 Innocent VI. 1362-1370 Urban V. 1370-1378 Gregory XI. 1378-1389,Urban VI. (abdicated). *Henry VI. Philip of Swabia, and Otto IV. (rivals). *Otto IV. ^Frederick II. Crowned emperor. (Henry Easpe, rival) (William of Holland rival). Conrad IV. 1190-1197 1198 1209-1215 1215-1260 1220 1250-12.54 Interregnum. 1254-1273 Richard (Earl of Corn- wall). Alfonso (King of Cas- ,-^_ tiie)— (rivals). 1257 Rudolf I. (of HapS' burg). House of Austria. Adolf (of Nassau). Albert I. (of Haps- burg). *Henry VII. (of Luxemburg). *Lewis IV. (of Bava- ria). (Frederick the Fair of Austria, rival, 1314-1330.) *Charles IV. (of Luxemburg). (Giinther of Schwarzburg, rival). 1272-1291 1292-1298 1298-1308 1308-1313 1314-1347 1347-1437 ' Clement V. moved the papal see to Avignon in 1309, and his successors continued to reside there for seventy years, till Gregorv XT. After that date arose a forty years' schism between the Roman popes and the Avignon popes. § 49. CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE POPES, ETC. 209 1378-1394 1389-1404 1394-1423 POPES. Boniface IX. 1404-1406 Innocent VII. 1406-1409 Grei'orv XII. 1410-1415 1410-1415 Alexander V. John XXIII. 1417-1431 1431-1447 1439-1449 1447-1455 1455-1458 1458-1464 1464-1471 1471-1484 1484-1492' 1492-1503 1503 1503-1513 1513-1521 1522-1523 1523-1534 1534-1549 1550-1555 1555 1555-1559 Martin V. Eugene IV. Nicolas V. Calixtus IV. Pius II. Paul II. ,Sixtus IV. Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III. Julius II. Leo X. Hadrian VI. Clement VII. Paul III. Julius III. Marcellus 11. Paul IV. 1559-1565 1566-1572 1572-1585 1585-1590 1590 1590-1591 1591 1592-1605 1605 1605-1621 1621-1623 1623-1644 1644-1655 1655-1667 1667-1669 ANTI-POPES. Clement VII. Benedict XIII. (deposed, 1409) (deposed). (deposed). Clement VIII. Felix V. Pius IV. Pius V. Gregory XIII Sixtus V. Urban VII. Gregory XIV Innocent IX. Clement VIII Leo XI. PaulV. Gregory XV. Urban VIII. Innocent X. Alexander VII Clement IX EMPEKORS. Wenzel (of Luxem- burg). Rupert (of the Pala- tinate). *Sigismund (of Lux- emburg). (Jobst of Moravia, rival.) Albert II. (of Haps- burg). *Frederick III.^ Crowned emperor. Maximilian I. *Charles V. Crowned emperor at Bologna not in Rome Ferdinand I. Maximilian II. Rudolf II. Matthias. Ferdinand II. Ferdinand III. Leopold I. 1378-1400 1400-1410 1410-1437 1438-1439 1440-1493 1452 1493-1519 1519-1558 1530 1558-1564 1564-1576 1576-1612 1612-1619 1619-1637 1637-1657 1657-1705 » Frederick III. was the last emperor crowned in Rome. All his successors, except Charles VII. and Francis L, were of the House of Hapsburg. 14 210 FOUKTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. ANTI-POPES. 1607-1676 Clement X. 1676-1689 Innocent XI. 16S9-169llAlex'derVIir 1691-1700|Innocent XII. 1700-1721 Clement XL 1721-1724 Innocent XIII 1724-1730 Benedict XIII 1730-1740 Clement XII. 1740-1758 Benedict XIV. 17o8-17G9|Cleraent XIII 1769-1774|Clement XIV, 1775-1799.Pius VI. 1800-1823 1823-1829 1829-1830 1831-1846 1846-1878 1878 Pius VII. Leo XII. Pius VIII. Gregory XVI. Pius IX. (long- est reign). Leo XIII. EMPERORS. Joseph I. Charles VI. Charles VII. (of Ba- varia). Francis I. (of Lor- raine). Joseph 11. Leopold II. Francis II. Abdication of Fran- cis II. (Francis L, Emperor of Austria). [German Confederation North German Con- federation. [New German Empire. Williiun I. of Prussia. 1705-1711 1711-1740 1742-1745 1745-1765 1765-1790 1790-1792 1792-1806 1806 1814-1866 1866-1870 1870 1870] 2 50. GREGORY THE GREAT. A-D. 590-604. 211 § 50. Gregory the Great. A.D. 590-604. LITEfiATURE. I, Gregorii M. Opera. The best is the Benedictine ed. of Dom. de Ste Marthe (Dionysius Sammarthanus e congregatione St. Mauri), Par., 1705, 4 vols. foL Reprinted in Venice, 1768-76, in 17 vols. 4to.; and, with additions, in Migne's Patrologia, 1849, in 5 vols. (Torn. 75-79). Especially valuable are Gregory's Epistles, nearly 850 (in third vol. of Migne's ed.). A new ed. is being prepared by Paul Ewald. II.' Biographies of Gregory L (1) Older biographies: in the " Liber Fontijicalis ;^' by Patjlus Diaconus (t797), in Opera I. 42 (ed. Migne) ; by Johakxes DiACOirtJS (9th cent.), ibid., p. 59, and one selected from his writings, ibid., p. 242. Detailed notices of Gregory in the writings of Gregory of Tours, Bede, Isidorus Hispal., Paul Warnefried (730). (2) Modern biographies : G. Lau : Gregor I. nach seinem Leben und nach seiner Lehre. Leipz., 1845. BoHRINGER : Die Kirche Christi und ihre Zcugen. Bd. I., Abth. IV. Zurich, 1846. G. Pfahler : Gregor der Gr. und seine Zeif. Frkf a. M., 1852. James Baraiby : Gregory the Great. London, 1879. Also his art. "Gregorius I." in Smith & Wace, "Diet, of Christ. Biogr.," II. 779 (1880). Comp. Jaffe, Neander, MilmAN (Book III., ch. 7, vol. II., 39 sqq.); Greenwood (Book III., chs. 6 and 7); Montalembert {Lesmoines d' Occident, Bk. V., Engl, transl., vol. II., 69 sqq.); Baxmann [Poli- iik der Pdpste, I. 44 sqq.) ; Zopffel (art. Gregor I. in the. new ed. of Herzog). "Whatever may be thought of the popes of earlier times/' says Ranke/ " they always had great interests in view : the care of oppressed religion, the conflict with heathenism, the spread of Christianity among the northern nations, the founding of an independent hierarchy. It belongs to the dignity of human ex- istence to aim at and to execute something great ; this tendency the popes kept in upward motion." This commendation of the earlier popes, though by no means applicable to all, is eminently true of the one who stands at the beginning of our period. ^ Die Romischen Pdpste des 16 und llten Jahrhunderts, Th. I., p. 44 (2nd ed.). 212 FOUKTII PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Gregory the First, or the Great, the last of the Latin fathers and the first of the popes, connects the ancient with the mediaeval churdi, the Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of Christianity. He is one of the best representatives of mediaeval Catholicism: monastic, ascetic, devout and supersti- tions ; hierarchical, haughty, and ambitious, yet humble before God ; indifferent, if not hostile, to classical and secular culture, but friendly to sacred and ecclesiastical learning; just, humane, and liberal to ostentation; full of missionary zeal in the interest of Christianity and the Roman see, which to his mind were inseparably connected. He combined great executive ability with untiring industry, and amid all his official cares he never forgot the claims of personal piety. In genius he Avas surpassed by Leo L, Gregory VIL, Innocent III.; but as a man and as a Christian, he ranks with the j)urest and most useful of the popes. Goodness is the highest kind of greatness, and the church lias done riglit in according the title of the Great to him rather than to other popes of superior intellectual })()wer. The times of his pontificate (A. D. Sept. 3, 590 to March 12, 604) were full of trouble, and required just a man of his train- ing and character. Italy, from a Gothic kingdom, liad become a province of the Byzantine empire, but was exhausted by war and overrun by the savage Lombards, who were still heathen or Arian heretics, and burned churches, slew ecclesiastics, robbed monasteries, violated nuns, reduced cultivated fields into a wil- derness. Rome was constantly exposed to plunder, and wasted l)y ])estilence and famine. All Europe was in a chaotic state, and bordering on anarchy. Serious men, and Gregory himself, thought that the end of the world was near at hand. " AVhat is it," says he in one of his sermons, " that can at this time de- light ns in this world? Everywhere we see tribulation, every- where we hear lamentation. The cities are destroyed, the castles torn down, the fields laid waste, the land made desolate. Vil- lages are empty, few inhabitants remain in the cities, and even these poor remnants of humanity are daily cut down. The I 50. GREGORY THE GREAT. A.D. 590-604. 213 scourge of celestial justice does uot cease, because no repentance takes place under the scourge. We see how some are carried into captivity, others mutilated, others slain. What is it, breth- ren, that can make us contented with this life ? If we love such a world, w^e love not our joys, but our wounds. We see what has become of her who was once the mistress of the world Let us then heartily despise the present world and imitate the works of the pious as well as we can." Gregory was born about A. D. 540, from an old and wealthy senatorial (the Anician) family of Rome, and educated for the service of the government. He became acquainted with Latin literature, and studied Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustin, but was ignorant of Greek. His mother Sylvia, after the death of Gor- dianus, her husband, entered a convent, and so excelled in sanc- tity that she was canonized. The Greek emperor Justin ap- pointed him to the highest civil office in Rome, that of imperial prefect (574). But soon afterwards he broke with the world, changed the palace of his father near Rome into a convent in honor of St. Andrew, and became himself a monk in it, after- wards abbot. He founded besides six convents in Sicily, and bestowed his remaining wealth on the poor. He lived in the strictest abstinence, and undermined his health by ascetic ex- cesses. Nevertheless he looked back upon this time as the hap- piest of his life. Pope Pelagius II. made him one of the seven deacons of the Roman Church, and sent him as ambassador or nuutius to the court of Constantinople (579j.^ His political training and exe- cutive ability fitted him eminently for this post. He returned in 585, and was appointed abbot of his convent, but employed also for important public business. ' Apoerisiarius [aTvoKpiciapioQ, or ayye'^.o^)^ resftonsalis. Du Cange defines it: " Nuntius, Legatus . . prcesertim qui a pontifice Romano, vel etiam ah archiepiscopis ad comitatum mittebantur, quo res ecclesiarum suarum peragerent, et de m ad priri' cipem referrent." The Roman delegates to Constantinople were usually taken from the deacons. Gregory is the fifth Roman deacon who served in thia capacity at Constantinople, according to Du Cange s. v. Apoerisiarius. 214 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049 It was during his monastic period (either before or, more pro- bably, after his return from Constantinople) that his missionary- zeal was kindled, by an incident on the slave market, in behalf of the Anglo-Saxons. The result (as recorded in a previous chapter) was the conversion of England and the extension of the jurisdiction of the Roman see, during his pontificate. This is the greatest event of that age, and the brightest jewel in his crown. Like a Christian Caesar, he re-conquered that fair island by an army of thirty monks, marching under the sign of the cross. ' In 590 Gregory was elected pope by the unanimous voice of the clergy, the senate, and the people, notwithstanding his strong remonstrance, and confirmed by his temporal sovereign, the Byzantine emperor Mauricius. Monasticism, for the first time, ascended the papal throne. Hereafter till his death he devoted all his energies to the interests of the holy see and the eternal city, in the firm consciousness of being the successor of St. Peter and the vicar of Christ. He continued the austere simplicity of monastic life, surrounded himself with monks, made them bishops and legates, confirmed the rule of St. Benedict at a council of Rome, guaranteed the liberty and property of convents, and by his example and influence rendered signal services to the monas- tic order. He was unbounded in his charities to the poor. Three thousand virgins, impoverished nobles and matrons re- ceived without a blush alms from his hands. He sent food from his table to the hungry before he sat down for his frugal meal. He interposed continually in favor of injured widows and orphans. He redeemed slaves and captives, and sanctioned the sale of consecrated vessels for objects of charity. Gregory began his administration with a public act of humi- liation on account of the plague which had cost the life of his predecessor. Seven processions traversed the streets for three days with prayers and hymns; but the plague continued to ravage, and demanded eighty victims during the procession. * See above ^ 10, pp. 30 sqq. § 50. GEEGORY THE GREAT. A. D. 590-604. 215 The later legend made it the means of staying the calamity, in consequence of the appearance of the archangel Michael putting back the drawn sword into its sheath over the Mausoleum of Hadrian, since called the Castle of St. Angelo, and adorned by the statue of an angel. His activity as pontiflP was incessant, and is the more astonish- ing as he was in delicate health and often confined to bed. " For a long time," he wrote to a friend in 601, " I have been unable to rise from my bed. I am tormented by the pains of gout ; a kind of fire seems to pervade my whole body : to live is pain ; and I look forward to death as the only remedy." In another letter he says : " T am daily dying, but never die." Nothing seemed too great, nothing too little for his personal care. He organized and completed the ritual of the church, gave it greater magnificence, improved the canon of the mass and the music by a new mode of chanting called after him. He preached often and effectively, deriving lessons of humility and piety from the calamities of the times, which appeared to him harbingers of the judgment-day. He protected the city of Rome against the savage and heretical Lombards. He administered the papal patrimony, which embraced large estates in the neigh- borhood of Rome, in Calabria, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Dalma- tia, and even in Gaul and Africa. He encouraged and advised missionaries. As patriarch of the West, he extended his pater- nal care over the churches in Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, and sent the pallium to some metropolitans, yet without claim- ing any legal jurisdiction. He appointed, he also reproved and deposed bishops for neglect of duty or crime. He resolutely opposed the prevalent practice of simony, and forbade the clergy to exact or accept fees for their services. He corresponded, in the interest of the church, with nobles, kings and queens in the West, with emperors and patriarchs in the East. He hailed the return of the Gothic kingdom of Spain under Reccared from the Arian heresy to the Catholic faith, which was publicly pro- claimed by the Council of Toledo, May 8, 589. He wrote to 21Q FOUKTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. the king a letter of congratulation, and exhorted him to humility, chastity, and mercy. The detested Lombards likewise cast off Ariuuism towards the close of his life, in consequence partly of his influence over (^ueeu Theodelinda, a Bavarian princess, who had been reared in the trinitarian faith. He endeavored to suppress the remnants of the Donatist schism in Africa. Un- compromising against Christian heretics and schismatics, he was a step in advance of his age in liberality towards the Jews. He censured the bishop of Terracina and the bishop of Cagliari for unjustly depriving them of their synagogues; he condemned the forcible baptism of Jews in Gaul, and declared conviction by jsreaching the only legitimate means of conversion ; he did not scruple, however, to try the dishonest method of bribery, and he inconsistently denied the Jews the right of building new synagogues and possessing Christian slaves. He made efforts, though in vain, to check the slave-trade, which was chiefly in the hands of Jews. After his death, the public distress, which he had labored to alleviate, culminated in a general famine, and the ungrateful populace of Rome was on the point of destroying his library, when the archdeacon Peter stayed their fury by asserting that he had seen the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove hovering above Gregory's head as he wrote his books. Hence he is rep- resented with a dove. He was buried in St. Peter's under the altar of St. Andrew. Note. Estimates of Gregory I. Bishop Bossuet (as quoted by Montalembert, II. 173) thus tersely sums up the public life of Gregory: " This great pope . . . subdued the Lom- bards ; saved Rome and Italy, though the emperors could give him no assistance ; repressed the new-born pride of the patriarchs of Constanti- nople ; enlightened the whole church by his doctrine ; governed the East and the West with as much vigor as humility ; and gave to the world a perfect model of ecclesiastical government." To this Count Montalembert (likewise a Roman Catholic) adds : " It was the Benedictine order which gave to the church him whom no one would have hesitated to call the greatest of the popes, had not the same § 50. GEEGOKY THE GREAT. A.D. 590-604. 217 order, five centuries later, produced St. Gregory VII. . . . He is truly Gregory the Great, because he issued irreproachable from numberless and boundless difficulties ; because he gave as a foundation to the in- creasing grandeur of the Holy See, the renown of his virtue, the candor of his innocence, the humble and inexhaustible tenderness of his heart." " The pontificate of Gregory the Great," says Gibbon (ch. 45), "which lasted thirteen years, six months, and ten days, is one of the most edify- ing periods of the history of the church. His virtues, and even his faults, a singular mixture of simplicity and cunning, of pride and humility, of sense and superstition, were hapjiily suited to his station and to the tem- per of the times." . Lau says (in his excellent monograph, pp. 302, 306): "The spiritual qualities of Gregory's character are strikingly apparent in his actions. With a clear, practical understanding, he combined a kind and mild heart ; but he was never weak. Fearful to the obstinate transgressor of the laws, on account of his inflexible justice, he was lenient to the repentant and a warm friend to his friends, though, holding, as he did, righteous- ness and the weal of the church higher than friendship, he was severe upon any neglect of theirs. With a great jirudence in managing the most different circumstances, and a great sagacity in treating the most different characters, he combined a moral firmness which never yielded an inch of what he had recognized as right ; but he never became stub- born. The rights of the church and the privileges of the apostolical see he fought for with the greatest pertinacity ; but for himself personally, he wanted no honors. As much as he thought of the church and the Roman chair, so modestly he esteemed himself. More than once his acts gave witness to the humility of his heart : humility was, indeed, to him the most important and the most sublime virtue. His activity was pro- digious, encompassing great objects and small ones with equal zeal. Nothing ever became too great for his energy or too small for his atten- tion. He was a warm patriot, and cared incessantly for the material as well as for the spiritual welfare of his countrymen. More than once he saved Rome from the Lombards, and relieved her from famine. . . . He was a great character with grand plans, in the realization of which he showed as much insight as firmness, as much prudent calculation of cir- cumstances as sagacious judgment of men. The influence he has exer- cised is immense, and Avheu this influence is not in every respect for the good, his time is to blame, not he. His goal was always that which he acknowledged as the best. Among all the i:)opes of the sixth and follow- ing centuries, he shines as a star of the very first magnitude." Eiud. Baxmann [I.e., I. 45 sq.) : "Amidst the general commotion which the invasion of the Lombards caused in Italy, one man stood fast on his post in the eternal city, no matter how high the surges swept over it. As Luther, in his last will, calls himself an advocate of God, whose name was well known in heaven and on earth and in hell, the epitaph 218 FOUETH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. says of Gregory I. that he ruled as the consul Dei. He was the chief bishop of the republic of the church, the fourth doctor ecelesice, beside the three other powerful theologians and columns of the Latin church : Am- brose, Augustine, and Jerome. He is justly called the pater ceremoniarum, the pater monachorum, and the Great. What the preceding centuries had produced in the Latin church for church government and dogmatics, for pastoral care and liturgy, he gathered together, and for the coming cen- turies he laid down the norms which were seldom deviated from." To this we add the judgment of James Barmby, the latest biographer of Gregory {Greg., p. 191) : " Of the loftiness of his aims, the earnestness of his purpose, the fervor of his devotion, his unwearied activity, and his personal purity, there can be no doubt. These qualities are conspicuous through his whole career. If his religion was of the strongly ascetic type, and disfigured by superstitious credulity, it bore in these respects the complexion of his age, inseparable then from aspiration after the highest holiness. Nor did either superstition or asceticism sxipersede in him the principles of a true inward religion — justice, mercy, and truth. We find him, when occasion required, exalting mercy above sacrifice ; he was singularly kindly and benevolent, as well as just, and even his zeal for the full rigor of monastic discipline was tempered with much gentleness and allowance for infirmity. If, again, with singleness of main purpose was combined at times the astuteness of the diplomatist, and a certain degree of politic insincerity in addressing potentates, his aims were never personal or selfish. And if he could stoop, for the attainment of his ends, to the then prevalent adulation of the great, he could also speak his mind fearlessly to the greatest, when he felt great principles to be at stake." § 51. G-regory and the Universal Episcopate. The activity" of Gregory tended powerfully to establish the authority of the jiapal chair. He combined a triple dignity, episcopal, metropolitan, and patriarchal. He was bishop of the city of Rome, metropolitan over the seven suffragan (afterwards called cardinal) bishops of the Roman territory, and patriarch of Italy, in fact of the whole West, or of all the Latin churches. This claim was scarcely disputed except as to the degree of his power in particular cases. A certain primacy of honor among all the patriarchs was also conceded, even by the East. But a universal episcopate, including an authority of jurisdiction over the Eastern or Greek church, was not acknowledged, and, what is more remarkable, was not even claimed by him, but emphati- § 51. GREGORY AND THE UNIVERSAL EPISCOPATE. 219 cally declined and denounced. He stood between the patriarchal and the strictly papal system. He regarded the four patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, to whom he announced his election with a customary confession of his faith, as co-ordinate leaders of the church under Christ, the supreme head, corresponding as it were to the four oecumenical councils and the four gospels, as their common foundation, yet after all with a firm belief in a papal primacy. His correspon- .dence with the East on this subject is exceedingly important. The controversy began in 595, and lasted several years, but was not settled. John IV., the Faster, patriarch of Constantinople, repeatedly used in his letters the title "oecumenical" or "universal bishop." This was an honorary title, which had been given to patriarchs by the emperors Leo and Justinian, and confirmed to John and his .successors by a Constantinopolitau synod in 588. It had also been used in the Council of Chalcedon of pope Leo 1/ 1 Gregory alludes to this fact in a letter to John (Lib. V. 18, in Migne's ed. of Greg Opera, vol. HI. 740) and to the emperor Mauricius (Lib. V. 20, in Mi-ne III 747), but says in both that the popes never claimed nor used "hoc Umerarmm nomen." ..." Certe pro beati Petri apostolorum principis honore, per venerandam Chalcedonensem synodnm Romano ponlifici oblatum est [nomen ^tud blasphemm-]. Sed nullus eorum unquam hoc singular i talis nomine uti consemit, ne dum privatum aliquid daretur uni, homore debito sacerdotes privarentur umversz. Quid est ergo quod nos hujus vocabuli gloriam et oblatam non qucBrimus. et alter ^bi hanc arripere et non oblatam pnesumitf" Strictly .speaking, however, the fact assumed by Gregory is not quite correct. Leo was styled ielle est enfin consonimie la dissolution de Paacien monde roinaiii et barbare, et oil commence la formation da monde nouvcau." VfexAULT [Charlemagne, 455, 458) : " Charlemagne fid, en cffet, leplre du monde moderne et de la society europ6enne. . . . Si Ch. ne pent etre Ugitemement honord comme tm saint, il a droit du moins a, la premiere place, parmis tous les hcros, dans U admiration des hommes ; car on ne trouverait pas tin autre souverain qui ait autant aimi I' humanity et lui ait fait plus de bien. II est le plus glorieux, parce que . . . il a mdritd d' etre proclamd le plus honnete des grands hommes." GiESEBRECHT, the historian of the German emperors, gives a glowing description of Charlemagne (1. 140) : " Many high-minded rulers arose in the ten centuries after Charles, but none had a higher aim. To be ranked with him, satisfied the boldest conquerors, the wisest princes of peace. French chivalry of later times glorified Charlemagne as the first cavalier; the German burgeoisie as the fatherly friend of the people and the most righteous judge ; the Catholic Church raised him to the number of her saints ; the poetry of all nations derived ever new inspiration and strength from his mighty person. Never perhaps has richer life proceeded from the activity of a mortal man [Nie vielleicht ist reicheres Leben von der Wirksamkeit eines sterblichen Mensehen ausgegangen^P We add the eloquent testimony of an American author, Parke Godwii^ {History of France, N. Y., 1860, vol. i. p. 410) : " There is to me some- thing indescribably grand in the figure of many of the barbaric chiefs — Alariks, Ataulfs, Theodoriks, and Euriks — -who succeeded to the power of the Romans, and in their wild, heroic way, endeavored to raise a fabric of state on the ruins of the ancient empire. But none of those figures is so imposing and majestic as that of Karl, the son of Pippin, whose name, for the first and only time in history, the admiration of mankind has in- dissolubly blended with the title the Great. By the peculiarity of his po- sition in respect to ancient and modern times — by the extraordinary length of his reign, by the number and importance of the transactions in which he was engaged, by the extent and splendor of his conquests, by his signal services to the Church, and by the grandeur of his personal quali- ties—he impressed himself so profoundly upon the character of his times, that he stands almost alone and apart in the annals of Europe. For nearly a thousand years before him, or since the days of Julius Ctesar, no 2 56. CHARLES THE GREAT. A. D. 768-814. 249 monarch had won so universal and brilliant a renown ; and for nearly a thousand years after him, or until the days of Charles V. of Germany, no monarch attained any thing like an equal dominion. A link between the old and new, he revived the Empire of the West, with a degree of glory that it had only enjoyed in its prime; while, at the same time, the modern history of every Continental nation was made to begin with him. Germany claims him as one of her most illustrious sons ; France, as her noblest king ; Italy, as her chosen emperor ; and the Church as her most prodigal benefactor and worthy saint. All the institutions of the Sliddle Ages — ^political, literary, scientific, and ecclesiastical — delighted to trace their traditionary origins to his hand : he was considered the source of the peerage, the inspirer of chivalry, the founder of universities, and the en- dower of the churches ; and the genius of romance, kindling its fantastic torches at the flame of his deeds, lighted up a new and marvellous world about him, filled with wonderful adventures and heroic forms. Thus by a double immortality, the one the deliberate award of history, and the other the prodigal gift of fiction, he claims the study of mankind." II. The Canonization^ of Charlemagne is perpetuated in the Officium infcsto Sancti Caroli Magni imperatoris et confessoris, as celebrated in churches of Germany, France, and Spain. Baronius [Annal. ad ann. 814) says that the canonization was not accepted by the Roman church, because Paschalis was no legitimate pope, but neither was it forbidden. Alban Butler, in his Lives of Saints, gives a eulogistic biography of the "^Blessed Charlemagne," and covers his besetting sin with the following unhistorical assertion: "The incontinence, into which he fell in his youth, he expiated by sincere repentance, so that several churches in Ger- many and France honor him among the saints." On the poetic and legendary history of Charlemagne, see Vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi, written about 1100 under the name of Turpin, archbishop of Rheims ; the work of Gaston, above quoted ; an essay of Leon Gautier {La legende de Charlemagne) in Vetault, pp. 461-485 ; and E. Koschwitz : Karls des Grossen Reise nach Jerusalem und Constantinopel, Heilbronn u. London, 1880. Wi)^v-^ WA' itIwii! ]rar SIGNUM CAROLI GLORIOSISSIMI REGIS. R K+S L The monoQ;ram of Charles with the additions of a scribe in a document signed by Charles at Kufstein, Aug. 31, 790. Copied from Stacke, l. c. 250 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. § 57. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire, A. D. 800. Charlemagne and Leo III. G. SUGEXHEIM : Geschichte der Entstehung unci Ausbildung des Kirchen- staates. Leipz. 1854. F. Scharpfp: Die Entstehung des Kirchenstaats. Freib. i. B. 1860. Th. D. Mock: De Donatione a Carolo Mag. sedl apostollcce anno 774 oblata. Munich 1861. James Bryce : The Holy Boman Empire. Lood. & N. York (Macmil- lan & Co.) 6th ed. 1876, 8th ed. 1880. German translation by ^r-^Awr Winchler. Heixrich von Sybel : Die Schenkungen der Karolinger an die Papste. In Sybel's " Hist. Zeitschrift," Miinchen & Leipz. 1880, pp. 46-85. Comp. Baxmann : I. 307 sqq. ; Vetault : Ch. III. pp. 113 sqq. [Charle- magne, patrice des Bomains — Formation des Mats de I'eglise). Charlemagne inherited the protectorate of the temporal do- minions of the pope which had been wrested from the Lombards by Pepin, as the Lombards had wrested them from the Eastern emperor. When the Lombards again rebelled and the pope (Hadrian) again appealed to the transalpine monarch for help, Charles in the third year of his sole reign (774) came to the rescue, crossed the Alps with an army — a formidable undertaking in those days — subdued Italy with the exception of a small part of the South still belonging to the Greek empire, held a triumphal entry in Rome, and renewed and probably enlarged his father's gift to the pope. The original documents have perished, and no contemporary authority vouches for the details ; but the fact is undoubted. The gift rested only on the right of conquest. Henceforward he ahvays styled himself " Ee.v Francornm et Longobardormn, et Patricius Romanorum." His authority over the immediate territory of the Lombards in Northern Italy was as complete as that in France, but the precise nature of his 2 57. FOUNDING OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIEE. A.D. 800. 251 authority over the pope's dominion as Patrician of the Romans became after his death an apple of discord for centuries. Ha- drian, to judge from his letters, considered himself as much an absolute sovereign in his dominion as Charles in his. In 781 at Easter Charles revisited Rome with his son Pepin, who on that occasion was anointed by the pope " King for Italy" (" Rex in Italiam"). On a third visit, in 787, he spent a few days with his friend, Hadrian, in the interest of the jiatrimony of St. Peter. "When Leo III. followed Hadrian (796) he unme- diately dispatched to Charles, as tokens of submission, the keys and standards of the city, and the keys of the sepulchre of Peter. A few years afterwards a terrible riot broke out in Rome in which the pope was assaulted and almost killed (799). He fled for help to Charles, then at Paderborn in Westphalia, and was promised assistance. The next year Charles again crossed the Alps and declared his intention to investigate the charges of cer- tain unknown crimes against Leo, but no witness appeared to prove them. Leo publicly read a declaration of his own inno- cence, probably at the request of Charles, but with a protest that this declaration should not be taken for a precedent. Soon after- wards occurred the great event which marks an era in the eccle- siastical and political history of Europe. THE CORONATION OF CHAELES AS EMPEROR. While Charles was celebrating Christmas in St. Peter's, in the year of our Lord 800, and kneeling in prayer before the altar, the pope, as under a sudden inspiration (but no doubt in consequence of a premeditated scheme), placed a golden crown upon his head, and the Roman people shouted three times : " To Charles Augustus, crowned by God, the great and pacific empe- ror of the Romans, life and victory ! " Forthwith, after ancient custom, he was adored by the pope, and was styled henceforth (instead of Patrician) Emperor and Augustus.^ ^ Annates Laurissenses ad ann. 801 : " Ipsa die sacratissima natalis Domini cum 252 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. The new emperor presented to the pope a round table of silver with the picture of Constantinople, and many gifts of gold, and remained in Rome till Easter. The moment or manner of the coronation may have been unexpected by Charles (if we are to believe his word), but it Ls hardly conceivable that it was not the result of a previous arrangement between him and Leo. Alcuin seems to have aided the scheme. In his view the pope occupied the first, the emperor the second, the king the third degree in the scale of earthly dignities. He sent to Charles from Tours before his coronation a splendid Bible with the inscription : Ad splendorem imperialis potentice} On his return to France Charles compelled all his subjects to take a new oath to him as " Csesar." He assumed the fuH title " Serenissimus Augustus a Deo coronatus, magnus et pacijlous imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, qui et per miscricor- diam Dei rex Francorum et Longobardorum." SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ACT. The act of coronation was on the part of the pope a final declaration of independence and self-emancipation against the Greek emperor, as the legal ruler of Rome. Charles seems to have felt this, and hence he proposed to unite the two empires by marrying Irene, who had put her son to death and usurped the Greek crown (797). But the same rebellion had been virtually committed before by the pope in sending the keys of the city to Pepin, and by the French king in accepting this token of tem- poral sovereignty. Public opinion justified the act on the prin- ciple tliat might makes right. The Greek emperor, being unable Rex ad Missam ante confcssionem b. Petri Apostoli ab oratione surgeret, Leo P. coronam capiti ejus imposuit, et a cuncto Romanorum populo acclamatum est: 'Karolo Aujusto, a Deo coronaio, magno et pacifico Imperatori Romanorum, vita et victoria r Et post Laudes ab Apostolico more antiquorum principum adoratus est, atque, ablato Patricii nomine, Imperator et Augustus est appellatus.'' Comp. Egin- hard, Annal. ad ami. 800, and Vita Car., c. 28. ^ But the date of the letter and the meaning of imperialis are not quite certain. See Rettberg, Kirchcngesck. Deutschlands, I. 430, and Baxmann, Politik der Pdpste, I. 313 sqq. - § 57. FOUNDING OF THE HOLY EOMAN EMPIRE. A. D. 800. 253 to maintain his power in Italy and to defend his own subjects, first against the Lombards and then against the Franks, had virtually forfeited his claim. For the West the event was the re-establishment, on a Teutonic basis, of the old Roman empire, which henceforth, together with the papacy, controlled the history of the middle ages. The pope and the emperor represented the highest dignity and power in church and state. But the pope was the greater and more endu- ring j)ower of the two. He continued, down to the Reformation, the spiritual ruler of all Europe, and is to this day the ruler of an empire much vaster than that of ancient Rome. He is, in the striking language of Hobbes, " the ghost of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned uj)on the grave thereof." THE EELATION OF THE POPE AND THE EMPEEOE. What was the legal and actual relation between these two sovereignties, and the limits of jurisdiction of each? This was tlie struggle of centuries. It involved many problems which could only be settled in the course of events. It was easy enough to distinguish the two in theory by confining the pope to spiritual, and the emperor to temporal affairs. But on the theocratic theory of the union of church and state the two will and must come into frequent conflict. The pope, by voluntarily conferring the imperial crown upon Charles, might claim that the empire was his gift, and that the right of crowning implied the right of discrowning. And this right was exercised by popes at a later period, who wielded the secular as well as the spiritual sword and absolved nations of their oath of allegiance. A mosaic picture in the triclinium of Leo III. in the Lateran (from the ninth century) represents St. Peter in glory, bestowing upon Leo kneeling at his right hand the priestly stole, and upon Charles kneeling at his left, the standard of Rome.^ This is the mediaeval hierarchical theory, * The picture is reproduced in the works of Vetault and Stacke above quoted. 254 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. which derives all power from God through Peter as the head of the church. Gre^-ory VII. compared the church to the sun, the state to the moon who derives her light from the sun. The popes will always maintain the principle of the absolute supre- macy of the church over the state, and support or oppose a gov- ernment— whether it be an empire or a kingdom or a republic — accordino- to the degree of its subserviency to the interests of the Ijicrarchy. The papal Syllabus of 1864 expresses the genuine spirit of the system in irreconcilable conflict with the spirit of modern history and civilization. The Vatican Palace is the richest museum of classical and mediseval curiosities, and the pope himself, the infallible oracle of two hundred millions of souls, is by far the greatest curiosity in it. On the other hand Charles, although devotedly attached to the church and the jjope, was too absolute a monarch to recog- nize a sovereignty within his sovereignty. He derived his idea of the theocracy from the Old Testament, and the relation between Moses and Aaron. He understood and exercised his imperial dignity pretty much in the same way as Constantino the Great and Theodosius the Great had done in the Byzantine empire, which was csesaro-papal in principle and practice, and so is its successor, the Russian empire. Charles believed that he was the divinely ajapointed protector of the church and the regulator of all her external and to some extent also the internal affairs. He called the synods of his empire without asking the pope. He presided at the Council of Frankfort (794), which legislated on matters of doctrine and discipline, condemned the Adoption heresy, agreeably to the pope, and rejected the image Avorship against the decision of the second oecumenical Council of Nicsea (787) and the declared views of several popes.^ He appointed ' Milm;in (II. 497) : " The Council of Frankfort displays most fully the power assumed by Charlemagne over the hierarchy as well as the nobility of the realm, the mingled character, the all-embracing comprehensiveness of his legislation. The assembly at Frankfort was at once a Diet or Parliament of the realm and an ecclesiastical Council. It took cognizance alternately of 1 53. SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE. 255 bishops aud abbots as well as counts, and if a vacancy in the papacy had occurred during the remainder of his life, he would probably have filled it as well as the ordinary bishoprics. The first act after his coronation was to summon and condemn to death for treason those who had attempted to depose the pope. He thus acted as judge in the case. A Council at Mayence in 813 called him in an official document " the pious ruler of the holy church." ' Charles regarded the royal and imperial dignity as the heredi- tary possession of his house and people, and crowned his son, Louis the Pious, at Aix-la-Chapelle in 813, without consulting the pope or the Romans.^ He himself as a Teuton represented both France and Germany. But with the political separation of the two countries under his successors, the imperial dignity was attached to the German crown. Hence also the designation : the holy German Roman empire. § 58. Survey of the History of the Holy Roman Empire. The readiness with which the Romans responded to the crown- ing act of Leo proves that the re-establishment of the Western empire was timely. The Holy Roman Empire seemed to be the necessary counterpart of the Holy Roman Church. For many centuries the nations of Europe had been used to the concentra- tion of all secular power in one head. It is true, several Roman emperors from Nero to Diocletian had persecuted Christianity by fire and sword, but Constantine and his successors had raised the matters purely ecclesiastical and of mattei-s as clearly secular. Charlemagne was present and presided in the Council of Frankfort. The canons as well as the other statutes were issued chiefly in his name." ^ Sanctos Ecelesice tarn pium ac devoium in servitio Dei rectorem. Also, in his own language, Devotus EcdesicK defensor atque adjutor in omniivs apostolicm sedis. Eettberg I. 425, 439 sqq. » Ann. Einhardi, ad- ann. 813 (in Migne's Pafrol. Tom. 104, p. 478) : " Evo- catiim ad se apud Aquasgrani filium suum Uludovicum Aqidtanm regem, coronam illi imposuit et imperialis nominis slhi eonsortem fecit." "When Stephen IV. visited Louis in 81G, he bestowed on him simply spiritual consecration. In the same manner Louis appointed his son Lothair emperor who was afterwards crowned by the pope in Rome (823). 256 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. church to dignity and power, and bestowed upon it all the privi- leo-cs of a state religion. The transfer of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople withdrew from the Western church the protection of the secular arm, and exposed Europe to the horrors of barbarian invasion and the chaos of civil wars. The popes were among the chief sufferers, their territory being again and a-T-ain overrun and laid waste by the savage Lombards. Hence the instinctive desire for the protecting arm of a new empire, and this could only be expected from the fresh and vigorous Teutonic power which had risen beyond the Alps and Christianized by Roman missionaries. Into this empire "all the life of the ancient world was gathered ; out of it all the life of the modern world arose." ' THE EMPIRE AND THE PAPACY, THE TWO RULING POWERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Henceforward the mediaeval history of Europe is chiefly a history of the papacy and the empire. They were regarded as the two arms of God in governing the church and the world. Tliis twofold government was upon the whole the best training- school of the barbarian races for Christian civilization and free- dom. The papacy acted as a wholesome check upon military despotism, the empire as a check upon the abuses of priestcraft. Both secured order and unity against the disintegrating tenden- cies of society ; both nourished tho great idea of a commonwealth of nations, of a brotherhood of mankind, of a communion of saints. By its connection with Rome, the empire infused new blood into the old nationalities of the South, and transferred the remaining: treasures of classical culture and the Roman law to the new nations of the North. The tendency of both was ulti- mately self-destructive ; they fostered, while seeming to oppose, the spirit of ecclesiastical and national independence. The disci- pline of authority always produces freedom as its legitimate result. The law is a schoolmaster to lead men to the gospel. 1 Bryce, p. 396 (8th ed.) i 58. SUEVEY OF THE HISTORY OP THE EMPIRE. 257 I OTHO THE GREAT. In the opening chapter of the history of the empire we find it under the control of a master-mind and in friendly alliance with the papacy. Under the weak successors of Charlemagne it dwindled down to a merely nominal existence. But it revived again in Otho I. or the Great (936-973), of the Saxon dynasty. He was master of the pope and defender of the Roman church, and left everywhere the impress of an heroic character, inferior ■only to that of Charles. Under Henry III. (1039-1056), when the papacy sank lowest, the empire again proved a reforming power. He deposed three rival popes, and elected a worthy successor. But as the papacy rose from its degradation, it over- awed the empire. HENRY IV. AND GREGORY VII. Under Henry IV. (1056-1106) and Gregory VII. (1073-1085) the two powers came into the sharpest conflict concerning the right of investiture, or the supreme control in the election of bishops and abbots. The papacy achieved a moral triumph over the empire at Canossa, when the mightiest prince kneeled as a peni- tent at the feet of the proud successor of Peter (1077); but Henry recovered his manhood and his power, set up an anti- pope, and Gregory died in exile at Salerno, yet without yielding an inch of his principles and pretensions. The conflict lasted fifty years, and ended with the Concordat of Worms (Sept. 23, 1122), which was a compromise, but with a limitation of the imperial prerogative : the pope secured the right to invest the bishops with the ring and crozier, but the new bishop before ■ crr ? his consecration was to receive his temporal estates as a fief of the -^Jf ? crown by the touch of the emperor's sceptre. m^r^ o^i^ii-c THE HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN. Under the Swabian emperors of the house of Hohenstaufen (1138-1254) the Eoman empire reached its highest power in connection with the Crusades, in the palmy days of mediajval 258 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. chivalry, poetry and song. They excelled in personal greatness and renown the Saxon and the Salic emperors, but were too much concerned with Italian affairs for the good of Germany. Frederick Barbarossa (Redbeard), during his long reign (1152- 1190), was a worthy .successor of Charlemagne and Otho the Great. He subdued Northern Italy, quarrelled with pope Alexander III., enthroned two rival popes (Paschal III., and after his death Calixtas III.), but ultimately submitted to Alex- ander, fell at his feet at Venice, and was embraced by the pope with tears of joy and the kks of peace (1177). He died at the head of an army of crasaders, while attempting to cross the Cydnus in Cilicia (June 10, 1190), and entered upon his long enchanted sleep in Kytfhduser till his spirit reappeared to~estab- lish a new German emj)ire in 1871.' Under Innocent III. (1198-1216) the papacy reached the acme of its power, and maintained it till the time of Boniface VIII. (1294-1303). Emperor Frederick II. (1215-1250), Bar- barossa's grandson, was equal to the best of his predecessors in genius and energy, superior to them in culture, but more an Italian than a German, and a skeptic on the subject of religion. He reconquered Jerusalem in the fifth crusade, but cared little for the church, and was put under the ban by pope Gregory IX., who denounced him as a heretic and blasphemer, and compared * Friedrich Eiickert has reproduced this significant German legend in a poem beginning : " Der alte Barbarossa, Der Kaiser Friederich, Im unterird'schen Schlosse Halt cr verzaubert sich. Er ist niemals gestorben, Er lebt darin noch jetzt ; Er hat im Schloss verborgen Zum Schhif sich hingesetzt. Er hat Iiinabgenommen Des Reiches Herrlichkeit, Und wird einst wiederkommen Mit ihr zu seiner Zeit," etc. § 58. SURVEY OF THE HISTOEY OF THE EMPIRE. 259 him to the Apocalyptic beast from the abyss.^ The news of his sudden death was hailed by pope Innocent IV. with the excla- mation : " Let the heavens rejoice, and let the earth be glad." His death was the collapse of the house of Hohenstaufen, and for a time also of the Roman empire. His son and successor Con- rad IV. ruled but a few years, and his grandson Conradin, a bright and innocent youth of sixteen, w^as opposed by the pope, and beheaded at Naples in sight of his hereditary kingdom (October 29, 1268). Italy was at once the paradise and the grave of German ambition. THE GEEMAN EMPIRE. After " the great interregnum " when might was right,^ the Swiss count Rudolf of Hapsburg (a castle in the Swiss canton of Aargau) w^as elected emperor by the seven electors, and crowned at Aachen (1273-1291). He restored peace and order, never visited Italy, escaped the ruinous quarrels with the pope, built up a German kingdom, and laid the foundation of the conserva- tive, orthodox, tenacious, and selfish house of Austria. The empire continued to live for more than five centuries with varying fortunes, in nominal connection with Rome and at the head of the secular powers in Christendom, but without control- ling influence over the fortunes of the papacy and the course of Europe. Occasionally it sent forth a gleam of its universal aim, as under Henry VII., who was crowned in Rome and hailed by Dante as the sa\H[our of Italy, but died of fever (if not of poison administered by a Dominican monk in the sacramental cup) in Tuscany (1313); under Sigismund, the convener and protector of the oecumenical Council at Constance which deposed popes and burned Hus (1414), a much better man than either the emperor or the contemporary popes; under Charles V. (1519- 1558), who wore the crown of Spain and Austria as well as of ^ He alone, of all the emperors, is consigned to hell by Dante {Inferno, x. 119) : " Within here is the second Frederick." ' Schiller calls it " die kaiserlose, die schreckliche Zeit." 260 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Germany, and on whose dominions the sun never set ; and under Joseph II. (1765-1790), who renounced the intolerant policy of his ancestors, unmindful of the pope's protest, and narrowly escaped greatness.^ But the emperors after Rudolf, with a few exceptions, were no more crowned in Rome, and withdrew from Italy .^ They were chosen at Frankfort by the Seven Electors, three spiritual, and four temporal : the archbishops of ^Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, and the Electors of the Palatinate, Saxony, and Brandenburg (afterwards enlarged to nine). The competition, however, was confined to a few power- ful houses, until in the 15th century the Hapsburgs grasped the crown and held it tenaciously, with one exception, till the dis- solution. The Hapsburg emperors always cared more for 'their hereditary dominions, which they steadily increased by fortunate marriages, than for Germany and the papacy. THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE EMPIRE. Many causes contributed to the gradual downfall of the Ger- man empire : the successful revolt of the Swiss mountaineers, the growth of the independent kingdoms of Spain, France, and England, the jealousies of the electors and the minor German princes, the discovery of a new Continent in the West, the inva- sion of the Turks from the East, the Reformation which divided the German people into two hostile religions, the fearful devasta- tions of the thirty years' Avar, the rise of the house of floheuzol- lern and the kingdom of Prussia on German soil with the * The pope Pius VI. even made a journey to Vienna, but when he extended his hand to tlie mini'^ter Kaunitz to kiss, the minister took it and shook it. Joseph in turn visited Rome, and was received by the people with the shout: " Erviva il nostra iviperalore!" "^ Dante {Pargat. VII. 91) represents Rudolf of Hapsburg as seated gloomily apart in purgatory, and mourning his sin of neglecting " To heal the wounds that Italy have slain." Weary of the endless strife of doineslic tyrants and factions in every city, Dante longed for some controlling power that should restore unity and peace to his beloved but nnfortmiate Italy. He expounded his political ideas in his work De Monorchia. 2 58. SUEVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE EMPIEE. 261 brilliant genius of Frederick II., and the wars growing out of the French Revolution. In its last stages it became a mere shadow, and justified the satirical description (traced to Voltaire}, that the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. The last of the emperors, Francis II., in August 6th, 1806, abdicated the elective crown of Germany and substi- tuted for it the hereditary crown of Austria as Francis I. (d. 1835). Thus the holy Roman empire died in peace at the venerable age of one thousand and six years. THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON. Napoleon, hurled into sudden power by the whirlwind of revolution on the wings of his military genius, aimed at the double glory of a second Caesar and a second Charlemagne, and constructed, by arbitrary force, a huge military empire on the basis of France, with the pope as an obedient paid servant at Paris, but it collapsed on the battle fields of Leipzig and Water- loo, without the hope of a resurrection. " I have not succeeded Louis Quatorze," he said, "but Charlemagne." He dismissed his wife and married a daughter of the last German and first Austrian emperor ; he assumed the Lombard crown at Milan ; he made his ill-fated son " King of Rome " in imitation of the German " King of the Romans." He revoked " the donations which my predecessors, the French emperors have made," and appropriated them to France. " Yom' holiness," he wrote to Pius VIL, who had once addressed him as his " very dear Son in Christ," " is sovereign of Rome, but I am the emperor thereof." "You are right," he wrote to Cardinal Fesch, his uncle, " that I am Charlemagne, and I ought to be treated as the emperor of the papal court. I shall inform the pope of my intentions in a few words, and if he declines to acquiesce, I shall reduce him to the same condition in which he was before Charle- magne."' It Ls reported that he proposed to the pope to reside ' In another letter to Fesch ( Correspond, dc V empereur Napol. J"", Tom. xi. 262 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. in Paris with a large salary, and rule the conscience of Europe under the military supremacy of the emperor, that the pope listened first to his persuasion with the single remark: " Come- dian," and then to his threats with the reply : " Tragedian," and turned him his back. The papacy utilized the empire of the uncle and the nephew, as well as it could, and survived them. But the first Napoleon swept away the effete institutions of feudalism, and by his ruthless and scornful treatment of con- (|uered nationalities provoked a powerful revival of these very nationalities which overthrew and buried his own artificial em- pire. The deepest humiliation of the German nation, and espe- cially of Prussia, was the beginning of its uprising in the war of liberation. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. The Congress of Vienna erected a temporary substitute for the old empire in the German " Bund " at Frankfort. It was no federal state, but a loose confederacy of 38 sovereign states, or princes rather, without any popular representation ; it was a rope of sand, a sham unity, under the leadership of Austria; and Austria shrewdly and selfishly used tlie petty rivalries and jealousies of the smaller principalities as a means to check the progress of Prussia and to suppress all liberal movements. THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. In the meantime the popular desire for national union, awakened by the war of liberation and a great national litera- ture, made steady progress, and found at last its embodiment in a new German empire with a liberal constitution and a national ■parliament. But this great result was brought about by great events and achievements under the leadership of Prussia against foreign aggression. The first step was the brilliant victory of Prussia over Austria at Koulggratz, wliich resulted in the for- 528), he writes, " Pour le papeje suis Charlemagne,' paree que comme Charlemagne je re'unis la couronne de France d cdle des Lombards et que man empire confine avec I' Orient." Quoted by Bryce. g 58. SURVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE. 2b3 mation of the North German Confederation (1866). The second step was the still more remarkable triumph of united Germany in a war of self-defence against the empire of Napoleon III., which ended in the proclamation of William I. as German emperor by the united wishes of the German princes and peoples in the palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles (1870). Thus the long dream of the German nation was fulfilled through a series of the most brilliant military and diplomatic victories recorded in modern history, by the combined genius of Bismarck, Moltke, and William, and the valor, discipline, and intelligence of the German army. Simultaneously with this German movement, Italy under the lead of Cavour and Victor Emmanuel, achieved her national unity, with Rome as the political capital. But the new German empire is not a continuation or revival of the old. It differs from it in several essential particulars. It is the result of popular national aspiration and of a war of self- defence, not of conquest; it is based on the predominance of Prussia and North Germany, not of Austria and South Ger- many ; it is hereditary, not elective ; it is controlled by modern ideas of liberty and progress, not by mediaeval notions and insti- tutions ; it is essentially Protestant, and not Roman Catholic ; it is a German, not a Roman empire. Its rise is indirectly con- nected with the simultaneous downfall of the temporal power of the pope, who is the hereditary and unchangeable enemy both of German and Italian unity and freedom. The new empire is independent of the church, and has officially no connection with religion, resembling in this respect the government of the United States ; but its Protestant animus appears not only in the hereditary religion of the first emperor, but also in the expulsion of the Jesuits (1872), and the " Culturkampf " against the poli- tico-hierarchical aspirations of the ultramontane papacy. When Pius IX., in a letter to William I. (1873), claimed a sort of jurisdiction over all baptized Christians, the emperor courteously informed the infallible pope that he, with all Protestants, recog- 264 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. nized no other mediator between God and man but our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. The new German empire will and ought to do full justice to the Catholic church, but "will never go to Canossa." We pause at the close of a long and weighty chapter in history ; we wonder what the next chapter will be. § 59. The Papacy and the Empire from the Death of Charle- magne to Nicolas I. {A. D. 814-858), Note on tfie Myth of the Papess Joan. The power of Charlemagne was personal. Under his weak successors the empire fell to pieces, and the creation of his -genius was buried in chaotic confusion ; but the idea survived. His son and successor, Louis the Pious, as the Germans and Italians called him, or Louis the Gentle {le debonnaire) in French his- tory (814-840), inherited the piety, and some of the valor and legislative wisdom, but not the genius and energy, of his father. He was a devoted and superstitious servant of the clergy. He began with reforms, he dismissed his father's concubines and daughters Avith their paramours from the court, turned the palace into a monastery, and promoted the Scandinavian mission of St. Ansgar. In the progress of his reign, especially after his second marriage to tlie ambitious Judith, he showed deplorable weakness and allowed his empire to decay, while he wasted his time between monkish exercises and field-sports in the forest of the Ardennes. He unwisely shared his rule with his three sons, who soon rebelled against their father and engaged in fraternal wars. After his death the treaty of Verdun was concluded in 843 By this treaty the empire was divided ; Lothair received Italy with the title of em])cror, France fell to Charles the Bald, Ger- many to Louis the German. Thus Charlemagne's conception of a Western empire that should be commensurate with the Latin church wiLs destroyed, or at least greatly contracted, and the 2 59. THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE. A. D. 814-858. 265 three countries have hencefortli a separate history. This was better for the development of nationality. The imperial dignity was afterwards united with the German crown, and continued under this modified form till 1806. During this civil commotion the papacy had no distinguished representativ^e, but upon the whole profited by it. Some of the pojjes evaded the imperial sanction of their election. The French clergy forced the gentle Louis to make at Soissons a most humiliating confession of guilt for all the slaughter, pillage, and sacrilege committed during the civil wars, and for bringing the empire to the brink of ruin. Thus the hierarchy assumed con- trol even over the civil misconduct of the sovereign and imposed ecclesiasticiil penance for it. NOTE. THE MYTH OF JOHANNA PAPISSA. We miLst make a passing mention of the curious and mysterious myth of papess Jolianna, who is said during this period between Leo IV. (847) and Benedict III. (855) to have worn the triple crown for two years and a half. She was a lady of Mayence (her name is variously called Agnes, Gilberta, Johanna, Jutta), studied in disguise philosophy in Athens (where philosophy had long before died out), taught theology in Rome, under the name of Johannes Anglicus, and was elevated to the papal dignity as John VIII., but died in consequence of the discovery of her sex by a sudden confinement in the oi)en street during a solemn pro- cession from the Vatican to the Lateran. According to another tradition she was tied to the hoof of a horse, dragged outside of the city and stoned to death by the people, and the inscription was put on her grave : " Parce paler patrum papissre edere partum." The strange story originated in Rome, and was first circulated by the Dominicans and Minorites, and acquired general credit in the 18th and 14th centuries. Pope John XX. (1276) called himself John XXI. In the beginning of the 15th century the bust of this woman-pope was placed alongside with the busts of the other popes at Sienna, and nobody took oflTence at it. Even Chancellor Gerson used the story as an argu- ment that the church could err in matter? of fact. At the Council in Constance it was used against the popes. Torrecremata, the upholder of papal despotism, draws from it the lesson that if the church can stand a woman-pope, she might stand the still greater evil of a heretical pope. Nevertheless the story is undoubtedly a mere fiction, and is so regarded by nearly all modern historians, Protestant as well as Roman Catholic. 26 G FOURTfl PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. It is not mentioned till four hundred years later by Stephen, a French Dominican (who died 1261).^ It was unknown to Photius and the bitter Greek polemics during the ninth and tenth centuries, who would not have missed the opportunity to make use of it as an argviment against the pai)aoy. There is no gaj? in the election of the popes between Leo and Benedict, who, according to contemporary historians, was canonically elected three days after the death of Leo IV. (which occurred July 17th, 855), or at all events in the same month, and consecrated two months after (Sept. 29th). See Jaffe, Regesta, p. 235. The myth was probably an allegory or satire on the monstrous government of women (Theodora and Marozia) over .several licentious popes — Sergius III., John X., XI., and XII. — in the tenth century. So Pleumann, Schrockh, Gibbon, Xeander. The only serious objection to this solution is that the myth would be displaced from the ninth to the tenth century. Other conjectures are these : The myth of the female pope was a satire on John VIII. for his softness in dealing with Photius (Baronius) ; the misunderstanding of a fact that some foreign bishop [pontifex) in Rome was really a wonum in di.sguise (Leibnitz) ; the paj^ess was a widow of Leo IV. (Kist) ; a misinterpretation of the stella stercoraria (Schmidt) ; a satirical allegory on the origin and circulation of the false decretals of Isidor (Henke and Gfrorer) ; an impersonation of the great whore of the Apocalypse, and the popular expression of the belief that the mystery of iniquity was working in the papal court (Baring-Gould). David Blondel, first destroyed the credit of this medioeval fiction, in his learned French dissertation on the subject (Amsterdam, 1G49). Spanheim defended it, and Mosheim credited it much to his discredit as an historian. See the elaborate discussion of Dollinger, Papst-Fabeln des mttdalters, 2d ed. Miinchen, 1863 (Engl, transl. N. Y., 1872, pp. 4^58 and pp. 430-437). Comp. also Bianchi-Giovini, Esame critico degll atti edocumentl della papesm Giomnna, Mil. 1845, and the long note of GiE- SELEB, II. 30-32 (N. Y. ed.), which sums up the chief data in the case. § 60. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. I. SOUIICES. The only older ed. of Pseudo-Isidor is that of Jacob Merlin in the first part of his Collection of General Councils, Paris, 1523, Col. , 1530, etc., reprinted in Mignc's Patrol. Tom. CXXX., Paris, 1853. * The oldest testimony lu tlie almost contemporary "Liber Pontificalis" of Anastasius is wanting in the best manuscripts, and must be a later interpola- tion. Dollinger shows that the mytli, although it may have circulated earlier in the mouth of tlie people, was not definitely put into writing before the middle of tlie thirteenth century. § 60. THE PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN DECRETALS. 267 Far superior is the modern ed. of P. Hinschius : Decretales Pseudo-Isido- riance et Capitula Angilramni. Lips. 1863. The only critical ed. taken from the oldest and best MSS. Comp. his Commentatio de Col- lectione Isidori Mercatoris in this ed. pp. xi-ccxxxviii, II. LITERATURE. Dav. Blondel : Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus vapulantes. Genev. 1628. F. Knust : De Fontibus et Consilio Fseudo-Isidoriance collectionis. Gott 1832. A. MoHLER (R. C.) : Fragmente aus und iiber Isidor, in his " Vermischte Schriften" (ed. by Dollinger, Regensb. 1839), I. 285 sqq. •H. WASSERSCHLEBEisr : Beitrdge zur Gesch. dcr fahchen Decret. Breslau, 1844. Comp. also his art. in Herzog. C. Jos. Hefele (R. C): Die pseudo-isidor. Frage, in the "Tubinger Quartalschrift," 1847. Gfrorer : Alter, Ursprung, Zweck der Decretalen des falschen Mdorus. Freib. 1848. Jul. Weizs acker : Hinhnar imd Pseudo-isidor, in Niedner's " Zeitschriffc fur histor. Theol.," for 1858, and Die pseudo-isid. Frage, in Sybel's " Hist. Zeitschri ft," 1860. C. VON NooRDEN : Ebo, Hinkmar und Pseudo-isidor, in Svbel's " Hist. Zeitschrift," 1862. Dollinger in Janus, 1869. It appeared in several editions and languages. Ferd. Walter (R. C.) : Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts aller christl. Gon- fessionen. Bonn (1822), 13th ed. 1861. The same transl. into French, Italian, and Spanish. J. W. Bickell: Geschichfe des Kirchenrechts. Giessen, 1843, 1849. G. Phillips (R. C): Kirchenrecht. Regensburg (1845), 3rd ed. 1857 sqq. 6 vols, (till 1864). His Lehrbuch, 1859, P. IL 1862. Jo. Fr. von Schulte (R. C, since 1870 Old Cath.) : Das Katholische Kirchenrecht. Giessen, P. I. 1860. Lehrbuch, 1873. Die Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des Canonischen Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegcnwart. Stuttgart, 1875 sqq. 3 vols. Aem. L. Richter: Lehrbuch des kafh. und evaiig. Kirchenrechts. Leipz., sixth ed. by Dove, 1867 (on Pseudo-isidor, pp. 102-133). Henry C. Lea: Studies in Church History. Philad. 1869 (p. 43-102 on the False Decretals). Friedr. Maassen (R. C.) : Geschichte der Quellen und d. Literatur des canonischen Rechts im Abendlande. 1st vol., Gratz, 1870. Comp. also for the whole hi.story the great work of F. C. von Savigny: Geschichte des Rom. Rechts im Mittelalter. Heidelb. 2nd ed. 18347-'51, 7 vols. See also the Lit. in vol. II. ^ 67. During the chaotic confusion under the Carolingians, in the 268 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590 1049. middle of the ninth century, a mysterious book made its appear- ance, which gave legal expression to the popular opinion of the papacy, raised and strengthened its power more than any other agency, and forms to a large extent the basis of the canon law of the churcii of Rome. This is a collection of ecclesiastical laws mider the false name of bishop IsiDOR of Seville (died 636), hence called the " Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals." ^ He was the reputed (though not the real) author of an earlier collection, based upon that of the Roman abbot, Dionysius Exiguus, in the sixth century, and used as the law-book of the church in Spain, hence called the " Hispana." In these earlier collections the letters and decrees {Epistolm Decretales) of the popes from the time of Siricius (384) occupy a prominent place.^ A decretal in the canonical sense is an authoritative rescript of a pope in reply to some question," while a decree is a papal ordi- nance enacted with the advice of the Cardinals, without a pre- vious inquiry. A canon is a law ordained by a general or pro- vincial synod. A dogma is an ecclesiastical law relating to doctrine. The earliest decretals had moral rather than legisla- tive force. But as the questions and appeals to the pope multi- plied, the papal answers grew in authority. Fictitious docu- ments, canons, and decretals were nothing new ; but the Pseudo- Isidorian collection is the most colossal and effective fraud known in the hiscory of ecclesiastical literature. 1. The contents of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. The ' The preface begins : " Tddorus Mercator servus Chrisli lectori conservo suo et parcnd suo in Domino fidcli {al. fidei) salutem.' The byname " Mercator," which is found in 30 of the oldest codices, is so far unexplained. vSome i"efer it to Marias Mercator, a learned occidental layman residing in Constantino- ple, who wrote against Pelagius and translated ecclesiastical records which pseudo-Isidorus made use of. Others regard it as a mistake for "Peccator" (a title of humility frequently used by priests and bishops, e. g. by St. Patrick in his "Confession"), which is found in 3 copies. "Mercatus" also occui-s in several copies, and this would be equivalent to redemptus, " Isidorus, the re- deemed servant of ('hrist." See Hinschius and Richtcr, /. c. * Tlie original name was de.cretale constitutum or dccretalis epistola, afterwards decretalis- See Richter, /. c. p. SO. ? 60. THE PSEUDO-ISIDORL^N DECRETALS. 269 book is divided into three parts. The first part contains fifty Apostolical Canons from the collection of Dionvsius, sixty spurious decretals of the Eoman bishops from Clement (d. 101) to Melchiades (d. 314). The second part comprehends the forged document of the donation of Constantine, some tracts concerning the Council of Nicoea, and the canons of the Greek, African, Gallic, and Spanish Councils down to 683, from the Spanish collection. The third part, after a preface copied from •the Hispana, gives in chronological order the decretals of the popes from Sylvester (d. 335) to Gregory II. (d. 731), among which thirty-five are forged, including all before Daraasus ; but the genuine letters also, which are taken from the Isidorian col- lection, contain interpolations. In many editions the Capitula Angilramni are appended. All these documents make up a manual of orthodox doctrine and clerical discipline. They give dogmatic decisions against heresies, especially Arianism (which lingered long in Spain), and directions on worship, the sacraments, feasts and fasts, sacred rites and costumes, the consecration of churches, church property, and especially on church polity. The work breathes throughout the spirit of churchly and priestly piety and reverence. 2. The sacerdotal system. Pseudo-Isidor advocates the papal theocracy. The clergy is a divinely instituted, consecrated, and inviolable caste, mediating between God and the people, as in the Jewish dispensation. The priests are the "familiares Dei," the " spiritualesr the laity the " carnales:' He who sins against them sins against God. They are subject to no earthly tribunal, and responsible to God alone, who appointed them judges of men. The privileges of the priesthood culminate in the episco- pal dignity, and the episcopal dignity culminates in the papacy. The oathedra Petri is the fountain of all power. Without the consent of the pope no bishop can be deposed, no conned be convened. He is the ultimate umpire of all controversy, and from him there is no appeal. He is often called " epi^copu^ universalis;' notwithstanding the protest of Gregory I. 270 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. 3. The aim of Pseuclo-Tsidor is, by such a collection of autho- ritative decisions to protect the clergy against the secular power and against moral degeneracy. The power of the metropolitans is rather lowered in order to secure to the pope the definitive sentence in the trials of bishops. But it is manifestly wrong if older wi'iters have put the chief aim of the work in the elevation of the papacy. The papacy appears rather as a means for the protection of episcopacy in its conflict with the civil government. It is the supreme guarantee of the rights of the bishops. 4. The genuineness of Pseudo-Isidor was not doubted during the middle ages (Hincmar only denied the legal application to the French church), but is now universally given up by Roman Catholic as well as Protestant historians. The forgery is apparent. It is inconceivable that Dionysius ExigUus, who lived in Rome, should have been ignorant of such a large number of papal letters. The collection moreover is full of anachronisms : Roman bishops of the second and third centu- ries write in the Frankish Latin of the ninth century on doctri- nal topics in the spirit of the post-Nicene orthodoxy and on mediaeval relations in church and state ; they quote the Bible after the version of Jerome as amended under Charlemagne ; Victor addresses Theophilus of Alexandria, who lived two hun- dred years later, on the paschal couti-oversies of the second century.^ The Donation of Constantine, which is incorporated in this collection, is an older forgery, and exists also in several Greek texts. It affirms that Constantine, when he was baptized by ' The forgery was first suggested by Nicolaus de Cusa, in the fifteenth century, and Calvin {Inst. IV. 7, 11, 20), and then proved by the Magdeburg Centuries, and more conchisively by the Calvinistic divine David Blondel (1628) against the attempted vindication of the Jesuit Torres (Turrianus, 1572). Tlie brothers Ballerini, Baronius, BelLarmin, Theiner, Walter, Mohler, Hefele, and other Roman Catholic scholars admit the forgery, but usually try to mitigate it and to underrate the originality and influence of Pseudo-Isidor. Some Protestant divines have erred in the opposite direction (as Richter justly observes, /. c. p. 117). ? 60. THE PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN DECKETALS. 271 pope Sylvester, A. D. 324 (he was not baptized till 337, by the Arian bishop Eusebius of NicomeJia), presented him with the Lateran palace and all imperial insignia, together with the Roman and Italian territory.^ The object of this forgery was to antedate by five centuries the temporal power of the papacy, which rests on the donations of Pepin and Charlemagne.^ The only foundation in fact is the donation of the Lateran palace, which was originally the palace of the Lateran family, then of the emperors, and last of the popes. The wife of Constantine, Fausta, resided in it, and on the transfer of the seat of empire to Constantinople, he left it to Sylvester, as the chief of the Roman clergy and nobility. Hence it contains to this day the pontifical throne with the inscription : " Hoee est papalis secies ct j)ontifi- calis.^^ There the pope takes possession of the see of Rome. But the whole history of Constantine and his successors shows conclusively that they had no idea of transferring any part of their temporal sovereignty to the Roman pontiff. 5. The authorship must be assigned to some ecclesiastic of the Frankish church, probably of the diocese of Rheims, between 847 and 865 (or 857), but scholars differ as to the writer.' ^ "Dominis meis beatissimi^ Pefro et Paulo, etper eos etiam beato Sylvestro Patri nostra summo pontifici, et universalis urbis Romce papa, et omnibus ejus succcssoribus pontificibus ■ . • concedimus palatiuni imperii nostri Lateranense . . . deinde dia- dema, videlicet coronam capitis nostri simulque pallium, vel mitram . . . et omnia imperialia indumenta . . . et imperialia scepira . . . et omnem possessionem im- perialis culminis et gloriam polestatis nostrce. . . Unde ut pontificalis apex nan vilesant,sedmagis ampUus quam terreni imperii dignitaset glorias potentia decoretur, ecce tam palatium nostrum, ut proedictum est, quamque Romance vobis et omnes Italioe seu occidentalium regionum provincias, loca et civitates beatissimo pontifici nostro, Sylvestro universali papoe, concedimus atque relinquimus." In Migne, Tom. 130, p. 249 sq. ^ That Constantine made donations to Sylvester on occasion of his pretended baptism is related first in the Acta Sylvestri, then by Hadrian I. in a letter to Charlemagne (780). In the ninth century the spurious document appeared. The spurioasness was perceived as early as 999 by the emperor Otho III. and proven by Laurentius Valla about 1440 in De /also credita et ementita Constan- tini donatione. The document is universally given up as a fiction, though Baronius defended the donation itself. ^ The following persons have been suggested as authors : Benedictus Levita 272 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Pseudo-Isidor literally quotes pa.ssages from a Paris Council of 829, and agrees in part with the collection of Benedictus Levita, completed in 847 ; on the other hand he is first quoted by a French Synod at Chiersy in 857, and then by Hincmar of Rheims repeatedly since 859. All the manuscripts are of French ori- gin. The complaints of ecclesiastical disorders, depositions of bishops without trial, frivolous divorces, frequent sacrilege, suit best the period of the civil wars among the grandsons of Charle- magne. In Rome the Decretals were first known and quoted in 865 by pope Nicolaus I.^ From the same period and of the same spirit are several col- lections of Capitida or Capitidaria, i. e., of royal ecclesiastical ordinances which under the Carolingians took the place of synodical decisions. Among these we mention the collection of Ansegis, abbot of Fontenelles (827), of Benedictus Levita of Mayence (847), and the Capitula Angilramni, falsely ascribed to bishop Angilramnus of Metz (d. 701). 6. Significance of Pseudo-Isidor. It consists not so much in the novelty of the views and claims of the mediaeval priesthood, but in tracing them back from the ninth to the third and second centm-ies, and stamping them Avith the authority of antiquity. (Deacon) of Mayence, whose Capitularium of about 847 agrees iu several pas- sages literally with the Decretals (Blondel, Knust, Walter) ; Rothad of Soissons (Phillips, Gfrorer) ; Otgar, archbishop of Mayence, who took a prominent part in the clerical rebellion against Louis the Pious (Ballerinii, Wasserschleben) ; Ebo, archbishop of Rheims, the predecessor of Hincmar and leader in that rebellion, or some unknown ecclesiastic in that diocese (Weizsiicker, von Noor- den, Ilinschius, Richter, Baxmann). The repetitioixs suggest a number of authors and a gradual growth. ^ Nicolai. I. Epist. ad universos eplscopos GalUac, ann. 865 (Mansi xv. p. 694 Bq.) : " Decretales epu^tolre Bom. Pontificum sunt rccipicvdcs, etiamsi non sunt canonum codici compaginatoa : quonlam inter ipsos canones unum b. Leonis capitu- lum constat esse permixtum, quo omnia decretalia constituta scdis apostoUcce. custodiri mandantur. — Itaque nihil interest, utrum sint omnia decretalia sedis apost. constituta inter canones conciliorum immixta, cum omnia in una corpore compaginare non possint, et iUa eis intcrsint, quae jlnnitatem his quae desunt etvigorcm suum assignet. — Sanctus Gelasius {quoque) non dixit su^cipiendas decretales epistolas quae inter canones habentur, nee tantam quas moderni pontifices edidcrunt, sed quas beatissimi Papce divcrsis temporibus ab urbe Roin'i dedcrunt." ? 61. NICOLAS I., APKIL, 858-NOY. 13, 867. 273 Some of the leading principles had indeed been already asserted in the letters of Leo I. and other documents of the fifth century, yea the papal animus may be traced to Victor in the second century and to the Judaizing opponents of St. Paul. But in this collection the entire hierarchical and sacerdotal system, which was the growth of several centuries, appears as something complete and unchangeable from the very beginning. We have a parallel phenomenon in the Apostolic Constitutions and Canons which gather into one whole the ecclesiastical decisions of the first three centuries, and trace them directly to the ajiostles or their disciple, Clement of Rome. Pseudo-Isidorus was no doubt a sincere believer in the hierarchical system ; nevertheless his collection is to a large ex- tent a conscious high church fraud, and must as such be traced to the father of lies. It belongs to the Satanic element in the history of the Christian hierarchy, which has as little escaped temptation and contamination as the Jewish hierarchy. § 61. Nicolas L, April, 858-iVoy. 13, 867. I. The Ejnstles of Nicolas I. in Mansi'a Cone. XV., and in Migne's Patrol. Tom. CXIX. Comp. also Jaffe, Regesta, pp. 2.37-2.54. HiNCMARl [Rhemensis Archieplscopi) Oper. Omnia. In Migne's Patrol. Tom. 125 and 126. An older ed. by J. Sirmond, Par. 1645, 2 vols. fol. Hugo Lammer : Nikolaus I. unci die Byzantinische Staatskirche seiner- Zeit. Berlin, 1857. A. Thiel : De Nicolao Papa. Comment, duce hist, canonicoi. Brunzberg,, 1859. VajST Noorden: Hincmar, Erzbischof von Rheims. Bonn, 1863. Hergenrother (R. C. Prof, at Wiirzburg, now Cardinal) : Photius. Regensburg, 1867-1869, 3 vols. Comp. Baxmann II. 1-29 ; MiLMAif, Book V. cb. 4 (vol. III. 24-56) ; Hefele, Conciliengesch. vol. IV., (2nd ed.), 228 sqq; and other. works quoted I 48. By a remarkable coincidence the publication of the Pseudo- Isidorian Decretals synchronized with the appearance of a pope who had the ability and opportunity to carry the principles of the Decretals into practical eifect, and the good fortune to do it. 18 274 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. in the service of justice and virtue. So long as the usurpation of divine power was used against oppression and vice, it com- manded veneration and obedience, and did more good than harm. It was only the pope wlio in those days could claim a superior authority in dealing with haughty and oppressive metropolitans, synods, kings and emjDcrors. Nicolas I. is the greatest pope, we may say the only great pope between Gregory I. and Gregory VII. He stands between them as one of three peaks of a lofty mountain, separated from the lower peak by a plane, and from the higher peak by a deep valley. He appeared to his younger contemporaries as a " new Elijah," who ruled the world like a sovereign of divine ajipoint- ment, terrible to the evil-doer whether prince or priest, yet jnild to the good and obedient. He was elected less by the influence of the clergy than of the emperor Louis II., and consecrated in his presence ; he lived with him on terms of friendship, and was treated in turn with great deference to his pajDal dignity. He anticipated Ilildebrand in the lofty conception of his office ; and his energy and boldness of character corresponded with it. The pope was in his view the divinely appointed superintendent of the whole church for the maintenance of order, discipline and righteousness, and the punishment of wrong and vice, with the aid of the bishops as his executive organs. He assumed an im- perious tone towards the Carolingians. He regarded the impe- rial crown a grant of the vicar of St. Peter for the j)rotection of Christians against infidels. The empire descended to Louis by hereditary right, but was confirmed by the authority of the apostolic see. The pontificate of Nicolas was marked by three important events : the controversy with Photius, the prohibition of the divorce of King liOthair, and the humiliation of archbishop Hincmar. In the first he failed, in the second and third he .achieved a moral triumph. 2 61. NICOLAS I., APRIL, 858-NOV. 13, 867. 275 NICOLAS AND PHOTIUS. Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople, of imperial descent and of austere ascetic virtue, was unjustly deposed and banished by the emperor Michael III. for rebuking the immorality of Caesar Bardas, but he refused to resign. Photius, the greatest scholar of his age, at home in almost every branch of knowledge and letters, was elected his successor, though merely a layman, and in six days passed through the inferior orders to the patriarchal dignity (858). The two parties engaged in an unrelenting war- fare, and excommunicated each other. Photius was the first to appeal to the Roman pontiff. Nicolas, instead of acting as mediator, assumed the air of judge, and sent delegates to Con- stantinople to investigate the case on the spot. They were im- prisoned and bribed to declare for Photius ; but the pope annulled their action at a synod in Rome, and decided in favor of Igna- tius (863). Photius in turn pronounced sentence of condemna- tion on the pope and, in his Encyclical Letter, gave classical expression to the objections of the Greek church against the Latin (867). The controversy resulted in the permanent aliena- tion of the two churches. It was the last instance of an official interference of a pope in the affairs of the Eastern church. NICOLAS AND LOTHAIR. Lothair II., king of Lorraine and the second son of the emperor Lothair, maltreated and at last divorced his wife, Teutberga of Burgundy, and married his mistress, Walrada, who appeared publicly in all the array and splendor of a queen. Nicolas, being appealed to by the injured lady, defended fear- lessly the sacredness of matrimony ; he annulled the decisions of synods, and deposed the archbishops of Cologne and Treves for conniving at the immorality of their sovereign. He threatened the kino" with immediate excommunication if ho did not dismiss the concubine and receive the lawful wife. He even refused to yield when Teutberga, probably under compulsion, asked him to 276 FOUKTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. grant a divorce. Lothair, after many equivocations, yielded at last (865). It is unneccssaiy to enter into the complications and disgusting details of this controversy. NICOLAS AND HINCMAK. In his controversy with Hincmar, Nicolas was a protector of the bishops and lower clergy against the tyranny of metropoli- tans. Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, was the most powerful prelate of France, and a representative of the principle of Galil- ean independence. He was energetic, but ambitious and over- bearing. He came three times in conflict with the pope on the question of jurisdiction. The principal case is that of Rothad, bishop of Soissons, one of his oldest suffragans, whom lie de- posed Avithout sufficient reason and put into prison, with the aid of Charles the Bald (862). The pope sent his legate " from the side," Arsenius, to Charles, and demanded the restoration of the bisliop. He argued from the canons of the Council of Sardica that the case must be decided by Rome even if Rothad had not appealed to him. He enlisted the sympathies of the bishops by reminding them that they might suffer similar injustice from their metropolitan, and that their only refuge w^as in the com- mon protection of the Roman see. Charles desired to cancel the process, but Nicolas would not listen to it. He called Rothad to Rome, reinstated him solemnly in the church of St. Maria Maggiore, and sent him back in triumph to France (864).^ Hincmar murmured, but yielded to superior jjower.^ In this controversy Nicolas made use of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, a cojjy of which came into his hands probably through Rothad. He thus gave them the papal sanction ; yet he must have known that a large portion of this forged collection, though claiming to proceed from early popes, did not exist in the papal archives. Hincmar protested against the validity of the new 1 J:iffo, 240 and 247, and Mansi, XV. 687 sqq. * " Hothadum canonice . . . dejertum et a Nicolao papa non regulariter, sed potentialiter reatitMtum." See Baxmauu, II. 26. 2 62. HADRIAN 11. AND JOHN VIH. A. D. 867-882. 277 decretals and their application to France, and the protest lin- gered for centuries in the Gallicau liberties till they were finally buried in the papal absolutism of the Vatican Council of 1870. § 62. Hadrian 11. and John VIIL A. D. 867 to 882. Mansi : Cone. Tom. XV.-XVII. Migne: Patrol. Lat. Tom. CXXII. 1245 sqq. (Hadrian TI.) ; Tom. CXXVI. 647 sqq. (John VIH. ) ; also Tom. CXXIX., pp. 823 sqq., and 1054 sqq., which contain the writings of AuxiLius and VuL- GARius, concerning pope Formosus. Baronius : Aniial. ad aun. 867-882. . Jaffe : Begesfa, pp. 254-292. MiLMAN : Lat Christianity, Book V., chs. 5 and 6. Gfrorer : Allg. Kirchengesch., Bd. III. Abth. 2, pp. 962 sqq. Baxmann: Politik der Papste, II. 29-57. For nearly two hundred years, from Nicolas to Hildebrand (867-1049), the papal chair was filled, with very few excep- tions, by ordinary and even, unworthy occupants. Hadrian II. (867-872) and John VIH. (872-882) defended the papal power with the same zeal as Nicolas, but with less ability, dignity, and success, and not so much in the interests of morality as for self-aggrandizement. They interfered with the political quarrels of the Carolingians, and claimed the right of disposing royal and imperial crowns. Hadrian was already seventy-five years of age, and well known for great benevolence, when he ascended the throne (he was born in 792). He inherited from Nicolas the controversies with Photius, Lothair, and Hincmar of Rheims, but was repeatedly rebuffed. He suffered also a personal humiliation on account of a curious domestic tragedy. He had been previously married, and his wife (Stephania) was still living at the time of his eleva- tion. Eleutherius, a son of bishop Arsenius (the legate of Nicolas), carried away the pope's daughter (an old maid of forty years, who was engaged to another man), fled to the emperor Louis, and, when threatened with punishment, murdered both thQ pope's wife and daughter. He was condemned to death. 278 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. This affair might have warned the popes to have nothing to do with women ; but it was succeeded by worse scenes. John VIII. was an energetic, shrewd, passionate, and in- triguing prelate, meddled with all the affairs of Christendom from Bulgaria to France and Spain, crowned two insignificant Carolingian emperors (Charles the Bald, 875, and Charles the Fat, 881), dealt very freely in anathemas, Avas much disturbed by the invasion of the Saracens, and is said to have been killed by a relative who coveted the papal crown and treasure. The best thing he did was the declaration, in the Bulgarian quarrel with the patriarch of Constantinople, that the Holy Spirit had created other languages for worship besides Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, although he qualified it afterwards by saying that -Greek and Latin were the only proper organs for the celebration of the mass, while barbarian tongues such as the Slavonic, may be good enough for preaching. Plis violent end was the beginning of a long interregnum of violence. The close of the ninth century gave a foretaste of the greater troubles of the tenth. After the downfall of the Carolin- gian dynasty the popes were more and more involved in the poli- tical quarrels and distractions of the Italian princes. The dukes Berengar of Friuli (888-924), and Guido of Spoleto (889-894), two remote descendants of Charlemagne through a female branch, contended for the kingdom of Italy and the imperial crown, and filled alternately the papal cliair according to their success in the conflict. The Italians liked to have two masters, that they might play off one against the other. Guido was croAvned em- peror by Stephen VI. (V.) in February, 891, and was followed by his sou, Lambert, in 894, who was also croAvned. Formosus, bishop of Tortus, Avhora John VIII. had pursued Avith bitter animosity, Avas after varying fortunes raised to the papal chair, and gave the imperial croAA'u first to Lambert, but afterAvards to the victorious Arnulf of Carinthia, in 896. He roused the revenge of Lambert, and died of violence. His second successor and bitter enemy, Stephen VII. (VI.), a creature of the party of 2 63. DEGEADATION OF THE PAPACY IN TENTH CENTUEY. 279 Lambert, caused his corpse to be exhumed, clad in pontifical robes, arraigned in a mock trial, condemned and deposed, stripped of the ornaments, fearfully mutilated, decapitated, and thrown into the Tiber. But the party of Berengar again ob- tained the ascendency; Stephen VII. was thrown into prison and strangled (897). This was regarded as a just punishment for his conduct towards Formosus. John IX. restored the character of Formosus. He died in 900, and was followed by Benedict IV., of the Lambertine or Spoletan party, and reigned for the now unusual term of three years and a half.^ § 63. The Degradation of the Papacy in the Tenth Century. SOURCES. Migne's Patrol. Lat. Tom. 131-142. These vols, contain the documents and works from Pope John IX. — Gregory VI. LiUDPRAKDUS (Episcopus Cremonensis, d. 972): Antapodoseos, seu Rerum per Europam gestarum libri VI. From A. D. 887-950. Reprinted in Pertz: Monum. Germ. III. 269-272; and in Migne : Patrol. Tom. CXXXVI. 769 sqq. By the same : Historia Ottonis, sive de rebus gesiis Ottonis Magni. From A. D. 960-964. In Pertz: 3fonum. III. 340-346 ; in Migne CXXXVI. 897 sqq. Comp. Kcepke : De Liud- prandl vita et scriptis, Berol., 1842; Wattenbach: Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, and Giesebrecht, /. c. I. p. 779. Liudprand or Liutprand (Liuzo or Liuso), one of the chief authorities on the history of tlie 10th century, was a Lombard by birth, well educated, travelled in the East and in Germany, accompanied Otho I. to Eome, 962, was appointed by him bishop of Cremona, served as his inter- preter at the Eoman Council of 964, and was again in Rome 965. He was also sent on an embassy to Constantinople. He describes the wretched condition of the papacy as an eye-witness. His Anta- podosis or Retribution (written between 958 and 962) is specially directed against king Berengar and queen Willa, whom he hated. His work on Otho treats of the contemporary events in which he was one of the actors. He was fond of scandal, but is considered reliable in most of his facts. Flodoardus (Canonicus Remensis, d. 966): Historia Remensls ; Art' nales ; Opuscula metrica, in Migne, Tom. CXXXV. ' According to Auxentius and Vulgarius, pope Stephen VII. was the author of the outrage on the corpse of Formosus ; Liutprand traces it to Sergius III. in 898, when he was anti-pope of John IX. Baronius conjectures that Liut- prand wrote Sergius for Steplianus. Hefele assents, Conciliengesch. IV. 561 sqq. 280 FOURTH PEEIOD. A.D. 590-1049. Atto (Episcopus Vercellensis, d. 960) : De pressuris ecelesiasticis ; Epistolce, and other books, in Migne, Tom. CXXXV. Jaffe : Begesta, pp. 307-325. Other sources relating more to the political history of the tenth century are indicated by Giesebrecht, I. 817, 820, 836. LITERATURE. Baronius : Annates ad ann. 900-963. V. E. LosCHER: Historic des rbm. Hurenregiments. Leipzig, 1707. (2nd ed. with another title, 1725.) CosrsTANTix HoFLER (R. C.) : Die deutschen Papste. Regensburg, 1839, 2 vols. E. DuMMLER : Auxilius und Vulgarius. Quellen undForschungenzur Ge- schichte des Papstthums im Anfang des zelinten Jahrhunderts. Leipz. 1866. The writings of Auxilius and Vulgarius are in Migne's Patrol., Tom. CXXIX. C. Jos. VON Hefele (Bishop of Rottenburg) : Die Papste und Kaiser in den triibsten Zciten der Kirche,'m his " Beitriige zur Kirchengesch," etc., vol. I. 227-278. Also his Conciliengeschichte, IV. 571-660 (2d ed.). MiLMAN : Lat. Chr. Bk. 5, chs. 11-14. Giesebrecht : Gesch. der deutschen Kaiserzeit., I. 343 sqq. Gfrorer : III. 3, 1133-1275. Baxmann : II. 58-125. Gregorovius, Vol. III. Von Eeumont, Vol. II. The tenth century is the dai'kest of the dark ages, a century of ignorance and superstition, anarchy and crime in church and state. The first half of the eleventh century was little better. The dissolution of the world seemed to be nigh at hand. Serious men looked forward to the terrible day of judgment at the close of the first millennium of the Christian era, neglected their secular business, and inscribed donations of estates and other gifts to the church with the significant phrase " appropinquaTite mundi termino.'' The demoralization began in the state, reached the church, and culminated in the papacy. The reorganization of society took the same course. No church or sect in Christendom ever sank so low as the Latin church in the tenth century. The papacy, like the old Roman god Janus, has two faces, one Christian, one antichristian, one friendly and benevolent, one fiendish and malignant. In this period, it shows almost exclusively the 2 63. DEGRADATION OF THE PAPACY IN TENTH CENTUPvY. 281 antichristian face. It is an unpleasant task for the historian to expose these shocking corruptions ; but it is necessary for the understanding of the reformation that followed. The truth must be told, with its wholesome lessons of humiliation and encour- agement. No system of doctrine or government can save the church from decline and decay. Human nature is capable of Satanic Avickedness. Antichrist steals into the very temple of God, and often wears the priestly robes. But God is never absent from history, and His overruling wisdom always at last brings good out of evil. Even in this midnight darkness the stars were shining in the firmament ; and even then, as in the days of Elijah the prophet, there were thousands who had not bowed their knees to Baal. Some convents resisted the tide of corrup- tion, and were quiet retreats for nobles and kings disgusted with the vanities of the world, and anxious to prepare themselves for the day of account. Nilus, Romuald, and the monks of Cluny raised their mighty voice against wickedness in high places. Synods likewise deplored the immorality of the clergy and laity, and made efforts to restore discipline. The chaotic confusion of the tenth century, like the migration of nations in the fifth, proved to be only the throe and anguish of a new birth. It was followed first by the restoration of the empire under Otho the Great, and then by the reform of the papacy under Hilde- brand. THE POLITICAL DISORDER. In the semi-barbarous state of society during the middle ages, a strong central power was needed in church and state to keep order. Charlemagne was in advance of his times, and his structure rested on no solid foundation. His successors had neither his talents nor his energy, and sank almost as low as the ]\Ierovingians in incapacity and debauchery. The popular con- tempt in which they were held was expressed in such epithets as " the Bald," " the Fat," " the Stammerer," " the Simple," " the Lazy," " the Child." Under their misrule the foundations of 282 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. law and discipline gave way. Europe was threatened with a new flood of heathen barbarism. The Norman pirates from Denmark and Norway infested the coasts of Germany and France, burned cities and villages, carried off captives, followed in their light boats which they could carry on their shoulders, the course of the great rivers into the interior; they sacked Hamburg, Cologne, Treves, Rouen, and stabled their horses in Charlemagne's cathedral at Aix ; they invaded England, and were the terror of all Europe until they accepted Christianity, settled down in Normandy, and infused fresh blood into the French and English people. In the South, the Saracens, cross- ing from Africa, took possession of Sicily and Southern Italy ; they are described by pope John VIII. as Hagarenes, as children of fornication and wrath, as an army of locusts, turning the land into a wilderness. From the East, the pagan Hunga- rians or Magyars invaded Germany and Italy like hordes of wild beasts, but they were defeated at last by Henry the Fowler and Otho the Great, and after their conversion to Christianity under their saintly monarch Stephen (997-1068), they became a wall of defence against the progress of the Turks. Within the limits of nominal Christendom, the kings and nobles quarreled among themselves, oppressed the people, and distributed bishoprics and abbeys among their favorites, or pocketed the income. The metropolitans oppressed the bishops, the bishops the priests, and the priests the laity. Bands of robbers roamed over the country and defied punishment. ISIight was right. Charles the Fat was deposed by his vassals, and died in misery, begging his bread (888). His successor, Arnulf of Carinthia, the last of the Carolingian line of emperors (though of illegitimate birth), wielded a victorious sword over the Nor- mans (891) and the new kingdom of Moravia (894), but fell into trouble, died of Italian poison, and left the crown of Ger- many to his only legitimate son, Louis the Child (899-911), who was ruled by Hatto, archbishop of Maycnce. This prelate figures in the popular legend of the " Mouse-Tower " (on an § 63. DEGEADATION OF THE PAPACY IN TENTH CENTURY. 283 island in the Rhine, opposite Biugen), where a swarm of mice picked his bones and "gnawed the flesh from every limb," because he had shut up and starved to death a number of hungry beggars. But documentary history shows him in a more favorable light. Louis died before attaining to manhood, and with him the German line of the Carolingians (911). The last shadow of an emperor in Italy, Berengar, who had been crowned in St. Peter's, died by the dagger of an assassin (924). The empire remained vacant for nearly forty years, until Otho, a descendant of the Saxon duke Widukind, whorn Charlemagne had conquered, raised it to a new life. In France, the Carolingian dynasty lingered nearly a century longer, till it found an inglorious end in a fifth Louis called the Lazy ("le Faineant"), and Count Hugh Capet became the founder of the Capetiau dynasty, based on the principle of hereditary succession (987). He and his son Robert received the crown of France not from the pope, but from the archbishop of Rheims. Italy was invaded by Hungarians and Saracens, and distracted by war between rival kings and petty princes struggling for aggrandizement. The bishops and nobles were alike corrupt, and the whole country was a moral wilderness.^ THE DEMORALIZATION OF THE PAPACY. The political disorder of Europe affected the church and para- lyzed its efforts for good. The papacy itself lost all independ- ence and dignity, and became the prey of avarice, violence, and intrigue, a veritable synagogue of Satan. It was dragged through the quagmire of the darkest crimes, and would have perished in utter disgrace had not Providence saved it for better times. Pope followed pope in rapid succession, and most of them ended their career in deposition, prison, and murder. The rich and ' Hofler (I. 16) asserts that every princely family of Italy in the tenth cen- tury was tainted with incestuous blood, and that it was difficult to distinguish wives and sisters, mothers and daughters. See his genealogical tables appended to the first volume. 284 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590 TO 1049. powerful marquises of Tuscany and the Counts of TiLSculum acquired control over the city of Rome and the paj^acy for more than half a century. And what is worse {incredibile, at- tamcn verum), three bold and energetic women of the highest rank and lowest character, Theodora the elder (the wife or widow of a Roman senator), and her two daughters, Marozia and Theo- dora, filled the chau' of St. Peter with their paramours and bas- tards. These Roman Amazons combined with the fatal charms of personal beauty and wealth, a rare capacity for intrigue, and a burning lust for power and pleasure. They had the diabolical ambition to surpass their sex as much in boldness and badness as St. Paula and St. Eustachium in the days of Jerome had excelled in virtue and saintliness. They turned the church of St. Peter into a den of robbers, and the residence of his successors into a liarem. And they gloried in their shame. Hence this infamous period is called the papal Pornocracy or Hetserocracy.^ ^Liutprandi Antapodosis, II. 48 (Pertz, V. 297; Migne, CXXXVI. 827): " Theodora, scortmn impudens . . . {quod dictii etiam fcBdissimum est), Romance civi- tatis non invh'ilUer monarchiam obtinebat. Quae, duas habuit natas, Marotlam atque Theodoram, sibi non solum cocrquales, verum etiam Veneris exercitio promptiores. Jlaruni Marotia ex Papa Sergio — Joannem, qui post Joannis Havcnnaiis obitum Romano', Ecdesioe obtinuit dignitatem, nefario genuit adulterio," etc. In the same ch. he calls the elder Theodora "meretrix satis impudentissima, Veneris ccdore succensa." This Theodora was the wife of Theophylactus, Roman Consul and Senator, probably of Byzantine origin, who appears in 901 among the Roman judges of Louis III. She called herself " Senatrix." She was the mistress of Adalbert of Tuscany, called the Rich (d. 926), and of pope John X. (d. 928). And yet she is addressed by Eugenius Vulgarius as "sanetissimaetvenerabilis matronal'' (See Diimmler, 1. c. p. 146, and Ilefele, IV. 575.) Her daughter Marozia (or Marwccia, the diminutive of Maria, Mariechen) was the boldest and most suc- cessful of tlie three. She was the mistress of pope Sergius III. and of Alberic I., Count of Tusculum (d. 926), and married several times. Comp. Liutprand, III. 43 and 44. She perpetuated her rule through her son, Alberic II., and her grandson, pope John XII. With all their talents and influence, these strong-minded women were very ignorant ; the daughters of the younger Theo- dora could neither read nor write, and signed their name in 945 with a -{-. (GregoroviuR, III. 282 sq.) The Tusculan popes and the Crescentii, who con- trolled and disgraced the papacy in the eleventh century, were descendants of the same stock. The main facts of this shameful reign rest on good contemporary Catholic § 63. DEGRADATION OF THE PAPACY IN TENTH CENTUEY. 285 Some popes of this period were almost as bad as the worst emperors of heathen Rome, and far less excusable. Sergius III., the lover of Marozia (904-911), opened the shameful succession. Under the protection of a force of Tuscan soldiers he appeared in Rome, deposed Christopher who had just deposed Leo V., took possession of the papal throne, and soiled it with every vice; but he deserves credit for restoring the venerable church of the Lateran, Avhich had been destroyed by an earthquake in 896 and robbed of invaluable treasures.^ After the short reign of two other popes, John X., archbishop of Ravenna, was elected, contrary to all canong, in obedience to the will of Theodora, for the more convenient gratification of her passion (914-928).^ He was a man of military ability and daring, placed himself at the head of an army — the first warrior among the popes — and defeated the Saracens. He announced the victory in the tone of a general. He then en- authorities (as Liutprand, Flodoard, Ratherius of Verona, Benedict of Soracte, Gerbert, the transactions of the Councils in Rome, Rheims, etc.), and are frankly admitted with devout indignation by Baronius and other Roman Catholic historians, but turned by them into an argument for the divine origin of the papacy, whose restoration to power appears all the more wonderful from the depth of its degradation. Mohler {Kirchengesch. ed. by Gams, II. 183) calls Sergius III., John X., John XL, and John XII. " horrible popes," and says that "crimes -alone secured the papal dignity." Others acquit the papacy of guilt, since it was not independent. The best lesson which Romanists might derive from this period of prostitution is humility and charity. It is a terrible rebuke to pretensions of superior sanctity. 1 Baronius, following J^iutprand, calls Sergius " homo vitlorum omnium senms" But Flodoard and the inscriptions give him a somewhat better character. See Ilefele IV. 576, Gregorovius III. 269, and von Reumont II. 273. 2 Gfrorer makes him the paramour of the younger Theodora, which on chronological grounds is more probable; but Hefele, Gregoroyius, von Reu- mont, and Greenwood link him with the elder Theodora. This seems to be the meaning of Liutprand (II. 47 and 48), who says that she fell in love with John for his great beauty, and actually forced him to sin (seamque hunc seor- tari non solum voluit, verum etiam atque etiam compulit). She could not stand the separation from her lover, and called him to Rome. Baronius treats John X. as a pseudopapa. Muratori, Duret, and Hefele dissent from Liutprand and give John a somewhat better character, without, however, denying his relation to Theodora. See Hefele, IV. 579 sq. 286 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. gaged in a fierce contest for power with Marozia and her lover or husband, the Marquis Alberic I. Unwilling to yield any of her secular power over Rome, Marozia seized the Castle of St. Angclo, had John cast into prison and smothered to death, and raised three of her creatures, Leo VI., Stephen VII. (VIII.), and at last John XI., her own (bastard) son of only twenty-one years, successively to the papal chair (928-936).^ After the murder of Alberic I. (about 926), Marozia, who called herself Senatrix and Patricia, offered her hand and as much of her love as she could spare from her numerous para- mours, to Guido, Markgrave of Tuscany, who eagerly accepted the prize ; and after his death she married king Hugo of Italy, the stap-brother of her late husband (932); he hoped to -gain the imperial crown, but he was soon expelled from Rome by a rebellion excited by her own son Alberic II., who took offence at his overbearing conduct for slapping him in the face.^ She now disappears from the stage, and probably died in a convent. Her son, the second Alberic, was raised by the Romans to the dig- nity of Consul, and ruled Rome and the papacy from the Castle of St. Angelo for twenty-two years with great ability as a despot under the forms of a republic (932-954). After the death of his brother, John XI. (936), he appointed four insignificant pontiffs, and restricted them to the performance of their religious duties. * Liutprand, Antapodosis III. 43 (Migne, I.e., 852) : " Papam [John X.] cus- todia maniciparunt, in qua non multo post est defunctus;*aiunt enm quod cervical super OS eius imponerent, sicque eum pessime suffocarent. Quo mortuo ipsius Maro- tlce fiUum Johannem nomine [.John XL] quern ex Sergio papa meretrix genuerat^ papam ronstiluunl." Tlie parentage of John XI. from pope Sergius is adopted by Grcgoroviiis, Diimmler, Greenwood, and Baxmann, but disputed by Mura- tori, Ilefele, and (Ifrorer, who maintain that John XI. was the son of Marozia's husband, Alberic I., if they ever were married. For, according to Benedict of Soraete, Marozia accepted him "non quasi uxor, sed in consuetudinem malignam." Albericus Marchio was an adventurer before he became Markgrave, about 897, and must not be confounded with Albertus Marchio or Adalbert the Rich of Tuscanv. See Gregorovius, III. 275; von Reumont, II. 228, 231, and the genealogical tables in Hofler, Vol. I., Append. V. and VI. ' See the account in Liutprand III. 44. 2 63. DEGRADATION OF THE PAPACY IN TENTH CENTURY. 287 JOHN XII. On the death of Alberic in 954, his son Octavian, the grand- son of Marozia, inherited the secular government of Rome, and was elected pope when only eighteen years of age. He thus united a double supremacy. He retained his name Octavian as civil ruler, but assumed, as pope, the name John XII., either by compulsion of the clergy and people, or because he wished to secure more license by keeping the two dignities distinct. This is the first example of such a change of name, and it was followed by his successors. He completely sunk his spiritual in his secular character, appeared in military dress, and neglected the duties of the papal office, though he surrendered none of its claims. John XII. disgraced the tiara for eight years (955-963). He was one of the most immoral and wicked popes, ranking with Benedict IX., John XXIII., and Alexander YI. He was charged by a Roman Synod, no one contradicting, with almost every crime of which depraved human nature is capable, and deposed as a monster of iniquity.^ * Among the charges of the Synod against him were that he appeared con- stantly armed with sword, lance, helmet, and breastplate, that he neglected matins and vespers, that he never signed himself with the sign of the cross, that he was fond of hunting, that he had made a boy of ten years a bishop, and or- dained a bishop or deacon in a stable, that he had mutilated a priest, that he had set houses on fire, like Nero, that he had committed homicide and adultery, had violated virgins and widows high and low, lived with his father's mistre-^s, con- verted the pontifical palace into a brothel, drank to the health of the devil, and invoked at the gambling-table the help of Jupiter and Venus and other heathen demons ! The emperor Otho would not believe these enormities until they were proven, but the bishops replied, that they were matters of public notoriety requiring no proof. Before the Synod convened John XII. had made his escape from Rome, carrying with him the portable part of the treasury of St. Peter. But after the departure of the emperor he was readmitted to the city, restored for a short time, and killed in an act of adultery (" dwn se cum viri cvjusdam uxore obleetaret") by the enraged husband of his paramour, or by the devil {"adiabolo est percussus"). Liutprand, Be rebus gestis Ottonis (in Migne, Tom. XXXVI. 898-910). Hefele (IV. 619) thinks that he died of apoplexy. 288 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. § 64. The Interference of Otho the Great. Comp., besides the works quoted in § 63, Floss : Die Papsiicahl imfer den Ottoiien. Freiburg, 1858, and Kopke and Dummler; Otto der Grosse. Leipzig, 1876. From this state of infamy the papacy was rescued for a brief time by the interference of Otho I., justly called the Great (936- 973). He had subdued the Danes, the Slavonians, and the Hungarians, converted the barbarians on the frontier, estab- lished order and restored the Carolingian empire. He was called by the pope himself and several Italian princes for pro- tection against the oppression of king Berengar II. (or the Younger, who was crowned in 950, and died in exile, 966). He crossed the Aljjs, and was anointed Roman emperor by John XII. in 962. He promised to return to the holy see all the lost territories granted by Pepin and Charlemagne, and received in turn from the pope and the Romans the oath of allegiance on the sepulchre of St. Peter. Hereafter the imperial crown of Rome was always held by the German nation, but the legal assumption of the titles of Emperor and Augustus depended on the act of coronation by the pope. After the departure of Otho the perfidious pope, unwilling to obey a superior master, rebelled and entered into conspiracy with his enemies. The emperor returned to Rome, convened a Synod of Italian and German bishops, which indignantly deposed John XII. in his absence, on the ground of most notorious crimes, yet M-ithout a regular trial (963).^ The emperor and the Synod elected a respectable layman, the chief secretary of the Roman see, in his place. He was hur- riedly promoted through the orders of reader, subdeacon, deacon, ' A full account of this Synod see in Liutprand, De rebus gestis Ottonis, and in BaroniuR, Annal. ad ann. 963. Comp. also Greenwood, Bk VIII. ch. 12, Gfrorer, vol. III., P. iii., 1249 6qq., Giescbrecht, I. 465 and 828, and Hcfele, IV. 612 sqq. Gfrorer, Avithout defending John XII., charges Otho with having first violated the engagement (p. 12.53). The pope was tliree times summoned be- fore tlie Synod, but the answer came from Tivoli that he had gone hunting. Baronius, Floss, and Hefele regard this synod as uncanonical. § 64. THE INTERFERENCE OF OTHO THE GREAT. 289 priest and bishop, and consecrated as Leo YIII., but not recog- nized by the strictly hierarchical party, because he surrendered the freedom of the papacy to the empire. The Romans swore that they would never elect a pope again without the emperor's consent. Leo confirmed this in a formal document.^ The anti-imperial party readmitted John XII., who took cruel revenge of his enemies, but was suddenly struck down in his sins by a violent death. Then they elected an anti-pope, Benedict Y., but he himself begged pardon for his usurpation when the emperor reappeared, was divested of the papal robes, degraded to the order of deacon, and banished to Germany. Leo VIII. died in April, 965, after a short pontificate of six- teen months. The bishop of Narni was unanimously elected his successor as John XIII. (965-972) by the Roman clergy and people, after first consulting the will of the emperor. He crowned Otho II. emperor of the Romans (973-983). He was expelled by the Romans, but reinstated by Otho, who punished the rebellious city with terrible severity. Thus the papacy was morally saved, but at the expense of its independence ; or rather it had exchanged its domestic bondage for a foreign bondao;e. Otho restored to it its former dominions which it had lost during the Italian disturbances, but he re- garded the pope and the Romans as his subjects, who owed him the same temporal allegiance as the Germans and Lombards. It would have been far better for Germany and Italy if they had never meddled with each other. The Italians, especially the Romans, feared the German army, but hated the Germans as Northern semi-barbarians, and shook off their yoke as soon as they had a chance.^ The Germans suspected the Italians for ' Baronius, ad ann. 964, pronounced the document spurious, chiefly because it is very inconvenient to his ultramontane doctrine. It is printed in Mon. Germ. iv. 2 (Leges, II. 167), and in a more extensive form from a MS. at Treves in Leonis VIII. privilegium de investitui'is, by H. J. Floss, Freib-, 1858. This pulilication has changed the state of the controversy in favor of a genuine ele- ment in the document. See the discussion in FTefele, IV. 622 sqq. ^ This antipathv found its last expression and termination in the expulsion of 19 290 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. dishonesty and trickery, were always in danger of fever and poison, and lost armies and millions of treasure without any re- turn of profit or even military glory .^ The two nations were always jealous of each other, and have only recently become friends, on the basis of mutual independence and non-inter- ference. PROTEST AGAINST PAPAL CORRUPTION. The shocking immoralities of the popes called forth strong protests, though they did not shake the faith in the institution itself. A Galilean Synod deposed archbishop Arnulf of Rheims as a traitor to king Hugo Capet, without waiting for an answer from the pope, and without caring for the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (991). The leading spirit of the Synod, Arnulf, bishop of Orleans, made the following bold declaration against the prostitution of the papal office : " Looking at the actual state of the papacy, what do we behold ? John [XII.] called Octa- vian, wallowing in the sty of filthy concupiscence, conspiring against the sovereign whom he had himself recently crowned; then Leo [VIIL] the neophyte, chased from the city by this Octavian; and that monster himself, after the commission of many murders and cruelties, dying by the hand of an assassin. Next we see the deacon Benedict, though freely elected by the Romans, carried away captive into the wilds of Germany by the new Caesar [Otho I.] and his pope Leo. Then a second Caesar [Otho II.], greater in arts and arms than the first [?], succeeds ; and in his absence Boniface, a very monster of iniquity, reeking with the blood of his jiredecessor, mounts the throne of Peter. True, he is expelled and condemned ; but only to return again, the Austrians from Lombardy and Venice, and the formation of a united king- dom of Italy. * Ditmar of Merseburg, the liistorian of Henry II., expresses the sentiment of that time when he says (Chon. IV. 22) : ''Neither the climate nor the people suit our countrymen. Both in Rome and Lombardy treason is always at work. Strangers who visit Italy expect no hospitality : everything they require must be instantly paid for ; and even then they must submit to be over-reached and cheated, and not unfrequently to be poisoned after all." 2 64. THE INTERFERENCE OF OTHO THE GREAT. 291 and redden his hands with the blood of the holy bishop John [XIV.]. Are there, indeed, any bold enough to maintain that the priests of the Lord over all the world are to take their law from monsters of guilt like these — men branded with ignominy, illiterate men, and ignorant alike of things human and divine ? If, holy fathers, we be bound to weigh in the balance the lives, the morals, and the attainments of the meanest candidate for the sacerdotal office, how much more ought we to look to the fitness of him who aspires to be the lord and master of all priests ! Yet how would it fare with us, if it should happen that the man the most deficient in all these virtues, one so abject as not to be worthy of the lowest place among the priesthood, should be chosen to fill the highest place of all ? What w^ould you say of such a one, when you behold him sitting upon the throne glit- tering in purple and gold ? Ifust he not be the ' Antichrist, sit- ting in the temple of God, and showing himself as God ' f Verily such a one lacketh both wisdom and charity; he standeth in the temple as an image, as an idol, from which as from dead marble you would seek counsel/ " But the Church of God is not subject to a wicked pope ; nor even absolutely, and on all occasions, to a good one. Let us rather in our difficulties resort to our brethren of Belgium and Germany than to that city, where all things are venal, where judgment and justice are bartered for gold. Let us imitate the great church of Africa, which, in reply to the pretensions of the Roman pontiff, deemed it inconceivable that the Lord should have invested any one person with his own plenary prerogative of judicature, and yet have denied it to the great congregations of his priests assembled in council in different parts of the world. If it be true, as we are informed by common report, that there is * " Quid hunc, rev. Patres, in sublimi solio residentem veste purpurea el aurea ra- diantem, quid hunc, inquam, esse censetis f Nimirum si caritate destituitur, solaque sdentia inflatur et extollitur, Antichristus est, in templo Dei sedens, et se ostendens tamquam sit Deus. Si autem nee caritate fundatur, nee scientia erigitur, in templo Dei tamquam statua, tanquam idolum est, a quo responsa petere, marmora consulere est." 292 FOUKTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590 TO 1049. in Rome scarcely a man acquainted with letters, — without which, as it is written, one may scarcely be a doorkeeper in the house of God, — with what face may he who hath himself learnt nothing set himself up for a teacher of others? In the simple priest ignorance is bad enough ; but in the high priest of Rome, — in him to whom it is given to pass in review the faith, the lives, the morals, the discipline, of the whole body of the priesthood, yea, of the universal church, ignorance is in nowise to be tolerated. . . . Why should he not be subject in judgment to those who, though lowest in place, are his superiors in virtue and in wisdom ? Yea, not even he, the prince of the apostles, declined the rebuke of Paul, though his inferior in place, and, saith the great pope Gregory [I.], ' if a bishop be in fault, I^know not any one such who is not subject to the holy see; but if faultless, let every one understand that he is the equal of the Roman pontiff himself, and as well qualified as he to give judg- ment in any matter.' " ' The secretary of this council and the probable framer of this remarkable speech was Gerbert, who became archbishop of Rheims, afterwards of Ravenna, and at last pope under the name of Sylvester II. But pope John XV. (or his master Crescentius) declared the proceedings of this council null and void, and interdicted Gerbert. His successor, Gregory V., threatened the kingdom of France with a general interdict un- less Arnulf was restored. Gerbert, forsaken by king Robert I., who needed the favor of the pope, was glad to escape from his uncomfortable scat and to accept an invitation of Otho III. to become his teacher (995). Arnulf was reinstated in Rheims. ' The acts of this Synod were first published in the Magdeburg Centuries, then by Mansi, Cone. XIX. 107, and Pertz, 3fon. V. 658. Rironins pronounced them spurious, and interspersed them with indignant notes; but Mansi (p. 107) says : " Censent vulgo omnes, Gerbertum reipsa et sincere recitasse acta concilii vere habid." See Gieseler, Greenwood (Book VIII. ch. G), and Hefele (IV. 637 sqq.). Hefele pronounces the speech schismatical. § 65. THE SECOND DEGEADATION OF THE PAPACY. 293 § 65. The Second Degradation of the Papacy from Oiho I. to Henry III. A. D. 973-1046. I. The sources for the papacy in the second half of the tenth and in the eleventh century are collected in Muratori's Annali d' Italia (Milano 1744_t9) ; in Migne's Patrol, Tom. CXXXVII.-CL. ; Leibnitz, An- nales Imp. Occid. (down to A. D. 1005 ; Han., 1843, 3 vols. ) ; Pertz, 3Ion. Germ. (Auctores), Tom. V. (Leges), Tom. IL ; Ranke, Jahr- bucher des deutschen Seiches unter dem Sachs. Hause (Berlin 1837-40, 3 vols. ; the second vol. by Giesebrecht and Wilmans contains the reigns of Otho IL and Otho IIL). On the sources se§ Giesebrecht, Gesch. der deutschen Kaiserzeit, II. 568 sqq. II. Stenzel: Geschichte Deutschlands unter den Frankischen Kaisern. Leipz., 1827, 1828, 2 vols. C. F. Hock (R. C.) : Gerbert oder Papst Sylvester und sein Jahrhundert. Wien, 1837. . C. HoFLER (R. 0.) : Die deutschen Pdpste. Regensb., 1839, 2 vols. H. J. Floss (R. C.) : Die Papstwahl unter den Ottonen. Freib., 1858. C. Will : Die Anfdnge der Bestauration der Kirche im elften Jahrh. Mar- burg, 1859-'62, 2 vols. R. KoPKE und E. Dummler : Otto der Grosse. Leipz. 1876. Comp. Baronius [Annal.) ; Jaffe [Reg. 325-364) ; Hefele [Concilien- geschichte IV. 632 sqq., 2d ed.) ; Gfrorer (vol. III., P. HL, 1358- 1590, and vol. IV., 1846); Gregorovius (vols. IIL and IV.); v. Reumont (IL 292 sqq.) ; Baxmann (II. 125-180) ; and Giese- brecht (L 569-762, and II. 1-431). The reform of the papacy was merely temporary. It was fol- lowed by a second period of disgrace, which lasted till the middle of the eleventh century, but was interrupted by a few respectable popes and signs of a coming reformation. After the death of Otho, during the short and unfortunate reign of his son, Otho II. (973-983), a faction of the Roman nobility under the lead of Crescentius or Cencius (probably a son of pope John X. and Theodora) gained the upper hand.' He rebelled against the imperial pope, Benedict VI., who was 1 He is called Crescentius de Theodora, and seems to have died in a convent about 984. Some make him the sou of Pope John X. and the elder Theodora, others, of the younger Theodora. See Gregorovius, III. 407 sqq ; von Eeu- mont, II. 292 sqq. ; and the genealogy of the Crescentii in Hofler, I. 300. 29-i FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. murdered (974), and elected an Italian anti-pope, Boniface VII., who had soon to flee to Constantinople, but returned after some years, murdered another imperial pope, John XIV. (983), and maintained himself on the blood-stained throne by a lavish distribution of stolen money till he died, probably by violence (985).' During the minority of Otho III., the imperialists, headed by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the popular Roman party under the lead of the younger Crescentius (perhaps a grandson of the infamous Theodora), contended from their fortified places for the mastery of Rome and the papacy. Bloodshed was a daily amusement. Issuing from their forts, the two parties gave battle to each other whenever they met on the street. They set up rival popes, and mutilated their corpses with insane fury. The contending parties were related. Marozia's son, Alberic, had probably inherited Tusculum (which is about fifteen miles from Rome).^ After the death of Alberic of Tusculum, Crescen- tius acquired the government under the title of Consul, and in- dulged the Romans with a short dream of republican freedom in opposition to the hated rule of the foreign barbarians. He con- trolled pope John XV. GREGORY V. Otho III., on his way to Rome, elected his worthy chaplain and cousin Bruno, who Avas consecrated as Gregory V. (996) and then anointed Otho III. emperor. He is the first pope of Ger- man blood .^ Crescentius was treated with great leniency, but after the departure of the German army he stirred up a rebellion, ' Gerbert (afterwards pope Sylvester II.) called tliis Bonifaoiiis a "Malefactor" (Malifacius ) and " horrendum monstrvm, cunctos mortales nequida superans, eliam prions ponfificis sanguine cruentus." Gregorovius, III. 410. * The Tiiscidan family claimed descent from Julius Cnesar and Octavian. See Gregorovius, IV. 10, and Giesebrecht II. 174; also the genealogical table of Hofler at the close of Vol. I. ' Baronius, however, says that Stephen VIII. (939-942) was a German, and for this reason opposed by the Romans. Bruno was only twenty-four years old when elected. Ilofler (I. 94 sqq.) gives him a very high character. ^ Go. THE SECOND DEGRADATION OF THE PAPACY. 295 expelled the German pope and elevated Philagathus, a Calabrian Greek, under the name of John XVI. to the chair of St. Peter. Gregory V. convened a large synod at Pavia, which unanimously pronounced the anathema against Crescentius and his pope. The emperor hastened to Rome with an army, stormed the castle of St. Angelo (the mole of Hadrian), and beheaded Crescentius as a traitor, while John XVI. by order of Gregory V. was, according to the savage practice of that age, fearfully mutilated, and paraded through the streets on an ass, with his face turned to the tail and with a wine-bladder on his head. SYLVESTER II. After the sudden and probably violent death of Gregory V. (999), the emperor elected, with the assent of the clergy and the people, his friend and preceptor, Gerbert, archbishop of Rheims, and then of Ravenna, to the papal throne. Gerbert was the first French pope, a man of rare learning and ability, and moral in- tegrity. He abandoned the liberal views he had expressed at the Council at Rheims,^ and the legend says that he sold his soul to the devil for the papal tiara. He assumed the significant name of Sylvester II., intending to aid the youthful emperor (whose mother was a Greek princess) in the realization of his Utopian dream to establish a Grseco-Latin empire with old Rome for its capital, and to rule from it the Christian world, as Constantine the Great had done during the pontificate of Sylvester I. But Otho died in his twenty-second year, of Italian fever or of jDoison (1002).2 Sylvester II. followed his imperial pupil a year after (1003). His learning, acquired in part from the Arabs in Spain, appeared ^ See preceding section, p. 290. 2 According to several Italian writers he was poisoned by Stephania, under the disguise of a loving mistress, in revenge of the murder of Crescentius, her husband. Muratori and Milman accept the story, but it is not mentioned by Ditmar (Chron. IV. 30), and discredited by Leo, Gfrorer, and Greenwood. Otho had restored to the son of Stephania all his father's property, and made him prefect of Rome. The same remorseless Stephania is said to have adminis- tered subtle poison to pope Sylvester II. 296 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. a marvel to his ignorant age, and suggested a connection with magic. He sent to St. Stephen of Hungary the royal crown, and, in a pastoral letter to Europe where Jerusalem is repre- sented as crying for help, he gave the first impulse to the cru- sades (1000), ninety years before they actually began.* In the expectation of the approaching judgment, crowds of pilgrims flocked to Palestine to greet the advent of the Saviour. But the first millennium passed, and Christendom awoke with a sigh of relief on the first day of the year 1001. BENEDICT VIII., AND EMPEROR HENRY II. Upon the whole the Saxon emperors were of great service to the papacy : they emancipated it from the tyranny of domestic political factions, they restored it to wealth, and substituted worthy occupants for monstrous criminals. During; the next reign the confusion broke out once more. The anti-imperial party regained the ascendency, and John Cres- centius, the son of the beheaded consul, ruled under the title of Senator and Patricius. But the Counts of Tusculum held the balance of power pretty evenly, and gradually superseded the house of Crescentius. They elected Benedict VIII. (1012- 1024), a member of their family ; while Crescentius and his friends appointed an anti-pope (Gregory). Benedict proved a very energetic pope in the defence of Italy against the Saracens. He forms the connecting link between the Ottonian and the Hildebrandian popes. He crowned Henry 11. (1014), as the faithful patron and protector simply, not as the liege-lord, of the pope. This last emperor of the Saxon house was very devout, ascetic, and liberal in endowing bishoprics. He favored clerical celibacy. Pie aimed earnestly at a moral reformation of the church. He ' See Gfrorer, III. P. Ifl. IojO sq. He regards Sylvester II. one of the greatest of popes and statesmen who developed all the germs of the system, and showed the way to his successors. Comp. on him Milman, Bk. V. ch. 13 ; Giesebrecht, I. 613 sqq. and 690 sqq. § 65. THE SECOND DEGRADATION OF THE PAPACY. 297 declared at a diet, that he had made Christ his heir, and would devote all he possessed to God and his church. He filled the vacant bishoprics and abbeys with learned and worthy men ; and hence his right of appointment was not resisted. He died after a reign of twenty-two years, and was buried at his favorite place, Bamberg in Bavaria, where he had founded a bishopric (1007). He and his chaste wife, Kunigunde, were canonized by the grateful church (1146).^ THE TUSCULAN POPES. BENEDICT IX. With Benedict VIII. the papal dignity became hereditary in the Tusculan family. He had bought it by open bribery. He was followed by his brother John XIX., a layman, who bought it likewise, and passed in one day through all the clerical degrees. After his death in 1033, his nephew Theophylact, a boy of only ten or twelve years of age,^ ascended the papal throne under the name of Benedict IX. (1033-1045). His election was a ^ His historian, bisliop Thitmar or Ditinar of Merseburg, relates that Henry never held carnal intercourse with his wife, and submitted to rigid penances and frequent flagellations for the subjugation of animal passions. But Hase (§ 160, tentli ed.) remarks: "Die Monche, die er zu Gunsten der Bisth'dmer beraubt hat, dachten ihn nur eben von der Solle gerettet; aueh den Heiligenschein der jungfrdu- lichen Kaiserin hat der Teufd zu verdunkeln gewusst." Comp. C. Schurzfleisch, JDe innocentia Cunig., Wit., 1700. A. Noel, Leben der heil. Kunigunde, Luxerab, 1856. For a high and just estimate of Henry's character see Giesebrecht II. 94-96. " The legend," he says, " describes Henry as a monk in purple, as a penitent with a crown, who can scarcely drag along his lame body ; it places Kunigunde at his side not as wife but as a nun, who in prayer and mortification of the flesh seeks with him the path to heaven. History gives a very diSerent picture of king Henry and his wife. It bears witness that he was one of the most active and energetic rulers that ever sat on the German throne, and possessed a sharp understanding and a power of organization very rare in those times. It was a misfortune for Germany that such a statesman had to spend most of his life in internal and external wars. Honorable as he was in arms, he would have acquired a higher fame in times of peace." 2 Rodulfus Glaber, Histor. sui temporis, TV. 5 (in Migne, Tom. 142, p. 979) : "puerferme (fere) decennis;" but in V. 5: ''fiierat sedi ordinatus quidam puer circiter annorum duodecim, contra jus nefasque." Hefele stated, in the first ed. (IV. 673), that Benedict was eighteen when elected. In the second ed. (p. 706), he corrects himself and makes him twelve vears at his election. 298 FOUKTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. mere money bargain between the Tusculan family and the venal • clergy and populace of Rome. Once more the Lord took from Jerusalem and Judah the stay and the staff, and gave children to be their princes, and babes to rule over them.^ This boy-pope fully equaled and even surpassed John XII. in precocious wickedness. He combined the childishness of Cali- gula and the viciousness of Heliogabalus.^ He grew worse as he advanced in years. He ruled like a captain of banditti, com- mitted murders and adulteries in open day-light, robbed pilgrims on the graves of martyrs, and turned Rome into a den of thieves. These crimes went unpunished; for w^ho could judge a pope? And his brother, Gregory, was Patrician of the city. At one time, it is reported, he had the crazy notion of marrying his cousin and enthroning a woman in the chair of St. Peter ; but the father of the intended bride refused unless he abdicated the papacy."* Desiderius, who himself afterwards became pope (Victor III.), shrinks from describing the detestable life of this Benedict, who, he says, followed in the footsteps of Simon Magus rather than of Simon Peter, and proceeded in a career of rapine, murder, and every species of felony, until even the people of Rome became weary of his iniquities, and expelled him from the city. Sylvester III. w'as elected antipope (Jan., 1044), but Benedict soon resumed the papacy with all his vices (April 10, 1044), then sold it for one or two .thousand pounds silver* to an archpresbyter John Gratian of the same iIsa.3:l-4. * Gregorovius, IV. 42, says: "iJ/j< Benedict IX. erreichte das Papstthum jenen dussersien Grad des sittlichen Verfalk, n-elcher nach den Gesetzen der mensMichen Natiir den Umschkuj ziim Bess^ern erzeucjt." ^Bonitho, ed. Jaffu p. 50: ''Post midla turpia adnlteria et homicidia manibus suis perpctratu, posfrcmo cum vellet consobrinum accipcre coniugem, filiam scilicet Girardi deSaxo, et ille diceret: nidlo rnodo se datarum nisi renunciaret pontificalui (id qaendam sacerdotem Johannem se contulit." A similar report is found in the AmuUes AltAihenses. But Steinuorfr and Hefele (IV. 707) discredit the mar- riage project as a malignant invention or fable. * An old catalogue of popes (in Muratori, Script. III. 2, p. 345) states the oum as mille librce denariorum Papensium, but Benno as libnc tnUle quingentce. Others give two thousand pounds ;is the sura. Otto of Freising adds that Benedict ? 66. HENRY III. AND THE SYNOD OF SUTRI. 299 house (May, 1045), after he had emptied the treasury of every article of value, and, rueing the bargain, he claimed the dignity again (Nov., 1047), till he was finally expelled from Rome (July, 1048), GREGOEY VT. John Gratian assumed the name Gregory YI. He was revered as a saint for his chastity which, on account of its extreme rarity in Rome, was called an angelic virtue. He bought the papacy with the sincere desire to reform it, and made the monk Hildebrand, the future reformer, his cljaplain. He acted on the principle that the end sanctifies the means. Thus there were for a while three rival popes. Benedict IX. (before his final expulsion) held the Laterau, Gregory VI. Maria Maggiore, Sylvester III. St. Peter's and the Vatican/ Their feuds reflected the general condition of Italy. The streets of Rome swarmed with hired assassins, the whole country with robbers, the virtue of pilgrims was openly assailed, even churches and the tombs of the apostles were desecrated by blood- shed. Again the German emperor had to interfere for the restoration of order. § 66. Henry III. and the Synod of Sutri. Deposition of three rival Popes. A. D. 1046. BoNizo (or Bonitho, bishop of Sutri, afterwards of Piacenza, and friend of Gregory VII., d. 1089) : Liber ad amicum, s. de persecutione Eccle- sicB (in CEfelii Scriptores rerum Boicarum IL, 794, and better in Jaffe's Momunenta Gregoriana, 1865). Contains in lib. V. a history of the popes from Benedict IX. to Gregory VII., with many errors. EODULFUS Glaber (or Glaber Eadulfus, monk of Cluny, about 1046) : Historia sui temporis (in Migne, Tom. 142). reserved besides the Peter's pence from England. See Giesebrecht, IT. 643, and Hefele IV. 707. 1 Migne, Tom. 141, p. 1343. Steindorff and Hefele (IV. 708) dissent from this usual view of a three-fold schism, and consider Gregory as the only pope- But all three were summoned to the Synod of Sutri and deposed; consequently they must all have claimed possession. 300 FOUKTH PEKIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Desideritts (Abbot of M. Cassino, afterwards pope Victor Iir.,d. 1086); De MiracuUs a S. Benedicto aliisque monachis Cassiniensibus gestis Dialog., in " Bibl. Patr." Lugd. XVIII. 853. Annales Romani in Pertz, Mon. Germ. VII. Annales Corbeienses, in Pertz, Mon. Germ. V. ; and in JafFe, Monumenta Corbeiensia, Berlin, 18G4. Ernst Steixdorff: Jahrbiicher des deufschen Eeichs unter Hemrich III. Leipzig, 1874. Hefele: Coneiliengesch. IV. 706 sqq. (2d ed.). See Lit. in g 64, especially Hofler and Will. Emperor Henry III., of the house of Franconia, was appealed to by the advocates of reform, and felt deeply the sad state of the church. He was only twenty-two years old, but ripe in intel- lect, full of energy and zeal, and aimed at a reformation of the church under the control of the empire, as Hildebrand ^after- wards labored for a reformation of the church under the control of the papacy. On his way to Rome for the coronation he held (Dec. 20, 1046) a synod at Sutri, a small town about twenty-five miles north of Rome, and a few days afterwards another synod at Rome which completed the work.^ Gregory VI. presided at first. The claims of the three rival pontiffs were considered. Benedict IX. and Sylvester III. were soon disposed of, the first having twice resigned, the second being a mere intruder. Gre- gory VI. deserved likewise deposition for the sin of simony in buying the papacy; but as he had convoked the synod by order of the emperor and was otherwise a worthy person, he was al- lowed to depose lumself or to abdicate. He did it in these words : " I, Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, do hereby adjudge myself to be removed from the pontificate of the Holy Roman Church, because of the enormous error Avhich by simoniacal impurity has crept into and vitiated my election." Then he aaked the assembled fathers : " Is it your pleasure * The sources differ in the distribution of the work between the two synods : some assign it to Sutri, others to Rome, others divide it. Steindorff and Hefele (IV. 710) assume that Gregory and Sylvester were deposed at Sutri ; Benedict (who did not appear at Sutri) was deposed in Rome. All agree that the new pope was elected in Rome. 2 66. HENRY IH. AND THE SYNOD OF SUTRI. 30 i that SO it shall be?" to which they unanimously replied : "Your pleasure is our pleasure ; therefore so let it be." As soon as the humble pope had pronounced his own sentence, he descended from the throne, divested himself of his pontifical robes, and im- plored pardon on his knees for the usurpation of the highest dignity in Christendom. He acted as pope de facto, and pro- nounced himself no pope dejure. He was used by the synod for deposing his two rivals, and then for deposing himself. ^ In that way the synod saved the principle that the pope was above every human tribunal, and responsible to God alone. This view of the case of Gregory rests on the reports of Bonitho and Deside- rius. According to other reports in the Annales Corbeienses and Peter Damiani, who was present at Sutri, Gregory was deposed directly by the Synod.^ At all events, the deposition was real and final, and the cause was the sin of simony. But if simony vitiated an election, there were probably few legitimate popes in the tenth century when everything was venal and corrupt in Rome. Moreover bribery seems a small sin com- pared with the enormous crimes of several of these Judases. Hildebrand recognized Gregory VI. by adopting his pontifical name in honor of his memory, and yet he made relentless war upon the sin of simony. He followed the self-deposed pope as chaplain across the Alps into exile, and buried him in peace on the banks of the Rhine. Henry III. adjourned the Synod of Sutri to St. Peter's in Rome for the election of a new pope (Dec 23 and 24, 1046). The synod was to elect, but no Roman clergyman could be found free of the pollution of " simony and fornication." Then the king, vested by the synod with the green mantle of the patriciate and the plenary authority of the electors, descended from his throne, and seated Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, a man of spot- less character, on the vacant chair of St. Peter amid the loud hosannas of the assembly .^ The new pope assumed the name of 1 See JaflK, Steindorff, and Hefele (IV. 711 sq.)- » According to the Annal. Corb., Suidger wa3 elected "canoniee et synodicc . . • unanimi eleri et populi electione." 302 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Clement II., and crowned Henry emperor on the festival of Christmas, on which Charlemagne had been crowned. The name was a reminder of the conflict of the first Clement of Rome with Simon Magus. But he outlived his election only nine months, and his body was transferred to his beloved Bamberg^ The wretched Benedict IX. again took possession of the Lateran (till July 16, 1048). He died afterwards in Grotto Ferrata, according to one report as a penitent saint, according to another as a hardened sinner whose ghost frightened the living. A third German pontiff, Poppo, bishop of Brixen, called Damasus II., was elected, but died twenty-three days after his consecration (Aug, 10, 1048), of the Roman fever, if not of jioison. The emperor, at the request of the Romans, appointed at "Worms in December, 1048, Bruno, bishop of Toul, to the papal chair. He was a man of noble birth, fine appearance, consider- able learning, unblemished character, and sincere piety, in full sympathy with the spirit of reform which emanated from Cluny. He accepted the appointment in presence of the Roman depu- ties, subject to the consent of the clergy and j)eople of Rome.^ He invited the monk Hildebrand to accompany him in his pil- grimage to Rome. Hildebrand refused at first, because Bruno had not been canonically elected, but by the secular and royal power ; but he was persuaded to follow him. Bruno reached Rome in the month of February, 1049, in the dress of a pilgrim, barefoot, weeping, regardless of the hymns of welcome. His election was unanimously confirmed by the Roman clergy and people, and he was solemnly consecrated Feb. 12, as Leo IX. He found the papal treasury empty, and liis own means were soon exhausted. He chose Hildebrand as his subdeacon, financier, and confidential adviser, who hereafter was the soul of the papal reform, till he himself ascended the papal throne in 1073. ' So says Wibert, his friend and biographer, but Bonitho reports that Hilde- brand induced liim to submit first to a Roman election, since a pope elected by the emperor was not an apoatolicus, but an apostaticua. See Baxmann, IL 215-217. Ctomp, also Hunkler : Leo iX wTid seine Zet^ Mainz, 1S51. ^ 66. HENRY III. AND THE SYNOD OF SUTEI. 303 We stand here at the close of the deepest degradation and on the threshold of the highest elevation of the papacy. The synod of Sutri and the reign of Leo IX. mark the beginning of a dis- ciplinary reform. Simony or the sale and purchase of ecclesias- tical dignities, and Nicolaitism or the carnal sins of the clergy, including marriage, concubinage and unnatural vices, were the crying evils of the church in the eyes of the most serious men, especially the disciples of Cluny and of St. Komuald. A refor- mation therefore from the hierarchical standpoint of the middle ages was essentially a suppression of these two abuses. And as the corruption had reached its climax in the papal chair, the reformation had to begin at the head before it could reach the members. It was the work chiefly of Hildebrand or Gregory VII- , with whom the next period opens. CHAPTER V. THE CONFLICT OF THE EASTEKN AND WESTERN CHURCHES AND THEIR SEPARATION. •§67. Sources and Literature, The chief sources on the beginning of tlie controversy between Photiua and Nicolas are in Mansi : Cone. Tom. XV. and XVI. ; in Har- DUIN : Co7ic. Tom. V. Hergenrother : Monumenta Grceca ad Photium ejusque historiam pertinentia. Regensb. 1869. I. On the Greek side : PhotitJS : 'EynvKlioQ kn-caro^, etc. and especially his Ao'yof nepl Tfjq tuv dytoB YlvEvfiaToq fivarayuyiac, etc. See Photii Ojjera omnia, ed. -Migne. Paris, 1860-'61, 4 vols. {Patr. Gr. Tom. CI. -CIV.) The Encycl. Letter is in Tom. II. 722-742 ; and his treatise on the uvarayuyia tov ayiov RvEv/iarng in Tom. II. 279-391. Later champions : CiERULARius, NiCETAS Pectoratus, Theophylact (12th century). EuTHYMius ZiCxABENUS, Phurxus, Eustratius, and many others. In recent times Prokopovitch (1772), Zoernicav (1774, 2 vols.). J. G. PiTZiPios : L" Egl- orienfale, sa separation et sa reunion avec celle de Rome. Rome, 1855. L" Orient. Les r^formes de V empire hyzanthi, Paris, 1858. A. N. ]\IouRAVlEFF (Russ.) : (Question religieuse d' Orient et d' Occident. Moscow, 1856. GuETTERE : La papaut6 schismatique. Par. 1863. A. PiCHLER : Gesch. d. kirchUchen Trennung zivischen dem Orient und Occident von den ersten Anfdngen bis zur jilngsten Gegenwart. jMiin- chen, 1865, 2 Bde. The author was a Roman Catholic (Privatdocent der Theol. in Miinchen) when he wrote this work, but blamed the West fully as much as the East for the schism, and afterwards joined the Greek church in Russia. AndRONICOS DimITRACOPULOS : 'loTopia Toi) axto/xaToc. Lips. 1867. Also his Bi3?iio^^KTf EKK?iT)(7. Lips. 1866. Theodorus Lascaris junior : Be Processione Spiritus S. Oratio Apo- logetiea. London and Jena, 1875. II. On the Latin (Roman Catholic) side: Ratramnus ( Contra Groicorum Opposita) ; Anselm of Canterbury [De Proccmone Spiritus S. 1098); Petrus Chrysolanus (1112); Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), etc. 304 ? 67. SOURCES AND LTTEE VTUEE. 305 Leo Allatius (Allacci, a Greek of Chios, but converted to the Eoman Church and guardian of the Vatican library, d. 1669) : De ecdesice Occident, atque orient, perpetua consensione. Cologne, 1648, 4to. ; new ed. 1665 and 1694. Also his Grwcia orthodoxa, 1659, 2 vols., new ed. by Lammer, Freib. i. B. 1864 sq. ; and his special tracts on Pur- gatory (Eom. 1655), and on the Procession of the Holy Spirit (Rom. 1658). Maimburg : Hist, du schisme des Grecs. Paris, 1677, 4to. Steph. de Altimura (Mich, le Quien) : Panoplia contra schisvia Grcecorum. Par. 1718, 4to. Michael le Quien (d. 1733) : Oriens Christianus. Par. 1740, 3 vols. fol. Abbe Jager : Histoire de Photius d^apr^s les monuments oric/inaux. 2nd ed. Par. 1845. LuiGl TosTi : Storia deW origine dello scisma greco. Firenze, 1856. 2 vols. H. Lammer : Papst Nikolaus I. und die bijzantinische Staatskirche seiner Zeit. Berlin, 1857. Ad. d' Avril : Documents relatifs aux ^glises de V Orient, considerde dans leur rapports avec le saint-si6ge de Rome. Paris, 1862. Karl Werner: Geschichte der apol. und polemischen Literatur. Schaff- hausen, 1864, vol. IIL 3 ff. J. Hergenrother (Prof, of Church History in Wiirzburg, now Cardi- nal in Rome) : Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopcl. Scin Leben, seine Schriften und das griechische Schisma. Eegensburg, 1867-1869, 3 vols. C. Jos. VON Hefele (Bishop of Rottenburg) : Conciliengeschichte. Frei- burg i. B., vols. IV., v., VL, VII. (revised ed. 1879 sqq.) III. Protestant writers : J. G. Walch ( Luth. ) : Historia controversioe, Grcecorum Latinorumque de Processione Sp. S. Jena, 1751. Gibbon: Decline and Fall, etc., Ch. LX. He views the schism as one of the causes which precipitated the decline and fall of the Roman empire in the East by alienating its most useful allies and strength- ening its most dangerous enemies. John Mason Neale (Anglican) : A History of the Holy Eastern Church. Lond. 1850. Introd. vol. II. 1093-1169. Edmund S. Foulkes (Anglic.) : An Historical Account of the Addition- of the word Filioque to the Creed of the West. Lond. 1867. W. Gass: SymboUk der griechischen Kirche. Berlin, 1872. H. B. SWETE (Anglic.) : Early History of the Doctrine of the Holy Spirit, Cambr. 1873 ; and History of the Doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Spirit from the Apost. Age to the Death of Charlemagne. Cambr. 1876.. 20 306 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. IV. Old Catholic Writers (irenical) : Joseph Langex : Die Tr'mitarische Lehrdifferenz zwisehen der ahendldndi- schen und der morgenldndlschen Kirche. Bonn, 1876. The Proceedings of the second Old Catholic Union-Conference in Bonn, 1875, ed. in German by Heinrich Reusch ; English ed. with intro- duction by Canon Liddon (Lond. 1876) ; Amer. ed. transl. by Dr. Samuel Buel, with introduction by Dr. R. Nevin (N. Y. 1876). The union-theses of Bonn are given in Schaff : Creeds of Christen- dom, vol. II., 645-550. § 68. The Consensus and Dlssensus between the Greek and Latin Churches. No two churches in the world are at this day so much alike, and yet so averse to each other as the Oriental or Greek, and the Occidental or Roman. They hold, as an inheritance from the patristic age, essentially the same body of doctrine, the same canons of discipline, the same form of worship ; and yet their .antagonism seems irreconcilable. The very affinity breeds jealousy and friction. They are equally exclusive : the Oriental Ohurch claims exclusive orthodoxy, and looks upon Western Christendom as heretical; the Roman Church claims exclusive •catholiGity, and considers all other churches as heretical or schis- matical sects. The one is proud of her creed, the other of her dominion. In all the points of controversy between Romanism and Protestantism the Greek Church is much nearer the Roman, and yet there is no more prospect of a union between them than of a union between Rome and Geneva, or Moscow and Oxford. The Pope and the Czar are the two most powerful rival-despots in Christendom. Where the two churches meet in closest prox- imity, over the traditional spots of the birth and tomb of our .Saviour, at Bctlilehem and Jerusalem, they hate each other most bitterly, and their ignorant and bigoted monks have to be kept from violent collision hy Mohammedan soldiers. I. Let us first briefly glance at the consensus. Both churches own the Nicenc creed (with the exception of 'the FiUoqae), and all the doctrinal decrees of the seven cecu- § 68. THE CONSENSUS AND DISSENSUS, ETC. 307 menical Synods from A. D. 325 to 78T, including the worship of images. They agree moreover in most of the post-CECumenical or mediseval doctrines against which the evangelical Reformation protested, namely : the authority of ecclesiastical tradition as a joint rule of faith with the holy Scriptures ; the worship of the Virgin Mary, of the saints, their pictures (not statues), and relics; justification by faith and good works, as joint conditions; the merit of good works, especially voluntary celibacy and poverty ; the seven sacraments or mysteries (with minor differ- ences as to confirmation, and extreme unction or chrfsma) ; bap- tismal regeneration and the necessity of water-baptism for salva- tion; trausubstantiation and the consequent adoration of the sacramental elements ; the sacrifice of the mass for the living and the dead, with prayers for the dead; priestly absolution by divine authority ; three orders of the ministry, and the necessity of an episcopal hierarchy up to the patriarchal dignity ; and a vast number of religious rites and ceremonies. In the doctrine of purgatory, the Greek Church is less explicit, yet agrees with the Roman in assuming a middle state of purification, and the efficacy of prayers and masses for the departed. The dogma of transubstautiatiou, too, is not so clearly formulated in the Greek creed as in the Roman, but the differ- ence is very small. As to the Holy Scriptures, the Greek Church has never prohibited the popular use, and the Russian Church even favors the free circulation of her authorized ver- nacular version. But the traditions of the Greek Church are as strong a barrier against the exercise of private judgment and exegetical progress as those of Rome. II. The dissensus of the two churches covers the following points : 1. The procession of the Holy Spirit : the East teaching the single procession from the Father only, the AVest (since Augustin), the double procession from the Father and tJie Son [Filioque), 308 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. 2. The universal authority and infallibility of the pope, which is asserted by the Roman, denied by the Greek Church. TJie former is a papal monarchy, the latter a patriarchal oligarchy. There are, according to the Greek theory, five patriarchs of equal rights, the pope of Rome, the pati'iarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. They were sometimes compared to the five senses in the body. To them was afterwards added the patriarch of Moscow for the Russian church (which is now governed by the " Holy Synod "). To the bishop of Rome was formerly conceded a primacy of honor, but this primacy passed with the seat of empire to the patriarch of Constantinople, who therefore signed himself "Archbishop of New Rome and QixjumeuicaL Patri- arch."^ 3. The immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, pro- claimed as a dogma by the pope in 1854, disowned by the East, which, however, in the practice of Mariolatry fully equals the West. 4. The marriage of the lower clergy, allowed by the Eastern, forbidden by the Roman Church (yet conceded by the pope to the United Greeks). 5. The withdrawal of the cup from the laity. In tlie Greek Church the laymen receive the consecrated bread dipped in the wine and administered with a golden spoon. 6. A number of minor ceremonies peculiar to the Eastern Church, such as trine immersion in baptism, the use of leavened bread in the eucharist, infant-communion, the repetition of the holy unction {zb eo/ihov) in sickness. Notwithstanding these differences the Roman Church has always been obliged to recognize the Greek Church as essentially orthodox, though schismatic. And, certainly, the diflTcrcnces are insignificant as compared with the agreement. The sep- aration and antagonism must therefore be explained fully as much and more from an alienation of spirit and change of condition. * See the passages in Gieseler II. 227 sq. § 69. THE CAUSES OF SEPAEATION. 309 NOTE ON THE EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH. For the sake of brevity the usual terminology is employed in this chapter, but the proper name of the Greek Church is the Holy Oriental Orthodox Apostolic Church. The terms mostly in use in that church are Orthodox and Oriental (Eastern). The term Greek is used in Turkey only of the Greeks proper (the Hellens) ; but the great majority of Oriental Christians in Turkey and Russia belong to the Slavonic race. The Greek is the original and classical language of the Oriental Church, in which the most important works are written ; but it has been practically superseded in Asiatic Turkey by the Arabic, in Russia and European Turkey by the Slavonic. The Oriental or Orthodox Church now embraces three .distinct divi- sions : 1. The Orthodox Church in Turkey (European Turkey and the Greek islands, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine) under the patriarchs of Con- stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. 2. The state church of Russia, formerly under the patriarch of Con- stantinople, then under the patriarch of Moscow, since 1725 under the Holy Synod of St. Petersburg and the headship of the Czar. This is by far the largest and most important branch. 3. The church of the kingdom of Greece under the Holy Synod of Greece (since 1833). There are also Greek Christians in Egypt, the Sinaitic Peninsula (the monks of the Convent of St. Catharine), the islands of the ^gean Sea, in Malta, Servia, Austria, etc. Distinct from the Orthodox Church are the Oriental Schismatics, the Nestorians, Armenians, Jacobites, Copts, and Abyssinians, who separated from the former on the ground of the christological controversies. The Maronites of Mount Lebanon were originally also schismatics, but sub- mitted to the pope during the Crusades. The United Greeks acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, but retain certain peculiarities of the Oriental Church, as the marriage of the lower clergy, the native language in worship. They are found in lower Italy, Austria, Russia, and Poland. The Bulgarians, who likewise call themselves orthodox, and who by the treaty of Berlin in 1878 have been formed into a distinct principality, occupy an independent position between the Greek and the Roman Churches. § 69. The Causes of Separation. Church history, like the world's history, moves with the suu from East to West. In the first six centuries the Eastern or Greek church represented the main current of life and progress. 310 FOUETH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. In the middle ages the Latin chui'ch chiefly assumed the task of christianiziug and civilizing the new races which came upon the stage. The Greek church has had no Middle Ages in the usual sense, and therefore no Reformation. She planted Christianity among the Slavonic races, but they were isolated from the progress of European history, and have not materially affected either the doctrine or polity or oultus of the church. Their conversion was an external expansion, not an internal develop- ment. The Greek and Latin churches were never organically united under one government, but differed considerably from the begin- ning in nationality, language, and various ceremonies. These difl'ereuces, however, did not interfere with the general harmony of faith and Christian life, nor prevent cooperation against com- mon foes. As long and as far as the genuine spirit of Chris- tianity directed them, the diversity was an element of strength to the common cause. The principal sees of the East were directly founded by the apostles — with the exception of Constantinople — and had even a clearer title to apostolic succession and inheritance than Rome. The Greek church took the lead in theology down to the sixth or seventh century, and the Latin gratefully learned from her. All the oecumenical Councils were held on the soil of the Byzan- tine empire in or near Constantinople, and carried on in the Greek language. The great doctrinal controversies on the holy Trinity and Christology were fought out in the East, yet not without the powerful aid of the more steady and practical West. Athanasius, when an exile from Alexandria, found refuge and support in the bishop of Rome. Jerome, the most learned of the Latin fathers and a friend of Pope Damasus, was a connect- ing link between the East and the West, and concluded his labors in Bethlehem. Pope Leo I. was the theological master- spirit who controlled the council of Chalcedon, and shajjed the orthodox formula concerning the two natures in the one person of Christ. Yet this very pope strongly protested against the 2 69. THE CAUSES OF SEPAEATION. 311 action of the Council which, in conformity with a canon of the second oecumenical Council, put him on a par with the new bishop of Constantinople. And here we approach the secret of the ultimate separation and incurable antagonism of the churches. It is due chiefly to three causes. The first cause is the politico-ecclesiastical rivalry of the patriarch of Constantinople backed by the Byzantine em- pire, and the bishop of Rome in connection with the new Ger- man empire. The second cause is the growing centralization and overbearing conduct of the Latin church in and through the papacy. The third cause is the stationary character of the Greek and the progressive character of the Latin church during the middle ages. The Greek church boasts of the imaginary per- fection of her creed. She still produced considerable scholars and divines, as Maximus, John of Damascus, Photius, CEcu- menius, and Theophylact, but they mostly confined themselves to the work of epitomizing and systematizing the traditional theology of the Greek fathers, and produced no new ideas, as if all wisdom began and ended with the old oecumenical Councils. She took no interest in the important anthropological and soteri- ological controversies which agitated the Latin church in the age of St. Augustin, and she continued to occuj)y the indefinite posi- tion of the first centuries on the doctrines of sin and grace. On the other hand she was much distracted and weakened by barren metaphysical controversies on the abstrusest questions of theology and christology ; and these quarrels facilitated the rapid progress of Isldm, which conquered the lands of the Bible and pressed hard on Constantinople. When the Greek church became stationary, the Latin church began to develop her greatest energy; she be- came the fruitful mother of new and vigorous nations of the North and West of Europe, produced scholastic and mystic theo- logy and a new order of civilization, built magnificent cathedrals, discovered a new Continent, invented the art of printing, and with the revival of learning prepared the way for a new era in the history of the world. Thus the Latin daughter outgrew the 312 • FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1041. Greek mother, and is numerically twice as strong, without coimt- ing the Protestant secession. At the same time the Eastern church still may look forward to a new future among the Slavonic races which she has christianized. \Yhat she needs is a revival of the spirit and power of primitive Christianity. When once the two churches were alienated in spirit and en- gaged in an unchristian race for supremacy, all the little doctri- nal and ritualistic differences which had existed long before, assumed an undue weight, and were branded as heresies and crimes. The bishop of Rome sees in the Patriarch of Constan- tinople an ecclesiastical upstart who owed his power to political influence, not to apostolic origin. The Eastern jjatriarclis look upon the Pope as an anti-christian usurper and as the first Pro- testant. They stigmatize the papal supremacy as " the chief heresy of the latter days, which flourishes now as its predecessor, Arianism, flourished in former days, and which like it, will in like manner be cast down and vanish away." * § 70. The Patriarch and the Pope. Photius and Nicolas. Comp. I 61 (p. 273), the Lit. in ? 67 (p. 304). especially the letters of Photius and Nicolas. Heegexeother : Photius (Regensb. 1867-69, vol. I. 373 sqq. ; 505 sqq. ; and the second vol.), and his Monuraenta Grceca ad Photium cj'us- que historiam pertinentia (Ratisb. 1869, 181 pages). Milman: Hist, of Latin Christianity, Bk.V. Ch. IV. Hefele IV. 224 sqq.; 384 sqq. ; 436 sqq. The chief documents are also given by Gieselee, II. 213 sqq. (Am. ed.) The doctrinal difference on the procession of the Holy Spirit will be considered in the chapter on the Theological Con- troversies. Although it existed before the schism, it assumed a practical importance only in connection with the broader ecclesiastical and political conflict between the patriarch and the pope, between Constantinople and Rome. The first serious outbreak of this conflict took place after the middle of the ninth century, when Photius and Nicolas, two » Encycl. Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs, 1844, I 5. § 70. THE PATKIARCH AND THE POPE. 313 of the ablest representatives of the rival churches, came into collision. Photius is one of the greatest of patriarchs, as Nicolas is one of the greatest of popes. The former was super- ior in learning, the latter in statesmanship ; while in moral inte- grity, official pride and obstinacy both were fairly matched, except that the papal ambition towered above the patriarchal dignity. Photius would tolerate no superior, Nicolas no equal ; the one stood on the Council of Chalcedon, the other on Pseudo-Isidor. The contest between them was at first personal. The deposi- tion of Ignatius as patriarch of Constantinople, for rebuking the immorality of Csesar Bardas, and the election of Photius, then a mere layman, in his place (858), were arbitrary and uncanonical acts which created a temporary schism in the East, and prepared the way for a permanent schism between the East and the West. Nicolas, being appealed to as mediator by both parties (first by Photius), assumed the haughty air of supreme judge on the basis of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, but was at first deceived by his own legates. The controversy was complicated by the Bulgarian quarrel. King Bogoris had been converted to Christianity by missionaries from Constantinople (861), but soon after applied to Rome for teachers, and the pope eagerly seized this opportunity to extend his jurisdiction (866). Nicolas, in a Roman Synod (863), decided in favor of the innocent Ignatius, and pronounced sentence of deposition against Photius with a threat of excommunication in case of disobe- dience.^ Photius, enraged by this conduct and the Bulgarian ^ The Synod, claiming to be the infallible organ of the Holy Spirit, com- pared Photius with a robber and adulterer for obtruding himself into the see of Constantinople during the lifetime of Ignatin?, deprived him of all priestly honors and functions " by authority of Almiglity God, St. Peter and St. Paul, the princes of the apostles, of all saints, of the six [why not seven ?] cecumeni- cal councils, as also by tlie judgment of the Holy Ghost," and threatened him and all his adherents with the anathema and excommunication from the eucharist till the moment of death, "tliat no one may dare hereafter from the state of the laity to break into the camp of the Lord, as has often been the case in the church of Constantinople." See on this Synod Hergenrother, Phot. I. 519 sqq., and Hefele IV. 269 sqq. 314 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. interference, held a counter-synod, and deposed in turn the successor of St. Peter (867). In his famous Encyclical Letter of invitation to the Eastern patriarchs, he charged the whole Western church with heresy and schism for interfering with the jurisdiction over the Bulgarians, for fasting on Saturday, for abridging the time of Lent by a week, for taking milk- food (milk, cheese, and butter) during the quadragesimal fast, for enforcing clerical celibacy, and despising priests who lived in virtuous matrimony, and, most of all, for corrupting the Nicene Creed by the msertion of the Filioque, and thereby introducing two principles into the Holy Trinity.^ This letter clearly indicates all the doctrinal and ritual differences which caused and perpetuated the schism to tliis day. The subsequent history is only a renewal of the same charges aggravated by the misfortunes of the Greek church, and the arrofmnce and intolerance of old Rome. Photius fell with the murder of his imperial patron, INIichael III. (Sept. 23, 867). He was imprisoned in a convent, and deprived of society, even of books. He bore his misfortune with great dignity, and nearly all the Greek bishops remained faithful to him. Ignatius was restored after ten years of exile by the emperor Basil, the Macedonian (867-886), and entered into communication with Pope Hadrian II. (Dec. 867). He convened a general council in the church of St. Sophia (October, 869), which is numbered by the Latins as the Eighth Oecumeni- cal Council. The pontifical legates presided and presented a formula of union which every bishop was required to sign before taking part in the proceedings, and which contained an anathema against all heresies, and against Photius and his adherents. But the council was poorly attended (the number of bishops being at first only eighteen). Photius was forced to appear in the fifth session (Oct. 20), but on being questioned 1 See the Enrydica ad Ptitriarchas Orienlahf: in the original Greek in Photius, Opera II. 722-742 (ed. Migne), also in Gieseler II. 216 sq. Baronius (ad ann. 803 no. 34 sq.) gives it in Latin. I 70. THE PATKIAKCH AND THE POPE. 315 he either kept silence, or answered in the words of Christ before Caiaphas and Pilate. In the tenth and last session, attended by the emperor and his sous, and one hundred and two bishops, the decrees of the pope against Photius and in favor of Ignatius were confirmed, and the anathemas against the Monothelites and Iconoclasts renewed. The papal delegates signed " with reser- vation of the revision of the pope." But the peace was artificial, and broken up again immediately after the Synod by the Bulgarian question, which involved the political as well as the ecclesiastical power of Constantinople. Ignatius himself was unwilling to surrender that point, and refused to obey when the imperious Pope John VIII. com- manded, on pain of suspension and excommunication, that he should recall all the Greek bishops and priests from Bul- garia. But death freed him from fmther controversy (Oct. 23, 877). Photius was restored to the patriarchal see three days after the death of Ignatius, with whom he had been reconciled. He convened a council in November, 879, which lasted till March, 880, and is acknowledged by the Orientals as the Eighth Oecumenical Council,^ but denounced by the Latins as the Pseudo-Sy nodus Photiana. It was three times as large as the Council of Ignatius, and held with great pomp in St. Sophia under the presidency of Photius. It annulled the Council of 869 as a fraud ; it readopted the Nicene Creed with an anathema against the Filioque, and all other changes by addition or omission, and it closed with a eulogy on the unrivalled virtues and learning of Photius. To the Greek acts was afterwards added a (pretended) letter of Pope John VIII. to Photius, declaring the Filioque to be an addition which is rejected by the church of Rome, and a blasphemy which must be abolished calmly and by degrees.^ The papal legates assented to all, and ^ Strictly speaking, however, the Orthodox Eastern Church counts only seven (Ecumenical Councils. * The Koman Catholic historians regard this letter as a Greek fraud. '^ Ich 316 FOURTH PERIOD. A.D. 590-1049. 60 deceived their master by false accounts of the surrender of Bulgaria that he thanked the emperor for the service he had done to the Church by this synod. But when the pope's eyes Avere opened, he sent the bishop Marinus to Constantinople to declare invalid what the legates had done contrary to his instructions. For this Marinus was shut up in prison for thirty days. After his return Pope John VIII. solemnly pronounced the anathema on Photius, who had dared to deceive and degrade the holy see, and had added new frauds to the old. INIarinus renewed the anathema after he was elected pope (882). Photius denied the validity of his election, and developed an extraordinary literary activity. But after the death of the Emperor Basilius (886), he was again deposed by Leo VI., miscalled the Wise or the Philoso- pher, to make room for his youngest brother Stephen, at that time only sixteen years of age. Photius spent the last five years of his life in a cloister, and died 891. For learning, energy, position, and influence, he is one of the most remarkable men in the history of Eastern Christianity. He formulated the doctrinal basis of the schism, checked the papal despotism, and secured the independence of the Greek church. He announced in an Encyclical of 866 : " God be praised for all time to come ! The Rassians have received a bishop, and show a lively zeal for Christian worship." Roman waiters have declared this to be a lie, but history has proved it to be an anticipation of an important fact, the conversion of a new nation which was to become the chief support of the Eastern church, and the most formidable rival of the papacy. Greek and Roman historians are apt to trace the guilt of the schism exclusively to one party, and to charge the other with unholy ambition and intrigue ; but we must acknowledge on kann nicht (jlaubm" says Hefele (IV. 482), "dassje ein Papst seine SteUunq so sehr vergessen habe, wie es Johann VIII. gethan haben miinste, wenn diesrr Brief dcht wiire. Es ist in cienifielben auch keine Spur des Papcdbewusstseiiis, vielmehr ist die Superior itdt des Photius fast avsdriicklich anerkannt." §71. PROGRESS AND COMPLETION OF THE SCHISM. 317 the one hand the righteous zeal of Nicolas for the cause of the injured Ignatius, and on the other the many virtues of Photius tried in misfortune, as well as his brilliant learning in theology, l)hilology, philosophy, and history ; while we deplore and de- nounce the schism as a sin and disgrace of both churches. NOTES. The accounts of the Roman Catholic historians, even the best, are colored by sectarianism, and must be accepted with caution. Cardinal Hergenrother {Kirchengesch. I. 684) calls the Council of 879 a '' Pho- tianische Pseudo-Synode,'" and its acts " ein dcht byzantinisches Machicerk ganz vorn Geiste des verschmitzten Photius durchdrungen.'" Bishpp Hefele, in the revised edition of his ConciUengesch. (IV. 464 sqq.), treats this Aftersynode, as he calls it, no better. Both follow in the track of their old teacher, Dr. DoUinger who, in his History of the Church (translated by Dr. Edward Cox, London 1841, voL III. p. 100), more than forty years ago, described this Synod " in all its parts as a worthy sister of the Council of Robbers of the year 449; with this difference, that in the earlier Synod violence and tyranny, in the later artifice, fraud, and fiilse- hood were employed by wicked men to work out their wicked designs." But when in 1870 the Vatican Council sanctioned the historical false- hood of papal infallibility, Dollinger, once the ablest advocate of Ro- manism in Germany, protested against Rome and was excommunicated. Whatever the Latins may say against the Synod of Photius, the Latin Synod of 869 was not a whit better, and Rome understood the arts of intrigue fully as well as Constantinople. The whole controversy be- tween the Greek and the Roman churches is one of the most humiliating chapters in the history of Christianity, and both must humbly confess their share of sin and guilt before a reconciliation can take place. § 71. Progress and Completion of the Schism. Cerulariiis. Heegenrother : Photius, vol. III. 653-887 ; comp. his Kirchengesch. vol. I. 688 sq. ; 690-694. Hefele : ConciUengesch. IV. 587 ; 765 sqq. ; 771, 775 sqq. Gieseler : II. 221 sqq. We shall briefly sketch the progress and consolidation of the schism. The Difference about Tctragamy. The fourth marriage of the emperor Leo the Philosopher (886-912), which was forbidden by the laws of the Greek church, caused a great schism in the East (905).^ The Patriarch ^ Leo himself had forbidden not only tetragamy, but even trigamy. His four wives were Theophano, Zoe (his former mistress), Eudokia, and Zoe 318 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Nicqlas Mysticus solemnly protested and was deposed (906), but Pope Sergius III. (904-911), instead of siding with suffering virtue as Pope Nicolas had done, sanctioned the fourth mar- riage (which Avas not forbidden in the West) and the deposition of the conscientious patriarch. Leo on his death-bed restored the deposed patriarch (912). A Synod of Constantinople in 920, at which Pope John X. was represented, declared a fourth marriage illegal, and made no concessions to Rome. The Emperor Constantine, Leo's son, prohibited a fourth marriage by an edict; thereby casting a tacit imputation on his own birth. The Greek church regards marriage as a sacrament, and a necessary means for the propa- gation of the race, but a second marriage is prohibited^ to the clergy, a third marriage is tolerated in laymen as a sort of legal concubinage, and a fourth is condemned as a sin and a scandal. The pope acquiesced, and the schism slumbered during the dark tenth century. The venal Pope John XIX. (1024) was ready for an enormous sum to renounce all the claim of superiority over the Eastern patriarchs, but was forced to break off the negotiations when his treasonable plan wvls discovered. Cei^larius and Leo IX. Michael Cerularius (or Coerularius),^ who was patriarch from 1043 to 1059, renewed and completed the schism. Heretofore the mutual anathemas were hurled only against the contending heads and their party ; now the churches excommunicated each other. The Emperor Constantinus INIonachus courted the friendship of the pope for political reasons, but his patriarch checkmated him. Cerularius, in connection with the learned Bulgarian metropolitan Leo of Achrida, addressed in 1053 a letter to John, bishop of Trani, in Apulia (then subject to the Eastern rule), and through him to all the bishops of France Karl)onopsvne, who in 905 bore him a son, Constantine Porphyrogenitus (or Por|iIiyron;ennetos, d. 959). See Hergenrcither, Phot. III. 656 sq. * Kr;pnv?nf)iog^ probably from the Latin cerula {Krjpio'Xoq), ceriolarium, a cande- labrum for wax-tapera. §71. PROGRESS AND COMPLETION OF THE SCHISM. 319 and to the pope himself, charging the churches of the West that, following the practice of the Jews, and contrary to the usage of Christ, they employ in the eucharist unleavened bread ; that they fast on Saturday in Lent ; that tliey eat blood and things strangled in violation of the decree of the Council of Jerusalem (Acts, ch. 15); and that during the fast they do not sing the hallelujah. He invented the new name Azymites for the heresy of using unleavened bread (azyma) instead of common bread.^ Nothing was said about the pro- cession of the Spirit. This letter is only extant in the Latin translation of Cardinal Humbert.^ Pope Leo IX. sent three legates under the lead of the im- perious Humbert to Constantinople, with counter-charges to the effect that Cerularius arrogated to himself the title of " oecu- menical " patriarch ; that he wished to subject the patriarchs of Alexandria and of Antioch ; that the Greeks rebaptized the Latins; that, like the Mcolaitans, they permitted their priests to live in wedlock ; ^ that they neglected to baptize their chil- dren before the eighth day after birth ; that, like the Pneuma- tomachi or Theomachi, they cut out of the symbol the Proces- 1 Azyma is from a^vfioc, unleavened {^vfiv, leaven) ; hence y kopTfj ruv aC,vfiuv {apT(ji'), the feast of unleavened bread (the passover), during which the Jews were to eat unleavened bread. The Greeks insist that our Lord in instituting the eucliarist after the passover-meal used true, nourishing bread [aprog from nlpu), as the sign of the new dispensation of joy and gladness ; while the lifeless, un- leavened bread (at^v/uov) belongs to the Jewish dispensation. The Latins argued that aproQ means unleavened as well as leavened bread, and that Christ during the feast of the passover could not get any other but unleavened bread. They called the Greeks in turn Fermentarei in opposition to Azymitce. See Nice- tas Stethatus (a cotemporary of Cerularius) : De Fermentato et Azymis, publ. in Greek by Dimitracopulos, Lips. 1866 (B;/37,wi?. ekkX. I. 18-36), and in Greek and Latin by Hergenrother, in Monumenta Grceca, etc., p. 139-154. Comp. also the Dissertation concerning Azymes in Neale's Eastern Church, Introd. II. 1051 sqq. ; J. G. Hermann, Hist, concertationis de pane ozymo et fermentato in cosna Domini, Lips. 1737 ; and Hergenrother, Photius III. 739 sqq. 2 Baronius Annal. ad ann. 1053 no. 22; and Gieseler II. 222 sq. ^ " Sicut Nicolaitce carnales nuptias concedunt et defendunt sacri altaris minis- tris." On tlie other hand, Photius and the Greeks traced to the clerical celibacy the fact that the West had " so many children who knew not their fathers.'' 320 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. sion of the Spirit from the Son.^ The legates were lodged in the imperial palace, but Cerularius avoided all intercourse with them. Finally, on the 16th of July, 1054, they excommuni- cated the patriarch and all those who should persistently censure the faith of the church of Rome or its mode of offering the holy sacrifice. They placed the writ on the altar of the church of Hagia Sophia with the words : "Vldeat Deus etjudicet.'' Cerularius, supported by his clergy and the people, imme- diately answered by a synodical counter-anathema on the papal lesrates, and accused them of fraud. In a letter to Peter, the patriarch of Antioch (who at first acted the part of a mediator), he charged Rome with other scandals, namely, that two brothers were allowed to espouse two sisters; that bishops woje rings and engaged in warfare ; that baptism was administered by a single immersion; that salt was put in the mouth of the bap- tized ; that the images and relics of saints were not honored ; and that Gregory the Theologian, Basil, and Chrysostom were not numbered among the saints. The Filioque was also men- tioned. ^ The charge of the martial spirit of the bishops was well founded in that semi-barbarous age. Cerularius was all-power- ful for several years ; he dethroned one emperor and crowned another, but died in exile (1059). The patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem ad- hered to the see of Constantinople. Thus the schism between the Christian East and West was completed. The number of episcopal sees at that time was nearly equal on both sides, but in the course of years the Latin church far outgrew the East. The Latin Empire in the East. 1204-1261. During the Crusades the schism was deepened by the brutal atrocities of the French and Venetian soldiers in the pillage of Constantinople (1204), the establishment of a Latin empire, 1 See a full resum^ of Humbert's arguments in Hergenrother, III. 7-41-756. 2 See the documents in Gieseler II. 225 sqq. I 72. FRUITLESS ATTEMPTS AT EEUNION. 321 and the appointment by the pope of Latin bishops in Greek sees.^ Although this artificial empire lasted only half a century (1204-1261), it left a legacy of burning hatred in the memories of horrible desecrations and innumerable insults and outrages, which the East had to endure from the Western barbarians. Churches and monasteries were robbed and desecrated, the Greek service mocked, the clergy persecuted, and every law of decency set at defiance. In Constantinople " a prostitute was seated on the throne of the patriarch ; and that daughter of Belial, as she is styled, sung and danced in the church to ridicule the hymns and processions of the Orientals." Even Pope Innocent III. accuses the pilgrims that they spared in their lust neither age nor sex, nor religious profession, and that they committed fornication, adultery, and incest in open day (m ocuHs omnium), " abandoning matrons and virgins dedicated to God to the lewdness of grooms." And yet this great pope in- sulted the Eastern church by the establishment of a Latin hier- archy on the ruins of the Byzantine empire.^ § 72. Fruitless Attempts at Reunion. The Greek emperors, hard pressed by the terrible Turks, who 1 Cardinal Hergenrother {Kirchengeseh. I. 903) admits that it was largely (he ought to say, chiefly) through the guilt of the Latin conquerors (" grossentheUs durch Schuld der laieinischen Eroberer") that " the hatred of the Greeks at the conquest of Constantinople, 1204, assumed gigantic dimensions." » See Gibbon's graphic description (in ch. Lx.) of the horrors of tlie sack of Constantinople, gathered from the concurrent accounts of the French marshall Villehardouin (who does not betray a symptom of pity or remorse) and the Byzantine senator Nicetas (one of the sufTerers). On the barbarities pre- viously committed at Thessalonica by the Normans in 1186, see Eustathius De capia Thessalonica (ed. Bonnae 1842, quoted by Gieseler II. 609); on the barbarities in the island of Cyprus after its delivery by Richard to Guy, king of Jerusalem, in 1192, see the anonymous account in Allatius, De ecclcs. Occi- dent, et orient perpet. consens. 1. 11. c. XIII. 693 sq. Leo Allatius was a Greek convert to the Roman church, and found no fault with these cruelties against the church of his fathers ; on the contrary he says : " Opus erat, effrcenes pro- pria^que fidei rebelles et veritatis oppugnatores non exilio, sci ferro et igne in saidorem mentem reducere. Hceretici proxcribendi sunt, exterminandi sunt, puniendi sunt el pertinaces Decidendi, cremnndi. Itn leges sanciunf, ita observavit antiquitas, nee alius mos est recentioris ecclesiae turn GraeccB turn Latince.'' 21 322 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. threatened to overthrow their throne, sought from time to time by negotiations with the pope to secure the powerful aid of the West. But all the projects of reunion split on the rock of papal absolutism and Greek obstinacy. The Council of Lyons, a. d. 1274.^ Michael Paljeologus (1260-1282), who expelled the Latins from Constantinople (July 25, 1261), restored the Greek patriarchate, but entered into negotiations with Pope Urban IV. to avert the danger of a new crusade for the reconquest of Constantinople. A general council (the 14th of the Latins) was held at Lyons in 1273 and 1274 with great solemnity and splendor for the purpose of effecting a reunion. Five tiundred Latin bishops, seventy abbots, and about a thousand other ecclesiastics were present, together with ambassadors from England, France, Germany, and other countries. Palaeologus sent a large embassy, but only three were saved from ship- wreck, Germanus, ex-patriarch of Constantinople, Theophanes, metropolitan of Nicaea, and the chancellor of the empire. The pope opened the Synod (May 7, 1274) by the celebration of high mass, and declared the threefold object of the Synod to be : help for Jerusalem, union with the Greeks, and reform of the church. Bonaventura preached the sermon. Thomas Aquinas, the prince of schoolmen, who had defended the Latin doctrine of the double procession,^ Avas to attend, but had died on the journey to Lyons (March 7, 1274), in his 49th year. The imperial delegates were treated with marked courtesy, abjured the schism, submitted to the pope and accepted the distinctive tenets of the Roman church. But the Eastern patriarchs Avere not represented, the people of Constantinople abhorred the union with Rome, and the death of the despotic Michael Palseologus (1282) was also the * See a full account of it in the sixth volume of Hefele's Conciliengeschichte, p. 103-147. ' 111 his book Contra errores Grcecorum. 2 72. FRUITLESS ATTEMPTS AT REUNION. 323 death of the Latin party, and the formal revocation of the act of submission to the pope. The Council at Ferrara — Florence. A. D. 1438-1439.^ Another attempt at reunion was made by John VII. Palaeo- logus in the Council of Ferrara, which was convened by Pope Eugenius IV. in opposition to the reformatory Council of Basle. It was afterwards transferred to Florence on account of the plague. It was attended by the emperor, the patriarch of Constantinople, and twenty-one Eastern prelates, am,0Dg them the learned Bessarion of Nicsea, Mark of Ephesus, Dionysius of Sardis, Isidor of Kieff. The chief points of controversy were discussed : the procession of the Spirit, purgatory, the use of unleavened bread, and the supremacy of the pope.^ Bes- sarion became a convert to the Western doctrine, and was rewarded by a cardinal's hat. He was twice near being elected pope (d. 1472). The decree of the council, published July 6, 1439, embodies his views, and was a complete surrender to the pope with scarcely a saving clause for the canonical rights and privileges of the Eastern patriarchs. The Greek formula on the procession, ex Patre per Filium, Mas declared to be identical with the Latin Filioque; the pope was acknowledged not only as the successor of Peter and Vicar of Christ, but also as " the head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Chris- tians," but with variations in the Greek texts.^ The document of reunion was signed by the pope, the emperor, many arch- bishops and bishops, the representatives of all the Eastern 1 See Cecconi (R. C), Stmli storici sul Concilio di Firenze (Florence 18(39) ; Hefele (R. C), Condliengesch. vol. VII. Pt. II. (1874), p. 659-761 ; B. Popoft (Gr.), History of the Council of Florence, translated from the Russian, ed. by J. M. Neale (Lond. 1861); Frommann (Prot.), £^rit, Beitrdge zur Gesch. der florentin. Kirchenvereinigung (Halle, 1872). ^ On the subject of purgatory the Greeks disagreed among themselves. The doctrine of transubstantiation was conceded, and therefore not brought under discussion. 3 Hefele {I. c. p. 741-761) gives the Latin and Greek texts with a critical discussion. Frommann and Dollinger charge the decree with falsification. 324 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. patriarchs cxcc^pt that of Constantinople, who had previously died at Florence, but had left as his last sentence a disputed submission to the catholic and apostolic church of old Rome. For the 'triumph of his cause the pope could easily promise material aid to his Eastern ally, to pay the expenses of the deputation, to support three hundred soldiers for the protection of Constantinople, and to send, if necessary, an army and navy for the defense of the emperor against his enemies. But when the humiliating terms of the reunion were divulged, the East and Russia rose in rebellion against the Latinizers as traitors to the orthodox faith ; the compliant patriarchs openly recanted, and the new patriarch of Constantinople, Metrophanes, now called in derision Metrophonus or Matricide, was forced to resign. Afier the Fall of Constantinople. The capture of Constantinople by the Mohammedan Turks (1453) and the overthrow of the Byzantine empire put an end to ail political schemes of reunion, but opened the way for papal propagandism in the East. The division of the church facili- tated that catastrophe which delivered the fairest lands to the blasting influence of Islam, and keeps it in power to this day, although it is slowly waning. The Turk has no objection to fights among the despised Christians, provided they only injure themselves and do not touch the Koran. He is tolerant from intolerance. The Greeks hate the pope and the FiUoque as much as they hate the false prophet of Mecca ; while the pope loves his own power more than the common cause of Christianity, and would rather see the Sultan rule in the city of Constantino than a rival patriarch or the Czar of schismatic Russia. During the nineteenth century the schism has been intensified by the creation of two new dogmas, — the immaculate eoncej)tion of Mary (18-54) and the infallibility of the pope (1870). When Pius IX. invited the Eastern ])atrinr('hs to attend the Vatican Council, they indignantly refused, and renewed their old pro- § 72. FEUITLESS ATTEMPTS AT KEUNION. 325 test against the antichristian usurpation of the papacy and the heretical Filioque. They could not submit to the Vatican decrees without stultifying their whole history and committing moral suicide. Papal absolutism ^ and Eastern stagnation are insuperable barriers to the reunion of the divided churches, which can only be brought about by great events and by the "wonder-working power of the Spirit of God. ^ Or, as the modern Greeks call it, the papolatria of the Latins. CHAPTER VI. MORALS AND RELIGION. § 73. Literaiure. I. The chief and almost only sources for this chapter are the acts of Synods, the lives of saints and missionaries, and the chronicles of monasteries. The Acta Sanctorum mix facts and legends in inextri- cable confusion. The most important are the biographies of the Irish, Scotch, and Anglo-Saxon missionaries, and the letters of Boniface. For the history of France during the sixth and seventh centuries we have the Historia Francorum by Gregory OF TouRS, the Herodotus of France (d. 594), first printed in Paris, 1511, better by Euinart, 1699; best by Giesebrecht (in German), Berlin 1851, 9th ed. 1873, 2 vols. ; and Gregorii Historue Epitomata by his con- tinuator, Fredegar, a clergyman of Burgundy (d. about 660), ed. by Ruinart, Paris 1699, and by Abel (in German), Berlin 1849. For the age of Charlemagne we have the Capitularies of the emperor, and the historical works of Einhard or Eginard (d. 840). See Ouvres completes d' Eginard, reiinies j)our la premilre fois et traduites enfranqais, par A. Teulet, Paris 1840-43, 2 vols. For an estimate of these and other writers of oiir period comp. part of the first, and the second vol. of Ad. Ebert's Allgem. Gesch. der Lit. des Mittelalters im A.bendlande, Leipz. 1874 and 1880. II. Hefele: Conciliengesch. vols. III. and IV. (from A. D. 560-1073), revised ed. 1877 and 1879. Neander: Denkwurdigkeiten aus der Geschichte des christl. Lebens. 8d ed. Hamburg, 1845, '46, 2 vols. Aug. Thierry : Eecits des temps merovingiens. Paris 1855 (based on Gregory of Tours). LOEBELL : Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit. Leipz. 1839, second ed. 1868. MONOD: Etudes critiques sur les sources de Vhistoire meroviiigienne. Paris 1872. Lecky : History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, fifth ed. Lond. 1882, 2 vols, (part of the second vol.). Brace: Gesta Christi, N. York, third ed. 1883, p. 107 sqq. Comp. GuizOT (Protest., d. 1874) : Histoire genirale de la civilisation 326 § 74. GENERAL CHAEACTER OF MEDIEVAL MORALS. 327 en Europe et en France depuis la chute de V empire romainjusqu* il la revolution frangaise, Paris 1830 ; seventh ed. 1860, 5 vols, (one vol. on Euroi^e in general). Balmez, (a Spanish philosopher and apologist of the Roman church, d. 1848): El Protestantismo comparado con el Catolicismo en sus relaciones con la civilisacion europea. Barcelona, 1842-44, 4 vols. The same in French, German, and English translations. A Roman Catholic counterpart to Guizot. § 7.4. General Character of Mediaeval Morals. The middle age of Western Christendom resembles the period of the Judges in the history of Israel when " the highways were unoccupied, and the travelers walked through by-ways," and when "every man did that which was right in his own eyes."^ It was a time of civil and political commotions and upheavings, of domestic wars and foreign invasions. Society was in a chaotic state and bordering on the brink of anarchy. Might was right. It was the golden age of border- ruffians, filibusters, pirates and bold adventurers, but also of gallant knights, genuine heroes and judges, like Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, and Samuel of old. It presents, in striking contrasts. Christian virtues and heathen vices, ascetic self-denial and gross sensuality. Nor were there wanting idyllic episodes of domestic virtue and happiness which call to mind the charming story of Ruth from the period of the Judges. Upon the whole the people were more religious than moral. Piety was often made a substitute or atonement for virtue. Belief in the supernatural and miraculous was universal; scepticism and unbelief were almost unknown. Men feared purgatory and hell, and made great sacrifices to gain heaven by founding churches, convents, and charitable institutions. And yet there was a frightful amount of immorality among the rulers and the people. In the East the church had to contend with the vices of an effete civilization and a corrupt court. In Italy, France and Spain the old Roman vices continued and » Comp. Judges 5 : 6 ; 17 : 6. 328 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. were even invigorated by the infusion of fresh and barbaric blood. The history of the Merovingian rulers, as we learn from Bishop Gregory of Tours, is a tragedy of murder, adultery, and incest, and ends in destruction.* The church was unfavorably affected by the state of sur- rounding society, and often drawn into the current of prevailing immorality. Yet, upon the whole, she was a powerful barrier against vice, and the chief, if not the only promoter of educa- tion, virtue and piety in the dark ages. From barbaric and semi-barbaric material she had to build up the temple of a Christian civilization. She taught the new converts the Apos- tles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments — the best popular summaries of faith, piety, and duty. She taught them also the occupations of peaceful life. She restrained vice and encouraged virtue. The synodical legislation was nearly always in the right direction. Great stress was laid on prayer and fasting, on acts of hospitality, charity, and benevo- lence, and on pilgrimages to sacred places. The rewards of heaven entered largely as an inducement for leading a virtuous and holy life ; but it is far better that people should be good from fear of hell and love of heaven, than ruin themselves by immorality and vice. A vast amount of private virtue and piety is never recorded on the pages of history, and is spent in modest retirement. So the wild flowers in the woods and on the mountains bloom and fade away unseen by human eyes. Every now and then incidental allusion is made to unknown saints. Pope Gre- gory mentions a certain Servulus in Rome who was a poor cripple from childhood, but found rich comfort and peace in the Bible, although he could not read himself, and had to ask pious friends to read it to him while he was lying on his couch ; 1 " It would be difficult," saya Gibbon of this period, " to find anywhere more vice or less virtue." The judgments of Ilallam, Milman, and Lecky are to the eame effect. Compare also the description of Montalembert, quoted above, p. 82 sq. 2 74. GENEEAL CHAKACTER OF MEDIEVAL MORALS. 329 he never complained, but was full of gratitude and praise; when death drew near he requested his friends to sing psalms with him ; then stopped suddenly and expired with the words : " Peace, hear ye not the praises of God sounding from heaven ? " This man's life of patient suffering was not in vain, but a benediction to many who came in contact with it. " Those also serve who only stand and wait." The moral condition of the middle age varied considerably. The migration of nations was most unfavorable to the peaceful work of the church. Then came the bright reign of Charle- magne with his noble efforts for education and religion, but it was soon followed, under his weak successors, by another period of darkness which grew worse and worse till a moral reforma- tion began in the convent of Cluny, and reached the papal chair under the lead of Hildebraud. Yet if we judge by the number of saints in the Roman Calendar, the seventh century, which is among the darkest, was more pious than any of the preceding and succeeding centuries, except the third and fourth (which are enriched by the martyrs). NOTES. The following is the table of saints in the Eoman Calendar (accord- ing to Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints) : saints. First Century 53 Second Century 43 Third Century 139 Fourth Century 213 Fifth Century 130 Sixth Century 123 Seventh Century 174 Eighth Century 78 Ninth Century 49 Tenth Century 28 Eleventh Century 45 Twelfth Century 54 Thirteenth Century 49 Fourteenth Century 27 Fifteenth Century 17 330 FOURTH PEEIOD. A. D. 590-1049. SAINTS. Sixteenth Century 24 Seventeenth Century 15 Eighteenth Century 20 In the first centuries the numerous but nameless martyrs of the Nero- nian and other persecutions are not separately counted. The Holy Innocents, the Seven Sleepers (in the third century), the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (fourth century,) and other groups of martyrs are counted only one each. Lecky asserts too confidently that the seventh century was the most prolific in saints, and yet the most immoral. It is strange that the number of saints should have declined from the seventh century, while the church increased, and that the eighteenth century of infidelity should have produced five more saints than the seventeenth century. It would therefore be very unsafe to make tliis table the basis for general estimates. § 75. Clerical 3Iorals. 1. Social. Position. The clergy stood, during the middle ; ages, at the head of society, and shared with kings and nobles i the rule of the people. They had the guardianship of the souls and consciences of men, and handled the keys of the kino-dom of heaven. They possessed nearly all the learning, '] but it was generally very limited, and confined to a little Latin ,■ without any Greek. Some priests descended from noble and even royal blood, others from slaves who belonged to monasteries. Thev enjoyed many immunities from public burdens, as military duty and taxation. Charlemagne and his successors granted to them all the privileges which the Eastern emperors from the time of Constantine had bestowed upon them. They could not be sued before a civil court, and had their own episcopal tri- bunals. No lay judge could apprehend or punish an ecclesiastic without the permission of his bishop. They were supported by the income from landed estates, cathedral funds, and the annual tithes which were enacted after the precedent of the Mosaic law. Pepin, by a decree of 764, \ imposed the payment of tithes upon all the royal possessions, f Charlemagne extended it to all lands, and made the obligation / general by a capitulary in 779. The tithes were regarded as 275. CLERICAL MORALS. 331 the minimum contribution for the maintenance of religion and the support of the poor. They were generally paid to the bishop, as the administrator of all ecclesiastical goods. Many nobles had their own domestic chaplains who depended on their lords, and were often employed in degrading offices, as waiting at table and attending to horses and hounds. 2. Morals. The priests were expected to excel in virtue as well as in education, and to commend their profession by an exemplary life. Upon the whole they were superior to their flock, but not unfrequently they disgraced their profession by scandalous immorality. According to ancient discipline every priest at his ordination was connected with a particular church, except missionaries to heathen lands. But many priests defied the laws, and led an irregular wandering life as clerical tramps. They were forbidden to wear the sword, but many a bishop lost his life on the battle field, and even some popes engaged in warfare. Drunkenness and licentiousness were common vices. Gregory cf Tours mentions a bishop named Cautinus who, when intoxicated, had to be carried by four men from the table. Boniface gives a very unfavorable but partizan account of the French and German clergymen who acted independently of Rome. The acts of Synods are full of censures and punish- ments of clerical sins and vices. They legislated against forni- cation, intemperance, avarice, the habits of hunting, of visiting horse-races and theatres, and enjoined even corporal punish- ments.^ Clerical immorality reached the lowest depth in the tenth and eleventh centuries, when Rome was a sink of iniquity, and the popes themselves set the Avorst example. But a new reform began with the Hildebrandian popes. * It seems incredible that there should have been an occasion for legislation against clergymen keeping houses of prostitution ; and yet the Quinisexta or Trullan Synod of 692 enacted the canon : " He who keeps a brothel, if a clergyman, shall be deposed and excommunicated ; if a layman, excommuni- cated." Hefele III. 341. 332 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. 3. Canonical Life. Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (a. d. 760), reformed the clergy by introducing, or reviving, after the example of St. Augustin, the " canonical " or semi-monastic life. The bishop and lower clergymen lived in the same house, near the cathedral, ate at the same table, prayed and studied together, like a family of monks, only diiFering from them in dress and the right of holding property or receiving fees for official services. Such an establishment was called Chapter,^ and the members of it were called Canons? The example was imitated in other places. Charlemagne made the canonical life obligatory on all bishops as far as pos- sible. Many chapters were liberally endowed. But during the civil commotions of the Carolingians the canonical life degener- ated or was broken up. 4. Celibacy. In the East the lower clergy were always allowed to marry, and only a second marriage is forbidden. In the West celibacy was the prescribed rule, but most clergymen lived either wuth lawful wives or with concubines. In Milan all the priests and deacons were married in the middle of the eleventh century, but to the disgust of the severe moralists of the time.^ Hadrian II. was married before he became pope, and had a daughter, who was murdered by her husband, together with the pope's wife, Stephania (868).* The wicked pope Benedict IX. sued for the daughter of his cousin, who consented on condition that he resign the papacy (1033)." The Hildebrandian popes, Leo IX. and Nicolas II., made attempts ' Capitulum, from the cliapter of the Bible or of the monastic rules which were read in common every flay. The name was applied both to the clerical brotherhood and to their habitation (chapter-house). The plural, Capitula or Capitularia designates codes of law ecclesiastical or civil, digested under cliap- ters. See Martene, De Antiqu. Ecd. Bitibus, 1, IV. c. VI. I 4, and Haddan Iq Smith and Cheetham, I. 347. ' Canonici, either because they were bound by canons, or enrolled on the lists of ecclesiastical officers. They occupied an intermediate position between the secular clergy and the monks. See Dii Cange, and Smith and Cheetham, Bub Canonici. » Hefele IV. 794. * Ibid. p. 373. * Ibid. p. 707. § 76. DOMESTIC LIFE. 333 to enforce clerical celibacy all over the West. They identified the interests of clerical morality and influence with clerical celibacy and endeavored to destroy natural immorality by en- forcing unnatural morality. How far Gregory VIL succeeded in this part of his reform, will be seen in the next period. § 76. Domestic Life. The purity and happiness of home-life depend on the position of woman, who is the beating heart of the household. Female deo;radation was one of the weakest spots in the old Greek and Roman civilization. The church, in counteracting the prevailing ^, evil ran into the opposite extreme of ascetic excess as a radical cure' Instead of concentrating her strength on the purification ,^ and elevation of the family, she recommended lonely celibacy ^ as a higher degree of holiness and a safer way to heaven Amono- the Western and Northern barbarians she found a more favorable soil for the cultivation of Christian family life. The contrast which the heathen historian Tacitus and the Christian monk Salvian draw between the chastity of the Teutonic barbarians and the licentiousness of the Latin races is overdrawn for effect, but not without foundation. The Ger- man and Scandinavian tribes had an instinctive reverence for the female sex, as being inspired by a divinity, possessed of the prophetic gift, and endowed with secret charms. Their women shared the labors and dangers of men, emboldened them in their fierce battles, and would rather commit suicide than submit to dishonor. Yet the wife was entirely in the power of her hus- band, and could be bought, sold, beaten, and killed. The Christian religion preserved and strengthened the nob e \ traits, and developed them into the virtues of chivalry; while / it diminished or abolished evil customs and practices The Synods often deal with marriage and divorce. Polygamy, concubinage, secret marriages, marriages with near relatives, mixed marriages with heathens or Jews or heretics were for- bidden; the marriage tie was declared sacred and indissoluble 334 FOURTH PERIOD. A, D. 590-1049. (except by adultery) ; sexual intemperance restrained and forbidden on Sundays and during Lent; the personal inde- pendence of woman and her rights of property were advanced. The Virgin Mary was constantly held up to the imagination as the incarnation of female purity and devotion. Not unfre- quently, however, marriages were dissolved by mutual consent from mistaken ascetic piety. When a married layman entered the priesthood or a convent, he usually forsook his wife. In a Eoman Synod of 827 such separation was made subject to the approval of the bishop. A Synod of Rouen, 1072, forbade husbands whose wives had taken the veil, to marry another. Wives whose husbands had disappeared were forbidden by the same Synod to marry until the fact of death was made certain.^ Upon the whole, the sy nodical legislation on the subject of marriage was wise, timely, restraining, purifying, and ennobling in its effect. The purest and brightest chapter in the history of Pope Nicolas I. is his protection of injured innocence in the person of the divorced wife of King Lothair of Lorraine.^ § 77. Slavery. See the Lit. in vol. I. | 48 (p. 444), aud in vol. II. ? 97 (p. 347). Comp. also Balmes (R. C.) : Protestaniism and Catholicism compared in their effects on the Civilization of Europe. Transl. from the Spanish. Baltimore 1851, Chs. xv.-xix. Brace : Gesta Christi, Ch. xxi. History is a slow but steady progress of emancipation from the chains which sin has forged. The institution of slavery was universal in Europe during the middle ages among bar- barians as well as among civilized nations. It was kept up by natural increase, by war, and by the slave-trade which was carried on in Europe more or less till the fifteenth century, and in America till the eighteenth. Not a few freemen sold them- selves into slavery for debt, or from poverty. The slaves were completely under the power of their masters, and had no claim ' For all these details see the scattered notices in vols. III. and IV. of Hefele. » See I 61, p. 275 sq. 5 77. SLAVERY. 335 beyond the satisfaction of their physical wants. They could not bear witness in courts of justice. They could be bought and sold with their children like other property. The marriage tie was disregarded, and marriages between freemen and slaves were null and void. In the course of time slavery was moder- ated into serfdom, which was attached to the soil. Small farmers often preferred tliat condition to freedom, as it secured them the protection of a powerful nobleman against robbers and invaders. The condition of the serfs, however, during the middle ages was little better than that of slaves, and^gave rise to occasional outbursts in the Peasant Wars, which occurred mostly in connection with the free preaching of the Gospel (as by Wiclif and the Lollards in England, and by Luther in Germany), but which were suppressed by force, and in their immediate effects increased the burdens of the dependent classes. The same struggle between capital and labor .is still going on in different forms. The medigeval church inherited the patristic views of slavery. She regarded it as a necessary evil, as a legal right based on moral wrong, as a consequence of sin and a just punishment for it. She put it in the same category with war, violence, pesti- lence, famine, and other evils. St. Augustin, the greatest theological authority of the Latin church, treats slavery as a disturbance of the normal condition and relation. God did not, he says, establish the dominion of man over man, but only over the brute. He derives the word servus, as usual, from servare (to save the life of captives of war doomed to death), but cannot find it in the Bible till the time of the righteous Noah, who gave it as a punishment to his guilty son Ham ; whence it follows that the word came " from sin, not from nature." He also holds that the institution will finally be abolished when all iniquity shall disappear, and God shall be all in all.^ 1 De Civit. Dei, 1. XIX. c. 15. " Nomen {servus] culpa meruit, non natura Prima servitutis causa peccatum eM, ut homo homini condituyais vinculo suhderetur : 336 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. The churcli exerted her great moral power not so much towards the abolition of slavery as the amelioration and re- moval of the evils connected with it. Many provincial Synods dealt with the subject, at least incidentally. The legal right of holding slaves was never called in question, and slaveholders 'were in good and regular standing. Even convents held slaves, though in glaring inconsistency with their professed principle of equality and brotherhood. Pope Gregory the Great, one of the most humane of the popes, presented bondservants from his own estates to convents, and exerted all his influence to recover a fugitive slave of his brother.^ A reform Synod of Pavia, over which Pope Benedict VIII., one of the forerunners of Hildebrand, presided (a. d. 1018), enacted that sons and daugh- ters of clergymen, whether from free-women or slaves, whether from legal wives or concubines, are the property of the churchy and should never be emancipated.^ No pope has ever declared slavery incompatible with Christianity. The church was strongly conservative, and never encouraged a revolutionary or radical movement looking towards universal emancipation. But, on the other hand, the Christian spirit worked silently, steadily and irresistibly in the direction of emancipation. quod nonfuit nisi Deo judicante, apud quern non est iniquitas." ... He thinks it will continue with the duties prescribed by the apostles, donee transeat iniquitas, et evacuciur omnis principatus, et potestas humana, et sit Deus omnia in omnibus." Chrysostom taught substantially the same views, and derived from the sin of Adam a threefold servitude and a threefold tyranny, that of the husband over the wife, the master over the slave, and the state over the subjects. Thomas Aquinas, the greatest of the schoolmen, "did not see in slavery either differ- ence of race or imaginary inferiority or means of government, but only a scourge inflicted on humanity by the sins of the first man" (Balmes, p. 112). But none of those great men seems to have had an idea that slavery would ever disappear from the earth except with sia itself. Cessante causa, cessat cffectits. See vol. III. 115-121. ^ Epist. X. G6; IX. 102. See these and other passages in Overbeck, Ver- haUnv;t his cause, and was hanged and burned after undergoing frightful tortures. He had not the courage of Hus at Constance, or Luther at Worms, and his attempted re- formation left nothing but a tragic memory. 344 FOUETH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. iron in his hand, without injury, he was supposed to be declared innocent by a miraculous interposition of God, and discharged ; otherwise he was punished. To the ordeals belongs also the judicial duel or battle ordeal. It was based on the old superstition that God always gives vic- tory to the innocent.' It was usually allowed only to freemen. Aged and sick persons, women, children, and ecclesiastics could furnish substitutes, but not always. Mediaeval panegyrists trace the judicial duel back to Cain and Abel. It prevailed among the ancient Danes, Irish, Burgundians, Franks, and Lombards, but was unknown among the Anglo-Saxons before William the Conqueror, who introduced it into England. It was used also in international litigation. The custom died out in the sixteenth century.^ The mediaeval church, M'ith her strong belief in the miracu- lous, could not and did not generally oppose the ordeal, but she baptized it and made it a powerful means to enforce her authority over the ignorant and superstitious people she had to deal with. Several councils at Mainz in 880, at Tribur on the Rhine in 895, at Tours in 925, at Mainz in 1065, at Auch in 1068, at Grau in 1099, recognized and recommended it ; the clergy, bishops, and archbishops, as Hincmar of Rheims, and Burck- hardt of Worms, and even popes like Gregory VII. and Calixtus II. lent it their influence. St. Bernard approved of the cold-water process for the conviction of heretics, and St. Ivo of Chartres admitted that the incredulity of mankind sometimes required an appeal to the verdict of Heav^eu, though 1 Tacitus {German, cap. 7) reports of the heathen Germans: " [Deum] adesse bellantibris credunt." ^ See Lea, p. 75-174. The wager of battle, as a judicial institution, must not be confounded with the private duel which has been more or less cus- tomary among all races and in all ages, and still .survives as a relic of bar- barism, though misnamed ''the satisfaction of a gentleman." The judicial duel aims at the discovery of truth and the impartial administration of justice, while the object of the private duel is personal vengeance and reparation of honor. ." * • § 79. THE ORDEAL. 345 such appeals Avere not commanded by the law of God. As late as 1215 the ferocious inquisitor Conrad of Marburg freely used the hot iron against eighty persons in Strassburg alone who were suspected of the Albigeusian heresy. The clergy pre- pared the combatants by fasting and prayer, and special liturgi- cal formulas ; they presided over the trial and pronounced the sentence. Sometimes fraud was practiced, and bribes offered and taken to divert the com-se of justice. Gregory of Tours men- tions the case of a deacon who, in a conflict with an Arian priest, anointed his arm before he stretched it into the boiling caldron ; the Arian discovered the trick, charged him with using magic arts, and declared the trial null and void ; but a Catholic priest, Jacintus from Ravenna, stepped forward, and by catching the ring from the bubbling caldron, triumphantly vindicated the orthodox faith to the admiring multitude, de- claring that the water felt cold at the bottom and agreeably warm at the top. When the Arian boldly repeated the experi- ment, his flesh was boiled off the bones up to the elbow.^ The Church even invented and substituted new ordeals, which were less painful and cruel than the old heathen forms, but shockingly profane according to our notions. Profanity and superstition are closely allied. These new methods are the ordeal of the cross, and the ordeal of the eucharist. They were especially used by ecclesiastics. The ordeal of the cross ^ is simply a trial of physical strength. The plaintiff" and the defendant, after appropriate religious cere- monies, stood with uplifted arm before a cross while divine service was performed, and victory depended on the length of endurance. Pepin first prescribed this trial, by a Capitulary of 752, in cases of application by a wife for divorce. Charle- ^ De Gloria Martyrum I. 81. Lea, p. 198. ^ Judicium erucis, or stare ad crucem, Kreuzesprohe. A modification of it was the trial of standing with the arms extended in the form of a cross. In this way St. Lioba, abbe.?s of Bischoffsheim, vindicated the honor of her convent against the charge of impurity when a new-born child was drowned in the neighborhood. Lea, p. 231. 346 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. magne prescribed it in cases of territorial disputes which might arise between his sons (806). But Louis-le-D6bonnaire, soon after the death of Charlemagne, forbade its continuance at a Council of Aix-la-Chapelle in 816, because this abuse of the cross tended to bring the Christian symbol into contempt. His sou, the Emperor Lothair, renewed the prohibition. A trace of this ordeal is left in the proverbial allusion to an experimentum erucis. A still worse profanation was the ordeal of consecrated bread in the eucharist with the awful adjuration : " May this body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ be a judgment to thee this day." ^ It was enjoined by a Synod of Worms, in 868, upon bishops and priests who Avere accused of a capital crime, such as murder, adultery, theft, sorcery. It was employed by Cautinus, bishop of Auvergne, at the close of the sixth century, who administered the sacrament to a Count Eulalius, accused of patricide, and acquitted him after he had partaken of it without harm. King Lothair and his nobles took the sacrament in proof of his separation from Walrada, his mistress, but died soon afterwards at Piacenza of a sudden epidemic^ and this was regarded by Pope Hadrian II. as a divine punishment. Rudolfus Glaber records the case of a monk who boldly received the consecrated host, but forthwith confessed his crime when the host slipped out of his navel, white and pure as be- fore. Sibicho, bishop of Speier, underwent the trial to clear himself of the charge of adultery (1049). Even Pope Hilde- brand made use of it in self-defense against Emperor Henry IV. at Canossa, in 1077. "Lest I should seem," he said, "to rely rather on human than divine testimony, and that I may remove from the minds of all, by immediate satisfaction, every scruple, behold this body of our Lord which I am about to take. Let it be to me this day a test of my innocence, and may the Omnipotent God this day by his judgment absolve me ^ Judicium offce, panis conjuralio, corsnced, Abendmahlsprobe. Cnmp. Hefele IV. 370, 552, 735. 2 79. THE OEDEAL. 347 of the accusations if I am innocent, or let me perish by sudden death, if guilty." Then the pope calmly took the wafer, and called upon the trembling emperor to do the same, but Henry evaded it on the ground of the absence of both his friends and his enemies, and promised instead to submit to a trial by the imperial diet. The purgatorial oath, when administered by wonder-working relics, was also a kind of ordeal of ecclesiastical origin. A false oath on the black cross in the convent of Abington, made from the nails of the crucifixion, and derived from the Emperor Constantine, was fatal to the malefactor. In many cases these relics were the means of eliciting confessions which could not have been obtained by legal devices. The genuine spirit of Christianity, however, urged towards an abolition rather than improvement of all these ordeals. Occasionally such voices of protest were i-aised, though for a long time without effect. Avitus, bishop of Vienne, in the beginning of the sixth century, remonstrated with Gundobald for giving prominence to the battle-ordeal in the Burgundian code. St. Agobard, archbishop of Lyons, before the middle of the ninth century (he died about 840) attacked the duel and the ordeal in two special treatises, which breathe the gospel spirit of humanity, fraternity and peace in advance of his age.^ He says that the ordeals are falsely called judgments of God; for God never prescribed them, never approved them, never willed them ; but on the contrary, he commands us, in the law and the gospel, to love our neighbor as ourselves, and has ap- pointed judges for the settlement of controversies among men. He warns against a presumptuous interpretation of providence whose counsels are secret and not to be revealed by water and fire. Several popes, Leo IV. (847-855), Nicolas I. (858-867), ' Liber adversus Legem Gundobadi (i. e.. Leg. Burgundionum) el impia cer- tarmina quce per earn geruntur ; and Liber Contra Judicium Dei. See his Opera ed. Baluzius, Paris 1666, T. I. 107 sqq., 300 sqq., and in Mlgne's Patrologia, Tom. CIV. f. 113-126, and f. 250-258 (with the notes of Baluzius). 348 FOURTH PERIOD. A. D. 590-1049. Stephen VI. (885-891), Sylvester II. (999-1003), Alex- ander II. (1061-3073), Alexander III. (1159-1181), Colestin III. (1191-1198), Honorius III. (1222), and the fourth Lateran Council (1215), condemned more or less clearly the superstitious and frivolous provocation of miracles.* It was by their influence, aided by secular legislation, that these God- tempting ordeals gradually disappeared during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but the underlying idea survived in the torture which for a long time took the place of the ordeal. § 80. The Torture. Henry C. Lea: Superstition and Force (Philad. 1866), p. 281-391. Paul Lacroix : Manners, Customs, and Dress of the Middle Ages, and during the Renaissance Period (transl. from the French, N. York 1874), p. 407-434. Brace: Gesta Christi, ch. XV. The torture rests on the same idea as the ordeal.^ It is an attempt to prove innocence or guilt by imposing a physical pain which no man can bear without special aid from God. When the ordeal had fulfilled its mission, the torture was substituted as a more convenient mode and better fitted for an age less *"At length, when the Papal authority reached its culminating point, a vigorous and sustained effort to abolish the wliole system wa^ made by the Popes who occupied the pontifical throne from 1159-1227. Nothing can be more peremptory than the prohibition uttered by Alexander III. In 1181, Lucius III. pronounced null and void the acquittal of a priest charged with homicide, who had undergone the water-ordeal, and ordered him to prove his innocence witli compurgators, and the blow was followed up by his successors. Under Innocent III., the Fourth Council of Lateran, in 1215, formally forbade the employment of any ecclesiastical ceremonies in such trials ; and as the moral influence of the ordeal depended entirely upon its religious associatioas, a strict observance of this canon must speedily have swept the whole system into oblivion. Yet at this very time the inquisitor Conrad of Marburg was employing in Germany the red-hot iron as a means of condemning his unfor- tunate victims by wholesale, and the chronicler relates that, whether innocent or guilty, few escaped tlie test. The canon of Lateran, however, was actively followed up by the Papal legates, and the effect was soon discernible." Lea, p. 272. 2 Tortura from torqueo, to twist, to torment. Ital. and Spanish: tortura; French : torture ; Germ. : Falter. 2 so. THE TORTUKE. 349 superstitious and more sceptical, but quite as despotic and in- tolerant. It forms one of the darkest chapters in history. For centuries this atrocious system, opposed to the Mosaic legislation and utterly revolting to every Christian and humane feeling, was employed in civilized Christian countries, and sacrificed thousands of human beings, innocent as well as guilty, to tor- ments worse than death. The torture was unknown among the Hindoos and the S.emitic nations, but recognized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, as a regular legal proceeding. It was originally con- fined to slaves who were deemed unfit to bear voluntary testi- mony, and to require force to tell the truth.' Despotic emperors extended it to freemen, first in cases of crimen Icesoe majestatls. Pontius Pilate employed the scourge and the crown of thorns in the trial of our Saviour. Tiberius exhausted his ingenuity in inventing tortures for persons suspected of conspiracy, and took delight in their agony. The half-insane Caligula enjoyed the cruel spectacle at his dinner-table. Nero resorted to this cruelty to extort from the Christians the confession of the crime of incendiarism, as a pretext of his persecution, which he intensified by the diabolical invention of covering the innocent victims with pitch and burning them as torches in his gardens. The younger Pliny employed the torture against the Christians in 1 "Their evidence was inadmissible, except when given under torture, and then by a singular confusion of logic, it was estimated as the most convincing kind of testimony." Lea, 283. " The modes of torture sanctioned by the Greeks were the wheel {r(i6x<^g), the ladder or rack {Klifia^), the comb with sharp teeth {Kvd