Wt^^  z-^. 
 
 *\* 
 
 } 
 
& 
 
 ^,^.'oi 
 
 Srom  f 5e  feifiratg  of 
 
 (profeBBor  n3?iffidtn  ^enrg  (Breen 
 
 Q^equeaf^b  6)?  ^im  to 
 f ^e  feifitari?  of 
 
 (Princeton  C^eofogtcaf  ^eminarg 
 
 8S 
 
THE 
 
 UNION 
 
 BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 
 
 PREPAHED    FOR    THE   AMERICAN   SUNDAY-gCHOOL  UNION,  ABJB 
 REVISED  BT   THE   COMMITTEE   OF  PUBLICATION 
 
 AMERICAN    SUNDAY-SCHOOL    UNION, 
 
 146  CHESTNUT  STBKET 
 
 xscccxLir. 
 
Entbrsd  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1837,  by 
 Paul  Beck,  Jr.,  Treasurer,  in  trust  for  the  American  Sunday- 
 school  Union,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the 
 Eastern  District  cf  Pennsylvania. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Some  years  since,  we  reprinted  fram  tiie  British  press 
 an  abridgment  of  Brown's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 
 The  original  was  materially  improved  by  the  editorial 
 labours  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander.  He  did  not,  how- 
 ever, change  the  basis  or  general  character  of  the 
 work.  He  expunged  a  mass  of  superfluous  and  irrele- 
 vant matter ;  introduced  such  corrections  and  modifica- 
 tions as  the  improved  state  of  biblical  science  suggest- 
 ed, and  prepared  many  of  the  leading  articles  anew. 
 These  have  been  preserved  as  far  as  practicable  in  the 
 Lew  work.  The  extensive  sale  of  the  former  dictionary 
 shows  conclusively  the  adaptedness  of  such  a  volume  Xp 
 the  wants  of  the  community. 
 
 Under  this  conviction,  the  society  has  incurred  very 
 heavy  expenses  in  providing  an  entirely  new  dictionary, 
 
 CORRESPONDING  IN  PRINCIPLE,  CHARACTER,  AND  USES 
 TO  OUR  OTHER  PUBLICATIONS,  AND  INTENDED  SO  TO  CON- 
 NECT  THEBI   TOGETHER,  AS   TO   MAKE,   OF   THE   WHOLE, 
 
 A  COMPLETE  BIBLICAL  CYCLOPJEDIA. 
 
 Though  the  editor  has  been,  of  course,  indebted  to 
 various  sources  for  materials,  and,  in  some  instances, 
 for  copious  extracts,  the  present  volume  may  be  re- 
 garded as  strictly  an  original  work. 
 
 The  services  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  biblical 
 scholars  in  the  country  have  been  employed  in  a  gene- 
 ral revision  of  it,  and  many  of  the  most  important  arti- 
 eles  have  also  received  a  critical  examination  from 
 
 3 
 
4  PREFACE. 
 
 several  olTiers,  both  clergymen  and  laymen,  in  whose 
 competency  and  fidelity  the  utmost  confidence  may  b« 
 felt. 
 
 The  following  general  principles  have  been  observed 
 in  the  preparation  of  this  work : — 
 
 I.  No  word  is  introduced,  as  the  subject  of  an  article, 
 which  is  not  found  in  the  canonical  books  of  the  com- 
 mon translation  of  the  Bible,  and  at  least  one  passage 
 is  cited  in  which  the  word  occurs.  Of  course  such 
 words  as  Africa,  Apocrypha,  Antelope,  Apocalypse, 
 Deluge,  Dead  Sea,  &c.  are  excluded.  Any  other  rule 
 would  be  too  indefinite  for  practical  application. 
 
 II.  No  word  is  introduced  simply  for  the  purpose  of 
 defining  it,  unless  it  has  a  peculiar  scriptural  use  or 
 signification,  which  would  not  be  found  in  a  common 
 defining  dictionary. 
 
 III.  Whatever  could  be  regarded  as  sectarian  by  any 
 ienomination  of  evangelical  Christians  is,  of  course, 
 scrupulously  excluded. 
 
 IV.  No  word  is  admitted  into  the  body  of  the  diction- 
 ary of  which  all  that  can  be  said  is  found  in  immediate 
 connexion  with  the  word  itself.*  For  example,  Ard 
 (Gen.  xlvi.  21)  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Ben- 
 jamin ;  and  as  the  passage  itself  contains  all  that  can 
 be  said  of  him,  the  word  is  omitted. 
 
 V.  The  leading  articles  embrace,  as  far  as  practicable, 
 the  various  topics  that  properly  fall  under  it.  For  ex- 
 ample :  under  the  word  Dwellings  will  be  found  the 
 principal  facts  in  relation  to  the  structure  of  eastern 
 
 •  At  the  end  of  our  Scripture  Biographical  Dictionary  will 
 be  found  a  perfect  catalogue  of  all  the  proper  names  which 
 occur  in  the  Scriptures,  with  the  pronunciation  of  each,  and 
 a  reference;  to  one  or  more  passages  in  which  it  occurs. 
 
PREFACE.  5 
 
 houses,  as  the  court,  roof,  windows,  doors,  parlours, 
 chambers,  &c.,  so  that  the  article  is  in  itself  a  concise 
 history  of  the  subject.  The  various  topics  are  gene- 
 rally distinguished,  however,  by  putting  the  principal 
 words  in  italics,  thus  enabling  the  reader  to  select 
 them  at  pleasure. — So  of  the  articles,  Arms,  Book, 
 BumAL,  Clothes,  Feasts,  Hebrews,  Sacrifices,  &c. 
 
 VI.  Though  each  article  is  complete  in  itself,  and  as 
 full  as  it  may  be  in  a  work  of  this  size,  we  hope  that 
 most  biblical  inquirers  are  disposed  to  seek  still  farther 
 information.  This,  we  apprehend,  is  afforded  in  a  good 
 degree  by  other  publications  of  the  society,  which  are 
 or  may  be  within  the  reach  of  all.  To  the  particular 
 volimie  from  which  such  farther  information  may  be 
 obtained,  reference  is  made  in  the  proper  place ;  and  the 
 society's  name  is  repeated  in  connexion  with  each  refer- 
 ence— 1st,  Because  there  are  sometimes  several  works 
 extant  with  like  titles,  only  one  of  which  is  published 
 by  us  ;  and,  2dly,  Because  each  article,  with  all  its  refer- 
 ences, being  distinct  and  independent,  should  be  as  ex- 
 plicit as  any  other. 
 
 By  this  feature  of  the  work,  instead  of  burdening  the 
 student  with  folios  of  unprofitable  learning,  we  open  to 
 him  very  copious  fountains  of  biblical  knowledge  on  the 
 cheapest  terms,  in  the  simplest  and  most  available  form, 
 and  of  a  character  supposed  to  be  unexceptionable  to 
 every  evangelical  mind. 
 
 VII.  We  have  made  all  practicable  use  of  the  infor- 
 mation furnished  by  modern  travellers  in  the  east,  and 
 especially  by  American  missionaries,  to  whose  journals 
 frequent  references  will  be  found.  In  every  case  where 
 the  testimony  of  known  and  living  witnesses  could  be 
 brought,  to  give  present  existence  and  reality  to  distant 
 times  and  places,  we  have  not  failed  to  introduce  it. 
 
 1* 
 
6  PREFACE. 
 
 VIII.  It  is  confidently  believed  that  in  no  volume  of 
 the  kind  are  there  fewer  errors  in  references.  Great 
 care  was  taken  to  have  the  copy  accurate  in  this  re- 
 spect ;  the  proofs  were  read  by  the  author,  and  at  the 
 same  time  by  a  very  accurate  and  experienced  proof- 
 reader, and  by  both  was  every  reference  carefully  ex- 
 amined by  the  Bible ;  and  since  the  work  was  stereo- 
 typed the  whole  has  been  read  again,  and  every  refer- 
 nce  re-examined  and  compared  with  the  Bible. 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 HOLY    BIBLE, 
 
 AAR 
 
 AARON,  (Ex.  vi.  20,)  the 
 first  high  priest  of  the 
 Jews,  was  the  son  of  Amram, 
 of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  was 
 born  about  the  year  2430.  He 
 was  three  years  older  than  his 
 brother  Mose^,  and  being  a 
 more  ready  speaker,  he  was 
 appointed  by  the  Lord  to 
 assist  Mose.s  in  guiding  and 
 controlling  the  Israelites,  in 
 their  journey  from  Egypt  to 
 Canaan. 
 
 The  relation  which  Aaron 
 sustained  was  thus  expressed 
 by  the  Lord  to  Moses : — He 
 shall  be  thy  spokesman  unto 
 the  people.  He  shall  be  to 
 thee  instead  of  a  -mouth,  and 
 thou  shall  be  to  him  instead 
 of  God.  (Ex.  iv.  16.)  /  have 
 made  thee  a  God  to  Pharaoh  ; 
 and  Aaron  thy  brother  shall 
 be  thy  prophet.  (Ex.  vii.  1.) 
 
 Aaron  married  Elisheba,the 
 daughter  of  Amniiuadab,  and 
 had  four  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu, 
 Eleazar,  and  Ithamar.  The 
 two  former  were  punished  with 
 death  for  a  heinous  sin,  and 
 the  priesthood  remained  in  the 
 other  two.    (See  Abihu.) 
 
 As  most  of  the  important 
 events  in  the  life  of  Aaron  are 
 intimately  connected  with  his 
 brother's  history,  they  will  be 
 reserved  for  that  article.  (See 
 
 AAR 
 Moses.)    Those  in  which  Aa- 
 ron was  only  or  principally 
 concerned,  are  briefly  the  fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 At  an  early  period  after  the 
 departure  of  the  children  of 
 Israel  from  Egypt,  Aaron  and 
 his  sons  were  set  apart  by 
 God's  direction,  and  with  the 
 most  solemn  ceremonies,  to 
 minister  in  the  priest's  office, 
 which  Aaron  continued  to  fill 
 until  his  death.  (Heb.  v.  4.) 
 
 Before  his  consecration,  and 
 while  Moses  was  in  the 
 mount,  receiving  the  law  from 
 God,  the  people  "became  impa- 
 tient, ana  besought  Aaron  to 
 make  them  idol  gods.  He 
 thereupon  conamanded  them 
 to  break  off  the  golden  ear- 
 rings of  their  wives  and  child- 
 ren ;  which  being  collected 
 and  brought  to  Aaron,  he 
 made  out  of  them  an  idol  in 
 the  shape  of  a  calf,  like  one 
 of  the  iuols  of  Egypt.  Before 
 this  image  the  people  danced 
 and  shouted,  saying,— 7%ese 
 be  thy  gods,  0  Israel,  which 
 brought  thee  up  oiit  of  the 
 land  of  Egypt.  This  act, 
 and  the  aggravating  circum 
 stances  connected  with  it, 
 (Ex.  xxxii.  25,)  involved  Aa 
 ron  in  great  guilt.  His  two 
 sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  wero 
 7 
 
AAR 
 
 soon  afterwards  destroyed  in 
 a  most  sudden  and  fearful 
 manner.  At  a  later  period, 
 Aaron,  with  his  sister  Miriam, 
 spoke  reproachfully  cuncern- 
 ing  Moses,  and  God  was  very 
 angry  with  hira ;  but  upon  the 
 confession  of  his  sin,  he  was 
 pardoned.  (See  Miriam.) 
 
 Korah  and  others  were  of- 
 fended with  Muses  and  Aaron, 
 and  charged  them  with  taking 
 upon  themselves  authority 
 which  belonged  as  much  to 
 others  as  to  them.  Moses 
 expostulated  with  them,  and 
 especially  with  Korah  ;  but 
 his  remonstrance  was  all  in 
 vain,  and  the  next  day  the 
 rebel  and  his  companions 
 were  suddenly  destroyed.  (See 
 Korah.) 
 
 Immediately  after  this  fear- 
 ful exhibition  of  the  anger  of 
 God,  and  while  we  should 
 suppose  the  terror  of  such 
 judgments  would  still  possess 
 their  minds,  the  people  of 
 Israel  renewed  their  murmur- 
 in^s  against  Moses  and  Aaron. 
 (2^um.  xvi.  41.)  A  dreadful 
 plague  having  appeared  sud- 
 denly in  the  midst  of  them, 
 which  threatened  the  people 
 with  utter  and  immediate  de- 
 struction, Aaron,  at  the  com- 
 mand of  Moses,  took  a  censer 
 with  incense,  and  ran  quickly 
 into  the  midst  of  the  congre- 
 gation, and  stood  between  the 
 living  and  the  dead,  until  he 
 had  made  an  atonement  for 
 ihem,  and  the  plague  was 
 stayed.  (Num.  xvi.  44 — 50.) 
 
 A  signal  attestation  was 
 granted  to  Aaron's  official 
 authority  in  the  following 
 manner.  Twelve  rods  or 
 branches  of  the  almond  tree 
 were  taken,  one  for  the.  head 
 of  each  house,  or  tribe,  of  Is- 
 rael ;  and  upon  the  rod  of  the 
 tribe  of  Levi  was  written  the 
 name  of  Aaron.  The  rods 
 were  laid  together  ia  a  parti- 
 cular place  in  the  tabernacle  ; 
 and  the  next  dav,  wnen  Mosea 
 
 AAR 
 
 went  into  the  tabernacle,  the 
 rod  which  had  Aaron's  name 
 upon  it  "  was  budded,  and 
 brought  forth  buds,  and  bloom- 
 ed blossoms,  and  yielded 
 almonds."  This  wonderful 
 miracle  was  made  known  to 
 the  people  by  an  exhilation 
 of  the  rod  ;  but  it  was  imme- 
 diatijly  taken  back  into  the 
 tabernacle,  to  be  kept  there 
 fir  ever,_for  a  token  against 
 the  rebels,  (or  the  children  of 
 rebellion.)    (Num.  xvii.  10.) 
 
 \\Tien  the  supply  of  water 
 was  miraculously  furnished 
 in  the  desert  of  Zin,  Aaron 
 neglected  to  acknowledge  the 
 power  of  God,  and  for  this 
 was  denied  the  privilege  of 
 entering  into  the  promised 
 land.  In  the  fortieth  year 
 after  he  had  left  Egypt,  he 
 was  commanded  to  go  up  with 
 Moses  his  brother,  and  Elea- 
 zar  his  son,  into  mount  Hor, 
 in  sight  of  all  the  congrega- 
 tion, that  he  mi^ht  die  there. 
 (Num.  XX.  28.)  The  place  of 
 Aaron's  death  is  called  Mo- 
 sera,  in  Deut.  x.  6 ;  but  the 
 same  spot  is  denoted  in  both 
 passages.  Burckhardt  tells  us 
 that  mount  Hor  stands  upon 
 the  western  side  of  a  valley 
 once  called  Mosera.  Josephus 
 and  other  historians  place  the 
 sepulchre  of  Aaron  on  mount 
 Hor,  where  it  is  still  vene- 
 rated by  the  Arabs.  A  modern 
 traveller  visited  the  place, 
 and  found  the  supposed  tomb 
 in  the  care  of  a  crippled  Arab, 
 eighty  years  old.  The  mo- 
 nument is  about  three  feet 
 high,  and  is  protected  by  a 
 small,  white  building,  with  a 
 cupola.    (See  Hor.) 
 
 The  circumstances  of  Aa- 
 ron's death  are  peculiarly 
 interesting  and  impressive 
 On  his  way  to  the  mount  his 
 official  robes  were  transferred 
 to  his  son  and  successor  in 
 the  priesthood,  ahd  he  died  in 
 the  top  of  the  mount,  b.  c 
 1451,  aged  one  hundred  and 
 8 
 
ABA 
 
 twenty-three  years.  (Num. 
 xxxiii.39.)  When  Moses  and 
 Eleazar  came  down,  and  the 
 people  saw  that  Aaron  was 
 dead,  they  mourned  for  him 
 thirty  days,  even  all  the  house 
 qf  Israel.    (Num.  xx.  29.) 
 
 Aaron  is  called  the  saint  of 
 the  Lord.  (Ps.  cvi.  16.)  Some 
 have  supposed  that  he  assist- 
 ed Moses  in  writins  parts  of 
 the  Pentateuch,  and  thus  they 
 account  f^r  any  supposed  dif- 
 ference of  style,  &c.  His  his- 
 tory is  given  us  in  the  books 
 of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Num- 
 bers, and  Deuteronomy. 
 
 AARONITES.  (1  Chron. 
 xii.  27.)  Levites  of  the  family 
 of  Aaron:  the  priests  who 
 served  the  sanctuary.  Elea- 
 zar, Aaron's  son,  was  their 
 chief  (Num.  iv.  16.) 
 
 AB.    (See  Month.) 
 
 ABADDON.  (Rev.  ix.  11.) 
 The  Hebrew  name  for  the 
 an^el  of  the  bottomless  pit, 
 and  answering  to  the  Greek 
 name  ApoUyon.  They  both 
 signify  the  destroyer. 
 
 ABANA.  (2  Kings  v,  12.) 
 A  river  of  Syria,  near  Damas- 
 cus, supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
 branches  of  the  Barradi,  or 
 Chrysorrhoas.  It  rises  at  the 
 foot  of  mount  Lebanon;  di- 
 vides into  several  small 
 streams  eastward  of  Damas- 
 cus, watering  the  whole  coun- 
 try in  the  vicinity ;  then  they 
 unite  again,  and  the  river 
 continues  its  course  till  it 
 empties  into  a  small  marshy 
 lake,  fifteen  or  twenty  miles 
 distant  from  the  city. 
 
 This  and  the  river  Pharpar 
 supplied  an  abundance  of  wa- 
 ter, and  rendered  the  country 
 around  Damascus,  though  on 
 the  edge  of  a  desert,  one  of 
 the  most  beautiful  and  fertile 
 spots  in  the  world  ;  while  the 
 streams  of  Judea  or  Israel, 
 with  the  exception  of  the  Jor- 
 dan, are  nearly  dry  the  greater 
 part  of  the  year,  and,  running 
 m  deep  and  rocky  channels, 
 
 ABE 
 
 give  but  partial  fertility  to  the 
 land  through  which  they  flow. 
 This  may  well  account  for  the 
 question  of  Naaman  :— "  Are 
 not  Abana  and  Pharpar,  rivers 
 of  Damascus,  better  than  all 
 the  waters  of  Israeli" 
 
 ABARIM.  (Deut.  xxxii.  49.) 
 A  general  name  given  to  a 
 mountainous  ridge,  running 
 from  north  to  so^th,  east  of 
 Jordan,  and  before  the  north 
 ern  border  of  INI  lab.  Nebo 
 was  one  of  the  conspicuous 
 mountains  in  the  cham,  and 
 Piseah  was  one  of  the  highest 
 of  the  summits  of  Nebo.  The 
 modern  mount  Dhana  is  sup- 
 
 {)osed  to  be  a  part  of  Abarim. 
 je-abarira,  (Num.  xxi.  11,) 
 meaning  "heaps  of  Abarim," 
 is  another  name  for  the  same 
 chain. 
 
 ABBA.  (Rom.  viii.  15.)  The 
 Hebrew  word  ab,  from  which 
 abba  is  derived,  signifies,  in 
 its  root,  acquiescence.  The 
 title,  abba,  was  not  allowed  to 
 be  used  by  servants  or  slaves 
 when  addressing  the  head  of 
 the  family,— a  circumstance 
 which  gives  much  force  to  the 
 term  in  the  passasre  cited. 
 The  full  meaning  of  this  term 
 cannot  be  expressed  in  our 
 language.  It  implies  a  high 
 degree  of  love, confidence, and 
 suDmission,  as  well  as  a  most 
 endeared  and  intimate  con- 
 nexion and  fellowship.  (Mark 
 xiv.  36.  Gal.  iv.  6.)  The  word 
 ab  (meaning /<xfAer)  is  men- 
 tioned as  one  of  the  first  and 
 simplest  words  of  infancy. 
 (Isa.  viii.  4.) 
 
 ABEDNEGO.  (Dan.  i.  7.) 
 The  Chaldee  name  which  was 
 gi  ven  by  an  officer  of  the  king 
 of  Babylon  to  Azariah,  one  of 
 the  fiur  children  or  youths  of 
 Judah,  Uken  captive  at  Jeru- 
 salem about  the  year  3398,  and 
 ordered  by  the  king  to  be 
 trained  f  jr  his  particular  ser- 
 vice. (See  Daniel.)  It  was 
 customary  for  masters  to  give 
 new  names  to  their  servants 
 9 
 
ABE 
 
 or  captives.  The  other  three 
 were,  Daniel,  (or  Belteshaz- 
 zar,)  Hananiah,((>r  Shadrach,) 
 anil  Mishael,  (or  ftleshach.) 
 
 Afitir  Daniel's  promotion  to 
 be  ruler  over  the  whole  pro- 
 vince of  Babylon,  his  three 
 companions  were,  at  his  re- 
 quest, elevated  to  places  of 
 trust.  Nebuchadnezzar  the 
 king  saw  fit  to  make  a  golden 
 imaire  ;  and  having  dedicated 
 it  with  great  pomp,  he  com- 
 manded Ihat,  at  a  certain  sig- 
 nal, the  people  of  all  nations 
 and  languages  should  fall 
 down  and  worship  the  image, 
 and  that  those  who  refused 
 should  he  cast  into  the  midst 
 of  a  burning  furnace.  In  this 
 act  of  idolatry,  Shadrach,  Me- 
 shach,  and  Abednego  would 
 not  unite,  though  commanded 
 by  the  king  himself.  They 
 replied  that  they  were  Dot 
 anxious  to  answer  the  king  in 
 this  matter,  as  the  God  whom 
 they  loved  and  served  was 
 able  to  deliver  them,  to  what- 
 ever extremity  they  might  be 
 reduced. 
 
 The  king  was  filled  with 
 fury,  and  commanded  the  fur- 
 nace to  be  heated  sevenfold 
 hotter  than  was  usual ;  and 
 the  stroniiest  men  were  em- 
 ployed to  bind  them,  and  cast 
 them  into  the  flames.  Strong 
 men  were  ordinarily  employ- 
 ed (oT  this  purpose,  to  meet 
 any  resistance  that  might  be 
 attempted ;  but  some  think 
 that  the  phrase  "  most  mighty 
 .men,"  used  here,  means  the 
 chief  oflicers  of  the  army,  who 
 were  selected  to  make  the 
 punishment  more  imposing 
 and  exemplary. 
 
 With  all  their  garments  on, 
 they  were  cast  into  the  fur- 
 nace, and  so  intense  was  the 
 heat  that  the  executioners 
 were  destroyed  by  it.  The 
 king  was  present  to  witness 
 the  execution  of  the  sentence ; 
 and,  though  the  three  men  at 
 first  fell  down  boimd  in  the 
 
 ABE 
 
 midst  of  the  flames,  yet  when 
 he  looked,  expecting  to  see 
 them  destroyed,  he  beheld 
 them  U  osed  from  their  bonds ; 
 walking  unhurt  in  the  midst 
 of  the  fire,  and  a  fourth  person 
 with  them  whose  form  was 
 "  like  the  Son  of  God."  Thi* 
 was  the  king's  language,  ancf 
 whatever  he  miglit  have  in- 
 tended l)y  the  term,  "  Son  of 
 God,"  the  fturth  person,  to 
 whom  he  refers,  was  probably 
 an  angel  of  God,  sent  for  this 
 purpose,  as  he  was  afterwards 
 sent  to  shut  the  mouths  of 
 lions  for  the  protection  of  hig 
 servant  Daniel;  or  it  might 
 have  been  the  eternal  and 
 uncreated  Son  of  God,  appear- 
 iag  to  protect  and  deliver  his 
 faithful  servants  in  the  time 
 of  their  calamity.  (Matt, 
 xxviii.  20.) 
 
 Upon  the  call  of  the  king 
 from  the  mouth  of  the  furnace, 
 these  three  servants  of  the 
 most  high  God  came  f  )rih,  in 
 the  presence  of  the  princes 
 and  rulers  of  the  country;  and 
 so  completely  had  they  been 
 protected  by  the  mighty  power 
 in  which  they  trusted,  that  not 
 a  hair  was  singed  ;  the  colour 
 of  their  coats  was  not  changed, 
 nor  was  there  even  the  smell 
 of  fire  upon  them. 
 
 The  monarch,  astonished  at 
 this  evident  interposition  of 
 the  Almighty  in  their  behalf, 
 forthwith  passed  a  decree, 
 threatening  to  punish  in  the 
 severest  manner  any  one  who 
 should  speak  against  the  God 
 of  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and 
 Abednego ;  because  (said  he) 
 there  is  no  other  God  that  can 
 deliver  after  this  sort;  and 
 the  men  were  restored  to  their 
 places  in  the  province.  (Dan. 
 lii.) 
 
 ABEL  (Gen.  iv.  2)  was  the 
 second  son  of  Adam  and  Eve. 
 He  was  occupied  as  a  keeper 
 or  feeder  of  sheep ;  and  in 
 process  of  time  broueht  of  the 
 firstlings,  or  first-fruits  of  his 
 10 
 
ABE 
 
 flock,  an  offering  unto  the 
 Lord.  It  is  supposed  that  be- 
 eides  a  thank-offering,  Abel 
 brought  a  sin-offering,  and 
 thus  evinced  his  penitent 
 sense  of  sin,  as  well  as  his 
 faith  in  a  promised  Saviour. 
 This  may  be  a  reasonable 
 conjecture,  but  has  not  scrip- 
 tural authority.  God  was 
 pleased,  however,  to  accept 
 his  offering,  and  to  give  him 
 evidence  of  it.  (Heb.  xi.  4.) 
 Not  so  with  Cain.  Either  his 
 sacrifice,  or  the  manner  of 
 presenting  it,  w-as  offensive  to 
 God,  and  the  offering  was  re- 
 jected. (1  John  iii.  12.)  Cain 
 was  exceedingly  angry,  and, 
 filled  with  envy,  lie  embraced 
 an  opportunity  when  they 
 were  in  the  field  together,  to 
 take  his  brother's  life.  (.Gen. 
 iv.) 
 
 Our  Saviour  distinguishes 
 Abel  by  the  title  righteous, 
 rMatt.  xxiii.  35.)  He  is  also 
 one  of  the  faiiliful  "  elders" 
 mentioned  in  the  epistle  to 
 the  Hebrews,  (ch.  xi.)  and  is 
 justly  called  the  first  martyr. 
 
 Blood  of  Abel.  (Heb.  xii. 
 24.)  The  blood  of  sprinkling, 
 or  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ 
 shed  for  the  remission  of  sins, 
 speaks  better  things  than  the 
 blood  of  Abel,  inasmuch  as 
 the  latter  speaks  only  of  the 
 malice  and  madness  of  tiie 
 heart  of  man,  and  cried  to 
 God  from  the  ground  for  ven- 
 geance on  the  murderer's 
 head ;  while  the  blood  of 
 Christ,  which  flowed  freely 
 for  the  guilty  and  ruined  sin- 
 ner, speaks  peace  and  pardon 
 for  every  penitent  and  believ- 
 ing soul,  (l  John  i.  7.) 
 
 ABEL— GREAT  STONE  OF,  (1 
 
 Sam.  vi.  18,)  was  in  the  field  of 
 Jo8huaofBelh-sheraesh,where 
 the  ark  of  tlie  Lord  rested 
 when  it  was  returned  by  the 
 Philistines  to  Kirjath-jearim. 
 ABEL-BETH-]\'L^CHAH, 
 (2  Kings  XV.  29,)  a  city  in  the 
 uorihern  district  of  the  tribe 
 
 ABE 
 
 of  Naphtali,  lying  south-east 
 of  Cesarea-Philippi.  To  this 
 place  Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri, 
 fled  and  posted  himself,  when 
 pursued  by  Joab,  general  of  the 
 army  of  David.  The  citizens, 
 however,  who  feared  a  siege  if 
 they  harboured  him,  cut  off  his 
 head,  at  the  suggestion  of  a  wo- 
 man, and  threw  it  over  the  wall 
 to  Joab.  (2  Sam.  xx  14-22.) 
 The  city  was  afterwards  cap- 
 tured. (1  Kings  XV.  20.  2  Kings 
 XV.  29.)  Perhaps  the  phrase 
 mother  in  Israel,  (2  Sam. 
 XX.  19,)  if  it  was  designed  to 
 apply  to  the  place  at  all, 
 may  denote  its  size  and  im- 
 portance. 
 
 ABEL-MAIM  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
 4)  is  called  Abel-Beth-maa- 
 chah,  (1  Kings  xv.  20,)  and  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  the  same 
 place.    (See  Abel-beth-jkua- 
 
 CHAH.) 
 
 ABEL-MEHOLAH.  (Judg. 
 vii.  22.  1  Kings  xix.  16.)  A 
 town  in  the  plain  of  Jordan, 
 about  ten  miles  s^mth  of  Beth- 
 shean,  and  between  that  and 
 Shechem;  distinguished  as  the 
 birthplace  of  Elisha,  ai.d  as 
 the  refuge  of  the  Midianites 
 when  pursued  hy  Gideon. 
 
 ABEL-MIZKAIM  (Gen.  I. 
 11)  means  the  mouriiiiig  of 
 the  Egypliayis.  It  was  pro- 
 bably in  the  plains  of  Jericho, 
 and  is  placed  by  ancient 
 writers  between  the  city  of 
 Jericho  and  the  river  Jordan. 
 The  threshing-floor  of  Atad 
 was  here,  and  the  name  Abel- 
 mizraim  was  derived  from  the 
 circumstance,  that  here  Jo 
 seph  and  his  company  halted 
 seven  days  to  mourn,  as  they 
 were  passing  from  Egypt  to 
 Canaan  to  bury  Jacob.  (Gen. 
 1.  10,  11.)  The  term  "  beyond 
 Jordan,^''  which  is  used  in 
 describing  the  place,  refers  to 
 the  situation  of  the  sacred 
 writer  at  the  time  of  writing. 
 As  he  was  on  the  east  of  th'e 
 river,  Abel-mizraim  was  ht,- 
 yond  or  on  the  west  side. 
 11 
 
ABl 
 ABEI^SHITTIM,  or  Shit-  ; 
 TIM.   (Num.  xxxiii.  49;   xxv. 
 1.)  A  town,  six  or  seven  miles 
 distant  from  liie  east  bank  of 
 the  Jordan,  opposite  to  Jeri- 
 cho.   It  was  the  place  of  one  ' 
 of  the    last  encampments  of  ' 
 Israel,  on    that  side   of  the  ! 
 river.    Some   have  supposed  j 
 (and  modern  geographers  con-  | 
 firm  the  opinion)  that  Shiitim  ! 
 was  a  village,  and  Abel-shittim  | 
 the  plain  or  valley  in  which 
 it  was    situated.     It  was    at 
 this    place,    almost    at    the 
 end  of  their  miraculous  jour- 
 neyings,  that    the    people  of  i 
 Israeffell  into  the  snares  of  ' 
 the  daughters  of  Moab,  and  ' 
 committed  the  grossest  idola- 
 ry,  for  which  they  were  visit- 
 ed with  a  desolating   plague 
 which  destroyed  24,0u0people. 
 Hence,   perhaps,    the    name 
 Abel,  from  the  mourning  that 
 such  mortality  must  have  oc- 
 casioned.   The    spies  whom 
 Joshua  sent  to  Jericho  went 
 from  Shittim.  (Josh.  ii.  1.) 
 
 ABIA,  COURSE  OF.  (Luke  i. 
 5.)  In  1  Chron.  xxiv.  we  have 
 an  account  of  the  divisions  of 
 the  priests  into  twenty-four 
 classes,  courses,  or  orders, 
 who  ministered  at  the  altar  in 
 rotation.  The  courses  were 
 distinguished  by  the  name  of 
 the  most  prominent  member 
 of  the  family  from  which  the 
 course  w  as  taken.  The  eighth 
 of  these  courses  fell  to  the 
 family  of  Abia,  or  Abijah  ;  and 
 to  this  course  belonged  Ze- 
 chariah,  the  father  of  John  the 
 Baptist. 
 
 ABIATHAR.  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
 20.)  The  tenth  high  priest  of 
 the  Jews,  and  fourth  in  descent 
 from  Eli.  Doeg,  at  the  com- 
 mand of  king  iSaul,  fell  upon 
 the  priests  of  the  Lord  at  Nob, 
 and  slew  them.  Among  the 
 slain  was  Ahimelech.  His 
 son  Abiathar  escaped  from 
 the  carnage,  and  taking  with 
 him  some  part  of  the  priest's 
 garments,   fled    to  David  at 
 
 ABl 
 
 Keilah,  and  told  him  what 
 Saul  had  done.  David  re- 
 ceived Abiathar,  and  protected 
 him,  and  he  aflerssards  be- 
 came high  priest.  Thus  there 
 were  two  high  priests  in  Israel 
 at  the  same  time,— Abiathar  in 
 the  party  of  David,  and  Zadok 
 in  the  party  of  Saul,  (2  Sam. 
 viii.  17 ;)  but  in  consequence 
 of  his  supporting  Adonijah  in 
 his  pretensions  to  the  throne 
 of  David,  Solomon,  upon  be- 
 coming king,  thrust  Abiathar 
 outof  the  priesthood,  (1  Kings 
 ii.  27,)  and  conferred  the  office 
 exclusively  upon  Zad<ik.  (See 
 Zadok.)  Thus  was  fulfilled 
 the  word  of  God  to  Eli,  (I  Sam. 
 ii.  31 ;)  for  Abiathar  was  the 
 last  of  the  priests  of  the  house 
 of  Ithamar,  to  which  Eli  be- 
 longed ;  and  Zadok,  who  suc- 
 ceeded him,  was  of  the  family 
 ofEleazar;  and  so  the  priest- 
 hood passed  into  its  former 
 channel.  Abiathar,  mention- 
 ed in  Mark  ii.  26,  has  been 
 supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
 same  with  Ahimelech.  Others 
 have  thought  (though  withouX 
 much  reason)  that  the  evan- 
 gelist refers  to  some  "  history 
 of  the  days  of  Abiathar"  then 
 extant,  in  which  the  conduct 
 of  David  and  Ahimelech  in  the 
 matter  of  the  sliew-bread  was 
 recorded,  and  that  the  allusion 
 was  well  understood  by  those 
 who  heard  it.  The  most  pro- 
 bable solution  of  the  difficulty 
 is,  that  as  both  officiated  at  the 
 same  time,  and  both  received 
 the  title,  the  name  of  either 
 was  used  to  designate  that 
 period.  The  facts'  to  which 
 the  gospel  alludes,  in  th»  pas- 
 sage cited,  are  fully  stated  in 
 1  Sam.  xxi.  (See  Life  of 
 David,  by  the  American  Sun- 
 day-school Union,  pp.  85— €7, 
 and  104.) 
 
 ABEEZER.  (Judg.  viii.  2.) 
 The  passage  contains  a  highly 
 figurative  expression.  Gideon 
 was  of  the  family  etf  Abiezer. 
 The  Ephraimites  complained 
 12 
 
ABI 
 
 because  they  were  not  called 
 upon  to  go  out  to  battlri  agai  nst 
 the  Midianites.  Gideon  at- 
 tempted to  pacify  them  ;  re- 
 presenting his  own  victory, 
 with  a  force  of  three  hundred 
 men  chiefly  of  the  family  of 
 Abiezer,  as  of  very  little  im- 
 portance, in  comparison  with 
 the  capture  of  two  of  the 
 princes  of  Midian,  which  the 
 men  of  Ephraim  had  accom- 
 plished. Though  the  latter,  in 
 respect  to  numbers  might  be 
 as  the  gleaning  of  the  vine- 
 yard, yet  in  the  glory  and  im- 
 portance of  it, it  was  more  than 
 the  whole  vintage  which  the 
 men  of  Abiezer  had  gathered. 
 
 ABIGAIL.  (1  Sam.  xxv.  3.) 
 The  wise  and  beautiful  wife  of 
 the  churlish  and  wicked  Na- 
 bal.  When  her  husband  had 
 exposed  himself  to  the  anger 
 of  David,  by  his  rude  and  con- 
 temptuous treatment  of  his 
 messengers,  Abigail  hastened 
 to  meet  nim, 4vhile  he  was  on 
 his  way  with  four  hundred 
 men  to  revenue  the  insult. 
 She  managed  the  affair  with 
 so  much  prudence  as  to  pacify 
 David,  and  obtain  his  blessing. 
 About  ten  days  after  her  re- 
 turn, the  Lord  visited  Nabal 
 with  sickness,  and  he  died, 
 and  Abigail  became  David's 
 wife.  A  beautiful  sketch  of 
 this  portion  of  sacred  history 
 may  be  found  in  the  Life  of 
 David,  by  the  American  Sun- 
 day-school Union,  ch.  xv. 
 
 ABIHU.  (Ex.  xxviii.  1.) 
 One  of  the  sons  of  Aaron, 
 who,  with  his  brothers,  Na- 
 dab,  Eleazar,  and  Ithamar, 
 were  separated  or  set  apart 
 by  God  to  the  office  of  the 
 priesthood.  Soon  after  they 
 entered  on  their  sacred  du- 
 ties, Nadab  and  Abihu  were 
 guilty  of  a  violation  of  God's 
 commands,  respecting  the 
 manner  of  oflfering  incense, 
 and  were  instantly  consumed. 
 tLev.  X.  1,  2.)     This  event 
 
 ABI 
 
 happened  in  the  wilderness 
 ofbinai.  The  nature  of  their 
 offence  is  very  obvious  ;  they 
 used  common  fire  instead  of 
 the  fire  which  they  were 
 required  to  use ;  and  some 
 suppose  they  were  drawn  into 
 this  presumptuous  sin  by  the 
 too  free  use  of  wine. 
 
 ABIJAH.  1.(1  Kings  xiv.L) 
 A  son  of  Jeroboam,  who  died 
 under  interesting  circum- 
 stances, in  early  life.  (See 
 Jeroboam.)  2.  (2  Chron.  xiii. 
 1.)  Abijah  or  ABI  JAM,  the 
 son  of  Rehoboam  and  Mi- 
 chaiah,  succeeded  his  father 
 as  king  of  Judah.  He  made 
 war  against  Jeroboam,  king 
 of  Israel,  and  defeated  him, 
 with  a  loss  of  500,000  men. 
 He  began  to  reign  in  the  18th 
 year  of  Jeroboam,  and  was 
 succeeded  by  his  son  Asa  in 
 the  20th  year  of  Jeroboam,  so 
 that  he  reigned  only  a  part  of 
 three  years.  There  is  an 
 apparent  contradiction  in 
 respect  to  the  parentage  of 
 this  person,  as  it  is  given  in  1 
 Kings  XV.  2,  and  2  Chron.  xiii. 
 2,  which  may  be  explained  as 
 follows.  AbiiShalom  is  the 
 same  with  Absalom.  (2  Chron. 
 xi.  21.)  The  term  daughter  is 
 eiven  indifferently  "in  the 
 BiJDle,  not  only  to  one's  own 
 child,  but  to  a  niece,  grand- 
 daughter, or  great-grand- 
 daughter. Rehoboam  had  al- 
 ready taken  two  wives  from 
 the  family  of  Davvil,  (2  Chron. 
 xi.  18,)  and  of  course  would 
 find  no  difficulty  in  taking  a 
 tliird  wife  from  the  same 
 family,  in  the  line  of  Absalom, 
 We  have  only  to  suppose  then 
 that  Maachah  and  Michaiah 
 mean  the  same  person ;  and 
 that  she  was  the  daughter  of 
 Uriel,  and  the  grand-daughter 
 of  Absalom,  and  the  whole 
 difficulty  is  removed. 
 
 ABILENE.  (Luke  iii.  1.)  A 
 province  of  Syria,  lying  west 
 of  Damascus  and  north  of 
 13 
 
ABl 
 
 Galilee,  of  which  Lysanias 
 was  letrarch  in  the  lime  of 
 John  the  Baptist. 
 
 ABIMELECH,  1.  (Gen.  xx. 
 2,  and  xxvi.  1,)  was  kin^  of 
 Gerar,  and  being  deceived  by 
 Abraham,  he  sent  and  took 
 Sarah,  Abraham's  wife,  to  be 
 his  wif;.  God  warned  him, 
 however,  in  a  dream,  of  Sa- 
 rah's relation  to  Abraham, 
 and  thus  withheld  him  from 
 the  commission  of  sin,  because 
 he  did  it  in  isnorance.  (Gen. 
 XX.  6.)  Abiiiielech,  having 
 rebuked  Abraham,  restored 
 Sarah  to  him  with  many  gifts, 
 and  offered  him  a  dwefling- 
 
 glace  in  any  part  of  the  land, 
 rod  afterwards  remitted  the 
 punishment  of  the  family  of 
 Abimelech.  At  a  subsequent 
 period,  Abimelech  (or  his 
 successor  of  the  same  name) 
 was  deceived,  in  like  manner, 
 by  Isaac,  respecting  his  wife 
 Rebekah,  while  they  dwelt  in 
 Gerar  during  a  time  of  famine 
 in  Canaan. 
 
 2.  (Judg.  viii.  31.)  A  son  of 
 Gideon,  who,  after  the  death 
 of  his  father,  persuaded  the 
 men  of  Shechem  to  make  him 
 king.  (Judg.  ix.  18.)  He  after- 
 wards put  to  death  seventy 
 of  his  brothers  who  dwelt  in 
 his  father's  house  at  Ophrah, 
 leaving  only  Jotham,  the 
 youngest,  alive.  After  several 
 defeats  he  was  at  last  mortally 
 wounded  by  a  piece  of  a  mill- 
 Btone  thrown  upon  his  head 
 by  a  woman  from  the  lop  of  a 
 lower  in  Thebez.  That  it 
 might  not  be  said  a  woman 
 Blew  him,  he  called  to  his  ar- 
 mour-bearer to  stab  him  with 
 his  sword,  and  thus  he  died. 
 Judg.  ix.  54—57.) 
 
 ABINADAB.  1.  (1  Sam.  xvi. 
 8.)  One  of  the  eight  sons  of 
 Jesse,  and  one  of  the  three  of 
 his  sons  who  followed  Saul  in 
 battle. 
 
 2.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  2.)    One  of 
 
 ABI 
 
 Saul's  sons  who  was  slain  at 
 the  battle  of  Gilboa. 
 
 3.  (1  Sam.  vil.  1,  and 
 1  Chron.  xiii  7.)  A  Levile  of 
 Kirjaih-iearim,with  whom  the 
 ark  of  the  Lord  was  deposited 
 when  it  was  brought  back 
 from  the  Philistines. 
 
 4.  (1  Kings  iv.  11.)  One  of 
 the  twelve  officers  appointed 
 by  Solomon  to  provide  alter- 
 nately, month  by  month,  food 
 for  the  king  and  his  house- 
 hold. 
 
 ABIRAM.  1.  (Xum.  xvi.  1.) 
 One  of  the  sons  of  Eliab,  the 
 Reubenite,  who  were  destroy- 
 ed with  Korah  for  a  conspi- 
 racy   against    Moses.     (See 
 
 KoRAH.) 
 
 2.  (1  Kines  xvi.  34.)  The 
 first-born  of  Hiel,  the  Belhel- 
 ile. 
 
 ABISHAG.  (1  Kings  i.  16.) 
 A  fair  woman  of  Sliunem  in 
 the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who  was 
 selected  by  the  servants  of 
 David  to  minister  to  him  in 
 his  old  age,  and  to  cherish 
 him.  After  David's  death  and 
 the  ascension  of  Solomon  to 
 the  throne,  Adonijah  desired 
 Abishag  in  marriage,  but  So- 
 lomon perceived  his  policy, 
 (see  Adonuah,)  and  caused 
 him  to  be  put  to  death.  (1 
 Kines  ii.  25.) 
 
 ABISHAI.  (2  Sam.  ii.  18.)  A 
 son  of  Zeruiah.  He  was  a 
 nephew  of  David,  and  among 
 the  chief  of  his  mighty  men. 
 He  accompanied  David  to  the 
 camp  of  Saul,  and  counselled 
 him  to  take  Saul's  life.  See  a 
 full  account  of  this  interesting 
 scene,  with  an  illustrative  en- 
 graving, in  the  Life  of  Da- 
 vid, by  the  American  Sunday- 
 school  Union,  chap.  xvi. 
 
 Abishai,  with  Joab  his  bro- 
 ther, attacked  and  defeated 
 the  Syrians  and  the  children 
 of  Ammon.  (2  Sam.  x.)  David 
 appointed  him,  in  conjunction 
 with  Joab  and  Ittai,  to  the 
 comroand  of  the  people  when 
 
ABN 
 tf»ey    went    forth    to    bailie 
 against  Israel,  in  the  wood  of 
 Ephraim.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2.) 
 
 Abiehai  afterwards  rescued 
 David  from  the  giant  Philis- 
 tine Ishbi-benob^  whom  he 
 smote  and  killed.  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
 16,  17.) 
 
 The  victory  over  the  Edom- 
 ites  in  the  valley  of  Salt, 
 which  is  ascribed  to  David. 
 (2  Sam.  viii.  13,)  is  ascribed 
 to  Abishai,(l  Chron.  xviii.  12.) 
 Probably  Abishai  actually  ob- 
 tained the  victory,  but  as  he 
 was  an  ofBcer  under  David,  it 
 might  also  with  propriety  be 
 spolcen  of  as  David's  achieve- 
 ment. 
 
 Abishai  was  associated  with 
 Joab  in  the  assassination  of 
 Abner.  (2  Sam.  iii.  30.) 
 
 ABJECTS.  (Ps.  XXXV.  15.) 
 Low,  base  persons,  and,  as 
 some  suppose,  hired  assas- 
 sins. 
 
 ABNER,  (1  Sam.  xiv.  50,) 
 the  son  of  Ner,  was  a  near 
 relation  of  Saul,  and  a  faithful 
 and  distinguished  general  of 
 his  armies.  We  first  hear  of 
 him,  particularly,  as  the  cap- 
 tain of  the  host,  of  whom 
 Saul  inquired  concerning  the 
 stripling,  David,  whose  vic- 
 tory ove"!-  Goliath  had  excited 
 his  astonishment ;  and  after  a 
 little  time  Abner  introduced 
 David  to  Saul,  with  the  head 
 of  the  giant  Philistine  in  his 
 hand. 
 
 It  was  through  the  want  of 
 vigilance  in  Abner  that  Saul's 
 lift  was  placed  in  David's 
 power  in  the  wilderness  of 
 Ziph.  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  See  Da- 
 vid, Salt,.) 
 
 After  David  was  anointed 
 king  of  Judah,  Abner  pro- 
 cured the  appointment  of  Tsh- 
 oosheih,  Saul's  son,  as  king 
 of  Israel;  and  in  process  of 
 time  the  army  of  David,  under 
 Joab,  and  the  army  of  Israel, 
 undei-  Abner,  arrayed  them- 
 selves on  either  side  of  the 
 pool  of  Gibeon.    While  occu- 
 
 ABN 
 
 pyiug  this  position,  twelve 
 men  of  each  army  met  and 
 fought  desperately.  This  con- 
 test was  followed  by  a  general 
 battle,  which  resulted  in  Ab- 
 ner's  defeat.  He  fled,  but  was 
 pursued  by  Asahel,  who  "  was 
 li^ht  of  foot  as  a  wild  roe." 
 When  in  the  lieat  of  pursuit, 
 Abner  counselled  him  to  de- 
 sist, and  threatened  to  turn 
 upon  him  and  slay  him  if  he 
 did  not;  but  Asahel  refused 
 to  turn  aside,  and  Abner 
 "  with  the  hinder  end  of  his 
 spear"  smote  him  so  that  ha 
 died.  Joab  and  Abishai  were 
 also  engaged  in  the  pursuit, 
 but  at  Abner 's  entreaty  they 
 desisted  and  returned. 
 
 As  David's  strength  in- 
 creased, the  house  oT  Saul, 
 though  faithfully  served  by 
 Abner,  became  gradually 
 weaker,  till  at  length  Ishbo- 
 sheih  charged  Abner  with  an 
 offence  against  Saul's  family. 
 He  was  exceedingly  irritated 
 by  the  charge,  and  imme- 
 diately forsook  the  interests 
 of  Saul's  house,  and  espoused 
 the  cause  of  David.  David 
 received  him  cordially,  and 
 sent  him  away  in  peace  to 
 persuade  Israel  to  submit  to 
 David's  government. 
 
 While  he  was  gone  on  this 
 errand,  Joab  returned  ;  and 
 hearing  what  had  been  done, 
 he  went  to  the  king,  and 
 warned  him  against  Abner  as 
 a  spy  and  traitor.  Soon  after, 
 and  without  David's  know- 
 ledge, Joab  sent  for  Abner; 
 and  when  he  arrived,  took 
 him  aside  privately,  and  mur 
 dered  him, in  revenge  of  tho 
 death  of  his  brother  Asahel ; 
 and  they  buried  him  in  He- 
 bron. 
 
 The  estimation  in  which  he 
 was  held  by  the  king  and 
 people  appears  from  the  sa- 
 cred history.  The  king  wept 
 and  refused  his  food,  and  all 
 the  people  wept;  and  the  king 
 said  unto  his  servants,  Know 
 15 
 
ABO 
 
 ye  not  that  there  is  a  prince 
 and  a  great  man  fallen  this 
 day  in  Israel?  (2  Sam.  iii. 38.) 
 
 ABOMINABLE,  ABOMI- 
 NATION. 1.  (Gen.  xlvi.  34.) 
 An  abomination,  or  an  abomi- 
 nable thing,  is  a  thing  hateful 
 or  detestable,  as  the  employ- 
 ment or  calling  of  shepherds 
 was  to  the  Egyptians.  2.  (Lev. 
 xi.  13,  and  Deut.  xxiii.  18.) 
 Under  the  Mosaic  law  those 
 animals  and  acts  are  called 
 abominable,  the  tise  or  doing 
 of  which  was  prohibited.  3. 
 (Jer.  xliv.  4,  and  2  Kings 
 xxiii.  13.)  Idolatry  of  every 
 kind  is  especially  denoted  by 
 this  term.  4.  (Isa.  Ixvi.  3.) 
 Sins  in  general. 
 
 The  abomination  of  deso- 
 lation (jMatt.  xxiv.  15,  and 
 Dan.  ix.  27,  and  xii.  11)  pro- 
 bably refers  to  the  ensigns  or 
 banners  of  the  Roman  army, 
 with  the  idolatrous. and  there- 
 fore,abominable  images  upon 
 tliem.  as  in  the  annexed  cut, 
 
 the  approach  of  which  would 
 warn  the  cityof  its  desolation. 
 When  the  city  should  be  be- 
 
 ABR 
 
 sieged,  and  these  idolatrous 
 standards  should  be  seen  "in 
 
 j  the  holy  place,"  or  more 
 strictly,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 holy  city,  thus  threatening 
 a  complete  conquest  and 
 speedy  destruction,  it  would 
 
 i  be.time  for  the  men  of  Judea 
 
 j  to  flee  to  places  of  refuge  to 
 save  themselves  from  tribu- 
 lation and  death. 
 ABRAM,ABRAHAM.(Gen. 
 
 i  xi.  27,)  was  the  sonof  Terah, 
 and  was  born  at  Ur,  a  city  of 
 Chaldea,the  location  of  which 
 is  uncertain,  about  a.  m.  2008. 
 
 ,  Wliile  he  was  dwelling  in  his 
 
 ;  father's  house  at  Ur,  6od  di- 
 rected him  to  leave  his  coun- 
 try and  kindred,  and  go  to  a 
 
 I  land  which  should  be  shown 
 him ;  promising,  at  the  same 
 
 :  time,  to  make  of  him  a  great 
 nation,  and  to  bless  him,  and 
 
 [  to  make  his  name  great,  and 
 that  in  him  all  the  families  of 
 the  earth  should  be  blessed. 
 Obedient  to  the  heavenly 
 calling,  Abram  took  Sarai  his 
 wife,  and  with  Terah  his  fa- 
 ther, and  other  members  of 
 the  family,  left  Ur  to  remove 
 to  Canaan  ;  and  stopped  at 
 Haran. 
 
 It  is  supposed  by  some  that 
 while  theydvveltin  Ur, Abram 
 fell  into  the  idolatrous  prac- 
 tices which  prevailed  around 
 him;  but  in  the  absence  of 
 all  evidence  on  this  point,  the 
 contrary  may  surely  be  infer- 
 red from  the  readmess  with 
 which  he  obeyed  God,  and  the 
 faith  he  manifested  in  a  man 
 ncr  so  exemplary  and  rare. 
 While  they  were  dwelling 
 at  Haran,  in  Mesopotamia, 
 Terah  died.  Abram,  who 
 was  then  seventy-five  years 
 old.  pursued  his  journey  to 
 Canaan  ;  and  having  reach 
 ed  Sichem,  one  of  the  oldest 
 cities  of  Palestine,  (see  She- 
 CHEM,)  the  Lord  appeared  to 
 him,  and  repeated  his  pro 
 raise  to  give  him  the  land, 
 
ABR 
 
 A  grievous  famine  soon  vi- 
 sited ihie  country,  and  Abram 
 was  obliged  to  go  into  Egypt. 
 Fearful  Ihat  Sarai's  beauty 
 mielit  attract  tlie  ijolice  of  the 
 Egyptians,  and  that  if  they 
 supposed  her  to  be  his  wife, 
 they  would  kill  him  to  secure 
 her,  he  proposed  thai  she 
 should  pass  for  his  sister.  It 
 happened  as  he  expected. 
 The  servants  of  Pharaoh,  the 
 king  of  Egypt,  commended  her 
 beauty  so  much,  that  he  sent 
 for  her,  and  took  her  into  his 
 house,  and  loaded  Abram 
 with  tokens  of  his  favour ;  but 
 the  Lord  punished  him  se- 
 verely, so  that  he  sent  away 
 Abram  and  his  wife,  and  all 
 that  he  had. 
 
 Having  become  very  rich  in 
 cattle,  silver,  and  gold,  he  re- 
 turned from  Egypt  to  Canaan. 
 Lot,  his  nepliew,  had  been 
 with  him,  and  shared  his  pros- 
 perity ;  and  it  happened  that 
 his  servants  fell  into  some 
 strife  with  the  servants  of 
 Abram.  As  it  was  evident 
 that  their  property  was  too 
 great  for  them  to  dwell  to- 
 gether, Abram,  though  in 
 every  respect  entitled  to  defe- 
 rence, generously  proposed  to 
 his  nephew  to  avoid  contro- 
 versy by  an  amicable  separa- 
 tion. He  offered  Lot  his  cnoice 
 of  the  territory,  on  the  right 
 or  left,  as  it  pleased  him.  A 
 rare  illustration  of  meekness 
 and  condescension.  Lot  chose 
 to  remove  to  the  eastward, 
 and  occupy  that  part  of  the 
 fertile  plain  of  Jordan  where 
 Sodom  and  Gomorrah  stood. 
 
 Then  the  Lord  appeared 
 again  to  Abram,  and  renewed 
 the  promise  of  the  land  of 
 Canaan,  as  his  inheritance, 
 in  the  most  explicit  manner. 
 He  thence  removed  his  tent 
 to  the  plain  of  Mamre  in  He- 
 bron. In  an  invasion  of  the 
 cities  of  the  plain  by  several 
 of  the  petty  kings  of  the  ad- 
 joining provinces,  Sodom  was 
 
 ABR 
 
 taken,  and  Lot  and  his  family 
 carried  captive.  When  Abram 
 received  intelligence  of  it,  he 
 armed  his  trained  servants, 
 born  in  his  house,  (three  hun- 
 dred and  eighteen  in  num- 
 ber,) pursued  the  kings,  and 
 defeated  them,  and  brought 
 Lot  and  his  family  and  their 
 substance  back  to  Sodom ;  re- 
 storing to  liberty  the  captives 
 who  had  been  taken,  with  all 
 their  property,  of  which  he 
 generously  refused  to  take 
 any  part,  as  the  reward  of  his 
 services  or  as  the  spoils  of 
 victory.  On  his  return  he 
 was  met  by  Melchisedek  king 
 of  Salem,  and  priest  of  the 
 most  high  God,  to  whom  he 
 gave  a  tenth  of  all  that  he  had. 
 (See  Melchisedek.) 
 
 Two  or  three  years  after 
 this  the  Lord  appeared  again 
 to  Abram  in  a  vision;  repeat 
 ed  to  him  the  promises,  and 
 accompanied  them  with  the 
 most  gracious  declaration  of 
 his  favour.  He  appointed  a 
 certain  sacrifice  for  him  to 
 offer,  and  towards  night 
 caused  a  deep  sleep  to  lall 
 upon  him,  attended  by  a  hor- 
 ror of  great  darkness',  during 
 which  there  were  revealed  to 
 him  some  of  the  most  import- 
 ant events  in  his  future  his- 
 tory, and  in  ti-jat  of  his  pos- 
 terity, which  were  all  accom- 
 plished in  due  tinrie,  and  with 
 wonderful  exactness. 
 
 The  revelation  related,  1. 
 To  the  captivity  of  Israel  by 
 the  Egyptians,  and  their  se- 
 vere and  protracted  bondage ; 
 2.  To  the  judgments  which 
 Egypt  should  suffer  because 
 of  tlieir  oppressions  of  God's 
 chosen  people,  and  the  cir- 
 cumstances under  which  they 
 should  leave  Egypt ;  3.  To 
 Abram's  death  and  burial  : 
 and,  4.  To  the  return  cf  aia 
 posterity  to  the  promised 
 land. 
 
 In  the  same  day  the  cove- 
 nant respecting  the  land  of 
 
ABR 
 
 promise  was  renewed,  and 
 confirmed  with  the  strongest 
 expressions  of  divine  favour. 
 Sarai  however  was  childless, 
 and  she  proposed  to  Abraham 
 that  Hagar,  an  Esyptiau  wo- 
 man llvmg  with  them,  should 
 be  his  wife ;  by  whom  he  had 
 a  son  whom  he  called  Ishmael. 
 At  ninety-nine  years  of  age, 
 he  was  favoured  with  another 
 most  remarkable  vision.  The 
 Almighty  was  revealed  to  him 
 in  such  a  manner  that  he  was 
 filled  with  awe  and  fell  upon 
 his  face,  and  we  are  told  that 
 "God  talked  with  him."    The 
 
 f)romise  respecting  the  great 
 ncrease  of  his  posterity,  and 
 their  character  and  relation 
 to  God,  as  well  as  respecting 
 the  possession  of  Canaan,  was 
 repeated  in  the  most  solemn 
 and  explicit  terms  ;  his  name 
 was  changed  from  Abram  (a 
 high  father)  to  Abraham,  (fa- 
 ther of  a  great  multitude,)  and 
 the  circumcision  of  every  male 
 child,  at  eight  days  old,  was 
 established  as  a  token  of  the 
 covenant  between  him  and 
 God.  (See  Circumcised.)  At 
 the  same  time  the  name  of 
 Sarai  (viy  priticess)  was 
 changed  to  Sarah,  (the  prin- 
 cess,} and  a  promise  was 
 given  to  Abraham  that  Sarah 
 should  have  a  son,  and  be  the 
 mother  of  nations  and  kings. 
 
 It  seemed  so  entirely  out^of 
 the  course  of  nature  that  they 
 should  become  parents  at  their 
 advanced  age,  that  Abraham, 
 filled  with  reverence  and  joy- 
 ful gratitude,  fell  upon  his  face, 
 and  said  in  his  heart.  Shall  a 
 child  be  born  unto  him  that 
 is  a  hundred  years  old  ?  and 
 shall  Sarah,  that  is  ninety 
 years  old,  bear  7 
 
 Nevertheless  against  hope 
 he  believed  in  hope,  and  being 
 not  weak  in  faith  he  staggered 
 not  at  the  promise  of  God,  but 
 was  fully  persuaded  that  what 
 he  had  promised  he  was  able 
 also  to  perform ;  and  his  faith 
 
 ABR 
 
 was  imputed  to  him  for  right- 
 eousness. (Rom.  iv.  18—22.) 
 
 Abraham,  finding  that  the 
 blessings  of  the  covenant 
 were  to  be  bestowed  on  his 
 future  offspring,  immediately 
 thought  of  Ishmael,  in  whom 
 he  had  probably  before  sup- 
 posed the  promises  were  to  ba 
 fulfilled,  and  he  uttered  the 
 solemn  and  affecting  prayer — 
 O  that  Ishmael  might  live 
 before  thee.  God  heard  him, 
 and  almost  while  he  was  yet 
 speaking,  answered  him  by 
 making  known  to  him  his 
 great  purposes  respecting  Ish- 
 mael. (Gen.  xvii.  20,  and^xxv. 
 16.) 
 
 As  soon  as  the  vision  had 
 closed,  Abraham  hastened  to 
 obey  the  divine  command, 
 and  with  Ishmael  his  son,  and 
 all  the  men  of  his  house,  was 
 circumcised  in  the  selfsame 
 day.  He  was  not  long  with- 
 out another  divine  communi- 
 cation. As  he  sat  in  the  door 
 of  his  tent  in  the  heat  of  the 
 day,  three  men  approached 
 him.  He  received  them  with 
 all  the  courtesy  and  hospi- 
 tality which  distinguished 
 eastern  manners,  and  after 
 they  had  refreshed  themselves 
 they  inquired  of  him  respect- 
 ing Sarah,  and  repeatetl  the 
 promise  respecting  the  birth 
 of  her  son. 
 
 It  was  on  this  occasion,  or 
 in  connexion  with  these  cir- 
 cumstances, that  a  divine  tes- 
 timony was  given  to  the  patri- 
 archal character  of  Abraham. 
 (Gen.  xviii.  19.)  It  was  be- 
 cause of  his  faithfulness  that 
 he  was  favoured  with  a  reve- 
 lation of  God's  purposes,  re- 
 specting the  devoted  cities  of 
 the  plain,  and  with  an  oppor- 
 tunity to  plead  for  them  ;  and 
 it  was  for  Abraham's  sake, 
 and  probably  in  answer  to 
 his  prayers,  that  Lot  and  his 
 family  were  rescued  from 
 the  sudden  destruction  which 
 came  upon  Sodom. 
 
 18 
 
ABR 
 
 After  this,  Abraham  re- 
 moved to  Gerar,  and  here  he 
 made  a  second  attempt  to  have 
 Sarah  taken  for  his  sister. 
 (See  Abimelech.)  Here,  also, 
 the  prediction  was  fulfilled, 
 respecting  the  birth  of  a  son. 
 Sarah  had  a  son.  whom  he  call- 
 ed Isaac,  and  who  was  duly 
 circumcised  on  the  eighth  day. 
 
 Abraham  was  much  tried 
 by  an  unhappy  occurrence, 
 in  which  Hagar  and  Ishmael 
 were  principally  concerned ; 
 but  God  supported  him  by  an 
 explicit  promise,  that  in  Isaac 
 his  seed  should  be  called. 
 (Gen.  xxi.  10—13.) 
 
 Abraham  so  obviously  had 
 the  favour  and  blessing  of 
 God  in  all  that  he  did,  that 
 Abimelech,  the  king,  proposed 
 to  make  with  him  a  covenant 
 of  perpetual  friendship;  and 
 a  matter  of  wrong  about  a 
 well,  of  which  Abimelech's 
 servants    had    violently    de- 
 
 K rived  Abraham,  was  thus 
 appily  adjusted.  This  trans- 
 action was  at  a  place  which 
 was  thereafter  called  Beer- 
 sheha,— the  well  of  the  oath, 
 or  the  well  of  swearing.  (Gen. 
 xxi.  23-31.) 
 
 We  now  come  to  one  of  the 
 most  interesting  and  import- 
 ant passages  in  the  patri- 
 arch's hisUiry.  God  was  about 
 to  try  him,  that  he  might  ex- 
 hibit to  the  world,  in  all  fol- 
 lowing time,  an  illustrious  ex- 
 ample of  the  power  of  faith. 
 He  was  commanded  to  take 
 his  son— his  only  son  Isaac, 
 whom  he  loved,  and  in  whom 
 all  the  promises  of  God  were 
 to  be  accomplished— and  to 
 ofifer  him  up  for  a  burnt-ofFer- 
 in^  upon  a  distant  mountain. 
 Without  an  inquiry  or  mur- 
 muring word,  and  with  a 
 promptness  which  showed 
 the  most  entire  submission, 
 Abraham  obeyed  the  mysteri- 
 ous command.  A  journey  of 
 three  days  was  accomplished. 
 Every  preparation  for  the  of- 
 
 ABP 
 
 fering  was  made,  and  the 
 knife  was  in  his  hand,  which 
 was  uplifted  to  slay  his  son, 
 when  his  purpose  was  arrest- 
 ed by  a  voice  from  heaven, 
 requiring  him  to  spare  the 
 lad  ;  inasmuch  as  the  proof 
 of  the  father's  faith  and  obe- 
 dience was  full.  A  ram  was 
 provided  in  the  neighbour- 
 ing thicket,  which  he  took 
 and  offered  up ;  and  after 
 having  been  favoured  wiili 
 special  tokens  of  the  divine 
 approbation,  he  returned  with 
 his  son  to  Beersheba.  This 
 grand  t^-ial  and  illustration 
 of  the  patriarch's  faith  took 
 place,  as  it  is  supposed,  upon 
 Mou«at  IMoriah.  (See  Jerusa- 
 lem &  Map.)  In  commemora- 
 tion of  it,  he  srave  to  the  place 
 the  name  Jehovah-jireh,  {the 
 Lord  will  see  or  provide,)  inti- 
 mating a  general  truth  re- 
 specting the  divine  faithful- 
 ness and  care  ;  and  in  pro- 
 phetical allusion,  as  some 
 supp-.ise,  to  the  great  sacrifice 
 which,  in  fulness  of  time,  was 
 to  be  offered  upon  that  same 
 spot  for  the  sins  of  men.  (Gen. 
 xxii.  14.) 
 
 At  the  age  of  one  hundred 
 and  twenty-seven  years  Sarah 
 died,  and  Abraham  purchased 
 the  cave  of  Machpelah,  in  the 
 field  of  Ephron,  near  Hebron, 
 for  a  family  burial-place,  and 
 there  buried  his  wife. 
 
 Isaac  had  now  arrived  at 
 mature  age,  and  Abraham 
 called  one  of  his  servants, 
 probably  Eliezer,  (Gen.  xv.  2,) 
 and  made  him  swear  that  he 
 would  obtain  a  wife  for  Isaac, 
 not  among  the  Canaanites, 
 (where  they  then  dwell,  and 
 who  were  to  be  cut  off  accord- 
 ing to  the  revealed  purpose 
 of  God,)  but  in  Abraham's  na- 
 tive country,  and  from  among 
 his  own  kindred.  This  enter- 
 prise terminated  successfully, 
 and  every  desire  of  the  patri- 
 arch respecting  Isaac's  mar 
 riage  was  answered. 
 19 
 
ABS 
 
 Abraham  married  a  second 
 time,  and  had  several  snns; 
 but  he  made  Isaac  his  sole 
 heir,  having  iu  his  lifetime 
 distributed  gifts  among  the 
 other  children,  who  were  now 
 dispersed  ;  and  at  the  great 
 age  of  one  hundred  and  se- 
 venty-five years  he  died  in 
 {)eace,  and  was  buried  by 
 saac  and  Ishmael,  in  the 
 same  sepulchre  with  Sarah, 
 A.  M.  2183.  (See  Historv  of 
 Abraham,  by  the  American 
 Sunday-school  Union.) 
 
 Abraham's  bosom.  (See 
 Bosom.) 
 
 ABSALOM  (2  Sam.  iii.  3) 
 was  a  son  of  David,  by  Maa- 
 cali,  daughter  of  Talmai  king 
 of  (jeshur.  He  was  remark- 
 able for  his  beauty,  and  for  his 
 hair,  which  is  said  to  have 
 weighed  200  shekels  when  cut 
 oflF every  year.  As  to  the  pre- 
 cise meaning  of  this  weight, 
 however,  there  has  been  much 
 speculation.  It  is  supposed 
 that  the  shekel  by  which  its 
 weight  is  expressed,  means  a 
 lighter  weight,  by  one  third  or 
 one  half,  than  the  common 
 shekel.  Others  suppose  that 
 the  value,  and  not  the  weight, 
 is  denoted  ;  and  others,  still, 
 contend  that  what  with  gold- 
 dust  and  powder,  which  were 
 both  profusely  used  in  dress- 
 ing the  hair,  the  weight  (sup- 
 posing weight  to  be  meant, 
 and  the  common  shekel  to  be 
 used)  is  not  at  all  incredible  ; 
 being,  according  to  Michaelis, 
 not  quite  three  pounds  Trojr 
 weight,  though  it  may  be  suffi- 
 ciently remarkable  to  be  no- 
 ticed by  the  historian. 
 
 Absalom  had  a  fair  sister 
 v7hose  name  was  Tamar  ;  and 
 Amnon  his  half-brother  having 
 injured  her,  Absalom  was  re- 
 venged by  taking  Amnon's 
 life  at  a  feast,  to  which  he  had 
 invited  him,  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29,) 
 and  immediately  after  this  he 
 fled  to  the  house  of  Talmai, 
 hifl  mother's  father,  at  Geshur. 
 
 ABS 
 
 Joab,  in  order  to  secure 
 Absalom's  return  and  resto- 
 ration to  his  father's  favour, 
 employed  a  woman  of  Tekoa 
 to  appear  before  David,  and 
 feign  a  case  similar,  in  its 
 leading  circumstances,  to  the 
 situation  of  Absalom,  and 
 having  obtained  his  decision, 
 to  apply  the  principle  to  the 
 real  case.  Alter  a  favourable 
 decision  was  obtained  in  the 
 feigne'd  case,  the  woman  began 
 to  plead  for  Absalom's  return. 
 The  king  immediately  sus- 
 pected Joab's  concern  in  the 
 plot,  and  the  woman  confessed 
 that  it  was  wholly  planned  by 
 him. 
 
 David,  however,  directed 
 Joab  to  go  to  Geshur,  and 
 bring  Absalom  back  to  Jeru- 
 salem, after  an  absence  of 
 three  years  ;  but  his  father 
 would  not  receive  him  into 
 favour,  nor  admit  him  to  his 
 presence  ;  nor  did  he  see  his 
 face  for  two  years  more. 
 
 Wearied  with  his  banish- 
 ment, Absalom  often  attempted 
 to  obtain  an  interview  with 
 Joab  ;  but  for  some  cause  Joab 
 was  not  disposed  to  go  to  him. 
 To  compel  him  to  come,  Absa- 
 lom resorted  to  a  singular 
 expedient;  he  directed  his 
 servants  to  set  fire  to  Joab's 
 fields.  Joab  immediately  came 
 to  Absalom ;  was  persuaded 
 to  plead  with  the  kmg  in  his 
 behalf;  succeeded  in  his  effort, 
 and  Absalom  was  received 
 into  full  favour. 
 
 But  with  a  proud  and  wicked 
 heart,  he  could  not  cease  to 
 do  evil.  His  father's  throne 
 became  the  object  of  his  am- 
 bition, and  he  procured  cha- 
 riots and  horsemen,  and  other 
 appendages  of  rank  and  roy- 
 alty ;  and  stood  in  the  public 
 places  courting  the  favour  of 
 the  people  by  the  meanest 
 arts ;  persuading  them  that 
 their  rights  were  not  regarded 
 by  the  government,  and  that 
 it  would  be  for  their  interest 
 SO 
 
ABS 
 
 to  elevate  him  to  power,  that 
 egual  justice  might  be  admi- 
 nistered to  all.  By  these  and 
 oAer  means,  Absalom  stole 
 the  hearts  of  the  men  of  Is- 
 rael. 
 
 In  pursuing  his  wicked  and 
 traitorous  design,  and  with 
 a  pretended  regard  to  filial 
 duty,  he  asked  his  father's 
 permission  to  go  to  Hebron, 
 and  pay  a  vow  which  he  said 
 he  had  made.  The  unsuspi- 
 cious king  consented,  and 
 Absalom  immediately  sent 
 men  throughout  Israel,  who 
 were,  at  a  given  signal,  to 
 proclaim  him  king  in  Hebron. 
 
 He  also  took  two  hundred 
 men  withhim  from  Jerusalem, 
 though  they  did  not  know 
 his  plan;  and  then  sent  for 
 Ahithophel,  who  was  David's 
 counsellor,  that  he  might  have 
 his  advice  and  assistance. 
 
 Absalom's  party  increased 
 rapidly,  and  intelligence  of 
 the  conspiracy  was  commu- 
 nicated to  the  king,  and  so 
 alarmed  him,  that  he  fled  from 
 the  city. 
 
 At  length  David  persuaded 
 Hushai  to  go  to  Absalom,  who 
 had  now  come  back  to  Jeru- 
 salem witli  his  party,  and  be- 
 come his  servant ;  and  wlien 
 opportunity  occurred,  to  give 
 such  counsel  as  should  defeat 
 Ahilhophel's  plans,  and  bring 
 confusion  and  discomfiture 
 upon  Absalom. 
 
 By  a  train  of  singular  pro- 
 vidential interpositions,  (an 
 account  of  which  belongs  ra- 
 ther to  the  life  of  David,  than 
 to  this  article,)  Absalom's  ruin 
 was  hastened. 
 
 Before  David's  men  went 
 out  to  battle  with  the  revolted 
 party,  he  gave  them  special 
 ciiarge  respecting  Absalom, 
 and  commanded  them  to  deal 
 gently  with  him  for  his  father's 
 eake. 
 
 The  two  parties  met  in  the 
 wood  of  Ephraim,  and  the 
 featlle  was  severe  and  bloody. 
 
 ACC 
 
 Absalom  rode  upon  a  mule, 
 and  in  passing  under  the 
 thick  boughs  of  an  oak,  he 
 was  caught  by  his  head  in  the 
 fork  or  angle  of  two  branches, 
 and  the  muie  passed  onward, 
 leaving  him  suspended  in  the 
 air.  Joab,  one  of  David's  chief 
 captains,  being  informed  of  it, 
 took  three  darts  and  thrust 
 them  through  the  heart  of  Ab- 
 salom, while  he  was  yet  alive 
 in  the  midst  of  the  oak  ;  and 
 they  took  his  body  and  cast  it 
 into  a  pit  in  the  wood,  and 
 covered  it  with  stones.  A.  m. 
 2981. 
 
 Absalom,  pillar  of.  (See 
 Pillar,  Jerusalem.  See  also 
 the  Life  of  David,  ch.  xiii.,  by 
 the  American  Sunday-school 
 Union.) 
 
 ACCAD.  (Gen.  x.  10.)  A 
 city  in  Shinar,  built  by  Nim- 
 rod.  Modern  travellers  have 
 intimated  the  probability  that 
 the  ruins  of  this  ancient  city 
 are  to  be  seen  about  six  miles 
 from  the  present  Bagdad. 
 
 ACC  HO,  no  w  Ace  a  or  Acre, 
 (Judg.  i.  SI,)  or  Ptolemais,  (so 
 called  after  the  first  Ptolemy 
 king  of  Esypt,  into  whose 
 hands  it  fell  about  one  hun- 
 dred years  before  Christ,)  was 
 a  sea-port  town,  on  the  bay  of 
 Acre  over  against  mount  Car- 
 mel,  about  thirty  miles  south 
 of  Tyre.  It  was  in  the  terri- 
 tory assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
 Asher,  and  one  of  the  cities 
 from  which  they  were  unable 
 to  expel  the  Canaanites  ;  and 
 it  is  even  now  considered  the 
 strongest  place  in  Palestine. 
 It  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxi.  7. 
 Its  population  is  from  10,000 
 to  1.5,000,  chiefly  Jews.  The 
 remains  of  this  ancient  city 
 are  very  numerous.  Buck- 
 ingham, wlio  visited  it  in 
 1316,  found  several  fragments 
 of  buildings,  that  he  had  no 
 doubt  were  constructed  in 
 the  earliest  aees,  especially 
 thresholds  of  doors,  and  pil- 
 lars for  galleries  or  piazzas, 
 21 
 
ACH 
 
 and  slabs  of  fine  marble, 
 which  he  supposed  were  used 
 for  the  pavement  of  courts. 
 These  ruins  are  now  used  in 
 the  erection  of  new  buildings, 
 and  all  appearances  of  ancie^nt 
 prandeur  are  fading  away. 
 The  place  has  been  noted  in 
 modern  times  for  the  success- 
 ful resistance  it  made  under 
 Sir  Sydney  Smith  to  the 
 French  army  in  1799.  In 
 1S32,  the  place  was  under  the 
 dominion  of  the  pacha  of 
 Egypt.  (See  Geography  of 
 THE  Bible,  by  the  American 
 Sunday  school  Union,  p.  127.) 
 ACCURSED,  CURSED.  1. 
 (Josh.  VI.  17.")  Devoted  to  de- 
 struction. 2.  (1  Cor.  xii.  3.) 
 A  deceiver.  3.  (Gal.  i.  8,  9.) 
 Separated  from  the  church. 
 (See  Anathema.  See  also 
 Biblical  Antiq.uities,  by 
 the  American  Sunday-school 
 Union,  ch.  v.  §  1.) 
 
 ACELDAMA.  (Acts  i.  19.) 
 A  field  for  the  burial  of  stran- 
 gers, which  the  chief  priests 
 bought  with  the  money  re- 
 turned by  Judas,  as  the  price 
 of  the  Saviour's  blood.  (Matt, 
 xxvii.  6 — 8.)  Hence  its  name 
 Aceldama,oT  field  of  blood.  It 
 was  just  without  the  wall  of 
 Jerusalem,  south  of  mount 
 Zion,  and  was  originally  call- 
 ed the  potter's  field,  because  it 
 furnished  a  sort  of  clay  suit- 
 able for  potter's  ware.  Hence, 
 too,  the  burial-place  for  stran- 
 gers, which  is  attached  to 
 many  large  cities,  is  called 
 potter^s  field.  Aceldama  is 
 now  used  as  a  burying-place 
 by  the  Armenian  Christians 
 in  Jerusalem.  (See  Map  of 
 Jerusalem,  by  the  American 
 Sunday-school  Union.) 
 
 ACHAIA.  (Acts  xviii.  12. 
 Rom.  xvi.  5.  2  Cor.  xi.  10.)  In 
 the  most  comprehensive  use 
 this  term  was  applied  to  all 
 the  region  lying  south  of  Thes- 
 saly  and  Macedonia  as  far  as 
 the  Morea,  and  sometimes  in- 
 cluded the  whole  of  Greece ; 
 
 ACH 
 
 but  in  a  limited  use  it  em. 
 braced  only  the  district  be- 
 tween Macedonia  and  the  Pe- 
 loponnesus, of  which  Corinth 
 was  the  capital.  (See  (Co- 
 rinth.) 
 
 ACHAN.orACHAR.  (Josh, 
 vii.  18.)  A  son  of  Carmi,  of 
 the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  se- 
 cretly took  and  concealed 
 several  valuable  articles  from 
 among  the  spoils  of  Jericho, 
 in  direct  violation  of  the  di- 
 vine command.  (Josh.  vi.  17, 
 18.)  For  this  sin  judgment 
 came  upon  the  whole  camp 
 of  Israel.  (See  Joshua.)  By 
 a  process  which  God  appoint- 
 ed, Achan's  guilt  was  disco- 
 vered, and  he  was  taken  into 
 a  valley  north  of  Jericho, 
 thence  called  the  valley  of 
 Achor,  (see  Achor,)  and  was 
 there  stoned  to  death. 
 
 ACHISH.  (ISam.  xxi.  10.) 
 A  king  of  Gath,  to  whom  Da- 
 vid fled,  and  with  whom  he 
 afterwards  formed  an  alli- 
 ance, through  fear  of  Saul. 
 
 ACHMETHA.  (Ezra  vi.  2.) 
 The  Ecbatana  of  ancient  Me- 
 dia, and  the  place  where  the 
 records  of  the  kingdom  were 
 preserved.  The  place  is  oc- 
 cupied, as  it  is  supposed,  by 
 the  modern  city  Hamadan,  in 
 Persia.  It  was  surrounded  by 
 seven  walls,  and  at  one  period 
 was  considered  the  strongest 
 and  most  beautiful  city  of  the 
 east,  except  Nineveh  and  Ba- 
 bylon. 
 
 ACHOR. VALLEY  OP.(Hosea 
 ii.  15.)  A  place  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Jericho,  where  Achan  was 
 stoned  for  an  offence  which 
 brought  trouble  upon  the 
 whole  camp.  (See  Achan.) 
 The  figurative  use  of  the  word 
 in  the  passage  cited  is  sus- 
 ceptible of  divers  interpreta- 
 tions. The  most  common  is, 
 that  as  the  valley  of  Achor 
 was  the  place  of  great  distress 
 and  trouble  to  Israel  on  their 
 first  entrance  to  Canaan,  it 
 would  become  a  place  of  hope 
 22 
 
ACT 
 
 and  joy  on  their  return  from 
 the  captivity  which  they  were 
 then  enduring.  This  opinion 
 is  perhaps  confirmed  by  Isa. 
 liv.  10. 
 
 ACHSHAPH.  (Josh.xii.20.) 
 A  city  conquered  by  Joshua, 
 and  afterwards  assigned  to 
 the  tribe  of  Asher.  It  was  not 
 far  from  Accho.  (Josh.xix.  25.) 
 
 ACHZIB.  1.  CJosh.  xix.  29.) 
 A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Asher. 
 (Judg.  i.  31.)  Its  present  name 
 is  Zib.  It  is  found  near  the 
 eeacoasU  ten  or  twelve  miles 
 north  of  Ptolemais,  and  was 
 visited  by  Buckingham  in 
 1816.  2.  (Josh.  XV.  44,  and  Mic. 
 i.  14.)    A  town  of  Judah. 
 
 ACRE.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  14.)  In 
 the  passage  cited,  it  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  used  proverbially 
 for  a  very  small  space. 
 
 ACTS.  The  fifth  book  in 
 the  order  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment is  called  "  The  Acts 
 of  the  Apostles,"  and  is  com- 
 monly referred  to  as  The  Acts, 
 and  sometimes  .4c/s— without 
 the  article.  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  compiled  by  Luke 
 the  evangelist,  as  early  as  a.d. 
 6-1,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
 a  continuation  of  his  gospel. 
 It  was  originally  written  in 
 Greek  :  and  contains  the  his- 
 torjr  of  the  Christian  church 
 during  the  interesting  period 
 which  elapsed  from  tne  as- 
 cension of  our  Saviour,  to  the 
 imprisonment  ofPaul  at  Rome 
 —a    period    of    about    thirty 
 
 ;jars.  It  contains  a  minute 
 istory  of  the  descent  of  the 
 Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
 tecost ;  the  manner  and  suc- 
 cess of  the  preaching  of  the 
 apostles ;  and  the  galheriug 
 and  establishing  of  Christian 
 churches  by  them,  both  among 
 Jews  and  Gentiles :  the  con- 
 version of  Paul,  and  the  tra- 
 vels and  labours  of  himself 
 and  hie  companions  ;  the  tri- 
 als and  Buflferings  .hey  endur- 
 ed in  propagating  Jie  gospel, 
 
 ADA 
 
 and  the  signs  and  wonders 
 which  were  wrought  in  attes- 
 tation of  their  authority. 
 
 This  book  is  particularly 
 valuable  as  containing  a  vast 
 body  of  evidence  of  the  divine 
 power  and  mission  of  Jesus 
 Christ,  and  of  his  grace  and 
 faiihfulness  ;  by  which  the  re- 
 ligion he  taught  was  establish- 
 ed and  widely  propagated,  and 
 the  salvation  oSered  by  his 
 gospel  was  most  clearly  and 
 gloriously  illustrated. 
 
 This  book  is  called  by  some 
 of  the  oldest  writers  the  gos- 
 pel of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the 
 gospel  of  our  Saviour's  resur- 
 rection. 
 
 Many  pretended  copies  of 
 this  book,  or  other  rect)rd8  of 
 the  apostolic  acts,  have  been 
 introduced  to  the  world  ;  but 
 have  been  soon  proved  to  be 
 spurious.  The  American  Sun- 
 day-school Union  have  pub- 
 lished, in  a  very  cheap  and 
 convenient  form,  a  Help  to 
 the  study  of  this  book  ;  which 
 consists  in  a  complete  analy- 
 sis uf  each  passage,  and  such 
 inferences  and  illustrations 
 as  are  adapted  to  liie  use  of 
 the  student.  It  is  called  Help 
 to  the  Acts,  parts  i.  and  ii. 
 The  fifth  volume  of  the  Union 
 Questions,  by  the  American 
 Sunday-school  Union,  embra- 
 ces this  book,  and  the  Life  op 
 Paul,  another  of  the  publica- 
 tions of  the  American  Sunday- 
 schoolUnion,may  be  read  with 
 great  advantage  in  connexion 
 with  the  inspired  history. 
 
 ADAM.  (Gen.  ii.  19.)  The 
 great  ancestor  of  the  human 
 family.  On  the  sixth  and  last 
 day  of  the  work  of  crealioc. 
 man  was  made  of  the  dust  of 
 the  ground,  yet  in  God's  ima^e 
 and  after  his  likeness.  The 
 Lord  God  breathed  into  his 
 nostrils  the  breath  of  life,  and 
 caused  him  to  become  a  living 
 soul.  He  also  gave  him  domi- 
 nion over  the  fish  of  the  sea- 
 and  the  fowls  cf  the  air  aod 
 23 
 
ADA 
 
 every  living  thing  that  moves 
 HDon  the  earth.  The  com- 
 plete dominion  which  was 
 given  to  him  is  expressed  in  a 
 variety  of  forms.  (Gen.  i.  26— 
 30,  and  ii.  16-20.)  Nothing 
 can  be  more  interesting  than 
 the  history  of  man's  creation. 
 The  fabric  of  this  beautiful 
 world  was  finished  ;  the  fir- 
 mament was  established  ;  the 
 mountains  were  fixed  upon 
 their  deep  foundations,  and  to 
 Beas  and  oceans  were  assign- 
 ed the  bounds  which  they 
 should  not  pass ;  the  heavens 
 were  stretched  out  like  a 
 curtain,  and  the  sun,  moon, 
 and  stars  appointed  to  their 
 courses.  The  earth  was 
 adorned  with  grass  and  herbs 
 and  trees,  suited  for  the  com- 
 fort and  sustenance  of  the 
 living  creatures,  cattle,  and 
 creeping  things  that  had  just 
 commenced  their  existence 
 upon  its  surface,  and  all  had 
 been  pronounced  good  by  the 
 infinite  Creator  himself. 
 
 To  enjoy  this  glorious  reve- 
 lation of  divine  power,  wis- 
 dom, and  goodness— to  have 
 dominion  over  this  vast  multi- 
 tude of  living  creatures,  and 
 more  than  all  to  be  the  happy 
 subject  of  God's  government 
 — bearin|  his  image  and  like- 
 ness, and  having  communion 
 with  him,  as  the  former  of  his 
 body  and  the  father  of  his 
 spirit,  MAN  WAS  formed;  not 
 born,  but  created— not  in  fee- 
 ble, helpless  infancy,  but  in 
 the  maturity  of  his  physical 
 and  intellectual  nature  ;  not 
 a  sinful,  diseased,  dying  crea- 
 ture, but  in  the  image  and  after 
 the  likeness  of  th'e  perfectly 
 holy  and  eternal  Creator. 
 ....  A  creature,  who,  not  prone 
 And  brute  as  other  creatures,  but  en- 
 dued 
 With  sanctity  of  reason,  misht  erect  his 
 
 stature — 
 And  upright,  with  front  serene, 
 Govern    the   rest — self-knowing :    and 
 
 from  thence 
 Magnanimous  to  correspond  with  hea- 
 
 ADA 
 
 A  garden  was  planted  by  the 
 hand  of  God  for  the  residence 
 of  Adam.  Every  tree  that  was 
 pleasant  to  the  sight,  or  good 
 for  food,  grew  there.  And  it 
 was  refreshed  and  fertilized 
 by  a  river  that  flowed  through 
 the  midst  of  it. 
 
 This  garden  was  committed 
 to  his  care,  to  dress  it,  and  to 
 keep  it,  and  of  every  tree  but 
 one  he  was  allowed  to  eat; 
 but  of  the  tree  of  knowledge 
 of  good  and  evil  he  was  for- 
 bidden to  eat,  under  the  pe- 
 nalty of  death.  As  soon  as  he 
 was  fixed  in  this  happy  abode, 
 God  brought  to  him  the  beasts 
 of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of 
 the  air  which  he  had  created, 
 and  Adam  gave  them  names ; 
 and  whatsoever  Adam  called 
 every  living  creature  that  was 
 the  name  thereof 
 
 But  it  was  not  good  that 
 man  should  be  alone,  and  his 
 Creator  formed  a  companion 
 for  him;  bone  of  his  bone,  and 
 flesh  of  his  flesh ; — a  help- 
 meet for  him,— that  is,  as  a 
 friend  and  associate  fitted  to 
 aid  and  comfort  him,  and  like 
 him  pure  and  immortal.  They 
 were  perfectly  happy  in  each 
 other,  and  in  the  favour  and 
 communion  of  God- 
 Reaping  immortal  fruits  of  joy  and  love, 
 Uninterrupted  joy— unrivalled  love — 
 In  blissful  solitude. 
 
 We  are  not  informed  how 
 long  they  continued  in  this 
 pure  and  happy  state,  but  we 
 know  they  lost  it.  Adam  dis- 
 obeyed the  simple  and  rea- 
 sonable command  of  God.  At 
 the  suggestion  of  Eve,  his 
 wife,  who  had  been  herself 
 tempted  by  the  serpent  to  eat 
 he  partook  with  her  of  the 
 fruit  of  the  only  firbidden 
 tree,  and  thus  they  incurred 
 the  displeasure  of  their  Ma- 
 ker, and  the  penalty  of  his 
 just  law. 
 
 The  first  indication  of  guilt 
 was  the  consciousness  of 
 1  shame  ;  and  the  next  a  vain 
 
ADA 
 
 attempt  to   hide   themselves  I 
 from  the   presence   of  Him, 
 whose  eyes  are  in  every  place, 
 beholding  the  evil    and  the 
 good. 
 
 Without  delay  each  of  the 
 parties  to  the  fatal  transaction 
 received  a  dreadful  doom. 
 (See  Serpext,  Eve.)  As  for 
 man,  the  ground  was  cursed 
 for  his  sake,  and  he  was  con- 
 demned to  eat  bread  in  the 
 sweat  of  his  face  till  he  shoidd 
 return  to  the  dust  of  which 
 he  was  formed,  or  suffer  the 
 death  to  which  he  was  now 
 sentenced.  Not  only  should 
 his  body  decay  and  perish,  but 
 the  death  to  which  he  was 
 thus  doomed  included  separa- 
 tion from  the  favour  of  God, 
 and  condemnation  to  endless 
 sorrow  and  suffering. 
 
 Thus,  by  one  man  sin  en- 
 tered into  the  world,  and 
 death  by  sin.  Their  naked- 
 ness, which  was  now  their 
 shame,  being  covered,  they 
 were  both  driven  from  their 
 happy  home  in  Eden,  never  to 
 return :  and, in  the  hardship 
 of  toil  and  labour,  and,  in  the 
 sorrow  and  sufferings  of  child- 
 birth, they  began  at  once, 
 respectively,  to'feel  the  woes 
 in  which  their  transgression 
 had  involved  them. 
 
 In  a  little  while  the  dreadful 
 power  of  sin  and  its  temporal 
 conseguences  were  shown 
 them  in  a  combined  and  most 
 revolting  form.  Abel  —  the 
 righteous  Abel— their  beloved 
 son,  was  cruelly  and  wantonly 
 murdered  by  the  hand  of  his 
 brother. 
 
 The  history  of  Adam  closes 
 abruptly.  At  the  a^e  of  one 
 hundred  and  thirty  ne  had  a 
 son  whom  he  called  Seth;  and 
 who  was  born  in  his  own  like- 
 ness and  after  his  own  image, 
 (no  longer  in  the  likeness  and 
 after  the  image  of  God.)  He 
 lived  eight  hundred  years 
 after  the  birth  of  Seth,  making 
 the  whole  term  of  his  life  nine 
 3 
 
 ADJ 
 
 hundred  and  thirty  years— 
 and  he  died  b.  c.  3074.  (For 
 a  simple  and  beautiful  history 
 of  the  creation  and  of  the  fall 
 of  man,  see  Bible  Sketches, 
 and  the  First  Man,  both  by 
 the  American  Sunday-school 
 Union.) 
 
 ADAMANT.  (Ezek.  iii.  9.) 
 One  of  the  hardest  and  most 
 costlyof  precious  stones.  The 
 original  is  elsewhere  trans- 
 lated diamond.  It  is  employed 
 as  an  emblem  of  the  heart 
 of  the  wicked.  (Zech.  vii.  12.) 
 Some  suppose  it  was  used  for 
 cutting,  engraving,  and  polish- 
 ing other  hard' stones  and 
 crv.stals.    (See  Diamond.) 
 
 ADAR.    (See  Month.) 
 
 ADDER.  l.(Gen.xlix.  17., 
 A  venomous  serpent  whose 
 poison  is  very-subtle,  and  al- 
 most instantly  fatal.  The  word 
 translated  adder,  in  various 
 passages  of  the  Bible,  does 
 not  always  mean  what  the 
 English  word  denotes.  In 
 Gen.  xlix.  17,  the  original 
 word  denotes  a  serpent  of  the 
 viper  kind,  of  the  colour  of 
 sand,  which  lurks  in  the 
 tracks  of  the  wheels,  and 
 bites  the  unwary  traveller  or 
 his  beast.  2.  In  Ps.  Iviii.  4, 
 and  xci.  13,  the  word  trans- 
 lated adder  is  supposed  to 
 mean  an  asp.  3.  In  Ps.  cxl.  3, 
 some  suppose  the  spider  or 
 tarantula  is  meant,  and  others 
 the  asp.  (Rom.  iii.  13.)  4.  In 
 Prov.  xxiii.  32,  the  word  may 
 be  rendered  cockatrice  wili 
 equal  propriety. 
 
 It  is  remarked  of  the  adder 
 or  asp,  that  he  is  not  moved 
 or  affected  by  sounds  which 
 fascinate  other  serpents  ;  and 
 some  suppose  that  the  most 
 venomous  of  the  adder  spe- 
 cies is  naturally  deaf  Hence 
 the  allusion  in  Ps.  Iviii.  4- 
 (See  A.SP.) 
 
 ADJURE.  l.(Josh.vi.  26.) 
 To  bind  under  a  curse.  2. 
 (Matt.  xxvi.  63.)  Solemnly 
 to  require  a  declaration  of  the 
 
ADO 
 Lisulh  at  the  peril  of  God's  dis- 
 pleasure. Such  is  considered 
 the  lan^uaffe  ol  the  high-prieel, 
 "  1  adju're  thee,"  &c.  or,  "  I  put 
 thee  to  thy  oath;"  when  the 
 Saviour  replied  to  the  inquiry 
 to  which  he  had  before  been 
 silent  (Matt.  xxvi.  63.  Com- 
 pare 1  Sam.  xiv.  24,  38.  and 
 1  Kings  xxii.  16,  with  Josh.  vi. 
 26.) 
 
 ADMAH.  (Deut.  xxix.  23.) 
 The  most  easterly  of  the  five 
 cities  of  the  plain  or  vale  of 
 Siddim,  which  were  miracu- 
 lously destroyed  by  fire,  be- 
 cause of  their  £rreat  wicked- 
 ness. Some  infer  from  Isa. 
 XV.  9,  the  last  clause  of  which 
 is  translated  by  the  Scptua- 
 ginl,  and  upon  the  remnant  of 
 Adama,  that  Adniah  was  not 
 entirely  destroyed ;  but  the 
 more  probable  supposition  is, 
 that  another  city  of  the  same 
 name  was  afterwards  built 
 near  the  site  of  the  former. 
 
 ADONI-EEZEK.  (Jndg.  i. 
 6.)  Lord  or  king  of  Bezek. 
 He  fled  from  the  armies  of 
 Judah,  but  was  cauphl  and 
 disabled  by  having;  his  thumbs 
 and  great  toes  cut  off,  so  that 
 he  could  neither  fiirhl  nor  fly. 
 He  was  then  carried  to  Jeru- 
 Balem,  where  he  died.  He 
 seems  to  have  regarded  the 
 maiming  he  suffered  as  a  just 
 requitafof  his  own  cruelty, 
 he  having  mutilated  seventy 
 kings  or  chieftains  in  the 
 same  inhuman  manner. 
 
 ADONTJAH.  (2  Sam.  iii.  4.) 
 r«vid'8  fourth  son.  He  was 
 born  at  Hebron,  and  after  the 
 death  of  his  brothers  Amnon 
 and  Absalom,  he  made  pre- 
 tensions to  the  throne  of  hjg 
 father.  He  prepared  himself 
 with  horses  and  chariots,  and 
 other  marks  of  royalty,  and 
 look  counsel  with  Joab  and 
 Abiaihar  how  he  could  best 
 accomplish  his  purpose. 
 
 Bathsheba,  Snlomnn's  mo- 
 ther, fearing  that  her  son's 
 title  to  the  throne  might  be 
 
 ADO 
 
 disturbed,  immediately  fn- 
 formed  the  king  of  Adonijah'a 
 revolt ;  and  Nathan  the  pro- 
 phet confirming  the  statement 
 of  the  matter,  David  gave 
 Bathsheba  the  strongest  as- 
 surances that  her  son  should 
 reign  after  him  ;  and  he  caused 
 Solomon  to  be  actually  anoint- 
 ed and  proclaimed  king  with 
 great  shoutings.  (1  Kiijgs  i.39.) 
 Adonijah  vvas  just  ending  a 
 feast  when  he  heard  the  noise 
 of  the  shouting,  and  Jonathan 
 came  in  and  told  him  all  that 
 had  taken  place.  His  guests 
 fled  precipitately,  and  Adoni- 
 jah himself  ran  and  caught 
 hold  of  the  horns  of  the  altar, 
 which  seems  to  have  been 
 regarded  as  a  place  of  safely 
 from  violence. 
 
 After  David's  death,  Adoni- 
 jah  persuaded  Bathsheba  to 
 ask   Solomon   her  son,   who 
 was   now  on  the   throne,  to 
 give  him  Abishag  fir  his  wife. 
 Solomon  saw  at  once  through 
 the   policy  of  Adonijah,  and 
 his    self-interested    advisers. 
 !  He  knew  that   he  might  as 
 well  have  asked  for  the  king- 
 j  d"m  at  once  as  to  ask  for  the 
 j  king's  widow,  for  then,  being 
 I  the  elder  brother,  he   could 
 '  make  a  plausible  claim  to  the 
 j  throne  at  the  first  favourable 
 juncture  ;  which  would  direct- 
 ly   contravene     the    expresH 
 .  appointment    of    God    made 
 I  known  to  David,  and  probably 
 to  his  family  also.    (1  Chron. 
 xxviii.  5.)  So  he  caused  him  to 
 he  put  to  death  by  the  hand  of 
 Benaiah. 
 ADOMEAM.      (See    Anc 
 
 RAM.) 
 
 ADONI-ZEDEK.  (Josh.  x.  I.) 
 King  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  time 
 the  country  was  entered  Ijy 
 the  Israelites.  Hearing  of 
 Joshua's  victories  over  Ai  and 
 Jericho,  and  findinir  that  the 
 inhabitants  of  Gil)eon  (one  of 
 the  most  important  cities  of 
 the  kingdom)  had  made  a 
 league  with  him,  he  called 
 96 
 
ADO 
 four  other  kings  of  the  Am- 
 moDites  to  his  aid,  and  laid 
 siege  to  Gibeon  with  a  view- 
 to  destroy  it,  because  it  had 
 made  peace  with  Joshua  and 
 the  children  of  Israel. 
 
 But  the  Li^rd  was  against 
 them,  and  with  the  edgeof  the 
 eword  and  a  violent  hail-storm 
 which  overlooli  them,  they 
 were  completely  overthrown 
 and  destroyed.  The  victory 
 was  attended  with  a  signal 
 miracle.    (See  Joshua.) 
 
 Adoni-zedec,  with  his  allies, 
 fled  and  concealed  themselves 
 in  a  cave  at  IMakkedah.  They 
 were  soon  discovered,  how- 
 ever; and  were  confined  and 
 watched,  until  the  last  of  their 
 adherents  was  either  cut  off 
 or  driven  into  some  firtress. 
 They  were  then  called  out  of 
 the  cave,  and  brought  before 
 Joshua. 
 
 In  the  presence  of  the  men 
 of  Israel,  who  were  summon- 
 ed fjr  the  purpose,  Joshua 
 required  the  captains  of  his 
 army  to  put  their  feet  upon 
 the  necks  of  the  captive  kings, 
 declaring  at  the  same  time, 
 that  such  would  be  the  doom 
 of  all  the  enemies  of  Israel. 
 He  then  caused  them  to  be 
 slain,  and  to  be  hanged  on 
 separate  trees  until  evening, 
 and  then  their  bodies  were 
 taken  down,  and  cast  into  the 
 cave  in  which  they  had  con- 
 cealed themselves.  (Josh.  x. 
 27.) 
 
 ADOPTION  (Gal.  iv.  5)  is 
 an  act  by  which  one  is  re- 
 ceived into  a  man's  family  as 
 his  own  child,  and  becomes 
 entitled  to  the  peculiar  privi- 
 leges of  that  connexion,  as 
 fully  and  completely  as  a  child 
 by  birth.  (Ex.  ii.  10,  and  Esth. 
 ii.  7.) 
 
 In  the  figurative  use  of  the 
 term  by  the  sacred  writers, 
 it  implies  that  relation  which 
 we  sustain  to  God,  when,  by 
 his  grace,  we  are  converted 
 from  sin  to   holiness.     The 
 
 ADR 
 
 spirit  of  adoption  is  received, 
 and  we  are  made  the  children, 
 (or  s(ms)  and  heirs  of  God,  and 
 joint-heirs  with  Christ.  (See 
 Biblical  Antiquities,  by  the 
 American  S.  S.  Union,  on. 
 
 VI. 
 
 n.) 
 
 ADORAM.  1.  (2  Sam.  xx. 
 24.)  An  officer  of  the  customs 
 under  David. 
 
 2.  An  officer  of  Relioboam's 
 treasury,  (perhaps  the  son  of 
 the  former,)  who  was  stoned 
 to  death  by  the  people  of  Is- 
 rael who  followed  Jeroboam. 
 (1  Kings  xii.  IS.)  Some  sup- 
 pose him  to  have  been  the 
 same  with  Adoniram,(l  Kings 
 V.  14,)  who  was  over  the  cus- 
 toms in  Solomon's  reign;  and 
 that  the  people  were  so  indig- 
 nant at  the  oppression  they 
 had  suflFered  through  his 
 agency,  that  they  took  this 
 method  of  revenue. 
 
 adra:\imelE'ch.  i.asa. 
 
 xxxvii.  33^  A  son  of  Senna- 
 ciierib  king  of  Assyria.  He 
 and  his  brother  Sharezer  kill- 
 ed their  father  while  he  was 
 in  the  act  of  idolatry.  Their 
 motive  for  this  parricidal  act 
 is  not  known.  They  both  fled 
 to  Armenia,  and  Esarhaddon 
 succeeded  to  the  crown. 
 
 2.  (2  Kings  xvii.  31.)  An  idol 
 god  of  Sepharvaim,  supposed 
 to  represent  the  sun,  while 
 another  idol  called  Anamrae- 
 lech  represented  the  moon. 
 Sacrifices  of  living  children 
 were  made  to  these  idols. 
 
 ADRAMYTTIUM.  (Acts 
 xxvii.  2.)  A  seaport  of  Mysia, 
 opposite  the  island  of  Lesbo.s, 
 in  the  north-western  part  of 
 Asia  Minor.  It  is  known  by 
 the  modern  name  of  Edremit 
 or  Ydramit,  and  lies  about 
 sixty  or  eighty  miles  north  of 
 Smyrna.  "It  was  in  a  shin  be- 
 longing to  this  port  that  Paul 
 embarked,  when  he  was  about 
 to  go  from  Cesarea  to  Rome 
 as  a  prisoner.  (See  Map  to 
 art.  Paul.) 
 
 ADRL\  (Acts  xxvii.  27)    is 
 
ADU 
 now  the  gulf  which  lies  be- 
 tween Italy  on  one  side,  and 
 the  coast  of  Dalmatia  on  the 
 other.  It  is  called  the  gulf  of 
 Venice.  In  the  apostle's  lime 
 it  is  supposed  to  have  denoted 
 the  whole  breadth  of  the  Me- 
 diterranean sea,  from  Crete  to 
 Sicily. 
 \   ADRIEL.    (SeeMERAB.) 
 
 ADULLAM.  (Josh.  XV.  35.) 
 An  ancient  and  celebrated 
 city  of  Judah,  fifteen  or  twenty 
 miles  south-west  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. The  king  of  the  place 
 was  slain  by  Joshua.  It  was 
 fortified  by  Rehoboam,  and 
 probably  on  account  of  its 
 strength  was  called  the  elory 
 of  Israel.  (Mic.  i.  15.)  Kear 
 this  city  was  a  cave,  where 
 David  secreted  himself  when 
 he  fled  from  Achish.  The 
 cave,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
 the  same,  was  visited  by  Mr. 
 Whiting,' an  American  mis- 
 sionary, April  17,  1835.  He 
 descril)es  it  as  uneven,  intri- 
 cate, and  very  capacious  ;  and 
 says  it  is  perfectly  plain  that 
 four  hundred  men  might  con- 
 ceal themselves  in  the  sides 
 of  the  cave,  as  David's  men 
 did,  and  escape  observation. 
 (I  Sam.  xxii.  1.  See  Map  to 
 art.  Canaan.) 
 
 ADULTERY.  (Jer.  iii.  9. 
 Matt.  v.  28.)  A  crime  expressly 
 prohibited  by  the  seventh 
 commandment,  and  always 
 obnoxious  to  severe  penalties, 
 both  by  divine  and  human 
 laws.    The  term  is  often  em- 
 
 gloyed  with  great  force  in  the 
 iible,  to  denote  the  unfaith- 
 fulness and  idolatry  of  the 
 people  of  God,  and  their  vio- 
 lation of  the  most  sacred  en- 
 gagements. 
 
 ADUMMIM.  (Josh,  xv.7.)  A 
 rising  ground  at  the  entrance 
 of  the  wilderness  of  Jericho. 
 The  name  signifies  red  or 
 bloody,  in  allusion,  as  it  is 
 supposed,  to  the  frequent  mur- 
 ders committed  in  its  vi- 
 cinity.    There    are    circum- 
 
 AGA 
 
 stances  to  show  that  the  scene 
 of  our  Saviour's  parable  of  the 
 good  Samaritan  was  laid  here. 
 (Luke    X.  30—36.    See   Geo- 
 
 GRAPHY    OF     THE     BiBLE,    by 
 
 the  American  Sunday-school 
 Union,  p.  9'2.) 
 
 ADVOCATE.  (1  John  ii.  1.) 
 One  that  pleads  another's 
 cause.  It  IS  one  tf  the  ofii- 
 cial  titles  of  Jesus  Christ  the 
 righteous,  and  its  import  may 
 be  learned  from  John  xvii. 
 Rom.  viii.  34,  and  Heb.  vii.25. 
 
 JENON.    (See  Enon.) 
 
 AFFINITY.  (1  Kings  iii.  1.) 
 Relation  by  marriage,  in  con- 
 tradistinction from  consan- 
 guinity, which  is  relation  by 
 blood  or  birth.  The  degrees 
 of  affinity,  or  the  nearness  of 
 relationship  which  should  pre- 
 vent marriage  under  the  law, 
 may  be  found  in  Lev.  xviii. 
 6—17.  This  subject  is  regu- 
 lated in  the  United  States  by 
 the  laws  of  the  several  States. 
 
 AGABUS.  (Acts  xi.  28.)  A 
 prophet  who  foretold  (A.  D.  4-3) 
 the  famine,  which,  as  profane 
 history  informs  us,  took  place 
 the  following  year.  A  few 
 years  after,  (Acts  xxi.  10,)  he 
 met  Paul  at  Cesarea,  and 
 warned  him  of  the  sufferings 
 he  would  endure  if  he  prose- 
 cuted his  journey  to  Jerusa- 
 lem. Some  have  supposed 
 that  Agabus  was  one  of  the 
 seventy  disciples,  and  that 
 he  suflfered  martyrdom  at  An 
 tioch. 
 
 AGAG  (Num.  xxi  v.  7)  was 
 a  king  of  the  Amalekites. 
 Some  think  this  was  the  com- 
 mon name  of  their  kings,  as 
 Pharaoh  was  the  common 
 name  of  the  kings  of  Egypt. 
 From  the  allusion  to  him  in 
 the  prophetic  passage  above 
 cited,  we  may  suppose  him  to 
 have  been  one  of  the  greatest 
 kings  of  the  earth. 
 
 Aaother  person  of  the  same 
 
 name  was  captured  by  Saul  at 
 
 tlie  time  the  Amalekites  were 
 
 destroyed,  (1  Sam.  xv.  8,)  but 
 
 5iS 
 
AGR 
 
 his  life  was  spared,  and  he 
 was  afterwards  brought  to 
 Samuel,  who  hewed  him  in 
 pieces,  (1  Sam.  xv.  33;)  a 
 punishment  hot  uncommon 
 m  other  places  and  later 
 times. 
 
 Hammedatha,  Haman's  fa- 
 ther, is  called  an  Agagiie, 
 (Esth.  iii.  1,)  probably  because 
 he  was  an  Amalekiie. 
 
 AGAR  or  HAGAR.  (Gal.  iv. 
 2.5.)  The  history  or  condition 
 of  Hagar  is  used  allegorically 
 in  this  passage  to  illustrate 
 the  nature  of  the  dispensation 
 from  Mount  Sinai.  Rlount 
 Sinai  is  called  Agar  by  the 
 Arabians.    (See  Hagar.) 
 
 AGATE.  (Exod.  xxviii.  19, 
 and  xxxix.  12.)  A  precious 
 stone,  serai-transparent,  and 
 beautifully  variegated.  Itofteh 
 presents  a  group  of  figures 
 disposed  with  so  much  regu- 
 larity as  to  seem  like  a  wol-k 
 of  art;  such  as  trees,  plants, 
 rivers,  clouds,  buildings,  and 
 human  beings.  The  name  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  be  de- 
 rived from  the  river  Achates 
 in  Sicily,  where  the  stone  was 
 formerly  f  )und  in  great  abun- 
 dance. The  word'translated 
 agate  (Isa.  liv.  12,  and  Ezek. 
 xxvii.  16)  is  supposed  to  de- 
 note the  riibu. 
 
 AGRIPPA.  (Acts  XXV.  13.) 
 Son  and  successor  of  Herod 
 the  persecutor.  (Acts  xii.  1.) 
 Porcius  Festus,  the  successor 
 of  Felix  in  the  government  of 
 ludea,  came  to"Cesarea;  and 
 while  there,  Agrippa  (who 
 was  governor  or  king  of  se- 
 \^eral  of  the  eastern  provinces 
 ef  the  Roman  empire)  came, 
 with  his  sister  Bernice  or  Be- 
 renice, to  pay  him  a  visit  of 
 tongratulation  upon  his  ac- 
 cession to  office.  The  con- 
 versation between  them  turn- 
 mg  upon  Paul,  who  was  then 
 fti  confinement  at  Cesarea, 
 md  whose  remarkable  history 
 must  have  been  very  notori- 
 9us,  Festus  stated  the  whole 
 2*    » 
 
 AHA 
 
 matter  to  Agrippa,  and  great- 
 ly excited  his  curiosity  to  see 
 and  hear  him. 
 
 Festus,  to  gratify  his  friends, 
 bat  under  the  pretence  of 
 getting  frum  Paul  the  subject- 
 matter  of  his  complaint,  that 
 he  might  communicate  it  to 
 the  emperor,  to  whom  he  had 
 appealed,  took  the  judgment- 
 seat  with  great  pomp,  and 
 surrounding  himself  with  the 
 chief  men  of  the  city,  ordered 
 Paul  to  be  brought  into  his 
 presence. 
 
 When  the  devoted  apostle 
 appeared  before  them,  Festus, 
 addressing  himself  particular- 
 ly to  Agrippa,  assigned  the 
 reasons  for  requiring  Paul  to 
 appear  at  that  time,  and  then 
 gave  the  prisoner  an  opportu- 
 nity to  state  his  own  case, 
 which  he  did  with  unparallel- 
 ed force  and  eloquence.  Fes- 
 tus could  only  meet  his  argu- 
 ments with  the  charge  of  mad- 
 ness; but  Agrippa, 'to  whose 
 conscience  he  made  an  abrupt, 
 though  not  the  less  respectful 
 and  Irresistible  appeal,  was 
 compelled  to  make  that  me- 
 morable exclamation,  "  Al- 
 most thou  persuadest  me  to 
 be  a  Christian."  Paul  closed 
 his  address  by  a  most  affec- 
 tionate exhortation  to  the 
 king;  the  assembly  then  se- 
 parated, and  we  hear  nothing 
 more  of  Agrippa  but  an  ex- 
 pression of  his  regret  (Acts 
 xxvi.  32)  that  the  faithful  and 
 eloquent  apostle  could  not  be 
 set  at  liberty.  (See  Life  op 
 Pattl,  by  the  American  Sun- 
 day-school Union,  ch.  xvii.) 
 Agrippa  died  about  A.  D.  90, 
 aiied  70  years. 
 
 ^AHAB.  l.(lKingsxvi.29.) 
 The  son  of  Omri,  and  his  suc- 
 cessor as  king  of  Israel.  He 
 reigned  twenty-two  years,  and 
 the  seat  of  his  kingdom  was 
 at  Samaria.  He  married  Je- 
 zebel, a  Zidonian  woman  of 
 proverbially  wicked  charac- 
 ter. She  was  a  gross  idolater. 
 29 
 
AHA 
 
 and  Ahab  followed  her  in  all 
 her  idolatrous  practices ;  be- 
 came at  once  a  worshipper  of 
 Baal,  and  even  made  a  grove 
 and  built  an  altar  for  this 
 abominable  service.  At  a  very 
 early  period  of  his  historyj 
 the  sacred  historian  says  ol 
 him,  that  he  did  more  to  pro- 
 voke the  Lord  God  of  Israel 
 to  anger  than  all  the  kings  of 
 Israel  that  were  before  him. 
 
 He  was  warned  by  the  pro- 
 phet Elijah  of  approaching 
 drought  and  consequent  fa- 
 mine, which  was  very  sore  in 
 Samaria.  In  the  third  year 
 of  the  famine,  Ahab  called 
 Obadiah,  the  governor  of  his 
 house  and  a  godly  man,  to 
 pass  through  half  the  land, 
 while  he  would  pass  through 
 the  other  half,  and  see  if  they 
 could  not  collectgrass  enough, 
 on  the  margins  of  fountains 
 and  brooks'^  to  save  their 
 horses  and  mules  from  pe- 
 rishing. 
 
 In  tlie  course  of  his  journey, 
 Obadiah  met  Elijah,  who  had 
 been  commanded  by  God  to 
 show  himself  to  Ahab,  and  at 
 Elijah's  request  Ahab  came  to 
 meet  him. 
 
 When  Ahab  appeared  in 
 Elijah's  presence,  he  abruptly 
 said  to  him — Art  thou  he  that 
 troubleth  Israel?  The  pro- 
 phet replied  by  a  faithful  re- 
 buke of  the  king's  idolatry, 
 and  proposed  to  demonstrate 
 to  him  that  the  gods  he  was 
 serving  were  no  gods.  To  this 
 end  he  persuacfed  Ahab  to 
 gather  the  prophets  cf  Baal, 
 whom  -he  worshipped,  into 
 one  company  in  mount  Car- 
 mel,  and  there  the  folly  of 
 their  idolatry  was  exposed  in 
 a  most  signal  manner.  (See 
 Elijah.)  The  prophets  of 
 Baal  were  all  taken  and  de- 
 stroyed at  Elijah's  command, 
 and  before  Ahab  could  return 
 to  Samaria  there  was  a  great 
 rain. 
 
 About  six  years  after  this, 
 
 AHA 
 
 Benhadad  king  of  Syria,  with 
 a  vast  army,  besieged  Sama- 
 ria, but  Ahab  sallied  out  upon 
 him  by  surprise ; — cut  on  a 
 large  proportion  of  his  army, 
 and  put  to  flight  the  residue  ; 
 Benhadad  himself  escaping 
 upon  a  horse. 
 
 The  king  of  Syria,  suppos- 
 ing tliat  his  defeat  was  owing 
 to  some  advantage  of  location 
 which  Ahab's  army  enjoyed, 
 flattered  himself  that  if  he 
 could  go  to  battle  in  the  plain, 
 he  should  conquer  him.  Ac- 
 cordingly in  about  a  year  he 
 laid  siege  to  Samaria  again. 
 Of  this  Ahab  had  an  intima- 
 tion from  the  prophet  imme- 
 diately after  the  former  vic- 
 tory, and  he  had  prepared 
 himself  accordingly.  _  God 
 again  gave  him  the  victory, 
 and  the  Syrians  lost  100,00(3 
 footmen  in  one  day,  besides 
 27,000  who  were  killed  by  a 
 wall  which  fell  upon  them  at 
 Aphek,  whither  they  fled. 
 Benhadad  was  among  the 
 captives,  and  after  making  a 
 treaty  with  the  victorious 
 Ahab,  he  went  his  way. 
 
 Ahab  was  immediately  in- 
 firmed  that  he  had  been  guilty 
 of  a  great  sin  in  suffering  the 
 king  of  Syria  to  escape,  inas- 
 much as  he  had  been  deliver- 
 ed into  his  hands  by  a  mar- 
 vellous interposition  of  God's 
 providence,  and  his  character 
 and  conduct  had  been  such  as 
 to  mark  him  for  the  divine 
 displeasure.  Besides  this,  the 
 motives  of  Ahab  in  making 
 the  treaty  may  be  regarded  as 
 ambitious,  if  not  corrupt;  and 
 he  was  therefore  informed 
 that  his  own  life  should  go  for 
 the  life  of  Benhadad,  and  his 
 people  for  Benhadad's  people. 
 
 Heavy  and  fearful  as  this 
 sentence  was,  we  find  the 
 wicked  king  of  Israel  sinking 
 deeper  and  deeper  in  guilt. 
 Naboth,  one  of  his  neighbours, 
 had  a  vineyard,  which  was 
 situated  just  by  Ahab's  palace ; 
 30 
 
AHA 
 
 and  as  it  was  a  convenient 
 and  desirable  spot  for  liini  to 
 possess,  he  asked  Naboth  to 
 give  it  to  liim,  promising  at 
 the  same  time  to  give  liim  a 
 better  vineyard,  or  tlie  worth 
 of  it  in  money,  as  he  might 
 choose.  All  this  seemed  very 
 fair,  but  Naboth  did  not  wish 
 to  part  with  his  vineyard  on 
 any  terms.  It  was  the  inhe- 
 ritance he  had  received  from 
 his  fathers,  and  for  this  and 
 other  causes  its  value  to  him 
 was  peculiar,  and  such  as 
 neither  money  nor  any  other 
 vineyard  in  exchange  could 
 compensate.  He  therefore  de- 
 clined the  king's  proposal. 
 
 Mortified  and  disappointed 
 by  Nabolh's  refusal,  lie  laid 
 down  upon  his  bed,  and  re- 
 fused to  eat.  Jezebel,  his 
 wicked  wife,  inquired  the 
 cause  of  his  sadness,  and  as- 
 sured him  that  he  might  set 
 his  heart  at  rest,  for  he  should 
 have  his  desire ;  and  she 
 forthwith  commenced  a  train 
 of  measures  which  resulted  in 
 the  murder  of  Naboth ;  and 
 Ahab  then  took  possession  of 
 the  vineyard. 
 
 But  his  judgment  lingered 
 not.  Elijah  was  sent  to  charge 
 him  with  the  sin  to  which  he 
 had  been  accessary,  and  to 
 forewarn  him,  not  only  of  his 
 own  fearful  doom,  but  of  the 
 certain  and  utter  destruction 
 of  his  posterity :  In  the  place 
 where  dogs  licked  the  blood  of 
 Naboth  shall  dogs  lick  thy 
 blood,  even  thine. 
 
 Guilty  as  Ahab  was,  he  had 
 not  yet  lost  all  sense  of  sin, 
 and  when  the  judgments  of 
 God  were  so  near  him,  he 
 humbled  himself  and  fasted  ; 
 and  for  this  he  was  exempted 
 from  the  panishment  in  his 
 own  person,  but  it  was  inflict- 
 ed on  his  son. 
 
 The  circumstances  of  Ahab's 
 death  are  deeply  interesting 
 and  instructive.  He  proposed 
 kO  Jehoshapku  king  of  Judah, 
 
 AHA 
 
 to  make  war  on  Ramoth-gilead 
 which  was  in  the  possession 
 of  the  king  of  Syria.  Jehosha- 
 phat  expressed  his  willing- 
 ness to  join  him,  but  suggested 
 the  propriety  of  first  inquiring 
 what  the  will  of  the  Lord  was 
 respecting  the  enterprise.  So 
 Ahab  summoned  his  four  hun- 
 dred false  prophets,  and  they 
 all  prophesied  favourably. 
 
 Jehoshaphat  seems  to  hava 
 been  suspicious  of  tlie  cha- 
 racter of  Ahab's  prophets,  and 
 he  therefore  inquired  if  there 
 was  no  prophet  of  the  Lord 
 besides  them.  Ahab  referred 
 him  to  Micaiah,  expressing  at 
 the  same  time  his  aversion  to 
 him,  becaiTue  his  prophecies 
 were  always  evil.  However, 
 Micaiah  was  sent  for,  and  the 
 messenger  (having  probably 
 been  instructed  to  tiiat  effect 
 by  Ahab)  informed  him  of 
 what  had  been  done,  and  de- 
 sired him  to  prophesy  favour- 
 ably, as  the  other  prophets 
 had  done. 
 
 When  Micaiah  came  before 
 the  two  kings,  who  were  seat- 
 ed each  on  a  throne  at  the 
 entrance  of  the  gate  of  Sa- 
 maria, and  all  the  prophets 
 before  them,  the  question  was 
 proposed  to  him  as  it  had 
 been  proposed  to  the    other 
 
 grophets,— Shall  we  go  against 
 amoth-gilead  to  battle,  or 
 shall  we  forbear  ?  The  pro- 
 phet advised  him  to  go,  but 
 evidently  with  such  a  tone 
 and  manner  as  indicated  that 
 he  was  not  speaking  in  the 
 spirit  of  prophecy.  He  there- 
 fore solemnly  and  earnestly 
 urged  him  to  tell  him  nothing 
 but  the  truth,  in  the  name  of 
 the  Lord.  Micaiah  then  dis- 
 closed to  him  the  whole  mat- 
 ter, and  showed  him,  not  only 
 that  his  enterprise  against 
 Ramoth-gilead  would  be  de- 
 feated, but  that  God  had  suf- 
 fered the  prophets  who  had 
 prophesied  favourably  of  it,  to 
 be  filled  with  a  lying  spirit, 
 81 
 
AHA 
 
 that  they  might  lead  him  on 
 to  the  certain  ruin  which 
 awaited  him. 
 
 Ahab  sent  the  faithful  pro- 
 phet back  to  Samaria,  and 
 ordered  him  to  be  imprisoned 
 till  his  return  from  the  battle. 
 So  the  infatuated  kings  of  Is- 
 rael and  Judah,  in  the  face  of 
 the  counsel  of  the  Almighty, 
 went  up  to  battle  against  the 
 kingofSyriaatRamoth-gilead. 
 
 In  order  to  secure  himself 
 against  the  direct  aim  of  the 
 enemy,  Ahab  entered  the  bat- 
 tle in  disguise.  But  a  certain 
 man  drew  a  bow,  as  he  sup- 
 posed, at  a  venture,  yet  the 
 arrow  was  directed  with  un- 
 erring aim  to  the  heart  of  the 
 wicked  Ahab,  and  the  blood 
 flowed  out  into  the  chariot,  so 
 that  he  died  that  night.  His 
 army  was  scattered, 1n  literal 
 accordance  with  Micaiah's 
 prophecy.  His  body  was  car- 
 ried to  Samaria  to  be  buried, 
 and  the  blood  was  washed 
 from  the  chariot  in  the  pool 
 of  Samaria,  and  the  dogs  lick- 
 ed it  as  it  was  foretold,  (i  Kings 
 xxi.  19.) 
 
 2.  (Jer.  xxix.  21,  22.)  A  son 
 ofKolaiah,  and  a  false  prophet, 
 who,  with  Zedekiah,  another 
 false  prophet,  prophesied 
 falsely  to  the  children  of  Is- 
 rael, when  in  captivity  at 
 Babylon.  Jeremiah  was  com- 
 manded to  make  known  to 
 them  that  they  should  be  de- 
 livered into  the  hands  of  the 
 king  of  Babylon,  who  would 
 slay  them;  and  so  dreadful 
 would  bo  their  end,  that  there- 
 after it  should  be  a  firm  of 
 cursing,— T%e  Lord  make  thee 
 like  Zedekiah  and  like  Ahab, 
 whom  the  king  of  Babylon 
 roasted  in  the  fire.  This  was 
 a  common  Chaldean  punish- 
 ment. (Dan.  iii,  6.) 
 
 AHASUERUS.  l.(Dan.iy.l.) 
 The  father  ol  Darius  the  Medi- 
 an,and  the  same  with  Astyages. 
 
 2.   (Ezra  iv  6.)   Supposed  to 
 
 AHA 
 
 be  the  son  and  successor  of 
 Cyrus. 
 
 3.  (Esth.  i.  1.)  The  husband 
 of  Esther.  Who  this  king  was 
 is  alike  uncertain  and  unim- 
 portant. We  are  told  that  he 
 reigned  from  India  to  Ethiopia, 
 over  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
 seven  provinces;  that  his 
 palace  was  in  Shushan,  the 
 royal  city  of  Persia,  and  that 
 in  the  third  year  of  his  reign 
 he  made  a  splendid  feast  for 
 his  princes,  servants,  and 
 people,  which  is  particularly 
 described  in  Esth.  i.  3—8.  In 
 the  height  of  this  magnificent 
 entertainment,  the  king  sum- 
 moned Vashli  his  wife  into 
 the  royal  presence,  that  he 
 might  show  his  guests  her 
 great  beauty.  She  declined 
 going,  and  for  that  cause  was 
 separated  from  the  king  and 
 from  tlie  royal  estate,  and  was 
 succeeded  by  Esther,  the 
 cousin  and  adopted  daughter 
 of  Mordecai,  a  Jew,  who  re- 
 sided at  the  palace. 
 
 Haman,  the  chief  officer  of 
 the  king's  household,  consi- 
 dering himself  insulted  by 
 Mordecai,  obtained  a  royal  de- 
 cree that  all  the  Jews  of  the 
 kingdom  should  be  destroyed. 
 Esilier,  having  received  intel- 
 ligence of  this  cruel  plot,  em- 
 braced a  favourable  opportu- 
 nity to  make  it  known  to  the 
 king,  and  Implore  his  protec- 
 tion'of  herself  and  her  people. 
 The  king  could  not,  mdeed, 
 reverse  the  decree,  but  he 
 caused  Haman  to  be  hung, 
 and  Mordecai  to  be  advancea 
 to  the  highest  post  in  the  king- 
 dom ;  and  also  despatched 
 messengers  in  every  direc- 
 tion, to  inform  the  Jews  that 
 they  were  at  liberty  to  gather 
 then.selves  together  for  self- 
 defence,  and  to  destroy  all 
 that  shdtdd  assault  them. 
 
 Availing  themselves  of  the 
 royal  favour,  the  Jews  were 
 not  only  protected,  but  were 
 32 
 
AHA 
 
 enabled  to  slay  between  70,000 
 and  80,000  of  their  enemies. 
 Ahasuerus  reigned  forty-eight 
 years,  and  there  is  reason  to 
 believe  that  Esther  and  Mor- 
 decai  remained  in  favour  with 
 liim  to  the  end.  (Esth.  ix.  31, 
 and  X.  3.  See  Hadassah,  or 
 a  full  life  of  Esther,  published 
 by  the  American  Sunday- 
 school  Union.) 
 
 AHAYA.  (Ezra  viii.  15.)  A 
 river  in  Assyria,  where  Ezra 
 assembled  the  captives  who 
 were  returning  from  Judea, 
 and  where  he  proclaimed  a 
 fast.  Some  have  supposed  it 
 to  have  been  in  the  country 
 called  Ava.  (•2Kings  xvii.  24.) 
 Its  precise  situation  is  not 
 known. 
 
 AHAZ  (2Chron.  xxviii.  1) 
 'Wa»the  son  of  Jotham,  and  at 
 the  age  of  twenty  succeeded 
 him  as  king  of  Judah. 
 
 Ahaz  gave  himself  up  to 
 gross  idolatry,  and  even  sacri- 
 ficed his  own  children  to  the 
 gods  of  the  heaihen.  This 
 course  of  wickedness  brought 
 upon  him,  and  upon  his  king- 
 dom, severe  judgments.  They 
 Buffered  under  a  succession 
 of  disastrous  wars,  and  their 
 allies  often  proved  unfaithful, 
 and  involved  them  in  great 
 distress.  Ahaz,  at  last,  aban- 
 doned himself  to  the  most 
 desperate  iniquity,  and  the 
 kingdom  of  Judah  was  brought 
 low,  and  made  waste,  because 
 of  his  great  sin. 
 
 Early  in  his  reign  (probably 
 the  second  year)  the  kings  of 
 Syria  and  Israel,  who,  just  at 
 the  close  of  Jotham's  reisra 
 and  life,  had  confederated  for 
 the  destruction  of  Judah,  and 
 actually  invaded  the  kingdom 
 with  a  powerful  and  victorious 
 army,  were  about  to  lay  siege 
 to  Jerusalem. 
 
 At  this  juncture,  God  direct- 
 ed his  prophet  Isaiah  to  take 
 his  son,  Shear-jashub,  and  so 
 to  Ahaz,  who  should  be  found 
 at  a  particular  spot   in   the 
 
 AHA 
 
 city  of  Jerusalem,  and  make 
 known  to  him  the  counsel  of 
 the  Lord.  This  favour  was 
 shown  to  the  wicked  king  as 
 the  representative  of  the  house 
 of  David,  and  for  the  people's 
 sake  with  whom  God  had 
 made  a  covenant.  (Isa.  vii.  1.) 
 Isaiah,  having  fMmd  Ahaz 
 at  the  place  desienated,  told 
 him  that  the  bounds  of  the 
 invading  army  vvere  fixed ; 
 that  their  purpose  respecting 
 Jerusalem  would  be  defeated, 
 and  that  in  a  limited  time  the 
 kingdoms  from  which  they 
 came  should  be  destroyed ; 
 and  to  confirm  the  prophetic 
 testimony,  the  kin?  was  told 
 to  ask  any  sign  which  would 
 satisfy  him.  Probably  from  a 
 wicked  indifference,  but  pro- 
 fessedly from  a  better  motive, 
 he  refused  to  ask  a  sien  ;  but 
 God  saw  fit  to  give  him  one 
 of  unerring  iniport :  "  Be- 
 hold," said  he,  "  a  virgin  shall 
 conceive  and  bear  a  son,  and 
 shall  call  his  name  Imma- 
 nuei:'  (Isa.  vii.  14.  Matt.  i.  23. 
 Luke  i.  31—35.)  "  Butter  and 
 honey  shall  he  eat,  that  he 
 may  know  to  refuse  the  evil 
 and  choose  the  good.  For 
 before  the  child  shall  knoio  to 
 refuse  the  evil  and  choose  the 
 good,  the  land  thai  thou  ab- 
 horrest  shall  be  forsaken  of 
 both  her  kings.'"  Some  have 
 understood  this  remarkable 
 prophecy  to  mean  that  not- 
 withstanding the  extraordi- 
 nary conception  and  birth  of 
 the  promised  child,  he  shall 
 eat  butter  and  honey  as  other 
 children  do,  and  like  them 
 shall  gradually  advance  from 
 one  degree  of  knowledge  to 
 anotheiF ;  but  before  he  shall 
 have  attained  that  measure 
 of  discrimination  which  would 
 enable  him  to  choose  between 
 sood  and  evil,  the  land  of  the 
 Israelite  and  the  Syrian  who 
 cause  your  distress  and  per- 
 plexity, shall  be  forsaken  of 
 both  her  kings.  Others  have 
 33 
 
AHA 
 
 interpreted  the  prophecy  dif- 
 ferently, and  receive  the  idea 
 that  the  child  to  whom  it  re- 
 lates should  be  born  in  a  lime 
 of  war,  but  before  he  was  two 
 or  three  years  old  he  should 
 eat  butter  and  honey,  which 
 in  time  of  peace  were  common 
 articles  of  food  in  Judea,  and 
 the  abundance  of  which  was 
 significant  of  peace  and  pros- 
 perity. 
 
 Again,  various  opinions  exist 
 as  to  the  child  to  which  allu- 
 sion is  made  in  Isa.  vii.  16; 
 some  supposing  that  it  denotes 
 the  boy  whom  the  prophet 
 took  with  him,  and  others  that 
 it  refers  to  the  child  Jesus,  as 
 in  V.  14;  and  that  the  meaning 
 is,  that  in  less  time  than  would 
 be  required,  after  the  birth  of 
 the  promised  Immanuel,  for 
 him  to  attain  to  the  capacity 
 of  distinguishing  good  from 
 evil,  (that  is,  within  the  space 
 of  two  or  three  years,)  the  ene- 
 mies of  Judah  should  perish. 
 
 We  know  that  within  three 
 or  four  years  after  the  pro- 
 phecy was  uttered,  the  kings 
 of  both  Israel  and  Syria  were 
 destroyed.  (2  Kings  xv.  30, 
 and  xvi.  9.)  This  was  pro- 
 bably the  primary  accom- 
 plishment of  the  prophecy,  but 
 It  received  its  far  more  strik- 
 ing and  literal  fulfilment  in 
 the  birth  of  Immanuel ;  for 
 Herod  the  Great  was  the  last 
 who  could  be  called  the  king 
 either  of  Judah  or  Israel,  and, 
 though  he  lived  till  Immanuel 
 was  born, he  died  while  he  was 
 
 f'et  an  infant;  and  then,  Shi- 
 oh  being  come,  the  sceptre 
 departed  finally  from  Judah, 
 as  it  had  long  before  departed 
 from  Israel.  '(Gen.  xlix.  10.) 
 
 Though  Ahaz  and  his  king- 
 dom were  thus  saved  from  the 
 hands  of  the  Syrians  and  Is- 
 raelites, he  had  warning  of 
 the  terrible  judgments  which 
 were  in  store  for  him  because 
 of  his  idolatry;  but  neither 
 mercy    nor  judgment   could 
 
 AHA 
 
 divert  him  from  the  wicked 
 purposes  of  his  heart. 
 
 He  sent  ambassadors  to 
 Tiglath-pileser  king  of  Assy- 
 ria, and  made  him  a  magnifi- 
 cent present  of  all  the  gold 
 and  silver  of  the  temple,  which 
 he  collected  for  that  purpose, 
 and  besought  his  assistance 
 against  the  Syrians,  who  still 
 harassed  him.  In  compli- 
 ance with  his  wishes,  the  king 
 of  Assyria  besieged  Damascus, 
 and  took  it,  and  "slew  the  king. 
 Ahaz  went  thither  to  congra- 
 tulate Tiglath-pileser  on  his 
 victory,  and  to  thank  him  for 
 his  seasonable  aid  ;  and  thrre 
 he  saw  an  altar,  the  fashi  )n 
 of  which  particularly  pleased 
 him,  and  he  ordered  one  to  be 
 made  and  put  up  in  tiie  stead 
 of  God's  altar,  which  he  re- 
 moved into  an  obscure  place. 
 Here  he  sacrificed  to  the  gods 
 of  Damascus,  saying,  "  Be- 
 cause the  gods  1^  the  kings 
 of  Syna  help  them,  therefore 
 will  I  sacrifice  to  them  that 
 they  way  help  me ;  but  they 
 were  the  ruin  of  him  and  of 
 all  Israel,'^  says  the  sacred 
 historian. 
 
 So  greedy  was  this  aban- 
 doned man  to  commit  iniquity, 
 that  he  wantonly  mutilated 
 and  abused  the  furniture  of 
 the  temple;  broke  the  vessels 
 in  pieces  ;  made  him  altars  in 
 every  corner  of  Jerusalem, 
 and  seemed  resolved  to  show 
 how  utterly  reckless  he  was 
 of  the  consequences  of  sin. 
 
 His  purposes  were  cut  oflF, 
 however,  and  he  was  taken 
 away  in  his  iniquity  at  the 
 early  age  of  thirty-six,  and 
 was  succeeded  by  his  son 
 Hezekiah.  (2Chron.xviii.27.) 
 
 Though  he  was  buried  in 
 the  city  of  Jerusalem,  his  body 
 was  not  admitted  to  the  sepul- 
 chres  of  the  kings,  but  wag 
 treated  with  ignominy,  as 
 were  the  bodies  of  Jehoram 
 and  Joash  before  him. 
 
 AHAZIAH,  i.  (1  Kings  xxii. 
 
AHA 
 40,)  was  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Ahab  king  of  Israel.  So 
 wicked  was  he,  that  when  Je- 
 hoshaphal  king  of  Judah  had 
 joined  with  him  to  build  a  fleet 
 at  Ezion-geher  for  the  Tar- 
 shish  trade,  God  sent  his  pro- 
 phet to  tell  him,  that  because 
 of  his  alliance  with  Ahaziah, 
 even  in  this  secular  enter- 
 prise, his  fleet  sliould  be  de- 
 stroyed ;  and  the  ships  were 
 accordingly  shatteredto  pieces 
 by  the  winds. 
 
 Ahaziah  had  a  fall  in  his 
 bouse  at  Samaria,  which  oc- 
 casioned a  fit  of  sickness,  and 
 he  sent  to  an  idol  god,  at  Ek- 
 ron,  to  inquire  if  he  should  re- 
 cover. His  messengers  were 
 met  by  the  prophet  Elijah, 
 who  informed  ih.-m  that  Aha- 
 siah's  sickness  would  be  fatal. 
 They  returned,  and  made  the 
 occurrence  known  to  the 
 king,  who,  supposing  from  the 
 •lescriplion,  that  Elijah  was 
 the  man  ihey  met,  forthwith 
 Bent  an  officer  and  fifty  men 
 to  seize  him.  The  prophet 
 was  silling  on  the  brow  of  a 
 hill  when  the  officer  approach- 
 ed and  announced  the  king's 
 summons.  At  the  prayer  of 
 Elijah,  the  officer  and  his  men 
 were  instantly  consumed  by 
 fire  from  heaven.  The  same 
 doom  came  upon  a  second 
 officer  and  his  party  of  fifty 
 men.  The  third  olficer  fell 
 on  his  knees  before  Elijah, 
 and  besougnt  him  to  spare  his 
 life  and  the  lives  of  his  men. 
 Al  an  intimation  from  God, 
 Elijah  went  down  with  them 
 and  told  the  king  in  person 
 J.hal  he  should  not  recover: 
 and  he  soon  after  died,  and 
 Jehoram  his  brother  succeed- 
 ed him. 
 
 •2.  (2  Kings  viii.  25.)  Called 
 also  AzARiAH,  (2Chron.  xxiv 
 6,)  was  a  son  of  Jehoram  and 
 Athaliah,  and  at  the  age  of 
 Iwenty-two  succeeded  his  fa- 
 ther as  king  of Judah ; though 
 ^n  "2  Ckron.  xxii.  2,  it  is  said 
 
 AHl 
 
 he  was  forty-two  years  old 
 when  he  began  to  reign. 
 
 Joram  the  king  of  Israel 
 was  wounded  in  a  battle  with 
 the  king  of  Syria  at  Ramolh- 
 gilead,  and  was  carried  to 
 Jezreel  to  be  healed.  There 
 Ahaziah  visited  him,  and 
 Jehu,  who  was  left  to  sustain 
 the  siege,  (and  who  was  in  the 
 mean  time  anointed  king  over 
 Israel,)  came  down  to  Jezreel 
 to  execute  the  judgment  of 
 the  Lord  upon  Joran'i  the  son 
 of  Ahab,  and  the  representa- 
 tive of  the  house  of  Ahab. 
 
 As  soon  as  his  approach 
 was  announced  by  the  watch- 
 man, Joram  and  Ahaziah  went 
 out,  each  in  his  chariot,  to 
 meet  him.  And  they  met  in 
 the  portion  of  Naboth,  with 
 which  one  of  Ahab's  daring 
 crimes  was  so  closely  asso- 
 ciated. (See  Ahab.)  Jehu  re- 
 minded Joram  of  the  iniqui- 
 ties of  his  house,  and  he, 
 suspecting  treachery,  warned 
 Ahaziah  "to  flee.  Jehu  then 
 smote  Joram  (or  Jehoram,  as 
 he  is  called,  2  Kings  ix.  24,) 
 through  the  heart  with  an 
 arrow.  He  pursued  and  slew 
 Ahaziah  also,  though  he  had 
 strength  to  reach''  Megiddo, 
 where  he  died,  and  was  car- 
 ried thence  to  Jerusalem,  and 
 buried,  from  respect  to  the 
 memory  of  Jehoshaphat  his 
 ancestor.  (See  Jehu.)  In 
 2  Chron.  xxii.  the  circum- 
 stances of  the  death  of  Aha^ 
 ziah  are  slated  differently,  but 
 the  variation  is  not  substan- 
 tial, and  therefore  requires  no 
 particular  notice. 
 
 AHIAH.  I.  (1  Kings  iv.  3.) 
 The  son  of  Shisha,  one  of 
 Solomon's  scribes  or  secreta- 
 ries. 
 
 2.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  -3.  13.)  Sup- 
 posed by  some  to  be  the  same 
 with  Ahimelech,  (1  Sam.  xxi.- 
 1,)  was  the  son  of  Ahilub,  ami 
 his  successor  in  the  priest'8 
 office.  (See  Ahimelech  and 
 Ahitttb.) 
 
AHI 
 
 3.   (1  Chron.  vlii.  7.)    A  de- 
 iscenclant  of  Benjamin. 
 AHIJAH.d  Kings  xi.  29.)  A 
 
 grophet  of  God  who  lived  at 
 liiloh.  For  the  most  inte- 
 resting and  important  trans- 
 actions with  which  Ahijah  was 
 connected,  see  Jeroboam.  He 
 lived  to  a  great  age.  (1  Kings 
 xiv.  4.) 
 
 AHIliAM.  (2Kingsxxii.  12.) 
 A  son  of  Shaphan,  and  liie 
 Ether  of  Gedaliah,  was  one  of 
 those  whom  Josiah  sent  to 
 Huldah,  the  prophetess,  to  in- 
 quire of  her  concerning  the 
 book  of  the  law  which  had 
 been  found  in  the  temple. 
 His  influence  was  of  great 
 service  to  the  prophet  Jere- 
 miah. (Jer.  xxvi.  24.  See  Life 
 OP  Jeremiah,  by  the  Ame- 
 rican Sunday-School  Union, 
 ch.  vi.) 
 
 AHIMAAZ.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  50.) 
 Son  and  successor  of  Zadok 
 the  priest. 
 
 During  the  revolt  of  Absa- 
 lom, Zadok,  and  Abiathar, 
 another  of  the  priests,  stayed 
 in  Jerusalem  with  Hushai, 
 David'sfriend;  while  Ahimaaz 
 and  another  young  man,  (son 
 of  Abiathar,)  whose  name 
 was  Jonathan,  stationed  them- 
 selves at  Enrogel,  a  short  dis- 
 tance from  the  city;  and  it 
 w^as  agreed  that  whatever 
 Hushai'  should  hear  respect- 
 ing Absalom's  plans  he  should 
 communicate  to  Zadok  and 
 Abiathar,  and  they  to  their 
 sons  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan, 
 by  whom  the  intelligence 
 should  be  communicated  to 
 David. 
 
 As  soon  as  Absalom  had  re- 
 jected the  counsel  of  Ahitho- 
 phel,  and  adopted  that  of  Hu- 
 shai,Zadok  and  Abiathar  were 
 promptly  informed  of  it,  and 
 directed  to  send  with  all  pos- 
 sible haste  to  David.  But 
 (perhaps  to  avoid  suspicion) 
 tne  messaee  was  sent  by  a 
 female.  The  transaction  was 
 seen  by  a  '.ad,  who  went  im- 
 
 AHI 
 
 mediately  and  informed  Ab- 
 salom, 
 
 Ahimaaz  and  his  companion 
 set  off  at  once,  however,  and 
 when  they  came  to  Bahurim, 
 the  site  of  which  is  now  un- 
 certain, they  concealed  them- 
 selves in  a  well,  to  escape  the 
 observation  of  their  pursuers. 
 The  woman  of  the  house  near 
 which  they  were  concealed 
 covered  the  mouth  of  the  well 
 with  a  blanket,  on  which  she 
 spread  corn  to  dry ;  and  when 
 Absalom's  messengers  came 
 up  in  the  pursuit,  and  inquired 
 where  they  were,  she  deceived 
 them,  and  told  them  that  the 
 young  men  were  in  great 
 haste,  and  had  passed  on. 
 Thus  they  escaped,  and,  while 
 their  pursuers  returned  to 
 Jerusalem,  they  hastened  to 
 David  with  their  message. 
 
 At  his  own  urgent  request, 
 Ahimaaz  was  employed  to 
 carry  the  intelligence  of  Ab- 
 salom's death  to  David  his 
 father.  He  outran  Cushi,  who 
 had  been  previously  despatch- 
 ed on  the  same  errand.  F.e- 
 fore  he  had  delivered  his 
 message, however,Cushi  came 
 up,  and  made  known  the  sad 
 event.  The  whole  history  of 
 the  transaction,  as  recorded, 
 (2  Sam.  xviii.  19-33,)  is  of 
 thrilling  interest,  but  it  would 
 be  out  of  place  here.  (See 
 David.) 
 
 AHIMELECH  (1  Sam.  xxi. 
 1)  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
 the  same  with  Ahiah ;  but 
 others  suppose  Ahiah  to  have 
 been  the  son  of  Ahitub,  and 
 his  successor  in  the  priest- 
 hood, and  Ahimelech  to  have 
 been  his  brother  and  successor 
 in  the  same  office.  It  is  im- 
 material  which  of  these  opi- 
 nions is  correct.  David,  in 
 h's  flight  friim  Saul,  came  to 
 Nob,  where  Ahimelech  the 
 priest  dwelt.  He  represented 
 himself  to  be  in  great  haste 
 on  the  king's  urgent  business. 
 and  by  this  melins  obiainea 
 36 
 
AHI 
 from  Ahimelech  some  of  the 
 hallowed  bread,  and  also  the 
 sword  of  Goliath,  which  was 
 preserved  among  the  sacred 
 things. 
 
 Doeg,  the  Edomlte,  a  prin- 
 cipal servant  of  Saul,  who 
 happened  to  be  at  Nob,  and  to 
 be  a  witness  of  the  interview 
 between  David  and  Ahime- 
 lech, told  Saul  of  the  matter, 
 who  immediately  summoned 
 Aliimelech  and  all  the  priests 
 that  were  wilh  him  (eighiy-fivo 
 persons)  into  his  presence. 
 He  charged  them  wilh  a  con- 
 spiracy in  aiding  and  abetting 
 his  enemy  ;  and  they  replied 
 by  declaring  their  ignorance 
 of  any  hostile  views,  on  the 
 part  of  David,  towards  Saul, 
 or  his  kingdom.  This  de- 
 fence (sufficient  as  it  surely 
 was)  availed  them  nothing, 
 however  ;  and  the  king  com- 
 manded his  guard  to  slay 
 tliem.  The  guard  declining 
 to  lay  violent  hands  on  the 
 priests  of  the  Lord,  the  king 
 commanded  Doeg  to  fall  upon 
 them,  and  he  did,  and  smote 
 them,  and  also  the  city  of  Nob 
 where  they  dwelt,  and  all  the 
 men,  women,  and  children,  as 
 well  as  all  the  beasts  which 
 were  found  there.  Abiathar, 
 Ahimelech's  son,  was  the  only 
 one  who  escaped,  and  he  fled 
 with  an  enhod  in  his  hand,  to 
 David.    (See  Abiathar.) 
 
 AHINOAM.  1.  (ISam.xiv. 
 50.)  The  daughter  of  Ahimaaz 
 and  the  wife  of  Saul. 
 
 2.  (1  Sam.  XXV.  43.)  A  woman 
 of  Jezreel  and  one  of  David's 
 wives.  She  was  taken  captive 
 by  the  Amalekites  in  the  siege 
 of  Ziklag,  and  afterwards  res- 
 cued from  captivity  by  David. 
 (1  Sam.  XXX.  18.) 
 
 AHIO.  (2  Sam.  vi.  3.)  A  son 
 of  Abinadab,  who,  with  his 
 brother  Uzzah,  was  intrusted 
 by  David  with  the  transporta- 
 tion of  the  ark  from  Kirjath- 
 jearira  to  Jerusalem.  (See 
 Uzzah.) 
 
 AI 
 
 AHITHOPHEL.  (2  Sam.  xv. 
 12.)  A  native  of  Giloh,  and 
 the  familiar  friend,  compa- 
 nion, and  counsellor  of  David. 
 (IChron.  xxvii.  33.  Ps.  Iv. 
 12—14.)  He  was  indeed  one 
 of  the  most  eminent  counsel- 
 lors of  the  age.  (2  Sam.  xvi.  23.) 
 
 Absalom  persuaded  him  to 
 join  in  the  conspiracy  against 
 his  father  David  ;  but  the  cun- 
 ning measures  which  Ahitho- 
 phel  proposed  for  the  accom- 
 plishment of  Absalom's  ambi- 
 tious plans,  were  all  defeated 
 by  the  counsel  of  Hushai. 
 Ahithophel,  seeing  that  the 
 probable  issue  would  be  the 
 utter  ruin  of  Absalom  and  his 
 cause,  which  would  almost 
 necessarily  involve  his  own 
 destruction,  returned  to  Giloh, 
 and  deliberately  hung  him- 
 self. 
 
 AHITUB.  1.  (ISam.xiv.  3.) 
 The  son  of  Phinehas,  and 
 grandson  of  Eli.  Some  sup- 
 pose that  he  succeeded  Eli  in 
 the  priesthood.  (See  Ahime- 
 lech.) 
 
 2.  The  name  of  Zadok's  fa 
 ther.    (1  Chron.  vi.  8.) 
 
 AHOLIAB.  (Ex.  xxxv.  34.) 
 Son  of  Ahisamach,  of  the  tribe 
 of  Dan,  who,  wilh  Bezaleel, 
 was  divinely  appointed  to  con- 
 struct the  tabernacle  and  its 
 furniture. 
 
 AHOLIBAH  and  AHOLAH. 
 (Ezek.  xxiii.  4.)  Symbolical 
 names  for  Judah  and  Samaria 
 
 AHUZZATH.  (Gen.  xxvi. 
 26.)  A  particular  friend  of  Abi- 
 melech,  kingof  Gerar,  andona 
 of  those  who  attended  hiia 
 when  he  met  Isaac,  and  mad 
 a  treaty  with  himaiBeersheba. 
 
 AI,  (Josh.  vii.  2,)  called  also 
 Aialh,  (Isa.  x.  28,)  and  Aija, 
 (Neh.  xi.  31,)  was  an  elevated 
 spot  east  of  Bethel ;  the  scene 
 of  Joshua's  defeat,  and  after- 
 wards of  his  victory.  (Josh, 
 viii.    See  Joshua.    See  also 
 
 GEOGRAPHy    OF     THE    BiBLE, 
 
 by    the    American    Sunday- 
 school  Union,  p.  142. 
 37 
 
ALA 
 
 AIN.  (Josh.  XV.  32.)  Origin- 
 ally a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
 dah,  but  afterwards  allotted  to 
 the  tribe  of  Simeon.  (1  Chron. 
 iv.  32.)  It  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  near  Hebron. 
 
 AJALON.  1.  (Josh.  X.  12.)  A 
 village  c4  Canaan,  situated  in 
 the  tribe  of  Dan,  between  Je- 
 rusalem and  Ekron.  In  the 
 vicinity  of  Ajalon  is  the  valley 
 of  the  same  name,  memorable 
 or  the  miracle  of  Joshua. 
 (See  Joshua.) 
 
 2.  (Josh.  xix.  42.)  A  town  in 
 the  country  of  Zetaulon,  where 
 Elon  was  buried.  Its  site  is 
 now  unknown. 
 
 3.  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  18.)  A 
 city  in  the  south  of  Judah, 
 captured  by  the  Philistines. 
 
 AKRABBIM,  ascent  of, 
 (Num.  xxxiv.  4,)  or  Maaleh- 
 Acrabbim,  (Josh.  xv.  3,)  was  a 
 ranee  of  hills  on  the  southern 
 border  of  Judah  towards  the 
 Dead  Sea.  Its  name  is  sup- 
 posed to  denote  that  it  was 
 infested  with  scorpions. 
 
 ALABASTER.  (Matt.  xxvi. 
 7.)  A  f.issil,  of  which  there  are 
 several  varieties.  It  is  a  bright 
 and  elegant  substance,  sus- 
 ceptible of  a  fine  polish,  and 
 so  easily  wrought  that  it  is 
 made  into  vessels  of  every 
 form.  The  druggists  in  Egypt 
 use  it  at  the  present  day  f^r 
 the  purpose  of  keeping  rnedi- 
 cines  and  perfumes.  Theo- 
 critus, an  ancient  profane 
 historian,  speaks  of  gilded 
 alabasters  of  Syriac  ointment. 
 The  phrase  "  she  brake  the 
 box,"  used  Mark  xiv.  3,  i3.sup- 
 posed  to  mean  that  she  opened 
 or  unsealed  the  vessel,  as  we 
 say  familiarly,  "to  break  a 
 bottle,"  when  we  mean  to 
 open  it  by  drawing  the  cork. 
 It  was  the  custom  m  the  east 
 then,  as  it  is  now  all  over  the 
 world,  to  seal  with  wax  any 
 thing  from  which  it  is  desira- 
 ble to  keep  the  air,  and  this  is 
 especially  necessary  for  the 
 preservation  of  precious  per- 
 
 ALE 
 
 fumes  and  ointments.  The 
 breaking  of  the  wax  would 
 be  naturally  denoted  by  the 
 firm  of  expression  used  in 
 the  sacred  text. 
 .  ALEXANDER.  1.  (Mark  xv. 
 21.)  The  son  of  Simon  the 
 Cyrenian. 
 
 2.  (Acts  iv.  6.)  A  distin- 
 guished Jew,  who,  with  others, 
 took  part  against  Peter  and 
 John. 
 
 3.  (Acts  xix.  33.)  A  Jew  of 
 Ephcsus,  who  took  a  conspi- 
 cuous part  in  the  controversy 
 between  Paul  and  the  popu- 
 lace of  that  city,  and  attempt- 
 ed, without  success,  to  quell 
 the  commotion. 
 
 4.  (1  Tim.  i.  19, 20,  and  2 Tim. 
 iv.  14.)  A  coppersmith  and 
 apostate  from  Christianity, 
 whom  Paul  mentions  in  terms 
 of  severe  reproach. 
 
 ALEXANDRL\.  (Actsxviii. 
 24 ;  xxvii.  6.)  A  celebrated 
 city  of  Egypt,  founded  by 
 Alexander  the  Great,  about 
 B.C.  3.33.  It  was  situated  on 
 a  strip  of  land  on  the  southern 
 coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
 and  between  that  and  the  lake 
 Mareotis,  rather  south  of  the 
 present  city  of  the  same  name. 
 Ancient  Alexandria  was  at 
 one  time  the  centre  of  scien- 
 tific knowledge  ;  the  rival  of 
 Rome  in  size,  and  the  first 
 commercial  city  of  the  earth. 
 Historians  tell  us  that  its  free 
 population  exceeded  300,000, 
 and  an  equal  number  of 
 slaves.  Its  ancient  magnifi- 
 cence may  be  known  Trom 
 the  ruins  of  spacious  streets 
 two  thousand  feet  broad,  and 
 the  fragments  of  colonnades, 
 obelisks,  and  temples.  After 
 Alexander's  death  it  became 
 the  regal  capital  of  Eeypl 
 and  was  the  residence  of  the 
 Ptolemies  for  two  hundred 
 years.  They  enriched  it  with 
 numerouselegantedifices,and 
 furnished  it  with  a  library  of 
 700,000  volumes,  which  waB 
 burnt  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
 38 
 
ALl 
 
 seventh  century.  From  the 
 days  of  the  apostles  to  the 
 Saracen  invasion,  Alexandria 
 was  under  the  dominion  of 
 Rome,  and  as  it  atforded  an 
 extensive  market  for  grain, 
 the  centurion  who  had  charge 
 of  Paul  on  his  way  as  a  pri- 
 soner to  Rome,  readily  '■'■found 
 a  ship  of  Alexandria,  laden 
 with  corn,  sailing  into  Italy." 
 Some  of  the  persecutors  of 
 Stephen  were  from  this  city, 
 and  so  was  the  eloquent  Apol- 
 los.  Here  also  lived  Clement, 
 Origen,  and  Arius,  the  founder 
 of  the  sect  of  Arians.  And 
 here,  too,  was  the  Greek  or 
 Alexandrian  version  of  the 
 Bible  made  by  seventy-two 
 learned  Jews,  and  hence  call- 
 ed the  Septuagint,  or  version 
 by  the  seventy.  (See  Scrip- 
 tures.) 
 
 Modern  Alexandria  is  built 
 ef  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
 city.  It  contains  a  population 
 of  15,000  souls,  and  is  merely 
 the  port  of  Cairo,  where  ves- 
 sels touch,  and  exchanges  of 
 merchandise  are  made.  It  is 
 one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
 miles  north-west  of  Cairo, 
 and  is  the  residence  of  many 
 European  merchants  and  fac- 
 tors. 
 
 ALEXANDRIANS.  (Acts  vi. 
 9.)  Jews  from  Alexandria,  who 
 were  present  at  Jerusalem 
 when  Stephen  preached  there, 
 and  where  they  had  a  syna- 
 gogue by  themselves.  Per- 
 haps the  Libertines  and  Cyre- 
 nians  worshipped  with  them, 
 or  each  sect  or  school  might 
 have  had  separate  synagogu~es. 
 In  either  case  they  are  pro- 
 perly described  as  being  cer- 
 tain  of  the  syyiagogue  which  is 
 tailed  the  synagogue  of  the 
 Alexandrians,  &c. 
 
 ALGUM.    (See  Almug.) 
 
 ALIEN.  (Ex.  xviii.  3.)  A  fo- 
 reigner or  person  born  in  an- 
 Jther  country,  and  not  having 
 the  usual  rights  and  privileges 
 
 ALM 
 
 of  the  citizens  of  the  country 
 in  which  he  lives.  The  force 
 of  the  figure  (Eph.  ii.  12)  is 
 sufficiently  obvious. 
 
 ALLEGORY.  (Gal.  iv.  24.) 
 A  figure  of  speech,  nearly  re- 
 sembling the  parable  or  fable, 
 common  in  the  Scriptures 
 and  among  all  oriental  na- 
 tions. It  personifies  irrational 
 and  inanimate  objects  or  mo- 
 ral qualities,  and  enforces  or 
 illustrates  truth  by  their  con- 
 duct or  by  a  supposed  conver- 
 sation between  them.  Ban- 
 yan's Pilgrim's  Progress  is  a 
 continued  allegory :  so  also 
 are  our  Saviour's  discourses 
 concerning  the  vine  (John  xv.) 
 and  the  sliepherd.  (John  x.) 
 
 ALLELUIA,  (Rev.  xix.  1,) 
 or  ILiLLELUJAH,  a  Hebrew 
 word  signifying  Praise  ye  the 
 Lord.  It  was  a  common  excla- 
 mation of  j'ly  and  praise  in  the 
 Jewish  worship,  and  begins 
 and  concludes  several  of  the 
 Psalms,  as  cvi.  cxi.  cxiii.  cxvii. 
 and  cxxxv. 
 
 ALMOND.  (Gen.xliii.il.)  A 
 well  known  fruit,  and  among 
 the  best  that  Canaan  pro- 
 duced. The  leaves  and  blos- 
 soms of  the  almond  tree  re- 
 semble those  of  the  peach 
 tree,  and  it  is  remarkable  for 
 its  early  maturity.  A  modern 
 traveller  states  that  it  flowers 
 in  January  and  gives  its  fruit 
 in  April.  The  fruit  is  en- 
 closed in  a  tough  shell,  and 
 this  again  within  a  horny 
 husk,  which  opens  of  itself 
 when  the  fruit  is  ripe.  It  is 
 cultivated  with  great  care  at 
 the  present  day  in  England 
 for  its  early  and  beautiful 
 flowers,  and  in  the  south  of 
 Europe  for  exportation.  Four 
 hundred  and  fifty  tons  are  an- 
 nually imported  into  Great 
 Britain  alone,  paying  a  duty 
 of  $80,000.  It  blossoms  on 
 the  bare  branches,  and  hence 
 the  striking  allusion  of  the 
 poet:— 
 
ALO 
 
 The  hope,  in  dreams  of  a  happier  hour, 
 That  alights  on  misery's  brow  ; 
 
 Springs  out  of  the  silvery  almond  flower 
 That  blooms  on  a  leafless  bough. 
 
 The  original  word  from  which 
 almond  is  derived,  means  to 
 make  haste,  or  awake  early, 
 denoting  its  hasty  growth  and 
 early  maturity.  Hence  the 
 allusion  in  Jer.  i.  12  is  to  the 
 haste  with  which  God  would 
 send  his  judgments,  or  the 
 vigilance  with  which  he 
 watched  over  his  word  to 
 fulfil  it.  So  the  chiefs  of  the 
 tribes  had  almond  rods,  em- 
 blematical of  the  vigilance" 
 which  became  them  as  the 
 leaders  of  God's  chosen  peo- 
 ple. (Num.  xvii.  6 — 8.)  In 
 Eccl.  xii.  5,  an  allusion  is 
 made  to  the  while  silvery  hair 
 which  covers  the  head  in  old 
 age,  and  which,  if  found  in  the 
 way  of  righteousness,  is  a 
 crown  of  glory.  (Prov.  xvi. 
 *31.  For  engraving  see  Na- 
 tural History  of  the  Bi- 
 ble, by  the  American  Sunday- 
 SchoolUnion,article  Almond.) 
 
 ALMS,  ALMS-DEEDS. 
 (Matt.  vi.  1.  Acts  ix.  36.) 
 Deeds  of  charity,  or  (Luke  xi. 
 41)  the  thing  given  in  charity. 
 The  giving  of  alms  is  an  im- 
 portant duty  enjoined  by  the 
 Scriptures,  and  the  manner 
 of  it  is  prescribed  with  great 
 precision.  (See  Acts x.2-4, and 
 tile  passages  already  cited.) 
 
 ALMUG  trees;  (1  Kings 
 X.  11,)  or  ALGUftI  TREES.  (2 
 Chron.  ii.8.)  One  of  the  kinds 
 of  timber  which  Solomon  or- 
 dered from  Tyre  for  the  build- 
 ing of  the  temple.  Jewish  his- 
 torians describe'  it  as  a  fine, 
 white,  glossy  wood,  and  used 
 for  musical  instruments,  and 
 the  ornamental  work  of  the 
 temple.  Dr.  Shaw  supposes  it 
 to  have  been  what  we  call  the 
 cypress,  which  is  still  used 
 for  harpsichords,  and  other 
 stringed  instruments. 
 
 ALOES.    (Sol,  Song  iv.  14.) 
 
 ALP 
 
 A  plant  with  broad  thick 
 I)rickly  leaves.  Tlie  juice  of 
 this  plant,  when  boiled,  pro- 
 duces the  medicinal  article 
 called  aloes  ;  and  it  was  also 
 used  in  embalming.  (Johnxix. 
 39.)  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
 and  the  islands  of  Sumatra 
 and  Ceylon  furnish  many  va- 
 rieties. The  aloes  which  is 
 cultivated  in  this  country  as 
 an  ornamental  plant,  is  of  a 
 very  different  species  from  the 
 medicinal  aloes. 
 
 The  wood  of  the  aloe  tree  is 
 called  lign-aloe.  (Num.  xxiv. 
 6.)  The  smell  of  it  is  very 
 1  fragrant,  and  the  wood  of 
 some  species  is  worth  more 
 than  its  weight  in  gold.  Be- 
 ]  sides  its  use  as  a  strong  per- 
 j  fume,  it  was  employed  for  fine 
 cabinet  and  ornamental  work. 
 ALPHA.  (Rev.  i.  8 ;  xxi.  6, 
 and  xxii.  13.)  The  name  of  the 
 first  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
 bet. "  /  am  Alpha  and  Omega, 
 the  beginning  and  the  end,  the 
 first  and  the  last,''''  is  the  ex- 
 pressive language  employed 
 by  our  Saviour  in  reference  to 
 himself.  The  phrase  among 
 the  Jews  to  denote  from  first 
 to  last  was,  "  from  Aleph  to 
 Tau,"  which  are  the  names 
 of  the  first  and  last  letters  of 
 the  Hebrew  alphabet.  The 
 expressions  in  the  passages 
 cited  denote  the  eternity  and 
 perfection  of  the  being  to 
 whom  they  are  applied,-  and 
 their  force  will  appear  by 
 comparing  them  witn  Isa.  xli. 
 4 :  xliv.  6,  and  xlviii.  12. 
 
 ALPHEUS.  1.  (Matt.  X.  3. 
 Mark  iii.  18.  Luke  vi.  15,  and 
 Acts  i.  13.)  The  father  of  the 
 apostle  James.  2.  (Mark  ii. 
 14.)  The  father  of  Levi,  or 
 Matthew,  as  he  is  called, 
 (Matt.  ix.  9.)  Many  suppose 
 that  Alpheus  was  the  same 
 person  as  Cleopas,  who  is 
 mentioned  (John  xix.  2o)  as 
 the  husband  of  Mary  the  sis- 
 ter of  our  Lord's  mother,  and 
 40 
 
ALT 
 that  hence  James,  his  son,  is 
 called  our  Lord's  brother. 
 (Compare  Matt.  xiii.  55,  and 
 xxvii.  56,  and  Mark  vi.  3,  and 
 Lu.xxiv.lO.  SeejAMESjJosES.) 
 
 ALTAR.  (Gen.  viii.  20.)  A 
 structure  appropriated  exclu- 
 sively to  the  offering  of  sacri- 
 fices, under  the  Jewish  law. 
 (See  Sacrifices.)  Tliough 
 sacrifices  were  oflered  before 
 the  flood,  the  word  altar  does 
 not  occur  until  the  time  of 
 Noah's  departure  from  the 
 ark. 
 
 Altars  were  of  various  forms, 
 and  at  first  very  rude  in  their 
 construction,  being  nothing 
 more,  probably,  than  a  square 
 heap  of  stones,  or  mound  of 
 earth.  The  altar  on  which 
 Jacob  made  an  offering  at 
 Bethel,  was  the  single  stone 
 which  had  served  him  for  a 
 pillow  during  the  night.  (Gen. 
 xxviii.  18.)  "The  altar  which 
 Moses  was  commanded  to 
 build,  (Ex.  XX.  24.)  was  to  be 
 made  of  earth.  If  made  of 
 stone,  it  was  expressly  re- 
 quired to  be  rough,  the  use  of 
 a  tool  being  regarded  as  pol- 
 luting. (Ex.  XX.  25.)  It  was 
 also  to  be  without  steps.  (Ex. 
 XX.  26.  See  also  Deut.  xxvii. 
 2—6,  and  Josh.  viii.  31.) 
 
 Among  the  ancient  Egyptian 
 pictures  lately  discovered  in 
 the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  we 
 have  models  of  the  altar. 
 
 Figure  1  is  a  side  view,  and 
 
 figure  2  is  an  angular  view. 
 
 The  structures  are  different, 
 
 as  well  as  the  apparent  orna- 
 
 4* 
 
 ALT 
 
 ments  and  uses.  On  both, 
 however,  we  observe  a  projec- 
 tion upward  at  each  corner, 
 which  represents  the  true 
 figure  of  the  horns.  (Ex. 
 xxvii.  2.  1  Kings  ii.  28.  Rev. 
 ix.  13.)  They  were  probably 
 used  to  confine  the  victim. 
 (Ps.  cxviii.  27.) 
 
 The  altars  required  in  the 
 Jewish  worshipwere,  (1.)  The 
 altar  of  burnt-offering,  or  the 
 brazen  altar,  m  the  taber- 
 nacle in  the  wilderness  ;  this 
 altar  stood  directly  in  front 
 of  the  principal  entrance,  as 
 seen  in  the  figure  under  the 
 article  Tabernacle. 
 
 It  was  made  of  shittim  wood, 
 seven  feet  and  six  inches 
 square,  and  four  feet  and  six 
 inches  high.  It  was  hollow, 
 and  covered  or  overlaid  with 
 plates  of  brass.  The  horns 
 (of  which  there  was  one  on 
 each  corner)  were  of  wood, 
 and  overlaid  in  the  same  way. 
 A  grate  or  net  work  of  brass 
 was  also  attached  to  it,  either 
 to  hold  the  fire  or  to  support  a 
 hearth  of  earth.  (Biblical  An- 
 tiquities, by  the  American 
 Sunday-School  Union,  vol.  ii. 
 ch.  ii.)  The  furniture  of  the  al- 
 tar was  all  of  brass,  and  con- 
 sisted of  such  articles  as  a  sho- 
 vel to  remove  the  ashes  from 
 the  altar,  and  a  pan  to  receive 
 them;  the  skins  or  vessels  for 
 receiving  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
 tims, and  hooks  for  turning  the 
 sacrifice.  At  each  corner  was 
 a  brass  ring,  and  there  were 
 also  two  staves  or  rods  over- 
 laid with  brass  which  passed 
 through  these  rings,  and  serv- 
 ed for  carrying  the  altar  from 
 place  to  place. 
 
 Tlie  fire  used  on  this  altar 
 was  perpetually  maintained. 
 It  was  kindled  miraculously, 
 and  the  flame  was  cherished 
 with  the  most  devoted  care. 
 It  was  also  a  place  of  constant 
 sacrifice:  fresh  blood  was 
 shed  upon  it  continually,  and 
 the  smoke  of  the  burning  sa- 
 41       " 
 
ALT  ALT 
 
 erifice  ascended  up  towards 
 heaven  without  interruption. 
 
 In  the  first  temple,  (which 
 in  ita  general  plan  was  con- 
 structed after  the  pattern  of 
 the  tabernacle  in  the  wilder- 
 ness, that  being  a  tent  and 
 this  a  house,)  "the  altar  of 
 burnt-offerins  stood  in  tlie 
 same  relative  position  as  in 
 the  tabernacle.  It  was  much 
 larger,  however,  being  thirty 
 
 feel  square  and  fifteen  feet 
 high ;  its  particular  plan  be- 
 ing appointed  expressly  by 
 divine  authority.  (1  Chron. 
 xxviii.  11—20.)  And  in  the 
 second  temple  it  occupied  the 
 same  position,  though  it  was 
 still  larger  and  rnore'beautiful 
 than  inUie  first. 
 
 2.   The  allar  of  hirense,  or 
 the  golden  altar,  stood  witnin 
 the  holy  place,  and  near  to  ths 
 42 
 
AMA 
 
 inmost  veil.  (Ex.  xxx.  1-6.)  It 
 was  made  of  the  same  wood 
 with  the  brazen  altar,  and 
 was  eighteen  inches  square, 
 and  three  feet  high.  The  top, 
 as  well  as  the  sides  and  horns, 
 was  overlaid  with  pure  gold, 
 and  it  was  finished  around  the 
 upper  surface  with  a  crown  or 
 border  of  gold.  Just  below 
 this  borderlfour  golden  rings 
 were  attached  to  each  side  of 
 the  altar,  one  near  each  cor- 
 ner. The  staves  or  rods 
 for  bearing  the  altar  passed 
 through  these  rings,  and  were 
 made  of  the  same  wood  with 
 the  altar  itself,  and  richly- 
 overlaid  with  the  same  pre- 
 cious metal. 
 
 Upon  this  altar  incense  was 
 burnt  every  morning  and 
 every  evening,  (see  Incense,) 
 so  that  it  was  literally  per- 
 petual. (Ex.  XXX.  8.)  Neither 
 burnt-sacrifice,  nor  meat-offer- 
 ing, nor  drink-offering,  were 
 permitted  upon  this  altar ;  nor 
 was  it  ever  stained  with  blood, 
 except  once  annually,  when 
 the  priest  made  atonement. 
 (Lev.  xvi.  18,  19.) 
 
 AMALEK.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  16.) 
 He  was  the  son  of  Eli^haz, 
 and  grandson  of  Esau,  home 
 have  supposed  him  to  be  the 
 father  of  the  Amalekites,  but 
 they  are  mentioned  as  a  pow- 
 erful people  long  before  the 
 birth  of  Amalek.  (Gen.  xiv.  7.) 
 The  Arabians  have  a  tradition 
 that  he  was  the  son  of  Ham. 
 
 AMALEKITES.  (1  Sam.  xv. 
 6.)  A  powerful  people,  but  of 
 uncertain  origin  and  resi- 
 dence. They  are  called  (Num. 
 xxiv.  20)  the  first  of  all 
 the  nations.  They  were  sig- 
 nally defeated  in  a  contest 
 with  the  children  of  Israel 
 at  Rephidim  ;  and  for  iheir 
 guilt  in  ojiposing  ihe  progress 
 of  God's  people,  they  became 
 objects  of  his  terrihle  judg- 
 ments. They  were  afterwards 
 defeated  and  repulsed  by 
 Gideon,    (Judg.    vii.  12,)   and 
 
 AMA 
 
 by  Saul,  (1  Sam.  xv.)  and  by 
 David,  (1  Sam.  xxx. ;)  till  at 
 last  the  word  of  the  Lord  was 
 fulfilled  to  the  very  letter,  and 
 their  name  was  blotted  from 
 the  earth.  (1  Sam.  xxx.  17, 
 and  1  Chron.  iv.  4-3.) 
 
 AMANA.  (Sol.  Song  iv.  8.) 
 A  southern  peak  of  one  of  the 
 mountains  of  Lebant.n ;  pro- 
 bably so  called  from  a  river 
 of  that  name  which  flowed 
 from  it. 
 
 AMASA.  (1  Chron.  ii.  17.) 
 A  son  of  Jether,  who  is  else- 
 where called  Ithra.  (2  Sam. 
 xvii.  25.)  Absalom  placed  him 
 at  the  head  of  his  troops  in 
 the  rebellion  against  his  father 
 David  ;  but  he  was  defeated  by 
 his  cousin  Joab.  Afterwards. 
 David  recognising  the  rela- 
 tionship between  them,  not 
 only  pardoned  Amasa,  hut 
 made  him  captain  of  his  host 
 in  the  room  of  Joab. 
 
 On  the  revolt  of  Sheba,  Da- 
 vid required  Amasa  to  assem- 
 ble the  people  within  three 
 days,  and  march  with  them  to 
 suppress  it;  but  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  delay,  the  king 
 despatched  Abishai  with  such 
 an  army  as  could  be  mustered 
 at  the  moment,  and  together 
 with  Joab  they  pursued"  after 
 Sheba.  At  a  particular  place 
 in  Gibeouj  Amasa  joined  them. 
 The  envious  and  mortified 
 Joab  approached  to  salute 
 him,  and  seized  the  oppor- 
 tunity to  give  him  a  deadly 
 wound. 
 
 AMASAI.  (1  Chron.  vi.  25.) 
 A  Levite,  and  one  of  the  sons 
 of  Elkanah.  He  was  chief  of 
 a  gallant  party  that  came  to 
 David,  when  he  was  flying 
 from  Saul.  (1  Chron.  xii.  16— 
 18.)  David  gladly  availed  him 
 selfoftheir  aid, and  gave  them 
 commissions  in  his  army. 
 
 AMAZIAH,  (2  Kings  xiv.  1- 
 20.)  ihd  eighth  king  of  Judah, 
 was  son  and  successor  of  Je- 
 hoash.  He  commenced  his 
 reign  in  the  twenty-fifth  year 
 43 
 
AMA 
 
 of  his  age.  His  character  is 
 peculiarly  described.  He  did 
 that  which  was  right  in  the 
 sight  of  the  Lord,  but  not  with 
 a  perfect  heart.  (2  Chron. 
 XXV.  2.    2  Kings  xiv.  3.) 
 
 At  the  commencement  of  his 
 reign,  he  showed  an  outward 
 regard  to  the  law  of  the  Lord ; 
 but  power  and  ambition  turn- 
 ed his  heart;  he  fell  into  a 
 snare,  and  was  destroyed  by 
 llie  hand  of  violence. 
 
 Amaziah  resolved  to  make 
 war  upon  the  Edomites,  who 
 had  revolted  from  the  king- 
 dom of  Judah  several  years 
 before,  (2  Kings  viii.  20 ;)  and 
 for  this  purpose  he  raised  an 
 army  of  300,000  men  from 
 among  his  own  subjects,  and 
 hired  100,000  men  of  Israel, 
 for  whose  services  he  paid 
 $150,000.  Before  he  com- 
 menced the  expedition,  how- 
 ever, he  was  directed  by  di- 
 vine authority  to  dismiss  his 
 hired  soldiers,  and  was  told 
 that  if  he  did  not,  he  should 
 certainly  fall  before  his  ene- 
 mies. After  some  hesitation 
 he  dismissed  the  Israelitish 
 army,  and  sent  them  home. 
 
 Amaziah  met  the  Edomites 
 in  a  place  called  the  Valley 
 of  Salt,  and  gained  a  signal 
 victory  over  them,  slaying 
 10,000,  and  taking  10,000  pri- 
 soners. Elated  by  his  success, 
 and  forgetful  of  the  God  of 
 battles  who  had  given  him  the 
 victory,  he  took  the  idols 
 which  his  vannuished  enemy 
 had  worshipped,  and  set  them 
 up  as  his  own  gods.  The 
 anger  of  the  Almighty  was 
 kiiidled  against  him,  and  he 
 sent  a  message  to  him,  the 
 very  terms  of  which  e.vposed 
 and  rebuked  his  si  a.  (2  Ghron. 
 XXV.  15.)  The  king  was  al- 
 ready hardened  enough  to 
 question  the  authority  of  God's 
 messenger,  and  even  to 
 threaten  him  with  death.  He 
 was  warned  of  the  destruc- 
 tion  he    would    bring    upon 
 
 AMB 
 
 himself  for  his  idolatry  and 
 unbelief. 
 
 Thus  given  up  to  follow  his 
 own  devices,  he  sought  occa- 
 sion of  war  with  the  king  of 
 Israel.  The  answer  of  the 
 king  to  the  challenge  was 
 given  in  the  form  of  a  fable, 
 but  was  expressive  of  the  ut- 
 most contempt,  and  contained 
 at  the  same  time  a  severe  re- 
 buke to  the  kin§  of  Judah  for 
 his  pride  and  vain-glory. 
 
 Amaziah  was  not  to  be  de- 
 terred from  his  purpose  ;  and 
 he  met  the  army  of  Israel  at 
 Beth-shemesh  in  Judea,  and  it 
 is  said  by  Jewish  historians, 
 that  the  army  of  Judah  was 
 suddenly  seized  with  a  panic, 
 and  fled  before  Israel  without 
 a  blow  on  either  side.  Ama- 
 ziah, however,  was  taken  pri- 
 soner by  the  king  of  Israel, 
 who  forthwith  proceeded  to 
 break  down  a  section  of  the 
 city  wall  six  hundred  feet  in 
 length,  and  marched  through 
 the  breach ;  plundered  the 
 temple  of  its  gold  and  silver 
 vessels ;  seized  the  king's 
 treasures,  and  taking  such 
 hostages  as  he  pleased,  re- 
 turned in  triumph  to  Samaria, 
 leaving  the  king  of  Judah  to 
 reflect  on  the  folly  and  mad- 
 ness of  rejecting  the  counsel 
 and  disobeying  the  command 
 of  God.  (2  Kings  xiv.)  About 
 fifteen  years  after  this  dis- 
 graceful defeat,  Amaziah  fledl 
 from  Jerusalem  to  Lachish  to 
 escape  a  conspiracy ;  but  he 
 was  followed  to  the  jilace  to 
 which  he  fled,  and  put  to 
 death,  and  his  body  taken 
 back  to  Jerusalem,  and  buried 
 with  his  fathers.  (See  Amos.) 
 AMBASSADOR.  (Isa.  xxxiii. 
 7.)  A  person  appointed  to 
 some  business  in  a  foreign 
 country,  in  the  transaction  of 
 which  he  represents  the  go- 
 vernment that  appoints  him. 
 (2  Chron.  xxxii.  31.)  The  word 
 is  figuratively  used  (2  Cor.  v. 
 1&-20)  to  denote  those  who 
 
AME 
 
 are  sent  forth,  b^  divine  au- 
 thority, to  proclaim  the  terms 
 of  pardon  and  eternal  life  to 
 the  rebellious  and  condemned 
 subjects  of  God's  government. 
 
 AjMBASSAGE.  (Luke  xiv. 
 32.)  A  public  message.  The 
 term  may  include  t'he  mes- 
 senger or  ambassador  as  well 
 as  iTismessasre. 
 
 AMBER.  (Ezek.  i.  4, 27, and 
 viii.  2.)  A  beautiful  bitumi- 
 nous substance,  susceptible 
 of  a  fine  polish,  and  present- 
 ing several  colours,  though 
 chiefly  yellow  and  orange.  "It 
 is  found  in  Pru.ssia  aad  near 
 the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 
 In  the  passages  cited,  the  al- 
 lusion is  simply  to  the  colour 
 of  amber,  and  does  not  imply 
 that  it  is  indestructible  by 
 fire. 
 
 AMEN.  (Deut.  xxvii.  15.) 
 This  word,  though  variously 
 used,  has  substantially  the 
 same  meaning.  It  is  an  af- 
 firmative response,  and  is 
 used  to  denote  assent,  or  en- 
 tire acquiescence.  (Deut.xxvii. 
 15—26.)  It  is  sometimes  trans- 
 lated verily,  and  was  fre- 
 puently  used  Ly  our  Saviour 
 when  he  was  about  to  utter 
 some  distinct,  important,  and 
 solemn  truth.  Its  repetition, 
 "  verily,  verily,  I  say  unto 
 you,"  strengthens  the  asser- 
 tion. 
 
 It  was  the  custom  among 
 the  fearly  Christians  for  all 
 the  worshippers  to  say  amen 
 about  the  close  of  the  prayer, 
 or  at  the  giving  of  thanks. 
 (1  Cor.  xiv.  16.)  And  Jewish 
 writers  say,  "there  is  nothing 
 greater  in  the  sight  of  God 
 than  the  amen  with  which 
 the  Israelite  answers."  The 
 promises  of  God  are  amen, 
 because  they  are  made  sure 
 and  certain  in  Christ.  (2  Cor. 
 i.20.)  Amen  is  one  of  the  titles 
 of  our  blessed  Saviour,  (Rev. 
 iii.  14,)  as  he  is  the  faithful  and 
 true  witness.  Amen  and  amen 
 is  the  eloquent  and  sublime 
 
 AMM 
 
 conclusion  of  one  of  Pavid'8 
 triumphant  songs.  (Ps.  xli.  13.) 
 
 AJMETHYST.  (Exod.  xxxix. 
 12.)  One  of  the  most  valuable 
 of  the  precious  stones.  It  has 
 a  variety  of  colours,  though 
 purple  prevails. 
 
 AiMMINADAB.  (Exod.  vi. 
 2-3.)  Aaron's  father-in-law. 
 The  allusion  to  the  chariots 
 of  Amminadab,  or  Ammina» 
 dib,  (Sol.  Song  vi.  12,)  may 
 refer  to  the  known  beauty  and 
 swiftness  of  the  vehicles  of 
 some  famous  chieftain,  or  cha- 
 rioteer of  that  period. 
 
 AMMONITES,  or  children 
 of  AMMON,  (Gen.  xix.  38,) 
 were  the  descendants  of  Ben- 
 ammi,  a  sin  of  Lot,  by  incest. 
 He  was  born  in  the  neighbour- 
 hood of  Zoar,  but  his  pJsterity 
 spread  northwardly,  and  oc- 
 cupied the  mountainous  re- 
 gions of  Gilead,  between  the 
 rivers  Arnon  and  Jabbok.  Ori- 
 ginally their  possessions  were 
 bounded  north  by  the  river 
 Jaljbok,  west  by  Jordan,  south 
 by  Arnon,  and  stretched  east- 
 wardly  into  Arabia.  The 
 Amorites,  under  Sihon  their 
 king,  expelled  them  from  the 
 richest  part  of  their  posses- 
 sions, which  lay  between  the 
 two  rivers ;  but  Moses  reco- 
 vered it  from  the  Amorites, 
 and  divided  it  between  Reuben 
 and  Gad.  The  western  bound- 
 ary of  the  Ammonites  then 
 became  a  branch  of  the  river 
 Jabbok,  (on  which  their  ca- 
 pital city,  Rabbah  or  Rabbath- 
 Ammon^  stood,)  and  the  moun- 
 tains of  Gilead  bounded  them 
 on  the  cast,  while  the  main 
 stream  of  tue  Jabbok  conti- 
 nued t9  be  their  northern 
 boundary,  and  the  land  of 
 Moab  the  southern.  This  last 
 is  intended  by  the  kingdom 
 of  Ammon  as  used  in  the 
 sacred  history. 
 
 The    children    of  Arnmon 
 
 were  gross  idolaters.    (Judg. 
 
 X.  6.)    Their  chief  idol  was 
 
 Moloch    supposed  to  be  the 
 
 43 
 
AMM 
 
 same  with  Baal,  Milcom,  &c. 
 and  their  history  is  full  of  the 
 judgments  which  their  sins 
 brought  upon  them,  though 
 they  were  spared,  by  God's 
 express  command,  when  Is- 
 rael passed  by  them  from 
 Esypt.  (Deuu  ii.  19.  2Chron. 
 XX.  10.) 
 
 Three  hundred  years  after- 
 wards the  king  of  the  Am- 
 monites made  war  upon  the 
 Israelites,  under  the  pretence 
 that  they  had  taken  their 
 land,  (Judg.  xi.  13,)  and  after 
 a  severe  battle  ttie  Ammonites 
 were  routed  with  great  slaugh- 
 ter. 
 
 In  the  beginning  of  Saul's 
 reign,  (1  Sam.  xi.  1,)  the  Am- 
 monites, under  Nahash  their 
 king,  attacked  Jabesh-gilead ; 
 but  "proposed  to  spare  "the  in- 
 habitants provided  they  would 
 all  consent  to  lose  the  right 
 eye.  During  the  time  allowed 
 for  their  answer,  they  collect- 
 ed a  sufficient  force  to  meet 
 the  Ammonites,  and  so  com- 
 pletely routed  them,  that  two 
 of  them  were  not  left  together. 
 
 Fifty  or  sixty  jrears  after 
 this,  one  of  the  kings  cf  the 
 Ammonites  died,  and  David, 
 who  seems  to  have  been  under 
 some  obligation  to  him,  sent 
 a  messeige  of  condolence  to 
 hii  son  and  successor.  This 
 friendly  act  was  not  received 
 kindly,  and  the  messengers 
 of  David  were  grossly  abused 
 and  insulted.  "(See  Hancjx.) 
 Expecting  that  David  would 
 attempt  to  revenge  the  insult, 
 they  obtained  large  supplies 
 of  men  from  the  Syr'ans  :  and 
 when   David  heard  of  their 
 
 Preparation  for  war,  he  sent 
 oab,  with  a  chosen  troop  from 
 the  arniy  of  Israel,  to  meet 
 them.  The  result  was  fatal 
 to  the  Ammonites.  They  and 
 their  allies  were  subdued,  and 
 fled.  Kabbath,  their  capital, 
 and  all  the  rest  of  their  cities, 
 were  afterwards  destroyed 
 ♦»f  the  Israelites ;  the  king's 
 
 AMO 
 
 crown  was  taken  from  his 
 head  and  put  on  David's  head, 
 and  the  people  were  reduced 
 to  a  state  of  abject  servitude. 
 (2Sam.xii.  29-31.) 
 
 In  this  condition  they  re- 
 mained till  the  reign  of  Je- 
 hoshaphat,  when  they  united 
 with  the  Moabites  and  others, 
 and  made  war  upon  Judah, 
 and  were  miraculously  cut 
 off.  (2  Chron.  xx.)  Jotham 
 fought  and  prevailed  against 
 them,  and  made  them  tribu- 
 tary for  several  years.  The 
 most  dreadful  judgments  were 
 threatened  aeainst  them  and 
 
 their  chief  city,  because  they 
 seized  and  occupied  a  part  of 
 the  territory  of  Israel,  (Jer. 
 xlix.  1 — 6 ;)  and  again,  because 
 they  insolently  triumphed 
 over  the  Israelites  in  the  days 
 of  their  captivity,  (Ezek.  xxv. 
 2—7.  10;)  and  every  threat 
 was  executed  to  the  very  utter- 
 most, in  due  time,  as  profane 
 history  abundantly  attests. 
 They  soon  became  extinct 
 as  a  nation,  and  Orlgen,  a 
 writer  of  the  third  century, 
 assures  us,  that  in  his  time 
 they  were  only  known  under 
 the  general  name  of  Arabs. 
 Where  their  capital  once 
 stood  is  now  the  village  of 
 Amman,  twenty  miles  south- 
 east of  the  modern  town  of 
 Szalt. 
 AMMON-NO.  (See  No.) 
 AMNON  (1  Chron.  iii.  1) 
 was  the  eldest  son  of  David, 
 and  was  guilty  of  violating 
 the  chastity  of  his  half-sis- 
 ter, Tamar.  (2  Sam.  xiii.) 
 David  was  very  angry,  though 
 he  did  not  punish  Amnon ; 
 but  his  brother  Absalom  deter- 
 mined to  revenge  the  injury; 
 and  after  cherishins  his  pur- 
 pose for  two  years,  he  finally 
 executed  it  in  his  house  at  a 
 feast  to  which  he  had  invited 
 Amnon,  with  the  rest  of  his  fa- 
 ther's family.  (See  Absalom.) 
 AMON.  (2Kinffs  xxi.  18-26.) 
 The  fourteenth  kins  of  Judah. 
 46 
 
AMO 
 
 and  the  son  and  successor  of 
 Manasseh.  He  was  a  wicked 
 king,  and  died  in  his  own 
 house  by  the  hands  of  his  ser- 
 vants, who  conspired  against 
 him.  He  was  succeeded  by 
 his  son  Josiah. 
 
 AMORITES,  (Gen.  x.  16.) 
 A.  Syrian  tribe  descended  from 
 Canaan,  and  among  the  most 
 formidable  of  the  tribes  with 
 whom  the  Israelites  contend- 
 ed. They  were  of  gigantic 
 •tature  and  great  courage, 
 (Amos  ii.  &,)  and  inhabited  one 
 of  the  most  fertile  districts  of 
 the  country,  being  bounded 
 on  three  sides  by  the  rivers 
 Arnon,  Jabbok,  and  Jordan. 
 (See  Ammonites.)  The  Israel- 
 ites asked  permission  of  their 
 king  to  travel  through  their 
 territory,  promising  to  injure 
 nothing,  not  even  to  draw 
 water  from  their  wells  ;  but  it 
 was  refused.  The  Amorites 
 collected  and  attempted  to  op- 
 pose their  progress,  but  were 
 defeated,  and  their  territory 
 taken  and  divided  between 
 the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 
 Some  have  supposed  that 
 there  were  two  distinct  people 
 or  tribes  called  Amorites;  but 
 there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient 
 ground  for  the  supposition. 
 
 AMOS.  (Amos  1. 1.)  One  of 
 the  lesser  prophets,  who  lived 
 in  the  reign  of  Uzziah  king  of 
 Judah,  nearly  eight  hundred 
 years  before  Christ.  Of  course 
 he  was  a  contemporary  of  Ho- 
 sea.  The  place  of  his  birth 
 is  not  known  ;  but  while  em- 
 ployed as  a  herdsman,  he  wap 
 divinely  appointed  to  prophe- 
 sy againstlsrael.  Being  driven 
 from  Bethel  upon  the  false  re- 
 
 Eresentation  made  to  the  king 
 y  the  idolatrous  priest  Ama- 
 ziah,  (Amos  vii.  10—17,)  he 
 went  to  Tekoa,  an  obscure 
 town  ten  or  fifteen  miles  south 
 of  Jerusalem.  The  time  and 
 manner  of  his  death  are  un- 
 certain. 
 Amos,  prophecy  op,  is  the 
 
 ANA 
 
 thirtieth  in  the  order  of  the 
 books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
 and  is  full  of  interest  and  in- 
 struction. It  has  been  remark- 
 ed as  a  peculiar  feature  of 
 this  prophecy,  that  it  abounds 
 with  illustrations  drawn  from 
 husOandry,  and  the  scenes  of 
 rustic  life  ;  but  it  certainly 
 contains  same  of  the  most 
 perfect  specimens  of  sublime 
 thought  and  beautiful  expres- 
 sion that  are  to  be  found  in 
 any  language.  We  may  refer 
 specially  to  chapters  v.  vii. 
 and  ix. 
 
 AMPHIPOLIS.  (Acts  xvii. 
 1.)  A  city  of  European  Tur- 
 key, oridnally  founded  by 
 Cimon,  Uie  renowned  Athe- 
 nian general,  (b.  c.  500,)  and 
 formerly  the  capital  of  East- 
 ern Macedonia.  It  lies  on  the 
 river  Stryraon,  about  seventy 
 miles  east  of  Thessalonica. 
 It  is  now  an  obscure  place, 
 and  is  called  Isy  the  Turks, 
 Emboli. 
 
 AMRAPHEL.  (Gen.  xiv.  1.) 
 The  kin?  of  Shinar,  (Gen.  xi. 
 2,)  or  jJabylonia,  who,  con- 
 federated with  other  kings, 
 made  war  on  Sodom  and  the 
 other  cities  of  the  plain ;  plun- 
 dering them,  and  making  pri- 
 soners of  their  inhabitants. 
 Among  the  captives  was  Lot, 
 Abraham's  nephew.  (See 
 Lot.) 
 
 ANAH.    (See  Mtjlbs.) 
 
 ANAK  (Num.  xiii.  22)  was 
 the  son  of  Arba,  who  gave  the 
 name  of  Kirjath-arba,  or  city 
 of  Arba,  to  what  is  otherwise 
 called  Hebron.  (Josh.  xiv.  15.) 
 Anak  had  three  sons,  who 
 were  giants  ;  and  their  child- 
 ren, who  were  called  Anak- 
 ims,  were  also  remarkable 
 for  their  stature  and  fierce- 
 ness. In  the  time  of  Moses 
 they  occupied  the  territory 
 between  Heiiron  and  Jerusa- 
 lem, and  were  divided  into 
 several  tribes  or  cldns.  (Josh, 
 xi.  21,  22.)  They  were,  how- 
 ever, cut  off  by  Joshua  and 
 
ANA 
 Cal«b,  and  the  Israelites  en- 
 tered into  their  possessions. 
 The  messengers  who  were 
 sent  forward  by  the  Israelites 
 to  search  the  land,  reported 
 themselves  to  be  as  grassiiop- 
 pers  in  comparison  with  the 
 children  of  Anak.  (See  Gi- 
 ants.) 
 ANaMMELECH.   (SeeAD- 
 
 RAMMELECH.) 
 
 ANANIAS.  1.  (Acts  v.  1-10.) 
 One  of  the  professed  converts 
 o  the  Christian  faith  under 
 he  preaching  of  the  apostles. 
 When  llie  disciples  had 
 thrown  their  property  into  a 
 common  stock,  Ananias  sold 
 his  estate,  and  brought  a  part 
 of  the  purchase  money,  pre- 
 tending it  was  the  whole  pro- 
 ceeds "of  the  sale.  Being 
 charged  by  Peter  with  his  fla- 
 grant and  aggravated  sin,  he 
 iell  down  dead  upon  the  spot. 
 His  wife  Sapphira,  who  was 
 privy  to  the  fraud  of  her  hus- 
 band, but  ignorant  of  his 
 dreadful  end,  being  asked  for 
 how  much  their  estate  had 
 been  sold,  confirmed  the  false- 
 hood which  Ananias  had  told, 
 and  instantly  met  the  same 
 dreadful  doom. 
 
 2.  (Acts  xxii.  12.)  A  primi- 
 tive disciple  who  lived  at 
 Damascus,  and  was  commis- 
 sioned to  visit  Paul  soon  after 
 his  conversion,  and  restore 
 him  to  sight.  The  apostle  tells 
 us  what  took  place  on  that 
 occasion,  and  also  speaks  of 
 Ananias  as  a  devout  man,  and 
 highly  esteemed  in  the  place 
 of  his  residence.  It  is  thought 
 by  many  that  he  was  one  of 
 the  seventy  disciples,  and  that 
 he  died  a  martyr. 
 
 3.  (Acts  xxii  I.  2.)  A  Jewish 
 high  priest.  When  Paul  was 
 commencing  his  defence  be- 
 fore the  Jewish  sanhedrim, 
 Ananias,  who  is  called  the 
 high  priest,  ordered  him  to  be 
 struck  upon  the  mouth.  The 
 apostle,  sensible  of  the  viola- 
 tion of  his  rights,  rebuked  the 
 
 ANA 
 
 high  priest  for  hia  Lrea^h  of 
 
 the  very  law  he  was  appointed 
 to  administer.  Upon  being 
 reminded  of  the  official  cha- 
 racter of  Ananias,  as  "  God's 
 high  priest,"  the  apostle  re- 
 plied that  he  was  not  aware 
 of  his  holding  that  office.  But 
 how  could  he  be  ignorant  of 
 so  notorious  a  fact  J  asks  the 
 caviller.  Profane  history  fur- 
 nishes an  answer  which  tri- 
 umphantly vindicates  the 
 truth.  In  consecjuence  of  some 
 misunderstanding  between  the 
 Jews  and  Samaritans,  Ananias 
 had  been  a  few  years  before 
 deposed  from  office,  and  sent 
 a  prisoner  to  Rome.  Jonatjhan 
 succeeded  him  as  high  priest, 
 but  being  murdered  by  Felix, 
 there  was  an  interval  in  which 
 the  office  was  vacant.  During 
 this  interval  Paul  was  arraign- 
 ed. On  this  occasion  Ananias 
 assumed  the  office  of  president 
 of  the  sanhedrim,  (having  been 
 formerly  high-priest,)  but  with- 
 out any  aufhoiity.  Hence  the 
 force  and  propriety  of  the  apos- 
 tle's answer.  Ananias  was  one 
 of  Paul's  accusers  before  Fe- 
 lix, and  had  formed  a  design  to 
 waylay  and  assassinate  him ; 
 but  his  murderous  purpose  was 
 defeated.    (Acts  xxv.  3.) 
 
 ANATHEMA.  (1  Cor.  xvi. 
 22.)  In  its  usual  acceptation 
 it  means  the  devoting  of  an 
 animal,  person,  or  place  to  de- 
 struction. 
 
 Anathema  maranatha  is 
 a  Syriac  exclamation,  signify- 
 ing, Let  him  be  accursed  whom 
 the  Lord  curses.  These  were 
 the  words  with  which  the 
 Jews  began  the  sentence  of 
 utter  excommunication ;  not 
 only  cutting  the  subject  off 
 from  their  communion,  but 
 consigning  him,  as  far  as  it 
 was  possible,  to  everlasting 
 
 Serdition.  The  use  of  such  a 
 readful  curse  by  the  apostle, 
 shows  in  what  light  he  regard 
 ed  the  sin  of  not  loving  out 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
 
AND 
 
 ANATKOTH.  (Josh.  xxi. 
 18.)  A  ciiy  of  the  tribe  of 
 Benjamin,  situated  a  few 
 miles  norlli  of  Jerusalem,  It 
 was  the  birth-place  of  Jere- 
 miah, (Jer.  i.  1,)  and  the  sub- 
 ject of  one  of  his  prophecies, 
 (Jer.  xi.  19—22,)  as  well  as  of 
 Isaiah's.  (Isa.  x.  30.)  It  is  also 
 an  interesting  place  in  con- 
 nexion with  the  Jewish  his- 
 tory. (2  Sam.  xxiii.  27.  1  Kings 
 ii.  26.    Neh.  vii.  27.) 
 
 ANCHOPt.  (Acts  xxvii.  29.) 
 The  anchor  was  formerly  cast 
 from  the  stern  of  the  ship.  In 
 the  passage  cited,  reference 
 may  be  had  to  an  anchor  with 
 four  flukes  or  arms,  such  as 
 are  ^metimes  used  by  boats 
 ia  shallow  water ;  or  it  may 
 
 mean  four  distinct  separate 
 anchors.  The  above  repre- 
 sents a  common  anchor  with 
 two  flukes  or  arms.  (For  a  de- 
 scription of  the  anchor,  and  an 
 illustration  of  its  real  and  fig- 
 urative uses,  see  The  An- 
 chor, published  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 ANDREW,  (John  i.  40,)  the 
 son  of  Jonas  and  brother  of 
 Simon  Peter,  was  a  native  of 
 Bethsaida,  in  Galilee,  and 
 originally  a  disciple  ot  John 
 the  Baptist,  whom  he  left  to 
 follow  our  Saviour.  When  he 
 had  found  the  Messiah,  he 
 forthwith  sought  his  brother 
 Simon,  and  brought  him  to 
 Jesus,  and  soon  "after  they 
 both  attached  themselves  to 
 the  little  band  of  his  disciples, 
 and  followed  him  till  the  close 
 of  his  ministry.  The  events 
 with  which  Andrew  was  par- 
 ticularly connected  are  re- 
 5 
 
 ANG 
 
 corded  in  Matt.  iv.  18—20. 
 Mark  xiii.  3. ;  and  John  i.  35— 
 40;  vi.  3— 13;  xii.  22. 
 
 ANGEL.  (Gen.  xxiv.  7.) 
 This  word,  both  in  the  Greek 
 and  Hebrew  languages,  signi- 
 fies a  7?zessen^er.  The  original 
 word  is  often  applied  to  men. 
 (2  Sam.  ii.  5.  Luke  vii.  24,  and 
 ix.  52.)  When  the  term  is 
 used,  as  it  generally  is,  id 
 designate  spiritual  beings,  it 
 denotes  the  o'lice  they  sustain 
 as  God's  messengers,  or  the 
 agents  by  whom  he  makes 
 known  his  will  and  executes 
 the  purposes  of  his  govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Our  knowledge  of  the  exist- 
 ence of  such  beings  is  derived 
 wholly  from  revelation,  and 
 that  rather  incidentally.  Wa 
 know,  from  their  residence 
 and  employment,  that  they 
 must  possess  knowledge  and 
 purity  far  beyond  our  pi'esent 
 conceptions;  and  the  titles 
 applied  to  them  denote  the 
 exalted  place  they  hold  among 
 created  intelligences. 
 
 Of  their  appearance  and 
 employment  we  may  form 
 some  idea  from  the  following 
 passages,  viz.  Gen.  xvi.7— 11. 
 Compare  Gen.  xviii.  2 ;  xix.  2, 
 with  Heb.  xiii.  2.  Judges 
 xiii.  6.  Ezek.  x.  Dan.  iii.  28, 
 and  vi.  22.  Matt.  iv.  11 ;  xviii, 
 10,  and  xxviii.  2--7.  Luke  i, 
 19 ;  xvi.  22,  and  xxii,  43.  Acts 
 vi.  15;  xii.  9.  Heb.  i.  14.  ii.l6. 
 2  Thess.  i.  7.    Rev.  x.  1,  2.  6. 
 
 Of  their  number  some  idea 
 may  be  inferred  from  1  Kincs 
 xxii.  19.  Ps.  Ixviii.  17.  Dan. 
 vii.  10.  Matt.  xxvi.  53.  Luke 
 ii.  9—14.  1  Cor.  iv.  9,  Heb. 
 xii.  22. 
 
 Of  their  strencth,  we  may 
 jud^e  from  Ps.  cili.  20.  2  Pet. 
 ii.  11.  Rev.  v.  2;  xviii,  21; 
 xix.  17, 
 
 And  we  learn  their  incon- 
 ceivable activity  from  Judg 
 xiii.  20.  Isa.  vi.  2—6.  Mati. 
 xiii.  49;  xxvi.  53.  Acts  xxvii. 
 2a    Rev.  viii.  13. 
 
 49 
 
AUG 
 
 These  are  but  a  few  of  the 
 leading  passages  in  which 
 Bome  intimations  are  given 
 of  this  superior  order  of  spi- 
 ritual beings.  There  is  also 
 an  order  of  evil  spirits,  mi- 
 nistering to  the  will  of  the 
 prince  of  darkness,  and  both 
 active  and  powerful  in  their 
 opposition  to  the  will  and 
 government  of  God.  (Matt. 
 XXV.  41.) 
 
 The  above  references,  if 
 examined  closely,  will  afford 
 very  satisfactory  knowledge 
 respecting  the  character,  em- 
 ploymenti^&c.  of  the  heavenly 
 messengers. 
 
 It  may  not  be  amiss  to  re- 
 mark, however— 
 
 1.  That  the  expression 
 (Matt,  xviii.  10)  seems  to  de- 
 note the  relation  which  the 
 children  of  God  sustain  to 
 him,  and  of  course  to  his  peo- 
 ple, and  the  watchful  care 
 and  protection  which  they 
 enjoy.     The  same  idea  is  sug- 
 
 fested  in  other  passa?es,  as 
 '8.  xci.  11,  12.    Luke  XV.  10. 
 Acts  xii.  15. 
 
 2.  The  angels  in  heaven 
 have  never  sinned,  and  are 
 not  therefore  partakers  of  the 
 benefit  of  Christ's  blood,  as 
 men  are.  Yet  it  is  obvious, 
 that  as  this  wonderful  scheme 
 of  mercy  and  grace  declares 
 and  illustrates  the  infinite 
 glory  of  the  divine  attributes 
 and  perfections,  so  their  con- 
 ceptions of  the  divine  charac- 
 ter are  enlarged  by  the  con- 
 templation of  it,  and  their 
 happiness  greatly  increased. 
 (Eph.  iii.  10.    1  Pet.  i.  12.) 
 
 3.  They  will  be  the  future 
 companions  of  the  heirs  of 
 salvation.  (He  3.  xii.  22.  23. 
 Rev.  V.  11,  12.) 
 
 4.  Angels  are  to  sustain  an 
 important  office  in  the  future 
 and  final  administration  of 
 God's  eovernment  on  earth. 
 (Mall.  xiii.  39 ;  xxv.  31—33.  I 
 Thesr.  iv.  16) 
 
 ANl 
 
 5.  Angels  are  not  proper 
 objects  of  adoration.  (Col.  ii. 
 18.    Rev.  xix.  10.) 
 
 Angel  of  his  presencb 
 (Isa.  Ixiii.  9)  by  some  is  sup. 
 posed  to  denote  the  highest 
 angel  in  heaven,  as  "  Gabriel 
 who  stands  in  the  presence 
 of  God ;"  but  others  believe  it 
 refers  to  no  other  than  the  in- 
 carnate Word,  the  brightness 
 of  the  Father's  glory,  and  not 
 only  the  messenger  of  his  pre- 
 sence, but  the  express  image 
 of  his  person. 
 
 Angel  of  the  lord  (Gen. 
 xvi.  7)  is  one  fif  the  common 
 titles  of  Christ  in  the  Old 
 Testament.  (Ex.  xxiii^20. 
 Compare  Acts  vii.  30— 32jilnd 
 37,  38.) 
 
 Angel  op  the  church, 
 (Rev.  ii.  1.)  It  is  said  that  the 
 minister  of  the  Jewish  syna- 
 gogue was  called  the  angel 
 of  the  church,  because  he  ad- 
 dressed God  in  their  behalf, 
 and  offered  supplications  as 
 their  representative,  messen- 
 ger, or  angel.  Hence,  the 
 persons  in  charge  of  the  seven 
 churches  of  Asia  are  address- 
 ed as  the  angels  of  those 
 churches  respectively. 
 
 Angel  of  LiGHT.(See  Devil.) 
 
 ANGER.  (Ps.  vii.  11,  and 
 xc.  11.)  A  strong  emotion, 
 which  is  sinful  or  otherwise, 
 according  to  its  object  and 
 degree.  When  ascribed  to 
 holy  beings,  it  is  used  figura- 
 tively, to  denote  high  displea- 
 sure at  sin.  In  this  sense 
 good  men  may  be  angry  and 
 sin  not,  (Neh.  v.  6.  2  Pet.  ii. 
 7,  8 ;)  and  even  God  is  said  to 
 be  angry  with  the  wicked 
 every  day.  Anger  is  reckoned 
 among  chief  sins,  and  as  such 
 is  severely  rebuked.  (Eph. 
 iv.  31.  Col.  iii.  8,  and  nume- 
 rous passasres  in  Proverbs.) 
 
 ANISE,  ^(Matt.  xxiii.  23^ 
 properly  Dill,  or  a  plant  of 
 the  same  family  whh  dill.  It 
 grew   abundantly    in   Judea, 
 
ANO 
 
 and  the  lithe  of  it  was  scru- 
 pulously paid  by  the  Phari- 
 sees.   (See  Mint.) 
 
 ANNA.  (Luke  ii.  36.)  A 
 descendant  of  Asher,  and  a 
 prophetess.  She  was  very 
 coastant  in  her  attendance  on 
 the  services  of  the  temple. 
 At  a  very  advanced  age,  she 
 listened  to  the  prophetic  bless- 
 ing which  Simeon  uttered 
 while  he  held  the  infant  Re- 
 deemer in  his  arms,  and  join- 
 ed in  it  with  great  fervour. 
 
 ANNAS.  (Luke  iii.  2.)  At 
 the  commencement  of  John's 
 ministry,  Caiaphas  was  high 
 priest  of  the  Jews,  and  they 
 ha^  only  one  ;  but  it  was  cus- 
 tomary often  to  continue  the 
 title  to  one  who  had  held  the 
 office,  after  he  ceased  to  offi- 
 ciate. This  was  the  case  with 
 Annas.  He  is  mentioned  first 
 because  he  was  eldest  in  years 
 and  office.  Five  of  his  sons 
 had  filled  the  office  in  succes- 
 sion ;  and  he  was  father-in-law 
 to  the  incumbent  at  that  lime. 
 When  our  Saviour  was  appre- 
 hended by  the  Jewish  mob,  he 
 was  carried  before  Annas  first 
 to  secure  the  favour  and  sanc- 
 tion of  one  who  had  great  in- 
 fluence, and  by  him  was  sent 
 in  bonds  to  Caiaphas.  (John 
 xviii.  13—^.) 
 
 ANOINT.  (Gen.  xxxi.  13.) 
 The  earliest  use  of  this  word 
 in  the  sacred  writings,  is  in 
 the  passage  cited  ;  and  it  sig- 
 nifies in  that  connexion  the 
 pouring  of  oil  upon  the  stone 
 which  Jacob  had  set  up  for  a 
 pillar.  (Gen.  xxviii.  18.) 
 
 The  anointing  of  persons, 
 places,  and  things,  with  oil  or 
 ointment  of  a  particular  com- 
 position, was  a  mode  of  con- 
 Becration  prescribed  by  divine 
 authority,  and  extensively 
 practised  among  the  Hebrews. 
 (Ex.  xxviii.  41.)  The  ingre- 
 dients of  the  ointment,  em- 
 bracing the  most  exquisite 
 perfumes  and  balsams,  are  mi- 
 nutely given,(Ex.  xxx.  23—33,) 
 
 ANO 
 
 and  the  common  use  of  it  wad 
 expressly  forbidden.  (Ex.  xxx. 
 33.) 
 
 It  was  customary  at  festi- 
 vals, and  on  other  great  and 
 jnyful  occasions,  to  anoint  the 
 head  with  fragrant  oils;  hence, 
 it  became  a  sign  of  joy  or  hap- 
 piness. This  fact  explains 
 2  Sam.  xiv.  2.  Ps.  xxiii.  5 ;  xcii. 
 10.  Eccl.  ix.  8.  Matt.  vi.  17, 
 It  is  supposed  that  anointing 
 was  a  daily  custom.  (Ruth  iii. 
 3.)  The  anointing  of  kings 
 and  rulers  is  particularly  pre- 
 scribed, and  we  have  frequent 
 accounts  of  the  process.  (2 
 Sam.  xix.  10.  1  Kings  i.  39 ; 
 xix.  15,  16.) 
 
 The  manner  of  anointing  is 
 represented  in  the  annexed 
 cut.  It  was  sometimes  done 
 privately  by  a  prophet,  (1  Sam. 
 X.  1 ;  xvi.  1—13.  1  Kings  xix. 
 16.  2  Kings  ix.  1 — 6,)  and  was 
 a  symbolical  intimation  that 
 the  person  so  anointed  would 
 at  some  future  day  ascend  the 
 throne.  After  the  monarchy 
 was  established,  the  anoini- 
 in|  was  done  by  the  priest, 
 (1  Kings  i.  39,)  probably  in 
 some  public  place,  (1  Kings  i. 
 32 — 34,)  and,  at  least  on  one 
 occasion,  in  the  temple  sur- 
 rounded by  the  royal  guards. 
 (2  Kings  XI.  12,13.) 
 
 It  was  common  to  anoint  the 
 person,  or  some  part  of  it,  (as 
 the  head,  feel,  hair,  &c.)  for 
 the  sake  of  health  or  cleanli- 
 ness, or  as  a  token  of  respect, 
 and  also  in  connexion  with 
 religious  observances.  (Matt, 
 vi.  17.  Luke  vii.  46.  John  xii.  3.) 
 When  practised  to  show  re- 
 spect, the  most  expensive 
 materials  were  used,  and  the 
 ceremony  was  performed  in 
 such  a  manner  as  to  denote 
 the  most  humble  and  submis- 
 sive reverence. 
 
 The  anointing  of  the  sick 
 with  oil  was  also  common. 
 The  healing  properties  of  oil 
 are  well  known,  and  though 
 the  cures  wrought  by  the  dia- 
 51 
 
ANO 
 
 ANl 
 
 ciples  of  our  Lord  were  obvi- 
 ously miraculous,  they  still 
 employed  the  ordinary  means 
 of  cure.  (Mark  vi.  13.)  The 
 apostolic  direction  (James  v. 
 14)  respecting  the  anointing 
 of  the  sick,  shows  us  that, 
 together  with  prayer,  the  ap- 
 propriate means  of  healing 
 should  be  employed  independ- 
 ence upon  or  in  the  name  of 
 the  Lord.  This  anointing,  it 
 will  be  observed,  is  commend- 
 ed with  a  view  to  its  healing 
 effect,  for  which  purpose  it 
 was  in  constant  use  among  the 
 Jews.  Of  course  to  employ  it 
 for  the  professed  purpose  of 
 sanctifying  the  soul,  or  pre- 
 paring it  for  death,  is  sinful 
 and  highly  superstitious.  It 
 is  clear  that  the  use  of  this 
 passage  to  justify  such  prac- 
 tices IS  a  gross  perversion  of 
 lam^uage. 
 
 The  bodies  of  the  dead  were 
 often  anointed  to  preserve 
 them  from  corruption.  (Mark 
 xiv.  8:  xvi.  1,  and  Lukexxiii. 
 56.) 
 
 The  Anointed,  or  Messiah, 
 who  is  constituted  our  high 
 
 priest  and  intercessor,  was 
 anointed  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 of  which  the  anointing  of 
 priests  under  the  Jewish  dis- 
 pensation is  supposed  to  be 
 typical.  (Ps.xliv.7.  Isa.  Ixi.  I. 
 Dan.  ix.  24.  Luke  iv.  18.  2L 
 Acts  iv.  27,  and  x.  38.)  The 
 terms  anoint,  anointed,  and 
 anointing,  are  em{)loyed  also 
 in  a  variety  of  forms  to  illus- 
 trate thesanctifying  influences 
 of  divine  grace  upon  the  soul. 
 (2  Cor.  i.  21.  1  John  ii.  20-27, 
 Rev.  iii.  18.) 
 
 ANT.  (Prov.  vi.  6,  and  xxx. 
 25.)  A  little  insect,  remarkable 
 for  industry,  economy,  and 
 architectural  skill.  They  are 
 called  by  an  inspired  writer 
 "  exceeding  wise,"  and  Cicero 
 was  so  filled  with  wonder  at 
 their  wisdom,  that  he  declared 
 they  must  have  mind,  reason, 
 and  memory. 
 
 The  account  of  the  manner 
 in  which  they  collect  grain 
 and  prevent  it  from  .germinat- 
 ing IS  entirely  fanciful,  as  is 
 also  the  supposition  that  they 
 lay  up  grain  for  winter.  That 
 they  provide  themselvee  food 
 
ANT 
 
 m  the  season  of  it,  is  rightly 
 Inferred  from  their  whole  cha- 
 racter and  habits  ;  and  the  re- 
 proach of  the  sluggard  is,  that 
 ne  lets  the  summer  pass  and 
 the  harvest  end,  while  he  is 
 indulging  in  sloth  and  idle- 
 ness. (Prov.  vi.  6.) 
 
 That  the  ant  is  "  exceeding 
 wise-'  is  evident  from  its  his- 
 tory and  habits,  which  have 
 been  investigated  by  modern 
 naturalists.  Their  habitations 
 are  constructed  with  regular 
 stories,  sometimes  to  the  num- 
 ber of  thirty  or  forty,  and  have 
 large  chambers ;  numerous 
 vaulted  ceilings,  covered  with 
 a  single  roof;  long  galleries 
 and  corridors,  with  pillars  or 
 columns  of  very  perfect  pro- 
 portions. 
 
 The  materials  of  their  build- 
 ing, such  as  earth,  leaves,  and 
 the  fragments  of  wood,  are 
 tempered  with  rain,  and  then 
 dried  in  the  sun.  By  this  pro- 
 cess the  fabric  becomes  so 
 firm  and  compact,  that  a  piece 
 may  be  broken  out  without 
 any  injury  to  the  surrounding 
 parts;  and  it  is  so  nearly  im- 
 pervious, that  the  longest  and 
 most  violent  rains  never  pene- 
 trate more  than  a  quarter  of 
 an  inch. 
 
 They  are  well  sheltered  in 
 their  chambers,  the  largest 
 of  which  is  placed  nearly  in 
 the  centre  of  the  building.  It 
 is  much  higher  than  the  rest, 
 and  all  the  galleries  termi- 
 nate in  it.  In  this  apartment 
 they  spend  the  night  and  the 
 cold  months,  during  which 
 they  are  torpid  or  nearly  so, 
 and  require  not  the  food 
 which  they  are  fancifully  sup- 
 posed to  lay  up. 
 
 To  illustrate  their  industry 
 and  im.mense  labour,  it  is  said 
 that  their  edifices  are  more 
 than  five  hundred  ■  times  the 
 height  of  the  builders;  and 
 that  if  the  same  proportion 
 were  preserved  between  hu- 
 man dwellings  and  those  who 
 5* 
 
 ANT 
 
 build  them,  our  houses  would 
 be  four  or  five  times  higher 
 than  the  pyramids  of  Egypt, 
 the  largest  of  which  is  four 
 hundred  and  eighty  feet  in 
 height,  and  requires  a  base 
 of  seven  hundred  feet  square 
 to  support  it.  The  largest 
 of  one  species  of  ant  does  not 
 stand  more  than  a  quarter 
 of  an  inch  high,  while  their 
 nests  or  houses  are  from 
 twelve  to  twenty  feet  high, 
 and  large  enough  to  hold  a 
 dozen  men.  It  is  scarcely 
 necessary  to  say  that  the  ant 
 to  which  this  article  refers,  is 
 the  Asiatic  or  South  Ameri- 
 can ant,  and  not  that  insect 
 which  we  know  by  the  same 
 name. 
 
 ANTICHRIST.  (1  John  ii. 
 18. 22.)  This  word  occurs  only 
 in  the  epistles  of  John ;  and 
 as  he  uses  it,  it  denotes — 
 
 1.  A  great  power  that  was 
 to  arise  at  a  period  succeed- 
 ing the  apostolic  days,  and 
 which  would  oppose,  with 
 great  virulence  and  blasphe- 
 my, the  doctrines  and  disci- 
 ples of  Christ.  The  sams 
 power  is  supposed  to  be 
 meant  in  2  Thess.  ii.  3,  8,  9. 
 Rev.  xvii.  and  xviii. 
 
 2.  False  teachers  who  are 
 hostile  to  the  church  of  Christ, 
 and  to  the  spirit  and  precepts 
 of  his  religion.  In  this  sense 
 the  same  thing  is  probably 
 meant,  (1  Tim.  iv.  1,)  and  thjg 
 antichrist  was  in  the  world  in 
 the  days  of  the  apostles.  (1 
 John  iv.  3.) 
 
 Who  is  antichrist?  has  been 
 a  question  of  curious  and  not 
 unmteresting  speculation  for 
 ages.  The  prevailing  opinion 
 seems  to  be,  that  the  papal 
 power  is  intended  to  be  repre- 
 sented ;  and  that  the  history 
 of  that  power  thus  far  corres- 
 ponds very  accurately  in  its 
 principal  features  with  the 
 sure  word  of  prophecy.  For 
 the  grounds  of  this  opinion, 
 ,  reference  may  be  had  to 
 53 
 
ANT 
 Newton,  Simpson,  Ward,  and 
 others,  on  the  prophecies. 
 
 ANTIOCH.  1.  (Acts  xi.  26.) 
 A  city  of  ihis  name  was  long 
 the  capital  of  Syria.  It  was 
 situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Orontes,  about  equi-distant 
 from  Constantino{)le  and 
 Alexandria,  and  was  once  a 
 place  of  great  opulence  and 
 commercial  enterprise.  Its  ci- 
 tizens enjoyed  peculiar  civil 
 privileges,  and  it  ranked  as 
 the  third  city  of  the  Roman 
 provinces.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
 preached  here;  and  here,  too, 
 the  name  Christian  was  first 
 applied  to  the  disciples,  whe- 
 ther as  a  term  of  reproach  or 
 as  a  mere  distinctive  title,  is 
 not  certain.  The  same  w^ord 
 occurs,  Acts  xxvi.  28,  and  IPet. 
 iv.  16-  Galileans  or  Nazarenes 
 •were  terms  of  reproach ;  but  it 
 is  sujiposed  the  name  C/in's- 
 tian  merely  denoted  the  adhe- 
 rents of  Christ,  or  the  supposed 
 Messiah.    (See  Christian.) 
 
 The  calamities  which  have 
 befallen  the  city  of  Antioch  are 
 probably  without  a  parallel, 
 both  in  respect  to  number  and 
 severilry.  It  has  been  besieged 
 and  plundered  at  least  fifteen 
 times,  and  in  one  instance 
 117,0(30  persons  were  slain  or 
 taken  prisoners.  Three  times 
 has  it  been  visited  with  famine, 
 twice  with  fire,  and  once  with 
 plague ;  and  four  times  it  was 
 overthrown  by  an  earthquake, 
 by  one  of  which  twenty-five 
 tnousand  persons  are  supposed 
 to  have  perished.  These  visi- 
 tations of  God,  connected  with 
 the  sins  and  idolatries  of  the 
 people,  have  long  since  re- 
 duced the  city  to  desolation. 
 The  splendid  buildings  of 
 ancient  times  have  given 
 place  to  mean  hovels,  and 
 a  population  of  500,000  souls 
 is  reduced  to  10,000,  ai^d  these 
 are  wretched  and  miserable 
 in  the  extreme.  In  1S22. 
 an  earthquake  overwhelmed 
 even  the  ruins  of  the  city; 
 
 APE 
 
 so  that  it  may  be  said,  with 
 the  force  of  literal  truth,  that 
 every  thing  relating  to  Anti. 
 ochis^jas^.  Modern  Antioch 
 is  situated  twenty  miles  east 
 of  the  Mediterranean,  and  is 
 called  by  the  Arabs,  Anthakia. 
 Most  of  the  houses  are  built 
 of  inud  and  straw,  and  the 
 place  exhibits  every  appear- 
 ance of  misery  and  wretched- 
 ness. 
 
 2.  Antioch  (Acts  xi-.i.  14)  waa 
 the  name  of  the  capital  of  tha 
 province  of  Pisidia,  in  Asiq 
 Minor.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
 preached  there,  and  we  have  a 
 fuller  abstract  of  one  of  Paul's 
 sermons  at  this  place,  than  of 
 any  of  the  apostolic  discourses. 
 A  violent  persecution  was  rais- 
 ed against  them,  and  they  were  * 
 compelled  to  flee  for  their 
 lives.  There  were  at  least 
 sixteen  cities  of  the  name  of 
 Antioch  in  Syria  and  Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 ANTIPATRIS.  (Acts  xxiii. 
 31.)  A  town  between  Cesarea 
 and  Jerusalem,  ten  or  filteen 
 miles  from  Joppa.  It  was 
 founded  hy  Herod  the  Great, 
 and  is  distinguished  as  the 
 place  to  which  Paul  was  con- 
 veyed by  the  Roman  guard,  to 
 escape  the  confpiracy  formed 
 against  him  by  tlie  Jews,  who 
 had  agreed  to  waylay  him  on 
 the  following  day,  and  put  him 
 to  death. 
 
 APE.  (1  Kings  X.  22.)  This 
 animal,  which  bears  a  rude  re- 
 semblance to  the  human  race, 
 both  in  figure  and  physical 
 capacity,  was  among  the  arti- 
 cles of  merchandise  import 
 ed  from  Ophir,  in  Solomon's 
 ships. 
 
 The  ape  was  an  object  of 
 worship  amon2  the  Egyptians, 
 and  is  still  sucTi  in  many  parts 
 of  India.  We  have  an  account 
 of  a  temple  in  India,  dedicated 
 to  the  worship  of  the  ape, 
 supported  by  seven  hundred 
 columns,  not  inferior  to  those 
 of  the  Ptoman  Pantheon.    An 
 
APE 
 
 APH 
 
 ape's  tooth  was  found  by  the 
 Portuguese  when  they  pil- 
 laged" the  island  of  Ceylon 
 many  years  since,  and  so  de- 
 sirous were  they  to  redeem  it 
 as  an  object  of  devout  wor- 
 ship, that  the  kings  of  the  coun- 
 try offered  nearly  seventy-five 
 thousand  dollars  for  it. 
 
 In  other  temples  of  India, 
 as  travellers  inform  us,  not 
 less  than  10,000  apes  are  main- 
 tained as  sacred  animals.  The 
 above  engraving  shows  the  in- 
 terior of  a  temple  of  the  ape, 
 in  the  island  of  Japan,  with 
 the  worshippers  bowing  in 
 adoration  of  the  image  of  the 
 sacred  animal. 
 
 APELLES.  (Rom.  xvi.  10.) 
 His  origin  and  residence  are 
 unknown,  but  his  character 
 
 is  given  in  three  words,— ap- 
 proved  in  Christ. 
 
 APHARSITES.  (Ezra  iv.  9.) 
 This,  with  several  other  tribes 
 named  in  the  same  connexion, 
 are  supposed  to  have  been 
 colonies  from  Chaldea,  Mediaj 
 and  Persia,  who  settled  in  Sa- 
 maria. 
 
 APHEK.  1.  (1  Sam.  iv.  1— 
 11.)  A  city  on  the  border  of 
 J'udah  and  Benjamin,  east  of 
 Jerusalem,  where  the  Israel- 
 ites were  defeated  by  the  Phi- 
 listines, and  the  ark  taken 
 from  them.  This  place  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  the  same  which 
 IS  elsewhere  called  Aphekah 
 (Josh.  XV.  53.) 
 
 2.  A  ciiy  in  Issachar,  situ- 
 ated in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
 not  far  from  Shunem,  in  the 
 55 
 
APO 
 
 vicinity  of  which  Saul  and 
 Jonathan  fell  in  battle.  (1  Sam. 
 xxix.  1.)  Its  exact  site  is  not 
 known. 
 
 3.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Ash- 
 er,  also  called  Aphik,  (Judg.  i. 
 31,)  situated  in  Lebanon,  on 
 the  northern  border  of  Ca- 
 naan, where  there  is  now  a 
 village  called  Aphka.  It  was 
 here  that  Benhadad  assembli;d 
 tne  Syrians,  (Josh.  xii.  18; 
 xiii.  4 ;  xix.  30.  1  Kings  xx. 
 26,)  37,000  of  whom  were  de- 
 stroyed by  the  falling  of  a  wall, 
 
 APHRAH.  (SeeOPHRAH.) 
 APOLLONIA.  (Acts  xvii. 
 1  >  A  city  of  Macedonia,  situ- 
 ated at  the  head  of  the  ^gean 
 Sea,  on  a  promontory  between 
 rhessalonica  and  Philippi. 
 
 APOLLOS.  (Acts  xviii.  -24.) 
 He  was  born  at  Alexandria,  in 
 Egypt,  of  Jewish  parents,  and 
 is  described  as  an  eloquent 
 man,  and  mighty  in  the  Scrip- 
 tures. As  one  of  John's  dis- 
 ciples, he  had  been  instructed 
 in  the  elements  of  the  Chris- 
 tian faith,  and  came  to  Ephe- 
 sus  to  speak  and  teach  the 
 things  of  the  Lord.  He  was 
 there  more  particularly  and 
 fully  taught  the  doctrines  of 
 the  gospel  by  Aquila  and 
 Priscilla,who  had  themselves 
 been  favoured  with  the  com- 
 pany and  instruction  of  Paul, 
 at  (5orinth  and  on  a  voyage 
 from  that  city  to  Ephesus.  He 
 afterwards  went  into  Achaia, 
 where  his  labours  were  crown- 
 ed with  abundant  success.  At 
 Gorintii,  too,  he  was  regarded 
 as  a  powerful  and  successful 
 preacher  of  the  gospel.  Paul 
 nad  alreadybeen  instrumental 
 in  establishing  a  church  there, 
 to  the  care  of  which  ApoUos 
 succeeded.  (1  Cor.  iii.  6.)  The 
 members  of  it  were  divided 
 into  parties,  some  being  par- 
 ticularly partial  to  Paul,  others 
 to  ApoUos.  and  others  still  to 
 Cephas.     The  rebuke  of  the 
 
 APO 
 
 apostle  (1  Cor.  i.  12,)  is  direct- 
 ed against  these  partialities, 
 in  all  which  the  power  and 
 grace  of  God  seemed  to  be 
 overlooked  or  disregarded.  It 
 has  been  remarked  as  an  ex- 
 emplary trait  of  character  of 
 these  two  eminent  apostles, 
 that  the  contention  of  their 
 respective  friends  and  admir- 
 ers had  no  effect  on  their  love 
 and  respect  for  each  other. 
 They  both  refrained  from  vi- 
 siting the  church  while  it  was 
 distracted  with  such  preju- 
 dices and  partialities,  tnougb 
 a  worldly  ambition  might  have 
 selected  it  as  the  field  and 
 the  season  of  self-aggrandize- 
 ment. 
 
 APOLLYON.  (See  Abad- 
 don.) 
 
 APOSTLE.  l.(Matt.  X.2.) 
 This  term  was  given,  origin- 
 ally, to  the  twelve  chief  disci- 
 ples of  our  Lord.  Their  names 
 were,  Simon  Peter;  Andrew ; 
 James  and  John,  (sons  of  Ze- 
 bedee  ;)  Philip  ;  Bartholo- 
 mew; Thomas;  Matthe-w; 
 James  and  Lebbeus,  who  is 
 also  called  Judas  or  Jude, 
 (sons  of  Alpheus  ;)  Simon,  the 
 Canaanite  ;  and  Judas  Isca- 
 RtoT.  Christ's  charge  to  them 
 is  recorded  in  Matt.  x.  S— 42, 
 and  is  worthy  to  be  diligently 
 studied.  The  circumstances 
 of  their  history,  as  far  as  they 
 are  known,  will  be  found  un- 
 der their  respective  names. 
 
 After  the  ascension  of  the 
 Redeemer,  we  find  the  names 
 of  eleven  of  the  apostles  re- 
 peated, as  among  those  who 
 were  engaged  in  prayer  and 
 supplication  at  Jerusalem,  for 
 the  descent  of  the  Spirit;  and 
 Matthias  is  also  named,  he 
 having  been  appointed  to  the 
 apostleship  in  the  place  of 
 Judas  Iscariot. 
 
 The  office  and  commission 
 of  apostles  were  remarkable 
 in  the  following  particulars : — 
 (1.)  They  were  all  required 
 to  have  been  eye  and  ear  wit- 
 56 
 
APP 
 
 nesses  of  what,  they  testified. 
 (John  XV.  27.  Acts  i.  21,  22, 
 and  xxii.  14,  15.  1  Cor.  ix.  1, 
 and  XV.  8.  1  John  i.  3.)  (2.) 
 They  were  all  called  or  chosen 
 by  our  Saviour  himself.  (Luks 
 vi.  13.  Gal.  i.  1.)  Even  Mat- 
 thias is  not  an  exception  to 
 this  remark,  as  the  determi- 
 nation of  the  lot  was  of  God. 
 (Acts  i.  24—26.)  (3.)  They 
 were  inspired.  (John  xvi.  13.) 
 (4.)  They  had  the  power  of 
 miracles.  (Mark  xvi.  20.  Acts 
 ii.  43.  Heb.  ii.  4.) 
 
 2.  The  term  apostle  is  ap- 
 plied to  our  Saviour,  (Heb.  iii. 
 I,)    and    with    singular    pro- 
 
 Rriety,  as  in  the  character  of 
 lessiah  he  is  emphatically 
 the  sent  of  God. 
 
 APPAREL.  (See  Clothes.) 
 
 APPEAL.  (Acts  XXV.  11.)  By 
 the  Roman  law  every  accused 
 citizen  had  a  right  to  carry 
 his  cause  before  the  emperor 
 at  Rome,  by  appeal  from  the 
 judgment  of  the  magistrate. 
 
 APPII-FORUM.  (Acts  xxviii. 
 15.)  The  place  where  Paul 
 met  several  of  his  brethren 
 from  Rome,  when  he  was  on 
 his  way  to  that  city  as  a  pri- 
 soner. It  was  about  fifty  miles 
 from  Rome.  The  place  is  now 
 called  Piperno  and  is  on  the 
 Naples  road,  i  le  name  is  de- 
 rived from  the  circumstance 
 that  it  is  on  the  Appian  way  ; 
 a  road  leading  from  Rome  to 
 Capua,  which  was  made  by 
 Appius  Claudius  ;  and  that  it 
 contained  a  forum  or  market- 
 place, to  which  pedlars  and 
 petty  merchants  resorted  in 
 great  numbers. 
 
 APPLES,  APPLE  TREE. 
 Sol.  Song  ii.  3.  Joel  i.  12.)  It 
 is  generally  agreed  that  these 
 lerms  refer  to  the  citron  tree, 
 and  iigfruit.  The  proper  apple 
 tree  is  very  rare  in  the  east, 
 and  its  fruit  is  destitute  both 
 of  beauty  and  fragrance,  and 
 in  both  these  respects  ill  ac- 
 cords with  the  allusions  to  it 
 
 AR 
 
 in  the  sacred  writings.  (Se« 
 Biblical  ANTiauiTiES,  vol.  i. 
 p.  :38.) 
 
 Apples  op  gold  in  pictdres 
 OP  SILVER  (Prov.  XXV.  11)  is 
 a  figurative  expression,  com- 
 parmg  delicious  fruit  in  silver 
 baskets,  or  salvers  curiously 
 wrought  like  basket  work, 
 and  perhaps  representing  ani- 
 mals or  landscapes,  to  sea- 
 sonable advice  wisely  and 
 courteously  administered. 
 
 Apple  op  the  eye.  (Prov. 
 vii.2.  Zech.  ii.  8.)  In  these 
 passages  reference  is  had  to 
 the  keen  sensibility  of  the 
 ball  oi  the  eye.  The  same 
 figure  is  used  (Deut.  xxxii.  10, 
 and  Ps.  xvii.  8)  to  denote  the^ 
 most  complete  protection  and 
 security.  And  in  Lam.  li.  18 
 the  phrase  "apple  of  thine 
 eye"  is  figuratively  used  for 
 tears. 
 
 AQUILA.  (Acts  xviii.  2.)  A 
 Jew  born  at  Pontus,  in  Asia 
 Minor.  Being  driven  from 
 Rome  by  a  decree  of  the  go- 
 vernment requiring  all  Jews 
 to  leave  that  city,  he  and  his 
 wife  Priscilla  came  to  Co- 
 rinth, and  were  dwelling  there 
 at  the  time  of  Paul's  first  visit 
 to  that  city.  (Acts  xviii.  1.) 
 They  were  of  like  occupation, 
 (tent  makers,)  and  Paul  was 
 received  and  hospitably  en- 
 tertained at  Aquila's  house ; 
 and  they  also  accompanied 
 him  from  Corinth  to  Ephesus. 
 On  some  occasion  they  ren- 
 dered Paul  very  important 
 service,  and  a  very  warm 
 friendship  existed  between 
 them.  (Rom.  xvi.  3—5.  See 
 Apollos.) 
 
 AR,  (Num.  xxi.  28,)  or  RAB- 
 BAH-MOAB,  the  chief  towa 
 of  Moab,  was  situated  twenty 
 or  twenty-five  miles  south  of 
 the  river  Arnon.  It  is  called 
 Rabbah  or  Great,  as  the  chief 
 town  of  the  Ammonites  was 
 called  Rabbah-Ammon,  and 
 by  the  Greeks  it  was  called 
 57 
 
ARA 
 
 Areopolis.  Its  present  name 
 is  El-Rabbi,  and  modem  tra- 
 vellers have  discovered  two 
 copious  fountains  near  the 
 rums  of  the  ancient  city. 
 (Num.  xxi.  15.) 
 
 ARABIA,  (1  Kings  x.  15,) 
 called  by  the  natives  the 
 peninsula  of  the  Arabs,  lies 
 in  Western  Asia,  south  and 
 southwest  of  Judea.  It  is  fif- 
 teen hundred  miles  from  north 
 to  south,  and  twelve  hundred 
 from  east  to  west,  or  about 
 four  times  the  extent  of  the 
 kingdom  of  France.  It  is 
 bounded  north  by  Syria,  east 
 by  the  river  Euphrates  and 
 the  Persian  gulf,  south  by  the 
 Indian  ocean,  and  west  by  the 
 Red  .Sea,  Palestine,  and  part 
 of  Syria.  It  is  described  in 
 three  divisions,  the  name  of 
 each  being  indicative  of  the 
 face  of  the  soil,  and  its  gene- 
 ral character  :— 
 
 1.  Arabia  Desert  a  (or  the 
 desert)  is  a  wide  waste  of 
 burning  sand,  with  here  and 
 there  a  palm  tree,  and  a 
 spring  of  brackish  water. 
 This  was  the  country  of  the 
 Ishmaelites,  and  is  inhabited 
 by  the  modern  Bedouins. 
 
 2.  Arabia  Petrea  (or 
 ROCKY)  comprehends  what 
 was  formerly  the  land  of 
 Midian.  The  Edomites  and 
 the  Amalekites  also  dwelt 
 here,  and  a  very  powerful  and 
 independent  tribe  of  Ishmael- 
 ites. It  was  a  land  of  shep- 
 herds, and  the  scene  of  some 
 of  the  most  interesting  events 
 in  the  history  of  man.  Horeb 
 and  Sinai  were  within  its 
 bounds. 
 
 3.  Arabia  Felix  (or  hap- 
 py) was  an  exceedingly  fruit- 
 ful land.  The  inhabitants, 
 who  claim  their  descent  from 
 Shem,  were  unlike  the  shep- 
 herds and  robbers  who  occu- 
 pied the  other  districts.  They 
 had  permanent  abodes,  sup- 
 ported themselves  by  agricul- 
 
 ARA 
 
 ture  and  commerce,  and, once 
 possessed  a  high  degree  of 
 wealth  and  refinement. 
 
 It  is  supposed  that  many  of 
 the  articles  mentioned  in  Ex. 
 XXX.  23,  24,  particularly  the 
 balm,  were  imported  from 
 Arabia;  and  even  at  this  day, 
 caravans  of  merchants,  the 
 descendants  of  the  Cushites, 
 Ishmaelites  and  Midianites, 
 are  found  traversing  the  same 
 deserts,  conveying  the  same 
 articles  and  in  the  same 
 manner,  as  in  the  days  of 
 Moses. 
 
 It  has  been  said,  that  if  any 
 people  in  the  world  afford,  in 
 their  history,  an  instance  of 
 high  antiquity,  and  great  sim- 
 plicity of  manners,  the  Arabs 
 surely  do.  Coming  among 
 them,  one  can  hardly  help 
 fancying  himself  suddenly 
 carried  back  to  the  ages  im- 
 mediately succeeding  the 
 flood.  Of  all  nations,  the 
 Arabs  have  spread  farthest 
 over  the  globe,  and  in  all 
 their  wanderings  have  pre- 
 served their  language,  man- 
 ners, and  peculiar  customs, 
 more  perfectly  than  any  other 
 nation. 
 
 They  have  various  traditions 
 respecting  scripture  person- 
 ages and  events ;  and  for  a 
 full  and  lucid  view  of  their  po- 
 litical and  geographical  rela- 
 tions, see  Geography  of  thh 
 Bible,  pp.  46—60,  and  Bedoo- 
 iN  Arabs,  both  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union. 
 
 ARAD.  (Judg.  i.  16.)  A  city  in 
 the  southern  border  of  Judea, 
 whose  king  opposed  the  pas- 
 sage of  the"  children  of  Israel, 
 and  even  took  someof  them  pri- 
 soners, for  which  they  were  ac- 
 cursed and  their  cilydestroyed. 
 
 ARAM.  (See  Syria.)  When 
 this  word  is  coupled  with  soma 
 other,  as  Aram-Maachah,  it 
 means  the  "  Syrians  of  Maa- 
 chah,"  and  so  of  other  similar 
 cases. 
 
 58 
 
ARA 
 
 ARARAT.  (Gen.  vili.  4.)  A 
 district  of  country  lying  near 
 the  centre  of  the  kingdom  of 
 Armenia.  It  contained  seve- 
 ral cities,  which  were  the 
 residence  of  the  successive 
 kings  and  governors  of  Arme- 
 nia, and  hence  the  word  Ara- 
 rat is  often  applied  to  the 
 whole  kingdom.  The  word 
 translated  the  land  of  Anne- 
 nia,  (2 Kings  xix.  37.  Isa. 
 xxxvii.  38,)  18,  in  the  original, 
 Ararat.  In  the  north-east  part 
 of  Armenia  is  a  range  of 
 mountains,  on  the  summit  of 
 which  the  ark  rested.  It  is 
 called  Agridah  by  the  Turks. 
 There  are  two  peaks  about 
 seven  miles  apart,  the  highest 
 of  which  is  15,0(X)  feet  (and 
 a  late  French  traveller  says 
 16,000  feet)  above  the  level  of 
 the  sea,  and  is  perpetually 
 covered  with  snow.  A  modern 
 traveller  says  of  it,  that  when 
 viewed  from  the  plain  below, 
 one  would  think  that  the  high- 
 est mountains  of  the  world 
 had  been  piled  upon  each 
 other,  to  form  this  one  sublime 
 immensity  of  earth,  and  rocks, 
 and  snow ;  this  awful  monu- 
 ment of  the  antediluvian 
 world  ;  this  stupendous  link 
 in  the  history  of  man  before 
 and  since  the  flood.  Once  the 
 population  of  the  whole  wide 
 world  was  embraced  in  one 
 small  family,  and  that  family 
 inhabited  this  spot.  All  the 
 animal  tribes  were  assembled 
 here,— birds,  beasts,  reptiles, 
 and  insects.  But  one  lan- 
 guage was  then  spoken.  Here, 
 loOj^the  bow  of  the  covenant 
 was  set ;  and  here  was  erect- 
 ed the  first  altar,  after  the 
 dreadful  catastrophe  of  the 
 destruction  of  the  world.  The 
 immediate  vicinity  of  the 
 mountain  is  inhabited  by 
 Koords,  a  savage  tribe  of  Mo- 
 hammedans. And  since  the 
 last  war  between  Russia  and 
 Persia,  the  Russian  bounda- 
 ries have  been  so  extended  as 
 
 ARA 
 
 to  embrace  Ararat ;  and  nov^ 
 Russia,  Persia,  and  Turkey 
 meet  at  that  mountain.  (See 
 Mai3,  pp.  60,  61.) 
 
 There  has  been  much  con- 
 troversy as  to  the  fact  whether 
 the  ark  rested  on  this  moon- 
 tain,  chiefly  in  consequence 
 of  the  phraseology  of  Gen.  xi. 
 2,  which  has  been  supposed  to 
 denote  that  the  place  where 
 the  ark  rested  was  east  of  ihe 
 plain  of  Shinar,  whereas  the 
 Ararat  of  Armenia  is  west  of 
 it.  But  this  diflicully  is  alto- 
 gether imaginary,  for  we  are 
 not  told  the  direction  of  the 
 route  which  Noah  and  his 
 family  took,  as  if  it  had  been 
 said,  they  "journeyed  from 
 east  to  west,''''  and  came  to  a 
 plain,  &c.  The  phrase,  from 
 the  east,  signifies  in  the  ori- 
 ginal, before,  in  respect  both 
 to  time  and  place  ;  sj  that  the 
 expression  only  means  that  in 
 their  first  general  migration 
 from  Ararat,  they  came  to  a 
 plain,  &c.  This  view  of  the 
 case  is  confirmed  by  Jewish 
 historians,  and  the  prophet 
 Jeremiah  (Jer.  li.  27)  speaks 
 of  Ararat  as  one  of  the  coun- 
 tries of  the  north,  from  which 
 an  invading  force  should  come 
 upon  Babylon ;  and  this  cor- 
 rectly describes  the  situation 
 of  Ararat,  in  Armenia :  it  is 
 almost  due  north  of  Babylon. 
 (See  Evening  Recreations, 
 by  the  American  Sunday- 
 school  Union,  part  i.  pp.  17— 
 23.) 
 
 ARAUNAH,  or  ORNAN,  (2 
 Sam.  xxiv.  16,)  was  a  Jebusite, 
 who  lived  at  Jerusalem,  and 
 owned  a  threshing-place  or 
 floor,  where  the  temple  was 
 afterwards  built.  In  conse- 
 quence of  the  sin  of  David, 
 the  king,  a  pestilence  was  sent 
 through  the  nation,  which  was 
 sweeping  off  its  inhabitants 
 at  the  rate  of  70,000  in  a  day. 
 An  angel  was  seen  hovering 
 over  the  threshing-floor  of 
 Araunah,  with  his  arm  lifted 
 
ARC 
 
 up  for  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
 salem. David  was  humbled, 
 and  confessed  his  sin,  and 
 God,  by  one  of  the  prophets, 
 directed  him  to  go  to  that  spot 
 and  build  an  altar  there  unto 
 the  Lord.  He  obeyed,  and 
 when  he  came  to  the  spot  and 
 made  known  his  business, 
 Araunah  refused  to  receive 
 any  thing  for  it,  but  offered  it 
 to  him,  together  with  oxen  for 
 sacrifices,  and  the  timber  of 
 the  threshing  instruments  for 
 fuel.  David  refused  to  receive 
 them  as  a  gift,  as  he  would  not 
 offer  to  the  Lord  that  which 
 had  cost  him  nothing.  He 
 therefore  bought  the  oxen  for 
 fifty  shekels  of  silver,  (2  Sam. 
 XXIV.  24,)  or  S22  50,  and  the 
 whole  place  for  six  hundred 
 shekels  of  gold,  (1  Chron.  xxi. 
 25,)  or  $4524,  and  offered  his 
 sacrifices,  which  were  accept- 
 ed, and  the  plague  stayed. 
 
 AREA.    (See  Hebron.) 
 
 ARCHANGEL.  (I  Thess.  iv. 
 16)  The  prince  or  chief  of 
 angels.  Michael  is  called  the 
 archangel,  (Jude  9,)  and  it  is 
 generaUy  believed  that  a  cre- 
 ated, though  highly  exalted, 
 being  is  denoted  by  the  term, 
 and  not  Him  whose  goings 
 forth  have  been  from  of  old, 
 from  everlasting.  (Micah  v. 
 2.) 
 
 ARCHELAUS.  (Matt.  ii.  22.) 
 A  son  of  Herod  the  Great.  On 
 the  decease  of  his  father,  the 
 same  year  that  our  Saviour 
 was  born,  Archelaus  succeed- 
 ed to  the  government  of  Judea, 
 and  reigned  there  when  Jo- 
 seph and  Mary,  with  the  in- 
 fant Jesus,  were  returning 
 from  Egypt,  whither  they  had 
 gone  to  escape  the  fury  of  He- 
 rod. Archelaus,  however,  was 
 much  like  his  father  in  the 
 malignity  of  his  temper,  and 
 they  were  therefore  still  afraid 
 to  return. 
 
 ARCHER.  (Gen.  xxi.  20.) 
 One  who  is  skilled  in  the  use 
 of  the   bow  and  arrows,  as 
 
 ARE 
 
 Ishmael  and  Esau  were.   (See 
 Armour.) 
 
 ARCHI.  (Josh.  xvi.  2.)  A 
 town  on  the  southern  border 
 of  Ephraim,  between  Bethel 
 and  Beth-horon  the  nether 
 It  is  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
 place of  Hushai,David'sfriend. 
 (See  HusHAi.) 
 
 ARCTURUS.  (Jobxxxviii. 
 32.)  The  name  of  a  star,  or 
 more  probably  a  constellation, 
 in  the  northern  heavens.  Some 
 have  supposed  that  Jupiter 
 and  the  satellites  were  in- 
 tended in  the  allusion  of  the 
 poet. 
 
 AREOPAGITE,  AREOPA- 
 GUS. (Acts  xvii.  19.  34.)  The 
 title  of  the  judges  of  the  su- 
 preme tribunal  of  Athens. 
 The  name  is  derived  from 
 Areopagus,  {the  hill  of  Mars,) 
 whicri  signifies  either  the  court 
 itself,  or  the  hill  or  spot  on 
 which  it  was  held.  It  was  a 
 rocky  elevation  almost  in  the 
 centre  of  the  city.  The  tri- 
 bunal that  assembled  here  had 
 particular  cognizance  of  all 
 blasphemies  against  the  hea- 
 then gods ;  and  therefore  Paul, 
 who  so  pointedly  condemn- 
 ed the  idolatries  of  the  city, 
 while  he  urged  them  to  seek 
 and  serve  Jehovah  as  the 
 only  living  and  true  God, 
 was  esteemed  "  a  setter  forth 
 of  strange  gods,"  and  was 
 brought  before  the  Areopagus 
 for  trial.  He  there  exhibited 
 the  sin  and  folly  of  idol  wor- 
 ship with  such  power  that 
 Dionysius,  one  ofthe  judges, 
 and  Damaris,  and  several 
 other  persons,  believed  his 
 testimony. 
 
 The  place  supposed  to  have 
 been  Mars'  hill  is  now  covered 
 with  the  rubbish  of  spacious 
 buildings ;  they  are  probably 
 the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Di- 
 onysius, and  the  house  of  the 
 archbishop,  both  of  which 
 were  built  after  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  Christian  religion 
 in  Athens. 
 
ARK 
 
 It  is  said  thai  the  sessions 
 #f  the  Areopagus  were  held 
 «»nly  in  the  night,  that   the  j 
 minds  of  the  judges  might  not 
 be  distracted  or  biassed  by  j 
 extraneous  objects.  1 
 
 ARETAS.  (2  Cor.  xi.  32.) 
 The  king  of  Syria,  at  the  time 
 the  governor  of  Damascus  at- 
 tempted to  apprehend  Paul. 
 (Actsix.  24,25.) 
 
 ARGOB.  (Deut.  iii.  4.)  A 
 district  of  Bashan,  the  king- 
 dom of  Og,  belonging  to  the 
 half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  It 
 lay  east  of  Jordan,  near  the 
 sea  of  Galilee,  and  contained 
 sixty  fortified  cities.  The  go- 
 vernor of  this  place  is  sup- 
 g)sed  to  be  intended  in  2 
 in^s  XV.  25. 
 
 ARIEL  (Ezra  viii.  16)  was 
 the  name  of  one  of  Ezra's 
 chief  men.  The  original  word 
 means  "  the  lion  of  God,"  and 
 Jerusalem  being  the  chief  city 
 of  Judah,  whose  emblem  was 
 a  lion,  (Gen.  xlix.  9,)  the  word 
 Ariel  is  applied  to  that  city. 
 (Isa.  xxix.  1.) 
 
 ARIMATHEA.  (See  Rama.) 
 
 ARISTARCHUS  (Acts  xix. 
 29)  was  a  Macedonian,  and 
 one  of  those  who  accompanied 
 Paul  to  Ephesus,  and  shared 
 his  labours  there.  He  was 
 nearly  killed  in  the  tumult 
 which  Demetrius  excited  in 
 that  city,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
 was  finally  beheaded  at  Rome. 
 Paul  alludes  to  hira  both  as 
 his  fellow  labourer  and  fellow 
 Drisoner.  (Col.  iv.  10.  Philem. 
 
 ARK.  (Gen.  vi.  14.)  The 
 vessel  constructed  by  Noah, 
 »t  God's  command,  for  the 
 preservation  of  himself  and 
 family,  and  a  stock  of  the  va- 
 rious animals,  &c.,  when  the 
 sarth  was  devastated  by  the 
 flood. 
 
 It  was  four  hundred  and 
 fifty  feet  long,  seventy-five  in 
 breadth,  and  forty-five  in 
 height ;  and  was  designed,  not 
 to  sail,  but  only  to  float,  when 
 
 ARK 
 
 borne  up  by  the  waters.  It 
 had  lower,  second,  and  third 
 stories,  besides  what,  in  com- 
 mon vessels,  is  called  the 
 hold.  A  door  was  placed  in 
 the  side,  and  it  had  also  a 
 window  made  of  some  trans- 
 lucent substance  for  the  ad- 
 mission of  light.  (See  Teach- 
 er's Assistant,  to  vol.  iii. 
 Union  Questions,  by  the  Ame- 
 rican Sunday-school  Union, 
 pp.  40,  41.) 
 
 The  ark  was  constructed 
 of  gopher  wood,  and  covered 
 witn  bitumen  or  pitch,  to  ex 
 elude  water,  as  tar  is  now 
 used  for  the  like  purpose. 
 The  bitumen  now  found  in 
 the  east,  as  we  are  told  by 
 travellers,  is  so  like  the 
 Stockholm  pitch,  that  they 
 can  be  distinguished  from 
 each  other  only  by  the  pecu- 
 liar smell  and  superior  hard- 
 ness of  the  bitumen. 
 
 It  is  doubtful  where  the  ark 
 was  built,  and  also  how  much 
 time  was  employed  upon  it. 
 On  the  latter  point  the  weight 
 of  opinion  is,  that  it  was  from 
 one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
 and  twenty  years  ;  the  former 
 period  being  inferred  from 
 comparing  Gen.  v.  32,  and  vii, 
 6 ;  and  the  latter  from  com- 
 paring Gen.  vi.  3,  with  1  Pet. 
 Iii.  20. 
 
 The  form  of  the  ark  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  an  oblong 
 square,  with  a  flat  bottom  and 
 sloping  roof;  and  the  parti- 
 cular construction  of  it  has 
 been  the  subject  of  much  cu- 
 rious, not  to  say  useless, 
 speculation.  To  show  the  va- 
 riance of  opinions,  it  may  lie 
 enough  to  say,  that  in  the 
 single  point  of  the  number  of 
 apartments,  the  computation 
 has  varied  from  seventy-two 
 to  four  hundred.  Some  of  the 
 results  of  modern  investiga- 
 tions have,  however,  been 
 highly  valuable.  The  caviller 
 i  has  sometimes  started  difficul- 
 I  ties  respecting  the  capacity  of 
 
ARK 
 
 the  ark  to  contain  what  the 
 sacred  history  informs  us  was 
 put  into  it;  and  it  has  also 
 been  asked  where  Noah  could 
 have  acquired  skill  sufficient 
 to  construct  such  a  vessel  for 
 such  a  purpose.  On  this  point, 
 however,  the  degree  of  skill  is 
 in  itself  conclusive  evidence 
 of  its  origin;  for  after  the 
 most  accurate  computations 
 by  tliose  best  versed  in  ship- 
 building, and  supposing  the 
 dimensions  given  in  the  sa- 
 cred history  to  be  geometri- 
 cally exact,  it  is  found  that 
 the  vessel,  in  all  its  known 
 parts  and  proportions,  is  in 
 perfect  accordance  with  the 
 received  principles  of  naval 
 architecture.  And  on  the  sub- 
 ject of  capacity,  the  point  has 
 been  satisfactorily  establish- 
 ed, that  upon  the  smallest  es- 
 timate of  the  cubit  measure, 
 the  ark  was  fully  adequate  to 
 
 ARK 
 
 the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
 prepared;  and  that  besides 
 all  the  room  occupied  by  the 
 pers'^ns  and  things  which  the 
 sacred  history  informs  us 
 were  preserved  in  it,  there 
 was  space  for  many  species 
 of  animals  which  probably 
 existed  thc»n,  and  were  pre 
 served  in  the  ark,  but  which 
 have  now  become  extinct. 
 There  can  b^,  no  doubt,  there 
 fore,  that  the  ark  was  built  on 
 strictly  scientific  principles, 
 and  was  proportioned  with 
 mathematical  precision  to  its 
 contents. 
 
 Ark  of  the  covenant. 
 (Ex.  XXV.  10.)  A  small  chest, 
 constructed  in  a  particular 
 form  and  manner,  and  for  a 
 specific  purpose,  by  the  ex- 
 press command  of  Jehovah. 
 It  was  three  feet  and  nine 
 inches  in  length,  and  two  feet 
 three    inches   in   width  and 
 
 64 
 
ARK 
 
 neight.  It  was  made  of  shiltim 
 wood,  and  covered  with  plates 
 of  gold.  A  bojder  or  crown 
 of  gold  encircled  it  near  the 
 top,  and  it  was  surmounted  by 
 the  mercy-seat,  which  was  of 
 solid  gold,  and  answered  the 
 purpose  of  a  cover  or  lid  to 
 the  ark.  On  each  end  of  the 
 mercy-seat  was  placed  a  gold- 
 en ima^e  representing  che- 
 rubim lacing  inwards,  and 
 bending  down  over  the  ark. 
 Two  rings  of  gold  were  at- 
 tached to  the  body  of  the  ark 
 on  each  side,  through  which 
 passed  the  staves  or  poles 
 that  were  used  in  carrymg  it 
 from  place  to  place.  These 
 were  made  of  the  same  wood 
 with  the  ark,  and  were  over- 
 laid in  the  same  manner. 
 This  ark  contained,  1.  A  gold- 
 en pot,  in  which  the  three 
 quarts  of  manna  were  pre- 
 served. (Ex.  xvi.  33.)  2.  Aa- 
 ron's rod,  which  miraculously 
 budded  and  blossomed  and 
 yielded  fruit  all  at  once, 
 (Num.  xvii.  10;)  and,  3.  The 
 tables  of  the  testimony,  or  the 
 tables  of  the  ten  command- 
 ments, written  with  the  finger 
 of  God,  and  constituting  the 
 testimony  or  evidence  of  the 
 covenant  between  God  and 
 the  people.  (Deut.  xxxi.  26.) 
 Hence  it  is  sometimes  called 
 the  ark  of  the  testimony,  and 
 sometimes  the  ark  of  the  co- 
 venant. (Ex.  xxxiv.  29,  and 
 xl.  20.  Heb.  ix.  3, 4.)  The  ap- 
 parent contradiction  between 
 Heb.  ix.  3,  4,  and  1  Kings  viii. 
 9,  may  be  reconciled  either 
 by  supposing  (what  is  not  im- 
 probable) that  the  contents 
 of  the  ark  were  different  at 
 the  different  periods  referred 
 to,  or  that  the  phrase, "  where- 
 in" in  Hebrews,  refers  not  to 
 the  ark,  but  to  the  remote  an- 
 tecedent, viz.  "  the  taberna- 
 cle which  is  called  the  holiest 
 of  all." 
 
 On  the    mercy-seat  which 
 
 wrmounted  the  ark  rested  the 
 
 6* 
 
 ARK 
 
 awful  and  mysterious  symbol 
 of  the  divine  presence.  (Lev. 
 xvi.  2.  Num.  vii.  89.)  For  a 
 very  full  and  interesting  de- 
 scription of  the  ark  of  the  co- 
 venant,  and  its  contents,  Sec. 
 and  also  of  the  cherubim  and 
 Shechinah,  or  the  manifesta- 
 tion of  God's  presence,  see 
 Biblical  Antiq,cities,  by 
 the  American  Sunday-school 
 Union,  vol.  ii.  chap.  ii.  pp.  50 
 
 After  the  children  of  Israel 
 had  passed  the  Jordan,  whose 
 waters  divided  at  the  approach 
 of  the  ark,  (Josh.  iii.  14—17,) 
 the  tabernacle  was  set  up  at 
 Gilgal,  and  this  sacred  vessel 
 remained  in  it  for  a  season. 
 It  was  then  removed  to  Shiloh, 
 where  it  was  stationary  be- 
 tween three  and  four  hundred 
 years,  (Jer.  vii.  12 — 15;)  and 
 being  then  taken  out  and 
 borne  before  the  army,  it  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  Philis- 
 tines, at  the  defeat  of  the  Is- 
 raelites near  Aphek.  (1  Sam. 
 iv.)  The  Philistines  took  it  to 
 Ashdod,  and  placed  it  by  the 
 side  of  their  idol  god  Dagon. 
 (1  Sam.  V.)  But  being  taught 
 in  a  very  surprising  manner 
 that  their  profane  use  of  the 
 ark  was  highly  displeasing  to 
 God,  they  returned  it  tjy  di- 
 vine direction,  and  with  signal 
 tokens  of  divine  oversight,  to 
 the  people  of  Israel,  by  whom 
 it  was  lodged  at  Kirjath-jea- 
 rim.  (1  Sam.  vi.  and  vii.) 
 When  David  had  fixed  his 
 residence  at  Jerusalem,  the 
 ark  was  removed  thither  with 
 sacred  ceremonies,,  and  kept 
 until  the  temple  was  prepared 
 to  receive  it.  (1  Kings  viii. 
 1-1 1.  1  Chron.  xv.  25-28;) 
 on  which  occasion  it  is  sup 
 posed  the  one  hundred  and 
 thirty-second  psalm  was  writ- 
 ten. 
 
 The  second  temple  did  not 
 
 contain  the  ark  :  whether  it 
 
 was  seized  among  the  spoils 
 
 when  the  city  was  sacked,  or 
 
 65 
 
67 
 
ARM 
 
 whether  it  was  secreted  and 
 afterwards  destroyed,  does  not 
 appear.  The  Jews  think  it 
 will  be  restored  when  their 
 Messiah  appears ;  but  the  pro- 
 phet,(Jer.  lii.  16,)  if  they  would 
 believe  liis  tesiiinony,  would 
 end  this  and  many  similar  de- 
 lusions. 
 
 Wherever  the  Jews  dwelt 
 or  wandered,  they  always  wor- 
 shipped towards  the  place 
 where  the  ark  of  the  covenant 
 rested.  (Dan.  vi.  10.) 
 
 ARKITE.  (Gen.  x.  17.)  The 
 Arkites  were  a  branch  of  the 
 family  of  Canaan  whichsettled 
 in  Phenicia  and  Syria.  The 
 ruins  of  the  ciiv  which  they 
 are  supposed  to  have  inhabit- 
 ed are  now  to  be  seen  at  Arka, 
 twenty-five  miles  north  of  Tri- 
 poli, and  directly  opposite  the 
 northern  extremity  of  Leba- 
 non. 
 
 ARM.  (1  Sam.  ii.  31.)  Meta- 
 phorically used  for  strength, 
 rwer,  or  protection,  (Ex.  vi. 
 Isa.  lii.  10;)  in  which  last 
 passage  allusion  is  made  to 
 the  custom  of  making  the  arm 
 bare  by  throwing  it  out  of  the 
 loose  garment  or  fold,  when 
 engaged  in  close  combat,  so 
 that  its  strength  and  action 
 might  be  free  and  unembar- 
 
 ARMAGEDDON.  (Rev.  xvi. 
 16.)  The  mountain  of  Meged- 
 don,  or  Megiddo,  a  city  at  the 
 foot  of  mount  Carmel,  and 
 noted  for  scenes  of  carnage. 
 (2  Kings  xxiii.  29,  30.  Judg. 
 v.  19.; 
 
 ARMENIA.  (2  Kings  xix. 
 37.)  An  inland  country  at  the 
 eastern  extremity  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, four  hundred  and  thirty 
 miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
 about  three  hundred  from 
 north  to  south.  It  has  the 
 Mediterranean  on  the  south- 
 west, tlie  Black  Sea  on  the 
 northwest,  and  the  Caspian 
 Sea  on  the  east,  and  its  west- 
 ern boundary  is  about  six 
 hundred  miles  east  of  Con- 
 
 ARM 
 
 stantinople.  The  Euphrates, 
 the  Tigris,  and  other  rivers 
 rise  within  the  boundaries  of 
 Armenia.  (See  Map,  pp.  66, 
 67.)  It  is  divided  into  fifteen 
 provinces,  of  which  the  cen- 
 tral one  is  called  Ararat. 
 In  this  province  was  the 
 mountain  on  which  the  ark 
 rested,  and  here  was  the  usual 
 residence  of  the  imperial 
 court :  hence  this  province  is 
 intended  by  the  term  Armenia 
 in  the  Scriptures,  and  not 
 the  whole  kingdom.  Two  of 
 our  American  missionaries 
 (Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwighl) 
 have  recently  explored  this 
 interesting  country,  and  their 
 observations  are  published  in 
 two  volumes,  entitled  Re- 
 searches in  Armenia. 
 
 ARMIES,  or  HOSTS.  (1 
 Sam  xvii.  10.)  The  armies  of 
 the  Israelites  embraced  the 
 whole  male  adult  population 
 of  the  country,  (Num.  i.  2,  3 ; 
 xxvi.  2,)  and  when  occasion 
 required,  the  entire  body  was 
 readily  mustered.  (Judg.  xx. 
 1-11.  ISam.  xi.  7,  8.)  This 
 accoimts  for  the  prodigious 
 numbers  which  were  often  as- 
 sembled. (2Chron.  xiii.  3;  xiv. 
 9.  See  art.  War.)  The  sol- 
 diers received  no  wage-s,  and 
 each  man  arrned  and  support- 
 ed himself.  Hence  their  cam- 
 paigns were  short,  and  gene- 
 rally terminated  by  a  single 
 battle.  Horses  were  not  used, 
 it  is  supposed,  until  Solomon's 
 time.  The  manner  of  declar- 
 ing war,  and  the  character  and 
 occupation  of  exempts,  are 
 minutely  stated.  (Deut.  xx.  1— 
 14 ;  xxiv.  5.)  And  for  a  very 
 interesting  sketch  of  the  whole 
 military  system  of  the  Jews, 
 see  Biblical  ANTiauiTiES,  by 
 the  American  Sunday-school 
 Union,  vol.  i.  chap.  viii.  §  6. 
 
 ARMORY.  (Sol.  Song  iv. 
 4.)  The  place  in  which  armour 
 was  deposited  in  times  of 
 peace.  (Jer.  I.  25.) 
 
 ARMOUR.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  54.) 
 
ARM 
 
 Weapons  or  instruments  of 
 defence.  These  were  in  ge- 
 neral the  shield,  or  buckler, 
 the  target,  the  coat  of  mail, 
 the  greaves,  and  the  helmet. 
 
 1.    The  shield  or  buckler, 
 (1  Kings  X.  17.  Ezek.  xxvi.  8,) 
 
 wag  probably  one  of  the  earli- 
 est  pieces  of  armour,  for  allu- 
 sion is  often  made  to  it  by 
 the  earliest  writers.  (Gen.  xv. 
 LPs.  V.  12;  xviii.  2;  xlvii.9.) 
 It  wag  of  various  sizes,  and 
 usually  made  of  light  wood, 
 and  covered  with  several  folds 
 
 ARM 
 
 or  thicknesses  of  stout  hide, 
 which  were  preserved  and 
 polished  by  frequent  applica- 
 tions of  oil,  (Isa.  xxi.  5,)  and 
 often  painted  with  circles  of 
 various  colours  or  figures. 
 (Nah.  ii.  3.)  Sometimes  osiers, 
 or  reeds  woven  like  basket- 
 work,  were  used  to  stretch  the 
 hide  upon,  and  s  >metimesthe 
 shield  was  made  either  entire- 
 ly of  brass  or  gold,  or  covered 
 with  thick  plates  of  those  me- 
 tals. (1  Kings  xiv.  26,  27.) 
 
 The  shield  was  held  by  the 
 left  arm.  The  hand  passed 
 through  under  two  straps  cr 
 thomrs  placed  thus,  X,  and 
 grasped,  with  the  fingers,  an- 
 other small  strap  near  the 
 edge  of  the  shield,  as  repre- 
 sented in  the  annexed  cut,  so 
 
 that  it  v.as  held  with  great 
 firmness.  A  single  handle  of 
 wood  or  leather  in  the  centre, 
 as  represented  in  the  first  two 
 cuts,  was  used  in  later  times. 
 The  outer  surface  was  made 
 more  or  less  rounding  from 
 the  centre  to  the  edge,  and 
 being  polished  smooth,  made 
 the  aiTows  or  darts  glance  oflf 
 or  rebound  with  increased 
 force  ;  and  the  edses  were 
 armed  with  plates  of  iron,  not 
 only  to  strengthen  them,  but 
 to  preserve  the  perishable 
 part  from  the  dampness  while 
 lying  upon  the  ground.    la 
 
ARM 
 
 limes  of  engagement,  the 
 shields  were  eiilier  held  above 
 the  head,  or  ihey  were  placed 
 together  edge  to  edge,  and 
 thus  formed  a  continuous  bar- 
 rier. Another  form  of  the 
 ancient  shield  is  seen  in  the 
 following  cut. 
 
 ARM 
 
 2.  The  target  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
 6)  was  a  larger  sort  of  shield, 
 the  relative  weight  of  which 
 may  be  inferred  from  1  Kings 
 X.  16,  17.  It  is  usually  men- 
 tioned by  the  sacred  writers 
 in  connexion  with  heavy 
 arms,  while  the  shield  is 
 spoken  of  with  the  sword, 
 dart,  and  other  light  arms.  It 
 probably  resembled  the  great 
 shield  of  the  Romans,  which 
 in  some  cases  was  four  feet 
 high,  and  two  and  a  half  feet 
 broad,  and  so  curved  as  to  fit 
 the  body  of  the  soldier. 
 
 3.  The  coat  of  mail,  (1  Sam. 
 xvii.  5,)  or  habergeon,  (Neh. 
 Iv.  16.  Job  xli.  26,)  or  breast- 
 plate, (Rev.  ix.  9,)  covered  the 
 
 body  upon  and  below  the 
 breast  and  back.  It  consisted 
 of  two  parts,  and  was  fasten- 
 ed togetner  at  the  sides.  We 
 are  told  that  Goliath's  coat  of 
 mail  weighed  five  thousand 
 shekels  of  brass,  or  nearly 
 one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds. 
 It  was  probably  formed  of 
 layers  of  brass,  one  upon  the 
 other,  like  the  scales  of  a  fish. 
 Sometimes  the  coat  of  mail 
 was  made  of  wicker-work, 
 covered  with  a  brass  plate. 
 As  it  was  the  principal  and 
 most  complete  part  of  the 
 armour,  it  is  a  most  appropri- 
 ate emblem  of  defence  and 
 safety.  <Isa.  lix.  17.  Eph.  vi. 
 14.) 
 
 4.  Greaves,  or  boots,  (1  Sam, 
 xvii.  6,)  were  for  the  protec- 
 
 tion of  the  legs.  They  are 
 mentioned  only  as  a  part  of 
 the  armour  of  Goliatn,  and 
 were  not  probably  in  common 
 use  among  the  Hebrews, 
 70 
 
ARM 
 
 Uiotigh  they  were  almost  uni- 
 versal among  the  Greeks  and 
 Romans. 
 
 5.  Helmet.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  10.) 
 This  was  a  cap,  the  shape  of 
 which  is  seen  in  the  annexed 
 figure.    It  was  made  of  thick 
 
 tough  hide,  and  sometimes  of 
 plated  brass,  (1  Sam.  xvii.  38,) 
 and  usually  crowned  with  a 
 crest  or  plume  as  an  orna- 
 ment. 
 
 ARMOm-BEARER.    (Jud^.  IX. 
 
 54.)  An  officer  selected  by 
 kings  and  generals  from  the 
 bravest  of  their  favourites, 
 whose  service  it  was  not  only 
 to  bear  their  armour,  but  to 
 stand  by  them  in  danger  and 
 carry  their  orders,  somewhat 
 after  the  manner  of  adjutants 
 in  modern  service.  (I  Sam. 
 xvi.  21,  and  xxxi.  4.) 
 
 Arms  were  weapons  or  in- 
 struments of  ofiFence  ;  they 
 were  the  sword,  the  spear,  or 
 javelin,  dart,  or  lance,  the 
 bow  and  arrow,  the  sling,  the 
 quiver,  and  the  battle-axe. 
 
 1.  The  sword.  (Gen.  xxvii. 
 40.)  This  was  a  short  two- 
 edged  instrument,  resembling 
 what  we  call  a  dagger.  It  was 
 carried  in  a  sheath  or  scab- 
 bard. (Jer.  xlvii.  6.  Ezek.  xxi. 
 9. 30,)  and  suspended  to  the  gir- 
 dle. (Judg.  iii.  16.  2  Sam.xx.  8.) 
 
 2.  The  spear,  (Josh.  viii.  18,) 
 or  javelin,  (Num.  xxv.  7,  8,) 
 or  dart,  (2  Sam.  xviii.  14,)  or 
 lance,  (Jer.  1.  42,)  were  differ- 
 ent chiefly  in  length  and  size. 
 The  spear  was  a  long  wooden 
 staff,  with  a  stout  metal  point 
 at  one  end.  The  Greek  spears 
 were  sometimes  tweniy-ftve 
 feet  long,  and  the  Arabs  now 
 
 ARM 
 
 use  them  fifteen  feet  long. 
 They  were  required  to  be  long 
 enough  to  reach  beyond  the 
 front  rank,  when  used  by  those 
 who  were  in  the  second  rank. 
 The  lance  was  shaped  and 
 used  like  the  spear,  though 
 probably  a  lighter  weapon. 
 The  javelin  was  a  short  spear, 
 
 cast,  as  is  supposed,  with  the 
 hand.  (1  Sam.  xviii.  11.)  The 
 dart  was  still  smaller  than 
 the  javelin,  and  used  in  like 
 manner. 
 
 3.   The  arrmo  (1  Sam.  xx. 
 
 36)  was  a  slender  missile,  shot 
 
 from    a  bow,  as  in    modern 
 
 days.    (Gen.  xxi.  16.)    It  was 
 
 used  in  hunting,  (Gen.  xxvii. 
 
 3,)  as  well  as  in  combat.  (Gen. 
 
 xlviii.  22.)    Those  who  used 
 
 I  them    were    called    archers. 
 
 I  Arrows  were  originally  made 
 
 I  of  reeds,  and  afterwards  of 
 
 any  light  wood.     The  bows 
 
 were  made  of  flexible  wood 
 
 '  or  steel,  (Ps.  xviii.  34,)  and  the 
 
 '  bowstring  of  leather,  horse- 
 
 :  hair   or  the  tendons  of  ani- 
 
 71 
 
ARM 
 
 malfl.  A  deceitful  bow  (Ps. 
 Lxxviii.  57)  is  eilherone  which 
 springs  back  and  wounds  the 
 archer  himself,  or  one  which, 
 from  weakness  or  other  de- 
 fects, fails  to  project  the  arrow. 
 The  point-  of  the  arrow  was 
 barbed  like  a  fish-hook.  (Ps. 
 xxxviii.  2.)  Job  refers  to  the 
 use  of  poisoned  arrows,  (Job 
 vi.  4,)  and  fire  was  often  con- 
 veyed by  the  use  of  juniper 
 wood,  which  kindled  upon  the 
 combustible  baggage  or  arma- 
 ment of  the  enemy.  (Ps.  xci. 
 5 ;  cxx.  4.)  It  is  said  that  the 
 coals  of  the  juniper  wood  are 
 very  hot,  and  it  is  known  that 
 the  Phenicians  and  (in  later 
 limes)  the  Spaniards  have 
 used  arrows  for  the  like  pur- 
 pose. Arrows  were  used  in 
 aivination.  (Ezek.  xxi.21.) 
 
 Arrows  were  kept  in  a  case 
 or  box  called  a  quiver,  which 
 
 ARO 
 
 was  slung  over  the  shoulder 
 in  such  a  position,  that  tha 
 soldier  could  draw  out  th6 
 arrows  when  wanted.  Tha 
 position  of  the  quiver  and  bow 
 13  seen  in  the  preceding  cut. 
 The  drawing  of^ihe  bow  was  a 
 test  of  slrensth,  and  is  still  se 
 among  the  Arabians.  Henca 
 the  allusion  in  Ps.  xviii.  34. 
 
 4.  The  sling  (1  Sam.  xvij. 
 40,)  was  an  early  weapon  ot 
 war,  by  which  stones  were 
 thrown  with  great  force  and 
 surprising  accuracy  of  aim. 
 (Judg.  XX.  15,  16.)  This  skill 
 was  shown  in  a  remarkable 
 degree  by  the  Benjamites,  who 
 could  employ  either  hand  in 
 its  use  with  equal  adroitness. 
 The  slingers  ranked  next  to 
 the  archers  in  efficiency. 
 
 5.  The  battle-axe  (Jer.  li. 
 20)  was  obviously  a  powerful 
 weapon  of  war,  but  ol  its  form 
 and  manner  of  use  we  have 
 now  no  knowledge. 
 
 The  term  armour,  and  the 
 various  offensive  and  defen- 
 sive articles  comprised  in  it 
 are  frequently  used  figurative- 
 ly in  the  Bible  ;  and  with  re- 
 markable force  and  eloquence 
 in  Eph.  vi.  11—18,  where  the 
 graces  of  the  Christian  cha- 
 racter are  represented  as  the 
 armour  of  God,  in  which  he 
 clothes  the  believer,  and  by 
 which  he  is  enabled  to  fight 
 the  good  fight  of  faith  with  a 
 steady  and  victorious  ann. 
 
 ARMY.    (See  War.) 
 
 ARNON.  (Deut.  ii.  ^4.)  The 
 principal  river  east  of  Jordan, 
 and  originally  the  boundary 
 between  the  IVIoabites  and  the 
 Ammonites ;  then  between  the 
 Moabites  and  Amorites;  and 
 finally,  between  the  Moabites 
 and  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  It  is 
 now  called  the  Modjeb  or  Mu- 
 jeb,  and  is  about  fifty  miles 
 long,  emptying  into  the  Dead 
 Sea.  The  current  in  winter 
 is  full  and  rapid,  but  in  sum- 
 mer the  channel  is  nearly  dry. 
 
 AROER.  l.(Deut.  iii.  12,  and 
 72 
 
ARV 
 
 IT.  48.)  A  city  on  the  north 
 bank  of  the  river  Arnon.  Ii  is 
 now  called  Araayr.  The  terra 
 "the  city  in  the  midst  of  the 
 river,"  (Josh.  xiii.  9,)  ori- 
 ginated in  the  circumstance 
 that  the  city  stood  partly  on 
 the  bank  and  partly  on  an 
 island  formed  by  the  river. 
 
 •2.  Aroer  before  Rabbah 
 (Josh.  xiii.  25)  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  situated  on  the 
 Jabbok,  or  river  of  Gad. 
 
 ARPAD,  ARPHAD.  (Isa.  x. 
 3.)  A  city  of  Syria,  always 
 mentioned  in  connexion  with 
 Hamath,  and  probably  in  the 
 vicinity  of  Damascus,  but  its 
 exact  site  is  mnv  unknown. 
 (Jer.  xlix.  23.  Ezek.  xxvii.  8. 
 See  Arvad.) 
 
 ARTAXERXES.  (Ezra  iv. 
 7,  and  vii.  7.  Neh.  ii.  1.)  A 
 king  of  Persia,  who  reigned 
 forty-seven  years,  and  "clied 
 four  hundred  and  twenty-five 
 years  before  Christ.  In  the 
 seventh  year  of  his  reign  he 
 permitted  Ezra  to  return  into 
 Judea,  with  such  of  his  coun- 
 trymen as  chose  to  follow 
 him ;  and  fourteen  years  after- 
 wards he  allowed  Nehemiah  to 
 return  and  build  up  Jerusalem. 
 (See  Elisama,  by  the  Ameri- 
 can Sunday-school  Union,  pp. 
 1S7,  LSS.) 
 
 ARTILLERY.  (1  Sam.  xx. 
 40.)  Any  missive  weapons,  as 
 arrows,  lances,  &c. 
 
 ARTS.  (Acts  xix.  19.)  Pre- 
 tended skill  in  the  practice 
 of  made,  astrolocy,  &c. 
 
 ARUMAH,  of  RUM  AH. 
 CJucig.  ix.  41.  2  Kings  xxiii. 
 38.)  A  village  near  Shechem, 
 •where  Abimelech  lived. 
 
 ARVAD.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  8— 
 11.)  Called  also  Arpad  and 
 Arphad,  and  by  the  Turks, 
 Ru-ad.  A  small  village  on  an 
 island  of  the  same  name  near 
 the  eastern  shore  of  the  3Iedi- 
 terranean,  and  twenty  or 
 thirty  miles  north  of  Tripoli. 
 Modern  travellers  describe 
 4rvad   as   a   deserted    ruin, 
 
 ASA 
 though  the  site  makes  a  fine 
 appearance  at  a  distance. 
 
 ARVADITES.  (Gen.  x.  18.) 
 The  people  of  Arvad  were 
 called  Arvadites,  and  in  the 
 lime  of  Ezekiel  were  gene- 
 rally known  as  mariners  and 
 soldiers  in  the  Syrian  service. 
 (Ezek.  xxvii.  8-^11.) 
 
 ASA  (1  Kings  xv.  8)  was  son 
 and  surxess.ir  of  Abijara  on 
 the  throne  of  Judah.  He 
 began  his  reign  b.  c.  955, 
 and  reigned  forty-one  years. 
 Thougheducated"  in  the  prin- 
 ciples of  a  false  religion,  he 
 showed,  from  the  first,  hi."?  de- 
 cided opposhion  to  idolatry, 
 and  even  deposed  his  mother 
 3Iaachah  because  she  had 
 made  an  idol  in  a  grove.  The 
 first  part  of  his  "reign  was 
 peaceful,  and  he  improved  the 
 opportunity  to  purify  his  king- 
 dom from  idolatry,  and  to 
 build  and  fortify  several  ci- 
 ties ;  and  when  Zerah,  an 
 Ethiopian  kinsr,  invaded  his 
 territories,  with  an  army  of 
 a  million  of  men  and  three 
 hundred  chariots,  Asa  met 
 him  with  six  hundred  thou- 
 sand, and  defeated  him.  This 
 memorable  battle  was  fought 
 at  Mareshah.  (2Chron.  xiv.) 
 
 At  the  suggestion  of  Azariah, 
 a  pri>}-het  wh^m  God  specially 
 deputed  f.>r  that  purpose,  Asa 
 set  about  the  reformation  of 
 every  abuse  in  his  kingdom, 
 and  appointed  s  solemn  festi- 
 val of  thanksgiv  ne  to  God,  at 
 which  all  the'people  were  as- 
 sembled, and  entered  into  a 
 firnial  covenant  with  God. 
 Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  find- 
 ins  his  subjects  too  much  dis- 
 posed to  go  into  Judah  and 
 dwell  there,  commenced  for- 
 tifying Ramah,  a  place  near 
 the  frontiers  of  both  king- 
 doms, with  a  view  to  cut  off 
 the  passage  of  emigrants  t"* 
 Jerusalem^  and  other  parts  of 
 Judah.  Asa,  though  he  had  so 
 long  enjoyed  the"  favour  aiul 
 protection  of  God,  was  now 
 
A.SA 
 tempted  to  forsake  hiir..  In- 
 Btead  of  trusting  in  his  al- 
 mighty arm  for  deliverance, 
 aa  he  had  done  in  years  past, 
 he  sent  to  Benhadad  the  king 
 of  Syria,  and  prevailed  on 
 him,  even  in  violation  of  a 
 treaty  which  existed  between 
 Benhadad  and  Baasha,  to 
 come  to  the  help  of  Judah, 
 against  Israel.  The  Syrian 
 kmg,  won  by  the  presents 
 which  Asa  had  sent  him,  im- 
 mediately attacked  and  de- 
 stroyed several  important  ci- 
 ties of  Israel.  Baasha,  finding 
 his  kingdom  thus  invaded, 
 abandoned  the  fortification  of 
 Ramah,  that  he  might  protect 
 the  provinces  of  the  interior 
 from  desolation.  Asa  seized 
 the  opportunity  to  demolish 
 Raman,  and  take  away  the 
 stone  and  timber  which  were 
 collected  there,  and  use  them 
 in  the  building  of  his  own 
 cities. 
 
 In  the  mean  time,  a  prophet 
 was  sent  to  remind  him  of  his 
 sin  and  folly  in  forsaking  the 
 Lord  his  God  and  trusting  to 
 an  arm  of  flesh,  and  to  warn 
 him  of  the  punishment  which 
 would  come  upon  him  for  all 
 these  things.  But  the  heart 
 of  Asa  was  already  so  alien- 
 ated from  God,  that  he  was 
 enraged  by  the  faithful  mes- 
 sage, and  caused  the  bearer 
 of  it  to  be  thrown  into  prison. 
 
 He  was  afterwards  visited 
 with  a  most  distressing  dis- 
 ease of  the  feet,  but  even  this 
 did  not  lead  him  to  renew  his 
 tru  t  in  God.  He  died  a.  m. 
 3090,  in  the  forty-first  year 
 of  his  reign;  and  his  burial 
 was  attended  with  great  pomp. 
 
 ASAHEL.  (2  Sam.  ii.  18, 19.) 
 A  brother  of  Joab.    (See  Ab- 
 
 NBR.) 
 
 ASAPH  (1  Chron.  xxv.  1,  2) 
 wag  a  celebrated  musician, 
 and  one  of  the  chief  leaders 
 of  the  temple  choir.  Several 
 of  the  psalms  of  David  are 
 entitled,  a  psalm  of  or  for 
 
 ASH 
 
 Asaph.  (Psalms  Ixxiii.  to 
 Ixxxiii.)  That  these  were  not 
 written  by  Asaph  is  evident 
 from  the  fact  that  allusion  is 
 made  in  some  of  them  to 
 events  which  took  place  after 
 his  death. 
 
 ASCENSION.  (SeeCHRiST.) 
 
 ASH.  (Isa.  xliv.  14.)  A  well 
 known  forest  tree,  of  rapid 
 growth,  the  wood  of  which 
 was  wrought  into  the  images 
 of  idolatry. 
 
 ASHAN.  (Josh.  XV. -K.)  A 
 city  of  Judah,  situated  about 
 twenty  miles  south-west  of 
 Jerusalem,  and  probably  the 
 Chorashan  mentioned  1  Sam. 
 XXX.  30. 
 
 ASHDOD.  (Josh.  xv.  47.)  One 
 of  the  five  capital  cities  of 
 the  Philistines,  called  by  the 
 Greeks,  and  known  in  the 
 New  Testament,  as  Azotus. 
 (Acts  viii.40.)  It  was  situated 
 on  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
 tween Askelon  and  Ekron, 
 fifteen  or  twenty  miles  north 
 of  Gaza.  Here  wa.s  the  temple 
 of  Dagon,  in  which  the  Philis- 
 tines placed  the  ark.  The 
 city  was  more  than  once  cap- 
 tured. (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6.  Isa. 
 XX.  1.)  A  late  traveller  states 
 that  Ashdod  is  to  be  seen 
 from  an  elevated  spot  near 
 Joppa;  and  that  it  abounds 
 with  fine  old  olive  trees,  and 
 with  fruits  and  vegetables  of 
 every  kind.  Messrs.  King  and 
 Fisk,  American  missionaries, 
 were  there  in  1823. 
 
 ASHDOTH-PISGAH.  (Deut. 
 iii.  17.)  A  city  of  the  tribe  of 
 Reuben,  which  is  elsewhere 
 called  the  springs  of  Pisgah. 
 (Deut.  iv.  49.) 
 
 ASHER.  (Gen.  xxx.  i3.)  The 
 son  of  Jacob,  by  Zilpah.  He 
 was  one  of  the  twelve  patri- 
 archs. The  portion  of  the 
 holy  land  assigned  to  his  tribe 
 was  bounded  by  Phenicia  on 
 the  west;  mount  Lebanon  on 
 the  north  ;  mount  Carmel  and 
 the  tribe  of  Issachar  on  th« 
 south,  and  the  tribes  of  Zebu 
 74 
 
ASH 
 
 Ion  and  Naphtali  on  the  east.  | 
 His  descendants  are  called 
 Asherites.  (Judg.  1.  32.) 
 
 ASHES.  (Gen.  xviii.  27.)  To 
 cover  the  head  with  ashes,  or 
 to  sit  in  ashes,  betokens  self- ; 
 abhorrence,  humiliation,  ex- ' 
 treme  grief,  or  penitence.  (2 
 Sam.  xlii.  19.  Esth.  iv.  3.  Job 
 ii.  8.  Jer.  vi.  26.  Lam.  iii.  16.  | 
 Jonah  iii.  6.  Matt.  xi.  21.) 
 There  was  a  sort  of  lye  made 
 of  the  ashes  of  the  heifer,  ' 
 sacrificed  on  the  great  day  of 
 expiation,  which  was  used 
 for  ceremonial  purification. 
 (Num.  xix.  17, 13.  See  Heifer.) 
 
 ASHKENAZ.  (Gsn.  x.  3.) 
 A  grandson  of  Japhet,  and  the 
 probable  ancestor  of  those 
 who  inhabited  a  country  of  the 
 same  name,  (Jer.  li.  27,)  lying 
 along  the  eastern  and  south- 
 eastern shore  of  the  Black 
 Sea.  The  precise  district  is 
 unknown.    (See  Minni.) 
 
 ASHTAROTH.  1.  A  place 
 (Josh.  ix.  10)  called  Astaroth, 
 (Deut.  i.  4,)  and  Ashteroth  Kar- 
 naim,  (Gen.  xiv.  5,)  the  word 
 karnaim  meaning  two-hor7ied, 
 and  having  reference  to  a 
 heathen  goddess,  who  was  re- 
 presented with  a  crescent,  or 
 
 two-horned  moon.  It  was  one 
 of  the  chief  cities  of  Bashan, 
 and  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
 with  the  modern  Mezaraib,  on 
 the  route  of  the  pilgrims  from 
 Damascus  to  Mecca. 
 
 2.  An  idol;  represented  in 
 thij  above  cut,  (Judg.  ii.  13,) 
 
 ASI 
 called  also  Ashtoretli,  the  god- 
 dess of  the  Sidonians.  It  was 
 much  worshipped  in  Syria 
 and  Phenicia.  Solomon  in- 
 troduced the  worship  of  it. 
 (1  Kings  xi.  33.)  The  Pheni- 
 cians  called  it  Aslarte.  The 
 four  hundred  priests  of  Jeze- 
 bel, mentioned  1  Kings  xviii. 
 19,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
 employed  in  the  service  of 
 this  idol ;  and  we  are  told  that 
 under  this  name  three  hun- 
 dred priests  were  constantly 
 employed  in  its  service  at 
 Hierapolis,  in  Syria,  many 
 ages  after  Jezebel's  time. 
 This  idol  was  also  called  the 
 "  queen  of  heaven,"  and  the 
 worship  was  said  to  be  paid 
 to  the  "  host  of  heaven."  It  is 
 usually  mentioned  in  connex- 
 ion with  Baal. 
 
 ASHTORETH.  (See  pre- 
 ceding article.) 
 
 ASIA.  (Acts  ii.  9.)  Asia  was 
 not  known  to  the  ancients  as 
 one  of  the  four  erand  divisions 
 of  the  earth,  ^he  name  was 
 originally  applied  to  a  small 
 district  of  Lydia,  including 
 perhaps  Ionia  and  jEolis.  The 
 term  was  gradually  enlarged 
 in  its  application,  until  it  em- 
 braced the  whole  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, and  finally  denoted  a 
 large  portion  of  the  eastern 
 divTsion  of  the  earth. 
 
 The  Asia  of  the  Bible  is  a 
 peninsula,  on  the  western  or 
 south-western  side  of  the  con- 
 tinent of  Asia,  which  stretch- 
 es into  the  Mediterranean  or 
 Great  Sea,  extending  east  as 
 far  as  the  Euphrates,  west  to 
 the  islands  of  the  sea,  (see 
 Islands,)  north  to  what  is 
 now  called  the  Black  Sea, 
 and  south  to  the  Mediterra- 
 nean or  Great  Sea.  It  includes 
 the  provinces  of  Bilhynia, 
 Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia, 
 Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Pisidia, 
 Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Mysia, 
 Troas,  Lydia,  Lysia,  and  Ca 
 ria. 
 
 In  the  sense  in  which  it  i*i 
 75 
 
ASP 
 
 used,  in  Acts  ii.  9;  'vi.  9; 
 xix.  10.  22.  26, 27.  2  Tim.  i.  15. 
 IPet.  i.  1,  it  was  tlie  Roman 
 proconsular  Asia,  and  com- 
 prehends but  a  portion  of  Asia 
 Minor,  viz.  Plirygia,  Mysia, 
 Caria,  and  Lydia.  Within  this 
 territory  the  seven  churches 
 of  Asia  were  situated.  (Rev. 
 i.  4.  11.)  In  Acts  xxvii.  2,  the 
 term  Asia  may  represent  Asia 
 Minor,  but  even  then  it  may 
 refer  only  to  the  western 
 coasts.  In  every  other  case  it 
 is  so  distinguished  from  other 
 portions  of  Asia  Minor,  or  so 
 immediately  connected  with 
 Ephesus,  as  to  lead  to  the  be- 
 lief that  the  Asia  of  which 
 Ephesus  was  the  capital  (or 
 proconsular  Asia)  is  intended. 
 
 ASKELON.  (2  Sam.  i.  20.) 
 One  of  the  "  fenced  cities"  of 
 the  Philistines.  It  was  situ- 
 ated on  the  eastern  shore  of 
 the  Mediterranean,  twelve 
 miles  south  of  Gaza.  After 
 the  death  of  Joshua,  it  fell 
 into  the  hands  of  the  tribe  of 
 Judah.  (Judg.  i.  18.)  At  a  short 
 distance  to  the  north  is  a  small 
 village  called  Scalona,  evi- 
 dently a  corruption  of  the  an- 
 cient name. 
 
 ASP.  (Deut.  xxxii.  33.)  A 
 small  but  very  poisonous  ser- 
 pent. (Rom.  iii.  13.)  Their 
 venom  is  cruel,  because  it  is 
 so  subtle  and  deadly,  and  re- 
 quires an  immediate  excision 
 of  the  wounded  part.  For  an 
 infant  child  to  play  upon  the 
 hole  of  such  a  venomous  rep- 
 tile would  seem  to  be  most 
 presumptuous  ;  and  hence  the 
 force  and  beauty  of  the  figure 
 used  by  the  prophet,  (Isa.  xi. 
 8,)  to  represent  the  security 
 and  peace  of  the  Messiah's 
 reign.  In  Ps.  Iviii.  4,  5,  and 
 Eccl.  X.  ll,and  Jer.  viii.  17,  al- 
 lusion is  made  to  that  singular 
 phenomenon,  the  charming  of 
 serpents  by  musical  souu'ls  ; 
 and  the  wicked  are  compared 
 to  the  deaf  adder,  (or  asp,)  that 
 stoppeth  her  ear,  and  will  not 
 
 ASh 
 be  charmed.  Whether  the  rep- 
 tile is  really  deaf,  or  whether 
 it  obstructs  its  hearing,  aa  it 
 may  easily  do  by  laying  one 
 ear  upon  the  ground  and  co- 
 vering the  other  with  dust  or 
 with  its  tail,  is  not  important. 
 It  is  enough  that  for  some 
 cause  the  effort  to  attract  and 
 turn  it,  is  vain.  All  these 
 phrases  import  that  musical 
 sounds  may  beguile  and  dis- 
 arm some  serpents,  but  not 
 others ;  or  that  the  arts  of 
 the  charmer  may  be  effectual 
 sometimes,  but  not  always. 
 The  Arabians  tell  us  that  there 
 are  three  classes  of  serpents, 
 and  in  the  first  class  they 
 place  those  whose  poison  is 
 so  fatal  as  to  cause  death  in 
 three  hours,  and  who  are  not 
 subject  to  the  power  of  the 
 charmer;  such,  they  say,  are 
 the  basilisk  and  all  kinds  of 
 asps.  It  is  sufBcient  for  the 
 full  force  of  the  scriptural  al- 
 lusions, that  there  are  ser- 
 fients  on  whom  the  power  of 
 the  charmer  is  often  exerted 
 in  vain ;  serpents  whose  stroke 
 cannot  be  parried,  and  whose 
 poison  is  death, 
 
 ASS.  (Gen.  xxii.  3.)  This 
 animal  is  among  the  most 
 common  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
 ture, and  constituted  a  consi- 
 derable part  of  the  wealth  of 
 ancient  times.  (Gen.  xii.  16, 
 and  XXX.  43.  Job  i.  3 ;  xlii.  12.) 
 They  were  sometimes  so  nu- 
 merous as  to  require  a  spe- 
 cial keeper.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  24. 
 1  Chron.  xxvii.  30.)  The  ass 
 and  the  ox  were  the  principal 
 animals  of  burden  and  draft. 
 (Ex.  xxiii.  12.)  The  domestic 
 ass  is  indeed  a  most  ser- 
 viceable animal,  and  in  some 
 respects  preferable  to  the 
 horse.  He  subsists  on  very 
 coarse  food,  and  submits  to  the 
 meanest  drudgery.  His  skin 
 s  remarkaljly  thick,  and  is 
 used  at  this  day  for  parch- 
 ment, drum  heads,  memoran- 
 dum books,  &c.  Their  usual 
 76 
 
ASS 
 
 ASS 
 
 ^S^B^r^Tfn 
 
 colour  is  red  or  dark  brown, 
 but  sometimes  they  are  of  a 
 silver  white,  and  these  last 
 were  usually  appropriated  to 
 persons  of  dignity.  (Judg.  v. 
 10.)  So  in  Gen.  xlix.  11,  the 
 allusion  to  the  ass  and  the 
 vine  imports  dignity  and  fruit- 
 fulness,  and  the  continuance 
 and  increase  of  both  in  the 
 tribe  of  Judah.  There  was  a 
 breed  of  asses  far  superior  to 
 those  that  were  used  in  labour, 
 and  which  are  supposed  to  be 
 referred  to  in  most  of  the  pas- 
 sages above  cited. 
 
 The  female,  or  she-ass,  was 
 particularly  valuable  for  the 
 saddle,  and  for  hor  milk, 
 which  was  extensively  used 
 for  food  and  for  medicinal 
 purposes. 
 
 Tne  ass  was  used  in  agri- 
 cultural labour,  especially  in 
 earing  (ploughing)  the  ground, 
 and  treading  it  to  prepare  it 
 for  the  seed.  (Isa.  xxx.  24, 
 and  xxxii.  20.)  The  prohibi- 
 tion (Deut.  xxii.  10)  might  have 
 besn  founded  in  part  on  the 
 inequality  of  strength  between 
 7* 
 
 the  ox  and  the  ass,  and  the 
 cruelty  of  putting  upon  them 
 the  same  burden ;  but  was  in- 
 tended chiefly  to  mark  the 
 separation  of  the  Jews  from 
 surrounding  nations,  among 
 whom  such  an  union  of  differ- 
 ent beasts  was  not  uncommon. 
 So  serviceable  and  indeed  es- 
 sential to  man  was  this  animal 
 in  ancient  times,  that  to  drive 
 away  the  ass  of  the  fatherless 
 is  reckoned  among  the  most 
 atrocious  acts  of  oppression 
 and  cruelty,  (Job  xxiv.  3,)  as 
 depriving  an  orphan  family 
 of  their  only  cow  would  be 
 regarded  at  the  present  dajr. 
 The  attachment  of  this  ani- 
 mal to  its  owner  is  among  its 
 remarkable  characteristics. 
 In  this  respect  it  closely  re- 
 sembles the  dog.  Hence  the 
 severity  of  the  prophet's  re- 
 buke. (Isa.  i.  3.) 
 
 The  fact  stated  in  2  Kings 
 vi.  25,  is  designed  to  show  that 
 such  was  the  extremity  of  the 
 famine,  that  the  people  were 
 not  only  willing  to  give  an  ex- 
 orbitant price  for  a  small  and 
 77 
 
ASS 
 most  undesirable  portion  of 
 meat  which  they  were  not  ac- 
 customed to  eat,  but,  breaking 
 through  all  the  restraints  of 
 relieion  and  superstition,  the 
 famished  citizens  seized  with 
 avidity  this  unsavoury  and 
 forbidden  food. 
 
 The  ass,  when  dead,  was 
 thrown  into  the  open  field,  and 
 that  part  of  his  flesh  which 
 was  not  consumed  )iy  beasis 
 nd  birds,  was  suffered  to 
 putrefy  and  decay.  Nothing 
 could  be  more  disgraceful  than 
 to  expose  a  human  body  in 
 the  like  manner.  (Jer.  xxii. 
 19,  and  xxxvi.  30.) 
 
 Much  vain  discussion  has 
 arisen  respecting  the  passage. 
 Num.  xxii.  28.  It  would  be  as 
 easy  for  the  Creator  of  both 
 man  and  berst  to  take  the 
 power  of  speech  from  the 
 former  and  give  it  to  the 
 latter,  as  it  was  at  first  to  give 
 it  to  the  former  and  withhold 
 it  from  the  latter.  The  apos- 
 tle (2  Pet.  ii.  16)  seems  to  have 
 received  the  history  like  a 
 little  child,  in  the  plain  and 
 obvious  meaning  of  the  lan- 
 guage.   (See  Balaam.) 
 
 A  variety  ot  opinions  have 
 been  entertained  respecting 
 our  Saviour's  entrance  into  Je- 
 rusalem, (Matt.  xxi.  1—11,) 
 whether  it  was  under  circum- 
 stances of  great  meanness  and 
 poverty,  or  with  honour  and 
 royai  parade.  The  prophecy 
 in  Zech.  ix.  9,  was  fulfilled, 
 and  this  is  all  that  it  con- 
 cerns us  to  know. 
 
 The  Arabia  n  a  ss  has  a  1  ight, 
 quick  step.  In  Persia,  Syria, 
 and  Egypt,  ladies  are  accus- 
 tomed to  ride  on  asses,  and 
 they  are  particularly  valuable 
 in  mountainous  countries,  be- 
 ing more  sure-footed  than 
 horses.  Their  ordinary  gait 
 Is  four  miles  an  hour. 
 
 The  ass  in  his  wild  or  natu- 
 ral state  is  an  elegant  animal. 
 It  is  often  alluded  to  in  the 
 sacred  wiitings.    (Jobxi.  12; 
 
 ASS 
 
 xxiv.  5,  and  xxxix.  5—8.) 
 They  usually  roamed  in  herds 
 through  barren  and  desolate 
 districts.  (Isa.  xxxii.  14.  Hos. 
 viii.9.)  One  was  recently  taken 
 in  a  pitfall  in  Astrachan,  and 
 added  to  the  Surry  Zoological 
 collection  in  England.  It  is 
 described  as  having  a  deer- 
 like appearance,  standing 
 high  on  the  legs,  very  active, 
 of  a  silvery  colour,  with  a 
 dark  brown  streak  along  the 
 back.  (See  Youth's  Friend, 
 by  the  American  Sunday- 
 school  Union,  vols.  ii.  and  iii. 
 
 ASSEMBLIES,  masters  of. 
 (Eccl.  xii.  11.)  This  phrase  by 
 itself  is  perfectly  intelligible, 
 and  is  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
 leading  men  or  master-spirits 
 of  the  assemblies  of  the  wise 
 and  curious,  which  were  often 
 held  in  eastern  countries,  and 
 where  sages  and  philosophers 
 uttered  their  weighty  sayings. 
 The  preacher  endeavoured  to 
 clothe  the  infinitely  wise  and 
 perfect  doctrines  which  he 
 taught  in  proper  langruage. 
 They  were  the  words  oftruth, 
 and  were  designed  to  prove 
 quickening  to  the  sluggish 
 soul  as  goads  are  to  the  dull 
 ox.  (Acts  ii.  37.)  They  were  re- 
 ceived from  the  one  great  Shep- 
 herd or  Teacher,  and  came 
 with  great  power  as  the  say- 
 ings of  the  most  wise  and  elo- 
 qu'ent  of  their  learned  assem- 
 blies ;  and  they  would  take 
 hold  of  the  hearts  and  con- 
 sciences of  men,  holding  them 
 to  the  obedience  of  the  truth, 
 as  nails  driven  through  a 
 sound  board  firmly  bind  and 
 fasten  it  where  we  will. 
 
 ASSHUR.  (Gen.  x.  22.)  The 
 second  son  of  Shem.  He  pro- 
 bably gave  name  to  the  coun- 
 try of  Assyria.  (Hos.  xiv.  3. 
 Mic.  V.  G.)  There  is  some 
 doubt  whether  tiie  reading  of 
 Gen.  X.  11,  should  not  be  thus : 
 "  Out  of  that  land  he  (that  is, 
 Nimrod,  spoken  of  in  ver.  9) 
 went  forth  into  Asshur.  or  As- 
 78  ■ 
 
ASS 
 
 Syria,  and  builded  Nineveh." 
 At  any  rate,  the  weight  of  au- 
 thority favours  the  position, 
 that  Nineveh  was  founded  by 
 Nimrod. 
 
 ASSOS.  (Acts  XX.  13.)  A 
 maritime  town  of  Tmas,  in 
 the  north  of  Mysia,  and  oppo- 
 site the  island  of  Lesbos,  now 
 called  Beiram. 
 
 ASSYRIA.  (2  Kings  x v.  19.)  A 
 most  powerful  empire  of  Asia, 
 the  history  of  which,  both  in 
 its  glory  and  in  its  overthrow, 
 is  most  significantly  told  by 
 the  prophet.  (Ezek.  xxxi.)  It 
 was  founded  probably  by  Nim- 
 rod,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
 years  after  the  deluge.  (See 
 AssHUR.)  In  the  most  compre- 
 hensive use  of  the  term,  it  in- 
 cluded all  the  countries  and 
 nations  from  the  Mediterra- 
 nean Sea  on  the  west,  to  the 
 river  Indus  on  the  east.  It  is 
 important  to  observe  that  by 
 the  term  Assyrians,  in  the 
 sacred  writings,  is  meant  the 
 people  of  Assyria  proper,  or 
 the  empire  of  which  NinevSh 
 was  the  chief  city ;  by  the 
 Babylonians,  or  Chaldeans,  is 
 meant  the  people  of  the  coun- 
 try of  which  Babylon  was  the 
 capital ;  and  by  the  Syrians, 
 the  people  of  the  country  of 
 which  Zobah  first,  and  after- 
 wards Damascus,  was  the 
 capital,  and  whose  south  and 
 south-eastern  boundary  was 
 the  land  of  Canaan. 
 
 The  early  history  of  Assyria 
 is  involved  in  obscurity.  We 
 know  from  the  sacred  history 
 that  it  was  a  powerful  nation. 
 (Num.  xxiv.  22.)  And  its  ca- 
 pital was  one  of  the  most  re- 
 nowned of  the  eastern  world. 
 (See  Nineveh.)  It  fell  into 
 tlie  hands  of  the  Medes  ;  the 
 monarchy  was  divided  be- 
 tween them  and  the  Babylo- 
 nians, and  the  very  name  of 
 Assyria  was  thenceforth  for- 
 gotten. (See  Geography  of 
 THE  Bible,  p.  24,  and  Eve- 
 KiNG  Kecreations,  part  i.  pp. 
 
 ATII 
 
 50—70,  both  by  the  American 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 ASSURANCE.  1.  Op  thk 
 understanding,  (Col.  ii.  2) 
 is  a  full  knowledge  of  divine 
 things  f  lunded  on  the  declara- 
 tion of  the  Scriptures. 
 
 2.  An  assurance  of  faith 
 (Heb.  X.  22)  is  a  firm  belief  in 
 Christ,  as  God  has  revealed 
 him  to  us  in  the  Scriptures, 
 and  an  exclusive  dependence 
 on  him  for  salvation. 
 
 3.  Assurance  of  hope. 
 (Heb.  vi.  11)  is  a  firm  expect- 
 ation that  God  will  grant  us 
 the  complete  enjoyment  of 
 what  he  has  promised. 
 
 ASTAROTH.    (See  Ashta- 
 
 ROTH.) 
 
 ASTROLOGERS.  (Dan.  ii. 
 27.)  A  class  of  men  who  jjre- 
 tendedto  foretell  future  events 
 by  observing  the  motions  of 
 the  heavenly  bodies. 
 
 ASUPPIM,     HOUSE     OF.      (1 
 
 Chron.  xxvi.  15.)  Some  one  of 
 the  apartments  of  the  temple 
 where  the  stores  were  kept. 
 AT  AD.  (SeeABEi.-MizRAiM.) 
 ATHALIAH.  (2Kings  xi.  1.) 
 The  mother  of  Ahaziah.  Ahab, 
 king  of  Israel,  was  her  father. 
 Omri,  king  of  Samaria,  was 
 her  grandfather,  and  she  mar- 
 ried Joram  or  Jehoram,  king 
 of  Judah.  The  sacred  biogra- 
 pher gives  her  a  most  odious 
 and  revolting  character.  She 
 advised  her  own  son  in  his 
 wickedness,  and  after  Jehu 
 had  slain  him,  (see  Ahaziah,) 
 she  resolved  to  destroy  the 
 children  of  her  husband  by 
 his  former  wives,  and  then 
 take  the  throne  of  Judah.  But 
 Jehosheba,  a  half  sister  of 
 Ahaziah,  secured  Joash,  one 
 of  the  chiyren  and  heirs,  and 
 secreted  him  and  his  nurse 
 for  six  years.  In  the  seventh 
 year,  every  thing  being  pre- 
 pared for  the  purpose,  Joash, 
 the  young  prince,  was  brought 
 out  and  placed  on  the  throne. 
 Attracted  by  the  crowd  of 
 people  who  had  assembled  to 
 79 
 
ATO 
 
 >K'itness  the  ceremony,  and 
 unsuspicious  of  the  cause, 
 Alhaliah  hastened  to  the  tem- 
 ple. When  the  populace  had 
 assembled,  and  when  she  saw 
 the  young  king  on  the  throne, 
 and  heard  the  shouts  of  the 
 people,  aad  found  that  all  her 
 ambitious  designs  were  likely 
 to  be  defeated,  she  rent  her 
 clothes  and  cried  out,  "  Tl-ea- 
 son.  Treason,"  hoping  proba- 
 bly to  rally  a  party  in  favour 
 of  her  interests.  But  she  was 
 too  late.  The  priest  com- 
 manded her  to  be  removed 
 from  the  temple,  and  she  was 
 taken  without  the  walls  of  the 
 city,  and  nut  to  death. 
 
 ATHENS.  (Acta  xvii.  15.) 
 The  capital  of  Allica  in 
 Greece,  situated  on  the  Saro- 
 nicGulf,  forty-six  miles  east  of 
 Corinth,  three  hundred  south- 
 west of  Constantinople,  and 
 five  miles  from  the  coast.  It  was 
 distinguished  not  only  for  poli- 
 tical importance  and  military 
 power,  but  for  the  eloquence, 
 literature,  and  refinement  of 
 its  inhabitants.  Paul  visited 
 it  about  A.D.  52,  and  found  the 
 people  sunk  in  idolatry  and 
 idleness.  He  preached  ihere, 
 and  took  occasion  to  reprove 
 their  superstitions,  for  which 
 he  was  summoned  before  the 
 Areopagus.  (See  Areopagus. 
 See  Life  of  Paul,  by  the  Ame- 
 rican Sunday-school  Union, 
 chapters  viii.  ix.  and  x.) 
 
 ATOXEMENT.  (Lev.  iv. 
 20.  Rom.  v.  11.)  This  word,  in 
 its  popular  use,  has  a  variety 
 of  significations,  such  as  re- 
 conciliation, satisfaction  or  re- 
 paration, and  expiation.  The 
 word  occurs  often  in  the  Old 
 Testament,  but  only  once  in 
 the  New ;  though  the  subject 
 itself  is  presented,  and  illus- 
 trated, and  magnified  in  every 
 variety  of  form,  a.sd  by  all  the 
 force  of  expression,  both  in 
 the  gospels  and  in  the  epis- 
 tles.^ (Rom.  ill.— viii.  and  Heb. 
 vii. — X.  inclusive.)  The  word 
 
 ATO 
 
 ransom  (Job  xxxiii.  24)  might 
 be  rendered  atonement,  and  is 
 so  rendered  in  the  margin. 
 (See  also  Num.  xvi.  46,  and 
 2  Sam.  xxi.  3.) 
 
 The  great  atonement  made 
 for  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  our 
 Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
 constitutes  the  grand  substan- 
 tial principle  of  the  Christian 
 faith.  The  efficacy  of  it  is 
 such, that  the  sinner^  though 
 under  the  wrath  of  God  and 
 the  condemnation  of  his  just 
 law,  by  faith  in  the  atoning 
 blood  of  Christ  is  broushtinto 
 favour  with  God,  is  delivered 
 from  condemnation,  and  made 
 an  heir  of  eternal  life  and 
 glory. 
 
 The  Hebrew  word  rendered 
 atonement  signifies  coverijig, 
 (Ps.  xxxii.  l.fand  the  Greek 
 version  of  this  Hebrew  word 
 is  translated  propitiation  in 
 our  Bible ;  and  may  denote 
 either  that  our  offences  are 
 covered,  or  that  we  are  shield- 
 ed and  protected  from  the 
 curse,  Christ  being  made  a 
 curse  for  us.  Generally,  wher- 
 ever the  term  occurs,  a  state 
 of  controversy,  irreconcilia- 
 tion,  or  estrangement  is  im- 
 plied; and  in  relation  to  the 
 party  ofifended,  it  imports 
 something  done  to  propitiate. 
 (Gen.  xxxii.  20.  Ezek.  xvi.  63.) 
 The  idea  of  making  an  atone- 
 ment is  expressed  by  a  word 
 which  signifies  to  make  pro- 
 pitiation^ and  the  apostles,  in 
 referring  to  the  death  of  Christ, 
 use  those  very  terms  which, 
 in  the  Septuagint  version  of 
 the  Old  Testament,  are  ap- 
 plied to  legal  sacrifices  and 
 Uieir  effect :  thus  representing 
 the  death  of  Christ,  not  only 
 as  a  real  and  proper  sacrifice, 
 but  as  the  truth  and  substance 
 of  all  the  Levitical  types  and 
 shadows— the  true,  efficacious, 
 and  only  atonement  for  sin, 
 (1  John  ii.  2,  and  iv.  10 ;)  show 
 ing  that  Christ  is  not  only  the 
 being  or  agent  by  whom  the 
 
propitiation 
 nimself  the  p 
 
 AVE 
 
 is  made,  but  was 
 propitiatory  sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 After  all  the  vain  philosophy 
 and  ingenious  speculations  of 
 men  to  destroy  or  modify  this 
 doctrine,  which  on  the  one 
 hand  reduces  sinful  man  to 
 the  most  humbling  extremity, 
 and  on  the  other  proposes  to 
 him  a  perfect  and  glorious  sal- 
 vation ;  the  atonement  made 
 for  him,  by  the  self-sacrifice 
 of  Christ,  remains,  and  will 
 «for  ever  remain,  the  essential 
 principle  of  the  gospel.  It  will 
 for  ever  illustrate  the  dreadful 
 sinfulness  of  sin,  the  infinite 
 
 gurity,  justice,  and  mercy  of 
 ■od,  and  the  love  of  Christ 
 which  passeth  knowledge.  No 
 teacher  of  divine  truth  to  sin- 
 ful men  can  build  a  consistent 
 or  safe  system  of  instruction 
 on  any  other  foundation  than 
 this.  (Malt.  i.  21,  and  xxvi.  28. 
 Mark  x.  45.  John  i.  29,  and 
 X.  10—18.)  He  who  rejects  the 
 atonement,  and  tramples  un- 
 der foot  the  blood  of  the  Son 
 of  God,  can  point  out  no  way 
 in  which  a  sinner  can  escape 
 the  damnation  of  hell. 
 
 ATTALIA,  (Acts  xiv.  25,) 
 known  now  as  Sutalia  or  Se- 
 talie,  a  city  of  Pamphylia  on 
 the  Mediterranean,  and  was 
 visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
 on  their  tour  through  Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 AUGUSTUS.  (Luke  ii.  1.) 
 The  nephew  and  successor  of 
 Julius  (Jesar,  and  emperor  of 
 Rome,  at  the  time  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's birth.  He  reigned  f."»r- 
 ty-one  years,  and  was  succeed- 
 ed by  Tiberius  Cesar.  (Luke 
 iii.  1.    See  Ce.sar.) 
 
 AVEN.  1.  (Amos  i.  5.)  A 
 plain  in  Syria,  called  also  the 
 Valley  of  Lebanon,  because 
 lying  between  the  two  ranges 
 of  the  mountarns  of  Lebanon. 
 (Josh.  xi.  17.)  The  site  oi'itis 
 supposed  to  have  been  where 
 Baal-beck  now  is,  thiny  miles 
 north  of  Tamascus. 
 
 AZA 
 
 2.  (Hos.x.  8.)  Bethel,  which 
 is  sometimes  called  Bethaven, 
 or  house  of  inirjuity,  is  here 
 called  Aven,  or  iniquity  itself, 
 to  denote  the  extreme  depra- 
 vity which  prevailed  there. 
 
 3.  (Ezek.  XXX.  17.  See  On.) 
 AVENGE,  AVENGER. 
 
 (Luke  xviii.  S.  1  Thess.  iv.  G.) 
 Vengeance  is  an  act  of  justice; 
 revenge  is  an  act  of  passion. 
 Hence  injuries  are  revenged  : 
 crimes  are  avenged.  The  act 
 of  avenging,  though  attended 
 with  the  infliction  of  pain,  is 
 oftentimes  an  act  of  humanity, 
 and  always  supposed  to  be  an 
 act  of  justice,  (jod  is  avenged 
 of  his  enemies,  when  he  vin- 
 dicates his  own  law,  and  go- 
 vernment, and  character,  and 
 punishes  their  transgressions. 
 An  avenger  is  the "agent  or 
 instrument  by  whom  the 
 avengement  is  visited  on  the 
 offending  party. 
 
 Avenger  of  blood  was  a 
 title  given  to  one  who  pursued 
 a  murderer  or  manslayer,  by 
 virtue  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
 law,  to  avenge  the  blood  of  one 
 who  had  bjen  murdered  or 
 slain.  (See Cities ofRefuge.) 
 
 AVLM.  (Josh,  xviii.  23.) 
 Supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  Hivites  or 
 Avites,  who  dwelt  near  Gaza, 
 and  who  were  supplanted  by 
 the  Philistines. 
 
 AVOUCH.  (Deut.  xxvi.  17, 
 18.)  To  avouch,  in  this  con- 
 nexion, imports  a  srdemn  and 
 deliberate  choice  of  God  as  a 
 leader  and  portion,  and  an 
 avowed  determination  to  obey 
 him;  and  on  the  part  of  God 
 a  8  demn  covenant  to  succour 
 and  exalt  the  Israelites  as  his 
 people. 
 
 AZARIAH.  (2  Kings  xiv.  21.) 
 There  are  at  least  sixteen  per- 
 sons of  this  name  mentioned 
 in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
 most  distinguished  of  them 
 was  Azariah',  (called  also  Uz- 
 ziah,)  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Amaziah,  on  the  throne  of 
 81 
 
AZA 
 
 Judah.  He  was  in  many  re- 
 spects an  excellent  king ;  but 
 being  elated  by  his  prosperity, 
 he  aspired  to  execute  the  of- 
 fice of  a  priest,  and  to  offer 
 incense  in  the  temple.  In 
 this  he  was  resisted  by  the 
 priests,  and  while  enraged  by 
 their  interference,  the  leprosy 
 broke  out  upon  his  forehead, 
 and  remained  upon  him  till 
 the  day  of  his  death ;  so  that 
 
 AZO 
 
 he  was  obliged  to  spend  the 
 latter  part  of  his  life  in  soli- 
 tude.   (2Chron.  xxvi.  21.) 
 
 AZEKAH.  (Josh.  XV.  35.)  A 
 place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
 about  twelve  miles  east  of 
 Bethlehem,  and  twenty  south 
 of  Jerusalem.  The  army  of 
 the  Philistinesencamped  near 
 this  place  at  the  time  Goliath 
 tell  before  David. 
 
 AZOTUS.    (SeeAsHDOD.) 
 
 BAA 
 
 BAAL,  or  BEL.  (1  Kings 
 xviii.  21.  Isa.  xlvi.  1.) 
 The  name  by  which  several 
 nations  of  the  east  worship- 
 ped the  sun  ;  and  which  was 
 also  applied  to  other  objects 
 of  idolatrous  worship.  An- 
 cient writers  tell  us  that  the 
 Phenicians  supposed  the  sun 
 to  be  the  only  lord  of  hea- 
 ven, styling  him  Beel-Samen. 
 which  means  lord  of  heaven. 
 As  he  was  worshipped  under 
 different  forms  in  different 
 places,  he  was  designated  by 
 adding  the  place— as  Baal- 
 Beriih,  Baal-Gad,  Baal-Peor, 
 meaning  Baal  of  Berith  or  the 
 Shechemites— Baal  of  Gad— 
 and  Baal  of  Peor  or  the  Moab- 
 itcs;  and  these  diferent  names 
 were  all  included  under  the 
 ^neral  name  Baalim.  (IKings 
 xviii.  18.) 
 
 Baal,  Bel,  or  Belus  was 
 worshipped  by  the  Carthagi- 
 nians, Babylonians,  Assyri- 
 ans, and  others;  and  some 
 have  supposed  he  was  the 
 same  with  Moloch,  to  whom 
 the  Ammonites  made  their 
 cruel  and  bloody  sacrifices. 
 Human  victims  were  offered 
 to  Baal,  as  we  learn  from  Jer. 
 xix.  5.  Elevated  places  were 
 selected  for  his  worship,  and 
 his  priests  and  prophets  were 
 very  numerous.  Sometimes 
 the  tops  of  the  houses  were 
 devoted  to  this  purpose.    (2 
 
 BAA 
 
 Kings  xxiii.  12.  Jer.  xxxii.  29.) 
 Baalim  and  Ashtaroth  were 
 the  general  names  of  all  the 
 gods  and  goddesses  of  Syria, 
 Palestine,  and  the  neighbour- 
 ing countries.  The  worship 
 of  Baal  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  general  throughout  the 
 British  islands,  and  to  this 
 day  there  are  various  super- 
 stitious observances  in  Ire- 
 land, Scotland  and  Wales, 
 which  very  closely  resemble 
 the  ancient  worship  of  Baal. 
 A  town  in  Perthshire,  on  the 
 borders  of  the  Scotch  high- 
 lands, is  called  T^lliebeltane, 
 that  is,  the  eminence  or  rising 
 ground  of  the  fire  of  Baal. 
 An  enclosure  of  eight  upright 
 staves  is  made  where  it  ia 
 supposed  the  fire  was  kindled, 
 and  a  well  in  the  vicinity  is 
 held  in  great  veneration:  af- 
 ter drinking  from  it,  the  peo- 
 ple pass  around  the  temple 
 "nine  times,  in  a  procession. 
 In  Ireland,  Beltein  is  one  of 
 the  festival  days,  and  the  fires 
 are  made  early  on  the  tops  of 
 the  hills,  and  all  the  cattle  are 
 made  to  pass  through  them. 
 This,  it  is  supposed,  secures 
 them  from  contagion  and  dis- 
 ease for  that  year. 
 
 The  cut  represents  an  an- 
 cient figure  of  Baal  and  Mo- 
 loch, standing  in  the  portico 
 of  a  temple,  in  the  centre  of 
 1  which  is  a  pine  tree.    Both 
 
BAA 
 
 BAA 
 
 Ihesc  idols  were  worshipped 
 in  a  variety  of  forms,  accord- 
 ing to  the  various  tastes  and 
 superstitions  of  their  devo- 
 tees. 
 
 House  op  Baal  (1  Kings 
 xvi.  32)  is  the  same  with  the 
 temple  (or  place  of  worship) 
 of  Baal. 
 
 We  have  a  most  interest- 
 ing account  of  the  manner 
 m  which  the  worshippers  of 
 Baal  were  confounded  and 
 punished  by  Elijah  at  mount 
 Carmel,  in  1  Kings  xviii.  (See 
 also  Life  op  Elijah,  by  the 
 A.  S.  Union,  chap,  vii.) 
 
 Baalah.  (See  Kirjath.) 
 
 Baal-gad,  Baal-hermon. 
 (Josh.  xi.  17;  xii.  7,  and  Judg. 
 iii.  3.)  A  city  in  the  valley  of 
 Lebanon,  supposed  to  have 
 been  under  mount  Hermon, 
 and  most  probably  the  same 
 es  Baal-hermon    (1  Chron.  v. 
 
 23.)  A  comparison  of  the  pas- 
 sages in  wnich  this  place  is 
 named,  would  incline  us  to 
 the  opinion  that  it  was  situ- 
 ated somewhere  in  the  north- 
 ern limit  of  Joshua's  conquest; 
 all  the  country  from  it  to  Ha- 
 math,  including  Anti-Leba- 
 non, remaining  unconquered. 
 
 If  this  opinion  is  correct, 
 the  modern  Balbec  cannot  be 
 the  ruins  of  Baal-gad,  as  it 
 has  been  called,  for  that  is  in 
 Coele-Syria,  north  of  Damas- 
 cus, and  much  farther  north 
 than  the  Israelites  under  Jo- 
 shua pushed  their  victories. 
 
 Baal-meon.  (Num.  xxxii. 
 38.  Ezek.  xxv.  9.)  A  city  of 
 the  tribe  of  Reuben,  called 
 also  Beth-meon,  (Jer.  xlviii. 
 23,)  and  Beth-baal-meon.  (Josh, 
 xiii.  17.) 
 
 Baal-peor.  (Ps.  cvi.  28.) 
 It  is  said  under  the  article 
 
BAA 
 Baal  thai  Baal-peor  was  the 
 name  of  the  image  of  Baal, 
 which  was  worshipped  at 
 Peor ;  but  there  is  some  rea- 
 son to  suppose  that  it  was  also 
 the  name  of  some  other  idol 
 god  ;  and  from  the  connexion 
 of  the  passage  in  Psalms  just 
 cited,  It  has  been  conjectured 
 that  it  might  have  been  the 
 same  with  the  heathen  god 
 Pluto,  to  whom  sacrifices  were 
 offered  to  appease  the  manes 
 of  the  dead. 
 
 Baal-perazim.  (2  Sam.  v. 
 20.)  A  place  in  the  valley  of 
 Rephaim,  a  few  miles  south- 
 west of  Jerusalem,  where  Da- 
 vid conquered  the  Philistines. 
 The  name  in  the  original  is 
 significant  of  this  victory,  and 
 hence  the  allusion  in  Isa. 
 xxviii.  21. 
 
 Baal-zebub.  (See  Beelze- 
 bub.) 
 
 Baal-zephon.  (Ex.  xiv.  2. 
 9.  Num.  xxxiii.  7.)  A  sta- 
 tion of  the  Israelites  at  the 
 northern  extremity  of  the 
 Red  Sea,  corresponding  to 
 Suez,  where  there  was  pro- 
 bably a  temple  for  the  wor- 
 ship of  Baal.  Bruce  supposes 
 it  to  be  the  name  of  a  light- 
 house or  signal  station,  at  the 
 north  entrance  of  the  bay, 
 as  the  Hebrew  word  zephon 
 means  noTth. 
 
 BAANAH.  (2  Sam.  iv.  2.) 
 One  of  the  sons  of  Rimmon, 
 and  an  officer  in  the  army  of 
 Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son.  In 
 company  with  his  brother 
 Rechab,  he  entered  the  house 
 of  Ishbosheth  at  noonday,  and 
 stabbed  him  as  he  was  lying 
 upon  the  bed.  Taking  the  head 
 fif  their  victim  with  them, 
 they  fled  to  David,  at  Hebron, 
 .supposing  that  he  would  re- 
 ward them  liberally  for  the 
 head  of  such  an  enemy ;  but 
 so  far  from  it,  he  was  indig- 
 nant at  their  cruel  and  cow- 
 ardly conduct,  and  forthwith 
 caused  them  to  be  slain,  their 
 
 BAB 
 
 hands  and  feet  to  be  cut  off, 
 and  their  bodies  to  be  publicly 
 suspended  over  the  pool  at 
 Hebron. 
 
 BAASHA  (1  Kings  xv.  16) 
 was  the  son  of  Ahijah,  and 
 commander-in-cliief  of  a  por- 
 tion of  the  army  of  Israel. 
 When  Nadab,  king  of  Israel, 
 was  besieging  Gibbethon,  a 
 city  of  the  Philistines,  Baasha 
 formed  a  conspiracy  against 
 him  and  murdered  him,  and 
 immediately  usurped  the 
 throne,  which  he  held  for 
 twenty-four  years.  To  secure 
 himself  against  any  disturb- 
 ance  from  the  family  of  Jero- 
 boam, (the  rightful  heirs  of  the 
 throne,)  he  caused  them  all  to 
 be  put  to  death.  By  this  ciuel 
 act  he  undesignedly  fulfilled 
 the  prophecy  respecting  Jero- 
 boam's posterity.  (1  Kings  xiv. 
 10.) 
 
 Baasha  followed  in  the 
 wicked  ways  of  Jeroboam, 
 and  was  visited  with  the  most 
 fearful  judgments  of  God. 
 The  warning  he  received  of 
 the  consequences  of  his  con- 
 duct (1  Kings  xvi.  1—5)  did 
 not  induce  him  to  forsake 
 his  evil  course.  His  reign 
 was  filled  with  war  and  trea- 
 chery, and  his  family  and  re- 
 latives were  cutoff,  according 
 to  the  prediction.  (1  Kings  xvi. 
 9,11.     See  Asa.) 
 
 BABEL,  TOWER  OF,  (Gen. 
 xi.  4-9,)  was  built  in  the  plain 
 of  Shinar,  by  the  descendants 
 of  Noah,  probably  from  three 
 hundred  to  five  hundred  years 
 after  the  flood,  to  serve  as  a  na- 
 tional rallying  point,  and  thus 
 to  secure  their  union  and  corv- 
 centrate  their  feelings  and  in^ 
 terests,  and  to  prevent  their 
 dispersion.  Their  design  was, 
 tiiat  the  whole  world  should 
 be  one  vast  kingdom,  and  that 
 Babel  should  be  its  capital  or 
 chief  city. 
 
 The  height  and  extent  of 
 the  edifice,  according  to  th« 
 original  design,  must  bav« 
 84 
 
BAB 
 
 BAB 
 
 been  prodigious.  Chronolo- 
 gisls  suppose  ihey  were  em- 
 ployed three  years  in  collect- 
 ing the  materials,  and  twenty- 
 two  years  upon  the  building  ; 
 and  an  ancient  tradition  tells 
 us  that  the  bricks  (or  blocks, 
 as  they  may  better  be  called) 
 of  which  it  was  constructed, 
 were  twenty  feet  long,  fifteen 
 broad,  and  seven  thick. 
 
 Their  vaiu  and  presumptu- 
 ous design  was  frustrated  by 
 the  miraculous  interposition 
 of  God,  who  confounded  their 
 unguage,  so  that  it  was  im- 
 possible for  them  to  under- 
 stand each  other's  speech. 
 This  event  cbliged  them  to 
 separate  into  distinct  compa- 
 nies or  tribes,  and  to  settle 
 in  diflferent  districts  of  the 
 earth. 
 
 The  sacred  history  informs 
 us  that  in  the  construction 
 of  the  tower  they  used  slime 
 for  mortar.  The  word  slime 
 is  supposed  to  denote  a  kind 
 •f  bituminous  mortar,  (in  dis- 
 
 tinction from  clay  mortar,) 
 which  was  capable  of  resisu 
 ing  the  effect  of  moisture. 
 This  material  still  abounds 
 on  the  river  Euphrates,  as  we 
 are  informed  by  modern  tra- 
 vellers. 
 
 In  the  supposed  ruins  of 
 Babylon  are  found  bitumen 
 mortar,  and  clay.  The  sun- 
 dried  brick  were  larger  than 
 the  kiln-burnt,  and  re^sembled 
 a  thick,  clumsy  clod  of  earth, 
 with  chopped  straw  scattered 
 through  to  bind  it. 
 
 Much  doubt  prevails  as  to 
 the  precise  location  of  this 
 tower.  Capt.  Mignan  visited 
 a  mound  on  the  eastern  bank 
 of  the  river  Euphrates,  about 
 four  miles  and  a  half  from 
 modern  Hilleh,  in  the  pasha- 
 lik  of  Bagdad,  32^"  25'  N.  lat. 
 44°  E.  long,  from  Greenwich. 
 It  is  called  by  the  natives  El 
 MttjeUibah,  "  the  overturn- 
 ed." He  describes  the  ruin  aa 
 of  a  vast  oblong  shape,  com- 
 posed of  hard  cement,  and  of 
 
BAB 
 
 kiln-burnt  and  sun-dried  brick 
 or  tile,  which  measured  thir- 
 teen inches  square  by  three 
 inches  thick.  Bitumen,  vitri- 
 fied and  petrified  brick,  shells, 
 and  glass,  were  strewed 
 around.  Capt.  M.  thinks  that 
 this  must  be  the  ruin  of  the 
 ancient  tower,  and  Major  Ren- 
 nel,  the  distinguished  geogra- 
 pher, is  of  the  same  opinion. 
 
 Another  traveller  who  visit- 
 ed the  ruins  in  1779  says— 
 "  It  apijears  almost  like  a 
 mass  ui  earth,  being  erected 
 of  bricks  dried  by  the  sun, 
 amazingly  thick,  and  betwixt 
 every  three  or  fiiur  feet  there 
 is  a  layer  of  reeds.  Its  height  is 
 at  least  one  hundred  and  sixty 
 feet ;  but  we  found  no  remains 
 either  of  a  door  or  stairs." 
 
 It  has  been  tliought  by  very 
 learned  men  that  the  tower  in 
 the  temple  of  Belus,  in  Baby- 
 lon, is  the  same  with  the  tower 
 of  Babel.  If  this  opinion  is 
 correct,  we  have  the  testimo- 
 ny of  Herodotus  as  to  its  di- 
 mensions. He  tells  us  that 
 it  was  a  square  tower,  built 
 in  the  form  of  a  pyramid, 
 each  side  of  which  measured 
 at  its  base  a  furlong,  making 
 the  whole  structure  half  a 
 mile  in  circumference ;  and 
 its  height,  according  to  an- 
 other historian,  was  six  hun- 
 dred anil  sixty  feet;  exceed- 
 ing by  sixty  feel  the  highest 
 of  the  Egyptian  pyramids. 
 Around  the  outside  of  the 
 building  there  was  a  winding 
 passage'  from  the  bottom  to  the 
 top,  and  so  broad  as  to  permit 
 carriages  to  pass  each  other. 
 It  contained  many  spaci"us 
 apartments,  which  became 
 part  of  the  temple  of  Belus, 
 after  it  was  converle'l  to  pur- 
 poses of  idolatry.  The  tem- 
 f)le  of  Belus  was  greatly  en- 
 arsed  liy  Nebuchadnezzar, 
 andf  its  ruins  are  now  called 
 Birs  Nimrood. 
 
 This     is    the    most    stu- 
 ndous  aud  surprising  mass 
 
 BAB 
 
 of  all  the  remains  of  Baby- 
 lon. It  is  found  in  a  desert 
 about  six  miles  south-west  of 
 Hilleh,  and  is  called  by  the 
 Jews,  Nebuchadnezzar's  pri- 
 son. The  evidence  that  there 
 once  existed  on  this  spot  a 
 magnificent  pile  of  buildings, 
 of  the  richest,  most  expen- 
 sive and  durable  materials ; 
 and  that  it  was  destroyed  long 
 since  by  violence,  is  perfectly 
 conclusive.  (See  Babylon. 
 See  also  Evening  Recrea- 
 tions, by  A.  S.  Union,  vol.  ii. 
 pp.  50—62.) 
 
 Babel  is  one  of  the  cities 
 mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  10.  as 
 the  beginning  of  the  kingaom 
 of  Nimrod  ;  probably  mean- 
 ing one  of  the  cities  founded 
 by  him,  or  one  of  the  chief 
 cities  of  his  kingdom. 
 
 BABYLON.  (Ps.  cxxxvii.l.) 
 The  chief  city  or  mother  of 
 Chaldea.  (Jer.  1.  12.)  It  is  also 
 called  Sheshach.  (Jer.  li.  41.> 
 It  was  one  of  the  earliest  and 
 most  celebrated  cities  rf  anti- 
 quity, and  in  the  reign  of  Ne- 
 buchadnezzar acquired  such 
 strength  and  glory  as  to  be- 
 come the  seat  of  universal 
 empire  and  the  wonder  of  the 
 world.    (See  Chaldea.) 
 
 The  city  stood  on  the  river 
 Euphrates,  by  which  it  was 
 divided  into  two  parts,  eastern 
 and  western ;  and  these  were 
 connected  by  a  bridge  of  won- 
 derful construction.  The  wall 
 was  at  least  f  irty-five  miles  in 
 circumference;  and  would  of 
 course  include  eight  cities  as 
 large  as  London  and  its  ap- 
 pendages. It  was  laid  out  m 
 si.x  hundred  and  twenty-five 
 squares,  formed  by  the  inter- 
 section of  twenty-five  streets 
 at  right  angles.  The  walls, 
 which  were  of  brick,  were  at 
 least  seventy -five  feet  high 
 and  thirty-two  broad.  A  trench 
 surrounded  the  city,  the  sides 
 of  which  were  lined  with 
 brick  and  water-proof  cement. 
 The  towers,  palaces,  and 
 86 
 
BAB 
 
 hanging  gardens  with  which  it 
 was  adorned  and  magnified, 
 and  the  pride  and  luxury  of  iis 
 inhabitants,  are  described  in 
 the  Life  of  Daniel,  by  the  Am. 
 S.  S.  Unijn,  chap.  vii.  and  ix. 
 As  the  river  was  liable  every 
 year  to  overfljw  its  banks, 
 canals  were  made  to  carry  otf 
 the  water  ;  and  along  the  sides 
 of  the  main  channef  immense 
 banks  were  constructed  as  a 
 still  farther  protection.  To 
 facilitate  the  consti-uclion  of 
 these  works,  the  waters  of  the 
 Euphrates  were   turned  tem- 
 
 forarily  into  a  basin  about 
 >rty  miles  square  and  thirty- 
 five  feet  deep,  which  was  dug 
 for  the  purpose. 
 
 This  magnificent  city  was 
 the  subject  of  some  of  the 
 most  remarliable  prophecies. 
 Among  them  are  Isa.  xiii.  1— 
 22 ;  xiv.  22--:M;  xxi.  9;  xlvii.  I- 
 7.  Jer.  xxv.  11,12;  1.24.46;li. 
 11.  36.  39.  57.  The  fulfilment 
 of  these  prophecies  has  been  in 
 many  points  literal.  The  city 
 was  invested  by  the  victorious 
 armies  of  Cyrus,  b.  c.  540,  and 
 after  a  blockade  of  two  years 
 was  at  last  carried  by  strata- 
 gem. On  the  night  of  a  ^reat 
 festival,  the  waters  of  the 
 river  were  turned  off,  and  the 
 channel  through  the  city  be- 
 came a  highway  for  the  enemy. 
 By  this  channel  the  army  of 
 Cyrus  passed  in,  under' the 
 walls,  at  midnight;  and  their 
 approach  was  not  suspected 
 until  tlie  differe  nt  detachments 
 met  at  the  palace  gate  ;  and 
 all  who  were  not  slain  sub- 
 mitted to  the  conqueror.  (See 
 Belshazzar.) 
 
 This  was  the  end  of  the 
 glory  of  Babylon.  From  that 
 lime  its  grandeur  decayed. 
 About  twenty  years  after  the 
 victory  of  Cyrus,  the  city  at- 
 lempled  to  throw  olT  the  yoke, 
 cut  it  was  again  entirely  sub- 
 dued. Forty  years  afterwards 
 Xerxes  plundered  the  city  of 
 much  of  its  remaining  wealth, 
 
 BAG 
 
 and  laid  the  temple  of  Belus 
 in  ruins.  Then  it  suffered  a 
 steady  decline  until  aDout  the 
 endof  the  fourth  century.  We 
 are  credibly  informed  that  its 
 walls  were  used  by  the  Per- 
 sian princes  as  an  enclosure 
 for  wild  beasts,  preserved  for 
 the  chase.  And  now,  so  utterly 
 is  the  city  destroyed,  that  the 
 precise  spot  on  which  it  stood 
 is  a  matter  of  conjecture. 
 (See  Eli.sama,  ch.  ii.  v.  vi. 
 Life  of  Daxiel,  ch.  xiii.  xiv. 
 Evening  Recreations,  vol. 
 ii.  pp.  63—7-1,  all  published  by 
 the  Am.  S.  S.  Union. 
 
 Babylon  the  Great.  (Rev. 
 xvii.  5.)  As  Babylon  of  old 
 was  the  chief  of  all  idolatrous 
 cities,  she  is  taken  as  a  fit 
 emblem  of  the  enormous  guilt 
 and  extensive  influence  of 
 idolatrous  and  papal  Rome, 
 each  in  its  turn  being  the  mo- 
 ther of  harlots  and  o?the  abo- 
 minations of  the  earth  ;  the 
 farmer  corrupting  the  heathen 
 world  with  her  fornications, 
 and  the  latter  the  Christian. 
 
 It  should  be  observed  that 
 the  term  Babylon  is  used  to 
 denote,  (1.)  Only  the  city.  (Isa. 
 xiii.  19;  xxi. 9;  xlviii.20.)  (2.) 
 The  inhabitants  of  the  city 
 in  distinction  from  the  Chal- 
 deans or  inhabitants  of  the 
 province.  (Ezek.  xxiii.  15. 17.) 
 (3.)  The  province  of  Babylon 
 and  the  Babylonian  empire. 
 (2Kin£:s  xxi  v.  1 ;  xxv.  27.  Ps 
 cxxxvii.  I.  (4.)  After  the  em- 
 pire came  under  the  dominion 
 of  Persia,  the  Persian  kings 
 are  called  kings  of  Babylon. 
 (Ezra  V.  13.  Neh.  xiii.  6.) 
 
 BABYLONLiNS.  (See  As- 
 syria.) 
 
 BACA.  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  6.)  This 
 is  probably  the  general  name 
 of  any  dreary  or  desolate  way ; 
 and  of  course  the  allusion  in 
 the  cited  passage  is  to  Ihe  joy 
 of  the  worshippers  on  their 
 way  up  to  Jerusalem,  which 
 shall  make  the  wilderness  ap- 
 S7 
 
BAK 
 
 pear  to  rejoice  and  blossom, 
 and  fill  a  thirsty  land  with 
 Bprinss  of  water. 
 
 BADGERS'  SKINS.  (Ex. 
 XXV.  5.)  The  animal  which 
 we  know  as  the  badger  was 
 unknown  in  Arabia,  nor  would 
 its  skin  be  suitable  for  the 
 purposes  mentioned  in  the  sa- 
 cred writings.  The  prevailing 
 opinion  is,  that  skins  of  a  deep 
 blue  colour  are  meant,  without 
 designating  the  animal  from 
 which  they  were  taken. 
 
 BAHURIM.  (2Sam.  iii.l6; 
 xvi.5;  xvii.  18.)  A  place  in 
 the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  east  of 
 Jerusalem,  which  has  many 
 interesting  connexions  with 
 the  life  of  David,  to  which  the 
 passages  cited  refer.  (See 
 Ahimaaz.) 
 
 BAGS.  (2Kingsxii.  10.  Luke 
 xii.  33.)  These  were  made  of 
 various  sizes,  each  to  contain 
 a  precise  amount  of  money. 
 We  read  that  the  workmen 
 on  the  temple  were  paid  in 
 bags,  which  were  probably  de- 
 livered to  them  sealed.  At 
 this  day  in  eastern  nations 
 money  passes  in  bags  from 
 hand  to  hand  under  the  seal 
 of  a  banker  or  other  public 
 officer,  and  without  counting, 
 as  it  is  paid  by  one  to  another. 
 If  the  seal  is  genuine  and  un- 
 broken, the  exact  value  of 
 each  bag  is  known  at  sight. 
 
 BAKE.  (Gen.  xix.  3.)  The 
 business  of  baking  in  early 
 times  was  principally,  if  not 
 exclusively,  the  work  of  wo- 
 men. (Lev.  xxvi.  26.  1  Sam. 
 viii.  13.  2  Sam.  xiii.  8.  Jer.vii. 
 18.)  In  Rome,  as  Pliny  tells 
 us,  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
 a  public  baker  for  five  hun- 
 dred and  eighty  years.  It 
 seems  probable  from  Jer. 
 xxxvii.  21,  and  Hosea  vii.  4 — 
 7,  that  jmblic  bakers  were 
 known  in  those  days,  and  in- 
 habited a  particular  section  of 
 the  city  of  Jerusalem. 
 
 Cakes  were  thin  bread,  not 
 unlike    modern    sea-biscuit, 
 
 BAL 
 
 baked  upon  the  hearth,  and 
 sometimes  covered  with  hot 
 embers  or  ashes.  Other  me- 
 thods were  employed.  (Lev. 
 ii.  4,  5.  7.)  Parclied  corn  is 
 familiar  to  most  children  in 
 America,  and  this  simplest 
 way  of  preparing  grain  for 
 food  is  common  in  the  rudest 
 state  of  society.  Perhaps, 
 however,  the  parching  was 
 only  preparatory  to  bruising 
 or  grinding.  Ancient  histori- 
 ans say  that  the  people  of  for- 
 mer days,  being  without  mills, 
 parched  their  grain.  This  is 
 the  parched  corn  mentioned 
 as  part  of  ilie  present  to  David, 
 (2  Sam.  xvii.  28,)  and  was  also 
 the  food  which  Boaz  gave  to 
 Ruth.  (Ruth  ii.  14.  See  Bread. 
 Oven.) 
 
 BALAAM  (Num.  xxii.  5) 
 was  tlie  son  of  Beor  or  Bosor, 
 and  a  native  of  Pethor,  a  vil- 
 lage of  Mesopotamia.  Whe- 
 ther he  was  a  prophet  di- 
 vinely inspired,  or  only  a 
 pretender,  does  not  appear; 
 that  he  was  an  unrighteous 
 man  is  not  conclusive  evi- 
 dence that  he  was  not  a  pro- 
 phet of  God  employed  for  a 
 particular  purpose.  (I  Sam.  x. 
 10.  1  Kings  xiii.  18-20.  Matt, 
 vii.  22.  John  xi.  51.) 
 
 The  history  of  Balaam  is 
 given  us  in  Num.  xxii.  xxiii. 
 xxiv.  and  xxxi.  He  lived  whea 
 the  children  of  Israel  were 
 journeying  from  Ejrypt  to  the 
 promised  land.  Their  num- 
 bers were  very  large,  and  the 
 kings  of  the  country  through 
 which  they  passed,  and  who 
 did  not  know  of  their  miracu- 
 lous supply  of  food,  were  fear- 
 ful that  a  famine  would  be 
 occasioned  by  their  depreda- 
 tions, or  that  they  would  at- 
 tempt to  conquer  all  before 
 them.  Amon^  these  was  Ba- 
 lak,  king  of  Moab. 
 
 He  knew  that  he  could  not 
 contend  with  such  a  formida- 
 ble host,  and  supposing  that 
 the  God  of  the  Israelites  was 
 
EAL 
 like  the  gods  of  the  heathen, 
 ready  to  bless  and  to  curse 
 according  to  the  caprice  or 
 interest  of  their  votaries,  he 
 sent  for  Balaam,  who  had  the 
 reputation  of  a  famous  diviner 
 or  idol  priest,  to  come  and 
 curse  the  armies  of  Israel. 
 
 God  signified  to  Balaam  that 
 the  Israelites  were  blessed, 
 and  should  not  be  cursed. 
 This  was  done  in  such  a  way 
 as  to  deter  Balaam  from  going. 
 Balak  sent  again  and  offered 
 a  large  reward,  and  because 
 Balaam  was  not  again  posi- 
 tively forbidden  by  God  to  eo, 
 he  accepted  the  tempting  offer, 
 and  returned  with  the  messen- 
 gers to  Moab.  (2  Pet.  ii.  15.) 
 
 On  his  way, however,  he  was 
 informed,  by  a  most  extraordi- 
 nary and  significant  miracle, 
 that  his  course  was  wicked 
 and  perverse,  and  he  was  ef- 
 fectually re  strained  from  doing 
 what  Balak  had  sent  for  him 
 to  do.  So  far  from  it,  he  was 
 led  to  pronounce  a  prophetic 
 blessing  on  the  Israelites,  in 
 language  which  for  eloquence 
 and  force  is  not  surpassed  in 
 the  whole  scope  of  Hebrew 
 poetry. 
 
 Balaam,  finding  himself  thus 
 restrained  froin  cursing  Isra- 
 el, suggested  to  Balak  a  much 
 more"  certain  method  of  de- 
 stroying them.  This  was  by 
 tempting  them  to  mingle  in 
 the  sinful  pursuits  and  Indul- 
 gences of  the  Moabites.  (Rev. 
 li.  14.)  This  stratagem  was 
 successful.  The  Israelites 
 were  so  far  ensnared  as  to 
 cause  the  destruction  of  twen- 
 ty-four thousand  of  their  men. 
 (Num.  XXV.  1—9.) 
 
 Balaam  himself  fell  shortly 
 after  in  an  engagement  which 
 took  place  between  the  Israel- 
 ites and  the  Midianites. 
 
 The  miracle  by  which  the 
 dumb  ass  was  enabled  to  speak 
 with  a  man's  voice  has  been 
 the  freriuent  subject  of  cavil 
 and  ridicule  with  unthinking 
 
 BAL 
 
 I  men ;  but  when  we  consider 
 that  the  power  of  God  alone 
 j  gave  to  any  of  his  creatures  the 
 I  faculty  of  speech,  and  might 
 '  as  easily  have  given  it  to  the 
 brute  as  to  the  human  race, 
 we  need  not  wonder  that  he 
 should  in  a  single  case,  and  for 
 a  specific  purpose,  confer  that 
 power  on  a  dumb  animal. 
 Certainly  we  must  admit  that 
 the  miracle  was  most  signifi- 
 cant and  appropriate  to  the 
 occasion,  for  as  (jod  was  about 
 to  restrain  the  tongue  of  Ba- 
 laam, and  make  him  say  what 
 it  was  not  in  his  heart  to 
 say  of  Israel,  it  was  well  to 
 show  him  how  entirely  the 
 power  of  thought  and  speech 
 was  within  divine  control. 
 And  indeed,  as  Bishop  Newton 
 has  well  observed,  the  ass 
 being  merely  passive,  the 
 restraint  of  Balaam's  tongue 
 was  a  greater  miracle  than 
 the  freedom  of  the  tongue  of 
 the  ass.  (See  Ass.) 
 BALADAN.    (See  Hezeki- 
 
 AH.) 
 
 BALAK  (Num.xxii.2)  was 
 a  king  of  the  Moabites.  The 
 chief  incidents  of  his  history, 
 so  far  as  we  have  them,  are 
 found  imder  the  article  Ba- 
 laam. 
 
 BALANCES.  (Lev.  xix.  36.) 
 In  the  early  periods  of  the 
 world,  gold  and  silver  were 
 paid  by  weight ;  so  that  per- 
 sons  employed  in   traffic  of 
 
BAL 
 
 any  kind,  carried  with  them 
 a  pair  of  scales  or  balances, 
 and  different  weights,  (gene- 
 rally stones  of  different  sizes,) 
 in  a  pouch  or  bag.  Fraudu- 
 lent men  would  carry  two 
 sorts  of  weights,  the  lighter  to 
 sell  with  and  the  other  to  buy 
 with.  This  explains  the  allu- 
 sion, Mic.  vi.  11.  The  fore- 
 going cut  of  a  balance  is  copied 
 from  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 of  Egyptian  monuments,  and 
 is  probably  the  same  with 
 those  used  by  the  Israelites. 
 
 BALDNESS,  (Isa.  iii.  24,) 
 jvhen  voluntary,  was  a  token 
 of  mourning  and  great  dis- 
 tress. (Ezek.  vii.  18.)  A  chief 
 reason  why  involuntary  bald- 
 ness was  regarded  as  disgrace- 
 ful, was,  that  it  gave  occasion 
 to  the  suspicion  of  leprosy,  a 
 disease  which  usually  destroy- 
 ed the  hair.  Hence  baldness 
 is  declared  by  the  law  not  to 
 be  conclusive  evidence  of  un- 
 cleanness.  (Lev.  xiii.  40.)  And 
 hence  too  the  expression  used 
 towards  Elisha  by  some  child- 
 ren in  Bethel,  "  Go  up,  thou 
 bald-head,"  indicated  great 
 contempt  for  him  as  a  prophet 
 of  the  Lord,  and  was  signally 
 punished.  (2  Kings  ii.  23.) 
 
 BALM.  (Gen.  xxxvii.25.)  A 
 resinous  substance  obtained 
 from  the  balsam  tree.  It  is  a 
 native  of  Abyssinia,  but  flou- 
 rishes upon  or  near  the  moun- 
 tains of  Gilead,  and  is  hence 
 called  the  balm  of  Gilead. 
 
 It  was  once  an  important 
 article  of  merchandise  among 
 the  eastern  nations,  (Ezek. 
 xxvii.  17,)  and  was  celebrated 
 for  its  healing  properties.  No- 
 thing can  exceed  the  elo- 
 quence and  tenderness  of  the 
 language  employed  by  the  pro- 
 phet Jeremiah  to  express  his 
 grief  and  disappointment  that 
 the  chosen  people  of  God  {the 
 daughter  of  Zion)  should  re- 
 main spiritually  wounded  and 
 diseased,  when  ther°,  was  a 
 healing  balm  of  unfading  vir- 
 
 BAN 
 tue,  and  a  physician  of  divine 
 skill  to    administer  it;    and 
 both  within  their  reach.   (Jer. 
 viii.  22;  xlvi.  11,  and  li.  8.) 
 
 BAMAH.  (Ezek.  xx.  29.) 
 The  general  name  of  any  high 
 place. 
 
 BAND.  (Acts  xxi.  31.)  A 
 band  of  Roman  soldiers  con- 
 sisted of  the  tenth  part  of  a 
 legion ;  of  course,  it  varied 
 according  to  the  size  of  the 
 legion,  from  four  hundred  to 
 seven  hundred  soldiers.  The 
 word  is  often  used  figuratively 
 by  the  sacred  writers ;  as  in 
 Hos.  xi.  4,  where  it  denotes 
 persuasive  arguments  or  in- 
 fluences; and'in  Ps.  Ixxiii.  4, 
 where  it  signifies  apprehen- 
 sion and  terror  at  the  pros- 
 pect of  death. 
 
 BANNERS,  (J«a.  xiii.  2,)  or 
 STANDARD,  (Ka.  xlix.  22,)  or 
 ENSIGN,  (Isa.  v.  26,)  are  pro- 
 bably used  indiscriminately 
 by  the  sacred  writers.  A  stand- 
 ard pertained  to  each  of  the  four 
 grand  divisions  of  the  army 
 of  Israel,  (Num.  i.  52,)  distin- 
 guished from  each  other  by 
 colours,  and  perhaps  by  some 
 embroidered  figure.  Another 
 standard  for  subdivisions  was 
 probably  nothing  more  than  a 
 common  spear  rfchly  burnish- 
 ed or  ornamented.  The  Egyp- 
 tian princes  used  a  standard 
 like  this,  surmounted  with  a 
 ball  of  gold.  There  was  an- 
 other  standard  in  use  among 
 the  Jews,  which  is  called  a 
 beacon.  (Isa.  xxx.  17.)  It  wai 
 stationary;  erected  on  loftj 
 mountains,  and  used  as  a  rat 
 lyins  token.  (Comp.  Isa.  xviii 
 3;lxii.  10-12.  Jer.  iv.  5, 6. 21 1 
 vi.  1.  17 ;  li.  12.  27. 
 
 It  was  customary  to  give  a 
 defeated  party  a  banner,  as  a 
 token  of  protection ;  and  it 
 was  regarded  as  the  surest 
 pledge  of  fidelity.  (Ps.  xx.  5  ; 
 Ix.  4.  Sol.  Song  ii.  4.)  Some 
 writers  have  supposed  that  the 
 ancient  Jewish  ensign  waa  a 
 
BAP 
 
 long  pole,  on  the  top  of  which 
 was  a  grate  not  unlike  a  chaf- 
 ing dish,  made  of  iron  bars 
 and  supplied  with  fire,  the 
 size,  height,  and  shape  of 
 which  denoted  the  party  or 
 company  to  whom  it  belonged. 
 This  seems  rather  to  describe 
 the  night-torches  of  Eastern 
 encampments.  The  shape, 
 &c.  of  the  Roman  standards 
 are  seen  under  the  article 
 Abominable. 
 
 God's  lifting  or  setting  up  a 
 banner  is  a  most  expressive 
 figure,  and  imports  his  pecu- 
 liar presence,  protection,  and 
 aid  in  leading  and  directing 
 his  people  in  the  execution  of 
 his  righteous  will,  and  giving 
 them  comfort  and  peace  in  his 
 service.  (Sol.  Song  ii.  4.) 
 
 BANQUET.  (See  Feast.) 
 
 BAPTISM.  (Matt.iii.7.)  An 
 ordinance  or  religious  rite, 
 which  was  in  use  before  our 
 Saviour's  ministry  commenc- 
 ed, (see  John's  Baptism  ;)  but 
 which  he  recognised  and  made 
 obligatory  upon  his  disciples 
 as  a~Christian  ordinance.  In 
 the  due  administration  of  this 
 rite,  the  washing  of  water  be- 
 comes the  sign  or  emblem  of 
 inward  purification  from  sin 
 and  uncleanness,  while  the 
 subject  of  the  rite  is  intro- 
 duced into  a  peculiar  relation 
 to  Christ  and  his  church. 
 
 Baptized  for  the  dead. 
 (1  Cor.  XV.  29.)  Various  inter- 
 pretations have  been  put  upon 
 this  phrase.  The  most  simple 
 and  natural  explanation  is 
 perhaps  the  most  liliely  to  be 
 correct.  We  shall  therefore  in- 
 terpret this  by  other  passages 
 of  similar  import.  Paul,  who 
 wrote  this  epistle,  speaks,  in 
 his  letter  to  the  Romans,  of 
 some  who  are  buried  with 
 Christ  in  baptism  unto  death  ; 
 wherein  also  they  are  risen 
 with  him  unto  newness  of  life. 
 (Rom.  vi.  4.)  And  again  in  his 
 letter  to  the  Colossians  he 
 speaks  of  those  who  were  bu- 
 
 BAP 
 
 ried  with  Christ  in  T)aptism, 
 and  were  risen  with  him 
 througli  the  faith  of  the  ope- 
 ration of  God,  who  hath  raised 
 him  from  the  dead.  (Col.  ii. 
 12.)  From  these  expressions 
 we  may  infer  that  tlie  apostle 
 regarded  baptism  as  the  sym 
 boi  of  a  present  resurrection 
 from  tlie  death  of  trespasses 
 and  sins,  to  a  life  of  holiness  ; 
 and  also  as  a  symbol  of  a  par- 
 ticipation in  the  future  and 
 final  resurrection.  But,  if 
 there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
 resurrection  from  the  dead, 
 then  the  ordinance,  in  this 
 view,  is  vain  and  useless. 
 The  substance  of  the  argu- 
 ment is,  that  if  the  dead  rise 
 not,  the  ordinance  of  baptism 
 could  have  no  authority,  be- 
 cause Christ,  in  whose  name  it 
 was  administered,  could  not 
 have  risen,  and  it  could  be  of 
 no  use,  because  upon  the  sup- 
 position that  the  cfead  rise  not, 
 those  to  whom  it  was  adminis- 
 tered would  never  live  beyond 
 the  present  life.  This  inter- 
 pretation is  confirmed  by  an 
 examination  of  verses  30  and 
 32  of  the  context. 
 
 Baptize  with  fire.  (Malt, 
 iii.  11.)  This  expression  has 
 been  thought  to  denote  the  mi- 
 raculous effusion  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  of  which  we  have  an 
 account  in  Acts  ii.  3,  4.  On 
 that  occasion  the  descent  of 
 the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  only 
 attended  with  miraculous 
 gifts,  but  with  the  visible  em- 
 blem of  fire;  thus  literally 
 fulfilling  the  prophecy  of  John 
 above  cited.  Others  think 
 that  an  allusion  was  intend- 
 ed, on  the  one  hand,  to  the 
 various  divine  internal  opera- 
 tions and  influences  which 
 should  attend  the  dispensation 
 of  the  gospel  by  Jesus  Christ ; 
 and  on  the  other,  to  the  fiery 
 visitations  which  should  come 
 upon  those  who  embraced  the 
 gospel  and  upon  those  who 
 rejected  it;  upon  the  former 
 91 
 
BAR 
 
 for  their  purification,  and  up- 
 on the  latter  for  their  destruc- 
 tion. 
 
 BARABBAS.  (Matt,  xxvii. 
 16.)  A  noted  criminal  at  Je- 
 rusalem, who  was  in  confine- 
 ment for  sedition  and  murder 
 when  Christ  was  condemned. 
 It  was  the  custoni  of  the  Ro- 
 mans to  release  some  one  pri- 
 soner at  the  lime  of  the  Jewish 
 passover.  The  Jews  were 
 permitted  to  name  any  one 
 whose  release  they  might  par- 
 ticularly desire.  The  policy  of 
 this  provision  was  obviously 
 to  conciliate  the  favour  of  the 
 Jews  towards  the  Roman  go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Pilate  seems  to  have  been 
 anxious  to  avail  himself  of 
 the  Roman  custom  for  the  de- 
 liverance of  Christ,  but  the 
 Jews  chose  rather  to  show 
 favour  to  a  robber  and  a  mur- 
 derer, and  to  put  their  long 
 promised  Messiah  to  a  violent 
 and  ignominious  death. 
 
 The  custom  is  said  to  have 
 prevailed  among  the  Vene- 
 tians as  lately  as  the  close 
 of  the  eighteenth  century,  to 
 release  a  prisoner  at  the  an- 
 nual commemoration  of  our 
 Saviour's  resurrection. 
 
 BARACHIAS.  (Matt,  xxiii. 
 35.)  There  is  some  uncertain- 
 ty as  to  the  individual  to  whom 
 reference  is  made  in  this 
 verse.  It  might  have  been 
 the  Zecharias  of  whose  death 
 we  have  an  account  in  2 
 Chron.  xxiv.  20, 21 ;  fur  though 
 he  is  there  called  the  son 
 of  Jehoiada,  it  was  common 
 among  the  Jews  for  the  same 
 individual  to  have  two  names. 
 It  is  probable,  however,  that 
 the  prophet  Zechariah,  who  is 
 expressly  called  the  son  of 
 Barachiah,  (Zech.  i.  1,)  was 
 assassinated,  and  that  the  fact 
 was  known  by  tradition.  The 
 Jews  evidently  understood  the 
 allusion,  or  they  would  have 
 denied  the  charge. 
 
 BAR 
 
 BARAK  (Judg.  iv.  6)  was  the 
 
 son  of  Abinoam,  and  was  dis- 
 tinguished for  his  share  in  the 
 conquest  of  Sisera  and  the  de- 
 liverance of  Israel  from  long 
 and  severe  oppression.  A 
 history  of  the  transaction,  and 
 a  copy  of  their  sublime  tri- 
 umphal song,  are  given  in 
 Judg.  iv.  and  v.  (See  Debo- 
 rah.) 
 
 BARBARIAN.  (1  Cor.  xiv. 
 11.)  This  term  is  used  to  de- 
 note a  stranger  or  foreigner, 
 who  does  not  speak  the  lan- 
 guage of  the  country  in  which 
 he  sojourns;  of  course  in  its 
 scriptural  use  it  does  not  im- 
 port any  rudeness,  or  savage- 
 ness  of  nature  or  manners. 
 (Acts  xxviii.  2.  4,  and  Rom.  i. 
 
 BARJESUS  (Acts  xni.  6) 
 was  a  sorcerer  who  resided 
 with  Sergius  Paulus,  at  Pa- 
 phos,  on  the  isle  of  Cyprus, 
 when  Paul  and  Barnabas  were 
 there.  Sergius  Paulus  was  an 
 officer  of  high  rank  under  the 
 Roman  government,  and  was 
 anxious  to  receive  religious 
 infltruction  from  the  two  mis- 
 sionaries. But  Barjesus,  see- 
 ing that  his  occupation  and 
 influence  would  cease  wher- 
 ever the  light  of  the  gospel 
 should  come,  opposed  himself 
 to  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and 
 tried  to  dissuade  Paulus  from 
 givins  heed  to  their  preach- 
 mg.  Paul  gave  him  a  most  se- 
 vere reproof,  immediately  af- 
 ter which  the  wicked  man  was 
 struck  with  blin.dness,  as  a 
 rebuke  from  God.  (See  Ser- 
 gius Paulus.) 
 
 BAR-JONA.  (See  Peter.) 
 
 BARLEY.  (Ex.  ix.  31.)  A 
 well  known  species  of  grain 
 used  for  bread,  (Judg.  vii.  13. 
 John  vi.  9.  13,)  and  also  as 
 food  for  horses  and  dromeda- 
 ries. (1  Klnss  iv.  28.) 
 
 BARNABAS.  (Acts  iv.  36.) 
 A  Levite  of  the  island  rf  Cy- 
 prus, and  an  early  convert  *a 
 
BAR 
 
 the  Christian  faith.  His  ori- 
 giaal  name  was  loses,  but  as 
 he  had  remarkable  powers 
 of  speaking  or  exhortmg  the 
 people,  and  of  administering 
 consolation  to  tlie  afflicted,  he 
 was  surnamed  Barnabas,  a 
 Syriac  term,  signifying  the 
 son  of  consolation  and  ex- 
 hortation. 
 
 Barnabas  was  one  of  those 
 who  gave  up  all  his  worldly 
 substance,  and  all  his  strength 
 and  mfluence  to  the  support 
 and  spread  of  the  gospel.  He 
 was  a  faithful  and  devoted 
 missionary,  a  distinguished 
 preacher,  the  frequent  com- 
 panion of  Paul,  (Acts  ix.  xiii. 
 xiv.  XV.)  and  a  large  sharer 
 in  the  labours  and  sufferings 
 which  attended  the  early  pro- 
 pasation  of  Christianity. 
 
 BARSABAS.  (Acts  i.  2-3.  and 
 XV.  22.)  He  was  one  of  the 
 candidates  for  the  vacancy  in 
 the  apostleship,  occasioned 
 by  the  apostasy  of  Judas  ;  and 
 was  also  appointed  to  accom- 
 
 fiany  Paul  and  Barnabas  from 
 erusalem  to  Antioch,  on  an 
 important  embassy.  He  is 
 called  one  of  "thechief  among 
 the  brethren." 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW  (Matt. 
 X.  3)  is  supposed  to  be  the 
 same  person  who  is  elsewhere 
 called  Nathanael.  This  opi- 
 nion is  formed  in  part  upon 
 the  fact  that  Bartholomew  is 
 not  mentioned  in  John's  list 
 of  the  names  of  the  disciples; 
 nor  is  Nathanael  mentioned 
 by  the  other  evangelists.  Be- 
 sides this,  Philip  and  Natha- 
 nael are  associated  together 
 by  John,  and  in  the  parallel 
 
 fiassages  of  the  other  evange- 
 ists  Philip  and  Bartholomew 
 are  associated.  These  circum- 
 stances, though  not  conclu- 
 sive evidence,  make  it  proba- 
 ble that  they  were  one  and  the 
 same  person. 
 
 BARTIMEUS.  (Mark  x.  43.) 
 A  son  of  Timeus,  who  was 
 instantly  cured  of  blindness 
 
 BAR 
 
 by  our  Saviour  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Jericho. 
 
 BARUCH,  (Jer.  xxxvi.  4,) 
 the  secretary  of  the  prophet 
 Jeremiah,  was  of  a  distinguish 
 ed  Jewish  family.  (Comp.  Neh. 
 xi.  5,  and  Jer.  xxxvi.  4.)  His 
 personal  friendship  for  Jere- 
 miah was  strong  and  constant. 
 When  God  commanded  the 
 prophet  to  commit  to  writing 
 the  prophecies  that  he  had 
 uttered,  he  employed  Baruch 
 in  this  service,  wlio  w,  ite  the 
 words  as  Jeremiah  u.ctated 
 them.  Baruch  was  afterwards 
 required  to  read  these  jjrophe- 
 cies  to  the  Jewish  princes  or 
 chiefs,  who  w^ere  assembled 
 in  the  temple. 
 
 The  princes  were  surprised 
 and  offended,  and  forthwith 
 communicated  to  the  king  the 
 substance  of  what  Baruch  had 
 read,  having  before  taken  the 
 writing  from  Barucli  and  de- 
 posited it  in  one  of  the  offices 
 of  the  temple. 
 
 Jehoiakim,  the  king,  order- 
 ed the  offensive  writing  to  be 
 read  in  his  presence,  and  he 
 became  so  much  exasperated, 
 that  before  the  reading  of  it 
 was  half  finished,  he  seized  the 
 paper  and  cut  it  in  pieces  and 
 threw  it  into  the  fire ;  at  the 
 same  time  orders  were  given 
 to  arrest  both  the  prophet  and 
 his  secretary,  but  they  had 
 concealed  themselves. 
 
 The  prophecies  were  again 
 dictated  by  Jeremiah  and 
 written  out  by  Baruch,  and 
 afterwards  Baruch  was  em- 
 ployed to  carry  to  Babylon  a 
 long  letter  from  Jeremiah,  pre- 
 dieting  the  judgments  which 
 should  come  upon  that  mighty 
 city. 
 
 After  he  returned  from  that 
 mission  Jerusalem  was  b^' 
 sieged,  and  Jeremiah  and  Ba- 
 ruch both  thrown  into  prison. 
 After  the  city  surrendered 
 they  were  released,  and  per- 
 mitted to  accompany  each 
 other  wherever  they  chose  to 
 9"3 
 
BAS 
 
 eo.  There  is  some  reason  to 
 believe  that  Baruch  survived 
 the  prophet  a  few  years,  but 
 when  and  where  he  died  is 
 unknown.  (See  Jeremiah. 
 Also  Life  of  Jeremiah,  l.y 
 the  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  chap,  vii.) 
 
 BARZTLLAl  (2  Sam.  xix.  31) 
 was  a  Gileadite,  and  a  fast 
 friend  of  David  when  he  was 
 in  exile  on  account  of  Absa- 
 Jom's  revolt. 
 
 The  rebellion  had  been  sup- 
 pressed, and  David  was  on  his 
 way  back  to  Jerusalem.  Bar- 
 zillai  accompanied  the  king 
 across  the  Jordan,  and  was 
 about  to  return  to  his  own 
 land,  but  David,  in  gratitude 
 for  the  old  man's  kindness, 
 invited  him  to  go  up  to  Jeru- 
 salem, and  spend  the  residue 
 of  his  da^s  at  the  court.  This 
 Barzillai  declined  on  account 
 of  his  great  age  and  infirmi- 
 ties, but  his  son  went  up  with 
 the  king  in  his  stead  The 
 dialogue  on  this  occasion  is 
 one  of  the  most  touching  pas- 
 sages to  be  found  on  the  page 
 of'hi  story. 
 
 David,  in  his  final  charge  to 
 Solomon,  enjoined  it  upon  him 
 to  show  kindness  to  Barzil- 
 lai's  family,  and  even  to  make 
 thern  members  of  the  royal 
 household.  (1  Kincrs  ii.  7.) 
 
 BASHAN.  (Num.  xxi.  33.) 
 A  hilly  district  lying  east  of 
 the  Joruan,  and  between  the 
 mountains  of  Hermon  on  the 
 north,  and  those  of  Gilead  on 
 the  south.  The  more  modern 
 name  is  Batanea.  The  an- 
 cient name  of  the  whole  pro- 
 vince was  probably  derived 
 from  the  hill  of  Bashan,  a 
 high  mountain  which  was  si- 
 tuated near  its  centre.  (Ps. 
 Ixviii.  15.)  This  district  was 
 formerly  remarkable  for  its 
 stately  oaks,  (Isa.  ii.  13,)  rich 
 fjasturage,  (Mic.  vii.  14,)  and 
 fine  cattle.    (Ps.  xxii.  12.) 
 
 In  the  time  of  Moses  it  was 
 governed  by  a  monarch  named 
 Og,  who  allied  himself  to  Si- 
 
 BAT 
 
 hon,  the  king  of  the  Amoritea. 
 to  make  war  on  Israel,  ana 
 was  defeated  and  o\erthrowu 
 at  Edrei.  (Num.  xxi.  33-35.) 
 
 Modern  travellers  describe 
 the  coumryas  abounding  with 
 magnificent  scenery,  resem- 
 bling that  of  many  parts  of 
 Europe.  Its  hills  are  still 
 clothed  with  forests ;  its  deep 
 valleys  arc  traversed  by  re- 
 freshingstreams ;  its  meadows 
 are  verdant  and  fertile,  and 
 its  pasluresoffer  an  abundance 
 to  the  herds  and  flocks  that 
 wander  through  them,  and 
 give  life  and  animation  to  the 
 scene. 
 BASON.  (SeeLAVER.) 
 BAT.  (Lev.  xi.  19.)  An  un- 
 clean beast,  whose  resting 
 places  are  caves,  old  ruins, 
 and  filthy  and  desolate  places. 
 Hence  tlie  allusion,  Isa.  ii.  20, 
 It  has  no  resemblance  to  a 
 bird  except  that  it  can  fly,  and 
 the  organs  it  uses  for  this  pur- 
 pose are  altogether  ditferent 
 from  those  of"a  bird.  (For  a 
 minute  description  and  cut, 
 see  Natural  History  of  the 
 Bible,  and  Youth's  Friend, 
 vol.  vi.  both  by  the  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 BATH.  (See  Measures.) 
 BATH-SHEBA  (2  Sam.  xi. 
 3)  was  the  wife  of  Uriah,  an 
 officer  in  David's  army.  Her 
 beauty  proved  a  snare  to  Da- 
 vid, for  he  not  only  committed 
 adultery  with  her,  but  he 
 treacherously  procured  the 
 death  of  her  injured  hus- 
 band. 
 
 BATTEPJNGRAM.  (Ezek. 
 iv.  2,  and  xxi.  22.)  This  was  a 
 long  beam  of  strong  wood, 
 usually  oak.  One  end  was 
 shaped  like  a  ram's  head,  and 
 when  driven  repeatedly  and 
 with  great  force  against  the 
 wall  of  a  city  or  fortification 
 either  pierced  it  or  battered  it 
 down.  (See  War.  See  also  note 
 at  the  close  of  Destruction 
 OF  Jerusalem,  by  the  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 91 
 
BEA 
 BATTLE-AXE.     (See   Ar- ; 
 
 HOUR.)  I 
 
 BATTLEMENT.  (Deut.  ' 
 rxii.  8.)  A  wall,  parapet,  or  | 
 other  siruclure  around  the  iiat  , 
 roofs  of  eastern,  houses,  de- 
 Bigned  as  a  partition  from  an 
 adjyiuing  building,  or  to  pre- 
 vent persons  froni  falling  off. 
 It  is  sometimes  used  in  a  more 
 extensive  sense  to  denote  the 
 fortificationsof  a  city.  (Jer.  v. 
 10.)  A  traveller  says  that  at 
 Aleppo,  where  the  housps  join 
 each  other,  the  battlements 
 are  so  1'jw  that  he  could  walli 
 over  I  he  tops  of  a  dozen  houses 
 without  interruption. 
 
 BAY  TREE.  (Ps.xxxvii.So.) 
 Periiaps  the  cedar ;  perhaps 
 any  native  tree  tliat  is  sutfer- 
 ed  to  grow  wild,  or  without 
 iranspl anting;  but  more  pro- 
 bably the  laurel,  from  which 
 triumphal  crowns  were  made 
 for  the  victors  and  heroes  of 
 ancient  days.  It  was  of  the 
 family  of  evergreens,  and  was 
 well  used  as  an  emblem  of  the 
 undecaying  strength  and  un- 
 changing prosperity  which 
 seems  sometimes  to  be  the 
 portion  of  the  wicked  in  this 
 transient  world.  The  laurel 
 of  our  southern  States  would 
 well  illustrate  the  idea  of  the 
 psalmist. 
 
 BDELLIUM.  (Gen.  ii.  12.) 
 Supp.ised  by  the  Jews  to  be 
 the  pearl  or  some  other  pre- 
 cious stone.  There  is  a  gum 
 produced  in  the  East  Indies 
 which  has  the  same  name, 
 and  is  thought  by  many  to  be 
 the  aaicle  'referred  to  in  the 
 ciied  passage.  It  resembles 
 myrrh  in  colour,  and  is  of  a 
 bitter  lasie.  (Num.  xi.  7.) 
 
 BEACON.  (Isa.  xxx.  17.)  A 
 mark  or  signal,  erected  in 
 flome  conspicuous  place  for  di- 
 rection, or  for  security  against 
 daiigpr.  Thusthe  Jews,  when 
 reduced  in  number  and  dis- 
 tressed in  circumstances  by 
 reason  of  God's  severe  judg- 
 uaenta  upon  them,  were  a  bea- 
 
 BEA 
 
 con  to  all  other  people  and 
 nations  to  avoid  the  like  sin. 
 (See  Banners.) 
 
 BEANS.  (Ezek.  iv.  9.)  A 
 well  known  garden  vegetable, 
 which  was  "anciently  often 
 mixed  with  other  vegetable 
 substances  in  making  bread. 
 
 BEAR.  (Prov.xvii.r2.)  The 
 brown  bear,  now  confined  to 
 the  milder  climates  of  Eu- 
 rope, is  probably  the  species 
 of  this  animal  which  is  men- 
 li'i.'ied  in  the  Bible.  The  at- 
 tachment of  the  female  to  her 
 young  is  proverbial,  for  no- 
 thing enrages  her  so  much 
 as  to  see  her  whelps  hurt  or 
 taken  from  her.  Hence  the 
 allusion,  2  Sam.  xvii.  8.  Hos. 
 xiii.  8,  and  also  the  passage  first 
 above  cited.  (See  Wuth's 
 Friend,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 vol.  ii.) 
 
 BEARD.  (Lev.  xiii.  29.) 
 Among  the  Jews  much  atten- 
 tion was  paid  to  the  beard. 
 To  show  any  contempt  to- 
 wards it  by  plucking  it  or 
 touching  it,  except  from  re- 
 spect or  courtesy,  was  es- 
 teemed a  gross  insult,  while 
 to  kiss  it,  respectfully  and 
 affectionately,  was  resarded 
 as  a  signal  mark  of  friend- 
 ship. Tearing  out  the  beard; 
 cutting  it  entirely  off,  or  neg- 
 lecting to  trim  and  dress  it, 
 were  all  expressions  of  deep 
 mournine.  (Ezra  ix.  3.  Isa. 
 XV.  2.  Jer.  xli.  5,  and  xlviii. 
 37.) 
 
 The  Arabians  at  this  day 
 cherish  great  respect  for  the 
 beard.  They  solemnly  swear 
 by  it;  and  their  meet  sig- 
 nificant and  comprehensive 
 phrase  to  express  their  good 
 wishes  for  a  friend  is,  "  May 
 God  preserve  your  blessed 
 bearr' "  A  Turk  was  asked 
 why  he  did  not  cut  off  his 
 bPanl  as  Eurofieans  do.  "  Cui 
 off  my  beard !"  he  replied 
 with  deep  emotion,  '*  God 
 forbid  !"  And  we  are  told  of 
 an  Arab  who  was  wounded  in 
 95 
 
BEA 
 
 the  jaw,  and  chose  to  hazard 
 his  life  rather  than  to  have 
 his  beard  cut  off,  that  the 
 surgeon  might  examine  the 
 wound.  Hence  the  keenness 
 of  the  insult  offered  to  David's 
 ambassadors.  (2  Sam.  x.  4,  5.) 
 And  hence  too,  the  force  of 
 that  passage  where  the  pro- 
 phet is  made  to  stand  in  the 
 place  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  re- 
 present, in  his  own  person,  the 
 severe  judgments  that  were  to 
 Da  inflicted  on  her.  (£zek.  v. 
 1-5.) 
 
 The  Egyptians  were  accus- 
 tomed to  leave  a  small  tuft  of 
 beard  on  the  extremity  of  the 
 chin.  The  Jewish  law  (Lev. 
 xix.  27)  forbad  an  imitation  of 
 tliis  heathen  fashion. 
 
 BEAST.  (Gen.  ii.  19.)  This 
 word  is  generally  used  to  dis- 
 tinguish all  animals  from  man, 
 as  in  Ps.  xxxvi.  6.  Sometimes 
 quadrupeds  only  are  denoted 
 by  it,  as  Lev.  xi.  2 ;  and  in 
 Gen.  i.  24,25,  it  is  supposed  to 
 refer  to  creatures  that  roam 
 at  large.  Beasts  were  created 
 on  the  sixth  day,  and  were 
 named  by  Adam.  There  is  no 
 doubt  that  every;  species  of 
 animal  now  existing  upon  the 
 earth  had  its  origin  on  that 
 day.  The  apostle  describes 
 some  of  his  opposers  as  wild 
 beasts,  so  furious  and  brutal 
 was  their  treatment  of  him. 
 (1  Cor.  XV.  32.)  A  similar  use 
 is  made  of  the  word  in  Ps. 
 xxii.  12.  16.  Eccl.  ill.  18.  Isa. 
 xi.  6-8.  and  in  2  Pet.  ii.  12; 
 and  Jude  10,  to  denote  a  class 
 of  wicked  men. 
 
 Under  the  ancient  dispen- 
 ealion  the  beasts  were  some- 
 times made  to  participate  ex- 
 ternally in  the  observance  of 
 religious  ceremonies,  (Jonah 
 iii.  7.  8,)  and  suffered,  with 
 men,  the  judgment  of  God. 
 (Ex.  ix.  6,  and  xlll.  15.  Ps. 
 cxxxv.  8.  Jer.  vil.  20,  and  xxi. 
 6.    Ezek.  xxxii.  13:  xxxviii. 
 
 BED 
 
 20.    Hos.  iv.  3.    See  Cleah 
 and  Unclean.) 
 
 BEATEN  WORK.  (Ex.xxv. 
 ]  8.)    Not  cast,  but  wrou£ht. 
 
 BEATEN  OIL.  (See  Olive.) 
 
 BED.  (Gen.  xlvii.  31.)  The 
 floors  of  the  better  sort  of 
 eastern  houses  were  of  tile  or 
 plaster,  and  were  covered 
 with  mats  or  carpets  ;  and  as 
 shoes  were  not  worn  on  them, 
 and  the  feet  were  washed,  and 
 no  filthy  habits  of  modern 
 times  prevailed,  their  floors 
 seldom  required  sweeping  or 
 scrubbing.  (Matt.  xii.  44. 
 Luke  xv7  8.)  Thick,  coarsa 
 mattresses  were  thrown  down 
 at  night  to  sleep  upon.  The 
 poorer  people  used  skins  for 
 the  same  purpose.  Such  beds 
 were  easily  moved,  (Matt.  ix. 
 6  j)  and  on  two  or  three  sides 
 of  the  room  was  a  bench, 
 generally  a  foot  high  and 
 three  feet  broad,  covered  with 
 a  stuffed  cushion.  This  bench 
 or  couch,  was  used  both  for  ly- 
 ing and  silling  upon;  butatone 
 end  of  the  room  it  was  more 
 elevated,  and  this  was  the 
 usual  place  ot  sleeping.  (^ 
 Kings  i.  4 ;  xx.  2.  Ps.  cxxxii. 
 3.  Amos  iii.  12.)  It  was  some- 
 times unattached  to  the  build- 
 ing and  moveable, like  a  settee 
 or  sofa,  and  was  made  of  wood, 
 ivory,  (Amos  vi.  4,)  or  other 
 materials.  (Deut.  ill.  11.)  This 
 knowledge  of  the  construction 
 of  eastern  beds  relieves  of 
 difiiculty  such  passages  as 
 Ex.  vili.  3.  2  Sam.  iv.  5 — 1, 
 Ps.  vi.  6.    Mark  iv.  21. 
 
 Probably  some  part  of  the 
 day-clolhlng  served  for  bed- 
 clothes. (Ex.  xxii.  26, 27.  Deut. 
 xxiv.  12,  13.) 
 
 That  bedsteads  were  known 
 to  the  Jews  Is  not  improbable, 
 inasmuch  as  they  were  in  use 
 in  Egypt,  as  we  learn  from 
 figures  on  their  monuments, 
 of  which  the  following  is  a 
 cut. 
 
 96 
 
BEE 
 
 BEE 
 
 BEE.  CDeut.  i.  44.)  The  ho- 
 ney-bee is  probably  the  only 
 species  alluded  to  in  the  Bible. 
 They  must  have  been  very 
 numerous  in  Canaan,  as  ho- 
 ney was  a  common  article  of 
 food  (1  Kings  xiv.  3.  Ps.  Ixxxi. 
 16.  Sol.  Song  v.  1.  Isa.  vii.  15) 
 and  commerce.  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
 17.) 
 
 The  disposition  of  bees  to 
 take  vengeance  on  any  one 
 who  disturbs  their  hive  is  al- 
 luded to  in  Ps.  cxviii.  12. 
 
 The  figurative  expressions 
 in  Isa.  vii.  18,  compared  with 
 Zech.  X.  8,  may  allude  either 
 to  a  practice  of  calling  bees 
 from  their  hives  by  a  hissing 
 sound,  or  to  the  known  habit, 
 in  one  species  of  the  insect, 
 of  going  forth  to  labour  at  the 
 short  buzzing  sound  which 
 a  queen-bee  makes  with  her 
 wings,  while  she  is  perched 
 on  the  top  of  her  cell. 
 
 Wild  bees  often  laid  up 
 their  honey  in  hollow  trees  or 
 the  clefts  of  rocks.  (Ps.  Ixxxi. 
 16.)  There  was  a  kind  of  wild 
 honey  deposited  by  other  in- 
 fects on  the  leaves  of  trees  so 
 abundantly  as  often  to  fall  in 
 rirops  upon  the  ground.  This 
 is  the  substance  mentioned  in 
 I  Sam.  xiv.  25.  27,  and  per- 
 haps the  same  is  intended  in 
 Malt,  iii,  4.  (See  Youth's 
 Friend,  by  the  American  S.  S. 
 Union,  vol.  iv. 
 
 BEELZEBUB,  or  BAAL- 
 ZEBUB,  (Matt.  x.  25,)  was  an 
 idol  god  of  the  Ekronites,  and 
 was  probably  worshipped  as 
 the  patron  deity  of  medicine. 
 (2  Kings  i.  3.)  The  word  sig- 
 nifies'"the  god  of  flies." 
 There  is  reasm  to  believe 
 that  whatever  his  peculiar  at- 
 tributes were,  he  wa.s  one  of 
 the  chief  gods  of  the  heathens, 
 and  hence  the  prince  or  chief 
 of  devils  is  called  Beelzebub, 
 (Matt.  xii.  ai.  Luke  xi.  15,) 
 a  term  which  would  be  easily 
 understood  by  the  Jews,  who 
 were  taught  to  regard  all  idols 
 as  devils.  (Deut.  xxxii.  17. 
 2  Chron.  xi.  15.  Ps.  cvi.  37. 
 1  Cor.  x.  20.) 
 
 BEER.  (Judg.  ix.  21.)  A 
 place  between  Jerusalem  and 
 Shechem,  to  which  Jotham  fled 
 from  Abimelech  his  brother. 
 
 Beer-elim,  or  Beer.  (Num. 
 xxi.  16.  Isa.  XV.  8.)  A  statitm 
 of  the  Israelites  in  Moab, 
 where  God  caused  water  to 
 spring  up  out  of  the  sand  fur 
 their  refreshment. 
 
 BEER-LAHAI-ROI.  (Gen. 
 xvi.  14.)  A  place  in  the  south- 
 ern border  of  Canaan,  near  the 
 desert  of  Shur,  which  receiv- 
 ed its  name  in  corsequence 
 of  the  appearance  of  an  angei 
 to  Hagar,  when  she  was  in 
 exile.  "The  name  of  the  place 
 signifies  "  the  tcell  of  him  that 
 livelh  and  seeth  me." 
 97 
 
BEG 
 
 BEEROTH.  (Josh.  ix.  17. 
 2  Sam.  iv.  2,  3.)  A  city  of  Ben- 
 jamin, situated  at  the  foot  of 
 the  hill  on  which  Gibeon  was 
 built,  a  few  miles  north-east 
 of  Jerusalem. 
 
 A  place  of  the  same  name 
 was  als )  a  station  of  the  Isra- 
 elites, (Deut  X.  6,)  and  is  call- 
 ed Bene-jaakan.  (Num.  xxxiii. 
 31.) 
 
 BEER-SHEBA.  (Gen.  xxi. 
 31.)  This  was  at  first  the 
 name  of  a  well  near  which 
 Abraham  lon^  resided,  (Gen. 
 xxi.  33,)  and  Isaac  after  him. 
 (Gen.  xxvi.  32,  33.)  It  after- 
 wards became  a  town  of  con- 
 siderable note.  It  was  situated 
 about  twenty  miles  south  of 
 Hebron,  at  the  southern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
 as  Dan  was  at  the  northern 
 extremity.  Hence  the  expres- 
 sion (Judg.  XX.  1)  frmi  Dan 
 to  Beer-sheba,  denoted  the 
 whole  length  of  the  land,  as 
 also  did  the  expression //-o7?z 
 Beer-sheba  to  mount  Ephraim 
 (2  Chron.  xix.  4)  represent  the 
 whole  length  of  the  kingdom 
 of  Judah.  The  town  was  with- 
 in the  territory  of  Judah,  and 
 fell  finally  into  Simeon's 
 hands.  (Josh.  xv.  28,  and  xix. 
 2.)  At  Beer-sheba  resided  the 
 sons  of  Samuel,  (1  Sam.  viii. 
 2;)  and  in  later  times  the 
 place  was  given  to  idolatry. 
 (Amos  V.  5 ;  viii.  14.) 
 
 BEETLE.  (Lev.  xi.  22.)  An 
 animal  entirely  different  from 
 the  insect  known  to  us  by  that 
 name.  From  the  connexion 
 it  \9  supposed  to  have  been  of 
 the  locust  family. 
 
 BEEVES,  (Lev.  xxii.  19,)  as 
 used  in  the  Bible,  is  synony- 
 mous with  the  term  cattle,  in 
 its  modern  use.  As  they  di- 
 vide the  hoof  and  also  chew 
 the  cud,  they  were  reckoned 
 among  clean  animals. 
 
 BEGGAR,  BEGGING.  (1 
 Sam.  ii.  8.  Mark  x.  46.)  The 
 poor  among  the  Hebrews  were 
 nmch  favoured.    They  were 
 
 BEL 
 
 allowed  to  glean  in  the  fields 
 and  to  gatlier  whatever  the 
 land  produced  in  the  year  in 
 which  it  was  not  tillecl.  (Lev. 
 xix.  10;  XXV.  5,  6.  Deut.  xxiv. 
 19.)  They  were  also  invited  to 
 feasts.  (Deut.  xii.  12;  xiv.  29, 
 and  xxvi.  12.)  The  Israelite 
 could  not  be  an  absolute  pau- 
 per. His  land  was  inaliena- 
 ble, except  for  a  certain  term, 
 when  it  reverted  to  him  or  hia 
 posterity.  And  if  this  re- 
 source was  insufficient,  ha 
 could  pledge  the  services  of 
 himself  and  family  for  a  valu- 
 able sum.  Those  who  were 
 indigent  through  bodily  infirm, 
 ities,  were  usually  taken  care 
 of  by  their  kindred.  A  beggar 
 was  sometimes  seen  however, 
 and  was  regarded  and  abhor 
 red  as  a  vagabond.  (Ps.  cix. 
 10.)  In  later  times  they  were 
 accustomed  to  have  a  fixed 
 place  at  the  corners  of  the 
 streets,  (Mark  x.  46,)  or  at  the 
 gates  of  the  temple,  (Acts  iii. 
 2,)  or  of  private  houses.  (Luke 
 xvi.  20.) 
 
 BEHEMOTH.  (Job  xl.  15.) 
 The  same  word  which  is  here 
 translated  behemoth,  is  else- 
 where translated  beast,  (Job 
 XXXV.  11.  Ps.  Ixxiii.  22,)  or  cat- 
 tle. (Ps.  1.  10.)  The  animal 
 described  as  the  behemoth  in 
 the  passage  first  above  cited, 
 was  of  prodigious  size  and 
 stren^h,  and  corresponds  bet- 
 ter with  the  hippopotamus,  or 
 river  horse  of  Egypt,  than 
 with  any  other  animal  now 
 known.  For  a  particular  de- 
 scription and  cut  of  this  ani- 
 mal, see  Natural  History 
 OP  THE  Bible,  p.  39,  and 
 Youth's  Friend,  vols.  i.  and 
 iii.,  all  by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 
 BEKAH.   (See  Measures.) 
 
 BEL.    (See  Baal.) 
 
 BELIAL.  (Dei't  xiii.  13.) 
 This  word,  in  the  original, 
 signifies  worthlessness,  and  \a 
 applied  by  the  sacred  writers 
 to  such  lewd,  profligate,  and 
 vile  persons  as  seem  to  regard 
 98 
 
BEL 
 
 neither  God  nor  man.  (Jr.dg. 
 Xix.  22,  and  1  Sam.  ii.  12.) 
 Hence  ihe  question  of  the 
 apostle  (-2  Cor.  vi.  15)  to  the 
 citizens  of  Corinth,  which  was 
 remarkable  for  its  lewdness 
 and  profligacy,  has  great  force: 
 "  Wnat  concord  hath  Christ 
 with  Belial,"  the  prince  of  li- 
 centiousness and  corruption  7 
 Milion  represents  Belial  as 
 one  of  the  fallen  spirits : 
 Eeliat  came  last,  than  whom  a  spirit 
 
 more  lewd 
 Fell  not  from  heaven,  or  more  gross  to 
 
 love 
 Vice  for  itself. 
 
 BELIEVE.  (See  Faith.) 
 BELL.  (Zech.  xiv.  20.)  Bella 
 were  attached  to  the  bottom 
 of  the  high-priesi's  robe,  that 
 he  might  be  heard  when  he 
 went  into  or  came  out  of  the 
 holy  place.  (Ex.  xxviii.33. 35.) 
 Many  of  the  eastern  kings 
 and  nobles  wear  bells  in  the 
 same  manner  at  this  day,  not 
 only  for  ornament,  but  to  give 
 notice  of  their  approach.  Bells 
 were  hung  upon  the  bridles 
 or  around  the  necks  of  war- 
 horses:  hence  a  horse  not 
 trained  to  war  was  called,  by 
 the  Greeks,  a  horse  who  had 
 never  heard  the  sound  of 
 bells.  We  are  told  that  bells 
 were  used  on  the  horses  at 
 the  funeral  of  Alexander  the 
 Great.  The  Arabian  ladies 
 In  the  royal  presence  have  lit- 
 tle gold  bells  fastened  to  their 
 legs,necks,and  elbows,  which, 
 when  they  dance,  make  an 
 agreeable  sound.  A  custom 
 efthis  kind  probably  prevail- 
 ed in  the  time  of  Isaiah,  to 
 which  he  alludes.  (Isa.  iii.  18.) 
 BELSHA2ZAR  (Dan.  v.  1) 
 was  the  son  or  grandson  of 
 Nebuchadnezzar,  (Dan.  v.  18,) 
 and  the  last  king  of  Babylon. 
 During  the  siege  of  the  city  of 
 Babylon  he  gave  a  sumptu- 
 ous entertainment  to  his  cour- 
 tiers, and  impiously  made  use 
 of  the  temple  furniture  (of 
 which  Nebuchadnezzar  had 
 
 BEN 
 
 plundered  the  temple  at  Jeru. 
 salem)  as  drinking  vessels. 
 In  the  midst  of  the  festivities, 
 however,a  miraculous  appear- 
 ance was  seen  upon  the  wall 
 of  the  banqueting  room,  which 
 filled  the  king  and  his  guests 
 with  amazement  and  horror  ; 
 and  when  explained  by  Da- 
 niel, it  was  found  to  be  a 
 warning  to  the  king  of  his 
 own  death,  and  of  the  over- 
 throw and  destruction  of  his 
 kingdom,  v/hich  took  place  in 
 the  course  of  the  succeeding 
 night.  (See  the  particulars 
 of  this  event,  and  a  cut  repre- 
 senting the  impious  feast,in  the 
 Life  of  Daniel,  by  the  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union,  chap,  xiv.) 
 
 BELTESHAZZAK.  (Dan.  i. 
 7.)  The  name  given  to  the 
 prophet  Daniel  at  the  court 
 of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 BENAUH  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20) 
 was  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  and 
 distinguished  for  his  enter- 
 prise and  bravery  on  several 
 occasions.  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20— 
 23.)  He  was  an  adherent  of 
 Solomon  against  the  preten- 
 sions of  Adonijah,  (1  Kings  i. 
 36,)  and  after  putting  Joab  to 
 death  succeeded  to  the  com- 
 mand of  the  army.  (1  Kings 
 ii.  29-35.) 
 
 BENHADAD.  1.  (1  Kings  xv. 
 18.)  Kin^  of  Syria,  in  the  time 
 of  Asa  king  of  Judah,  with 
 whom  he  formed  an  alliance 
 against  Baasha  king  of  Israel. 
 (See  Asa,  Baasha.)  Perhaps 
 he  was  the  same  with  Hadad 
 the  Edomite,  who  rebelled 
 against  Solomon.  (1  Kings  xi. 
 25.) 
 
 2.  (1  Kings  XX.  1.)  King  of 
 Syria,  and  a  son  of  the  prece- 
 ding. He  was  a  proud,  boast- 
 ing, and  licentious  man,  and 
 seemed  to  be  hardened  against 
 all  rebukes.  (1  Kings  xx.  10 
 —12.  16.  See  Ahab.)  He 
 declared  war  against  Jeho- 
 ram  kin^  of  Israel,  but  the 
 prophet  Elisha  disclosed  Ben- 
 nadad's  plans  so  accurately, 
 
BEN 
 !hat  Jehoram  was  able  to  de- 
 feat Them.    (2  Kings  vi.  8—33. 
 See  Elisha.) 
 
 In  the  siege  of  Samaria, 
 which  took  place  some  years 
 afterwards,  that  city  was  re- 
 duced to  the  greatest  extremi- 
 ty. The  Syrian  army,  under 
 Benhadad,  was  lying  around 
 the  walls,  when,  in  the  course 
 of  the  night,  they  were  led  to 
 conceive  that  tliey  heard  the 
 noise  of  an  immense  army  in 
 motion.  Supposing  that  the 
 city  had  been  succoured  by 
 supplies  of  men  and  pro- 
 visions from  abroad,  and  ter- 
 rified with  the  fancied  tumult 
 of  their  approach,  the  Syrians 
 just  at  daybreak  tied  fur  their 
 lives,  leaving  their  camp,  with 
 all  their  horses,  asses,  provi- 
 sions, utensils,  &c.  just  as 
 ihey  were,  and  their  garments 
 and  vessels  scattered  all  alon^ 
 the  road  by  which  they  had 
 fled.  The  citizens  of  Samaria 
 were  thus  unexpectedly  re- 
 lieved, and  supplied  with  an 
 abundance  of  food. 
 
 The  next  year  Benhadad, 
 being  sick,  sent  Hazael  to  in- 
 quire of  the  prophet  Elisha 
 whether  he  would  recover; 
 and  he  received  for  answer, 
 that  the  king  might  certainly 
 recover  and  Vet  would  surely 
 die.  Hazael  also  was  informed 
 by  the  prophet,  that  he  would 
 be  elevated  to  the  throne  of 
 Syria,  and  would  he  guilty  of 
 enormous  wickedness.  The 
 very  next  day  Hazael,  with 
 his  own  hand,  murdered  Ben- 
 hadad, and  became  king  of 
 Syria.  (2  Kings  viii.  15.  See 
 Hazael.) 
 
 3.  (2Kingsxiii.  8.)  Another 
 person  of  the  same  name,  and 
 son  of  Hazael.  He  suffered 
 several  defeats  from  the  hand 
 of  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel, 
 and  was  compelled  to  relin- 
 quish all  the  land  of  Israel 
 which  his  father  Hazael  had 
 obtained  in  conquest.  (2  Kings 
 Xiii.  25.) 
 
 B£R 
 
 BENJAMIN  (Gen.  zxxv 
 18)  was  the  youngest  son  of 
 Jacob  and  Rachel.  His  mother 
 died  immediately  after  hia 
 birth,  which  took  place  near 
 Bethlehem,  when  the  family 
 were  on  their  journey  from 
 Padan-aram  to  Canaan.  With 
 her  dying  breath  she  called 
 him  Benoni,  (the  son  of  my 
 sorrow,)  but  his  father  gave 
 him  the  name  of  Benjamin, 
 (jthe  smi  of  my  right  hand.) 
 
 The  tribe  of  Benjamin  had 
 their  portion  of  the  promised 
 land  adjoining  Judah,  and 
 when  ten  of  the  tribes  revolt- 
 ed,  Benjamin  continued  stea- 
 dy in  its  attachment  to  Judah, 
 and  formed  a  part  of  thai 
 kingdom.  (1  Kings  xii.  17.  23.) 
 The  prophetic  history  of  the 
 tribe  is  told  in  Gen.  xlix.  27, 
 and  Deut.  xxxiii.  12. 
 
 Paul  was  a  descendant  of 
 this  tribe.  (Phil.  iii.  5.  See 
 Jacob  and  his  Sons,  by  the 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  pp.  87—98.) 
 
 BEREA,  (Acts  xvii.  10,)  now 
 Veria.  A  city  of  Macedonia, 
 about  twenty  miles  west  of 
 Thessalonica,  near  mount 
 Pindus.  The  Bereans  were 
 honourably  distinguished  for 
 their  diligence  in  searching 
 the  Scriptures,  under  the 
 preaching  of  Paul.  For  thia 
 and  other  causes  it  was  a 
 place  of  much  interest  in  the 
 days  of  the  apostles.  (Acts 
 xvii.  10.  15,  and  xx.  4.)  It 
 now  contains  about  20,000  in- 
 habitants, (chiefly  Turks  and 
 Greeks,)  and  produces  rice, 
 fruit,  and  marble,  and  has 
 manufactures  of  cotton. 
 
 BERITH.  cComp.  Judg.  viii. 
 33,  and  ix.  46.    See  Baal.) 
 
 BERNICE,  (Acts  xxv.  13. 
 23,)  or  BERENICE,  as  the 
 name  is  sometimes  spelled, 
 was  the  daughter  of  Agrippa, 
 surnamed  the  Great,  and  sis- 
 ter to  the  younger  Agrippa, 
 king  of  the  Jews.  She  was  a 
 woman  of  licentious  charac- 
 ter, and  was  present,  in  great 
 
BET 
 
 pomp,  at  the  hearing  of  Paul 
 Before  Festus  at  Cesarea. 
 
 BERODACH  -  BALADAN, 
 called  also  Merodach-Bala- 
 dan.  (Isa.  xxxix.  1.  See  Heze- 
 
 KIAH.) 
 
 BERYL.  (Ex.  xxviii.  20.)  A 
 precious  stone,  found  chiefly 
 in  Brazil  and  Ceylon,  the  pre- 
 vailing colour  of  which  is 
 green.  (Sol.  Song  v.  14.  Ezek. 
 1.  16,  and  x.  9.  Rev.  xxi.  20.) 
 
 BESOM.  (Isa.  xiv.  23.)  An 
 instrument  used  for  sweeping. 
 
 BESOR,  or  BEZOR,  (1  Sam 
 XXX.  9, 10.  21,)  signifying  cold, 
 was  the  name  of  a  brook  over 
 which  David  passed  in  pur- 
 suit of  the  Amalekites  who 
 had  pillaged  and  burnt  Zik- 
 lag.  It  falls  into  the  Mediter- 
 ranean below  Gaza.  The  sup- 
 posed channel  of  it  was  cross- 
 ed in  1823  by  Messrs.Fiske  and 
 King,  American  missionaries, 
 about  five  miles  below  Gaza. 
 
 BETHABARA.  (John  i.  28.) 
 The  name  of  a  town  on  the 
 east  bank  of  Jordan,  where 
 there  was  a  ford  across  the 
 river;  whence  the  name,(/ioMsc 
 of  passage.)  At  this  place 
 John  baptized  ;  and  here,  too, 
 it  is  supposed  the  Israelites 
 crossed  the  Jordan,  under  the 
 conduct  of  Joshua.  It  lay  about 
 thirty  miles  north-east  of  Jeru- 
 salem, and  is  probably  the 
 same  with  Beth-barah.  (Judg. 
 vii.  24.) 
 
 BETHANY.  (I\Iark  xi.  1.) 
 A  village  on  the  south-east 
 side  of  the  mount  of  Olives, 
 about  two  miles  from  Jerusa- 
 lem It  was  the  residence  of 
 Lazarus  and  his  sisters.  (John 
 X).  1.)  Christ  often  resorted 
 thither,  especially  during  the 
 last  few  days  of  his  ministry, 
 and  it  was  the  scene  of  some 
 of  the  most  interesting  events 
 of  his  life.  (Matt.  xxi.  17;  xxvi. 
 6.  Markxi.  11,12;  xiv,  3.  John 
 xi.  1— 4G,and  xii.  i— 3.)  Betha- 
 ny was  visited  in  1823  by 
 Messrs.  Fiske  and  Kins,  Ame- 
 rican missionaries,  anS  is  de- 
 9* 
 
 BET 
 
 scribed  as  a  small  Mussul- 
 man village,  on  the  declivity 
 of  a  hill,  and  all  around  un- 
 even and  rocky.  Travellers 
 are  shown  the  pretended 
 place  of  Lazarus'  grave,  and 
 the  ruins  of  the  house  where 
 he  and  his  sisters  lived.  (See 
 Omar,  p.  143,  and  Selumiel, 
 pp.  160.  168,  both  by  the  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 BETHARBEL.  (Hos.  x.  14.) 
 This  is  supposed  to  denote  no 
 particular  place,  but,  accord- 
 mg  to  the  original  significa- 
 tion of  the  word,  to  import 
 such  fruitful  countries  as  had 
 been  conquered  and  spoiled  by 
 some  well  known  chieftain. 
 
 BETHAVHEN.  (Josh.  vii.  2.) 
 A  place  belonging  to  the  tribe 
 of  Benjamin,  and  lying  east 
 of  Bethel.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5.  See 
 Bethel.) 
 
 The  wtLDERNESS  OF  Beth- 
 AVEN  (Josh,  xviii.  12)  formed 
 part  of  the  northern  boundary 
 of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 
 
 BETH-BAAL-MEON.  (See 
 Baal-meon.) 
 
 BETHBARAH.  (See  Beth- 
 abaraO 
 
 BETHEL.  (Gen.  xxviii.  19.) 
 "When  Jacob  was  journeying 
 towards  Mesopotamia  to  avoid 
 the  fury  of  his  brother  Esau, 
 he  lodged  at  a  place  near  the 
 ci'y  of'Luz,  and  was  favoured 
 with  a  remarkable  vision  ol 
 the  Almighty.  For  this  cause 
 he  namecl  tne  place  and  the 
 adjoining  city,  Bethel,  (house 
 of  God.)  It  was  situated  east  of 
 a  line  running  from  Shechem 
 to  Jerusalem,  and  at  about 
 an  equal  distance  from  each. 
 
 Bethel  was  the  residence 
 of  one  of  the  Canaanite  kings, 
 and  the  Ephraimites,  to  whom 
 it  was  assigned  in  the  division 
 of  the  land,  were  unable  to 
 gain  possession  of  it  until 
 they  w'-ere  aided  by  the  trea- 
 chery of  one  of  the  inhabit- 
 ants.    (Judg.  i.  22-26.) 
 
 The  tabernacle  was  station- 
 ed a  long  time  in  this  place, 
 101 
 
BET 
 
 and  Jeroboam  placed  one  of 
 his  golden  calves  here,  (1 
 Kings  xii.  28.  33,)  from  which 
 circumstance,  probably,  Amos 
 was  induced  to  call  it  Betli- 
 aven,  {the  house  of  idolatry.) 
 And  hence  also  the  phrase 
 "  coming  to  Bethel"  was  pro- 
 verbially expressive  of  idola- 
 trous worship  in  general. 
 (Amos  iv.  4,  and  v.  5.  Hos.  x. 
 5.8.)  Part  of  the  prophecy  ol 
 Amos  was  directed  specially 
 against  this  city,  (iii.  14,)  and 
 was  fulfilled  in  the  time  of 
 Josiah,  (2  Kings  xxiii.  15 ;)  and 
 the  prophet  himself  was  di- 
 rected to  flee  from  the  place. 
 At  that  time  Bethel  was  proba- 
 bly the  residence  cf  the  king 
 of  Israel.     (Amos  vii.  10 — 13.) 
 
 BETHER,  (Sol.Songii.  17,) 
 or  mountains  of  perfume,  as 
 n  is  found  in  an  ancient  trans- 
 lation. It  is  not  certain  that 
 this  name  is  applied  to  .any 
 particular  place.  It  may  per- 
 haps denote  those  tracts  of 
 uneven  country  which  were 
 the  favourite  resort  of  the  hart 
 and  roe.  (Sol.  Song  iv.  6.  8, 
 and  viii.  14.) 
 
 BETHESDA,  (John  v.  2,) 
 (house  of  viercy.)  The  He- 
 brew name  of  a  pool  or  reser- 
 voir of  water  in  the  city  of 
 Jerusalem.  There  were  two 
 pools  of  this  kind,  one  of 
 which  was  called  the  Upper 
 Pool  and  the  other  the  Pool  of 
 Siloam.  (Comp.  2Kings  xviii. 
 17.  Neh.  iii.  15.  John  ix.  7.) 
 The  pool  of  Bethesda  had  re- 
 markable medicinal  proper- 
 ties, which  made  it  a  common 
 resort  for  invalids,  for  whose 
 accommodation  porches  or 
 small  aparimems  were  pro- 
 vided. The  opinion  has  been 
 expressed  that  these  proper- 
 ties were  natural,  or  tliat 
 they  were  communicated  by 
 something  thrown  into  the 
 water.  Tt  is  to  be  observed 
 however,  (1.)  That  their  heal- 
 ing vinue  extended  to  what- 
 ever  dideaee    a   man   might 
 
 BET 
 
 have,  however  vaiious  and 
 even  opposite  their  character. 
 (2.)  Only  the  one  who  first 
 stepped  in  was  cured.  (3.)  If 
 the  agency  by  which  the  heal- 
 ing influence  was  imparted 
 was  natural,  and  within  the 
 power  of  man,  there  seems  to 
 be  no  good  reason  why  il 
 should  not  have  been  con- 
 stantly employed.  The  better 
 opinion  seems  to  be,  that  the 
 healing  virtue  was  miracu- 
 lous; that  the  angel  was  a 
 messenger  from  Go'd  ;  and  that 
 the  troubling  of  the  waters 
 was  an  unusual  motion  to  give 
 notice  to  the  invalids  of  the 
 arrival  of  the  favoured  mo- 
 ment. (See  Selumiel,  by  the 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union, pp.  104.  111.) 
 
 Travellers  tell  us  of  a  place 
 now  seen  in  Jerusalem,  which 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  once 
 the  pool  of  Bethesda.  It  is 
 one  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
 long,  forty  broad,  and  eight 
 deep;  and  at  one  end  there 
 are  evidently  the  remains  of 
 three  or  more  arches  which 
 may  be  the  ruins  of  the  porch- 
 es. (For  a  beautiful  sketch  of 
 Bethesda,  as  eiven  by  Roscn- 
 mueller,  and  a  description  of 
 its  appearance,  see  Views  op 
 Palestine,  by  the  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  p.  5.) 
 
 BETH-HORON.  (Josh.  x. 
 10.)  Two  villages  lying  on 
 the  border  of  Ephraim  and 
 Benjamin,  about  twelve  miles 
 north-west  of  Jerusalem,  were 
 calledUpper  and  Nether  Beth- 
 horon.  It  is  plain  that  one 
 of  them  was  on  an  eminence, 
 and  the  other  in  a  valley. 
 (Comp.  Josh.  X.  10  and  11.) 
 
 Betli-horon  was  fortified  by 
 Solomon.  (1  Kings  ix.  17.)  Mo- 
 dern travellers  have  found  an 
 Arab  village  twelve  miles  from 
 Jerusalem,  on  the  way  from 
 Jaffa,  (Joppa,)  which  it  is  sup. 
 posed  might  have  been  the 
 site  of  Upper  Beth-horon. 
 
 BETH-JESHIMOTH.(Jo8h. 
 xiii.  20.)  A  city  of  the  tribe 
 102 
 
BET 
 
 of  Reuben  on  the  eastern  shore 
 of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was  for- 
 merly in  possession  of  the  Mo- 
 abites,  and  after  remaining  in 
 ihe  tribe  of  Reuben  until  the 
 Assyrian  captivity,  it  fell  back 
 into  the  hands  of  the  Moab- 
 ites.    (Ezek.  xxv.  9.) 
 
 BETHLEHE-M,  (Gen.  xxxv. 
 19,)  called  also  Bethlehem 
 Epliratah,  (Mic.  v.  2,)  was  so 
 inconsiderable  a  place  as  to 
 be  omitted  in  the  general  lists 
 of  the  cities  of  JuHah.  (Josh. 
 XV.  Neh.  xi.)  It  was  the  birili- 
 
 rlace  of  David,  (Luke  ii.  4. 
 L,)  and  was  still  more  sacred 
 and  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
 place of  the  Redeemer.  (Matt, 
 li.  1.    Luke  ii.  4—6.) 
 
 It  is  situated  upon  an  emi- 
 nence overlooking  Tekoah, 
 nine  milos  south;  and  is  about 
 six  miles  south-west  from 
 Jerusalem.  The  place  has 
 been  often  visited  by  mo- 
 dern travellers.  Mr.  Fisk, 
 an  American  missionary,  was 
 there  in  1823,  and  speaks  of 
 its  appearance  as  like  a  pile 
 of  rocks,  with  here  and  there 
 a  patch  of  verdure  ;  and  Mr. 
 Whiting,  another  American 
 missionary,  was  there  in  1S34. 
 Four  or  five  miles  from  Je- 
 rusalem is  the  (so  called)  tomb 
 of  Rachel,  and  alwut  two  miles 
 beyond  that,  is  Bethlehem. 
 (Gen.  xlviii.  7.)  At  this  tomb 
 Mr.  W.  turned  off,  taking  the 
 road  to  Hebron,  that  he  might 
 visit  the  pools  of  Sjlomon, 
 which  lie  in  a  narrow,  sloping 
 valley,  three  miles  south-west 
 of  Bethlehem. 
 
 The  village  of  Bethlehem  in 
 1734  was  supposed  to  contain 
 six  hundred  men  capable  of 
 bearing  arms ;  but  the  ravages 
 of  war  and  oppression  have  re- 
 duced it  to  a  very  miserable 
 state.  WhenMr.  Whiting  was 
 there,  it  had  just  suffered  se- 
 verely from  some  tyrannical 
 measures  of  the  government; 
 and  he  passed  over  the  ruins 
 of  houses  and  fields  that  had 
 just  then  been   demolished, 
 
 BET 
 
 and  parks  of  olive  and  fig- 
 trees  which  had  been  cut  down 
 by  order  of  the  pasha,  to  pu- 
 nish their  proprietors  for  an  al- 
 leged rebellion  and  tiight.  (See 
 Life  of  David,  ch.  i.,  Omar, 
 p.  1(3,  and  Selumiel,  p.  160, 
 all  hy  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 BETH-MAACHAH.  (2  Sam. 
 XX.  14,  15.)  Same  with  Abel- 
 beih-maachah. 
 
 BETH-MEON.  (See  Baal- 
 Meon.) 
 
 BE  IH-NIMRAH.  (See  Nim- 
 
 RIM.) 
 
 BETH-PEOR.  (Deut.  iv.  4G.) 
 A  city  of  Moab,  famous  for  the 
 worship  of  Baal.  (See  Baal.) 
 "  The  vaLley  over  against" 
 Beth-peor,  in  the  land  of  Mo- 
 ab,  is  distinguished  as  tiie 
 place  where  Moses  repeated 
 the  law  to  the  people  of  Israel. 
 It  was  also  his  burial-place, 
 and  was  not  far  from  mount 
 Nebo. 
 
 BETHPHAGE.  (Matt.  xxi. 
 1.)  A  small  village  on  the 
 south-east  of  mouut'Olivet,  ad- 
 joining Bethany  on  the  west. 
 (Comp.  Luke  xix.2S— 40,  with 
 Matt.  xxi.  1—11.  See  Selu- 
 miel, by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 p.  160.) 
 
 BETH-REHOB.  (See  Re- 
 hob.) 
 
 BETHSAIDA.  (Matt.  xi.21.) 
 There  were  at  least  two  towns 
 of  this  name  in  Judea.  One 
 was  situated  on  the  east  bank 
 of  the  river  Jordan,  near  the 
 place  where  it  falls  into  the 
 sea  of  Tiberias.  Near  this  vil- 
 lage was  the  desert  or  wilder- 
 ne'ss  of  Bethsaitla.  (Matt.  xiv. 
 15—21.  Luke  ix.  10.)  The  other 
 town  was  called  Bethsaida  of 
 Galilee,  and  was  situated  on 
 the  west  of  Jordan,  near  the 
 sea  of  Tiberias.  This  was  the 
 birthplace  of  Andrew,  Peter, 
 and  Philip.  (Mark  xiv.  70. 
 John  i.  44.) 
 
 BETH-SHAN.  (ISam.xxxi. 
 10.)    Same  with  Bsth-shean. 
 
 BETH-SHEAN.  (Josh.  xvii. 
 11.)  A  town  on  the  west  of  Jor- 
 dan, twenty-live  miles  south 
 U)3 
 
BET 
 
 of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and 
 for  a  long  lime  known  by  the 
 name  of  "Scylhopolis.  ll  was 
 situated  on  the  borders  of 
 Galilee  and  Samaria,  upon 
 the  edge  of  the  great  plain  of 
 Jordan.  It  is  now  a  ruin  call- 
 ed Bysan,  containing  seventy 
 or  eighty  houses,  the  inhabit- 
 ants of  which  are,  to  the  last 
 degree,  poor  and  miserable, 
 owing  to  the  depredaii-^ns 
 they  constantly  sutfer  from 
 the  Bedouins.  In  the  time  of 
 Saul  it  was  probably  a  posses- 
 sion of  the  Philistines,  as  they 
 exposed  his  body  on  its  walls 
 after  his  defeat  in  the  battle 
 of  Gilboa.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  10.) 
 It  was  afterwards  attached  to 
 Judah.    (1  Kings  iv.  12.) 
 
 BETH-SHEaiESH.  (Josh. 
 XV.  10.)  At  least  three  different 
 
 S laces  are  mentioned  in  the 
 lible  under  this  name. 
 
 1.  One  of  them  belonging  to 
 the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  (Josh. 
 xix.  38.  Judg.  i.  33.) 
 
 2.  Another  w^as  in  Egypt, 
 (Jer.  xliii.  13,)  supposed  to  be 
 the  Keliopolis  of  the  Greeks, 
 and  is  called  On.  (Gen.  xli. 
 45,  50.)  It  is  about  five  miles 
 from  the  modern  Cairo. 
 
 3.  And  the  third  was  a  city 
 of  Judah,  (2  Kings  xiv.  11,) 
 situated  on  the  borders  of 
 Dan,  thirty  miles  south-west 
 of  Jerusalem,  and  sometimes 
 called  Irshemesh.  This  last 
 place  was  distinguished  by 
 the  circumstance  iTiat  the  ark 
 was  sent  thither  by  the  Phi- 
 listines, and  a  vast  number  of 
 men,  who  looked  into  it  from  ' 
 vain  curiosity,  were  swept  off 
 by  a  pestilence.  (1  Sam.  vi, 
 12—20.)  It  was  also  remark- 
 able for  the  battle  that  was 
 fought  there  between  Israel 
 and  Judah,  in  which  the  lat- 
 ter were  defeated,  and  the 
 king  taken  prisoner.  (2  Kings 
 xiv.  11-1.3.) 
 
 BETROTH.  (Deut.  xxviii. 
 30.)  A  man  and  woman  were 
 betrothed  or  espoused,  each  to 
 
 BEZ 
 
 the  other,  when  they  were  en 
 gaged  to  be  married.  It  is  giv 
 mg  one's  troth  (i.  e.  faith  or 
 promise)  to  marry  at  a  future 
 time. 
 
 Among  the  Jews  this  rela- 
 tion was  usually  determined 
 by  the  parents  or  brothers, 
 without  consulting  the  parties 
 until  they  came  to  be  betrothed. 
 The  engagement  took  place 
 very  early  ;  though  it  was  not 
 consummated,  by  actual  mar- 
 riage, until  the  spouse  was  at 
 least  twelve  years  of  age. 
 
 The  betrothing  was  per- 
 formed a  twelvemonth  or 
 more  before  the  marriage ; 
 either  in  writing  or  by  a  piece 
 of  silver  given  to  the  espoused 
 before  witnesses.  During  this 
 interval,  however,  from  the 
 lime  of  espousals  to  the  mar- 
 riage, the  woman  was  consi- 
 dered as  the  lawful  wife  of  the 
 man  to  whom  she  was  be- 
 trothed;  nor  could  the  en- 
 gagement be  ended  by  the 
 man  without  a  bill  of  divorce  ; 
 nor  could  she  be  unfaithful 
 without  bein^  considered  an 
 adulteress.  (For  a  full  account 
 of  the  whole  ceremony  of 
 marriage,  and  of  the  spiritual 
 relation  which  the  term  de- 
 notes, see  Biblical  ANXiam- 
 TiES,  vol.  i.  chap.  vi.  §  1,  and 
 Omar,  p.  146,  both  by  the  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.  See  also  article 
 Marriage.) 
 
 BEULAH.  (Isa.  Ixii.  4.) 
 A  word  signifying  married^ 
 which  the  prophet  applies  to 
 the  Jewish  church,  to  import 
 the  intimacy  of  its  relation  to 
 God. 
 
 BEZALEEL.  (Ex.  xxxi.  2.) 
 A  famous  artificer,  who  re- 
 ceived wisdom  and  instruction 
 directly  from  God,  to  qualify 
 him  for  the  work  of  building 
 the  tabernacle  and  preparing 
 its  various  furniture, 
 
 BEZEK.  (Judg^  i.  4.)  A  city 
 in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  where 
 the  Canaanites  suffered  a  se- 
 vere slaughter,  and  their  king 
 104 
 
BIN 
 
 was  taken  prisoner.  (See 
 Adoni-bezek.)  It  was  at  Be- 
 zek  thai  Saul  mustered  his 
 army  before  the  attack  on  .la- 
 besh-gilead. 
 
 Ancient  geographers  speak 
 of  two  towns  by  the  name  of 
 Bezek,  situated  near  each 
 other,  about  seventeen  miles 
 from  Sichem,  on  the  way  to 
 Beih-shan. 
 
 BIER.  (Luke  vii.  14.)  The 
 bed  orframeonwhichthedead 
 body  is  conveyed  to  the  grave. 
 Probably  they  were  made  (as 
 coffins  are  in  modern  times) 
 more  or  less  expensive  in 
 shape  and  ornament,  accord- 
 ing to  the  circumstances  and 
 rank  of  the  deceased.  (2  Chron. 
 xvi.  14.    See  Burial.) 
 
 BILDAD.  (Job  ii.  11.)  One  of 
 Job's  three  friends  who  visit- 
 ed him  in  his  affliction,  and 
 whose  arguments,  in  justifica- 
 tion of  God's  dealings,  occupy 
 chap.  viii.  xviii.  and  xxv.  of 
 the  book  of  Job.  (See  Job.) 
 The  name  Shuhite  is  proba- 
 bly derived  from  Shuan,  son 
 of  Abraham  and  Keturah, 
 whose  descendant  he  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been. 
 
 BILHAH.  (Gen.  xxix.  29.) 
 The  handmaid  of  Rachel,  and 
 the  mother  of  Dan  and  Naph- 
 tali.  (Gen.  xxxv.  25.) 
 
 BILL.  (Luke  xvi.  6, 7.)  Any 
 written  paper  containing  a 
 Btatemenioi  particulars  claim- 
 ed or  promised ;  as  a  bill  of 
 services,  bill  of  expenses,  bill 
 of  fare,  &c.  Bill  (or  writing) 
 of  divorcement,  (Deut.  xxiv. 
 1—4.  Matt.  v.  31,)  was  a  writ- 
 ing given  by  the  husband  to 
 the  wifcj  in  virtue  of  wliich,  by 
 the  Jewish  law,  the  marriage 
 relation  was  dissolved. 
 
 BIND.  (Matt.  xvi.  19)  Bind 
 and  loose,  as  used  in  this  and 
 parallel  passages,  are  syno- 
 nymous with  command  'and 
 forbid.  The  expression,  to 
 bind  the  lato  upon  one^s  hand, 
 &c.  is  figurative,  and  implies 
 9Q  intimate  acquaintance  with 
 
 BIR 
 
 it,  and  a  constant  regarito  its 
 precepts.  The  Jews  construed 
 It  literally,  and  hence  the  cus- 
 tom of  wearing  phylacteries. 
 (See  Phylacteries.)  Rolls  or 
 volumes  of  writing  were  tied 
 up.  Hence  the  expression, 
 Isa.  viii.  16. 
 
 BIRDS.  (Lev.  xiv.  4.)  Birds, 
 as  well  as  beasts,  were  di- 
 vide.! into  clean  and  unclean, 
 but  not  by  external  marks,  as 
 in  the  case  of  quadrupeds. 
 Those  which  were  forbidden 
 are  named,  and  were  probably 
 well  known  by  those  names 
 to  the  Jews,  though  not  now 
 known  to  us  by  those  names. 
 In  general,  the  ravenous  kinds 
 feeding  on  flesh  were  forbid- 
 den. 
 
 There  was  a  humane  law  in 
 the  Jewish  code  which  forbade 
 the  taking  a  mother-bird, 
 though  her  young  might  be 
 taken.  The  common  mode 
 of  taking  birds  was  with  a 
 snare.  (Ps.  cxxiv.  7.  Prov. 
 vii.  23.  Amos  iii.  5.)  A  speck- 
 led bird  (Jer.  xii.  9)  proba- 
 bly means  any  strange  bird, 
 which,  as  is  well  known,  other 
 birds  are  accustomed  to  attack 
 and  pursue. 
 
 BIRTHRIGHT.  (Gen.  xxv. 
 31.)  The  first-born  son  among 
 the  Jews  enjoyed  special  pri- 
 vileges above  his  brethren, 
 and  those  privileges  were 
 hence  called  his  birthrisrht,  or 
 his  right  by  birth.  Among 
 these  privileges  were,  conse- 
 cration to  the  Lord,  (Ex.  xxii. 
 29  ;)  great  dignity,  (Gen.  xlix. 
 3;)  a  double  portion  of  his 
 father's  estate,  (Deut.  xxi.l7;) 
 and  (in  the  royal  families) 
 succession  to  the  kinadom. 
 (2  Chron.  xxi.  3.)  The  eldest 
 son  seems  to  have  been  re- 
 garded,! n  the  father's  absence, 
 as  in  some  respects  his  re- 
 presentative. 
 
 The  paternc;i  Jlessing  was 
 
 also  in  a  peculiar  sense  the 
 
 right  of  the  first-born,  though 
 
 the  right  itself  and  all  ihe 
 
 105 
 
BIT 
 
 Dlessings  of  it  might  be  for-  ] 
 feited  or  transferred,  as  in  the 
 case  of  Jacob  and  Esau.  (Gen.  , 
 XXV.  33.)  Reuben  and  Joseph. 
 (1  Chron.  v.  1.)    But  whoever  t 
 enjoyed  it  was  regarded  as  in-  | 
 vested  with  great  dignity  and  , 
 superiority.  Hence  the  phrase 
 is  used  figuratively  to  denote 
 the  chief  or  highest,  or  lowest, 
 (Job  xviii.  13.  Isa.  xiv.  30,)  and 
 to  confer  such  a  rank  on  one  is 
 to  constitute  him  the  first-born. 
 (Ps.  Ixxxix.  27.  Col.  i.  15.) 
 
 Hence  the  peculiar  force 
 and  appropriateness  of  the 
 titles  given  to  the  Divine  Re- 
 deemer. (Rom.  viii.  29.  Col.  i. 
 18.  Heb.  i.  2.  4.  6;  xii.  2-3. 
 See  Biblical  Anticiuities,  by 
 the  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  vol.  i. 
 chap.  vi.  §  ii.) 
 
 BISHOP.  (1  Tim.  in.  2.)  The 
 word  in  its  original  means 
 overseer,  as  Joseph  was  in 
 Potiphar's  house,  (Gen.  xxxix. 
 4,)  or  as  the  three  thousand 
 six  hundred  men  were  in  So- 
 lomon's temple,  (2  Chron.  ii. 
 IS,)  or  as  Uzri  was  of  the  Le- 
 vites.  (Neh.  xi.  22.)  In  the 
 New  Testament,  however,  the 
 term  is  used  to  denote  an  of- 
 ficer or  officers  of  the  church, 
 but  their  precise  rank  or  juris- 
 diction is  a  matter  of  contro- 
 versy. Paul  describes  the 
 qualifications  for  the  office 
 particularly  in  his  letter  to 
 Timothy.  (1  Tim.  iii.  2-7.) 
 Christ  is  figuratively  called 
 the  shepherd  and  bishop  of 
 souls.  (1  "P5t.  ii.  25.) 
 
 BISHOPRIC.  (Acts  i.  20.) 
 The  jurisdiction,  charge,  or 
 office  of  a  bishop. 
 
 BITS.    (See  Harness.) 
 
 BITTER,  (Jer.  ii.  19,)  and 
 BITTERNESS,  (Prov.xi  v.  10,) 
 are  words  used  figuratively  to 
 denote  the  severity  of  sorrow 
 or  suffering. 
 
 BITTER  HERBS.  (Ex.  xii. 
 8.)  The  JeWb  V7ere  command- 
 ed to  eat  the  passover  with  a 
 salad  of  bitter  herbs;  and 
 their  modera  historians  sup- 
 
 BLA 
 
 pose  that  hoarhound,  wild  let- 
 tuce, tansy,  &c.  were  used,  as 
 they  still  are  by  the  Jews  in 
 some  countries.  The  use  of 
 them  on  that  occasion  was 
 intended  to  call  to  their  re- 
 membrance the  severe  and 
 cruel  bondage  from  which  God 
 delivered  them  when  they 
 were  brought  out  of  Egypt. 
 
 BITHRON.  (2Sam.  ii.  29.) 
 This  is  not  probably  the  name 
 of  any  particular  place,  but  a 
 general  terra  denoting  a  range 
 of  hills  and  vales. 
 
 BITHYNIA.  (Acts  xvi.  7.)  A 
 province  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is 
 bounded  on  the  east  by  Paph- 
 lagonia,  north  by  the  Black 
 Sea,  and  south  by  Phrygia  and 
 Galatia.  It  is  directly  oppo- 
 site to  Constantinople.  The 
 gospel  was  introduced  into 
 this  province  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod. (Comp.  Acts  ii.  9,  and 
 IPet.  i.  1.)  There  is  a  re- 
 markable testimony  in  eccle- 
 siastical history,  to  the  purity 
 and  firmness  of  the  Christians 
 of  Bithynia,  at  the  close  of 
 the  first  and  the  beginning  of 
 the  second  century. 
 
 BITTERN.  asa.xxxiv.  11.) 
 Some  bird  of  solitary  habits, 
 that  frequents  ruins  and  other 
 desolate  places.  The  bird, 
 known  in  modern  days  by 
 this  name,  inhabits  fens  and 
 marshes,  and  has  a  deep 
 hoarse  cry,  which  is  often 
 heard,  in  the  twili°;ht,  from 
 its  lonely  haunts.  The  lan- 
 guage of  prophecy  (Isa.  xiv. 
 23,  and  xxxiv.  11.  Zeph.  ii. 
 14)  imports  the  utmost  soli- 
 tude and  desolation. 
 
 BLACK,  BLACKNESS,  (Job 
 XXX.  30.  Joel  ii.  6,)  are  words 
 used  figuratively,  to  denote 
 shame,  terror,  perplexity,  des- 
 pair, mourning,  &c.  We  often 
 find  them  employedat  thiflday, 
 in  eastern  wrhlngs,  to  express 
 shame  and  confusion. 
 
 BLAINS.  (Ex.  ix.  9.)  Burn- 
 ing pustules  or  ulcers,  which 
 106 
 
BLA 
 
 broke  out  upon  the  Egyptians 
 and  all  their  beasts,  and  con- 
 stituted the  sixth  plague.  The 
 ashes  from  the  furnaces 
 (brick-kilns,  perhaps)  were 
 taken  by  Moses,  a  handful  at 
 a  time,  and  scattered  to  the 
 winds;  and  wherever  it  fell, 
 on  man  or  beast,  it  caused 
 this  dreadful  disease  to  ap- 
 pear. Perhaps  reftrence  is 
 made  to  this  plague  in  Deut. 
 xxviii.  27. 
 
 BLASPHEMY.  (Col.  iii.  8.) 
 The  word  in  its  original  use 
 ienotes  all  manner  of  detrac- 
 tion or  calumny,  such  as  is 
 expressed  by  the  terms  rail, 
 revile,  speak  evil,&c. ;  but  in 
 the  restricted  sense  of  the 
 Scriptures,  and  of  common 
 use,  it  denotes  reproachful, 
 irreverent,  or  insulting  lan- 
 guage concerning  God  or  any 
 of  nis  names  or  attributes. 
 (Lev.  xxiv.  10—16.)  Whoever 
 thinks  of  the  character  of 
 God  as  infinitely  holy,  just, 
 and  good,  will  not  be  surpris- 
 ed that  this  offence  is  regard- 
 ed as  very  heinous,  and  Is  so 
 fearfully  punished.  There  is 
 no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
 sin  of  profane  swearing,  so 
 common  at  this  day,  is  less 
 odious  and  oflFensive  to  God 
 than  it  was  in  the  time  of 
 Moses. 
 
 Blasphemy  against  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  (Matt.  xii.  32,) 
 such  as  the  Pharisees  were 
 guilty  of  when  they  ascribed 
 the  miracle  of  curing  the 
 blind  and  dumb  man  (who 
 was  also  possessed  with  a  de- 
 vil)  to  the  agency  of  Beelzebub 
 or  Satan,  is  declared  to  be  un- 
 pardonable. 
 
 Many  persons  are  appre- 
 hensive that  they  have  fallen 
 into  this  sin,  and  hence  give 
 themselves  up  to  despair ;  but 
 it  is  probable,  that  however 
 dangerous  and  fatal  may  be 
 our  offences  against  the  Holy 
 Spirit  in  rejecting  his  gra- 
 cious influences  and  refusing 
 
 BLE 
 
 to  yield  to  his  persuasions. 
 (Heb.  vi.  4—8,  and  x.  26—31,; 
 the  fear  is  sometimes  ground- 
 less. How  near  the  ridicule 
 and  contempt  of  religion  and 
 its  ordinances,  the  sporting 
 with  the  work  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit  on  men's  hearts,  and 
 the  unbelief  in  and  opposition 
 to  the  S*ripture,  which  is  all 
 given  by  this  divine  Agent, 
 may  approach  to  the  fearful 
 extremity  of  guilt  which  the 
 unpardonable  sin  must  in- 
 volve, the  judgment  of  the 
 great  day  will  reveal. 
 
 BLEMISH.  (Ex.  xii.  5.) 
 Whatever  renders  a  person 
 or  thing  imperfect.  The 
 priests  under  the  Jewish  law 
 were  required  to  be  free  from 
 personal  blemishes,  and  the 
 defects  which  were  accounted 
 blemishes  are  particvdarly  de- 
 scribed. (Lev.  xxi.  18 — ^20,  and 
 xxii.  20—24.)  So  also  of  ani- 
 mals. (Deut.  XV.  21.)  The  word 
 is  figuratively  used,  (2  Pet.  ii. 
 13,  and  (.^ots)  Jude  12.) 
 
 bless;  BLESSED,  BLESS- 
 ING. (Gen.  xii.  2;  xxii.  17, 
 18.)  These  words  are  of  fre- 
 quent occurrence  in  the  sa- 
 cred writings,  and  their  par- 
 ticular force  may  generally 
 be  determined  by  the  con- 
 nexion. 
 
 Men  are  said  to  bless  God 
 when  they  ascribe  to  him  the 
 praise  and  glory  which  are 
 due  to  him.  (Ps.  cxlv.)  God 
 blesses  men  in  bestowing  up- 
 on them  continually  mercies, 
 spiritual  and  temporal.  (Job 
 xlii.  12.  Ps.  xlv.  2.)  And  men 
 are  said  to  bless  their  fellow 
 creatures  when,  as  in  ancient 
 times,  in  the  spirit  of  prophe- 
 cy they  predicted  blessings  to 
 come  upon  them  This  was 
 the  kind  of  blessmg  which 
 the  patriarchs  pronounced. 
 (Gen.  xlix.)  So  Mosss  blessed 
 Israel.  (Deut.  xxxiii.) 
 
 The  form  of  blessing  pre- 
 scribed  by  the  Jewish  ritual 
 (Num.  vi.  23—27)  is  admirably 
 '    107 
 
BLO 
 
 simple  and  sublime.  It  was 
 oronounced  standing,  with  a 
 loud  voice,  and  with  the  hands 
 raised  towards  heaven.  (Luke 
 xxiv.  50.)  National  blessings 
 and  cursings  were  sometimes 
 pronounced.  (Deut.  xxvii.  and 
 xxviii.   Isa.  xix.  25.) 
 
 The  cup  of  blessing,  (1 
 Cor.  X.  16,)  and  cup  of  sal- 
 vation, (Ps.  cxvi.  13,)  are  ex- 
 pressions derived,  as  we  sup- 
 {)Ose,  from  a  custom  preva- 
 enl  among  the  Jews  at  their 
 feasts. 
 
 The  master  of  the  feast  took 
 a  cup  of  wine  in  his  hand, 
 and  solemnly  blessed  God  for 
 it,  and  for  all  the  meicies 
 which  were  then  acknowledg- 
 ed. It  was  then  passed  to  all 
 the  guests,  eacn  of  whom 
 drank  of  it  in  his  turn.  The 
 aptness  and  force  of  the  fig- 
 ures employed  in  the  above 
 passages  are  thus  made  obvi- 
 ous. 
 
 Blessing,  valley  of.  (See 
 Valley.) 
 
 BLOOD  (Ex.  xxix.  12)  is  the 
 fluid  of  life  in  the  animal 
 bodv.  Its  use  was  expressly- 
 prohibited  to  Noah  when  eve- 
 ry thing  else  was  freely  given 
 him.  (Gen.  ix.  4.)  By  the 
 Jewish  law  also,  it  was  ex- 
 pressly and  solemnly  forbid- 
 den.   (Lev.  xvii.  10,  &;c.) 
 
 The  reason  of  this  interdic- 
 tion is,pr.>bably,because  blood 
 was  sacredly  appropriated. 
 (Lev.  xvii.  11.)  The  Jewish 
 ritual  abounds  with  the  use 
 of  blood,  (Heb.  ix.  22,)  and  the 
 manner  of  employing  it  is 
 stated  with  minuteness  in 
 Heb.  ix.  and  x.,  where  also  ii.s 
 use  and  effects  are  shown  in 
 striking  contrast  with  the 
 blood  shed  upon  the  cress. 
 (See  also  Acts  xx.  2S.  Rom.  v. 
 9.  Eph.  i.  7.  Col.  i.  14.  Heb. 
 vii.  27.   IJohni.  7.) 
 
 The  prohibition  of  eating 
 blood  or  animals  that  are 
 strangled,  has  been  always 
 rigidly  observed  by  the  Jews. 
 
 BOA 
 
 In  the  Cnristian  church,  the 
 custom  of  refraining  from 
 things  strangled,  and  from 
 blood,  contin"ued  for  a  long 
 time.  In  the  council  of  the 
 apostles  held  at  Jerusalem, 
 (Acts  XV.)  it  was  declared 
 that  converts  from  paganism 
 should  not  be  subject  to  the 
 legal  ceremonies,  but  that 
 they  should  refrain  from  idol- 
 atry, from  fornication,  from 
 eating  blood,  and  from  such 
 animals  as  were  strangled, 
 and  their  blood  thereby  re- 
 tained  in  their  bodies;  which 
 decree  was  observed  for  many 
 ages  by  the  church. 
 
 Tt  is  ooserved  that  the  no- 
 tion, that  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
 tims was  peculiarly  sacred  to 
 the  gods,  is  impressed  on  all 
 ancient  pagan  mythology.  (See 
 Christ.) 
 
 Avenger  of  blood.  (See 
 Avenge.) 
 
 BLUE.    (See  Colours.) 
 
 BOANERGES.  (Mark  iii. 
 17.)  The  name  given  by  Christ 
 to  James  and  John.  Some  have 
 supposed  that  this  name  indi- 
 cated the  power  which  those 
 apostles  should  exert-  in  the 
 introduction  of  the  gospel  dis- 
 pensation. It  seems  trifling 
 to  suppose  that  it  refers  to  the 
 mode  or  tone  of  their  preach- 
 ing. 
 
 BOAR.  (Tg.  Ixxx.  13.)  This 
 is  the  original  stock  of  the 
 common  hog ;  and,  in  a  wild 
 slate,  is  a  very  furious  and 
 formidable  animal.  Modern 
 travellers  tell  us  that  they  are 
 found  in  ereat  numbers  on  the 
 banks  ot  the  Jordan,  and 
 among  the  reeds  of  the  sea  of 
 Tiberias.  The  allusion  of  the 
 psalmist,  in  the  above  pas 
 sage,  may  be  to  the  coming 
 forth  of  the  animal  from  the 
 shady  marsh  or  woods ;  or  it 
 may  be  to  his  well  known  ha- 
 bit of  turning  up  the  earth  in 
 search  of  roots  for  food,  and 
 in  this  way  destroying  rulii- 
 vated  ground.  (For  a  panicu- 
 108 
 
BOO 
 
 lar  description  and  cut,  see 
 Natural  History  of  the 
 Bible,  by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union. 
 art.  Boar.) 
 
 BOAZ,  or  BOOZ,  (Ruth  ii. 
 1,)  was  a  descendant  of  Judah ; 
 and  througli  him  is  traced  the 
 regular  succession  of  Jewisli 
 kings.  (Matt.  i.  5.)  Boaz  was 
 a  man  of  wealth,  and  of  great 
 respectability  ;  and,  from  his 
 conduct  towards  his  poor  kins- 
 woman, Ruth,  we  suppose  him 
 to  have  been  a  man  of  strict 
 integrity,  and  of  an  estimable 
 character.  (See  Affectionate 
 Daughter-in-law,  or  Life  of 
 Ruth,  by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 ch.  iii.  iv.  and  v.) 
 
 BOLLED.  (Ex.  ii.  31.)  The 
 expression,  jlax  teas  boiled, 
 means  that  it  was  podded,  or 
 nearly  in  a  state  to  be  gailier- 
 ed,  and  of  course  the  loss  of 
 it  was  much  more  severe  than 
 it  would  have  been  at  an  ear- 
 lier stase  of  its  growth. 
 
 -BOND,  BONDAGE,  BOND- 
 MAN,B0NDW01VIAN,B0ND- 
 MAID.    (See  Servant.) 
 
 BONNETS.  (See  Clothes, 
 Mitre.) 
 
 BOOK.  (Ex.  xvii.  14.)  What 
 we  call  books  were  unknown 
 to  the  ancient  Jews,  at  least 
 in  their  present  convenient 
 form.  Letters  were  engraved 
 on  stone,  brick,  metal,  (as 
 lead  and  copper,)  or  wood, 
 and  also  on  cloth  and  skins, 
 and  at  a  later  period  on  parch- 
 ment. (2  Tim.  iv.  13.)  Tablets 
 of  lead  and  brass  or  copper,  of 
 great  antiquity,  have  been  dis- 
 covered in  modern  times. 
 
 The  earliest  mode  of  pre- 
 serving inscriptions  was  by 
 engraving  on  a  rock.  Such 
 inscriptions  often  occur  to  the 
 eastern  traveller. 
 
 The  vxriting  table  mentioned 
 Luke  i.  63,  was  probably  a 
 tablet  covered  with  wax,  or 
 otherwise  prepared  to  be  writ- 
 ten upon.  (Deut.  xxvii.  2.  3.) 
 Such  tablets  were  used  in  Eng- 
 land as  lately  as  the  year  13^. 
 10 
 
 BOO 
 
 Leaves  and  the  bark  of  trees 
 were  also  used,  and  were  often 
 prepared  with  much  skilL 
 The  people  of  Ceylon  write 
 with  a  bodkin  on  broad  and 
 thick  leaves,  cut  into  narrow 
 slips  ;  and  these  leaves,  being 
 
 tened  together,make  books, 
 which  they  call  Ollas.  The 
 missionaries  often  prepared 
 tracts  in  this  form,  before  pa* 
 per  and  printing  were  intro- 
 duced upon  the  island.  In 
 Sumatra,  and  among  the  Indi- 
 ans  of  North  America,  bark  ia 
 still  use»l  for  making  letters 
 and  pictures. 
 
 Leather,  and  linen  or  cotton 
 cloth,  were  also  used.  These 
 were  prepared  in  the  form  of 
 long  rolls,  twelve  or  fourteen 
 inches  wide,  and  fastened  at 
 each  end  to  slicks,  (like  the 
 rollers  to  which  maps  are  at- 
 tached,) and  which  were  roll- 
 ed together  till  they  met  mid- 
 way. Sometimes  these  leaves 
 were  connected  in  the  form 
 of  modern  books,  and  opened 
 in  the  same  way.  In  this  case 
 the  sheets  were  fastened  to 
 rods,  and  these  rods  passed 
 through  rings,  and  thus  form- 
 ed the  back  of  the  book. 
 
 The  writing  was  generally 
 in  capital  letters,  and  without 
 punctuation  or  divisi»n  of 
 words;  and  when  used,  the 
 reader  unrolled  the  iVIS.  as 
 far  as  the  place  which  he 
 wished  to  find,  and  kept  be- 
 fore him  just  so  much  as  he 
 would  read,  thus : 
 
BOO 
 
 The  pages  resembled  the 
 following  in  their  general  ap- 
 pearance, though   they  were 
 
 INTHEBEGI 
 
 NNINGWAST 
 
 HEWORDAN 
 
 DTHEWORD 
 
 WASWJTHG 
 
 ODANDTHE 
 
 WORDWASG 
 ODTHESAME 
 WASINTHEB 
 EGINNINGW 
 ITHGODALL 
 THINGSWER 
 
 These  columns  could  be  di- 
 vided from  one  another,  and 
 used  separately,  as  we  may 
 cut  the  columns  of  a  newspa- 
 per which  is  printed  on  one 
 side  only,  and  arrange  the  ex- 
 traas  as  we  like.  Sometimes 
 the  reading  was  what  is  called 
 furrow-wise.  The  first  line 
 was  from  right  to  left,  and  the 
 second  from  left  to  right,  and 
 so  on,  alternately,  like  plough- 
 ing a  field.    The  roll  or  book 
 
 BOO 
 
 of  course  wider  and  longer 
 than  these,  and  were  read 
 from  right  to  left : 
 
 EMADEBYHI  INHIMWASLI 
 
 MANDWITHO  FEANDTHELI 
 UTHIMWASN  FEWASTHELI 
 OTANYTHIN  GHTOFMENA 
 
 GMADETHA  NDTHELIGHT 
 
 TWASMADE  SHINETHIND 
 
 John  i.  1—5. 
 of  curses,  which  Ezekiel  saw, 
 was  thirty  feet  long  and  twen- 
 ty wide.  The  writing  was 
 usually  on  one  side,  but  not 
 always.  (Ezek.  ii.  10.) 
 
 When  the  roll  was  done 
 with,  it  was  carefully  deposit- 
 ed in  a  case.  The  following 
 cut  shows  the  end  of  the  roll 
 in  its  place ;  and  also  the 
 inkstand  or  bottle,  with  the 
 cover  thrown  off,  and  the  reed 
 pen  or  style : 
 
 Another  form  of  the  scroll,  ]  secured,  as  above  described 
 and  also  a  collection  of  sheets  with  rings  and  rods,  are  r© 
 in  the  shape  of  a  modern  book,  |  presented  as  follows : 
 
BOO 
 
 A  very  good  idea  may  be 
 formed  of  an  ancient  roll  by 
 supposing  a  common  newspa- 
 per to  have  rods  or  rollers  at 
 Ihe  right  and  left  sides.  The 
 reader  talces  hold  of  the  rods, 
 and  unrolls  the  sheet  until  he 
 comes  to  the  desired  column. 
 Thus  in  Luke  iv.  17,  the 
 phrase  "  opened  the  book," 
 would  properly  read  "  unroll- 
 ed the  scroll,"  and  in  ver.  20, 
 for  "  closed  the  book,"  read 
 "  rolled  up  the  volume,"  or 
 "scroll."  This  shows  the 
 force  of  the  figure,  (Isa.  xxxiv. 
 4,)  where  the  heavens  are  re- 
 presented as  rolled  together, 
 as  suddenly  as  the  opposite 
 ends  of  an  unrolled  scroll  fly 
 to  meet  each  other,  when  the 
 hand  of  the  reader  is  with- 
 drawn from  it. 
 
 A  kind  of  paper  was  made 
 from  the  stalk  of  an  Egyptian 
 vegetable  called  papyrus,  or 
 
 !mper  reed,  which  is  still 
 bund  in  various  parts  of  In- 
 dia. (See  Bulrush.)  The  stalk 
 was  slit,  with  a  needle,  into 
 plates  or  layers  as  broad 
 and  thin  as  possible.  Some 
 of  them  were  ten  or  fifteen 
 inches  broad.  These  strips 
 were  laid,  side  by  side,  upon  a 
 flat  horizontal  surface,  and 
 then  immersed  in  the  water 
 of  the  Nile ;  which  not  only 
 served  as  a  kind  of  sizing,  but 
 llso  caused  the  edges  of  the 
 itrips  to  adhere  together  as  if 
 jlued.  The  sheets,  thus  form- 
 ed, were  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
 ihen  covered  with  a  fine  wash, 
 which  made  them  smooth  and 
 flexible.  They  were  finally 
 beaten  with  hammers,  and 
 polished.  Twenty  or  more  of 
 these  sheets  were  sometimes 
 connected  in  one  roll. 
 
 The  pen  or  style*  was  made 
 of  some  hard  substance,  per- 
 haps not  unlike  the   instru- 
 
 •  Hence  the  word  style,  siguityin? 
 one's  manner  of  writing — easy  sh/le, 
 ^igant  style,  kc. 
 
 BOO 
 
 ments  used  by  glaziers  to  cut 
 glass.  (Jer.  xv'n.  1.)  Upon  ta- 
 blets of  wax  an  instrument 
 was  used,  one  end  of  which 
 was  painted,  to  mark  the  let- 
 ters, and  the  other  broad  and 
 flat,  to  make  erasures.  Pens 
 or  styles  of  copper  are  now 
 used  by  the  Ceylonese.  On 
 soft  substances,  like  linen  or 
 papyrus,  the  marks  were 
 pamted  with  a  fine  hair  pen- 
 cil, as  is  practised  among  the 
 Chinese  to  this  day. 
 
 Most  of  the  eastern  nations 
 now  use  the  reed-pen,  which 
 is  split  with  an  instrument 
 used  as  we  use  the  penknife. 
 (Jer.  xxxvi.  2-3.)  The  pith  is 
 removed, and  the  bark  or  rind, 
 being  split  like  a  quill,  retains 
 and  properly  slieds  the  ink. 
 It  is  not  hard  or  stitf  enough 
 to  be  used  long  without  mend- 
 ing. We  have  half  a  dozen 
 of  them  from  India  now  on  our 
 table.    (See  Pen.) 
 
 Ink  was  prepared  from  a 
 variety  of  substances.  (See 
 Ink.)  And  those  who  were 
 skilful  in  writing  wore  an 
 inkhorn  fastened  to  the  gir- 
 dle, (Ezek.  ix.  2,)  which  is  the 
 present  mode  among  the  Per- 
 sians and  the  Moors  of  Bar- 
 bary.    (See  Inkhorn.) 
 
 As  tables  were  unknown, 
 the  paper,  or  other  substance 
 written  upon,  was  laid  upon 
 the  knees,  or  held  firmly  with 
 the  left  hand. 
 
 A  sealed  book  was  a  roll 
 fastened  together  by  a  band 
 or  string,  aiid  a  seal  affixed  to 
 the  knot.   (Isa.  xxix.  11.) 
 
 Book  of  the  generation 
 (Gen.  V.  1.  Malt.  i.  1)  signifies 
 the  genealogical  history  or 
 records  of  atamily  or  nation. 
 
 Book  of  the  living,  (Ps. 
 Ixix.  28,)  and  the  kindred 
 phrase,  book  of  life,  (Rev. 
 xxi.  27,)  are  supposed  to  allude 
 to  the  genealogical  lists  or  re- 
 gisters'kept  by  the  Jews,  from 
 which  the  names  of  the  dead 
 were  {.rased.  (Isa.  iv.  3.)  Tho 
 111 
 
BOS 
 
 aptness  and  force  of  the  figu- 
 rative use  of  the  terms  is  suf- 
 ficiently obvious. 
 
 Book  of  judgment.  (Dan. 
 vii.  10.)  The  allusion  here  is 
 probably  either  to  the  prac- 
 tice of  opening  books  of  ac- 
 count to  settle  with  servants 
 or  labourers,  or  to  the  custom 
 of  the  Persian  kings  to  have 
 a  book  in  which  a  daily  record 
 is  made  of  special  services 
 performed  by  any  of  their 
 subjects,  and  of  the  rewards 
 which  were  given  to  the  indi- 
 viduals. (Esth.  vi.  1—3.) 
 
 Book  of  the  wars  op  the 
 Lord,  (Num.  xxi.  14,)  Book 
 OP  Jasher  or  the  righteous, 
 (Josh.  X.  13,  and  2  Sam.  i.  18,) 
 and  Book  op  the  Chroni- 
 cles (or  annals)  of  the  kings 
 of  Judah  and  Israel,  (1  Kings 
 xiv.  19.  29,)  are  the  names  of 
 ancient  writings  known  to 
 the  Jews,  but  not  preserved  in 
 the  sacred  canon. 
 
 The  remark  of  the  wise 
 man,  (Eccl.  xii.  12,)  on  the 
 subject  of  making  books,  is 
 supposed  to  amount  to  this  :— 
 "  That  the  propensity  of  some 
 men  to  collect  and  amass 
 books  for  libraries  is  insatia- 
 ble ;  that  it  is  a  business  to 
 which  there  is  no  end ;  the 
 designation  of  one  leading  to 
 that  of  another,  and  that  again 
 of  another,  and  soon  intermin' 
 ably  ;  and  that  the  much  study 
 connected  with  this  endless 
 labour  and  '  weariness  of  the 
 flesh'  may  render  its  votary  a 
 fit  subject  of  the  admonition, 
 that  '  the  conclusion  of  the 
 whole  matter,'  or  the  great 
 end  of  life, '  is  to  fear  God  and 
 keep  his  commandments.' " 
 (See  Writing.) 
 
 BOOTH.  (See  Garden.) 
 
 BOKDER.  (See  Clothes.) 
 
 BORROW.  (Ex.  xii.  35.) 
 The  meaning  of  the  word 
 here  translated  borrow  is 
 ask,  and  does  not  imply  any 
 promise  to  return. 
 
 BOSOM.    (John    xiii.   23.) 
 
 EOT 
 
 The  dress  of  the  Jews  was 
 such  as  allowed  them  to  carrj 
 within  a  fold  in  the  bosom  of 
 the  robe  what  could  not  be  car- 
 ried in  the  hand.  Hence  the 
 expressions  Isa.  xl.  11,  and 
 Luke  vi.  38.  It  was  also  used 
 to  denote  a  place  of  rest  and 
 security.  Hence  the  term 
 Abraham's  bosom  is  figura- 
 tively spoken  of  as  the  abode 
 of  Lazarus.  (Luke  xvi.  23.) 
 No  name  awakened  such  as- 
 sociations in  the  mind  of  a  Jew 
 as  that  of  Abraham.  (Luke 
 xiii.  28.  John  viii.  33.  39.  57. 
 Acts  xiii.  26.)  The  use  of  this 
 term  (John  i.  18)  imports  also 
 the  peculiar,  mysterious,  and 
 perfect  unity  of  the  Father  and 
 Son. 
 
 BOSSES.  (Job  XV.  26.)  The 
 prominent  or  projecting  parts 
 of  the  buckler,  and  of  course 
 the  thickest  and  strongest. 
 
 BOTTLE.  (Gen.  xxi.  14.) 
 Ancient  bottles  were  made  of 
 the  skins  of  animals,  which 
 were  properly  dressed  for  the 
 purpose.  The  openings  of  the 
 skin  were  closed,  except  at 
 the  neck,  through  which  the 
 liquor  was  to  be  received  and 
 discharged,  and  which  was 
 fastened  by  a  string  like  a  bag. 
 
 The  following  is  copied  from 
 
BOW 
 
 a  fragment  of  the  Antiquities 
 of  Herculaneum,  and  repre- 
 sents a  young  woman  pouring 
 wine  from  a  bottle  into  a  cup. 
 
 Tiiey  were  of  course  of  dif- 
 ferent sizes,  as  the  skins  of 
 kids,  goats,  or  oxen  might  be 
 used.  "Bruce  describes  par- 
 ticularly a  bottle  which  he 
 saw  in  Arabia,  made  in  this 
 manner,  of  an  ox-skin,  which 
 would  hold  sixty  gallons,  and 
 two  of  which  were  a  load  for 
 a  camel. 
 
 Our  missionaries  in  eastern 
 countries  frequently  speak  of 
 the  goat-skins  and  leathern 
 bottles  in  which  they  carry  wa- 
 ter in  their  journeys.  Where 
 the  travelling  is  rough,and  the 
 vessels  likelylo  strike  against 
 each  other,  they  are  made  of 
 the  safest  materials  that  can 
 he  found.  The  skins  or  bottles 
 used  for  new  wine  we:e  of 
 the  freshest  and  most  flei')'ble 
 kind,  in  order  that  they  might 
 the  better  endure  the  process 
 of  fermentation.  (Matt.  ix.  17.) 
 
 The  effect  of  smoke  on  a 
 skin-bottle  would  be  to  black- 
 en and  shrivel  it.  (Ps.cxix.83.) 
 
 BOW.    (See  Armour.) 
 
 Bow.  A  posture.  (Gen. 
 xxxvii.  10.)  To  bow  down 
 one's  self  is  expressive  of 
 great  reverence  and  humility. 
 (Gen.  xxiv.  26.  48.  1  Kings  i. 
 53,  and  ii.  19.)  It  was  a  com- 
 mon mode  of  salutation  in  the 
 east  to  kneel  upon  one  knee, 
 and  bow  the  head  until  it 
 touched  the  ground.  (See 
 Prayer.) 
 
 It  is  still  the  custom  in  many 
 eastern  nations  for  subjects  to 
 kneel  before  the  throne  of  the 
 king,  and  bow  their  heads 
 slowly,  till  they  touch  the 
 earth.  Sir  William  Jones, 
 in  his  history  of  Nadir  Shah, 
 says,  thai  as  Nadir  approach- 
 ed, the  people  bowed  their 
 heads  with  stiame,  and  touch- 
 ed the  earth  with  the  forehead 
 of  humiliation. 
 
 BOWELS.  (1  Kings  iii.  26.) 
 10* 
 
 BRA 
 
 This  term  is  used  by  the  sa- 
 cred  writers  evidently  in  a 
 figurative  sense,  for  affections 
 or  emotions  of  the  heart.  (Col. 
 iii.  12.    IJohniii.  17.) 
 
 BOX  TREE.  (Isa.  xli.  19.) 
 An  evergreen,  whoss  perfect 
 proportions,  beauty  of  foliage, 
 and  utility  might  illustrate 
 the  prosperity  and  grace 
 which  God  would  bestow  on 
 Zion.    (Isa.  Ix.  13.) 
 
 BOZRAH,  (Gen.  xxxvi.  33,) 
 called  by  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
 mans Bostra,  was  situated 
 about  twenty-four  miles  south- 
 east of  Edrei.  It  is  often  men- 
 tioned in  the  Scriptures  as 
 the  chief  city  of  Edom.  (Isa. 
 xxxiv.  6,  and'lxiii.  1.  Jer. xl viii. 
 24,  and  xlix.  13.  22.  Amos  i. 
 12.)  It  is  called  by  Jeremiah 
 a  city  of  the  Moabiles,  and  it 
 was  probably  taken  from  Am- 
 mon  by  the  Edomites,  and 
 again  from  the  Edomites  by 
 the  Moabites.  As  it  was  situ- 
 ated upon  the  confines  of  seve- 
 ral countries  who  were  often 
 at  war  with  each  other,  these 
 changes  were  likely  to  hap- 
 pen. It  is  now  the  largest 
 city  in  that  district,  and  nas 
 been  celebrated  as  a  strong- 
 hold of  the  Nestor ians. 
 
 The  prophecies  respecting 
 this  place,  some  of  which  are 
 cited  above,  are  among  the 
 most  wonderful  and  sublime 
 on  record. 
 
 BRACELET.  (Gen.  xxiv, 
 30.)  An  ornament  (chain  or 
 clasp)  worn  on  the  arm. 
 Among  eastern  princesses  it 
 is  a  badge  of  royalty,  and  was 
 probably  regarded  as  such  in 
 the  time  of  David.  (2  Sam.  i. 
 10.)  The  royal  bracelet  was 
 of  much  richer  materials,  and 
 was  worn  above  the  elbow ; 
 the  common  bracelet  was 
 worn  on  the  wrist.  (Ezek. 
 xvi.  11.) 
 
 BRANCH.    (Ps.  civ.  12.) 
 
 This  word  is  often  figuratively 
 
 used  by  the   sacred  writers, 
 
 (Ps.  Ixxx.  15.    John  xv.  5,  6,, 
 
 113 
 
ERE 
 
 and  is  also  one  of  the  titles 
 of  the  Messiah.  (Isa.  xi.  1, 
 comp.  with  Isa.  liii.  2.  Zech. 
 iii.  8,  and  vi.  12.)  The  family 
 of  Jesse  is  represented  under 
 the  figure  of  the  stock  of  a 
 tree,  firmly  rooted;  and  the 
 coming  of  Christ  from  the 
 seed  of  David  is  represented 
 as  the  shooting  forth  of  a 
 branch,  which  is  here  called, 
 by  way  of  distinction  and 
 eminence,  '  THE  BRANCH;' 
 for  it  may  well  be  said 
 that  Christ,  even  in  his  com- 
 mon nature,  far  surpassed 
 all  the  house  of  David,  in 
 the  dignity,  power,  and  glory 
 both  of  his  person  and  ofiice. 
 BRASS.  (Gen.  iv.  22.)  The 
 composition  which  we  call 
 brass  was  invented  as  late  as 
 the  thirteenth  century.  That 
 which  is  called  trass  in  the 
 sacred  writings  was  probably 
 what  we  call  copper.  It  was 
 used  for  a  variety  of  purposes 
 about  the  temple,  and  also  for 
 fetters,  (Judg.  xvi.  21.  2  Kings 
 XXV.  7,')  arnTour,  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
 5,6,)  and  musical  instruments. 
 (1  Chron.  XV.  19.  1  Cor.xiii.  1.) 
 The  words  brass,  brazen,  kc. 
 occurring  under  the  words 
 Armour,  Altar,  Book,  &c. 
 are  used  in  conformity  with 
 the  common  English  transla- 
 tion of  the  Bible,  and  not  with 
 technical  accuracy. 
 
 BRAZEN  SEA.  (See  La- 
 yer.) 
 
 BRAZEN  SERPENT.  (See 
 Serpent.) 
 
 BREAD.  (Gen.  xiv.  18.)  The 
 bread  of  the  Jews  was  gene- 
 rally made  of  wheat.  Barley 
 and  other  grains  were  some- 
 times used.    (Judg.  vii.  13.) 
 
 The  materials  were  prepared 
 as  in  modern  days.  (See  Mill, 
 Sieve.)  The  process  of  knead- 
 ing it  was  performed  in  kneac- 
 in'g-trou2iis,  (Gen.  xviii.  6.  Ex. 
 xii.  S4.  'Jer.  vii.  18,)  or  wooden 
 bowls,  such  as  the  Arabians  use 
 at  this  day  for  a  like  purpose. 
 ll   has   been   supposed   by 
 
 BRE 
 
 some  that  the  kneading  waB 
 done  upon  a  circular  piece  of 
 leather,  such  as  is  now  used  in 
 Persia,  and  which  would  be 
 more  properly  called  a  knead- 
 ing-bag,  as  it  draws  up  like 
 a  knapsack,  in  the  manner 
 
 represented  in  the  above  cut. 
 Either  of  the  utensils  would 
 be  easily  transported.  Very 
 simple  leaven  was  used  in 
 th  dough.  The  loayes  were 
 shaped  like  a  plate,  and  when 
 leavened,  were  ordinarily  of 
 the  thickness  of  one's  little 
 fin?er.    (See  Table.) 
 
 The  unleavened  bread  was 
 very  thin,  and  was  broken, 
 not  cut.  (Lam.  iv.  4.  Matt, 
 xiv.  19;  XV.  36;  xxvl.  26.) 
 It  has  been  said  that  the  thick- 
 ness or  thinness  of  the  loaves 
 was  regulated  by  the  time 
 they  were  to  be  kept;  that 
 which  was  to  be  kept  longest 
 being  made  thick,that  it  might 
 retain  its  moisture.  This  is 
 contrary  to  modern  philoso- 
 phy on  this  subject,  as  we  see 
 m  the  manufacture  of  ship- 
 bread.  (For  the  manner  of 
 baking,  see  Ovens,  Cake.) 
 
 The  term  bread  is  often  used 
 for  food  or  provisions  in  gene- 
 ral. 
 
 Bread  corn  (Isa.  xxviii. 
 28)  is  used  for  wheat,  barley, 
 or  any  other  grain  from  which 
 bread  was  made. 
 
 The  figurative  expressions, 
 bread  ofisorrows,(Pa.cxx\u.2,) 
 and  bread  of  tears,  (Ps.  Ixxx. 
 
BRE 
 
 6,)  nriay  denote  that  the  suffer- 
 ing of  sorrow  and  the  shed- 
 ding of  tears  had  become  as 
 much  a  part  of  the  portion 
 of  every  day  as  one's  daily 
 bread.  So  the  bread  of  wick- 
 edness,(^rov.  iv.l7,)  and  bread 
 of  deceit,  (Prov.  xx.  17.)  de- 
 note not  only  a  living  or 
 estate  obtained  by  fraud  and 
 Bin,  but  that  to  do  wickedly  is 
 as  much  the  portion  of  a 
 wicked  man's  life  as  to  eat 
 his  daily  bread. 
 
 Shew-bread  (Ex.  xxv.  30) 
 was  unleavened  bread  pre- 
 pared anew  every  Sabbath, 
 and  presented  hot  on  the 
 golden  table,  in  twelve  loaves 
 of  a  square  or  oblong  shape, 
 according  to  the  number  of 
 the  tribes  of  Israel.  Salt  and 
 incense  were  presented  at  the 
 same  time.  It  is  supposed 
 that  the  loaves  were  placed 
 either  in  two  piles  or  m  two 
 rows,  with  six  loaves  in  each, 
 and  it  was  called  shew-bread, 
 or  bread  of  the  face,  or  the 
 bread  of  setting  before,  be- 
 cause it  stood  continually  be- 
 fore the  Lord. 
 
 The  old  loaves  were  re- 
 moved every  Sabbath,  (Lev. 
 xxiv.  8,)  and  as  a  general 
 rule,  were  to  be  eaten  by  the 
 priests  alone,  and  by  them 
 only  in  the  court  of  the  sanc- 
 tuary. (1  Sam.  xxi.  1—6.  Blatt. 
 xii.  3,  &c.) 
 
 The  figure  below  represents 
 the  commonly  received  im- 
 pression respecting  the  shape 
 
 BRI 
 
 and  appearance  of  the  taTjla 
 of  shew-bread.  The  dotted 
 lines  represent  the  front  row 
 of  loaves ;  the  residue  being 
 concealed  by  these. 
 
 BREAKFAST.  (See  Meals.) 
 
 BREASTPLATE.  1.  (Ex. 
 xxviii.  15.)  A  part  of  the  offi- 
 cial dress  of  the  Jewish  high- 
 priest,  the  general  appearance 
 of  which  is  supposed  to  be 
 given  in  the  cut  upon  the  ad- 
 joining page.  It  was  a  piece 
 of  embroidered  work,  about 
 ten  inches  square,  and  made 
 double  with  a  front  and 
 lining,  so  as  to  answer  for  a 
 pouch  or  bag.  It  was  adorned 
 with  twelve  precious  stones, 
 as  represented  in  the  cut  on 
 the  following  page. 
 
 The  two  upper  corners  were 
 fastened  to  the  ephod,  from 
 which  it  was  not  to  be  loosed, 
 (Ex.  xxviii.  28,)  and  the  two 
 lower  cornejs  to  the  girdle. 
 The  rings,  chains,  and  other 
 fastenings  were  of  gold  or 
 rich  lace.  It  was  called  the 
 memorial,  (Ex.  xxviii.  12.  29,) 
 inasmuch  as  it  reminded  the 
 priest  of  his  representative 
 character  in  relation  to  the 
 twelve  tribes;  and  it  is  also 
 called  the  breastplate  of  iudg- 
 ment,  (Ex.  xxviii.  15,)  perhaps 
 because  it  was  worn  by  him 
 who  was,  instrumentally.  the 
 fountain  of  justice  and  judg- 
 ment to  the  Jewish  church. 
 Others  think  it  is  because  the 
 Urim  and  Thummim  were 
 annexed  to  it.  (See  Urim  and 
 Thummim.) 
 
 2.  (Eph.  vi.  14.)  The  breast- 
 plate was  also  that  article  of 
 ancient  armour  which  pro- 
 tected the  breast.  (See  Ar- 
 mour.) Its  figurative  use  in 
 the  passage  above  cited,  and 
 also  in  Isa.  lix.  17,  is  suffi- 
 ciently  obvious. 
 
 BRICK  (Gen.  xi.  3)  was  a 
 building  material  among  the 
 Jews ;  but  the  size  of  their 
 bricks  was  much  larger  than 
 ours.  Bricks  found  among  the 
 115 
 
BRl 
 
 BRI 
 
 uins  of  Babylon  are  a  foot 
 Bquare,  and  resemble  tile  ra- 
 ther than  brick.  They  were 
 usually  hardened  by  the  heat 
 
 of  the  sun,  although  kilns 
 were  not  unknown.  (2  Sam. 
 xii.  31.  Jer.  xliii.  9.  Nah.  iii 
 14.)  it  is  said  that  the  mate- 
 116 
 
BRO 
 
 ♦•ials  of  brick  and  mode  of 
 manufacturing  them  have 
 lately  been  discovered  in 
 gome  ancient  monument,  by 
 an  Italian  traveller. 
 
 BRIDE,  BRIDEGROOM, 
 BRIDGE-CHAMBER.  (See 
 Marriage.) 
 BRIDLE.  (See  Harness.) 
 BRIGANDINE.  (Jer.  xlvi. 
 4.)  Supposed  to  be  the  same 
 with  the  haberseon  and  coat 
 of  mail.    (See  Armour.) 
 
 BRIMSTONE.  (Fs.  xi.  6.) 
 A  well  known  mineral  sub- 
 stance, exceedingly  inflamma- 
 ble, and  when  burning  emits 
 a  suffocating  smell.  We  are 
 told  that  the  cities  of  the  plain 
 were  destroyed  by  a  rain  (or 
 Blorra)  of  fire  and  brimstone. 
 There  is  nothing  incredible 
 in  this,  even  if  we  suppose 
 natural  agencies  only  were 
 employed  in  it.  The  soil  in 
 that  and  in  many  other  parts 
 of  the  earth  is  such,  that  a 
 violent  eruption  might  fill  the 
 air  with  inflamed  substances, 
 falling  down  in  streams  of 
 liquid  fire  upon  those  devoted 
 cities.  The  word  is  often 
 figuratively  used.  (Job  xviii. 
 15.  Isa.  xxxiv.  9.)  Whether 
 the  word  is  used  literally  or 
 not,  in  the  passages  which  de- 
 scribe the  future  sufferings  of 
 the  wicked,  we  may  be  sure 
 that  it  expresses  all  which  the 
 human  mind  can  conceive  of 
 excruciating  torment. 
 
 BROTHER,  BRETHREN. 
 (Gen.  iv.  2,  and  xlii.  13.)  A 
 term  which  properly  denotes 
 the  nearest  consanguinity, 
 that  iS;  male  children  of  the 
 same  parents,  as  in  the  texts 
 above  cited;    but   sometimes 
 
 Sersons  of  more  remote  kin- 
 red,  or  of  the  same  nation, 
 (Gen.  xiii.  8.  Esth.  x.  3.  Acts 
 vii.  25. 37.  and  xiii.  26,^)  or  even 
 those  who  are  closely  united 
 in  aflection.  (2  Sam.  i.  26.)  In 
 the  New  Testament  the  term 
 is  more  frequently  applied 
 to  the  spiritual  relationship 
 
 BUR 
 
 which  the  true  followers  of 
 Christ  sustain  to  him  and  to 
 each   other.     (Matt.    xii.  Sa 
 Rom.  xiv.  10.  2Thes3.  ii.  13.) 
 BUCKLER.  (See  Armour.) 
 BUILDINGS.  (See  Dwell- 
 ings.) 
 BUL.    (See  Month.) 
 BULLS  OF  Bashan.    (Ps. 
 xxii.  12.)    Bulls  in  the  rich 
 pastures    of    Bashan,    being 
 well    fed,    were    strong    ana 
 ferocious;    hence    they    are 
 chosen  as  symbols  of  cruel 
 and  persecuting  enemies.  (See 
 Bashan.) 
 
 BULRUSH,  asa.  xviii.  2.) 
 A  species  of  reed,  which  is 
 lound  on  the  marshes  of  the 
 Nile.  It  grows  to  the  height 
 of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet.  The 
 stalks  were  pliable,  and  capa- 
 ble of  being  interwoven  very 
 closely,  as  is  evident  from  its 
 being  used  in  the  construction 
 of  arks.  (Ex.  ii.  3.  5.)  It  was 
 from  this  vegetable  that  the 
 papyrus  was  derived,  which 
 was  used  for  writing.  (See 
 Book.)  It  was  made  of  the 
 inside  bark,  which  was  cut 
 into  strips,  and  the  edges  ce- 
 mented together  and  dried  in 
 the  sun.  The  fact,  that  the  pa- 
 pyrus was  used  for  food  wlien 
 prepared  in  one  way,  and  for 
 writing  when  prepared  in  an- 
 other way,  exj3lams  the  pas- 
 sages in  which  the  eating  of 
 books,  &c.  is  mentioned.  (Jer. 
 XV.  16.  Ezek.  iii.  1.  3.  Rev.  x. 
 8—10.  For  the  appearance  of 
 the  bulrush,  see  a  beautifiil 
 engraving,  illustrating  that 
 article,  in  Natural  History 
 OF  the  Bible,  also  Youth's 
 Friend,  vol.  v.,  both  by  the 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 BULWARK.  (See  War.) 
 BURDEN.  (Hab.  i.  1.)  This 
 word,  when  used  in  connex- 
 ion with  some  city  or  nation, 
 (as  the  burden  of  3Ioab,  the 
 burden  cf  Nineveh,   &c.)  ex- 
 
 1'  presses  tlie  disastrous  or  ca- 
 lamitous import  of  the  pro- 
 phecy. 
 
 117 
 
BUR 
 
 The  "  burden  of  the  desert 
 <f  the  sea,^^  (Babylon,)  the 
 ^burden  of  the  valley  of  vi- 
 sion," (Jerusalem,)  and  simi- 
 lar expressions,  are  explain- 
 ed by  their  subject  or  con- 
 nexion. 
 
 BURNING-BUSH.  (See 
 Moses.) 
 
 BURNT-OFFERING.  (See 
 Sacrifice.) 
 
 BURIAL,  BURY.  (Gen. 
 xxiii.  4.  Matt.  xxvi.  12.)  It 
 was  customary  among  the 
 Jews  for  the  children  or  near 
 kindred  to  close  the  eyes  of 
 the  dying,  (Gen.  xlvi.  4,)  and 
 a  loud  and  general  wailing 
 followed  the  decease,  (John 
 xi.  19.  31.  33,)  and  continued 
 many  days  after  burial.  The 
 body  of  the  deceased  was 
 washed  and  laid  out.  (Acts 
 ix.  37.)  It  was  wrapped  in  folds 
 of  linen  cloth,  asi'd  the  head 
 bound  around  with  a  napkin. 
 It  is  said  that  Lazarus  was 
 bound,  hand  and  foot,  tcith 
 grave  clothes,  (Jofin  xi.  44;) 
 and  it  is  supposed  by  many 
 that  each  limb  had  its  sepa- 
 rate wrapper,  as  it  was  cus- 
 tomary in  Egypt  to  wrap  even 
 each  finger  m  a  separate  cloth 
 or  band,  so  that  hundreds  of 
 yards  of  cloth  are  often  un- 
 wound from  one  of  their 
 mummies.  When  thus  bound 
 around,  it  was  placed  on  a 
 bier,  in  readiness  to  be  borne 
 to  the  grave.  (See  Bier,  Em- 
 balm.) 
 
 The  climate,  and  the  un- 
 cleanness  which  wis  con- 
 tracted, under  the  law,  from 
 contact  with  a  dead  body,  or 
 even  coming  into  the  same 
 apartment  with  it,  would  natu- 
 rally lead  to  the  custom  of 
 early  interments.  In  Persia, 
 we  are  told,  it  is  not  custom- 
 ary to  keep  the  dead  over  two 
 or  three  hours;  and  the  Eu- 
 ro-pean  Jews  universally  bury 
 their  dead  early.  There  were 
 many  exceptions  in  this  re- 
 spect, however.  The  practice  ! 
 
 BUR 
 
 of  embalming  was  not  general 
 among  the  Jews,  though  spices, 
 &c.  were  used  in  their  burials. 
 (2  Chron.  xvi.  14.  John  xix. 
 40.)  Jacob  and  Joseph  (whose 
 bodies  were  embalmed)  both 
 died  in  Egypt,\vhere  the  art  of 
 embalming  was  very  skilfully 
 practised.  In  Jacob's  case  we 
 are  told,  that  Joseph  com- 
 manded his  servants,  the  phy. 
 sicians,  to  embalm  his  father, 
 and  then  he  was  placed  in  a 
 coffin  in  Egypt.  And  thenco 
 his  body  was  carried  to  Mach- 
 pelah,  m  Canaan,  and  buried. 
 (Gen.  1.  2.  7,  8.)  Coffins  were 
 used  in  Egypt  and  Babylon; 
 but  are  unknown  in  the  east, 
 even  at  the  present  day,  ex- 
 cept when  a  body  is  to  be  con- 
 veyed to  a  distant  place.  (See 
 Embalm.) 
 
 All  civilized  nations  have 
 been  agreed  in  attending  with 
 some  solemnity  the  burial  of 
 their  dead.  Among  the  Jews, 
 the  bier  was  followed  to  the 
 grave  by  a  few  of  the  nearest 
 relations.  (2  Sam.  iii.  31.  Luke 
 vii.  14.)  Other  persons  attend- 
 ed, and  sometimes  mourners 
 (or  rather  wailers  by  profes- 
 sion) were  employed  to  attend 
 the  body,  (Jer.  ix.  17.  Ezek. 
 xxiv.  17.  Amos  v.  16.  Matt,  ix- 
 23.)  This  is  the  custom  now 
 in  many  eastern  nations. 
 
 An  English  missionary  in 
 the  East  Indies  speakd  of  hav- 
 ing seen  a  number  of  women 
 and  girls  assembled  to  lament 
 over  the  grave  of  a  lad  who 
 had  been  killed  by  a  wild 
 buffalo,  ten  days  before.  The 
 mother  sat  on  the  earth  at  one 
 end  of  the  grave,  and  leaning 
 upon  it,  cried  out,  "  Oh,  my 
 child!  oh,  my  child!"  The 
 others  stood  arouiKl  her,  cry- 
 ing out  and  exhibiting  every 
 sign  of  distress.  (Gen.  1. 3.  lO. 
 Jer.  rxxi.  15.) 
 
 Certain  places  were  appro- 
 priated by  the  Jews  to  the 
 purpose  of  burying  the  dead, 
 and  they  were  joth  public  and 
 
 na 
 
BUR 
 
 private.  (Gen.  xxiii.  4;  1.  13. 
 Judg.  viii.  32;  xvi.  31.  2  Sam. 
 ii.  32;  xxi.  14.  2Kings  xxiii.  6. 
 Jer.  xxvi  23.)  They  were  usu- 
 ally selected  in  gardens,  (2 
 Kings  xxi.  18.26.  John  xix.41,) 
 or  fields,  (Gen.  xxiii.  11,)  or 
 caves  in  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
 tains, (2  Kings  xxiii.  16,  17,) 
 or  in  rocks,  (Isa.  xxii.  16;) 
 and  to  be  unburied  was  re- 
 garded as  exceedingly  dis- 
 graceful. (1  Sam.  xvii.  44 — 46. 
 
 BUR 
 
 2  Kings  ix.  10.  Ps.  cxli.  7.  Jer. 
 viii.  2,  and  xxii.  19.)  The 
 grave  was  called  the  house  or 
 home  of  the  dead.  (Job  xxx. 
 23.  Eccl.  xii.  5.)  The  burial 
 places  were  usually  in  retired 
 situations, and  hencewere  the 
 resort  of  demoniacs,  (Matt, 
 viii.  28,)  and  were  usually 
 without  the  city  walls,  but  not 
 always.  (Josh.  xxiv.  30.  33. 
 1  Sam.  XXV.  1 ;  xxviii.  3.  2 
 Kings  xxi.  18.  2  Chron.  xvL 
 
BUR 
 
 BUR 
 
 ^S 
 
 ^^M 
 
 l1ff^ll^lmm^^lBl!l!a^lW^il  |= — ,,~.- r-^^-    —    — 
 
 ?M^»  •'  ^  -^ 
 
 -^^^^;^^^^fe||[||^p|; 
 
 ^s 
 
 liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiyii^M 
 
 ^^^^H 
 
 Interior  of  a  sepulchre  in  Judia,  with  the  relics  of  a  body. 
 
 14;  xxiv.  16;  xxxiii.20.  Neh. 
 iii.  16.)  Though  solitary,  ihey 
 were  selected  with  relerence 
 to  shade,  prospect,  &c.  (Gen. 
 x^siii.  17;  xxxv.  8.  1  Sam.  xxxi. 
 13.) 
 
 The  cuts  on  this  and  the 
 preceding  page  represent  the 
 general  appearance  of  east- 
 ern tombs. 
 
 The  desire  to  be  buried 
 vrith  one's  kindred  was  very 
 strong,  (2  Sam.  xix.  37 ;)  and 
 it  is  remarkable  that  the 
 Jews,  as  a  people,  in  all  their 
 dispersions  and  sufferings,  re- 
 tain an  ardent  desire  to  be 
 buried  in  their  own  land. 
 
 It  was  not  unusual  for  a 
 single  family  to  have,  near 
 their  dwelling  house,  a  small 
 building,  without  door  or  win. 
 dow,  built  of  stone  or  other 
 durable  materials,  which  was 
 called  the  sepulchral  house,  or 
 family  mansion  for. the  dead. 
 Dr.  Jowett  describes  them,  and 
 says  they  are  not  uncommon 
 in  eastern  nations  at  the  pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 It  is  supposed  by  travellers 
 that  the  tombs  of  Joseph  and 
 Joshua,  and  some  others  which 
 were  hewn  in  rocks,  and  the 
 location  of  which  is  minutely 
 described  in   the  Bible,  are 
 
BUT 
 Btill  seen.  The  preceding  cut 
 represents  the  ground  'plan 
 of  a  sepulchre  which  Maun- 
 drell  found  and  explored,  in 
 Aradus,  (Arpad,)  in  Syria. 
 
 Through  an  old  and  dilapi- 
 dated entrance  he  gained  ad- 
 mission, by  seven  or  eight 
 steps,  to  the  chamber  a,  eleven 
 feet  long,  and  about  nine  wide. 
 This  is"a  kind  of  ante-cham- 
 ber. On  the  right,  by  a  nar- 
 row passage,  he  entered  a 
 chamber  6,"ten  feet  by  eight. 
 This  contained  six  cells  for 
 corpses,  two  opposite  to  the 
 entrance,  four  at  the  left  hand, 
 and  one  not  quite  finished  at 
 the  right.  On  the  other  side 
 of  the  ante-chamber  c  is  a 
 similar  chamber,  with  eleven 
 cells,  not  quite  so  large.  Two 
 narrow  passages,  seven  feet 
 long,  lead  to  the  apartment  d. 
 The  cut  will  now  serve  to  ex- 
 plain itself  in  some  measure. 
 The  average  height  of  the 
 rooms  is  six  feet. 
 
 The  sepulchres  of  the  Jews 
 were  sometimes  expensively 
 built,  and  adorned  or  garnish- 
 ed; tind  were  whitened  at  short 
 intervals,  so  as  to  make  them 
 conspicuous,  that  they  might 
 be  avoided  for  their  ceremo- 
 nial uncleanness.  Hence  the 
 force  of  our  Lord's  reproof. 
 (Matt,  xxiii.  27.)  Sometimes 
 titles  or  inscriptions  were 
 placed  on  them.  (2  Kinss 
 xxiii.  17.)  To  build  a  sepul- 
 chre for  a  man  was  an  ex- 
 pression of  respect  and  ho- 
 nour. (iVIatt.  xxiii.  29.  Luke 
 xi.  43.) 
 
 That  sepulchres  were  not 
 always  closed  maybe  inferred 
 from  several  passages  of  the 
 Bible.  (2  Kings  xiii.  21.  Pa.  v. 
 9.  See  Aceldama.  See  also 
 Omar,  pp.  167—173,  and  Se- 
 LUMiEL,  p.  188,  both  by  the 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 BUSHEL.  (See  Measures.) 
 
 BUTLER.  (Gen.  xl.  1.  13.) 
 An  honourable  officer  of  the 
 king's  household,  called  cup- 
 
 BUT 
 
 bearer,  (Neh.  i.  11,)  it  being 
 his  duly  to  fill  and  bear  the 
 cup  or  drinking  vessel  to  the 
 king.  The  thief  butler  had 
 the  charge  and  oversight  of 
 the  rest.   (Gen.  xl.  2.) 
 
 BUTTER.  (Gen.  xviii.  8.) 
 As  this  word  is  used  in  the 
 Scriptures,  it  probably  means 
 sour  or  coagulated  milk, 
 which,  when  mingled  with 
 water,  is  still  regarded  as  a 
 very  agreeable  ancl  refreshing 
 beveraire  by  eastern  nations. 
 (Job  XX.  17.)  Their  butter, 
 such  as  it  was,  might  have 
 been  sometimes  clarified  and 
 preserved  in  jars,  as  at  the 
 present  day  in  Asia,  and  when 
 poured  out  resembles  rich  oil. 
 
 The  figurative  expression  in 
 Job  xxix.  6,  ^'I  washed  my  steps 
 tcith  butter,^'  denotes  prima- 
 rily the  abundance  with  which 
 the  patriarch  was  blessed ;  but 
 it  is  also  supposed  by  some  to 
 refer  to  the  great  quantities  of 
 cream  which  his  herds  pro- 
 duced,  and  which  were  trod- 
 den into  butter.  This  fanci- 
 ful interpretation  aside,  the 
 passage  seems  to  be  self-ex- 
 planatory ;  the  figurative  allio- 
 sion  to  butter  having  the  same 
 force  and  effect  as  that  to  oil. 
 
 The  place  of  butter,  as  a  ge- 
 neral article  of  food  in  the 
 East,  was  supplied  in  some 
 measure  by  the  vegetable  oil 
 which  was  so  abundant. 
 
 Butter  was  made  by  pour- 
 ing the  milk  into  a  goat-skin, 
 and  then  shaking  or  treading 
 it  to  and  fro,  in  a  uniform  di- 
 rection, until  the  sepanation 
 of  the  butter  took  place.  The 
 butter  mentioned  in  Judg.  v. 
 25,  was  probably  cream,  or  a 
 preparation  of  which  cream 
 was  a  compon-ent  part.  It  is 
 not  improbable  that  the  bottle 
 of  milk  was  no  other  than  a 
 skin  which  she  had  been 
 using  as  a  churn,  and  that  the 
 refre^shment  was  Lutter-milk, 
 presented  in  the  riche.st  ves- 
 sel that  was  at  hand.  Butler 
 121 
 
BUT 
 
 milk  is  still  esteemed  a  most 
 refreshing  beverage  by  the 
 Arabs. 
 
 Butter  and  honey  were  used 
 together,  and  were  esteemed 
 among  the  richest  productions 
 
 BYT 
 
 of  the  land.  And  travellers  tell 
 us  that  the  Arabs  use  cream  or 
 new  butter  mixed  with  honey 
 as  a  principal  delicacy. 
 BYTHINIA.    (See    Bithy- 
 
 NIA.) 
 
 CAI 
 
 CAB.   (See  Measures.) 
 CABINS,  (Jer.xxxvii.  16,) 
 or  cells,  were  probably  niches 
 or  apartments  within  the  dun- 
 geon, for  the  separate  confine- 
 ment of  prisoners.    The  idea 
 conveyea  is,  that  the  prophet 
 suffered  the  most  severe  and 
 loathsome  imorisonment. 
 CjESAR.  (See  Cesar.) 
 CiESAREA.  (SeeCESAREA.) 
 C^SAREA-PHILIPPI.  (See 
 Cesarea-Philippi.) 
 
 CAIAPHAS  (John  xi.  49.  51) 
 was  the  high-priest  of  the 
 Jews  at  the  lime  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's trial.  The  office  was 
 firmerly  held  for  life,  but  at 
 this  time  it  was  filled  and  va- 
 cated at  the  pleasure  of  the 
 Roman  government. 
 
 The  wonderful  miracle  of 
 raising  Lazarus  from  the  dead 
 convinced  many  of  the  Jews 
 that  Christ  was  sent  from  God ; 
 and  the  Pharisees,  alarmed 
 at  the  increase  of  his  f  illow- 
 ers,  summoned  a  council,  and 
 pretended  that  their  liberties 
 were  in  danger ;  that  the  Ro- 
 mans would'  become  jealous 
 of  them,  and  that  their  de- 
 struction was  inevitable  if 
 something  was  not  done  at 
 once  to  check  his  progress. 
 Caiaphas  was  a  member  of 
 the  council,  and  expressed  his 
 decided  opinion  in  favour  of 
 putting  Jesus  to  death,  as  the 
 only  way  of  saving  the  nation 
 from  the  evils  which  his  suc- 
 cess would  urine  upon  them. 
 His  language  was— "Yc  know 
 nothing  at^all ;  nor  consider 
 that  it  is  expedient  for  us  that 
 one  man  should  die  for  the 
 people.,  and  that  the  whole 
 nation  parish  not.^' 
 
 CAI 
 
 This  counsel  was  wicked 
 and  unjust  in  the  highest  de 
 gree  ;  but  as  there  was  no  ol 
 fence  charged,  it  seemed  the 
 only  plausible  excuse  for 
 putting  Christ  to  death.  The 
 high-priest's  language  on  this 
 occasion  was  prophetic,though 
 he  did  not  intend  it  so.  He 
 was  a  wicked  man,  but  the 
 Spirit  of  God  made  use  of  him 
 to  declare  the  divine  pur- 
 poses, and  as  he  was  high- 
 priest,  all  his  declarations 
 were  clothed  with  autliority. 
 
 The  evangelist,  in  giving  an 
 account  of  this  extraordinary 
 occurrence,  enlarges  on  the 
 prophetic  language  of  the 
 high-priest,  and  shows  the  ex- 
 tent and  blessedness  of  the 
 dispensation  of  mercy  through 
 Jesus  Christ.  Nothing  of  this. 
 however,  was  in  the  mind  oi 
 the  cruel  and  bigoted  high- 
 priest. 
 
 After  Christ  was  arrested, 
 he  was  arraigned  before  Caia- 
 phas, and  an  effort  was  made 
 to  produce  false  testimony 
 sufficient  for  his  condemna- 
 tion. This  expedient  failed, 
 for  though  two  persons  ap- 
 peared to  testify,  they  did  not 
 agree,  and  at  last  Caiaphas 
 put  our  Saviour  himself  upon 
 oath,  that  he  should  say  whe- 
 ther he  was  indeed  Christ,  the 
 Son  of  God,  or  not. 
 
 The  answer  was  of  course 
 in  the  affirmative,  and  was  ac- 
 companied with  a  declaration 
 of  his  divine  pi>wer  and  ma- 
 jesty. The  high-priest  pre- 
 tended to  be  greally  grieved 
 at  what  he  considered  the 
 blasphemy  of  our  Saviour's 
 pretensions,  and  forthwith  ap- 
 122 
 
CAI 
 
 ^sealed  to  his  enraged  enemies 
 to  say  if  this  was  not  enough. 
 They  answered  at  once  that 
 he  deserved  to  die,  and  then, 
 in  tlie  very  presence  of  Caia- 
 phas,  and  without  any  re- 
 straint from  him,  they  fell  up- 
 on their  guiltless  victim  with 
 insults  and  injuries. 
 
 As  Caiaphas  had  no  power 
 to  inflict  the  punishment  of 
 death,  Christ  was  taken  from 
 him  to  Filale,  the  Roman  go- 
 vernor, (John  xviii.  "28,)  that 
 his  execution  might  be  duly 
 ordered.    (See  Annas.) 
 
 CAIN.  (Gen.  iv.  1.)  The  first- 
 born of  Adam  and  Eve,  and, 
 of  course,  the  first-born  of  the 
 human  race.  He  was  also  the 
 first  murderer,  and  the  victim 
 of  his  malice  was  his  own  bro- 
 ther. (See  Abel.)  He  was  in- 
 stigated to  this  violence  by 
 envy;  his  brother's  offering 
 having  been  accepted  by  God, 
 while  his  own  was  refused. 
 On  this  account  he  became 
 dejected  and  angry,  and  the 
 Lord  inquired  of  him  why  he 
 indulged  these  sinful  feelings. 
 If  he  would  do  well,  as  Abel 
 had  done,  he  would  be  equally 
 accepted;  and  if  not,  the  sin 
 must  be  upon  his  own  head. 
 Certainly  he  had  no  cause  of 
 anger  towards  Abel,  who  was 
 still  ready  to  acknowledge 
 nim  as  his  elder  brother,  and 
 to  yield  to  him  all  the  privi- 
 leges of  birthright.  The  ex- 
 postulation was  of  no  avail. 
 They  were  together  in  the 
 field,  and  Cain  took  his  life. 
 
 When  the  inquiry  was  put 
 to  him,  where  his  brother  Abel 
 was,  C!ain  evaded  the  ques- 
 tion, saying,  "Am  I  my  bro- 
 ther's keeper  ?"  But  the  Lord, 
 BS  if  to  express  the  greatness 
 of  his  crime,  (Gen.  iii.  13,)  re- 
 plied, "  What  hast  thou 
 DONE  1  The  voice  of  thy  bro- 
 ther''s  blood  crieth  unto  me 
 from  the  ground,'^ where  it  was 
 Bhed,  or  where  the  body  was 
 buried :  and  the  dreadful  sea- 
 
 CAK 
 
 tence  was  immediately  passed 
 upon  him  which  doomed  him 
 to  fruitless  toil,  and  to  the  life 
 of  a  fugitive  and  vagabond. 
 Thus  was  he  banished  from 
 society,  (Jtheface  of  the  earths 
 and  from  the  favour  of  God. 
 The  miserable  man  seemed 
 conscious  for  a  moment  of  the 
 enormity  of  his  guilt.  He  ex- 
 claimed, "  My  punishment  ia 
 greater  than  I  can  bear^''  or 
 (as  it  may  be  rendered)  my 
 iniquity  is  greater  than  that  it 
 may  be  forgiven ;  and  he  was 
 afraid  that  when  it  was  known 
 what  an  abandoned  outlaw  he 
 was,  he  would  be  killed  by 
 any  one  that  should  find  him. 
 To  prevent  this,  God  not  only 
 threatened  an  extraordinary 
 punishment  upon  any  one 
 who  should  kill  him,  but,  as 
 we  suppose,  he  distinguished 
 him  from  all  other  men  by 
 some  visible  mark  or  token, 
 so  that  whoever  met  hlra 
 should  know,  at  once,  who  he 
 was.  Several  commentators 
 maintain  that  this  mark  or 
 token  was  designed  to  assure 
 Cain  himself  of  his  personal 
 safety,  and  not  to  point  him 
 out  to  others. 
 
 The  unhappy  man  left  his 
 home,  and  took  up  his  abode 
 in  the  land  of  Nod,  a  country 
 east  of  Eden,  where  his  family 
 increased,  and  where  he  found- 
 ed a  city.    (See  Nod.) 
 
 CAKE.  (1  Kings  xvii.  13; 
 xix.  6.)  The  cake  was  made 
 of  common  dough,  with  or 
 without  leaven.  Sometimes  it 
 was  kneaded  with  oil,  and 
 sometimes  only  rubbed  over 
 or  anointed  with  it,  (Ex. 
 xxix.  2,)  and  baked  in  flat 
 pieces  of  the  thickness  of  a 
 plate  upon  the  hot  sand  or 
 bricks.  (Gen.  xviii.  6.)  Other 
 utensils  were  used.  (Lev.  ii.  1. 
 4,  5.  7.)  "  The  cake  not  turrit 
 ed"  (Has.  vii.  8)  is  a  figurative 
 expression,  illustrating  the 
 mixture  of  truth  and  idolatry, 
 (Jews  and  Gentiles  among  tu« 
 
CAL 
 
 Ephraimites,)  by  dough  baked 
 on  one  side  only,  and  there- 
 fore neither  dou^h  nor  bread 
 
 Among  the  Bedouins  the 
 dough  is  flattened  into  thin 
 cakes,  and  baked  immediate- 
 ly, eitlier  on  the  coals  or  in  a 
 shallow  earthen  vessel,  like  a 
 frying-pan,  or  perhaps  only  a 
 flat  iron  plate  laid  upon  a  few 
 stones,  and  a  fire  kindled  un- 
 derneath. (Lev.  ii.  5.) 
 
 In  Persia  convex  iron  plates 
 are  often  used,  but  in  either 
 way  the  bread  was  so  very 
 thin  that  it  was  quickly  baked. 
 The  Arabs  around  mount  Car- 
 mel  bake  such  cakes  on  the 
 outside  of  a  strong  earthen  or 
 stone  pitcher,  which  is  heated 
 by  coals  inside.  (See  Oven.) 
 
 CALAMUS,  (Sol.  Song 
 iv.  14.  Ezek.  xxvii.  19,)  or 
 SWEET  CALAMUS,(Ex.xxx. 
 23,)  or  SWEET  CANE,  (Isa. 
 xliii.  24.  Jer.  vi.  20,)  were  all 
 probably  the  same  plants.  It 
 was  produced  in  Arabia  and 
 India,    and,    of    an    inferior 
 
 f[uality,  in  Egypt  and  Syria, 
 t  was  one  of  the  ingredients 
 of  the  sacred  ointment,  and 
 an  article  of  Syrian  com- 
 merce. It  grows  about  two 
 feet  in  heighi,  is  very  fragrant, 
 and  resembles  common  cane. 
 CALEB  (Num.  xiii.  6)  was 
 the  son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the 
 tribe  of  Judah.  When  the  Is- 
 raelites, on  their  passage  from 
 Egypt  to  Canaan,  had  arrived 
 at  the  wilderness  of  Paran, 
 Moses  was  instructed  by  Je- 
 hovah to  send  twelve  men, 
 one  from  each  of  the  tribes,  as 
 explorers, to  visit  the  promised 
 land,  and  ascertain  its  situa- 
 tion and  fertility;  the  number 
 and  character,  as  well  as  the 
 manners  and  customs  of  the 
 population,  and  bring  them 
 a  report.  Caleb  and  Joshua 
 were  among  the  twelve  ;  and 
 after  making  the  tour,  which 
 occupied  forty  days,  they  re- 
 turned to  the  Israelites,  bring- 
 ing with  them,  as  they  were 
 
 CAL 
 
 directed  to  do,  some  of  the 
 richest  products  of  the  soil, 
 which  were  both  the  evidence 
 and  sample  of  its  fertility. 
 They  all  agreed  that  tiie  land 
 was  exceedingly  fruitful,  but 
 ten  of  the  exploring  party  re- 
 presented the  inhabitants  as 
 very  numerous  and  gigantic 
 in  stature.  Caleb  saw  the  dis- 
 couraging effect  of  this  repre- 
 sentation on  the  people,  and 
 proposed  to  them  to  go  up  at 
 once  and  take  possession  of 
 the  land,  assuring  them  of 
 their  ability  to  do  it.  He  was 
 confident  that  God  would  be 
 faithful  to  his  promise,  how- 
 ever numerous  and  formidable 
 misrht  be  their  opposers. 
 
 The  ten  persisted  in  their 
 discouraging  representations ; 
 until  the  people,  filled  with 
 fears  and  discontents,  were 
 resolved  to  abandon  the  at- 
 tempt, and  they  and  their 
 adherents  were  upon  the 
 point  of  revolting  from  Moses 
 and  Aaron,  and  putting  them- 
 selves under  a  new  leader,  to 
 return  to  bondage  in  Egypt. 
 At  this  crisis,  Caleb  and 
 Joshua,  grieved  at  the  folly 
 and  madness  of  the  people, 
 repeated  the  assurance  that 
 the  land  was  an  exceeding 
 good  land,  and  in  beauty  and 
 fertility  all  which  had  been 
 promised  ;  that  if  they  would 
 follow  God's  directions,  and 
 go  forward  fearlessly  in  his 
 strength,  they  would  easily 
 subdue  the  inhabitants,  and 
 obtain  complete  possession  of 
 their  territory.  So  excited 
 were  the  people,  however,  by 
 the  representations  of  the  ten 
 others  of  the  party,  that  they 
 proposed  to  stone  Joshua  and 
 Caleb.  This  conduct  was  so 
 displeasing  to  God,  that  he 
 caused  every  Israelite  who 
 was  over  twenty  years  of  age, 
 except  Caleb  and  Joshua,  to 
 die  in  the  wilderness,  and  be- 
 fore they  came  to  the  promised 
 land.    Forty-five  years  after- 
 
CAL 
 
 wards,  when  the  conquest 
 was  completed  and  the  land 
 apportioned  among  the  tribes, 
 Caleb,  being  then  eighty-five 
 years  of  age,  applied  to  Joshua 
 for  his  share,  reminding  him 
 of  the  promise  of  God,  by 
 which  he  and  Joshua  were  ex- 
 cepted from  the  general  curse 
 of  the  people.  He  testified  to 
 the  faithfulness  and  kindness 
 of  God  in  preserving  his  life 
 and  health  in  a  remarkable 
 degree  until  that  time,  and 
 proposed  to  take,  as  his  share 
 of  the  land,  Kirjath-arba,  the 
 stronghold  of  the  giants,  and 
 the  centre  of  their  fortifica- 
 tions. His  request  was  grant- 
 ed, and  he  accordindy  at- 
 tacked and  subdued  Kirjath- 
 arba,  and  thence  proceeded 
 to  Kirjath-sepher,  another 
 stronghold,  afterwards  called 
 Debir.  Here  he  proposed  to 
 give  his  daughter  Achsah  in 
 marriage  to"  the  man  who 
 should  capture  the  city.  His 
 nephew,  Olhniel,  undertook 
 the  enterprise  and  succeeded, 
 and  received  the  promised 
 reward.  Caleb's  possessions 
 were  called  by  his  name. 
 (Num.  xiii.  and  xiv.  Josh.  xiv. 
 and  XV.  1  Sam.  xxx.  14.) 
 
 There  are  two  other  persons 
 of  the  same  name  mentioned. 
 (1  Chron.  ii.  18.  50.) 
 
 CALF.  (Gen.  xviii.  7.)  A 
 fatted  calf  was  regarded  by 
 the  Jews  as  the  choicest  ani- 
 mal food.  (I  Sam.  xxviii.  24. 
 Amosvi.4.  Luke  XV.  2.3.)  The 
 allusion  in  Jer.  xxxiv.  18,  is  to 
 an  ancient  custom  of  ratifying 
 a  contract  or  covenant,  in  the 
 observance  of  which  an  ani- 
 mal was  slain  and  divided, 
 and  the  parties  passed  be- 
 tween the  parts,  signifying 
 their  Willingness  to  be  so  di- 
 vided themselves,  if  they  fail- 
 ed to  perform  their  covenant. 
 (Gen.  XV,  9,  10.  17.) 
 
 Calf,  molten  (Ex.  xxxii. 
 4,)  was  an  idol  god  prepared 
 by  Aaron,  in  compliance  with 
 11* 
 
 CAL 
 
 the  request  of  the  children  of 
 Israel,  who  had  become  impa- 
 tient of  the  absence  of  Moses, 
 and  desired  some  visible  im- 
 age or  representation  of  the 
 Deity.  (See  Aaron.)  It  was 
 probably  made  of  wood,  and 
 thickly  overlaid  with  gold. 
 
 The  golden  calves  of  Jero- 
 boam (1  Kings  xii.  28)  were 
 objects  of  worship  set  up  by 
 that  king  in  the  land  of  Israel, 
 to  prevent  the  ten  tribes  from 
 resorting  to  Jerusalem  to  wor- 
 ship, and  so  more  eflfectuallyto 
 separate  them  from  the  house 
 of  David.  One  of  the  idols 
 was  in  Dan  and  the  other  in 
 Bethel,  the  two  extremes  of 
 his  kingdom.  It  is  supposed 
 this  wicked  king  had  become 
 acquainted  withlhe  forms  and 
 objects  of  idolatrous  worship 
 while  he  dwelt  in  Egypt.  (1 
 Kings  xi.  40.)  His  sin  is  al- 
 most always  mentioned  when- 
 ever his  name  is  used.  (See 
 Jeroboam.) 
 
 Calves  of  otm  lips  (Hos. 
 xiv.  2)  is  a  figurative  expres- 
 sion, signifying  the  fruits  of 
 our  lips,  or  our  offerings  of 
 praise  to  God.  Calves  were 
 used  in  sacrifices,  and  the  in- 
 junction of  the  prophet  re- 
 quires us  to  render  praises 
 and  thanksgivings  to  God  as 
 the  oflfering  of  our  lips,  in- 
 stead of  the  animal  sacrifice. 
 (Heb.  xiii.  15.) 
 
 CALNEH.  (Gen.  x.  10.  Amos 
 vi.  2.)  One  of  the  cities  of 
 Babylonia,  built  by  Nimrod, 
 and  supposed  to  be  the  same 
 with  Calno,  (Isa.  x.  9,)  Can- 
 neh,  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23,)  and  the 
 Ctesiphon  of  more  modern 
 times.  It  was  situated  on  the 
 east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  oppo- 
 site to  Babylon,  and  was  a 
 place  of  commercial  import- 
 ance, 
 
 CALVARY  (Luke  xxlii.  33. 
 
 called    Golgotha,    John   xix. 
 
 17)  was  the  name  given  to  a 
 
 slight  elevation  north  of  the 
 
 125 
 
CAM 
 
 ancient  cityof  Jerusalem,  per- 
 haps half  a  mile  distant  from 
 the  temple.  The  spot  is  with- 
 in the  walls  of  the  modern 
 city.  It  was  called  Golgotha, 
 or  the  place  qf  a  skull,  either 
 from  its  shape,  or  from  the  cir- 
 cumstance that  it  was  the 
 usual  place  of  executing  crimi- 
 nals. To  the  mind  of  the 
 Christian  the  associations  of 
 the  place  are  peculiarly  inte- 
 restmg  and  sacred,  ior  it  was 
 here  that  the  blood  of  Jesus 
 was  shed ;  that  blood  which 
 cleanseth  from  all  sin.  (See 
 Selumiel,  chap,  xi.,  and  Map 
 OP  jERrsALEM,  both  by  the 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 CAMEL.  (Matt,  xxiii.  24.) 
 A  well-known  and  highly  use- 
 ful animal  in  eastern  coun- 
 tries, and,  by  the  law  of  Moses, 
 unclean.  (Lev.  x?.  4.  Deut. 
 xiv.  7.)  He  is  usually  six  nr 
 seven  feet  in  height,  and  is 
 exceedingly  docile  and  pa- 
 tient of  labour.  His  feet  are 
 constructed  with  a  tough  elas- 
 tic sole,  which  prevents  them 
 '  from  sinking  in  the  sand.  He 
 has  upon  the  back  one,  and 
 sometimes  two,  humps  or  pro- 
 tuberances, which  yield  to 
 pressure,  and  firm  a  sort  of 
 saddle,  on  which  his  burden 
 is  laid.  (Isa.  xxx.  6.)  Within 
 his  lDody  is  a  cavity,  divided 
 into  little  apartments  or  cells, 
 that  fill  when  the  animal 
 drinks,  which  usually  occu- 
 pies him  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
 and  this  supply  serves  him 
 for  twenty  or  thirty  days, 
 while  he  traverses  the  desert. 
 His  food  is  coarse,  as  leaves, 
 twigs,  thistles,  &c.  &c.  These 
 qualities  all  combine  to  adapt 
 the  animal  to  the  countries  he 
 inhabits.and  to  the  services  re 
 quired  of  him.  He  is  perhaps 
 more  surefooted  than  the  ass, 
 more  easily  supported,  and 
 capable  of  an  incomparably 
 greater  burden.  Hence  the 
 people  of  the  east  call  the 
 camel  the  land^hip.    He  can 
 
 CAM 
 
 carry  a  burden  of  six  or  eight 
 hundred  pounds,  at  the  rate  of 
 thirty  miles  a  day;  and  on 
 short  journeys,  ten  to  twelve 
 hundred  pounds;  and  there  is 
 one  species  of  the  camel  that 
 will  travel  one  hundred  miles 
 a  day.  Chains  and  other  trap- 
 pings, useful  or  ornamental, 
 were  sometimes  fastened  to 
 the  camel's  neck.  (Judg.  viii, 
 21.  26.)  The  flesh  and  milk 
 are  used  f^r  food,  and  the  hair, 
 which  is  short  and  softer  than 
 that  of  the  ox  kind,  is  useful 
 for  garments.  (Matt.  iii.  4 
 See  Camel's  Hair.) 
 
 The  ordinary  life  of  the  ca- 
 mel is  from  thirty  to  fifty 
 years.  Camels  were  formerly 
 among  the  chief  possessions 
 of  the  wealthy,  ((jen.  xii.  16; 
 xxx.  43 ;  xxxvii.  25.  Judg.  vi. 
 5,  and  vii.  12.    1  Sam.  xxx.  17. 
 
 1  Kings  X.  2.    1  Chron.  v.  21. 
 
 2  Chron.  xiv.  l.p.  Job  i.  3,  and 
 xlii.  12.   Isa.  xxx.  6.) 
 
 The  expression  in  Matt, 
 xix.  24,  is  figurative,  denoting 
 something  "beyond  human 
 power.  The  same  form  of  ex- 
 pression is  used  among  the 
 Malays  and  by  the  rabbms  in 
 respect  to  the  elephant.  Ano- 
 ther fieurative  expression  oc- 
 curs (Matt,  xxiii.  24)  in  which 
 the  inconsistency  of  the 
 scribes  and  Pharisees  (who 
 attended  to  the  most  unim- 
 portant ceremonies  of  their 
 religion,  while  they  were  un- 
 just, unmerctful.  and  faith- 
 less) is  compared  to  one  who 
 should  very  carefully  strain 
 out  (not  at)  a  gnat  or  oth;r 
 small  insect  from  the  liquor 
 he  was  about  to  drink,  and 
 yet  leave  in  the  vessel,  to  be 
 swallowed,  an  animal  as  large 
 as  a  camel.    (See  Drink.) 
 
 Travellers  sometimes  throw 
 over  the  camel,  upon  the  top 
 of  his  burden,  a  pair  of  pan- 
 niersHn  which  they  ride,  one 
 on  either  side.  A  covered  box, 
 like  a  carriage  body,  is  some- 
 times hung  upon  the  animal 
 126 
 
CAM 
 
 CAM 
 
 In  the  same  manner,  and  in 
 these  females  may  ride  and 
 be  sheltered  from  the  heal. 
 (Gen.  xxiv.  64.)  It  is  easy  to 
 see  how  Rachel  might  have 
 concealed  her  father's  idols. 
 (Gen.  xxxi.  31.)  The  camel  is 
 said  to  choose  ruinous  and 
 desolate  places  for  his  habi- 
 tations, and  hence  the  force 
 of  the  prophetic  language  re- 
 specting Kabbah,  (Ezek.  xxv. 
 5 ;)  though  the  prophecy  would 
 be  abundantly  verified  if  the 
 place  should  merely  become 
 a  stopping  place  for  caravans. 
 
 The  cm  represents  a  large 
 bound  hamper  or  pannier,  like 
 a  roofed  cradle,  with  back, 
 head,  and  sides  like  an  easy 
 chair.  Folds  of  carpeting  or 
 other  thick  stuff  are  spread 
 upon  the  back  of  the  animal, 
 for  the  hamper  to  rest  upon, 
 and  the  conveniences  of  tra- 
 velling are  carried  in  the  bas- 
 ket, or  apartment  underneath 
 the  traveller.  (See  Drome- 
 dart.  See  also  Youth's 
 Frienb,  vol.  ii.,  and  Natural 
 History  of  the  Beble,  article 
 Camel,  both  by  the  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.)  I 
 
 Camel's  Hair  (Matt.  iii.  4) 
 was  made  into  cloth.  (2  Kings 
 i.  8.  Zech.  xiii.  4.)  Sometimes 
 the  fabric  was  wroueht  of  the 
 finest  and  softest  part  of  the 
 hair,  and  was  then  a  very 
 rich  and  luxurious  article  of 
 
 dress.    A  coarser  kind  wa« 
 
 used  for  the  covering  of  tents, 
 and  for  the  upper  garments 
 of  shepherds  anJ  camel- 
 drivers.  Travellers  tell  us 
 that  modern  dervises  wear 
 cloth  of  this  kind,  and  also 
 leathern  girdles.  "We  know 
 that  John  the  Baptist's  rai- 
 ment was  of  this  kind,  for  it 
 is  put  in  opposition  to  soft 
 raiment.  (Matt.  xi.  8.  Luke 
 vii.  -25.) 
 
 CA31ELE0N.  (See  Chame- 
 leon.) 
 
 CAJMP.  (Ex.  xvi.  13.)  This 
 term  is  frequently  used  in  re- 
 ference to  the  movements  of 
 the  children  of  Israel,  and 
 many  passages  of  the  Leviti- 
 cal  law  relate  to  things  that 
 are  to  be  done  within  oV  with- 
 out the  camp. 
 
 The  firm  of  encamping  is 
 particularly  prescribed  in 
 rfum.  ii.  The  tabernacle, 
 which  was  the  abode  of  the 
 glorious  Leader  of  the  peo- 
 ple, occupied  the  centre,  and 
 nearest  to  this  were  the 
 tents  of  the  Levites,who  were 
 intrusted  with  the  principal 
 care  of  it.  (Num.  lii.)  The 
 whole  body  of  the  people,  em- 
 bracing upwards  of  600,000 
 fighting  men,  besides  women 
 and  children,  were  formed  in 
 four  divisions,  three  tribes 
 constituting  a  division,  so  that 
 the  tabernacle  was  enclosed 
 127 
 
CAM 
 
 CAN 
 
 £V. 
 
 in  a  hollow  square.  Each  of 
 these  divisions  had  a  standard, 
 as  well  as  each  tribe,  and  each 
 of  the  large  family  associa- 
 tions of  which  the  tribes  were 
 composed.  Each  tribe  had  its 
 captain  or  commander  as- 
 siened  by  God's  direction. 
 
 The  view  of  such  a  mass  of 
 people  maintaining  the  most 
 perfect  order  and  subordina- 
 tion, might  well  excite  the 
 admiration  of  the  beholder. 
 (Num.  xxiv.  2—5.) 
 
 CAMPHIRE.  (Sol.  Song'i. 
 14,  and  iv.  13.)  A  plant  of 
 great  beauty  and  fragrance. 
 U  grows  in  Egypt  and  other 
 
 countries  of  the  east^  and  is 
 called  alhenna.  This  cut  is 
 from  a  drawing  taken  by  a 
 French  traveller  in  Egypt. 
 The  flowers  are  clustered  like 
 the  lilac,  and  the  leaves,  when 
 dried  and  pulverized,  make 
 an  orange  dye,  with  which  the 
 female.s  slain  their  hands  and 
 feet.  What  we  call  camphor 
 is  an  entirely  different  sub- 
 stance. (SeeYouTH'sFniEND, 
 vol.  v.,  by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 CANA  OF  Galilee.  (John 
 ii.  1.)  A  small  village  about 
 fifteen  miles  north-west  of  Ti- 
 berias, and  six  miles  north- 
 east of  Nazareth.    It  is  now 
 
CAN 
 
 called  KeferKenna;  is  under 
 the  government  of  a  Turkish 
 officer,  and  contains  perhaps 
 three  hundred  inhabitants, 
 chiefly  Catholics.  It  was  in 
 this  place  ihawour  Saviour  per- 
 formed the  miracle  of  chang- 
 ing water  into  wine,  and  the 
 natives  pretend  to  show  the 
 house  where  it  was  done,  and 
 even  one  of  the  stone  water- 
 pots.  Large  stone  pots  are 
 lound  there,  holding  from 
 twenty  to  thirty  eallons. 
 They  are  not  regarded  as  re- 
 lics, for  the  ancient  use  of 
 them  seems  to  be  unknown  to 
 the  present  inhabitants. 
 
 It  was  here  also  that  the 
 nobleman  applied  to  Christ  to 
 heal  his  son,  who  was  sick  in 
 Capernaum,  and  at  the  point 
 of  death;  and  by  his  divine 
 will,  without  a  word  or  action, 
 and  even  at  a  distance  of 
 thirty  miles  from  the  sick- 
 bed, the  disease  was  checked 
 and  the  child  recovered. 
 
 Nathaniel  was  a  native  of 
 this  place.  (For  a  descrip- 
 tion of  the  village  in  modern 
 times,  illustrated  from  a  draw- 
 ing taken  on  the  spot,  see 
 Youth's  Friend,  for  1833, 
 p.  185,  by  the  Am.  S.S.Union.) 
 
 Another  town  of  the  same 
 name  (Kanah)  belonged  to 
 the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  seems 
 to  have  been  near  Sidon. 
 (Josh.  xix.  as.) 
 
 CANAAN.  (Gen.ix.25.)  Son 
 of  Ham  and  grandson  of  Noah. 
 Ham  having  been  guilty  of 
 criminal  conduct  towards  his 
 father,  a  prophetic  curye  was 
 pronounced  by  Noah  on  so 
 much  of  Ham's  posterity  as 
 should  descend  from  and 
 through  Canaan.  The  curse 
 ■was  mflicted  upon  the  Ca- 
 naaniles,  when  their  land  was 
 subdued,  and  its  inhabitants 
 (the  Hivites,  Jebusites,  &o.) 
 were  cut  oflF  or  subjected  to 
 heavy  tribute  by  the  Israel- 
 ites, the  descendants  of  Shem; 
 and    afterwards,    when    the 
 
 CAN 
 scattered  remnants  of  their 
 tribes  were  conquered  and 
 exterminated  at  Tyre,  Thebes, 
 Carthage,  &c.,  by  the  Greeka 
 and  Romans,  who  were  de- 
 scended from  Japheth. 
 
 Canaan,  LAND  OF.  (Gen.xii. 
 5.)  The  country  inhabited  by 
 the  posterity  of  Canaan,  (see 
 preceding  article,)  who  were 
 hence  called  Canaanites,  and 
 which  was  given,  by  God,  to 
 the  children  of  Israel,  the 
 posterity  of  Abraham,  as  their 
 possession.  (Ex.  vi.  4.  Lev. 
 XXV.  38.)  The  original  boun- 
 daries are  supposed  to  have 
 been  mount  Lebanon  on  the 
 north,  the  wilderness  of  Ara- 
 bia (Shur,  Paran,  and  Zin)  on 
 the  south,  and  the  river  Jor- 
 dan on  the  east.  On  the  west, 
 their  possessions  extended  at 
 some  points  to  the  margin 
 of  the  Mediterranean.  Their 
 boundaries  on  this  side  were 
 partially  restricted  by  the 
 Philistines,  who  held  the  low 
 lands  and  strong  cities  along 
 the  shore.  (Gen.  x.  19.)  Be- 
 sides the  possessions  of  the 
 Israelites,  the  land  of  Canaan 
 embraced  Phenicia  on  the 
 north,  and  Philistia  on  the 
 south-west.    (Zeph.  ii.  5.) 
 
 The  country  was  entered  by 
 the  Israelites  on  the  east  side, 
 at  a  point  of  the  Jordan  op- 
 posite Jericho.  The  tribes  of 
 Gad  and  Reuben  and  half  the 
 tribe  of  Manasseh  had  select- 
 ed possessions  for  themselves 
 on  the  east  of  Jordan,  from  the 
 conquests  which  had  been 
 made  on  their  march.  The 
 natives  of  the  country  were, 
 for  the  most  part,  subdued 
 after  a  succession  of  severe 
 strussles,  (Num.  xxxiii.  51— 
 56,)irnd  their  territory  was 
 divided  among  the  tribes  and 
 families  of  the  Israelites  ac- 
 cording to  their  numbers. 
 This  apportionment  was  made 
 by  what  would  be  called,  in 
 modern  phrase,  a  board  of 
 commissioners,  consisting  of 
 129 
 
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CAN 
 Eleazar  the  high-pi-iesl,  Jo- 
 shua, and  the  twelve  chiefs 
 of  the  tribes ;  and  this  was 
 done  in  such  a  way  that  each 
 tribe  occupied  a  distinct  sec- 
 tion, and  each  family  a  dis- 
 tinct lot,  so  that  every  neigh- 
 bourhood was  made  up  of 
 family  relations. 
 
 The  accompanying  map 
 shows  the  supposed  position, 
 extent,  and  aivislons  of  the 
 land  of  promise,  so  far  as 
 they  can  be  ascertained  from 
 the  sacred  history.  The  length 
 from  north  to  south  was  less 
 than  one  hundred  and  eighty 
 miles,  and  the  width  did  not 
 exceed  seventy-five  miles. 
 
 The  expulsion  of  the  Ca- 
 naanites  is  an  act  perfectly 
 defensible, and  consistent  with 
 the  strictest  principles  of  jus- 
 tice. The  measure  of  their 
 iniquities  was  full.  (Lev.  xviii. 
 H  &c.)  The  kind  of  judg- 
 ment visited  upon  theiii  was 
 much  more  strikingly  illus- 
 trative of  the  power  and  pre- 
 sence of  God,  than  a  pesti- 
 lence or  earthquake  ;  and  the 
 extermination  of  all  their  au- 
 thority and  influence  was  ne- 
 cessary to  prevent  the  Israel- 
 
 CAN 
 
 ites  from  being  seduced  into 
 their  abominable  practicp,s. 
 
 The  possessions  of  the  Isra- 
 elites were  extended  by  con- 
 quest far  beyond  the  limits 
 above  named,  and  in  the  time 
 of  David  and  Solomon  they 
 stretched  to  the  Euphrates 
 and  Orontes  on  the  one  hand, 
 and  to  the  remotest  confines 
 of  Edom  and  Moab  on  the 
 other,  and  embraced  upwards 
 of  26,000  square  miles.  (1 
 Kings  iv.  21.  2  Chron.  viii.) 
 The  population  varied  in  a 
 like  proportion.  The  number 
 of  the  Israelites  who  crossed 
 the  Jordan  is  estimated  at 
 2,000,000,  while  from  an  enrol- 
 ment made  for  David's  army, 
 it  is  presumed  by  some  thai 
 the  population  must  have  ex- 
 ceeded 5,000,000.  (See  Seltj- 
 MiEL,  pp.  120,  121,  by  the  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.  See  also  article 
 City.) 
 
 The  following  table  pre- 
 sents at  one  view  the  proprie- 
 tors of  the  country  before  and 
 after  the  Jewish  conquest,  and 
 the  general  divisions  or  pro- 
 vinces into  which  it  was  di- 
 vided in  the  time  of  our  Sa- 
 viour. 
 
 Jtndent  Canaanitish 
 
 Division. 
 
 Sidonians,      -    -    - 
 
 Unknown,    •    •   • 
 
 Perizzites,      -    -    . 
 
 Hivites,     -        •   • 
 
 Same, 
 
 Jebusites,  •  .  .  - 
 Amorites,  Hittites,  • 
 Philistines,  •  • 
 Moabites,  -  -  • 
 Ammonites,  Gilead, 
 Kingdom  of  Bashan, 
 
 Israelitiah  Division. 
 
 Roman  Division. 
 
 Tribe  of  Asher.   (In  Lebanon.)  "i 
 
 Naphtali.  (North-west  of  the  lake  of  >■  Upper  Galilee. 
 
 Genessaret.)  ) 
 
 Zebulon.   (VPest  of  Genessaret)  I 
 
 Issachar.    (Valley  of  Esdraelon  and  >  Lower  Galile& 
 
 mount  Tabor.)  J 
 
 Half  tribe  of  Manasseh.     (Dor  and^ 
 
 Cesarea.) 
 Ephraim.  (Shechem  and  Samaria.^ 
 Benjamin.    (Jericho  and  Jerusalem.) 
 Judah.    (Hebron  and  Judea  proper.)     (.j^jig. 
 
 Dr  andl 
 
 ria.)     y 
 "  ;m.)  < 
 
 Dan,  f 
 
 C  Simeon.    (South-west  of  Judah,  Dan 
 
 l     and  Joppa.) 
 Reuben.  (Gilead  and  Heshbon.)          *] 
 Ammonites.  (Gilead.)  Lr-i<.i,l 
 
 C  Half  tribe  of  Manasseh.    (Golan  Ba-  f^^'eao. 
 
 I     shan.)  J 
 
 Although  the  extent  and 
 boundaries  of  these  divisions 
 cannot  be  accurately  defined, 
 the  bearings  of  the  chief 
 towns  and  "cities  from  each 
 
 other,  and  from  Jerusalem, 
 the  capital  of  the  country,  are 
 satisfactorily  ascertained. 
 
 As  to  Jerusalem  itself,  there 
 is  no  more  doubt  of  its  ancient 
 132 
 
CAN 
 
 location  than  there  is  of  Rome 
 or  Carthage ;  and  there  is  not 
 an  important  place  in  the 
 whole  land  which  is  not  so 
 connected  both  with  profane 
 and  sacred  history,  as  to  fur- 
 nish an  unbroken  chain  of 
 reference  to  it.  The  writings 
 and  traditions  of  the  Jews, 
 before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
 the  writings  and  traditions 
 both  of  his  friends  and  ene- 
 mies after  that  event,  would 
 have  a  general  reference  to 
 places  of  particular  interest 
 in  the  history  of  the  nation 
 and  in  that  of  individuals. 
 And  even  the  efforts  of  pa- 
 
 fans  to  desecrate  tlie  most 
 allowed  spots,  have  served 
 only  to  perpetuate  the  remem- 
 brance of  them. 
 
 And  besides  all  this,  the 
 land  of  promise  is  still  a  part 
 of  our  earth.  The  hills  still 
 stand  round  about  Jerusalem, 
 as  they  stood  in  the  days  of 
 David  and  of  Solomon.  The 
 dew  falls  in  Hermon  ;  the  ce- 
 dars grow  in  Lebanon,  and 
 Kishon,  "  that  ancient  river," 
 (Judg.  V.  21,)  still  draws  its 
 stream  from  Tabor,  as  in  the 
 times  of  old.  "The  sea  of  Gali- 
 lee still  presents  the  same 
 natural  accompaninfients ;  the 
 fig  tree  springs  up  by  the  way- 
 side; the  sycamore  spreads 
 its  branches,  and  the  vines 
 and  olives  still  climb  the  sides 
 of  the  mountains.  The  deso- 
 lation  which  covered  the  cities 
 of  the  plain  is  not  less  strik- 
 ing at  the  present  hour,  than 
 when  Moses,  with  an  inspired 
 pen,  recorded  the  judgment 
 of  God.  The  swellings  of 
 Jordan  are  not  less  regular  in 
 their  rise  than  when  the  He- 
 brews first  approached  its 
 banlis  ;  and  he  who  goes  down 
 from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho, 
 still  i  iicurs  the  greatest  hazard 
 of  falling  among  thieves. 
 There  is,  m  fact,  in  the  scene- 
 ry and  manners  of  this  an- 
 cient land  a  perpetuity  that 
 12 
 
 CAN 
 accords  well  with  the  ever 
 lasting  import  of  its  historical 
 records,  and  which  enables  ug 
 to  identify,  with  the  utmost 
 readiness,  the  local  imagery 
 of  every  great  transaction." 
 
 As  to  "the  fertility  of  the 
 country,  the  evidence  is  coiv 
 elusive.  Its  character  in  this 
 respect,  as  given  by  Moses, 
 (Deut.  viii.  7 — 9,)  is  fully  supl 
 ported  by  profane  writers,  as 
 well  as  by  the  present  charac- 
 ter of  the  soil,  although  the 
 miserable  condition  of  the  in- 
 habitants and  the  desolation 
 of  war  have  prevented  any 
 proper  cultivation  in  later 
 ages. 
 
 At  the  time  the  children  of 
 Israel  took  possession  of  Ca- 
 naan, it  was  governed  by  petty 
 kings,  of  various  cities  or  pro- 
 vinces. Then  Joshua  became 
 ruler  under  the  express  au- 
 thority and  direction  of  Jeho- 
 vah. After  Joshua,  for  a  few 
 years,  the  government  was  ad- 
 ministered by  elders.  Then 
 came  the  judges  for  about 
 three  hundred  and  twenty 
 years ;  and  then  the  kings  for 
 upwards  of  five  hundred  years, 
 or  until  the  conquest  of  the 
 country  by  the  Babylonians. 
 
 The  vast  resources  of  the 
 land  of  Canaan,  and  the  power 
 of  its  kings,  maybe  estimated, 
 in  some  measure,  not  only  from 
 the  consideration  with  which 
 it  was  regarded  by  Egypt, 
 Tyre,  and  Assyria,  but  by  tne 
 strength  and  population  of  the 
 kingdoms  into  which  the  ori. 
 ginal  country,  as  it  was  unde 
 David,  was  subsequently  di 
 vided.  In  the  reign  of  Solo- 
 mon, Damascus  revolted  and 
 shook  otf  the  Jewish  yoke.  At 
 his  death,  b.  c.  971,  ten  of  the 
 tribes  renounced  their  alle- 
 giance to  the  throne  of  Judah, 
 and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
 rael, having  Samaria  for  its 
 capital ;  while  Judah  and  Ben- 
 jamin remained  together,  with 
 Jerusalem  for  a  capital. 
 133 
 
CAN 
 
 In  the  year  b.  c.  721,  the 
 former  kingdom,  having  exist- 
 ed two  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
 under  nineteen  wicked  kings, 
 was  conquered  by  the  Assy- 
 rians under  Shalmaneser,  and 
 carried  into  captivity.  The 
 latter  existed  about  one  hun- 
 dred and  thirty  years  longer, 
 and  was  then  subdued  and  laid 
 waste  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
 destroyed,  b.  c.  588.  (2  Kings 
 sxv.  2Chr.  xxxvi.  Jer.  xxxix. 
 and  lii.) 
 
 The  land  of  Canaan  remain- 
 ed under  subjection  to  the 
 Chaldeans,  Medes,  and  Per- 
 sians, until  B.  c.  32.3,  when  it 
 fell  into  the  hands  of  the  kings 
 of  Syria,  where  it  remained 
 until  B.  c.  65,  when  it  became  a 
 provinceof  the  Roman  empire. 
 
 At  the  time  of  the  coming 
 of  Christ,  Canaan  was  divided 
 into  five  provinces;  Judea,  Sa- 
 maria, Galilee,  Perea,  and  Idu- 
 mea.  The  province  of  Judea 
 consisted  of  the  tribes  of  Ju- 
 dah,  Benjamin,  Dan,  and  Si- 
 meon. The  rest  of  the  Holy 
 Land,  according  to  the  Roman 
 division,  consisted  of  Samaria, 
 Galilee,  Perea,  Decapolis, 
 Gaulonitis,  Galaaditis,  Bata- 
 nea,  and  Auraniiis.  Samaria 
 contained  in  it  the  tribes  of 
 Ephraim,  Issachar,  and  the 
 half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  Gali- 
 lee, the  tribes  of  Zebulon, 
 Asher,  and  Naphtali.  Perea 
 on  the  other  side  of  Jordan, 
 consisted  of  the  tribes  of  Gad 
 and  Reuben.  Decapolis  was 
 part  of  the  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
 nasseh. Gaulonitis  was  north 
 of  it.  Galaaditis  was  a  hilly 
 country,  extending  from  mount 
 Lebanon  through  the  half  tribe 
 of  Manasseh,  "and  the  tribes 
 of  Gad  and  Reuben.  Further 
 north,  in  the  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
 nasseh, was  Batanea,  and 
 more  northward  still,  was  Au- 
 ranitisjor  Iiiirea.  Beyond  this, 
 bordering  on  the  territory  of 
 Damascus,  was  Trachonitis. 
 
 CAN 
 On  the  death  of  Herod,  Ar- 
 chelaus,  his  eldest  son,  suc- 
 ceeded to  the  government  of 
 Judea,  (Malt.  ii.  22,)  Samaria, 
 and  Idumea,  with  the  title  of 
 letrarch ;  Galilee  being  as- 
 signed to  Herod  Antipas,  and 
 Iiurea,  (Luke  iii.  1,)  and  the 
 adjacent  countries  beyond  Jor- 
 dan, to  the  third  brother.  Phi 
 lip.  But  in  less  than  ten  years, 
 the  dominions  of  Archelaus 
 became  annexed,  on  his  dis- 
 grace, to  the  Roman  province 
 of  Syria,  and  Judea  was 
 thenceforth  governed  by  Ro- 
 man procurators.  Jerusalem, 
 after  its  final  destruction  by 
 Titus,  A.  D.  71,  remained  deso- 
 late and  almost  uninhabited, 
 till  the  emperor  Hadrian  colo- 
 nised it,  and  erected  temples 
 to  Jupiter  and  "Venus  on  its 
 site.  The  empress  Helena,  in 
 the  fourth  century,  set  the  ex- 
 ample of  repairing  as  a  pil- 
 grim to  the  Holy  Land,  to  visit 
 the  scenes  consecrated  by  the 
 gospel  narrative  ;  and  the 
 country  became  enriched  by 
 the  crowds  of  devotees  who 
 flocked  there.  In  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  seventh  cen- 
 tury, it  was  overrun  by  the 
 Saracens,  who  held  it  till  Je- 
 rusalem was  taken  by  the  Cru- 
 saders in  the  twelfth.  Then 
 for  about  eighty  years,  the 
 Holy  Land  drank  continually 
 of  Clrrisiian  and  Saracen 
 blood.  In  1187,  Judea  was  con- 
 quered by  Saladin  ;  on  the  de- 
 cline of  AVhose  kingdom  it 
 passed  through  various  revolu- 
 tions, and,  at  length,  in  1317, 
 was  finally  swallowed  up  in 
 the  Turkish  empire. 
 
 "  Trodden  down 
 67  all  in  turn,  Pagan,  and  Frank,  and 
 
 Tartar,— 
 So  runs  tlie  dread  anathema,— titxldea 
 
 down 
 Beneath  the  oppressor;  darkness  shroud- 
 ing Ihee 
 From  evtr)  blessed  influence  of  Heaten: 
 Tt.us  hast  ihou  lain  for  ages,  iron-bouna 
 A»  with  a  curse.  Thus  ajt  thou  i" 
 
 to  lie, 
 Tet  not  for  ever." 
 
 134 
 
CAN 
 
 In  the  modern  distribution  [ 
 of  the  territory,  we  find  the  I 
 pashalic  of  Acre,  or  Akka,  in- 
 cludes the  ancient  territory  of 
 Asher,  Zebulon,  Issachar,  half  j 
 Manasseh,  and  Naphtali.  The  { 
 pashalic  of  Gaza,  now  united 
 with  that  of  Acre,  embraces 
 Dan,  Simeon,  Judah,  Benja- 
 min, and  Ephraim;  and  tlie 
 Eashalic  of  Damascus  hasReu- 
 en.  Gad,  and  the  other  half 
 of  Manasseh.  The  population 
 of  this  interesting  country  now 
 consists  chiefly  of  Turks,  Sy- 
 rians, Arabs,  Jews,  and  Greeks. 
 (See  Hebrews.  See  also  Eve- 
 ning Recreation.^,  vol.  ii.pp. 
 74—106;  vol.  iii.  pp.  116—144; 
 and  Biblical  ANXiamTiES, 
 vol.  i.  ch.  ix.  §  1 — 4,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  for  a  full  and 
 perspicuous  history  of  the  Isra- 
 elitish  land  and  government.) 
 The  general  outlines  of  the 
 surface  ©f  the  country  may  be 
 thus  laid  down.  The  Jordan, 
 or  river  of  Dan,  which  rises 
 under  the  lofty  peaks  of  mount 
 Lebanon,  and  flows  in  a  direc- 
 tion almost  constantly  south- 
 ward, with  the  lake  of  Tibe- 
 rias, through  which  it  passes, 
 and  the  Dead  Sea,  which  it 
 fonns  by  its  discharge,  divides 
 Palestine  from  north  to  south. 
 In  the  western  division,  be- 
 tween the  Mediterranean  and 
 the  lake  of  Tiberias,  lie  the 
 two  Galilees.  The  plain  of 
 Esdraelon,  which  occupies  the 
 greater  part  of  this  tract,  being 
 two  days'  journey,  or  nearly 
 fifty  miles,  in  length,  and 
 twenty  in  breadth,  is  describ- 
 ed by  travellers  as  one  vast 
 meacfow,  covered  with  the 
 richest  pasture.  This  plain  is 
 enclosed  on  all  sides  by  the 
 mountains,  and  not  a  house  or 
 a  tree  is  to  be  discovered  in  it. 
 It  is  completely  commanded 
 by  Accho,  so  that  the  possessor 
 of  that  port  is  the  lord  of  one 
 of  the  richest  territories  in  the 
 Holy  Land.  To  the  south  of 
 Galilee  lies  the  district  of  ao- 
 
 CAN 
 
 cient  Samaria:  it  is  mountain 
 ous,  but  well  cultivated,  and 
 forms  at  present  the  most 
 flourishing  part  of  the  Holy 
 Land.  Judea  Proper  comprises 
 the  territory  extending  from 
 the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Afediter- 
 ranean,  and  is  composed  of  a 
 range  of  limestone  hills,  rising 
 by  stages  from  the  level  of  the 
 coast,  and  becom.ing  more 
 rugged  and  rocky  as  you  ap- 
 proach Jerusalem  from  Joppa. 
 Between  Joppa  and  Gaza 
 westward  of  the  mountains  of 
 Judea,  lies  the  tract  distia 
 guished  as  the  plain  of  the 
 Mediterranean  Sea,  the  an- 
 cient territory  of  the  Philis- 
 tines,  including  the  five  cities 
 of  Gaza,  Askelon,  Ashdod, 
 Gath,  and  Ekron.  (Josh.  xiii. 
 3,  and  1  Sam.  vi.  17.)  This 
 district  still  bears  the  name  of 
 Phalasiin,  and  forms  a  sepa- 
 rate pashalic;  it  may  be  dis- 
 tinguished as  Palestine  Pro- 
 per. 
 
 The  land  of  Canaan  was 
 called  the  land  of  Israel,  (1 
 Sam.  xiii.  19,)  because  it  was 
 occupied  by  the  descendants 
 of  Jacob  or  Israel.  The  holy 
 land,  (Zech.  ii.  12,)  because 
 God's  presence  was  continu- 
 ally manifested  there,  as  the 
 leader  and  governor  of  his 
 chosen  people ;  and  especially 
 may  it  be  rega:ded  as  such, 
 since  the  sufferings  and  death 
 of  Christ  have  consecrated  it. 
 The  land  of  promise,  (Heb.  xi. 
 9,)  because  it  was  promised  to 
 Abraham  and  his  jposterity  as 
 their  possession.  The  land  cf 
 Judah,  (Jer.  xxxix.  10,)  be- 
 cause Judah  was  the  leading 
 tribe;  the  larid  of  the  He- 
 brews, (Gen.  xl.  15,)  or  the  de- 
 scendants of  Eber,  an  ances- 
 tor of  Abraham.  The  modern 
 name  of  Palestine,  or  the  land 
 of  the  Philistines,  was  origi- 
 nally applied  to  the  regioa 
 lying  along  the  coast  of  the 
 Mediterranean,  south-west  of 
 the  land  of  promise ;  but  in  its 
 135 
 
CAN 
 
 present  usage  denotes  the 
 whole  country  !jounded  by  the 
 Jordan  on  the  east,  the  Medi- 
 lerranean  on  the  west,  Arabia 
 on  the  south,  and  Lebanon  on 
 the  north.    (See  Sykia.) 
 
 CANAANITES.  (See  pre- 
 ceding article.) 
 
 a^^DACE.  (See  Philip.) 
 
 CANDLE  (Job  xviii.  6)  is 
 often  used  figuratively  by  the 
 sacred  writers,  to  denote  light 
 generally.   (See  Lamp.) 
 
 CANDLESTICK,  golden, 
 (Ex.  XXV.  31,)  was  a  splendid 
 article  of  the  tabernacle  furni- 
 
 CAN 
 
 ture,  made  of  fine  gold,  and 
 computed  to  have  been  worth, 
 at  the  modern  value  of  gold, 
 three  millions  of  dollars.  It 
 consisted  of  a  shaft  or  stem 
 supposed  to  have  been  five 
 feet  high,  with  six  branches. 
 The  branches  came  out  from 
 the  shaft  at  three  points,  two 
 at  each  point,  as  in  the  fol- 
 lowing cut,  and  the  width  of 
 the  whole  candlestick,  across 
 the  top,  was  about  three  feet 
 and  a  half.  It  was  richly 
 adorned,  with  raised  work,  re- 
 presenting flowers,  and  also 
 
 ^ 
 
CAP 
 
 knops  or  knobs,  and  little 
 \)owis  resembling  half  an  al- 
 ,nonil  shell.  At  the  extremity 
 of  each  branch  there  was  a 
 Bocket  for  the  candle,  and  also 
 at  the  top  of  the  main  shaft, 
 making  seven  in  all.  (Rev.  i. 
 12,  13.  20.)  Tongs  to  remove 
 the  snuff,  and  dislies  to  receive 
 it,  as  well  as  oil  vessels,  were 
 articles  of  furniture  belonging 
 to  the  candlestick,  and  were 
 all  made  of  gold.  The  lights 
 were  trimmed  and  supplied 
 daily  with  the  purest  olive  oil. 
 They  were  lighted  at  night 
 and  extinguished  in  the  morn- 
 ing ;  though  some  suppose  that 
 a  part  of  them,  at  least,  were 
 kept  burning  through  the  day. 
 The  candlestick  was  so  situ- 
 ated as  to  throw  the  light  on 
 the  altar  of  incense  and  on  the 
 table  of  shew-bread,  occupy- 
 ing the  same  apartment,  and 
 from  which  the  natural  light 
 was  excluded.  (See  Biblical 
 Antiquities,  vol.  ii.  ch.ii.,  and 
 Destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
 ch.  xiii.,  both  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 CANE.  (See  Calamus.) 
 CANKER-WORM,  (Joel  i. 
 4,)  elsewhere  called  the  cater- 
 pillar, (Jer.  li.  27,)  was  one 
 of  the  army  of  destroying  in- 
 sects by  which  the  land  of 
 Judea  was  laid  waste.  The 
 particular  species  of  insect 
 intended  by  the  prophet  is  un- 
 certain, though  the  prevailing 
 opinion  is,  that  it  was  of  the 
 locust  tribe.  Its  voraciousness 
 and  multitude  are  sufficiently 
 indicated  by  the  connexion  in 
 which  it  is  mentioned.  (Nah. 
 iii.  15,  16.) 
 CANNEH.  (See  Calneh.) 
 CAPERNAUM.  (Matt.  iv. 
 13.)  A  city  on  the  western 
 shore  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
 where  our  Saviour  often  re- 
 sided, and  where  some  of  his 
 most  wonderful  works  were 
 done,  and  where  also  he  de- 
 livered some  of  his  most  point- 
 12* 
 
 CAP 
 
 ed  discourses.  (See  Mark  i.  21. 
 37,  and  ii.  1—28.  John  vi.  25— 
 70,  and  comp.  with  Isa.  ix.  1, 
 2.)  Notwitlislanding  it  was  thus 
 highly  favoured  wiih  the  pre- 
 sence and  instructions  of  the 
 Lord  of  glory,  it  was  the  sub- 
 ject of  the  most  fearful  denun- 
 ciations. (Matt.  xi.  20—24.) 
 The  prediction  of  its  downfall 
 was  long  ago  fulfilled ;  and 
 though  it  was  once  a  city  of 
 renown,  and  the  metropolis  of 
 all  Galilee,  the  site  it  occu- 
 pied is  now  uncertain.  When 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, travelled  in  Syria  in 
 1823,  he  found  twenty  or  thirty 
 uninhabited  Arab  huts,  occu- 
 pying what  are  supposed  to  be 
 the  fuins  of  the  once  exalted 
 city  of  Capernaum. 
 
 CAPHTOR,  CAPHTORIM. 
 (See  Crete.) 
 
 CAPFADOCU.  (IPet.  i.  1.) 
 One  of  the  three  interior  pro- 
 vinces of  Asia  Minor.  (See 
 ]\Iap  to  article  Paul.)  It  was 
 bounded  east  by  Armenia, 
 north  by  Pontus,  west  by  Ly- 
 caonia,  and  south  by  Cilicia. 
 Christianity  was  probably  in- 
 troduced into  this  proyince  at 
 an  early  period,  (Acts  ii.  9,) 
 and  the  existence  of  Christian 
 churches  there  is  easily  traced 
 up  to  a  period  as  late  as  the 
 tenth  century. 
 
 CAPTAIN.  (Deut.i.15.)  An 
 officer  in  the  Jewish  army 
 whose  rank  or  power  was  de- 
 signated by  the  number  of 
 men  under  his  command,  as 
 captain  of  fifty,  or  captain  of  a 
 thousand ;  and  the  commander 
 or  chief  of  the  whole  army 
 was  called  the  captain  of  the 
 host.  The  divisions  of  the 
 army  were  regulated  in  some 
 measure  by  the  division  of 
 families,  as  the  heads  of  fami- 
 lies were  usually  officers. 
 (2Chron.  xxv.  5.)  Captains  of 
 hundreds,  or  larger  companies, 
 were  i)robably  what  would  be 
 called  in  modern  phrase,  staff 
 137 
 
CAP 
 
 officers,  and  formed  the  coun- 
 cils of  war.  (I  Chron.  xiii.  i.) 
 
 Captain  of  the  temple. 
 (Acts  iv.  i.)  Either  the  com- 
 mander of  the  Roman  garrison 
 stationed  near  the  temple,  or 
 the  chief  of  the  priests  and 
 Levites  who  kept  guard  around 
 and  within  the  temple. 
 
 CAPTIVE  (Gen.  xiv.  14) 
 usually  denotes  one  taken  in 
 war.  Among  eastern  nations 
 such  persons  were  treated  with 
 great  cruelty,  and  were  sub- 
 jects of  merchandise.  (Joel 
 iii.  3.)  The  Romans  sometimes 
 compelled  a  captive  to  be 
 joined  face  to  face  with  a  dead 
 Dody,  and  to  bear  it  about  until 
 the  horrible  effluvia  destroyed 
 the  life  of  the  living.  (Rom. 
 vii.  24.) 
 
 CAPTIVITY.  (Num.  xxi. 
 29.)  A  term  usually  employed 
 to  denote  an  important  era  in 
 the  history  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
 ple. 
 
 To  punish  their  rebellions 
 and  idolatries,  God  suiTered 
 them  to  come  into  frequent 
 bondage  to  surrounding  na- 
 tions. Severalof  their  captivi- 
 ties took  place  at  an  early  pe- 
 riod of  their  history,  of  which 
 a  particular  account  is  given 
 in  the  first  ten  chapters  of 
 Judges. 
 
 Soon  after  the  close  of  Solo- 
 mon's glorious  reign,  the  king- 
 dom was  divided.  Ten  of  the 
 tribes  separated  themselves, 
 and  took  the  name  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Israel,  leaving  the 
 tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin 
 to  constitute  the  kingdom  of 
 Judah.  Each  of  these  two 
 kingdoms  suffered  a  distinct 
 captivity.  That  of  Israel  is 
 called  the  Assyrian,  and  that 
 of  Judah  the  Babylonish  cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 In  the  year  of  the  world 
 32&4,  Tiglath-pileser,  the  king 
 of  Assyria,  made  war  upon  Is- 
 rael, and  carried  a  large  nurn- 
 oer  of  their   people  (chiefly 
 
 CAP 
 
 those  of  the  tribes  of  Reuben, 
 Gad,  and  Manasseh)  into  cap- 
 tivity, (2  Kings  XV.  29.  i 
 Chron.  v.  26,)  and  the  residue 
 remained  under  their  own 
 king,  but  paid  tribute  to  the 
 Assyrian  government.  After 
 the  lapse  of  twenty  years  this 
 tribute  was  refused,  and  there- 
 fore Shalmaneser,  son  of  Tig- 
 lalh-pileser,  besieged  and  (af- 
 ter three  years)  captured  and 
 destroyed  Samaria,  the  capital 
 of  the  kingdom,  and  the  great 
 mass  of  the  people  were  trans- 
 ported to  provinces  beyond  the 
 Euphrates,  and  some  doubt  is 
 entertained  whether  they  ever 
 returned.  (2  Kings  xvii.  5,  6, 
 and  xviii.  10,  11.  Hos.  i.  6.) 
 Jewish  historians  say  they  ne- 
 ver did  return.  The  following 
 among  other  passages  are  em- 
 ployed to  support  an  opposite 
 opinion:  Ezra  ii.  59;  vi.  16, 
 and  viii.  S5.  Isa.  xi.  12, 13,  and 
 xxvii.  12.  13.  Jer.  iii.  18;  xvi. 
 15;  XXXI.  7—20,  and  xlix.  2. 
 Ezek.  xxxvii.  16.  Hos.  i.  10, 11. 
 Amos  ix.  14.  Obad.  19-21.  Mic, 
 ii.l2.  Zech.ix.  13,andx.6. 10. 
 (See  Hebrews.) 
 
 The  first  captivity  of  Judah 
 took  place  under  king  Jehoia- 
 kim,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
 3398,  when  Daniel  and  his 
 companions  were  among  the 
 captives.  The  second  was  in 
 the  seventh  year  of  Jehoia- 
 kim,  about  3404  ;  the  third,  in 
 the  reign  of  Jehoiachin,  a.  m. 
 3406.  The  fourth,  or  seventy 
 years'  captivity,  was  under 
 Zedekiah's  reign,  in  the  year 
 of  the  world  3416.  (For  a  par- 
 ticular account  of  these  events, 
 see  2  Kings  xxiv.  2  Chron. 
 xxxvi.  Jer.  xxv.  xxvi.  xxix. 
 xxxii.  xxxiv.  Iii.  Ezek.  xii. 
 Dan.  i.  1,  2.)  The  sufferings 
 in  which  these  captivities  in- 
 volveil  them  are  affectingly 
 described  in  Ps.  cxxxvii.  1---6, 
 and  J€r.  iv.  19-31. 
 
 In  3157  the  Jews  were  al- 
 lowed to  return,  (Ezra  i.  I  i" 
 138 
 
CAR 
 
 but  it  was  not  until  3486,  or 
 seventy  years  from  the  period 
 of  their  fourth  captivity,  that 
 liiey  were  permitted  to  rebuild 
 the  temple  (See  Elisama,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  pp.  25—28.) 
 
 Children  op  the  captivi- 
 ty. (Ezra  iv.  1.)  A  common 
 figure  of  speech  denoting  those 
 who  were  in  captivity,  or  per- 
 haps sometimes  literally  their 
 posterity.  Turn  again,  (Ps. 
 cxxvi.  1,)  turn  away,  (Jer. 
 xxix.  14,)  turn  back,  (Zeph.  iii. 
 20,)  or  bring  again  (Ezek.  xvi. 
 53)  the  captivity,  are  figurative 
 
 Jhrases,  all  referring  to  the 
 evvish  nation  in  bondage,  and 
 their  return  to  Canaan.  A  si- 
 milar expression  is  used  in  re- 
 lation to  individuals,  as  in  Job 
 xlii.  10;  The  Lord  turned  the 
 captivity  of  Job,  that  is,  he  re- 
 leased him  from  the  unusual 
 suflTerings  and  perplexities  to 
 which  fie  had  been  in  bond- 
 age, and  caused  him  to  rejoice 
 again  in  the  favour  of  God. 
 He  led  captivity  captive,  (Eph. 
 iv.  8,)  or  he  led  those  as  his 
 captives  who  had  made  cap- 
 tives of  others,  is  a  figurative 
 allusion  to  the  victory  which 
 our  blessed  Redeemer  achiev- 
 ed over  sin  and  death,  by 
 whom  our  ruined  race  are 
 brousht  into  bondase.  (Rom. 
 viii.21.  Gal.  iv.  24.  Heb.  ii. 
 15.    2 Pet.  ii.  19.) 
 
 CARBUNCLE.  (Ezek. 
 xxviii.  13.)  A  precious  stone. 
 Its  colour  is  a  deep  red  mingled 
 with  scarlet,  and  when  held 
 up  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  it 
 loses  its  deep  tinge,  and  re- 
 sembles burning  charcoal.  It 
 is  not  certain,  however,  that 
 the  carbuncle  of  the  Scriptures 
 is  the  same  species  of  fossil  to 
 which  we  give  that  name. 
 
 CARCHEMISH.  (2  Chron. 
 XXXV.  20.)  h.  town  on  the  east- 
 ern banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
 where  the  Chebar  or  Khaboor 
 falls  into  it.  It  is  now  known 
 %a  Kirkisia,  It  was  taken  from 
 
 CAR 
 
 the  Assyrians  by  the  king  ot 
 Egypt,  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29,)  who 
 left  it  in  charge  of  a  garrison- 
 Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Ba- 
 bylon, afterwards  took  it  from 
 the  Esyptians  with  great 
 slaughter,  in  fulfilment  of  the 
 remarkable  prophecy  of  Jere- 
 miah.   (Jer.  xlvi.  1—12.) 
 
 C  A  R  ]M  E  L,  MOUNT.  (Isa. 
 xxxiii.  9 )  One  of  the  most 
 remarkable  points  on  the 
 sliores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
 It  is  the  highest  peak  of  a 
 range  of  mountains  (of  the 
 sam'e  name)  rising  in  the  plain 
 of  Esdraelon,  and  running  five 
 or  six  miles  in  a  north-west 
 course  till  it  terminates  in  a 
 promontory  on  the  coast,  south 
 of  the  bay  of  Acre.  It  is  from 
 fifteen  hundred  to  two  thou- 
 sand feet  atove  the  level  of 
 tlie  sea.  (Amos  ix.  3.)  Its 
 shape  resembles  a  flattened 
 cone,  and  is  the  finest  and 
 most  beautiful  mountain  in 
 Palestine.  Its  soil  was  once 
 fertile  and  highly  cultivated. 
 (Isa.  xxxiii.  9;  xxxv.  2.  Jer. 
 1.  19.)  Its  name  signifies  a 
 fruitful  field,  or  a  country  of 
 vineyards  and  gardens.  "Mo- 
 dern travellers  tell  us  that  the 
 oaks,  wild  vines,  olive  trees, 
 and  fragrant  flowers  still  indi- 
 cate its  former  productiveness, 
 though  it  has  sufficiently  dete- 
 riorated to  fulfil  the  prediction 
 of  the  prophet.  (Amos  i.  2.) 
 The  graceful  form  and  verdant 
 beauty  of  its  summit  are  al 
 luded  to,  Sol.  Song  vii.  5.  The 
 base  of  the  mountain  was 
 washed  by  "  that  ancient  river 
 the  river  Kishon,"  (Judg.  v. 
 21,)  and  the  plain  of  Sharon 
 spread  out  towards  the  south. 
 We  are  told  that  while  Leba- 
 non  raised  to  heaven  a  sum- 
 mit of  naked  and  barren  rocks, 
 covered  the  greater  part  of 
 the  year  witHf  snow,  the  top 
 of  Carmel,  how  naked  and 
 sterile  soever  its  present  ap- 
 pearance, was  clothed  with 
 139 
 
CAS 
 
 f)erennial  verdure ;  so  that  the 
 ofty  genius  of  Isaiah,  guided 
 by  the  spirit  of  inspiraiion, 
 could  not  find  a  ffiore  appro- 
 priate figure  to  represent  the 
 flourishing  state  of  the  Re- 
 deemer's kingdom,  than  "  the 
 excellency  of  Carmel  and 
 Sharon."  The  summit  of  Car- 
 mel is  remarkable  for  its  pure 
 and  enlivening  atmosphere. 
 
 This  promontory  is  a  plnce 
 of  deep  interest  in  the  annals 
 of  the  Jews,  (1  Kings  xviii. 
 19.  42.  2  Kings  ii.  25,  and  iv. 
 25,)  and  was  once  the  resort 
 of  crowds  of  Christian  devo- 
 tees, and  the  residence  of  an 
 order  of  monks  called  Carmel- 
 ites, who  had  a  convent  there, 
 which  was  pillaged  and  de- 
 stroyed by  the  Arabs  after  the 
 retreat  of  the  French  army,  in 
 1799,  who  used  it  as  an  hospital 
 for  their  sick  and  wounded 
 during  the  siege  of  Acre. 
 
 There  are  many  traditions 
 and  superstitions  which  tra- 
 vellers have  preserved,  about 
 the  caves  and  grottos  which 
 abound  in  this  mountain;  but 
 they  will  not  be  in  place  here. 
 
 Carmel, TOWN  OF.  (Josh.  xv. 
 55.)  A  city  and  hill,  five  miles 
 west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  be- 
 tween the  wilderness  of  Ziph 
 and  the  wilderness  o<'  Maon. 
 It  was  the  residence  of  Nabal. 
 (1  Sam.  XXV.  2,  and  xxvii.  3.) 
 
 A  limestone  mountain,  call- 
 ed El  Carmel,  is  described  by 
 travellers  as  the  same  with 
 the  ancient  city  and  hill. 
 
 CARRIAGES.  (Aclsxxi.  15.) 
 The  load  or  burden  of  man  or 
 beast ;  baggage  (Isa.  x.  28)  or 
 mat,  on  which  any  thing  is 
 carried.  (lSam.xvii.20.  treiich, 
 OT  place  of  the  carriages.  Isa. 
 xlvi.  1.)  "  They  took  up  their 
 carriages,"  i.  e.  they  packed 
 up  their  things,  and  commenc- 
 ed their  journey.  (Actsxxi.  15.) 
 
 CART.  (See  Wagon.) 
 
 CART-ROPE.  (Isa.  v.  18.) 
 This   is    a   strong   figtirative 
 
 CAT 
 
 expression,  the  most  nattral 
 meaning  of  which  is  shown  by 
 two  Jewish  sayings— "Wo  to 
 them  that  begin  to  sin  a  little, 
 and  they  go  on  and  increase 
 until  their'' sins  are  as  a  carl- 
 rope;"  and,  "The  evil  imagi- 
 nation is  at  first  like  a  spider's 
 thread,  but  at  last  it  is  like  to 
 cart-ropes."  There  may  be  a 
 remote  allusion  also  to  the 
 cords  with  which  the  sacrifices 
 were  bound. 
 CASEMENT.  (See  Win 
 
 DOW.) 
 
 CASSIA.  (Ex.  XXX.  24.)  The 
 bark  of  a  tree  of  the  same  spe- 
 cies with  cinnamon  and  sassa- 
 fras, and  one  of  the  ingredi- 
 ents of  the  holy  anointing  oil. 
 It  was  an  article  of  Tyrian 
 trade,  (Ezek.  xxvii.  19,)  and 
 remarkable  for  its  fragrance. 
 (Ps.  xlv.  8.) 
 
 CAST  OUT,  (John  ix.  22, 
 and  34,  comp.,)  or  excommuni- 
 cate, was  to  cut  oflF  from  the 
 privilegesof  theJewish  church. 
 
 CASTOR  and  POLLUX, 
 (Acts  xxviii.  11,)  in  heathen 
 mythology,  were  the  names 
 of  twin  sons  of  Jupiter,  who 
 were  supposed  to  preside  over 
 the  destinies  of  sailors.  Hence 
 an  image  representing  them 
 was  often  seen  on  the  prow  of 
 ancient  ships,  like  the  figure- 
 heads of  modern  days.  The 
 word  sign  is  supposed  by  some 
 not  to  signify  the  name  of  the 
 ship,  but  only  the  protecting 
 image  of  the  deity  under  whose 
 auspices  she  sailed.  We  are 
 inclined  to  believe  that  the 
 sign  was  the  only  designa- 
 tion the  ship  had,  and  that  this 
 mode  of  expression  by  the 
 apostle,  signified  to  the  mer- 
 chants of  Alexandria  and  Mal- 
 ta what  particular  vessel  was 
 intended.  This  particularity 
 of  detail  in  the  sacred  narra- 
 tive is  highly  corroborative  of 
 its  truth. 
 
 CATERPILLAR.  (1  Kings 
 viii.  37.)  A  tribe  of  insects  of 
 140 
 
CAU 
 
 vast  number  and  destructive 
 voracity.  Hence  they  were 
 often  employed  as  the  asents 
 in  the  execution  of  God's 
 judgments,  (Ps.  lxxviii.46,  and 
 cv.  34,)  and  figuratively  repre- 
 sent a  great  multitude.  (Isa. 
 xxxiii.4.  Jer.li.  14.27.)  They 
 were  regarded  as  among  the 
 most  desolating  visitations  of 
 God's  hand. 
 
 CATTLE.  (Gen.  i.  25.)  In 
 the  common  scriptural  use  of 
 this  term  it  embraces  the  tame 
 quadrupeds  employed  by  man- 
 kind, as  oxen,  horses,  sheep, 
 camels,  goats,  &c.  (Gen.  xiii. 
 2.  Ex.  xii.  29,  and  xxxiv. 
 19.  Num.  XX.  19;  xxxii.  16. 
 and  Fs.  1.  10,  and  Job  i.  3, 
 where  the  word  translated 
 substance  would  be  more  pro- 
 perly rendered  cattfe.') 
 
 The  allusion  in  Job  xxxvi. 
 33,  is  explained  by  the  well- 
 known  (act  that  certain  ani- 
 mals of  this  class  are  peculi- 
 arly sensitive  to  the  change  of 
 air  which  precedes  ram. 
 
 CAUL.  (Isa.  iii.  18.)  The  at- 
 tire of  the  head,  made  of  net- 
 work and  ornamented.  InHos. 
 xiii.  8,  /  will  rend  the  caul 
 (f  their  heart,  the  word  caul 
 denotes  the  membranous  ves- 
 sel which  contains  the  heart. 
 The  figure  represents  a  raging 
 beast  of  prey  seizing  his  vic- 
 tim, and  tearing  out  its  vitals. 
 
 CAUSEWAY.  (IChron. 
 xxvi.  16.)  A  raised  way  or 
 path.  (2  Chron.  ix.  4.)  In  most 
 of  the  passages  Avhere  it  oc- 
 curs, it  signifies  any  public 
 way  or  high  road,  and  indeed 
 is  so  translated  in  Judg.  xx.  31, 
 32.  1  Sam.  vi.  12.  Prov.  xvi.  2. 
 
 The  same  word  is  rendered 
 %Days  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  5,  and  here 
 signifies  the  ways  to  Zion,  by 
 wnich  the  devout  Jews  as- 
 cended to  worship  in  the  tem- 
 ple,  and  the  remembrance  of 
 which  was  continually  present 
 in  the  hearts  of  those  who 
 loved  them,  and  who  loved  also 
 
 CED 
 
 the  holy  place  and  service  to 
 which  they  led. 
 
 CAVE.  (Gen.  xix.30.)  Caves 
 were  very  common  in  Judeei, 
 and  were  made  use  of  as  tem- 
 porary dwelling  places,  (Gen. 
 xix.  30;)  as  places  of  conceal- 
 ftient,  (Josh.  x.  16.    Judg.  vi. 
 
 2.  1  Sam.  xiii.  6;  xxii.^1,  2, 
 and  xxiv.  3.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  13. 
 1  Kings  xviii.  4  ;  xix.  9.  Heb. 
 xi.  38';)  and  as  burial  places. 
 (Gen.  xxiii.  17. 19,  and  xlix.  29. 
 John  xi.  38.) 
 
 CEDAR.  (2  Sam.  vii.  2.)  One 
 of  the  most  valuable  and  ma- 
 jestic trees  of  eastern  forests. 
 It  gi'ows  to  the  height  of  se- 
 venty or  eighty  feet.  The 
 branches  are'lhick  and  long, 
 spreading  out  almost  horizon- 
 tally from  the  trunk,  which  is 
 sometimes  thirty  or  forty  feet 
 in  circumference.  (Ezek.xxxi 
 
 3.  6.  8.)  Maundrell  measured 
 one  wliich  was  thirty-six  feet 
 and  six  inches  in  the  girth, 
 and  one  hundred  and  eleven 
 feet  in  the  spread  of  its  boughs. 
 The  wood  is  of  a  red  colour 
 and  bitter  taste,  which  is  offen- 
 sive to  insects,  and  hence  il 
 is  very  durable,  having  been 
 known  to  last  (as  historians 
 assert)  upwards  of  two  thou- 
 sand years.  It  was  used  for 
 the  most  noble  and  costly  edi- 
 fices. This  timber  served  not 
 only  for  beams  for  the  frame, 
 and  boards  for  covering  build- 
 ings, but  was  also  wrought  into 
 the  walls.  (1  Kings  vi.  36,  and 
 vii.  12.)  The  nibuntains  of 
 Lebanon  were  famous  for  the 
 growth  of  the  cedar,  but  travel- 
 lers tell  us  that  the  words  of 
 prophecy  are  verified,  for  now 
 a  child  may  write  them. 
 (Isa.  X.  19.    bee  Lebanon.) 
 
 (For  a  very  full  description 
 and  cut  of  this  tree,  with  the 
 explanation  of  its  figurative 
 use  in  the  sacred  writings, 
 see  article  Cedar,  in  Bible 
 Natural  History,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  U-nion.) 
 
 141 
 
CEN 
 CEDRON.  (See  Kidron.) 
 CEIL.  (See  Cielins.) 
 CELLARS.  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
 27.)  Of  cellars,  such  as  are 
 common  among  us,  nothing 
 was  known  in  the  east,  if  we 
 except  the  chambers  which 
 are  used  in  Persia  for  the  stor- 
 ing of  earthen  jars  or  other 
 vessels  of  wine.  Among  the 
 Hebrews  and  Greeks  these 
 jars  were  buried  up  to  the 
 neck  in  the  ground.  The  word 
 wine-cellars,  in  the  passage 
 cited,  probably  denotes  the 
 patches  of  ground  used  to  bury 
 wine.    (See  Wine.) 
 
 CENCHREA.  (Acts  xviii. 
 18.)  A  seaport  on  the  eastern 
 side  of  the  «thmus  of  Corinth, 
 and  nine  miles  distant  from 
 that  city.  It  was  the  seal  of  a 
 Christian  church.  (Rom.  xvi. 
 L4.) 
 
 CENSER.  (Lev.  x.  1.)  A  ves- 
 sel used  in  the  temple  service, 
 for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the 
 fire  in  which  the  incense  was 
 burned.    It  was  made  of  pure 
 
 fold.  (1  Kings  vii.  50.  Heb.  ix. 
 .)  The  censer  was  held  in 
 one  hand,  and  contained  the 
 fire  taken  from  the  perpetual 
 supply  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
 ofiering.  The  incense  was 
 carriea  in  the  other  hand  ;  and 
 as  the  high-priest,  once  a  year, 
 entered  the  holy  of  holies,  he 
 strewed  the  pulverized  incense 
 
 CES 
 
 upon  the  fire,  and  the  cioud 
 of  smoko  ascended  up  in  a 
 dark  volume,  and  filled  the 
 apartment  with  its  fragranca 
 It  is  called  a  spoon,  (Num.  vii. 
 14.)  and  vial,  (tiev.  v.  8.) 
 
 The  foregoing  cut  representi 
 the  probable  form  of  the  ves- 
 sel, or  the  charger  and  censei 
 combined. 
 
 CENTURION.  (Matt,  viii,, 
 5.)  The  title  of  an  ofiicer  oi 
 the  Roman  army,  who  had 
 command  of  one  hundred  sol 
 diers. 
 
 CEPHAS.  (John  i.  42.)  A 
 Syriac  surname  given  to  Peter 
 which  in  the  Greek  is  render 
 ed  Pefros, and  inLalinPc/rws, 
 both  signifying  a  rock.    (See 
 
 CEREMONIES,  (Num.  ix. 
 3,)  or  ORL>lNANCES,(Heb.  ix. 
 ],)  denote  the  external  rites  of 
 religion,  or  the  forms  and  cir- 
 cumstances by  which  it  is  ren- 
 dered solemn  and  magnificent, 
 particularly  under  the  Mosaic 
 dispensation. 
 
 (JESAR  (AUGUSTUS.) 
 (Luke  ii.  1.)  Nephew  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Julius  Cesar,  emperor 
 of  Rome.  The  name  Augustus, 
 signifying  august  or  noble, 
 was  a  complimentary  title,  de- 
 creed to  him  by  the  Roman 
 senate,  whence  is  derived  the 
 name  of  the  month  August. 
 Cesar  was  the  regal  title  of 
 the  emperors,  and  hence  Tibe- 
 rius is  called  Cesar,  (Matt, 
 xxii.  21,)  and  Nero  is  called 
 Cesar.  (Acts  xxv.  II.)  The 
 title  Augustus  was  a  personal 
 distinction  ;  but  after  the  death 
 of  the  individual  to  whom  it 
 was  given,  it  was  regarded 
 and  used  eis  a  part  of  the  royal 
 title. 
 
 CESAR  (CLAUDIUS.) 
 (Acts  xi.  28.)  An  ernperor  oi 
 Rome,vvhosucceededC;aiu8Ca- 
 ligula,  A.  D.  41.  Four  different 
 famines  are  mentioned  by  pro- 
 fane  historians  as  having  taKen 
 place  during  his  reign ;  one  oJf 
 142 
 
CES 
 
 which  was  very  severe  in  Ju- 
 dea,  extended  into  adjoining 
 countries,  and  coiitinued  near- 
 ly three  years.  Such  a  famine 
 was  predicted  by  a  prophet 
 named  Agabus,  wlio  came  from 
 Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  alout 
 the  year  a.  d.  35  or  45  -,  and 
 the  expression,  throughout  all 
 the  world,  evidently  intends 
 its  general  prevalence  in  other 
 parts  of  the  world  besides  Ju- 
 dea.    (See  Agabus.) 
 
 In  the  ninth  year  of  his 
 reign,  Claudius,  by  a  decree, 
 banished  the  Jews  (probably 
 including  the  Christian  con- 
 verts) from  Rome.  (Acts  xviii. 
 2.    See  Tiberius  Cesar.) 
 
 CESAREA.  (Acts  xxiii.  33.) 
 A  considerable  town  on  the 
 coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
 between  Joppa  and  Tyre,  about 
 sixty-two  miles  from  Jerusa- 
 lem. It  is  sometimes  called 
 Cesarea  of  Palestine,  to  dis- 
 tinguish it  from  Cesarea-Phi- 
 lippi,  (see  next  article,)  and  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
 Hazor  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 (Josh.  xi.  1.)  Herod  the  Great 
 contributed  chiefly  to  the  mas- 
 nificence  of  the  city  by  ijuilil- 
 ing  some  of  the  most  splendid 
 of  its  edifices,  and  constructing 
 a  fine  harbour  for  it.  He  call- 
 ed it  Cesarea,  in  honour  of  the 
 emperor  Cesar  Ausrustus.  After 
 the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
 when  Judea  became  a  Roman 
 province,  Cesarea  was  the 
 chief  city  of  Palestine,  (Acts 
 xxiv.  27,  and  xxv.  1.  13,)  and 
 wasofien  visited  l)y Paul,  (Acts 
 ix.  30;  xvii\22;  xxi.  8;)  and 
 it  was  here  that  he  made  his 
 elo(iuent  defence  before  Felix, 
 Festus,  and  As:rippa,  (Acts 
 xxiii.  xxv.  and  xxvi.  ;)  and 
 here  he  sutTered  two  years' 
 imprisonment. 
 
 Philip  the  evangelist  re. 
 BJded  here,  (Acts  xxi.  8;) 
 and  al.sn  Cornelius,  who,  with 
 his  family,  were  the  first-fruits 
 from  among  the  Gentiles,  un- 
 
 CHA 
 
 der  the  preaching  of  Peter 
 (Acts  X.) 
 
 A  traveller,  who  passed  the 
 ruins  of  Cesarea  in  1801,  says, 
 "  Perhaps  there  has  not  been 
 in  the  history  of  the  world  an 
 example  of  any  city,  that  in  so 
 short  a  space  rose  to  so  extraor- 
 dinary  a  height  of  splendour, 
 or  that  exhibits  a  more  awful 
 contrast  to  its  former  magnifi- 
 cence, by  the  present  desolate 
 appearance  of  its  ruins.  Not  a 
 single  inhaljitant  remains.  Its 
 theatres, once  resounding  with 
 the  shouts  of  multitudes,  echo 
 no  other  sound  than  the  nightly 
 cries  of  animals  roaming  for 
 their  prey." 
 
 Napoleon  encamped  here 
 after  raising  the  siege  of  Acre, 
 and  speaks'of  the  ^>roken  frag- 
 ments of  marble  and  granite 
 columns  which  surrounded 
 him. 
 
 CESAREA-PHILIPPI  (Matt, 
 xvi.  13,  and  Mark  viii.  27)  was 
 a  town  in  the  northern  part 
 of  Judea.  in  the  vicinity  of 
 mount  Hermon.  Some  have 
 supposed  it  is  the  same  with 
 Laish  or  Leshem,  and  also  the 
 Dan  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 (Josh.  xix.  47.  Judg.  xviii.  29. 
 See  Dan.)  Philip  the  tetrarch. 
 son  of  Herod,  contributed 
 lamely  to  its  prosperity,  and 
 pave  It  the  name  of  Cesarea, 
 in  honour  of  Tiberius  Cesar. 
 It  is  called  Cesarea-Philippi, 
 or  Cesarea  of  Philip,  to  distin- 
 guish it  from  a  town  of  the 
 same  name  on  the  coast.  (See 
 preceding  article.)  It  now 
 contains  "about  two  hundred 
 iiouses,and  is  inhabited  chiefly 
 by  Turks. 
 
 CHAIN.    (See  Feet.) 
 
 CHALCEDONY.  (Rev.  xxi. 
 19.)  A  precious  stone  found  in 
 Europe  and  in  several  dis- 
 tricts of  the  United  States. 
 The  common  cornelian  is  one 
 .  of  its  varieties. 
 
 C  H  A  L  D  E  A.  (Jer.  1.  10.) 
 1  CHALDEANS.  (Job  i.  I7.S 
 143 
 
CHA 
 
 The  country  of  which  Baby- 
 lon was  the  capital,  and  which 
 was  hence  called  Babylonia, 
 is  a  level  region  of  Asia,  wa- 
 tered by  the  Euphrates  and 
 Tigris,  between  which  rivers 
 it  was  situated.  These  rivers, 
 when  swollen  by  the  waters 
 from  the  mountains  of  Arme- 
 nia, overflowed  their  banks, 
 and  fertilized  the  whole  coun- 
 try. Hence  the  strong,  figura- 
 tive language  in  Isa.  xxi.  1.  Jer. 
 i.  13.  In  the  year  b.  c.  630, 
 he  Chaldeans,  a  wandering 
 race,  not  unlike  the  modern 
 Arabs,  (Job  i.  17,)  descended 
 from  Taurus  and  Caucasus, 
 subdued  western  Asia,  destroy- 
 ed Jerusalem,  (b.  c.  588— a.  m. 
 3416,)  conquered  Tyre  and 
 Phenicia,  and  founded  an  em- 
 pire, which  extended  to  the 
 shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
 and  which  from  them  was 
 called  Chaldea. 
 
 Babel  or  Babylon  (whence 
 the  name  Babylonia)  was  the 
 capital  of  this  mighty  empire. 
 It  had  long  been  distinguished 
 for  its  commerce  and  science. 
 Learning  was  confined  to  the 
 priests,  who  were  employed  in 
 the  services  of  their  religion, 
 in  medicine,  magic,  astrology, 
 &c.  Their  pretended  kno'w- 
 ledge  was  kept  secret  from 
 tlie  people,  and  hence,  under 
 this  name,  they  became  a  dis- 
 tinct class  of  magicians  and 
 conjurers,  called  Chaldeans. 
 (Dan.  iv.  7.) 
 
 In  a.  d.  536,  this  vast  coun- 
 try was  united  with  Persia ; 
 and  in  a,  d.  640,  they  both  fell 
 under  the  dominion  of  Mo- 
 hammed, and  finally,  a.  d. 
 1639,  into  the  hands  of  the 
 Turks,  who  still  hold  them. 
 The  two  names,  Chaldea  and 
 Babylonia,  appear  to  have 
 been  often  applied  to  the  same 
 country.  (Jer.  xxiv.  5;  xxv. 
 12  ;  1.  8.  Ezek  xii.  13.)  The 
 eriginal  name  of  at  least  a 
 section  of  Chaldea,  was  Shi- 
 
 CHA 
 
 nar.  (Gen.  x.  10.  Dan.  i.  1, 2. 
 See  Babylon,  Syria,  Shinae. 
 S-^e  also  Evening  Recrea- 
 tions, vol.  ii.  pp.  69,  70,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 CHALK-STONES,  asa. 
 xxvii.  9.)  A  soft  mineral  sub- 
 stance, resembling  what  we 
 call  limestone.  To  make  the 
 stones  of  the  Jewish  altars  like 
 chalk-stones  is  to  crumble  and 
 destroy  them. 
 
 CHAMBER.  (Gen.  xliii.  30.) 
 Usually  the  private  apart- 
 ments of  a  house  are  called 
 chambers.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33. 
 Ps.  xix.  5.  Dan.  vi.  10.)  Par- 
 ticular rooms  of  this  class  in 
 eastern  houses  were  desig- 
 nated by  significant  terms. 
 
 Guest-chamber.  (Markxiv. 
 14.)  This  we  may  suppose  to 
 have  been  a  spacious  unoc- 
 cupied room,  usually  in  the 
 upper  part  of  the  house,  and 
 furnished  suitably  for  the  re- 
 ception and  entertainment  of 
 guests  and  social  meetings. 
 The  proverbial  hospitality  of 
 the  Jews  would  make  such 
 provision  necessary,  and  espe- 
 cially at  Jerusalem,  in  festival 
 seasons,  when  every  house  in 
 the  city  was  the  stranger's 
 home.  (Mark  xiv.  15.  Luke 
 xxii.  12.    Acts  i.  13.) 
 
 Inner  chamber.  (2  Kings 
 ix.  2.)  A  chamber  within  an- 
 other chamber. 
 
 Little  chamber.  (2  Kings  \ 
 iv.  10.)  An  apartment  built 
 upon  and  projecting  from  the 
 walls  of  the  main  house,  and 
 communicating  by  a  private 
 door  with  the  house,  and  by  a 
 private  stairway  to  the  street. 
 
 Upper  chamber,  or  loft, 
 (Acts  ix.  37,)  is  supposed  to 
 have  occupied  the  front  part 
 of  the  building,  over  the  gate 
 or  outer  entrance,  and  to  have 
 been  used  to  lodge  strangers. 
 (Comp.  1  Kinffs  xvii.  19  and 
 23,  with  2  Kings  iv.  10.  See 
 Dwellings,  paragraph  Uppeb 
 
 ROOM.) 
 
 144 
 
CHA 
 
 CHAMBERING.  CR»m.  xiii. 
 13.)  Low  intrigue  for  licenlious 
 purposes. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN.  (2 Kings 
 .'f.xiii.  11.)  An  officer  who  has 
 charge  of  the  royal  chambers, 
 or  the  king's  lodgings,  ward- 
 rcGes,  &c.    In  eastern  courts. 
 
 CHA 
 
 eunuchs  were  commonly  cm« 
 
 ployed  for  this  service.  (Esth. 
 1.  lO.  12. 15.)  The  sixth  officer 
 of  the  British  crown  is  the 
 lord  high  chamberlain.  The 
 title  in  Rom.  xvi.  23,  pro- 
 bably  denotes  the  siewara  or 
 treaisurer  of  the  city. 
 
 CHAIMELEON.  (Lev.  xi. 
 30.)  A  species  of  the  lizard, 
 of  very  singular  construction 
 and  appearance.  Its  tail  is  as 
 long  as  its  whole  body,  and  be- 
 ing wound  around  the  branches 
 ol  trees,  assists  the  animal  in 
 climbing  or  suspending  itself 
 It  feeds  on  insects,  and  to 
 catch  them  it  is  provided  with 
 a  tongue  nearly  as  long  as  its 
 body,  which  it  darts  out  and 
 then  draws  back  again,  con- 
 tracting it  into  a  small  com- 
 pass. This  organ  is  covered 
 with  a  glutinous  substance,  by 
 which  flies  and  other  insects 
 are  arrested  and  drawn  in  for 
 the  animal's  food.  Its  colour  is 
 changeable,  but  not  to  the  ex- 
 tent nor  from  the  causes  which 
 are  vulgarly  supposed.  It  is  by 
 no  means  ceruin  that  the  cha- 
 meleon known  to  us  was  the 
 animal  which  was  reckoned 
 unclean  by  the  Leviiical  law. 
 
 CHAMOIS.  (Deul.  xiv.  5.) 
 13 
 
 The  animal  intended  in  this 
 passage  was  probably  of  the 
 family  of  antelopes  ;  and  as 
 the  chamois  of  modern  natu- 
 ral history  is  found  in  the  high- 
 lands of  Switzerland,  Germa- 
 ny, and  Greece,  at  the  height 
 and  in  the  same  climate  with 
 the  mountains  of  Judea,  it  is 
 not  unlikely  that  the  same 
 animal  which  we  know  as  the 
 chamois  was  regarded  as  un- 
 clean by  the  Jewish  law.  (See 
 Natural  History  of  the 
 Bible,  pp.  77,  78,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union,  for  a  particiflar  de- 
 scription and  cut.) 
 
 CHANCE  (1  Sam.  vi.  9) 
 might  be  better  rendered  oc- 
 currence,  anJ  is  so  rendered 
 in  several  ancient  versions. 
 In  Eccl.  ix.  1 — 11,  the  sacred 
 writer  is  illustrating  the  weak- 
 ness and  blindness  ol  man, 
 andshowing  that  all  the  events 
 and  occurrences  of  his  life  are 
 appointed  by  infinite  wisdom 
 «145 
 
CMA 
 
 and  power.  In  the  passage 
 first  above  cited  the  word  im- 
 plies simply  this,— that  if  the 
 cattle,  without  any  guidance 
 of  man,  should  leave  their 
 calves  and  their  pastures,  and 
 the  roads  which  they  were  ac- 
 customed to  go  in,  and  should 
 draw  the  arli  towards  Belhshe- 
 mesh,  (the  nearest  point  of  the 
 land  of  Israel,)  then  the  Philis- 
 tines might  infer  from  this 
 supernatural  occurrence,  that 
 God's  hand  had  afflicted  them 
 as  a  punishment  for  detaining 
 the  ark ;  but  if  nothing  like 
 this  should  appear,  they  might 
 suppose  that  tneir  singular  af- 
 fliction was  the  result  of  natu- 
 ral though  unknown  causes. 
 What  men  speak  of  as  hap- 
 pening by  chance,  are  those 
 occurrences  which  take  place 
 without  any  apparent  cause, 
 as  in  Luke  x.  31  ;  "  R  so  hap- 
 pened that  a  priest,"  &c.  i.  e. 
 he  had  no  design  to  pass  by 
 the  wounded  man,  &c.;  though 
 they  are  not  the  less  actually 
 the  result  of  divine  appoint- 
 ment. The  word,  in  its  athe- 
 istical use,  is  as  unphilosophi- 
 cal  as  it  is  impious. 
 
 CHANCELLOR.  (Ezra  iv. 
 8.  17.)  A  distinguished  officer 
 of  the  Jewish  court,  of  whose 
 particular  functions  we  have 
 now  no  knowledge. 
 
 CHANGEABLE  SUITS  OF 
 APPAREL.    (See  Clothes.) 
 
 CHANGES  OF  RAIMENT. 
 (See  Clothes.) 
 
 CHANGERS  OF  MONEY,or 
 MONEY-CHANGERS.  (Matt. 
 xxi.l2.John  ii.l4.)  When  Judea 
 became  a  province  of  Rome, 
 the  Jews  were  required  to  pay 
 taxes  in  Roman  currency,  and 
 at  the  same  time  the  annual 
 tribute  for  the  service  of  the 
 sanctuary  was  the  half  she- 
 kel of  Jewish  currency.  To  ex- 
 change these,  one  for  the  other, 
 was  the  business  of  the  mo- 
 ney-chansers,  like  the  busi- 
 ness of  niodern  brokers.    To 
 
 CHA 
 
 obtain  custom,  they  stationed 
 themselves  in  the  courts  of 
 the  temple,  the  place  of  gene- 
 ral resort  for  strangers  from 
 every  part  of  Judea,  and  their 
 oppressive  and  fraudulent 
 practices  probably  justified 
 the  allusion  of  our  Saviour  to 
 a  den  of  thieves.  Perhaps, 
 they  were  also  accustomed  to 
 pay  and  receive  interest  on 
 loans,  and  this  practice  is  re- 
 cognised in  Matt.  xxv.  .6.  27, 
 
 CHANT.    (See  Viol.) 
 
 CHAPEL,  (Amos  vii.  13.)  or 
 SANCTUARY.  A  place  of 
 worship.  Bethel  is  called  the 
 king's  chapel  by  one  of  the 
 idol  priests,  because  there  the 
 kings  of  Israel  paid  idolatrous 
 woi-ship  to  the  golden  calves. 
 (See  Bethel.) 
 
 CHAPITERS,  (Ex.  xxxvi. 
 38,)  or  CAPITALS,(as  they  are 
 called  in  modern  architecture,) 
 are  the  upper  or  ornamental 
 part  of  a  column. 
 
 CHAPMEN  (2Chron.  ix.  \4) 
 are  called,  in  the  correspond- 
 ing passage,  (I  Kings  x.  15,) 
 spice-merchants.  The  classes 
 might  be  distinguislied  £is  the 
 merchants  and  grocers  of  mo- 
 dern days.  The  revenue  to  the 
 king  was  probably  in  the  form 
 of  duties  on  their  imports. 
 
 CHARAN.  (See  Haran.) 
 
 CHARGER.  (Num.  vii.  13, 
 Ezra  i.  9.  Matt.  xiv.  8.  11.) 
 A  shallow  bowl  or  basin,  used 
 for  receiving  the  blood  at  the 
 preparation  of  the  sacrifices. 
 (See  Censer.) 
 
 CHARIOT.  (Gen,  xli,  43, 
 and  xlvi.  29.  2  Kings  x.  15. 
 Acts  viii.  28.)  Until  within 
 three  or  four  hundred  years 
 nothing  was  known  of  the  con- 
 venience and  even  luxury  of 
 modern  vehicles  of  pleasure. 
 The  chariots  of  the  early  ages 
 were  probably  little  superior 
 in  style  or  convenience  to  mo- 
 dern carts  or  wagons.  The 
 following  is  given  as  a  repre- 
 sentation uf  the  vehicle  in 
 146 
 
CHA 
 
 CHA 
 
 which  the  Ethiopian  was  rid-  I  present  day,  which  is  formed 
 
 ins  when  accosted  by  Philip.      like  a  large  wicker   basket, 
 
 Travellers  describe  a  clum-    eight  feet  long;  supported  by 
 
 sy  carriage  used  in  Asia  at  the  ]  four  solid  wheels,  convex  ou 
 
 each  side,  and  shaped  not  un- 
 like the  above.  These  car- 
 riages were  niade  of  wood,  and 
 were  often  burnt  in  war.  (Ps. 
 xlvi.  9.  Sol.  Song  iii.  9.  Nah. 
 li.  13.) 
 
 Another  form  is  given  us,  as 
 on  the  following  page. 
 
 Where  chariots  'are  men- 
 tioned as  of  iron,  (Josh.  xvii. 
 18.)  it  is  probable  that  the  iron 
 instruments  with  which  they 
 were  often  heavily  armed  gave 
 ihem  such  a  desienaiion.  The 
 
 word  chariot  is  used  for  the 
 horses  by  which  it  is  drawn, 
 (2  Sam.  viii.  4;  x.  18,)  and 
 again  for  the  riders  of  horses 
 aiid  other  animals.  (Isa.  xxi. 
 7.9.) 
 
 Captains  of  chariots,  (Ex. 
 XV.  4,)  or,  literally,  mounted 
 three  standers.  This  expres- 
 sion, in  an  English  transla- 
 tion, might  be  supposed  lode- 
 note  the  officer  or  officers  who 
 had  charge  of  the  chariot 
 forces;  but  the  literal  mean- 
 147 
 
CHA 
 
 CHA 
 
 in?,  abovR  given,  makes  the 
 passa  ge  obscure.  Tiie  cut,  from 
 an  Egyptian  tomb,  nearly  or 
 quite  as  ancient  as  the  period 
 to  which  the  above-cited  pas- 
 sages relate,  furnishes  a  key 
 to  this  otherwise  difficult  ex- 
 pression.   It  represents  three 
 
 ipen  standing  upon  a  chariot, 
 two  of  whom  are  prepared  for 
 action,  and  the  third  manages 
 the  horses.    They  were  pro- 
 
 bably selected  for  their  valour, 
 and  perhaps  formed  by  them- 
 selves a  distinct  division  of  the 
 army,  and  each  had  its  distinct 
 officer.    (Ex.  xiv.  7.) 
 
 Chariot  of  the  cheru- 
 BIM3  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  18) 
 means  the  frame  work  on 
 which  the  cherubims  rested, 
 and  one  pattern  of  which 
 might  resembljB  the  body  of  a 
 chariot. 
 
 (See  Amminadab,  War, 
 Harness.) 
 
 Chariot  cities,  (2  Chron. 
 i.  14,)  or  cities  specially  desig- 
 nated for  storing  the  chariots 
 of  war  during  the  time  of 
 peace,  as  magazines  and  ar 
 senals  of  modern  times  are 
 used. 
 
 Chariot  HORSES.  (2  Kings 
 vii.  14.)  Horses  that  were  pe- 
 culiarly fitted,  by  size,  spirit, 
 docility,  or  special  training,  for 
 service  in  chariots ;  as  car- 
 riage, draft,  and  saddle-horses 
 of  later  days. 
 
 Chariot  man.  (2  Chron. 
 xviii.  33.)  Driver,  or  chariot- 
 eer. 
 
 Chariots  of  the  sun.  (2 
 Kings  xxiii.ll.)  Chariots  which 
 148 
 
CHE 
 
 nad  been  consecrated  to  the 
 sun  by  the  idolatrous  customs 
 of  the  kings  of  Judah.  Such 
 consecration  of  horses  and  ve- 
 hicles was  common,  especially 
 in  Persia. 
 
 The  word  chariots  is  some- 
 limes  used  figuratively  for 
 hosts  or  armies,  (Ps.  Ixviii. 
 17 ])  and  Elijah,  by  his  prayers 
 and  counsels,  and  power  with 
 God,  was  the  "chariot  and 
 horsenien  of  Israel,"  (2  Kinss 
 ii.  11,  r2,)  inasmucli  as  he  did 
 more  for  them  than  all  the 
 chariots  and  horsemen  which 
 they  could  muster.  (Ps.  xx  7. 
 Tsa.  xxxi.  1.) 
 
 Chariots(forwar.)  (Judg. 
 iv.  3.)  One  class  of  carriages 
 thus  denominated  were  used 
 as  the  common  vehicles  of 
 orinces  and  generals ;  but  an- 
 
 CHE 
 
 other  formed  the  most  terrible 
 of  military  engines,  and  were 
 employed  in  great  numbers. 
 (1  Sam.  xiii.  5.^  1  Chron.  xviii. 
 4.)  Like  other  ancient  car- 
 riages, they  had  usually  only 
 two  wheels,  and  iron  scythes, 
 strong  and  sharp,  were  affixed 
 to  the  extremities  of  the  axles 
 on  each  side. 
 
 Warriors  sometimes  fought 
 standing  on  them,  or  leapmg 
 from  them  up>on  the  enemy. 
 The  chariots  in  the  army  of 
 Cyrus  were  capacious  enough 
 to  permit  twenty  men  to  fignt 
 from  them. 
 
 The  following  sketch  of  the 
 wooden  war-chariot  used  by 
 the  Parthians,  may  illustrate 
 the  general  appea'rance  and 
 uses  of  the  chariot  of  earlier 
 days. 
 
 CHiRITY.  (1  Cor.  xiii.  1.) 
 In  this  and  parallel  passages, 
 the  word  lore  would  more  pro 
 oerly  express  the  sentiment 
 Intended.  (See  Love.)  Chari- 
 ty, in  the  popular  acceptation 
 of  the  word,  is  almsgiving. 
 (See  Alms.) 
 
 CHARM,  CHARMER.  (See 
 AriDER,  Asp,  Divination.) 
 
 CHARRAN.  (See  Haran.) 
 
 CH.\TTER.  (See  Crane, 
 Swallow.) 
 
 CHEBAR.  (Ezek.  i.  1.  3.)  A 
 river  in  the  land  of  the  Chal- 
 deans. A  colony  of  the  eap- 
 13* 
 
 tive  Jews  resided  here,  and 
 the  prophet  Ezekiel  also,  with 
 whose  predictions  the  place 
 has  very  interesting  associa- 
 tions. 
 
 CHEDORLAOIMER.  (Gen. 
 siv.  1.  5.)  One  of  the  kings 
 who  formed  an  allianceagainst 
 the  five  cities  of  the  plain,  and 
 whose  spoils  were  taken  from 
 them  by  Abram.  (See  Abram.) 
 
 CHEEKBONE.  (Ps.  iii.  7.) 
 The  figurative  language  of 
 this  passage  presents  the 
 psalmist  surrounded  by  his 
 enemies  as  by  a  herd  of  wild 
 149 
 
CHE 
 
 leasts,  and  denotes  their  com- 
 plete deprivation  of  the  power 
 of  seizing  upon  or  devouring 
 their  prey. 
 
 CHEESE,  (1  Sam.  xvii.  18,) 
 or  the  pressed  curd  of  milk, 
 was  a  common  article  of  food 
 among  the  Jews,  and  is  now 
 among  many  nations  of  the 
 east.  The  word  occurs  but 
 three  times  in  our  Scriptures, 
 and  in  each  of  them  tlie  ori- 
 ginal word  is  ditFerent.  (2Sani. 
 xvii.  29.  Job  X.  10.)  Travel- 
 lers tell  us  that  new  cheese, 
 or  the  curd  of  cream  salted, 
 v?as  a  luxury  of  the  richest 
 tables.  The  milk  was  sepa- 
 rated by  a  rude  sort  of  churn- 
 ing, (see  Butter.)  and  the 
 curd  was  placed  in  a  close- 
 woven  rush  or  wicker  basket, 
 and  so  pressed  as  to  retain  its 
 form,  as  in  the  annexed  cut. 
 
 Ten  baskets  of  curds  of  this 
 kind  were  not  an  unsuitable 
 present  for  Jesse  to  make, 
 even  to  an  otticer  of  Saul's 
 armv.    (See  Milk.) 
 
 CHEMAKIWS.  (Zeph.  i.  4.) 
 The  priests  of  idol  gods,  as  in 
 2  Kings  xxiii.  5,  auci  Hos.  x.  5, 
 
 CHE 
 
 wtiere  the  same  word  is  trans- 
 lated idolatrous  priests. 
 
 CHEIMOSH.  (Num.  xxi.  29.) 
 The  name  of  an  idol  of  the 
 Moabite.?,  (Jer.  xlviii.  7,)  which 
 bishop  Newton  and  others  sup- 
 pose to  have  been  the  same 
 with  Baal-peor.  It  is  called 
 "  the  abomination  of  the  Mo- 
 abites,"  as  Moloch  was  the 
 abomination  of  the  Ammon- 
 ites. Solomon  built  a  place 
 for  its  worship  in  the  suburbs 
 of  Jerusalem,  (1  Kings  xi.  7,) 
 wliich  Josiah  afterwards  de- 
 stroyed. (2  Kings  xxiii.  13.) 
 The  people  of  Ch'emosh  are  his 
 worshippers.    (Jer.  xlviii.  46.) 
 
 CHEPHIRAH  (Josh.  ix.  17) 
 formerly  belonged  to  the  Gibe- 
 onites.  It  afterwards  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  the  tribe  of  Ben 
 jamin,  and  was  occupied  by 
 this  tribe  after  their  return 
 from  captivity.  (Josh,  xviii. 
 26.    Ezra  ii.  25.    Neh.  vii.  29.) 
 
 CHERETHIMS.  (Ezek.xxv. 
 16.)  CHERETHITES.  (1  Sam. 
 XXX.  14.)  These  names  are  ap- 
 plied to  a  part  of  David's  army, 
 (2  Sam.  XV.  18,  and  xx.  7,) 
 which  seems  to  have  been  a 
 distinct  corps.  (2  Sam.  viii. 
 16—18.)  It  is  probable  they 
 were  either  originally  Philis- 
 tines, skilful  in  archery,  (comp. 
 1  Sam.  XXX.  14.  16,  with  Zepli. 
 ii  5,)  and  thus  qualified  to  be- 
 come a  sort  of  body-guard  to 
 the  king ;  or  that  they  were  Is- 
 raelites who  were  with  David 
 among  the  Philistines  or  Che- 
 rethiles,  and  hence  their  corps 
 was  known  by  this  name  in 
 the  army.  They  are  usually 
 joined  with  the  Pelelhites,  ^ 
 Sam.  viii.  18,)  who  are  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  native  Is- 
 raelites of  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
 (Num.  xvi.  1,)  or  Judah.  (1 
 Chron.  ii.  3.3.    See  Crete.) 
 
 CHERITH.  (1  Kings  xvii.  3. 
 5.)  A  small  brook  which  emp- 
 tied into  the  Jordan,  and  m 
 the  vicinity  of  which  Elijah 
 concealed  himself  and  was 
 supported  by  ravens. 
 150 
 
CHI 
 
 CHERUB,  CHERUBIM. 
 (Ezek.  X.  5.  7.)  The  word 
 cherubim  occurs  first,  Gen. 
 iii.  24,  and  is  applied  to  the 
 guard  which  was  placed  over 
 Eden  after  the  expulsion  of 
 fallen  man. 
 
 Among  the  directions  given 
 to  Moses  respecting  the  form 
 and  construction  of  the  mercy- 
 seat,  one  was,  to  make  a  che- 
 rub at  each  end,  whose  face 
 should  be  turned  inward,  and 
 whose  wings  should  cover  the 
 mercy-seat.  From  between 
 these  figures  or  cherubim  God 
 communed  with  Moses  con- 
 cerning the  children  of  Israel. 
 (Ex.  XXV.  22.  Num.  vii.  89. 
 1  Sam.  iv.  4.  Ps.  Ixxx.  1,  and 
 xcix.  1.) 
 
 The  size  and  shape  of  the 
 figures  representing  the  cheru- 
 bim in  Solomon's  temple,  are 
 described  particularly  2Chron. 
 iii.  10—13.  (See  Biblical  An- 
 TIQ.UITIES,  vol.  ii.  ch.  ii.  pp. 
 51—63,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 CHESTNUT  TREE.  (Gen. 
 XXX.  37.)  A  well-known  tree, 
 which  is  figuratively  used 
 (Ezek.  xxxi.  8)  in  connexion 
 with  the  cedar  and  fir,  to  illus- 
 trate the  greatness  of  the  As- 
 syrian kingdom.  The  tree 
 known  to  us  as  the  plane,  or 
 buttomcood,  is  supposed  to  be 
 intended  by  the  sacred  wri- 
 ters, and  the  original  has 
 sometimes  been  so  translated. 
 
 CHIEF  OF  ASIA.  (Acts  xix. 
 31.)  Certain  wealthy  persons 
 were  appointed  annually  in 
 the  Asiatic  provinces  of  Rome, 
 to  preside  over  the  religious 
 rites,  public  games,  &c.  w'hich 
 they  maintained  in  honour  of 
 the  gods,  and  at  their  own  ex- 
 pense. They  received  their 
 title  from  the  name  of  the  pro- 
 vince; as  the  chief  or  priest 
 of  Cariawas  called  Cariarch  ; 
 of  Lycia,  Lyciarch,  &c.  Seve- 
 ral of  these  chiefs  or  priests 
 were  holding  games  at  Ephe- 
 BUS,  when  the  tumult  was  ex- 
 cited   in    that  city   because 
 
 CHI 
 
 Paul's  preaching  interfered 
 with  the  personal  interest 
 of  Demetrius.  These  people 
 were  friendly  to  the  apostle, 
 and  advised  "him  not  to  expose 
 his  person  unnecessarily  to 
 the  fury  of  the  populace. 
 
 CHIEF  PRIEST.  (Seo 
 Prie-st.) 
 
 CHIMHAM.  (2  Sam.  xix. 
 37.)  It  is  possible  he  was  a 
 son  of  Barzillai,  but  cannot 
 certainly  be  inferred  from  1 
 Kinsrs  ii.  7,  which  is  sometimes 
 citeD  to  prove  it.  Some  have 
 supposed  that  David  gave 
 Chimham  a  parcel  of  land, 
 which  was  afterwards  known 
 by  his  name.    (Jer.  xli.  17.) 
 
 CHIMNEY.    (See   Dwell- 
 
 'CHINNERETH,  (Num. 
 xxxiv.  11.  Deut.  iii.  17,)  or 
 CHINNEROTH,  (Josh.  xi.  2, 
 and  xii.  3,)  or  CINNEROTH, 
 (1  Kings  XV.  20,)  were  names 
 of  a  place  and  lake  in  Lower 
 Galilee.  The  town  of  Cinne- 
 roth  was  on  the  western  shore 
 of  the  lake,  near  the  border 
 of  Zebulon  and  Naphtali.  The 
 town  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  same  with  Tiberias,  and 
 the  lake  is  called  the  lake  of 
 Genesaret,  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
 and  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  which 
 is  its  present  name. 
 
 There  is  no  part  of  Pales- 
 tine to  be  compared  with  the 
 environs  of  this  lake  for  cli- 
 mate, fertility,  and  richness 
 of  scenery.  Many  cities  of 
 note  (as  Capernaum,  Bethsai- 
 da,  and  Chorazin)  stood  upon 
 its  shores.  The  river  Jordan 
 flows  through  it,  and  it  for- 
 merly abounded  with  fish,  and 
 gave  occupation  to  four  of  the 
 first  disciples  of  our  Saviour, 
 v/ho  were  born  in  its  vicinity, 
 and  were  called  from  their 
 worldly  business  to  follow  him. 
 Much  of  the  time  of  his  minio- 
 try  was  spent,  and  many  of  hia 
 most  wonderful  works  wer© 
 done,  (m  these  shores.  Though 
 this  lake  was  less  than  twenty 
 151 
 
CHI 
 
 miles  long,  by  six  or  eight 
 wide,  it  was  subject  to  violent 
 squalls.  The  wind  from  the 
 south,  sweeping  down  the  sides 
 of  the  mountains,  and  setting 
 up  against  the  strong  current 
 of  the  Jordan,  rendered  llie 
 lake  boisterous  and  full  of 
 peril.  No  craft  is  seen  upon 
 us  waters  in  modern  days. 
 The  Arab  fishermen  wade  in 
 with  hand-nets,  and  take  what 
 fish  they  can. 
 
 Mr.  Fislce,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, was  at  Tiberias  (Ta- 
 baria)  in  18-23.  The  old  town 
 is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  but 
 within  it  is  very  ruinous,  and 
 the  plain  for  a  mile  or  two 
 south  is  strewed  with  ruins. 
 The  Jordan,  where  it  issues 
 from  the  lake,  was  so  shallow 
 that  cattle  and  asses  forded  it 
 easily.  Mr.  F.  was  shown  a 
 house  called  the  house  of  Pe- 
 ter, which  is  used  as  the  Greek 
 Catholic  church,  and  is  the 
 only  church  in  the  place.  The 
 number  of  Christian  families 
 is  thirty  or  forty,  all  Greek 
 Catholics.  There  were  two 
 sects  of  Jews,  each  of  whom 
 had  a  synagogue.  The  Jewish 
 population  was  estimated  at 
 about  1000.  On  the  Isl  of  Ja- 
 nuary, 1S37,  Tiberias  was  de- 
 stroyed by  an  earthquake.  (See 
 YiEWS  OF  Palestine,  p.  27, 
 ana  0>TAK,  pp.  120,  121,  and 
 Life  of  Peter,  all  by  Am.  S. 
 S.Union.) 
 
 CHIOS.  (Acts  XX.  15.)  A 
 mountainous  island  on  the 
 coast  of  Asia  Minor,  between 
 Lesbos  and  Samos,  thirty-two 
 miles  long  and  fifteen  broad, 
 inhabited  by  Greeks.  It  is 
 now  called  Scio,  and  was  the 
 scene  of  a  memorable  massa- 
 cre by  the  Turks  in  1823. 
 
 CHISLEU.    (See  Months.) 
 
 CHITTIM.  (Dan.  xi.  30.) 
 Probably  this  name  was  ori- 
 ginally applied  to  the  island 
 of  Cyprus,  but  afterwards  be- 
 came a  general  name  for  the 
 maritime  countries  and  islands  i 
 
 CHR 
 
 of  the  Mediterranean.  In  Isa. 
 xxiii.  1,  we  are  told  that  the 
 news  of  the  destruction  of 
 Tyre  should  be  revealed  to  the 
 ships  of  Tarshish,  as  they 
 passed  the  land  of  Chittim  or 
 island  of  Cyprus. 
 
 The  prophecy  of  Balaam, 
 (Num.  xxiv.  24,)  of  the  visita- 
 tion which  should  come  on 
 Asshur,(Assyria,)and  Eber,(the 
 Hebrews,)  probably  referred  to 
 the  Greek  and  Koman  inva- 
 sion of  those  countries  re- 
 spectively. (See  Cyprus.) 
 
 CHIUN.  (Amos  V.  26.)  An 
 idol  which  the  Israelites  made 
 and  worshipped  in  the  wilder- 
 ness.  (See  Kemphan.) 
 
 CHORAZIN.  (Mall.  xi.  21.) 
 A  town  on  the  shore  of  the  sea 
 of  Tiberias,  (where  Christ 
 wrought  miracles,)  but  its  pre- 
 cise location  is  not  known. 
 
 CHORASHAN.    (See  AsH- 
 
 AN.) 
 
 CHRIST  JESUS.  (Eph.  ii. 
 10.)  This  is  a  compound  name, 
 significant  of  two  characters. 
 Christ  is  from  the  Greek  word 
 Christos,  which  signifies  an- 
 ointed. The  word  Messiah,  in 
 the  Hebrew,  corresponds  to 
 the  word  Chiistos,  in  the 
 Greek.  Hence  the  Jews  or 
 Hebrews  speak  of  him  as  the 
 Messiah,  and  Christians  speak 
 of  him  as  tfie  Christ.  He  i8 
 called  Christ,  or  the  anointed, 
 in  allusion  to  the  custom  of 
 anointing  with  oil  such  as 
 were  set  apart  to  a  sacred  or 
 regal  office.  (Ex.  xxviii.  41, 
 and  xxix.  7.  1  Sam.  ix.  16 ; 
 XV.  1.  2Sam.  xxiii.  1.  1  Kings 
 xix.  16.)  This  was  a  conse- 
 crating ceremony,  making  the 
 person  of  the  subject  of  it  sa- 
 cred. (1  Sam.  xxiv.  6.  2  Sam. 
 xix.  21.  1  Chron.  xvi.  22.)  It 
 was  also  emblematical  of  the 
 effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  <» 
 John  ii.  20.  27 ;  comp.  Malt, 
 iii.  16,  17.  John  iii.  34.)  The 
 Son  of  God  was  pre-eminently 
 the  Anointed.  (1  Sam.  ii.  l^O, 
 Isa.  Ixi.  1.  Dan.  ix.  24.  26.^ 
 152 
 
CHR 
 
 The  word  Jesus  is  derived 
 fcom  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
 to  save,  or  sent  to  save.  (Mall. 
 '  21.  Luke  ii.  11. 21.)  The  word 
 Joshua  has  the  same  meaning, 
 and  is  a  very  common  name 
 among  theHebrews,  and  would 
 have  been  more  properly  used 
 in  Acls  vii.  45,  and  Heb.  iv  8, 
 than  Jesus. 
 
 The  word  Christ  was  origin- 
 ally used,  not  as  a  part  of  the 
 name,  but  as  indicative  of 
 character  or  office :  thus  Jesus, 
 the  Christ,  was  a  descriptive 
 phrase,  lilie  John  the  Baptist. 
 (Matt.  xxvi.  63.  Marie  viii. 
 29;xiv.  CI.  John  i.  20.  25.  41  ; 
 vi.  69;  vii.  41;  x.  24;  xi.27; 
 XX.  31.)  Such  an  official  ap- 
 pellation was  necessary  to  dis- 
 tinguish the  Redeemer  from 
 others  who  were  called  Joshua 
 or  Jesus.  Groiius  says  that  the 
 name  Jesus  was  dropped  at  a 
 very  early  period  af^er  the 
 ascension,  and  Christ  alone 
 generally  used;  though  we 
 find  upon  examination,  that 
 .he  word  Christ  is  almost  al- 
 ways used  alone  in  the  Gos- 
 pels, while  in  the  Acts  and 
 Epistles,  Jesus  Christ,  or  the 
 Lord  Jesus  Christ,  is  the  pre- 
 vailing expression. 
 
 When  God  was  pronouncing 
 the  dreadful  sentence  of  con- 
 demnation upon  our  first  pa- 
 rents, it  was  his  sovereign 
 pleasure,  without  any  solicita- 
 tion or  act  of  man,  to  intimate 
 a  purpose  of  mercy  in  the  fol- 
 lowing language:  And  the 
 Lord  God  said  taito  the  ser- 
 pent,  I  will  put  enmity  be- 
 tween thee  and  the  woman, 
 and  beiiceen  thy  seed  (posteri- 
 ty)  and  her  seed ;  it  (or  he,  i.  e. 
 her  seed)  shall  bruise  thy 
 head,  and  thou  shall  bruise 
 his  (or  its)  heel. 
 
 In  this  single  verse  lies  the 
 grand  principle  of  all  true  re- 
 ligion. It  is  the  root  and  sub- 
 stance of  aW  the  prophecies 
 and  promises  of  after-times. 
 The  war  between  sin  and  ho- 
 
 CHR 
 
 liness  was  then  waged,  and  hafl 
 since  been  prosecuted  without 
 intermission.  (Rom.  vii.  23.) 
 The  Son  of  God  and  all  true 
 believers  are  "  the  seed  of  the 
 woman."  (Comp.  Acts  xiii.  23. 
 Gal.  iv.  4,  and  Heb.  ii.  16, 
 with  John  xvii.  21—23.)  The 
 devil  and  all  his  servants  re- 
 present the  serpent  and  his 
 seed.  (John  viii.  44.  IJohniii, 
 8.)  The  temptations,  suffer- 
 ings, and  ignominious  death 
 of 'Christ,  and  the  fierce  oppo- 
 sition  and  cruel  persecution 
 which  his  true  followers  have 
 endured  in  various  ages  of  the 
 world,  are  significantly  de- 
 scribed by  the  bruising  of  the 
 iieel ;  while  the  complete  vic- 
 tory which  our  glorious  Re- 
 deemer has  himself  achieved 
 over  sin  and  death,  and  which 
 his  grace  enables  the  believer 
 also  to  obtain,  and  the  still 
 more  perfect  and  universal 
 triumph  which  he  will  finally 
 accomplish,  are  all  strikingly 
 illustrated  by  the  bruisingm 
 the  serpent's  head. 
 
 The  books  of  heathen  my- 
 thology furnish  curious  allu- 
 sionslo  this  wonderful  passage 
 of  the  Bible.  In  one  of  them, 
 Thor  is  represented  as  the 
 eldest  of  sons,  a  middle  divini- 
 ty, a  mediator  between  God 
 and  man,  who  bruised  the 
 head  of  the  serpent  and  slew 
 him  ;  and  in  one  of  the  oldest 
 pagodas  of  India  are  found 
 two  sculptured  figures,  repre- 
 senting two  incarnations  of 
 one  of  their  supreme  divini- 
 ties ;  the  first  to  be  bitten  by 
 a  serpent,  and  the  second  to 
 crush  him.  (See  cuts  on  the 
 next  page.) 
 
 The  text  which  we  have 
 been  illustrating  is  the  first  in- 
 timation of  a  Saviour  which 
 was  given  to  our  world  after  it 
 was  ruined  bysin;  and  through- 
 out all  succeeding  ages  of  me 
 church  and  of  the  world,  in 
 the  wonderful  system  of  sacri- 
 ficial and  ceremonial  obser- 
 153 
 
CHR 
 
 CHR 
 
 vances,  in  all  the  types  and 
 shadows  of  the  Jewish  law, 
 in  the  whole  current  of  pro- 
 phecy, and  in  all  the  changes 
 and  revolutions  of  ancient 
 kingdoms  and  nations,  the 
 Hebrews  were  so  clearly  in- 
 structed in  the  character  and 
 o-ffices  of  the  promised  Messi- 
 ah, that  their  unbelief  and  re- 
 jection of  him,  when  he  ac- 
 tually appeared,  seem  unac- 
 countable on  any  other  hypo- 
 thesis, than  that  they  were 
 judicially  blinded  ;  and  espe- 
 cially must  we  thus  regard 
 their  conduct,  when  it  is  con- 
 sidered how  accurately  the 
 minute  circumstances  of  his 
 birth,  life,  and  death  are  pre- 
 dicted. (See  Infidel  Class, 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  pp.  38— 
 43.)  So  that  it  has  been  truly 
 said,  that  a  very  full  and  well 
 connected  life  of  Christ  could 
 be  prepared  from  the  materials 
 which  the  prophecies  alone 
 would   supply. 
 
 The  Jews,  as  a  nation,  gross- 
 ly misapprehended  the" cha- 
 racter of  the  Messiah  and  the 
 purpose  of  his  mission.  So 
 clearly  were  his  advent  and 
 offices  predicted  in  the  words 
 of  prophecy,  that  a  general 
 expectation  of  the  appearance 
 
 of  some  great  deliverer  pre- 
 vailed. They  were  even  ac- 
 customed to  regard  his  coming 
 as  the  grand  era  in  the  annals 
 of  the  world ;  for  they  spoke 
 of  the  two  great  ages  of  histo- 
 ry, the  one  as  preceding  and 
 the  other  as  following  this 
 wonderful  event.  Their  views, 
 however,  were  on  the  whole 
 very  narrow,  and  in  the  mass 
 of  the  people  were  elevated 
 very  little,  if  at  all,  above  tLe 
 temporal  advantages  of  their 
 nation.  Their  foolish  hearts 
 were  too  much  darkened  to 
 see  that  his  kingdom  was  to 
 be  spiritual ;  that  their  deli- 
 verance was  to  be  from  the 
 power  and  dominion  of  sin; 
 that  the  blessings  he  would 
 confer  would  be  holiness  and 
 life  everlasting,  and  that  the 
 benefits  of  his  atonement,  me- 
 diation, and  glorious  reign, 
 would  be  shared  by  all,  both 
 Jews  and  Gentiles,  who  should 
 repent,  and  believe  his  gospel. 
 
 How  long  these  groundless 
 apprehensions  prevailed,  even 
 in  the  minds  of  those  who  had 
 the  best  opportunity  to  know 
 the  truth,  may  be  seen,  Luke 
 xxiv.  21,  and  Acts  i.  6. 
 
 We  find  that  about  the  lime 
 of  the  Messiah's  appearance, 
 54 
 
CHR 
 
 Simeon,  Anna,  and  others  of 
 like  faiili,  were  eagerly  ex- 
 pectins  the  promised  salva- 
 tion. (Luke  ii.  25—38.) 
 
 At  the  appointed  time  the 
 Redeemer  of  the  world  ap- 
 peared. He  was  born  in  the 
 year  of  the  creation  4000,  at 
 Betlilehem,  in  Judea,  of  a  vir- 
 gin, named  Mary,  who  was  es- 
 poused to  Joseph  ;  a  nd  througli 
 them  he  derived  his  descent 
 from  David,  according  to  pro- 
 phecy. Though  we  may  not  be 
 able  to  trace  this  genealogy, 
 we  may  be  assured  of  the  fact 
 from  the  circumstance  that 
 the  Jews  never  questioned  it. 
 This  would  undoubtedly  have 
 been  the  stronghold  of  their 
 unbelief;  for  ifit  could  have 
 been  shown  that  the  individu- 
 al who  claimed  to  be  their 
 Messiah  was  not  descended 
 from  David,  they  miglit  have 
 justified  themselves  in  reject- 
 ing him,  by  referring  to  their 
 Scriptures.  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  3,  4, 
 and  ex.  1.  Comp.  Acts  i;.  ^o— 
 36.  Isa.  xi.  1— 10.  Jer.  xxiii.5, 
 6.  Ezek.  xxxiv.  23, 24;  xxxvii. 
 24,25.  John  vii.  42.) 
 
 At  the  proper  time  he  was 
 subjected  to  the  rite  of  circum- 
 cision, under  the  Jewish  law, 
 and  was  called  Jesus,  accord- 
 ing to  the  command.  (Matt.  i. 
 21.    Luke  ii.  21.) 
 
 After  a  temporary  stay 
 at  Bethlehem,  whither  they 
 went  to  be  taxed,  in  compli- 
 ance with  a  decree  of  the  go- 
 vernment, they  were  prepar- 
 ing to  return  to  Nazareth,  the 
 place  of  their  residence  ;  but 
 they  were  admonished  by  an 
 an^el  of  a  cruel  decree  which 
 had  been  issued  by  Herod  the 
 king,  requiring  the  indiscrimi- 
 nate massacre  of  all  the  male 
 children  in  Bethlehem  and  its 
 vicinity,  wiio  were  noi  over 
 two  years  old.  By  this  mas- 
 sacre he  hoped  to  cutoff  the 
 infant  Jesus,  who,  as  he  sup- 
 posed, from  some  confused 
 apprehensions  of  his  cbarac- 
 
 CHR 
 
 ter,  might  make  some  prelen 
 sion  to  the  government  of  the 
 country. 
 
 In  obedience  to  the  divine 
 intimation,  Joseph  took  the  in- 
 fant and  its  mother  and  went 
 inio  Egypt,  where  they  remain- 
 ed until  another  message  from 
 God  informed  them  that  Herod 
 was  dead,  and  they  might 
 safely  return  into  the  land  of 
 Israel.  So  they  took  up  their 
 abode  in  Nazareth,  a  small 
 town  in  Galilee,  where  Jesus 
 remained,subject  to  his  earthly 
 parents,  until  he  was  thirty 
 years  of  age.  The  sacred  wri- 
 ter says  that  the  residence  of 
 Christ  at  Nazareih  was  a  ful- 
 filment of  that  which  was 
 spoken  by  the  prophet,  He 
 shall  bt  called  a  Nazarene. 
 Probably  to  come  from  Naza- 
 reth was  regarded  as  a  re- 
 proach, (John  i.46;  vii.  52;) 
 and  hence,  to  call  a  man  a 
 Nazarene,  '  was  to  apply  to 
 him,  in  one  word,  all  that  the 
 prophets  said  of  the  humble 
 ami  despised  origin  of  the 
 Messiah.  (Ps.  xxii.  Isa.  liii.) 
 At  twelve  he  went  up  to  Jeru- 
 salem v/iih  his  parents,  at  the 
 feast  of  the  passover,  anil  as- 
 tonished the  Jewish  rabbies 
 by  his  wisdom  and  knowledge. 
 The  design  of  the  evangelists 
 being  to  record  only  the  events 
 of  his  public  ministry,  we  are 
 not  fiivoured  with  many  par- 
 ticulars of  Christ's  life  upon 
 earth  during  the  intervening 
 period. 
 
 When  he  was  about  thirty 
 years  of  age,  he  went  from 
 Nazareth  to  the  river  Jordan, 
 where  John  was  preaching 
 and  baptizing,  (Mark  i.  3—9,) 
 for  John  foreknew,  supernatu- 
 rally,  that  the  followers  of  Je- 
 sus were  to  be  initiated  by  this 
 rite,  and  that  they  were  like- 
 wise to  receive  the  higher  bap- 
 tism of  the  Spirit.  John  at 
 first  declined  administering 
 the  ordinance  to  him,  for  he 
 recognised  in  Christ  the  great 
 155 
 
CHR 
 
 fountain  and  author  of  that 
 inward  and  spiritual  grace  of 
 which  the  ordinance  itself  was 
 but  the  outward  and  visible 
 sign.  He  therefore  sought 
 rather  to  be  himself  baptized 
 by  Christ ;  but  upon  being  in- 
 formed by  his  divine  master 
 that  a  compliance  was  neces- 
 sary, in  order  that  he  might 
 sanction  by  his  example  the 
 ministry  of  John,  and  the  use 
 of  this  significant  rite,  John  ad- 
 minister^ed  the  ordinance,  and 
 thereupon  there  was  a  visible 
 and  audible  manifestation  of 
 God's  presence,  solemnly  at- 
 testing the  divinity  and  messi- 
 ahship  of  Christ.  (Matt.  iii.  16.) 
 
 He  then  commenced  his  pub- 
 lic ministry.  Calling  around 
 him  twelve  humble  fishermen, 
 to  be  the  companions  of  his 
 journeyings,  and  the  witnesses 
 of  his  conduct,  conversation, 
 preaching,  and  miracles,  and 
 the  propagators  of  his  religion 
 after  he  should  have  accom- 
 plished the  work  of  redemp- 
 tion, he  began  to  make  known 
 the  great  purposes  of  his  incar- 
 nation. For  three  years  he 
 exhibited  to  a  faithless  and 
 perverse  generation,  the  most 
 indubitable  evidence  of  his  di- 
 vine authority  and  power.  He 
 forgave  sins,  rebuked  unclean 
 spirits  so  that  they  came  out 
 of  such  as  were  possessed  by 
 them  ;  commanded  the  winds 
 and  the  seas,  and  they  obeyed 
 him ;  healed  all  manner  of 
 diseases;  raised  the  dead,  and 
 showed  conclusively,  in  every 
 variety  of  form,  that  he  pos- 
 sessed all  the  divine  attributes 
 that  there  was  any  fit  opportu- 
 nity to  employ,  for  the  benefit 
 either  of  the  bodies  or  souls  of 
 men. 
 
 In  k\  his  ministrations,— 
 un(?er  every  species  of  insult, 
 contradiction,  and  misrepre- 
 sentation,—he  most  perfectly 
 illustrated  the  precepts  and 
 principles  of  the  religion  he 
 taught.   His  love  and  compas- 
 
 CHR 
 
 sion;  his  forbearance  and  for- 
 giveness;  his  meekness  and 
 wisdom:  his  simplicity  and  ho- 
 liness ;  his  equanimity  and  self- 
 possession,have  never  had,and 
 never  will  have,  a  parallel  in 
 any  finite  being.  It  seems  im- 
 possible that  his  history  can 
 be  read  with  an  unprejudiced 
 mind,  and  fail  to  produce  the 
 conviction  that  it  is  of  him, 
 and  of  no  other,  that  the  pro- 
 phet says.  His  name  shall  be 
 called  Wonderful,  Counsel- 
 lor, THE  Mighty  God,  the 
 Everlasting  Father,  thb 
 Prince  of  Peace.  (Isa.  ix.  6.) 
 When  the  grand  purpose  of 
 his  extraordinary  mission  was 
 about  to  be  consummatefl,  he 
 gave  his  disciples  full  instruc- 
 tions respecting  their  duty,  in- 
 timated to  them  the  difficulties 
 and  dangers  which  would  at- 
 tend the  propagation  of  the 
 religion,  but  assured  them  of 
 strength,  CTace,  and  final  suc- 
 cess in  the  enterprise.  He 
 then  instituted  a  simple  but 
 most  affecting  memorial  of  his 
 sufferings  and  death,  which 
 were  to  close  his  earthly  minis- 
 try. And  while  in  the  garden 
 of  Gethsemane,  bowed  "down, 
 even  unto  deathj  with  exceed- 
 ing sorrow,  and  m  prospect  of 
 what  he  was  about  to  bear  for 
 man's  offence,  the  traitor,  who 
 was  one  of  the  little  company 
 of  twelve  disciples,  drew  near, 
 and  by  a  kiss  signified  to  a 
 band  of  ruffian  soldiers  that  he 
 was  the  object  of  their  pursuit. 
 Then  ensued  a  mock  trial, 
 every  stage  of  which  was 
 crowded  with  injuries  and  in- 
 sults, and  in  the  midst  of  which 
 he  was  denied  with  caihs  and 
 curses  by  the  most  Viold  and  for- 
 ward of  his  disciples.  Wanton 
 and  unprovoked  abuse,  cruel 
 mockings  and  scourgings,  in 
 short,  whatever  could  increase 
 the  intensity  of  bodily  and 
 mental  suffering  wa?  heaped 
 upon  the  guiltless  Redeemer 
 without  measure  or  mercy. 
 156 
 
CHR 
 
 They  were  such  as  the  most 
 base  and  contemptible  male- 
 factor seldom  endured,  and 
 were  terminated  by  the  excru- 
 ciating and  disgraceful  death 
 of  the  cross.  After  hanging  for 
 upwards  of  three  hours,  till  life 
 was  entirely  extinct,  (John  xix. 
 33,)  the  body  was  taken  down, 
 and  commiited  to  a  tomb  hewn 
 out  of  a  solid  rock  ;  and,  not- 
 withstanding all  the  safeguards 
 which  the  malice  and  cunning 
 of  his  persecutors  and  murder- 
 ers could  invent,  to  secure 
 him,  he  rose  from  the  dead  on 
 the  third  day,  as  he  had  fore- 
 told ;  and  after  giving  to  his 
 disciples  and  hundreds  of 
 others,  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
 and  at  different  times,  during 
 the  space  of  nearly  six  weeks, 
 the  most  indubitable  evidence 
 of  the  fact  that  he  had  risen, 
 he  led  a  chosen  company  out 
 to  Bethany ;  he  there  bestowed 
 on  them  his  parting  benedic- 
 tion, and,  ascending  up  to 
 heaven  in  their  presence,  a 
 cloud  received  him  out  of  their 
 sight. 
 
 Being  thus  raised  up,  and  by 
 the  right  hand  of  God  exalted 
 to  be  "a  Prince  and  a  Saviour, 
 to  give  repentance  and  remis- 
 sion of  sins,  he  soon  furnished 
 to  his  faithful  disciples  the 
 evidence  of  his  power  and 
 grace.  (Acts  ii.)  And  the  his- 
 tory of  (rod's  dealings  with  the 
 church  of  Christ,  from  the  be- 
 ginning hitherto,  abundantly 
 shows  the  perfectness  of  his 
 sacrifice  and  intercession,  and 
 that  he  is  the  end  of  the  law 
 for  righteousness  to  every  one 
 that  believeth.  (Rom.  x.  4.) 
 He  is  the  way,  the  truth,  and 
 the  life ;  and  no  man  cometh 
 ttf  the  Father  but  by  him. 
 iJohn  xiv.  6.)  As  our  great 
 high  priest  and  intercessor, 
 (Rom.  viii.  34.  Heb.  iv.  14; 
 vii.  25.  1  John  ii.  1,  2,)  he  hath 
 entered  by  his  own  blood  into 
 •he  holy  place,  having  obtain- 
 A.I  eieraal  redemption  for  us. 
 14* 
 
 CHR 
 
 He  hath  put  away  sin  by  the 
 sacrifice  of  himself,  (Heb.  ix 
 2(3,)  and  thus  hath  perfected 
 for  ever  them  that  are  sancti- 
 fied, (Heb.  X.  14,)  so  that  they 
 may  have  boldness  to  enter 
 into  the  holiest  by  his  blood, 
 by  the  new  and  living  way, 
 which  he  hath  consecrated, 
 through  the  veil,  that  is  to  say, 
 his  liesh.  (Heb.  x.  19,  20.) 
 Thus  the  seed  of  the  woman 
 hath  bruised  the  serpent's  head 
 — the  sting  of  death  is  removed. 
 (I  Cor.  XV.  55.)  He  that  had 
 the  power  of  death,  that  is,  the 
 devil,  is  subdued  ;  and  they  are 
 delivered  who,  through  fear  of 
 death,  were  all  their  lifetime 
 subject  to  bondage.  (Heb.  ii. 
 14,  15.)  Life  and  immortality 
 are  brought  to  light.  (2  Tim.  i. 
 10.)  Because  he  lives,  we  shall 
 live  also.  (John  xiv.  19.  Rom. 
 vi.8.  2  Cor.  xiii.  4.  1  Thess.  v. 
 10.  2  Tim.  ii.  11.)  He  comforts, 
 sustains,  and  guides  all  true 
 believers,  of  whatever  coun- 
 try, colour,  or  denomination 
 they  may  be,  through  this 
 world  of  tribulation;  reveals 
 to  them  fountains  in  the  wil- 
 derness, and  springs  in  the  de- 
 sert ;  passes  with  them  through 
 flames  and  floods;  gives  them 
 the  victory  over  sin  and  death, 
 and  bestows  on  them,  as  a  free 
 gift,  eternal  life  and  blessed- 
 ness,— a  crow^n  of  glory  that 
 fadeth  not  away. 
 
 Whoever  seriuusly  examines 
 the  great  plan  of  salvation  by 
 Christ,  in  all  that  preceded 
 and  has  thus  far  attended 
 its  very  partial  and  incipien 
 development,  will  be  led  t^ 
 exclaim,  with  the  apostle, 
 Without  coKTROVERSY,greai 
 is  the  mystery  of  goilliness.  (I 
 Tim.  iii.  16.)  The  revelation  of 
 it  sheds  light  on  all  preceding 
 and  succeeding  time.  It  raises 
 the  veil  throu^'h  which  tlie  in- 
 stitutions and  ordinances  of 
 the  Jewish  dispensation  seem- 
 ed like  a  vain  and  burdensome 
 ritual,  and  shows  us  of  what 
 157 
 
CHR 
 
 g^onous  things  they  were  the 
 imperfect  types  and  shadows. 
 It  discloses  a  mode  of  redemf)- 
 tion  from  the  curse  of  God's 
 violated  law,  — safe,  suitable, 
 and  plain  for  man  ;— just,  con- 
 sistent, and  glorious  for  the 
 lawgiver;  and  it  reveals  the 
 eauctionof  a  judgment  to  come, 
 in  which  the  principles  and 
 purposes  of  the  divine  govern- 
 ment will  be  carried  out  in  the 
 unchangeable  destinies  of  men 
 and  angels:  all  God's  ways 
 will  be  vindicated  in  the  view 
 of  an  assembled  world,  and  his 
 perfect  attributes  will  shine 
 forth  in  new,  endless,  and  in- 
 finite glory. 
 
 It  has  been  well  said,  ihat the 
 sum  and  substance  of  the  en- 
 tire Bible  is,  "Jesus  Christ 
 
 CRUCIFIED  TO  SAVE  LOST  SIN- 
 KERS." The  moment  we  lose 
 sight  of  this  srrand  and  amazing 
 design,  — wTiich  eternal  love 
 and"mercy  combined  with  in- 
 finite justice  and  holiness  to 
 conceive  and  execute,  —  the 
 Jewish  Scriptures,  from  begin- 
 ning to  end,  present  only  a 
 ■vain  and  perplexing  show,  and 
 the  glory  of  the  divine  revela- 
 tion is  extinguished. 
 
 (For  a  full  and  deeply  inte- 
 resting sketch  of  the  rise  and 
 progress  of  the  religion  of 
 Christ,  and  of  his  character 
 and  ministry,  see  Biblical 
 ANTiauiTiES,  vol.  ii.  ch.  i.: 
 Christ  our  .Saviour  ;  Sister 
 IVIary'&  Stories,  (No.  (;,  7'he 
 Wondoful  Redeemer;)  First 
 Lessons,  Lesson  xiii.— xix.  ; 
 all  by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 It  may  be  proper,  before 
 closing  this  article,  to  suggest 
 the  leading  points  and  princi- 
 pal references,  respecting  the 
 true  and  proper  divinity  of  the 
 Lord  Jesiis  Christ. 
 
 I.  The  names  and  titles  of 
 the  Supreme  Being  are  ai  iplied 
 to  him.  (Rom.  ix.  5.  1  John  v. 
 20.  Rev.  i.  11.  Comp.  Isa.  vi. 
 1 — 10,  Willi  John  xii.  41.) 
 
 II.  The  principal  attributes 
 
 CHR 
 
 of  God  are  ascribed  to  Christ , 
 as,  Eternity,  (John  i.  1 ;  viii. 
 58.  Rev.  xxii.  13;)  Omnisci- 
 ence, (Matt.  ix.  4.  John  xvi. 
 30;  xxi.  17.  Rev.  ii.  23;)  Om- 
 nipotence,(Phil.  iii.21.  Col.ii. 
 9,  10;)  Omnipresence,  (Matt, 
 xviii.  20;  xxviii.  20.  John  iii. 
 13;)  and  Unchangeaelekess. 
 (Heb.xiii.8.) 
 
 III.  The  works  and  preroga- 
 tives of  God  are  ascribed  to 
 him,  as  the  Creatcr  jf  all 
 things.  (Isa.  xliv.  24.  John  i. 
 1.3,  Col.i.  16, 17;)  their  Pre- 
 servation, (Heb.i.  3;)  For- 
 giveness OF  Sins,  (Dan.  ix.  9, 
 comp.  with  Ps.  cxxx.  Matt.  ix. 
 2.  6.  Col.  iii.  13;)  to  raise  thb 
 dead,  and  judge  the  world. 
 (Matt.  XXV.  31—33.  John  v.  22 
 —29.  Rom.  xiv.  10.  2 Cor.  v.  10.) 
 
 IV.  He  is  the  oVject  of  reli- 
 gious worship.  (Phil.  ii.  10,  11, 
 Heb.  i.  6.   Rev.  v.  11—13.) 
 
 The  following  passages  may 
 also  be  cited:  Ps.  xlv.  6,  7. 
 Comp.  Isa.  vii.  14,  with  Malt. 
 i.23.  Isa.  viii.  14,  with  iPet.  ii. 
 8.  Isa.  xliv.  23,24.  Ps.  Ixxxix. 
 8,  9,  with  Mark  iv.  37—39. 
 John  ii.  24, 25;  iii.  31;  xiv.  7. 9; 
 XX.  28.  Acts  i.  24;  vii.  59,60; 
 X.  36.  Rom.  xiv.  9.  Eph.  i. 
 20-23;  iv.  8^11.  Phil.  ii.  6. 
 9-11.  Col.  ii.  9.  ITim.  iii.  16. 
 2  Pet.  iii.  18.  Rev.  i.  5,6;  v.  8; 
 vii.  9—17;  xxi.  22,  23;  xxii. 
 16. 
 
 False  Christs.  (Matt.xxiv. 
 24.)  Our  Lord  warned  his  dis- 
 ciples that  false  Christs  should 
 arise.  Not  less  than  twenty- 
 four  different  persons  of  such 
 pretensions  have  ajj. eared; 
 and  the  defence  of  their  claims 
 to  the  messiahship  has  cost 
 the  Jews  a  great  expense  of 
 life  and  treasure.  One  olthem. 
 Cariba,  or  Barchocheba,  lived 
 early  in  the  second  century. 
 He  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
 the  Jewish  nation  as  their  Mes- 
 siah ;  they  adhered  to  him. 
 The  Romans  made  war  upon 
 him ;  and  the  Jews  ihemselvee 
 allow,  th'it  in  their  defence  of 
 158 
 
CHR 
 
 tiis  false  Messiah,  they  lost 
 between  ^ce  and  six  fiurtdred 
 thousand  souls.  In  the  twelfth 
 century,  not  less  than  eight  or 
 ten  impostors  appeared  under 
 the  same  name,  and  were  fol- 
 lowed by  great  numbers  of  the 
 Jews,  ftlosi  of  them  were  pun- 
 ished f.>r  their  imposture  with 
 death,  and  usually  involved 
 a  multitude  of  their  deluded 
 followers  ia  persecution  and 
 death.  The  last  that  gained 
 any  considerable  number  of 
 converts  was  Mordecai,  a  Jew 
 of  Germany,  who  lived  in  1682 
 He  tied  for'his  life,  and  his  end 
 ia  not  known. 
 
 CHRISTIAN  (Acts  xxvi.  2S) 
 was  a  name  given  to  the  fol- 
 lowers of  our  Saviour.  It  was 
 first  used  at  Antioch,  (Acts  xi. 
 26,)  about  the  year  42  or  43, 
 and  probably  (like  the  names 
 Nazarenes  and  Galileans)  as  a 
 term  of  reproach  or  contempt. 
 This  supposition  is  contirmed 
 by  the  circumstance  that  the 
 word  occurs  in  only  three 
 places  in  the  New  Testament, 
 viz.  in  the  two  passages  before 
 cited,  and  in  IPet.  i\AQ,  where 
 it  is  strongly  implied  that  the 
 very  name" was  associated  with 
 reproach  and  sutfering.  Taci- 
 lus,  a  profane  historian,  tells 
 AS  of  the  low,  or  vulgar  peo- 
 ple, called  the  followers  of 
 Christ,  or  Christians. 
 
 The  term  Christian  is  now 
 emp'loyei],(l.)In  contradistinc- 
 tion to  Pagans  and  Moham- 
 medans ;  and,  (2.)  To  denote 
 the  open  professors  of  religion, 
 in  contradistinction  from  those 
 who  are  not  professors.  In 
 lome  countries  it  is  still  a 
 lerm  of  bitter  reproach,  and 
 vhe  assumption  of  it  is  attended 
 with  persecution,  cruelty,  and 
 death. 
 
 The  Christian  religion  is  re- 
 ceived at  the  present  day  (as  it 
 is  supposed)  by  less  than  one 
 auarter  of  the  inhabitants  of 
 .tie  world.  Some  have  esti- 
 mated the  nmnbers  as  follows : 
 
 CHxl 
 
 Jews  -       -       .       2,500,000 
 
 Mohamnredins  -  •  140,000,000 
 Pa?ar.s  -  -  .  4t-2,000,000 
 Catholics  -  -  -  80,000,000 
 Protestants  -        -      65,000,000 
 
 Greeks  -  -  -  30,000,000 
 CHRONICLES,  (IKings  xiv. 
 19,)  or  ANNALS.  In  its  gene- 
 ral signification,  this  term  de- 
 notes a  chronological  history, 
 or  an  acccount  of  facts  and 
 events  in  the  order  of  time. 
 The  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
 books  of  the  Old  Testament 
 are  called  the  first  and  second 
 books  of  Chronicles  ;  and  are 
 in  some  sense  supplemental  to 
 the  two  books  of  Kings  which 
 precede  them.  They  appear 
 to  have  been  compiled  from 
 the  national  diaries  or  journals, 
 but  it  does  not  satisfactorily 
 appear  who  compiled  them. 
 These  voluminous  diaries  are 
 referred  to  frequently  under 
 ditferent  names,  (1  Kings 
 xiv.  19.  1  Chron.  xxvii.  24. 
 Esih.  ii.  23;)  but  are  not  to 
 be  confounded  with  the  ab- 
 stract which  constitutes  the 
 books  to  which  this  article 
 refers. 
 
 The  principal  object  of  the 
 author  of  these  books  seems  to 
 have  been,  to  point  out,  from 
 the  public  records,  the  state 
 of  the  different  families  before 
 the  captivity,  and  the  distribu- 
 tion of  the  lands  among  them  ; 
 that  each  tribe  mii'ht,  as  far 
 as  possible,  obtain  the  ancient 
 inheritance  of  their  fathers  at 
 their  return.  So  that  this  por- 
 tion of  the  Old  Testament  may 
 be  considered  as  an  epitome 
 of  all  the  sacred  history,  but 
 more  especially  from  the  origin 
 of  the  Jewish  nation  to  their 
 return  from  the  first  captivity ; 
 embracing  a  period  oi  nearly 
 3500  years.  The  fii-st  book 
 traces  the  rise  and  propagation 
 of  the  children  of  Israel^  from 
 Adam,  together  with  a  circum- 
 stantial account  of  the  reign 
 and  transactions  of  David :  the 
 second  continues  the  narra- 
 tive ;  relates  the  proeress  and 
 159 
 
CHU 
 
 dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of 
 Judea,  (apart  from  Israel.)  to 
 the  year  of  the  return  of  the 
 people  from  Babylon.  Samuel, 
 Kings,  and  Chronicles  should 
 be  read  and  compared  together, 
 as  they  relate  substantially  the 
 same  histories,  though  with  dif- 
 ferent degrees  of  particularity, 
 and  with  different  means  of 
 informa'ion :  so  that  the  whole 
 contains  bu.  one  history  ,  and 
 what  is  obscure  or  defective  in 
 one  part  mav  be  explamed  or 
 supplied  in  another. 
 
 CHRYSOLITE.  (Rey  xxi. 
 20.)  This  was  anciently  a  ge- 
 neral name  for  all  precious 
 stones  in  which  a  golden  or 
 yellow  colour  was  prevalent. 
 It  more  particularly  denoted 
 a  stone  resembling  in  colour 
 the  modern  topaz.  The  stone 
 now  called  chrysolite  is  green, 
 tinged  with  yellow.  It  is  not 
 very  valuable,  is  seldom  found 
 larger  than  a  buck-shot,  and 
 comes  chiefly  from  the  Levant. 
 CHRYSOPRASUS.  (Rev.xxi. 
 20.)  A  species  of  the  beryl,  found 
 in  Brazil  and  Ceylon,  and  in 
 some    parts    of    the    United 
 
 CHUB.  (Ezek.  xxx.5.)  From 
 the  connexion  of  this  word,  it 
 is  presumed  to  have  been  an 
 Ethiopian  tribe  or  province. 
 
 CHUN,  (1  Chron.  xviii.  8,) 
 called  Berothai  in  2  Sam.  viii. 
 8;  and  Berothah,  in  Ezek. 
 xlvii.  16. 
 
 CHURCH.  (Matt.  xvi.  18.) 
 This  word  is  variously  used  by 
 the  sacredwriters,but  its  import 
 is  generally  to  be  inferred  from 
 its  connexion.  It  may  be  suf- 
 ficient to  notice  particularly 
 two  uses  of  the  term. 
 
 Sometimes  it  denotes  simply 
 an  assemblyof  persons  for  any 
 purpose,  (Acts  xix.  41 ;)  but  in 
 the  New  Testament  it  is  ap- 
 pl'ied  particularly  to  Christians 
 as  a  body  or  community.  (Acts 
 ii.  47.)  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
 people  of  God  in  all  ages  of  the 
 world,  whether  Jews  or  Chris- 
 
 CHU 
 
 tians.  (Acts  vii.  38;  xii.  1. 
 Eph.  iii.  21 ;  v.  25.)  For  al- 
 though there  have  been  two 
 dispensations,  viz.  that  of  the 
 law  by  Moses,  and  that  of  the 
 gospel  by  Jesus  Christ ;  yet  the 
 religion  of  the  Bible  is,  and 
 ever  has  been,  and  ever  will 
 be  one  religion ;  whether  they 
 lived  before  or  after  the  coming 
 of  Christ,  true  believers  are  all 
 one  in  Christ  Jesus.  (Gal.  iii. 
 28.)  Of  this  church  or  company 
 ofthe  redeemed,  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  is  now  the  head,  and  the 
 church  is  therefore  called  the 
 body,  (Col.  i.  18.  24,)  and  com- 
 prises the  redeemed  who  have 
 gone  to  heaven  as  well  as 
 those  who  are  or  will  be  on  the 
 earth.   (Heb.  xii.  23.) 
 
 Particular  portions  of  the 
 whole  body  of  Christians  are 
 also  called  the  church,  as  the 
 church  at  Jerusalem,  at  Co- 
 rinth, &c.  (Acts  viii.  1.  1  Cor. 
 i.  2  ;  iv.  17.) 
 
 As  the  incarnation,  death, 
 resurrection,  and  reigning  of 
 Christ  in  heaven,  constitute 
 him  the  founder  and  head  of 
 the  church  as  it  now  exists, 
 he  i?  compared  to  "the  chief 
 corner-stone"  in  the  building, 
 (Eph.  ii.  20,)  on  whom  th"e 
 wliole  structure  is  dependent. 
 For  this  purpose  God  "  hath 
 put  all  things  under  his  feet, 
 and  given  him  to  be  the  head 
 over  all  things  to  the  church, 
 which  is  his  body,  the  fulness 
 of  him  that  filleth  all  in  all." 
 (Eph.  i.  22.) 
 
 The  figurative  language 
 which  is  employed  by  Christ 
 himself,  as  well  as  by  his 
 apostles,  to  denote  the  nature 
 of  his  relations  to  the  church 
 (as  composed  of  all  true  be- 
 lievers,) and  its  relations  to 
 him,  are  of  the  most  significant 
 character.  Some  of  them  have 
 been  intimated  above;  others 
 are,  that  of  husband  and  wife, 
 (Eph.  V.  30—32 ;)  a  vine  and  its 
 branches,  (John  xv.  1—6 ;)  and 
 a  shepherd  and  his  flock,  (John 
 IfiO 
 
CIL 
 
 X.  11.)  And  it  is  generally  sup- 
 posed thai  Solomon's  Song  is  a 
 higlily  figurative  and  poetical 
 illustration  of  tlie  mutual  love 
 of  Clirist  and  the  people  of  his 
 church  in  all  ages. 
 
 In  modern  times,  the  word  is 
 applied  to  various  associations 
 of  Chrisiians,  united  by  a  com- 
 mon mode  of  faith  or  form  of 
 government,  as  the  Episcopal 
 church,  the  Baptist  church,  the 
 Moravian  church,  &c. 
 
 CHURL.  (Isa.  xxxii.  5.  7. 
 Comp.  1  Sam.  xxv.  3.  10,  11. 
 17,  with  passage  in  Isaiah.) 
 
 CHURN.    (See  Butter.) 
 
 CHUSHAN-RISHATHAIM. 
 (Judg.  iii.  8—10.)  A  king  of 
 Mesopotamia,  and  an  opiiress- 
 or  of  the  Israelites.  Othniel, 
 Caleb's  nephew,  delivered 
 them  from  Jiis  dominion. 
 
 CIELED.  (2  Chron.  iii.  5.) 
 CIELING.  (1  Kings  vi.  15.) 
 Eastern  floors  and  ceilings 
 were  just  the  reverse  of  ours. 
 Their  cielings  were  of  wood, 
 painted,  (Jer.  xxii.  14;)  ours 
 are  of  plaster ;  their  floors 
 were  of  plaster  or  some  sort  of 
 tiles,  and  ours  of  wood.  Some 
 public  buildings  in  Europe  are 
 cieled  with  wood,  and  we 
 sometimes  see  wooden  ciel- 
 ings in  our  own  country. 
 
 CILICIA.  (Acts  xxi.  39.)  A 
 province  in  the  south-eastern 
 district  of  Asia  Minor,  lying  on 
 the  northern  coast,  at  the  east- 
 ern extremity  of  the  Mediter- 
 ranean sea.  Its  capital  city  was 
 Tarsus,  the  birth-place  of  Paul. 
 The  synagogue  of"  them  ofCi- 
 licia,'"  (Acts  vi.  9,)  was  a  place 
 of  Jewish  worship  in  Jerusalem, 
 appropriated  to  the  use  of  Jews 
 who  might  be  at  Jerusalem 
 from  the  province  of  Cilicia. 
 A  similar  custom  in  modern 
 times  is  the  fitting  up  of  public 
 houses  to  accommodate  stran- 
 gers from  particular  States  or 
 countries.    Paul,  being  of  this 
 
 Erovince,  was  probably  a  mem- 
 er   of  this   synagogue,    and 
 Derhaijs  one  of  the  defeated 
 14* 
 
 CIR 
 
 opposers  and  controvertists  of 
 Stephen.  (Comp.  Acts  vi.  10 ; 
 vii.58.) 
 
 CINNAMON.  (Sol.  Song  iv. 
 14.)  A  well  known  aromatic, 
 produced  from  the  inner  bark 
 of  a  tree  which  grows  chiefly 
 in  Ceylon;  and  being  peeled 
 off,  and  cut  into  strips,  curls  up, 
 in  the  form  in  which  it  is  usu- 
 ally seen.  The  cinnamon  tree 
 is  a  species  of  the  laurel.  Cin- 
 namon was  one  of  the  ingre- 
 dients of  the  holy  oil,  (Ex.  xxx. 
 23,)  and  was  probably  an  ar- 
 ticle of  commerce  in  ancient 
 Babylon.    (Rev.  xviii.  13.) 
 
 CINNERETH,  CINNE- 
 ROTH.    (See  Chinnereth.) 
 
 CIRCLE  (Isa.  xl.  22)  means, 
 in  this  passage,  the  line  within 
 which  the  earth  revolves,  and 
 figuratively  describes  a  posi- 
 tion from  which  every  part  of 
 its  surface  can  be  seen.  In 
 Prov.  viii.  27,  the  same  word 
 is  rendered  compass,  and  de- 
 notes the  boundary  or  mound 
 within  which  the  waters  are 
 restrained.  The  Creator  is  re- 
 presented as  marking  out  the 
 habitation  of  the  vast  expanse 
 of  waters,  with  the  same  ease 
 with  which  a  designer  or 
 draftsman  delineates  the  plan 
 of  a  building  or  an  estate. 
 
 CIRCUIT.  (Job  xxii.  14.)  A 
 circular  path  or  route.  (1  Sam. 
 vii.  16.)  In  the  passage  from 
 Job,  God  is  figuratively  repre- 
 sented as  confining  his  pre- 
 sence to  the  high  heavens. 
 (Comp.  ver.  11,  12,  with  ver. 
 13,  14.)  In  Psalm  xix.  6,  the 
 circuit  of  the  sun  is  represented 
 as  extending  from  one  end  of 
 heaven  to  the  other,  or  from 
 east  to  west. 
 
 CIRCUMCISED.  (Gen.  xvii. 
 10.)  CIRCUMCISION.  (John 
 vii.  22.)  Circumcision  was  a 
 remarkable  rite  or  ceremony 
 of  the  Jewish  religion,  which 
 consisted  in  cutting  around  the 
 flesh  of  the  foreskin  of  all 
 males,  on  the  eighth  day  after 
 their  birth.  This  rite  was  esla- 
 IBl 
 
CIS 
 
 btifthed  as  the  token  of  GoJ's 
 covenant  with  Abraham,  (Gen. 
 xvii.  9—14,)  who  immediately 
 subjected  himself  and  all  his 
 family  to  its  observance.  The 
 precept  of  circumcision  was  re- 
 newed to  Moses,  (Ex.  xii.  44. 
 Lev.  xii.  3.  John  vii.  22,  23;) 
 requiring  that  all  should  sub- 
 mit to  it  who  would  partake 
 of  the  paschal  sacrifice.  And 
 the  Jews  have  always  been 
 very  scrupulous  in  its  obser- 
 vance, though  it  was  omitted 
 in  their  journey  through  the 
 wilderness  for  obvious  rea- 
 sons. Many  other  nations  have 
 adopted  the  rite  ;  and  it  is  the 
 chief  ceremony  of  initiation 
 into  the  religion  of  Moham- 
 med, though  it  is  regarded  only 
 as  a  traditionary  precept,  and 
 is  not  performed  till  the  child 
 is  five  or  six  years  old.  The 
 instrument  used  for  this  pur- 
 pose was  a  knife,  a  razor,  or 
 even  a  sharp  stone.  (Ex.  iv. 
 25.   Josh.  V.  3.) 
 
 The  design  of  this  require- 
 ment obviously  was,  to  fix  upon 
 the  persons  of  all  the  natural 
 descendants  of  Abraham  a  dis- 
 tinguishing mark,  separating 
 them  from  all  the  rest  of  the 
 world.  As  this  rite  was  pecu- 
 liar to  the  Jews,  they  are  call- 
 ed the  circumcision,  and  the 
 Gentiles  the  uncircumcision. 
 (Rom.  iv.  9.) 
 
 The  terms  uncircumcised  and 
 uncircumcision  are  also  used  to 
 denote  impurity  or  wickedness 
 generally;  and  to  circumcise 
 the  heart  was  to  become  trac- 
 table and  docile.  (Ex.  vi.  12. 
 30.  Jer.  iv.  4;  vi.  10;  ix.  26. 
 Ezek.  xliv.  7.  Acts  vii.  51.) 
 Jews  who  renounced  Judaism, 
 under  the  Roman  persecution, 
 sometimes  endeavoured  to 
 erase  the  mark  of  circumci- 
 sion ;  and  probably  Paul  may 
 allude  to  this,  1  Cor.  vii.  18. 
 (See  Covenant,  Concision.) 
 
 CISTERN.  (Prov.  V.  15.)  The 
 face  of  the  country,  and  the  pe- 
 culiarity of  the  climate,  made 
 
 GIT 
 
 cisterns  indispensable  in  Ju 
 dea.  They  were  generally,  il 
 not  universally,  private  pro- 
 perty. (Num.  xxi.  2l)  Soma 
 were  formed  by  merely  exca 
 vating  the  earth;  others  were 
 covered  reservoirs,  into  which 
 the  water  was  conducted,  and 
 others  still  were  lined  with 
 wood,  or  cement,  or  hewn  out 
 of  the  rock  with  great  labour, 
 and  ornamented" with  much 
 skill.  When  the  pits  were 
 empty,  there  was  a  tenacious 
 mire  at  the  bottom,  and  they 
 were  used  as  the  places  of  the 
 most  cruel  and  extreme  pun- 
 ishments. It  was  into  such  a 
 pit  probably  that  Joseph  was 
 cast.  (See  also  Ps.  xl.  2.  Jer. 
 xxxviii.  6.)  Large  cisterns  are 
 now  found  in  Palestine,  at  in- 
 tervals of  fifteen  or  twenty 
 miles.  One  of  them  is  describ- 
 ed by  a  modern  traveller  to  be 
 six  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long 
 by  two  hundred  and  seventy 
 broad.  These  cisterns  were 
 the  chief  dependence  of  the 
 people  for  water;  hence  the 
 force  of  the  allusion,  Jer.  ii.  13. 
 (See  Conduit.) 
 
 CITY.  (Gen.  iv.  17.)  It  is 
 noi  very  easy  to  determine  by 
 what  the  lews  distinguished 
 villages  from  towns,  and 
 towns  from  cities.  Probably, 
 at  first,  a  number  of  tents 
 and  cottages  formed  a  vil- 
 lage. They  were  brought 
 together  by  family  relation- 
 ship, by  local  attractions,  or 
 more  probably,  for  mutual  de- 
 fence against  more  powerful 
 clans  or  tribes.  When  their  si- 
 tuation became  insecure,  they 
 be^an  to  protect  themselves  by 
 a  ditch  or  hedge,  or  perhaps  a 
 wall.  The  advancement  from 
 this  rude  state,  to  the  fortified 
 towns  and  cities  of  ancient 
 days,  was  easy  and  rapid  Some 
 have  supposed  that  cities  were 
 always  walled,  (Num.  xiii.  28;) 
 hutthere  is  no  evidence  of  this. 
 We  know  they  were  often  (if 
 noi  always)  fortified,  and  man/ 
 
CIT 
 
 of  them  were  very  populous. 
 The  streets  were  narrow,  so 
 that,  iu  some  of  them,  (as  we 
 are  told,)  loaded  carnels  could 
 not  paiss  each  other;  and  even 
 at  this  day,  in  Alexandria  and 
 Cairo,  mats  are  spread  across 
 the  streets,  from  house  to  house, 
 for  shade. 
 
 We  know,  however,  that 
 many  of  them  were  spacious. 
 Sometimes,  in  Asiatic  cities, 
 a  broad  street,  or  a  section  of 
 it,  is  covered  for  the  accommo- 
 dation of  merchants  or  trades- 
 men, and  such  places  are 
 called  Bazaars  ;  and  the  pro- 
 minent branch  of  business 
 transacted  there  gives  the 
 name  to  the  street";  as,  the 
 woollen  drapers,  coppersmiths, 
 &c.  Around  the  gates  of  cities 
 WELS  the  principal"  concourse  of 
 people,  (Neh.  viii.  1.  Job  xxix. 
 7;)  and  therefore  these  stations 
 were  desirable  for  booths  or 
 stalls,  for  the  sale  of  merchan- 
 dise. (2  Kings  vii.  1.)  These 
 square  or  open  places  are  pro- 
 bably intended  in  2  Chron. 
 xxxii.  6,  and  Neh.  iii.  16 ;  viii. 
 1. 3.  Some  cities  were  adorned 
 with  open  squares  and  large 
 gardens.  One-third  of  the  city 
 of  Babylon,  we  are  told,  was 
 occupied  with  gardens ;  and 
 Cesarea,  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
 and  other  of  the  largest  cities 
 were  paved. 
 
 Fenced  City,  (2 Kings  x.  2,) 
 or  Defenced  Cities.  (Isa. 
 xxxvi.  1.)  A  fortified  city.  To 
 build  a  city,  and  \.o  fortify  or 
 fence  it,  in  the  oriental  idiom, 
 mean  the  same  thing.  The 
 fencing,  or  fortification,  was 
 usually  with  high  walls,  and 
 watch-iowersupon  them.(Deut. 
 iii.  5.)  The  walls  of  fortified 
 cities  were  formed,  in  part  at 
 least,  of  combustible  materials, 
 (Amos  i.  7. 10.  14,)  the  gates  be- 
 ing covered  with  thick  plates  of 
 iron  or  brass.  (Ps.  cvii.  16. 
 Isa.  xlv.  2.  Acts  xii.  10.)  There 
 was  also  within  the  city  a  cita- 
 del or  lower,  to  which  the  la- 
 
 CIT 
 
 habitants  fled  when  the  city 
 itself  could  not  be  defended. 
 (Judg.  ix.  46—52.)  These  were 
 often  upon  elevated  ground, 
 and  were  entered  by  a  flight  ot 
 steps.   (See  Gate.) 
 
 At  the  lime  when  Abraham 
 came  into  the  land  of  Canaan, 
 there  were  already  in  exist- 
 ence numerous  towns,  which 
 are  mentioned  in  the  book  of 
 Genesis  ;  Sodom,  Gomorrah, 
 Zeboim,  Admah,  Bela,  Hebron, 
 and  Damascus.  This  last  is 
 truly  venerable,  as  it  is  beyond 
 doubt  the  oldest  city  in  the 
 world.  The  spies  who  were 
 sent  over  Jordan  brought  back 
 an  account  of  well  "fortified 
 cities.  In  the  book  of  Joshua, 
 we  read  of  no  less  than  six 
 hundred  towns,  of  which  the 
 Israelites  look  possevssion. — 
 When  the  city  of  Ai  was  ta- 
 ken, its  inhabitants,  who  were 
 put  to  the  sword,  amounted  to 
 12,000,  (Josh.  viii.  16.  25  ;)  and 
 we  are  told  that  Gibeon  was  a 
 still  greater  city.  (x.  2.)  It  is 
 commonly  calculated  that,  in 
 Europe,  one-third  or  one-fourth 
 of  a  nation  is  comprised  in 
 cities  and  towns.  Reckoning 
 the  Hebrews,  then,  at  3,0OO,0i3O, 
 it  would  give  about  1250  for 
 the  average  population  of  the 
 towns;  and,  for  greater  safety, 
 it  is  probable  that  half  the 
 inhabitants  dwelt  in  towns. 
 Now  in  Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  15) 
 there  were  seven  hundred 
 men  who  bore  arms,  and, 
 of  course,  not  less  than  3000 
 inhabitants.  By  a  similar  cal- 
 culation, we  conclude  that  the 
 forty-eight  cities  of  th^Levites 
 contained  each  about  1,000 
 souls.  In  the  time  of  David, 
 the  population  of  Palestine 
 was  between  five  and  six  mil- 
 I  lions ;  and  we  may  suppose 
 that  the  towns  and  cities  were 
 proportionably  increased.  Oa 
 I  the  great  annual  festivals,  Je- 
 I  rusalem  must  have  presented 
 !  a  sublime  spectacle  of  count- 
 I  less  multitudes,  when  all  the 
 163 
 
CIT 
 
 males  of  the  nation  were  re- 
 
 auired  to  be  there  assembled. 
 In  such  limes  the  city  itself 
 was  insufficient  to  contain  the 
 host  of  Israel,  and  thousands 
 encamped  around  its  outskirts. 
 After  tlie  return  from  the  Baby- 
 lonish captivity,  the  population 
 of  the  towns  may  l^ave  been 
 inconsiderable^  but  the  sub- 
 sequent increase  was  most  ra- 
 Sid,  so  that  in  the  time  of 
 asephus,  the  small  villages 
 f  Galilee  contained  15,000  in- 
 habitants, and  the  larger 
 towns  50,000.  At  the  same 
 period,  Jerusalem  was  four 
 miles  in  circuit,  and  had  a 
 population  of  150,000.  The 
 same  author  tells  us,  that  un- 
 der Cestius,  the  number  of 
 paschal  lambs  was  256,500, 
 which  would  eive  an  amount 
 of  about  2,000,000  attending 
 the  passover.  At  the  time  of 
 the  fatal  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
 more  than  a  million  of  persons 
 were  shut  in  by  the  Romans ; 
 so  that  the  space  included  by 
 the  four  miles  must  have  been 
 remarkably  sconomized. 
 
 City  of  David.  (1  Chron.  xi. 
 5.)  A  section  in  the  southern 
 part  of  Jerusalem  ;  embracing 
 mount  Zion,  where  a  fortress 
 of  the  Jebusites  stood.  David 
 reduced  the  fortress,  and  built 
 a  new  palace  and  city,  to 
 which  he  gave  his  own  name. 
 (See  Biblical  ANTiauixiEs, 
 vol.  ii.  pp.  62,63;  and  Selu- 
 MiEL,  pp.  50,  51,  both  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.)  Bethlehem,  the 
 native  town  of  David,  is  also 
 called,from  that  circumstance, 
 thecity  of  David.  (Luke  ii.  11.) 
 CiTY-oF  God  (Ps.  xlvi.  4) 
 was  one  of  the  names  of  an- 
 cient Jerusalem,  and  its  ap- 
 Bropriateness  is  evident  from 
 leut.  xii.  5. 
 
 Holy  City.  (Neh.  xi.  1.) 
 The  sacredness  of  the  temple 
 extended  itself  in  some  mea- 
 sure over  the  city,  and  hence 
 Jerusalem  itself  was  called  the 
 Holy  City,  and  -is  so  distin- 
 
 CIT 
 
 guished  in  the  east  at  the  pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 Cities  of  Refuge  (Deut 
 xix.  7.  9.  Josh.  XX.  2.  7,  8) 
 were  six  of  the  Leviiical  cities 
 divinely  appointed  by  the  Jew- 
 ish lav;  as  asylums,  to  which 
 those  were  commanded  to 
 flee,  for  safety  and  protection, 
 who  had  been  undesignedly 
 accessary  to  the  death  of  a 
 fellow  creature.  The  kinsmen 
 of  the  deceased,  or  other  per 
 son  who  might  pursue  to  kill 
 him,  coiUd  not  molest  him  in 
 one  of  these  cities,  until  his 
 offence  was  investigated,  and 
 the  judgment  of  the  congrega- 
 tion passed.  If  he  was  not 
 within  the  provisions  of  the 
 law,  he  was  delivered  to  the 
 avenger  and  slain.  The  cus- 
 tom oi  blood  revenge  was  deep- 
 ly rooted  among  the  Israelites, 
 and  continues  among  the  Arabs 
 to  this  day;  and  the  institution 
 of  cities  of  refuge  was  wisely 
 designed  to. check  the  violence 
 of  human  passion.  Several 
 sections  of  the  Jewish  la  whave 
 relation  to  this  subject.  For 
 the  size  and  situation  of  the 
 cities,  see  Num.  xxxv.  4,5. 14; 
 the  description  of  persons,  and 
 the  manner  of  killing,  in  cases 
 which  entitled  the  slayer  to 
 protection,  Num.  xxxv.  15 — 23. 
 Deut.  xix.  4— II.  For  the  mode 
 of  ascertaining  whether  the 
 offence  was  worthy  of  death, 
 and  the  consequences  of  the 
 judgment,  see  Num.  xxxv.  24 
 — 33;  and  for  the  rules  to  be 
 observed  by  the  mansla^er, 
 in  order  to  avail  himself  of  the 
 benefit  of  the  city  of  refuge, 
 see  Num.  xxxv.  25—28.  It  is 
 doubtful  whether  the  trial  of 
 the  manslayer  was  had  at  the 
 city  of  refuge,  or  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  place  where  the  offence 
 occurred.  Perhaps  there  were 
 two  processes;  one  Introduc- 
 tory to  the  other,  as  we  have  a 
 preliminary  examination  to  de- 
 termine if  the  party  accused 
 shall  be  held  to  answer  for  hia 
 164 
 
CLE 
 
 offence.  This  first  process  might 
 liave  been  at  the  city  of  refuge. 
 The  Jewish  writers  say  that,  at 
 every  cross-road,  signs  were 
 erected  in  some  conspicuous 
 place,  pointing  to  the  cities  of 
 refuee,  on  which  was  inscribed, 
 "Refuge,  Refuge,"  which, 
 with  many  other  similar  provi- 
 sions, were  designed  to  direct 
 and  facilitate  the  flight  of  the 
 unhappy  man  who  was  pur- 
 sued by  the  avenger  of  blood. 
 There  were  other  sacred 
 places,  as  it  is  supposed,  parti- 
 cularly the  temple  and  thealtar 
 of  burnt-offerings.  (Ex.  xxi.  14. 
 
 SeeBlBLICALANTiaUITIES,VOl. 
 
 i.  ch.  ix.  §  5 ;  and  the  Refuge, 
 ch.  i ,  both  by  Am.  S.  S.Union.) 
 
 CiTiESWiTH  Suburbs.  (Josh. 
 xxi.  41,  42.)  This  expression 
 is  explained  by  reference  to 
 Num."xxxv.  1—5.  (See  Trea- 
 sure-cities, Walls.) 
 
 CLAUDA.    (See  (Jrete.) 
 
 CLAUDIUS  LYSIAS.  (Acts 
 xxiii.  26.)  The  chief  captain 
 or  commander  of  a  band  of 
 soldiers,  stationed  £is  a  pub- 
 lic guard  over  the  temple. 
 (John  xviii.  12.  Acts  v.  26.) 
 His  conduct  on  the  occasion 
 of  the  uproar  in  Jerusalem, 
 and  his  interposition  for  the 
 protection  of  Paul,  on  two  oc- 
 casions where  his  life  was  in 
 jeopardy,  are  creditable  to  his 
 efficiency  and  humanity.  (Acts 
 xxi.  xxii.  xxiii.) 
 
 CLAY.  (Isa.  xlv.  9.)  This 
 substance  was  used  by  the  an- 
 cients as  it  is  by  us.  It  was 
 mixed  by  treading.  (Isa.  xli. 
 25.)  It  was  fashioned  by  the 
 motion  of  a  wheel  or  frame, 
 (Jer.  xviii.  3,)  and  was  baked 
 or  burnt  in  a  kiln.  (Jer.  xliii. 
 9.  For  its  figurative  uses,  see 
 Natural  History  of  the 
 Bible,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 pp.  80-83.) 
 
 CLEAN  and  UNCLEAN. 
 (Lev.  X.  10.)  These  words  are  of 
 frequent  occurrence  and  obvi- 
 ous meaning  in  the  sacred 
 writings ;  but  it  is  in  their  pe- 
 
 CLE 
 
 culiar  application,  by  the  Jew- 
 ish law,  to  persons,  animals, 
 and  things,  that  they  are  now 
 to  be  Gonsidered. 
 
 In  order  to  partake  of  the  pri- 
 vileges of  the  Jewish  church, 
 and  to  engage  acceptably  in 
 its  outward  worship,  the  indi- 
 vidual must  not  only  be  cir- 
 cumcised, but  he  must  be  cere- 
 monially clean ;  that  is,  he 
 must  be  free  from  uncleannes* 
 How  the  various  kinds  of  un 
 cleanness  were  contracted, 
 what  time  it  continued,  and 
 what  was  the  process  of  purifi- 
 cation, we  have  particularly 
 described,  Lev.xi.— xv.  Num. 
 xix.;  and  a  very  vivid  and  in- 
 teresting sketch  of  the  whole 
 ceremony  will  be  found  in 
 Biblical  Antiquities,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union,  vol.  ii.  ch.  vii. 
 
 The  division  of  animals  into 
 clean  and  unclean  existed  be- 
 fore the  flood,  (Gen.  vii.  2,)  and 
 was  probably  founded  upon 
 the  practice  of  animal  sacri- 
 fice.  Those  animals  only 
 which  divide  the  hoof  and 
 chew  the  cud  were  regarded 
 as  clean,  (Lev.  xi.  3,  4 ;)  and 
 the  same  chapter  enumerates 
 a  variety  of  beasts,  birds,  rep- 
 tiles, fishes,  and  things  which 
 are  unclean.  (See  also  Ex. 
 xxii.  31 ;  xxxiv.  15.  26.  Deut, 
 xiv.  21.)  What  was  the  design 
 of  these  distinctions,  and  how 
 they  were  abolished,  may  be 
 learned  with  sufficient  accu- 
 racy from  a  comparison  of 
 Scripture  with  Scripture.  (Lev. 
 XX. 24— 26.  Actsx.9— 16;  xi.  1 
 -4.  ia-21.  Heb.ix.9-14.)  It 
 has  been  observed,  that  one 
 object  of  these  appointments 
 may  have  been,  to  make  the 
 Jews  suspicious  of  Gentile  cus- 
 toms and  entertainments,  and 
 so  induce  them  to  abstain  from 
 all  intercourse  with  them.  We 
 find  in  the  New  Testamen* 
 that  eating  with  the  Gentiles 
 was  regarded  as  a  peculiar 
 aggravation  of  the  offence  of 
 associating  with  them.  (Matt- 
 165 
 
ix.  11.  Acts  xi.  3.)    It  may  be 
 
 remarked  also,  that  some  of 
 the  prohibited  animals  were 
 unwholesome ;  and  the  He- 
 brews were  at  least  taught  by 
 these  strict  regulations  habitu- 
 ally to  regard  their  relation  to 
 God,  and  'the  necessity  of  ab- 
 staining from  every  thing  that 
 should  offend  his  infinite  ho- 
 liness, or  involve  the  least 
 appearance  of  pollution.  It  is 
 very  evident  that  the  Jews 
 would  not  worship  animals 
 that  were  set  apart  as  un- 
 clean, and  still  less  would 
 they  worsliip  those  they  ate; 
 so  that,  so  far  as  the  idol  wor- 
 shipof  animals  was  concerned, 
 it  was  very  effectually  guarded 
 against. 
 CLEOPAS.  (See  Alphecs.) 
 CLOAK.  (See  Clothes.) 
 CLOTH,  LINEN.  (See 
 Clothes  ^ 
 
 CLOTHES.  (Matt.  xxiv.  18.) 
 The  art  of  making  cloth  was 
 known  very  early.  The  skins 
 of  animals  supplied  the  place 
 of  cloth  at  first ;  but  we  may 
 suppose  that  spinning  and  nee- 
 dle-work were  so  far  perfected 
 as  to  furnish  cloth,  of  a  coarse 
 kind  at  least,  at  an  early  peri- 
 od. (Ex.  XXXV.  25.  Judg.  V.30.) 
 The  beauty  of  dress  consisted 
 in  the  fineness  and  colour 
 of  the  cloth.  (See  Colours, 
 Sackcloth.) 
 
 The  Asiatic  modes  of  dress 
 are  nearly  the  same  from  age 
 M  age  ;  and  hence  much  light 
 is  thrown,  by  modern  obser- 
 vation, on  the  subject  of  the 
 clothing  of  the  Hebrews.  We 
 may  suppose  their  ordinary 
 dress  to  have  consisted  of  the 
 inner  garment,  the  outer  gar- 
 ment, "a  girdle,  and  sandals. 
 One  of  the  oldest  and  sim- 
 plest garments  was  a  strip  of 
 cloth  Oinen  or  cotton)  bound 
 around  the  loins  with  a  string 
 or  band,  and  reaching  to  the 
 knees.  It  is  the  only  garment 
 of  the  Arabs.  Such  a  strip  ap- 
 pears as  the  inner  garment 
 
 of  the  dress,in  the  foregoing  cut. 
 This  is  so  slight  a  dress,  that 
 those  who  have  no  other  are 
 said  to  be  naked.  (Isa.  xx. 
 2 — 4.  John  xxi.  7.)  In  its  im- 
 proved state,  it  was  larger 
 and  longer,  and  supplied  with 
 sleeves.  The  coat  was  some- 
 times woven  in  a  loom,  and 
 had  no  seams.     (Ex,  xxviii. 
 
CI.0 
 
 82.  John  xix.  23.)  The  phrase 
 'coats  and  garments  (Acts  ix. 
 39)  means  inner  and  outer  gar- 
 ments. The  woril  hosen  (Dan. 
 iii.  21)  is  supposed  to  designate 
 an  under  garment,  not  unlike 
 trous'TS.  These  were  worn  by 
 the  Persian  kings,  and  are 
 represented  in  the  preceding 
 figure. 
 
 The  inner  garment  was  at 
 first  singJp,  as  above  described; 
 Boon  a  strip  of  cloth  was 
 thrown  over  the  shoulder,  and 
 covered  the  arm.  It  was  sewed 
 at  the  sides,  and  extended  to 
 the  knees.    This  is  now  a  com- 
 
 CLO 
 
 mon  dress  in  Arabia.  Nex* 
 came  sleeves;  first  to  the  el 
 bows,  and  then  to  the  wrists. 
 This  garment  would  resemble 
 a  shirt,  except  at  tlie  neck. 
 The  sleeves  of  this  garment, 
 among  the  Arabs,  are  wide  and 
 open,  and  easily  thrown  off.  To 
 make  bare  the  arm  is  a  lively 
 and  beautiful  figure,  represent- 
 ing the  removal  of  all  encum- 
 brances from  the  most  powerful 
 limb  of  the  body,  that  it  may  be 
 put  forth  in  its  utmost  strength. 
 (Isa.  Hi.  10.)  The  following 
 cuts  represent  the  jjarmenta 
 and  sleeves  just  described. 
 
 Girdles.  When  the  gar- 
 Dients  came  to  be  made  long 
 and  Howing,  they  were  con- 
 fined around  the  loins  with 
 girdles,  which  not  only  served 
 to  bind  them  to  the  body,  but 
 also  to  hold  them  when  lucked 
 up.  This  increased  the  grace- 
 fulness of  their  ajipeafance, 
 and  prevented  them  from  in- 
 terfering with  labour  or  motion. 
 Hence,  to  gird  np  the  loins 
 oecamp  a  significant  figurative 
 exprLtsion,  denoting  readiness 
 
 for  service,  activity,and  watch- 
 fulness;  and  to  louse  the  gir- 
 dle was  to  give  way  to  repose 
 and  indolence.  (2  Kings  i  v. 29. 
 Job  xxxviii.  3.  Isa.  v.  27.  Jer.  i. 
 17.  Luke  xii.  3.").  John  xxi.  7. 
 Acts  xii.  8.  1  Pet.  i.  13.)  This 
 girdle  was  a  belt  or  band  of 
 cord,  cloth,  or  leather,  six 
 inches  or  more  in  breadth, 
 with  a  buckl  •  affixed  to  loosen 
 or  draw  it  cluser.  Travellera 
 say  that  eastern  girdles  of  this 
 day  are  wide  enough  for  a  ma«. 
 
CLO 
 
 or  covering,  and  that,  when  of 
 this  widllirihev  are  plaited  in 
 fuldg. 
 
 Sometimes  the  girdle  was 
 made  of  linen,  (Ezek.  xvi.  10,) 
 and  was  often  adorned  with 
 
 CLO 
 
 rich  and  beautiful  ornaments 
 of  metals,  precious  stones, and 
 embroidery.  The  forms  and 
 plan  of  the  girdle  are  seen  in 
 the  following  cuts. 
 
 The  girdle  was  used  to  carry 
 weapons,  (2  Sam.  xx.  8,)  mo- 
 ney, and  other  things  usuiUy 
 carried  in  the  pocket.  The 
 Arabs  carry  their  daggers  in 
 it,  pointing  to  the  right  side; 
 and,  through  all  the  east,  it  is 
 the  place  for  the  liandkerchief, 
 smoking  materials,  and  the 
 implements  of  one's  profes- 
 sion. (See  Inkhorn.)  Tlie 
 word  translated  purses,  (Matt. 
 X.  9,)  is  in  other  places  trans- 
 lated girdle.  The  girdle  not 
 only  protected  the  body,  but 
 braced  it  with  strength  and 
 firmness.  The  girdle  is  sup- 
 posed by  some  to  have  been  a 
 chief  article  or  appendage  of 
 the  armour :  hence,  to  have  it 
 continually  fastened  upon  the 
 person  is  emblematical  of  great 
 fidelity  and  vigilance.  And 
 because  it  encircled  the  body 
 very  closely,  the  perfect  ad- 
 
 herence of  the  people  of  God 
 to  his  service  is  fieuralively 
 illustrated  by  the  cleaving  of 
 the  girdle  to  a  man's  loina 
 (Jer.  >iii.  11.)  In  the  same 
 view,  righteousness  and  faith 
 fulness  are  called  by  the  pro 
 phet  (Isa.  xi.  5)  the  girdle  o( 
 the  promised  Messiah. 
 
 The  outer  or  7ipper  gar- 
 ment, (Matt,  xxi.8,)  or  cloak; 
 (Malt.  V.  40,)  was  probably 
 square  or  oblong  strip  of  cloth 
 two  or  three  yards  long,  an 
 perhaps  two  yards  wide.  Such 
 a  garment  is  now  worn  by  the 
 Arabs.  It  was  simply  wrapped 
 round  tiie  body,  as  a  protec 
 tion  from  the  weather;  and, 
 when  occasion  required,  it 
 might  be  thrown  over  the  shoul- 
 der and  under  the  arm,  some- 
 what like  an  Indian  blanket, 
 and  be  fastened  v\'iih  clasps  or 
 buckl3s,  two  corners  being  in 
 108 
 
CLO 
 
 front,  and  were  called  skirts, 
 and  were  ofien  used  as  aprons 
 sometimes  are  among  us.  (Ex. 
 xii.34.  2Kingsiv.39.  Lukevi. 
 38.)  The  Arabs  throw  this  gar- 
 ment over  the  left  shoufder 
 and  under  the  right  arm,  and 
 thus  cover  the  whole  body, 
 leaving  only  the  right  arm  ex- 
 posed. This  garment  was  the 
 poor  man's  bed-clothing.  (Ex. 
 xxii.  26,  27.  Job  xxii.  (5 ;  xxiv. 
 7.)  This  was  probably  the 
 cloak  and  the  coat  or  linen 
 garment  to  which  reference  is 
 had,  (3Ialt.  v.  40,)  and,  in  a 
 more  ample  form,  was  called 
 a  robe,  (Luke  xxiii.  11.)  or  a 
 mantle.  (2  Kings  ii.  8.)'  It  is 
 supposed  that  the  fringes,  with 
 the  blue  riband,  (Num.  xv.  33,) 
 were  placed  on  the  corners  or 
 lx)rders  of  this  garment.  (Matt. 
 xxiii.  5.)  They  are  seen  still 
 on  ancient  figures,  in  the  fol- 
 lowing form : 
 
 In  winter,  fur  dresses,  or 
 skins,  were  worn,  as  at  the 
 present  day,  in  eastern  coun- 
 tries. A  dress  of  sheep  or  goat- 
 skins is  perhaps  meant  in  2 
 Kiogs  i.  8 ;  and  in  Zech.  ziii. 
 15 
 
 CLO 
 
 4.  The  common  skins  of  this 
 kind  were  worn  by  the  jxwrest 
 and  meanest  people,  (Heb.  xi. 
 37;)  but  the  fur  dresses  were 
 sometimes  very  costly,  and 
 consti luted  a  part  of  the  royal 
 apparel.  The  word  translated 
 robe  (Jon.  iii.  6)  is  supposed 
 to  mean  a  fur  garment.  The 
 sheeji's  clothing  (ftlatt.  vii.  15) 
 was  considered  emblematical 
 of  innocence  ami  gentleness, 
 and  was  the  disguise  of  the 
 false  prophets,  who  were,  in 
 truth,  fierce  and  ravenous  as 
 wolves,  for  the  blood  of  souls. 
 The  word  translated  sheets 
 (Judg.  xiv.  12,  13)  is  supposed 
 to  denote  some  kind  of  garment 
 worn  next  to  the  skin,  and  pro- 
 bably the  same  which  is  spoken 
 of,  under  the  general  na.mejine 
 linen,  in  Prov.  xxxi.  24.  Isa.  iii. 
 23;  and  Mark  xv.  46.  (See 
 Sheets.) 
 
 The  linen  cloth  mentioned 
 Mark  xiv.  51,  was  probably  an 
 article  of  bed-clothing,  caught 
 up  in  haste,and  thrown  around 
 the  body.  Some  suppose  tiiat 
 this  young  man  was  following 
 our  Saviour,  while  his  professed 
 disciples  were  fleeing  in  all  di- 
 rections, and  that  those  around 
 him  supposed  him  to  be  one  of 
 his  adherents,  and  so  laid  hold 
 upon  him.  If  this  view  is  re- 
 jected, the  only  way  of  account- 
 ing for  the  introduction  of  an  in- 
 cident so  entirely  unconnect- 
 ed, as  it  seems  to  be,  with  the 
 narrative,  or  at  least  unessen- 
 tial to  it,  is  to  regard  it  a* 
 illustrative  of  the  confusion 
 and  excitement  which  attend- 
 ed the  arrest  of  our  divine 
 Redeemer  by  the  lawless  rab- 
 ble. The  Arabs  use  the  same 
 garment  for  a  coinplete  dress 
 by  day,  which  serves  them  for 
 a  bed  and  covering  by  night. 
 (Deut.  xxiv.  13.)  Such  also  is 
 the  use  of  the  Highlander's 
 plaid.     (See  Sheets.) 
 
 The  common  dress  of  females 
 was  probably  as  cheap  and  sim- 
 ple as  that  of  males.    A  loose 
 
CLO 
 
 flowing  outer  garment,  with  a 
 belt  or  zone  upon  the  waist, 
 and  a  veil,  was  probably  the 
 
 Srincipal  dress.  The  veil  or 
 ood  was  considered  a  token 
 of  modesty  in  unmarried  wo- 
 men, (Gen.  xxiv.  05,)  and  of 
 subjection  and  reverence  in 
 those  that  were  married.  (I 
 Cor.  xi.  3—10.)  The  upper  gar- 
 ment or  robe  was  often  made 
 full ;  and,  when  lucked  up,  the 
 front  of  it  would  answer  the 
 purpose  of  a  large  apron;  which 
 IS  one  meaning  of  the  word 
 translated  veil.  (Ruth.  iii.  15.) 
 The  Arabs  put  their  hykes  or 
 cloaks  to  a  like  use. 
 
 Handkerchiefs.  (Acts  xix. 
 12.)  These  were  common 
 among  the  Hebrews  ;  and  tra- 
 vellers inform  us  that  the  peo- 
 ple of  eastern  nations  at  this 
 day  carry  them  in  their  hands, 
 and  that  they  are  often  beautir 
 fully  wrought  with  the  needle. 
 
 Aprons,  (Gen.  iii.  7.  Acts  xix. 
 12,)  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt, 
 were,  in  form  and  purpose, 
 substantially  like  those  in  com- 
 mon use  at  the  present  day. 
 
 Sandals  and  shoes.  (Deut. 
 XXV.  9  Mark  vi.  9.)  The  san- 
 dal was  at  first  a  flat  piece  of 
 wood  or  leather,  suited  to  the 
 sole  of  the  foot,  and  bound 
 I 
 
 CLO 
 
 are  still  in  common  use  tn 
 many  countries  of  the  east : 
 
 upon  it  by  straps  or  strings. 
 The  fastening  was  called  a 
 laUhet.  (Gen.  xiv.  23.)  Per- 
 haps the  simplest  f^ir  a  of  the 
 sandal  is  seen  in  the  preceding 
 cm,  from  ancient  Egyptian 
 monumems. 
 
 We  subjoin  other  forms  of 
 leather  sandals,  and  such  as 
 
 The  common  sandal  is  made 
 of  a  piece  of  hide,  from  the 
 neck  of  a  camel,  and  some- 
 times of  several  thicknesses 
 sewed  together.  It  is  fastened 
 by  two  straps,  one  of  which 
 passes  between  the  great  and 
 second  toe,  and  the  other 
 around  the  heel  and  over  the 
 instep.  Hence  it  appears  that 
 the  shoe  was  easily  slipped  off, 
 and  that  it  afforded  no  protec- 
 tion from  the  dust  and  dirt. 
 Sandals  were  never  worn  in 
 the  h>juse,  as  it  was  considered 
 a  violation  of  good  manners. 
 The  taking  off  the  shoes  was  a 
 mark  of  reverence  shown  to 
 exalted  persons  and  sacred 
 places.  At  the  doors  of  Hindoo 
 pagodas,  sandals  are  collected 
 in  great  numbers;  and  the 
 same  ceremony  is  required  by 
 the  Turks,  even  of  Christians 
 and  strangers. 
 
 The  necessi'  y  of  washi ng  the 
 feel  after  every  walk  is  obvi- 
 ous, and  it  was  the  first  token 
 of  hospitality  to  supjily  water 
 for  this  purpose.  (Gen.  xxiv. 
 3-2.  Luke  vii.  44.)  To  unlooae 
 the  straps  or  lalcheia  was  the 
 ^  170 
 
CLO 
 
 CLO 
 
 business  of  a  menial,  (Mark  i.  I  of  distinction,  whom  they  wish 
 7,)  as  was  alsc  the  washing  of  :-'->-  -     <-  '".  _ 
 
 the  feet.    (John  xiii.  1—16.) 
 
 The  wooden  sandal  is  much 
 worn  in  Arabia,  Judea,  and 
 Egypt.  It  has  a  raised  heel 
 and  toe,  as  represented  in  tiie 
 following   cuts;    and,  though 
 
 often  expensive  and  neat,  it 
 was  usually  a  cheap,  coarse, 
 and  very  clumsy  article. 
 
 Mitre,  (Ex.  xxxix.  28,)  or 
 bon7iet,  (Ex.  xxviii.  40,)  seems 
 to  have  been  pari  of  the  sacred 
 dress  only.  The  Arab  women 
 wear  a  cap  of  folded  cloth, 
 not  unlike  the  modern  turban. 
 Bonnets  are  mentioned  as  a 
 part  of  female  dress,  (Isa.  iii. 
 20;)  but  it  is  not  known,  at 
 this  day,  with  any  certainly, 
 of  what  material  the  Jewish 
 bonnets  were  made,  nor  the 
 shape  or  mode  of  wearing 
 them. 
 
 Change  of  raiment  or  gar- 
 ments. (2  Kings  V.  5.  22.)  It  is 
 customary  in  the  east,  at  this 
 day,  to  make  presents  of  gar- 
 ments ;  and  the  Asiatic  princes 
 keep  changes  of  raiment  ready 
 made,  for  presents  to  persons 
 
 particularly  to  honour.  Tlie 
 simple  and  uniform  shape  of 
 the  garments  make  this  cus- 
 tom practicable,  and  accounts 
 also  for  the  change  of  one  per- 
 son's dress  for  another's,  which 
 is  mentioned  in  sacred  his- 
 tory. (Gen.  xxvii.  15.  I  Sam. 
 xviii.  4.  See  also  Deul.  xxii. 
 5.    Luke  XV.  22.) 
 
 Changeable  suits  of  apparel 
 (Isa.  iii.  22)  are  supposed  to 
 have  been  made  of  some  thin 
 fabric,  ornamented  wilh  em- 
 broidery, and  worn  over  gar- 
 ments of  various  colours;  of 
 which,  beautiful  representa- 
 tions are  to  be  seen  in  Indian 
 paintings. 
 
 Coat}^ many  colours.  (Gen. 
 xxxvii.  3.)  This  was  regarded 
 as  of  peculiar  value.  A  travel- 
 ler mentions,  that  the  noble 
 families  among  the  Turks  at 
 Haleb  clothe  their  children, 
 when  small,  in  loose  coats  of 
 fine  texture,  and  woven  of  va- 
 riegated threads;  and  speaks 
 of  them  as  very  beautiful. 
 
 Among  the  appendages  to 
 Jewish  dress  were  jewels  of 
 gold  and  silver,bracelets,neck- 
 laces,  ear-rings,  &c.  Nose  and 
 ear-rings  are"very  common  in 
 the  east.  A  celebrated  travel- 
 ler (Chardin)  says  he  never 
 saw  a  woman  or  girl  in  Arabia 
 or  Persia  without  a  ring  in  the 
 left  nostril.  The  thread  (Gen. 
 xiv.  23)  is  supposed  by  some 
 to  mean  the  thread  on  which 
 precious  stones  were  hung  for 
 neck-chains.  (Ezek.  xvi.  II.) 
 Bracelets  were  worn  on  the 
 arms  by  both  sexes,  (2  Sam.  i. 
 10,)  and  by  females  upon  the 
 leg  also.  (Isa.  iii. 19.20.)  Women 
 in  Persia  and  Arabia  wear 
 rinss  about  the  ankle,  full  of 
 little  bells.  (Isa.  iii.  16.)  Hand- 
 mirrors,  made  of  molten  brass, 
 and  finely  polished,  were  also 
 a  common  accompaniment  of 
 female  dress,  (Ex.  xxxviii.  8. 
 Isa.  iii.  23,)  and  were  either 
 carried  in  the  hand  or  sus- 
 ,  pendcd  from  the girileorneck* 
 
CLO 
 
 In  later  times,  these  mirrors 
 were  made  of  polished  steel. 
 
 All  the  Grecian  and  Roman 
 women,  without  distinction, 
 wore  their  hair  long.  On  this 
 they  lavished  all  their  art, 
 disposing  it  in  various  forms, 
 ana  embellishing  it  with  many 
 ornaments.  In  ancient  me- 
 dals and  statues  we  see  the 
 plaited  tresses,  interwoven 
 with  expensive  and  fantastic 
 decorations,  so  pointedly  con- 
 demned by  the  apostle,  as 
 proofs  of  a  vain  mind,  and  as 
 inconsistent  wiih  the  modesty 
 and  decorum  of  Christian  wo- 
 men. (1  Tim.  ii.  9.  10.  1  Pet. 
 iii.  1.3,4.  See  Phylacteries.) 
 
 We  are  told  (Deut.  viii.  4) 
 that  the  raiment  of  the  He- 
 brews did  not  grow  old  during 
 their  journey  of  forty  years ; 
 and  some  have  supposed  that 
 it  was  literally  so,  and  that  the 
 clothes  of  the  children  were 
 miraculously  made  to  grow 
 with  their  growth.  The  better 
 opinion  seems  to  be,  that  they 
 were  so  provided  with  clothes 
 and  other  necessaries,  as  to  be 
 comfortable  and  decent,  in 
 their  external  appearance,  du- 
 ring all  that  tedious  journey. 
 (See  JouRNEYiNGS  OF  Israel, 
 and  Omar,  by  the  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  pp.  23—25.) 
 
 Rending  clothes.  (See 
 Rend.) 
 
 CLOSET.  (See  Dwelling.) 
 
 CLOUD,  pillar  of.  (Ex. 
 xiii.  21.)  "When  the  people  of 
 Israel  commenced  their  march 
 through  the  wilderness,  God 
 caused  a  cloud,  resembling  a 
 
 fiillar,  to  pass  before  the  camp, 
 n  the  day-time,  it  was  like  a 
 cloud,  dark  and  heavy,  and  in 
 the  night  bright  and  shining, 
 likefire;  though  some  have  sup- 
 posed there  were  two  clouds, 
 one  to  shade,  and  the  other  to 
 give  light  to  the  camp.  It  also 
 served  as  a  signal  for  rest  or 
 motion.    (Num.  ix.  17—23.) 
 
 CLOUTED.  (Josh.  ix.  5.) 
 Worn  out  and  patched. 
 
 CDC 
 
 CNIDUS.  (Actsxxvii.7.)  A 
 city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  on 
 the  point  of  a  peninsula  of  the 
 same  name,  and  lying  north- 
 west of  the  island  of  Rhodes. 
 COAT.  (See  Clothes.) 
 COCK.CSeeCocK-cRowiNG.) 
 C0CKATRICE.(Jer.viii.l7.) 
 A  harmless  species  of  lizard. 
 The  word  in  the  Scriptures, 
 however,  evidently  denotes  a 
 very  venomous  reptile.  (Isa. 
 xiv.  29.)  Some  have  inferred 
 from  Isa.  lix.  5,  that  it  was  of 
 the  viper  tribe.  Others  have 
 supposed  the  hooded  snake  is 
 intended,  which  is  known 
 among  the  Portuguese  as  the 
 most  venomous  of  serpents. 
 Naturalists  tell  us  that  its  bite 
 is  always  incurable,  and  proves 
 fatal  usually  within  an  hour. 
 This  serpent  is,  however,  un- 
 known in  Judea  and  the  adja- 
 cent countries.  In  the  passage 
 from  Jeremiah  above  cited,  al 
 lusion  is  made  to  the  unyield- 
 ing cruelty  of  the  Chaldean 
 armies  under  Nebuchadnez 
 zar,  who  were  appointed  mi 
 nisters  of  divine  vengeanc/ 
 on  the  Jewish  nation  fq 
 their  manifold  and  aggravated 
 sins. 
 
 COCK-CRO\\aNG.  (Mark 
 xiii.  35.)  A  name  given  to  th* 
 watch  of  the  night,  from  mid 
 night  to  daybreak.  Some  per 
 plexity  has  been  occasioned' 
 by  the  difference  between  th» 
 expressions  in  Matt.  xxvi.  34. 
 "  before  the  cock  crow,  thott 
 shall  deny  me  thrice,^'  ana 
 Mark  xiv.  30,  "  before  the  cock 
 crow  ttcice,  thoti  shall  deny 
 me  thrice."  To  reconcile  this 
 seeming  variance,  it  is  stated 
 that  there  were  two  cock- 
 crowings  ;  one  soon  after  mid- 
 night, and  the  other  about 
 three  o'clock ;  and  that  the  last, 
 which  was  the  signal  of  ap- 
 proaching day,  was  spoken  of 
 as  the  cock-crowing.  To  this 
 it  has  been  answered,  that  only 
 one  hour  elapsed  between  the 
 denials.  (Luke  xxii.  59.)  This 
 172 
 
COL 
 
 ig  true  of  the  st^onJ  and  third ; 
 but  there  seems  to  be  no  au- 
 thority for  saying  it  of  the  first 
 and  second.  It  seems  most 
 natural  to  suppose^  that  the 
 phraseology  in  both  cases  was 
 substantially  the  same,  and 
 that  the  Jews  understood,  by 
 the  piirase,  "  before  the  cock 
 crow,"  the  same  lime  which 
 was  denoted  by  the  phrase, 
 ''  before  the  cock  crow  twice  ." 
 both  referred  to  that  cocli- 
 crowing  which  especially  and 
 most  distinctly  marked  a 
 watch  or  division  of  the  night. 
 COCKLE.  (Job  xxxi.  40.) 
 This  word,  as  we  use  it,  de- 
 notes a  common  wild  plant, 
 usually  found  in  the  borders  of 
 fields  and  among  grain.  The 
 original  perhaps  refers  to  some 
 offensive  and  poisonous  weed; 
 but  it  is  not  necessary  to  sup- 
 pose any  thing  more  than  a 
 reference  to  noisome  weeds 
 generally. 
 COFFIN.  (See  Bury.) 
 COHORT.  (See  War.) 
 COLLEGE.  (2  Kings  xxii. 
 14.)  Perhaps  a  place  of  in- 
 struction in  or  near  the  court 
 of  the  temple,  but  more  proba- 
 bly a  range  or  block  of  build- 
 ings in  its  vicinity. 
 
 COLLOPS.  (Job  XV.  27.) 
 Thick  pieces  of  flesh. 
 
 COLONY.  (Actsxvi.l2.)  A 
 city  or  province  planted  or 
 occupied  by  Roman  citizens, 
 as  Philippi. 
 
 COLOSSE.  (Col.  i.  2.)  A 
 city  of  Phrygia  in  Asia  B'linor, 
 on  the  river  Lycus,  (now  the 
 Gorduk.)  About  a  year  after 
 Paul's  epistle  was  written  to 
 the  church  at  this  place,  it 
 was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
 quake. The  former  site  of 
 Colosse  is  now  occupied  by  the 
 castle  and  village  of  Chonos. 
 
 COLOSSIANS,  EPISTLE  TO, 
 
 was  written  by  Paul,  while  he 
 was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  about 
 A.  D.  61-G2.  It  is  probable  that 
 Epaphras,  wlio  is  spoken  of  as 
 the  minister  of  Christ  in  that 
 15* 
 
 COL 
 
 place,  (Col.  i.  7,)  came  to  Rome 
 to  consult  Paul  respecting 
 some  erroneous  opinions  that 
 had  been  preached  among  the 
 Colossians,  (Col.  ii.  8—23;)  and 
 Paul  addressed  tins  epistle  to 
 them  for  their  instruction  and 
 admonition.  The  design  and 
 force  of  this  epistle  is  seen  by 
 comparing  it  carefully  with  the 
 episile  to  the  Ephesians,  which 
 was  written  nearly  at  the  same 
 time.  It  is  not  nnprobable  that 
 Paul  himself  established  the 
 cl'.urch  at  Colosse.  (Acts  xvi. 
 6;  xviii.  23.) 
 
 COLOURS.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3.) 
 The  art  of  colour  ing  cloth  seems 
 to  have  attained  to  great  perfec- 
 tion among  the  J  e  ws.  The  ful- 
 lers had  a  remarkable  skill  in 
 imparting  a  splendid  white,and 
 this  was  considered  the  richest 
 dress.  (Esth.  viii.  15.  Mark  ix. 
 3.  Rev.  iii.  4,  5.)  The  royal 
 apparel  was  usually  ot  a  blue 
 or  purple  colour,  and  histo- 
 rians say  it  was  a  perfect 
 combination  of  the  gayety  of 
 bright  red  with  a  sober,  .soft- 
 ening shade  of  olive.  The 
 material  with  which  the  rich- 
 est kind  of  this  colour  was 
 given,  is  obtained  from  a  shell- 
 fish, and  was,  it  is  said,  so 
 scarce  as  to  be  considered 
 more  precious  than  gold.  (Luke 
 xvi.  19.)  The  term  purple 
 was  sometimes  applied  to  any 
 bright  red  colour,  (comp.  IVlatt. 
 xxvii.  2S,  with  Mark  xv.  17 ;) 
 and  indeed  it  was  probably  the 
 name  of  a  whole  class  of  dyes. 
 Pliny  gives  us  to  understand 
 that  there  were  two  kinds  of 
 shell-fish  which  produced  this 
 dye,  and  tliat  both  were  abun- 
 dant on  the  Phenician  and 
 Slediterranean  coast,  but  the 
 excellence  of  the  tint  varied 
 exceedingly.  The  colouring 
 matter  was  found  in  a  small 
 vein,  and  the  rest  of  the  fish 
 was  useless.  The  most  beauti- 
 ful purple  was  dyed  at  Tyre. 
 
 Scarlet  or  crimsmi  was  als» 
 used  for  the  royal  apparel. 
 173 
 
CON 
 
 Lydia  is  said  to  have  been  a 
 seller  of  purple,  (Actsxvi.  14;) 
 which  may  mean  either  that 
 she  kept  the  dye  for  sale,  or 
 cloth  of  that  colour. 
 
 COMFORTER.  (John  xiv. 
 IG.)  This  word  is  used  only  by 
 John.  In  four  out  of  the  five 
 passages  in  which  it  occurs,  it 
 IS  applied  to  the  Holy  fihost, 
 and  is  peculiarly  significant 
 of  our  want  of  his  office,  viz.  to 
 Imparl  hope  and  consolation  to 
 the  true  disciples  of  Christ,  by 
 exciting  in  their  minds  holy 
 desires  and  aspirations,  and 
 causijig  them  to  trust  continu- 
 ally, and  without  wavering,  in 
 his  grace  and  love.  In  the  re- 
 maining passage,  (1  John  ii.  1,) 
 it  is  translated  advocate,  and 
 applied  to  our  Saviour. 
 
 COMMANDMENTS.  (See 
 Law.)  j 
 
 COMMUNION.    (1  Cor.  x.  ! 
 16.)    Intimate  fellowship  and 
 communication ;    sucli   as    is 
 expressed   in  John  xv.   1 — 7, 
 and  xvii.  10.  21—26.  Rom.  xii. 
 4,  5.  2  Cor.  xiii.  14.  IJohn  i.  3. 
 As  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord's 
 supper  furnishes  both  the  op- 
 portunity and  the  motive  (John  I 
 xiii.  34  ;  xv.  12)  to  this  mutual  I 
 love  and  confidence,  it  is  call-  ' 
 ed,  by  v/ay  of  distinction,  the  i 
 communion. 
 
 CONCISION.     (Phil.  iii.  2.) 
 The  Egyptians,  Edomiles,  and 
 others  practised  a  partial  or 
 imperfect  circumcision.  It  was 
 a  mere  cutting,  and  not  to  be  | 
 regarded  as  a  seal  of  the  cove-  I 
 nant,  or  as,  in  any  sense,  a  ' 
 compliance  with  the  law.  The 
 apostle   denominates  persons 
 who  do  this  the   concision,— 
 which  implies  in  itself,  and 
 from  its  connexion,  thai  they 
 degraded  themselves,  and  were 
 10  'be  shunned  as  false   and 
 corrupt. 
 
 CONCUBINE.  (2  Sam.  xvi. 
 22.)  By  the  Jev/ish  law,  a 
 lawful  wife,  of  a  secondary  or 
 inferior  i^anlt ;  and,  conse- 
 quently neither  regarded  nor 
 
 JON 
 treated  as  the  matron  or  mis- 
 tress of  the  house.  Concubines 
 were  not  betrotiied  or  wedded 
 with  the  usual  solemnities  and 
 ceremonies  which  attended 
 marriage.  They  had  no  share 
 in  tiie  family  government,  and 
 the  children  of  the  wiie  were 
 preferred  to  the  child  ofthecon- 
 cubine,  in  the  distribution  of 
 the  inheritance.  Where  poly- 
 gamy was  tolerated, — as  it  was 
 among  the  Jews,— the  permis 
 sion  of  concubinage  would  not 
 seem  so  much  at  war  with  the 
 interests  and  preservation  of 
 society,  as  we  know  it  to  be 
 The  gospel  restores  the  sacred 
 institution  of  marriage  to  its 
 original  character,  (Gen.  ii.  24. 
 Malt.  xix.  5.  1  Cor.  vii.  2.)  and 
 concubinage  is  ranked'  w  iih 
 fornication  and  adultery.  (See 
 Biblical  Antiq,uities,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union,  vol.  i.  ch.  vi.  §  1.) 
 CONDEMNATION.  (John 
 iii.  ly.)  This  term,  in  its  ordi- 
 nary acceptation,  describes  the 
 state  of  a  man  who  is  not  only 
 adjudged  to  be  guilty,  but  has 
 had  passed  on  him  the  sentence 
 of  the  law.  In  modern  prisons, 
 there  is  often  found  a  ward 
 or  apartment,  appropriated  to 
 such  prisoners  as  ha\»e  received 
 their  sentence,  and  are  await- 
 ing its  execution;  and  it  is 
 called  the  condemned  ward. 
 The  gospel  regards  all  man- 
 kind as  offenders  against  God's 
 law.  Their  guilt  is  unquestion- 
 able, and  th"e  sentence  is  per- 
 manent and  universally  the 
 same.  TVie  soul  that  sinneth, 
 it  shall  die.  (Ezek.  xviii.  20.) 
 There  may  be  pardon  or  re 
 prieve,  under  human  law 
 in  consequence  of  the  imper 
 fection  of  all  human  govern 
 ments  and  laws ;  but  every 
 thing  in  the  condemnation  of 
 the  sinner  is  perfectly  just 
 and  right ;  and  injustice  would 
 be  done,  if  he  were  not  pun- 
 ished just  according  to  law. 
 If  his  guilt  can  be  removed,- 
 or  cancelled,  or  taken  from 
 17i 
 
«70N 
 hfm,  it  must  be  by  a  process 
 which  no  finite  mind    could 
 anticipate  or  conceive.    This 
 
 Erocess  the  gospel  makes 
 nown  to  us;  and  well  is  it 
 called  GOOD  tidings  of  great 
 JOY.  (Comp.  John  iii.  19,  and 
 V.24.  Rom.  V.  IG.  lS,andviii.l.) 
 The  effect  of  faith  in  Christ  on 
 the  believer  himself,  is  to  place 
 him  in  a  slate  of  justification 
 before  God.  Nothing  of  this 
 kind  can  possibly  occur  under 
 human  governments,  nor  can 
 it  be  illustrated  by  any  analo- 
 gy. It  is  the  great  mystery  of 
 codliness.  The  believer  feels 
 Ft,  and  rejoices  and  triumphs  in 
 it.    To  him,  of  course,  Christ  is 
 
 Firecious.  (IPet.  i.  19;  ii.4. 7.) 
 t  is  because  of  the  absence  of 
 all  resemblance  or  analogy 
 between  the  divine  dispensV 
 tion,  in  this  case,  and  human 
 laws  and  proceedings,  that  we 
 find  the  words  justify,  jiist7yj.ed, 
 and  justification,  opposed  to 
 the  terms  condemn,  condemn- 
 ed, and  condemnation.  (Ex. 
 xxiii.  7.  Deut.  xxv.  1.  1  Kings 
 viii.31,32.  Prov.xvii.  15.  Matt, 
 xii.  37.  Kom.  ii.  13;  iii.  4;  v. 
 17,  18 :  viii.  30.  33,  34.) 
 
 CONDUIT,  (Isa.  xxxvi.  2,) 
 or  aqueduct,  of  the  upper  pool 
 in  the  highway  of  the  fuller's 
 field.  (Comp.  2Kings  xx.  20. 
 Neh.  iii.  16.  Isa.  vii.  3,  and 
 xxii.  9, 11.)  We  know  that  the 
 fountain  of  Siloah,  or  Gihon, 
 which   rises    at    the    foot   of 
 
 CON 
 
 mount  JMoriah,  formed  two 
 pools,  called  the  uppe?  pool, 
 (Isa.  vii.  3,)  or  king's  pool, 
 (Neh.  ii.  14,)  and  the  lower 
 pool.  (Isa.  xxii.  9.)  One, of 
 these  pools  is  mentioned  John 
 ix.  7.  The  aqueduct,  which 
 connected  the  upper  pool  with 
 the  fountain,  or  with  the  lower 
 pool,  or  with  the  city,  is  called 
 the  conduit  of  the  upper  pool; 
 and,  to  make  Rabshakeh's 
 position  still  more  certain,  it 
 is  added,  that  he  stood  in  the 
 highway  or  street  that  led  to 
 the  fuller's  field.  This  was 
 doubtless  an  enclosure  in  the 
 vicinity  of  the  soft  water  of 
 the  Gihon,  appropriated  to 
 the  drying  and  bleaching  of 
 clothes.    (See  Siloam.) 
 
 CONEY.  (Deut.xiv.7.)  Pro- 
 bably the  animal  now  known 
 as  the  ashkoko.  Instead  of 
 holes,  these  animals  seem  to 
 delight  in  the  clefts  of  the 
 rock.  They  are  gregarious; 
 and  frequently  several"  dozens 
 of  them  sit  upon  the  great 
 stones  at  the  mouths  of  caves, 
 and  warm  themselves  in  the 
 sun,  or  come  out  and  enjoy 
 the  freshness  of  the  evening. 
 They  do  not  stand  upright 
 upon  their  feet,  but  seem  to 
 steal  along  as  in  fear,  their 
 belly  bei  ng  close  to  the  ground ; 
 advancing  a  few  steps  at  a 
 time,  and'then  pausing.  They 
 have  something  very  milu, 
 feeble-like,  and^mid  in  their 
 
CON 
 
 deportment;  are  gentle,  and 
 easily  tamed. 
 
 The  celebrated  traveller 
 Bruce  says :  ''  The  coney  is 
 above  all  other  annrials  so 
 much  attached  to  the  rocks, 
 'hat  I  never  once  saw  him  on 
 the  ground,  or  from  amons 
 large  siones  in  the  mouth  of 
 caves,  where  is  his  constant 
 residence.  He  lives  in  families 
 or  flocks.  He  is  found  inJudea, 
 Palestine,  and  Arabia, and  cou- 
 sei^uently  must  have  been  fa- 
 miliar to  Solomon.  David  de- 
 scribes him  very  i>ertinently, 
 and  joins  him  toother  animals 
 perfectly  known:  'the  hills 
 are  a  refuge  for  wild  goats, 
 and  the  rocks  for  the  supkan.' 
 And  Solomon  says,  '  that  they 
 are  exceeding  wise,'  that  they 
 are  '  but  a  feeble  folk,  yet 
 make  their  houses  in  the 
 rocks.'  Now  this,  I  think,  very 
 obviously  fixes  the  coney  to  be 
 ike  animal;  for  this  weakness 
 seems  to  allude  to  his  feet,  and 
 how  inadequate  these  are  to 
 dig  holes  in  the  rock,  where 
 yet,  liowever,  he  lodges.  From 
 their  tenderness,  these  are  very 
 liable  to  be  excoriated  or  hurl ; 
 notwithstanding  which,  they 
 build  houses  in  the  rocks,  more 
 inaccessible  than  those  of  the 
 rabbit,  and  in  which  they 
 enjoy  greater  safety  ;  not  by 
 exertion  of  strength,— for  they 
 have  it  not,— but  by  their  own 
 Bagtaciiy  and  imlgment." 
 CONIAH.  (See  Jehoiachin.) 
 CONSCIENCE  (Acts  xxiv. 
 16)  is  that  within  us  which 
 judges  of  the  moral  character 
 of  our  actions,  and  approves  or 
 censures,  condemns  or  justi- 
 fies us  accordindy.  (Rom.  ii. 
 15.)  This  universal  tribunal 
 is  established  in  the  breast  of 
 every  Juan.  It  may  be  weak- 
 ened, perverted,  stupified,  de- 
 filed, and  hardened,  in  various 
 ways;  and  its  decisions  are 
 more  or  less  clear,  j-ust,  and 
 imperative,  according  to  the 
 degree  of  improvement  in  the 
 
 CON 
 
 understanding  and  heart,  and 
 especially  according  to  the 
 degree  in  which  its  purity  and 
 sensitiveness  have  been  pre- 
 served and  cultivated.  (John 
 viii.  9.  Acts  xxiii.  1 ;  xxiv.  16. 
 Rom.  ix.  1,  and  I  Tim.  i.  5.) 
 
 CONSECRATE,  CONSE- 
 CRATION. (Ex.  xxxii.  29. 
 Lev.  vii.  37.)  The  tribe  of 
 Levi  was  consecrated  to  the 
 priesthood  with  the  most  so- 
 lemn and  imposing  ceremo- 
 nies. (See  Biblical  Antiq.ui- 
 TIES,  vol.  ii.  ch.  iv.  §  1,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.)  Vessels,  (Josh.  vi. 
 19,)  profits,  (Mic.  iv.  13,) 
 fields,  (Lev.  xxvii.  28,)  cattle, 
 (2  Chron.  xxix.  3-3,)  individu- 
 als, (Num.  vi.  9—13.  1  Sam.  i. 
 11.  28,)  and  nations  (Ex.  xix.  6) 
 were  anciently  consecrated  or 
 set  apart  to  sacred  purposes. 
 (See  Priest.) 
 
 CONVERSION,  (Acts  xv.  3,) 
 or  turning  from  one  slate, 
 pursuit,  inclination,  or  direc- 
 tion, to  another.  In  the  gospel 
 use  of  the  term,  and  apart 
 from  technical  theology,  it 
 denotes  that  change  in  the 
 dispositions,  thoughts,  desires, 
 and  objects  of  affection,  which 
 takes  place  in  the  heart  of  the 
 sinner,  when  the  Holy  Spirit 
 convinces  him  of  his  sinful 
 ness,  and  leads  him,  by  His 
 sacred  influences,  to  hate  sin, 
 and  to  forsake  every  evil  and 
 false  way,  and,  at  the  same 
 time,  persuades  him  to  yield 
 to  the  claims  which  God  his 
 Saviour  justly  and  graciously 
 makes  to  his  lieart  and  life. 
 The  same  thine  is  signified  by 
 the  term  new  birth,  or  regene 
 ration.  The  Scriptures  de 
 scribe  mankind  as  alienated 
 from  God ;  as  having  the 
 understanding  darkened  and 
 blinded,  and  as  being  dead  in 
 trespasses  and  sins.  Hence 
 the  corresponding  force  and 
 pertinency  of  the  terms  by 
 which  the  change  is  described ; 
 such  as  created,  renewed, 
 (Eph.  iv.  23,  24,)  restored  ta 
 176 
 
COR 
 
 eight,  (Eph.  i.  18.  Rev.  iii.  18,) 
 and  raised  from  the  dead. 
 (John  V.  21.  24,  and  Eph.  ii.  1.) 
 
 COOS.  (Acts  xxi.  1.)  The 
 name  of  a  small  island  and 
 city  of  Greece,  twenty-five 
 miles  long  and  ten  broad.  It 
 lies  near  the  south-west  point 
 of  Asia  Minor,  and  about  forty 
 miles  north- west  of  Rhodes.  It 
 was  formerly  noted  for  its  fer- 
 tiliiy,  and  for  its  wines  and 
 Bilk- worms,  as  well  as  for  being 
 the  birth-place  of  two  eminent 
 men,  Apelles  and  Hippocrates. 
 It  is  now  called  Stanchio,  and 
 is  still  famous  for  lemons  and 
 maples. 
 
 COPING.  (1  Kings  vii.  9.) 
 The  top  course  or  finish  of  a 
 wall.  It  is  usually  of  flat  o: 
 semi-circular  bricks  or  hewn 
 Btone,  projecting  beyond  the 
 face  of  the  wall,  and  forming 
 an  ornament  similar  in  effect 
 to  the  capital  of  a  column. 
 
 COPPER.  (Ezra  viii.  27.) 
 A  well  known  metal,  but  not 
 now  (as  it  was  once)  precious 
 as  gold.  The  word  translated 
 comer  in  this  passage  is  else- 
 where rendered  brass;  and 
 coppersmith  (2  Tim.  iv.  14) 
 signifies  a  worker  in  brass. 
 Perhaps  the  same  name  was 
 given  to  both  substances.  (See 
 Srass.) 
 
 COR.    (See  Measures.) 
 
 CORAL  (Ezek.  xxvii.  16) 
 was  an  article  of  Tyrian 
 merchandise,  and  is  well 
 known  as  a  marine  production, 
 found  in  almost  every  variety 
 of  shape  and  size,  and  some- 
 times increasing  to  such  an 
 extent  as  to  form  the  basis  of 
 islands,  or  to  stretch  out  in 
 dangerous  reefs  for  many  miles. 
 It  is  capable  of  being  worked 
 up  into  beads,  and  other  orna- 
 ments ;  for  which  use  the  red 
 species  is  the  most  valuable. 
 Job  mentions  it  in  connexion 
 with  pearls.    (Job  xxviii.  18.) 
 
 CORE  AN  (Mark  vii.  11) 
 signifies  a  gift  or  thing  conse- 
 crated to  God  or  his  service. 
 
 COR 
 
 It  seems  the  Jews  permitted 
 such  an  abuse  to  be  made  of 
 this  ceremony  of  consecration, 
 that  a  child  was  permitted  te 
 deny  the  request  of  his  parents, 
 or  withhold  assistance  from 
 them  in  their  distress,  merely 
 on  the  pretence  that  what  they 
 asked  or  needed  was  conse- 
 crated to  God.  It  would  seem 
 they  sometimes  exempted  their 
 whole  substance  from  any  con- 
 tribution to  the  support  of  their 
 parents;  and  said,  concerning 
 any  thing  and  every  thing  that 
 could  assist  them,  it  is  corban, 
 or  devoted  to  God. 
 
 CORDS.    (See  Ropes.) 
 
 CORIANDER  SEED.  (Ex. 
 xvi.31.)  The  coriander  plant 
 is  a  native  of  China  and  the 
 south  of  Europe,  but  natu- 
 ralized in  England  and  the 
 United  Slates.  The  seeds  are 
 globular,  and,  when  dry,  are 
 pleasant  to  the  taste  and 
 smell,  and  are  often  sold  by 
 confectioners  incrusted  with 
 sugar.  We  are  told  that  the 
 particles  of  manna  were 
 shaped  like  coriander  seed. 
 
 CORINTH.  (Acts  xviii.  1.) 
 A  renowned  and  voluptuous 
 city  of  Greece,  about  twenty- 
 five  miles  west  of  Athens,  in 
 which  Paul  resided  a  year  and 
 a  half,  and  where  he  founded 
 the  church  to  which  he  after- 
 wards addressed  two  of  his 
 epistles.  (See  Life  of  Paul, 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  ch.  xi.) 
 Situated  on  the  isthmus  that 
 separates  the  Egean  from  the 
 Ionian  sea,  and  possessing 
 singular  advantages  for  com- 
 merce, as  it  was  a  mart  for 
 the  exchange  of  Asiatic  and 
 Italian  goods,  it  became  cele- 
 brated for  its  wealth  and 
 magnificence,  as  well  as  the 
 learning  and  ingenuity  of  its 
 inhabitants.  Profane  histori- 
 ans speak  of  it  as  the  light 
 and  ornament  of  all,  Greece. 
 It  was  not  less  remarkable, 
 however,  for  its  corruption  and 
 177 
 
COR 
 
 licentiousness.  Indeed,  so  pro- 
 verbially Droflisfate  did  the  city 
 become,  that  tiie  very  name  of 
 Corinthian,  applied  to  a  fe- 
 male, was  infamous. 
 
 This  was  its  corrupt  state 
 when  Paul  arrived  there,  not 
 far  from  a.  d.  52,  as  a  Christian 
 missionary.  (SeeMAP,p.488-9.) 
 
 A  traveller,  who  visited  Co- 
 rinth in  1821,  says  it  had  hardly 
 any  occupants  except  soldiers ; 
 and  that,  though  a  few  ruins 
 remain  to  attest  the  ancient 
 magnificence  of  the  city,  they 
 are  rapidly  disappearing.  The 
 fragments  of  capitals  and  co- 
 lumns are  employed  to  build 
 the  houses  of  the  Turks ;  and 
 the  wrought  side  of  the  richest 
 specimens  of  architecture  are 
 found  turned  inwards  !  The 
 story  that  Corinthian  brass 
 originated  here,  from  the  ac- 
 cidental fusion  of  different 
 metals,  when  the  city  was 
 taken  and  destroyed  by  fire,  is 
 fabulous.  The  composition  so 
 called  was  known  long  before 
 that  event. 
 
 CORINTHIANS,  epistles 
 TO.  These  were  both  written 
 by  Paul.  The  first  was  proba- 
 bly written  at  Ephesus,  (com  p. 
 1  Cor.  xvi.  19.  Acts  xviii.  18. 
 26.  1  Cor.  xvi.  8, 9.  Acts  xix.  20. 
 26,)  in  the  beginning  of  a.  d.  57, 
 or  about  four  years  after  the 
 church  was  organized.  During 
 that  interval,  it  would  seem 
 that  some  false  teacher  had 
 appeared  among  them,  and 
 had  succeeded  in  exciting 
 Strong  prejudices  against  the 
 apostle.  To  vindicate  his  own 
 ministerial  character  and  of- 
 fice from  the  aspersions  and 
 calumnies  that  were  heaped 
 upon  him  by  his  opposers,  to 
 answer  some  inquiries  they 
 had  put  to  him,  (1  Cor.  vii.  1,) 
 and  to  furn'sh  them  with  rules 
 of  conduct  adapted  to  their 
 peculiar  circumstances,  temp- 
 tations, and  faults,  (1  Cor.  i.  10 
 —31,)  seem  to  have  been  the 
 irjain  design  of  this  first  letter. 
 
 COR 
 
 It  contains  also  the  most  per- 
 ff'Ct  and  triumphant  argument 
 for  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
 rection. 
 
 The  .$e:iond  epistle,  written 
 probably  from  Macedonia,  less 
 than  a  year  after  the  first, 
 seems  designed  to  continue  the 
 good  influence  which  the  for- 
 mer letter  had  exerted,  and 
 to  furnish  grounds  of  comfort 
 and  confide'nce  to  the  steadfast 
 believers. 
 
 CORMORANT  (Lev.  xl.  17) 
 was  of  the  unclean  class  of 
 birds;  and  its  presence  is  used 
 in  the  prophetic  writings  as  an 
 emblem  oiruin  and  desolation, 
 (Isa.  xxxiv.  11.  Zeph.  ii.  14,) 
 though  the  original  word  in 
 these  passages  is  elsewhere 
 translated  pelican. 
 
 CORN.  (Mark  iv.  28.)  This 
 word,  in  the  United  States,  is 
 generally  applied  to  maize,  or 
 Indian  corn,  but  the  Scriptures 
 use  it  as  the  general  name  for 
 all  sorts  of  grain.  A  corn  of 
 wheat  is  a  kernel  of  wheat. 
 The  figurative  use  of  the  word 
 corn,  usually  in  connexion 
 with  wine  and  oil,  is  very  fre- 
 quent; as  grain,  and  wine,  and 
 olives  were  the  leading  pro- 
 ductions of  the  country.  (Deut. 
 xi.  14;  xviii.  4;  xxviii.  51.  2 
 Chron.  xxxii.  28.  Hos.  ii.  22, 
 Joel  ii.  19.) 
 
 It  is  probable  that  grain  wag 
 commonly  used  in  its  crude 
 state  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
 world.  It  was  sometimes  done 
 in  later  times,  (Matt.  xii.  1 ;) 
 and  even  now  it  is  no  uncom- 
 mon thing,  in  passing  a  field 
 of  wheat,  to  pluck  an  ear, 
 and  after  rubbmg  the  husk  or 
 beard  off,  by  rolling  it  be- 
 tween the  hands,  to  eat  the 
 grain,  which,  even  in  that 
 state,  is  very  palatable.  The 
 Jewish  law  permitted  standing 
 corn  to  be  plucked  by  any  one 
 passing  through  it,  (Deut.  xxiii. 
 25  ;)  and  this  custom,  or  right, 
 is  still  respected  in  some  parts 
 of  the  east,  '^ee  Mills.) 
 178 
 
COR 
 
 (CORNELIUS.  (Acisx.  1-3.) 
 A  Roman  officer  residing  at 
 Cesarea.  He  was  a  Gentile  l.iy 
 birih,  and,  though  the  higliesl 
 character  is  given  of  him  as  a 
 religious  man,  he  was  regarded 
 fay   the  Jews  ae  an  unclean 
 
 gerson.  (Acts  x.  28, 29  ;  xi.  3.) 
 [is  prayers,  being  offered  in 
 the  faith  of  a  promised  Mes- 
 siah, were  heard ;  and  God 
 was  pleased  to  send  Peter  to 
 make  known  to  him  the  plan 
 of  salvation  through  a  crucified 
 and  risen  Redeemer.  Thus 
 the  dour  of  faith  was  opened  to 
 the  Gentiles;  Cornelius  and 
 his  family  became  converts  to 
 the  Christian  religion,  and 
 were  baptized  in  the  name  of 
 the  Lord  Jesus. 
 
 CORNER.  (2Chron.  xxviii. 
 24.)  The  corner  of  the  house- 
 top (Prov.  xxi.  9)  is  a  narrow 
 place  exposed  to  sun  and  rain, 
 contrasted  with  the  wide  room 
 or  house  below.  The  "  corners 
 ofMoab,"  or  any  other  country, 
 (Num.  xxiv.  17.  Jer.  xlviii.  45,) 
 mean  its  capital,  cities,  &c.,  or 
 the  strength  and  substance  of 
 the  country.  Corner  of  a  bed, 
 (Amos  iii.  12,)  the  corner  of  a 
 room,  was  on  the  elevated  part, 
 (used  by  night  for  a  bed,  or 
 couch,)  and  contained  the  most 
 honourable  seat.  (See  Bed.) 
 In  the  passage  last  cited  it 
 figuratively  denotes  the  most 
 proud  and  luxurious  of  the 
 Israelites  in  Samaria.  In  Zech. 
 X.  4,  the  word  cornc-  is  used  to 
 denote  either  the  corner-stone 
 or  the  most  conspicuous  part 
 f  a  building,  and  evidently 
 refers  to  Christ,  (Matt.  xxi.  42,) 
 where  he  is  mentioned  as  the 
 head  {or  chief)  of  the  comer, 
 though  the  Jews,  in  erecting 
 the  temple  of  their  faith,  re- 
 jectMl  him  as  unfit  for  so 
 imi^ortant  a  place.  If  God  is 
 true,  ihey  must  find  their  ^xr\r 
 sooner  tir  later;  for  other  foun- 
 dation can  no  man  lay  than 
 that  is  laid,  which  is  Jesus 
 Christ     (I  Cor.  iii.  U.     See 
 
 COU 
 
 alsolsa.  xxviii.  10.)  The  wori 
 corners  is  figuratively  employ- 
 ed t«)  denote  the  whole  length 
 and  breadth  of  a  country, 
 (Ezek.  vii.  2,)  or  the  world. 
 (Isa.  xi.  12   Rev.  vii.  1.) 
 
 C0KNER-.«T0NE.  (JobxXXVJii. 
 
 6.)  Christ  is  called  a  comer- 
 stone,  (1.)  In  reference  to  his 
 being  tlie  foundation  of  the 
 Christian  faith,  (Eph.  ii.20;) 
 (2.)  In  reference  to  the  import- 
 ance and  conspicuousness  of 
 the  place  he  occupies,  (1  Pel. 
 ii.  6;)  and,  (3.)  As  a  projecting 
 conier-stwie  is  likely  to  be 
 stumbled  aerainst,  so  it  is  not 
 surfirising  t)iat  the  doctrine  of 
 Christ  and  him  crucified  would 
 prove  an  offence  and  a  stone 
 of  stumbling  to  unbelievers,  a8 
 it  ever  has  been.  (Com  p.  Isa. 
 viii.  14.  Matt.  xxi.  44.  Rom. 
 ix.  32,  33.  I  Cor.  i.  23.  1  Pet. 
 ii.  8.) 
 
 CORNET.  (1  Chron.  xv.  28.) 
 An  instrument  of  music  about 
 ,  eighteen  inches  long,  shaped 
 like  the  flute;  used  by  the 
 priests,  and  giving  a  loud, 
 smooth  sound. 
 
 CORRUPTION,  MOUNT  of. 
 (See  Olives,  MOtXNT  of.) 
 
 COTTAGE.  (Isa.  xxiv.  20.) 
 The  same  with  tent. 
 
 COUCH.    (See  Bed.) 
 
 COUNCIL  (Matt.  x.  17)  de- 
 notes a  judicial  tribunal,  and 
 generally  the  Sanhedrim.  It  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  be  the 
 same  tribunal  which  was  in- 
 stituted under  Moses.  (Num. 
 xi.  16)  This  is  the  opinion  of 
 the  Jews.  It  is  evident  that 
 this  tribunal  existed  in  the 
 time  of  our  Saviour,  as  it  is 
 expressly  named.  (Mark  xiii. 
 9;  xiv.  55;  xv.  1.)  It  was  be- 
 fore this  tribunal  that  our  di- 
 vine Saviour  w;ta  arraigned. 
 The  inferior  tribunals  were 
 very  numerous,  and  variously 
 constituted.  (See  Omar,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  p.  HI.) 
 
 COUNSEl,LOK.(Lukexxiii. 
 50.)  An  officer  connected  with 
 the  royal  camp  of  the  Jews, 
 17^ 
 
GOV 
 
 supposed  to  be  referred  to  in 
 1  Kin?s  xii.  6—12. 
 
 COURSE.    (See  Abia.) 
 
 COURT.  (See  Temple, 
 Dwellings.) 
 
 COVENANT  (Gen.  jx.  12) 
 usually  means  an  agreement 
 or  mutual  obligation,  contract- 
 ed deliberately,  and  with  so- 
 lenmity.  The  scriptural  sense 
 is  peculiar.  God's  covenant 
 with  men  signifies  his  solemn 
 romise  or  engagement.  (Gen. 
 vii.  14.  Ex.  xxxiv.  10.  Deut. 
 v.  13.  Isa.  lix.  21.)  It  also 
 denotes  the  established  order 
 and  constitution  of  nature,  (Jer. 
 xxxiii.  20;)  and,  again,  a  pre- 
 cept. (Jer.  xxxiv.  13.)  It  is 
 remarked,  that  where  the  par- 
 ties are  equal,— so  that  either 
 may  accept  or  reject  the  pro- 
 posal of  the  other,— the  word 
 used  denotes  a  proposition ;  but 
 where  the  party  proposing  is 
 greatly  exalted  above  the 
 other,  the  term  used  signifies 
 appointment,  or  institution ; 
 whereby  the  proposer  pledges 
 himself,  but  the  other  party  is 
 neither  entitled  to  the  privi- 
 leges nor  benefits  of  the  obli- 
 gator, until  he  accepts. 
 
 The  Hebrew  word  for  mak- 
 ing a  covenant  signifies  cuttijig 
 off,  because  covenants  were 
 often  made  by  cutting  off  or 
 slaying  sacrifices.  (Gen.  xv. 
 9—19.  Jer.  xxxiv.  18.) 
 
 The  term  the  covenants 
 (Rom.  ix.  4)  refers  to  the  va- 
 rious promises  made  to  Abra- 
 ham.   (See  Abraham.) 
 
 The  chief  and  most  important 
 use  of  the  word,  however,  is  in 
 relation  to  the  two  great  dis- 
 
 Eensations  under  which  men 
 ave  lived,  and  which  are 
 distinguished  as  the  old  and 
 new  dispensation,  or  covenant. 
 (Heb.  v)ii.  8.)  The  former  was 
 made  with  the  children  of  Is- 
 rael, and  rested  much  in  the 
 outward  ceremonies  and  ob- 
 serv-ances  which  the  law  by 
 Moses  enjoined,  (meats  and 
 drinks,  and  divers  washings 
 
 COW 
 
 and  carnal  ordinances;)  by 
 strict  obedience  to  which.,  with 
 full  faith  in  the  promises  and 
 declarations  of  Jehovah,  they 
 became  interested  in  the  bless- 
 ings of  that  new  and  better 
 covenant  which  was  thereafter 
 to  be  revealed,  (Gal.  iii.,)  and 
 which,  by  way  of  distinction, 
 is  called  the  new  or  second 
 covenant.  (Heb.  viii.  7.  13. 
 Comp.  Ex.  XX.— xxiv.  with 
 Heb.  viii.) 
 
 The  sign  of  the  covenant 
 was  its  seal  or  memorial. 
 Thus  the  rainbow  was  a  sign 
 or  memorial  of  God's  covenalit 
 with  Noah,  respecting  a  second 
 deluge.  So  of  the  Sabbath, 
 (Ex.  xxxi.  16, 17,)  and  circum- 
 cision.   (Gen.  xvii.  11.) 
 
 The  new  covenant,  of  which 
 Christ  is  the  IMediator,  was 
 confirmed  or  sealed  by  his 
 own  blood,  and  secures  to 
 every  true  believer  the  bless- 
 ings of  salvation  and  eternal 
 life. 
 
 Covenant  of  Salt.  (Num. 
 xviii.  19.  2  Chron.  xiii.  5.) 
 This  term  is  supposed  to  de- 
 note a  covenant,  in  the  sealing 
 or  ratification  of  which  salt 
 was  used.  (Lev.  ii.  13.  See 
 Salt.) 
 
 CO^^T,  (Ex.  XX.  17,)  CO- 
 VETOUSNESS,  (Ex.  xviii.  21. 
 Luke  xii.  15.)    To  covet  is  to 
 desire  strongly.     (I  Cor.  xii. 
 31.)  When  such  a  desire  is  felt 
 for  that  which  we  cannot  law- 
 fully possess,  it  is  sinful,  and 
 becomes  C(n-etousness,  which 
 is  idolatry,  (Col.  iii.  2;)  for  it 
 is  placing  the  heart  and  affec- 
 \  tions  on  the  creature  rather 
 ;  than  on  the  Creator.    Covet- 
 ousness  has  relation  commonly 
 to  riches,  and,  in  the  scriptu- 
 ral sense,  includes  the  desire 
 of     accumulating,     whatever 
 '  may   be    the    means.    (Prov. 
 xxviii.  16.    Eccl.  v.  10.    Luke 
 xii.  15-34.     1  Tim.  vi.  9, 10.) 
 '      COW.   (Isa.  vii.  21.)    In  this 
 ]  remarkable     prophecy,     the 
 ;  event  foretold  is,  thai  the  face 
 180 
 
CRE 
 
 of  the  land  of  Judah  should  be 
 80  completely  changed,  and 
 the  iahabitanis  so  greatly  re- 
 duced in  number,  that,  with 
 only  a  single  young  cow,  and 
 two  sheep,  a  family  should  be 
 supplied  with  an  abundance 
 of  mills;  and  butter;  and  vine- 
 yards, which  before  command- 
 ed a  high  rem,  should  be  over- 
 grown with  briers  and  thorns. 
 
 By  the  Levitical  law,  (Lev. 
 xxii.  28,)  a  cow  and  her  calf 
 were  not  to  be  killed  on  the 
 same  daj^.  A  similar  precept 
 is  found  in  Ex.  xxiii.  19 ;  and 
 another  in  Deut.  xxii.  6,  7. 
 Whether  they  were  designed 
 to  prevent  inhumanity,  or  re- 
 ferred to  some  heathen  custom, 
 is  uncertain.  The  cow  is  es- 
 teemed holy  by  the  Hindoos. 
 
 CRACKNELS.  (1  Kings  xiv. 
 3.)  A  kind  of  thin  hard  bread, 
 not  unlike  the  crackers  or 
 sea-biscuit  of  modern  days, 
 spread,  as  some  say,  with  aro- 
 matic seed. 
 
 CRANE.  (Jer.  viii.  7.)  A 
 large  bird  of  passage,  measur- 
 ing three  or  four  feet  in  height, 
 and  living  on  worms  and  in- 
 sects, or  (if  these  cannot  be 
 had)  on  grain.  Its  cry  is  hoarse 
 and  melancholy;  hence  the 
 allusion,  Isa.  xxxviii.  14.  The 
 regular  return  of  this  and 
 other  birds  from  their  annual 
 migrations,  discovered  a  re- 
 gard to  their  instinctive  know- 
 ledge which,  in  the  passage  of 
 Jeremiah,  is  used  to  repro'e 
 the  ignorance  and  wayward- 
 ness of  God's  people,  in  not 
 regarding  the  judgments  of  his 
 hand.  (For  illuslralive  cut,  see 
 Bible  Natural  History,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  art.  Crane.) 
 
 CREATE,  (Ps.  li.  10,>  CRE- 
 ATOR,' (Eccl.  xii.  1,>  CREA- 
 TION. (Mark  x.  6.)  The  word 
 creation  sometimes  denotes  all 
 living  things,  (Rom.  viii.  22,) 
 and  at  others  the  great  era  or 
 event  of  the  creation.  (2  Pet. 
 iii.  4.)  To  create  is  t?  cause 
 asxj  thing  to  exist  that  never 
 16 
 
 CRE 
 
 existed  in  any  form  or  manner 
 before.  (Gen.  i.  1.  Col.  i.  16.) 
 It  is  to  make,  without  materials 
 to  make  of  Thus,  God  said, 
 Let  there  he  light,  and  there 
 was  light.    (Gen.  i.  3.) 
 
 And  with  respect  to  the  na- 
 ture and  duration  of  those  six 
 days,  so  particularly  defined 
 in  the  record,  which  it  pleased 
 the  Creator,  for  an  obviously 
 wise  and  beneficent  end,  to 
 occupy  in  this  incomprehensi- 
 ble work  of  creation,  we  can 
 have  no  reasonable  doubt  that 
 they  were  such  days  as  are 
 now,  and  ever  have  been, 
 occasioned  by  one  revolution 
 of  the  earth  on  its  axis;  be- 
 cause a  perfect  creation  may 
 be  as  easily  the  work  of  one 
 day,  or  of  one  moment,  as  of 
 thousands  of  years;  and  be- 
 cause that  record,  on  the  evi- 
 dence of  which  our  confidence 
 rests,  on  the  subject  of  the 
 creation,  has  distinctly  defined 
 each  of  these  days  by  its  even- 
 ning  and  its  morning;  which 
 terms,  so  often  repealed,  can 
 be  in  no  way  applicable  to 
 any  indefinite' periods. 
 
 CRETE,  (Acts  xxvii.  7,) 
 (CRETIANS,  Tit.  i.  12,)  now 
 called  Candia,  Kirid,  or  Kriti, 
 is  an  island  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, one  hundred  and  seventy 
 miles  long  and  fifty  broad;  po- 
 pulation 250,000,  about  equal 
 numbers  of  Greeks  and  Turks. 
 j  Constantinople  lies  five  or 
 six  hundred  miles  north-east 
 of  it,  and  Syria  six  or  seven 
 hundred  miles  east.  It  was 
 formerly  a  rich  and  powerfu 
 kingdom,  and  is  still  remark 
 able  for  its  delightful  climate 
 and  fertile  soil.  Oil,  corn, 
 fruit  trees,  and  vines  are  among 
 its  principal  [)roductions.  The 
 city  of  Candia,  which  is  also  the 
 fort  and  capital  of  the  island, 
 lies  on  the  northern  coast.  A 
 Christian  mission  is  already 
 established  there. 
 
 Crete  was  settled,  as   it  is 
 generally  suppoa«d,  by  Pbilis* 
 131 
 
CRI 
 tines  from  Egypt,  part  of  whom  j 
 afterwards  passed  over  to  Pa- 
 lestine, and  are  called  Caph- 
 torim,  (Gen.  x.  14,)  Chere- 
 tkinis,  (Ezek.  xxv.  16,)  and 
 Cherethites.  (1  Sam.  xxx.  14. 
 Zeph.  ii.5.)  Some  suppose  that 
 Crete  itself  is  the  Caphtor  of 
 the  Scriptures.  (Jer.  xlvli.  4.) 
 Salnioiie  (Acts  xxvii.  7)  was 
 a  cape  on  the  eastern  ex- 
 tremity of  the  island ;  the  Fair 
 Havens  (Acts  xxvii.  8)  was  the 
 name  of  a  harbour,  roads,  or 
 anchorage,  near  Lasea,  on  the 
 southern  shore.  The  apostle, 
 sailing  from  the  last  named 
 
 ?ilace  to  Phenice,  (Acts  xxvii. 
 2,)  on  the  western  coast,  was 
 driven  under  an  island  called 
 Clauda,  (Acts  xxvii.  16^  (now 
 Gozzo.  See  Map  to  art.  Paul.) 
 Probably  Paul  visited  this 
 island  after  his  first  imprison- 
 ment at  Rome,  and  establish- 
 ed a  Christian  church  there, 
 which  he  left  under  the  over- 
 sight of  Titus.    (Tit.  i.  5.) 
 
 The  Cretans  were  once  noted 
 for  vicious  habits.  This  charac- 
 ter was  given  them  by  many 
 profane  historians ;  and  among 
 them  was  one  of  their  own  na- 
 tion, who  was  also  a  prophet 
 or  poet,  (which  terms  were  sy- 
 nonymous among  the  Romans,) 
 and  who  says  they  were  liars, 
 evil  beasts,  that  is,  brutal  ana 
 ferocious  as  wild  beasts,  and 
 tloto  bellies,  or  addicted  to 
 Toluptuousness  and  gluttony, 
 as  in  Phil.  iii.  19.  (See  Life 
 OP  Paul,  ch.  xviii.,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Uniim,  and  map  prefixed 
 to  that  volume.) 
 
 CRIMSON.  (Jer.  iv.30.)  A 
 beautiful  variety  or  shade  of 
 red.  Stuffs  for  the  drapery  of 
 Solomon's  temple  were  em- 
 broidered in  this  colour.  (2 
 Chron.  ii.  14  ;  iii.  14.)  Crimson 
 is  a  deeper  dye  than  scarlet ; 
 and  hence  the  force  of  the 
 figure  in  Isa.  i.  18,  where  the 
 most  free  and  perfect  forgive- 
 ness is  offered  to  guilt  of  the 
 deepest  dye. 
 
 CRO 
 
 CRISPUS  (Acts  xviii.  8)  wag 
 an  officer  of  the  Jewish  syua 
 gogue  at  Corinth.  He  and  his 
 family  were  converted  under 
 Paul's  preaching,  and  he  re- 
 ceived the  ordinance  of  bap- 
 tism at  the  apostle's  hands 
 (1  Cor.  i.  14.) 
 
 CROSS,  CRUCIFY.  (Matt. 
 xxiii.34;  xxvii.  32.)  Crucifix- 
 ion is  a  mode  of  execution  of 
 great  antiquity,  and  still  pre- 
 vails amon^  the  Hindoos  and 
 Chinese.  It  was  regarded  by 
 the  Romans  as  the  basest  and 
 most  ignominious  death,  de- 
 served only  by  traitors.  (Luke 
 xxiii.  2.)  It  was  an  accursed 
 death.  (Deut.  xxi.23.  Gal.iii. 
 13.)  Hence  the  force  of  the 
 expressions,  I  Cor.  i.  23.  Phi), 
 ii.  8.  Heb.  xii.  2.  As  soon  as 
 the  sentence  was  pronounced, 
 "  Thou  shalt  be  crucijied,"  the 
 person  was  stripped  entirely 
 naked,  (or  leaving  at  most  a 
 narrow  strip  around  the  loins,) 
 and  fastened  to  a  post  about  as 
 high  as  the  waist,  and  was  then 
 terribly  scourged  with  rods  or 
 whips  made  of  leather  strips, 
 (Isa.  liii.  5,)  armed  with  small 
 bits  of  lead  or  bone;  and  often 
 so  severely  as  to  occasion 
 death.  After  the  scourging, 
 the  person  was  compelled  to 
 bear  his  own  cross  to  the 
 place  of  execution.  This  was 
 usually  an  elevated  place  with- 
 out the  city,  and  near  the  high. 
 way. 
 
 The  simplest  form  of  the 
 cross  was  the  following: 
 
 .^^ 
 
 18S 
 
CRO 
 
 CRO 
 
 Other  forms  of  the  cross,  and 
 modes  of  execution,  as  seen 
 above,  illustrate  the  nature  of 
 the  punishment. 
 
 The  cross  was  fixed  into  the 
 earth,  and  was  so  high  (say  ten 
 to  fifteen  feet)  that  the  feet  of 
 the  sufferer  were  usually  about 
 four  feet  from  the  ground. 
 The  transverse  piece  was  usu- 
 ally seven  or  eight  feet  in 
 length.  In  or  near  the  middle 
 of  the  upright  post  there  was 
 a  projection,  to  which  he  was 
 raised  by  cords;  and,  being 
 previously  divested  ofhis  cloth- 
 ing, he  was  first  bound  to  the 
 cross-beam,  and  then  nailed 
 by  his  hands,  with  strong  iron 
 spikes,  to  its  extremities. 
 There  is  conclusive  evidence, 
 from  profane  history,  that  the 
 hands  and  feet  were  pierced 
 in  this  way,  and  that  it  was 
 peculiar  to  the  punishment  of 
 crucifixion ;  but  whether  the 
 feet  were  nailed  separately,  or 
 whether  a  sinsle  nail  transfix- 
 ed them  both ,1s  doubtful.  In 
 order  to  lessen  the  pain,  it 
 was  customary  to  give  the 
 Bufferer  wine  medicated  with 
 myrrh,  &c.  Our  Redeemer  re- 
 jected this  draught,  (Mark  xv. 
 23,)  choosing,pr6bably,to  suffer 
 U)  the  full  e:cteut  the  pains  of 
 
 that  painful  death.  Vinegar, 
 too,  was  a  refreshing  and  sus- 
 taining drink  of  the  Italian 
 soldiery;  and  this  also  was 
 offered  to  him.  (Malt,  xxvii. 
 48.)  The  criminal  was  fasten- 
 ed to  the  cross  by  four  soldiers 
 appointed  for  the  purpose,  whc 
 were  allowed  the  apparel  of 
 the  sufferer  as  the  perquisite 
 of  their  office.  (Matt,  xxvii. 
 35.)  Hence  the  passage,  Ps. 
 xxii.  18,  was  prophetic  of  the 
 mode  of  death  to  be  endured 
 by  Christ. 
 
 Over  the  cross  was  commonly 
 placed  a  writing  or  superscrip- 
 tion, indicating  the  otTence  for 
 which  the  individual  was  put 
 to  death.  It  was  called  by  the 
 Romans  titulus,  or  the  title. 
 (John  xix.  19,  20.) 
 
 Among  the  Romans,  the  pri- 
 soner remained  upon  the  cross 
 often  till  his  body  fell  to  the 
 earth  by  its  own  weight:  but 
 in  the  province  of  Judea,  the 
 Jews  were  permitted,  in  obe- 
 dience to  the  precept  of  their 
 law,  (Deut.  xxi.  22,  2:3^  to  ter- 
 minate the  sufferings  of  the 
 malefactor  before  sundown. 
 This  was  effected  in  various 
 ways:  sometimes  by  setting 
 fire  to  the  foot  of  the  cross; 
 and,  at  others,  by  breaking 
 183 
 
CRO 
 
 :he  limbs  with  a  hammer,  or 
 piercing  the  body  with  a  lance. 
 (John  XIX.  31—37.)  It  is  to  be 
 observed,  that  the  agonies  of 
 this  death  were  so  extreme 
 tliat  it  was  regarded  as  the 
 utmost  torment.  Cicero  him- 
 self says :  "  The  executioner, 
 the  covering  of  the  head,  the 
 very  name  of  the  cross,  should 
 be  removed  afar,  not  only  from 
 the  body,  but  from  the  thoughts, 
 the  eyes,  the  ears,  of  Roman 
 citizens;  for  of  all  these  things, 
 not  only  the  actual  occurrence 
 and  endurance,  but  the  very 
 contingency  and  expectation, 
 nay,  the  mention  itsell,  is 
 unworthy  of  a  Roman  citizen 
 and  a  free  man."  Even  the 
 judges  denominated  it '  the  ut- 
 most torment,  the  extremest 
 punishment.^ 
 
 The  extension  of  the  limbs, 
 just  after  so  severe  a  scourging, 
 and  the  impossibility  of  n«ik- 
 ing  the  slightest  change  or 
 motion  without  occasioning 
 suffering  rather  than  relieving 
 it ;  the  piercing  of  the  hands 
 and  feet,  in  the  parts  most 
 susceptible  of  acute  and  ago- 
 nizing pain;  the  exposure  of 
 the  wounded  and  lacerated 
 flesh  to  the  action  of  the  sun 
 and  air  hour  after  hour;  the 
 loss  of  blood,  and  the  sense  of 
 indignity  and  contempt,  which, 
 in  our  Saviour's  case,  was  the 
 most  bitter,  malicious,  and  un- 
 sparing that  can  be  conceived  : 
 all  conspired  to  make,  to  the 
 very  last  degree,  a  death  of 
 pain.  Often  the  strength  of 
 the  malefactor  lingered  for 
 three  days,  and  even  longer. 
 Hence  the  surprise  of  Pilate, 
 (Mark  xv.  44.) 
 
 The  cross  is  often  used  figu- 
 ratively for  those  reproaches, 
 self-denials,  and  sacrifices 
 which  the  ti-ue  followers  of 
 Christ  must  be  expected  to 
 endure,  if  they  faithfully  main- 
 taia  their  profession.  (Matt. 
 xvi.  24.) 
 
 CROWN.    (2  Kings  xh  12.) 
 
 CRO 
 
 Anciently  the  crown  or  dia 
 dem  was  only  a  head  band 
 (Ezek.  xvi.  12,)  or  a  riband  oi 
 fillet,  made  of  silk  or  linen^ 
 suraiunding  the  head,  and 
 probably  connected  behind. 
 (Ex.  xxviii.  3G,  37;  xxix.  6.) 
 We  find  it  represented  on 
 ancient  medals.  Newly  mar- 
 ried persons  of  both  sexes  wore 
 crowns,  (Ccmp.Sol.Songiii.il, 
 wilhEzek.xvi.l2.)  It  was  usu- 
 ally a  badge  of  royal  tyor  prince- 
 ly distinction.  It  was  sometimes 
 of  pure  pold,  and  was  worn  by 
 kings, (2Chron.xxiii.  11.  Matt. 
 xxv1i.  29,)  and  sometimes  in 
 battle.  (2  Sam.  i.  10;  xii.  30) 
 The  weight,  in  the  last  pas- 
 sage, denotes  the  value,  and 
 not  the  gravity  of  the  crown. 
 Afterwards  the  shape  and  size 
 v/ere  changed,  and  costly  or- 
 naments appended  to  it.  (2 
 Sam.  xii.  30.)  It  was  worn  by 
 queens.  (Esth.  ii.  17.)  It  was 
 customary  for  a  king  to  wear 
 as  many  crowns  as  he  had 
 kingdoms.  (Rev.  xix.  12.)  The 
 word  is  figuratively  used  by 
 the  sacred  writers  to  denote 
 honour,  (Prov.  xii.  4,)  prosperi- 
 ty, (Lam.  V.  16,)  eternal  life 
 and  blessedness.  (1  Pet.  v.  4.) 
 The  inscription  on  the  crown 
 of  the  higli-priest  (Ex.  xxxix. 
 30)  was  significant  of  his  sa- 
 cred office  and  functions. 
 Such  inscriptions  have  some 
 times  been  placed  on  the 
 crowns  of  princes  and  heroes, 
 to  indicate  some  splendid  ac- 
 tion or  service.  In  Rev.  xvii. 
 5,  allusion  seems  to  be  made 
 
 m 
 
CRU 
 lo  the  crown  of  the  Jewish 
 high-priest,  whose  raiment  is 
 described fts having  the  colours 
 and  ornaments  of  the  sacred 
 vestments.  It  is  said  that 
 the  word  mysterium  (mystery) 
 was  formerly  engraven  on  the 
 papal  crown,  and  was  erased 
 in  the  time  of  Julius  III. 
 CRUCIFY.  (See  Cross.) 
 CRUSE.  (1  Kin-s  xvii.  12.) 
 A  small  vessel  for  liquids,  used 
 by  the  Jews.  The  following 
 are  given  as  representations 
 of  vessels  now  used  for  like 
 purposes  in  the  east : 
 
 No.  1  represents  a  kind  of 
 flaskj  common  at  the  present 
 day  in  the  east;  and  which, 
 on  journeys,  is  covered  with  a 
 wicker  case,  as  in  2.  Fi!];ure  3 
 js  also  a  travelling  cruse  or 
 flask ;  and  others  are  also 
 found  in  the  east  of  the  form  4. 
 Figures  2  and  3  represent  the 
 vessels  which  they  take  when 
 on  pilgrimages  and  other  long 
 •ourneys. 
 
 16* 
 
 cue 
 
 CRYSTAL.  (Ezek.  i.  22.) 
 The  Scriptures  use  this  term 
 to  denote  what  is  now  known 
 as  rock  crystal, — one  of  the 
 most  beautiful  of  precious 
 stones, — perfectly  transparent, 
 and  resembling  the  purest 
 glass.  It  is  ranked  with  gold 
 in  value,  (Job  xxviii.  17,)  and 
 its  transparency  is  alluded  to 
 in  Rev.  iv.  6;  xxi.  11 ;  xxii.  1. 
 In  the  passage  in  Ezekiel,  first 
 above  cited,  reference  may  be 
 had  to  the  peculiar  dazzling 
 etfect  of  light  reflected  from 
 the  surface  of  crystal.  The 
 same  wcrd,  w'hich  is  translated 
 crystal  in  some  passages,  is 
 translated/ros?,  (Gen.  xxxi.  40. 
 Jobxxxvii.  10.  Jen  xxxvi.  30;) 
 and  ice,  (Job  vi.  16;  xxxviii. 
 29.  Ps.  cxlvii.  17.) 
 
 CUBIT.    (See  Measures.) 
 
 CUCKOO.  (Lev.  xi.  16.) 
 There  is  some  uncertainty 
 whether  the  bird  known  to  us 
 by  this  name  was  the  unclean 
 bird  mentioned  in  this  verse. 
 The  prevailing  opinion  is,  that 
 it  was  what  we  call  the  sea- 
 mew,  or  gull. 
 
 CUCUMBER.  (Num.xi.5.) 
 A  garden  vegetable  well 
 known  in  this  count,  .  Cu- 
 cumbers, melons,  and  onions 
 are  now  among  the  leading 
 productions  of  Egypt ;  i  nd  the 
 first  is  found  in  many  va  rieties, 
 some  of  which  are  hig.ily  va- 
 lued for  their  medicinal  pro- 
 perties :  and  others  art!  much 
 larger  and  more  palatable,  re- 
 freshing, and  wholeso0;e,  as  a 
 melon,  than  the  same  fruit  is 
 among  us. 
 
 These  plants  grow  in  the 
 open  country ;  and,  to  protect 
 the  fruit  from  thieves  and 
 beasts,  a  mound  is  erected  in  a 
 central  place,  overlooking  the 
 plantation ;  with  a  small  hut 
 for  shelter  of  the  guard.  For 
 two  or  three  months,  this  poor 
 watchman  fulfils  his  painful 
 trust,  through  storms  and  tem 
 pests:  and  we  find  in  Isa.  i.  8, 
 a  striking  allusion  to  this  cus- 
 185 
 
torn. 
 
 CUP 
 
 The  prophet  likens  the 
 
 city  of  Jerusalem,  figuratively 
 called  the  daughter  of  Zion, 
 (see  ZiON,)  standing  alone,  in 
 the  midst  of  desolation,  and 
 itself  soon  to  yield  to  its  ene- 
 mies, to  a  cottage  or  temporary 
 shed,  in  which  the  person  was 
 sheltered  who  guarded  a  vine- 
 yard when  the  grapes  were 
 ripening ;  or  the  same  kind  of 
 structure  put  up  for  the  same 
 purpose  in  a  field  of  cucum- 
 cers.  As  soon  as  the  fruits 
 were  gathered,  these  booths  or 
 'lodges"  were  abandoned.  In 
 like  manner,  the  great  capital 
 stood  for  a  momentary  purpose, 
 out  soon,  like  them,  was  to  be 
 destroyed  and  removed.  This 
 prophecy  was  fulfilled  in  the 
 various  calamities  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, especially  when  the  Jews 
 were  taken  captive  to  Baby- 
 lon. (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  19.)  A 
 similar  illustration  is  employed 
 inJobxxvii.  18.  (See  Youth's 
 
 CUP 
 
 Friend,  vol.  v.,  also  same  work 
 for  April,  1836,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  for  illustrative  remarks 
 and  cuts.    See  Garden.) 
 
 CUMMIN.  (Matt,  xxiii.  2.3.) 
 An  herb  abounding  in  Syria, 
 which  produces  aromati c seeds. 
 In  Isa.  xxviii.25. 27,  reference 
 is  made  to  the  manner  of  sow 
 ing  and  threshing  it.  The  same 
 method  is  observed  in  Malta 
 at  this  day.  It  was  one  of 
 the  things  of  less  consequence 
 which  the  Pharisees  strictly 
 tithed.    (See  Mint.) 
 
 CUP.  (1  Kings  vii.  26.)  The 
 horns  of  animals  were  ancient- 
 ly  used  by  some  nations  aa 
 drinking  vessels;  but  the  Jews 
 had  cups  and  goblets  at  a  very 
 early  period,  (Gen.  xliv.  2j) 
 though  they  used  horns  for 
 anointing  oil.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  13.) 
 Some  of  their  cups  were  highly 
 ornamented,  (1  Kings  vii.  26,) 
 and  in  shape  were  probably  not 
 unlike  the  following,  which  art 
 
 copied  from  figures  in  ancient  I  cording  to  the  owner's  wealth, 
 ruins.  Cups  of  this  kind,  made  are  in  use  in  Persia  at  this 
 oi  gold,  silver,  copper,  &c.,  ac-  |  day. 
 
 186 
 
CUR 
 
 CUR 
 
 The  simplest  forms  of  these  I  and  cuts  under  it.)  The  figti- 
 Tassels  may  be  inferred  from  |  rative  use  of  this  word  in  the 
 ihe  following  cuts.  (See  Cruse,  |  Scriptures  is  frequent.    Gene- 
 
 rally, however,  it  represents 
 the  blessings  or  the  judgments 
 of  Heaven,  or  the  allotments 
 of  God's  providence.  (Ps.  xxili. 
 5;  Ixxv.  8;  cxvi.  13.  Isa.  li. 
 17—22.  Comp.  Jer.  xxv.  15, 
 and  li.  7,  with  Rev.  xiv.  10, 
 and  xvi.  19.)  The  sufferings 
 of  our  Saviour  are  also  repre- 
 sented by  a  similar  figure. 
 (Matt.  XX.  22,  and  xxvi.  39.) 
 CUP-BEARER.    (See  But- 
 
 LER.) 
 
 CUP  OF  BLESSING.  (See 
 Blessing.) 
 
 CURSE.  (Gen.  xxvii.  12.) 
 In  the  scriptural  use  it  is  the 
 opposite  of  bless.  To  curse 
 is  to  imprecate  evil  upon  any 
 one.  (Gen.  ix.  25.  Comp.  Gen. 
 xxvii.  12.  Neh.  xiii.  2.  Matt. 
 V.  44.  John  vii.  49.  James 
 iii.  9.)  The  curses  which  are 
 recorded  in  the  Bible  as  be- 
 ing pronounced  by  Noah,  Mo- 
 ses, Josiiua.  and  others,  are 
 not  to   be  regarded   as  the 
 
 effects  of  passion  or  revenge. 
 Tiiey  were  either  pronounced 
 under  the  immediate  influ- 
 ence of  God's  Spirit,  or  are  to 
 be  viewed  as  only  predictions 
 of  evil,  uttered  in  the  form  of 
 imprecation. 
 
 The  words  curse  and  cursed 
 are  the  opposite  of  bless  and 
 blessed,  and  are  often  so  con- 
 trasted. (Deut.  xxviii.  See 
 Bless.)  The  curse  of  the 
 ground,  and  of  the  serpent, 
 (Gen.  iii.  14.  17,)  is  to  be  re- 
 garded cis  the  doom  or  judg- 
 ment of  God  upon  them. 
 
 The  curse  of  the  law  is 
 the  sentence  of  condemnation 
 which  it  pronounces  on  the 
 transgressor,  (Gal.  iii.  10,)  and 
 from  which  Christ  redeems  us 
 by  being  made  a  curse  for  us. 
 (Gal.  iii.  13.  Comp.  Rom.  viii. 
 1,  and  Gal.  iii.  13,  with  Rom. 
 v.  16,  and  2  Cor.  iii.  7—9.) 
 
 To  curse,  in  an  evil  or  blas- 
 phemous sense,  is  to  affirm  or 
 187 
 
CYP 
 
 deny  any  thing  with  thought- 
 less or  rash  imprecations  of 
 divine  vengeance.  (Mati.xxvi. 
 74.) 
 
 GUSH.  (Gen.  x.  6-^S.)  1.  (A 
 person.)  The  eldest  son  of 
 Ham,  and  father  of  Nimrod. 
 
 2.  (A  place.)  It  is  believed 
 •there  are  three  distinct  coun- 
 tries mentioned  in  the  Bible 
 under  this  name :  one  of  them 
 was  probably  the  same  with 
 Midian.  (Comp.  Ex.  ii.  16. 21. 
 Num.  xii.  1.)  Cuth,  or  Cutha, 
 2  Kings  xvii.  24.  30,)  was  evi- 
 dently, from  the  connexion,  a 
 province  of  Assyria;  and  Gush 
 is  the  marginal  reading  for 
 Ethiopia,  in  Gen.  ii.  13.  Hab. 
 iii.  7,  and  elsewhere.  (See 
 Ethiopia.) 
 
 GUSHAN.  (See  Ethiopia.) 
 
 CYMBALS.  (IGhron.  xvi. 
 5.)  There  is  an  instrument 
 of  music  now  common  in  the 
 east,  which  consists  of  metallic 
 plates  about  the  size  of  a  dollar, 
 two  of  which  are  held  in  each 
 hand,  one  upon  the  thumb, 
 and  the  other  upon  the  middle 
 finger,  and,  being  struck  toge- 
 ther skilfully,  make  an  agree- 
 able sound.  Some  have  de- 
 scribed the  cymbals  as  two 
 broad  convex  plates  of  brass, 
 the  concussion  of  which  pro- 
 duced a  shrill  piercing  sound, 
 like  clattering,  rather  than 
 tinkling.    (1  Cor.  xiii.  i.) 
 
 The  follow, ng  are  given  as 
 the  figures  of  the  ancient  cym- 
 bals; but,  in  some  respects, 
 they  are  unlike  both  the  above 
 descriptions. 
 
 CYPRESS.    (Isa.  xliv.  14.) 
 A  tall  evergreen,  the  wood  of 
 
 GYll 
 
 which  is  heavy,  aromatic,  and 
 remarkably  durable.  Its  foliage 
 is  dark  and  gloomy,  and  its 
 form  close  and  pyramidal.  Gof. 
 fins  were  made  of  it  in  the  east, 
 and  the  mummy-cases  of  Egypt 
 are  found  at  ih'is  day  of  the  cy- 
 press-wood. The  timber  has 
 been  known  to  suffer  no  decay 
 by  the  lapse  of  eleven  hu'ndred 
 years.  It  was  used  and  culti- 
 vated for  idol  timber,  though 
 some  have  thought  that  a  spe- 
 cies of  oak  was  intended  in  the 
 passase  from  Isaiah. 
 
 CYPRUS.  (Acts  iv.  36.)  A 
 large,  fertile,  and  salubrious 
 island  of  the  Mediterranean, 
 It  is  of  a  triangular  form, 
 two  hundred  miles  long,  and 
 sixty  in  its  greatest  breadth. 
 Population  120,000,  of  whom 
 40,000  are  Greeks.  Some  sup- 
 pose it  to  be  the  same  with 
 Chittim.  (Num.  xxiv.  24.  Dan. 
 xi.  30.  See  Chittim.)  The 
 chiefproductions  of  Cyprus  are, 
 as  formerly,  wines,  oil,  honey, 
 and  wool.  It  is  a  famous  place 
 in  mythological  history,  and 
 was  distinguished  for  the  li- 
 centiousness of  its  inhabitants. 
 
 Salamis  (Acts  xiii.  5)  was 
 the  principal  city,  and  was 
 situated  on  the  eastern  coast, 
 and  Paphos  (Acts  xiii.  6)  was 
 another  large  town  on  the  op- 
 posite extremity  of  the  island 
 which  is  new  called  PaphoSj  or 
 Baffa.  In  Paphos,  and  its  vici- 
 nity, 25,000  Greeks  were  mas- 
 sacred in  the  late  revolution; 
 and  it  is  said  that,  upon  the 
 whole  island,  not  less  than 
 seventy-four  villages,  contain- 
 ing 18,000  Christians,  were  de- 
 stroyed by  the  Turks.  Several 
 interesting  incidents  of  apos- 
 tolic histol-y  occurred  on  this 
 island.  (See  Life  of  Paul, 
 ch.  iv.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 GYRENE.  (Acts  xi.  20.)  A 
 province  and  city  of  Libya- 
 There  was  anciently  a  Pheni- 
 cian  colony  called  (jyrenaica, 
 or  '■'■Libya  about  Cyrene?' 
 (Acta  ii.  10.)    It  was  in  the 
 
CYR 
 
 north  of  Africa,  west  of  Egypt, 
 and  comprised  five  cities;  one 
 of  whicli  was  Cyrene.  (See 
 Lybia.)  The  ancient  city  of 
 Cyrene  is  now  called  Cyreune, 
 Cairoan,  or  Cayran,  and  lies 
 in  the  dominion  of  Tripoli. 
 This  district  of  the  earth  has 
 lately  occasioned  much  inte- 
 rest among  the  Italian  and 
 French  geographers. 
 
 Great  numbers  of  Jews  re- 
 sided here.  (Matt,  xxvii.  32. 
 Mark  xv.  21.  Luke  xxiii.  26.) 
 Some  of  the  Cyrenians  were 
 among  the  earliest  Christians, 
 (Acts  xi.  20 ;)  and  one  of  them, 
 it  is  supposed,  was  a  preacher 
 at  Aiitioch.  (Acts  xiii.  1.)  We 
 find  also,  that  among  the  most 
 violent  opposers  of  Christiani- 
 ty, were  the  Cyrenians  who 
 had  a  place  of  worship  at  Jeru- 
 salem.   (Acts  vi,  9.) 
 
 CYRENIANS.    (See  Cv- 
 
 BENE.) 
 
 CYRENIUS  (Luke  ii.  2)  be- 
 came the  governor  or  proconsul 
 of  Syria,  eight  or  ten  years 
 after  the  birth  of  our  Saviour. 
 The  taxing  or  enrolment  which 
 led  Joseph  and  Mary  to  go  up 
 to  Bethlehem,  is  said  to  have 
 been  "  first  made  when  Cyre- 
 nius  was  governor  of  Syria." 
 Various  constructions  of  this 
 passage  have  been  proposed, 
 to  remove  the  supposed  chro- 
 nological difficulty.  We  have 
 no  doubt  of  the  h).storical  truth 
 of  the  statement,  whatever 
 perplexity  may  attend  it.  If 
 there  is  nothing  in  profane  his- 
 tory to  corroborate  it,  neither 
 is  there  any  thing  to  contradict 
 it.  It  may  be  that  Cyrenius 
 was  associated  in  the  govern- 
 ment of  Syria  during  the  pro- 
 gress  of  the  enrolment,  and  had, 
 in  some  sense,  the  superin- 
 tendence of  it.  It  may  be  that 
 the  enrolment  was  made  at 
 one  period,  and  the  levy  of 
 
 CYR 
 
 taxes  (of  which  that  enrolment 
 was  the  basis)  was  not  made 
 till  a  subsequent  period.  We 
 know  that  such  a  tax  was  im- 
 posed, and  occasioned  great 
 popular  discontents.  (Acts  v. 
 37.)  And  it  may  be  also,  that 
 the  phraseology  employed  by 
 the  sacred  writer  is  susceptible 
 of  a  construction  which  would 
 remove  every  difficulty,though 
 critics  are  not  agreed  in  such  a 
 construction.  At  any  rate,  tlie 
 occurrence  of  such  passaps  is 
 strong  presumptive  evidence 
 of  the  truth  of  the  narrative ; 
 for  it  would  have  been  an  easy 
 matter  to  avoid  all  appearance 
 of  d  ifficulty,  if  the  object  of  the 
 writers  had  been  simply  to 
 make  a  book  that  should  be 
 believed. 
 
 CYRUS.  (Isa.  xlv.  1.)  A 
 prince,  statesman,  and  con- 
 queror, of  great  renown,  and 
 an  instrunfent  or  agent  em- 
 ployed by  Jeliovah  in  the  exe- 
 cution of  his  designs  of  mercy 
 towards  the  Jews.  (Isa.  xiii. 
 xiv.  xxi.  xliv.  28;  xlv. — xlvii. 
 Jer.  xxv.  12;  li.  54.  Dan.  vii. 
 viii.)  The  early  life  of  Cyrua 
 is  involved  in  obscurity.  It  is 
 generally  agreed  thai  he  was 
 the  son  of  (Jambyses,  king  ol 
 Persia.  His  chief  biographers 
 (Xenophon  and  Herodolus;pre- 
 sent  his  history  and  exploits  in 
 very  different  aspects.  His  con- 
 quests extended  over  all  west- 
 ern Asia,  but  the  most  brilliant 
 of  them  was  that  of  Babylon, 
 which  took  place  b.  o.  536. 
 After  this  event,  he  ordered  a 
 return  of  the  Jews,  who  had 
 been  seventy  years  in  captivi- 
 ty, to  their  own  land,  and  fur- 
 nished them  very  liberally 
 with  the  means  of  rebuilding 
 their  temple.  (See  Life  op 
 Daniel,  en.  xiii.  xiv.  xv.  xviL 
 xviii..  by  Am,  5.  S  Union.) 
 
DAG 
 
 DA.M 
 
 DABERATH.  (Josh.  xix. 
 12.  1  Chron.  vi.  72.)  A 
 town  on  the  bordera  of  Is- 
 sachar  and  Zebuion.  The 
 description  of  the  sacred  his- 
 torian leaves  it  uncertain  to 
 which  tribe  it  belonged,  and 
 perhaps  there  was  a  town  of 
 this  name  in  each  tribe ;  and, 
 according  to  the  most  authen- 
 tic modern  maps,  such  was  the 
 fact.  It  was  situated  in  the 
 plain  of  Jezreel,  at  the  foot  of 
 mount  Tabor,  and  probably 
 where  modern  travellers  have 
 found  the  villageof  i?aW/a,  or 
 Debora,  or  Daburij. 
 
 DAGGER.  (Judg.  iii.  16. 21, 
 22.)  A  short  sword,  usually 
 made  with  a  double  edge,  and 
 suspended  from  the  girdle. 
 (See  Arms.) 
 
 DAGON.  (lSam.v.2.)  This 
 was  the  n<ame  of  a  celebrated 
 idol  of  the  Philistines,  wor- 
 shipped at  Gaza,  (Judg.  xvi. 
 23,)  at  Ashdod,  (1  Sam.  v.  1—3,) 
 at  Beth-dagon,  {the  house  or 
 temple  of  Dag  on,)  in  the  bounds 
 of  Judah,  (Josh.  xv.  41,)  in  a 
 town  of  Asher,  (Josh.  xix.  27,) 
 and  elsewhere.  There  are  va- 
 rious opinions  as  to  the  ap- 
 pearance of  this  idol  -,  but  it  is 
 usually  represented  with  the 
 head,  liands,and  face  of  a  man, 
 and  tne  body  like  that  of  a  fish. 
 The  name  was  probably^  de- 
 rived from  dag,  signify mg  a 
 large  fish.  One  of  the  incar- 
 nations of  the  Hindoo  God 
 Vishnu  was  of  the  same  form. 
 (See  Scripture  Illustka- 
 TiONS.vol.  ii.  pp.  57—59,  by  Am. 
 S.S.  tlnion,  for  description  and 
 cut  of  Dagon.)  The  fall  and 
 destruction  of  this  idol,  when 
 the  d:rk  was  brought  into  the 
 same  apartment  with  it,  is  one 
 of  the  most  remarkable  pas- 
 sages of  Jewish  historv;  and 
 we  are  told  that  the  ruins  of 
 the  temple  of  Dagon  at  Gaza, 
 which  was  pulled  down  by 
 Samson,  are  still  visible. 
 
 DALMANUTHA,  the  parts 
 
 OF,  (Mark  viii.  10,)  or  THE 
 COASTS  OF  MA6DALA, 
 (Malt.  XV.  39,)  as  Matthew  de- 
 scribes it  in  his  account  of  the 
 same  transaction;  were  pro- 
 bably small  towns  on  the  shore 
 of  Tiberias ;  and  the  vicinity 
 of  either  of  them  would  em- 
 brace the  same  district  of 
 country. 
 
 DALMATIA.  (2  Tim.  iv.  10.) 
 Originally  part  of  Illyricum, 
 but  at  present  a  province  of 
 Austria,  lying  on  the  north- 
 east of  the  Adriatic  shore,  or 
 gulf  of  Venice.  Population 
 300,000.  The  towns  on  the 
 coast  are  inhabited  chiefly  by 
 Catholics,  who  speak  Italian. 
 The  inhabitants  of  the  interior 
 are  of  the  Greek  church.  It  is 
 supposed,  from  the  passage 
 above  cited,  that  the  gospel 
 was  planted  here  by  Titus. 
 (See  Illyricum.) 
 
 DAMASCUS.  (Gen.  XV.  2.) 
 The  capital  of  ancient  Syria, 
 for  three  centuries  the  resi- 
 dence of  the  Syrian  kings,  and 
 the  oldest  city  which  now 
 exists.  Its  modern  name  is 
 El-shams.  It  is  situated  oa 
 the  river  Baradi,  about  two 
 hundred  miles  south  of  Anti- 
 och,  and  a  hundred  and  twenty 
 north-east  of  Jerusalem.  The 
 country  around  it,  within  a 
 circuit  of  twenty  or  thirty 
 miles,  is  well  watered,  and 
 exceedingly  fertile.  The  city 
 itself  is  about  two  miles  in 
 length,  and  surrounded  by  a 
 wall.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
 but  well  paved ;  and  it  is  said 
 that  one  of  them,  which  runs 
 through  the  breadth  of  the  city 
 and  suburbs,  from  two  to  three 
 miles,  is  still  called  '■'■  straight." 
 (Acts  ix.  11.)  The  adjoming 
 country  is  so  beautiful  in  sce- 
 nery, and  so  rich  in  soil,  that 
 the  orientals  regard  it  as  a 
 paradise  on  earlli';  and  such  is 
 Its  commanding  situation,  that 
 190 
 
DAM 
 
 oae  of  the  Roman  emperors  ' 
 called  it  the  Eye  of  the  Eiist. 
 It  is  sai'l  that  when  Moham- 
 med viewed  the  city  from  a 
 distant  elevation,  he  was  so 
 much  enchanted  with  the  pros- 
 pect, that  he  would  not  enter  it; 
 Baying  that  there  was  i^ut  one 
 heaven  for  man,  and  he  was 
 determined  not  to  have  his 
 upon  earth. 
 
 The  first  notice  we  have  of 
 Damascus,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
 meat  hisloiy,  except  that  it 
 was  the  residence  of  Eliezer, 
 (Abraham's  steward,)  is,  that 
 the  Syrian  army,  which  came 
 to  succour  an  ally,  was  de- 
 feated by  David  with  a.  loss  of 
 twenty-two  thousand  men;  that 
 the  Syrian  nation  became  tri- 
 butary to  Israel ;  and  David 
 "  put  garrisons  in  Syria  of 
 Damascus,"  or  in  Syria,  of 
 which  Damascus  was  the  ca- 
 pital. After  ihis  we  find  many 
 of  the  most  interesting  pas- 
 sages of  history  and  pro- 
 phecy connected  with  Syria 
 and  its  splendid  capital.  (1 
 Kings  xi.  24;  xv.  18.  2Kings 
 xiv.25— 2S;  xvi.  9.  Isa.  ix.  if.) 
 Since  a.  d.  1517,  it  has  been 
 under  the  Turkish  dominion, 
 and  is  the  capital  of  one  of 
 their  pashalics;  hence  called 
 Tlie  Pashalii-  of  Damascus. 
 
 Mr.  King,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, visited  Damascus  in 
 1^4.  We  learn,  from  his  de- 
 scription of  it,  that  it  is  situated 
 in  a  large  plain,  and  is  sur- 
 rounded liy  several  considera- 
 ble villages.  The  plain  is 
 covered  with  sardens  of  chest- 
 nut, olive,  anil  fig  trees,  apri- 
 cots and  vines.  No  Christian 
 is  allowed,  under  any  cir- 
 cumstances, to  ride  within  the 
 city.  Even  the  French  consul 
 was  compelled  liy  force  to  dis- 
 mount as  soon  as  he  entered 
 the  city.  In  the  room  of  a 
 convent,  where  Mr.  K.  lodged, 
 was  a  picture  of  the  apostle 
 Paul. 
 
 Without  the   city  are  four 
 
 DAM 
 
 streams  of  water,  which  nin 
 close  to  each  other.  On  their 
 beautiful  shady  banks  were 
 great  numbei-sof  Turks  drink- 
 ing, smoking,  and  playing. 
 On  an  eminence,  at  the 
 distance  of  two  or  three 
 miles,  the  city  appears  thick- 
 ly set  with  houses  of  a  dusky 
 white. 
 
 "  The  minarets,  of  which 
 there  may  be  seventy  or  eighty, 
 with  here  and  there  a  tall  cy- 
 press rising  above  the  houses, 
 are  the  only  things  v/hich 
 break  in  upon  the  uniformity. 
 This  whitish  city  we  see  in  the 
 midst  of  a  large  wood,  about 
 fifty  miles  in  "circumference, 
 with  little  variety,  except  what 
 arises  from  the  dark  green  of 
 the  chestnuts,  and  the  dark, 
 mournful  appearance  of  the 
 olives  and  poplai'S. 
 
 "In  the  skirts  of  the  wood  is 
 to  be  seen  here  and  there  a 
 little  village,  with  a  mosque. 
 This  wood,  which  actually 
 consists  of  an  inmiense  num- 
 ber of  gardens  and  orchards, 
 lies  in  a  great  plain,  hiiving, 
 on  the  soulh-by-wpst,  a  hill,  or 
 rather  a  cliain  of  little  hills, 
 which  skirt  the  nonl>em  part 
 ofiheHauran.  On  the  north- 
 west, north,  and  northeast, 
 stretches  along  a  part  of  the 
 eastern  range  of  Anti-Libanus. 
 On  the  south-e-.ist  and  east  we 
 see,  at  a  great  distance,  rising 
 in  the  horizon,  a  chn  in  of  hills, 
 or  mountains,  which  divide 
 this  Mohammeilan  paradise 
 from  the  ha  reLnms  of  the 
 desert.  These  moiuuHins  are 
 not  seen  very  disiinctly,  on 
 account  of  tlie  cloi;ds,  mist, 
 and  smoke  which  seem  to 
 cover  them." 
 
 According  to  the  best  in- 
 formation, DHmasiiis  cntains 
 about  one  hiiiulrpJ  and  fifty 
 thousand  souls,  al>  1:1  ten  ihou- 
 sand  of  whom  are  (Miiisiians. 
 The  Christians  are  divided 
 nearlyas follows:  Gre-  ks,3,()00; 
 Greek  Catholics,  6,000;  Maron- 
 li^l 
 
DAM 
 Ites,  100;  Syrians,  Armenians, 
 and  Catholic  Armenians,  900. 
 Of  Jews,  there  are  about  400 
 houses,  and  3,000  souls. 
 
 Malie  Erun  informs  us  that 
 Damascus  has  a  manufacture 
 of  soaps,  and  of  stuffs  made  of 
 a  mixture  of  cotton  and  silk. 
 The  cabinet  work  of  fine  wood, 
 adorned  with  ivory  and  mother 
 of  pearl,  has  excited  the  admi- 
 ration of  Europeans.  This  city 
 is  enlivened  by  the  bustle  of 
 commerce,  and  the  passage  of 
 the  caravans  to  Mecca.  The 
 great  street  straight,  which 
 is  two  miles  long,  from  east  to 
 west  presents  two  rows  of 
 shops,  in  which  the  riches  of 
 India  glitter  along  with  those 
 of  Europe.  The  private  houses 
 of  Damascus,  simple  in  exter- 
 nal appearance,  exhibit  in  the 
 interior  all  the  splendour  and 
 elegance  of  refined  luxury. 
 The  floors  are  of  marble;  ala- 
 baster and  gilding  are  display- 
 ed on  every  side.  In  every 
 great  house  there  are  several 
 Fountains  playing  in  magnifi- 
 cent basins.  The  smallest 
 house  has  three  water  pipes ; 
 one  for  the  kitchen,  another 
 for  the  garden,  and  a  third  for 
 washing.  The  same  magni- 
 ficence is  displayed  in  the 
 mosques,  churches,  and  coffee- 
 houses. The  environs  of  the 
 city,  watered  by  the  Barrady 
 and  other  streams,  present,  at 
 all  seasons  of  the  year,  a 
 pleasing  verdure,  and  contain 
 an  extensive  series  of  gardens 
 and  villas. 
 
 The  art  of  inlaying  iron  or 
 steel  with  other  metals,  es- 
 pecially gold  and  silver,  to 
 make  them  elastic  and  yet 
 very  hard,  was  formerly  so 
 extensively  carried  on  in  this 
 city,  as  to  give  its  name  to  the 
 substance.  Hence  Damascus 
 razors,  swords,  &c.  Silks,  lea- 
 ther, dried  fruits,  and  sweet- 
 meats are  among  the  chief , 
 exports.  Tbfi  fab'-''-  which  is  I 
 called.  Damask  is,  by  some,  | 
 
 DAM 
 
 supposed  to  have  been  once 
 manufactured  chiefly  in  this 
 city,  and  hence  to  have  de- 
 rived its  name.  The  guides  of 
 travellers  show  the  house,  and 
 the  very  room,  in  which,  they 
 say,  Paul  lodged  during  the 
 three  days  of  his  blindness,  and 
 where,  they  tell  us,  he  had  his 
 wonderful  vision.  (2Cor.  xii. 
 2.)  Here,  too,  they  point  out  the 
 grave  of  Ananias,  the  spot  on 
 the  Jerusalem  road  where  Paul 
 was  converted,  and  the  wall 
 by  which  he  escaped  ;  the 
 house  of  Naaman  the  Syrian, 
 now  a  hospital  for  lepers,  and 
 the  tomb  of  Gehazi,  Elisha's 
 servant , 
 
 The  commerce  of  Damascus 
 is  still  very  extensive,  and  is 
 carried  on  by  caravans.  The 
 place  is  regarded  with  interest 
 as  the  theatre  of  missionair 
 labours.  The  (London)  Church 
 Missionary  Society,  and  the 
 British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
 ciety, have  had  encouraging 
 success  in  their  efforts,  in 
 Damascus  and  its  vicinity. 
 The  hope  has  been  entertain- 
 ed, that  the  immense  conflu- 
 ence of  merchants  and  pilgrims 
 there  may  be  made  the  means 
 of  dispersing  the  Scriptures 
 through  all  the  countries  of 
 
 DAMNATION.  (Mark  iii. 
 29.)  This  term,  in  its  common 
 scriptural  use,  denotes  the 
 final  and  endless  perdition  of 
 the  ungodly, —  a  doctrine  as 
 clearly  taught  as  the  resurrec- 
 tion of  the  dead.  (Dan.  xii.  2. 
 Matt,  xxiii.  35  ;  xxv.  41.  46. 
 Mark  xvi.  16.  John  v.  28,  29. 
 2  Pet.  ii.  3.)  In  some  passages 
 this  word  is  used  where  con- 
 demnation or  judgment  would 
 more  properly  express  the 
 sense.  The  same  word  which 
 is  rendered  damnation  in  ICor. 
 xi.  29,  is  rendered  judgmer^ 
 in  1  Pet.  iv.  17.  So  in  Rom.  xiv. 
 •23,  the  word  damned  would 
 better  read,  is  self-candevmed. 
 (See  Eternal.) 
 
 192 
 
DAN 
 
 DAN.  1.  A  PERSON.  (Gen. 
 XXX.  6.)  The  fifth  son  of  Jacob. 
 The  prediciion  uiteredbyJacob 
 respecting  Dan,  (Gen.  xlix.  16, 
 17,)  is  variously  iulerpreted. 
 It  is  probable  that  the  eleva- 
 tion of  his  tribe  to  an  equal 
 rank  with  the  others,  notwith- 
 standing he  was  born  of  a  con- 
 cubine,'was  foretold  in  v.  16; 
 and  the  residue  of  the  predic- 
 tion may  allude  to  the  subtle 
 and  crafty  disposition  of  his 
 des(  endants.  Indeed,  we  know 
 that  Samson  (who  was  among 
 the  most  noted  of  them)  was 
 remarkably  successful  in  stra- 
 tagem, (Judg.  xiv.  XV. ;)  and 
 perhaps  the  same  trait  was 
 characteristic  of  their  tribe. 
 (Judg.  xviii.  26,27.  See  Adder.) 
 
 2.  Tribe  of,  (Ex.  xxxi.  6,) 
 had  its  portion  between  the 
 possessions  of  Judah  and  Eph- 
 raim,on  one  side,  and  between 
 Benjamin  and  the  sea  shore  on 
 the  other.  They  were  never  in 
 quiet  possession  of  their  pro- 
 vince, (comp.  Josh.  xix.  43. 
 Judg.  i.  34,  35,  and  xviii.  1. 
 1  Sam.  V.  10.  2  Kings  i.  2,) 
 and  were  much  annoyed  by 
 the  native  inhabitants.  Their 
 tract  was  pleasant  and  fer- 
 tile, though  aboimding  with 
 winding  vales  and  bluft"  hills, 
 but  it  was  by  far  the  smallest 
 portion,  (Josh.  xix.  47.  Judg. 
 xviii.  1 ;)  and  hence  the'y 
 sought  some  place  for  the 
 planting  of  a  colony.  To  this 
 end,  they  sent  five  of  their 
 most  enterprising  men  to  ex- 
 
 Elore  the  country ;  and  they 
 tund  a  place  on  the  northern 
 frontier,  called  Laish,  (Jiids. 
 xviii.  7,)  or  Leshem,  (Josh.  xix. 
 47,)  which  seemed  easy  of  ac- 
 quisition, and  in  every  respect 
 suited  to  their  purpose.  (Judg. 
 xviii.  10.)  They  accord ingfy 
 took  measures  at  once  to  obtain 
 It;  and  a  very  succinct  and 
 interesting  history  of  the  pro- 
 ceeding is  given  us  by  the 
 Bacred  historian.  The  place 
 i7 
 
 DAN 
 
 was  captured  and  destroyed  by 
 fire ;  but  the  Danites  rebuilt  It, 
 and  called  it  Dan.    (See  Beer- 
 
 SHEBA.) 
 
 3.  Town  of,  was  built  up 
 as  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
 paragraph.  It  lay  at  the  north- 
 ern extremity  of  the  land  of 
 Israel,  in  the  iribe  of  Naphtali, 
 at  the  foot  of  mount  Lebanon, 
 near  the  source  of  the  Jordan, 
 and  (as  some  suppose)  gave 
 tiie  name  to  that  river,  {Jor, 
 the  spring.)  The  town  was 
 captured  by  the  king  of  As- 
 syria. (1  Kings  XV.  "20.)  It 
 was  here  that  "Jeroboam  esta- 
 blished the  worship  of  one 
 of  the  golden  calves,  (1  Kings 
 xii.  29. "Amos  viii.  14,)  though 
 idolatry  prevailed  there  before 
 Jeroboam  introduced  it.  (Juds:. 
 xviii.  17— 19.24— 31.)  It  seems 
 to  have  been  a  place  of  some 
 commercial  importance,  (Eze. 
 xxvii.  19.)  and,  being  a  border 
 town,  is  frequently  the  subject 
 of  prophecy.  (Jer.  iv.  15 ;  viii. 
 16.)  Probably  the  word  Dan 
 (Gen.  xiv.  14)  was  inserted  for 
 Laish,  by  Ezra,  or  some  other 
 collector  of  the  Jewish  Scrip 
 tures,  as  Hebron  is  for  Kirjath- 
 Arba  ;  for  it  is  certain  that 
 neither  Dan  nor  Hebron  were 
 known  to  Moses  by  those 
 names. 
 
 DANCE.  (Ps.  cxlix.  3.)  The 
 Jewish  dances  were  generally 
 expressions  of  religious  joy  and 
 gratitude;  sometimes  they  were 
 practised  in  honour  of  a  con- 
 queror, (Judg.  xi.  S4.  1  Sam. 
 xviii.  6,  7,)  and  sometimes  on 
 occasions  of  domestic  joy.  (Jer. 
 xxxi.  4.  13.  Luke  xv.  25.)  In 
 I  the  religious  service,  the  tim- 
 brel wa"3  employed  to  direct 
 I  the  daijce.  and  it  was  led  by 
 I  some  individual,  whom  the  rest 
 followed  with  mtasured  step 
 I  and  devotional  songs.  Thus, 
 David  is  supposed  to  have  led 
 such  a  band.  (Ps.  cl.  4,  5.  See 
 also  Ex.  XV.  20.  Judg.  xxi.  20 
 I  —23.)  Individuals  often  ex- 
 193 
 
DAN 
 pressed  feelings  of  joy  in  the 
 same  way.   (Luke  vi.  23.  Acts 
 iii.  8.) 
 
 Dancing  was  doubtless  known 
 from  a  very  early  period  as 
 a  mere  worldly  amusement. 
 (Job  xxi.  1 1—15.  Mark  vi.  22.) 
 It  is  worthy  of  remark,  how- 
 ever, that  the  mingling  of 
 males  and  females,  which  is 
 Bo  conmion  in  modern  dances, 
 was  unknown  to  the  Jews ; 
 unless,  as  it  has  been  well 
 observed,  a  precedent  may  be 
 found  in  the  scene  of  idolatrous 
 confusion  and  madness  when 
 the  children  of  Israel  howed 
 themselves  before  the  imase 
 of  a  calf.    (Ex.  xxxii.  6.  19.)" 
 
 DANIEL.  (Ezek.  xiv.  14.) 
 The  name  of  a  distinguished 
 prophet,  wliose  history  is  given 
 us  with  unusual  minuteness. 
 He  was  a  descendant  of  the 
 family  of  David,  and,  while 
 quite  a  youth,  was  carried, 
 amond;  other  Jewish  captives, 
 lo  Ciialdea.  He  was  there 
 instructed  in  the  language 
 and  arts  of  the  Chaldeans, 
 and,  with  three  other  Jew- 
 ish youths,  was  appointed  to 
 be  trained  specially  for  the 
 royal  service,  and  to  reside 
 in  the  palace.  (Dan.  i.  1— 
 4.  See  Harvey  Boys,  chap, 
 xi.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.)  He 
 was  very  early  distin''uished 
 for  his  jtieiy  and  wisdom,  as 
 we  are  infurmed  by  a  contem- 
 porary writer,  (Ezek.  xiv.  14. 
 20;  xxviii.  3,)  and  was  ulti- 
 mately raised  to  a  very  exalted 
 elation  in  the  court  of  the  king 
 of  Babylon.  Daniel  interpret- 
 ed several  remarkable  dreams 
 which  the  king  had;  and  was 
 himself  favoured  with  repealed 
 visions,  in  which  were  dis- 
 closed to  him  some  of  the 
 miel  imf)oitant  and  interest- 
 ing e^ents;  some  of  which  are 
 yet  lo  take  place.  {See  nest 
 paragraph.)  It  is  uncertain 
 where  Daniel  died,  though  it  is 
 generally  supposed  that  it  was 
 u  some  part  of  Chaldea.   (For 
 
 DAN 
 
 a  full  and  complete  history  of 
 this  prophet,accompanied  with 
 a  map  of  all  the  places  mention- 
 ed in  his  history,  a  view  of  Tyre, 
 and  of  the  celebrated  Hanging 
 Gardens,  a  fine  picture  of  Bel- 
 ehazzar's  Feast,  and  other  il- 
 lustrations, see  Life  OF  Daniel 
 and  Elisama,  both  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 Daniel,  book  of,  is  the 
 twenty-seventh  in  the  order  of 
 the  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 It  is  a  mixture  of  history  and 
 prophecy,  and  contains  (espe- 
 cially the  last  six  chapters)  the 
 most  extraordinary  and  com- 
 prehensive predictions  that  are 
 to  be  found  in  the  proplietical 
 writings.  So  explicit  are  they 
 respecting  the  advent  of  the 
 Messiah,  that  the  Jews  were 
 formerly  unwilling  to  admit 
 their  genuineness;  but  this 
 cannot  be  contested.  (Matt 
 xxiv.  15.)  Josephus,  the  Jewish 
 historian,  regards  iiim  as  the 
 chief  of  the  prophets.  (Lib.  x. 
 ch.  xi.  §  7.)  They  were  uttered 
 liuring  the  captivity  of  the 
 Jews,  and  both  before  and 
 after  the  time  of  Ezekiel.  The 
 Life  of  Daniel,  above  men- 
 tioned, contains  a  succinct 
 view  of  these  prophecies. 
 
 There  are  one  or  two  re- 
 markable incidental  proofs  of 
 the  genuineness  of  this  book, 
 which  ought  not  to  be  passed 
 over.  The  first  twelve  chap- 
 ters of  the  book,  and  indeed 
 all  the  narrative  part,  were 
 originally  written  in  Hebrew; 
 but  when  the  |)rophet  relates 
 the  conversation,  or  uses  the 
 language  of  otl)ers,  vas  from 
 ch.  ii.  4,  to  the  end  of  ch.  vii.> 
 he  employs  the  very  words  of 
 those  who  spoiic,  whatever 
 tongue  they  used.  This  shows 
 his  unusual  accuracy.  The 
 title,  dissolver  ufdaitbls,  (Dan. 
 v.  12,)  (or  unticr  of  knots,  as 
 the  marginal  reading  is,)  by 
 which  the  cjueen  described 
 Daniel,  is  still  used  in  the 
 east  as  a  title  of  I'onour.    Sti 
 
D  AR 
 foaac  Newton  regards  Danifil 
 as  the  most  distinct  of  all  the 
 prophets,  in  the  order  of  time, 
 and  the  least  difficult  to  be 
 understood,  and  therefore,  in 
 tlieihin'js  relating  to  the  last 
 times,  he  is  to  be  regarded  as 
 a  key  to  the  rest  of  the  pro- 
 phets. The  prophecy  of  Da- 
 niel, and  the  Revelation  of 
 John,  are  supposed  by  some  to 
 be  illustrative  of  each  other. 
 
 DARIUS.  (Ezra  iv.  5.)  There 
 are  several  princes  of  this 
 name  in  ancient  history.  The 
 one,  who  is  distinguished  as 
 the  Median,  (Dan.  v.  31,)  or 
 Mede,  (Dan.  xi.  1,)  called  the 
 son  of  Ahasuenis,  (Dan.  ix.  1,) 
 or  Astyages  by  the  afiocryphal 
 writers,  was  the  successor  of 
 Belshazzar.  (Dan.  v.  30,  31.) 
 Another  was  the  last  of  the 
 Persian  kings,  who  adopted 
 this  name  on  his  accession  to 
 the  throne.  Alexander  the 
 Great  conquered  him,  and 
 ended  the  Persian  monarchy  ; 
 thus  fulfiUinix  the  prophecies 
 of  Daniel.  (Dan.  ii.  39,40;  vii. 
 5,  6  ;  viii.  5,  6.  20.  22.)  A  third 
 prince  of  this  name  was  the 
 son  of  H^staspes.  It  was  under 
 his  reign  that  the  Jews  return- 
 ed to  Jerusal?m,  and  renewed 
 the  work  of  rebuilding  the 
 temple.  The  city  of  Babylon, 
 dissatisfied  with  some  of  the 
 edicts  of  Cyrus,  revolted  ;  and 
 Darius,  after  a  siege  of  nearly 
 two  years,  in  which  the  pro- 
 
 fihecy  of  Isa.  xlvii.  7—9,  was 
 iterally  fulfilled, obtained  pos- 
 session of  the  city  by  a  base 
 stratagem,  though  historians 
 epeak  of  it  as  an  heroic  sacri- 
 fice. Herodotus  tells  us  that 
 Darius  ordered  the  hundred 
 gates  of  brass  to  be  taken 
 away.    (Jer.  li.  58.) 
 
 DARKNESS.  (Gen.i.2.)  It 
 is  said  of  the  darkness  which 
 constituted  one  of  the  plagues 
 of  Ei'yi't,  that  "  i7  might  be 
 fell."  <Kx.  X.  21.)  This  might 
 nave  been  occasioned  by  a 
 thick,  heavy  vapour,  or  other 
 
 DAY 
 
 sensible  change  in  the  atmo 
 sphere,  which  caused  an  en- 
 tire interception  of  the  sun'a 
 rays.  It  was  evidently  miracu- 
 loiis ;  and  the  dread  and  terror 
 it  iiiS(iired  is  vividly  described. 
 (Ex.  x.22,23.)  So  "of  the  dark- 
 ness  that  shrouded  the  earth 
 when  our  Saviour  was  put  to 
 death,  (Luke  xxiii.  44,  45;)  it 
 was  manifestly  miraculous.  No 
 natural  eclipse  of  the  sun  could 
 take  place  at  that  period  of 
 the  moon ;  and  the  heathea 
 writers  themselves  acknow- 
 ledge that  it  was  a  prodisy. 
 DART.  (See  Armour.) 
 DATHAN.  (SeeKoRAH.) 
 DAVID  (1  Sam.  xvi.  13)  was 
 the  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of 
 Judah.  He  was  born  in  Beth- 
 lehem B.  c.  10S5,  and  was,  both 
 in  his  prophetical  and  regal 
 character,  an  eminent  type  of 
 the  Messiah.  While  he  was 
 employed  as  a  shepherd  in  his 
 father's  fi'^lds,  God  sent  Sa- 
 muel to  Bethlehem,  with  in- 
 structions to  anoint  David  as 
 king  of  Israel,  in  the  place  of 
 Saul,  who  had  incurred  the 
 divine  displeasure,  and  was 
 therefore  to  be  deposed.  He 
 was  then  about  twenty-two 
 years  old.  He  did  not  succeed 
 at  once  to  the  throne,  but  first 
 became  Saul's  armour-bearer. 
 (1  Sam.  xvi.  14-23.)  Then  he 
 retired  to  Bethlehem,  but  soon 
 appeared  as  the  champion  of 
 the  Israelites,  against  (jolialh, 
 a  famous  giant'of  the  Philis- 
 tines, whom  he  slew.  (1  Sam. 
 xvii.)  This  victory  greatly 
 advanced  his  reputation,  and 
 secured  him  a  high  place  in 
 the  court  and  camp  of  the 
 king.  In  this  situation,  he 
 formed  a  friendship  with  Jona- 
 than, the  king's  son,  which  is 
 memorable  for  its  strength  and 
 sacredness.  (ISam.xviii.  1—5.) 
 Soon,  however,  Saul  found  that 
 his  own  fame  was  likely  to  be 
 eclipsed  by  that  of  the  young 
 man  from  Bethlehem ;  he  be- 
 came jealous  of  him,  and  from 
 195 
 
DAV 
 
 that  time  to  the  end  of  his  own 
 life  pursued  him  with  a  most 
 malignant  hostility,  (1  Sam. 
 xviii.  10,  11;)  and  he  even 
 gave  his  daughter  Michal  in 
 marriage  to  hun,  with  the  se- 
 cret hope  that  she  would  prove 
 a  snare  to  him. 
 
 After  a  series  ot  military 
 successes,  in  which  his  wisdom 
 and  valour  were  conspicuous, 
 and  after  several  narrow  es- 
 capes from  the  malice  of  the 
 king,  which  are  minutely  de- 
 tailed by  the  sacred  histori- 
 an, and  which  David  himself 
 celebrates  in  his  Psalms,  he  at 
 length  received  succours  from 
 the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
 jamin, at  least  sufficient  to 
 protect  himself  in  his  exile. 
 (1  Chron.  xii.)  This  only  ren- 
 dered Saul  still  more  implaca- 
 ule,  for  he  regarded  it  as  an 
 open  act  of  rebellion,  and  per- 
 secuted him  with  increased 
 malignity.  Two  or  three  times 
 the  king  was  completely  at 
 David's  mercy,  but  he  forbore 
 to  take  his  life.  (1  Sam.  xxiv. 
 xxvi.) 
 
 In  process  of  time,  Jonathan 
 and  his  two  brothers  were  kill- 
 ed, in  a  battle  with  the  Philis- 
 tines, on  mount  Gilboa,  (ISam. 
 xxxi.  2  Sam.  i. ;)  and  Saul, 
 finding  himself  defeated,  and 
 his  army  completely  routed, 
 fell  upon  his  own  sword  and 
 died.  Then  David,  by  divine 
 direction,  removed  to  Hebron, 
 where  the  chief  men  of  Judah 
 met  him,  and  offered  him  the 
 government  of  their  tribe, 
 which  he  accepted,  and  ad- 
 ministered it  for  upwards  of 
 seven  years ;  but  at  the  end  of 
 that  period,  and  when  every 
 other  claim  to  the  throne  had 
 been  extinguished,  David  as- 
 cended the  throne  of  Israel, 
 for  which  he  had  long  before 
 been  designated.  Soon  after  he 
 assumed  the  government,  he 
 obtained  possession  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, reduced  the  fortress  which 
 the  Jebusites  had  maintained, 
 
 DAV 
 
 and  established  the  seat  of  his 
 government  there.  Under  his 
 wise  and  liberal  policy,  the 
 place  was  greally  enlarged ; 
 magnificent  edifices  rose  up 
 on  every  side;  fortifications 
 were  erected,  and  the  ark, 
 which  had  been  before  without 
 a  fixed  abode,  was  brought  into 
 the  new  city  with  religious  ce- 
 remonies peculiarly  joyful  and 
 solemn.  Thenceforward,  Jeru- 
 salem became  the  capital  of 
 the  kingdom,  the  residence  of 
 the  royal  family,  and,  more 
 than  all,  the  city  of  God.  (Ps. 
 xlviii.  2.  Malt.  v.  35.)  To  it 
 the  tribes  repaired  from  every 
 quarter  of  the  land  to  cele- 
 brate their  annual  festivals^ 
 and  its  growth  in  population, 
 wealth,  and  splendour  was 
 very  rapid. 
 
 David  now  formed  the  design 
 of  building  a  magnificent  tem- 
 ple for  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
 to  take  the  place  of  the  taber- 
 nacle, which  was  but  a  tempo- 
 rary and  moveable  structure. 
 He  was  informed,  however,  by 
 God's  direction,  that  this  ser- 
 vice would  be  reserved  for  his 
 son  Solomon. 
 
 After  several  contests  with 
 the  nations  that  bordered  on 
 Israel,  in  which  David  was  uni- 
 formly victorious,  there  broke 
 out  a  war  with  the  Ammon- 
 ites, (see  Ammonites,)  during 
 the  progress  of  which  David 
 fell  mlo  those  most  aggravated 
 sins,  of  murder  and  adultery, 
 which  brought  disgrace  and 
 distress  on  his  family  and  go- 
 vernment, and  involved  him 
 in  trouble  during  the  remnant 
 of  his  days.  (2  Sam.  xii.  9.) 
 His  domestic  peace  was  de- 
 stroyed by  the  sin  of  Arnnon 
 and  Tamar.  Then  came  the 
 cruel  and  unnatural  rebellion 
 of  Absalom,  which  compelled 
 the  king  to  flee  from  his  capi- 
 tal, and  exile  himself,  to  avoid 
 being  cut  off  by  a  parricidal 
 hand.  Then  the  death  of  Ab- 
 salom, though  it  brought  relief 
 196 
 
DAV 
 
 to  the  kingdom,  inflicted  a 
 deep  wound  on  tlie  father's 
 heart.  The  insurrection  un- 
 der Sheba,  and  the  murder  of 
 Amasa  by  Joab,  followed  in 
 quick  succession.  And,  to 
 close  tlie  melancholy  cata- 
 logue, was  the  terrible  judg- 
 ment which  he  brought  upon 
 himself  and  the  nation  by  num- 
 bering the  people,  for  some 
 purpose  which  was  sinful  in 
 the  sight  of  God,  though  not 
 e:xplained  to  us.  David  was 
 now  seventy  years  old,  and 
 had  reigned  fony  years  over 
 the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  thirty- 
 three  over  the  whole  kingdom 
 of  Israel.  Just  before  his  death, 
 his  son  Adonijah  made  a  bold 
 attempt  to  usurp  the  throne; 
 but  his  purpose  was  defeated, 
 and,  to  secure  the  kingdom 
 against  any  pretender,  David 
 resigned  the  crown  to  Solo- 
 mon ;  put  into  his  hands  the 
 plan  and  model  of  the  tem- 
 ple, and  the  treasure  he  had 
 accumulated  for  the  erection 
 of  it;  summoned  the  influ- 
 ential men  of  the  nation,  and 
 delivered  his  farewell  address. 
 And  then,  in  the  year  b.c.  1014, 
 exchanged,  as  we  have  every 
 reason  to  believe,  a  corruptible 
 crown  foran  incorruptible  one, 
 and  a  state  of  severe  probation 
 and  discipline  for  the  glory 
 and  blessedness  of  the  hea- 
 venly world.  (For  a  full  and 
 lucid  history  of  this  eminent 
 monarch,  with  a  map  adapted 
 expressly  to  the  sacred  narra- 
 tive; interesting  illustrations 
 of  several  scenes  in  his  life; 
 an  appendix  of  references ;  a 
 complete  analysis  of  his  tra- 
 vels; and  a  table,  indicating 
 the  date  and  occasion  of  the 
 most  remarkable  psalms,— see 
 Life  of  David,  l^y  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 The  term  David  is  sometimes 
 applied  to  the  Messiah.  (Ezek. 
 xxxiv.  23,  24.  Hos.  iii.  5.) 
 
 When  David  is  spoken  of  as 
 the  man  after  God^s  own  heart, 
 17* 
 
 DAY 
 
 (1  Sam.  xiii.  14.  Acts  xiii.  22,) 
 reference  is  obviously  intended 
 to  his  general  character  and 
 conduct,  and  not  to  every  par 
 ticular  instance  of  it.  As  he 
 was  human,  he  was  imperfect: 
 and,  when  he  sinned,  God 
 punished  him,  and  that  with 
 great  severity.  But  he  was  re- 
 markable for  his  devotion  to 
 God's  service,  and  he  kepi 
 himself  from  idols.  He  esta- 
 blished the  government  of  Is- 
 rael, and  extended  its  domi- 
 nions to  the  full  extent  of  the 
 promise  to  Aljraham,  and  left 
 a  compact  and  united  empire, 
 stretching  from  Egypt  to  Leba- 
 non, and  from  the  Euphrates 
 to  the  Mediterranean.  His 
 Psalms  place  him  among  the 
 most  eminent  of  prophets  and 
 holy  men.  It  has  been  well 
 said,  that  in  suljlimity  and 
 tenderness  of  expression,  in 
 loftiness  and  purity  of  reli- 
 gious sentiment,  they  are  with- 
 out parallel.  They  imbody 
 the  universal  language  of  re- 
 ligious emotion.  The  songs 
 which  cheered  the  solitudes  of 
 Eiigedi,  or  animated  the  He- 
 brews, as  they  wound  along 
 the  glens  or  hill  sides  of  Judea, 
 have  been  repeated  for  ages, 
 in  almost  every  part  of  the 
 habitable  world  ;  in  the  re- 
 motest islands  of  the  ocean ; 
 among  the  forests  of  America, 
 and  the  deserts  of  Africa.  How 
 many  hearts  have  they  soften- 
 ed, purified,  consoled,  and  ex- 
 alted, by  the  deep  devotional 
 fervour  they  have  kindled, 
 and  the  views  of  the  divine 
 wisdom,  holiness,  and  love  to 
 which  they  have  led  ! 
 Key  of  David.  (See  Ejey.) 
 DAY.  (Gen.  i.  5.)  The  na- 
 tural day  consists  of  twenty- 
 four  hours,  or  one  revolution 
 of  the  earth  around  upon  its 
 axis.  Three  hundred  and  six- 
 ty-five of  such  revolutions 
 make  a  year,  or  one  revolution 
 of  the  earth  around  the  sun. 
 The  artificial  day  is  the  time 
 197 
 
DAY 
 
 during  which  the  sun  is  above 
 the  horizon.  Both  these  uses 
 of  the  term  occur,  Gen.  i.  5. 
 The  civil  day  is  reckoned  dif- 
 ferently by  dift'erent  nations: 
 some  from  sunrise  to  sunrise  ; 
 others  from  sunset  to  sunset ; 
 others  still  from  noon  to  noon, 
 or  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
 (See  Creation.)  The  Jewish 
 day  was  reckoned  from  eve- 
 ning to  evening.  Their  Sab- 
 bath, or  seventh,  began  on 
 what  we  call  Friday,  at  sun- 
 set, and  ended  on  what  we 
 call  Saturday,  at  sunset.  (Ex. 
 xii.  18.  Lev.  xxiii.  32.)  This 
 mode  of  reckoning  days  was 
 not  uncommon  in  other  east- 
 ern nations.  Some  have 
 conjectured  that  this  compu- 
 tation was  established  after 
 the  children  of  Israel  left 
 Egypt,  in  order  to  distinguish 
 them  in  this,  as  in  all  other 
 respects,  from  the  surrounding 
 nations,whose  day  commenced 
 in  honour  of  their  chief  god, 
 the  sun,  at  the  time  of  his 
 rising.  If  we  suppose  this  was 
 the  origin  of  the  practice,  it 
 was  not  confined  to  the  Jev/s, 
 but  extended  to  the  Pheni- 
 cians,  Numidians,  and  others. 
 The  day  was  originally  divided 
 into  morning,  noon,  and  night. 
 The  word  day,  in  John  xi.  9, 
 is  used  in  contradistinction 
 from  night,  or  darkness.  The 
 term  hour  is  first  introduced 
 into  the  sacred  writings,  Dan. 
 iii.  6;  but  it  is  very  doubtful 
 whether  any  definite  term  is 
 denoted  by  it.  In  our  Saviour's 
 time,  the  division  of  the  day 
 into  twelve  hours  was  known. 
 (John  xi.  9.)  In  Europe  and 
 America,  and  most  civilized 
 countries,  the  day  begins  at 
 midnight.  (See  Watch.)  The 
 word  day  is  often  used  by  the 
 Bacred  writers  to  denote  an 
 indefinite  time.  (Gen.  ii.  4. 
 Isa.  xxii.  5.  Acts  xvii.31.)  So 
 also  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
 the  term,  "three  days  and  three 
 nights,'^  (Matt.  xii.  40,)   de- 
 
 DEA 
 
 notes  the  same  space  of  time  as 
 "three  days."  (Matt,  xxvii. 
 G3,64.  See  on  the  whole  subject 
 of  the  division  of  time,  Bibli- 
 cal ANTiauiTiEs,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  vol.  i.  ch.  viii.  §  4.) 
 
 Daysman.  (Job  ix.  33.)  An 
 arbitrator,  or  person  to  judge 
 between  contending  parties. 
 
 Dayspring.  (Job  xxxviii. 
 12.  Luke  i.  78.)  The  first 
 dawning  of  light.  (Comp.  Isa. 
 Ix.  1,  2,  and  Rev.  xxii.  16.) 
 
 DAY-sTAR,or  Morning-star, 
 (2  Pet.  i.  19,)  in  the  figurative 
 language  of  the  apostle,  is  sup- 
 posed to  mean  the  light  which 
 shines  on  the  soul  of  the  be- 
 liever, and  cheers  him  with 
 the  expectation  of  a  perfect 
 day  of  holiness  and  ioy. 
 
 Lord's-day.  (See  Sabbath.) 
 
 DEACON.  (1  Tim.  iii.  10.) 
 This  name,  as  a  title  of  oflBce, 
 was  first  given  to  seven  men 
 of  honest  report,  full  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost  and  wisdom,  who 
 were  appointed  over  the  busi- 
 ness of  serving  tables,  in  order 
 that  the  apostles  might  be  at 
 liberty  to  give  themselves  con 
 tinually  to  prayer  and  the  mi- 
 nistry of  the  word.  They  were 
 set  apart  by  prayer  and  the 
 laying  on  of  tiie  apostles'  hands. 
 (Acts  vi.  1—4.)  The  qualifi- 
 cations and  duties  of  deacons 
 are  particularly  set  forth  in 
 Acts  vi.  1 — 6,  and  1  Tim.  iii. 
 8—12.  The  female  ministers, 
 or  deaconesses,  were  probably 
 employed  in  attending  upon 
 those  of  their  own  sex,  in  some 
 of  the  same  offices  and  duiies 
 which  the  deacons  performed 
 for  their  brethren. 
 
 DEAD,  DEATH.  (Gen.  xxv. 
 11.  Ex.  iv.  19.)  Death  is  the 
 destruction  or  extinction  of 
 life.  By  the  transgression  of 
 God's  commandment,  our  first 
 parents  became  liable  to  death. 
 The  threatening  was,  "  in  the 
 day  that  thou  eatest  thereof 
 thou  shall  surely  die."  (Gen. 
 ii.  17.  Rom.  v.  12-14.  1  Cor. 
 XV.  21, 22.  Heb.  ix.27.)  This 
 198 
 
DEB 
 
 expression  does  not  mean  to  [ 
 denne  the  time  of  actual  disso- 
 lution, but  rather  to  denote  an 
 inevitable  liability  or  exposure 
 to  death,  which,  in  that  day, 
 and  by  that  act,  they  should 
 surely  incur. 
 
 The  sacred  writers  speak  of 
 a  death  which  atfects  the  body 
 only,  (Gen.  XXV.  II;)  of  another 
 which  describes  the  condition 
 of  the  soul  under  the  power  of 
 sin,  (Eph.  ii.  1;)  and  a  third, 
 which  denotes  the  everlasting 
 perdition  of  the  wicked.  (James 
 V,  20.)  In  each  of  these  senses, 
 our  divine  Redeemer  may  be 
 regarded  as  having  virtually 
 destroyed  death,  and  deliver- 
 ed them  who,  through  fear  of 
 death,  were  all  thefr  lifetime 
 subject  to  bondage.  (Heb.  ii. 
 14,  15.)  To  avail  ourselves, 
 however,  of  the  benefits  of  his 
 perfect  triumph,  we  must  be- 
 lieve, trust,  los-e,  and  obey  him. 
 (See    BuRV,    Resurrection, 
 
 DEBIR,  or  KIRJATH-SE- 
 PHER,  (Judg.  i.  11,)  or  KIR- 
 JATH-SANNAH.  (Josh.  xv. 
 49.)  A  stronghold  of  the  sons 
 of  Anak,  which  was  conquered 
 by  Joshua,  (Josh.  x.  38, 39,)  and 
 assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
 It  was  afterwards  recaptured 
 by  the  Canaanites,  and  again 
 subdued  by  the  Israelites  un- 
 der Olhniel.  (Josh.  xv.  15 — 
 17.)  It  afterwards  became  a 
 city  of  the  Levites.  (Josh.  xxi. 
 15.)  There  was  another  town 
 of  this  name  among  the  pos- 
 sessions of  Gad,  east  of  the 
 Jordan,  (Josh.  xiii.  26,)  and  a 
 third  on  the  border  of  Judah 
 and  Benjamin.  (Comp.  Josh. 
 xiii.  26,  and  xv.  7.) 
 
 DEBORAH.  1.  (Judg.  iv.  4.) 
 A  woman  of  eminent  wisdom 
 and  holiness,  (called  a  pro- 
 phetess,) and  a  judge  of  the 
 people  of  Israel.  She  was  the 
 wife  of  Lapidoth,  (though  some 
 think  the  passage  should  read, 
 a  woman  of  Lapidoth,)  and 
 had  her  judgment-seat  under 
 
 DEC 
 
 a  palm  tree,  which  is  hence 
 called  by  het  name.  (Judg.  iv. 
 5.)  Israel  w*  suflfering  at  that 
 time  a  most  oppressive  bondage 
 under  Jabin,  a  Canaanitish 
 king,  to  which  they  were 
 doomed  in  consequence  of 
 their  sin.  Deborah,  by  divine 
 direction,  called  upon  Barak, 
 who  had  probably  signalized 
 himself  in  some  way,  and  com- 
 manded him,  as  from  God,  to 
 station  himself  upon  mount 
 Tabor,  with  a  prescribed  num 
 ber  of  men,  and  she  would  see 
 to  it  that  Sisera,  the  command- 
 er of  the  tyrant's  army,  should 
 be  there,  and  should  fall  into 
 Barak's  hands.  Barak  en- 
 gaged to  undertake  the  enter- 
 prfse,  if  Deborah  would  ac- 
 company him.  To  this  she 
 consented ;  intimating,  how- 
 ever, that  if  she  went,  the 
 honour  of  the  victory  would 
 be  her's,  and  not  his,  and  that 
 Sisera  would  be  regarded  as 
 having  fallen  by  the  hands 
 of  a  woman.  (Judg.  ix.  54.) 
 The  two  armies  met,  and  the 
 event  was  as  Deborah  pre- 
 dicted. Sisera  fled,  though  his 
 army  was  cut  off,  and  every 
 man  slain.  The  triumphal 
 song,  composed  or  dictated  by 
 Deborah  on  that  occasion,  is 
 regarded  as  a  fine  specimen  of 
 oriental  poetry.  (See  Barak, 
 Jael.) 
 
 2.  (Gen.  xxxv.  8.)  The 
 name  of  Rebekah's  nurse,  who 
 died  and  was  buried  near 
 Bethel. 
 
 DECAPOLIS.  (Matt.  iv.  25.) 
 Usuallydescribed  as  a  province 
 or  canton  of  Judea,  within  the 
 half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  east  of 
 the  Jordan ;  but  probably  the 
 name  is  applied  to  ten  detach- 
 ed cities  of  Persia,  that  might 
 have  been  united  in  some  alli- 
 ance or  confederacy,  not  ex- 
 tending to  the  residue  of  the 
 the  district  within  which  they 
 were  situated.  Geographers  ge- 
 nerally asrree  that'Scythopolis 
 was  the  chief  of  these  cities, 
 199 
 
DED 
 
 and  was  the  only  one  of  them 
 west  ofthe  Jordan  I  that  Hippo, 
 (Hippos,)  Gadara,  Dion,  (or  Di- 
 es,) Pelea,  (or  Pella,)  Gerasa, 
 (or  Gergesa.)  Philadelphia  and 
 Raphana,  (or  Kapha  nse,)  were 
 seven  of  the  remaining  nine, 
 and  the  other  two  were  either 
 Kanatha  and  Capiiolias,  or 
 Damascus  and  Olopos.  These 
 cities  were  inhabited  chiefly 
 by  foreigners  (Greeks)  in  the 
 ^  days  of  our  Saviour,  and  not 
 by  Jews.  Hence  the  keejiing 
 of  swine  by  the  Gersesenes, 
 (Matt.  viii.  30—33,)  which  was 
 forbidden  by  the  Jewish  law. 
 
 DED  AN.  1.  (Jer.  xxv. 
 *  23;  xlix.  8.  Ezek.  xxv.  13.) 
 A  district  of  Arabia  Petrtea, 
 south  of  Idumea,  or  Edom,  set- 
 tled by  the  descendants  of 
 Dedan, son  of  Jokshan, son  of 
 Abraham  and  Keturah.  (Gen. 
 xxv.  3.) 
 
 2.  A  country  of  Arabia,  on 
 the  Persian  gulf,  which  traded 
 with  Tyre  iii  ivory  and  ebony. 
 (Ezek.  xxv.  13  ;  xxvii.  15—20; 
 xxxviii.  13.)  It  was  inhabited 
 by  the  posterity  of  Dedan,  son 
 of  Raamah,  (Gen.  x.  7,)  son  of 
 Cush;  and  long  after  the  ruin 
 of  Tyre,  there  was  a  city  Da- 
 den  in  this  region,  which  car- 
 ried on  an  extensive  trade, 
 part  of  which  was  in  those  ar- 
 ticles mentioned  by  Ezekiel. 
 The  location  of  these  places  is 
 uncertain.  The/?er?awim,  (Isa. 
 xxi.  13,)  or  Dodanim,  (Gen.  x. 
 4,)  were  probably  the  people 
 ofDedan. 
 
 DEDICATE,  DEDICATION. 
 (Num.  vii.  84.  2  Sam.  viii.  11.) 
 A  religious  ceremony,  by  which 
 any  person,  place,  or  thin^  is 
 set  apart  for  the  service  of  (jod, 
 or  to  some  sacred  use.  (Ex.  xl. 
 Num.  vii.  1  Kings  viii.  Ezra 
 vi.  Neh.  xii.)  Cities,  walls, 
 gates,  and  private  houses  were 
 thus  dedicated.  The  practice 
 of  consecration  was  very  com- 
 mon among  the  Jews,  and  was 
 suited  to  the  peculiar  dispen- 
 sation under  which  they  lived. 
 
 DEG 
 
 The  persons,  places,  and 
 things  consecrated  were,  how- 
 ever, for  the  most  part  designed 
 to  serve  as  patterns,  examples, 
 or  shadt)\vs  of  better  things  in 
 reserve ;  and  now  that"  the 
 Messiah,  —  the  true  temple, 
 altar,  priest,  and  sacrifice,— 
 (John  li.  19—22.  Heb.  ix.  10,) 
 has  come ;  that  which  was 
 figurative  and  typical  is  done 
 away ;  the  presence  of  the  di- 
 vineRedeemerinalltheassem- 
 blies  of  his  people,  even  where 
 only  two  or  three  are  met  in 
 his  name,  may  be  regarded 
 as  consecrating  every  place 
 where  it  isenjoyed.  (Matt.xviii. 
 20.   Acts  vii.  48.    Heb.  iii.  6.) 
 
 Dedication,  feast  of  the. 
 (See  Feast.) 
 
 DEFILE.  (Lev.xi.44.)  Ua 
 der  the  Jewish  law,  many  ble- 
 mishes of  person  and  conduct 
 were  regarded  as  defilementa 
 or  pollutions,  rendering  those 
 upon  whom  they  were  found 
 unclean,  and  subjecting  them, 
 for  the  time  being,  to  many 
 civil  and  religious  disabilities. 
 (Mark  vii.  2.)  The  term  ia 
 most  frequently  used  by  the 
 sacred  writers  in  a  figiurative 
 
 DEGREE.  (Ps.  CXI.  title.^ 
 This  word  is  used  to  signify 
 rank  or  station.  (Ps.  Ixii.  9.) 
 The  phrase,  '^song  or  psalm 
 of  degrees,^' — whicn  for  s  the 
 title  to  psalms  cxx.  to  cxxxiv. 
 inclusive,— has  been  variously 
 interpreted :  some  suppose  it 
 has  reference  to  the  elevated 
 voice  in  which  they  were  sung  • 
 others  to  the  time  when  they 
 were  sung,  viz.  at  the  annual 
 festivals,  when  the  Jews  went 
 up  to  Jerusalem,  and  that,  in 
 this  sense,  they  were  called 
 odes  of  ascension.  (See  Se- 
 LUMiEL,  p.  21,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.)  Others  suppose  they 
 were  sung  by  the  Levites  aa 
 they  ascended  the  steps  of  the 
 temple  ;  and  others  again  sup- 
 pose that  it  denotes  the  pecur 
 liarly  climacteric  style  of  thesA 
 200 
 
DEM 
 
 Psalms,  viz.  thai  the  thought  or 
 expression  of  one  verse  is  re- 
 sumed and  carried  forward  in 
 the  next  succeeding  verse,  as 
 in  Ps.  cxxi. 
 
 DEHAVITES.  (Ezraiv.9.) 
 Supposed  by  Herodotus  to  be  a 
 Persian  tribe,  and,  as  some 
 think,  the  same  who  are  men- 
 tioned as  from  Ava.  (2  Kings 
 xvii.  24.) 
 
 DELILAH.  (Judg.  xvi.  4.)  A 
 licentious  woman,  of  the  val- 
 ley of  Sorek,  in  the  tribe  of 
 Judah,  and  near  the  borders 
 of  the  Philistines,  whom  Sam- 
 son loved,  and  who  was  the 
 instrument  of  betraying  him  to 
 his  enemies.    (See  Samson.) 
 
 DEMAS.  (Col.  iv.  14.)  A 
 zealous  disciple  and  fellow 
 labourer  of  Paul,  (Phile.  24,) 
 who  afterwards  apostatized 
 from  the  faith,  through  inordi- 
 nate love  of  the  world.  (2  Tim. 
 iv.  10.  1  John  ii.  lb.) 
 
 DEMETRIUS.  1.  (Acts 
 xix.  24.)  A  silversmith  who  re- 
 Bided  at  Ephesus,  and  manu- 
 factured silver  shrines, orsmall 
 portable  temples  and  images 
 of  Diana.  (See  Diana.)  Tliis 
 was  a  very  lucrative  business 
 in  that  city,  where  her  worship 
 was  chiefly  maintained;  and 
 hence,  when  the  gospel  began 
 to  make  an  impression,  and 
 the  people  to  forsake  their 
 vain  idols  for  the  service  of  the 
 living  God,  Demetrius  saw  that 
 he  should  lose  his  business, 
 unless  he  could  still  keep  the 
 people  in  sin.  So  he  called  a 
 meeting  of  those  who  worked 
 at  that  trade,  and  made  a 
 speech  to  them,  charging  the 
 apostle  Paul  with  having 
 taught  that  the  gods  which 
 they  made  were  no  gods,  and 
 with  persuading  the  people  not 
 to  purchase  the  images  by  the 
 manufacture  of  which  they  ob- 
 tained their  living;  and  be- 
 sides this,  (or  rather  as  a  cover 
 to  their  selfish  and  avaricious 
 motives,)  he  showed  them  that 
 the  worship  of  Diana,  which 
 
 DEU 
 
 they  had  maintained  so  long, 
 and  v.'ith  so  much  magnifi- 
 cence, and  probably  to  the 
 great  pecuniary  advantage  of 
 the  city,  would  be  brought  into 
 contempt,  if  the  apostfe's  doc- 
 trine sltould  prevail.  By  this 
 harangue,  he  inflamed  the  pas- 
 sions of  his  fellow  craftsmen, 
 and  they  excited  the  multitude, 
 until  the  whole  city  of  Ephesus 
 was  thrown  into  an  uproar, 
 which  was  finally  quelled  by  ^ 
 the  politic  and  seasonable  ad-  ^ 
 vice  of  the  town-clerk. 
 
 2.  (3  John  12.)  A  disciple 
 of  high  reputation,  and,  as 
 sime  suppose,  (though  without 
 warrant,)  the  Demetrius  of 
 Ephesus,  converted  to  the  faith 
 of  the  gospel. 
 
 DEilBE.  (Acts  xiv.  6.)  A 
 town  of  Lycaonia,  east  of  Ico- 
 nium,  whither  Paul  and  Bar- 
 nabas fled  when  expelled  from 
 Lystra,  and  where  they  preach- 
 ed the  gospel  with  success. 
 (Acts  xiv.20.)Derbe  was  the  na- 
 tive place  of  Gaius.  (Acts  XX. 4.) 
 
 DESERT.  (Ex.  V.  3.)  This 
 word  is  nearly  synonymous 
 with  wilderness.  It  signifies 
 generally  a  waste  or  unculti- 
 vated territory,  as  pastures 
 and  forests.  The  modern  ac- 
 ceptation of  the  word  always 
 implies  barrenness  ;  not  so  the 
 ancient.  (Ps.  Ixv.  12.)  The 
 different  tracts  mentioned  un- 
 der tliis  name  in  the  Bible,  as 
 Shur,  Sm,Paran,Si,c.,\\\\\  be 
 found  particularly  noticed  ia 
 their  proper  places.  (See  Ev. 
 Recreations,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  vol.  iii.  pp.  104—110.) 
 
 DESOLATION,  abomina- 
 tion OF.   (See  Abominable.) 
 
 DEUTERONOMY,  or  the 
 SECOND  LAW,  (so  Called  from 
 its  repeating  the  law,)is  thefifth 
 book  of  the'Bible,  and  (except 
 the  last  chapter)  was  evidently 
 written  by  Moses.  (Deut,  L 
 5,  comp.  with  Deut.  xxxiv.  1. 
 2Chron.  xxv.  4.  Dan.  ix.  13. 
 Mark  xii.  19.  Acts  iii.  22.) 
 This  book  embraces  a  penod 
 
DEV 
 
 of  about  five  or  six  weeks. 
 of  the  fortieth  year  of  the 
 journey ings  of  the  children 
 of  Israel ;  and  for  the  benefit 
 of  those  who  were  born  after 
 the  giving  ot  the  law  from  Si- 
 nai, it  recites  that  law,  with 
 some  unessential  variations  of 
 language,  and  enforces  its  ob^ 
 servance  by  many  powerful 
 motives  and  pathetic  exhorta- 
 tions, nioses  directed  that  it 
 should  be  read  every  seven 
 years,  and  appointed  the  time 
 and  mannerof  doimr  it.  (I)eut. 
 xxxi.  9—13.)  It  is  the  last  of 
 the  five  books  of  Moses,  and 
 was  written  a  little  befjre  his 
 death;  probably  a.  m.  •25.5-2. 
 The  portions  of  this  book 
 which  are  not  substantially 
 found  in  other  parts  of  the 
 Pentateuch,  are  treated  of  in 
 Union  Questions,  vol.  iv.  less. 
 xxvi.  to  XXX.,  and  Teach^ir's 
 Assi.sTANT  to  the  same  vol., 
 pp.  205  to  224,  both  by  Am.  S. 
 8.  Union. 
 
 DEVIL.  (lPet.v.8)  This 
 word,  which  originally  means 
 traducer,  or  false  accuser,  is 
 sometimes  applied  to  very 
 wicked  men  or  women,  (John 
 viii.  44.  Acts  xiii.  10.  2  Tim. 
 iii.  3.  Tit.  ii.  3,)  but  usually  it 
 denotes  the  one  most  subtle 
 and  malignant  of  the  evil  spi- 
 rits, and  the  great  enemy  of 
 God  and  man. 
 
 That  there  are  wicked  an- 
 gels or  spirits,  and  that  there 
 is  one  more  eminently  evil 
 than  all  others,  who,  in  some 
 form,  was  instrumental  in  the 
 temptation  and  fall  of  man, 
 and  who,  for  purposes  un- 
 known to  us,  has  now  power 
 to  seduce  and  destroy  men,  and 
 who  goeth  about  in  our  world 
 as  a  raging  lion  ranges  the 
 forest  in  search  of  prey,  seek- 
 ing in  every  place,  and  at  all 
 times,  whom  he  may  destroy  ; 
 that  such  a  malignant  and 
 powerful  being  exists,  none  can 
 doubt,  unless  it  is  those  whose 
 miads  are  "  spoiled  by  philoso- 
 
 DEvr 
 
 phy  and  vain  deceit."  Thai 
 there  are  difficulties  attending 
 every  attempt  to  define  the 
 cluiracier  and  relations  of  this 
 prince  of  evil,  none  will  de- 
 ny; but  the  difficulties  are 
 much  greater  if  we  attempt  to 
 reconcile  the  expressions  of 
 the  sacred  writers  with  the 
 opinion  that  they  merely  per- 
 sonify the  pri?irt2)le  of  evil.  If 
 we  compare  the  passages  in 
 which  his  name,  character,  or 
 power  is  introduced,  we  shall 
 find  they  can  only  apply  to  a 
 living,  active,  and  malicious 
 being,  w  ho  has  exalted  himself 
 against  God,  and  who  is  striv- 
 ing to  frustrate  all  his  purposes 
 of  mercy  towards  man.  (Job 
 i.  and  ii.  Matt.  iv.  1.  John  viii. 
 44;  xii.  31.  2 Cor.  iv.4;  xi.  14, 
 15.  Eph.  ii.  2,  3.  1  John  iii.  8; 
 v.  18.  Rev.  XX.  2.)  And  we 
 are  also  taught  that  this  chief 
 apostate  has  under  his  control 
 angels  or  ministers  that  exe- 
 cufe  his  malicious  designs,  and 
 that  both  are  finally  to  be  de- 
 stroyed with  an  everlasting 
 destruction.  (Matt.  xxv.  41. 
 Jude  6.  Rev.  xx.  10.)  It  is  im- 
 portant to  guard  against  those 
 subtle  errors  which  deprive  the 
 prominent  and  essential  truths 
 of  the  gospel  of  all  their  force 
 and  cliaracter,  by  turning  the 
 expressions  in  which  they  are 
 conveyed  to  us  into  fables,  or 
 mere  figures  of  speech.  East- 
 ern travellers  have  furnished 
 very  curious  accounts  of  people 
 who  worship  the  devil,  and  of 
 other  heathen  nations  who  will 
 not  have  the  name  of  the  devil 
 spoken,  because,  they  say,  it 
 may  seem  like  taking  part  in 
 a  controversy  between  God  and 
 a  fallen  ancel. 
 
 DEW.  (2  Sam.  i.  21.)  A 
 dense  vapour  which  falls  on 
 the  earth  during  the  night,  and 
 which,  in  Judea,  was  so  copious 
 as  in  a  great  measure  to  supply 
 the  absence  of  showers.  It  thus 
 became  a  beautiful  emblem  of 
 spiritual  blessings,(Deul.  xxxii. 
 202 
 
DIA 
 
 2.  Hos.  xiv.  5 — 7,)  as  well  as  of 
 temporal  prosperity.  (Jobxxix. 
 19.)  Travellers  inform  us  that 
 the  heal  and  dryness  of  ihe  air 
 are  such,  thai  if  it  were  not  for 
 the  dews,  the  earth  would 
 be  parched,  and  all  its  fruits 
 withered  ;  and  they  state  that 
 the  dews  are  so  heavy  as  to 
 soak  the  eanh  like  a  heavy 
 shower.  The  same  fact  may 
 be  inferred  from  Judg.  vi.  37— 
 40.  2  Sam.  xvii.  12.  Job  xxix. 
 19.  S)l.  Sonsv.  2,  Ihe  psalm- 
 ist (Ps.  cxxxiii.  3)  mentions 
 particularly  the  dew  of  Her- 
 mon  as  emljlrmulical  of  the 
 rich  and  abundant  Llessinsrs 
 of  spiritual  communion.  So 
 Hos.  xiv.  5-7.  And  Rlaun- 
 drell  tells  us  that  their  tenls, 
 when  fiiiched  on  Tabor  and 
 Hermon,  "  were  as  wet  with 
 dew  as  if  it  had  rained  on 
 them  all  nicht ;"  and  others 
 speak  of  their  cloaks,  in  which 
 they  wrapped  themselves  while 
 they  slept,  as  being  completely 
 wet,  as  if  they  had  been  im- 
 mersed in  the  sea. 
 
 Dr.  Shaw,  in  his  travels, 
 speak  in?  of  Arabia  Petreea, 
 says :  "  The  dews  of  the 
 night,  as  we  had  thp  heavens 
 only  fir  our  coverinir,  would 
 frequently  wet  us  to  the  skin  ; 
 but  no  sooner  was  the  sun 
 risen,  and  the  atmosphere  a 
 little  heated,  than  the  mists 
 were  quickly  dispersed,  and 
 the  co|)i.iu3  moisture  which  the 
 dews  had  commuairaied  to  the 
 samls  would  be  entirely  evapo- 
 rated." (Hos  vi.  4.) 
 
 DIADEM.    (See  Crown.) 
 
 DIAL  (-2  Kings  xx.  11.  Isa. 
 xxxviii.  1—9)  is  an  instrument 
 empl'ved  by  the  Hebrews  to 
 measure  time,  ur  to  determine 
 the  appiueni  progress  of  the 
 sun  by  the  shadow  which  he 
 cast.''  on  the  dial.  It  is  a  mat- 
 ter of  nniih  speculation,  but 
 little  imp'iaance,what  wjisthe 
 form.  &.C.  of  tiip  dial  mentioned 
 in  tliesp  passages. 
 
 IJezekiah,   king  of  Judah, 
 
 DIA 
 
 was  si-'k  and  near  to  death. 
 He  prayed,  with  great  earnest- 
 ness, that  his  life  might  be 
 prolonged.  Isaiaii  was  sent  to 
 infjrm  him  that  God  would 
 relieve  his  disease,  and  liiat  in 
 three  days  he  should  be  able  to 
 go  up  to  the  temjile.  The  asto- 
 nished king  asked  a  sign  from 
 the  Lord,  that  a  thing  so  incre- 
 dible should  be  done  to  him. 
 The  prophet  gave  him  his 
 choice  of  two  si^ns,  viz.  that  ^ 
 the  shadow  of  the  sun,  on  the 
 dial  of  Ahaz,  should  go  forward 
 or  backward  ten  degrees.  The 
 king,  sujiposing  that  it  would 
 he  a  more  wonderful  token 
 of  the  divine  interposition, 
 (2  Kings  XX.  10,)  fireferred  that 
 the  shadow  should  go  back ; 
 and,  in  answer  to  ihe  prophet's 
 prayers,  the  sun,  or  the  shadow 
 of  ii  upon  the  dial,  was  brought 
 back  or  returned  ten  degrees. 
 It  is  a  question  of  inci>nsrdera- 
 ble  importance  whether  this 
 miracle  was  wrought  upon  the 
 rays  of  the  sun,  by  which  they 
 were  deflected  in  an  extraordi- 
 nary manner,  so  as  iti  produce 
 this  retrograde  motion  of  the 
 sliadow,  while  the  sun  itself 
 seemed  to  go  on  its  way, — as 
 contended  by  bishop  Lowth  and 
 others,— or  whether  the  motion 
 of  the  earth,  or  the  position  of 
 the  sun,  were  so  changed  as  to 
 proiluce  this  rrsull,  as  lield  by 
 archbishop  Usher  and  the  great 
 body  of  the  Jews.  It  was  this 
 miracle  to  which  reference  is 
 made  in  2Chron.  xxxii.  31. 
 
 DIAMOND.  (Ex.xxviii.ia'> 
 The  hardest  and  most  valuable 
 of  gems,  and  found  chiefly  in 
 theTEast  Indies  and  Brazil.  It 
 is  mentioned  anions  the  jewels 
 of  the  king  of  Tyre,  (Ezek. 
 xxviii.  13;)  and  the  PX|:)re!?sion 
 in  Jer.  xvii.  I,  denotes  the  deep 
 and  indelible  record  whicii  was 
 madeof  the  sinof  Judah.  (See 
 Ada  iM  A  NT.) 
 
 DIANA.    (Acts  xix.  2H.)     A 
 heathen  emidess  of  sreal  ce- 
 lebrity, (ver.  27,)  and   who» 
 203 
 
DIA 
 
 worship  was  attencled  with 
 peculiar  splendour  and  mag- 
 nificence at  Ephesus.  Her 
 temple  in  that  ciiy  was  so 
 vast  and  beautiful,  as  to  be 
 ranked  among  the  seven  won- 
 ders of  the  worfd.  Pliny  tells 
 us  that  it  was  four  hundred 
 and  twenty-five  feet  long,  and 
 two  hundred  and  twenty  in 
 breadth,  and  that  it  was  adorn- 
 ed  with  one  hundred  columns, 
 %  each  sixty  feet  high  ;  twenty- 
 eeven  of  which  were  curiously 
 carved,  and  the  rest  polished. 
 Little  silver  models  of  the 
 temple,  with  the  image  of  the 
 goddess  enshrined  in  them, 
 were  made  for  sale,  and  sold  in 
 such  quantity  as  to  afford  pro- 
 fitable work  for  many  hands. 
 (ver.24,25.  See  Demetrius.) 
 
 The  following  cut  represents, 
 in  miniature,  a  front  view  of 
 this  famous  temple.  The  in- 
 scription below  signifies— Qf 
 the  Ephesians. 
 
 Paul  made  himself  offensive 
 to  the  idolatrous  Ephesians  by 
 preaching  the  very  plain  and 
 sensible  doctrine,  "that  they 
 be  no  gods  which  are  made 
 with  haiids."  Hence  the  silver- 
 smiths, who  depended  on  the 
 manufacture  of  images  for  their 
 living,  were  sreatly  excited  by 
 the  fear  that  their  craft  was  in 
 danger;  and  so  they  moved 
 the  people  to  suppose  that  the 
 temple  itself,  wiln  all  its  mag- 
 
 DIN 
 
 nificence,  would  be  destroyed, 
 and  the  city  cease  to  be  the 
 resort  of  worshippers.  (See 
 EpHESt^s,  Paul.) 
 
 DIBON.  (Josh.  xiii.  17.)  A 
 city  of  Moab,  a  few  miles  north 
 of  the  Arnon,  now  called  Di- 
 ban.  It  was  built  up  by  the 
 tribe  of  Gad,  (Num.  xxxii.  33, 
 34,)  and  hence  called  Dibon- 
 gad.  (Num.xxxiii.  45.)  The 
 same  place  is  called  Dimon. 
 (Isa.  XV.  9.)  At  a  later  day,  it 
 returned  again  to  Moab.  (Isa. 
 XV.  2.  Jer.  xlviii.  18.  22.)  In 
 Neh.  xi.  25,  a  Dibon  in  Judah 
 is  mentioned,  which  may  be 
 the  same  with  Debir.  (Josh, 
 xiii.  26.  See  Debir.)  A  place 
 called  Diban  is  mentioned  by 
 modern  travellers  as  situated 
 about  three  miles  north  of  the 
 Arnon,  or  Madieb. 
 DIUYMUS.  (See  Thomas.) 
 DINAH.  (Gen.  xxx.  21.) 
 Only  daughter  of  Jacob  and 
 Leah.  When  her  father  was 
 on  his  return  from  Padan-aram 
 to  Canaan,  he  halted  at  Sha- 
 lem,  a  city  of  Shechem.  Here 
 she  mingled  with  the  young 
 women  of  the  neighbourhood, 
 and  fell  a  victim  to  the  seduc- 
 tive arts  of  Shechem,  son  of 
 Hamor,  who  was  prince  of  the 
 country.  He  afterwards  sought 
 to  marry  her;  but  her  brothers 
 refused  their  consent  to  the  alli- 
 ance, unless  the  men  of  She- 
 chem would  submit  to  be  cir- 
 cumcised. To  this  condition 
 they  agreed;  and  when,  by  the 
 effect  "of  the  operation,  they 
 were  all  disabled  from  defend- 
 .  ing  themselves  or  their  city, 
 I  the  sons  of  Jacob  attacked 
 !  them,  slew  Shechein  and  his 
 [  father,  coinpletely  pi  llased  the 
 place,  and  made  prisoners  of 
 the  women  and  children.  Jacob 
 severely  reprimanded  them  for 
 the  act ;  but  they  were  so  indis- 
 nant  at  the  abuse  their  sister 
 i  had  suffered,  as  to  justify  heir 
 I  mode  of  revenge.  (Gen.  xxxiv. 
 I  31.)  Dinah  is  mentioned  with 
 '  the  rest  of  the  family  who  went 
 
DIS 
 Into   Egypt.     (Gen.    xlvi.    S. 
 15.) 
 
 DINNER.    (See  ]Meals). 
 
 DIONYSIUS.  (Actsxvii.34.) 
 A  convert  to  the  gospel  under 
 the  preachingofPaul  aiAthens. 
 Why  he  is  called  the  Areopa- 
 gite  we  cannot  tell,  unless  he 
 was  one  of  the  judges  of  ihe 
 court  of  Areopagus.  Ecclesi- 
 astical historians  say  that  he 
 became  an  eminent  minister 
 of  the  gospel,  and  suffered 
 martyrdoln  at  Athens,  a.  d.  95. 
 
 DIOTREPHES.  (3  John  9.) 
 Probably  a  member,  and  per- 
 haps an  officer,  of  the  church 
 erf  Corinth.  John's  third  epistle 
 is  addressed  to  Gains  of  this 
 church,  (Rom.  xvi.  23.  1  Cor.  i. 
 14  ;)  and  in  the  course  of  it,  a 
 severe  rebuke  is  given  to  Dio- 
 trephes,  who  seems  to  have 
 questioned  the  authority  of  the 
 apostle,  and  to  have  exercised 
 a  most  officious  and  unwar- 
 rantable power  in  the  church 
 to  which  he  belonged.  (See 
 art.  John,  epistles  of.) 
 
 DISCERNING  OF  SPIRITS 
 (1  Cor.  xii.  10)  was  one  of  the 
 miraculous  gifts  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  bv  virtue  of  which  the 
 epirits  of  men  were  tried  whe- 
 ther they  were  of  God.  (1  John 
 iv.  1.)  It  was  a  most  desirable 
 gift  in  the  former  ages  of  the 
 church,  when  false  prophets 
 and  wicked  spirits  abounded 
 on  every  side. 
 
 DISCIPLE.  (Matt.  x.  24.) 
 One  who  receives,  or  professes 
 to  receive,  instruction  from  an- 
 other. (Matt.  xi.  2.  Luke  xiv. 
 26,27.33.  John  ix.2S.)  In  the 
 New  Testament,  it  denotes  the 
 professed  followers  of  our  Sa- 
 viour; but  not  always  his  true 
 followers.  (Matt.  xxvi.  20,  21. 
 John  vi.  66.) 
 
 •  DISEASES.  (Deut.  xxviii. 
 CO.)  Diseases  come  upon  us 
 by  reason  of  sin ;  so  that  the 
 multiplied  forms  in  which 
 sickness  and  sufifering  appear 
 among  men,  to  wear  out  their 
 frail  bodies  and  huny  them  to 
 18 
 
 DIS 
 
 the  grave,  are  so  many  signs 
 of  tiie  evil  of  sin,  even  in  its 
 present  elTects.  Reference  is 
 made  to  the  interposition  of 
 God  in  sending  and  removing 
 diseases,  Ps.  xxxix.  9— 11 :  xc. 
 3—12. 
 
 The  plagues,  pestilences, 
 and  other  instrumentalities  by 
 which,  in  former  ages,  a  mul- 
 titude of  lives  were  destroyed 
 at  once,  were  often  miraculous; 
 that  is,  the  natural  causes  and 
 progress  of  disease  were  not 
 employed,  or  were  not  visible. 
 (Ex.  x'ii.  2:3.  29.  2  Kings  xix.  35. 
 1  Chron.  xxi.  12 — 15.  Acts  xii. 
 23.)  The  plagues  of  Egypt 
 were  also  of  this  character. 
 From  aa  early  period,  we  find 
 the  agency  of  evil  spirits  em- 
 ployed to  afflict  and  trouble 
 men ;  as  in  the  case  of  Saul 
 and  Job.  In  the  time  of  our 
 Saviour,  they  seem  to  have 
 been  permitted  often  to  take 
 entire  possession  of  the  human 
 frame;  in  which  case  the  bo- 
 dily, and  often  the  mental 
 powers,  were  to  a  greater  or 
 less  extent  suspended,  and  the 
 wretched  sufferer  exposed  to  a 
 train  of  the  most  dreadful  dan- 
 gers and  calamities.  (Matt, 
 xvii.  15.  Mark  v.  11—15.  Luke 
 ix.  33^0.     See  Possessed.) 
 
 The  diet  and  habits  of  the 
 early  Jews  were  so  simple  and 
 uniform,  that  diseases  were  un- 
 common ;  but  at  a  later  period, 
 we  have  reason  to  believe  they 
 became  common  and  severe, 
 as  the  manners  and  customs  of 
 the  nation  grew  more  corrupt 
 and  luxurious ;  so  that  we  may 
 suppose,  in  the  multitude 
 which  resorted  to  our  Saviour 
 to  be  healed  of  all  manner  of 
 diseases,  there  would  be  found 
 a  fearful  list  of  painful  and 
 incurable  complaints. 
 
 The  diseases  of  Egypt,  and 
 other  countries  of  similar  cli- 
 mate, were  ophthalmies,  or  dis- 
 eases of  the  eyes;  leprosies, 
 inflammations  of  the  brain, 
 consumptions,  pestilential  f» 
 
DTV 
 
 vers,  &c.  fee.  Palsies  fire  often 
 menlioned  in  ihe  New  Tesla- 
 meni.  These  diseases  are  par- 
 ticularly noticed  in  the  iippro- 
 priate  place.  (See  Biblical 
 ANTiauiriEs,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  vol.  i.  ch.  vii.  §  1.) 
 DISH.  (See  Table.) 
 DI8PEN.SATI0N.  (1  Cor. 
 ix.  17.)  This  word,  in  its 
 scriptural  use,  generally  de- 
 notes a  plan  or  scheme,  or  a 
 system  of  precepts  and  princi- 
 
 Eles  prescribed  and  revealed 
 y  God,  for  his  own  glory  and 
 for  the  advantage  and  happi- 
 ness of  his  creatures.  (Eph.  i. 
 10;  iii.2.  Col.  i.  25.)  In  the 
 passase  first  al>ove  cited  it  is 
 Bitpposed  to  mean  an  authority 
 or  commission  to  preach  the 
 gospel.  The  dispensation  of 
 the  law  by  Moses,  and  of  the 
 gospel  by  Jpsus  Christ,  are  ex- 
 amjjles  of  the  use  of  the  word 
 in  its  firmer  meaninsr. 
 
 DISPERSED.  "^DISPER- 
 SIONS.  (Isa.  xi.  12.  Jer.  xxv. 
 34.  John  vii.  35.)  These  terms 
 are  usually  applied  to  the 
 Jews,  who,  after  their  capti- 
 vity, and  still  more  emphati- 
 cally .after  the  fj  iial  destruction 
 of  their  holy  city,  were  scat- 
 tered abroad  through  the  earth. 
 (James  i.  1.   1  Pet.  i.  1.) 
 
 DIVINATION  (Deul.  xviii. 
 10)  is  the  practice  of  divining 
 or  of  foretelling  future  events. 
 In  the  passage  cited,  it  is  put 
 in  connexion  with  witchcraft, 
 necromancy,  and  other  aljo- 
 minations  of  the  heathen ; 
 which  the  Jews  were  to 
 avoid.  Divination  was  a  pre- 
 vailing sin  among  the  Israel- 
 ites and  many  of  the  eastern 
 nations.  The  modes,  or  means 
 of  divining  were  l)y  consulting, 
 or  being  familiar  with  spiriis, 
 by   the  motions  of  the  stara, 
 
 clouds,  &c.,  and  t>y  lots,  rods, 
 or  wands,  dreams,  the  flight  of 
 
 birds,  the  entrails  of  animals, 
 
 &c.  &c. 
 It   is  said  of  Joseph's  cup 
 
 ^eu.  xUv.  5)  that  he  divined 
 
 DIV 
 
 by  it.  It  is  not  to  be  inft-rred, 
 however,  that  he  practised 
 divination.  He  had  received 
 from  God  the  gift  of  interpret- 
 ing dreams,  aiid  he  exercised 
 it  with  great  humility,  and 
 always  for  God's  glory.  It  may 
 be  that  Joseph's  officer  mis- 
 took the  gifts  of  his  lord,  and 
 supposed  "that  he  must  have 
 the  power  of  divination.  This 
 is  certainly  the  most  obvious 
 construction.  It  is  said,  how- 
 ever, by  a  learned  critic,  that 
 the  word  here  rendered  di 
 vinelh  elsewhere  signifies  to 
 make  an  experiment";  so  that 
 the  passage  may  read  thus:  Is 
 not  this  the  cup  wherein  my 
 lord  drinketh,  and  whereby  he 
 has  made  a  trial  of  your  ho- 
 nesty, laying  it  in  your  way  to 
 see  whether  you  would  take  it 
 or  not  ■? 
 
 The  practice  of  divination 
 in  all  its  forms  is  reprobated 
 with  marked  severity  by  the 
 law  of  Moses  and  by  the  sacred 
 writers.  (Lev.  xx.  27.  Deut. 
 xviii.  9— 14.  Jer.  xiv.  14.  Ezek. 
 xiii.  8,  9.)  It  is  a  branch  of 
 pagan  idolatry  and  suiiersti- 
 tioh  ;  and  in  whatever  form  it 
 is  practised  or  regarded,  it  is 
 reproachful  to  Christianity, 
 and  argues  great  folly,  igno- 
 rance, and  sin.     (2 Pet.  i.  19.) 
 
 DIVOPvCE.  (Jer.iii.8.)  The 
 dissolution  of  the  marriage  re 
 lation.  This  was  permitted  ljy 
 the  law  of  Moses,  for  reasons 
 of  local  expediency,  and  un- 
 der circumstances  jjeculiar  to 
 their  situation  as  a  people.  It 
 wasa mere  civil  regulaliof),and 
 seems  »o  have  bei-n  so  much 
 abused  by  the  liceniious  that 
 it  became  connnon  for  a  man 
 to  put  away  his  wife  for  tlie 
 most  trivial  cause;  and  many 
 of  the  Jewish  (h)clors  contend- 
 ed that  this  was  the  siiiril  of 
 the  law.  To  tempt  our  Saviour 
 to  say  something  oiTrnsive, 
 they  put  the  question  to  him 
 whether  it  was  lawful  to  do 
 this;  and,  in  the  a)uise  of  the 
 206 
 
DOG 
 
 eonversation  which  ensued,  he 
 reproves  their  conduct  in  this 
 particular  with  great  severity, 
 and  restrains  the  practice  to 
 one  class  of  cases.  (Matt-  xix. 
 3-9.) 
 
 The  husband  was  required 
 to  give  his  wife  a  writing  or 
 bill  of  divorcement,  in  which 
 wag  set  forth  the  date,  place, 
 and  cause  of  her  repudiation, 
 and  a  permission  was  given  by 
 it  to  marry  whom  she  pleased. 
 It  was  provided,  however,  that 
 she  might  be  restored  to  the 
 relation,  at  any  future  time,  if 
 she  did  not  meanwhile  marry 
 any  other  man. 
 
 The  woman  also  seems  to 
 have  had  power,  at  least  in  a 
 later  period  of  the  Jewish  slate, 
 to  put  away  her  husband. 
 (Mark  x.  12.) 
 
 DOCTOR.  (Luke  ii.  46.) 
 Doctors  or  teachers  of  the  law 
 were  those  who  made  it  their 
 business  or  profession  to  teach 
 the  law  of  Moses;  and  they 
 were  in  great  repute  among 
 the  Jews.  Some  have  distin- 
 guished the  scribes  from  the 
 doctors,  by  supposing  that  the 
 former  wrote  their  opinions, 
 while  the  latter  taught  extem- 
 poraneously. The  doctors  were 
 generally  of  the  sect  of  the  Pha- 
 risees ;  perhaps  always.  (Luke 
 V.  17.)  It  is  thought  that  the 
 peculiar  office  of  teachers  is 
 intended,  1  Cor.  xii.  23.  (1.) 
 Apostles  or  public  instructers. 
 (2.)  Prophets  or  occasional  in- 
 structers ;  and,  (3.)  Doctors  or 
 teachers,  i.  e.  private  instruc- 
 ters. 
 DODANIM.  (SeeDEDAN.) 
 DOEG.  (See  Ahimelech.) 
 DOG.  (Ex.  xi.  7.)  The  dog 
 was  not  only  an  unclean  ani- 
 mal by  the  Jewish  law,  but 
 was  regarded  with  peculiar 
 contempt,  (Ex.  xxii.  31.  Deut. 
 xxiii.  18.  1  Sam.  xvii.  43 ;  xxiv. 
 14.  2Sam.  ix.  8.  2King3viii. 
 13.  Phil.  iii.  2.  Rev.  xxii.  15;) 
 ftud  he  is  so  regarded  at  the 
 
 DOG 
 
 present  day  by  the  Turks,  who 
 can  find  no  more  abusive  and 
 contemptuous  language  to  ajv 
 ply  to  a  Christian,~tlian  to  call 
 him  a  dog. 
 
 Solomon  puts  a  living  dog  in 
 contrast  with  a  dead  lion,  to 
 show  that  the  meanest  thing 
 alive  is  of  more  importance 
 than  the  noblest  that  is  dead. 
 (Eccl.  ix.  4.)  Abner's  exclama- 
 tion, "Am  I  a  dog's  head  7" 
 (2  Sam.  iii.  8,)  has  a  significa- 
 tion of  the  same  kind.  Isaiah 
 expresses  the  necessity  of 
 repentance  and  sincerity  u, 
 make  a  sacrifice  acceptable  to 
 God,  by  declaring,  that  without 
 them,  "he  that  sacrifices  a 
 lamb,  does  nothing  belter  than 
 if  he  had  cutoff  a  dog's  neck." 
 (Isa.  Ixvi.  3.)  The  only  useful 
 purpose  to  which  dogs  appear 
 to  have  been  put  was  to  guard 
 the  flocks,  (Job  xxx.  1 ;)  and 
 even  in  that  passage  they 
 are  spoken  of  with  contempt. 
 Isaiah  may  be  understood  to 
 allude  to  this  manner  of  em- 
 ploying them  in  his  description 
 of  the  spiritual  watchmen  of 
 Israel.    (Isa.  Ivi.  10,  11.) 
 
 Although  dogs  are  numerous 
 in  the  Jewish  cities,  they  were 
 not  kept  in  their  houses,  but 
 wandered  through  the  streets, 
 picking  up  whatever  was 
 thrown  out  of  the  remains  of 
 the  table,  after  the  family  had 
 eaten.  So  David  speaks  of  his 
 wicked  enemies.  (Ps.  lix.  6. 14, 
 15.)  The  Mosaic  law  directed 
 the  people  to  throw  to  the  dogs 
 the  flesh  that  was  torn  by 
 beasts.    (Ex.  xxii.  31.) 
 
 This  manner  of  living  ac- 
 counts for  the  savageness  of 
 the  animal  among  that  people. 
 They  preyed  upon  human 
 flesh,  licked  the  blood  of  the 
 slain,  and  sometimes  were 
 wild  enough  to  attack  men,  as 
 bloodhounds  do.  (I  Kings  xiv. 
 11;  xvi.  4;  xxi.  19.  23;  xxii. 
 38.  2  Kings  ix.  10.36.  Ps.xxii. 
 16.20:  Ixviii.  23.  Jer.  xv.  3, 
 207 
 
DOR 
 
 Their  habits  made  ihem  dan- 
 gerous lo  touch.  (Prov.  xxvi. 
 17.) 
 
 The  eastern  people  were  in 
 the  practice  of  applying  the 
 names  of  animals  to  men  who 
 resemble  them  in  their  dispo- 
 sition, as  we  call  a  cunning 
 man  a  fox,  a  brave  man  a  lion, 
 &c.  So  our  Saviour  told  his  dis- 
 ciples, "Give  not  that  which 
 is  holy  unto  the  dogs,  lest  they 
 turn  upon  you,  and"  tear  you," 
 after  they  have  eaten  it,  (Malt, 
 vii.  6 ;)  meaning  that  they 
 should  not  offer  the  sacred 
 things  of  the  gospel  lo  those 
 insolent  and  alx)niinable  men 
 who  would  only  heap  ahuse  on 
 them  for  it:  having  reference 
 also  to  the  practice  of  the 
 priests  at  the  altar,  who  would 
 not  throw  to  the  dogs  any  of 
 the  meat  used  in  sacrifice.  He 
 told  also  the  Syro-phenician 
 woman,  that  it  was  not  proper 
 to  give  the  children's  meat  to 
 dogs,  (j\Ialt.  XV.  2G ;)  that  is, 
 the  gospel  was  sent  first  to  the 
 Jews,  who  are  called  the  child- 
 ren, and  was  not  yet  to  be 
 given  to  one  of  the  Gentiles,  as 
 she  was,  whom  the  Jews  called 
 dogs;  that  the  children  must 
 06  first  fed  befire  the  meat 
 was  thrown  into  the  street. 
 Those  who  are  shut  out  of  the 
 kingdom  of  heaven  are  dogs, 
 sorcerers,  &;c.,  (Rev.  xxii.  15,) 
 where  the  word  is  applied  to 
 all  kinds  of  vile  persons,  as  it 
 is  to  a  particular  class  in  Deut. 
 xxiii.  18.  The  comparison  of 
 Solomon  illusiraiins  the  return 
 of  a  fool  to  his  folly,  cited  in 
 2  Pet.  ii.  22,  is  taken  from  a 
 natural  fact.  Persecutors  are 
 called  dogs,  Ps.  xxii.  16.  (See 
 Youth's  Friend,  vol.  v.,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 DOOR.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 DOR.  (Judg.i.27.)  This  is 
 now  a  small  town  on  the  Me- 
 diterranean coast,  about  nine 
 miles  north  of  Cesarea.  Its 
 present  name  is  Tortura.  It 
 IS  close  upon  the  beach,  and 
 
 DOV 
 
 contains  about  five  hundred  in- 
 habitants. It  was  formerly  a 
 royal  city,  or  capital  of  a  dis- 
 trict of  Canaan.  (Josh.  xii.  23,) 
 and  was  assigned  lo  the  halt 
 tribe  of  Manasseh. 
 DORCAS.  (See  Tabitma.) 
 DOTHAN  (Gen.  xxxvii.  17) 
 was  situated  near  Jezrpel,about 
 twelve  miles  norih  of  Samaria, 
 at  a  narrow  pass  in  the  moun- 
 tains of  Gilboa.  It  is  memora- 
 ble as  the  place  where  Joseph's 
 brethren  sold  him,  and  also 
 where  the  Syrian  troops  at- 
 tempted to  seize  Elisha.  (2 
 Kinss  vi.  13-23.) 
 
 DOTING  (1  Tim.  vi.  4)  sig- 
 nifies  being  excessively  fond 
 of,  or  foolish!j  and  vainly  bent 
 upon,  questions  and  strifes 
 about  mere  words. 
 DOUGH.  (See  Bread.) 
 DOVE.  (Gen.  viii.  9.)  A 
 bird  clean  by  the  Mosaic  law, 
 and  often  mentioned  by  the 
 sacred  writers.  In  their  wild 
 state,  they  dwell  principally 
 in  holes  in  the  rocks.  (Sol. 
 Song  ii.  14.  Jer.  xlviii.  28.) 
 They  are  innocent  in  their 
 dispositions,  and  make  no  re- 
 sistance to  their  enemies. 
 (Mall.  X.  16.)  They  are  very 
 much  attached  to  their  mates  ; 
 and  when  one  is  absent  or  dies, 
 the  other,  or  survivor,  laments 
 hs  loneliness.  (Isa.  xxxviii. 
 14;  lix.  11.  Ezek.  vii.  16. 
 Nah.  ii.  7.) 
 
 There  are  various  allusions 
 to  the  mildness,  peacefulness, 
 and  affection  of  doves.  The 
 church  is  called  a  turtle-dove 
 and  a  dove,  or  compared  to  it, 
 Ps.  Ixxiv.  19.  Sol.  Son^i.  15; 
 ii.  14 ;  iv.  1 ;  v.  2 ;  vi.  9.  Where 
 "doves'  eyes"  are  spoken  of 
 in  these  passages,  allusion  is 
 made  to  the  meekness  of 
 their  expression.  It  is  thought 
 by  eminent  critics,  that  Sol. 
 Song  v.  12,  is  wrongly  trans- 
 lated ;  that  allusion  is  made  to 
 a  deep  blue  coloured  pigeon, 
 common  in  the  east,  and  that 
 it  is  meant  lo  compare  the 
 208 
 
DOV 
 
 w  !te  of  the  eye  to  milk,  and 
 the  iv's  to  a  blue  pigeon  ;  and 
 that  the  comparison  is,  "His 
 eyes  are  lilie  a  dark  blue 
 pigeon,  standing  in  the  middle 
 of  a  pool  of  milk."  It  was  in 
 the  manner  of  a  dove  that  the 
 Holy  Spirit  descended  upon 
 our  Saviour  at  his  baptism. 
 (Matt.  iii.  16.  Mark  i.lO.  Luke 
 iii.  22.  John  i.  32.)  Hosea 
 compares  timid  Ephraim  to 
 "  a  silly  dove  without  heart," 
 (vii.  11 ;)  and  says,  that  when 
 the  Jews  shall  be  called  to 
 their  own  land,  they  shall 
 "tremble,"  or  fly,  ''  as  a  dove 
 out  of  the  land  of  Assyria."  (xi. 
 11.)  David  in  his  distress  wish- 
 ed that  he  could  fly  from  his 
 troubles  as  the  doves  do  to 
 warmer  climates  on  the  ap- 
 proach of  winter.  (Ps.  Iv.  6— 
 8.)  The  appearance  of  the 
 dove  is  spoken  of  as  an  emblem 
 of  spring,  Sol.  Song  ii.  12. 
 
 The  dove  is  mentioned  in 
 an  interesting  part  of  the  early 
 history  of  the  world,  as  being 
 sent  out  by  Noah  from  the  ark 
 that  he  might  discover  whether 
 the  dry  land  had  appeared. 
 (Gen.  viii.  6—12.) 
 
 The  dove  was  used  in  sacri- 
 fices. It  was,  among  other 
 animals,  prepared  by  Abram, 
 when  God  manifested  his  in- 
 tention to  bless  him,  as  nar- 
 rated in  Gen.  xv.  9.  When  a 
 child  was  born,  the  mother 
 was  required,  within  a  certa-in 
 time,  to  bring  a  lamb  and  a 
 young  pigeon,  or  turtle,  for 
 oflferings;  but  if  she  was  too 
 poor  to  afford  a  lamb,  she 
 might  bring  two  turtles,  or  two 
 young  pigeons.  (Lev.xii.6— 8.) 
 Thus  we  may  judge  of  the  po- 
 verty of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
 Jesus,  when,  upon  his  birth, 
 she  brought  to  the  temple  at 
 Jerusalem  the  two  birds  in- 
 stead of  a  lamb.  (Luke  ii.  24.) 
 It  was  to  supply  mothers  with 
 animals  for  sacrifice  that  those 
 
 Sersons  sat  in  the  temple  vvitli 
 oves  to  sell,  whom  our  Lord 
 18* 
 
 DOW 
 
 forced  to  leave  it,  because 
 "  the  house  of  prayer"  was  not 
 a  fit  place  for  buying  and  sell- 
 ins.  (Mark  xi.  15.  John  ii. 
 14-16.) 
 
 There  is  some  obscurity  in 
 Ps.  Ixviii.  13;  but  the  natural 
 import  of  it  is  most  probably 
 the  correct  one.  The  design 
 of  the  psalmist  is  to  present  in 
 contrast,  the  condition  of  the 
 Israelites  (who  were  address- 
 ed) at  two  periods  of  their  his- 
 tory. Inthedayof  their  afflic- 
 tion and  calamity,  they  were 
 covered  as  it  were  with  shame 
 and  confusion  ;  but  in  the  day 
 of  their  prosperity,  they  should 
 resemble  the  cleanest  and  most 
 beautiful  of  birds. 
 
 The  allusion  in  Isa.  Ix.  8, 
 may  be  to  the  immense  com- 
 pact masses  of  these  birds  that 
 eastern  travellers  describe,  as 
 they  are  seen  flying  to  their 
 houses  or  places  of  general  re- 
 sort. They  sometimes  resem- 
 ble a  distant  heavy  cloud,  and 
 are  so  dense  as  to  obscure  the 
 rays  of  the  sun.  (See  Youth's 
 Friend,  vol.  vi.,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.   See  Turtle  Dove.) 
 
 Dove's  dung.  (2  Kings  vi. 
 25.)  There  are  but  two  modes 
 of  interpreting  this  passage; 
 either  ol  whicii  is  satisfactory. 
 The  first  is,  that  this  particular 
 substance  was  remarkably  va- 
 luable as  a  manure  for  those 
 vegetables  which  might  be 
 soonest  raised  to  supply  the 
 famishing  Samaritans;  and  the 
 other  is,  that  a  vegetable  re- 
 sembling the  chick-pea,  or 
 lentil,  is  intended,  which  re- 
 sembles dove's  dung  in  appear- 
 ance, and  is  still  a  common 
 article  of  food  at  Cairo,  Damas- 
 cus, &c.,  especially  for  eastern 
 pilgrims,  and  of  which  the  cab 
 would  be  a  suitable  measure. 
 (See  Measures.)  The  pas- 
 sage  evidently  expresses  the 
 extreme  severity  of  the  famine. 
 
 DOWRY,  (Gen.  xxx.  20,)  in 
 the  eastern  acceptation  of  the 
 word,  means  that  which  tba 
 209 
 
DRE 
 
 husband  pays  for  his  wife,  in- 
 stead of  that  which  the  wife 
 receives  from  her  father  and 
 brings  to  her  husband.  (Gen. 
 xxix.  18;  xxxiv.  12.  1  Sam. 
 xviii.25.)  So  (Ex.  xxii.  16, 17. 
 Josh.  XV.  18)  a  man  was  re- 
 quired to  pay  a  certain  sum  as 
 dowry,  or  a  nuptial  present; 
 and  tliis  was  to  be  according 
 to  the  rank  she  sustained,  and 
 such  as  the  fathers  of  virgins 
 of  the  same  rank  were  accus- 
 tomed to  receive  for  their 
 daushters.    (Hos.  iii.  2) 
 
 DRAGON.  (Job  XXX.  29.)  It 
 is  quite  uncertain  what  ani- 
 mal, if  any,  is  intended  by  this 
 name.  It  is  not  improbable 
 that  it  is  a  generic  terra,  de- 
 noting some"class  of  animals 
 distin'guished  by  some  common 
 characteristic;  and  yet,  from 
 Lam.  iv.  3,  and  Mic.  i.  8,  we 
 should  infer  tliat  the  word  is 
 applied  to  a  particular  animal 
 that  cries  and  gives  suck.  The 
 word  translated  dragon,  Isa. 
 xxvii.  1,  is  translated  whale, 
 Gen.  i.  21,  and  Job  vii.  12 ;  and 
 serpent,  Ex.  vii. 9;  and  dragon, 
 Deut.  xxxii.  33,  and  Ps.  xci. 
 13.  In  Isa.  xxxiv.  13,  the  word 
 translated  dragons  means 
 some  creature  of  the  wilder- 
 ness, whose  presence  denotes 
 desolation.  So  in  Job  xxx.  29. 
 Ps.  xliv.  19.  Jer.  ix.  11;  in  all 
 which  passages,  solitude  and 
 desolation  are  intended  to  be 
 illustrated.  (INIic.  i.  8.) 
 
 The  figurative  use  of  this 
 term  by  the  sacred  writers,  as 
 in  Ps.  Ixxiv.  13.  Ezek.  xxix.  3. 
 Rev.  xii.  3,  and  xx.  2,  is  suflS- 
 tiently  obvious. 
 
 DRAMS.    (See  Measures.) 
 
 DRAUGHT.  (Matt.  xv.  17.) 
 A  vault  or  drain  for  the  recep- 
 tion of  filih.  In  this  sense  it 
 is  probably  used,  2Kings  x. 
 27.  When  applied  to  fishes,  it 
 means  those  which  are  caught 
 by  one  sweep  or  drawing  of 
 the  net. 
 
 DREAM.  (Dan.  vii.  1.)  From 
 a  very  early  period,  dreams 
 
 DRE 
 
 i  have  been  observed  with  sti 
 perstitious  regard.  God  was 
 I  pleased  to  make  use  of  them 
 :  to  reveal  his  purposes  or  re- 
 quirements to  individuals,  and 
 I  he  also  save  power  to  inter- 
 !  pret  them.  (Gen.  xx.  3—6 ; 
 xxviii.  12—14.  1  Sam.  xxviii. 
 6.  Dan.  ii.  Joel  ii.  28.)  And 
 i  if  any  person  dreamed  a 
 '  dream  which  was  peculiarly 
 striking  and  significant,  he 
 '  was  permitted  t"b  go  to  the 
 high-priest  in  a  jjarlicular  way, 
 an^'d  see  if  it  had  any  special 
 import.  But  the  observance 
 of  ordinary  dreams,  and  the 
 consulting  of  those  who  pre- 
 tend to  skill  in  their  interpre- 
 tation, is  repeatedly  forbidden, 
 (Deui.xiii.  1—5;  xviii.  9—14.) 
 The  words  dream  and  vision 
 are  sometimes  used  indiscri- 
 minately, (Gen.  xlvi.  2.  Num. 
 xii.  6.  Job  XX.  8;  xxxiii.  14, 15. 
 Dan.  ii.  28;  vii.  1,)  though  else- 
 where they  would  seem  to  be 
 distinguished.  (Joel  ii.  28.)  It 
 has  been  suggested,  that  per- 
 haps where  any  difference  is 
 intended  between  prophetic 
 dreams  and  prophetic  visions, 
 it  may  be  much  the  same  in 
 one  sense  as  between  common 
 dreams  and  the  wandering  of 
 the  mind  in  a  delirium.  Ofihe 
 latter  description  might  be  the 
 cases  recorded,  2  Kings  vi.  17, 
 and  vii.  6.  In  respect  to  Paul's 
 vision,  (2  Cor.  xii.  1,  2.4,)  it 
 seems  to  be  doubtful  whether 
 his  soul  were  not  separated 
 from  the  body,  and  permitted 
 to  mingle  for  a  moment  with 
 celestial  beings;  for  we  must 
 remember  that  all  our  notions 
 of  space  and  distance  between 
 this  world  and  the  world  of 
 spirits,  are  entirely  fallacious. 
 Sometimes  miraculous  revela- 
 tions of  God's  will  are  called 
 visions.  (Luke  i.  22.  1  Sam.  iii. 
 15.    See  Vision,  Trance.) 
 
 The  power  of  interpreting 
 dreams  was  of  course  a  super- 
 natural   gift,    so    far    as    the 
 dreams  had  reference  to  future 
 210 
 
DRI 
 
 events ;  for  these  are  necessa- 
 rily unknown,  except  to  the 
 Supreme  Disposer  of  them. 
 Of  course  Joseph  was  divinely 
 instructed.  (Gen.  xl.  5.  8;  xli. 
 16.)  Since  the  fuller  revelation 
 of  God's  will  has  been  made 
 to  u8  in  the  gospel,  all  confi- 
 dence in  dreams,' as  indicative 
 of  future  events,  is  presumptu- 
 ous and  delusive,  and  all  pre- 
 tension to  the  power  of  inter- 
 preting Ihem  must  be  regarded 
 as  in  the  highest  degree  impi- 
 ous and  absurd 
 DRESS.  (See  Clothe.?.) 
 DRINK.  (Gen.  xxi.l9.)  The 
 use  of  strong  drink,  even  to  ex- 
 cess,was  noiuncnmmon  among 
 the  Israelites.  Tliis  is  inferred 
 from  the  striking  figures  with 
 which  the  use  and  effects  of  it 
 have  furnished  the  sacred  wri- 
 ters, (Ps.  cvii.  27.  Isa.  xxiv. 
 20;  xlix.  26;  li.  17—22,)  and 
 also  from  various  express  pro- 
 hibitions and  penalties.  (Prov. 
 XX.  1.  Isa.v.  11.  Hab.  ii.  15,16.) 
 Strong  drink.  A  variety  of 
 intoxicating  drinks  are  com- 
 prised under  the  term  strong 
 drink.  (Isa.  xxviii.  7.)  It  indi- 
 cates any  intoxicating  drink, 
 whether  brewed  from  grain  or 
 made  of  honey-combs,  dates, 
 or  boiled  fruits.  The  Alexan- 
 drine interpreters,  who  were 
 doubtless  familiar  with  the 
 beer  of  Egypt,  render  this 
 word  by  other  terms  signify- 
 ing intoxicating  drink.  Pliny 
 enumerates  various  vegetables 
 which  enter  into  its  compo- 
 Bhion  :  among  the  rest,  figs, 
 pomegranates,  apples,  and  par- 
 ticularly dates.  This  date  wine 
 was  in  great  request  among  the 
 Parthians,  Indians,  and  other 
 orientals ;  and  is  said  by  Xeno- 
 
 ghon  to  have  produced  severe 
 eadaches.  We  may  naturally 
 infer  that  the  strong  drink  in- 
 cludes this  liquor  of  dates,  as 
 well  as  other  artificial  beve- 
 rages. 
 
 The  Pharisees,  it    is   said, 
 strained  their  drink  for  fear  of 
 
 DRO 
 
 swallowing  some  unclean  ani- 
 inal.  Hence  it  is  believed  that 
 ill  the  expression,  Matt,  xxiii. 
 24,  at  should  be  rendered  out. 
 However. proper  this  construc- 
 tion may  be,  the  original  word 
 requires  neither  a  diflferenl 
 rendering  nor  a  reference  to  a 
 doubtful  custom,  to  render  its 
 meaning  sufficiently  obvious. 
 (See  Wine,  Vinegar.) 
 
 DRINK-OFFERING.  (See 
 Offering.) 
 
 DR03IEDARY.  (Isa.  Ix.  6.) 
 A  species  of  the  camel  re- 
 markal'le  for  swiftness  of  mo- 
 tion, (Jer.  ii.23,)  which  is  from 
 sixty  to  ninety  miles  or  more 
 in  a  day.  He  differs  from  the 
 ordinary  camel  in  that  he  is 
 smaller,  cannot  bear  the  same 
 degree  of  heat,  and  has  but 
 one  hump  or  protuberance  on 
 the  back.  He  is  controlled  by 
 a  bridle  fastened  in  a  ring 
 which  passes  through  the  nose. 
 (2Kin2S  xix.  23.) 
 
 DROUGHT.  (Ps.  xxxii.  4.) 
 From  the  end  of  April  to  Sep- 
 tember the  land  of  Judea  was 
 very  dry.  It  was  the  drought 
 of  summer.  The  grass  was 
 sometimes  completely  wither- 
 ed, (P.s.  cii.  4,)  and  the  parched 
 earth  broke  into  chasms.  The 
 heavens  seemed  like  brass, 
 and  the  earth  like  iron,  (Deut 
 xxviii.  -23,)  and  all  the  land 
 and  the  creatures  upon  it  suf- 
 fered ;  and  nothing  but  the 
 copious  dews  of  the  night  pre- 
 served the  life  of  any  living 
 thing.  (Hag.  i.  11.)  The  heat 
 was  at  times  excessive.  Dr. 
 Clarke  tells  us,  that  when  he 
 was  travelling  near  Cana,  in 
 Galilee,  in  Ju  y,  the  thermo- 
 meter, in  a  gloomy  recess  un- 
 der ground,  perfectly  shaded, 
 stood  at  one  hundred  degrees 
 of  Fahrenheit  at  noon. 
 
 It  is  maintained  by  some 
 critics  that  the  word  drought, 
 in  Deut.  viii.  15,  is  applied  to 
 a  serpent  whose  bite  was  poi- 
 sonous and  attended  with  in- 
 satiable and  agonizing  thirst. 
 211 
 
DUN 
 But  llie  ordinary  meaning  of 
 the  word  is  certainly  appro- 
 priate to  the  subject  and  con- 
 nexion. 
 
 DRUNKENNESS.  (See 
 Drink,  Wine.) 
 
 DRUSILLA.  (Actsxxiv.24.) 
 Tliird  daughter  of  the  Herod 
 who  is  mentioned  Acts  xii.  1— 
 4.  20—23.  She  married  Felix 
 the  Roman  governor,  while  she 
 had  another  husband  living; 
 and  was  present  at  the  hearing 
 of  the  apostle  Paul  before  her 
 Lusband  at  Cesarea. 
 
 DUKE  (Gen.  xxxvi.  15) 
 means  only  a  chief  or  leader, 
 and  is  in  no  sense  a  title  of 
 nobility. 
 
 DULCIMER.  (Dan.iii.5.10.) 
 The  instrument  denoted  by 
 this  word  was  a  pipe  or  flute  of 
 reed,  like  wha*.  the  Italians 
 call  zampogna.  The  Rabbins 
 describe  it  as  two  pipes  con- 
 nected with  a  leather  sack  or 
 skin.  The  dulcimer  of  the 
 present  day  is  entirely  unlike 
 It,  both  in  form  and  in  the 
 mode  of  using  it. 
 
 Some  have  supposed  that 
 the  word  means  a  strain  or 
 chorus,  rather  than  an  instru- 
 ment of  music. 
 
 DUMAH.  (Tsa.  xxi.  11.) 
 There  was  a  city  of  Judah  of 
 this  name,  (Josh.  xv.  52,)  but 
 the  Dumah  which  is  the  sub- 
 ject of  this  prophecy  was  pro- 
 bably a  country  settled  by  the 
 descendants  of  Dumah,  Ish- 
 mael's  sixth  son.  (Gen.  xxv. 
 14.)  It  is  said  that  they  inha- 
 bited the  borders  of  the  desert 
 of  Syria,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
 or  two  hundred  miles  from 
 Damascus,  and  a  district  of 
 country  is  there  still,  bearing 
 the  name  of  Duma  the  stony, 
 or  the  Syrian  Duma 
 
 DUNG.  (Ezek.  iv.  12.)  In 
 many  countries  of  the  east 
 wood  is  so  scarce  and  dear  as 
 to  be  sold  by  weight.  Hence 
 (as  travellers  inform  us)  ani- 
 mal excrements  are  used  as  j 
 fuel.    Le  Bruyn  Bays  it  is  a  ! 
 
 very  common  material  for  heat- 
 ing ovens,  even  among  people 
 of^comfortable  circumstances. 
 Niebuhr  says,  that  in  Arabia, 
 the  excrements  of  asses  and 
 camels  are  collected  in  the 
 streets  by  children,  and  mixed 
 with  cut  straw.  It  is  then  put  ia 
 the  sun  to  dry,  and  is  thus  fitted 
 for  use.  The  effluvia  arising 
 from  the  use  of  it  is  very  offen- 
 sive, and  penetrates  the  food. 
 
 Dove's  dung.  (See  Dove.) 
 
 DURA.  (Dan.  iii.  1.)  An  ex- 
 tensive plain  in  the  province 
 of  Babylon,  where  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar caused  the  golden 
 imatre  to  be  erected. 
 
 DUST.  (Jobii.  12.)  To  shake 
 off  the  dust  of  one- s  feet  against 
 another,  (Jfati.  x.  14.  Mark  vi. 
 11.  Acts  xiii.  51,)  was  expres- 
 sive of  entire  renunciation. 
 The  custom  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  common  among  the 
 Jews,  when  they  had  set  a 
 foot  on  heathen  ground,  to 
 shake  off  the  dust,  so  as  to 
 carry  nothing  unclean  or  pol- 
 luting into  their  own  land. 
 
 Rain  of  dust.  (Deut.  xxviii. 
 24.)  In  Judea,  or  its  immediate 
 vicinity,  are  plains  or  deserts 
 of  fine  sand,  which,  when  agi- 
 tated by  a  violent  wind,  maker 
 most  terrific  and  desolating 
 storms.  Eastern  travellers  de- 
 scribe them  particularly,  and 
 think  them  much  more  dread- 
 ful than  storms  at  sea.  This 
 fact  affords  us  a  striking  illus- 
 tration of  the  nature  and  hor 
 rors  of  the  plasiue.  mentioned 
 Ex.  viii.  16. 
 
 DWELLINGS.  (Lev.vii.26.) 
 Tlie  most  common  dwellings 
 in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world 
 were  tents.  The  simple  habits 
 of  life  which  were  then  more 
 prevalent,  and  the  climate  of 
 the  first  settled  portions  of  the 
 globe,  made  these  the  most 
 convenient  and  comfortable 
 dwellings;  and  tents  of  various 
 sizes  and  shapes  were  formed 
 by  setting  poles  in  the  ground, 
 and  stretching  over  them  a 
 212 
 
DWE 
 
 DWE 
 
 covering  ofcloth or  skin,  which 
 was  fastened  to  stakes  by 
 means  of  cords.  (Isa.  liv.  2.) 
 One  mode  of  tent  building 
 is  seen  in  the  preceding  cut". 
 Sometimes  they  were  divided 
 into  apartments  by  means  of 
 curtains,  and  the  ground  was 
 covered  with  mats  or  carpets. 
 The  door  was  formed  of  a  fold 
 of  cloth,  which  was  dropped  or 
 raised.  The  fire  was  kindled 
 in  an  excavation  in  the  middle 
 of  the  tent  ground,  and  the 
 cooking  utensils,  which  were 
 very  few  and  simple,  were 
 easily  moved  from  place  to 
 place.  (Isa.  xxxviii.  12.)  Some- 
 times tents  were  expensively 
 adorned  and  furnished ;  and 
 they  are  very  common  dwell- 
 ings at  this  day  among  many 
 nations.  The  form  of  modern 
 tents  in  the  east  is  said  to  re- 
 Bemble  the  hull  of  a  ship  turned 
 Bpside  down. 
 When  the  habits  of  mankind 
 
 changed,  and  their  pursuits 
 fixed  them  to  one  spot,  their 
 dwellings  were  built  with  a 
 view  to  permanency,  and  we 
 may  suppose  that  the  science 
 of  building  was  well  under- 
 stood at  a  very  early  period. 
 The  skill  required  to  build  the 
 ark,  independently  of  inspired 
 directions,  must  have  been 
 considerable.  The  attempt  to 
 build  the  tower  of  Babel  would 
 not  have  been  made  by  those 
 who  had  only  a  mere  ele- 
 mentary knowledge  of  archi- 
 tectural principles. 
 
 That  large  and  costly  houses 
 were  often  built  in  Judea  we 
 have  scriptural  evidence,  (Jer. 
 xxii.  14.  Amos  iii.  15.  Hag. 
 i.  4,)  though  doubtless  those 
 which  were  occupied  by  the 
 mass  of  the  people  were  rude 
 and  inconvenient  when  com- 
 pared to  the  middling  or  even 
 the  very  ordinary  class  of  our 
 houses. 
 
 213 
 
DWE 
 
 DWE 
 
 Ter^'vtcc 
 
 Section 
 
 Ouier 
 Ciamien 
 
 Tn 
 
 Inner 
 Chainber. 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 1  a  a      s     =  a  III 
 
 1 
 
 "*     AllKA       '"' 
 
 ^ 
 
 in          OR             II" 
 
 1        1 
 
 A 
 
 11  OPEN  COURT  nil  m            1 
 
 1      _                         a                    i 
 
 nil 
 
 III 
 nil 
 
 Hi  -: 
 
 1     '     1 
 
 The  above  cut  represents 
 the  ground  plan  of  an  eastern 
 house :  A  A  A  A  is  the  house, 
 built  in  the  form  of  a  cloister, 
 surrounding  the  area  or  open 
 court.  The  entrance  is  by  a 
 door  which  was  commonly- 
 locked,  and  attended  by  some 
 one  who  acted  as  porter.  (Acts 
 xii.  13.)  This  door  opens  into 
 a  porch,  which  is  furnished 
 with  the  conveniences  of  sit- 
 ting, and  through  which  we 
 pass,  both  to  the  flight  of  stairs 
 which  leads  up  to  the  cham- 
 bers and  also  to  the  open 
 quadrangular  court. 
 
 We  will  first  examine  the 
 court  and  its  uses.  It  is  called 
 the  middle  of  the  house,  or 
 "  midst^''  (Luke  v.  19,)  and  is 
 designed  to  admit  light  and 
 air  to  the  apartments  around 
 it.  It  is  covered  with  a  pave- 
 ment, more  or  less  costly,which 
 receives  and  sheds  rain,  and 
 is  often  supplied  with  foun- 
 tains or  wells  of  water.  (2  Sam. 
 xvii.  18.)  In  Damascus,  every 
 house  has  a  court  of  this  kind, 
 and  the  wealthier  citizens 
 spare  no  expense  in  making 
 them  places  of  delightful  re- 
 
 sort  in  the  hot  season.  (For 
 description  and  cut,  see  Ha- 
 DAssAH,  pp.  13.  16,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.)  A  colonnade  a  a  o  a 
 (such  as  is  often  seen  in 
 modern  houses)  surrounds  the 
 court,  and  supports  a  gallery 
 or  piazza  above.  In  this  court, 
 large  com])anies  assembled  on 
 festive  and  other  occasions, 
 (Esth.  i.  5 ;)  and  it  is  then  fur- 
 nished witli  carpets,  mats,  and 
 settees  or  sofas,  and  an  awning 
 or  roof  of  some  suitable  mate- 
 rial is  stretched  over  the  whole 
 area.  It  was  probably  such  a 
 roof  which  was  uncovered  for 
 the  accommodation  of  the  pa 
 ralytic.  (Markii.4.)  And  it  is 
 also  alluded  to  in  the  beautiful 
 figure  of  the  psalmist.  (Ps.  civ. 
 2.)  As  to  the  case  of  the  paraly- 
 tic, it  may  be  proper  to  observe 
 that  our  Saviour  was  probably 
 in  the  court  or  area  surrouna 
 ed  by  a  dense  crowd,  through 
 which  it  was  impossible  to 
 pass  with  the  diseased  man. 
 They  therefore  ascended  to  the 
 roof,  and  after  removing  the 
 veil  or  covering  which  was 
 stretched  over  the  court,  they 
 let  him  down  over  or  by  the 
 214 
 
DWE 
 
 way  of  the  roof  into  the  midst  ] 
 before  Christ.  Around  the  I 
 court,  over  the  doors  and  win- ! 
 dows  of  the  ijouse,  each  apart-  j 
 ment  has  a  door  opening  into  • 
 the  court  or  gallery,  and  the  | 
 communication  with  each  is 
 only  on  the  outside  ;  so  that  to  ' 
 go  from  room  to  room  it  is  ne- 1 
 cessary  to  come  out  into  the  ! 
 court  or  gallery.  These  galle- 1 
 ries  are  guarded  by  a  balus- 1 
 trade  or  lattice  work  in  frOnt, 
 io  prevent  accidents.  I 
 
 The  rooms  of  the  ground  | 
 floor  often  include  a  whole  ' 
 side  of  the  court,  and  are  en- 1 
 lered  by  spacious  doors  from  | 
 the  piazza.  The  rooms  on  the  j 
 farther  side  of  the  court,  both  ' 
 above  and  helow,  are  assigned  I 
 to  the  females  of  the  family,  \ 
 and  upon  them  is  bestowed  ] 
 the  greatest  expense.  Hence,  j 
 as  same  suppose,  these  rooms  j 
 are  sometimes  called  palaces.  ' 
 (1  Kings  xvi.  18.  2  Kings  xv.  I 
 25.  Isa'xxxii.  14.)  The  "^oMse 
 of  the  iDomen"  (Esth.  ii.  3)  was 
 probably  peculiar  to  the  royal 
 residence,  and  mi'jht  be  liiie  ' 
 that  referred  to,  I  Kings  vii.  8 
 — 12.  It  is  supposed  that  in 
 the  houses  of  Judea,  as  in  those  ! 
 of  Aleppo  at  the  present  day,  ! 
 the  ground  floor  was  appro- 
 priated principally  to  domestic  ' 
 uses,  such  as  storing  provi- 
 sions, oil,  baggage,  lodgings  for 
 servants,  &c.~(kc.  j 
 
 Ifwe  ascend  to  i  hesecond  story 
 by  the  stairs  before  m'^nlinneil, 
 we  find  the  chambers  are  large 
 and  airy,  and  often  finished 
 aid  furnished  with  much  ex- 
 pense and  elpga  nee,  with  mats, 
 curtains,  and  divans.  (Mark 
 xiv.  15.)  This  room  or  story  is 
 higher  and  lariier  than  those 
 below,  projecting  over  ihe  low- 
 er part  of  the  building,  so  that 
 the  window  of  the  apartment, 
 if  there  is  one,  ronsiderably 
 overhansrsihestreel.  SHclndoJ, 
 ^^•>acious,  and  commndious,  as 
 Buch  a  ro  im  must  have  been, 
 Paul  would  be  likely  lo  preach 
 
 his  farewell  sermon  there.  And 
 in  a  large  company,  it  is  com- 
 mon to  have  two  circles  or 
 ranks,  the  outer  circle  beine 
 next  to  the  wall,  and  elevated 
 on  cushions,  so  as  to  be  on  a 
 level  with  the  lower  part  of 
 the  window-casement.  In  this 
 situation,  we  may  suppose  Eu- 
 tychus  fell  asleep,  and  was 
 thence  precipitated  to  the 
 street. 
 
 To  most  of  the  eastern 
 houses  a  structure  is  attached 
 called  oleah.  It  is  sometmies 
 built  over  the  porch  or  gate- 
 way, and  has  two  or  three 
 apartments;  and,  in  other  in- 
 stances, it  consists  only  of  one 
 or  two  rooms,  and  often  rises 
 one  story  alwve  the  main 
 house.  The  oleah  is  used  to 
 entertain  strangers;  also,  for 
 wardrobes  and  magazines,  or 
 for  places  of  retiremeni,repo8e, 
 and  meditation.  (Matt.  vi.  6.) 
 There  is  an  entrance  to  it  from 
 the  street,  with  lut  going  into 
 the  house;  but  there  is  also  a 
 communication  with  the  gal- 
 lery of  the  house,  when  il  is 
 needed.  It  is  observed  that  the 
 terrace  of  the  oleah  alTorded  a 
 much  more  retired  place  for 
 devotional  e.xercises  than  the 
 roof  of  the  main  house,  which 
 was  lialjle  to  be  occupied  at 
 all  limes  and  for  various  pur- 
 poses by  the  whide  family. 
 The  little  rfuimher  forKlisha, 
 (2  Kings  iv.  10,)  the  siiininer 
 r/j(2/7t6cr  of  Eglon,  from  which 
 Ehud  escaped  by  a  i)rivaie 
 stairway,  (Juilg.  iii.  2f»— 23,)  the 
 chamber  over  the  gale,  (2  Sam. 
 xviii.  33,)  the  ujiper  'Itumher, 
 (2  K'livis  xxiii.  12.)  the  inner 
 thaiuber,  (1  Kings  x.<.  3(1,- -see 
 Cha.muer.)  n»  'y  ilesJL'MH'e  the 
 oieuk.  (Kor  descri)  iion  and 
 illnsiralive  cut,  sf^e  ()m>ii.  pfV 
 17— 19.  and  Hebrew CijjsToMS, 
 pp.  3:i.  34,  both  by  Am  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 The  tjjiper  room,  (Acts  i. 
 13,)  railed  the  uj>j>ei  "'un.ber, 
 (Acts  XX.  8,)  is  su'..pcised  by 
 215 
 
DWE 
 
 Jowelt  to  have  resembled  the 
 upper  room  in  modern  houses 
 of  the  east.  He  minutely  de- 
 scribes a  house  in  which  he 
 resided.  The  first  or  ground 
 floor  was  appropriated  entirely 
 to  storing  oil  and  other  arti- 
 cles; the  second  floor  was 
 occupied  by  the  family  for 
 common  daily  use,  and  the 
 third  floor  or  loft  was  fitted 
 up  for  social  meetings,  &c. 
 (Actsi.  13;  ix.  37;  xx-^S.) 
 
 But  the  roof  is  one  of  the 
 most  important  parts  of  an 
 eastern  house.  We  ascend  to 
 it  by  a  flight  of  steps,  as  al- 
 ready mentioned,  which  are 
 entirely  unconnected  with  the 
 interior  of  the  house.  (Matt. 
 xxiv.  17.)  It  is  made  nearly 
 flat,  allowing  only  suflicient 
 elevation  to  carry  oif  the  water, 
 and  is  surrounded  by  a  para- 
 pet, battlement,  or  balustrade, 
 lest  one  should  heedlessly  or 
 unwittingly  fall  from  it.  This 
 was  a  matter  of  divine  com- 
 mand. (Deut.  xxii.8.)  A  wall 
 on  the  roof  designates  the  li- 
 mits of  contiguous  houses,  but 
 it  is  so  low  that  a  whole  range 
 of  buildings,  and  even  a  street, 
 
 DWE 
 
 may  be  passed  over  without 
 coming  down.  The  roof  ia 
 covered  with  a  kind  of  cement, 
 which  hardens  by  exposure  to 
 the  weather,  and  forms  a  clean, 
 smooth,  and  very  agreeable 
 floor  or  terrace.  Sometimes 
 clay,  or  earth  of  some  kind, 
 suflicient  for  vegetation,  was 
 used,  and  hence  the  frequent 
 allusion  to  ffrass  upon  the 
 housetops,  (2  Kings  xix.  26.  Ps, 
 cxxix.  6;)  and  sometimes  tiles 
 or  broad  bricks  were  used 
 The  roof  was  a  place  of  repose 
 (Neh.  viii.  16,)  and  of  resort. 
 (2  Sam.  xi.  2.  Isa.  xv.  3  ;  xxii. 
 1.  Jer.  xlviii.  38.  Luke  xii.  3.; 
 It  was  also  used  for  drying 
 linen  and  flax.  (Josh.  ii.  6.) 
 Sometimes  a  tent  was  spread 
 to  protect  the  sleeper  from  the 
 cold  and  damp  of  the  night. 
 (2  Sam.  xvi.  22.)  It  was  a 
 place  of  conference  (1  Sam.  ix. 
 25)  and  worship.  (2Kingsxxiii. 
 12.  Jer.  xix.  13.  Zeph.  i.  5. 
 Acts  X.  9.) 
 
 The  following  cut  represents 
 the  roof  of  a  house,  with  the 
 battlement,  and  a  person  going 
 down  for  water. 
 
 The    windows    of   eastern 
 
DWE 
 
 houses,  as  already  intimated, 
 open  into  the  court.  Hence 
 tlie  appearance  of  eastern  ci- 
 ties, in  passing  througli  tfie 
 streets,  is  very  gloomy  and  in- 
 hospitable. Someumes  latticed 
 
 DWE. 
 
 windows  or  balconies  are  open 
 upon  tlie  street,  but  tliey  were 
 used  only  on  some  public  day. 
 (•2  Kings  ix.  30.  See  Hebkew 
 CirsTOMs,  pp.  33 — 35,  before 
 mentioned.    (See  Window.) 
 
 The  above  representation 
 tf  an  Arabian  iiouse  shows 
 the  external  appearance  of  an 
 Eastern  dwelling,  and  the  ole- 
 ofi,  or  one  kind  of  upper  cham- 
 ter,  rising  above  the  roof  of  the 
 nmin  building. 
 
 The  doors  of  eastern  houses 
 are  not  hung  with  hinges.  The 
 jamb,  or  inner  side-piece  of 
 the  door,  projects,  in  the  form 
 ef  a  circular  shaft,  at  the  top 
 and  bottom.  The  upper  pro- 
 jection is  received  into  a  socket 
 m  the  lintel  or  head-piece,  and 
 the  lower  projection  falls  into 
 J9 
 
 a  socket  in  the  threshold  or  sil 
 thus. 
 
OWE 
 
 Chimneys  were  probably  un- 
 known,lhough  the  word  occurs, 
 Hos.  xiii.  3.  What  we  call 
 chimneys  were  not  invented 
 till  the  fourteenth  century. 
 The  smoke  of  ancient  houses 
 escaped  through  ajjertures  in 
 the  wall. 
 
 The  hearth  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22) 
 was  a  fireplace  or  portable 
 furnace,  such  as  is  still  used 
 in  eastern  countries. 
 
 The  materials  for  building 
 were  abundant.  Stone  ana 
 brick,  and  the  best  species  of 
 timber,  fur  the  strong  and 
 heavy  as  well  as  the  light  and 
 ornamental  work,  were  easily 
 obtained.  Hewn  stone  was 
 often  used,  (Amos  v.  11,)  and 
 marble  of  the  richest  vein  and 
 polish.  (IChron.  xxix.2.  Esth. 
 1.  G.)  Cedar  was  used  for  wain- 
 scots and  ceilings,  (Jer.  xxii. 
 14.  Hag.  i.  4,)  which  were 
 of  carved  panel-work,  with 
 mouldines  of  gold,  silver,  or 
 ivory.  Perhaps  the  profusion 
 of  ivory  in  them  may  account 
 for  the  expressions,  1  Kin^s 
 xxii.  39.  Fs.  xlv.  8.  Amos  ifi. 
 15. 
 
 Many  eastern  houses  are 
 built  with  mud  walls,  reeds, 
 andrushes.andsomeiimesonly 
 stakes  plastered  with  clay. 
 Hence  they  were  very  inse- 
 cure, (Matt.  vi.  19,  20,)  and 
 afforded  a  place  for  serpents 
 and  vermin.  (Amos  v.  19.) 
 Such  a  house,  built  even  on  a 
 reck  above  the  reach  of  the 
 
 DWE 
 
 periodical  torrents  of  rain, 
 IS  strikingly  emblematical  of 
 weakness"^  fragility,  and  decay, 
 (Job  iv.  19;)  but  when  placed 
 on  the  sand,  and  exposed  on 
 every  side  to  the  rain,  and 
 wind,  and  floods,  the  folly  of 
 the  builder  is  almost  incredi- 
 ble.   (Mall.  vii.  26,  27.) 
 
 In  addition  to  what  we  have 
 before  said  in  treating  of  the 
 oleah,  it  may  be  remarked  that 
 the  winter  and  summer  houses 
 or  parlours.  Ainos  iii.  15) 
 were  constructed  with  parti- 
 cular reference  to  the  season. 
 The  summer  houses  were  built 
 j)anly  undprground,and  paved 
 with  niarlile.  The  fountains 
 which  gush  out  in  their  courts, 
 and  the  various  contrivances 
 to  exclude  heal  and  secure  a 
 current  of  fresh  air,  render 
 them  exceedingly  refreshing 
 amid  the  torrid  heals  of  sum- 
 mer. The  winter  houses  might 
 have  had  accommodations  cor- 
 responding to  the  season. 
 
 We  are  told  that  it  was  rus- 
 toniary  among  the  Hebrews  to 
 dedicate  the  house  when  it  was 
 finished  and  ready  to  be  inha- 
 bited. The  event  was  cele- 
 brated wiih  joy,  and  the  divine 
 blessing  and  jjroteclion  im- 
 plored.   (Deut.  XX. 5) 
 
 The  following  is  a  sketch  of 
 a  more  ordinary  Arab  house, 
 designed  for  four  families.  The 
 doors  of  eastern  houses  are 
 made  low,  especially  vvheu 
 they  are  in  an  exposed  situiu 
 
DWE 
 lion;  and  one  must  stoop  or 
 even  creep  to  enter  them.  This 
 is  done  to  keep  out  wild  beasts, 
 or  enemies,  or,  as  some  say,  lo 
 
 f)revent  the  wandering  Arabs 
 irom  riding  into  them.  (See 
 Selumiel,  pp.  41 — 14,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 The  eastern  mode  of  build- 
 ing is  brought  to  our  view  in 
 the  case  of  ilie  destruction  of 
 the  temple  of  Dason  by  Sam- 
 son. It  is  probable  that  the 
 place  where  Samson  made 
 sport  for  many  thousand  spec- 
 tators (Jud^.  xvi.  27)  was  a 
 court  or  area  consecrated  to 
 the  worship  of  Dagon ;    that 
 
 DWE 
 
 this  was  surrounded  by  a  range 
 of  galleries  (Ezek.  xli.  15,  16,) 
 or  cloisters,  which  were  sujk 
 ported  chiefly  by  one  or  two  co- 
 lumns in  fronl,or  at  the  centre. 
 The  palaceofthedey  of  Algiers 
 lias  such  a  structure.  It  is  an 
 advanced  or  projecting  cloister 
 over  against  the  gate  of  the 
 palace,'(Esth.  v.  l.)  where  the 
 officers  of  slate  assemble  and 
 transact  public  Ini.siness,  and 
 where  public  emeriainmenta 
 were  given.  The  removal  of 
 one  or  two  contiguous  pillars 
 would  involve  the  building, 
 and  all  that  were  ujwn  it,  in 
 one  common  destruction. 
 
 EAG 
 
 EAGLE.  (Deut.  xxxii.  11.)  A 
 well  known  and  ferocious 
 bird  of  prey,  unclean  by  the 
 Levitical  law,  (Lev.  xi.  13. 
 Deut.  xiv.  12,)  whose  peculiar 
 
 groperties  are  often  alluded  to 
 y  the  sacred  writers.  The 
 habits  of  the  eagle  are  de- 
 scribed in  Num.  xxiv.  21.  Job 
 ix.  26 ;  xxxix.  27—30.  Prov. 
 xxiii.  5 ;  xxx.  17. 19.  Jer.  xlix. 
 16.  Ezek.  xvii.  3.  Obad.  4. 
 Hab.  i.  8;  ii.  9.  Matt,  xxiv, 
 23.    Luke  xvii.  37. 
 
 In  these  last  passages,  the 
 Jewish  nation  is  compared  to 
 a  decaying  body,  exposed  in 
 the  open  field,  and  inviting  the 
 Roman  army,  whose  standard 
 was  an  eagle,  to  come  together 
 and  devour  it.  The  eagle  was 
 also  the  Persian  standard.  The 
 tenderness  of  the  eagle  to- 
 wards its  young  is  character- 
 istic, and  is  beautifidly  and 
 accurately  described,  Ex.  xix. 
 4.  Deut.  xxxii.  11.  The  rapi- 
 dity of  the  eaele's  flight  is 
 alluded  to  in  Deut.  xxviii.  49. 
 2Sam.i.23.  Jer.  iv.  13;  xlviii. 
 40.  Lam.  iv.  19;  its  destruc- 
 tive jtower  in  Isa.xlvi  11.  Hos. 
 viii.  1 ;  and  its  great  a2;e,  and 
 the  popular  oyyinion  that  it  re- 
 news its  plumage  in  advanced 
 
 EAR 
 
 life,  is  intimated  in  Ps.  ciii.  5, 
 and  Isa.  xl.  31. 
 
 The  ravenous  bird  (Isa.  xlvi. 
 11)  might  better  be  rendered 
 eagle ;  and  it  is  a  fact,  accord- 
 ing to  Xeno)ihon,  that  Cyrus, 
 who  is  alluded  to  under  the 
 figure  of  an  eagle,  had  an 
 image  of  that  bird  for  the 
 stanilard  of  his  army.  (For  cuts 
 of  the  eagle,  and  a  more  parti- 
 cular account  of  his  properties, 
 see  YouTH-'s  Friend,  for  1S27; 
 Bible  Natural  History,  art. 
 Eagle  ;  and  Portfolio  of 
 Animals,  all  published  by  Am. 
 S.S.  Union.) 
 
 EARING,  (Gen.xlv.6,)  EAR- 
 ING-TIME.  (Ex.  xxxiv.  21.) 
 Earing  is  an  old  English  word 
 ioT ploughing.  The  same  word 
 is  used,  Ps.  cxxix.  3,  and  is 
 translated  ploughed.  What 
 we  call  arable  land  is  some- 
 times written  earable  land. 
 (Deut.  xxi.  4.  1  Sam.  viii.  12. 
 Isa.  xxx.  24.) 
 
 EAR-RINGS.  (Gen.  xxiv. 
 22.)  This  word  occurs,  Ex. 
 xxxii.  2,  3;  and  in  Isa.  iii.  21, 
 we  have  the  word  nose-jewels ; 
 and  some  versions  have  aw 
 ornament  for  the  nose  in  tlie 
 aV)ove  passage  from  Genesis, 
 The  weight  of  the  ornament 
 219 
 
EAR 
 mentioned  in  this  passage 
 migiit  appear  almost  incredi- 
 ble, if  we  were  not  informed 
 by  travellers  that  the  women 
 of  the  east,  even  in  modern 
 days,  wear  ornaments  of  equal 
 and  even  greater  weight.  Poor 
 people  use  glass  or  horn  in- 
 stead of  gold  or  silver.  The 
 annexed  cut  of  an  Egyptian 
 
 dancing  girl  shows  the  size 
 and  manner  of  wearing  these 
 rings.    (See  Clothes.) 
 
 EARNEST.  (2  Cor.  i.  22.) 
 Something  going  before,  or 
 given  in  advance  as  a  pledge 
 or  assurance  of  more  in  re- 
 serve: thus  earnest,  or  eamest- 
 money,  is  a  sum  paid  in  ad- 
 vance as  a  pledge  of  full  pay- 
 ment at  a  future  time.  In  a 
 spiritual  sense,  it  denotrs  those 
 shifts  and  graces  which  the 
 Christian  receives  as  a  pledge 
 or  earnest  of  perfect  holiness 
 and  happiness  in  the  future 
 world.  A  pledge  is  taken  back 
 when  the  promise  wliich  it 
 guarantied  is  fulfilled  ;  but 
 whatever  is  given  as  earnest, 
 oeing  a  part  in  advance  of  the 
 whole,  is  of  course  retained. 
 
 EARTH.  (Ps.xxiv.  1.)  Be- 
 sides the  ordinary  acceptation 
 of  the  word,  as  in  the  passage 
 cited,  it  is  used  by  the  sacred 
 writers  to  denote  only  a  par- 
 
 EAS 
 ticular  country.  Thus  the 
 phrase,  (Ezra  i.  2,)  "a//  the 
 kingdoms  of  the  earth,''''  means 
 only  Chaldea  and  Assyria ; 
 anil  it  is  often  restricted  to 
 Judea  only. 
 
 Lower  parts  of  the  earth 
 (Isa.  xliv.  23)  may  signify  lite- 
 rally the  valleys,  or  fienra- 
 tively  the  grave.  (Ps.  Ixiii.  9- 
 Eph.iv.9.) 
 
 EARTHQUAKE.  (1  Kings 
 xix.  II.)  It  is  supposed  that  Ko- 
 rah  and  his  companions  were 
 destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
 The  earthquake  mentioned, 
 Amos  i.  I.  Zech.  xiv.  5,  is  also 
 mentioned  by  Josephus,  wh® 
 adds  that  it  divided  a  mountain 
 near  Jerusalem,  and  was  so 
 violent  as  to  separate  one  part 
 some  distance  from  the  other. 
 The  earthquake  was  among 
 the  fearful  signs  which  attend- 
 ed the  crucifixion  of  our  Sa- 
 viour. Travellers  tell  us  that 
 the  rocks  on  Calvary  are 
 rent  asunder,  and  evidently 
 by  some  such  convulsion  as  an 
 earthquake,  and  very  early 
 tradition  says  it  was  by  the 
 earthquake  which  happened 
 at  the  time  of  the  crucifixion. 
 That  the  scene  was  terrible 
 may  well  be  inferred  from 
 Matt,  xxvii.  51—54. 
 
 Earthquakes  are  mentioned 
 amonsr  the  calamities  which 
 should  precede  the  destruction 
 of  Jerusalem,  (Matt.  xxiv.  7,) 
 and  Josephus  and  other  histo- 
 rians affirm  the  literal  fulfil- 
 ment of  the  prediction.  Earth- 
 quakes, in  prophetical  lan- 
 guage, denote  revolutions  and 
 conimotions  in  states  and  em- 
 pires. 
 
 EAST.  (Gen.  xxviii.  14.) 
 The  Hebrews  used  this  word 
 to  describe  all  the  countries  or 
 provinces  lying  around  and 
 beyond  the  rivers  Tigris  and 
 Euphrates,  or  east  or  north-east 
 of  Judea.  The  word  is  also 
 used.  Gen.  xi.  2,  "from  the 
 east,"  and  denotes  the  country 
 east  or  south-east  of  mount  Ara 
 220 
 
EAT 
 
 rat.  In  travelling  from  the  foot 
 of  that  mountain  to  the  plain 
 of  Shinar,  thp  descendants  of 
 Noah  woulu  pass  southerly  on 
 the  eastern  side  of  the  moun- 
 tains of  Media  until  they  came 
 opposite  to  Shinar  or  to  a  point 
 north-east  of  Babylon,  from 
 which,  by  a  direct  western 
 course,  they  would  pass  into 
 Assyria  and  the  plain  of  Shi- 
 nar. This  is  said  to  be  the 
 usual    caravan    route. 
 
 East  sea  (Ezek.  xlvii.  IS. 
 Joel  ii.  20)  is  the  same  with  the 
 Dead  Sea.    (See  Salt  Sea.) 
 
 East  WIND.    (See  Wind.) 
 
 EASTER.  (Acts  xii.  4.)  In 
 every  other  passage  of  our 
 translation,  this  word  is  ren- 
 dered passover,  and  of  course 
 denotes  the  same  season  or  fes- 
 tival.   (See  Feast.) 
 
 EAT,  EATING.  (Isa.  Ixvi. 
 17.  Acts  xi.  3.)  The  Hebrews 
 were  scrupulous  about  eating 
 and  drinkmg  with  the  Egyp- 
 tians, as  the  Egyptians  also 
 were  about  eating  and  drink- 
 in£  with  the  Hebrews.  (Gen. 
 xltii.  32.)  So  also  the  Hebrews 
 declined  to  eat  with  the  Sama- 
 ritans, (John  iv.  9;)  and  the 
 refusal  to  eat  with  one  implied 
 an  entire  separation.  (Matt. 
 ix.  11.  ICor.  v.  11.) 
 
 The  manner  of  eating  among 
 the  Jews  is  still  common  in 
 eastern  nations ;  the  guests  re- 
 clined on  couches  or  mattrass- 
 es,  resting  on  the  left  elbow, 
 
 EAT 
 
 and  using  chiefly  the  righ 
 hand.  This  peculiar  position 
 makes  the  interesting  scene 
 described,  Luke  vii.  36—50, 
 perfectly  natural,  and  also 
 shows  how  one  of  the  guests 
 could  repose  his  head  oil  an- 
 other's bosom.  (John  xiii.  23.) 
 Women  were  never  present  at 
 Jewish  meals  as  guests. 
 
 The  present  mode  of  eating 
 among  eastern  nations  illus- 
 trates some  interesting  pas- 
 sages of  the  New  Testament. 
 In  Syria  the  guests  use  their 
 fingers;  a  knife,  spoon,  and 
 plate  being  used  only  by 
 foreigners,  and  that  as  a  spe- 
 cial privilege.  The  bread, 
 wliich  is  very  thin,  is  dipped 
 in  the  vegetable  soup,  and  if 
 there  is  a  very  dainty  morsel 
 on  the  table,  the  master  of  the 
 house  takes  it  in  his  fingera 
 and  presents  it  to  the  mouth 
 of  his  guest.  From  Matt.  xxvi. 
 23,  we  may  presume  that  Judas 
 was  near  enough  to  our  Lord 
 to  use  the  same  dish,  and  from 
 the  additional  circumstances 
 in  John  xiii.  26, 27,  we  may  in- 
 fer that  he  was  near  enough  to 
 receive  the  sop  from  our  Lord's 
 hand,  accordm^  to  the  custom 
 above  described.  (See Feast.) 
 To  eat  a  meal  together  is 
 regarded  in  the  east  as  a 
 pledge  of  mutual  confidence 
 and  friendship  ;  hence  the 
 force  of  the  expression,  Ps. 
 xli.  9.  (See  Omar,  pp.  30.  45, 
 and  Hebrew  Customs,  pp.  36 
 — 46,  both  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 The  expression,  John  vi.  53 
 —58,  is  evidently  metaphor! 
 cal.  This  appears  from  the 
 context,  and  from  the  design 
 of  the  discourse,  which  was 
 introduced  by  an  allusion  to 
 the  eating  of  manna.  Our 
 Saviour  often  speaks  of  him- 
 self as  the  bread,  (Johnvi.  41,) 
 the  bread  of  hfe,  (John  vi.  35,) 
 and  living  bread,  (Johnvi,  51,) 
 and  it  was  in  perfect  accord- 
 ance with  this  figurative  lan- 
 guage to  speak  of  those  who 
 221 
 
EBE 
 
 received  him,  and  exercised 
 faith  upon  him,  as  eating  his 
 flesh  and  drinking  his  blood. 
 Parallel  phrases  may  be  found, 
 Jer.  XV.  16.  Ezek.  iii.  1.  John 
 iv.  14:  the  force  of  the  last 
 passage  is  apparent  from  John 
 vi.  35. 
 
 EBAL,MOUNT,(Deut.xi.29,) 
 and  MOUNT  GERIZIM,  were 
 situated  in  the  tribe  of  Ephra- 
 ira.  They  were  but  a  short 
 distance  apart,  and  in  the  val- 
 ley between,  was  the  old  city 
 01  Shechem,  now  Nablouse. 
 The  altitude  ofthese  mountains 
 does  not  exceed  seven  or  eight 
 hundred  feet,  and  they  are  "re- 
 markable for  the  solemn  ratifi- 
 cation of  God's  covenant  with 
 the  Jews,  which  took  place 
 upon  them,  and  a  particular 
 account  of  which  we  have  in 
 Deut.  xxvii.  12—26 ;  xxviii.  2— 
 68.  A  modern  traveller  speaks 
 of  the  lofty,  craggy,  and  barren 
 aspect  of  theselwo  mountains, 
 which  seem  to  face  each  other 
 with  an  air  of  defiance. 
 
 According  to  the  injunction 
 of  Moses,  the  Hebrews,  after 
 ihey  obtained  possession  of  Ca- 
 naan, built  an  altar,  and  cele- 
 brated a  feast  on  mount  Ebal. 
 (Deut.  xxvii.  4.  Josh.  viii.  30 — 
 35.)  The  Samaritans  contend- 
 ed that  this  should  have  been 
 done  on  mount  Gerizim,  and 
 not  on  mount  Ebal,  and  they 
 afterwards  built  a  temple  on 
 Gerizim,  the  ruins  of  which 
 are  still  visible,  and  regarded 
 it  as  the  Jews  regarded  their 
 temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  re- 
 mark of  the  Samaritan  woman 
 at  Shechem  to  our  Lord  is  in 
 allusion  to  this  difference  of 
 opinion.  (See  Omar,  pp.  110— 
 115,  by  Am.  S.  Union.  See  also 
 Shechem,  and  Samaritans.) 
 
 EBED-MELECH.  (Jer. 
 xxxviii.  7.)  An  Ethiopian  ser- 
 vant of  Zedekiah  king  of  Ju- 
 dah,  who  was  instrumental  in 
 saving  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
 from  "death  by  famine,  and 
 who,  for  his  kindness  in  this 
 
 ECC 
 
 behalf,  was  promised  deliver- 
 ance when  tlie  city  should  fall 
 into  the  enemy's  hands.  (Jer. 
 xxxix.  15 — 18.  isee  Life  op 
 Jeremiah,  ch.  x.,  by  Am.  S.  S, 
 Union.) 
 
 EBENEZER.  (ISam.iv.l.) 
 This  name  is  used  in  the  pas- 
 sage cited,  and  also  in  1  Sam. 
 v.l ;  but  the  application  of  it 
 to  a  particular  place  was  a 
 subsequent  event.  While  the 
 Israelites  were  worshipping 
 God  at  IMizpeh,  they  received 
 intelligence  that  the  Philis- 
 tines  were  approaching  them 
 with  a  formidable  army.  In 
 this  emergency  they  betook 
 themselves  to  sacrifice  and 
 prayer,  and  the  God  of  armies 
 interposed  in  a  most  signal 
 manner  for  their  deliverance. 
 (]  Sam.  vii.  5—12.)  In  com- 
 memoration of  this  event,  Sa- 
 muel erected  a  monument 
 near  the  field  of  battle,  and 
 called  it  Ebenezer,  or  the 
 stone  of  help,  sa.yine,  "Hither- 
 to hatn  Jeihovah  helped  us." 
 Hence  it  is  often  said,  "  Here 
 we  will  set  up  our  Ebenezer," 
 or  here  we  will  establish  a 
 memorial  of  the  mercy  and 
 faithfulness  of  God. 
 
 EBER  (Gen.  x.  21)  was  the 
 great-grandson  of  Shem,  and 
 the  ancestor  of  Abraham,  in 
 the  seventh  generation.  (See 
 Heeketts.) 
 
 EBONY.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  15.) 
 A  w^ell  known  wood,  which  is 
 produced  in  India  and  some 
 districts  of  Africa.  It  is  sus- 
 ceptible of  a  fine  polish,  and 
 is  Used  for  musical  instruments 
 and  ornamental  work. 
 
 ECCLESIASTES,  or  (as  the 
 name  signifies)  the  Preacher, 
 is  the  twenty-first  in  the  order 
 of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment, and  was  written  by  Solo- 
 mon towards  the  close  of  his 
 splendid  and  eventful  career 
 
 as  monarch  of  Israel.   The  de- 
 sign of  the  Author  evidently  i 
 (L)  To  demonstrate  the  folly 
 
 and  madness  of  making  this 
 
£DE 
 
 world,  its  pleasures,  or  Us  pur- 
 suits the  objects  of  affection  or 
 hope;  and,  (2.)  To  show  the 
 character,  influence,  and  ad- 
 vantages of  true  wisdom  or  re- 
 ligion. Much  of  the  obscurity 
 of  some  passages  in  this  book 
 may  be  ascribed  to  the  circum- 
 stance that  the  author  was 
 refuting  maxims  and  reprov- 
 ing practices  common  to  the 
 errorists  and  libertines  of  his 
 day,  the  particular  character 
 of  which  is  now  unknown. 
 
 EDAR,  TOWER  OK.  (See 
 Tower.) 
 
 EDEN.  (Gen.  ii.  8.)  That 
 part  of  the  earth  in  which  wks 
 situated  the  garden  planted  by 
 the  Almighty  for  the  residence 
 of  our  first  parents,  and  where 
 they  dwelt  at  the  time  of  their 
 apostacy.  The  word  is  also 
 applied  generally  to  denote 
 any  place  remarkable  for 
 beauty  and  fertility.  (2 Kings 
 xix.  12.  Isa.  xxxvii.  12.)  The 
 attempt  to  establish  the  locali- 
 ty of  the  garden  of  Eden  is  of 
 course  attended  with  great  dif- 
 ficulty. An  eminent  geologist 
 says,  we  can  trace  over  all  those 
 regions  through  which  the  Ti- 
 gris and  Eujjhrates  flow,  the 
 same  monuments  of  the  flood 
 which  are  so  remarkable  in 
 every  other  quarter  of  the  world, 
 in  the  form  of  boundless  deserts 
 of  sand  mixed  with  salt  and 
 shells ;  and  of  course  we  might 
 as  well  look  for  the  rich  and 
 beautiful  dwelling  place  of  our 
 first  parents  in  the  prairies  of 
 America  or  the  sands  of  Africa, 
 as  expect  to  discover  any  trace 
 of  them  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 It  is  supposed  by  many  to  be 
 safe,  however,  to  fix  upon  Ar- 
 menia as  embracing  the  site  of 
 this  interesting  spot.  As  to  the 
 precise  location,  it  is  suggested 
 that  God  may  have  chosen  to 
 obliterate  every  vestige  of  this 
 fair  portion  of  his  works,  unfit- 
 ted for  any  thing  but  the  re- 
 sidence of  innocence,  and  to 
 
 EDO 
 
 blot  at  once  from  the  face  of 
 the  earth,  like  the  guilty  cities 
 of  the  plain,  both  the  site  and 
 the  memorial  of  man's  trans- 
 gression, an  awful  event  which 
 would  add  tenfold  horror  to 
 their  punishment.  (See  Eve- 
 ning Recreations,  vol.  i.  pp. 
 8-16.  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Eden,  house  of.  (Amos  i. 
 5.)  Thisterm,  in  its  connexion, 
 indicates  a  place  of  some  im- 
 portance. Modern  travellers 
 find  a  place  near  Damascus 
 bearing  a  name  of  the  same 
 import,  (house  of  pleasure^ 
 which  they  suppose  to  be  the 
 same  mentioned  by  the  pro 
 phet. 
 
 EDOM,  (Judg.  xi.  17,)  called 
 I'lumea.  (Isa.  xxxiv.  5)  by  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans,  was  the 
 name  of  a  district  of  country 
 inhabited  by  the  Horites,  (Gen. 
 xxxvi.  21,)  or  Horims,  (Deut. 
 ii.  12,)  lying  south  of  the  Dead 
 Sea,  and  bordering  on  Moab. 
 Edcm,  or  mount  Seir,  was  ori- 
 ginally a  small  strip  of  elevat- 
 ed land  between  the  desert  of 
 Zin  on  the  west,  and  Arabia 
 Petrea  on  the  east.  The  cli- 
 mate was  delightful,  and  it  was 
 remarkable  for  the  richness  of 
 its  soil  and  the  almost  impreg- 
 nable fortress  it  contained. 
 (Gen.  xxvii.  39.  Jer.  xlix.  16.) 
 It  derives  its  name  from  Esau, 
 (called  also  Edom,  Gen.  xxxvi. 
 43,)  whose  descendants  are 
 supposed  to  have  settled  there. 
 The  same  province  is  now 
 called  Sherath,  and  extends 
 across  the  whole  southern  bor- 
 der of  Canaan,  from  the  Dead 
 Sea  to  the  eastern  gulf  of  the 
 Red  Sea,  including  riiount  Seir. 
 Of  the  eastern  division  of  their 
 territory,  Bozrah,  or  Bezer, 
 was  the  capital,  and  Petrea 
 (or  Sela)  of  the  southern.  Te- 
 man,  a  grandson  of  Esau,  (Gen. 
 xxxvi.  11,)  resided  here,  and 
 gave  his  own  name  to  part  of 
 the  province.  (Jobii.  11.  Jer. 
 xlix.  7.  20.)  The  Edomltes 
 were  governed  by  kings  (Gen. 
 223 
 
EGG 
 
 XXX vi.  31)  until  they  were  con- 
 
 ?uered  by  David,  (2  Sam.  viii. 
 4,)  thus  fulfilling  the  prophe- 
 cy. (Gen.  xxvii.  29)  Hadad, 
 a  lineal  descendant  of  one  of 
 the  Idumean  kings,  regained 
 the  control  of  the  eastern  pro- 
 vince. The  inhabitants  of 
 south  Edom  afterwards  revolt- 
 ed from  Jehoram,  (2  Ciiron. 
 ixi.lO,)  and  sustained  some  se- 
 vere reverses,  (2Kings  xiv.  7. 
 2  Chron.  xxv.  11 ;)  and  were 
 finally  conquered  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. 
 
 There  is  no  country  on  the 
 face  of  the  globe,  the  present 
 state  of  which  more  fully  at- 
 tests the  truth  of  prophecy  than 
 Idumea.  The  predictions  are 
 singularly  specific,  (especially 
 Isa.  xxxiv.5. 10—17.  Jer.  xlix. 
 13—18.  Ezek.  xxxv.  7.  Mai.  i. 
 3,  4;)  and  their  literal  and 
 exact  accomplishment  is  fully 
 sustained  by  the  testimony 
 even  of  the  enemies  of  the 
 Bible.  Modern  travellers  unite 
 in  their  declaration  that  it  is 
 one  broad  plain  of  barrenness 
 and  desolation,  and  that  its 
 present  state  could  not  be  more 
 graphically  described  than  it 
 IS  in  the  words  of  the  prophe- 
 tic writers.  (See  The  Bible 
 IS  True,  ch.  vii.,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 EDREI.  (Josh.  xiii.31.)  One 
 of  the  capital  cities  of  Ba- 
 shan,  the  ruins  of  which  still 
 remain  under  the  name  of 
 Draa,  about  seventy-five  miles 
 north  of  Bozrah.  Og,  king  of 
 Bashan,  was  defeated  at  this 
 place  by  the  Israelites,  and 
 nis  kingdom  assigned  to  the 
 half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  An- 
 other town  of  this  name  was 
 inthetribeofNaphtali.  (Josh. 
 xix.  37.) 
 
 EGG.  (Deut.xxii.6.)  This 
 passage  humanelyprohibits  the 
 taking  away  of  a  brooding  bird 
 from  a  nest,  and  is  similar  in 
 its  nature  to  the  provision  re- 
 specting other  anima1.s  and 
 their  young.     (Lev.  xxii.  28. 
 
 EGY 
 
 Comp.  Isa.  X.  14.  See  Part 
 RIDGE,  Scorpion.) 
 
 EGLON.  l.APERSON,(Judg. 
 iii.  14,)  and  king  of  the  Moab- 
 ites,  who  held  the  Israelites  in 
 bondage  eighteen  years.  He 
 formed  an  alliance  with  the 
 Ammonites  and  Amalekites, 
 and  took  possession  of  Jerfcho, 
 where  he  resided,  and  where 
 he  was  afterw  ards  assassinated 
 by  Ehud.    (See  Ehud.) 
 
 2.  A  PLACE.  (Josh.  X.  3; 
 XV.  39.) 
 
 EGYPT.  (Exodus  i.  i.)  One 
 of  the  most  ancient  and  inte- 
 resting countries  on  the  face 
 of  the  earth.  It  is  bounded 
 south  by  Ethiopia,  north  by 
 the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
 east  by  the  Red  Sea.  Its  north- 
 ern and  southern  limits  are 
 given  in  Ezek.  xxix.  10  ;  xxx. 
 6.  It  presents  itself  to  the  eye 
 of  the  traveller  as  an  immense 
 valley,  extending  nearly  six 
 hundred  miles  in  length,  and 
 hemmed  in  on  the  east  and 
 west  by  a  ridge  of  hills  and  a 
 vast  expanse  of  desert.  It  has 
 an  alluvial  basin,  owing  its 
 existence,  fertility,  and  beauty 
 to  the  river  Nile,  which  flows 
 through  it.  Hence  Egypt  was 
 anciently  called  the  gift  of 
 the  Nile.  As  to  the  origin  of 
 the  name,  there  is  much  dif- 
 ference of  opinion.  In  the 
 Old  Testament,  the  Hebrew 
 word  translated  Eeypt  is  Miz 
 T-am,  which  was  the  name  of 
 one  of  the  sons  of  Ham,  (Gen. 
 X.  6,)  who  might  have  been 
 the  founder  of  the  nation.  It 
 is  sometimes  called  Ham,  (Ps. 
 lxxviii.51;  cv.23.27;  cvi.22,) 
 and  ^.\3oRahab.  (Ps.  Ixxxvii. 
 4 ;  Ixxxix.  10  Isa.  li.  9.)  The 
 Arabs  now  call  it  Mizr. 
 
 It  was  in  Egypt  that  Joseph 
 was  raised  from  the  condition 
 of  a  slave  to  the  highest  rank 
 in  the  king's  retinue.  In  the 
 providence  of  God,  his  falher 
 and  brothers  came  thither  to 
 live,  and  in  the  space  of  four 
 224 
 
EGY 
 
 hundred  and  thirty  years  in- 
 creased from  seventy-five  souls 
 to  between  one  and  two  mil- 
 lions. Their  deliverance  from 
 oppression  under  Pharaoh  is 
 perhaps  the  most  striking  pas- 
 sage of  Jewish  history.  (See 
 Hebrews.) 
 
 As  a  subject  of  prophecy, 
 Egypt  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
 teresting of  ancient  nations. 
 (Isa.  xviii.xix.  Jer.  xlii.— xlvi. 
 Ezek.  xxix.— xxxii.)  The  pre- 
 dictions concerning  it  are  re- 
 markable for  their  precision 
 and  fulness;  and  their  exact 
 fulfilment  in  every  essential 
 point  is  attested  by  incontro- 
 Tertible  evidence. 
 
 At  the  time  when  some  of 
 -he  most  extraordinary  of  these 
 predictions  were  uttered,  (Eze. 
 XXX.  21—26,)  Egypt  was  flou- 
 rishing in  arts  and  arms.  Her 
 eplendid  cities  rose  up  on 
 every  side,  and  the  stately 
 monuments  of  her  genius  and 
 industry  were  without  a  pa- 
 rallel. But  when  the  divine 
 counsel  was  fulfilled,  the  scep- 
 vre  of  the  Pharaohs  fell,  and 
 Egypt  became  a  tributary 
 jimgdom,  without  a  prince  of 
 its  own,  subject  to  a  foreign 
 yoke,  and  has  often  been  go- 
 verned by  slaves. 
 
 The  present  population  of 
 Egypt  is  estimated  at  two  mil- 
 lions and  a  half.  Before  the 
 Persian  conquest,  (which  took 
 place  B.  c.  350,)  the  authority  of 
 the  Pharaohs  extended  over 
 seven  and  a  half  millions.  The 
 inhabitants  consist  of  Copts, 
 Arabs,  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Sy- 
 rians ;  of  whom  the  Copts  are 
 the  most  numerous,  and  are 
 usually  regarded  as  the  de- 
 scendants of  the  true  Egyp- 
 tians ;  but  the  country  has 
 been  so  often  invaded,  over- 
 run, and  colonized,  that  it  is 
 proba-ble  the  original  stock  is 
 exterminated.  Great  and  rapid 
 changes  havs  taken  place  in 
 this  interesting  country  within 
 Ihe  last  thirty  years.  The  cara- 
 
 EGT 
 
 paign  of  the  French  army  in 
 1800,  which  was  undertaken 
 witii  a  view  to  subdue  Egypt, 
 and  so  secure  to  the  French  an 
 im])ortant  share  of  the  East 
 India  trade,  though  it  resulted 
 unsuccessfully,  was  attended 
 with  important  consequences 
 to  the  interests  of  science  and 
 learning.  A  new  era  in  the 
 history  of  this  country  com- 
 menced then.  Mohammed  Ali, 
 the  present  viceroy,  though  a 
 perfect  despot,  has  done  much 
 to  elevate  his  dominions  to  a 
 rank  with  civilized  nations,  in 
 arts,  commerce,  and  industry. 
 The  works  of  internal  im- 
 provement which  he  has  un- 
 dertaken, the  extensive  manu- 
 factories he  has  established, 
 and  the  encouragement  he  has 
 given  to  literary  institutions, 
 promise  to  change  the  politi- 
 cal if  not  the  moral  aspect  of 
 Egypt.  (See  Ev.  Eec.  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union,  vol.  iii.  28—115.) 
 
 Egypt,  river  of,  (Gen.  xv. 
 18,)  called  by  way  of  pre-emi- 
 nence the  River,  (Gen.  xli.  1. 
 Ex.  vii.  17,)  and  sometimes 
 Sikor,  (Isa.  xxiii.  3,)  or  Shihor, 
 (1  Chron.  xlii.  5,)  was  the  Nile, 
 a  remarkable  river,  which 
 flows  twelve  lumdred  miles 
 without  meeting  a  tributary 
 stream.  Its  overflowings  inun- 
 date the  adjoining  country, 
 (Amos  viii.  8 ;  ix.  5,)  and  give 
 it  its  extraordinary  fertility. 
 {Seepreceding  article.)  Hence 
 a  failure  of  this  periodical 
 overflowing  must  occasion  the 
 utmost  distress.  (Tsa.  xix.  5,6.) 
 
 It  is  not  improbable,  how- 
 ever,  that  another  and  smaller 
 river  was  called  the  river  cf 
 Egypt,  and  that  it  emptied  into 
 th'e  Mediterranean  at  some 
 place  south  of  Gaza.  (Num. 
 xxxiv.  5.  Josh.  XV.  47.)  Such 
 a  river  is  mentioned  by  mo- 
 dern travellers,  about  thirty 
 yards  wide,  called  Wadi  Gaza, 
 the  same  with  the  brook  Besor, 
 Its  being  the  border  of  Judea, 
 on  the  Egyptian  side,  might 
 
EKR 
 
 five  it  the  name  river  of 
 ^Sypt'  The  precise  import 
 of  tlie  phrase  must  be  deter- 
 mined in  each  case  by  its  con- 
 nexion.   (See  Besor.) 
 
 EHUD.  (Judg.  iii.  15.)  A 
 son  of  Gera,  of  the  tribe  of 
 Benjamin,  who  delivered  the 
 Israelites  from  the  oppression 
 which  they  sutfered  under  Eg- 
 lon  king  of  Moab.  The  Israel- 
 ites sent  Ehud  to  pay  some 
 tax  or  tribute  to  Eglon,  as  a 
 token  of  their  allegiance.  Un- 
 der the  pretence  that  he  had 
 aome  secret  message  to  the 
 king,  he  obtained  a  private 
 audience;  and  while  they  were 
 together  in  the  king's  apart- 
 ment, Ehud  drew  a  dagger 
 which  he  had  made  expressly 
 for  the  purpose,  and  gave  him 
 a  mortal  wound.  The  custom 
 of  delivering  confidential  mes- 
 sages in  secret  appears  to 
 bave  been  so  common,  that 
 the  attendants  of  Eglon  left 
 his  presence  as  soon  as  Ehud's 
 wish  was  known.  Such  is  the 
 custom  in  eastern  courts  at 
 this  day,  as  travellers  assure 
 us;  as  soon  as  a  confidential 
 message  is  announced,  the  au- 
 dience chamber  is  cleared  of 
 all  but  the  messenger.  Ehud 
 fled  towards  mount  Ephraim, 
 and  summoning  the  oppressed 
 Israelites  to  his  help,  they  se- 
 cured the  fords  of  tlie  Jordan, 
 BO  that  the  Moabites,  by  whom 
 their  land  was  garrisoned, 
 might  not  escape.  As  soon  as 
 he  had  collected  a  sufficient 
 force,  he  fell  upon  the  Moab- 
 ites, and  cut  them  off  in  every 
 direction. 
 
 EKRON.  (Josh.  XV.  45.)  A 
 city  of  the  Philistines,  lying 
 north-west  of  Gath  and  north 
 of  Ashdod,  assigned  by  Joshua 
 originally  to  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
 (Judg.  i.l8,)  but  afterwards  said 
 to  belong  to  the  tribe  of  Dan. 
 (Josh.  xix.  43.)  Neither  tribe 
 seems  to  have  been  in  actual 
 possession  of  the  place.  (Judg. 
 
 ELA 
 
 i.  34,35.  ISam.  v.  10;  vi.  17. 
 •2  Kings  i.  2.  Jer.  xx  v.  20.  Araos 
 i.8.  Zeph.  ii.4.  Zech.  ix.5.7. 
 See  Selumiel,  p.  28,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.   See  Philistia.) 
 
 ELAH.  1.  A  PERSON.  (1 
 Kings  xvi.  6.)  Son  and  succes. 
 sor  of  Baasha  king  of  Israel. 
 As  he  was  revelling  at  a  friend's 
 house,  he  was  assassinated  by 
 Zimri,  one  of  the  officers  of  his 
 army.  (See  Omri.)  He  reigned 
 only  two  years. 
 
 2.  A  PLACE.  Valley  of,  (1 
 Sam.  xvii.  19,)  li(  8  south-west 
 of  Jerusalem,  three  miles  from 
 Bethlehem,  on  the  road  to 
 Jaffa.  The  Israelites  were  en 
 camped  in  this  valley  when 
 David  fought  and  subdued  Go- 
 liath. (See  Selumiel,  p.  31, 
 and  Life  of  David,  pp.  26, 27, 
 both  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 ELAM.  1.  A  PERSON.  (Gen. 
 X.  22.)  Eldest  son  of  Shem, 
 and  the  ancestor  of  the  Elam- 
 ites  and  Persians. 
 
 2.  A  COUNTRY,  (Gen.  xiv. 
 9,)  settled  by  the  family  of 
 Elam,  and  lying  east  of  Shinar 
 and  north  of  the  Persian  gulf, 
 and  a  part  of  the  ancient  Per- 
 sian empire.  Chedorlaomer 
 was  one  of  its  earliest  kings. 
 (Gen.  xiv.  1.)  Shushan  was  the 
 capital  of  the  province.  (Dan. 
 viii.  2.)  When  the  country  of 
 Elam  is  mentioned  by  the  sa- 
 cred writers,  Susiana  or  Shu- 
 sistan  is  meant.  The  Elam- 
 ites  were  a  warlike  peopde, 
 and  distinguished  for  their 
 skill  as  bowmen,  (Isa.  xxii.  6. 
 Jer.  xlix.  35,)  and  were  regard- 
 ed as  a  formidable  enemy. 
 (Ezek.  xxxii.  24.)  Some  of 
 this  nation  were  present  in  ^^ 
 Jerusalem,  at  the  miraculous 
 effusion  of  God's  Spirit  on  the 
 day  of  Pentecost.  (See  Shu- 
 shan.) 
 
 The  "  bringing  again  the 
 captivity  of  Elam"  (Jer.  xlix. 
 39)  is  generally  supposed  to 
 refer  to  the  restoration  of  the 
 kingdom  of  Persia  by  Cyrus 
 
ELD 
 
 who  subdued  the  Babylonians, 
 as  ihey  had  previously  subdued 
 the  Persians. 
 
 £  L  A  T  H,  (Deut.  ii.  8,)  or 
 ELOTH.  (2Chron.  viii.  17.)  A 
 seaport  of  Idumea;  of  great  ce- 
 lebrity, lying  on  the  shore  of 
 the  eastern  orElaniiic  gulf  of 
 the  Red  Sea.  It  was  a  place 
 of  nuich  importance  in  Solo- 
 mon's time.  (1  Kings  ix.  26— 
 28.)  It  was  probably  a  part  of 
 David's  conquest,  (1  Chron. 
 xviii.  13,)  and  was  recaptured 
 by  the  Edomites  in  the  rei^n 
 of  Jehoram,  (2Kings  viii.  2D,) 
 was  taken  from  therh  again  by 
 Uzziah  kingof  Judah,  (2  Kings 
 xiv.  22,)  was  afterwards  taken 
 by  the  kins  of  Damascus,  (2 
 Kings  xvi.  6,)  who  was  in  his 
 turn  deprived  of  it  by  the  king 
 of  Assyria.  (2  Kings  xvi.  7— i).") 
 Elath  adjoined  Ezion-Geber, 
 and  Akaba  now  occupies  the 
 site  of  one  or  both  of  those 
 ancient  towns. 
 
 ELD  AD  (Num.  xi.  26)  and 
 MEDAD  were  of  the  seventy 
 elders  of  Israel  appointed  by 
 Moses  lo  assist  him  in  the  go- 
 vernment of  the  people.  When 
 the  elders  were  assembled 
 around  the  tabernacle  to  seek 
 wisdom  from  God  on  a  particu- 
 lar occasion,  Eldad  and  Medad 
 were  absent.  The  Spirit  of 
 God  was  however  poured  out 
 on  them  there,  while  they  con- 
 tinued with  the  camp,  as  well 
 as  on  their  colleagues  who  sur- 
 rounded the  tabernacle,  and 
 they  began  to  prophesy.   Their 
 
 Kmceedingwas  represented  to 
 loses,  and  he  was  asked  to 
 prohibit  them,  but  he  declined, 
 and,  so  far  from  wisliing  them 
 to  be  silenced,  uttered  a  prayer 
 that  all  the  people  might  re- 
 ceive the  same  Spiril^which 
 was  upon  Eldad  and  Medad. 
 
 ELUERS.  (Ex.  iii.  16.)  A 
 comprehensive  title,  the  pecu- 
 liar force  of  v/hich  must  be 
 determined  by  the  connexion, 
 &c.  Wiiile  in  Egypt,  the 
 elders  of  Israel  (Ex.  jv.  29— 31) 
 
 ELL 
 
 were  probably  either  the  heads 
 of  tribes,  or  the  oldest  and  most 
 judicious  of  the  people.  And 
 though  their  authority  was  ia 
 its  nature  paternal,  they  were 
 regarded  to  a  certain  extent, 
 as  the  representatives  of  the 
 nation.  In  the  Hebrew  com- 
 monwealth every  city  had  ila 
 elders.  (Deut.  xix.  12;  xxi.  1 
 —9.  Josh.  XX.  24.  Judg.  viii. 
 14;  xi.  5,6.  Kuth  iv.  2.4.  9. 
 Ezra  X.  14.) 
 
 There  was  a  body  of  elders, 
 however,selected  and  appoint- 
 ed for  special  duties,  (Num.  xi. 
 16,  17.  24,  25;)  and  they  seem 
 to  have  been  taken  from  the 
 general  class  of  elders.  The 
 expression  is,  "  Gather  me  se- 
 venty men  of  the  elders  of  Is- 
 rael, whom  thou  knoicesl  to  be 
 el  ters  of  the  peiyple,  and  offi- 
 cers over  them." 
 
 The  seventy  men  who  were 
 with  MosesatmountSinai  were 
 also  seventy  of  the  elders  of 
 Israel.  (Ex.  xxiv.  1.  9.)  At  a 
 subsequent  period  of  Jewish 
 history,  we  find  a  tribunal  of 
 seventy  elders  known  as  the 
 sanhedrim,  which  the  rabbies 
 maintain  was  a  continuance  of 
 the  original  appointment  of 
 elders  tiy  Moses.  It  is  generally 
 agreeil,  however,  that  the  son- 
 hedrim  was  a  distinct  orijani- 
 zation,  unknown  till  the  lime 
 of  the  Maccabees. 
 
 The  term  elders  is  used  in 
 the  New  Testament  generally, 
 if  not  always,  to  denote  a  class 
 of  officers  in  the  Jewish  or 
 Christian  church.  Concerning 
 the  duties  which  appcriained 
 to  their  office,  there  are  coa- 
 tlicting  opinions. 
 
 It  is  supposed  by  some  that 
 in  Acts  xi.  30,  the  wonl  elders 
 means  simply  the  aeed  men. 
 
 The  word  rendered  elders^ 
 Acts  XX.  17,  is  ren.lered  over- 
 s  ers.  Acts  xx.  28,  and  binhopa 
 in  Phil.  i.  1.  However  difficult 
 it  may  be  to  ascertain  its  ori- 
 ginal import,  there  can  be  no 
 doubt  that  one  class  of  tlis 
 
ELE 
 
 elders  so  frequently  spoken  of 
 in  the  New  Tesiament  by  the 
 evanpelisis  and  others,  con- 
 stituted a  judicial  tribunal. 
 When  they  are  associated  with 
 the  apostles,  (as  in  Acts  xv.  6,) 
 offi'  'rs  or  members  of  the 
 Christian  church  are  intend- 
 ed; and  when  they  are  asso- 
 ciated with  the  civil  authority, 
 (as  in  Acts  xxiv.  I,)  officers  of 
 the  Jewish  church  are  intend- 
 ed. That  the  corruption  and 
 contempt  which  attached  to 
 the  latter  in  their  judicial  cha- 
 racter was  very  general  in  our 
 Saviour's  time,  "appears  from 
 Matt.  xxvi.  59;  xxvii.  3.  41; 
 and  that  the  former  had  ex- 
 tensive ecclesiastical  power, 
 appears  from  Acts  xvi.  i. 
 
 Estate  op  the  elders 
 (Acts  xxii.  5)  means  the  whole 
 body,  bench,  or  order  of  the 
 elders. 
 
 ELEALEH.  (Num.  xxxii.  3. 
 37.)  A  city  of  the  Amoriles, 
 assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben. 
 Jt  is  denounced  in  the  prophe- 
 cies among  the  cities  of  Moab. 
 (Isa.  XV.  4.  Jer.  xlviii.  34.) 
 And  to  this  day  the  ruins  of  a 
 town  are  seen  one  or  two  miles 
 north-east  of  Heshbon,  that 
 still  retain  the  name  of  Eleale 
 or  El-Aal. 
 
 ELEAZAR.  1.  (Num.  xx. 
 23.)  The  third  son  of  Aaron, 
 (Ex.  vi.  2.3.)  and  his  successor 
 in  the  office  of  high-priest, 
 which  he  held  for  upwards  of 
 twenty  years,  and  his  family 
 after  him,  till  the  time  of  Eli. 
 Nadab  and  Abihu,  Eieazar 
 and  Iihamar,  together  with 
 their  father  Aaron,  were  con- 
 secrated to  the  sacerdotal  of- 
 fice. The  first  two  were  struck 
 dead  for  a  particular  sin.  (See 
 Abihu  ^ 
 
 Eieazar,  being  the  eldest 
 surviving  son,  succeeded  his 
 father,  alid  was  himself  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  eldest  son  Phine- 
 lins,  according  to  the  covenant. 
 (Num.  XXV.  12, 13.)  The  office 
 continued  in   Eleazar's   line 
 
 ELE 
 
 through  seven  successions,  and 
 then  passed  into  the  line  of 
 Iihamar,  in  the  person  of  Eli, 
 who  was  both  high-priest  and 
 judge.  In  Ithamar's  line,  it 
 cominued  until  the  reign  of 
 Saul,  who  caused  Ahimelech 
 to  be  slain,  and  probably  trans- 
 ferred the  priesthood  to  Zadok, 
 who  was  of  the  line  of  Phine- 
 has;  for  in  David's  time  we 
 find  the  priesthood  sustained 
 jointly  by  Zadok  and  Abialhar, 
 who  was  of  Ithamar's  family. 
 (2  Sam.  XX.  25.)  It  is  supposed 
 that  Zadok  was  advanced  by 
 Saul ;  and  David,  not  wishing 
 to  depose  him,  but  feeling 
 bound  to  advance  Abiathar, 
 whose  family  had  sacrificed  so 
 many  lives  for  his  sake,  he 
 conferred  the  office  on  them 
 jointly.  (2Sam.viii.  17.)  The 
 apparent  contradiction  in  this 
 last  cited  passage,  by  which 
 tiie  relation  of  Ahimelech  and 
 Abialhar  is  reversed,  is  ex- 
 plained by  supposing  that  Abi- 
 alhar had  a  son  Ahimelech, 
 and  that  this  son  officiated  in 
 his  father's  stead,  and  hence 
 is  spoken  of  as  executing  the 
 priest's  office  with  Abiathar. 
 Afiervrards,  Abiathar  was  de- 
 posed, (1  Kinss  ii.  27,)  and  Za- 
 dok sustaineLflhe  office  alone ; 
 and  the  succession  continued 
 in  his  line  thenceforward  until 
 the  captivity. 
 
 Abiathar  received  the  title  of 
 hi^h-priest  after  his  deposition, 
 (I  Kings  iv.  4,)  but  it  was  no- 
 thing more  than  nominal;  it 
 could  only  have  been  a  se- 
 condary rank,  such  as  Zepha- 
 niah  held.  (Jer.  lii.24.)  Why 
 the  sacerdotal  succession  was 
 transferred  from  Eieazar  tj 
 Ithamar,  we  are  not  informed  ; 
 but  we  are  told  why  it  reverted 
 to  the  family  of  Eieazar.  (i 
 Sam.  ii.27,  &c.) 
 
 2.  (1  Chron.  xi.  12.)  A  wajv 
 rior  of  distinguished  courage, 
 two  of  whose  exploits  are  re- 
 corded, 1  Chron.  xi.  11—18,  and 
 2  Sam.  xxiii.  9. 
 
ELE 
 
 3.   (I  Sara.  vii.  I.)    The  son  ' 
 of  Abinadab,  to  whose  care  the 
 ark  was  commitied   when   it  j 
 was  sent  back  by  the  Philis-  j 
 tines. 
 
 EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL.  (Gen. 
 xxxiii.  20.)    The  word  El  is 
 from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
 strength,  poicer,  or  an  object 
 of  adoration.    It  is  most  fre-  t 
 quenlly  used  of  God,  but  is  | 
 applied  both  to  Jehovah  and  i 
 to  heathen  gods.  It  enters  into  I 
 the  composition  of  a  variety 
 of  words,  to  which  it  gives  a  | 
 highly    significant    meanin?,  i 
 as  El-bethel,  Eluzal,  Daniel, 
 Jabneel,  Othniel,  Penuel,  &c. 
 (See  Eloi.) 
 
 El-bethel.  (Gen.  xxxv. 
 7.)  TVie  God  of  Bethel.  The 
 flame  with  Bethel.  (See  Be- 
 thel.) 
 
 ELECT,  (1  Pet.  i.  2,)  ELEC- 
 TION. (Rom.  ix.  11.)  Both  in 
 the  Old  and  New  Testament  a 
 class  of  persons  is  spoken  of  as 
 the  elect,  mine  elect,  (Isa.  Ixv. 
 9,)  the  elect,  (Matt.  xxiv.  22,) 
 his  elect,  (Mark  xiii.  27,)  his 
 owji  elect,  (Luke  xviii.7,)  God's 
 c^ec^  (Rom.  viii.  33.  Tit.  i.  1,) 
 the  elect  of  God.  (Col.  iii.  12.) 
 So  also  in  the  New  Testament 
 a  corresponding  phrase  often 
 occurs,  Elected  together  icith 
 you,  (1  Pet.  V.  13,)  'the  purpose 
 of  God,  according  to  election, 
 (Rom.  ix.  11,)  election  of  grace, 
 (Rom.  xi.  5,)  election  of  God, 
 (1  Thess.  i.  4,)  calling  and 
 election.  (2?et.  I  [0.)  These 
 terms,  in  their  various  connex- 
 ions, involve  a  very  important 
 and  interesting  doctrine,  con- 
 cerning which  Christians  are 
 much  divided  in  opinion.  It 
 is  evidently  a  matter  of  mere 
 revelation,  and  many  of  the 
 reasonings  and  inferences  of 
 men  are  therefore  likely  to  be 
 very  vain  and  erroneous.  TVie 
 counsel  of  the  Lord,  that  s?iall 
 stand.  (Prov.  xix.  21.)  And  i 
 we  may  be  fully  ass  red,  that  i 
 in  his  counsel  there  is  nothing 
 laconsislent  with  the  infinitely  i 
 20 
 
 ELT 
 
 perfect  attributes  of  his  cha- 
 racter. 
 
 Elect  lady.  (2  John  1.) 
 Whether  this  title  is  applied 
 by  John  to  some  eminent 
 Christian  woman,  or  whether 
 it  was  a  figurative  expression, 
 denoting  a  Christian  church, 
 is  uncertain.  The  expressions 
 in  verses  4,  5. 8,  and  13,  would 
 favour  the  latter  supposition. 
 
 ELEMENTS,  (Gal.  iv.  3.9,) 
 elsewhere  rendered  rudiments, 
 (Col.  ii.  8.  20,)  or  the  first  prin- 
 ciples of  an  art  or  science,  is  a 
 term  ajiplied  to  the  ceremonial 
 ordinances  of  the  Mosaic  law, 
 which  were  worldly,  weak, 
 and  beggarly,  inasmuch  as 
 they  consisted  very  much  in 
 outward  or  worldly  observ- 
 ances, (Heb.  ix.  1,)  and  were 
 of  temporary  and  partial  ser- 
 vice, when  compared  with  the 
 disclosures  of  grace  and  mercy 
 which  they  were  designed  to 
 shadow  forth.  In  the  case  of 
 the  Colossians,  probably  these 
 rudiments  of  the  world  em- 
 braced the  doctrines  of  some 
 vain  and  deceitful  philosothy. 
 
 ELI.  (ISam.  ii.  11.)  A  de- 
 scendant of  Ithamar,  the  fourth 
 son  of  Aaron,  and  successor  of 
 Abdon,  as  high-priest  and  judge 
 of  Israel.  Tn  consequence  of 
 his  negligence  or  injudicious 
 management  of  his  two  sons 
 Hophni  and  Phinehas,  he  suf- 
 fered servere  chastisement.  Sa- 
 muel was  directed  to  disclose 
 to  Eli  the  judgments  that 
 would  come  upon  his  family, 
 (1  Sam.  iii.  13,  14,)  chiefly  be- 
 cause of  his  neglect  of  pater 
 nal  duty.  The  old  man  re- 
 ceived  the  intelligence  ^hh 
 remarkable  submis'sion ,  ^  Jt  it 
 was  not  until  twenty-seven 
 years  after,  that  God  fulfilled 
 his  threatenings.  Then  his 
 two  sons  were  both  slain  in 
 the  same  battle  with  the  Philis- 
 tines, into  whose  hands  the  ark 
 of  God  fell.  The  aged  priest, 
 then  in  his  ninety-eighth  year, 
 was  so  overwhelmed  when 
 229 
 
ELI 
 
 these  calamities  were  made 
 known  to  him,  thai  he  fell 
 backward  from  his  seal,  and 
 broke  his  neck.  He  had  go- 
 verned the  Hebrews  in  all 
 their  concerns,  civil  and  reli- 
 
 fjious,  for  the  long  period  of 
 (Wty  years.  (1  Sam.  iv.  IS. 
 See  Et.oi.) 
 
 ELIAB.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  28.) 
 The  eldest  son  of  Jesse,  (1  Sam. 
 xvii.  13,)  and  a  man  of  angry 
 and   envious   temper,  as   ap- 
 
 Eears  from  liis  treatment  of  his 
 rother  David. 
 
 ELlAKliM.  1.  (2Kingsxviii. 
 IS.)  An  officer  in  the  court  of 
 Hezekiah  king  of  Judali,  and 
 one  of  the  commissioners  ap- 
 pointed to  treat  with  the  king 
 of  Assyria,  who  liad  laid  siege 
 to  Jerusalem.  We  have  a  mi- 
 nute and  deeply  interesting 
 account  of  the  whole  scene, 
 2  Kings  xviii.  and  xix'. 
 
 2.  caKingsxxiii.  a4.)  Son 
 and  successor  of  Josiah  king  of 
 Judah.  His  name  was  changed 
 to  Jehoiakim.     (.See  Jkhoia- 
 
 KIM.) 
 
 ELI  AS.    (See  Elijah.) 
 
 ELIASHIB.  (Neh.  xiii.  4.) 
 An  officer  of  the  temple.  To 
 oblige  Tobiah,  a  relative,  he 
 look  the  stores  out  of  one  of 
 the  courts  of  the  temple,  and 
 filled  it  up  for  Tobjah's  lodg- 
 ings. As  soon  as  Nehemiah 
 tnew  of  it,  he  caused  all  To- 
 Diah's  furni'ure  to  be  cast  out, 
 the  apariinents  to  be  thorough- 
 ly cleansed,  and  the  stores  lo 
 be  reiumrd. 
 
 ELIEZEK.  (Gen.  XV.  2.)  A 
 name  of  fre(iuent  occurrence 
 in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
 most  distinguished  person  wlio 
 bore  it  WHS  Aliraham's  steward 
 and  confidential  servant. (Gen. 
 jcxiv.  2.) 
 
 ELIHU.  (Job  xxxii.  2.)  A 
 friend  uf  Job,  and  a  kind  of 
 arl^itralor  in  the  controversy 
 between  liim  and  three  of  his 
 ac(|uainiKiu  es  who  had  come 
 lo  sympathize  with  hi)n  in  his 
 calamiiies.      Elihu    regarded 
 
 ELI 
 
 both  parties  as  in  the  wrong; 
 Job,  for  justifying  himself  ra- 
 ther ihaii  God  I  and  his  three 
 friends,  for  their  unfair  or  un 
 satisfactory  mode  of  answering 
 the  afflicted  patriarch.  Elihu 
 was  the  youngest  of  them  all. 
 He  is  called  the  Buzite,  from 
 Buz,  the  place  of  his  nativity, 
 probably  a  city  of  Idumea,  as 
 were  also  Dedan  and  Teman^ 
 (Jer.  XXV.23;  xlix.  7,  8.  Ezek, 
 XXV.  13.)  The  ground  taken 
 by  the  three  friends  of  .lob, 
 I  respecting  the  cause  of  his 
 calamities,  was,  that  his  pro- 
 fessions of  piety  were  hypocri- 
 tical; and  these  were  God's 
 judgments  upon  him  for  his 
 sins.  Elihu  shows  thai  ihis 
 inference  of  tlieir's  was  rash 
 and  unauthorized.  He  cen- 
 sures many  of  the  feelinss  and 
 expressions  into  which  Job  had 
 been  betrayed  by  the  taunts 
 and  reproaches  of  his  visiters; 
 and  then  puts  him  in  remem- 
 brance of  the  infinite  attributes 
 of  the  Di  vi  lie  Being,as  a  ground 
 of  submission  and  confidence. 
 The  soothing,  yet  faithful  and 
 honest,  discourse  of  Elihu  is 
 [finely  conirasi6;d  with  the 
 I  sharp  and  severe  language  of 
 I  the  other  three;  and  especial- 
 ly are  his  wisdom,  piety,  and 
 benevolence  ailmirable,  when 
 we  consider  his  youih  and 
 the  character  and  slanilin^of 
 these  w  horn  he  addressed.  (See 
 Job.) 
 
 ELIJAH,  (1  Kings  xvii.  I,) 
 or  ELIAS,  (Mail.  xvii.  3,)  wa« 
 a  native  of  Gilead,  and  is 
 called  the  Tixhbite,  pmbably 
 from  the  name  if  ihe  town  or 
 district  in  whiih  he  livf  d.  He 
 is  first  introduced  to  our  notice 
 as  a  messenger  from  God  lo 
 Ahab,  the  wicked  king  of  Is- 
 rael. He  was  sent  to  Hter  a 
 prophecy  of  a  three  years' 
 drought  in  the  land  of  fsraeL 
 He  was  miraculously  feil,  (i 
 Kings  xvii.  (j-IG:  xi.x.  5-«,) 
 and  was  favoured  with  the 
 most  remarkable  displays  of 
 
ELI 
 
 divine  power  in  his  behalf, 
 anil  in  answer  to  liis  prayers. 
 (iKingp  xvii.  17—2-2;  xviii.  15 
 —16.  xix.2-:i.  iKlngs  i.3— 
 17;  ii.  1— llj  Two  of  these 
 inciJenls  are  used  in  the  New 
 Testainenl  to  illustrate  im- 
 portant doctrines.  (Lulie  iv. 
 25,  2G.    James  v.  17,  IS.) 
 
 As  a  rt^prover  of  wicked 
 men  in  high  places,  Elijah  dis- 
 coverei!  great  intrepidity,  (I 
 Kincs  xxi.  17—21.  2  Kings  i. 
 2—16,)  thouQ;h  on  one  occasion 
 he  seems  to  have  l.ieen  betray- 
 ed into  some  impatience. 
 (1  Kings  xix.  3, 4) 
 
 Afer  executing  the  prophe- 
 tic office  ten  years,  Elijah  was 
 translated  to  heaven  in  a  mi- 
 raculous manner,  in  presence 
 of  Elisha  and  fifty  other  per- 
 sons. The  advent  of  John  the 
 Baptist  is  prophesied  under 
 the  name  of  Elijah.  (Mai.  iv.  5. 
 Comp.  Matt.  xi.  14;  xvii.  10. 
 Mark  ix.  11.  Luke  i.  17.  For 
 a  full  history  of  this  prophet, 
 with  illustrative  maps  and 
 cuts,  see  Life  of  Elijah.  See 
 also  Bible  Pictures,  and 
 Widow  and  her  Son,  all  by 
 Am.  S.S.  Union.) 
 
 ELIMELECH.  (Ruth  i.  2.) 
 A  Bethlehemiie.  and  the  hus- 
 band of  Naomi,  Ruth's  mother- 
 in-law. 
 
 ELIPHAZ.  (Jobii.  11.)  One 
 of  the  three  friends  of  Job  who 
 came  to  sympathize  with  him 
 in  his  calamities.  He  ig  called 
 ihe  Temanite,  probably  be- 
 cause he  was  a  native  of  Te- 
 man,  a  country  of  Idumea, 
 settled  by  one  of  the  descend- 
 ants of  Esau.  (Gen.  xxxvi. 
 10,  11.  Comp.  Jer.  xlix.  7.20. 
 Ezek.  XXV.  13.  Amos  i.  11,  12. 
 Obad.  8,  9.) 
 
 ELISABETH.  (Luke  i.  5.) 
 The  wife  of  Zacharias,  and 
 greatly  distinguished  as  the 
 mother  of  John  the  Baptist, 
 She  was  a  descendant  of  Aa- 
 ron; and  of  her  and  her  hus 
 band  tliis  exalted  ciiaracter  is 
 given  by  the  evangelist— T/iey 
 
 ELO 
 
 were  both  righteous  before 
 Gorl,  walking  in  all  the  com' 
 vw.ndnients  and  ordinances  of 
 the  Lord  blameless.  (See  Za- 
 charias.) 
 
 ELISHA,  (1  Kings  xix.  16,) 
 the  disciple  and  successor  of 
 Elijah,  was  thesonof  Shaphat, 
 and  a  native  of  Abel-Meholah. 
 Elijah  was  commanded  to 
 anoint  liim;  which  service  he 
 performed  at  Abel-Meholah,' 
 where  he  found  Elisha  plough- 
 ing, and  threw  his  mantle  over 
 him  as  they  stood  in  the  field; 
 thus  signifying  the  service  to 
 which  "he  was  called.  Elisha 
 promptly  obeyed  the  call,  and 
 leaving  his  oxen  in  the  field, 
 took  leave  of  his  father  and 
 mother,  and  ftdlowed  Elijah 
 Many  miracles  were  wrought 
 by  Elisha.  (2  Kings  ii.  19— 
 22;  iv.  l.S— 37;  v.  vi.  1—7. 
 See  Naaman.)  He  received 
 frequent  and  signal  tokens  of 
 the  divine  fa  vour,(2  Kings  ii.  23, 
 24 ;  vi.  8—23,)  and  uttered  se- 
 veral remarkable  predictions. 
 (2  Kings  iii.  16—27;  vii.  viii.  7 
 —15.)  He  exercised  the  pro- 
 phetic office  upwards  of  sixty 
 years  with  great  fidelity  and 
 success.  (For  a  full  biography 
 of  this  eminent  prophet,  with 
 maps  and  cuts,  illustrating  his 
 travels  and  the  prominent  in- 
 cidents of  his  life,  see  Life  op 
 Eli.sha,  by  Am.  S.S.  Union.) 
 
 ELISHAH.  (Gen.  x.  4.)  A 
 son  of  Javan,  who  is  supposed 
 to  have  settled  upon  some 
 islands  of  the  sea.  (Ezek. 
 xxvii.  7.)  Perhaps  Elis  is  the 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 E  L  L  A  S  A  R,  (Gen.  xiv.  1,) 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
 Thelasar,  (2  Kings  xix.  12.) 
 and  T'e^assar,  (IsaTxxxvii.  12,) 
 was  probably  a  country  of  Ara- 
 bia, and  perhaps  the  province 
 which  was  afterwards  enlarg- 
 ed into  Assyria  or  El-Asur. 
 
 ELM.  (Hos.  iv.  13.)  The 
 original  is  elsewhere  trans- 
 lated oak.    (See  Oak.) 
 
 ELOI.    (Mark  XV.  34.)    One 
 231 
 
EMB 
 
 tf  the  names  of  the  Most  High, 
 but  is  applied  to  other  objects 
 of  adoration.  It  is  the  a/ZaA  of 
 the  Arabians.  (See  El.)  The 
 exclamation  of  our  Saviour  is 
 in  the  Syro-Chaldaic  tongue, 
 and  is  taken  from  Ps.  xxil  1. 
 The  peculiar  application  of 
 the  passage  may  be  learned 
 from  comparins  Isa.  liii.  4,  5. 
 Zech.  xiii.  7.  Luke  xxii.  53. 
 2 Cor.  V.  21.  Gal.  iii.  13. 
 ELUL.  (See  Month.) 
 ELYMAS.  (SeeBARJESUs.) 
 EMBALM.  (Gen.  1.2.)  The 
 practice  of  embalming  prevail- 
 ed at  a  very  early  period.  The 
 Hebrews  learned  it  from  the 
 Egyptians,  by  whom  it  was 
 understood  very  perfectly,  and 
 it  is  said  that  the  inundation 
 of  the  Nile,  which  kept  the  flat 
 country  under  water  for  nearly 
 two  months  every  year,  proba- 
 bly obliged  them  to  resort  to 
 some  such  method  of  preserv- 
 ing their  dead.  Others  tell  us 
 it  was  to  preserve  the  body  for 
 the  dwelling  place  of  the  soul, 
 after  it  had  completed  its  vari- 
 ous transmigrations.  The  em- 
 balmers  or"  physicians  were 
 regarded  as  sacred  officers. 
 The  deceased  person  was  open- 
 ed, (both  head  and  body,)  the 
 inward  vessels  and  organs  en- 
 
 EMB 
 
 tirely  removed,  and  the  cavi- 
 ties filled  with  drugs  and 
 spices,  —  such  as  myrrh  and 
 cassia,— whereby  the  humours 
 should  be  imtnbed  and  ab- 
 sorbed, and  the  torm  preserved 
 from  decay.  It  was  then  swath- 
 ed in  linen  bandages,  with  a 
 profusion  of  aromatics.  The 
 price  of  embalming  a  single 
 body  was  sometimes  upwards 
 of  $10(X),  and  from  that  down 
 to  S-00,  or  $300.  Sometimes 
 the  process  lasted  from  thirty 
 to  seventy  days,  and  afterwards 
 the  body  was  placed  in  a  coffis 
 of  sycamore-wood  or  stone,  and 
 then  placed  upright  against 
 the  walls  of  the  house,  where 
 it  often  remained  for  years. 
 Finally, the  bodies  were  placed 
 in  subterraneous  vaults  in  the 
 ground,  or  in  the  rock,  where 
 they  were  often  found,  after 
 the  lapse  of  two  or  three  thou- 
 sand years,  in  a  state  of  perfect 
 preservation. 
 
 We  have  no  evidence  that 
 embalming  was  practised  by 
 the  Hebrews,  except  in  the 
 cases  of  Jacob  and  Joseph,  and 
 then  it  was  for  the  purpose 
 of  preserving  their  remains 
 till  they  could  be  carried  into 
 the  land  of  promise.  (See 
 Bury.) 
 
EMU 
 
 EMERALD.  (Ex.  xxviii.  18.) 
 A  very  valuable  gem,  of  a  pure 
 green  colour,  to  which  it  owes 
 Its  chief  value.  The  deepest 
 colours  are  the  most  valuable. 
 The  emerald  was  anciently 
 obtained  from  Egypt.  It  is 
 found  in  Peru  and  the  East 
 Indies,  and  was  an  article  of 
 Tyrian  merchandise.  (Ezek. 
 xxvii.  16;  xxviii.  13.) 
 
 EMEKODS.  (1  Sam.  v.  6. 9.) 
 The  name  of  a  painful  disease 
 sentuponthe Philistines.  Some 
 think  it  resembled  the  modern 
 disease  of  the  piles;  and  others, 
 that  it  was  like  the  dysentery ; 
 and  others  still,  that  they  were 
 a  very  large  and  venomous 
 species  of  the  spider.  It  was 
 customary  with  the  heathens 
 to  offer  to  their  gods  figures  of 
 wax  or  metal,  representing  the 
 parts  which  had  been  cured  of 
 disease.  Whence  they  infer, 
 in  connexion  with  1  Sam.  vi. 
 5,  that  the  priests  and  diviners 
 of  the  Philistines  recommend- 
 ed a  similar  course. 
 
 EMIMS.  (Deut.  ii.  10.)  A 
 numerous  and  warlike  people, 
 of  gigantic  size,  who  dwelt  on 
 the  eastern  borders  of  Canaan, 
 and  who  were  supplanted  by 
 the  IMoabites. 
 
 E]\IMANUEL.    (See  Imma- 
 
 NUEL.) 
 
 E:\IMAUS.  (Luke  xxiv.  13.) 
 A  village  seven  or  eight  miles 
 north-west  of  Jerusalem.  It 
 was  on  the  way  to  this  village 
 that  our  Lord  held  a  most  inle- 
 restins  conversation  with  two 
 of  his  Hisciples.  The  supposed 
 ruins  of  the  place  are  still  vi- 
 sible, though  too  imperfect  to 
 excite  much  interest. 
 
 EMULATION.  (Rom.  xi. 
 14.  Gal.  V.  20.)  The  oppo- 
 site meaning  of  this  word, 
 in  the  passage  above  cited, 
 is  obvious.  In  the  last  casej 
 it  is  the  same  with  what  is 
 elsewhere  called  envy  and 
 envyings,  (Acts  xiii.  45.  2  Cor. 
 xii.  20";)  and  in  the  former 
 passage  it  signifies  that  holy 
 20* 
 
 ENG 
 
 strife  or  effort  to  equal  or  excel 
 others,  which  is  excited  or  pro- 
 voked by  an  exhibition  of  good 
 example. 
 
 ENCHANTMENTS.  (See 
 Inchanters.) 
 
 ENDOR.  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10.) 
 A  town  of  Manasseh,  with- 
 in the  territory  of  Issachar, 
 south  of  mount  Tabor,  where 
 lived  the  woman  whom  Saul 
 consulted  as  having  a  fami- 
 liar spirit.  A  cave  is  still 
 pointed  out  to  travellers  a  few- 
 miles  south  of  Nazareth,  as 
 the  one  she  inhabited.  (1  Sam. 
 xxviii.  7—25.)  It  would  seem 
 from  the  passage  in  Psalms, 
 above  cited,  that  it  was  near 
 this  place  that  Barak  defeated 
 Sisera.  (Judg.  iv.) 
 
 ENDOW.    (SeeDowRT.) 
 
 ENGEDI,  (2Chron.xx.2,)  or 
 HAZAZON-TAMAR.  A  town 
 about  thirty  miles  south-east  of 
 Jerusalem, and  directly  w^est  of 
 the  southern  extremity  of  the 
 Dead  Sea.  It  was  celebrated  for 
 its  palm  trees  and  vineyards, 
 (Sol.  Song  i.  14;)  and  modern 
 travellers  speak  of  the  district 
 as  affording  the  richest  wines. 
 It  was  also  celebrated  for  its 
 caves  and  almost  inaccessible 
 fastnesses.   (1  Sam.  xxiiii  29.) 
 
 Wilderness  of.  (1  Sam. 
 sxiv.  1.)  Part  of  the  wilder- 
 ness of  Judah.  , 
 
 ENGINES.    (See  War.) 
 
 ENGRAVE.  (Ex.xxviii.il.) 
 Engraved  seals  are  spoken  of 
 at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
 world.  The  names  of  the  chil- 
 dren of  Israel  were  directed  to 
 be  engraved  on  two  stones; 
 and  the  words  "  Holiness  to 
 THE  Lord"  were  also  to  be 
 engraved  on  the  high-priest's 
 breastplate ;  both  to  be  like 
 the  engravings  of  asignet.  (Ex. 
 xxviii.  11.  36.)  The^signet  is 
 mentioned  before  Joseph  was 
 sold  into  Egypt.  Job  also  speaks 
 of  engraving  with  an  iron  pen 
 upon  a  rock.  (Job  xix.  24.) 
 The  ten  commandments  were 
 engraved,  (Ex.  xxxii.  16:)  and 
 233 
 
ENO 
 
 graven  images  were  undoubt- 
 edly among  ihe  earliest  objects 
 of  idolatrous  worship.  (Ex.  xx. 
 4;  xxxii.  4.)  Allusion  is  also 
 made  to  the  engraver's  art  in 
 Ezek.  xxiii.  14.  "The  engraved 
 lines  were  probably  filled  in 
 with  colouring  matter.  (See 
 also  Acts  xvii.  29.  See  Seal.) 
 
 ENOCH,  (Heb.  xi.  5,)  the 
 eon  cf  Jared  and  father  of 
 Methuselah,  was  born  a.  m. 
 622.  He  is  called  the  seventh 
 frmn  Adam,  (Jude  14,)  to  dis- 
 tinguish him  from  Enoch  the 
 son  of  Cain,  who  was  only  the 
 third  from  Adam.  We  are 
 told  that  he  walked  with  God ; 
 an  expressive  figure  to  denote 
 the  closest  cornaiunion  with 
 the  divine  being,  and  entire 
 conformity  to  h.\3  will.  And 
 concerning  his  departure  from 
 the  world,  we  are  told  that 
 he  was  not,  for  God  took 
 him,  —  a  phrase  which  im- 
 ports a  mere,  change  of  resi- 
 dence, without  suffering  the 
 ordinary  dissolution  of  the 
 body.  In  this  case,  as  well 
 as  in  Elijah's,  the  body  was 
 clothed  with  immortality,  or 
 endued  with  the  immortal 
 principle  by  the  immediate 
 power  of  <Jod.    (1  Cor.  xv.  50.) 
 
 We  have  the  character  of 
 Enoch  drawn  by  two  aposiles. 
 (Heb.  xi.  5.  13.  Jude  14,  15.) 
 This  last  passage  has  been  the 
 subject  of  some  controversy; 
 but  the  truth  is  apparent  that 
 Jude  received  a  knowledge  of 
 the  prophecy  of  the  ancient 
 patriarch,  either  through  tra- 
 dition or  directly  from  God.  It 
 has  been  remarked  that  each 
 of  three  grand  dispensations 
 of  religion  had  its  instance  of 
 translation  into  heaven:  the 
 
 Satriarchal,  in  the  person  of 
 noch;  the  Jewish,  in  the 
 person  of  Elijah;  and  the 
 '-christian,  in  the  person  of  \ 
 Christ,  the  author  and  spirit 
 of  all. 
 
 ENON.  (John  iii.  23.)  A 
 V)Nvn  on  the  west  side  of  the 
 
 EPH 
 
 Jordan,  eight  or  ten  miles 
 south  of  Eeihshean,  abounding 
 in  water,  and  distinguished  as 
 a  place  where  John  "baptized. 
 
 ENROGEL,  (Josh.  xv.  7,)  or 
 the  Fountain  of  Rogel,  or  the 
 F\iller^s  Fountain,  or  Mary^s 
 Fountain,  was  a  reservoir  of 
 water  at  the  foot  of  mount 
 Zion,  and,  as  some  suppose, 
 the  same  with  the  fountain  of 
 Siloam,  whence  the  pool  of  that 
 name  is  supplied.  Several 
 important  events  of  sacred  his- 
 tory are  associated  with  this 
 place.  (Josh.xviii.  16.  2Sam, 
 xvii.  17.  1  Kings  i.  9.) 
 
 ENSIGN.    (See  Banners.) 
 
 EPAPHRAS.  (Col.i.7.)  A 
 distinguished  disciple  of  Co- 
 losse,  and  a  faitliful  minister 
 of  the  gospel.  His  character  is 
 descriloed  by  the  apostle  Paul, 
 (Col.  i.  7,  8;  iv.  12,)  whose  fel- 
 low  prisoner  he  weis  at  Rome. 
 (Phile.  23.) 
 
 EPAPHRODITUS.  (Phil.  ii. 
 25.)  An  eminent  disciple  who 
 resided  at  Philippi,  and  was 
 commissioned  by  the  church 
 in  that  city  to  visit  the  apostle 
 Paul  during  his  imprisonment 
 at  Rome,  and  carry  him  some 
 supplies.  He  was  taken  sick 
 at  Rome,  to  which  circum- 
 stance, and  the  procuring 
 cause  of  h,  the  apostle  alludes 
 with  strong  commendation. 
 
 EPHAH.    (See  Measures.) 
 
 EPHAH.  1.  A  PLACE.  (Isa. 
 Ix.  6.) 
 
 2.  A  PERSON.  (Gen.  xxv.  4,) 
 Ephah  was  a  grandson  of  Abra- 
 ham, and  his  posterity  settled 
 in  Arabia,  and  were  designated 
 by  the  name  of  their  general 
 ancestor,  as  in  the  passage 
 above  cited  from  Isaiah. 
 
 EPHESIANS.  (Acts  xix.  28.) 
 The  citizens  of  Ephesus. 
 
 Epistle  to,  was  written  by 
 Paul  to  the  Christians  at  Ephe- 
 sus. The  church  in  that  re- 
 nowned city  was  established 
 and  built  up  under  Paul's  mi- 
 nistry (Acts  xviii.  19.21 ;  xix.) 
 about  the  year  54  or  55,  and 
 234 
 
EPH 
 
 this  letter  was  written  by  the 
 apostle  about  a.  d.  60  or  61, 
 while  he  was  in  prison  at 
 Rome,  and  forwarded  by  Tych- 
 icus,  a  beloved  brother  and 
 faithful  minister.  (Eph.  vi.21.) 
 The  matter  and  style  of  this 
 epistle  are  considered  by  the 
 most  eminent  critics  as  pecu- 
 liarly elevated  and  animating. 
 EPHESUS.  (Acts  xix.  35.) 
 A  celebrated  cityof  AsiaMinor, 
 situated  on  the  river  Cayster, 
 Bear  its  mouth,  about  thirty 
 miles  south  of  Smyrna.  It  was 
 the  ornament  and  metropolis 
 of  proconsular  Asia,  and  cele- 
 brated for  a  magnificent  tem- 
 f)le  of  Diana.  This  temple  was 
 bur  hundred  and  twenty-five 
 feet  in  length,  two  hundred 
 and  twenty'  in  breadth,  and 
 was  supported  by  one  hundred 
 columns,  each  sixty  feet  in 
 length.  The  building  of  it  oc- 
 cupied two  hundred  years. 
 
 When  Paul  came  to  the  city, 
 A.D.  54,  he  commenced  preach- 
 ing in  the  Jewish  synagogue. 
 The  blessing  of  God  attended 
 his  ministry.  Several  con- 
 verts to  the  faith  of  the  gospel 
 were  baptized,  and  had  im- 
 parted to  them  the  miraculous 
 gifts  of  tongues  and  prophecy. 
 He  afterwards  commenced 
 preaching  in  a  public  build- 
 ing, used  for  a  school ;  and 
 for  two  years,  day  by  day,  he 
 reasoned  publicly  with  the  per- 
 verse ana  unbelieving  Ephe- 
 sians.  By  this  means,  and  by 
 a  series  of  wonderful  miracles 
 which  he  wrought  by  the  power 
 of  God,  his  doctrines  became 
 universally  known  through  the 
 city  and  country.  Such  was 
 the  effect  of  his  preaching,  that 
 many  of  the  sorcerers,'  and 
 other  persons  who  practised 
 the  superstitious  arts  of  leger- 
 demain and  necromancy,  col- 
 lected together  their  boc^ks  on 
 these  subjects,  amounting  to 
 several  thousand  dollars  in 
 vtJiue,  and  burned  them.  An 
 exhibition   like  this,  of  the 
 
 iiPH 
 
 power  of  divine  truth,  might 
 be  expected  to  excite  the  op- 
 position of  wicked  men,  and 
 especially  those  whose  selfish 
 interests  were  likely  to  suflfer 
 by  the  prevalence  of  true  reli 
 gion.  A  great  commotion  was 
 accordingly  excited  by  a  class 
 of  men  whose  living  depended 
 on  the  worship  of  I)iana ;  and 
 Paul  came  near  falling  into 
 their  hands.  (See  Demetrius.) 
 
 Ephesus  was  visited  by  Apol- 
 los,  (Acts  xviii.  24.)  and  it  was 
 in  Ephesus  that  Paul  received 
 the  kind  offices  of  Onesipho- 
 rus. 
 
 The  church  at  Ephesus  is 
 severely  rebuked  and  threat- 
 ened (Rev.  ii.  1— II)  by  the 
 great  head  of  the  church,  for 
 its  coldness  and  backsliding; 
 and  how  fully  the  threat  has 
 been  executed,  appears  from 
 the  following  account  given  us 
 by  a  recent  wanderer  among 
 its  ruins.  A  miserable  Turkish 
 village,  called  Aijasoluc,  occu- 
 pies "nearly  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  city. 
 
 "  After  breakfasting,"  says  a 
 traveller,  "  we  passed  over  to 
 the  foot  of  mount  Prion,  (on 
 the  side  of  which  the  renowned 
 ci:y  was  built,)  and  at  eveiy 
 step  we  encountered  some  scat- 
 tered fragment  of  antiquity. 
 What  was  formerly  the  har- 
 bour is  now  a  marsh,  from 
 whence  the  sea  has  long  since 
 retreated.  On  the  hill  some 
 traces  of  the  former  walls,  and 
 a  solitary  watch-tower,  mark 
 the  extent  of  the  city.  Some- 
 thing is  seen  that  is  supposed 
 to  be  the  ruins  of  the  theatre 
 in  which  Demetrius  and  the 
 excited  multitude  rushed.  Of 
 the  temple  of  Diana,  not  a 
 stone  remains.  A  more  tho- 
 rough change  can  scarcely  be 
 conceived  than  that  which  has 
 passed  over  Ephesus.  Once 
 the  seat  of  active  commerce, 
 the  very  sea  has  shmuk  from 
 its  solitary  shores.  Its  streets, 
 once  populous  with  the  devo 
 235 
 
EPH 
 
 tees  of  Diana,  are  now  plough- 
 ed over  by  the  Ottoman  serf,  or 
 browsed  by  the  sheep  of  the 
 peasants.  It  was  early  the 
 Blronghold  of  Christianity; 
 now  not  a  sinsrle  Christian 
 dwells  within  it." 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, who  visited  tlie  ruins 
 in  1821,  describes  the  desola- 
 tion in  similar  terms,  and 
 then  adds :  "  Wiiile  wandering 
 among  the  ruins,  it  was  im- 
 possible not  to  think,  witli 
 deep  interest,  of  the  events 
 which  have  transpired  on  this 
 spot.  Here  has  been  displayed, 
 from  time  to  lime,  all  the  skill 
 of  the  architect,  the  musician, 
 the  tragedian,  and  the  orator. 
 Here  some  of  the  most  splendid 
 works  of  man  liave  been  seen 
 in  all  their  glory,  and  here  the 
 event  has  shown  their  transi- 
 tory nature.  How  interesting 
 would  it  be  to  stand  among 
 these  walls,  and  have  before 
 the  mind  a  full  view  of  the 
 history  of  Ephesus  from  its 
 first  foundation  till  now  !  We 
 misht  observe  the  idolatrous 
 and  impure  rites,  and  tlije  cruel 
 and  bloody  sports  of  pagans, 
 succeeded  by  the  preaching, 
 the  prayers.the  holy  and  peace- 
 able lives  of  the  first  Chris- 
 tians.—these  Christians  mar- 
 tyred, but  their  religion  still 
 triumphing, — pagan  rites  and 
 pagan  sports  abolished,  and 
 the  simple  worship  of  Christ 
 instituted  in  their  room.  We 
 misht  see  the  city  conquered 
 anS  reconquered,  destroyed 
 and  rebuilt,  till  finally  Chris- 
 tianity, arts,  learning,  and 
 prosperity,  all  vanish  before 
 the  pestiferous  breath  of  'the 
 only  people  whose  sole  occu- 
 pation has  been  to  destroy.' 
 
 "  The  plain  of  Ephesus  is 
 now  very  unhealthy,  owing  to 
 the  fogs  and  mist  which  al- 
 most continually  rest  upon  it. 
 The  land,  however,  is  rich, 
 and  the  surrounding  country 
 is   both  fertile   and    healthy. 
 
 EPH 
 
 The  aujacent  bills  would  fur- 
 nish many  deligl;*ful  situations 
 for  villages,  if  the  di/ficullies 
 were  removed  whicli  are 
 thrown  in  the  way  by  a  de- 
 spotic government,  oppressive 
 auas.  and  wandering  banditti." 
 
 (SepDEMETRIUS,DlANA,PAUL.) 
 
 EPHOD.  (Ex.  x.wiii.  6.) 
 One  of  the  articles  of  the 
 priest's  official  dress,  it  was 
 made  of  plain  linen,  (1  Sam. 
 ii.  18.  2  bam.  vi.  14,)  except 
 the  pphod  of  the  high-priest, 
 which  was  embroidel-ed  witn 
 various  colours.  It  consisted 
 of  two  parts,  one  covering  the 
 back  and  the  other  the  breast, 
 and  both  united  upon  the  two 
 shoulders.  It  is  sometimes  de- 
 scribed as  having  been  thrown 
 over  the  shoulde'rs,  and,  hang- 
 ing down  before,  crossed  upon 
 the  breast,  and  was  then  car- 
 ried round  the  waist  to  serve 
 as  a  girdle  for  the  robe.  On 
 each  shoulder  was  a  large  pre- 
 cious stone  or  button,  upon 
 which  were  engraved  the 
 names  of  the  twelve  tribes; 
 and  upon  the  place  where  it 
 Grossed  the  breast  was  the 
 breastplate.  (See  Breast- 
 PLATE.)  The  better  opinion 
 is,  that  the  girdle  was  woven 
 with  the  epliod,  or  "upon  it," 
 (Ex.  xxviii.  8,)  and  that  coming 
 out  from  it  on  each  side,  it 
 was  brought  around  under  the 
 arms  like  a  sash,  and  tied  up- 
 on the  breast,  and  so  secured 
 both  the  ephod  and  tiie  robe. 
 The  ephod,  or  something  re- 
 sembling it  and  called  by  the 
 same  name,  was  worn  by  others 
 besides  the  priests.  (1  Chron. 
 XV.  27,  and  passages  before 
 cited.) 
 
 EPHRAIM.  LA  PERSON. 
 (Gen.  xli.52.)  The  second  son 
 of  Joseph.  Though  younger 
 than  Manasseh,  he  was  the 
 object  of  peculiar  favour;  and 
 the  prediction  of  their  grand- 
 father Jacob  was  literally  ful- 
 filled. (Comp.  Gen.  xlviii.8-- 
 20.  Num.  ii.  18,  21.) 
 236 
 
EPH 
 
 2.  Tkibe  op,  occupied  one  of 
 the  most  eligible  sections  of 
 the  land  of  promise.  The  Me- 
 diterranean was  on  the  west 
 and  the  river  Jordan  on  the 
 east,  a  portion  of  Manasseh  on 
 the  nortii  and  parts  of  Dan  and 
 Benjamin  on  the  south.  The 
 city  of  Shiloh  was  within  the 
 bounds  of  Ephraim ;  and  after 
 the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  the 
 capital  of  their  kingdom  was 
 always  within  the  bounds  of 
 Ephraim :  and  hence  the  whole 
 kingdom  is  sometimes  called 
 Ephraim.    (Jer.  xxxi.  9. 18. 20.) 
 
 3.  City  OP.  (2Sam.  xiii.23.) 
 A  considerable  town  situated 
 about  eight  miles  north  of  Je- 
 rusalem, on  the  way  to  Jericho, 
 and  within  the  bounds  of  the 
 tribe  of  Benjamin,  it  was  to 
 this  place  that  our  Saviour 
 retired  after  the  raising  of  La- 
 zarus, (John  xi.  54;)  and  it  is 
 not  improbable  the  same  place 
 is  intended  in  2  Chron.  xiii,  19. 
 
 4.  Forest  or  wood  op.  (2 
 Sam.xviii.  6.)  The  territory  ori- 
 ginally assigned  to  the  children 
 of  Joseph  (Ephraim  and  Ma- 
 nasseh) was  woodland,  (Josh, 
 xvii.  10—18.  Ps.  cxxxii.  6,)  and 
 probably  a  portion  of  it  re- 
 maining uncleared  was  called 
 the  wood  or  forest  of  Ephraim. 
 (1  Sam.  xiv.  25,  26.  2  Kings  ii. 
 24.)  Another  place  of  the  same 
 name  was  situated  east  of  the 
 Jordan,  near  Jabesh-Gilead, 
 and  was  memorable  for  the 
 battle  between  David  and  the 
 rebel  army  under  Absalom. 
 (2  Sam.  xviii.  6.) 
 
 5.  Mount,  (Josh.  xx.  7,)  was 
 south  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
 The  name  was  given  to  a 
 range  of  highlands  running 
 through  the  possessions  of 
 Ephraim.  The  soil  was  fertile, 
 except  that  part  of  the  ridge 
 which  lay  towards  the  Jordan. 
 This  was  rocky  and  difficult 
 of  ascent. 
 
 EPHRATAH.  (Ps.  cxxxii. 
 6.)  Another  name  for  Ephraim. 
 (I  Sam.  i.  1.    1  Kings  xi.  26.) 
 
 EPI 
 
 The  Ephrathitesof  b'ethlehem- 
 Judah  are  mentioned,  Ruth  i.2, 
 and  we  are  elsewhere  told  thai 
 Ephrath  is  the  same  with  Beth- 
 lehem. (Gen.  XXXV.  16.  19. 
 See  Bethlehem.) 
 
 Bethlehem-Ephratah  was  so 
 called  to  distinguish  it  from 
 another  Bethlehem  in  the  tribe 
 of  Zebulon.    (Josh.  xix.  15.) 
 
 EPHRATH,  (1  Chron.  ii.  19,) 
 or  EPHRATAH,  (verse  50,) 
 was  the  second  wife  of  Caleb. 
 
 EPICUREANS  (Acts  xvii. 
 18)  were  a  sect  of  Gentile  phi- 
 losophers founded  by  Epicurus, 
 who  was  born  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Athens  about  three  hundred 
 and  forty-five  years  before  the 
 birth  of  Christ.  They  were  in 
 high  repute  at  Athens  in  Paul's 
 days,  and  among  their  doc- 
 trines were  these,  — that  the 
 world  came  into  being,  and 
 will  be  dissolved  by  chance, 
 or  by  the  effect  of  mechanical 
 causes,  moved  by  chance;  that 
 all  events  happen  by  chance, 
 or  are  occasioned  by  mechani- 
 cal causes ;  that  the  soul  dies 
 with  the  body ;  that  there  is 
 no  future  retribution,  and  that 
 man's  chief  happiness  lies  in 
 pleasure  or  bodily  ease.  How 
 utterly  at  variance  with  all 
 these  false  and  absurd  posi- 
 tions, was  the  doctrine  of  "Je- 
 sus and  the  resurrection,"  we 
 need  not  show. 
 
 EPISTLES.  (2Pet.  iii.  16.) 
 A  term  applied  to  the  inspired 
 messages'  or  letters  of  advice, 
 addressed  by  the  apostles  or 
 first  preachers  of  Christianity 
 to  church.es  or  individuals;  and 
 which,  though  primarily  de- 
 signed fur  the  rebuke,  instruc- 
 tion, guidance,  and  encourage- 
 ment of  tliose  to  whom  they 
 were  addressed,  furnish  the 
 like  means  of  grace,  and  the 
 like  rule  of  faith  and  practice, 
 to  all  Christians  and  churches 
 in  like  circumstances.  It  was 
 the  most  natural  course  tha 
 apostles  could  pursue,  after 
 preaching  the  gospel  in  any 
 
ESA 
 town  or  distrirt,  and  establish- 
 ing a  church,  vhat  they  should, 
 in  their  absence,  address  them 
 by  letter,  to  remind  them  of  the 
 dociriiies  and  irijuactions  they 
 had  received,  and  to  illustrate 
 more  fully  the  duties  and 
 obligations  of  disciples.  The 
 epistles  may  be  regarded  as 
 Ulustratlng,  applying,  and  en- 
 forcing the  truths  which  are 
 taught  in  the  parables  and 
 conversations,  but  especially 
 in  the  life  and  death  of  the 
 divine  Redeemer;  and  they 
 present  to  us  a  beautiful  and 
 harmonious  system  of  Christian 
 precept  and  doctrine. 
 
 Epistle  to  tite 
 Galatians 
 
 1  Thessalonians 
 
 2  Thessaloiiiaiis 
 
 1  Corinthiaus 
 
 2  Corinthians 
 >  i'imothy 
 Titus        .       . 
 Romans    - 
 Janies 
 Philemon 
 Coiossians 
 Ephesians 
 Fbilippiaos 
 Hebrews 
 Jude 
 2  Tinfiothy 
 
 1  Peter      ■ 
 
 2  Peter      • 
 1,  2,  and  3  John 
 
 ERASTUS  (Acts  xix.  22)  was 
 the  steward  or  treasurer  of  the 
 city  of  Corinth,  (see  Cham- 
 berlain,) and  a  convert  un- 
 der Paul's  preaching.  (Rom. 
 xvi,  2.3.)  He  followed  Paul  to 
 Ephesus,  and  thence  went  to 
 Macedonia,  (Acts  xix.  22,)  and 
 afterwards  returned  to  Corinth. 
 (2Tiin.  iv.20.) 
 
 ERECH.  (Gen.  x.  10.)  A  city 
 of  Chaldea,  built  by  Nimrod 
 on  the  Tigris.  It  was  called 
 Erecca  and  Aracca  by  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans.  Some 
 have  supposed  there  were  two 
 places  of  this  name,  and  others 
 that  Erech  was  the  same  with 
 Edessa,  (now  Orfah,)  in  north- 
 ern Mesopotamia. 
 
 ESAIAS.  (Matt.  iii.  3.)  The 
 eame  with  Isaiah. 
 
 ESH 
 
 Of  the  epistles,  Paul  wrote 
 fourteen;  James,  one;  Peter, 
 two;  John,  three;  and  Jude, 
 one;  which  are  more  particu- 
 larly noticed  either  under  the 
 names  of  the  individuals  re- 
 spectively, or  of  the  churches 
 or  persons  to  whom  they  wrote. 
 The  following  table  is  sujiposed 
 to  show  the  probable  chrono 
 logical  order  of  the  epistlea, 
 wiUi  the  places  at  which  the]^ 
 were  written,  and  the  dale  of 
 each.  It  will  be  perceived 
 that  the  earliest  and  latest 
 date  embrace  a  period  of  less 
 than  twenty  years  for  the 
 whole. 
 Places  where  xuri'ten.  Year  of  Christ. 
 
 Thessalouica,  or  Corinth  •        •        •         51—53 
 
 Corinth 52—54 
 
 Ibid. 52—56 
 
 Ephesus 56 
 
 Macedonia        .....         67 — 69 
 
 Ibid. 66—59 
 
 Colosse,  or  Macedonia     . 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Judea 
 
 Rome 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 Uncertain 
 
 Rome 
 
 Uncertain 
 
 Uncertain 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 61-63 
 
 61-K 
 
 61-^ 
 
 64 
 
 61-62 
 
 66 
 
 ESARHADDON.  (2  Kings 
 xix.  37.)  Son  and  successor  of 
 Sennacherib  king  of  Assyria, 
 and  the  same  with  Sargoa,(Isa. 
 XX.  1,)  and  with  Sardanapalus 
 of  prodine  history. 
 
 ESAU,  (Gen.  xxv.  25,)  or 
 EDOM.  (Gen.xxxvi.  1.)  Son 
 of  Isaac  and  Rebecca,  and  twin 
 brother  of  Jacob.  The  most 
 important  events  of  his  life  are 
 so  intimately  connected  with 
 the  life  of  Jacob,  that  they  will 
 be  considered  under  that  ar- 
 ticle. His  family  settled  on 
 mount  Seir,  east  of  Jordan, 
 which  was  hence  called  Edom, 
 and  his  descendants  were  the 
 Edomites,  one  of  the  most  pow- 
 erful and  furmidalile  nations 
 ofthata^e.    (See  Edom.) 
 
 E  S  H  B  A  A  L.  (1  Chroa.  viii. 
 
EST 
 
 33 )  The  same  with  Ishbosheth. 
 (See  Ishbosheth.) 
 
 ES  HCOL.  1.  A  PERSON. 
 (Gpo.  xiv.  24.)  One  of  Abra- 
 ham's allies. 
 
 2.      A    RIVL'LET,    or    VALLEY, 
 
 (Deul.  i.  24,)  in  ihe  suutli  of 
 Juilea.  The  spies  sent  out  by 
 the  Israelites  to  explore  the 
 promised  land  and  ascertain 
 Us  siiualinn,  fertility,  &c.  &.C., 
 came  to  this  brook,  and  cut 
 down  a  branch  of  a  vine  with  a 
 Biniile  cluster  of  grapes,  which 
 was  s.)  1  irre  and  heavy  as  to 
 be  born"  upon  a  siaiT  by  two 
 men.  This  they  look  to  their 
 brethren,  as  a  visible  illuplra- 
 lion  of  the  richness  of  the  s.iil 
 ami  its  productions.  (Num. 
 xiii.  ~t;  xxxil.  9.) 
 
 ESHTAOL.  (Josh.  xv.  3-3.) 
 A  town  in  the  valley  or  l>w- 
 lamls  of  Judah,  though  after- 
 wards in  the  possession  of  Dan. 
 (Judg.  xiii.  2.");  xvi.  31.)  It  is 
 Bupposed  to  have  been  situated 
 eouih-east  of  Askalon. 
 
 ESHTEMOA.  (Josh.  xxi.  M. 
 1  Chron.  vi.  57,)  or  ASHTE- 
 MOH.  (Josh.  XV.  50.)  A  town 
 in  the  s  tuthern  part  of  Jndah, 
 assisn'^d  to  the  sonsof  Aanm. 
 
 ESPOUSE.  (See  Betroth.) 
 
 ESKOM.  (Matt.  i.  3.  Luke 
 iii.3.3.)  The  same  with  Hezron. 
 (Gen.  xlvi.  1-2.) 
 
 ESTATK  (Mark  vi.  21)  is 
 the  seneral  name  for  an  order 
 or  cla.ss  nf  men  in  society  or 
 government.  As  in  Great  Bri- 
 tain, the  lirds  and  connnons 
 are  railed  the  estates  of  the 
 real'n.     (See  Elders.) 
 
 ESTHER,  or  HADASSAH. 
 (Esiii.  ii.  7.)  An  orphan  child 
 of  the  Inn.lred  of  Mordecai, 
 wh  iiti  he  ad  ipted  as  his  own 
 danihior.  She  was  fair  and 
 beaiiiifid,  and  in  process  of 
 time  b'>c-ime  the  wife  of  Aha- 
 Biipnis,  one  ul  the  m  >sl  dislin- 
 gu'slu'l  of  the  n.nnarrlis  rf 
 the  east.  (The  hist  >ry  of  liiis 
 celeljraied  queen,  i'.i  all  its  de- 
 tail i«  irivon  in  Haoa.ssah.  by 
 Aiii.  S.  S.  U  nion,  with  a  variety 
 
 ETE 
 
 of  beautiful  illustrative  engraT- 
 inss.) 
 
 !Book  op,  is  the  seventeenth 
 i  n  the  order  of  the  books  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  and  embraces 
 a  period  of  pr.rbably  less  than 
 twenty  years,  commencing 
 about  A.M.  3544.  The  author 
 of  trie  book  is  not  certainly 
 known.  It  bears  the  most  un- 
 questionable internal  evidence 
 of  its  authenticity,  and  the  feast 
 of  Purim,  of  the  institution  of 
 which  this  hook  gives  an  ac- 
 count, is  still  observed  by  the 
 Jews ;  who  hold,  that  whatever 
 may  be  the  fate  of  the  other 
 parts  of  their  Scriptures,  this 
 will  ever  be  preserved.  It 
 contains  an  acciunt  of  the  ele- 
 vation of  Esther  to  the  throne, 
 the  pride  and  envy  of  Hainan, 
 his  malicious  plot  for  the  de- 
 struction of  the  Jews,  the  turn- 
 ing of  his  schemes  against 
 himself,  the  honour  and  dig- 
 nity of  Mordecai,  the  destruc- 
 tion of  the  enemies  of  the  Jews, 
 (and  among  them  Hainan's 
 family,)  and  the  power  and 
 glory  of  the  king. 
 
 ETAM.  (Judg.  XV.  S.  11.)  A 
 famous  rock,  probably  near  a 
 city  of  the  same  name  in  Judah, 
 built  by  Kehoboam,  (1  (^Ihron. 
 iv.  32.  2Chmn.  xi.  6,)  and  ly- 
 ing between  Bethleliein  and 
 Tekoah.  Modern  maps  place 
 it  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  east 
 of  Gaza. 
 
 ETERNAL,  ETERNITY. 
 (Deut.  xxxiii.  27.  Isa.  Ivii.  15.) 
 These  terms,  when  applied  to 
 Jehovah,  embrace  'Jie  past  as 
 well  as  the  future.  Beim;  self- 
 exisient,  he  must  be  eierual. 
 He  is  without  beginning  or 
 end  of  years.  When  applied 
 to  the  future  existence,  Iiappi- 
 nes^?,  or  misery  of  nan,  (i\(alt. 
 xix.  IG.  2  Cor.  iv.  17.  Jude  7,) 
 they  denote  the  endlesduesa 
 of  the  state.  A 'id  it  is  to  be 
 observed,  tha'  if  the  word  is 
 restricted  in  its  applicatim  lo 
 future  punislimeui.  it  must  *je 
 restricted  in  the  same  degree 
 231; 
 
ETH 
 
 in  its  application  to  future  hap- 
 piness and  even  existence. 
 When  applied  to  the  princi- 
 ples of  truth  and  justice,  they 
 Bignifyunchangeableness.  The 
 words  forever,  everlasting, 
 eternal,  &c.,  are  often  used 
 figuratively  to  denote  long  du- 
 ration, as  Gen.  xvii.  8;  xlix. 
 26.  Ex.  xii.  14 ;  but  this  restrict- 
 ed sense  is  always  shown  by 
 the  connexion,  and  affords  no 
 argument  in  favour  of  the  like 
 restrictions  in  other  connex- 
 ions, where  the  term  is  evi- 
 dently employod  in  its  full 
 force  and  extent. 
 
 ETHAjM.  (Num.  xxxiii.  6.) 
 One  of  the  early  stations  of  the 
 Israelites  in  their  journeyings 
 to  Canaan.  It  is  said  to  have 
 been  in  the  edge  of  the  wilder- 
 ness, and  was''  probably  situ- 
 ated at  the  extremity  of  the 
 western  gulf  of  the  Red  Sea. 
 
 The  wilderness  of  Etham 
 (Num.  xxxiii.  8)  was  probably 
 part  of  the  great  desert  or  wil- 
 derness of'^Shur,  which  lay 
 around  the  liottom  of  the  west- 
 ern sulf  of  the  Red  Sea. 
 
 ETHAN,  (1  Chron.  vi.  44,) 
 called  the  Ezrahitc,  (Ps. 
 Ixxxix.  title,)  was  of  the  tribe 
 of  Levi,  and  was  remarkable 
 for  his  wisdom.  (1  Kings  i v.  31.) 
 He  is  supposed  to  have  written 
 the  eighty-ninth  Psalm,  and 
 was  a  leader  of  the  temple  mu- 
 sic. (1  Chron.  xv.  19.) 
 
 ETHANTM.  (See  Months.) 
 
 ETHIOPIA.  (Acts  viii.  27.) 
 The  Hebrew  word  Cush,  which 
 is  here  and  elsewhere  trans- 
 lated Ethiopia,  seems  to  have 
 been  applied  to  at  least  three 
 distinct  countries.  It  was  used 
 very  much  as  the  word  India 
 is  at  this  day. 
 
 1.  In  Zeph.  iii.  10,  where  the 
 prophet  speaks  of  Judah's  re- 
 turn from  captivity,  it  refers 
 probably  to  the  country  east 
 of  the  Tigris,  the  principal  seat 
 of  the  captivity,  which  is  call- 
 ed Cuthah.  (2 Kings  xvii.  24. 
 Comp.  Ps.liviii.  31.  Isa.xviii.) 
 
 EVA 
 
 Profane  writers  call  this  coun. 
 try  Ethiopia,  or  Cush,  from 
 which  the  modern  name  Khu- 
 sisian  is  derived. 
 
 2.  In  Num.  xii.  1,  the  word 
 Ethiopian  is  applied  to  a  coun- 
 try of -southern  Arabia,  lying 
 along  the  Red  Sea,  elsewhere 
 called  Cushan,  (Hab.  iii.  7;)  in 
 which  last  passage  allusion  is 
 made  to  the  portion  of  history 
 recorded.  Num.  xxxi. 
 
 3.  In  numerous  other  pas- 
 sages, (Isa.  xl V.  14.  Jer.  xiii.  23. 
 Ezek.xxix.  10;  xxx.4.  9.  Acts 
 viii.  27,)  it  must  be  understood 
 as  Ethiopia  proper,  lying  south 
 of  Egypt,  and  including  the 
 modern  countries  of  Nubia  and 
 Abyssinia.  It  was  a  mountain- 
 ous and  well  watered  country. 
 (Isa.  xviii.  2.  Zeph.  iii.  10.) 
 The  northern  part  of  Ethiopia 
 was  called  by  the  Hebrews 
 Seba,  (Isa.  xliii.  3,)  after  the 
 eldest  son  of  Cush,  (Gen.  x.  7,) 
 and  by  the  Romans  Merot. 
 The  inhabitants  are  said  to 
 have  been  men  of  stature,  (Isa. 
 xlv.  14 ;)  and  this  is  confirmed 
 by  an  eminent  Greek  histo 
 rian,  who  says  they  are  the 
 "tallest  of  men." 
 
 The  Ethiopian  queen  Can- 
 dace  (which,  as  profane  histo 
 rians  say,  was  the  common 
 name  of  the  queens  of  that 
 country)  reigned  in  Seba.  Her 
 treasurer  was  baptized  by  Phi- 
 lip. (Acts  viii.  27.)  There  is  a 
 version  of  the  Scriptures  in  the 
 Ethiopian  tonsue. 
 
 EUNICE.  (2  Tim.  i.  5.)  The 
 mother  of  the  evangelist  Timo 
 thy.  She  was  by  birth  a  Jewess, 
 but  married  a  Gentile.    (Acli 
 
 EUNUCH.  (2Kingsix.  32.> 
 Eunuchs  were  employed  by 
 eastern  kings  to  take  charge 
 of  the  beils  and  lodging  apart 
 ments,  and  also  of  the  secluded 
 princesses.  (Esth.  ii.  3.)  In 
 Persian  and  Turkish  courts 
 the  principal  offices  are  held 
 by  eunuchs.    (Acts  viii.  27.) 
 
 EUPHRATES,  (Gen.  ii.  14^^ 
 
EUT 
 
 a  famous  river  of  Asia,  rises  in  1 
 Armenia,  on  llie  northern  side  ! 
 of  mount  Taurus,  receives  ma-  | 
 ny  tributaries  in  its  winding  ' 
 course  along  the  borders  of  Sy-  j 
 ria,  and  skirling  the  Arabian  [ 
 desert,  passes  through  the  mid-  l 
 die  of  Babylon  to  the  sea.  Its! 
 whole  length  is  fifteen  hundred  I 
 miles.  It  is  navigable  for  ships 
 of  five  hundred  tons  to  Bas- 
 sora,  seventy  miles  above  iis 
 mouth,  and  for  large  boats,  one 
 hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  ! 
 flows  in  a  broad,  deep  current,  | 
 filled  to  the  level  of  its  banks,  j 
 and  at  Babylon  is  considera- 
 bly less  than  a  mile  in  width.  | 
 The  Tigris  flows  in  a  narrower 
 channel,  with  deeper  banks, 
 and  a  less  rapid  current.  The 
 country  between  the  two  rivers 
 elopes  towards  the  Tigris,  and 
 thus  greatly  favours  the  drain- 
 ing otf  of  the  superfluous  wa- 
 ters of  the  Euphrates. 
 
 The  Euphrates  overflows  its 
 banks  in  the  spring  of  every 
 year,  when  the  snow  of  the  Ar- 
 menian mountains  dissolves ; 
 and  it  sometimes  rises  twelve 
 feet.  Dykes,  lakes,  and  canals, 
 constructed  at  vast  expense, 
 preserved  the  water  for  irriga- 
 tion during  the  dry  season,  and 
 prevented  its  carrying  away 
 the  soil.  The  Euphrates  is 
 called  in  Scripture  the  great 
 river,  and  was  the  eastern 
 boundary  of  the  promised  land. 
 (Deut.  i.  7.    Josh.  i.  4.) 
 
 EUROCLYDON.  (Acts 
 xxvii.  14.)  A  very  tempestu- 
 ous wind,  and  now  known  un- 
 der the  name  of  a  Levanter. 
 It  blows  from  all  points,  and 
 its  danger  results  from  its  vio- 
 lence and  the  uncertainty  of 
 it£  course. 
 
 EUTYCHUS.  (Acts  xx.  9.) 
 The  name  of  a  young  man  who 
 .fell  from  the  third  story  of  a 
 house  where  Paul  was  preach- 
 ing in  Troas.  It  is  generally 
 Bupirosed  he  was  killed  by  the 
 fall,  and  that  his  restoration  to 
 life  was  a  miracle.  It  is  nut  im- 
 21 
 
 tsvTE 
 
 portant  to  prove  this  point,how 
 ever,  inasmuch  as  the  posses- 
 sion of  the  gift  of  miracles  by  the 
 apnstle  is"  suflicienlly  shown 
 without  it.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 EVANGELIST.  (Acts  xxi.  8.) 
 One  who  brings  good  tidings. 
 Hence  the  wriiei-s  of  the  four 
 gospels  are  called  "  the  evan- 
 gelists," because  they,  in  a  pre- 
 eminent sense,  declare  good 
 tidings  of  salvation  throusrh 
 Christ.  Evangelists  were  early 
 designated  as  a  particular  class 
 of  religious  teachers,  (Eph.  iv. 
 11 ;)  and  some  suppose  that, 
 without  being  attached  to  any 
 particular  church,  they  aban- 
 doned all  worldly  relations 
 and  pursuits,  and  probably  by 
 the  commission  of  the  apos- 
 tles, preached  the  gospel 
 wherever  they  were  called. 
 (2  Tim.  iv.  5.)  Others  suppose 
 that  they  were  rather  se- 
 condary or  assistant  apostles, 
 and  were  entirely  under  the 
 authority  and  direction  of  the 
 chief  apostles  when  they  or- 
 dained ministers  and  regulated 
 churches.  The  primitive  order 
 of  evangelists,  distinct  from 
 other  public  religious  teachers, 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  mere- 
 ly temporary,  like  that  of  apos- 
 tles and  prophets.  And  ihenB 
 is  no  doubt  that  whatever  ex- 
 traordinary gifts  and  powers 
 they  possessed  have  ceased ; 
 but  the  principal  duties  and 
 services  which  they  performed, 
 and  many  to  which  they  were 
 not  called,  seem  to  have  fallen 
 upon  those  who  in  modern  days 
 are  called  missionaries. 
 
 E\T:.  (Gen.iii.20.)  The  name 
 given  by  Adam  to  his  wife.  It 
 is  derived  from  a  word  whicli 
 signifies  life,  and  was  applied 
 to"her  as  the  mother  of  all  the 
 living.  In  consequence  of  her 
 disobedience  to  thedi  vine  com- 
 mand, (see  Adam,)  she  was 
 doomed  to  sulfer  a  multiplica- 
 tion and  aggravation  of  sorrow, 
 especially  tn  the  birth  of  her 
 olfspring.  It  was  also  declared 
 241 
 
EVI 
 
 concerning  her,  that  her  desire 
 should  be  lo  her  husband,  and 
 he  should  rule  over  her.  (Gen 
 iii.  16.)  It  is  well  known  thai 
 in  those  countries  which  are 
 unenlightened  by  the  gospel, 
 women  are  the  most  degraded 
 and  miserable  slaves  to  man  ; 
 and,  taking  into  view  the  deli- 
 cacy and  seiisi'iveness  which 
 are  characteristic  of  their  sex, 
 we  may  sufifxise  this  part  of 
 the  oritrinal  sentence  is  visited 
 upon  millions  of  them  with  in- 
 tense severity  even  at  this  day. 
 
 EVENING,  (Ps.  Iv.  17,) 
 EVENTIDE.  (Gen.  x.xiv.  63.) 
 The  HcJjrews  reckoned  iwo 
 evenings:  one  commencing  at 
 sunset,  antl  embracing  ihe  pe- 
 riod of  twilight;  and  the  other 
 commencing'  at  dark.  Some 
 suppose  that  the  first  evening 
 commenced  as  early  as  three 
 o'clock  in  the  afiernom,  and 
 the  second  at  sunset.  It  was 
 in  ihij  interval  between  me 
 two  evenings,  at  whichever  of 
 these  periods  it  occurred,  that 
 the  passover  was  to  be  killed 
 and  the  daily  sacrifice  offered. 
 (See  marginal  reading  of  Ex. 
 xii.  6.  Num.  ix.  3;  xxviii.  4.) 
 Eventide  is  the  same  with 
 evening-time. 
 
 E  VIL-MERODACH.(2King8 
 XXV.  27.)  Son  and  successor  of 
 Nebuchadnezzar  kingofBaby- 
 lon,  who  reigned  du"ring  the 
 exile  of  that  monarch  from  hu- 
 man society.  Soon  after  his 
 permanent  accession  to  the 
 lhr>ne,  he  released  Jehoiaohin 
 kingof  Judah  from  prison,  and 
 treated  him  with  great  re^rard 
 through  life.  (Jer.  lii.31— 31.) 
 It  is  sui>pi>sed  that  when  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar wus  restored  to  his 
 reason  and  his  crow  n,hecau8ed 
 Evil-Merodach  to  be  imprison- 
 ed for  the  al>uses  of  which  he 
 was  iruiliy  while  he  adminis- 
 tered the  government,  and  that 
 it  was  liieii  he  became  ac- 
 quainted with  Jehniachin  as  a 
 fellow  prisoner.  Heatlastff^il 
 A  victim  10  d  couspiracy,fonned 
 
 EXO 
 
 I  among  his  own  kindred,  head- 
 I  ed  by  his  brother-in-law  Neri- 
 '  slissar.  who  succeeded  him. 
 !"  EXCHANGERS.    (See 
 j  Changers  of  Money.) 
 
 EXODUS.   The  name  of  the 
 I  second  book  of  Moses,  and  the 
 I  second    in    the   order  of  the 
 '  booksoftheold Testament, and 
 descriptive  of  its  design;  for  the 
 word  is  derived  from  a  Greek 
 word  which  signifies ^ojwg- or*/, 
 or  departing;  and   the   book 
 contains  the  history  of  the  re- 
 lease of  the   Israelites    from 
 their  bondage  in  Egypt,  and 
 of  their  going  out  of  thai  coun- 
 try up  10  the  promised  land. 
 
 This  bonk  is  cited  as  the 
 work  of  Moses  by  David,  Da- 
 niel, and  others  of  the  sacred 
 writers ;  and  it  has  been  re- 
 marked, that  twenty-five  dis- 
 tinct passages  are  quoted  from 
 it  by  Christ  and  his  apostles  in 
 express  words,  and  nineteen 
 in  substance.  It  comprehends 
 a  history  of  nearly  one  hundred 
 and  forty-five  years,  viz.  from 
 A.  M.  2369  to  A.  M.  2514,  inclu- 
 sive, or  from  the  death  of  Jo- 
 seph to  the  erection  of  the 
 tabernacle ;  and  informs  us 
 respecting  the  birih,  preser- 
 vation, education,  exile,  and 
 divine  legation  of  Moses,  and 
 the  miraculous  deliverance 
 of  Israel  from  the  bondaiiC  of 
 Egypt,  the  institution  of  the 
 passover,  the  entrance  into  the 
 wilderness  of  Sinai,  and  their 
 subsequent  journeyings,  until 
 the  giving  of  the  law  and  the 
 building  of  the  tabernacle. 
 
 The  third  and  fourth  ▼(> 
 lumes  of  Union  Questions 
 are  framed  upon  portions  of 
 this  book,  and  contain  maps 
 of  the  jiiurnpyings  of  the  child- 
 ren of  Israel,  v\  hile  the  Teach- 
 er's Assistant,  in  the  use  of 
 th!)8Ptwo  voluine3,and  iheLiFB 
 OF  MoyES,  with  majjs,  &.C., 
 furnish  a  full  exp'Silion  of  the 
 l-ading  passagesof  the  history. 
 All  the  above  works  are  pulJ- 
 lished  by  the  Am.  S.  S.  UnioOi 
 Hi 
 
EZE 
 
 EXORCISTS.  (Actsxix.l3.) 
 Those  who,  by  the  use  of  the 
 name  of  God,  alieni-pted  lo  ex- 
 pel evil  spirits  from  places  or 
 persons  of  whom  they  had  pos- 
 session. It  was  not  an  un- 
 common profession  among  the 
 Jews,  as  we  may  infer  from 
 Matt.  xii.  '27,  and  Mark  ix.  38. 
 
 EXPIATION,    FEAST  OF. 
 
 (See  Feasts.) 
 
 EYES.  (Gen.xiii.  10.)  The 
 figurative  uses  of  this  word 
 abound  in  the  sacred  writings, 
 and  are  generally  obvious.  In 
 the  visions  of  Ezekiel  and 
 John,  (Ezek.  i.  18;  x.  12.  Rev. 
 iv.  6.  8,)  the  allusions  are  evi- 
 dently to  the  alacrity  and  vigi- 
 lance with  which  the  ministers 
 of  Jehovah  perform  his  will. 
 
 EYELIDS.  (Prov.vi.2o.) 
 The  custom  of  adornin|  the 
 eyelids  in  any  svay  for  effect  is 
 not  known  among  us,  but  the 
 practice  is  often  alluded  to  in 
 the  sacred  writings,  (■2Kin2S 
 ix.  30.  Jer.  iv.30.  lEzek.  xxiii. 
 40,)  and  prevails  extensively 
 now  among  eastern  ladies. 
 The  hair  and  edges  of  the  eye- 
 lids are  tinged  with  a  f.ne 
 black  powder,  moistened  with 
 oil  or  vinegar,  which  causes 
 a  small  black  line  to  appear 
 around  the  edge,  and  at  a  dis- 
 tance, and  especially  by  can- 
 dlelisht,  gives  a  heavy  dark 
 shade  to  the  eyes.  The  man- 
 ner of  doing  it  is  particularly 
 described  by  travellers.  A 
 smooth  cylindrical  piece  of 
 silver  or  ivory,  shaped  like  a 
 quill,  and  about  two  inches 
 long,  is  dipped  into  the  com- 
 position and  placed  within  the 
 eyelashes,  which  are  closed 
 over  it. 
 
 EZEKIEL,  (Ezek.  i.  3,)  the 
 son  of  Buzi,  was  both  a  pro- 
 phet and  priest  of  the  Jews, 
 and  was   carried   into   capti- 
 vity with  Jehoachin  king  of  j 
 Judah,    B.  c.    598,    and    was  j 
 probably  settled,  with   other  j 
 exiles,  on  the  banks  of  the  i 
 Ciiebar,  a  river  of  Chaldea.  I 
 
 EZR 
 
 (See  Chebak.)  He  was  favour- 
 ed with  sublime  visions  of  the 
 divine  glory,  and  his  prophecy 
 as  a  whole  is  characterized  by 
 great  force,  sublime  imagery, 
 and  as  much  perspicuity  as 
 the  subjects  of  it  would  allow. 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  the  twenty- 
 sixth  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  It 
 was  uttered  during  a  period  of 
 about  twenty-one  years,  be- 
 tween B.  c.  590  and  b.  c.  540. 
 The  first  eight  years  of  this 
 period  were"contemporaneoi3 
 with  the  last  eight  of  Jere- 
 miah. The  prophecy  relates 
 chiefly  to  Tyre,  Egypt,  FJdom, 
 and  Judea.  It  contains  the 
 most  solemn  denunciations 
 against  the  idolatry,  hypocrisy, 
 and  rebellion  of  the  Jews,  with 
 exhortations  to  faith  and  con- 
 fidence in  God's  righteousness, 
 and  with  promises  of  mercy 
 and  final  restoration. 
 
 EZION-GEBER,  or  GABER. 
 (Num.  xxxiii.  35.  1  Kings  ix. 
 26.)  A  city  of  Arabia,  at  the 
 head  of  the  eastern  or  Elanitic 
 ^ulf  of  the  Red  Sea,  adjoining 
 Elath.  It  was  here  that  Solo- 
 mon's vessels  were  built,which 
 were  intended  to  trade  with 
 Ophir  and  Tarshish.  It  de- 
 rives its  name  (Ezion-Geber, 
 or  the  back-bone  of  a  man) 
 from  a  reef  of  rocks  at  the 
 entrance  of  the  harbour  re- 
 sembling that  part  of  the  hu- 
 ■^an  frame.    (See  Elath.) 
 
 EZRA  (Ezra  vii.  1)  was  a 
 son  or  rather  descendant  of 
 Seraiah,  who  was  slain  by  or- 
 der of  the  king  of  Babylon. 
 (2Kia5S  XXV.  18—21.^  He  go- 
 verned Judea  twelve  years, 
 under  a  commission  from  the 
 king  of  Persia,  which  ex- 
 pired a.  m.  3558,  when  he  was 
 superseded  by  Nehemiah.  He 
 then  engaged,  as  it  is  supposed, 
 in  collecting  and  publishing 
 the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  re- 
 storing the  purity  of  the  Jewish 
 worship. 
 
 Book  of,  is  the  fifteenth  in 
 
 ai3 
 
E2R 
 
 the  order  of  the  bookg  of  the 
 Old  Testament,  and  is  a  con- 
 tinuation of  the  Jewish  history 
 from  the  close  of  the  booli  of 
 Chronicles.  The  period  em- 
 braced by  it  is  from  seveniy- 
 five  to  one  hundred  years, 
 between  3450  and  3550;  and  it 
 may  be  read  most  profitably 
 in  connexion  with  the  propiie- 
 cies  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 
 It  contains"  a  history  of  the  re- 
 turn of  the  Jews  from  the  time 
 of  Cyrus,  with  an  account  of 
 his  own  subsequent  proceed- 
 ings. There  are  two  apocry- 
 phlil  books  ascribed  to  him 
 under  the  name  of  Esdras, 
 which  is  the  Greek  form  of 
 the  name  Ezi-a. 
 
 The  book  of  Ezra  is  written 
 in  Chaldee  from  the  eighth 
 verse  of  the  fourth  chapter  to 
 the  nineteenth  verse  of  the 
 sixth  chapter,  and  from  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  seventh  chapter 
 Jo  the  twenty-seventh  verse ; 
 for  as  this  jmrt  of  the  work 
 contains  shiefly  letters,  con- 
 versation, and  decrees  uttered 
 in  that  language,  it  was  con- 
 
 EZR 
 
 sistent  with  the  fidelity  of  the 
 sacred  historian,  to  transcribe 
 the  very  words  which  were 
 used  ;  especially  as  the  people 
 recently  returned  from  the 
 captivity  svere  familiar,  and 
 perha-ps  more  conversant  with 
 the  Chaldee,  than  even  with 
 the  Hebrew  tongue ;  and  it  was 
 probalily  about  this  time  that 
 the  Chaldee  paraphrases  be- 
 gan to  be  used ;  for  it  appears 
 byNehemiah'saccount,tnatall 
 could  not  understand  the  law  : 
 which  may  mean  that  some  of 
 them  had  forgotten  the  Hebrew 
 during  their'dispersion  in  the 
 captivity.  Some  assign,  like- 
 wise, to  this  time,  the  origin  of 
 the  Jewish  synagogues,  though 
 it  is  possible  that  they  existed 
 before  the  captivity.  (For  a 
 particular  and  highly  inte- 
 resting account  of  Ezra,  and 
 the  eVents  of  his  time,  see 
 Elisama,  ch.  xi. ;  and  for  an 
 historical  and  chronological 
 analysis  of  the  events  of  the 
 same  period,  see  Union  Ques- 
 TioNs,  vol.  ix.,  both  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 FAG 
 
 FACE.  (Gen.  iii.  19.  See 
 Blackness.)  Whatever  of 
 a  thing  is  most  exposed  to  view, 
 is  called  its  ^a;e ;  hence  we 
 read  of  the/ace  of  the  country, 
 field,  gate,  house,  ground,porch, 
 w^ilderness,  waters,  sky,  &c. 
 
 Face,  when  applied  to  God, 
 denotes,  (I.)  His  omniscience, 
 (I  Sam.  XX vi.  20;)  and  to  pro- 
 voke him  to  the  face,  is  to  do  it 
 very  openly  and  impudently. 
 (Isa.  Ixv.  3.)  (2.)  The  brighter 
 displays  of  his  glory,  which 
 cannot  be  enjoyed  in  this 
 world.  (Ex.  xxxiii.  20.  1  Tim. 
 vi.  16.)  (3.)  His  favour  and 
 love,  and  the  gracious  displays 
 thereof:  this  is  always  meant, 
 when  his /ace  is  said  to  shi7ie, 
 or  it  is  represented  as  a  mercy 
 
 FAI 
 to  behold  and  enjoy  it,  or  a 
 misery  to  be  deprived  of  it. 
 (2Chron.  xxx.  9.  Fs.  xxxi.  16 ; 
 Ixxx.  7.  Dan.  ix.  17.)  (4.)  His 
 wrath,  and  the  providential 
 displays  thereof  (Ps.  xxxiv. 
 16.)  Christ's/ace  denotes,  (1.) 
 His  person  and  office,  as  the 
 image  of  the  invisible  God. 
 (2  Cor.  iv.  6.)  (2.)  His  gracious, 
 glorious,  or  terrible  appear- 
 ances.   (Rev.  XX.  11.) 
 
 FAIR  HAVENS.  (Acts 
 xxvii.  8.)  The  name  of  a 
 harbour  or  anchorage  on  the 
 southern  shore  of  the  island 
 of  Crete.   (See  Crete.) 
 
 FAIRS  (Ezek.  xxvii.  12) 
 
 may  either    mean  periodioai 
 
 meetings  of  buyers  and  sellers, 
 
 for  purposes  of  merchandise 
 
 244 
 
FAM 
 
 nr  fixed  places  of  buying  and 
 t;>'iling  in  any  city  or  town, 
 sucli  as  we  call  markets. 
 
 i-AITH.  (Mau.  viii.  10.)  The 
 word  sometimes  denotes  the 
 credit  we  give  to  the  declara- 
 tion of  God,  or  to  the  evidence 
 Bf  the  pans  or  propositions  pre 
 lented  to  us  in  the  Bible,  f  he 
 word  is  also  used  to  denote  the 
 truth  of  the  gospel,  or  that 
 which  is  the  object  of  faith. 
 (Jude  3.)  The  faith  which  is 
 necessary  to  salvation,  and 
 without  which  it  is  impossible 
 to  please  God,  (Heb.  xi.  6,)  com- 
 bines assent  with  reliance,  be- 
 lief with  trust.  Thus  Christ  is 
 exhibited  in  the  gospel  as  hav- 
 ing made  an  atonement  for 
 sin ;  and  whoever  believeth  in 
 him  shall  not  perish,  but  have 
 everlasting  life.  Exercising 
 this  faith,  the  sinner  is  receiv- 
 ed and  treated  as  if  he  were 
 just  and  righteous ;  and  hence 
 the  process  is  called  justifica- 
 tion by  faith.  The  belief  or 
 faith  in  him,  by  which  this 
 salvation  is  secured,  includes 
 not  only  a  cordial  concurrence 
 of  the  will  and  affections,  in 
 this  scheme  or  plan  of  redemp- 
 tion, together  with  all  its  rela- 
 tions and  bearings,  as  they  are 
 revealed  in  the  gospel,  but 
 also  such  an  actual  personal 
 trust  in  Christ  as  a  Saviour,  as 
 leads  to  the  renunciation  of 
 every  other  trust ;  to  the  for- 
 saking of  all  known  sin,  and 
 to  the  cheerful  and  constant 
 obedience  of  all  his  commands. 
 
 Thb  faith  of  God,  (Rom.  iii. 
 3,)  means  his  faithfulness. 
 
 FAITHFULNESS  (Ps. 
 Ixxxix.  1.  33,34)  is  a  divine  at- 
 tribute, and  denotes  the  truth 
 and  certainty  of  the  accom- 
 
 elishmentofall  that  the  divine 
 eing  has  declared.     (Num. 
 xxiii.  19.    Heb.  x.  23.) 
 
 FALLOW-DEER.  (See 
 Hart.) 
 
 FAMILIAR.     (See  Divina- 
 tion.) 
 FAMINE.  (Gen.  xii.  10.)  We 
 21* 
 
 FAS 
 
 have  an  account  of  several  fa- 
 mines in  Palestine  and  the 
 neighbouring  countries.  The 
 most  remarkable  one  was  that 
 of  seven  years  in  Egypt,  while 
 Josejjh  was  governor.  Il  was  dis- 
 tinguished for  its  duration,  ex- 
 tent, and  severity;  particularly 
 as  Egypt  is  one  of  the  countries 
 least" subject  to  such  a  calami- 
 ty, by  reason  of  its  general 
 fertility.  Famine  is  sometimes 
 a  natural  effect,  as  when  the 
 Nile  does  not  overflow  i  n  Egypt, 
 or  rains  do  not  fall  in  Judea,  at 
 the  customary  seasons,  spring 
 and  autumn  ;  or  when  eater- 
 pi  liars,  locusts,  or  other  insects, 
 destroy  the  fruits. 
 
 FAN.  (Isa.  XXX.  24.)  A  well 
 known  agricultural  imple- 
 ment, which  was  used  by  the 
 Jews  as  it  is  by  hiisbantlmen 
 of  the  present  day,  to  separate 
 the  chaff  from  the  wheat  when 
 the  wind  is  not  sufficient.  The 
 shovel  which  is  mentioned  in 
 the  same  passage  was  used  to 
 throw  up  the  grain  in  the  air, 
 when  the  wind  was  strong 
 enough  to  cleanse  it.  (Matt, 
 iii.  12.    See  Thresh. 
 
 FARTHING.      (See  Mea- 
 
 SURES.) 
 
 FAST,  (1  Kings  xxi.  9,) 
 FASTING,  (Neh.  ix.  1,)  or 
 DAYS  OF  FASTING.  (Jer. 
 xxxvi.  6.)  In  seasons  of  dan- 
 ger, or  general  affliction,  when 
 nature  itself  ceases  for  a  lime 
 to  crave  indulgence,  it  was 
 customary  among  the  Jews  to 
 abstain  from  food  as  a  religious 
 duty,  (Josh. vii.  6.  Judg.  xx.26,) 
 and  the  same  practice  prevail- 
 ed among  individuals  when  tho 
 occasion  was  personal.  (Ex. 
 xxiv.  18.  2Sam.  xii.  16.  IKinp 
 xix.  8.)  So  our  blessed  Saviour 
 fasted  forty  days  and  forty 
 nights.  (Watt.  iv.  2.)  Some 
 of'these  protracted  fasts  were 
 endured  by  miraculous  inter- 
 position. The  Jewish  fasts 
 were  kept  with  great  strict- 
 ness, and  generally  from  eve- 
 ning to  evening,  that  is,  twen- 
 245 
 
FEA 
 
 ty-four  hours,  and  included 
 not  only  an  abstinence  from 
 food,  but  from  all  other  sensual 
 indulgence.  The  body  was 
 clothed  in  sackcloth,  no  shoes 
 were  worn,  ashes  were  sprink- 
 led upon  the  nead,  the  hands 
 were  unwashed,  and  the  head 
 unanoinled,  and  the  syna- 
 gogues were  filled  with  the 
 voice  of  supplication  and  the 
 sobs  of  grief  and  penitence. 
 (Isa.  xxii.  12.  Joel  ii.  15—17.) 
 During  the  captivity,  four  spe- 
 cial fast  days  were  observed, 
 (Zech.  vii.  5;)  the  fast  of  the 
 fourth  month,  for  the  capture 
 of  Jerusalem,  (Jer.li.  27;)  the 
 fast  of  the  fifth  month,  fjr  the 
 burning  of  the  temple,  (Jer.  Hi. 
 13;)  the  fast  cf  the  seventh 
 month,  for  Gedaliah's  death, 
 (Jer.  xli.  2 ;)  and  the  fast  of  the 
 tenth  month,  for  the  com- 
 mencement of  the  attack  on 
 Jerusalem.   (Jer.  lii.  4.) 
 
 Fasts  are  evidently  of  di- 
 vine authority.  Fasting,  at  the 
 present  day,  may  be  regarded 
 as  one  of  the  outward  means 
 which  may  be  profitably  em- 
 ployed to  humble  and  chasten 
 the  soul,  and  train  it  anew  to 
 the  love  and  pursuit  of  holy 
 and  spiritual  joys.  There  can 
 be  no  doubt  of  its  being  sanc- 
 tioned under  the  gospel  dis- 
 pensation. (Matt.  vi.  18;  ix. 
 15.    Acts  xiii.  3.    1  Cor.  vii.  5.) 
 
 FATHER.  (Gen.xlv.8.) 
 The  word  "  father"  is  used  in 
 this  case  to  signify  "an  ad- 
 viser," or  "counsellor;"  and 
 it  is  not  unusual  for  this  idea 
 to  be  connected  with  it  in 
 eastern  countries. 
 
 FATHQM.  (SeeMEASVRES.) 
 
 FEAR.  (1  Pet.  i.  17.)  The 
 fear  of  God  is  a  Christian  grace, 
 and  denotes  such  a  reverence 
 for  his  holy  character,and  such 
 a  dread  of  offending  him  by  a 
 violation  of  his  holy  law,  as 
 lead  to  watchfulness,  humili- 
 ty, and  unceasmg  jirayer.  It 
 is  entirely  filial  in  us  nature, 
 and  is  necessarily  accompa- 
 
 FEA 
 
 nied  by  love  and  obedience. 
 It  is  the  peculiarity  of  the 
 Christian  faith,  that  the  reve- 
 laiion  of  God's  justice,  in  the 
 suffering  and  death  of  our  di- 
 vine Redeemer,  which  fills  the 
 soul  with  fear  and  trembling, 
 discloses  at  the  same  time  a 
 scheme  of  unparalleled  love 
 and  mercy ;  so  that  our  strong- 
 est impressions  of  fear,  and  our 
 deepest  emotions  of  love,  grati 
 tude,  and  confidence,  are  de- 
 rived from  a  common  source, 
 and  share  a  common  character. 
 
 FEAST,  (Luke  xiv.  13,) 
 FEASTS.  (Lev.  xxiii.2.)  We 
 often  read  in  the  Bible  of  feasts, 
 or  sumptuous  entertainments, 
 and  of  the  customs  pertaining 
 to  them.  They  were  generally 
 given  to  celebrate  or  comme- 
 morate some  important  or  joy- 
 ful event.  (Gen.  xxi.  8 ;  xxix. 
 22;  xl.  20.  Eccl.x.  19.) 
 
 It  was  common  among  the 
 eastern  nations  to  ask  and 
 bestow  special  favours  at 
 these  festivals.  (Esth.  v.  6; 
 vii.  2.)  As  the  Hebrews  brought 
 back  with  them  from  their 
 captivity  the  custom  of  lying 
 at  meals,  so  they  learned  to 
 imitate  tlie  Persian  voluptuous- 
 ness. The  Romans  also  were 
 accustomed  to  tliis  long  con- 
 tinuance at  entertainments ; 
 they  assembled  early  on  such 
 occasions,  and  often  remained 
 together  all  night. 
 
 Entertainments  in  the  east 
 are  commonly  held  in  the 
 evening;  at  which  time  the 
 rooms  are  brilliantly  illumi- 
 nated. The  Roman  feast  was 
 always  a  supper,  which,  how- 
 ever, began  about  three  o'clock. 
 We  suppose  it  to  have  been 
 much  the  same  among  the  He- 
 brews. The  guests  amused 
 themselves  with  stories,  or 
 sallies  of  humour,  and  some- 
 times with  enigmatical  ques- 
 tions, (Judg.  xi\\  12.)  but  more 
 frequently"  with  poetry  and 
 music.  (Isa.  v.  12;  xxiv.7— 9. 
 
 A'mos  vi.  4 — 6.) 
 
 246 
 
FEA 
 
 The  customs  of  the  Arabs  re- 
 semble those  which  have  been 
 described;  and  perhaps  we 
 may  say  the  same  of  all  orien- 
 tal countries.  And  such  being 
 the  festivity  of  these  occasions, 
 we  see  how  a  feasl  became  the 
 emblem  of  great  mirth  and 
 gladness.    (Isa.  xxv.  6.) 
 
 Among  the  Romans,  the 
 guests  at  feasts  reclined  upon 
 couches.  The  first  ceremony 
 was  to  bathe  with  the  master 
 of  the  feast,  and  then  to  change 
 their  dress.  Then  the  first  man 
 in  order  took  his  place  at  the 
 head  of  the  long  couch,  resting 
 the  upper  part  of  his  body  on 
 his  left  elbow,  and  having  a 
 pillow  or  bolster  to  support  his 
 back.  The  second  guest  lay 
 with  his  head  and  feet  on  a 
 line,  or  parallel  with  the  first, 
 from  whom  he  was  separated 
 by  his  own  bolster.  Being  set- 
 tled in  their  places,  they  wash 
 their  hands,(Mark  vii.2;)  after 
 which  the  guests  are  served 
 with  garlands  of  flowers,  and 
 also  with  essences  and  per- 
 fumes. CPs.  xxiii.  5 ;  xlv.  7. 
 Eccl.  ix.8.  Lukevii.38) 
 
 The  most  honourable  place, 
 or  seat,  or  uppermost  room,  as 
 it  is  called,  (Matt,  xxiii.  6,)  or 
 highest  or  chief  room,  (Luke 
 xiv.  7,  8,)  was  the  middle 
 couch,  and  the  middle  of  that ; 
 and  lying  below  one  at  table, 
 is  to  lie  as  it  were  in  or  upon 
 his  bosom.    (John  xiii.  23.) 
 
 In  ancient  times,  besides 
 music  and  dancing  while  they 
 were  eating,  they  had  combats 
 of  gladiators. 
 
 Some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
 the  number  of  guests,  and  the 
 grandeur  of  an  ancient  feasl, 
 from  the  fact  that  Julius  Cesar 
 once  gave  a  popular  entertain- 
 ment^ the  guests  of  which  oc- 
 cupied twenty-two  thousand 
 places,  (rooms  or  seats.)  The 
 accounts  in  the  Bible,of  feasts 
 with  a  multitude  of  guests  are 
 not  improbable,  therefore,  as 
 
 FEA 
 
 some  have  alleged.  (Esth.  i.  5 
 Luke  xiv.  IC— 24.) 
 
 The  cut  on  the  nest  page 
 represents  an  eastern  feast. 
 The  heads  of  the  guests  are 
 crowned  with  garlands;  the 
 table,  furniture,  and  provisions 
 are  seen;  also  the  position  of 
 t?he  guests  at  table,  and  the 
 amusements.  The  highest,  or 
 most  honourable  seat,  occupied 
 probably  by  the  governor  of  the 
 feast,  is  seen  at  the  extreme 
 left.  The  sandals  which  are 
 put  off  are  also  seen  at  the  side 
 of  the  couch. 
 
 Under  the  Mosaic  dispensa- 
 tion, the  rites  of  hospitality 
 were  rendered  sacred  by  being 
 connected  with  religion.  The 
 Israelites  were  not  merely  al- 
 lowed, but  commanded,  to  re- 
 joice before  the  Lord  in  this 
 way.  They  were  ordered  to 
 come  to  the  holy  place,  and 
 bring  thither  their  sacrifices, 
 tithes,  and  firstlings  ;  anil  there 
 (says  the  law)  ye  sJiall  eat 
 before  the  Lord  your  God; 
 and  ye  shall  rejoice  in  all  that 
 ye  put  your  hand  unto.  (Deut. 
 xii.)  Every  member  of  the 
 family  was  to  join  in  this,  and 
 especially  theLeviie,  who  had 
 no  other  inheritance.  In  these 
 entertainments,  not  only  the 
 children  and  the  Levites  were 
 to  take  part,  but  the  slaves  of 
 both  sexes,  the  poor,  the  widow, 
 and  the  orphan  were  to  be  in- 
 vited ;  a?id  the  stranger,  and 
 the  fatherless,  and  the  widow 
 that  are  among  you ;  and  thou 
 shall  remember  that  thou uast 
 a  bondman  in  Egypt.  (Deut. 
 xvi.  11.)  In  consequence  of 
 these  regulations,  the  feasts  of 
 the  Hebrews  were  more  or  less 
 religious  observances,and  were 
 hence  free  from  the  abuses 
 which  prevailed  on  similar 
 occasions  among  the  heathen. 
 We  observe  here  likewise, 
 that  our  Lord  gave  no  new 
 commandment,  but  simply  ex 
 pounded  the  ancient  la  w,whe 
 247 
 
FEA 
 
 FEA 
 
 he  said,  MTien  thou  viakest  a  I  There  were  also  staled  sea- 
 dinner  {or  a  feast;)  call  the]  sons  of  religious  worship  among 
 poor,  the  maimed,  the  blind;  \  the  Jews,  attended  with  j)ar- 
 and  thou  shall  be  blessed.  \  licular  duties  and  ceremonies, 
 (Luke  xiv  12.)  1  by  the  observance  of  which 
 
FEA 
 some  great  event  in  God's  pro- 
 vidence was  brought  into  re- 
 membrance:— such  were  the 
 Sabbath,  which  commemo- 
 rated the  creation  of  the  world, 
 — \he feast  of  the  Passover,a.n6. 
 the  feast  of  Pentecost. 
 
 7%e  Sabbath.  The  only 
 weekly  ffeast  among  the  Jews 
 was  the  Sabbath.  (Gen.  ii.  3. 
 Ex.xvi.23.  Lev.xxiii.3.)  This 
 feast  or  festival  did  not  come 
 into  being,  however,  with  the 
 Jewish  worship,  but  was  ap- 
 pointed before  the  aposiacy, 
 as  a  special  memorial  of  the 
 goodness  and  power  of  God 
 displayed  in  the  finished  work 
 of  creation ;  and  it  is  the  opin- 
 ion of  many  very  learned  men, 
 formed  after  the  most  labori- 
 ous and  unprejudiced  investi- 
 gation, that  it  is  in  some  form 
 or  other  recognised  throughout 
 the  world  as  a  sacred  day.  It 
 eeems  to  be  agreed  among 
 Christians  generally,  that  the 
 knowledge  and  observance  of 
 the  Sabbath  were  preserved  in 
 Bome  form  and  degree,  through 
 Noah  and  his  family  ;  nor  is  it 
 Burprising  that  it  is  not  parti- 
 cularly mentioned  in  the  con- 
 cise history  of  the  intervening 
 period,  which  the  Bible  con- 
 tains. In  the  law  of  the  ten 
 commandments,  the  Sabbath 
 not  only  is  recognised,  but  its 
 inviolable  sanctity  and  perpe- 
 tual obligation  are  both  taught 
 us,  not  only  in  the  language 
 and  spirit  oi  the  commandment 
 itself,  but  ty  its  incorporation 
 with  that  original  and  funda- 
 mental law  of  God's  govern- 
 ment which  was  promulgated 
 amidst  the  thunders  and  light- 
 nings of  mount  Sinai,  and  en- 
 graved on  tables  of  stone. 
 
 It  is  true  that  the  oliservance 
 of  the  Sabbath  as  a  Jewish  fes- 
 tival partook  of  the  peculiar 
 ceremonial  character  of  their 
 whole  system  of  religion ;  and 
 it  was  also  by  special  command 
 to  be  reg.arded  as  a  particu- 
 lar and  interesting  memorial 
 
 FEA 
 
 of  their  wonderful  deliverance 
 from  Egypt,  (Deut.  v.  15,)  and 
 as  a  sign  or  perpetual  covenant 
 between  God  and  them.  (Ex. 
 xxxi.  13—17.)  And  it  is  true, 
 moreover,  that  so  much  of  the 
 Jewish  Sabbath  as  stood  in 
 carnal  ordinances  was  done 
 away  when  the  Lord  of  the 
 Sabbath  came  and  made 
 known  the  true  import  of  the 
 ancient  dispensation.  (Malt, 
 xii.  1 — 15.  Mark  ii.  23.  Luke 
 xiii.  14—17.)  But  in  all  this 
 time,  the  original  and  substan- 
 tial principle  of  the  institution 
 was  never  abandoned  or  lost 
 sight  of;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
 is  established  and  solemnly 
 ratified  in  a  variety  of  forms 
 throughout  the  whole  sacred 
 volume. 
 
 Labour  ceased  at  the  time 
 of  the  evening  sacrifice,  upon 
 the  day  preceding  the  Sab- 
 bath, that  preparation  might 
 be  made  for  the  sacred  season. 
 (Mark  xv.  42.)  Some  suppose 
 this  was  as  early  as  three  of 
 the  clock,  or  even  earlier. 
 Appropriate  religious  service 
 was  attended  in  the  evening 
 by  each  family,  and  resumed 
 on  the  next  day,(see  Evening,) 
 and  every  thing  relating  to 
 food,  dress,  &c.,  was  prepared. 
 When  the  day  arrived,  it  was 
 spent  in  religious  services, 
 (2  Kings  iv.  23,)  two  extra  sa- 
 crifices were  otfered.  and  the 
 shew-bread  was  changed.  This 
 was  the  priest's  work.  (Mall, 
 xii.  5.) 
 
 The  Sabbath,  by  the  Jev/iph 
 law,  was  observed  on  the  se- 
 venth day  of  the  week,  or  on 
 Saturday;  but  Christ  changed 
 it  to  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
 (which  is  our  Sabbath  day,  or 
 Lord's  day,  as  it  is  frequently 
 c  vlled  in  the  New  Testament,) 
 that  it  might  become  a  memo- 
 rial of  his  resurrection  from 
 the  dead ;  while  it  should  lose 
 none  of  its  original  character, 
 nor  answer  any  less  perfectly 
 all  the  primitive  Durposea  of 
 
FEA 
 
 its  institution.  The  expres- 
 Bion,  second  Sabbath  after  the 
 first, (huke  vi.  1,)  more  proper- 
 ly reniiered,  thejirst  Sabbath 
 after  the  second,  is  supposed  to 
 oenoie  the  first  Salibaih  after 
 the  second  day  of  unleavened 
 tread.  The  second  day  of  un- 
 leavened bread  was  a  festival 
 day  for  which  a  particular  ser- 
 vice was  appointed, (Lev.  xxiii. 
 5.  9,)  and  from  it  the  Sabbaths 
 were  reckoned;  as  first,  se- 
 cond, or  third  Sabbath  after 
 the  second  day  of  unleavened 
 bread.    (See  Sabbath.) 
 
 The  word  Sabbaths  is  some- 
 times used  to  denote  all  the 
 sacn  d  days  or  festivals.  (Lev. 
 xix.  3.30.  Sabbath  day'' s  jour- 
 ney.   See  Measures.) 
 
 Feast  of  Neic  Moons,  or 
 Trumpets.  The  first  day  of 
 every  month  was  sacred  to  the 
 Jews,  (Num.  xxviii .  1 1— 15,)and 
 was  to  be  observed  by  absti- 
 nence from  common  worldly 
 business,  and  by  religious  du- 
 ties and  services.  (2  Kings  iv. 
 23.  Amos  viii.  5.)  Particular 
 sacrifices  were  appointed,  in 
 addition  to  the  daily  sacrifices, 
 and  were  to  be  attended  with 
 flie  sound  of  the  trumpet. 
 
 The  first  day  or  new  moon 
 of  the  seventh  month,  which 
 was  the  beginning  of  the  Jew- 
 ish civil  year,  was  particularly 
 regarded  above  oiher  feast  days 
 of  the  like  period.  It  was  dis 
 liftguished  by  more  strict 
 observance,  by  extraordinary 
 public  sacrifices,  and  by  spe- 
 cial annunciation  and  pro- 
 clamation from  the  trumpets. 
 (Lev.  xxiii.  24.  Num.  xxix.  1— 
 8.)  The  observance  of  these 
 seasons  being  wholly  of  cere- 
 monial appointment,  and  not, 
 like  the  Sabbath,)  an  original 
 fundamental  law  of  the  mo.al 
 government  of  God,  ceased 
 with  the  Jewish  dispensation. 
 (Gal.  iv.  10.   Col.  ii.  16.) 
 
 Feast  of  Pentecost,  or  Feast 
 cf  Weeks,  or  Feast  of  Harvest , 
 fasted  only  one  day.    It  was 
 
 FEA 
 
 celebrated  at  the  close  of  bar 
 vest,  and  was  a  solemn  public 
 thanksgiving  to  God  for  thp 
 bounties  of  his  providence.  It 
 was  observed  at  the  «nd  of 
 seven  weeks,  (or  a  week  of 
 wcfks,)  forty-nine  days  from 
 the  second  day  of  the  passover, 
 when  the  offering  of  first-fruits 
 was  made,  or  the  day  on 
 which  "  the  sickle  was  first 
 put  in  the  corn."  The  sacrifices 
 were  special,  both  public  and 
 
 Srivate.  (Lev.  xxiii.  15—20. 
 urn. xxviii. 26— 31.  Deut.  xvi. 
 9—12.)  It  was  to  celebrate  this 
 feast,  that  the  multitude  of  de- 
 vout men  out  of  every  nation 
 under  heaven  had  assembled 
 at  Jerusalem,  when  the  pro- 
 mise of  the  Saviour  was  fulfil 
 led  in  the  wonderful  descent 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  related 
 in  the  second  chapter  of  Acts. 
 (See  Omar,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  ch.  v.) 
 
 Feast  of  Tabernacles  lasted 
 eight  days,  the  first  and  eighth 
 of  which  were  peculiarly  sa- 
 cred. It  was  celebrated  from 
 the  fifteenth  to  the  twenty- 
 third  of  the  seventh  month  or 
 first  month  of  their  civil  year. 
 It  was  so  called  because  the 
 people  during  its  continuance 
 dwelt  in  booths,  (Neh.  viii.  14 
 —18,)  or  tents  of  the  branches 
 of  trees,  as  they  did  in  the 
 journey  through  the  wilder- 
 ness, in  memory  of  which  the 
 feast  itself  was  appointed.  It 
 is  also  called  xhe  feast  of  in- 
 gathering, (.Ex.  xxiii.  16.  Lev. 
 xxiii.  39 — 44,)  because  it  took 
 place  at  the  close  of  the  vin- 
 tage, when  the  fruits  of  the 
 year  were  all  gathered  in. 
 Some  have  supposed  that  the 
 people  were  required  to  attend 
 at  the  temple  during  the  whole 
 of  the  eight  days,  wnile,  in  the 
 other  feasts,  an  attendance  on 
 the  first  and  last  days  sufficed. 
 This  festival  was  distinguished 
 by  extraordinary  sacrifices  and 
 offerings,  both  public  and  pri- 
 vate. (Num.xsix.l2— 38.  Deut. 
 250 
 
FEA 
 3tvi.  13—15.)  A  variety  of  cpre- 
 nv>nies  were  appended  to  tlie 
 observance  of  this  feast,  a  par- 
 ticular and  inleresiiiig  account 
 of  which  may  be  found  in  Bib- 
 lical ANTiauiTiKS,  ch.  vi.§  4, 
 and  also  in  Elisama,  ch.  xii., 
 both  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union. 
 
 Feast  of  unleareried  Bread, 
 or  of  the  Passover,  was  insti- 
 tuted to  commemorate  the  dis- 
 tinguishing mercy  of  G>d  in 
 passing  over  the  families  of 
 Israel  when  he  went  tlirough 
 Egypi  to  smite  the  first-born  of 
 every  other  family  with  death. 
 (Ex.  xii.  1—2.8.)  The  time  of  its 
 celebration  was  in  the  first 
 month  of  the  Jewish  sacred 
 year,— answering  to  our  April, 
 —and  it  lasted  from  the  loth  to 
 the  2Ist,  inclusive,  or  seven 
 days.  The  principal  ceremony 
 of  this  festival  cmsisied  in  the 
 sacred  supper  by  which  it  was 
 introduced ;  the  nature  and 
 preparation  of  which  are  staled 
 minutely  in  the  passage  above 
 cited.  The  utmost  strictness 
 was  observed  in  regard  to  the 
 removal  'if  all  leave'n  from  the 
 house.  This  was  done  on  the 
 fourteenth  day,  which  was 
 hence  called  ihe  first  day  of 
 tmleavened  bread,  though  it 
 was  not  one  of  the  f^ast  days. 
 The  manner  of  celebrating  this 
 feast  in  the  early  and  modern 
 periods  of  the  church,  is  siven 
 ai  len<r'.h  in  Biblical  ANTiat'i- 
 TiiiS,ch.  vi.§4,  and  SELUMiiii., 
 ch.  i  V.  and  v..  both  by  Am  S.  .S. 
 Union.    (See  als  >  Passover.) 
 
 These  three  feasts  of  unlea- 
 vened bread,  tabernacles,  and 
 treeks.were  the  great  festivals 
 of  thp  Jews,  wht^ti  all  the  males 
 of  their  nation  w^ho  were-  of  suf- 
 ficient a2«'  were  rei;uir8d  to 
 apf)ear  before  Go  I.  (Ex.  ,\xiii. 
 14-17.    Deut.  xvi.  U5,  17.) 
 
 The  advaniaiies  of  these  ce- 
 leUraii  ins,  Uith  in  a  reli'ii oiis 
 end  civil  view,  are  oi'vioiis. 
 The  fiMMial  national  r»»c<)L'iii- 
 lioii  i'f  Jidiiivah  H.«t  their  ki-isr 
 and  ruler,  and  as  the  liountiful 
 
 FEA 
 
 giver  of  every  good  and  perfe<*4 
 gift,  made  at  slated  limes,  and 
 under  such  imposing  solemni- 
 ties, could  not  be  without  effect 
 on  the  religious  character  of 
 the  people,  while  the  mingling 
 together  of  all  the  nation,  for 
 purposes  suited  locall  forth  the 
 best  social  and  benevolent  feel- 
 ings, svould  remind  them  of 
 their  common  origin,  fiiih,  and 
 worship,  and  unite  them  more 
 closely  in bondsofreligiousand 
 friendly  regard.  (See  Ev.  Rec. 
 by  A.  S.  U.^ol.  iv.  pp.  43-60.) 
 Atonement,  or  Feast  of  Exm 
 ation,  was  celebrated  on  u\b 
 tenth  of  the  seventh  month,  or 
 six  days  before  the  feast  of  ta- 
 bernacles, and  was  the  most 
 important  and  solemn  cf  all 
 the  yearly  fejiBis.  It  was  '.he 
 day  on  which  the  sins  of  the 
 year  were  brought  into  Sfieciai 
 remembrance.  Thti  people 
 were  required  to  observe  it  aa 
 a  day  of  rigid  rest,  fasting 
 humiliation,  and  affliction  of 
 Siiul.  The  high-prieal,  as  the 
 head  and  representative  of  the 
 entire  prieslhood,  personally 
 officiated,  and  enured  with 
 blood  into  the  Holy  of  Holies, — 
 where  the  life  and  glory  of  the 
 sanctuary  were  appointed  to 
 reside,— and  there  he  offered  a 
 sacrifice  for  himself  and  hi3 
 family,  and  the  wh  de  congre- 
 gation of  Israel,  from  the  high- 
 est to  the  lowest.  Tliis  waa 
 the  general  expiation,  and 
 seemed  designed  to  reach  and 
 wash  away  that  deep  stain  of 
 guilt  which  remained  on  the 
 heads  of  the  people,  notwith- 
 standinz  the  blood  which  flow- 
 ei|  day  by  day,  unceasingly, 
 from  the  altar' of  com m(»n  sa- 
 crifice. The  manner  of  cele- 
 brating this  fcasi  is  set  forth 
 in  liev.  xvi.,  and  an  a'-.coiint 
 of  the  intereaiing  ceremoniea 
 wliii-.h  atieiulr>il  it.  with  their 
 typi.iil  import,  may  be  fiuud 
 in  Biblical  A.NTia'  ities.  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  vol.  i\.  chap 
 v5.  §  y. 
 
 S3l 
 
FEA 
 
 The  Feast  of  Punm  y,-a.a  ob- 
 served about  the  middle  of  the 
 ..welflh  month.  It  was  insti- 
 tuted in  commemoration  of  the 
 deliverance  of  the  Jews  from 
 the  power  and  malice  of  Ha- 
 man,  in  the  days  of  Mordecai 
 and  Esther.  The  name  is  de- 
 rived from  Pur,  a  word  which 
 signifies  lot.  (Esth.  iii.  6,  7; 
 ix.  24—32.) 
 
 This  feast  is  celebrated  in 
 modern  times  with  singular 
 ceremonies  and  with  great 
 licentiousness  and  extrava- 
 gance. (See  Biblical  Akti- 
 Q.UITIES,  vol.  ii.  pp.  190. 191. ■) 
 
 An  American  missionary, 
 who  was  at  Jerusalem,  March 
 16,  1835,  when  this  feast  was 
 celebrated,  speaks  of  it  as  a 
 day  of  great  excess,  intempe- 
 rance, and  boisterous  mirth 
 with  the  Jews.  The  Talmud 
 enjoins  intoxication  on  this 
 day  as  a  duty.  A  man  is  in 
 duty  bound  (it  says)  to  get  so 
 inebriated  that  he  cannot  dis- 
 tinguish between  the  words, 
 "  cursed  be  Haman,"  and 
 '•blessed  be  Mordecai." 
 
 Feast  of  the  Dedication. 
 This  feast  was  instituted  one 
 hundred  and  sixty-four  years 
 before  Christ,  in  remem- 
 brance of  the  new  dedica- 
 litm  of  the  sanctuary,  after 
 it  had  been  grossly  profaned 
 by  a  heathen  monarch.  The 
 season  of  celebration  was  in 
 the  latter  part  of  the  ninth 
 month,  and  of  course  partly  in 
 our  December.    (John  x.  22.) 
 
 The  Sabbath  Year,  or  Year 
 nf  Release,  was  every  seventh 
 year.  No  particular  reli^ioiis 
 services  were  prescribed  for 
 its  celebration;  but  the  Hnd 
 was  to  be  leftuntilled,  and  the 
 vineyards  undressed,  and  the 
 spontaneous  produce  of  both 
 was  to  be  enjoyed  by  all  the 
 people  of  the  land  in  common. 
 (Lev.  XXV.  2-7.  20—22.)  Pro- 
 vision was  made  by  the  special 
 interposition  of  (Jod,  to  supply 
 the  deficiency  of  food  wnich 
 
 FEA 
 
 this  abstinence  from  labour  for 
 a  whole  year  would  necessarily 
 cause;  and  a  law  was  made 
 that  no  debts  should  be  collect- 
 ed during  the  Sabbatical  year, 
 and  yetlhat  none  should  for 
 this  cause  refuse  to  lend  tc 
 such  as  would  borrow.  Whe- 
 ther the  law  required  an  aoso- 
 lute  release  of  debts,  or  only  a 
 suspension  of  the  right  to  en- 
 force payment,  has  been  con- 
 sidered doubtful.  The  language 
 of  the  law  is  however  very  pre- 
 cise.   (Deul.  XV.  1—11.) 
 
 77ie  Year  of  Jubilee  was  a 
 most  singular  appointment  of 
 the  Jewish  law.  It  was  cele- 
 brated every  half  century,  or 
 at  the  end  of  every  seven  times 
 seven  years.  The  manner  of 
 its  celebration  is  particularly 
 described.  Lev.  xxv.  8 — 18.  It 
 commenced  on  the  great  day 
 of  atonement,  and  was  ushered 
 in  with  the  universal  sound  of 
 trumpets  throughout  the  land. 
 The  remarkable  feature  of 
 this  festival  was,  that  it  re- 
 stored individuals,  families, 
 and  communities,  as  far  as 
 possible,  to  the  same  situation 
 they  occupied  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  fifty  years.  All  servants 
 of  Hebrew  origin  were  set  free ; 
 all  pledges  were  given  up,  and 
 inheritaTices  which  had  been 
 alienated.no  matter  how  often, 
 nor  for  what  cause,  came  back 
 to  the  hands  of  the  original  pro- 
 prietors. The  only  exception 
 was  in  the  cases  of  houses,  built 
 in  walled  towns.  (Lev.  xxv.  29 
 —31.)  And  as  its  effect  was 
 i  known  and  anticipated,  the 
 '  business  of  society  was  con- 
 ducted with  reference  to  that 
 period,  and  of  course  no  inkis- 
 lice  or  hardship  was  occasfon- 
 .  ed.  The  manner  of  keeping 
 the  festival,  and  its  striking 
 emblematical  import,  are  par 
 ticularly  described  in  Biblical 
 ANTiariTiES.  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  ch.  vj.  §  6. 
 The  mastek,  ruleu,  or  go- 
 
 VEENOB  OF  THE  FEA. ST,   (John 
 
FEE 
 
 li.  8,)  was  an  officer  appointed 
 to  direct  the  servants,  and  to 
 regulate  the  whole  order  and 
 ceremony  of  the  table  during 
 the  festivities.  He  seems  to 
 have  been  one  of  the  most  plea- 
 sant and  diverting  of  the  com- 
 pany, selected  for  his  skill  and 
 adroitness  for  this  delicate  and 
 important  office,  and  after  the 
 feast  was  ended,  he  took  his 
 place  with  the  guests.  One  of 
 his  duties  was  to  taste  of  the 
 wine,  that  he  might  judge  of 
 its  quality  and  fitness  for  the 
 particular  stage  ef  the  enter- 
 tainment at  which  it  was 
 brought  on.    (John  ii.  8,  9.) 
 
 Feasts  of  charity,  or  love. 
 These  are  mentioned  Jude  12, 
 and  are  supposed  to  refer  to 
 the  social  interviews  estab- 
 lished among  the  early  Chris- 
 tians, in  imitation,  perhaps,  of 
 the  Jewish  (Deui.  xii.  18 ;  xxvi. 
 12)  or  Gentile  observances  of 
 like  character.  The  Greeks 
 and  Romans  observed  similar 
 services.  The  feast  was  sup- 
 plied by  the  contributions  of 
 the  guests,  each  according  to 
 his  ability.  There  was  no  dis- 
 tinction of  rank  among  the 
 guests;  and  every  thing  was 
 marked  with  simplicity,  tem- 
 perance, and  religious  feeling. 
 It  was  held  in  the" assembly  or 
 church,  either  after  or  before 
 the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
 supper.  Similar  observances 
 are  customs rv  at  the  present 
 day  amont;  s«»ii,e  Christian  de- 
 nominations. 
 
 FEET.  (Ex.  iii.  5.)  To  re- 
 move the  shoes  from  the  feet 
 was  regarded  as  a  token  of  re- 
 verence, and  also  of  mourning. 
 (Ezek.  xxiv.  17.)  It  is  supposed 
 that  the  priests  officiated  with 
 naked  feet,  and  in  modern 
 times,  among  heathen  nations 
 and  some  nominal  Christians, 
 it  is  customary  to  enter  the 
 place  of  worship  with  the  shoes 
 off  and  the  feet  washed.  To 
 wash  the  feet  was  a  common 
 markofhospitaliiy,(Gen.xviii. 
 22 
 
 FEL 
 
 '  4,)  and  was  usually  done  by  a 
 
 {  servant.  (1  Sam.  xxv.41.  John 
 
 jxiii.5,  6.)   *ar  eastern  mission- 
 
 :  aries    have    given    particular 
 
 accounts  of  the  prevalence  of 
 
 this  custom.    At  Smyrna,  the 
 
 washing  of  the  priests'  feet  by 
 
 the  bishop  is  a  distinct  and 
 
 very  imposing  ceremony,  and 
 
 is  designed   to   be   an   exact 
 
 imitation  of  Christ's  example. 
 
 (See   Clothes,   Dust,  Foot.) 
 
 Foot-chains  are  supposed 
 to  be  meant  by  the  word  chains 
 in  Num.xxxi.50,andlsa.iii.l9 
 They  were  worn  around  the 
 ankles,  and  causeil  the  wearer 
 to  observe  a  certain  measured 
 pace.  The  sarfte  ornaments 
 are  now  worn  by  the  women 
 of  Syria  and  Arabia.  Little 
 rings  are  hung  upon  them, 
 which  tinkle  when  the  foot  is 
 in  motion ;  and  they  are  often 
 richly  ornamented. 
 
 FELIX  (Acts  xxiii.  26)  was 
 the  Roman  governor  of  Judea, 
 A.D.50 — GO.  He  persuaded  Dru- 
 silla  to  leave  her  husband,  and 
 marry  him ;  and  they  were 
 residing  at  (jesarea  when  Paul 
 was  brought  there,  in  custody 
 of  a  guard  of  soldiers,  to  be 
 exammed  on  a  charge  of  sedi- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 On  a  certain  day,  Paul  was 
 summoned  to  appear  before 
 Felix,  that  he  and  his  wife 
 might  hear  from  him  some  ac- 
 count of  the  new  religion  of 
 which  he  was  a  believer  and 
 advocate.  The  apostle  obeyed 
 the  summons;  and  so  faithfully 
 did  he  re})rove  and  admonis!i 
 the  governor,  that  he  made 
 him  tremble  in  view  of  his  sins 
 and  of  their  impending  punish- 
 ment. We  iiave  good  reason 
 to  believe,  however,  that  the 
 impression  was  trausient;  for 
 he  kept  the  apostle  in  custody 
 two  years  without  any  warranty 
 or  just  cause,— which  was  in 
 itself  a  most  cruel  and  arbi- 
 trary act,— and  postponed  the 
 inquiry  respecting  his  own  sal 
 
FIG 
 
 ration,  which  his  conscience 
 had  been  excited  to  suggest, 
 until  a  more  convenient  sea- 
 son, which  probably  never  ar- 
 rived. Felix  was  recalled  to 
 Rome  soon  after,  and  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  Festus. 
 
 FENCED  CITY.  (See  Ci- 
 ties.) 
 
 FERRY-BOAT.  (2Sam.xix. 
 18.)  This  word,  as  used  by  us, 
 is  of  modern  derivation,  and 
 we  know  the  rivers  of  Judea 
 were  generally  fordable  ;  but 
 when  the  translators  of  the 
 history  found  a  word  denoting 
 the  passing  over  the  river,  (it 
 might  have  been  on  a  raft  or  on 
 a  rude  bridge  of  some  kind,) 
 they  perhaps  adopted  a  term 
 to  express  the  fact  most  intel- 
 ligible to  modern  readers. 
 
 FERRET.  (Lev.  xi.  30.)  The 
 animal  known  to  moderns  by 
 this  name  is  tamed  in  tlurope, 
 and  used  in  catching  rats.  It 
 is  of  the  weasel  family ;  but 
 
 FIG 
 
 the  ferret  mentioned  in  ihft 
 Levitical  law  is  supposed  by 
 many  to  have  been  of  the 
 lizard  species,  called  the  geh- 
 ko,  which  is  found  in  the  east, 
 and  is  said  to  be  poisonous. 
 
 FESTUS,  (PORCIUS,) 
 (Acts  xxiv.27,)  succeeded  Felix 
 (A.  D.  60)  in  the  government  of 
 juilea,  under  the  Romans,  and 
 died  in  62.  Paul  had  a  hearinj 
 before  him  on  sundry  charge* 
 alleged  against  him  by  th» 
 Jews.  But  in  the  exercise  of 
 his  right  as  a  Roman  citizen 
 he  appealed  to  the  emperor, 
 and  was  sent  to  Rome  for  trial 
 
 FIG,  FIG  TREE.  (Isa.xxxiv. 
 4.)  A  well  known  fruit,  which 
 formerly  abounded  in  Judea, 
 (Deut.  viii.  8,)  and  hence  is 
 often  alluded  lo  in  the  sacred 
 writings.  The  fruit,  in  its  natu- 
 ral state,  resembles  the  pear; 
 and  with  the  leaf,  and  manner 
 of  growth,  may  be  seen  in  the 
 annexed  cut. 
 
 The  fig  tree  spreads  its 
 branches  nigh  and  wide,  and 
 the  leaves  are  broad,  (Gen.  iii. 
 7;)  in  one  species  they  are  said 
 to  be  found  four  or  five  feet 
 long  by  three  broad.  Hence 
 the  shade  was  highly  valued. 
 (1  Kings  iv.  25  2  Kings  xviii. 
 81.  Isa.  xxxvi.  16.  Mic.  iv.  4. 
 Zech.  iii.  10.  John  i.  4a) 
 
 One  of  the  most  strikiD^ 
 peculiarities  of  the  fig  tree  i% 
 that  the  fruit  shoots  foiih  with- 
 out the  appearance  of  any  blos- 
 som, and  even  before  the 
 leave?.  Hence  a  fig  tree  with 
 leaves,  but  without  fruit,  may 
 be  known  to  be  Ijarren  for  the 
 present  season.  (IMail.  xxi.  19-) 
 The  fruit  which  the  ueo  bears 
 
FIG 
 
 during  ten  months  of  the  year 
 ia  of  three  sons: 
 
 1.  The  early  fig.  (Sol.So.ii. 
 13.  Hos.  ix.  lU.)  These  are  ripe 
 towards  the  end  of  June.  This 
 early  fig  is  the  most  beautiful 
 and  delicious.    (Jer.  xxiv.  2.) 
 
 2.  The  summer  Jig  1  which 
 appears  in  June,  about  the 
 time  that  the  early  fig  is  ripe, 
 and  comes  to  maturity  in  Au- 
 gust. These  last  a  long  time, 
 and  may  be  kept. 
 
 3.  The  winter  fig  appears  in 
 August,  and  is  ripe  towards  the 
 latter  part  of  autumn,  when 
 the  tree  has  lost  its  foliage.  If 
 the  winter  is  not  severe",  it  is 
 plucked  in  the  spring  as  a 
 dainty.  It  is  larger  than  the 
 former,  of  an  oblong  shape, 
 and  a  dark  colour. 
 
 These  various  kinds  of  figs 
 are  eaten  as  they  come  from 
 the  tree,  and  are  also  dried  in 
 masses  or  cakes.  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
 18.)  They  seem  to  have  been 
 an  ordinary  article  of  food,  and 
 to  have  possessed  medicinal 
 properties.  (2  Kings  xx.  7. 
 IChron.  xii.40.) 
 
 The  putting  forth  of  the  fig 
 tree  was  one  of  the  earliest  in- 
 dications of  summer,  (Sol. Song 
 ii.  13.  Matt.  xxiv.  32.  Luke 
 ixi.  29;)  and  a  failure  of  its 
 fruit  was  a  great  calamity. 
 (Jer.v.  17;  viii.  13.  Joel  i.7. 12. 
 Hab.  iii.  17,  18.) 
 
 The  cursing  of  the  fig  tree, 
 by  our  Saviour,  (Mark  xi.  13. 
 21,)  has  perplexed  some  per- 
 sons, because  it  is  said  that  the 
 lime  of  figs  had  not  come,  and 
 of  course  they  were  not  to  be 
 expected.  The  passage  rather 
 means  that  it  was  not  the 
 time  to  gather  figs,  and  there- 
 fore  it  was  reasonable  to  ex- 
 
 Cecl  to  find  some  on  the  tree; 
 ut  it  had  none,  (ripe  or  un- 
 ripe,) though  it  had  leaves, 
 which,  in  a  bearing  fig  tree, 
 are  not  found  until  after  the 
 fruit  appears.  It  was  therefore 
 cursed  for  its  unfruiifulness. 
 Tile  object  undoubtedly  was, 
 
 FIR 
 
 to  inculcate  some  great  moral 
 truth  on  the  minds  of  the  dis- 
 ciples. 
 
 FIKTREE.  (Hos.xiv.8.)  A 
 well  known  evergreen,  which 
 "revv  luxuriantly  upon  mount 
 Lebanon  and  in  other  parts  of 
 Palestine,  and  was  a  very  va- 
 luable tree.  It  was  used  for 
 ship  building,  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5,) 
 musical  instruments,  (2  Sam. 
 vi.  5,)  and  in  the  frame  and 
 ornamental  workof  costly  edi- 
 fices. (1  Kings  V.  8.  10;  vi.  15. 
 34;  ix.  11.2Chron.  ii.8;  iii.  5. 
 Sol.  Song  i.  17.)  The  fir  is  still 
 used  in"  the  manufacture  of 
 harps,  lutes,  guitars,  &c.  It 
 was  a  tall,  straight  tree,  of 
 fine  appearance,  in  the  tops  of 
 which  the  storks  built  their 
 nests.  (Ps.  civ.  17.)  Hence  it 
 is  used  to  illustrate  power  or 
 grandeur.  (2  Kings  xix.  23.  Isa. 
 xiv.  8;  xxxvii.  24;)  and  in 
 Nah.  ii.  3,  the  brandishing  of 
 weapons  of  war  is  compared 
 to  the  shaking  of  the  tops  of 
 fir  trees  by  a  violent  wind. 
 The  springing  up  of  the  fir  is 
 emblematical  of  verdure  and 
 plenty.  (Isa.  xli.  19;  Iv,  13: 
 Ix.  13.) 
 FIRKIN.  (See  Measures.) 
 FIRMAMENT.  (Gen.  i.  17.) 
 The  word  expansion  would 
 more  perfectly  convey  the 
 meaning  of  the  original  word. 
 A  similar  idea  is  suggested,  Ps 
 civ.  2.  Isa.  xl.  22l  and  the 
 same  word  is  used  to  denote  a 
 covering,  (Num.  xvi.  38,  39,)  or 
 a  spreading  over,  (Isa.  xl.  19,) 
 or  spread  forth.  (Isa.  xlii.  5.) 
 The  Jews  probably  understood 
 the  word  firmament  to  denote 
 an  immense  arch  sprung  from 
 one  side  of  the  horizon  to  the 
 other,  studded  with  stars,  and 
 forming  a  sort  of  separating 
 wall  between  the  upper  and 
 lower  waters.  (See  Ps.  xix.  1. 
 Dan.xii.3.) 
 
 FIRST-BORN.  (Gen.  xxvii 
 
 19.)    The  first-born    male  of 
 
 every  Jewish  family,  though 
 
 by  a  succession  of  wives,  and 
 
 255 
 
FIR 
 
 of  all  beasts  also,  was  conse- 
 crated in  a  solemn  manner 
 to  the  service  of  God,  in  com- 
 memoration of  the  judgment 
 which  God  brought  upon  the 
 first-born  of  Egypt  in  the  night 
 of  Israel's  deliverance.  Seve- 
 ral provisions  ef  the  Jewish 
 law  relate  to  the  first-born. 
 He -received  a  double  portion 
 of  the  estate,  (Deut.  xxi.  17,) 
 and  officiated  as  priest  of  the 
 family,  in  the  father's  absence 
 or  death.  The  privileges  of 
 the  first-born  were  obviously 
 great,  in  the  cases  of  Esau 
 and  Reuben,  (Gen.  xxvii.29. 
 1  Chron.  v.  1,  2;)  and  there 
 is  reason  to  believe  that  they 
 extended  to  the  Jewish  fami- 
 lies generally;  and  that  the  re- 
 ligious pre-eminence  was  far 
 more  desirable  than  the  world- 
 ly. It  is  supposed,  however, 
 that  the  former  ceased  when 
 the  priesthood  was  committed 
 exclusively  to  the  tribe  of 
 Levi.  (Num.  iii.  12—18.)  On 
 '.hat  occasion  it  was  designed 
 that  a  Levite  should  be  substi- 
 tuted for  every  first-born  male; 
 birt  the  number  of  the  latter 
 exceeded  that  of  the  former  by 
 two  hundred  and  seventy-three 
 •persons.  It  was  then  required 
 that  a  certain  piece  of  money 
 (about  S2.50)  should  be  paid 
 for  the  redemption  of  these, 
 and  of  all  the  first-born  of  suc- 
 ceeding generations ;  and  this 
 redemption  money  became 
 part  of  the  sacred  revenue. 
 (Num.  iii.  12, 13. 40— 51 ;  xviii. 
 15.)  The  first-born  of  all  beasts 
 nsed  in  sacrifice  were  devoted 
 to  the  Lord,  and  could  not  be 
 redeemed;  but  the  first-born 
 of  beasts  not  lawful  for  sacri- 
 fice might  be  redeemed  if  the 
 owner  chose  to  redeem  them  ; 
 otherwise,  they  were  sold,  ex- 
 chansed,  or  destroyed.  (Ex. 
 xiii.  13.  Lev.  xxvii.  27.)  It  is 
 supposed  that  dogs  were  never 
 redeemed.    (Deut.  xxiii.  18.) 
 
 Several    figurative    expres- 
 oions  of  the  sacred  writers  are 
 
 FIS 
 
 derived  from  the  relation  of 
 the  first-born;  and  by  all  ot 
 them  some  extreme  or  superla- 
 tive quality  or  circumstance  is 
 denoted.  The  first-born  of  the 
 poor  (Isa.  xiv.  30)  implies  ex- 
 treme poverty ;  the  first-bom 
 of  every  creature  (Col.  i.  15) 
 denotes  the  beginning  and 
 head  of  creation  {'xhefirst-boin 
 of  God  (Heb.  i.  6)  expresses 
 the  dignity  and  superior  glory 
 of  Christ. 
 
 FIRST-FRUITS.  (Num.xviii. 
 12.)  The  first-fruits  of  harvest, 
 of  the  vintage,  the  threshing 
 floor,  the  wine-press,  the  oil 
 press,  the  first  baked  bread  of 
 the  new  crop,  and  the  first 
 fleeces  of  the  flock  were  re 
 quired  by  God  to  be  given  for 
 the  use  of  his  ministers,  the 
 priests.  (Ex.  xxiii.  19.  Num. 
 XV.  19  — 21  ;  xviii.  11—13.) 
 These  ofiferings  were  brought 
 to  the  temple.  No  particular 
 quantity  was  designated,  but 
 it  is  supposed  a  sixtieth  part 
 of  the  whole  was  the  leasl 
 measure. 
 
 The  manner  of  offering  the 
 first-fruits  is  prescribed.  (Lev, 
 xxiii.  10—14.)  A  sheaf  of  the 
 first  ripe  barley  was  brought 
 on  the  second  day  of  the  pass- 
 over,  and  waved  by  the  priest 
 before  the  Lord ;  and,  after  be- 
 ing threshed  in  a  court  of  the 
 temple,  a  handful  of  it  was 
 cleansed  and  roasted,  and 
 pounded  in  a  mortar;  of  was 
 mingled  with  it,  and  it  was 
 then  offered  to  the  Lord  in  the* 
 name  and  behalf  of  the  nation, 
 as  an  acknowledgment  of  de- 
 pendence and  gratitude.  Until 
 this  w  as  done," the  harvest  re- 
 mained untouched. 
 
 The  first-fruits  are  thus  em- 
 blematical of  abundance  and 
 excellence,  (Rom.  viii.23,)  an^ 
 also  the  earnest  or  sample  of 
 a  fiill  harvest  at  hand.  (1  Cor. 
 XV,  20.) 
 
 FISH-HOOKS.    (Amosiv.2 
 Comp.  Jer.  xvi.  16.)    The  mo 
 dern  method  of  taking   fish 
 '.'56 
 
FLO 
 
 with  hooks  was  doubtless 
 known  in  the  early  ages  oi 
 the  world.  (Job  xli.  1, 2.)  The 
 spear  was  also  used.  (Job  xli. 
 2.  7.) 
 
 The  FISH-POOLS  of  Heshbon 
 are  used  to  illustrate  clear- 
 ness, brightness,  and  serenity. 
 (Sol.  Song  vii.  4.)  They  were 
 probably  situated  near  a  public 
 gale  of  the  town,  and  well 
 known  for  their  qualities.  (See 
 Heshbon.) 
 
 FITCHES.  (Isa.  xxviii.  25.) 
 A  vegetable  resembling  the 
 common  pea.  The  word  ren- 
 dered filches  in  Ezek.  iv.  9,  is 
 rendered  ri/e  in  Ex.  ix.  32. 
 
 FLAX.  (Ex.  ix.31.)  A  well 
 known  plant,  which  furnishes 
 the  material  of  linen  stuffs  of 
 every  variety.  It  was  pro- 
 duced of  the  best  quality  in 
 Egypt,  (Isa.  xix.  9,)  and  was 
 an  article  of  extensive  com- 
 merce. 
 
 The  spinning  of  flax  was 
 anciently  the  labour  of  the 
 most  noble  ladies.  (Prov.xxxi. 
 13.19.24.    See  Linen.) 
 
 FLINT.  (Ps.  cxiv.8.)  A 
 hard  stone,  the  uses  of  which 
 are  well  known.  The  figura- 
 tive use  of  the  word  in  Deut. 
 xxxii.  13,  represents  the  great 
 abundanceof  oil;  and  in  Isa.  1. 
 7,  and  Ezek.  iii.  9,  it  is  used 
 to  denote  firmness  and  con- 
 stancy. 
 
 FLOATS.  (IKingsv.  9.) 
 Probably  like  the  rafts  of  mo- 
 dern days;  by  which  the  tim- 
 bers already  fitted  for  the 
 building  mieht  be  floated 
 coastwise  to  "Joppa,  and  then 
 carried  over  land  to  Jerusa- 
 lem.   (2Chron.  ii.  16.) 
 
 FLOCK.    (See  Sheep.) 
 
 FLOOD.  (Gen.  vi.  17.)  One 
 of  the  most  remarkable  events 
 in  the  history  of  our  world,  and 
 of  course  one  of  the  principal 
 epochs  in  chronology.  It  oc- 
 curred in  the  year  1656,  or 
 23-18  years  before  the  birth  of 
 Christ.  It  was  a  judgment 
 upon  the  world  for  the  great 
 22* 
 
 FLU 
 
 wickedness  of  lis  inhabitants, 
 only  eight  of  whom  were  saved. 
 These  "eight  composed  the  fa- 
 mily of  Noah,  a  righteous  man, 
 who  was  divinely  instructed  to 
 prepare  a  vessel  large  enough 
 to  contain  his  family  and  "so 
 many  animals  as  were  neces- 
 sary to  preserve  each  species. 
 (.See  Ark.)  Having  faith  in 
 God,  he  obeyed  the  divine 
 command,  and  furnished  the 
 vessel.and  was  securely  lodged 
 in  it  with  his  family  before  the 
 judgment  came.  It  was  in  the 
 six  hundredth  year  of  Noah's 
 life,  and  between  the  middle 
 of  October  and  the  middle  of 
 November,  that  the  waters  be- 
 gan to  fall.  The  clouds  from 
 above  descended  in  over- 
 whelming torrents,  and  the 
 fountains'  of  the  great  deep 
 were  broken  up;  so  that,  at 
 the  end  of  forty  days,  the 
 highest  elevation  upon  the 
 face  of  the  earth  was  fifteen 
 cubits,  or  twenty-two  and  a 
 halffeet,  under  water,  and  "all 
 flesh  died  that  moved  upon 
 the  earth,"  and  Noah  only  re- 
 mained alive  and  they  that 
 were  with  him  in  the  ark ;  and 
 the  waters  prevailed  upon  the 
 earth,  or  increased  continual- 
 ly, for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
 days.  The  several  dates  men- 
 tioned, the  account  of  the  de- 
 luge, andthellems  of  evidence 
 from  observation,  history,  and 
 tradition,  that  such  an  event 
 as  the  deluge  happened,will  be 
 found  arranged  in  the  Teach- 
 er's Assistant,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
 45—50,  and  also  in  Evening 
 Recreations,  part  i.  pp.  17 — 
 28,  both  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union. 
 FLOOR.  (See  Threshing.) 
 FLUTE.  (Dan.  iii.  5.  7.)  A 
 wind  instrument  of  music, 
 made  of  reed,  horn,  bone,  or 
 wood,  and  used  on  mournful  as 
 well  as  on  festive  occasions 
 It  was  played  like  the  clario- 
 net, though  there  were  pro- 
 bably various  modes  both  of 
 making  and  using  it. 
 257 
 
FOO 
 
 The  mashrokitha  or  pipe 
 was,  according  to  eminent 
 writers,  a  kind  of  pandean 
 pipe,which  was  furnished  with 
 bellows,  and  thus  was  in  its 
 principle  an  organ.  It  is  trans- 
 lated/?«ie  in  Dan.  iii.  ?>. 
 
 FLY.  (Isa.  vii.  18.)  The 
 nameof  a  large  tribe  of  insects, 
 
 FOO 
 
 some  of  which  are  exceeding- 
 ly annoying  and  destructive. 
 They  abounded  in  Egypt  and 
 Judea ;  and  one  species,  which 
 is  found  by  modern  travellers 
 in  the  vicinity  of  the  Nile,  and 
 called  the  Abyssinian  fiy,  (see 
 cut,)  is  as  large  as  a  bee,  and  is 
 so  terrible  an  annoyanceto  cat 
 
 tie  and  other  large  animals,  as 
 to  oblige  them  to  forsake  their 
 pastures  and  ranges,  and  flee 
 to  some  place  where  they  can 
 roll  themselves  in  the  mud  or 
 sand.  .Hence  we  may  judge  of 
 the  terrible  nature  of  the  judg- 
 ments mentioned  in  Ex.  viii. 
 24.  Isa.  vii.  18;  in  which  last 
 passage,  we  are  informed  that 
 the  fly  shall  be  found  in  the 
 very  places  to  which  the  cattle 
 resort  to  rid  themselves  of  their 
 presence.  » 
 
 FOLD.  (See  IRieep.) 
 FOOD.  (Gen.  iii.  6.)  We 
 may  form  some  judgment  of 
 the  ancient  diet  from  what  we 
 know  of  the  modern  orientals. 
 Vegetable  food  is  much  more 
 common  than  animal.  Instead 
 of  butter,  lard,  and  suet,  they 
 use  olive  oil.  A  soup,  or  rather 
 pottage,  of  beans  and  lentiles, 
 Jeasoned  with  garlic  and  oil, 
 js  still,  as  it  was  of  old,  a  fa- 
 vourite dish.  The  "  red  pottage 
 of  lentiles,"  for  which  Esau 
 sold  his  birthright,  was  some- 
 thing of  this  kind.  Eggs,honey, 
 milk,  especially  sour  milk, and 
 garden  productions  of  every 
 
 kind,  afford  the  principal  mate- 
 rials of  eastern  diet.  The  most 
 common  dish  at  this  day  in  the 
 east  is  the  pilau;  which  con- 
 sists of  rice  cooked  with  meat, 
 so  as  to  make  a  sort  of  broth, 
 seasoned  variously,and  colour- 
 ed blue,  red,  or  yellow. 
 
 We  do  not  find  animal  food 
 often  occurring,  except  upon 
 the  occasion  of  entertainments, 
 or  the  exhibition  of  hospitality 
 to  a  friend.  (Gen.  xviii.7.  Luke 
 XV.  23.) 
 
 Though,  as  above  stated,  the 
 orientals  make  far  less  use  of 
 animal  food  than  we  do,  yet 
 we  find  it,  in  every  successive 
 age,  upon  the  tables  of  the 
 rich  ;  and  the  animals  used  for 
 this  purpose,  especially  neat 
 cattle,  were  often  stalled  and 
 fattened.  (lSam.xvi.20;  xxviii. 
 •24.  1  Kings  iv.  23.  Neh.  v.  18. 
 Isa.  i.  11;  xi.  6.  Jer.  xlvi.  21. 
 Ezek.  xxxix.  18.  Amos  vi.  4. 
 Mai.  iv.  2.) 
 
 Wild  game,  lambs,  and  kids 
 may  be  considered  as  the  fa- 
 vourite viands  in  the  east.  At 
 this  day  beef  is  not  much  used, 
 though  from  son^'e  texts  above^ 
 258 
 
FOO 
 
 and  other  similar  authorities, 
 we  learn  that  the  flesh  of 
 young  ballocks  and  siall-fed 
 oxen  was  highly  prized.  (Prov. 
 XV.  17.  Matt.  xxii.  4.) 
 
 In  very  ancient  times  it  waa 
 always  the  master  of  the  liouse, 
 whether  he  were  rich  or  poor, 
 who  slew  tlie  animal.  Grecian 
 and  Roman  writers  mention 
 a  like  custom  of  later  times. 
 (Judg.  vi.  19.)  The  preparation 
 of  the  food  by  cooking  was  the 
 busmess  of  the  mistress.  Tiie 
 shoulder  was  probably  the 
 choicest  part.  (1  Sam.  ix. 
 24.) 
 
 It  is  customary  for  the  Arabs 
 to  serve  up  at  one  meal  the 
 whole  of  any  animal  which 
 they  have  killed.  This  is 
 occasioned  in  some  measure 
 by  the  difficulty  of  preserv- 
 ing fresh  meat  in  that  cli- 
 mate. (Gen.  xviii.7.  Lukexv. 
 23.) 
 
 The  people  of  the  east  are 
 particularly  fond  of  fisli,  and 
 in  Egypt  they  constitute  a  very 
 important  part  of  their  subsist- 
 ence.   (Num.  xi.  5.) 
 
 Melons,  cucumbers,  and  on- 
 ions are  the  common  food  of 
 the  Egyptians  in  summer.  It 
 is  said  that  the  Egyptian  onions 
 are  the  sweetest  in  the  world. 
 Endive,  or  succory  is  a  common 
 food  of  the  poor.  Purslane  is  al- 
 so common.  Radishes,  carrots, 
 and  ttie  leaves  of  the  vine  are 
 also  eaten.  Leeks  and  garlic 
 — the  latter  of  which  :s  import- 
 ed from  the  Archipelago— are 
 a  common  repast.  Goals'  milk 
 makes  a  great  part  of  the  diet 
 of  the  east,  from  the  beginning 
 of  April  till  September,  and 
 cows'  milk  the  rest  of  the 
 year.  The  food  of  the  common 
 people  of  Aleppo,  in  winter, 
 is  very  plain,  and  consists  of 
 bread,  the  juice  of  grapes  thick- 
 ened to  the  consistence  of  ho- 
 ney or  coagulated  eour  milk, 
 butter,  rice,  and  a  very  little 
 nmtloa.     We  are   told,  con- 
 
 FOO 
 
 cerning  the  Arabs,  that  roasted 
 meat  is  almost  peculiar  to  the 
 lablesoftheir  emirs, or  princes, 
 and  also  lambs  stewed  whole, 
 and  stuffed  with  bread,  flour, 
 mutton-fat,  raisins,  salt,  and 
 aromatic  herbs.  (See  Bedouin 
 Arabs,  by  Am.S.S.U.,  ch.  vii. 
 
 FOOL,  (Prov.  XV.  5.)  FOOL- 
 ISH, (Job  ii.  10,)  FOOLISH- 
 NESS.  (2  Sam.  XV.  31.)  These 
 terms  are  used  by  the  sacred 
 writers,  sometimes  to  denote 
 weakness  or  defect  of  under- 
 standing, as  in  their  modern 
 use,  (I  Cor.  i.  27 ;  iv.  10-;)  but 
 generally  they  denote  sm  or 
 wickedness.  (2Sam.  xiii.  13. 
 Ps.  xiv.  1.  Prov.  xix.  I.)  Fool 
 isii  talking,  jesting,  foolish  and 
 unlearned  questions,  &c.,  (2 
 Tim.  ii.  23,)  are  such  as  are 
 vain,  frivolous,  or  have  no  use- 
 ful tendency. 
 
 The  phrase,  thou  fool, 
 (Matt.  V.  22,)  implies  not  only 
 an  angry  temper,  by  which 
 such  severe  language  is 
 prompted,  but  a  scornful,  con- 
 temptuous feeling,  utterly  in- 
 consistent with  the  love  and 
 meekness  which  characterize 
 the  disciples  of  Christ,  and  of 
 course  exposing  the  individual 
 who  is  under  their  influence  to 
 eternal  punishment. 
 
 FOOT,  (Deut  xi.  10,)  FEET. 
 (Gen.  xlix.  33.)  In  the  first 
 of  these  passages,  the  phrase 
 VHiteredst  icith  thy  foot  is  sup- 
 posed to  refer  to  some  process 
 by  which  the  foot  was  employ 
 ed  in  irrigating  the  soil;  and 
 very  learned  commentators 
 trace  the  allusion  to  a  machine 
 for  raising  and  distributing 
 water,  which  modern  travel 
 lers  tell  us  is  still  used  for  this 
 purpose  in  eastern  countries, 
 and  a  representation  of  which 
 is  given  in  the  following  cut 
 (But  see  Water.)  Nakedness 
 of  the  feet  was  a  sign  of 
 mourning,  (Ezek.  xxiv.  17,) 
 I  and  of  respect  or  reverence. 
 (Ex.  i!4.  5.  See  Feet.) 
 259 
 
FOR 
 
 FOR 
 
 FOOTSTOOL.  (2Chron.ix. 
 IS.)  Kings  and  other  rulers, 
 Bitting  in  siaie,  required  a  stool 
 upon  which  to  rest  their  feet. 
 The  divineglory  which  resided 
 symbolically  in  the  holy  place, 
 between  the  cherubim  above 
 the  ark,  is  supposed  to  use  the 
 ark  as  a  footstool.  (1  Chron. 
 xxviii.  2.  Ps.  xcix.  5.)  So  the 
 earth  is  called  God's  footstool 
 by  the  same  expressive  figure 
 which  represents  heaven  as 
 his  throne. 
 
 FOREIGNER.  (Ex.  xii.  45.) 
 Any  one  not  of  the  genuine  He- 
 brew stock.  (Coaip.  F.ph.  ii. 
 12.) 
 
 _  FOREKNOWLEDGE.  (Ads 
 ii.  23)  A  peculiar  and  essential 
 attribute  of  the  Supreme  Be- 
 ing. (Acts  XV.  18.  Comp.  Prov. 
 xix.  21 ;  xxvii.  1.  Isa.  xiv.  24. 
 James  iv.  14.)  It  implies  the 
 absence  of  any  succession  of 
 time,  as  past,  present,  and 
 future.    (2Pet.  iii.  8.) 
 
 FORERUNNER.  (Heb.  vi. 
 20.)  One  who  not  orriy  goes  be- 
 fore to  a  particular  place,  to 
 make  arrangements  for  his  suc- 
 cessor, but  who  leads  or  pre- 
 pares the  way.  The  Athenians 
 call  the  figs  that  are  ripe  be- 
 fore the  rest  by  the  same  word 
 which,  in  the  above  passage, 
 13  ira.ns\3i\ edfo?-erunner  ;  liiat 
 is,ihefustfiuiis.  (Comp.  1  Cor. 
 
 XV.  20. 23.)  There  is  also  sup- 
 posed  to  be  a  beautiful  meta- 
 phorical allusion  to  the  person 
 or  boat  that  carries  the  anchor 
 within  the  pier-head,  and 
 makes  the  ship  fast,  although 
 the  tide  will  not  yet  admit  her 
 to  come  up.  Swinging  at  her 
 cable's  length,  the  ship  rides 
 out  the  gale ;  for  her  anchor  is 
 sure  and  steadfast.  (Heb.  vi. 
 19.) 
 
 FOREST.  (1  Kings  vii.  2.) 
 Several  tracts  of  country  were 
 designated  in  this  way ;  as,  the 
 forest  of  Ephraim,  &c.  The 
 house  ^  tlie  forest  of  Lebanon, 
 whicii  was  built  by  Solomon, 
 and  which  was  magnificent  in 
 size  and  style,  (1  Kings  vi.) 
 was  so  called  probably  from 
 the  great  quantity  of  cedar 
 which  was  used  in  the  con- 
 struction  cf  it. 
 
 rORGIV'ExVESS.  (Acts  v. 
 31.)  Forgiveness  of  sin  is  the 
 great  Messing  of  the  gospel. 
 To  fcrgive  sin  is  the  exclu- 
 sive prerogati  ve  of  Jehovah,  of 
 whose  law  sin  is  the  trans- 
 srression.  (Ps.cxxx.4.  Isa.xliii. 
 25.  Markii.7.)  And  the  gos- 
 pel makes  known,  not  only 
 that  there  is  forgveness  with 
 God,  but  also  how  he  can  for- 
 give sin  and  still  maintain 
 unsullied  the  infinite  purity, 
 and  holiness,  and  perfection 
 
FOR 
 
 of  his  nature,  government,  and 
 ".aw,  and  even  clslhe  ihem  all 
 with  new  glory. 
 
 The  consciousness  of  guilt  is 
 universal.  Hence,  in  all  parts 
 of  the  world,  Christian  and 
 pagan,  savage  and  civilized, 
 ihere  are  found  institutions 
 or  customs  which  have  a  di- 
 rect reference— more  or  less 
 clearly  defined— to  expiation 
 and  forgiveness ;  but  the  Chris- 
 tian scheme  alone  makes 
 known  a  way  of  mercy,  (Acts 
 xiii. 38, 39,)  safe  to  man  and  ho- 
 nourable to  God,  and,  through 
 Christ,  oITers  forgiveness— full, 
 free,  and  everlasting— to  all 
 who  will  believe  and  obey  the 
 gospel.  (Acts  V.  31;  xiii.  38, 39. 
 1  John  ii.  12.)  The  duty  of 
 mutual  forgiveness  is  urged 
 upon  man  with  the  most  so- 
 lemn  sanctions.  (Matt.  vi.  14, 
 15;  xviii.  15— 35.  Luke  xvii. 
 3,4.) 
 
 FORKS.  (1  Sam. xiii. 21.) 
 The  oriental  manner  of  par- 
 taking of  food  is,  like  their  fur- 
 niture,verysimple.They  make 
 use  of  no  plates,spoons,knives, 
 nor  forks ;  nor  are  these  im- 
 plements necessary.  Instead 
 of  plates,  they  use  their  round 
 pieces  of  bread,  upon  which 
 they  lay  such  things  as  we 
 should  put  on  a  plate.  (See 
 Eat,  Eating.)  Their  bread  is 
 broken  with  the  Rands,  and 
 their  meat  is  usually  cut  into 
 small  morsels  before  it  is  serv- 
 ed up.  "When  thi.s  is  not  the 
 case,  as  in  the  instance  of 
 boiled  fowls,  they  tear  it  to 
 pieces  with  their  finders,  and 
 carry  it  to  tlie  mouth  in  this 
 way;  as  they  also  do  in  helping 
 themselves  to  rice,  pulse,  ana 
 other  articles  of  diet.  The 
 dishes  are  of  wood  or  tinned 
 copper;  in  the  Persian  palaces, 
 of  silver  and  gold.  Even  broth 
 and  milk  are  laded  out  in  the 
 noUow  of  the  hand,  or  the 
 bread  is  dipped  into  them. 
 
 The  forks  mentioned  in  the 
 
 FOX 
 
 above  passage  were  used,  not 
 in  eating,  bm  in  taking  meal 
 out  of  the  vessels  in  which  it 
 was  cooked. 
 
 FORNICATION.  (Matt.  v. 
 32.)  This  word,  as  used  by  the 
 sacred  writers,  denotes  various 
 acts  of  lewdness  and  inconti- 
 nency;  and  it  is  also  figura- 
 tively applied  to  idolatry,  or 
 the  mingling  of  the  pure  wor- 
 ship of  God  with  the  impure 
 rites  of  heathenism. 
 
 FORSWEAR.    (See  Oath.) 
 
 FOUNTAINS.  (Gen.  xvi.7.) 
 Springs  or  sources  of  water  are 
 olten  mentioned  by  the  sacred 
 writers.  In  the  dry  and  thirsty 
 land  of  Judea  they  were  of  pe- 
 culiar value;  and  hence  the 
 figurative  use  of  the  word,when 
 applied  to  the  hopes,  blessings, 
 aod  consolations  of  religion, 
 must  have  been  very  forcible 
 to  the  Jews.  Perpetual  foun- 
 tains, or  springs  of  living  wa- 
 ter, were  greatly  valued.  (Ps. 
 xxxvi.  7—9.  Ipa.  xlix.  10.  jer. 
 ii.  13.  Joel  iii.  13.  Zech.  xiii.  1. 
 Johniv.  10.  Rev.  vii.l7.)  The 
 word  fountains  is  figuratively 
 used  to  denote  children  or  pos- 
 terity. (Deut.  xxxiii.28.  Prov. 
 v.  16.) 
 
 FOX.  (Neh.  iv.  3.)  A  well 
 knov/n  animal,  remarkable 
 for  its  cunning  and  voracity. 
 Foxes,  or  jackals,  abounded  in 
 some  districts  of  Judea.  They 
 live  on  birds  and  small  quadru- 
 peds, and  follow  armies  that 
 they  may  feed  on  bodies  that 
 may  be  left  on  the  march. 
 Hence  the  allusion,  Ps.  Ixiii.lO. 
 T'ne  m.ethod  adopted  by  Sam- 
 son (Judg.  XV.  4, 5)  to  destroy 
 the  corn,"vineyarris,  and  olive- 
 yards  of  the  Philistines,  shows 
 that  this  animal  must  have 
 been  very  conunon  ;  and  that 
 there  is  nothing  incredible  in 
 the  account  itself  appears  from 
 the  fact,  that  in  an  ancient 
 Roman  festival  it  was  custom- 
 ary to  couple  foxes  in  a  similar 
 way,  with  a  brand  betweea 
 261 
 
FRI 
 them.  The  crafiy,  artful  nature 
 of  the  fox  is  proverbial.  (Ezek. 
 xiii.4.  Luke  xiii.  32.) 
 
 Volney  says  thai  jackals  are 
 concealed  by  hundreds  in  Sy- 
 ria, in  the  gardens  and  among 
 ruins  and  tombs.  Hence  the 
 allusion,  Lam.  v.  18.  (For  cut 
 and  description,  see  Youth's 
 Friend,  for  Feb.  1826,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 FKANKINCENSE.  (Ex.xxx. 
 34.)  A  dry,  resinous,  aromatic 
 substance,  of  a  yellow  tinge, 
 bitter  and  acrid  to  the  tasie, 
 but  exceedingly  odoriferous. 
 The  tree,  whence  the  gum  is 
 obtained  by  incision  of  the 
 bark,  grows  in  Arabia,  and  re- 
 sembles our  sumach.  It  is  also 
 found  in  India,  but  of  an  in- 
 ferior quality;  and,  as  some 
 suppose,  it  was  found  in  the 
 mountainous  districts  of  Judea. 
 It  is  sometimes  called  incense. 
 (Isa.  Ix.  6.  Jer.vi.20.  Luke  i.  9.) 
 It  is  cal  led /mn/c,  because  of 
 the  freeness  with  which  it 
 burns  and  gives  forth  its  odours; 
 and  the  uiire  incense  is  that 
 which  is  first  obtained,  and  is 
 freest  from  foreign  admixture. 
 
 Sweet  incense^,  (Ex.  xxx.  7,) 
 might  as  well  be  rendered  in- 
 cense of  spices,  and  is  the  com- 
 position mentioned  Ex.  xxx. 
 
 The  substance  which  is  ge- 
 nerally used  in  modern  times 
 as  frankincense  is  the  produc- 
 tion of  the  Norway  pine. 
 
 The  ude  of  incense  in  the 
 Jewish  worship  may  be  learn- 
 ed from  Ex.  xxx.  7,  and  Lev. 
 xvi.  12, 13,  and  it  is  figuratively 
 employed  to  represent  lovely 
 and  agreeable  qualities.  (Sol. 
 Songiii.6;  iv.6.  14,)  and  devo- 
 tional fervour.  (Ps.  cxli.  2. 
 Mai.  i.  11.  Rev.  viii.3.) 
 
 FRIEND.  (Ex.  xxxiii.  11.) 
 There  are  several  passages  in 
 which  this  word  is  used  where 
 no  actual  friendship  or  affec- 
 tion is  intended,  (Matt.xxii.  12: 
 xxvi.  50;)  and  in  these  it  is 
 perhaps  employed  as  a  com- 
 
 FRI 
 
 men  term  of  salutation,  as  the 
 word  neighbour  is  often  used 
 
 in  modern  times. 
 
 FRINGES  (Deut.  xxil.  12) 
 were  the  hem  or  border  of 
 a  particular  Jewish  garment. 
 (Matt.  ix.  20 ;  xiv.  36.) 
 
 At  the  time  when  the  Sab- 
 baih-breaker  was  stoned  to 
 death,  (Num.  xv.  32.41,)  Moses 
 was  commanded  to  speak  to 
 the  children  of  Israel,  and 
 "  bid  them  make  fringes  in 
 the  borders  of  their  garments, 
 throughout  their  generations," 
 and  that  they  should  "  put  up- 
 on  the  fringe  of  the  borders  a 
 riband  of  blue,"  as  a  constant 
 remembrancer  of  God's  com- 
 mandments, and  a  visible 
 warning  against  forbidden  in- 
 dulgence. These  fringes  were 
 principally  upon  the  comera 
 of  the  dress.  Perhaps  the  hem 
 was  of  lace;  for  the  original 
 word  denotes  that  which  was 
 twisted  like  a  rope,  and  hung 
 like  hair.  (Ex.  xxxix.  31.)  U 
 was  evidently  a  badge  of  dis- 
 tinction. (See  Clothes,  and 
 cut.) 
 
 In  some  parts  of  Europe  and 
 Asia  a  Jew  is  instanily  known 
 by  his  apparel.  In  all  syna- 
 gogues, however,  there  is  worn 
 a  kind  of  scarf,  from  three  to 
 five  feet  long,  and  one  foot 
 wide,  which  is  furnished  with 
 fringes  at  the  corners.  Let  us 
 hear  the  account  which  they 
 give  of  it  themselves :— "  When 
 we  put  on  that  garment  on 
 which  ihefringes  ordained  by 
 the  law  are  fixed,  (Num.  xv. 
 37.  Deut.  xxii.  12,)  we  pro- 
 nounce likewise  the  following 
 prayer  of  thanks  :  '  Praised 
 [be  God]  who  hast  sanctified 
 us  through  thy  command- 
 ments, and  commanded  us  the 
 precept  of  the  fringes.'  But 
 when  we  cover  ourselves  with 
 the  prayer-cloak,  we  say,  in 
 place  of  the  concluding  words 
 of  the  foregoing,  'sanctified  and 
 commanded  us  to  envelope  our 
 selves  with  the  garment  oj 
 262 
 
tVE 
 
 fringes.^  These  fringes  are  to 
 be  considered  as  marks  of  re- 
 membrance, and   tokens,   by 
 
 hich  we  are  always  remind- 
 ed ol  the  command menis  of 
 God  ;  as  it  is  written,  (Num. 
 XV.  33,">  'These  fringes  shall 
 serve  you  for  the  purpose  that 
 you  may  see  them,  and  re- 
 member all  the  command- 
 ments of  the  Eternal,  and 
 do  them;  but  not  follow  the 
 bent  of  your  heart  and  of  your 
 eyes,  by  which  you  are  led  to 
 ein  ;  ye  will  thereby  remember 
 all  my  precepts,  and  obey 
 them,  that  you  may  be  holy  to 
 your  God." 
 
 A  Jewish  commentator  on 
 Num.  XV.  says,  that  any  man 
 clothei  with  this  fringe  is  safe, 
 and  shall  be  delivered  from 
 all  hurl  and  destruction. 
 
 FROGS.  (Ex.  viii.  2.)  A 
 well  k now n,am|jhibious, loath- 
 some reptile,  found  generally 
 jn  the  margin  of  brooks  and 
 ponds,  and  living  on  insects, 
 worms,  fee.  They  were  sent 
 upon  the  Egyptians  in  such 
 numbers  as  to  fill  their  beds, 
 ovens,  and  kneaiiing-i roughs; 
 and  when  they  died,  as  they  did 
 in  immense  masses,  they"  fill- 
 ed the  land  with  an  offensH'e 
 and  pestilential  effluvia.  (See 
 Youth's  Friend,  for  Auirust, 
 1823,  and  Life  of  Moses,  p.  G9, 
 both  l^v  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 FRC)NTLETS.    (See  Phy- 
 
 FRUIT.^'Lev.xix.23,  isthe 
 only  {passage  in  which  this 
 term  is  ns^d  in  a  doubtful 
 sense;  and  it  here  means,  that 
 the  fruit  of  a  tree  newly  filant- 
 ed  shall  lie  regarded  as  unfit  to 
 be  oflered  to  the  Lord,  until  the 
 fourth  year  of  its  growth. 
 
 FUEL  (Tsa.  ix.  5)  was  so 
 scarce  in  the  east  that  the  peo- 
 ple rcs)rted  to  almost  every 
 kind  of  combustible  matter; 
 even  the  withered  stalks  of 
 herbs  and  flowers,  (Matt.  vi.  28 
 -3lt.)  tli'.rns,  (Ps.  1  viii.  9.  Eccl. 
 vii,6,)  and  even  excrements. 
 
 FUL 
 
 (Ezt-k.  iv.  12—16.  See  Dcng., 
 It  is  supposed  that  by  the  word 
 brand  (Amos  iv.  11)  is  meant  a 
 dry  vine,  twig,  or  other  brush- 
 wood, which'  is  so  light  and 
 combustible  as  to  be  co'nsumed 
 at  once,  if  not  instantly  pluck- 
 ed out;  thus  renderintr  the 
 striking  figure  of  the  prophet 
 still  more  expressive. 
 
 FULFILLED.  (Matt.  ii.  17.) 
 This  word  is  generally  u.sed  in 
 reference  to  the  accomplish- 
 ment of  prophecy.  It  is  to  be 
 oljserved,  however,  concerning 
 the  expression,  that  it  might 
 be  fulfilled,— \\h\oh  is  fre- 
 quently used,  (Matt.  ii.  15.  23; 
 viii.  17;  xii.  17,  &,c.  &,c.,)— the 
 event  does  not  happen  merely 
 for  the  purpose  of  making 
 good  the  prediction.  Wiien 
 it  is  said,  for  example,  that 
 they  parted  Christ's  garments 
 among  them,  casting  lots, — 
 that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which 
 was  spoken  by  the  prophet, 
 &c.,— it  is  not"  intended  that 
 this  was  done  in  order  to  se- 
 cure the  accomplishment  of 
 the  prediction;  but  rather  that, 
 in  or  by  this  was  fulfilled  the 
 prophecy,  &c. ;  or  thus  it  came 
 to  pass,  in  fulfilment  of  the  p»-o- 
 phecy,  &c.  Those  concerned 
 had  no  knowledge  generally 
 of  the  fact  thai  th>y  were 
 fulfilling  a  pmphecy.  Our 
 Saviour  of  course  knew  it; 
 and  hence  the  [leculiar  ex- 
 pression, John  xix.  28.  (See 
 Prophecy.)  The"  meaning, 
 in  most  of  the  above  and 
 parallel  passages,  would  be 
 more  accurately  expressed  b^ 
 the  word  verified.  In  this 
 event  teas  verified  what  was 
 said  by,  &c. 
 
 FULLER'S   FIELD.     (See 
 
 CONDOIT.) 
 
 FULNESS.  (Gal.  iv.  4.) 
 Thisexpressiim  has  a  [leculiar 
 meaning  in  some  passages  of 
 the  sacred  writings.  'Y\ic  ful- 
 ness oflitne,  in  relation  to  the 
 Messiah,  means  the  actual 
 presence  of  the  verv  time  ap 
 263 
 
FUR 
 
 pointed  for  his  advent.  So, 
 when  the  day  of  Pentecost  was 
 fully  come.  (Actsii.  1.)  The 
 same  word  is  used  (John  i.  16, 
 and  Col.  i.  19)  to  signify  the 
 perfect  and  complete  suffi- 
 ciency of  spiritual  blessings 
 in  Christ  Jesus,  to  meet  all 
 the  wants  of  our  guilty,  ruined, 
 helpless  race. 
 
 ^hefulness  of  the  Godhead 
 (Col.  ii.  9)  denotes  all  the  attri- 
 butes of  the  divine  nature, 
 n  their  entire  and  complete 
 perfection. 
 FUNERAL.  (See  Bory.> 
 FURLONG.    (SeeMEA- 
 
 FURNACE.  (Gen.  xv.  17.) 
 Furnaces  were  used  for  melt- 
 ing the  precious  metals.  (Prov. 
 xvii.  3.)  They  were  also  used 
 to  punish  criminals.  The  fur- 
 nace into  which  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar cast  the  young  Hebrews 
 who  refused  to  worship  his 
 image  was  probably  an  open 
 furnace,  or  place  of  fire,  suffi- 
 ciently confined  to  concentrate 
 
 FUR 
 
 the  heat  to  the  last  extreme, 
 and  yet  so  open  that  what  took 
 place  in  the  midst  of  it  might 
 be  easily  seen.  Such  places 
 are  now  found  in  Syria,  and 
 were  evidently  used  by  idola- 
 ters as  temples  for  the  fires 
 which  represented  their  gods, 
 and  in  which  they  offered  sa- 
 crifices. 
 FURNITURE.(See  Camel.) 
 FURROW.  (Ps.lxv.lO.) 
 The  phrase,  they  shall  bind 
 themselves  in  their  two  fur- 
 rows, (Hos.  X.  10,)  is  explained 
 by  the  context,  especially 
 verses  4,  and  11—13. 
 
 FURY  (Jer.  X.  25)  is  attri- 
 buted to  God  like  anger,  meta- 
 phorically, or  speaking  after 
 the  manner  of  men ;  tTiat  is, 
 God's  providential  actions  are 
 such  as  would  be  performed  by 
 a  man  in  a  state  of  anger;  so 
 that,  when  he  is  said  to  pour 
 out  his  fury  on  a  person,  or  on 
 a  people,  it  is  a  figurative  ex- 
 pression for  dispensing  afflic- 
 tive judgments. 
 
 GAB 
 
 GAAL  (Judg.  ix.  26)  was  the 
 son  of  Ebed,  and  the  lead- 
 er of  a  revolt  against  Abime- 
 lech,  king  of  the  Shechemites. 
 He  was,  however,  defeated, and 
 put  to  flight,  and  his  partisans 
 were  scattered  and  destroyed. 
 
 GAASH.  (Judg.  ii.9.)  A  hill 
 in  the  tfirritoiT  of  Ephraim,  in 
 the  vicinity  of  which  was  Tim- 
 nath-serah,  where  Joshua  lived 
 and  died.  (Josh.  xxiv.  29, 30.) 
 Tlie  brooks  ^or  valleys)  of 
 Gaash  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  30.  1 
 (^hron.  xi.  32)  were  probably 
 in  the  same  neighbourhood. 
 
 GABBATHA.  (Johnxix.  13.) 
 A  Hebrew  word,  denoting  an 
 elevated  place;  like  the  bench 
 of  the  judges  in  modern  court 
 rooms.  The  floor  of  this  plat- 
 form, and  perhaps  the  whole 
 area  of  the  apartment,  was  pro- 
 bably paved  with  stone, —  a 
 
 GAD 
 
 common  practice  in  palaces 
 and  public  offices.  Hence  it 
 is  called  in  Greek,  by  a  word,, 
 s\gmiymz  the  pavement. 
 
 GABRIEL.  (Luke  i.  19.)  One 
 of  the  ministering  spirits  of 
 God,whowasspeciallycharged 
 with  the  message  to  Zacharias, 
 respecting  the  birth  of  John, 
 and  to  Mary,  respecting  the 
 birth  of  Christ.  At  an  earlier 
 period  he  was  sent  to  Daniel  to 
 unfold  a  vision.  (Dan.  viii.  16; 
 ix.  21.)  The  name  signifies 
 the  strength  of  God. 
 
 GAD.  (Gen.  XXX.  9—11.)  1. 
 Tribe  of.  (Num.  i.  25.)  The 
 posterity  of  Gad,  the  son  of 
 Jacob,  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  hand- 
 maid. 
 
 It  was  predicted  of  Gad  by 
 
 his  father,  (Gen.  xlix.  19,)  that 
 
 a  troop  should  overcome  him, 
 
 but  he  should  overcome  at  the 
 
 264 
 
GAD 
 
 last.    Anl  in  Deut.  xxxiii.  20, 
 21,  Moses  predicts  still  more 
 
 Sarlicularly  the  events  whicii 
 istinguish  tiie  Iiistory  of  this 
 tribe. 
 
 After  the  defeat  of  the  kings 
 of  Bashan,  the  tribes  of  Gad 
 and  Reuben  petitioned  Moses 
 to  assign  them  their  portion  in 
 that  district  of  the  country,  as 
 it  was  favourable  to  their  pas- 
 toral pursuits.  Their  request 
 was  granted,  and  Gad's  tribe 
 was  located  south  of  Reuben, 
 between  the  mountains  of  Gi- 
 lead  and  the  river  Jordan, 
 
 In  this  position  they  were 
 subject  to  frequent  incursions 
 from  the  neighbouring  hordes ; 
 but  they  were  valorous,  (1  Ciir. 
 V.  19,20.22;  xii.8,)  and,  under 
 David,  subdued  all  their  ene- 
 mies. 
 
 In  the  song  of  Moses,  (Deut. 
 xxxiii.  20, 21,)  allusion  is  made 
 to  the  enlargementand  courage 
 of  the  Gadites ;  to  the  provision 
 made  by  Moses  the  lawgiver 
 for  that  tribe  before  the  rest,  on 
 the  east  of  Jordan,  and  to  the 
 fidelity  with  which  the  tribe 
 fulfilled  their  agreement  to  go 
 up  with  the  other  tribes  to  the 
 conquest  of  the  promised  land, 
 just  as  if  no  portion  had  been 
 assigned  them  in  Bashan. 
 
 2.  (1  Sara.  xxii.  5.)  A  prophet 
 and  a  particular  friend  of  Da- 
 vid. He  was  on  more  than  one 
 occasion  God's  messenger  to 
 David,  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  2  Sam. 
 xxiv.  13-19.  1  Chron.  xxi.  9— 
 11,)  and  was  also  one  of  his 
 biographers.  (1  Chron.  xxix. 
 29.) 
 
 GADARENES,  country  of. 
 (Mark  v.  1.)  Gadara  was  one 
 of  the  ten  cities  called  Deca- 
 polis.  (See  Decapolxs.)  It  was 
 on  the  east  of  Jordan,  in  the 
 vicinity  of  the  lake  of  Genne- 
 saret,  beyond  the  brook  Jar- 
 muk,  about  eight  miles  above 
 its  junction  w'ith  the  Jordan. 
 It  gave  its  name  to  the  district 
 or  canton  of  which  it  was  the 
 chief  town.  Gerobsa  or  Gk-  ; 
 23 
 
 GAI 
 
 RESA  was  another  city  in  the 
 same  neighbourhood,  which 
 gave  to  another  district  the 
 name  of  the  country  of  the 
 Gergesenes.  Gergesa  was  si- 
 tuated about  twenty  miles  east 
 of  the  Jordan, and  ten  or  twelve 
 south-east  of  Gadara  ;  so  that 
 the  region  generally  might  be 
 designated  by  either  name, 
 (Matt.  viii.  28.  Mark  v.  1 ;)  and 
 the  discrepancy  rather  con- 
 firms than  invalidates  the 
 sacred  history,  as  it  might  so 
 easily  have  been  avoided. 
 
 Dr.  Seetzen  discovered,  in 
 the  year  181G,  what  he  sup- 
 poses to  be  the  ruins  of  Gerge- 
 sa, now  called  Djerash,  where 
 three  temples,  two  superb 
 amphitheatres  of  marble,  and 
 hundreds  of  columns  still  re- 
 main, among  other  monuments 
 of  Roman  power. 
 
 It  was  in  this  vicinity  that 
 Christ  WTOught  a  wonderful 
 miracle  on  two  demoniacs. 
 (Luke  viii.  26—36.)  Gadara,  in 
 the  time  of  Josephus,  was  an 
 important  city,  and  the  metro- 
 polis of  Perea,  or  the  country 
 beymid  Jordaii.  It  now  lies  in 
 ruins,  being  wholly  deserted 
 on  account  of  the  scarcity  of 
 water,  though  the  foundations 
 of  its  spacious  streets  are  visi- 
 ble. In  the  vicinity  are  famous 
 medicinal  springs ;  and  we  are 
 told  by  modern  travellers,  that 
 the  rocks  by  which  the  coast 
 is  bound  contain  the  remains 
 of  tombs,  cut  out  by  the  early 
 inhabitants  of  Galilee,  which 
 even  now  seem  a  fit  resort  for 
 the  wretched  outcasts  of  soci- 
 ety who  had  their  dwellin" 
 among  them  two  thousand 
 years  ago.   (Luke  viii.  27.) 
 
 GAIUS.  (Acts  xix.  29.)  A 
 Macedonian,  resident  in  Co- 
 rinth, at  whose  house  Paul 
 stayed  while  labouring  as  a 
 missionary  in  that  city.  (Rom. 
 xvi.  23.)  He  was  probably  con- 
 verted under  Paul's  ministry. 
 (1  Cor.  i.  14,)  and  accompanied 
 him  to  Ephesus,  and,  witt 
 265 
 
GAL 
 
 Arisiarchus,  another  of  Paul's 
 adherents,  was  seized  by  the 
 mob,  during  the  uproar  occa- 
 sioned by  the  apostle's  preach- 
 ing. Probably  reference  is 
 made  to  this  individual,  Acts 
 XX.  4,  and  3  Jolni  1 ;  though 
 fiome  have  supposed  two  indi- 
 viduals to  be  intended. 
 
 GALATIA.  (Actsxvi.6.)  A 
 province  of  Asia  Minor,  lying 
 east  of  Phrygia,  and  called 
 Galalia  iiy  the  Gauls,  who 
 were  the  original  settlers  of  it. 
 
 Christianity  was  introduced 
 into  this  province  by  the  ajx)3- 
 lle  Paul,  who  was  there  once 
 with  Silas  and  Timothy,  (Acts 
 xvi.  C)  about  tiie  year  53,  and 
 again,  f  lur  or  five  years  after- 
 wards, on  his  return  from  Co- 
 rinth.' (Acts  .wiii.  23.) 
 
 GALATIAN8,  epistlk  to, 
 is  the  ninth  in  the  order  of  the 
 Looks  of  tlie  New  Testament, 
 and  was  vvriuen  by  Paul  about 
 the  year  53-54.  Its  design  evi- 
 dently is,  to  correct  some  erro- 
 neous opinions  they  had  been 
 taugiil,  particularly  respecting 
 the  doctrine  of  justification 
 by  failli ;  and  to  instruct  them 
 as  to  the  true  scope  and  intent 
 of  the  gospel.  This  ej)istle  is 
 peculiarly  interesting,  as  it 
 contains  a  record  of  llie  evi- 
 dences of  Paul's  aposlleship,  a 
 ekelch  of  his  life  after  his  con 
 version,  and  a  masterly  eluci- 
 dation and  defence  oftiie  great 
 hut  sim|jle  plan  of  salvation 
 througii  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus 
 Clirisi.  (See  Union  Questions, 
 vol.  viii.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 for  a  complete  analysis  of  this 
 inleresiins  epistle.) 
 
 GAl.BANUi\l.(t:x.x.\x.34.) 
 A  resiniuis  gum,  jmuluced  in 
 Syria  and  its  vicinity,  from  llie 
 eajior  milk  of  a  plant  of  the 
 eame  name,  which  grows  eight 
 or  ten  feet  iiigh.  Ii'was  an  in- 
 preoientof  llie  sacred  incense, 
 and  is  siili  valuable  for  its 
 medicinal  jiroperties. 
 
 GAMLIIANS.  (Lukpxiii.l.) 
 A  beci  or  party  of  ike  Jews 
 
 GAL 
 
 who  took  their  name  from 
 their  leader,  Judas,  a  Gaulan- 
 ite,  or  Galilean.  It  is  supposed 
 that  llie  party  originated  in 
 opposition  to  a  tax  imposed 
 by  the  Koman  government  on 
 the  Jews,  A.  D.  10—12.  Judas 
 and  Jiis  party  resisted  the  go- 
 vernment, (Acts  V.  37,)  and 
 maintained  their  0])i)osition 
 until  the  desl.'-uclion  of  Jerusa- 
 lem and  the  lemj^le.  Jewish 
 historians  tell  us  that  the  Gali- 
 leans agreed  with  the  Phari- 
 sees, but  were  distinguished 
 by  an  unconquerable  love  of 
 liberty,  contending,  on  the 
 strength  of  Deut.  xvii.  15,  that 
 God  only  was  their  sovereign, 
 and  that  all  exactions  of  earth- 
 ly princes  were  opi)ressive and 
 unlawful. 
 
 The  Galileans  who  are  men- 
 tioned as  having  been  otter- 
 ing sacrifices  at  Jerusalem, 
 when  they  were  suddenly  as- 
 saulted, and  put  to  death  by 
 order  of  Pilate,— so  that  their 
 blood  Howed  out  and  actually 
 mingled  with  the  very  sacri- 
 fices they  were  ottering.  (Luke 
 xiii.  1,2,)— were  j)robal.ly  the 
 subjects  of  Herod,  between 
 whom  and  Pilate  there  was  a 
 deep-rooted  hostility.  (Luke 
 xxiii.  12.)  Their  sudden  and 
 violent  death,  in  the  very  act 
 of  worshiji,  seems  to  have 
 marked  them,  in  the  view  of 
 some,  as  the  sjjecial  objects  of 
 divine  indiunation. 
 
 G  A  L  1  L^K  K.  (Mall.  iv.  12. 
 Mark  i.  9.  Luke  ii.  3y.)  In  the 
 time  of  Christ,  Palestine  waa 
 divided  into  three  parts:  of 
 wiiich  the  northern  was  Gali- 
 lee, Ujunded  on  the  north  by 
 Anti-Libanus  ;  east,  by  Jor- 
 dan and  the  sea  of  Galilee; 
 south,  by  Samaria;  and  west 
 liy  Phoenicia,  wliich  occupied 
 the  coast  north  from  Carmel  to 
 Tyre.  It  was  distinguished 
 into  Ljyjter  ami  Loicei ;  the  for- 
 mer lying  on  the  north,  and 
 inhabued  jiartly  by  Syrians, 
 Phenicians,  and  Arabians ; 
 266 
 
GAL 
 
 whence  it  was  called  Galilee 
 of  the  Gentiles.  (Isa.  ix.  1.)  or 
 Nations,  (Mail.  iv.  15;)  the 
 latter,  especially  the  valley 
 along  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  was 
 fertile  anil  populous. 
 
 Within  the  liiniis  of  Galilee 
 were  comprehended  Issachar, 
 Zebulon,  Naphtali.and  Asher. 
 Christ  is  called  Jes7is  of  Gali- 
 lee, (Matt.  xxvi.  69.)  because 
 he  was  brought  up  in  that  pro- 
 vince, and  there  lived,  taught, 
 and  called  his  first  disciples, 
 (Malt.iv.  13— 23;xiii.55.  Marii 
 i.  39.  Luke  iv.  44 ;  viii.  1 ;  xxiii. 
 5.  John  vii.  1 ;)  and  ii  became  a 
 nameof  contempt,  (John  i.46; 
 vii.  5-2.  Acts  ii.  7,)  both  among 
 Jews  and  Gentiles,  because 
 they  were  a  mongrel  race,  and 
 used  a  corrupted  dialect,  which 
 originated  in  the  amalgama- 
 tion of  the  Jews,  who  settled 
 there  after  the  captivity,  with 
 the  Gentile  foreigners.  (Matt, 
 xxvi.  69.  73.    Mark  xiv.  70.) 
 
 Galilee,  says  a  modern  tra- 
 veller, would  be  a  paradise, 
 were  it  inhabited  by  an  indus- 
 trious people,  under  an  en- 
 lightened government.  Vine 
 Flocks  are  "to  be  seen  here  a 
 foot  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
 forming,  by  their  twining 
 branches,  vast  arches  and  ex- 
 tensive ceilings  of  verdure.  A 
 cluster  of  grapes,  two  or  three 
 feet  in  length,  will  give  an 
 abundant  supper  to  a  v*hole 
 family.  The  plains  of  Esdrae- 
 lon  are  occupied  by  tribes, 
 around  whose  brown  tents 
 the  sheep  and  lambs  gambol 
 to  the  sound  of  the  reed,' which 
 at  nightfall  calls  them  home. 
 
 Sea  of  Galilee.  (SeeCniN- 
 
 NERETH.) 
 
 GALL.  (Ps.  Ixix.  21.)  An 
 animal  fluid,  of  exceedingly 
 bitter  taste,  secreted  by  the 
 liver.  Allusion  is  made  to  it 
 in  Job  xvi.  13 ;  xx.  14. 25.  Lam. 
 ii.  11,  and  elsewhere.  But  by 
 the  same  word  in  Ps.  Ixix.  21, 
 reference  is  made  to  the  ex- 
 iraction  of  a  very  bitter  herb, 
 
 GAL 
 
 (Deut.  xxix.  18;  xxxii.  3^ 
 perhaps  hemlock.  (Hos.  x.  4.) 
 It  was  so  bitter  as  to  be  used  as 
 a  generic  term  for  bitter  sub- 
 stances; as  sour  wine,  sour 
 cider,  &c.  is  called  viiiegar. 
 (Comp.  Matt,  xxvii.  34.  Mark 
 xv.23.Acts.viiij23.  SeeMYRRH.) 
 GALLEPJES.  (See  Dwell- 
 ings.) 
 GALLEY.  (See  Ship.) 
 GALLIC  (Acts  xviii.  12) 
 was  the  brother  of  Seneca, 
 the  famous  philosopher,  who 
 describes  him  as  a  man  of 
 uncommon  mildness  and  sim- 
 plicity. He  was  appointed 
 groconsul  of  Achaia  by  the 
 Oman  emperor  Claudius.A.D. 
 53.  He  resided  chiefly  at  Co- 
 rinth :  and  when  Paul  waa 
 preaching  in  that  city,  and 
 nad  excited  the  jealousy  of 
 the  Jews  by  the  success  of  his 
 mission,  they  took  him  by 
 violence  before  Gallio,  and 
 charged  him  with  persuading 
 men^to  worship  God  contrary 
 to  the  law.  Gallio  was  disin- 
 clined to  interfere  with  con- 
 troversies of  that  kind,  wiiich 
 were  not  cognizable  by  the 
 law  which  he  was  appointed  to 
 administer;  and  so  he  dismiss- 
 ed the  parties.  As  they  were 
 leaving  the  place,  a  tumult 
 occurred,  in  which  Sosthenes, 
 an  ofiicer  of  the  Jewish  church, 
 was  severely  treated  by  a 
 party  of  Greeks.  It  does  not 
 appear  but  Gallio  had  left  the 
 bench  before  this  event  occur- 
 red ;  and  even  if  he  were  pre- 
 sent, the  expression,  that  he 
 cared  for  none  o^  these  things, 
 may  imply  nothing  more  than 
 that  he  did  not  concern  himself 
 with  the  controversies  of  the 
 various  sects  and  parties  into 
 which  the  community  around 
 him  was  divided.  This  course, 
 so  far  from  evincing  hostility 
 or  indifference  to  Paul,  or  to 
 religion  generally,  was  cer- 
 tainly wise  and  prudent  for  a 
 commissioner  ol^  the  Roman 
 government,  appointed,  as  he 
 2C7 
 
GAM 
 
 was,  to  a  temporary  office  in  a 
 foreign  province. 
 
 GAMALIEL.  (Acts  v.  34.)  A 
 distinguished  Jewish  rabbi,  a 
 doctor  or  teacher  of  the  law, 
 and  possessed  of  a  large  share 
 of  public  confidence.  It  is 
 said  he  was  for  thirty-two  years 
 
 President  of  the  Jewish  san- 
 edrim.  He  is  first  introduced 
 to  our  notice  in  connexion 
 with  the  attempt  made  at 
 Jerusalem,  a.  d.  33,  by  the  op- 
 posers  of  the  gospel,  to  stop  the 
 mouths  of  Peter  and  the  other 
 apostles.  The  faithful  mis- 
 sionaries were  brought  before 
 the  Jewish  council,  and  there 
 boldly  proclaimed  their  in- 
 flexible purpose.  This  excited 
 their  enemies  to  madness ;  and 
 they  had  al  ready  made  up  their 
 minds  to  put  them  to  death, 
 when  Gamaliel,  by  a  plain 
 and  seasonable  exhvbilion  of 
 the  folly  of  such  a  step, 
 changed'  their  counsel ;  and, 
 after  having  scourged  the  apos- 
 tles, they  discharged  them.  So 
 distinguished  was  this  rabbi  for 
 his  wisdom  and  learning,  that 
 
 GAR 
 
 Paul  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to 
 receive  instruction  from  him, 
 and  afterwards  mentions  this 
 fact  in  his  oration  to  the  peo- 
 ple of  Jerusalem,  (a.  d.  60,)  as 
 evidence  that  he  had  the  best 
 opportunity  to  know  the  na- 
 ture and  requisitions  of  the 
 law.    (Acts  xxii.  3.) 
 
 GAMMADIMS.  (Ezek.xxvii. 
 11.)  The  prevailing  opinion 
 respecting  this  term  is,  that  it 
 is  rather  descriptive  of  the 
 character  of  a  people ;  as,  the 
 brave,  the  warlike,  the  invin- 
 cibles,  than  the  name  of  any 
 particular  nation  or  tribe. 
 
 GARDEN.  (Isa.  i.  8.)  The 
 gardens  of  the  Hebrews  were 
 doubtless  very  rude  and  sim- 
 ple. Allusions  to  them  are 
 made,  Gen.  xxi.  3-3.  Num.  xxiv. 
 6.  Jobviii.  16;  and  there  is 
 reason  to  suppose  that  they 
 were  chiefly  devoted  to  fruit 
 and  shade  trees,  and  aromatic 
 plants  and  herbs.  (1  Kings  xxi. 
 2.  Sol.  Song  iv.  12—16.)  A  re- 
 servoir of  water  was  considered 
 an  indispensable  appendage, 
 either  in  the  form  of  a  foun- 
 
GAR 
 tain,  well,  or  stream,  passing 
 through  ii.  (Gen.ii.lO;  xiii.  10.) 
 The  gardens  around  Damascus 
 are  described  as  abundantly 
 watered  by  little  currents 
 which  are  made  to  flow  through 
 every  part  of  them.  Beau- 
 tiful allusions  to  this  are 
 madeProv.xxi.  1.  Isa.lviii.il. 
 Eccl.  ii.5, 6.  The  gardens  of 
 Persia,  at  the  present  day,  are 
 well  laid  out,  and  cultivated 
 with  much  care.  Gardens  were 
 used  to  some  extent  as  burying 
 places,  (John  xix.  41,— see  Bu- 
 rial,) and  also  as  places  of 
 religious  worship  and  retire- 
 ment. (Isa.  J. -29;  Ixv.  3.)  Gar- 
 dens were  probably  often 
 unfenced,  and  formerly,  as 
 now,  esculent  vegetables  were 
 planted  on  some  fertile  spot  in 
 the  open  field.  A  custom  pre- 
 vails in  Hindostan,  as  travel- 
 lers inform  us,  of  planting, 
 at  the  commencement  of  the 
 rainy  season,  in  the  extensive 
 plains,  an  abundance  of  me- 
 lons, cucumbers,  gourds,  &c. 
 In  the  centre  of  the  field  is  an 
 artificial  mound,  with  a  hut  on 
 the  top  just  large  enough  to 
 shelter  a  single  person  from 
 the  storm  and  heat.  Here  a 
 solitary  being  is  posted,  night 
 and  day,  in  the  midst  of  tem- 
 pests and  storms,  for  two  or 
 three  months,  to  protect  the 
 crop:  and  if  any  depredation 
 is  attempted,  the  alarm  is 
 given  to  some  adjacent  vil- 
 lage. This  custom  fully  ex- 
 plains the  allusion  in  Isa.  i.8. 
 At  this  season,  Niebuhr  re- 
 lates that  he  observed  in  Ye- 
 men, that  men  were  placed 
 in  trees,  or  upon  some  such 
 elevation,  to  watch  the  fields, 
 and  keep  off  birds,  beasts,  and 
 thieves.  So  also  among  the 
 Hebrews,  watchmen  were  sta- 
 tioned to  guard  the  harvest, 
 who  relieved  one  another. 
 As  the  keepers  of  a  field  are 
 they  against  Jerusalem  round 
 about :  watchers  come  from  a 
 far  country,  and  give  out  their 
 23* 
 
 GAT 
 
 voices  against  the  cities  of 
 Judah.  (Jer.  iv.  16,  17.)  He 
 (the  wicked)  buildeth  his 
 house  as  a  moth,  and  as  a 
 booth  that  the  keeper  maketh. 
 (Job  xxvii.  18.)  These  keepers 
 were  not  allowed  to  prevent 
 one  from  taking  from  the  field 
 enough  for  the  supply  of  his 
 immediate  wants.  (Deul.  xxiii. 
 25.) 
 
 GARLANDS.  (Acts  xiv.  13.) 
 The  heathen  adorned  the  vic- 
 tims of  their  sacrifices  in  a 
 variety  of  ways.  Probably  the 
 garlands  mentioned  in  this 
 passage  were  to  decorate  the 
 head  of  the  ox  which  they  de- 
 signed to  sacrifice  to  the  sup- 
 posed gods. 
 
 GARLICK.  (Num.xi.5.)  A 
 well  known  bulbous  root  or 
 vegetable,  which  was  in  com- 
 mon use  in  Egypt,  and  much 
 esteemed  by  tlie  Jews. 
 
 GARMENTS.  (See 
 Clothes.) 
 
 GARRISON.    (See  War.) 
 
 GATE.  (1  Sam.  iv.  18.)  The 
 entrances  to  walled  cities  are 
 secured  by  gates,  either  of 
 wood,  iron,  or  brass.  (Acts 
 xii.  10.)  Houses  also  were 
 protected  in  the  same  way, 
 and  we  may  suppose  that 
 sometimes  a  door  or  passage 
 was  made  in  the  gate,  (as  is 
 common  in  many  parts  of  our 
 own  country,)  so  as  to  save  the 
 necessity  of  opening  the  whole 
 gate  every  time  a  single  per- 
 son would  pass.  (Acts  xii.  13.) 
 In  many  Asiatic  cities,  there 
 are  broad  streets  covered  over 
 wholly  or  in  part,  and  appro- 
 priated to  merchants  or  trades- 
 men in  particular  branches  of 
 business ;  and  there  were  also 
 open  squares  in  which  the 
 booths  and  stalls  of  venders 
 were  erected.  These  were  fre- 
 quently at  the  gates  of  the  city, 
 which  were  of  course  places  of 
 the  greatest  concourse.  (2Sam. 
 XV.  2.  2Kings  vii.  1.  Neh.  viii 
 1.  Jobxxixr?.  Prov.  xxii.  22 ; 
 sxxi.  23.)  The  gates  were  often 
 269 
 
GAT 
 
 also  the  places  of  judicial  pro- 
 ceedings, (Deul.  xvii.  5  ;  xxv. 
 7.  Amos  V.  10. 12.  15 ;)  ilie  mode 
 of  conducting  which  may  be 
 learned,  Ruih  iv.  1—12;  and 
 of  "eneral  resort,  (Gen.  xix.  1,) 
 ana  of  course  frequented  by 
 idlers  and  loungers.  (Ps.  Ixix. 
 12.)  In  Arabia,  the  gate  of  the 
 city  is  still  the  place  of  judg- 
 ment. The  king  or  governor 
 passes  certain  hours  of  the 
 day  there,  and  not  only  hears 
 and  decides  controversies,  but 
 transacts  business  with  the 
 people  who  are  passing  in  and 
 out.  As  the  possession  of  the 
 gates  of  the  city  was  a  posses- 
 sion of  the  city  itself,  the  word 
 is  sometimes  used  to  signify 
 power.  (Gen  xxii.  17.  Isa. 
 xxiv.  12.)  "We  are  told,  that  it 
 is  common  in  many  parts  of 
 Asia,  to  build  the  gale  or  door 
 of  the  house  of  iron,  very 
 strong,  and  so  low  as  to  pre- 
 vent the  incursion  of  the  Arabs, 
 who  often  ride  on  horseback 
 into  the  houses  of  those  whom 
 they  wish  to  harass  and  rob. 
 Sometimes  the  gate  is  not  more 
 than  three  feet  high ;  and  to 
 elevate  or  exalt  it,  was  only  to 
 court  the  notice  of  the  destroy- 
 er, or  to  admit  a  friend.  (Ps. 
 xxiff.  7.  9.)  There  are  other 
 figurative  uses  of  the  word 
 which  are  sufficiently  obvious 
 in  themselves.  (SBe  Hell, 
 Jerusalem,  Lazarus,  Tem- 
 ple.) 
 
 GATH.  (Josh.  xi.  22.)  An 
 ancient  city  in  the  territory  of 
 Dan,  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
 place of  Goliath.  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
 4.)  It  was  situated  about  thirty- 
 two  miles  west  from  Jerusalem. 
 In  the  days  of  David,  it  was  in 
 the  possession  of  the  Philis- 
 tines, and  Achish  was  its  king. 
 (ISam.  xxi.  10 — 15;  xxvii.  1— 
 7.)  David  afterwards  captured 
 it.  (2  Sam.  XV.  18.  1  Chron. 
 xviii.  1.)  It  was  afterwards 
 subject  to  frequent  revolutions. 
 1  Kings  ii.  39.   2  Kings  xii.  17; 
 
 GAZ 
 
 xiii.  25.  2  Chron.  xi.  8;  xxvi 
 6.)  The  inhabitants  of  Gath 
 are  called  Gittites,  (Josh.  xiii. 
 3,)  and  the  place  Gittah-he 
 pher.  (Josh-  xix.  13.) 
 
 GATH-HEPHER.  (2  Kings 
 xiv.  25.)  A  city  in  the  tribe  of 
 Zebulon,  and  probably  in  the 
 land  of  Hepher.  (1  Kings  iv. 
 10.)  It  is  noted  as  the  birth- 
 place of  the  prophet  Jonah. 
 
 GATH-R IMMON.  (Josh  .xix. 
 45.)  It  would  seem  there  were 
 at  least  three  cities  of  this 
 name :  one  in  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
 (Josh.  xxi.  24;)  a  second  in  the 
 half  tribe  of  Managseh,  (Josh, 
 xxi.  25;)  and  a  third  in  the 
 tribe  of  Ephraim.  (1  CKron. 
 vi.  69.) 
 
 GAZA.  (Gen.  X.  19.)  A  city, 
 and  one  of  the  five  principali- 
 ties of  the  Philistines,  was 
 situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
 Mediterranean, at  the  southern 
 extremity  of  Canaan,  within 
 the  tribe  of  Judah,  (Judg.  i. 
 18.  1  Sam.  vi.  17,)  and  about 
 sixty  miles  south-west  of  Jeru- 
 salem. In  the  reigns  of  Jotham 
 and  Ahaz,  it  recovered  its  in- 
 dependence, but  was  again 
 subdued  by  Hezekiah.  (2Kings 
 xviii.  8.)  It  was  afterwards 
 subject  to  the  Persians  and 
 Chaldeans,  and  was  captured 
 by  Alexander  the  Great  about 
 B.C. 300.  In  the  time  of Euse- 
 bius,  it  was  a  flourishing  city, 
 but  has  been  often  reduced 
 since  that  day,  and  now  con- 
 sists of  three  sma  1  villages, 
 with  from  3,000  to  5,000  in- 
 habitants.  Messrs.  King  and 
 Fisk,  American  missionaries, 
 spent  a  Sabbath  there  in  1823, 
 They  tell  us  that  the  city 
 stands  on  an  elevation;  the 
 houses  are  built  of  stone,  but 
 make  a  very  mean  appear- 
 ance. The  scenery  around  is 
 beautiful.  They  found  several 
 Greeks  there,  and  a  Greek 
 priest,  who  said  the  church 
 there  had  been  built  twelve 
 centuries.  They  sold  twenty- 
 S70 
 
GEB 
 
 five  copies  of  the  Scriptures', 
 in  Greek,  and  gave  away  thir- 
 teen. 
 
 The  place  once  abounded 
 in  monuments  of  the  power, 
 opulence,  and  greatness  of  the  \ 
 city.  Many  traditions  are  held  ' 
 by  the  inhabitants  respecting 
 Samson  and  his  feats ;  and 
 they  formerly  showed  the 
 sunken  arches  of  the  temple 
 which  Samson  pulled  down 
 upon  himself  and  the  people 
 around  him,  and  also  the  hill 
 to  whose  summit  he  bore  the 
 gates  of  the  city. 
 
 Mr.  Thompson,  an  American 
 missionary,  was  at  Gaza  in  the 
 spring  of  1834,  and  speaks  of 
 the  number  of  Christians  in 
 the  place  as  exceeding  his  ex- 
 pectations, and  also  mentions 
 a  flourishing  school  there. 
 
 GEB  A,  (2  Kings  xxiii.  8,) 
 called  also  Geba  of  Benjamin, 
 (Josh.  xxi.  17.  1  Kings  xv.  22,) 
 probably  to  distinguish  it  from 
 another  town  of  the  same 
 name,  was  one  of  the  most 
 northerly  towns  of  Judea. 
 Hence  the  expressions,  2Kings 
 xxiii.  8,  and  Zech.  xiv.  10,  de- 
 note the  length  of  the  land. 
 It  was  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
 place  that  the  Philistines  were 
 defeated  by  David's  army. 
 (2  Sam.  V.  25.) 
 
 GEBAL.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  9.)  A 
 city  of  Phenicia,  north  of  Bey- 
 root,  called  Byblos  by  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans,  and  lat- 
 terly Jiblah,  or  Jibail.  It  now 
 exhibits  little  else  than  ruins, 
 which  are  sufficiently  magni- 
 ficent to  indicate  its  former 
 ¥eatnesg.  In  the  days  of 
 yre's  glory,  it  was  famous  for 
 ship-building.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  9.) 
 The  land  of  the  Giblites  (Josh, 
 xiii.  5)  was  the  extensive  plain 
 which  stretches  around  this 
 city.  In  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  7,  Gebal 
 most  probably  refers  to  a  dis- 
 trict in  Idumea,  east  of  the 
 El-Ghor,known  to  the  Romans 
 as  Gebalene,  and  at  present 
 DjebaL. 
 
 GEN 
 
 GEDALIAH  (Jer.  xl.  5)  was 
 appointed  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
 to  take  charge  of  the  govern- 
 ment of  Palestine,  after  he 
 had  subdued  it,  and  destroyed 
 the  temple  and  capital  of  the 
 nation.  (2 Kings  XXV.  22.)  He 
 was  assassinat^ed  by  a  party  of 
 the  royal  family  of  Judah, 
 headed  by  Ishmael ;  of  which 
 event,  we  have  the  particulars 
 in  Jer.  xli.  Several  other  per- 
 sons ofthe  same  nameare  mere- 
 ly mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
 
 GEDEON.    (See  Gideon.) 
 
 GEHAZI.  (2  Kings  iv.  12.) 
 The  servant  and  constant  at- 
 tendant ofthe  prophet  Elisha. 
 ^\'Tien  the  prophet  had  accom- 
 plished, by  divine  power,  the 
 wonderful  cureofNaaman,the 
 latter  otfered  him  a  munificent 
 present,  as  a  token  of  his  grat- 
 itude ;  which  the  prophet  de- 
 clined. Gehazi  coveted  what 
 his  master  refused,  and  by  a 
 deliberate  falsehood  obtained 
 a  portion  of  Naaman's  gift. 
 As  a  punishment  for  his  of- 
 fence, the  very  disease  ol 
 which  Naaman  had  just  been 
 cured  was  visited  upon  him 
 and  his  family.  (2  Kings  v.  15 
 -27.) 
 
 GEMARIAH.  (Jer.  xxix.  3, 
 Zedekiah's  ambassador  to 
 the  king  of  Babylon,  by  whom 
 Jeremiah  sent  a  letter  to  his 
 countrymen  in  captivity,warn- 
 ing  them  against  the  indul- 
 gence of  any  false  hopes  of 
 redemption.  There  was  also 
 a  minister  of  Jehoiachim  ofthe 
 same  name.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  12.) 
 
 GENEALOGY.  (IChron.v. 
 1.)  The  lineage  of  a  family,  or 
 list  of  ancestors,  was  preserved 
 with  extraordinary  care  (Ezra 
 ii.  62.  Heb.  vii.  3)  by  the  Jew 
 ish  nation,  (1  Chron.  v.  17 ;  ix 
 1.  2  Chron.  xii.  15,)  not  only 
 because  it  was  through  Abra- 
 ham that  the  privileges  of  the 
 Jewish  church  were  transmit- 
 ted, but  chiefly  because  of  the 
 deep  interest  which  was  felt  in 
 the  predictions  concerning  the 
 271 
 
GEN 
 
 Messiah,and  the  iribe  orfaniily 
 from  which  he  was  to  sfning. 
 (Heb.  vii.  14.)  The  variance 
 which  seems  to  exist  in  many 
 of  the  genealogical  tables,  or 
 statements  of  t"he  sacred  wri- 
 ters, has  been  in  a  great  mea- 
 sure reconciled  bylhose  who 
 have  diligently  investigated 
 and  compared  Ihem.  if  is  a 
 matter  of  astonishment  that 
 records  of  such  high  antiquity 
 — and  concerned'principaliy 
 with  names  of  families  and 
 individuals,  which  are  very 
 liable  to  many  inaccuracies- 
 are  preserved  so  perfectly. 
 These  public  tables,  or  genea- 
 logical records,  were  in'exist- 
 ence  as  lately  as  tlie  lime  of 
 josephus ;  for  he  undertakes  to 
 show  his  descent  by  them. 
 
 The  genealogies  against 
 which  the  apostolic  admoni- 
 tions are  directed,  (1  Tim.  i.  4. 
 Tit.  iii.  9,)  were  probably  spe- 
 culations on  the  subject  of 
 genealogy,  when  the  reason 
 for  regarding  it  so  particularly 
 was  done  away  by  the  appear- 
 ance of  the  Messiah,  and  the 
 introduction  of  a  new  dispen- 
 sation by  him. 
 
 GENERATION.  (Gen.  v.  1.) 
 This  word  is  used  to  denote  a 
 particular  class  of  people.  (Ps. 
 xxiv.  6.  1  Pet.  ii.  9.)  It  signi- 
 fies the  history  as  well  as  the 
 lineage  of  a  man,— as  in  the 
 passage  first  cited,  and  Matt.i. 
 1, — and  also  the  history  of  other 
 things.  (Gen.  ii.  4.)  It  is  em- 
 ployed to  denote  a  period  of 
 time,  (Matt.  xxiv.  34.  Acts  ii. 
 40,)  and  sometimes  posterity 
 or  future  ages.  (Isa.  xxxiv.  10.) 
 When  used  to  mark  the  lapse 
 of  time,  its  import  is  very  un- 
 certain. Perhaps  it  may  gene- 
 rally mean,  as  it  does  in  our 
 day,  the  period  which  one 
 generation  or  race  of  men 
 spend  on  earth. 
 
 GENESIS.  This  is  the  name 
 of  the  first  book  of  the  Bible, 
 and  in  the  original  it  denotes 
 the  contents  of  the  book:  viz. 
 
 GEN 
 
 an  account  of  the  generation  or 
 production  of  all  things.  Mosea 
 is  universally  regarded  as  its 
 author,  and  its  authenticity  is 
 settled  by  the  most  indisputa- 
 ble evidence.  It  has  been 
 remarked  that  passages  of  this 
 book  are  cited  in  Ihe  New 
 Testament  twenty-seven  times 
 literally, and  thirty-eight  times 
 substantially.  The  fiistory  it 
 contains  embraces  a  period  of 
 at  least  2370  years,  and  pre- 
 sents to  us  an  account  of  the 
 creation  and  fall  of  man,  the 
 religion,  arts,  settlements,  ge- 
 nealogies,  corruption  and  de- 
 struction of  the  antediluvian 
 world,  excepting  eight  souls, 
 — the  re-peopling  and  division 
 of  the  earth,  the  dispersion  of 
 its  inhabitants,  and  the  inte- 
 resting biographies  of  Abra- 
 ham, Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph. 
 
 It  is  well  observed,  that 
 without  this  history  the  world 
 would  be  in  comparative  dark- 
 ness ;  but  that,  in  the  first 
 page  of  Genesis,  a  child  may 
 learn  more  in  an  hour,  than 
 all  the  philosophers  in  the 
 world  learned  without  it  in 
 thousands  of  years.  (For  an 
 analysis  of  the  contents  of  this 
 book,  and  explanatory  and 
 illustrative  notes,  &c.,  see 
 Union  Questions,  vol.  iii., 
 and  Teacher's  Assistant 
 in  the  use  of  the  same  work, 
 both  liy  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 GENNESARET.  (See  Chin 
 
 NERETH.) 
 
 GENTILE.  (Rom.  ii.9.) 
 This  was  the  name  by  which 
 the  Jews  distinguished  all  the 
 rest  of  the  world  from  them 
 selves.  All  who  were  not  Jews 
 and  circumcised,they  regarded 
 as  Gentiles,  or  heathen ;  and, 
 as  such,  they  were  excluded 
 from  the  religious  privileges 
 and  relations  by  which  the 
 Jews  were  so  greatly  exalted. 
 Hence  they  became  accustom- 
 ed to  look  on  the  Gentiles  as 
 outcasts  from  the  favour  of 
 God ;  and,  mistaking  the  end 
 272 
 
GER 
 
 of  their  peculiar  dispensatioH, 
 and  supposing  it  to  be  perpe- 
 tual, we  cannot  wonder  at  the 
 strong  prejudices  tiiey  enter- 
 tained against  a  Saviour  and  a 
 gospel  wliich  placed  Jews  and 
 Gentiles  on  the  same  fooling, 
 (Acts  X.  1—48.  Rom.  ix.  30— 
 33;  xi.  1—36;)  thus  displaying 
 the  riches  ol  that  grace  an3 
 mercy  through  which  all  that 
 call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord 
 are  saved.  And  now,  in  the 
 wonderful  order  and  economy 
 of  tiie  divine  government,  the 
 Gentiles  com'pose  the  great 
 body  of  God's  people,  and  the 
 Jews,  who  reject  the  Messiah, 
 have  become  a  reproach  and 
 by- word  in  the  earth.  Those 
 who  embraced  Judaism,  but 
 were  not  Jews,  were  called 
 proselytes.  The  word  Greeks, 
 in  the  writings  ©f  Paul,  usually 
 denotes  the  Gentiles ;  and,  in 
 the  New  Testament  generally, 
 those  are  called  Gentiles  who 
 were  subject  to  the  Greek  go- 
 vernment, either  in  the  east 
 or  west. 
 
 Court  of  the  Gentiles. 
 (See  Temple.) 
 
 Isles  of  the  Gentiles 
 (Gen.  X.  5)  are  supposed  to  de- 
 note Asia  Minor  and  the  whole 
 of  Europe,  which  were  peopled 
 by  the  children  of  Japheth. 
 
 GERAK.   (See  Measures.) 
 
 GERAR,   (Gen.  x.  19.)    a 
 capital  city  of  the  Philistines, 
 was  situated  south-west  of  Ga- 
 za, between  Kadesh  and  Shur.  ] 
 (Gen.  XX.  1.)    It  is  remarkable 
 that  both  Abraham  and  Isaac  I 
 retired  to  this  place  during 
 the  prevalence  of  a  famine,  - 
 and  were  both  guilty  of  de-  | 
 ceiving  Abimelech,  the  king 
 of  the  place,  respecting  their 
 wives.   (Gen.  XX.  1 ;  xxvi.l.)      i 
 
 Valley  op,  (Gen,  xxvi.  17,) 
 was  the  residence  of  Isaac,  and 
 probably  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 city  above  described.  t 
 
 (JERGESENES.GERGESA. 
 (See  Gadarenes.)  i 
 
 GERIZIM.    (SeeEBAL.)       | 
 
 GET 
 
 GESHUR.    (2  Sam  xiii.  38.) 
 
 A  district  of  Syria,  (2  Sam.  xv. 
 8,)  lying  on  the  east  of  Jordan, 
 north  of  Bashan,  and  near 
 mount  Hermon.  (Josh.xiii.il. 
 13.)  The  Geshurites  aie  also 
 spoken  of  as  inhabiting  an- 
 other territory  south  of  Judea. 
 (1  Sam.  xxvii.  8.)  The  district 
 above  mentioned  retained  its 
 independence  in  the  time  of 
 David.  (2Sam.xiii.37.)  Tra- 
 vellers tell  us  of  a  bridge  over 
 the  Jordan,  between  the  sea  of 
 Tiberias  and  mount  Hermon, 
 called  the  Geshur,  (Jisr,  or 
 Jisser,  Beni-Jakub,)  the  bridge 
 of  the  sons  of  Jacob. 
 
 GETHSEMANE.  (Matt, 
 xxvi.  36.)  A  retired  place,  con- 
 taining about  half  an  acre  of 
 land  on  the  western  side  of 
 mount  Olivet,  commanding  a 
 full  view  of  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. The  name  indicates  the 
 fertility  of  the  spot,  especially 
 in  olives.  It  was  called  a 
 garden,  though  it  was  proba- 
 bly a  grove,  laid  out  in  walks, 
 and  furnished  with  fountains, 
 affording  shade  and  seclusion 
 to  those  who  resorted  thither 
 from  the  noise  and  distraction 
 of  the  adjacent  city.  Messrs. 
 Fisk  and  King,  American 
 missionaries,  were  there  in 
 1823.  They  tell  us  that  the 
 garden  is  about  a  stone's  cast 
 from  the  brook  Cedron ;  that 
 it  now  contains  eight  large 
 and  venerable  looking  olives, 
 whose  trunks  show  their  great 
 antiquity.  The  spot  is  sandy 
 and  barren,  and  appears  like  a 
 forsaken  place.  A  low  broken 
 wall  surrounds  it.  Mr.  K.  sat 
 down  beneath  one  of  the  trees, 
 and  read  Isa.  liii.,  and  also  the 
 gospel  history  of  our  Redeem- 
 er's sorrow  during  that  memo- 
 rable night  in  which  he  was 
 there  betrayed  ;  and  the  inte- 
 rest of  the  association  was 
 heightened  by  the  passing 
 through  the  place  of  a  party 
 of  Bedouins,  armed  with  spears 
 and  swords.  It  is  said  that  the 
 273 
 
GIB 
 
 monks,  to  whom  this  ground 
 now  belongs,  preserve  the  ker- 
 nels of  ilie  olives  that  grow 
 there,  to  use  as  beads  for  rosa- 
 ries. (See  Views  of  Pales- 
 tine, p.  14,  and  Selumiel,  ch. 
 vii.,  both  l.iy  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 GEZER.  rJosh.  xvi.  3.)  A 
 town  of  Ephraitn  on  the  border 
 of  Benjamin,  norih-w est  of  Je- 
 rusalem. It  remained  in  the 
 possession  of  the  Canaaniies 
 (Josh.  X.  33;  xvi.  10.  Juds.  i. 
 29)  till  the  king  of  Egypt  s'ub- 
 dued  it,  and  gave  it  to  his 
 daudner,  the  wife  of  Solomon. 
 (1  Kings  ix.  Ifi.)  Solomon  re- 
 built It.     (1  Kings  ix.  17.) 
 
 GHOST.  (Gefi.xxv.S.)  To 
 give  up  the  ghost  is  a  common 
 term,  wiih  tlie  sacred  writers, 
 to  express  death.  It  is  the 
 yielding  up  of  the  spirit  or  soul 
 to  God  who  gave  it.  When 
 nsc'l  to  express  the  death  of 
 Christ,  a  diiferent  word  is  em- 
 ployed in  the  original,  which 
 implies  the  voluntary  cliarac- 
 ter  of  the  act,  or  the  power  to 
 give  life  up,  or  retain  it  at 
 pleasure. 
 
 Holy  Ghost.  (See  God, 
 Spirit.) 
 
 GIAx\T.(lChron.xx.6.)Some- 
 times  this  word  is  employed  to 
 denote  men  of  great  violence, 
 cruelty,  and  crime;  and  at 
 others,  it  denotes  men  of  ex- 
 traordinary size  or  height.  The 
 sons  of  Anak  were  the  most 
 noted  of  the  latter  class  which 
 the  sacred  writers  mention. 
 They  dwelt  in  Hebron,  and 
 were  such  mighty  men  that 
 the  Israelites  thought  of  them- 
 selves as  mere  grasshoppers 
 in  comparison;  an  expression, 
 however,  by  no  means  indica- 
 tive of  exact  relative  size,  liut 
 simply  denoting  a  fearful  odds 
 in  strength  and  stature.  The 
 king  of  Bashan  (Deut.  iii.  II) 
 and  Goliath  (1  Sam.  xvii.  4) 
 were  men  of  extraordinary 
 size.   (See  Rephaim.) 
 
 GIBBETHON  (Josh.  xxi. 
 23.)    A  city  of  the  Philistines, 
 
 GIB 
 
 within  the  tribe  of  Dan,  where 
 Baasha  killed  Nadab,  son  of 
 Jeroboam.    (1  Kings  xv.  27.) 
 
 GIBEAH.  (ISam.  xiii.2.)  A 
 city  a  few  miles  nortli  of  Jeru- 
 salem, called  Gibeah  of  (the 
 children  of)  Benjamin, (2 SaLvn. 
 xxiii.  29,)  in  distinction  from 
 one  in  Judah.  (Josh.  xv.  57.) 
 It  was  aiso  called  Gibeah  of 
 Baul,  (2  Sam.  xxi.  6,)  because 
 it  was  his  birth-place  and  resi- 
 dence. (1  Sam.  X.  26.  Isa.  x. 
 29.)  Its  inhabitants  were  emi- 
 nently vvicked,as  they  evinced 
 by  their  conduct,  recorded 
 Judg.  xix.  30,  to  which  Hosea 
 refers  as  proverbial.  (Hos.  ix 
 9 ;  X.  9.)  The  city  was  terribly 
 destroyed.  (Judg.  xx.  46.) 
 
 GIBE  ON.  (Josh.  X.  2, 
 1  Chron.  xvi.  39.)  A  great  city 
 in  Benjamin,  five  to  seven 
 miles  northerly  of  Jerusalem, 
 inhabited  by  Hivites,  who  se- 
 cured the  protection  and  alli- 
 ance of  Joshua  by  stratagem, 
 (Josh.  ix.  4—15;)  and  were" con- 
 sequently attacked  by  the  five 
 Canaanitish  kings,  but  deli- 
 vered liy  the  aid  of  the  Israel- 
 ites.  (Josh.  X.  iO.  Isa.  xxviii. 
 21.)  In  the  close  of  David's, 
 and  beginning  of  Solomon's 
 reien,  the  sanctuary  was  there. 
 (1  Chron.  xvi.  39,  10 ;  xxi.  29.) 
 Near  to  it  was  a  pool ;  probably 
 the  "great  waters"  referred  to 
 by  Jer.  xli.  12,  where  Abner 
 was  defeated  by  Joab;  and  also 
 a  "great  stone,"  or  monument- 
 al pillar,  perhaps  to  the  twen- 
 ty-four men  of  David  and  Ish- 
 bosheth  who  fell  there.  (2  Sam 
 ii.  13;xx.  8.    See  Servant.) 
 
 The  wilderness  of  Gibeon 
 (2  Sam.  ii.  24)  was  doubtless  in 
 the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  the 
 same  name :  as  was  also  the 
 valley  of  Gibeon,  famous  for 
 the  victory  over  the  five  allied 
 kings  above  described,  and  for 
 the  wonderful  miracle  per- 
 formed there.  (Josh.  x.  12.) 
 
 It  is  supposed  that  the  four 
 cities  named,  Josh.  ix.  17,  en 
 joyed  a  sort  of  democralir 
 274 
 
GIF 
 
 rvernment.  (Comp.  Josh.  x. 
 and  ix.  11.) 
 
 GIDEON.  (Ju.lgvi.  11.)  The 
 sou  of  Joash  tlie  Abi-ezrite, 
 anil  the  same  with  Jerubbaal 
 tlie  seventh  judse  of  Israel, 
 a  miL'hiy  man  of  valour,  and 
 peculiarly  favoured  with  the 
 presence  of  the  Lord.  He  was 
 a  very  humble  man;  and  when 
 the  angel  proposed  to  him  to 
 go  in  the  strength  of  the  Lord 
 10  save  lsrde\  from  the  hands 
 of  the  MiJianiteS;  he  replied, 
 *'BehoM,  my  family  is  poor  in 
 Manasseh,  and  I  am  the  least 
 of  my  father's  house."  The 
 Lord  was  pleased  to  favour 
 Gidf;on  with  most  remarkable 
 tokens  of  liis  power  and  grace. 
 which  are  [larticularly "men- 
 tioned in  Judg  vi.,  vii.,  and 
 viii.  He  is  honourably  men- 
 tioned, Heb.  xi.  32. 
 
 GIKK-EAGLE.  (See  Eagle.) 
 
 GIFT,  (Ex.  xxiii.  8,)  GIFTS. 
 (Rom.  xii.  6.)  The  practice  of 
 making  presents  as  a  token  of 
 honour,  respect,  or  affection, 
 prev'ilpil  very  extensively  in 
 eastern  countries  in  early 
 a^es,  and  is  still  maintained. 
 Hence  to  refuse  making  pre- 
 Benls  to  a  king  was  esteemed 
 a  mark  of  contempt.  (I  Sam. 
 X.  27.)  Kinss  and  princes 
 often  made  splendid  gifts  of 
 garn;ent5  to  their  favourite  of- 
 ficers, and  to  others  whom  they 
 were  disposed  to  honour.  (Gen. 
 xlv.2-2.  ii.) 
 
 The  peculiar  offerings  under 
 the  law  are  spoken  of  as  gifts. 
 (Dent.  xvi.  !7.  Matt.  v.  23; 24.) 
 And  it  is  with  singular  force 
 that  the  blessings  of  the  gos- 
 
 EpI,  and  e.sp''cially  the  great 
 lessiiicr  of  eternal  life,  through 
 Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  are  call 
 ed  eifis;  inasmuch  as  they 
 never  ciMilil  be  piirchaseil,  and 
 notliinu  can  be  given  in  return 
 for  them.  The  word  gifis  is 
 al.*!  employed  to  describe  those 
 giaci's  or  qnaliiies  with  which 
 ChrisH  only  can  endue  his  dis- 
 aplws.     (Eph.  iv.  a  11,   12.) 
 
 GIL 
 
 Some  of  these,  which  were  be- 
 stowed on  the  early  aposilefli 
 were  miraculous,  and  designed 
 to  confirm  iheir  claims  to  apos- 
 tolic aiilhoriiy;  such  as  the 
 gift  of  tongues,  of  f)roi>hecy, 
 &c.,  and  when  the  end  of  con- 
 ferring them  was  answered, 
 they  ceased. 
 
 GIHON.  1.  (Gen.  ii.  13.) 
 One  of  the  rivers  of  Eden,  sup- 
 [xised  by  some  to  be  the  Araxes 
 which  empties  into  the  Caspian 
 Sea.  Gihmi  signifies  ivtpetit- 
 Otis;  and  this  is  the  course  of 
 the  Araxes.  Others  suppose 
 that  the  river  known  to  mo- 
 dern geographers  as  the  Oxus, 
 which  the  Arabs  at  this  day 
 call  Jih(m,\s  the  same  with  the 
 Gihon. 
 
 2.  (1  Kings  i.33.)  A  fountain 
 or  stream  near  the  city  of  Je- 
 rusalem, (2Chr()n  xxxii.  30,) 
 lieside  which  Solomon  was 
 anointed.    (I  Kinu's  i.  38.39.) 
 
 GILBOA.  (ISam.  xxviii.4.) 
 A  riilge  of  mountains  west  of 
 the  plain  of  Jordan,  which  the 
 Arabs  of  this  day  call  Ujebel 
 Gilbo.  It  is  memorable  as  the 
 field  of  battle  on  which  Saul 
 and  his  three  sons  fell.  (1  Sam. 
 xxxi.8  2Sam.i.'.il.  See  Omar, 
 by  Am.  S.S.  linion,pp.ll8,ll9.) 
 
 GILEAD.  1.  A  PLACE,(2Kin£;8 
 X.  33,)  orGALEED,  (Gen.  xxxi. 
 47,48,)  so  called  because  of  the 
 monument  which  wa.''  erected 
 by  Laban  and  Jacob  to  pe'  pe- 
 tuate  the  remembrance  of  their 
 covenant,  was  a  m'tuntainoiia 
 region,  embracingTrachonitis, 
 east  of  the  Jordan.  The  terra 
 is  used  rather  indefinitely  by 
 the  sacred  writers.  The  pos- 
 sessions of  the  tribe  of  Gad  are 
 described  as  all  tke  cities  of 
 Gileaft^  and  half  the  land  of 
 the  'hildren  ofAvimon.  (Josh, 
 xiii.  25.)  And  the  halt  tribe 
 of  Manasseh  are  said  to  have 
 received,  as  t'ari  of  their  inhe- 
 ritance, all  Bashati  ami  half 
 Gilea.'l,  (Josh.  xiii.  30. 31 ;)  and 
 in  Deui.  iii.  12,  13.  16.  half 
 mount  Gilead  is  said  to  have 
 275 
 
GIL 
 
 been  given  lo  Reuben  and 
 Gad,  and  the  rest  of  Gilead  to 
 Manasseh;  while,  in  verse  15, 
 we  are  lold  that  Gilead  was 
 given  to  Machir. 
 
 It  would  seem  that  the  pos- 
 sessions of  Manasseh  lay  north 
 of  the  Jabbok,  and  were  di- 
 vided between  his  two  sons, 
 Jair  and  Machir;  the  former 
 taking  the  land  of  Argob,  and 
 the  latter  the  land  of  Gilead, 
 or  the  northern  part  of  it;  and 
 that  the  Reubeniles  and  Gad- 
 ites  took  the  tract  between 
 the  Jal)bok  and  the  Arnon,  in- 
 cluding the  southern  section 
 of  Gilead. 
 
 The  LAND  OF  Gilead,  (Deut. 
 xxxiv.  1,)  as  used  in  this  pas- 
 sage, probably  denotes  the 
 whole  country  east  of  the  Jor- 
 dan to  Arabia,  including  the 
 modern  Belka. 
 
 Mount  Gilead,  properly 
 speaking,  is  the  ridge  or  sum- 
 mit which  rises  six  miles  south 
 of  the  Jabbok,  and  extends 
 five  or  six  miles  from  east  to 
 west.  It  is  now  called  Dje- 
 laad.  It  was  at  this  point  that 
 a  part  of  Gideon's  army  desert- 
 eahim.  (Judg.  vii.  3.) 
 
 There  was  a  tree  in  Gilead, 
 the  eum  of  wliich  (hence  called 
 the  "balm  of  Gilead)  possessed 
 medicinal  properties,  (Jer.viii. 
 22;  xlvi.  11;  li.  8,)  and  was 
 an  important  article  of  com- 
 merce.   (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.) 
 
 Strabo,  the  prince  of  ancient 
 geographers,  speaks  of  a  field 
 near  Jericho,  in  Palestine, 
 which  was  full  of  these  bal- 
 sam trees.  The  sap  is  like 
 viscid  and  tenacious  milk,  and 
 coagulates  rapidly.  It  was  va- 
 luable for  inflammations ;  and, 
 in  the  time  of  Alexander,  was 
 estimated  at  twice  its  weight 
 in  silver.    (See  Balm.) 
 
 2.  A  PERSON.  (Num.  xxvi. 
 29,31),  and  Judg.  xi.  1,  2;)  in 
 both  which  cases  the  name  is 
 probably  derived  from  the  fact 
 that  the  individuals  resided, 
 
 GIT 
 
 or  had  their  inheritance,  In 
 Gilead.      ' 
 
 GILGAL.  (Josh.  iv.  20.)  The 
 origin  of  this  name  is  given  us 
 in  Josh.  V.  9.  It  was  a  villago 
 in  the  plains  of  Jericho,  east 
 of  that  city,  and  north-east  of 
 Jenisalem;  it  was  from  three 
 to  five  miles  west  of  the  river 
 Jordan,  and  was  the  first  place 
 of  encampment  of  the  army  of 
 the  Israelites  after  passing  that 
 river.  There  the  twelve  slonea 
 were  set  up  as  a  memorial  of 
 the  miracle.  It  was  the  rest- 
 ins-place  of  the  tabernacle 
 until  it  was  taken  to  Shiloh, 
 whence  it  was  again  returned 
 to  Gilgal,  (I  Sam.  x.  8 ,  xv.  33,) 
 and  also  the  se?it  of  govern- 
 ment, or  place  of  rendezvous, 
 during  Joshua's  wars  with  the 
 Canaanites.  In  Samuel's  day, 
 it  was  one  of  the  places  for 
 holding  a  circuit  court,  (1  Sam- 
 vii.  16,)  but  afterwards  became 
 devoted  to  idolatry.  (Hos.  xii. 
 11.  Amos  iv.  4.) 
 
 The  word  quarries,  in  Judg. 
 iii.  19,  is  rendered  graven 
 images  in  the  margin,  and, 
 if  correctly  rendered,  shows 
 the  prevalence  of  idol  worship 
 there.  Other  interesting  in- 
 cidents connected  with  this 
 place  are  recorded,  1  Sam.  xi. 
 14,  15;  xiii.  xv. 
 
 There  was  another  Gilgal 
 "beside  the  plains  of  Moreli," 
 not  far  from  Shechem.  (DsuL 
 xi.30.  Josh.  xii.  23.  See  Omar, 
 p.  137,  and  Selumiel,  p.  157, 
 both  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 GIRD,  GIRDLE.    (See 
 
 GIRGASITE.  (Gen.  x.  16,)  or 
 GIRGASHITES.  (Gen.xv.21.) 
 A  tribe  of  the  Canaanites,  who 
 are  supposed  to  have  inhabited 
 a  section  of  the  country  east 
 of  the  sea  of  Galilee ;  whence 
 the  name  of  the  city  of  Ger- 
 gesa. 
 
 GITTAH-HEPHER.  (See 
 Gath-hepher.) 
 
 GITTITES.    (SeeGATH.) 
 276 
 
GLO 
 
 GTTTITH.Psalms  viii.lxxxi. 
 and  Ixxxiv.  are  inscribed  to  the 
 chief  musiriun  upon  Gittilh. 
 The  \Yord  may  reler  lo  a  parti- 
 cular iaslrunient  of  music,  or 
 10  a  particular  tune,  or  it  may 
 have  relation  to  some  circum- 
 stance in  the  time  or  occasion 
 of  its  composition,  which  the 
 word  Giuiih  denotes,  but  which 
 has  not  been  preserved. 
 
 GLASS.  (lCor.xiii.l2.^  The 
 substance  which  we  call  glass 
 was  invented  in  the  twelfth 
 century;  but  the  ancients  pro- 
 bably used  some  semi-transpa- 
 rent substance,  through  which 
 a  deirreeof  light  was  admitted, 
 and  'external  objects  very  in- 
 distinctly seen.  Specimens 
 of  such  substances  are  often 
 found  among  Roman  anti- 
 quities. Looking  glasses  (Ex. 
 xxxviii.8.  Jobxxxvii.  18)  were 
 doubtless  made  of  polished  me- 
 tal. One  of  the  latter  is  sup- 
 posed to  be  meant  in  James  i. 
 23,  and  one  of  the  former  in 
 
 1  Cor.  xiii.  12. 
 
 GLEAN.  (Ruthii.2.)  In 
 the  joyful  season  of  harvest, 
 the  Jewish  farmer  was  not  al- 
 lowed to  forget  the  poor  and 
 the  stranger.  A  special  com- 
 mand was  given  (Lev.  xix.  9, 
 10)  that  he  should  leave  some 
 of  the  fruits  for  them  to  gather. 
 
 GLEDE.  (Deut.xiv.  13.)  A 
 rapacious  bird  of  the  hawk  or 
 vulture  species.  The  original 
 word  is  rendered  vulture,  in 
 Lev.  xi.  14. 
 
 GLORY,  GLORIFY.  (Ps. 
 xlix.  16.  Isa.  xxiv.  15.)  These 
 terms  are  of  frequent  occur- 
 rence throughout  the  Bible; 
 and  are  so  common  that  many 
 fail  to  see  how  very  significant 
 they  are. 
 
 To  glorify  is  to  render  glori- 
 ous.   (Dan.  V.  2-3.   Acts  iii.  13. 
 
 2  Pet.  i.  F.)  Hence  the  com- 
 prehensive precept  of  the  apos- 
 tle, (1  Cor.  vi.  19,20,)  requiring 
 the  devotion  of  our  whole  pow- 
 ers and  faculties  to  this  one 
 
 24 
 
 GOA 
 
 great  end,  tfie  glorij  of  God, 
 (1  (Jor.  X.  ol,)  or  making  God 
 glorious.  The  glory  of  God  is 
 disj)layed  to  his  creatures  in 
 tlie  works  of  creation,  provi- 
 dence, and  grace.;  so  that  they 
 are  without  excuse  who  see 
 only  the  tilings  that  are  made, 
 and  the  evidence  they  furnish 
 of  his  eternal  power  and  God- 
 head, and  yet  neglect  or  refuse 
 to  glorify  him  as  God.  (Rom. 
 i.  •:»— 32.) 
 
 Under  the  INIosaic  economy, 
 the  glory  of  God  often  appear- 
 ed in  some  visible  emblem,  but 
 dwelt  especially  within  the 
 vail,  between  the  cherubim. 
 (1  Kings  viii.  11.  Ps.  Ixxx.  I. 
 Zech.ii.5.) 
 
 It  is,  however,  in  the  plan  of 
 redemption  that  we  have  exhi- 
 bited to  us  at  once  a  complete, 
 consistent,  and  perfect  display 
 of  the  glory  of  the  divine  cha- 
 racter, to  which  every  other 
 manifestation  of  it,  whether  in 
 creation  or  providence,  or  in 
 the  former  dispensations  of  his 
 ^ace,wereandaresubservient. 
 The  wisdom,  power,  and  good- 
 ness of  God,  as  well  as  his  holi- 
 ness, faithfulness,  and  justice, 
 areheremagnified  tothehighest 
 degree ;  so  That  the  expressions 
 of  the  apostle  have  great  force, 
 
 THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  KNOWLEDGE 
 OF  THE  GLORY  OF  GoD,  IN  TH  S 
 
 FACE  OF  Jesus  Christ.  (Jolin 
 i.  14.  2Cor.iv.6.   Heb.  i.3.) 
 
 GNASH,  GNASHING.  (Ps. 
 cxii.  10.  Matt.  viii.  12.)  A 
 striking  or  grinding  of  the 
 teeth  in  the  paroxysms  of  ai>- 
 guish  or  despair. 
 
 GNAT.  (Matt,  xxiii.24.)  > 
 very  small  but  trouldesonie  in- 
 sect, common  in  iiot  countries. 
 In  the  passage  cited,  the  words 
 strain  at  sTiould  rather  be 
 strain  out;  the  phrase  will 
 then  better  express  the  gross 
 inconsistencies  which  our  Sa- 
 viour reproved. 
 
 GOAD.  (Judg.  iii.31.)  This 
 was  a  rod  or  fwle,  about  eight 
 feet  long,  armed  at  the  largest 
 277 
 
GOA 
 
 end  with  a  piece  of  iron,  with 
 which  the  ploughshare  was 
 freed  from  clods  and  earlh,  and 
 at  the  smallest  with  a  small 
 spike,  by  which  the  oxen  were 
 ur^ed  on  in  their  lal  our. 
 
 A  modern  traveller  in  the 
 east  says:  "The  country  people 
 were  now  everywhere  at  work 
 ploughing  in  the  fields,  in  order 
 lo  sow  cotton.  It  was  observa- 
 ble, that  in  ploughing  they 
 used  goads  of  an  extraordinary 
 size.  Upon  the  measuring  of 
 several,  I  found  them  about 
 eight  feet  long,  and  at  the  big- 
 gel-  end  six  inches  in  circum- 
 ference. They  were  armed  at 
 the  lesser  end  with  a  sharp 
 prickle  for  driving  the  oxen, 
 and  at  the  other  end  with  a 
 small  spade  or  paddle  of  iron, 
 strong  and  massy,  for  cleansing 
 the  plough  from  the  clay  that 
 encumliers  it  in  working.  May 
 we  not  from  hence  conjecture, 
 that  it  was  with  such  a  goad  as 
 one  of  these,  that  Shamgar 
 made  that  [)rodigious  slaughter 
 related  of  liim?  (Judg.  iii.3l.) 
 I  am  confident  that  whoever 
 should  see  one  of  these  instru- 
 ments, would  judge  it  lo  be  a 
 weapon  not  less  fit,  perhaps 
 filter,  than  a  sword  for  such  an 
 execution.  Goads  of  this  sort 
 I  saw  always  used  hereabouts, 
 and -also  in  Syria  ;  and  the  rea- 
 son is,  because  the  same  single 
 Fert)n  both  drives  the  oxen 
 and  also  holds  and  manages 
 the  plough,  which  makes  it 
 necessary  lo  use  such  a  goad 
 as  is  alwvc  described,  to  avoid 
 the  encumbrance  of  two  in- 
 struments." 
 
 GOAT.  (Lev.  iii.  12.)  Goats 
 were  among  the  chief  (wsses- 
 eions  of  the  wealthy  in  the 
 earl);  ages  of  the  world.  (Gen. 
 xxvii.i).  lSam.xxv.2.  2Chrou. 
 xvii.ll.)  Resembling  the  sheep 
 in  its  general  structure  and 
 appearance,  it  is  covered  with 
 hair  instead  of  wool,  and  is 
 much  more  active,  bohl,  and 
 Avandering   in  its  habits.     Il 
 
 GOA. 
 
 feeds  on  bark  and  lendei 
 twigs,  and  its  feet  are  formed 
 for"  leaping  and  climi)ing 
 among  rocks  and  mountains. 
 Its  milk  is  valuable  for  food, 
 (Prov.  xxvii.  27,)  tlie  hair  for 
 manufactures  of  various  kinds, 
 (Ex.  XXV.  4.  Num.  xxxi.  20. 
 Hel>.  xi.37,)  and  ihe  skin  for 
 vessels  or  bottles,  (Joeh.ix.4. 
 Ps.  cxix.  83.  Matt.  ix.  17,)  and 
 in  modern  times  for  leather, 
 {morocco.) 
 
 It  was  a  clean  animal  by  the 
 Jewish  law,  (Ueul.  xiv.  4,)  and 
 was  much  used  in  sacrifices. 
 (Lev.  iii. 12.  Num.  xv.27.  Ezra 
 vi.  17.) 
 
 The  peculiar  qualities  of 
 goats  occasion  frecjuenl  figu- 
 rative allusions  to  them.  Trie 
 boldness  and  strength  of  the 
 leaders  of  the  flocks  are  al- 
 luded to,  Prov.  XXX.  31.  Zech. 
 x.  3 ;  and  they  are  made  to  re- 
 present oppressors  and  wicked 
 men  generally.  (Ezek.  xxxiv. 
 17;  xxxix.  18.    IV!  alt.  xxv.  33.) 
 
 Wild  Goats,  (Deul.  xiv.  5,) 
 now  called  the  ibex,  or  moun- 
 tain goat,  were  of  the  same 
 species;  but  being  confined  lo 
 the  high  and  almost  inacces- 
 sible summits  of  mountains, 
 were  seldom  taken,  and  were 
 of  little  domestic  use. 
 
 The  mountain  goal  is  still 
 found  in  many  parts  of  Syria, 
 and  the  flesh  is  nearlv  of  the 
 flavour  of  venison.  "The  Be- 
 douins make  Ijags  oT  bottles  of 
 their  skins,  and"  rings  of  their 
 horns.  When  they  are  found 
 among  the  rocks,  they  usually 
 elude  the  pursuit  of  ihf'  hun- 
 ter, sometimes  leaidng  twen- 
 ty feet,— but  in  thejdains  they 
 are  often  taken.  Their  habita 
 are  alluded  to,  1  Sam.  xxiv.  2, 
 Job  xxxix.  1.  Ps.  civ.  18.  (See 
 Youth's  Friend,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  vol.  ii.No.  6;  iii.  No. 7; 
 and  iv.  No.  10.) 
 
 Scape-goat.  (Lev.  xvi.  26.) 
 In  this  chapter  we  have  an  in- 
 teresting account  of  the  man- 
 ner in  which  goats  were  euo- 
 
GOD 
 
 ■ployed  under  the  Jewish  law 
 lo  prefigure  the  atoning  sacri- 
 fice of  "Christ.  It  was  on  the 
 great  day  of  atonement.  Two 
 goats  were  lalien;  one  to  be 
 presented  as  a  sin-offering,  and 
 the  other  to  stand  while  the 
 priest  laid  his  hands  upon  its 
 head,  and  confessed  over  it  the 
 sins  of  the  people;  after  which 
 it  was  led  or  sent  away  into 
 the  wihferness;  thus  repre- 
 senting the  taking  or  bearing 
 away  of  guilt.  (See  the  cere- 
 mony and  its  meaning  fully 
 illustrated  in  Biblical  Anti- 
 quities, vol.  ii.  ch.  vi.  §  5,  and 
 Elisama,  pp.  169—172,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 GOB.  (2Sam.xxi.  18, 19.)  A 
 place  or  plain  where  the  Isra- 
 elites fought  two  battles  with 
 the  Philistines.  It  is  sujjposed 
 to  be  the  same  with  Gezer. 
 (1  Chron.  xx.  4.  See  Gezer.) 
 GOBLET.  (See  Cup.) 
 GOD.  (Gen.  i.  1.)  The  name 
 of  the  uncreated  Creator  of 
 all  things.  He  is  revealed 
 to  us  in  an  endless  variety 
 of  ways  in  his  works  and  pro- 
 vidential government, ,  (Rom. 
 0  i.  20,)  but  more  fully  in  the 
 Holy  Scriptures,  as  a  Spirit 
 infinitely  wise,  holy,  just, 
 and  benevolent;  and  though 
 he  is  truly  and  essentially  one 
 in  his  being,  nature,  and  at- 
 tributes, and  the  only  proper 
 object  of  religious  worship, 
 (Deut.  vi.  4.  Isa.  xliv.  8 ;  xlv.  5. 
 6.  14.  18.  21, 22,)  yet  he  is  clear- 
 ly revealed  to  us  as  the  Father, 
 the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 (Isa.  xlviii.  IG,  17.  Matt,  xxviii. 
 19,20.  John  i.  I— 3;  V.  23;  x- 
 30;  xiv.23.  Phil.  ii.6.  1  Tim. 
 iii.  Ifi.)  to  each  of  whom  are  as- 
 cribed the  essential  attributes 
 of  the  supreme  God,  while  they 
 are  distinguished  from  each 
 other  in  the  sacred  writings  by 
 all  the  acts  and  all  the  forms 
 of  speech  by  which  men  are 
 accustomed  to  designate  differ- 
 ent persons.  Among  a  multi- 
 tude of  passages,  lhe~followiag 
 
 GOG 
 
 may  be  cited  :  Gen.  i.  2(5;  iii. 
 22;  xi.6,7.  Acts  v.  3, 4.  2 Cor. 
 xiii.  14.  Col.  ii.  9.  As  every 
 thing  concerning  the  mode  or 
 manner  of  the  divine  existence 
 must  be  necessarily  and  en- 
 tirely a  matter  of  divine  reve- 
 lation, it  is  to  be  received  as 
 such,  with  the  most  profound 
 and  humble  reverence.  The 
 student  of  the  Bible,  however, 
 and  especially  the  teacher, 
 would  do  well  to  settle  in  his 
 mind  distinctly  and  definitely 
 what  are  the  facts  or  truth 
 which  the  Bible  makes  know 
 to  us  respecting  this  great 
 mystery  of  our  holy  religion ; 
 and  so  to  arrange  and  classify 
 them,  that  they  shall  exhibit 
 at  one  view,  to  his  mind,  and  to 
 the  minds  of  those  he  teaches, 
 .exactly  what  is  revealed,  and 
 no  more:  and  in  doing  this, es- 
 pecially when  the  matter  is  of 
 sucn  great  solemnhy  and  im- 
 portance, it  is  safest  to  abide 
 as  closely  as  possible  by  the 
 language  of  inspiration. 
 
 The  words  God  and  Gods 
 are  frequently  used  to  express 
 the  office,  power,  or  excellence 
 of  some  created  being;  as,  an- 
 sels,  (Ps.  xcvii.  7,)  magistrates, 
 (Ex.  xxii.  28,)  the  devil.  (2Cor. 
 iv.  4.  See  Jehovah,  Christ 
 Jesus.) 
 
 GODHEAD.  (Col.  ii.  9.)  The 
 nature  or  essential  being  of 
 God.  (Actsxvii.29.  Pvom.i.20.) 
 
 GODLINESS.  (2 Pet.  iii.  11.) 
 Piety,  resulting  from  the  know 
 ledse  and  love  of  God,  and 
 leading  to  the  cheerful  and 
 constant  obedience  of  his  com 
 mands.  In  1  Tim.  iii.  16,  i. 
 imports  the  substance  of  re- 
 vealed religion. 
 
 GOG  AND  MAGOG.  (Ezek. 
 xxxviii.  2.)  INIagog  was  the 
 name  of  one  of  Japheth's  sons. 
 (Gen.  x.  2.)  It  was  also  a  ge- 
 neral name  of  a  country  north 
 of  the  Caucasus  or  mount  Tau- 
 rus, or  for  the  people  of  that 
 district.  Gog  was  the  kin^  of 
 the  country.     Probably  tney 
 
GOL 
 
 were  remarkable  for  their  in- 
 vasive and  predatory  habits ; 
 and  perhaps  the  phrase  was 
 descriptive  of  barbarians  and 
 spoilers  generally.  (Rev.xx.S.) 
 
 GOLAN.  (Deut.  iv.  43.)  A 
 considerable  city  belonging  to 
 the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and 
 situated  in  the  north-western 
 part  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Ba- 
 fihan  ;  whence  the  district,  of 
 which  it  was  the  capital,  is 
 ca.\\ed  Gaulonitis.  It  was  east 
 of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and  still 
 bears  the  name  oiJolan.  Golan 
 was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge. 
 (Josh.  XX.  8.) 
 
 GOLD.  (Gen.  ii.ll.)  The 
 heaviest  and  most  malleable 
 of  metais,  is  found  at  the  pre- 
 sent day  chiefly  in  Africa  and 
 South  America.  Several  places 
 are  mentioned  by  the  sacred 
 writers  as  abounding  in  gold; 
 such  as  Ophir,  (Job  xxviii.  16,) 
 Parvaira,  or  Ceylon,  as  some 
 suppose,  (^Chron.  iii.  6,)  and 
 Sheba  and  Raamah.  (Ezek. 
 xxvii.  22.)  The  use  of  gold  was 
 very  common  among  the  He- 
 brews. Several  parts  of  the 
 temple,  its  furniture  and  uten- 
 sils, were  overlaid  with  this 
 precious  metal,  (Ex.  xxxvi.  34 
 —38.  1  Kings  vii.  4S— 50  ;)  and 
 many  of  the  vessels  of  the 
 wealthy,  as  well  as  their  per- 
 sonal ornaments  and  insignia 
 of  office,  were  of  eold.  (Gen. 
 xli.  42.  1  Kings  x.  fZ— 22.  Esth. 
 i.  6, 7.  Dan.  v.  29.  Luke  xv.  22. 
 James  ii.2.) 
 
 GOLDEN  CANDLESTICK. 
 (See  Candlestick.) 
 
 GOLGOTHA.  (See  Cal- 
 vary.) 
 
 GOLIATH.  (ISam.  xvii.4.) 
 A  renowned  champion  of  the 
 Philistines.-  His  native  place 
 was  Gath.  He  was  more  than 
 nine  feet  in  height,  and  his 
 armour  corresponded  with  his 
 stature  and  strength.  The  par- 
 ticulars of  his  defea'.  in  single 
 combat  with  David  are  given, 
 I  Sam.  xvii.  (See  Life  of  Da- 
 vid, ch.  iii.,  by  Am.S  S.  Union.'* 
 
 GOP 
 
 In  2  Sam.  xxi.  16—22,  is  an 
 account  of  several  contests,  in 
 one  of  which  Elhanan,  a  Eeth- 
 lehemite, is  spoken  of  as  having 
 slain  Goliath  tlie  Gitiite.  In 
 another,  which  occurred  in 
 Gath,  a  man  of  stature,  with 
 twelve  fin_ers  and  twelve  toes, 
 is  re])resented  as  having  been 
 slain  by  Jonathan,  David's  ne- 
 phew, in  a  third  a  giant  named 
 Saph  was  slain  by  Sibbechai^ 
 the  Husha'.hite;  and  a  fourth 
 was  between  Ishbi-benob  and 
 Abishai,  in  which  the  fcrmei 
 was  slain.  These  four,  it  is 
 said,  were  born  to  the  giant  in 
 Gath. 
 
 The  probability  is,  that  some 
 other  giant  than  Goliath  is  in 
 tended  in  this  verse,  as  one  of 
 the  four  persons  named  was  his 
 brother,  and  not  his  son,  and 
 that  the  true  readin"  of  2  Sam. 
 xxi.  19  is  given  in  1  Chron.  xx.5. 
 
 COMER.  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  6.) 
 The  eldest  son  of  Japheth, 
 whoseposterity  peopled  a  large 
 district  of  Asia  Mir.or,  embrac- 
 ing Phrygia.  From  them  came 
 the  natives  of  northernEurope. 
 Hence,  too  the  Gauls  and  Celts, 
 and  the  bands  ofOomer,  and  in 
 later  times,  the  peojjle  of  Ger- 
 many, France,  and  Britain. 
 
 GOMORRAH.  (See  Sodom.) 
 
 GOPHER  WOOD.  (Gen.  vi. 
 14.)  The  ark  was  constructed 
 of  gopher  wood.  It  has  been 
 supposed  that  this  may  mean, 
 (1.)  The  wood  of  those  trees 
 which  shoot  out  horizontal 
 branches,  such  as  the  fir,  ce- 
 dar, &c.;  (2.)  Squared  timber; 
 (3.)  Smooth  or  planed  timber; 
 (4.)  Any  light,  floating  wood; 
 (5.)  Any  wood  that  does  not 
 readily  cornipt;  (6.)  Pitched 
 wood;  (7.)  Wicker  or  basket 
 work,  made  of  osier  or  other 
 pliable  material  of  the  same 
 species;  (8.)  Or  any  of  the 
 kinds  of  wood  that  abound 
 with  resinous,  inflammable 
 juices.  The  weight  of  author- 
 ity, or  rather  conjecture,  is 
 
GOS 
 
 bet'-veen  the  cypress  and  ce- 
 dar. The  Greek  name  of  cy- 
 press bears  a  resemblance  to 
 the  Hebrew  of  gopher.  It  was 
 considered  by  the  ancients  as 
 the  most  durable  wood,  least 
 exposed  to  worms  and  natural 
 decay;  it  abounded  in  Assyria, 
 was  used  very  commonly  for 
 ship-building,  and  was  almost 
 the  only  wood  which  could 
 furnish  suitable  timber  for  so 
 large  a  vessel.  The  cedar  is 
 light,  incorruptible,  and  resin- 
 ous. It  was  used  by  the  Egyp- 
 tians and  Assyrians  in  the 
 construction  of  ships ;  and 
 some  of  the  oldest  rabbins 
 suppose  it  was    used  for  the 
 
 GOSHEN.  1.  (Gen.xlv.lO.) 
 A  fertile  section  of  pasture 
 land  in  the  north-eastern  divi- 
 sion of  Egypt,  between  the  Red 
 Sea  and  the  river  Nile,  upon 
 the  southern  border  of  Canaan, 
 allotted  by  Joseph  to  his  father 
 and  his  brethren  ;  where  they 
 dwelt  for  upwards  of  two  hun- 
 dred years.  It  was,  for  grazing 
 purposes,  the  best  of  the  land. 
 (Gen.  xlvii.  6. 11.) 
 
 Mr.  Smith,  an  American 
 missionary,  passed,  with  a  ca- 
 ravan, through  the  northern 
 district  of  ancient  Goshen  in 
 18-27;  and  he  describes  it  as 
 an  immense  sandy  desert, 
 drifted  with  sand-banks ;  and 
 presenting  here  and  there,  in 
 email  patches,  a  few  shrubs 
 of  evergreen,  like  our  whortle- 
 berry bushes,  on  which  the 
 Bedouins  pasture  their  flocks. 
 Rameses  and  Pithon  are  men- 
 tioned as  cities  of  Goshen,  and 
 the  supposed  ruins  of  them 
 are  described  by  modern  tra- 
 vellers. The  pacha  of  Egypt 
 has  lately  established  a  colony 
 of  five  hundred  Syrians  in  the 
 ancient  land  of  Goshen,  for  the 
 purpose  of  cultivating  the  niul- 
 terry  and  rearing  silkworms. 
 
 2.   (Josh.  XV.  51.)    A  city  in 
 
 the  territory  of  Judah,  which 
 
 gave  the  name  -^f  the  land  of 
 
 24* 
 
 GOS 
 
 Goshen  to  the  country  around 
 it. 
 
 GOSPEL.  (Mark  i.  1.)  The 
 word  which  is  rendered  gospel 
 in  this  passage  is  elsewhere 
 renderea  good  or  glad  tidings^ 
 (Luke  ii.  10.  Acts  xiii.  32 ;)  and 
 in  both  cases  it  describes  the 
 books  written  by  the  four  evan- 
 gelists. Hence,  when  we  say 
 the  gospel  according  to  Mat- 
 tJieip,  we  mean,  the  history  of 
 Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of  God, 
 and  an  account  of  the  salvation 
 otfered  by  and  through  him,  as 
 the  same  was  prepared  under 
 the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
 by  Matthew,  one  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's disciples.  A  harmony 
 of  the  gospels  is  an  arrange- 
 ment of  these  four  histories  in 
 such  a  manner  as  to  show  their 
 harmony  with  each  other,  and 
 to  present  them  in  connected 
 chronological  order.  One  of 
 these  harmonies  maybe  found 
 in  The  Help  to  the  Gos- 
 pels, published  by  the  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union. 
 
 The  gospel  of  Matthexc  was 
 undoubtedly  written  first,  and, 
 as  it  is  generally  supposed, 
 about  the  year  65.  It  is  not 
 certain  whether  it  was  origi- 
 nally written  in  Greek  or 
 Hebrew. 
 
 The  gospel  by  Mark  was 
 probably  written  under  the 
 influence  and  direction  of  the 
 aposlle  Peter ;  and  tradition 
 says  it  was  written  at  Rome, 
 and  published  after  the  death 
 of  Peter  and  Paul. 
 
 The  gospel  of  Luke  B  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  written  by 
 the  beloved  physician,the  com- 
 panion of  Paul  in  his  travels, 
 and  under  the  direction  or 
 oversight  of  the  apostle,  and 
 after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 The  gos]7el  of  John  is  to  be 
 regarded  as  supplementary; 
 and  it  was  written  last  of  all. 
 Some  have  fixed  the  period  at 
 the  year  96,  when  John  was 
 eighty  years  old,and  after  Mat- 
 281 
 
GOU 
 
 fliew's  gospel  had  been  publish- 
 ed thirty  years. 
 
 It  is  termed  the  gospel  of 
 peace,  (Kom.  x.  15,)  and  the 
 word  of  reconciliation,  (2  Cor. 
 V.  19,)  because  it  shows  the 
 only  way  in  which  man  can 
 oe  at  peace  with  God  through 
 Jesus  Christ;  and  lience  it  is 
 also  called  the  gofipel  of  the 
 grace  of  God,  (Acts  xx.  24,)  as 
 it  is  a  declaration  of  God's  free 
 favour  and  good  will  towards 
 those  who  are  utterly  worthless 
 and  undeserving. 
 
 The  four  gospels  were  writ- 
 ten by  ditferent  men,  each  of 
 whom  was  under  tlie  immedi- 
 ate inspiration  of  God,  and 
 was  led  to  adopt  a  style  and 
 arrangement  suited  to  tlie  pur- 
 pose he  had  in  view.  When  it 
 IS  considered  what  an  endless 
 variety  of  places,  persons,  and 
 incidents  are  introduced  into 
 the  sacred  narratives,  and  what 
 a  variety  of  expressions  are 
 reported,  on  the  accuracy  of 
 which,  and  the  circumstances 
 under  which  they  were  spoken, 
 so  much  of  their  force  depends ; 
 when  we  consider,  moreover, 
 the  character  and  education  of 
 the  writers,  and  the  peculiar 
 disadvantages  of  their  situa- 
 tion ;  we  shall  be  ready  to  ad- 
 mit the  extraordinary  claims 
 of  these  books,  and  to  allow 
 that  the  immaterial  discrepan- 
 cies which  they  present  con- 
 firm rather  than  invalidate 
 those  claims. 
 
 GOURD.  (Jonah  iv.  6.)  A 
 climbing  vine  of  quick  growth, 
 allied  to"  the  family  of  the  cu- 
 cumber, melon,  squash,  &c. 
 .  IS  fruit  is  found  in  a  hard 
 .igneous  shell,  of  which  drink- 
 ng  cups  and  other  household 
 utensils  are  formed.  It  was  cul- 
 tivated from  the  earliest  limes 
 in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  pulp  is 
 eatable ;  and  the  lower  classes 
 in  Egypt  and  Arabia  boil  it  in 
 vinegar,  or  make  it  into  a  son 
 of  pudding  by  filling  the  shell 
 witn  rice  and  meat.   In  a  wild 
 
 GRA 
 
 I  state,  they  were  probably  poi 
 j  sonous,  as  the  wild  parsnip  is 
 i  among  us.  (.2  Kings  i  v.  38— 41.) 
 }  GOVERNOR.  (Matt.xxvii. 
 '  2.)  After  Judea  became  a  pro- 
 j  vince  of  the  Roman  empire, 
 I  governors  or  procurators  were 
 [  appointed  and  sent  thither 
 from  Rome.  This  was  the 
 I  office  held  by  Pontius  Pilate 
 I  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
 crucifixion.  Sometimes  the 
 word  governor  is  used  as  a 
 general  title  for  ruler.  (Gen. 
 xlii.  6.    See  Feast.) 
 
 GOZAN.  (1  Chron.  v.  26.)  A 
 river,  which  probably  rises  in 
 Media,  to  the  vicinity  of  which 
 the  captive  Israelites  were 
 transported.  (2Kings  xvii.  6.) 
 This  river  is  now  known  as 
 the  Kizzil  Ozan,  and  empties 
 into  the  Caspian  Sea.  There 
 was  also  a  province,  and  per- 
 haps a  city,  of  the  same  name, 
 (Isa.  xxxvii.  12,)  now  called 
 Gausania,  lying  between  the 
 Caspian  Sea  and  the  moun- 
 tains which  separate  Media 
 from  Assyria.      Through   this 
 
 Srovince  the  river  Gozan  or 
 ;izzil  Ozan  runs. 
 GRACE.  (ITim.  i.2.)  The 
 theological  use  of  this  word 
 denotes  the  free  favour  of  God, 
 bestowed  upon  men  without 
 any  merit  or  claim  on  their 
 part.  Hence  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, which  reveals  the  plan 
 by  which  this  grace  is  bestow- 
 ed consistently  with  the  divine 
 attributes,  (viz.  the  atonement, 
 mediation,  and  intercession  of 
 tlie  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  in  and 
 through  whom  alone  the  free, 
 rich,  and  eternal  fulness  of 
 God's  favour  is  dispensed,)  is 
 called  the  gospel  of  the  grace 
 of  God.     (Acts  XX.  24.) 
 
 GRAFF.  (Rom.  xi.  17.)  To 
 graff  or  graft  is  tn  insert  a  shoot 
 
 j  or  bud  of  one  tree  into  the 
 branch  of  another;  the  stock 
 
 ;  of  the  latter  is  usually  infe- 
 rior, the  graft  valuable.    The 
 sap  of  the  natural  tree  being 
 conveyed  into  the  craft  is,  by 
 282 
 
GRA 
 
 a  ppculiar  process,  changed 
 into  the  natural  sap  of  "ihe 
 graft;  and  hence  the  fruit  of 
 the  graft  will  be  of  its  own 
 kind,  and  the  fruit  of  the  natu- 
 ral tree  of  another  kind.  The 
 force  and  beauty  of  the  apos- 
 tle's figure  in  the  passage  above 
 cited  are  suthcienlly  obvious. 
 
 GRAIN.    (See  Corn.) 
 
 GRAPES.  (Gen.  xlix.  11.) 
 The  fruit  of  the  vine.  When 
 fully  ripe  and  dried,  they  are 
 called  raisins.  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
 18;  XXX.  12.  2  Sam.  xvi.  1. 
 lChron.xii.40.) 
 
 The  soil  and  climate  of  Judea 
 were  well  suited  to  the  growth 
 of  the  vine  ;  and  it  was  among 
 the  principal  productions  of 
 the  country. 
 
 Particular  districts  of  Judea 
 were  famed  for  the  excellency 
 of  their  grapes;  as  Engedi, 
 and  the  vales  of  Eshvol  and 
 Sorek.  The  word  Sorek  is  not 
 only  the  name  of  a  region  in 
 the  tribe  of  Judah,  but  also 
 signifies  the  noblest  variety  of 
 the  vine  and  its  clusters,  which 
 there  abounded.  This  grape 
 was  while,  with  delicious  juice, 
 and  with  seeds  so  small  and  soft 
 as  to  be  almost  imperceptible. 
 In  Persia,  the  best  raisins  are 
 made  of  this  grape.  It  is  of 
 this  that  the  celebrated  Kish- 
 mish  wine  of  Shiraz  is  made. 
 Very  fine  grapes  were  in  old 
 times,  as  at  present,  produced 
 on  mount  Lebanon,  and  Hel- 
 bon,  or  Aleppo.  Travellers 
 agree  in  relating  that  Pales- 
 tine, even  in  its  present  slate 
 3f  subjugation  to  the  Mussul- 
 mans, who  are  forbidden  to 
 use  wine,  produces  clusters  of 
 twelve  pounds  weight  each, 
 the  single  grapes  of  which  are 
 as  large  as  plums.  They  tell 
 us  that  the  clusters  of  Judea,  a 
 few  miles  westward  from  Jeru- 
 salem, are  larger  than  any  in 
 Europe;  and  that  they  have 
 often  seen  them  of  such  size 
 that  it  was  impossible  for  a 
 single  man  to  carry  one  of 
 
 GRA 
 
 them  »;n injured  for  any  dis- 
 tance It  "is  pleasing  to  find 
 this  corroboration  of  the  scrip- 
 tural account.  (Num.  xiii.23. 
 See  EsHCOL.)  Brocard  informs 
 us  in  his  travels,  that  the  best 
 vines  grow  in  the  environs  ot 
 Bethlehem,  in  tlie  vale  of  Re- 
 phaim,  (between  Bethlehem 
 and  Jerusalem,)  and  in  the 
 vale  of  Eshcol. 
 
 The  grapes  of  the  Holy  Land, 
 with  the  exception  of  "the  So- 
 rek, above  mentioned,  are 
 mostly  red  or  black.  Hence  the 
 juice  is  called  the  blood  of  the 
 grape;  translated,  in  our  ver- 
 sion, red  irJne.    (Isa.  xxvii.  2.) 
 
 The  vines  of  the  east  attain 
 a  very  great  size,  reaching  tlie 
 tops  of  the  highest  trees,  and 
 are  sometimes  much  thicker 
 in  the  trunk  than  a  man's 
 body.  (See'WiNE,WiNE-PRES.s, 
 Vines,  Vineyards.) 
 
 The  Jews  were  expressly  re 
 quired  by  their  law  not  to 
 gather  the  grapes  until  the 
 vine  was  three  years  old,  (Lev, 
 xix.  23,)  and  to  leave  some  on 
 the  vines  and  on  the  ground, 
 (Lev.  xix.  10;)  and  it  was  the 
 privilege  of  the  poor  and  de- 
 pendent to  gather  these  for 
 their  own  use,  provided  they 
 were  eaten  on  the  ground. 
 They  were  not  allowed'^io  take 
 any  away.  (Deut.  xxiii.  24; 
 xxiv.  21.)  The  grapes  thus  left 
 were  called  the  gleanings; 
 and,  as  they  hung,  here  and 
 there  one,  on  the  vines,  or 
 scattered  on  the  ground,  they 
 were  strikingly  emblematical 
 of  the  depopulation  of  a  city  or 
 country.  (Isa.  xvii.  6;  xxiv.  13. 
 Jer.  vi.9;  xlix.  9.  Obad.5.) 
 
 The  proverb  to  which  refer- 
 ence is  made  in  Jer.  xxxi.  29, 
 is  explained  in  the  whole  of 
 Ezek.  xviii.  The  Jews  com- 
 plained that  they  siiffered  be- 
 cause of  tlie  iniquity  of  their 
 fathers.  The  prophet  shows 
 them  their  error  and  delusion, 
 and  triumphantly  vindicates 
 the  divine  proceedinffs. 
 233 
 
GRA 
 
 So  in  Isa.  v.  2,  before  cited, 
 Ine  Jewish  i.ation  is  repre- 
 sented to  us  uiuler  the  figure 
 of  a  vineyard  favourably  plain- 
 ed, and  cultivated  with  the 
 utmoat  skill  and  labour,  and 
 every  preparation  made  for 
 the  vintase.  and  yet  the  hus- 
 bandman's hopes  are  all  blast- 
 ed ;  for  instead  of  a  full  crop 
 of  genuine  fruit,  he  finds  upon 
 the  vines  a  bitter,  poisonous, 
 wild  fruit,  entirely  unfit  for 
 use. .  A  more  striking  illustra- 
 tion of  the  perverseness  and 
 ingratitude  of  the  Israelites, 
 cannot  be  conceived. 
 
 GRASS.  (Isa,  li.  12.)  Thi.s 
 wonl  is  frequently  applied  in 
 the  Scriptures  to  herbage  gene- 
 rally, (Isa.  XV.  6,)  though  some- 
 limes  a  distinction  fs  made 
 between  such  herbs  as  are  used 
 by  man,  as  grain  and  vegeta- 
 bles, and  such  as  are  used 
 chiefly  by  cattle.   (Ps.  civ.  14.) 
 
 The  quick  growth  and  ten- 
 derness of  this  species  of  vege- 
 tation furnish  several  of  the 
 most  striking  illustrations  of 
 the  Scriptures.  (Ps.  xc.  5,  6; 
 xcii.  7;  ciii.  15,  16.  Isa.  xl.  6 
 -8;  li.  12.  James  i.  10.  IPet. 
 i.24.) 
 
 The  passage  in  Prov.  xxvii. 
 25,  would  be  more  accurately 
 rendered  thus:  "The  grass(/tai/) 
 appeareth,  and  the  green  herb 
 {tender  grass)  showeth  itself, 
 and  the  plants  {herbs)  of  the 
 mountains  are  gathered."  So 
 \  in  Isa.  XV.  6:  "  The  grass  (hai/) 
 withereth,  the  green  herb 
 (^rass)  faileth,  there  is  no 
 green  thing." 
 
 Nothing  can  exceed  in  beau- 
 ty and  appropriateness  the 
 gradation  of  images  employed 
 by  the  prophet,  2  Kings  xix.  20; 
 the  weakness  and  tenderness 
 of  the  fir?t  shoots  of  any  green 
 herb;  the  frailty  of  the  few 
 Bpires  ofrrass  that  sometimes 
 spring  up  in  the  vegetable 
 mould  or  shallow  earth  uppn 
 the  housetop,  or  the  withered 
 
 GRE 
 
 arid  wilted  blade  of  corn,  blast- 
 ed  before  it  rises  into  a  stalk. 
 
 The  dry  stalks  of  herbs  were 
 often  used,  as  faggots  are  now, 
 for  the  purpose"  of  heating 
 ovens.  (Matt.  vi.  30  ;  xiii.  30. 
 Lukexii.28.) 
 
 GRASSHOPPER.  (Eccl.xii. 
 5.)  An  insectof  the  locust  spe- 
 cies, often  mentioned  in  the 
 sacred  writings.  The  word  ren- 
 dered grusahopper  in  the  above 
 cited  passage  is  rendered  locust 
 in2Chron.  vii.  13. 
 
 The  grasshopper  was  al- 
 lowable food  under  the  Jewish 
 law.  (Lev.  xi.22.)  Their  timi- 
 dity is  proverbial.  (Job  xxxix. 
 20.)  They  are  often  found  in 
 great  multitudes,  (hence  the 
 figurative  language,  Judg.vi.  5, 
 and  vii.  12.  Jer.  xlvi.  23,)  and 
 prove  destructive  to  vegetation, 
 i  especially  in  its  early  stages. 
 (Amos  vii.  1.) 
 
 The  allusion  in  Nah.  iii.  15 
 — 17,  is  to  a  common  habit  of 
 this  insect.  When  benumbed 
 with  the  cold,  they  assemble 
 in  vast  numbers  upon  the 
 hedges  or  other  shrubbery ; 
 and  such  is  their  multitude, 
 that  the  places  they  occupy 
 are  darkened,  and  resemble 
 the  encamping  ground  of  a 
 great  army.  As  soon,  how- 
 ever, as  they  are  revived  by  the 
 warmth  of  the  sun,  they  fly 
 away  no  one  knows  whither. 
 
 The  grasshopper  is  used  to 
 illustrate  comparative  insisni- 
 ficance,  (Num.  xiii.  33.  Isa. 
 xl.  22;)  and  in  the  passage 
 from  Ecclesiastes,  first  cite'd, 
 reference  is  probably  made  to 
 that  degree  of  weakness  and 
 infirmity  in  old  age  which 
 makes  the  weight,  or  even  the 
 chirping,  of  a  grasshopper  bur- 
 densome. 
 
 GRATE,  BRAZEN.   (SeeAi^ 
 
 TAR.) 
 
 GRAY  E.  (SeeBcRiAL,EN- 
 GRAVE,  Hell.) 
 
 GREAT  SEA  (Num.  xxxiv 
 6)  is  the  same  with  the  Medi 
 284 
 
GRE 
 
 terranean,  and  constitutes  that 
 large  mass  of  waters  between 
 Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,which 
 receives  its  name  Onidland) 
 from  its  position,  and  has  its 
 only  communication  with  the 
 ocean  by  the  straits  of  Gibral- 
 tar. It  is  also  called  the  utmost 
 sea,  (Joel  ii.  20.)  the  hinder  sea, 
 (Zech.  xiv.  8,)  and  was  the 
 western  boundary  of  the  pro- 
 mised land. 
 GREAVES.  (See  Armour.) 
 GREECE,  (2;ech.  ix.  13,)  or 
 GRECIA,  (Dan.  viii.  21,)  was 
 known  to  the  Hebrews  by  the 
 name  oiJavan.  (Isa.  Ixvi.  19. 
 Ezek.  xxvii.  13. 19.)  As  used  in 
 the  New  Testament,  it  more 
 generally  comprehends  Greece 
 
 E roper,  Ionia,  and  Asia  IMinor. 
 Q  the  time  of  Alexander,  the 
 Greeks  were  masters  of  Egypt, 
 Syria,  and  the  countries  and 
 provinces  beyond  the  Eu- 
 phrates, and  hence  the  name 
 Greek  became  somewhat  in- 
 definite, and  was  applied  by 
 the  Jews  to  all  Gentiles  who 
 were  subject  to  Grecian  power. 
 Indeed,  as  some  hold,  the  word 
 Greek  was  to  the  Jews  syno- 
 nymous with  Gentile,  (Mark 
 vii.  26;)  that  the  world  was  di- 
 vided by  them  between  Jews 
 and  Greeks.  All  that  were  not 
 Jews  were  Greeks.  (Acts  xx. 
 21.  Rom.  i.  16.  1  Cor.  i.  22. 24.) 
 •The  New  Testament  was  writ- 
 ten originally  (with  the  excep- 
 tion, perhaps,  of  Matthew)  in 
 Greek.  The  invasion  and  con- 
 quest of  the  eastern  nations  by 
 Alexander  the  Great,  which 
 took  place  about  three  centu- 
 ries before  the  Christian  era, 
 led  to  a  general  use  of  the 
 Greek  language.  And  it  is  pro- 
 bable that  a  book  designed  for 
 the  world,  as  it  then  was,  and 
 was  likely  to  be,  would  find 
 more  readers  in  that  language 
 than  in  any  other.  The  pre- 
 vailing language  of  our  Saviour 
 and  his  apostles,  and  probably 
 of  the  people  of  Juaea,  was 
 Syriac,  though  the  commercial 
 
 GRO 
 
 intercourse  of  the  Jews  raadfi 
 them  familiar  with  the  Greek ; 
 and  a  version  of  the  New  Tea 
 tament  in  the  Syriac  language 
 was  extant,  as  is  generally  be- 
 lieved, during  the  apostolic 
 age,  which  all  admit  to  have 
 been  made  as  early  as  the  se- 
 cond century.  When  Greeks 
 are  opposed  to  barbarians,  as 
 in  Rom.  i.  14,  the  former  term 
 implies  the  learned,  and  the 
 latter  the  illiterate  class,  or 
 such  as  do  not  speak  the  lan- 
 guage of  the  country  where 
 they  reside.  (See  Barbarian.) 
 
 GREVTHOUJSD.  (Prov.  xxx. 
 31.)  The  motion  of  the  animal 
 known  in  modern  times  by 
 this  name,  is  both  graceful  and 
 fleet.  It  is  by  many  supposed 
 that  the  original  word  reiers  to 
 some  entirely  different  animal; 
 but  there  appears  to  be  no  satis- 
 factory reason  for  the  opinion. 
 
 GRIND.  (Job  xxxi.  10.)  This 
 expression  here  denotes  not 
 only  the  lowest  menial  service, 
 but  also  that  the  person  of  the 
 patriarch's  wife  may  be  at  the 
 disposal  of  another,  as  female 
 slaves  in  the  east  are  at  the 
 present  day.   (See  Mills.) 
 
 GRINDERS.  (Eccl.  xii.  3.) 
 The  grinders  ceasing  because 
 they  are  few,  in  Solomon's 
 allegorical  exhibition  of  the 
 decline  of  life,  is  supposed  to 
 represent  the  loss  of  the  teeth, 
 or  their  failure  to  perform  their 
 office  in  masticating  or  grind, 
 ing  one's  food. 
 
 GRIZZLED.  (Gen.  xxxi.  10. 
 Zech.vi.3.6.)  Black  and  white 
 intermingled  in  small  spots. 
 
 GROVE.  (Judg.  iii.7.)  The 
 idolatrous  heathen  worshipped 
 their  gods  on  the  lops  of  hills 
 and  mountains,  and  in  groves 
 of  trees.  (Deut.  xii.  2, 3.  Hos. 
 IV.  13.)  The  use  of  groves  as 
 places  for  religious  worship 
 seems  to  have  been  very  early, 
 (Gen.  xxi.  33;)  and  the  selec- 
 tion of  such  places  originated 
 probably  either  in  a  desire  to 
 make  the  service  more  agree 
 285 
 
GRO 
 
 able  to  the  worshipjiers,  or  j 
 more  inviling  lo  the  gods;  or  i 
 because  the  gloom  of  the  forest  | 
 is  calculated  lo  excite  awe; 
 or  because  the  concealment  of 
 these  odious  rites  and  impuri- 
 ties Wis  more  effeciual ;  or  pro- 
 bably because  it  was  supposed 
 that  the  spirits  of  the  departed 
 often  hovered  over  the  place 
 where  their  bodies  are  buried  ; 
 and,  as  it  was  very  common  lo 
 bury  under  trees,  (Gen.  XXXV.8. 
 ISam.  xxxi.  13,)  the  erection 
 of  altars  or  places  of  devotion 
 to  their  spirits,  or  to  other  spi- 
 
 GUE 
 
 rits,  good  or  evil,  in  or  near 
 such  trees,  was  very  natural. 
 Hence  it  became  common  to 
 plant  groves  (Deut.  xvi.  21) 
 with  a  view  to  idolatrous 
 worship;  and  as  these  were 
 constantly  furnished  with  the 
 images  of  the  eods,  the  terms 
 groie  and  idol,  beoame  con- 
 vertible.   (2Kings  xxiii.  6.) 
 
 GUARDCHAMBEK.dKings 
 xiv.  23.)   The  apartment  occu- 
 pied by  the  kinir's  guard. 
 GUEST.    (See  Feast.) 
 GUEST-CHAMBEK.    (See 
 Chamber.) 
 
 HAB 
 
 HABAKKUK.  One  of  the 
 twelve  minor  prophets,  of 
 Ivhose  birth  we  know  neither 
 the  time  nor  place.  He  lived 
 in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  and 
 was  of  course  contemporary 
 with  Jeremiah;  and  it  is  gene- 
 rally supposed  he  remained  in 
 Judea,  and  died  there. 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  the  thirty- 
 fifth  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  It  was 
 uttered  aboutsix  hundred  years 
 before  Christ,  and  relates  chief- 
 ly to  the  invasion  of  Judea  by 
 the  Chaldeans,  the  overthrow 
 of  the  Babylonish  empire,  and 
 the  final  deliverance  of  God's 
 faithful  people.  Some  passages 
 of  this  prophecy  are  not  sur- 
 passed m  sublimity  and  sim- 
 plicity of  style,  nor  in  the 
 strength  and  fervour  of  piety 
 which  they  express. 
 
 The  dedication  with  which 
 the  prophecy  closes  has  refer- 
 ence probably  to  the  ode  or 
 prayer  which  constitutes  the 
 third  chapter.  The  word  ne- 
 ginoth  (stringed  instruments) 
 signifies  an  instrument  which 
 was  played  by  friction  or  pul- 
 sation, (as  violins,  harps,  &.c.,) 
 in  contradistinction  from  wind 
 instruments;  and  the  compo- 
 sition was  directed,  as  several 
 >f  the  psalms  are,  (Ps.  iv.  vi. 
 
 HAD 
 
 liv.  Ixi.  Ixvii.  Ixxvi.  title,)  to 
 the  leader  of  some  particular 
 department    of    the    temple 
 music. 
 HABERGEON.     (See    Ar- 
 
 MOUR.) 
 
 HABOR.  (2King9  xvii.6.) 
 A  city  or  country  of  Media,  on 
 the  river  Gozan,  and  one  of  the 
 places  to  which  Tiglath-Pile- 
 ser  first  transported  a  part,  and 
 Salmanezer,  afterwards,  the 
 whole  of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel. 
 Habor,  or  Chabor,  is  thought 
 by  some  to  be  the  mountain- 
 ous region  called  Chaboras 
 by  Ptolemy.  But  others,  with 
 greater  precision,  fix  upon  the 
 modern  town  of  Abhar,  near 
 the  river  Kizzil  Ozan,  or  Gro- 
 zan,  as  the  more  probable  site 
 of  ancient  Habor. 
 
 HACHILAH.HiLL  oF.dSam. 
 xxiii.  19.)  A  stronghold  at  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  wil- 
 derness of  Judea,  where  David 
 concealed  himself  flora  his 
 persecutors. 
 
 HADAD.  (1  Kings  xi.  14.)  A 
 descendant  of  the  royal  family 
 of  Edom.  When  David  con- 
 quered that  country,  (2  Sam. 
 viii.  14,)  and  cut  off  its  male 
 population,  certain  of  the 
 king's  household  escaped  the 
 general  massacre,  and  fied, 
 taking  with  them  Ha  dad,  then 
 2S6 
 
HAD 
 
 »  little  child.  After  a  lime, 
 they  went  into  Kgypi,  and 
 younz  Hadad  was  presented  to 
 the  king,  and  probably  his  roy- 
 al descent  was  made  known. 
 The  king  received  him  with 
 great  tavour,  and  in  process  of 
 lime  he  married  the  queen's 
 Bister,  and  the  families  were 
 afterwards  on  terms  of  the 
 closest  intimacy.  After  David's 
 death,  Hadad  requested  Pha- 
 raoh to  let  him  return  to  Edom. 
 And  this  he  probaiily  did,  as 
 we  find  him  mentioned  as 
 Hadad  the  Edomite,  and  the 
 adversary  of  Solomon,  I  Kings 
 x\.  14-2-2. 
 
 HADADEZER,  (2Sam.  viii. 
 3,)  or  HADAREZER.  (2 Sam. 
 X.  16.  IChron.  xviii.3.)  A  Sy- 
 rian kmg,  with  whom  David 
 had  several  contests.  In  one 
 of  them  he  took  twenty 
 thousand  footmen  and  seven 
 hundred  horsemen  of  Hada- 
 dezer's  army  prisoners,  be- 
 sides chariots  of  war.  Oa 
 another  occasion,  when  Hada- 
 dezer  had  tormed  an  alliance 
 with  a  neighbouring  province, 
 David  again  defeated  him, and 
 look  twenty-two  thousand  of 
 his  army  prisoners.  Amon? 
 Ihe  spoils  were  gold  shields, 
 and  a  great  quantity  of  brass 
 or  copper. 
 
 Some  years  afterwards,  Ha- 
 dadezerand  three  other  Syrian 
 princes  formed  an  alliance  to 
 assist  tiie  Ammonites  aeainsi 
 David;  l)Ut  the  whole  Syrian 
 army  was  defeated  o.i  the  east 
 tank  of  the  Jordan,  by  the 
 araelites,  under  the  command 
 of  jMab.  Between  forty  and 
 fifty  thousand  of  the  enemy 
 were  kille<l,  i-iduding  their 
 principal  general;  and  they 
 thenceforth  became  trilmtary 
 toDtvid.     (1  Ciiron.  xix.) 
 
 HADAD-RmMOM.  (Zerh. 
 xii.  11.)  Enm  coinparin?  this 
 mesu'ie  with  2  Chron.  xxxv. 
 22-r),  we  infe.^  thai  Ha  lad- 
 rimmon  wis  a  cuy  or  village 
 ia  the  valley  of  Megitldo;  and 
 
 HAG 
 
 that  such  was  the  lamentation 
 of  the  people  for  Jusiah,  that 
 the  expression  used  by  the 
 prophet  had  become  proverbi- 
 al, to  denote  general  conster- 
 nation and  mourning. 
 HADASSAH.    (SeP  Es- 
 
 THER.) 
 
 HADRACH,  LAND  OP.  (Zech. 
 ix.  1.)  A  district  in  the  vicinity 
 of  Damascus. 
 
 HAGAR.  (Qen.  xvi.  1.)  An 
 Egyptian  woman  who  lived  in 
 the  family  of  Abraham  as  & 
 servant  or  bond-woman.  Sarah 
 being  childless,  she  pro^wsed 
 to  Abraham  that  he  should  re- 
 ceive Hagar  as  his  wife:  and 
 when  Hagar  found  herself 
 about  to  receive  the  blessing 
 which  was  denied  to  her  mis- 
 tress, she  was  very  much 
 elated,  and  treated  Sarah  dis- 
 dainfully. Provoked  by  this 
 conduct  in  her  handmaid, 
 Sarah  used  her  with  great 
 severity ;  so  that  she  waa  com- 
 pelled to  flee  from  the  house. 
 Slie  made  her  way  towards 
 Egypt,  her  native  country,  as 
 lar  as  the  wilderness  of  Shur, 
 and  while  resting  herself  near 
 a  f  )uniain  ijy  the  wayside,  she 
 was  informed  by  an  angel  that 
 the  child  which  she  was  to 
 have  should  be  a  son,  and  his 
 name  should  be  Ishmael;  that 
 he  should  be  a  wild  man,  that 
 he  should  be  hostile  to  every 
 body  and  every  body  hostile  to 
 him,  and  yet  that  he  should 
 dwell  in  the  presence  of  his 
 brethren,  and  that  his  posterity 
 should  be  innumerable.  The 
 angel  at  the  same  lime  direct- 
 ed lier  to  return  home,  and 
 submit  herself  to  her  misti-ess. 
 Tliis  extraordinary  interview 
 happened  at  a  watering  place 
 south  of  .ludoa;  which  was 
 hence  called  Beer-lahai-roi, 
 (meaning  th.e  well  (fhim  Uuit 
 liveth  and  aeeth  me.) 
 
 When  Ishn»ael  was  four 
 years  old,  God  r^-assured  Abra 
 haiM  that  the  divine  blessing 
 should  rest  on  the  lad,  ana 
 
HAG 
 
 that  he  should  be  the  founder 
 of  a  great  nation. 
 
 In  process  of  lime  Isaac  was 
 born,  Ishmael  being  then  four- 
 teen years  of  age.  At  the  age 
 of  two  or  three  years,  the  child 
 was  weaned,  and  Abraham  ce- 
 lebrated the  event  by  a  great 
 feast,  (which  is  still  the  custom 
 in  Persia  when  a  male  child  ia 
 weaned,)  and  on  that  occasion 
 Sarah  saw  Ishmael  mocking 
 or  making  sport  of  her  child, 
 and  perhaps  ill  treating  him. 
 She  immediately  requested 
 Abraham  to  banish  Ishmael 
 and  his  mother  from  their 
 home.  Abraham,  who  seems 
 to  have  been  a  stranger  to  the 
 proud  and  revengeful  feelings 
 of  his  wife,  was  grieved  at  her 
 request;  but,  being  divinely 
 admonished  to  comply,  he  rose 
 up  early  in  the  morning,  and, 
 supplying  Hagar  with  bread 
 and  a  bottle  of  water,  sent  her 
 and  her  child  away.  She  found 
 her  way  to  the  wilderness  of 
 Beersheba;  but  her  supply  of 
 water  was  exhausted,  and  she 
 saw  nothing  before  her  and 
 her  orphan  boy  but  famine  and 
 death.  The  lad,  fatigued  and 
 hungry,  lay  down  under  a 
 shrub,  and  his  mother  with- 
 drew from  him  a  little  way,and 
 lifted  up  her  voice  and  wept. 
 The  cries  of  the  lad  also,  in 
 this  hour  of  his  suffering  and 
 distress,"  came  up  before  God. 
 A  fountain  of  water  was  dis- 
 closed to  Hagar,  at  which  she 
 supplied  her'wants  ami  those 
 of  her  son,  and  there  also  re- 
 ceived from  God  a  promise  that 
 he  would  make  of  Ishmael  a 
 great  nation. 
 
 The  lad  grew  up  in  the  wil- 
 derness, became  an  archer, 
 and  married  an  Egyptian  wo- 
 man. (See  Abraham,  Ish- 
 mael.) 
 
 HAGARENES.  (Ps.  Ixxxiii. 
 6,)  or  HAGARITES,  (1  Chron. 
 V.  10.  20,)  are  the  descendants 
 of  Haaar,  and  are  of  course  the 
 same  with  the  Ishmaelites  or 
 
 HAI 
 
 Arabians.  They  are  sometimes 
 joined  with  the  Moabites,  as 
 in  the  first  passage  above  cited 
 
 HAGGAI.  Haggai  was  a  He- 
 brew prophet,  and  supposed  to 
 have  been  born  during  the 
 captivity,  and  to  have  returned 
 with  Zerubbabel.    (Hag.  ii.  2.) 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  the  thirty- 
 seventh  in  the  order  of  the 
 books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
 It  was  uttered  five  hundred 
 and  twenty  years  before  Christ, 
 and  of  course  after  the  return 
 of  the  Jews  to  their  own  land. 
 It  is  principally  composed  of 
 keen  reproof,  and  of  affecting 
 exhortations  respecting  the 
 building  of  the  second  temple, 
 which  they  had  abandoneafor 
 fourteen  or  fifteen  years,  be- 
 cause of  the  opposition  and 
 intrigue  of  their  enemies  ;  and 
 it  also  contains  predictions  of 
 Christ  and  the  universal  esta- 
 blishment of  his  kingdom. 
 
 It  is  supposed  that  the  glory 
 of  the  temple,  which  is  pre- 
 dicted with  great  clearness, 
 (Hag.  ii.  7—9,)  was  to  be  occa- 
 sioned by  the  coming  of  Christ; 
 and,  though  Herod  made  im- 
 portant alterations  in  it,  still 
 the  temple  of  Zerubbabel  was 
 always  regarded  as  the  second 
 temple,  and  Christ,  the  desire 
 of  all  nations,  did  appear  and 
 teach  in  it.  It  is  known,  more- 
 over, that  the  Jews  expected 
 the  true  Messiah  would  ap- 
 pear in  this  temple,  even  until 
 It  was  destroyed  by  Vespasian; 
 and,  to  make  their  rejection 
 of  Jesus  Christ  consistent,  they 
 forced  themselves  to  believe 
 that  a  third  temple  is  to  be 
 erected,  of  which  their  expect- 
 ed deliverer  i.°.  to  be  the  slory. 
 
 HAIL.  1.  (Luke  i.  28.)  This 
 word  WEL"?  used  by  way  of  salu- 
 tation, and  imported  a  wish 
 for  the  health  and  universal 
 prosperity  of  the  individual 
 addressed. 
 
 2.  (Rev.  viii.  7.)  A  storm 
 of  hailstones  was  one  of  the 
 plagues  of  Egypt,  and  is  de 
 
HAI 
 
 scribed,  Ex.  ix.  23—32.  Vs. 
 Ixxviii.  47;  cv.  32,  33.  It  was 
 employed  for  the  destruction 
 of  Joshua's  enemies.  (Josh.  x. 
 11.)  Hence  it  is  figuratively- 
 used  to  represent  terrible  judg- 
 ments. (Isa.  xxviii.  2.  Rev. 
 xvi.21.) 
 
 ^MR.  (Num.  vi.5.)  The 
 Hebrews  were  accustomed  to 
 cut  the  hair  very  much  as  we 
 do,  except  that  they  used  a 
 razor  or  knife,  and  not  scissors, 
 (Isa.  vii.  20.  Ezek.  v.  1 :)  and 
 excepting  also  in  the  case  of  a 
 vow  or  religious  obligation  to 
 let  it  |:row,  as  in  the  case  of 
 the  Nazariies.  (Judg.  xiii.  5. 
 See  Nazarites.)  The" precept 
 (Ezek.  xliv.  20")  requires  an 
 avoidance  of  extremes ;  so  that 
 the  Israelites  should  neither 
 resemble  the  priests  of  the  hea- 
 then gods,  who  shaved  their 
 hair  close,  nor  yet  the  Naza- 
 rites, who  did  not  cut  the  hair 
 at  all.  It  was  prohibited  (Lev. 
 xix.  27)  to  round  the  corners 
 of  the  head;  that  is,  as  it  is 
 generally  understood,  to  shave 
 off  the  hair  about  the  temples. 
 The  hair  (especially  black  or 
 dark  hair)  was  doubtless  con- 
 
 HAI 
 
 sidered  an  ornament,  and  it 
 was  anointed  with  aromatic 
 oil,  particularly  on  festivals 
 and  other  joyous  occasions, 
 (Ps.  xxiii.5;  xcii.  10.  Eccl.  ix. 
 8,)  and  perhaps  daily,  (Ruth 
 iii.  3 ;)  and  decorated  with  jew- 
 els and  precious  stones.  (iTim. 
 ii.9.  1  Pet.  iii.  3.)  Some  eastern 
 travellers  of  modern  days  tell 
 us,  that  for  men  to  wear  long 
 hair  is  regarded  as  effeminate, 
 and  even  infamous.  (1  Cor.  xi. 
 14.    See  Baldness.) 
 
 The  hair  is  spoken  of  by  the 
 apostle  as  a  natural  veil  or  co- 
 vering to  women,  which  it  is  a 
 shame  to  put  off.  (1  Cor.  xi. 
 15.)  It  was  plaited  or  braided, 
 as  is  the  custom  at  this  day 
 among  the  Asiatic  women.  In 
 India  the  hair  is  never  cut  off 
 by  the  women,  except  as  a 
 sign  of  widowhood. 
 
 The  practice  of  shaving  the 
 head, in  token  of  great  affliction 
 and  humiliation  for  sin,  was 
 common  among  the  Hebrews 
 even  as  early  as  Job's  day. 
 (Job  i.  20.)  So  that  the  exhor- 
 tation  to  cut  off  the  hair  is 
 equivalent  to  an  exhortation 
 to    begin    a   course   of  deep 
 
HAM 
 mourning  and  sorrow.     (Jer. 
 vji.  29.) 
 
 Two  of  the  eastern  modes 
 of  dressing  the  hair  appear  in 
 the  foregoing  cuts;  the  one 
 being  plaited,  and  the  other 
 hanging  loosely  upon  the  neck. 
 
 A  change  in  the  colour  of  the 
 hair  was  one  of  the  earliest  in- 
 dications of  the  leprosy  ;  and 
 hence  the  removal  of  the  hair, 
 as  the  seat  of  disease,  was  par- 
 ticularly enjoined.  (Lev.  xiii. 
 4.10.31,32;  xiv.  8,  9.) 
 
 HALAH.  (2  Kings  xvii.  6; 
 xviii.  11.)  A  province  of  As- 
 syria, supposed  by  some  to  be 
 the  same  with  Calah,  (Gen.  x. 
 12,)  and  with  Holwan  or  Choi- 
 wan  of  the  modern  Arabs. 
 
 HAM.  (Gen.  ix.  22.)  The 
 youngest  son  of  Noah.  He  had 
 lour  sons,  one  of  whom  was  the 
 ancestor  of  the  Canaanites. 
 The  empires  of  Assyria  and 
 Egypt  were  founded  by  the 
 descendants  of  Ham,  and  the 
 republics  of  Tyre,  Zidon,  and 
 Carthage  were  for  ages  the 
 monuments  of  their  commer- 
 cial enterprise  and  prosperity. 
 (See  Canaan.)  Africa  in  gen- 
 eral, and  Egypt  in  particular, 
 are  called  the  land  of  Ham. 
 (Ps.  lxxviii.51 ;  cv.  23;  cvi.  22.) 
 A  place  east  of  the  Jordan, 
 called  Ham,  is  mentioned, 
 (Gen.  xiv.  5.)  which  may  be 
 the  same  with  Hamath ;  and 
 the  descendants  of  Ham  are 
 mentioned  as  having  once  oc- 
 cupied the  southern  border  of 
 the  province  of  Canaan,  as- 
 signed to  the  tribe  of  Simeon. 
 (1  Chron.  iv.  40.) 
 
 HAMAN.  (Esth.  iii.  1.)  A 
 wicked  and  atnbiiious  courtier, 
 who  became  prime  minister  of 
 Ahasuerus,  a  Persian  monarch. 
 Because  Mordecai,  a  Jew,  in 
 an  humble  station  at  court,  re- 
 fused to  pay  him  the  homage 
 which  his  pride  and  vain-glory 
 craved.  Haman  resolved  on  his 
 destruction;  and  to  accomplish 
 it,  was  willing  to  sacrifice  the 
 whole  body  of  Jews  who  were 
 
 HAM 
 
 then  scattered  throughout  the 
 Persian  dominions.  He  suc- 
 ceeded, by  falsehood  and  in- 
 trigue, in  obtaining  a  decree 
 for'this  cruel  purpose;  but  the 
 queen,  through  the  influence 
 of  Mordecai,  was  prompted  to 
 interpose  for  their  deliverance, 
 which  she  accomplished;  %nd 
 Haman  ended  his  career  on 
 the  very  gibbet  which  he  had 
 caused  to  be  prepared  for  the 
 execution  of  Mordecai.  (See 
 Hammedatha.  For  an  inte- 
 resting history  of  Haman's  life 
 and  character,  with  illustra- 
 tive engravings,  reflections, 
 &c.,  see  Hadassah,  by  the 
 Arn.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 HAMATH,  (Num.  xiii.  21,) 
 (called  Hamath  the  Great. 
 Amos  vi.  2,)  was  a  province  of 
 Syria,  having  a  capital  city  of 
 the  same  name  on  the  Orontes. 
 It  was  originally  the  residence 
 of  Canaanites,  (Gen.  x.  18,) 
 and  is  frequently  mentioned 
 as  the  extreme  limit  of  the 
 Holy  Land  towards  the  north. 
 (Num.  xxxiv.  8.  Judg.  iii.  3.) 
 Toi  was  its  king  in  the  days  of 
 David,  (2Sam.  viii.  9,)  but  in 
 Hezekiah's  reign  (b.  c.  753)  it 
 fell  into  the  haiids  of  the  Assy- 
 rians. (2  Kings  xvii.  24;  xviii. 
 24.  Isa.  X.  9)  It  was  called 
 Epiphania  for  some  time,  but 
 has  long  since  resumed,  and 
 now  retains,  iis  ancient  name. 
 It  was  the  residence  of  the  ce- 
 lebrated Abulfeda,  an  Arabian 
 prince  and  geographer.  It  \s 
 built  on  both'sides  of  the  river, 
 and  contains  a  population  of 
 about  30,000.  The  principal 
 trade  of  Hamath  is  with  the 
 Arabs,  who  buy  here  their  tent 
 furniture  and  clothes.  The 
 government  of  Hamath  com- 
 prises about  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  inhabited  villages,  and 
 seventy  or  eighty  which  have 
 been  abandoned.  The  western 
 part  of  its  territory  is  the  gra- 
 nary of  northern  Syria ;  though 
 the  harvest  never  yields  more 
 than  ten  for  one,  chiefly  in 
 
HAN 
 
 consequence  of  the  immense 
 numbers  of  mice,  which  some- 
 limes  wholly  destroy  the  crops. 
 
 By  the  phrase,  the  entering 
 in  of  Hamath,  (Judg.  iii.  3. 
 2  Kings  xiv.  25,)  is  meant  the 
 narrow  pass  leading  from  the 
 land  of  Canaan  into  Syria, 
 which  constitutes  the  northern 
 boundary  of  Palestine.  It  is 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
 Imnimalh-dor,  (Josh,  xxi.32;) 
 and  some  have  supposed  they 
 are  boih  the  same  with  Tibe- 
 rias. 
 
 HAMMEDATHx\.  (Esth.  iii. 
 1.)  Haman's  father.  He  is 
 called  the  Agagite ;  and  Jose- 
 phus  says  he  was  a  descendant 
 from  Amalek,  and  probably  of 
 the  family  or  stock  of  Agag. 
 If  A£ag  was  the  common  name 
 of  their  kings,  it  is  not  im- 
 probable that  an  Amalekite 
 would  be  called  an  Agagite, 
 as  one  of  the  people  of  Aarag. 
 
 HAMOR.    (See  Dinah.) 
 
 HANANIAH.     (See  Abed- 
 
 HEGO.) 
 
 HANDS,    LAYING    ON    OF. 
 
 (Heb.  vi.  2.)  Both  the  hands 
 of  the  high-priest  were  laid  on 
 the  head  of  the  scape-goat 
 when  the  sins  of  the  people 
 were  publicly  confessed.  It 
 was  also  a  ceremony  by  which 
 persons  were  inducted  into 
 eacred  office,  or  were  made  the 
 recipientsof  divine  gifts.(Num. 
 viii.  10;  xxvii.  18.  "Acts  vi.  6; 
 viii.  14—19;  xiii.  3;  xix.  1— 
 6.  1  Tim.  iv.  14.)  The  various 
 figurative  uses  of  the  word 
 hand,  by  the  sacred  writers, 
 are  too  obvious  to  recjuire  ex- 
 planation. 
 
 HANDBREADTH.  (See 
 Measures.) 
 
 HANDI^ERCHIEF.  (See 
 Clothes.) 
 
 HANDSTAVES.  (Ezek. 
 xxxix.  9.)  These  were  wea- 
 pons of  war,  resembling  jave- 
 lins. They  were  cast  with  the 
 hand. 
 
 HANES.  (Isa.  xxx.  4.)  Sujv 
 f-osed  to  be  a  royal  city  south 
 
 HAR 
 
 of  Memphis,  upon  an  island  of 
 the  Nile,  a  few  remains  of 
 which  are  still  to  be  seen. 
 
 HANG.  (Deut.  xxi.  22.) 
 Hanging  on  a  tree  or  gibbet 
 seems  to  have  been  a  mark  of 
 infamy,  inflicted  on  the  dead 
 bodies  of  criminals,  rather 
 than  a  punishmpnt,  as  modern 
 nations  employ  it.  It  implies 
 that  the  oJender  is  accursed  of 
 God,  and  an  abomination  in  his 
 sight.  (Deut.  xxi.  23.)  Yet  such 
 a  curse,  deserved  by  us  as 
 transgressors  of  the  divine  law, 
 Christ  bore  for  <is  in  his  own 
 body.  (Acts  v.  30.  Gal.  iii.  13. 
 1  Pet.  ii.  24.) 
 
 HANNAH.  (ISam.  i.2.) 
 One  of  the  wives  of  Elkanah, 
 and  the  mother  of  the  prophet 
 Samuel. 
 
 HANUN.  (2  Sam.  X.  2.)  A 
 king  of  the  Ammonites.  We 
 are  informed  that  David  had 
 received  tokens  of  kindness 
 from  Nahash,  the  father  and 
 predecessor  of  Hanun.  After 
 the  death  of  Nahash,  David 
 sent  messengers  to  Hanun  to 
 comfort  him,  and  to  express 
 his  respect  for  the  memory  of 
 the  deceased  king.  But  Hanun 
 thought,  or  pretended  to  think, 
 that  David  sent  them  as  spies; 
 so  he  took  them  and  shaved  off 
 one  half  their  beards,  and  cut 
 off  their  garments  in  the  mid- 
 dle, and  in  this  condition  sent 
 them  home.  David  heard  of 
 their  situation,  and  sent  to 
 meet  them,  with  directions  to 
 stay  at  Jericho  until  their 
 beards  were  grown.  This  un- 
 generous conduct  of  Hanun 
 was  the  occasion  of  a  lon^ 
 war,  in  which  multitudes  of 
 the  Ammonites  and  their  al- 
 lies, Syrians  and  others,  were 
 slain. 
 
 HARAN.  1.  Aperson.  (Gen. 
 xi.  26.)  The  brother  of  Abra- 
 ham and  the  father  of  Lot. 
 
 2.  A  place.  (Gen.  xi.  31.) 
 Situated  in  the  north-east  of 
 Mesopotamia,  and  between  the 
 Euphrates  and  the  Chebar, 
 291 
 
HAR 
 
 where  Terah  died,  and  was 
 buried,  (Act3vii.4;)  in  which 
 
 {)assage  it  is  called  Charran. 
 t  was  also  the  residence  of 
 Laban,  Rebecca's  brother. 
 (Gen.  xxvii.  43;  xxviii.  10.)  It 
 had  commercial  intercourse 
 with  Tyre,  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23,) 
 and  was  subdued  by  the  Assy- 
 rian army.  (2  Kings  xix.  12. 
 Isa.  xxxvii.  12.)  It  is  still 
 known  by  its  ancient  name, 
 and  is  inhabited  principally 
 oy  wandering  Arabs. 
 
 HARE.  (Deut.  xiv.  7.)  The 
 hare,  known  in  this  country  as 
 the  rabbit,  is  also  a  common 
 animal  in  Syria,  and  was  de- 
 clared unclean  by  the  Jewish 
 law,  (Lev.  xi.  6,;  ..ecause  it  di- 
 vides not  the  hoof,  tiiough  it 
 chews  the  cud.  This  last  is 
 prjbably  the  fact  respecting 
 
 HAR 
 
 some  species  of  the  animal 
 though  it  is  said  not  to  be  so 
 generally. 
 
 HARLOT.  (Prov.  xxix.  3.) 
 This  term,  though  generally 
 applied  to  an  abandoned  wo- 
 man, is  used  figuratively  by 
 the  sacred  writers  to  denote 
 the  wicked  and  unchaste  con- 
 duct of  the  Israelites,  in  for- 
 saking their  covenant  with 
 God,  and  giving  themselves  up 
 to  idolatry  and  impurity.  (Iss. 
 i.21.) 
 
 HARNESS.  (1  Kings  xx.  11.) 
 In  this  passage  and  some  others 
 the  word  denotes  armour.  It 
 might  be  supposed  that  the 
 convenience  of  modern  trav 
 elling,  known  as  harness,  was 
 of  very  rude  construction  in 
 the  time  of  Solomon;  but  it 
 seems  from  the  following  cut, 
 
 copied  from  an  Egyptian  tomb, 
 supposed  to  be  upwards  of 
 3000  years  old,  that  in  general 
 construction  and  use  very  little 
 change  has  been  made.  The 
 phrase  made  ready  his  chariot 
 (Ex.  xiv.  6)  literally  means,  in 
 modern  phraseology,  tackled, 
 OT  put  to,  his  horses. 
 
 That  bridles  with  bits  were 
 very  early  known  as  part  of 
 the  harness  of  a  horse  is  obvi- 
 ous from  Isa.  xxxvii.  29,  and 
 James  iii.3.  The  word  hartiess- 
 ed  (Ex.  xiii.lS,)  probably  means 
 
 furnished,  arranged,  and  gov- 
 erned according  to  the  esta- 
 blished usages  and  customs 
 of  caravans  or  travelling  com- 
 panies. 
 
 HAROD,  WELL  OF.  (Judg. 
 vii.  1.)  A  fountain  or  watering 
 place  in  jezreel,  near  the  fool 
 of  mount  Gilboa,  (1  Sam.  xxix. 
 1,)  and  probably  the  native 
 village  of  two  of  David's  va- 
 liant men.    (2Sam.  xxiii.25.) 
 
 HAROSHETH.  (Judg.iv.2. 
 13.16.)  The  city  ofSisera,  the 
 capuin  of  Jabin's  host,  who 
 
HAR 
 
 was  defeated  by  Deborah  and 
 Barak.  It  was  in  Naphtali, 
 afterwards  Galilee  of  tiie  Gen- 
 tiles, not  far  from  Hazor. 
 
 HARP.  (Gen.  iv.  21.)  A 
 musical  instrument,  invented 
 by  Jubal,  and  used  by  the  Jews 
 when  mirth  and  joy  were  ex- 
 pressed. (Gen.  xxxi.  27.  Ps. 
 Ixxxi.  2;  cxxxvii.  1,  2.  Isa. 
 xxiv.  8.)  David  was  particu- 
 larly skilful  in  the  use  of  it. 
 (1  Sam.  xvi.  16. 23.  See  Psal- 
 tery.) The  simplest  form  of 
 the  harp  or  lyre  is  given  in  the 
 following  cut;    the  bones  of 
 
 HAR 
 
 animals  forming  the  two  sides 
 and  the  upper  connecting 
 piece,  and  a  tortoise  shell  be- 
 ing used  for  the  foot. 
 
 Another  harp  (perhaps  the 
 game  with  the  psaltery  and 
 instrument  with  teji  strings, 
 Ps.  xcii.  3)  was  made  in  the 
 form  of  the  human  ear,  and  is 
 represented  in  the  following 
 cut,  which  is  copied  from  a 
 tomb  at  Thebes.  It  closely 
 resembles,  in  every  respect, 
 the  Burmese  harp  of  the  pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 The  strings  of  the  ancient 
 harp  were  stretched  over  an 
 oval  sounding  board,  and  yjlay- 
 ed  with  a  key.  Sometimes  "it 
 had  only  eight  strings,  and,  aa 
 some  suppose,  was  then  called 
 theminith.  (1  Chron.  xv.  21.) 
 Ps.  vi.  xii.  title.)  It  was  light 
 and  portable,  or  it  could  not  be 
 25* 
 
 used,  as  it  doubtless  often  was, 
 in  the  act  of  dancin?.  (Ex.  xv, 
 20.  1  Sam.  xviii.  6.)  The  in- 
 strument used  by  David  was 
 more  properly  a  lyre,  and 
 might  have  been  played  with 
 the  hand  or  with  a  key.  (ISam. 
 xvi.  23.  See  Musical  Instrd- 
 
 MENTS.) 
 
 HARROW.  (1  Chron.  XX.  3.) 
 The  harrow  was  a  rude  imple- 
 ment of  Jewish  husbandry  ; 
 being,  as  is  generally  supposed, 
 a  mere  plank  or  log  of  wood, 
 upon  which  stones  were  heap- 
 ed and  the  labourer  sat,  and 
 which  was  drawn  over  the 
 ground  by  oxen,  to  break  in 
 pieces  the  clods  and  level  the 
 surface,  (Isa.  xxviii.  24,  25 ;)  or 
 perhaps  one  or  more  branches 
 of  trees  might  be  used  in  the 
 same  way.  We  know,  how- 
 ever, that  an  implement  of  the 
 kind  was  used  for  some  pur- 
 poses, which  was  wholly  or  in 
 part  of  iron.    (2  Sam.  xii.  31.) 
 
 HART.  (Ps.  xlii.  1.)  Deer 
 is  a  general  name  of  a  class 
 of  quadrupeds,  as  the  stag,  fal- 
 low-deer, rein-deer,  elk,  &c., 
 but  the  animal  is  never  men- 
 tioned by  this  generic  name  in 
 the  Bible. 
 
 The  fallow-deer  (1  Kings  iv. 
 23)  was  a  clean  animal  by  the 
 Levitical  law.  (Deut.  xiv.  5.) 
 2^3 
 
HAR 
 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  resem- 
 bled our  red  deer,  or  hart,  in 
 size  and  colour;  whence  the 
 the  name  oi fallow,  (pale  red 
 or  pale  yellow.)  Some  have 
 supposed  the  buffalo  of  modern 
 times  is  intended  in  the  above 
 passages. 
 
 The  liart  is  the  male  stag-, 
 and  is  one  of  the  most  graceful 
 and  beautiful  of  all  animals. 
 It  was  clean  by  the  Levitical 
 law,  (Deut.  xii.  15 ;  xiv.  5 ;)  and 
 the  grace  and  agility  of  its 
 motions  are  alluded  to  in  Sol. 
 Song  ii.9.  Isa.xxxv.6.  The 
 stag  lolls,  or  pants,  like  the 
 dog,  and  is  soon  exhausted  by 
 
 HAR 
 
 hunger.  (Jer.  xiv.  5.  Lam.  I, 
 6.) 
 
 The  roe,  or  roe-buck,  is  an- 
 other name  for  the  hart ;  and 
 its  swiftness  of  foot  and  ele- 
 gant form  are  often  alluded  to 
 in  the  Bible.    (2  Sam.  ii.  18.) 
 
 The  roe  of  the  Scriptures  is 
 generally  supposed  to  be  the 
 gazelle  of  later  times,  which  is 
 still  found  chiefly  in  Asia  and 
 Africa.  It  was  a  clean  animal 
 by  the  Levitical  law,  (Deut. 
 xii.  15,)  and  a  favourite  of  the 
 chase.  (Prov.  vi.  5.  Isa.  xiii. 
 14.)  The  following  is  a  cut 
 of  the  roe  or  gazelle  of  the 
 Bible: 
 
 '  The  hind  is  the  female  stag. 
 She  is  smaller  and  weaker 
 than  her  mate,  the  hart,  and 
 has  no  horns.  She  is  sure  and 
 swift  of  foot,  and  leaps  fearless- 
 ly among  the  rocks  and  pre- 
 cipices. "(28301.  xxii.  34.  Ps. 
 xviii.  3.3.  Hab.  iii.  19.)  The 
 insiinclive  affection  of  the 
 hart  and  hind  are  alluded  to, 
 
 Prov.  V.  18,  19,  and  Sol.  Song 
 ii.  7;  iii.  5. 
 
 The  figurative  prediction  of 
 Jacob,  respecting  Naphtali, 
 (Gen.  xlix.  21,)  would  be  more 
 appropriately  rendered, 'Naph- 
 tali is  a  deer  roaming  at  large 
 he  shooteth  forth  noble  ant 
 lers.'  The  antlers  or  horns  in 
 dicate  the  strength  and  health 
 294 
 
HAT 
 
 HAV 
 
 of  the  slag,  and  the  whole  me- 
 taphor expresses  the  increase 
 of  the  tribe,  and  the  fertility 
 of  their  portion  in  Judea.  The 
 above  cut  represents  the  hart. 
 (See  Youth's  Friend,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union,  vol.  v.  Nos.  11  and 
 12,  for  cuts  and  descriptive  ar- 
 ticles.) 
 HARVEST.  (See  Seasons.) 
 HATE,  (Gen.  xxiv.60,)  HA- 
 TRED, (Eccl.  ix.  1,)  HATE- 
 FUL. (Ps.  xxxvi.  2.)  To  hate 
 is  to  abhor,  to  abominate,  or  to 
 regard  with  a  passion  contrary 
 to  love.  (Jer.  xliv.  4.)  God's 
 hatred  is  towards  all  sinful 
 thoughts  and  ways.  It  is  a 
 feeling  of  which  all  holy  be- 
 ings are  conscious  in  view  of 
 sin,  and  is  wholly  unlike  the 
 hatred  which  is  mentioned  in 
 the  Scripture  among  the  works 
 of  the  flesh.  (Gal.  v.  20.)  To 
 hate  sometimes  means  to  love 
 in  a  less  degree.  When  our 
 Saviour  says  that  he  who  would 
 follow  him  must  hate  father 
 and  mother,  he  means  that 
 even  these  dearest  earthly 
 friends  must  be  loved  in  a  sub- 
 ordinate degree;  and  in  the 
 same  sense  the  follower  of 
 Christ  is  to  hate  his  own  life, 
 
 or  be  willing  to  sacrifice  It  for 
 the  love  and  service  of  the 
 Redeemer.    A  careful  exami- 
 nation of  the  passages  and  con- 
 nexion in  which  these  words 
 occur,  will  best  show  their  true 
 force  and  meanin^c. 
 HAVILAH,  LAND  OF.   (Gen. 
 I  ii.  11 ;      where  the  sacred  his- 
 j  torian  uses  the  name  which 
 !  was  afterwards  applied  to  this 
 I  land,  and  which  was  probably 
 I  derived  from  Havilah  the  son 
 ,  of  Cush,  (Gen.  x.  7,)  whose 
 !  descendants  peopled  it.     It  is 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
 Colchis,  between  the  Black 
 Sea  and  the  Caspian.  Another 
 country  of  this  name  lay  be- 
 tween the  Euphrates  and  Ti- 
 gris, towards  ttie  Persian  gulf, 
 where  Chavelsei  (or  Chavilah) 
 of  later  times  is  found.    One  of 
 these  provinces  may  have  been 
 settled    by  Havilah,  the    de- 
 scendant of  Joktan.    (Gen.  x. 
 29.) 
 
 A  third  Havilah  is  supposed 
 to  be  intended  in  Gen.  xxv.18, 
 thoush  that  passage  may  also 
 describe  the  vast  region  last 
 mentioned,  between  the  Per- 
 sian  Gulf  on  the  east,  and  Shui 
 by  the  Red  Sea  on  the  west. 
 295 
 
HAY 
 
 The  phrase  from  Havilah 
 unto  Shur,  in  Gen.  xxv.  18, 
 and  1  Sam.  xv.  7,  and  many 
 other  passages,  seems  to  be 
 used  10  designate  the  opposite 
 extremes  of  Arabia;  in  which 
 sense,  Havilah  may  be  regard- 
 ed as  the  eastern  border  of  the 
 country  inhabited  by  the  Ish- 
 maelites  and  Amalekites. 
 
 HAVOTH-JAIR.  (Num. 
 xxxii.41.)  The  general  name 
 of  thirty  villages  in  the  land 
 of  Gilead,  owned  by  the  thirty 
 sons  of  Jair.  one  of  the  judges 
 of  Israel,  (jiids.  x.  2^}.) 
 
 HAURAN,  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16. 
 18,)  (in  the  Greek,  Auranitis.) 
 A  district  of  country  east  of 
 the  Jordan,  supposed  by  some 
 to  be  the  same  with  Iiurea, 
 and  to  have  reached  from  a 
 point  opposite  the  sea  of  Tibe- 
 rias, as  far  north  as  Damascus. 
 In  modern  times  its  limits 
 have  been  extended  as  far 
 south  as  Bozrah,  and  the  whole 
 tract  is  represented  as  volcanic 
 and  porouSjwith  here  and  there 
 a  spot  of  vegetation  for  the 
 Arab's  pasturage. 
 
 HAWK.  (Jobxxxix.26.)  A 
 fierce  and  rapacious  bird  of 
 the  falcon  tribe,  unclean  by 
 the  Levitical  law,  (Lev.  xi.  16. 
 Deut.  xiv.  15,)  but  so  sacred 
 among  the  Greeks  and  Egyp- 
 tians, that  to  kill  one,  even 
 unintentionally,  was  a  capital 
 crime.  The  allusion,  in  the 
 passage  first  cited,  is  to  God's 
 providential  care  of  birds  of 
 passage;  providing  them  with 
 instinct  to  determine  the  time 
 and  course  of  their  fliight,  to 
 reach  a  warmer  climate.  (See 
 Youth's  Friend,  vol.  vi.  No. 
 10,  by  Am  S.  S.  Union,  for  de- 
 scription and  cut.) 
 
 HAY  (Prov.  xxvii.  2.5.)  We 
 are  not  to  suppose  that  this 
 word,  as  used  in  the  Bible,  de- 
 notes dried  grass,  as  it  does 
 with  us.  The  management  of 
 grass  by  the  Hebrews,  as  food 
 for  cattle,  was  entirely  differ- 
 ent from   our's     It  was    cut 
 
 HAZ 
 
 green,  as  it  was  wanted;  and 
 the  7)hrase  mown  grass  (Ps. 
 Ixxii.  6)  would  be  more  pro- 
 perly rendered  grass  that  has 
 just  been  fed  off.  So  in  Prov. 
 xxvii.  25,  the  word  translated 
 hay  means  the  first  shoots  of 
 the  grass  ;  and  the  whole  pas 
 sage" might  better  be  rendered, 
 'The  grass  appeareth,  and  the 
 green  herb  snoweth  itself,  and 
 the  plants  of  the  mountains 
 are  gathered.'  And  in  Isa. 
 XV.  6,  hay  is  put  for  grass,  and 
 grass  is  put  for  the  green  herb. 
 The  tenderness  of  gras»,  the 
 rapidity  of  its  growth,  and  the 
 early  period  at'which  it  is  cut 
 down  and  consumed,  afford  the 
 sacred  writers  some  striking 
 and  beautiful  illustrations.  (Ps. 
 ciii.  15.  Isa.  xl.  6.  James  i.  11. 
 See  Mowings.) 
 
 HAZAEL.  (iKingsxix  15.) 
 An  officer  in  the  court  of  Syria, 
 whom  Elijah  was  commanded 
 to  anoint  as  successor  to  Ben 
 hadad,  and  at  the  same  time 
 to  anoint  Jehu  to  be  king  of 
 Israel.  The  latter  commission 
 he  did  not  execute,  (2  Kings 
 ix.  1 — 10,)  nor  are  we  informed 
 whether  he  executed  the  first. 
 It  is,  however,  supposed  that 
 the  word  anoint,  in  this  con- 
 nexion, may  denote  only  a  spe- 
 cial designation  to  the  office. 
 About  eleven  years  after  this, 
 Benhadad,  residing  at  Damas- 
 cus, and  being  taken  sick, 
 instructed  Hazael  to  take  a 
 princely  present  to  the  prophet 
 Elisha,  (who  happened  to  be 
 at  Damascus,)  and  consult  him 
 as  to  the  issue  of  his  sickness 
 The  prophet  informed  Hazael 
 that  his  royal  master's  disease 
 would  not  prove  mortal,  but 
 still  that  he  would  not  live; 
 and  he  proceeded  to  predict 
 the  elevation  of  Hazael  to  the 
 throne  of  Syria,  and  a  series  of 
 the  most  horrible  cruelties  of 
 which  he  would  be  guilty  to- 
 wards the  children  of  Israel. 
 Hazael  expressed  the  utmost 
 abhorrence  of  such  conduct; 
 296 
 
HEA 
 
 but  the  very  next  day  he  sliQed 
 Benhadad  to  death,  look  the 
 throne,  and  in  process  of  time 
 perpetrated  all  the  barbarities 
 thai  the  prophet  had  described. 
 (2Kin2sx.  32,  33;  xii.  17,18; 
 xiii.  3.7.  22.  2  Chron.  xxiv.  23.) 
 
 HAZAZAN-TAIMAR.  (See 
 Engedi.) 
 
 HAZEL.  (Gen.  XXX.  37.)  It 
 is  generally  supposed  that  the 
 almond  tree  is  intended  in  this 
 passage.  The  original  word  is 
 susceptible  of  this' rendering. 
 
 RAZOR.  (Josh.  xi.  10.)  A 
 capital  city  of  the  Canaaniles, 
 where  Jabin  dwelt,  and  which 
 was  subdued  and  burnt  by 
 Joshua.  (Josh.  xi.  1—13.)  It 
 was,  however,  rebuilt  and  go- 
 verned by  a  king  of  the  same 
 name,  whose  army  was  routed 
 by  Barak.  (Judg.  iv.  2—16.) 
 It  was  fortified  by  Solomon, 
 (1  Kings  ix.  15,)  and  in  the 
 general  invasion  of  the  country 
 by  Tiglath-Pileser,  fell  into  his 
 hands,  (2  Kings  xv.  29,)  and  its 
 inhabitants  were  carried  into 
 Assyria. 
 
 There  is  a  remarkable  pro- 
 phecy respecting  Hazor  in  Jer. 
 xlix.  28—33.  The  connexion 
 shows  it  to  have  been  in  Ara- 
 bia, and  the  whole  scope  of 
 the  prophecy  denotes  a  place 
 of  great  importance.  It  is, 
 however,  completely  blotted 
 out,  though  some  have  con- 
 jectured that  it  is  anothername 
 for  Petra. 
 
 HEAL,  (Eccl.  iii.  3,)  HEAL- 
 ING, (INIal.  i%  2,)  HEALTH.  | 
 (Gen.  xliii.  28.)     To  heal  all  1 
 manner  of  sickness  and  dis- 1 
 eases  by  the  word  of  his  own 
 power  was  the  divine  prero- 1 
 gative  of  our  Redeemer,  (Matt, 
 iv.  23,)  and  the  power  to  heal 
 was  among  the  gifts  conferred 
 on  his  early  apostles.    (I  Cor. 
 xii.  28)  The  various  figurative 
 uses  of  these  words  are  suffi- 
 ciently   explained    by    their 
 connexion. 
 
 HEAP.    (See  Stones.) 
 
 HEART.  (Acts  xvi.  r  )  The 
 
 HEA 
 
 seat  of  the  affections,  desires, 
 and  motives;  though,  as  it  is 
 often  employed  by  the  sacred 
 writers,  it  embraces  all  the 
 powers  and  faculties  of  man. 
 as  a  moral,  intellectual,  and 
 accountable  being.  (Matt.  xv. 
 19.)  Thus,  when  God  is  said  to 
 shine  into  the  hearis  of  men  to 
 give  the  light  of  the  knowledge 
 of  his  glory  in  the  face  of  Jesus 
 Christ,  (2  Cor.  iv.  6,)  the  term 
 is  used  in  an  enlarged  sense, 
 and  the  whole  passage  leaches 
 us  that  God  causes  the  under- 
 standings of  men  to  be  enlight- 
 ened or"  informed  by  the  Holy 
 Spirit  in  the  knowledge  of  his 
 glory  as  it  is  made  known  in 
 Jesus  Christ ;  and  that  the  will 
 and  affections  thus  come  un- 
 der the  influence  of  spiritual 
 knowledge,  and  the  soul  is 
 transformed  into  the  divine 
 image. 
 
 The  prophet  says,  the  heart 
 is  deceitful  above  all  things, 
 and  desperately  tcicked ;  uho 
 can  know  it?  (Jer.  xvii.  9.) 
 And,  as  if  in  reply  to  this  em- 
 phatic question,  God  immedi- 
 ately declares  his  prerogative : 
 I  the  Lord  search  the  heart ;  1 
 try  the  reiyis.  (ver.  10.) 
 
 HEATH.  (Jer.  xvii.  6.)  A 
 plant  peculiar  to  wild  and 
 barren  wastes.  It  is  used  in 
 some  countries  as  fuel,  and 
 also  to  stuff  beds  and  thatch 
 houses.  Its  place  in  the  desert, 
 in  parched  and  uncultivated 
 ground,  is  alluded  to  in  the 
 above  passage,  and  makes  but 
 a  part  of  the  beautiful  figure 
 by  which  the  opposite  condi- 
 tions of  the  righteous  and 
 wicked  are  illustrated.  (Jer. 
 xvii.  5—8.)  The  same  word  is 
 used,  Jer.  xlviii.  6;  and  whe- 
 ther it  denotes  in  tiiis  passage 
 the  plant,  or  some  blasted 
 naked  tree,  or  an  animal  ol 
 the  desert,  the  idea  conveyed 
 is  the  same,  viz.  that  the  Mo- 
 abites  should  seek  the  solitude 
 of  the  desert,  to  elude  the  pur 
 suit  of  their  enemies. 
 297 
 
HEA 
 
 HEATHEN.  (Ps.  ii.  1.)  This 
 term  is  applied  by  the  sacred 
 writers,  sonieiimes  to  those 
 who  were  infidels  or  unbe- 
 lievers, (Jer.  X.  25,)  but  gene- 
 rally in  the  same  sense^wiih 
 Gentiles.  (See  Gentlle.)  In 
 modern  times  it  denotes  all 
 those  who  are  without  the 
 knowledge  of  the  gospel,  and 
 embraces  upwards  of  three- 
 fourths  of  the  human  race. 
 
 HEAVEN.  (Gen.  xlix.  25.) 
 The  Jews  considered  the  region 
 of  the  air,  dew,  clouds,  "and 
 wind,  as  the  first  heaven,  (Job 
 XXXV.  11;)  the  place  which 
 the  heavenly  bodies  occupied, 
 as  the  second  heaven;  and  the 
 place  where  God,  and  Christ, 
 and  angels  dwell,  as  the  third 
 heaven,and  invisible  to  mortal 
 eyes.    (2  Cor.  xii.  2,  4.) 
 
 The  opinion  has  always  pre- 
 vailed among  Jews  and  Chris- 
 tians, Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
 seems  to  be  fully  confirmed  by 
 the  Scriptures,(Luke  i.l9,)  that 
 there  is  a  place  in  the  universe 
 where  God's  presence  is  made 
 manifest  by  some  visible  dis- 
 play of  his  transcendent  glory 
 in  the  presence  of  the  holy 
 company  that  are  admitted  to 
 dwell  there.  To  such  a  place 
 Paul  was  admitted,  (2  Cor.  xii. 
 2;)  and  thither  Jesus  ascended, 
 (Luke  xxiv.  51.  Eph.  iv.  10. 
 Heb.  viii.  1,)  and  there  he  now 
 Bits  upon  his  throne  (Heb.  x. 
 12)  as  King  of  Zion,  and  there 
 he  continually  officiates  as 
 our  advocate  and  intercessor, 
 (Heb.  ix.  15.  2-1— 2S ;)  there  is 
 his  father's  house,  in  which 
 are  many  mansions  prepared 
 for  Christ's  friends  and  follow- 
 ers to  inhabit,  when  the  earthly 
 house  of  this  tabernacle  shall 
 be  dissolved ;  and  there  will  be 
 gathered  together,  in  one  bless- 
 ed indissoluble  society,  all  the 
 redeemed  of  the  Lord,  out  of 
 every  kingdom,  and  people, 
 and  tongue,  and  nation,  whose 
 endless  and  rapturous  employ- 
 ment it  will  be  to  admire  and 
 
 HEB 
 
 adore  the  riches  of  the  divine 
 grace  and  glory. 
 
 The  heaven  of  heavens 
 (2Chron.  vi.  18)  is  the  highest 
 heaven ;  as  the  song  of  songs 
 is  the  most  excellent  song; 
 the  God  of  gods,  or  the  Lord  of 
 lords,  the  greatest  of  gods,  or 
 the  suprenie  of  lords. 
 
 The  t/iird  heaven  (2  Cor.  xii. 
 2)  is  the  same  as  the  highest 
 heaven ;  and  both  are  used  to 
 express  the  idea  of  the  highest 
 exaltation  and  glory,  (Luke 
 ii.  15  ;)  that  is,  God  dwells  not 
 only  in  heaven,  but  above  the 
 heavens,  in  the  third  or  very 
 highest  heaven.  So  the  ral> 
 bins  and  the  Mohammedans 
 make,  in  the  same  way,  seven 
 heavens.  (Comp.  2  Cor.  xii.  2. 
 Eph.  iv.lO.  Heb.vii.26.) 
 
 Kingdom  of  Heaven.  (See 
 Kingdom.) 
 
 HEAVE-OFFERING.  (See 
 Offerings.) 
 
 HEBER  (Judg.  iv.  17-21) 
 was  of  the  family  of  Jethro, 
 and  was  distinguished  as  the 
 husband  of  Jael,  who  killed 
 Sisora.    (See  Hebrews.) 
 
 HEBREWS.  (Gen.  xiv.  13.) 
 This  term  is  used  to  denote 
 the  people  who  descended  from 
 Abraham.  The  derivation  of 
 it  is  either  from  Heber,  one  of 
 the  ancestors  of  Abraham,  or 
 from  the  Hebrew  word  Eber, 
 which  signifies /rwn  the  other 
 side.  The  people  who  are 
 known  by  the  name  Hebrews, 
 came  "  from  the  other  side,"  as 
 vv  e  say  of  a  foreigner,  that  he  is 
 from  beyond  sea ;  and  hence 
 the  Canaanites  might  very 
 naturally  call  them  Hebrews, 
 or  people  from  the  other  side. 
 They  were  not  called  Jews 
 until  a  much  later  period  of 
 their  history  ;  and  this  name 
 was  derived  from  Judah. 
 
 In  the  present  article,  we 
 can  give  but  a  very  general 
 outline  of  the  history  of  this 
 extraordinary  people. 
 
 1 .  IVieir  origin.  A  man  of 
 wealth,  wisdom,  and  integrity 
 298 
 
HEB 
 
 was  selected  by  God  to  be  the 
 father  and  founder  of  the 
 Hebrew  nation;  and  was  fa- 
 voured with  many  visions  and 
 revelaiioiis,  promises  and  co- 
 venants, all  lending  to  show 
 him  the  greatness  and  glory 
 of  his  posterity.  (See  Abra- 
 ham.) Among  other  things,  he 
 was  told  that  his  descendants 
 should  subdue  and  possess  a 
 most  fertile  and  beautiful 
 country. 
 
 2.  TVieir government.  About 
 two  hundred  years  after  Abra- 
 ham was  appointed  to  this  dis- 
 tinction, we  find  Joseph,  his 
 great-grandson,  holding  one 
 of  theT  principal  offices  in  the 
 government  of  Egypt ;  and,  by 
 a  tra'.n  of  remarkable  provi- 
 dences, his  father  Jacob,  to- 
 gether with  his  eleven  bre- 
 thren, also  became  inhabitants 
 of  that  country.  (S^e  Joseph.) 
 
 The  great  increase  of  their 
 number  and  wealth  soon  pro- 
 voked the  je  ilousy  of  the  go- 
 vernment, and  led  to  a  royal 
 decree  that  all  their  male 
 children  should  be  destroyed 
 at  the  birth.  While  this  decree 
 was  in  force,  (b.  c.  1-571,)  Moses 
 was  lx)rn  ;  and,  being  conceal- 
 ed by  his  mother,  he  escaped 
 the  general  slaughter  of  male 
 infants,  and  was  preserved  to 
 be  the  leader  and  deliverer  of 
 the  people.  Being  instructed 
 particularly  in  the  religion  and 
 expectation  of  his  forefathers, 
 he  early  became  interested  in 
 their  oppressed  condition;  and, 
 happening  to  see  an  Egyptian 
 ill-treat  an  Israelite,  he  took 
 part  with  the  latter,  and  slew 
 the  f  >rmpr.  Fearing  the  ven- 
 geance of  the  king,  he  escaped 
 to  a  distant  land,  where  he 
 remained  forty  years.  He 
 was  there  divinely  directed  to 
 return  to  Egypt;  and  God  was 
 pleased  to  accomjdish,  by  his 
 inslr'uneniality,  the  deliver- 
 ance of  Israel  from  their  bond- 
 age, and  to  lead  them,  by  a 
 journey  of  forty  years  through 
 
 HEB 
 
 the  wilderness,  into  the  rich 
 and  fertile  land  of  Canaan. 
 (See  Moses.) 
 
 Up  to  this  period  they  had 
 lived  under  a  patriarchal  form 
 of  government,  some  traces  of 
 which  remained  through  suc- 
 ceeding ages,  (see  ^atri- 
 ARCHS,)  but  in  the  progress  of 
 this  eventful  journey,  God  es- 
 tablished a  government  for 
 them,— the  elements  or  grand 
 principles  of  which  are  found 
 in  the  law  of  the  ten  com- 
 mandments, [iroinulgated  from 
 mount  Sinai.  This"most  per 
 feet  and  admirable  constitu- 
 tion or  code,  embracing  as  it 
 did  all  that  pertains  to  the 
 civil  as  well  as  the  religious 
 rights  and  obligations  of  the 
 people,  was  formed  by  God 
 himself,  and  by  him  ailminis- 
 lered,  as  emphatically  law- 
 giver, and  jidge,  and  king  of 
 Israel ;  and  hence  it  is  called 
 a  theocracy.  This  theocratic 
 form  of  government,  under 
 various  modifications,  existed 
 even  to  the  cominur  of  the 
 Messiah.  The  Jewish  kings 
 were  mere  viceroys,  bound  to 
 govern  by  certain  laws,  and 
 fearfully  punished  for  disobe- 
 dience. They  were  raised  up 
 and  displaced  by  the  imme- 
 diate and  frequently  visible 
 direction  of  God,  (Hos.  xiii.  11 ;) 
 they  were  subject  to  his  autho- 
 rity, (Deut.  xvii.14— ^20;)  and 
 the  prophets,  in  their  long  and 
 glorious  succession,  were  ap. 
 pointed  to  maintain  the  inter- 
 course between  God  and  his 
 peculiar  people,  and  to  r^nrove 
 and  rebuke  the  kings  of  Judah 
 and  Israel  for  all  their  rebel- 
 lion against  Him.  Hence  it  is 
 justly  inferred  that  the  shocks 
 and  revolutions  in  the  Jewish 
 government,  however  it  might 
 interrupt  or  modify,  never  de- 
 I  stro>^ed  the  theocratic  relation 
 I  subsisting  between  God  and 
 the  seed  of  Abraham,  until  the 
 light  of  the  clorious  gospel 
 I  arose,  and  eal'vation  for  all, 
 
HEB 
 Jews  and  Gentiles,  was  pro- 
 claimed through  the  blood  of 
 Christ. 
 
 In  due  time  they  entered  the 
 land  of  Canaan,  and,  after  a 
 series  of  severe  contests,  in 
 which  God  displayed  his  power 
 in  their  behalf,  they  expelled 
 the  original  possessors  of  the 
 soil,  and  under  a  long  suc- 
 cession of  judges  and  kings, 
 occupied  the  country  as  their 
 romised  inheritance. 
 '  3.  Their  religion.  It  was 
 evidently  the  design  of  God, 
 that  the  Hebrews  should  be 
 entirelv  separated  and  distin- 
 euished  from  all  other  na- 
 tions; and  to  this  end  their 
 religion  and  laws  were  most 
 wisely  adapted:  and,  besides 
 this,  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
 which  they  were  required  to 
 observe  were  of  the  most  sig- 
 nificant import,  and  perfectly 
 fitted  to  engage  tne  attention 
 of  such  a  people.  There  was 
 a  body  of  men  set  apart,  to 
 whom  was  committed  all  mat- 
 ters relating  to  religion  and 
 law,  (which,  under  this  singu- 
 lar government,  were  one  and 
 the  same  thing.)  To  these  per- 
 sons, who  officiated  as  priests, 
 judges,  advocates,  &c.,  was 
 allowed  one-tenth  of  all  the 
 
 Erodnce  of  the  land.  The 
 evites,  which  were  a  sub- 
 division of  the  first,  had  a 
 jMrtion  Df  the  lands  assign- 
 ed them  ;  and  thus  formed  a 
 connecting  link  between  the 
 priests  an~a  the  cultivators  of 
 the  soil.  Commerce  was  ne- 
 cessarily very  limited  ;  as,  by 
 the  very  nature  of  their  insti- 
 tutions, all  connexion  with 
 other  nations  and  societies  was 
 in  a  great  measure  made  im- 
 practicable. And  yet  the  feasts 
 and  festivals,  which  were  peri- 
 odically celebrated,— and  upon 
 the  most  important  of  which 
 the  whole  nation  was  required 
 to  attend  in  a  body,— effectu- 
 ally preserved  their  social 
 character  and   habits.     (See 
 
 HEB 
 
 Fbasts.)     This    constitution 
 and   these    laws   were  given 
 chiefly  at  or  near  mount  Sinai. 
 And  thus,  in  the  wastes  of  Ara- 
 bia, and  long  before  any  law- 
 giver arose,  oYwhich  the  world 
 has    now   any   knowledge,   a 
 system  of  laws  and  a  form  of 
 '  government  were    prescribed 
 I  for    the    children    of    Israel, 
 I  which  has  been  the  wonder  of 
 i  succeeding  ages,  and  has  ex- 
 I  erted   a  boundless    influence 
 '  on  the  minds  and  institutions 
 I  of  all  succeeding  generations 
 of  mankind. 
 4.     Their  political  history. 
 I  After  forty  years'  continuance 
 in  the  wilderness,during  which 
 time  every  individual  but  two 
 I  of  the  race  that  left  Egypt  had 
 '  died,  and  given  place'to  their 
 ]  children,  "they   were  brought 
 I  into  the  land  of  Canaan. 
 I     After  the  death  of  Joshua, 
 the  administration  of  the  go- 
 !  vernment  was  committed  to  a 
 body  of  men  called  judges. 
 I  This  was  a  species  of  aristo- 
 {  cracy ;  but  it  would  seem  that 
 !  these  judges  were  appointed 
 j  only  for    extraordinary  occa- 
 •  sions  and  for  specific  purposes, 
 kJudg.  iii.8— 10.  14,15;   vl.  33, 
 I  36)     Their  power  was  very 
 great,  however.    (Judg.   viii.) 
 Of  these  judges  there  were  in 
 all    fifteen,   from    Othniel   to 
 Samuel,  in  whose  time  the  go- 
 vernment was  changed.  When 
 the  Hebrews  had  fallen  into 
 idolatrous  practices,  God  suf- 
 fered their  enemies  to  prevail 
 against    them     and    as  they 
 came  to  be  involved  in  wars 
 with  the  neighbouring  nations, 
 they  felt  the   necessity  of  a 
 military  leader,  or  some  more 
 efficient  government;  and  they 
 asked  for  a  king.    Saul  was 
 given  to  them  in  this  relation; 
 but,  though  victorious  in  many 
 battles,  h'e  displeased  God,  and 
 David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  was 
 appointed  to  the  throne  in  his 
 place.    Under  his  reign,  Jeru 
 salem  was  adorned  and  for 
 300 
 
HEB 
 
 tififed,  and  made  the  seat  of 
 govenimem;  the  empire  was 
 greatly  exieiiJed,  and  the  pros- 
 pects of  the  nation  were  never 
 more  glorious.  He  was  suc- 
 ceeded by  his  son  Solomon, 
 whose  reign  forms  the  most 
 splendid  period  of  the  Jewish 
 history,  and  was  distinguished 
 by  tlie  erection  of  the  tem- 
 ple at  Jerusalem.  His  cost- 
 ly palace  and  magnificent 
 court  could  not  be  main- 
 tained without  having  contri- 
 butions from  the  people;  and 
 upon  his  death,  and  the  suc- 
 cession of  his  son  Rehoboam, 
 Ihey  demanded  some  relief 
 from  these  heavy  burdens. 
 This  being  refused  in  a  very 
 offensive  manner,  ten  of  the 
 twelve  tribes  revolted  under 
 Jeroboam,  and  were  called  the 
 kingdom  of  Israel.  Judah 
 and  Benjamin  adhered  to  Re- 
 hoboam, and  were  called  the 
 kingdom  of  Judah.  The  sub- 
 jects of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
 were  probably  called  Jews  from 
 this  time  till  the  kingdom  of 
 Israel,  as  such,  was  destroyed ; 
 and  then  the  word  Jews  be- 
 came the  common  name  for 
 all  the  descendants  of  Jacob. 
 After  a  series  of  wars  between 
 Judah  and  Israel,  and  be- 
 tween them  and  other  nations, 
 for  a  period  of  two  hundred 
 and  fifty  years,  the  kingdom 
 of  Israel  was  at  length  sub- 
 verted, the  territory  fell  into 
 the  hands  of  strangers,  and 
 the  people  of  the  ten  revolted 
 tribes  which  composed  it  were 
 carried  captive  mto  Assyria, 
 never  to  return.  (2Kingsxvii.) 
 The  kingdom  of  Judah,  too, 
 soon  after  met  a  similar  fate, 
 her  people  being  carried  into 
 Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
 Seventy  long  years  of  bond- 
 age passed  away  before  any 
 relief  came  to  them;  but  then 
 Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  subdued 
 Babylon,  and  permitted  the 
 Jews,  then  in  captivity,  to  re- 
 turn to  their  country;  but  they 
 
 HEB 
 
 went  back  with  the  foreign 
 and  idolatrous  customs  and 
 endless  dogmas  with  which 
 they  had  become  familiar  in 
 the  time  of  their  exile.  The 
 lofty  aspiration,  the  simple 
 piety  and  pure  morality  of 
 their  better  days,  were  not 
 with  them ;  the  subtle  and 
 self-righteous  Pharisee,  and 
 worldly-minded  Sadducee,and 
 a  variety  of  other  sects,  sprang 
 up;  and  error,  corruption,  ana 
 superstition  prevailed  in  every 
 form.  For  three  hundred  years 
 after  their  return  from  Baby- 
 lon, the  Jews  were  favoured 
 with  almost  uninterrupted 
 tranquillity;  but,  at  the  end 
 of  that  period,  the  Romans, 
 seizing  a  favourable  occasion, 
 reduced  Judea  to  the  condition 
 of  a  province  of  that  empire; 
 and  Antipater  was  appointed 
 by  Julius  Cesar,  the  emperor, 
 to  its  government.  Soon  after 
 Antipater's  death,  the  kingdom 
 fell  mto  the  hands  of  lierod, 
 who,  after  a  cruel  reign  which 
 terminated  in  the  firsl  year  of 
 our  Saviour's  life,  divided  it 
 by  will  between  his  three 
 sons,  Archelaus,  Antipas,  and 
 Philip.  In  a  little  more  than 
 forty  years,  however,  this  dy- 
 nasty came  to  an  end,  Judea 
 sunk  to  a  minor  province, 
 and  thenceforward  governors 
 were  sent  from  Rome  until 
 the  destruction  of  their  once 
 holy  and  beautiful  city,  Jeru- 
 salem. After  this  mournful 
 event,  the  Jews  remained  sub- 
 ject to  the  Roman  governmenC 
 until  Adrian  became  empercT 
 of  Rome,  a.  d.  76,  when  they 
 rebelled,  and  were  entirely 
 dispersed,  and  so  remain  to 
 this  day. 
 
 It  has  been  well  said,  that 
 to  the  eye  of  mere  philoso- 
 phy nothing  can  appear  more 
 striking  than  the  effects  pro- 
 duced upon  the  world  at  large 
 by  the  opinions  and  events 
 which  originated  among  the 
 Jewish  people.    A  pastoral  fa 
 
HEB 
 
 mily,  neither  so  numerous,  so 
 warlike,  nor  so  well  instructed 
 in  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  as 
 many  others  in  the  same  quar- 
 ter of  the  globe,  gradually  in- 
 creased into  a  powerful  com- 
 munity, became  distinguished 
 by  a  system  of  doctrines  and 
 usages  different  from  those  of 
 all  the  surrounding  tribes ;  re- 
 taining it,  too,  amid  the  nu- 
 merous changes  of  fortune  to 
 which  they  "were  subjected, 
 and  finally  impressing  iis 
 leading  principles  upon  the 
 most  enlightened  nations  of 
 Asia  and  of  Europe.  At  a  re- 
 mote era  Abraham  crosses  the 
 Euphrates,  a  solitary  traveller, 
 not  knowing  whither  he  went, 
 but  obeying  a  divine  voice, 
 which  called  him  from  among 
 idolaters  to  become  the  father 
 of  a  new  people  and  of  a  purer 
 faith,  at  a  distance  from  his 
 native  country.  His  grandson 
 Jacob,  a  "Syrian  ready  to 
 perish,"  goes  down  into  Egypt 
 with  a  few  individuals,  where 
 his  descendants,  although  evil 
 entreated  and  afflicted,became 
 a  "  nation,  great,  mighty,  and 
 populous,"  and  whence  they 
 were  delivered  by  the  special 
 Interposition  of  Heaven.  In 
 prosperity  and  adversity  they 
 are  still  the  objects  of  the  same 
 vigilant  Providence  which  re- 
 served them  for  a  great  pur- 
 pose to  be  accomplished  in  the 
 latter  days;  while  the  Israel- 
 ites themselves,  as  if  conscious 
 that  their  election  was  to  be 
 crowned  with  momentous  re- 
 sults, still  kept  their  thoughts 
 fixed  on  Palestine,  as  the  the- 
 atre of  their  glory,  not  less 
 than  as  the  px)Ssession  of  their 
 tribes. 
 
 We  accordingly  see  them 
 at  one  period  in  bondage,  the 
 ■victims  of  a  relentless  tyranny, 
 and  menaced  with  complete 
 extirpation;  but  the  hope  of 
 enjoying  the  land  promised  to 
 their  fathers  never  ceased  to 
 animate  their  hearts ;  for  they 
 
 HEB 
 
 trusted  that  God  would  surely 
 visit  them  in  the  house  of  their 
 affliction,  nd,  in  his  appoint- 
 ed lime,  carry  them  into  the 
 inheritance  of  peace  and  rest. 
 At  a  later  epoch  we  behold 
 them  swept  away  as  captives 
 by  the  hands  of  idolaters,  who 
 used  all  the  motives  which 
 spring  from  fear  and  from  in- 
 terest to  secure  their  compli- 
 ance with  a  foreign  worship; 
 but,  rejecting  all  such  induce- 
 ments, they  still  continued  a 
 separate  people,  steadily  re- 
 sisting the  operation  of  those 
 causes  which,  in  almost  every 
 other  instance,  have  been 
 found  sufficient  to  melt  down 
 a  vanquished  horde  into  the 
 population  and  habits  of  their 
 masters.  At  length  they  ap- 
 pear as  the  instruments  of  a 
 dispensation  which  embraces 
 the  dearest  interests  of  all 
 the  sons  of  Adam  ;  and  which, 
 in  happier  circumstances  than 
 ever  fell  to  their  own  lot,  has 
 already  modified  and  greatly 
 exalted  the  character,  the  in- 
 stitutions, and  the  prospects  of 
 the  most  improved  portion  of 
 mankind,  in  both  hemispheres 
 of  the  globe. 
 
 Connected  with  Christiani- 
 ty, indeed,  the  history  of  the 
 Hebrews  rises  before  the  re- 
 flecting mind  in  a  very  singular 
 point  01  view ;  for,  in  opposition 
 to  their  own  wishes,  they  laid 
 the  foundations  of  a  religion 
 which  has  not  only  superseded 
 their  peculiar  rites,  but  is  ra- 
 pidly advancing  towards  that 
 universal  acceptation  which 
 they  were  wont  to  anticipate 
 in  favour  of  their  own  ancient 
 law.  In  spite  of  themselves, 
 they  have  acted  as  the  little 
 leaven  which  was  destined  to 
 leaven  the  whole  lump;  and 
 in  performing  this  office,  they 
 have  proceeded  with  nearly 
 the  same  absence  of  intention 
 and  consciousness  as  the  la- 
 tent principle  of  fermeniaiion 
 to  which  the  metaphor  beara 
 302 
 
HEB 
 
 allusion.  They  aimed  at  one 
 Ihing,  and  have  accomplished 
 another;  but,  while  we  corn- 
 Dare  the  means  with  the  ends, 
 whether  in  their  physical  or 
 moral  relations,  it  must  be 
 admitted  that  we  therein  exa- 
 mine one  of  the  most  remark- 
 able events  recorded  in  the 
 annals  ofthe  human  race.  (See 
 Canaan,  Captivity,  Jews, 
 Tribes.  See  also  the  following 
 
 Eublications  of  the  Am.  S.  S. 
 fnion,  viz.  Biblical  ANXiari- 
 TiES,  vol.  ii.ch.  i.,f)r  a  full  his- 
 tory, plan,  &c.,  of  the  Jewish 
 commonwealth;  O.mar,  for  a 
 history  of  the  Jews  during  the 
 period  between  the  close  of 
 the  Old  Testament  history 
 and  the  coming  of  Christ;  and 
 Union  Questions,  vols.  iii.  iv. 
 vi.  vii.  ix.,  with  Teacher's 
 Assistant  in  use  of  vols.  iii. 
 andiv.) 
 
 Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews 
 (Phil.  iii.  5)  has  been  supposed 
 by  some  to  denote  that  the  in- 
 dividual so  called  had  both  a 
 Hebrew  father  and  mother; 
 but  others  take  it  to  mean  that 
 he  was  a  Hebrew  both  by  na- 
 tion and  language,  —  which 
 many  of  Abraham's  descend- 
 ants were  not,— or  a  Hebrew 
 Jew  performing  worship  in  the 
 original  Hebrew  tongue,  and  of 
 course  more  truly  honourable 
 in  a  Jew's  eyes  than  one  born 
 out  of  Judea,  and  speaking  the 
 Greek  or  any  other  than  the 
 Hebrew  language. 
 
 Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
 There  is  probable  evidence 
 that  this  epistle  was  written 
 by  Paul  about  the  year  62-3, 
 in  the  Greek  language,  and 
 ihat  it  was  addressed  to  the 
 believing  Jews  of  Palestine. 
 
 This  important  portion  ofthe 
 New  Testament  is  designed  to 
 ehow  the  divine  character  and 
 offices  of  the  Redeemer,  the 
 superiority  ofthe  gospel  to  the 
 law,  and  the  true  design  and 
 import  of  the  Mosaic  institu- 
 tions ;  the  fortitude  and  perse- 
 
 HEB 
 verance  to  which  the  gospel 
 promises  were  calculated  to 
 excite*ihe  Hebrew  converts, 
 and  the  course  of  life  to  which 
 such  hopes  and  promises  as 
 the  gospel  reveals  should  lead. 
 It  has  been  said  of  this  epistle, 
 Uiat  whether  it  is  considered 
 in  reference  to  Christian  doc- 
 trine or  to  Christian  practice; 
 whether  it  be  applied  to  for 
 instruction,  or  comfort,  or  re- 
 proof, it  will  be  found  emi- 
 nently crilculated  to  enlarge 
 our  minds,  to  strengthen  our 
 fiiih,  to  encourage  our  confi- 
 dence, and  to  animate  our 
 hopes.  It  carries  on  the  be- 
 liever from  the  first  elements 
 of  the  doctrine  of  Christ  to 
 perfection.  It  exhibits  the  di- 
 vine character  ofthe  Redeem- 
 er in  all  its  glory,  establishes 
 his  infinite  superiority  to  Moses 
 as  an  apostle,  and  to  the  Aa- 
 ronic  family  as  a  priest.  It 
 contrasts  the  grandeur,  the 
 efficacy,  and  the  perpetuity  of 
 new-covenant  privileges,  wor- 
 ship, and  promises,  with  the 
 earthliness,the  feebleness,  and 
 the  temporary  nature  of  the 
 figurative  economy;  and  it  en- 
 foTces  the  awful  responsibility 
 which  attaches  to  the  profes- 
 sion of  Christianity  by  consid- 
 erations derived  from  all  that 
 is  fitted  to  elevate  hope  and 
 to  give  energy  to  godly  fear. 
 It  is  the  key  to  the  ritual  of 
 Mnses,  which  unlocks  its  most 
 intricate  and  mysterious,  and 
 apparently  trivial  arrange- 
 ments. It  brings  to  view  the 
 soul  that  animated  the  whole 
 body  of  its  ceremonies,  aad 
 which  gives  them  all  their 
 importance;  and  by  the  light 
 it  alTords,  we  are  enabled" to 
 enter  into  the  darkest  places 
 of  that  extraordinary  edifice, 
 and  to  see  the  wisdom  ofits 
 proportions,  and  the  admira- 
 ble adaptation  of  all  its  parts 
 to  their  desijn.  It  was  calcu- 
 lated to  reconcile  the  Jew  to 
 the  destruction  of  his  temple 
 303 
 
HEB 
 
 the  loss  of  his  priesthood,  the 
 abolition  of  his  sacrific^,  the 
 devastation  of  his  country,  and 
 the  extinction  of  his  name; 
 because  it  exhibits  a  nobler 
 temple,  a  better  priesthood,  a 
 more  perfect  sacrifice,  a  hea- 
 venly inheritance,  and  a  more 
 durable  memorial.  And  as  the 
 distinguished  honours  and  pri- 
 vileges which  it  makes  known 
 are  equally  the  portion  of  the 
 Gentile  believer,  they  are  no 
 less  fitted  to  wean  his  mind 
 from  the  beggarly  elements  of 
 this  world,  and  to  reconcile 
 him  to  the  lot  of  a  stranger 
 and  sufferer  on  the  earth. 
 
 HEBRON,  (Num.  xiii.  22,) 
 so  called  after  a  son  of  Caleb, 
 VFas  one  of  the  most  ancient 
 cities  of  Judea,  and  was  origi- 
 nally called  Kirjath-Arba,  or 
 the  city  of  Arba,  from  its  being 
 the  residence  of  a  famous  giant 
 of  that  name.  (Josh.  xiv.  1.5.) 
 Moses  calls  it  Mamre,  Gen. 
 xxiii.  19,  and  xxxv. 27.  It  Vvas 
 situated  on  an  eminence  from 
 twenty  to  thirty  miles  south 
 of  Jerusalem,  and  nearly  a 
 hundred  from  Nazareth,  (Luke 
 i.  39,)  and  is  still  known  as 
 the  flourishing  town  of  Ha- 
 broun,  or  El-khalil, —  which 
 means  the  friend  or  the  he- 
 loved,  (2  Chron.  xx.  7,)— cele- 
 brated for  the  manufacture  of 
 glass. 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, was  at  Hebron  in  Feb. 
 1824.  He  says  the  place  is 
 called  Haleel  of  Khaleel-Rah- 
 nian  or  the  beloved  of  the 
 merciful,  and  that  Haleel  and 
 At)raham  are  used  inter- 
 changeably as  the  name  of  the 
 same  person.  The  number  of 
 houses  he  states  at  four  hun- 
 dred. 
 
 Mr.  Whiting,  an  American 
 missionary,  visited  Hebron  in 
 April,  1835,  and  describes  the 
 vineyards  and  oliveyards,  that 
 cover  the  valleys,  as  by  far 
 the  best  he  saiv  in  any  part  of 
 the  C9untry. 
 
 HEB 
 
 He  visited  what  is  regarded 
 as  the  field  of  Machpelah, 
 situated  on  the  side  of  a  high 
 hill,  sloping  westward ;  from 
 the  summit  of  which  is  a 
 beautiful  view  of  the  plains  of 
 Mamre,  where  has  been  erect- 
 ed a  splendid  temple  by  the 
 mother  of  Constantine,  or,  as 
 the  Moslems  say,  by  Solomon, 
 which  neither  J'^ews  nor  Chris- 
 tians are  allowed  to  enter. 
 Mr.  Fisk  says  that  the  Jews 
 are  allowed  to  come  to  a  place 
 at  the  side  of  a  certain  gate, 
 and  there  read  and  weep,  and 
 repeat  their  prayers  in  honour 
 of  their  ancestors.  Mr.  W. 
 read  in  Arabic,  to  some  Mos- 
 lems who  were  there,  the 
 twenty-third  chapter  of  Gene- 
 sis. About  four  hundred  fami- 
 lies of  Arabs  dwell  in  Hebron, 
 and  about  one  hundred  and 
 twenty  families  of  Jews;  the 
 latter  having  been  greatly  re- 
 duced in  number  by  a  bloody 
 battle  in  1834,  between  them 
 and  the  troops  of  Ibrahim  Pa- 
 sha. 
 
 A  mile  or  two  north  of  Hebron 
 is  a  quadrangular  spot,  enclos- 
 ed  by  the  foundations  of  a  very 
 ancient  wall,  the  stones  of 
 which  are  composed  chiefly  of 
 shells.  This  is  pointed  out  to 
 the  traveller  as  the  place 
 where  Abraham  received  the 
 angels.    (Gen.  xviii.) 
 
 Hebron  is  associated  with 
 some  of  the  most  interesting 
 passages  of  sacred  history. 
 The  valley  of  Eshcol  (Num. 
 xiii.  24,  25)  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  in  its  vicinity;  and  the 
 vale  of  Hebron  was  at  one 
 time  the  residence  of  Jacob. 
 (Gen.  xxxvii.  14.)  Abraham's 
 abode  was  also  here,  (G  en.  xiii. 
 18,)  and  his  family  burying 
 place.  (Gen.  xxiii.  2,  3.  i9; 
 XXV.  10;  xlix.29-^;  1. 12, 13.) 
 Upon  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 
 Hebron  was  assigned  to  Caleb 
 as  part  of  his  portion,  (Num. 
 xiii.  30— a3;  xiv.  5,24.  Josh, 
 xiv.  6—14.)  though  it  was 
 304 
 
HEL 
 
 finally  a  city  of  refuge,  and  | 
 among  the  possessions  of  the 
 priests.  (Josh.  xx.  7;  xxi.  11. 
 13.)  It  is  supposed  by  many 
 that  Zacharias  and  Elisabeth 
 lived  at  Hebron,  and  that  it 
 was  the  birthplace  of  John 
 the  Baptist.  Hebron  was  the 
 residence  of  David  until  Jeru- 
 salem was  made  the  capital, 
 (2 Sam.  ii.  1;  v.  4— 9;)  but  we 
 find  it  among  the  cities  of  Ju- 
 dah  at  the  tnne  of  the  revolt. 
 (2Chron.  xi.  10.) 
 
 HEDGE.  (Hos.  ii.  6.)  Tra- 
 vellers tell  us  that  such  hedges 
 as  are  mentioned  in  this  pas- 
 sage are  often  found  in  east- 
 ern countries  at  this  day,  and 
 that  they  are  especially  useful 
 as  defences  against  the  incur- 
 sions of  the  Arabs  on  horse- 
 back. The  hedge  is  sometimes 
 figuratively  used  to  denote  pro- 
 tection. (Comp.  Job  i.  10.  Ps. 
 xxxiv.  7.) 
 
 HEIFER.  (Hos.  X.  11.)  The 
 figurative  allusions  of  the  sa- 
 cred writers  to  the  wildness, 
 sportiveness,  and  indocility  of 
 this  animal,  especially  when 
 well-fed,  are  very  striking. 
 (Jer.  xlvi.  20;  1. 11.  Hos.  iv.  16.) 
 In  Isa.  XV.  5,  allusion  is  proba- 
 bly made  to  the  lowing  of  a 
 heifer— a  mournful  sound  that 
 can  be  heard  at  a  great  dis- 
 tance :  so  should  the  lamenta- 
 tion of  the  Moabites  be  in  the 
 day  of  their  visitation. 
 
 The  heifer  was  used  in  sacri- 
 fice on  a  particular  occasion, 
 (Num.  xix.  1—10.  Comp.  Heb. 
 ix.  13, 14  ;)  the  manner  and  de- 
 sign of  which  are  fully  staled 
 in  the  passage  cited.  (For  a 
 full  and  interesting  exposition 
 of  the  whole  subject  of  the  wa- 
 ter of  separation,  see  Biblical 
 Antiq,uities,vo1.  ii.  ch.vii.,and 
 Omar,  p.  174,  both  by  Am.S.S. 
 Union.) 
 
 HELBON.  (Ezek.xxvii.lS.) 
 A  Syrian  city  of  great  opulence 
 and  antiquiiy,celebrated  for  its 
 wines ;  and  probably  the  same 
 With  Aleppo,  (or  as  the  Arabs 
 26* 
 
 HEL 
 
 say,  Alep  or  Halab,)  which  is 
 now  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
 cities  of  Turkey.  Its  buildinga 
 are  of  hewn  stone,  and  its 
 streets  paved  with  the  same. 
 It  was  once  deeply  concerned 
 in  the  India  trade,  and  is  still 
 a  place  of  commercial  inter- 
 course and  manufacturing  en- 
 terprise. This  city  was  almost 
 entirely  destroyed,  in  1822,  by 
 an  earthquake,  and  its  popu- 
 lation reduced  from  250,000  to. 
 less  than  100,000 ;  one-sixth  of 
 whom  are  regarded  as  nominal 
 Christians. 
 
 HELL.  (Deut.  xxxii.  22.) 
 This  word  is  used  by  the  sacred 
 writers  in  several  senses,which 
 it  is  important  to  distinguish. 
 The  original  word,  from  which 
 hell  is  derived,  means  to  hide 
 dr  conceal.  The  Hebrew  word, 
 translated  hell  in  our  Bible, 
 sometimes  means  simply  the 
 
 frave,  the  receptacle  of  the 
 ead,  or  the  place  of  departed 
 spirits,  as  in  Job  xi.  7 — 9.  Ps. 
 xvi.  10 ;  cxxxix.  8.  Isa.  v.  14 ; 
 xiv.  9.  Amos  ix.  2,  3.  Acts 
 ii.  31.  Rev.  xx.  14.  In  other 
 passages  it  denotes  the  place 
 of  future  punishment,  as  in 
 Ps.  ix.  17.  Prov.  v.  5;  ix.  18; 
 xxiii.  14.  One  of  the  Greek 
 words,  which  is  translated  hell 
 in  the  New  Testament,  gene- 
 rally means  the  grave ;  and 
 another  Greek  word,  which  is 
 also  translated  hell,  literally 
 means  the  valley  of  Hinnom, 
 (2Chron.  xxxiii.  6,)  where  the 
 most  abominable  idolatries 
 were  practised ;  called  also 
 Topheth,  (2  Kings  xxiii.  10,) 
 from  toph,  (a  drum,)  because 
 that  instrument  was  used  there 
 to  drown  the  cries  of  victims. 
 Hinnom  or  Topheth  thus  be- 
 came a  fit  emblem  of  hell.  (See 
 Selumiel,  ch.  ix.,  by  Am.  S.S. 
 Union.) 
 
 It  is  generally  easy  to  see 
 from  the  connexion,  in  any 
 given  case,  in  what  sense  the 
 word  is  used.  Thus,  in  Ps.  ix. 
 17.  Matt,  xxiii.  33.  Mark  ix.  43 
 305 
 
HER 
 ^48.  2 Pel.  ii.  4,  the  word  hell 
 evidently  denotes  the  place  of 
 the  future  ana  everlasting  mi- 
 eery  of  the  ungodly;  consisting, 
 in  pan  at  least,  in  the  eternal 
 separation  of  the  soul  from 
 God,  and  from  the  presence  of 
 his  glory,  and  in  the  suffering 
 of  inconceivable  anguish  ana 
 remorse  for  ever  and  ever. 
 These  sufferings  are  described 
 with  all  the  force  and  vivid- 
 ness which  language  or  ima- 
 gination can  supply.  And 
 whether  material  substances 
 are  actually  employed  or  not 
 in  ministering  to  the  torments 
 of  the  prison  of  despair,  it  is 
 sufficient  for  us  that  the  most 
 excruciating  suffering  we  can 
 endure  in  the  flesh  is  used  to 
 represent,  as  far  as  it  can  be 
 represented,  the  suffering  of 
 the  lost  soul. 
 
 Gates  OF  Hell.  (Matt.xvi. 
 18.)  A  figurative  expression, 
 denoting  the  power  of  wicked 
 spirits.    (See  Gate.) 
 
 HEMLOCK.  (Hos.x.4.)  A 
 well  known  bitter  and  poi- 
 sonous herb,  a  species  of  which 
 is  common  in  the  United 
 States.  The  word  rendered 
 hemlock  in  the  above  pas- 
 sage, and  in  Amos  vi.  12,  is 
 elsewhere  rendered  gcdl.  The 
 figurative  use  of  it  is  explain- 
 ed by  comparing  the  above 
 passages  with  Deut.  xxix.  18. 
 Amos  v.  7.  Heb.  xii.  15.  The 
 evils  of  perverted  judgment 
 resemble  the  springmg  up  of 
 useless  and  poisonous  plants, 
 where  we  look  for  and  expect 
 valuable  and  nutritious  vege- 
 tation. 
 
 HERESY,  (Acts  xxiv.  14,) 
 HERETIC.  (Tit.  iii.lO.)  These 
 terms,  as  tliey  are  generally 
 used  by  the  sacred  writers, 
 imply  no  judgment  respecting 
 the  truth  or  "error  of  religious 
 sentiments,  but  simply  sects, 
 0"  a  ceculiar  system  of  opin- 
 tF-lua;  JO  that  when  the  word 
 S'ict  is  used,  the  word  heresy 
 would  be  equally  appropriate, 
 
 HER 
 
 as  in  Acts  v.  17;  xxiv.  5;  xxvi.S? 
 and  xxviii.  22.  In  the  epistles, 
 where  the  word  is  usually 
 employed  without  reference  to 
 any  particular  class  by  name, 
 it  imports  either  differences 
 which  led  to  divisions  in  the 
 Christian  church,— and  which 
 were  greatly  to  the  reproach 
 of  the  faith, — or  corruptions 
 of  the  trud  faith,  (1  Cor.  xi.  ID ;) 
 and  it  is  in  this  last  sense 
 that  the  term  is  commonly  ap- 
 plied at  the  present  day. 
 
 HERMON.  (Deut.  iii.  8.)  A 
 mountain,  branching  off  south- 
 east from  Anti-Lebanon,  and 
 running  between  Damascus 
 and  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  called 
 by  the  Sidonians,  Sirioti;  and 
 by  the  Amorites,  Shenir,  and 
 also  Sio7i.  (Deut.  iii.  9  ;  iv.  48.) 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, passed  mount  Hermon 
 in  the  autumn  of  1823,  and  de- 
 scribes it  as  nearly  south  of 
 Tabor,  which  rises  like  a  vast 
 pyramid,  while  the  ridge  of 
 Hermon  is  longer  and  uneven. 
 At  the  foot  of  Hermon,  the 
 guide  pointed  out  a  place  as 
 Nain.  The  country  was  cover- 
 ed with  shrubbery,  and  the 
 soil  was  rich.  (See  Dew.  See 
 also  Omar,  p.  124,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 HEROD,  (Matt.  ii.  1,)  sur- 
 named  the  Great,  was  the  an- 
 cestor of  several  of  the  same 
 name,  mentioned  in  the  New 
 Testament.  He  was  governor 
 of  Judea  (then  a  Roman  pro- 
 vince) at  the  time  of  our 
 Saviour's  birth.  Though  he 
 was  called  king,  he  was  sub- 
 ject to  the  Roman  emperor, 
 and  was  distinguished  for  his 
 savage  cruelty. 
 
 The  table  on  the  following 
 page  shows  at  a  glance  the 
 chief  connexions  of  this  fami- 
 ly, so  far  as  they  are  mentioned 
 in  the  sacred  history. 
 
 In  the  thirty-third  year  of 
 
 the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great, 
 
 Christ  was   born    in   Beihle 
 
 hem.    Fearing  that  this  event 
 
 306 
 
HEK 
 
 HER 
 
 v/ 
 
 Herod  Mariamne, 
 
 the  Great,      j  a  his  second  wife. 
 
 Herod  Mariamne, 
 
 the  Great       . .  his  third  wife. 
 
 Agrippa, 
 (Acts  xjv.  13, 
 audxivi.  2.) 
 
 Herod  Antipas,   •  ■ 
 (Mark  vi.  22.)   /  \ 
 
 (Mark  vi.  22.) 
 
 Salome, 
 (Mark  vi.  22.) 
 
 might  in  some  way  affect  his 
 luterests,and  not  knowing  pre- 
 cisely the  age  of  the  supposed 
 pretender  to  his  throne,  and 
 Having  attempted  in  vain  to 
 ascertain  the  precise  period  of 
 his  birth,  Herod  issued  a  de- 
 cree, requiring  the  indiscrimi- 
 nate massacre  of  all  the  child- 
 ren of  Bethlehem,  of  two  years 
 old  and  under.  This  decree 
 was  executed.  Herod  died  a 
 most,  dreadful  death  at  Jeri- 
 cho; distributing  the  govern- 
 ment of  the  province  among 
 his  three  sons ;  Judea  to  Arche- 
 
 laus ;  Galilee  and  Perea  t) 
 Herod  Antipas ;  and  the  three 
 upper  districts  east  of  the  Jor- 
 dan (Batanea,  Auranitis,  and 
 Trachonitis)  to  Philip.  <Luke 
 iii.  1.) 
 
 Archelaus  held  the  govern- 
 ment about  nine  years,  and 
 was  then  banished  for  high 
 crimes ;  and  Judea  became 
 completely  subject  to  Rome, 
 and  received  its  governors  or 
 procurators  directly  from  the 
 emperor,  and  probably  for  li- 
 mited periods.  Pontius  Pilate 
 was  in  this  office  when  John 
 307 
 
HER 
 
 the  Baptist  appeared.  The 
 other  sons  of  Herod  the  Great 
 remained  in  possession  of  their 
 provinces  as  at  the  death  of 
 their  father.  (SeeOMAR,pp.lS0 
 and  241,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 HERODIANS.  (Matt.  xxii. 
 16.)  A  Jewish  sect  or  party, 
 originating  probably  in  a  po- 
 litfcal  partiality  towards  the 
 Roman  emperor  and  Herod  his 
 deputy.  It  is  generally  sup- 
 posed, that  the "great  body  of 
 the  Jews,  and  especially  the 
 Pharisees,  held  that  the  law  of 
 Mose.s  (Deut.  xvii.  15)  forbade 
 their  subjection  to  a  foreign 
 power;  while  Herod  and  his 
 party  (the  Herodians)  regarded 
 that  law  as  forbidding  a  volun- 
 tary subjection ;  but  if  they 
 we're  reduced  to  subjection  by 
 force  of  arms,  they  considered 
 it  lawful  to  avow  their  allegi- 
 ance and  pa j^  tribute;  and  they 
 not  only  paid  it  themselves, 
 but  urged  others  to  pay  it,  and 
 to  submit  cheerfully  to  Rome. 
 Hence  the  difficulty  of  the 
 question  proposed  to  Christ. 
 (Malt.  xxii.  17.)  The  Herodi- 
 ans also  held,  that  it  was  on 
 the  same  principle  lawful  to 
 comply  with  the  customs  and 
 adopt  the  rites  of  the  conquer- 
 ing nation.  This  is  probably 
 the  leavev  of  Herod.  (Mark 
 viii.  15.)  Some  have  inferred, 
 from  a  comparison  of  Mark 
 viii.  15,  and  Matt.  xvi.  6,  that 
 the  Herodians  were  chiefly 
 Sadducees. 
 
 HERODIAS.  (Matt.  xiv.  3.) 
 The  crand-daughter  of  Herod 
 the  G>eat.  She  first  married 
 her  uncle,  Herod  Philip,  and 
 afterwards  Herod  Antipas,  an- 
 other uncle,  and  that  too  dur- 
 ing her  first  husband's  life- 
 time. For  this  unlawful  and 
 scandalous  connexion,  John 
 the  Baptist  faithfully  reproved 
 the  parties;  and  his  fidelity 
 cost  him  his  life.  (Matt.  xiv. 
 3—10.) 
 
 HERON.  (Lev.xi.l9.)  An 
 unclean  bird,  but  of  what  spe- 
 
 HEZ 
 
 cies  is  quite  uncertain.  The 
 original  word  describes  the  bird 
 known  to  us  as  the  heron,  bet- 
 ter perhaps  than  any  other  bird 
 now  known. 
 
 HESHBON.  (Num.  xxi.  25.) 
 A  royal  city  of  the  Amorites. 
 It  was  given  first  to  Reuben, 
 (Josh.  xiii.  17,)  then  transferred 
 to  Gad,  (Josh.  xxi.  39,)  and  in 
 the  time  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremi- 
 ah, recovered  by  the  Moabites, 
 to  whom  it  had  before  belonged. 
 (Isa.  XV.  4.  Jer.  xlviii.  2.)  It 
 exists  now  under  the  name 
 of  Heshban,  and  lies  east  of 
 mount  Nebo,  about  twenty 
 miles  from  the  Jordan.  Near 
 it  are  wells  and  ponds,  hewn 
 out  of  the  rock,  referred  to  in 
 Sol.  Song  vii.  4. 
 
 HETH  (Gen.  x.  15)  was  the 
 eldest  son  of  Canaan,  and  the 
 ancestor  of  the  Hittites. 
 
 HEZEKIAH.  (2  Chron.  xxix. 
 1,)  a  distinguished  kin  of  Ju- 
 dah,  was  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Ahaz.  He  was  twenty-five 
 years  of  age  when  he  came  to 
 the  throne^and  he  immediately 
 took  measures  to  break  up  the 
 idolatrous  customs  into  which 
 the  people  had  fallen  during 
 the  reign  of  Ahaz;  to  bring 
 them  back  to  the  temple  and 
 worship  of  their  fathers,  and  to 
 repair  the  losses  and  defeats 
 they  had  suffered.  Early  in 
 his  reign,  the  Assyrians  in- 
 vaded the  neighbouring  king- 
 dom, of  Israel,  and  carried  the 
 ten  tribes  into  bondage. 
 
 Notwithstanding  this  threat- 
 ening position  of  affairs,  Heze- 
 kiah^  not  willing  to  acknow 
 ledge  any  subjection  to  A.-^syria, 
 refused  to  pay  the  tribute  which 
 had  been  imposed  and  paid 
 during  the  reign  of  his  father. 
 In  consequence  of  which,  the 
 Assyrian  army,  under  Senna- 
 cherib, invaded  his  territory. 
 This  event  happened  in  the 
 fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah's 
 reign,  and  is  described,  with  all 
 the  interesting  details,  in  Isa. 
 xxxvi.  1—22.  The  Assyrian 
 303 
 
HIE 
 
 army  was  so  far  reduced  in  a 
 single  uiglil  by  the  immediate 
 judgment  of  God,  as  to  be 
 obliged  to  make  a  precipitate 
 retreat.  Soon  after  this  signal 
 deliverance,  Hezekiah  was 
 seized  with  a  severe  illness, 
 the  fatal  lecmination  of  which 
 was  averted  in  answer  to  his 
 prayers.  Fifteen  years  longer 
 were  promised  him;  and  the 
 promise  was  confirmed  by  a 
 miraculous  sign.  (See  Dial.) 
 His  gratitude"  is  expressed  in 
 the  most  affecting  language, 
 (Isa.  xxxviii.  10 — 20;)  and  yet 
 we  find  him  afterwards  greatly 
 elated  byamessageof  congratu- 
 lation from  Baladan,  king  of 
 Babylon,  before  whose  ambas- 
 sadors he  made  a  vain  and 
 pompous  display  of  his  posses- 
 sions. To  punish  this  pride 
 and  vanity,  he  was  informeii 
 by  a  special  message  from 
 God  that  his  wealth  should,  at 
 a  future  day,  be  transported  to 
 Babylon,  and  his  own  sons  be- 
 come servants  in  the  palace 
 of  her  king. 
 
 The  latter  years  of  his  life 
 were  passed  in  tranquillity, 
 and  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
 son  Manasseh. 
 
 HIDDEKEL.  (Gen.  ii.  14. 
 Dan.  X.  4.)  Universally  ac- 
 knowledged to  be  the  Tigris, 
 which  divided  Assyria  from 
 Mesopotamia,  and  the  present 
 names  of  which,  Degil,  Dihlat, 
 and  Diklath,  are  manifestly 
 derived  from  the  ancients.  It 
 rises  about  fifteen  miles  from 
 the  source  of  the  Euphrates. 
 
 HIERAPOLIS.  (Col.iv.13.) 
 A  city  of  Piu"ygia,  in  the  neigh- 
 bourhood of  Colosse  and  Lao- 
 dicea,  about  five  miles  from 
 the  latter.  It  was  formerly  fa- 
 mous for  its  hot  baths.  It  is 
 supposed  to  have  derived  its 
 name  (which  signifies  holt/ 
 city)  from  the  rnultitude  of 
 temples  which  it  contained; 
 the  ruins  of  which  are  still 
 visible.  The  Turks  call  the 
 place  Pambuk-Kalasijfrom  the 
 
 HIG 
 
 whiteness  of  the  rock  on  which 
 it  stands.  Nothing  but  the  hot 
 baths  could  have  furnished  a 
 motive  for  building  a  great  city 
 on  a  spot  so  sterile. 
 
 HIGGAION  (Ps.  ix.  16) 
 signifies  meditation,  and  calls 
 for  extraord  inary  a  ttention  a  nd 
 reflection  to  the  passage;  like 
 a  13°  or  ^-  B.  in  modern 
 wriimsrs. 
 
 HIGll  PLACES  (1  Sam.  ix, 
 12)  were  places  upon  hills  and 
 mountains,  appropriated  some- 
 times to  the  true  service  ot 
 God,  but  generally  to  idolatrous 
 worship.  The  most  elevated 
 places  seem  to  have  been  cho- 
 sen from  the  earliest  period 
 for  the  erection  of  altars.  (Gen. 
 xii.  7,  8;  xxii.  2;  xxxi.  54.) 
 Before  the  temple  furnished  a 
 fixed  place  of  worship,  it  seems 
 to  have  been  consiilered  proper 
 to  erect  altars  on  such  places. 
 (Jud2.  vi.  25,  26.  1  Sam.  ix.  12. 
 19.  2o.  ICliron.  xvi.  39;  xxi. 
 29.)  After  the  temple  was  built, 
 such  places  became  an  abomi- 
 nation. These  places  became 
 so  universally  the  scene  of 
 idolatrous  worship,  that  the 
 sacred  historian  says  of  a  par- 
 ticular king,  that  he  did  that 
 which  was'right,  &c.,  yet  the 
 high  places  were  not  taken 
 away.  (2  Kings  x v.  35.) 
 
 HIGH-PRIEST.  (Lev.  xxi. 
 10.)  The  head  of  the  Jewish 
 priesthood.  All  the  male  de- 
 scendants of  Aaron  were  by 
 divine  appointment  conse- 
 crated to  the  priesthood ;  and 
 the  first-born  of  the  family,  in 
 regular  succession,  was  con- 
 secrated in  the  same  manner 
 to  the  office  of  high-priest. 
 The  ceremony  of  con"secration 
 was  alike  for  both,  and  is  par- 
 ticularly described  in  Ex.xxix. 
 
 The  dress  of  the  high-priest 
 was  much  more  costly  and 
 magnificent  than  that  of  the 
 inferior  order  of  priests.  It  is 
 described,  Ex.  xxxix.  1—9.  In 
 the  first  cut  are  seen  the  robe 
 and  ephod  ;  the  latter  of  which 
 
HIG 
 
 HIO 
 
 is  outermost  of  all,  and  is  curi- 
 ously wrought  with  gold-wire, 
 and  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet 
 thread.  Upon  either  shoulder 
 is  seen  an  onyx  stone,  on  each 
 of  which  were  engraved  ihe 
 names  of  six  of  th"e  tribes  of 
 Israel.  The  breastplate  is  also 
 seen,  with  a  wrought  chain  of 
 gold  attached  to  each  corner, 
 and  passing  under  the  arms 
 
 and  over  the  shoulder,  (Sea 
 Breastplate.) 
 
 The  mitre,  or  head-dress,  is 
 formed  of  eight  yards  of  fine 
 linen,  in  circular  folds,  and  in- 
 scribed in  front,  upon  a  plate 
 of  pure  gold,  Holiness  TO  thb 
 Lord.  The  frinee,  or  hem  of 
 the  robe,  and  the  bells  sus- 
 pended from  it,  are  also  seen. 
 
 The  dress  of  the  high-priest, 
 3lff 
 
HI6 
 
 HIG 
 
 on  thb  day  of  expiation,  Is 
 given  in  trie  ""^cond  cut,  and  is 
 very  plain  ana  'mple;  con- 
 sisiini;  only  of  plain  linen, 
 with  a  sash  or  girdle.  Hence 
 thesp  were  called  by  the  Jews, 
 the  priest's  "  white  garments,^' 
 &c. ;  the  iormer,''^  garments  of 
 
 golrf." 
 
 The  office  of  the  high-priest 
 was  originally  held  for  life; 
 
 but  this,  as  well  as  the  right  of 
 the  firsi-iwrn,  were  disregarded 
 in  the  later  ages  of  that  dispen- 
 sation ;  and  the  sacred  jdace 
 was  occupied  by  the  worst  of 
 men,  among  whom  was  Caia» 
 phas.  The  hish-priest's  most 
 solemn,  peculiar,  and  exclu- 
 sive duly  was  to  officiate  in  the 
 most  holy  place  on  the  great 
 day  of  atonement.  I';Lev,xvi. 
 311 
 
HIR 
 
 we  have  a  full  account  of  this 
 most  interesting  service,  and 
 the  imposing  ceremonies  which 
 preceded  it.  The  high-priest 
 might,  at  any  lime, "perform 
 the  duties  assigned  to  tne  ordi- 
 nary priests.  "The  high-priest 
 is  supposed  to  have  had  an 
 assistant,  to  occupy  his  place 
 in  case  of  his  incompetency 
 from  sickness,  defilement,  or 
 otherwise.  (2  Kings  xxv.  18. 
 Jer.  lii.  24.  For  a  more  full 
 account  of  this  office,  and  the 
 duties,  &c.,  appertaining  to 
 it,  see  Scripture  Illustra- 
 tions, part  ii.  pp.  75—82,  and 
 Biblical  Antiquities,  vol.  ii. 
 ch.  iv.  §  3,  and  ch.  vi.  §  5,  both 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 HIGHWAYS,  (Lev.  xxvi. 
 22,)  sometiniPs  simply  ways, 
 (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  5.  Prov.  xvi.  17, 
 metaphorically,)  means  any 
 public  way  or  high-road,  in 
 uislinction  from  a  private  wall 
 or  footpath.  (See  (Jauseway.) 
 HILL-COUNTRY.  (Lukei. 
 39.)  This  term  was  applied  to 
 the  country  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 HILL  OF  ZION,  (Ps.  ii.  6,) 
 and  HOLY  HILL,  (Ps.  iii.  4,) 
 both  refer  to  the  eminence  on 
 which  the  temple  of  Jerusalem 
 was  erected,  and  iu  which  God 
 was  supposed  to  manifest  his 
 presence  in  a  peculiar  man- 
 ner.  (Comp.  Ps.  xlviii.  1,  2.) 
 HIN.    (See  Measures.) 
 HIND.    (See  Hart.) 
 HINGES.  (See  Dwelj.ings.) 
 HINNOM.   (See  Hell.  See 
 also  Selumiel,  ch.  ix.,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 HIRAM.  1.  (2  Sam.  v.  11, 
 12.)  A  distinguished  king  of 
 Tyre.  He  was  contemporary 
 with  David  and  Solomon,  and 
 on  terms  of  the  strictest  politi- 
 cal and  personal  friendship 
 with  them.  Under  his  reign, 
 the  city  of  Tyre  became  cele- 
 brated for  its  wealth  and  mag- 
 nificence; and  the  vast  sup- 
 plies he  furnished  to  the  kings 
 of  Israel  show  the  greatness 
 
 IlIV 
 
 of  his  resources.  (1  Kings  ix. 
 14;x.22.) 
 
 2.  (1  Kings  vii.  13.)  An  emi- 
 nent artificer  of  Tyre,  who  was 
 employed  by  Solomon  on  some 
 of  the  most  difficult  of  the  fix- 
 tures and  furniture  of  the  tem- 
 
 ^  HIRELING.  (Jobvii.l.)  One 
 who  is  employed  on  hire  for  a 
 limited  time,  as  a  day  or  year. 
 By  the  Levitical  law,  such  an 
 one  was  to  be  paid  iiis  wages 
 daily.  (Lev.  xix.  13.)  The  cir- 
 cumstance that  the  time  is 
 limited  suggests  the  figurative 
 language  in  the  above  passage, 
 and"  in"  Job  xiv.  6:  and  the 
 little  interest  which  would  be 
 fell  by  such  a  temporary  la- 
 bourer, compared  with  that  of 
 the  shepherd  or  permanent 
 keeper  of  the  flock,  furnishes 
 a  striking  illustration  in  one 
 of  our  Lord's  discourses.  (John 
 X.  12,  13.) 
 
 HISS.  (1  Kings  ix. 8.)  To 
 hiss  at  one  is  an  expression  of 
 insult  and  contempt,  (Jer.  xix. 
 8.  Ezek.  xxvii.  36.  Blic.  vi.  16;) 
 and  to  call  any  one  with  a 
 hiss  denotes  power  and  autho- 
 rity over  him,  (Isa.  v.  26;  vii. 
 18.  Zech.  X.8;)  asifitshould 
 be  said,  "he  will  come  at  my 
 beck  or  nod." 
 
 HITTITES.  (IKingsxi.  I.) 
 The  posterity  of  Heih,  the  se- 
 cond son  of  Canaan.  Their 
 settlements  were  in  the  south- 
 ern part  of  Judea,  near  Hebron. 
 (Gen.  xxiii.  3.)  They  are  also 
 spoken  of  as  inhabiting  the 
 mountains  of  Judah,  (Num. 
 xiii.  2*);)  and  again  as  in  the 
 neighbourhood  ofBethel.(Judg. 
 i.  26.)  Probably  they  main- 
 tained a  sort  of  independence, 
 (1  Kings  X.  29.  2Kingsvii.6:) 
 and  they  seem  to  have  retain- 
 ed their  distinctive  name  to  a 
 late  period.    (Ezra  ix.  1,  2.) 
 
 HIVITES.  (Gen.  x.  17.)  A 
 horde  of  the  CanaanitPs,  else- 
 where called  Avims.  (Deut.  ii. 
 23.  See  AviM.)  They  seem 
 to  have  been  settled  in  various 
 3U] 
 
HON 
 
 rrtsoftheland.  (Gen.  xxxiv  ' 
 Josh.  xi.  3.  19.) 
 
 HOBAB.    (Num.  x.  29-32.-)  ' 
 The  son  of  Jethro,  and  broiher- 
 in-law  of  IMosPS. 
 
 HOBAH.  (Gen.  xiv.  15.)  A 
 place  north  of  Damascus,  where 
 a  hill  is  siill  shown  to  travel- 
 lers, bearins  the  same  name, 
 and  alleged  to  occupy  the 
 same  site. 
 
 HOLY,  HOLINESS.  (Ex. 
 XV.  11.  Lev.  xxvii.  14.)  Holi- 
 ness, or  perfect  freedom  from 
 sin,  and  infinite  purity,  is  one 
 of  the  distinguishing  attri- 
 butes of  the  divine  nature. 
 (Iaa.vi.3.)  These  words  (which 
 in  their  primitive  meaning  im- 
 ply a  separation  or  setting 
 apart)  are  sometimes  used  to 
 denote  the  purity  of  the  angelic 
 nature,  (Matt.  xxv.  31,)  the 
 comparative  freedom  from  sin 
 which  results  from  the  sancti- 
 fication  of  the  human  heart, — 
 as  in  the  caseof  prophets,(Rev. 
 xxii.  6.)  apostles,  (Rev.  xviii. 
 20,)  ministers,  (Tit.  i.  8,)  Chris- 
 tians, (Heb.iii.l,)— and  the  con- 
 secrated character  of  things, 
 (Ex.  XXX.  25.  Lev.  xvi.  4,)  and 
 places.    (2 Pet.  i.  18.) 
 
 HOLY  CITY.  (See  Jeru- 
 salem.) 
 
 HOLY  DAY.  (See  Feasts.) 
 
 HOLY  GHOST,  HOLY  SPI- 
 RIT.   (See  Spirit.) 
 
 HOLY  LAND.  (See  Canaan.) 
 
 HOME-BORN  SLAVE.  (See 
 Servant.) 
 
 HOMER.  (See  Measures.) 
 
 HONEY,  HONEYCOMB. 
 (Ps.  xix.  10.)  The  abundance 
 of  honey  in  the  land  of  Judea 
 may  be  inferred  from  a  variety 
 of  passages  in  the  Bible,  as 
 well  as  from  the  accounts  of 
 modern  travellers.  It  was,  al- 
 most, without  metaphor,  a  land 
 floicing  with  milk  and  honey. 
 (Ex.  iii.  8. 17.)  The  wild  honey 
 on  which  John  the  Baptist 
 lived  was,  perhaps,  such  as  he 
 could  gather  from  rocks  and 
 hollow  trees. 
 
 The   syrup   obtained    from 
 27 
 
 HOR 
 
 dales  is  supiTosed  to  be  some- 
 times intended  by  the  word 
 honey.  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  5.)  And 
 we  are  told  of  a  tree,  found  in 
 some  parts  of  the  east,  upon 
 the  leaves  and  twigs  of  whicli 
 a  ssveet  substance  collects,  and 
 is  gathered  and  used  by  the 
 Arabs,  which  at  first  strongly 
 resembles  honey.  The  figura- 
 tive allusions  of  the  sacred 
 writers  to  honey  and  the  honey- 
 comb are  striking  and  beauti- 
 ful. (Ps.  xix.  10.  Prov.  V.  3; 
 xxvii.  7.)  Milk  and  honey  were 
 the  chief  dainties  of  the  earlier 
 ages,  as  they  are  now  of  the 
 Bedouins;  and  butter  and  ho- 
 ney are  also  mentioned  among 
 articles  of  food.  (2Sam.  xvi,' 
 29.  Isa.  vii.  15  )  In  South  Airi- 
 ca,  bees  deposit  their  honey 
 on  the  surface  of  the  cliffs  of 
 rocks;  and,  for  its  protection, 
 cover  it  with  a  dark  coloured 
 wax.  This,  by  the  action  of 
 the  weather,  becomes  hard,and 
 of  the  complexion  of  the  rock. 
 The  traveller  makes  an  inci- 
 sion in  this  wax-covering,  and, 
 by  applying  his  mouth  to  the 
 aperture,  sucks  out  as  much 
 honey  as  he  wants.  (Deut. 
 xxxii.  13.)  They  also  cover 
 trees    in   the   same    manner. 
 
 HOOD.  (See  Clothes.) 
 HOPHNI.  (See  Eli.) 
 HOR.  (Num.  XX.  22. 25.)  A 
 celebrated  mountain  on  the 
 border  of  Idumea,  about  half- 
 way between  the  Dead  and 
 Red  Seas,  where  Aaron  was 
 buried.  (See  Seir.)  A  north- 
 eastern brancli  of  mount  Lel)a- 
 non  is  also  called  mount  Hor. 
 (Num.  xxxiv.  7,  8.)  It  consti- 
 tuted part  of  the  northern 
 boundary  of  the  land  of  Israel. 
 HOREB.  (Ex.  iii.  1.)  To 
 understand  the  relative  situa- 
 tion of  the  interesting  group  of 
 mountains,  to  which  both  Ho- 
 reb  and  Sinai  belong,  and  the 
 scenes  which  were  witnessed 
 upon  them,  it  is  necessary  to 
 go  into  some  detail,  as  it  re- 
 313 
 
HOR 
 
 spects  the  face  of  the  coun- 
 try. 
 
 The  peninsula  formed  by  the 
 two  branches,  in  which  the 
 gulf  called  the  Red  Sea  lermi- 
 nalesjconslilutespariofa  wild 
 and  desolate  region.  It  has 
 been  called  "a  sea  of  desola- 
 tion." It  would  seem  as  if  it 
 had  once  been  an  ocean  of 
 lava,  and  that,  while  its  waves 
 were  literally  running  moun- 
 tain—high, it  was  commanded 
 suddenl)'  to  stand  still.  The 
 whole  of  this  region  is  com- 
 posed of  bare  rocks  and  cracrgy 
 precipices,  among  which  nar- 
 row defiles  and  sandy  valleys 
 are  interspersed.  There  is 
 little  vegetation.  Many  of  the 
 plains  are  covered  with  loose 
 flints  and  pebbles,  and  others 
 are  sandy.  The  few  plants 
 and  shrubs  that  are  to  be  found 
 are  such  as  love  a  dry  sandy 
 soil,  or  such  as  contrive  to 
 draw  nourishment  from  the 
 fissures  of  the  rocks,  or  from  a 
 thin  mixture  of  clay,  which 
 may  be  found  in  some  parts  of 
 the  soil.  Rain  rarely  falls  in 
 this  wilderness,  and  fountains 
 or  springs  of  water  are  exceed- 
 ingly rare  ;  and,  when  found, 
 the  water  is  generally  either 
 brackish  orsulphureous,though 
 not  unwholesome. 
 
 In  the  central  part  of  this 
 peninsula,  stands  the  group  of 
 the  Sinai  mountains,  to  which 
 
 freat  celebrity  has  been  given  j 
 y  its  connexion  with  several  ' 
 imporiantcircumsiancesinthe  ' 
 migration  of  the  Israelites  from 
 Egypt  to  Canaan.  This  group  I 
 is  composed  almost  entirely  of 
 
 franiie,  and  forms  a  rocky  vvil- 
 ewiess  of  an  irregular,  circu- 
 lar snape,  intersected  by  many 
 narrow  valleys,  and  is  from 
 thirty  to  forty  miles  in  diame- 
 ter. It  contains  the  highest 
 mountains  of  the  peninsula, 
 whose  shaggy  and  pointed 
 peaks,  and  steep  and  shatter- 
 ed side.s,  render  it  clearly  dis- 
 tinguishable from  all  the  rest 
 
 HOR 
 
 of  the  country  in  view.  It  H 
 upon  this  region  of  the  penin- 
 sula that  the  fertile  valleys 
 are  found  which  produce  fruit- 
 trees.  Water  is  found  in  plenty 
 in  this  district;  on  which  ac- 
 count it  is  the  place  of  refuge 
 to  all  the  Bedouins  when  the 
 low  country  is  parched  up.  Its 
 advantage  in  this  respect  may 
 have  operated  in  the  selection 
 of  the  spot  for  the  encampment 
 of  the  Israelites,  who  remained 
 here  nearly  a  year;  for  there 
 seems  little  doubt  that  this 
 upper  country  or  wilderness 
 formed  exclusively  the  desert 
 of  Sinai,  so  often  mentioned  in 
 the  account  of  their  wander- 
 ings. It  is  perhaps  impossible 
 to  ascertain  with  distinctness 
 which  of  the  different  eleva- 
 tions cornprised  in  this  chain 
 forms  the  Horeb,  where  Mo- 
 ses received  the  call  to  his 
 great  work,  or  the  Si?iai, 
 where  the  tables  of  the  law 
 were  committed  to  his  hands. 
 There  has  been  a  good  deal  of 
 discussion  on  this" point,  into 
 which  v;e  do  not  feel  it  neces- 
 sary to  enter,  contenting  our- 
 selves with  an  account  of  the 
 part  of  the  group  to  which  that 
 distinction  is  restricted  by  local 
 traditions  and  religious  asso- 
 ciations, and  to  which  the  de- 
 scriptions of  travellers  more 
 particularly  refer.  The  inte- 
 resting  part  of  the  Sinai  group 
 consists  of  two  adjoiniiig  ele- 
 vations, or,  perhaps  we  should 
 say,  one  mountain  with  two 
 summits,  respectively  known 
 as  Djebel  Mousa  (mount Moses) 
 and  Djebel  Katerin,  (mount 
 Catherine;)  the  former  being, 
 in  common  opinion,  Sinai ; 
 and  the  letter,  Horeb.  Without 
 attempting  to  decide  thejioint, 
 we  must  observe  that  sr.me 
 authorities  incline  to  reverse 
 this  arrangpment;  consider- 
 ing Djebel  Mousa  as  Horeb, 
 and  Djel  el  Katerin  as  Sinai; 
 while  othePH  question  whether 
 either  of  ihc  two  has  any  just 
 314 
 
HOB 
 
 claim  to  be  considered  as  Sinai 
 or  Horeb.  A  more  elevatad 
 eummit,  wiih  five  peaks,  to 
 the  westward,  called  mount 
 Serbal,  seems  to  have  been  at 
 some  early  time  considered  as 
 the  "  mount  of  Moses  ;'J  a  com- 
 
 Erehensive  term,implying  both 
 iaai  and  Horeb. 
 
 A  very  discerning  modern 
 traveller  expresses  the  opinion 
 thai  mount  Serbal  was  at  one 
 time  the  chief  place  of  pilgrim- 
 age in  the  peninsula,  and  that 
 it  was  then  considered  as  the 
 mountain  where  Rloses  receiv- 
 ed the  tables  of  the  law;  though 
 he  is  equally  convinced,  from 
 a  perusal  of  the  Scriptures, 
 that  the  Israelites  encamped 
 in  the  upper  Sinai,  and  that 
 either  Djebel  Mousa  or  mount 
 St.  Catherine  is  the  real  Horeb. 
 
 Between  Sinai  and  Horeb  is 
 the  valley  of  El  Ledja,  in  which 
 is  the  small  convent  of  El  Er- 
 bayn,  which  is  in  good  repair, 
 and  atfords  a  convenient  rest- 
 ing place  to  travellers  descend- 
 ing from  the  barren  mountains 
 above.  This  valley,  though 
 narrow  and  encumbered  with 
 blocks  of  stone  rolled  down 
 from  the  mountains,  is,  upon 
 the  whole,  very  pleasant  and 
 agreeable. 
 
 It  presents  many  objects  of 
 veneration,  particularly  the 
 supposed  rock  which  Moses 
 struck  for  a  supply  of  water. 
 This  lies  quite  insulated  by  the 
 Bide  of  the  path,  and  is  about 
 twelve  feet  in  height,  of  an 
 irregular  shape,  approaching 
 to  a  cube.  There  are  some 
 apertures  on  its  surface,through 
 which  the  water  is  said  to  have 
 burst  out ;  they  are  for  the  most 
 part  ten  or  twelve  inches  long, 
 two  or  three  broad,  and  not 
 more  than  from  one  to  two 
 inches  deep ;  but  a  few  may  be 
 as  deep  as  four  inches.  Most 
 of  these  fissures  are  evidently 
 the  work  of  art;  but  three  oi 
 four  of  the  twenty  may  be  na- 
 tural ;  and  these  probably  first 
 
 HOR 
 
 drew  the  attention  of  the  monks 
 to  the  stone.  That  it  is  really 
 the  rock  of  Meribah  is  sin- 
 cerely believed  by  the  present 
 monks  of  Sinai,  as  well  as  by 
 the  Bedouins,  who  put  grass 
 into  the  fissures  as  offerings  to 
 the  memory  of  Moses,  in  the 
 same  manner  as  they  place 
 grass  upon  the  tombs  of  their 
 saints;  because  grass  is  to  them 
 the  most  precious  gift  of  nature, 
 and  that  upon  which  tlieir  ex- 
 istence depends.  They  also 
 bring  hither  their  female  ca 
 mels',  believing  that  by  making 
 the  animal  cro^nch  down  before 
 the  rock,  while  they  recite 
 some  prayers  and  renew  the 
 grass  in  the  fissures  of  the 
 stone,  their  camels  will  be- 
 come fertile,  and  yield  their 
 milk  in  abundance.  That  this 
 is  not  the  real  rock  of  Meribah, 
 nor  the  vale  the  "valley  of 
 Rephidim"  ot  the  Bible,  is 
 clear  from  the  fact,  that  here 
 and  elsewhere,  in  the  upper 
 Sinai,  perennial  springs  are 
 so  numerous  as  to  suptersede 
 all  occasion  for  a  miraculous 
 supply  of  water.  Not  far  from 
 this  is  shown  a  small  and 
 apparently  natural  excavation 
 in  a  granite  rock,  resembling  a 
 chair,  where  it  is  said  that 
 Moses  often  sat.  Near  this  is 
 shown  the  petrified  pot  or  ket- 
 tle of  Moses,  as  they  call  it, 
 being  a  circular  projecting 
 knob  in  a  rock,  resembling 
 the  lid  of  a  tea-kettle  in  size 
 and  shape.  The  Arabs  have 
 often  in  vain  endeavoured  to 
 break  this  rock,  supposing  it  to 
 conceal  great  treasures.  (See 
 Sinai.  S^ee  Map,  pp.  520, 521.) 
 
 HORIMS.  (Deut.ii.  1.22.)  A 
 general  name  for  dwellers  in 
 caves,  and  perhaps  the  same 
 with  the  Horites. 
 
 HOKITES.  (Gen.  xiv.  6.) 
 An  ancient  and  powerful  peo- 
 ple, who  dwelt  in  mount  Seir. 
 (Gen.  xxxvi.  20—30.) 
 
 HORN.  (iSam.  ii.  1.  10.) 
 This  word  is  employed  in  the 
 315 
 
HOR 
 
 Old  Teslameni  as  an  emblem 
 of  power,  honour,  or  glory. 
 (Deut.  xxxiii.  17.  Job  xvi.  15. 
 Luke  i.  69.)  Hence  it  is  fre- 
 quently employed  in  prophetic 
 visions,  instead  of  kings  and 
 kingdoms.  (Dan.  vii.  20—24.) 
 Horns  were  used  as  vessels  for 
 liquids,  especially  oil  and  per- 
 fumes, (1  Sam.  xvi.  I.  1  Kings 
 .  39,)  and  also  for  trumpets. 
 (Josh.  vi.  8.  13.)  The  horn 
 Ijeing  the  chief  defence  and 
 slrensth  of  many  beasts,  to 
 break  or  cut  off  the  horn  of  a 
 king  or  people  is  to  abridge 
 or  destroy  their  power  ;  and  to 
 raise  or  exalt  the  horn  is  to 
 establish  or  increase  power 
 and  prosperity.  So  also  among 
 the  aborigines  of  this  country 
 a  like  custom  prevailed.  The 
 chief  of  the  council  which  ne- 
 gotiated the  treaty  with  Wil- 
 liam Penn  opened  the  business 
 by  placing  on  his  own  head  a 
 crown  with  a  horn  in  it,  signi- 
 ficant of  supreme  authority,  by 
 which  the  covenants  of  the 
 treaty  were  made  binding. 
 
 Some  have  supposed  that  in 
 those  passages,  Ps.  Ixxv.  5.  10, 
 allusion  is  made  to  a  hollow 
 silver  horn,  four  or  five  inches 
 in  diameter  at  the  root,  and 
 rising  obliquely  from  the  fore- 
 
 head, which  was  worn  as  an 
 ornament  by  oriental  women, 
 warriors,  and  distinguished 
 men.  (1  Sam.  ii.  1.) 
 
 They  are  noticed  by  travel- 
 lers as  worn  by  Abyssinian 
 chiefs,  and  on  the  military 
 caps  of  the  sepoys  of  India. 
 
 HOR 
 
 Horns  on  the  Altar.  -'See 
 Altar.) 
 
 HORNET.  (Deut.  vii.  20.)  A 
 very  large,  strong,  and  bold 
 species  of  the  wasp,  remarka- 
 ble for  their  irritability,  and 
 for  the  severity  of  their  sting. 
 Hornets  were  employed  as  in- 
 struments of  the  divine  judg- 
 ments upon  the  enemies  of 
 Israel.  (Comp.  Ex.  xxiii.  28, 
 and  Josh.  xxiv.  12.) 
 
 HORSE.  (Gen.  xlix.  17.)  In 
 the  early  periods  of  the  world, 
 the  labouring  beasts  were  chief- 
 ly oxen  and  asses,  while  horses 
 were  used  by  kings  and  warri- 
 ors, either  mounted  or  harness- 
 ed to  chariots.  (Ex.  xiv.  9.  23. 
 Esth.  vi.  8.)  The  use  of  horses 
 by  the  Israelites  was  discourag- 
 ed. (Deut.  xvii.  16.  Josh.  xi.  6.) 
 The  reason  is  perhaps  explain- 
 ed in  Isa.  xxxi.  1.  3.  In  Solo- 
 mon's time,  however,  horses 
 were  common  among  them, 
 and  he  probably  imjiorted 
 tiiem  from  Syria  and  Egypt. 
 (lKingsiv.26;  x.  26.29.  2Chron. 
 i.  14—17 ;  ix.  25.)  Horses  were 
 consecrated  to  idol-gods,  (2 
 Kings  xxiii.  11,)  and  are  often 
 employed  by  the  prophets,  un- 
 der different  colours,  to  denote 
 the  character  of  future  dispen- 
 sations, (Zech.  i.  8;  vi.  2— 6;) 
 and  so  also  are  angels  repre- 
 sented under  the  figure  of 
 horses,  (2Kin£r8  ii.  11 ;  vi.  15 — 
 17;)  because  of  the  character- 
 istic strength,  fleetness,  and 
 courage  of  that  animal.  (Job 
 xxxix.  19—25.  For  a  full  de- 
 scription of  the  horse,  and 
 illustrative  engravings,  see 
 Youth's  Friend,  vol.  iii.  No. 
 6,  Bible  Natural  History, 
 and  Portfolio  of  Animals, 
 all  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union  ) 
 
 HORSE-LEECH.  (Prov.xxx. 
 15.)  A  well  known  insect  of 
 the  water,  resembling  a  worm, 
 and  remarkable  for  its  thirst 
 for  blood,  which  is  never  satis- 
 fied until  its  body  is  complete- 
 ly filled.  The  figure  in  the 
 above  passage  may  illustrate 
 016 
 
HOS 
 
 the  insatiable  craving  of  lust, 
 avarice,  and  cruelty. 
 
 HOSANNA  (Malt.  xxi.  9)  is 
 used  either  as  a  form  of  blessing 
 or  an  ascription  of  praise.  Thus, 
 when  Hosanna  was  cried,  in 
 the  passage  just  cited,  it  was 
 as  if  the  people  had  shouted  in 
 ioyful  acclamations  on  every 
 side,  Lord,  preserve  this  Son 
 of  David ;  heap  favours  and 
 blessings  upon  him.  The  same 
 exclamation  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  used  in  the  proces- 
 sion at  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 
 
 HOSEA,  PROPHECY  OF,  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  uttered 
 about  seven  or  eight  hundred 
 years  before  Christ.  This  pro- 
 phet was  a  son  of  Beeri,  and 
 lived  in  Samaria;  and  if  we 
 construe  the  title  of  the  pro- 
 phecy literally,  (Hos.  i.  1,)  we 
 should  infer  that  his  prophecy 
 embraced  a  period  of  at  least 
 eighty  years.  It  is  probable, 
 however,  that  the  work  of  Ro- 
 sea begins  with  the  second 
 verse.  The  design  of  the  pro- 
 phecy is  to  reprove  the  people 
 of  Israel  for  their  heinous  sins 
 and  gross  idolatry,  and  to  warn 
 Judah  against  falling  into  the 
 same  courses. 
 
 The  divine  directions  (Hos. 
 i.  2 ;  iii.  1)  have  occasioned 
 much  speculation.  The  gene- 
 ral idea  seems  to  be,  that  at 
 that  time  (as  at  the  present 
 day  in  many  eastern  countries) 
 it  was  common  to  form  tempo- 
 rary marriages;  during  the  con- 
 tinuance of  which,  strict  fide- 
 lity and  propriety  were  main- 
 tained on  both  sides,  as  when 
 the  contract  was  for  a  perma- 
 nent union.  So  that,  however 
 revolting  it  must  seem  to  us, 
 it  was  not  scandalous  in  the 
 prophet,  but  might  possibly  ex- 
 pose and  reprove  the  peculiar 
 iniquity  of  the  Israelites. 
 
 HOS  HE  A.  1.  (Deut.  xxxii. 
 44.)    The  same  with  Joshua. 
 
 2.  (2  Kinirs  xv.  30.)    The  son 
 
 t>f  Elah,  and  the  last  of  the 
 
 kings  of  Israel.    In  the  ninth 
 
 27* 
 
 HUM 
 
 yrar  of  his  reian,  the  Assyrian 
 king,  provoke3  by  an  attempt 
 which  Hoshea  made  to  form 
 an  alliance  with  Egypt,  and 
 so  throw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke, 
 marched  against  Samaria,  and, 
 after  a  siege  of  three  years, 
 took  it,  and  carried  the  people 
 away  into  Assyria.  (2  Kings 
 xvii.  1—6.  Hos.  xiii.  16.  Mic. 
 i.6.) 
 
 HOUGH.  (Josh.  xi.  6. 9.)  To 
 disable  by  cutting  the  sinews 
 of  the  ham,  (hamstririgs.) 
 
 HOUR.  (Matt.  XXV.  13.)  A 
 division  of  time  known  among 
 us  as  the  twenty-fourth  part  of 
 a  day.  One  of  the  earliest 
 divisions  of  the  day  was  into 
 morning,  heat  of  tlie  day,  mid- 
 day, and  evening;  and  the 
 night,  into  first,  second,  and 
 third  watch.  The  first  use  of 
 the  word  hour  by  the  sacred 
 writers  occurs,  Dan.  iii.  6;  but 
 the  length  of  the  time  denoted 
 by  it  varied  with  the  seasons  of 
 the  year.  The  third,  sixth,  and 
 ninth  hours  of  the  day,  count- 
 ing from  6  A.  M.,  were  espe- 
 cially hours  of  prayer. 
 
 H(JUSE.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 The  word  house  is  also  used  to 
 denote  a  family,  (Gen.  xii.  17. 
 1  Tim.  V.  8,)  a  race,  or  lineage, 
 (Luke  ii.  4,)  and  property. 
 (1  Kings  xiii.  8.) 
 
 House,  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, as  some  suppose,  signi- 
 fies the  immediate  family  of 
 the  householder ;  while  houee- 
 hold  includes  all  who  dwell 
 under  his  roof. 
 
 House  of  the  Rolls,  (Ezra 
 vi.  1,)  and 
 
 Treasure  House,  (Ezra  v. 
 17,)  are  both  expressions  sup- 
 posed to  refer  to  the  same 
 apartment,  and  denote  the 
 public  depository  of  books. 
 
 HUMILITY  (Prov.  xv.  33)  is 
 the  opposite  of  pride,  and  one 
 of  the  cardinal  graces  of  the 
 renewed  heart.  It  consists  in 
 a  man's  not  thinking  of  him- 
 self more  highly  than  he  ou^ht 
 to  think;  and  is  urged  with 
 317 
 
HUS 
 
 preat  force  upon  all  who  pro- 
 fess to  be  Christ's  disciples. 
 (i  Pet.  V.  5.)  In  this,  as  in  all 
 Cither  respects,  our  divine  Sa- 
 viour's life  furnishes  us  with  a 
 perfect  example,  (Phil.  ii.  5 — 
 8;)  and  t^e  sacred  Jjcriptures 
 abound  with  promises  of  grace 
 and  favour  to  the  humble^  and 
 threatenings  of  sorrow  and 
 punishment  to  the  proud. 
 
 HUR.  (Ex.  xvii.  10.)  The 
 on  of  Caleb,  and  one  of  the 
 chief  men  of  the  Israelites. 
 (Ex.  xxiv.  14.) 
 
 HUSBAND.  (See  Mar- 
 riage.) (Matt.  i.  16.)  A  mar- 
 ried man,  and,  as  some  derive 
 it,  the  house-bajuL  or  one  who 
 connects  the  family  and  ket^ps 
 It  together.  A  man  betrothed, 
 but  not  married,  was  called 
 a  husband,  as  the  espousals 
 were  considered  sacred  and 
 inviolable. 
 
 Tlie  husbmid  is  the  head  of 
 the  wife.,  (Eph.  v.  23,)  inasmuch 
 as  he  is  the  head  of  the  house- 
 hold, (though  she  is  associated 
 with  him,)  and,  as  such,  he  is 
 entitled  to  the  respect  and 
 affection  of  all. 
 
 HYM 
 
 I     HUSBANDMAN.  (John  xv. 
 1.)    One  whose  profession  and 
 labour    is    to    cultivate     the 
 ground.    It  is  among  the  most 
 ancient  and  honourable  occu- 
 pations.     (Gen.   ix.  20.     Isa. 
 xxviii.  24—28.)    All  the  Jews 
 ,  who  were  not  consecrated  to 
 I  religious  offices  were  agricul- 
 :  lurists.    The  force  and  appro- 
 i  priatenees   of   the    figurative 
 ;  uses  of  this  term  by  the  sacred 
 writers  are  sufficiently  obvious 
 I  from  their  connexion. 
 I      HUSHAI.    (2  Sam.  xv.  32.) 
 I  An  Archite,  (Josh.  xvi.  2,)  and 
 a  particular  and  faithful  friend 
 of  David.    (2Sam.  xvi.  16.) 
 I     HUSKS  (Luke  xv.  16)  means 
 either  shells,— as  of  peas  or 
 I  beans,— or  the  fruit  of  the  ca- 
 rob  tree,  which  is  common  in 
 Palestine,  and  is  used  for  food 
 by  the  poor,  and  for  the  fatten- 
 ing of  cattle  and  swine. 
 I     HYMENEUS.  (2Tim.ii.l7.) 
 This  name  is  mentioned  once 
 with  Alexander  and  once  with 
 Philetus.    He  denied  the  doc- 
 trine of  a  future  resurrection, 
 and  was  given  up  to  Satan. 
 (1  Tim.  i.  20.  Comp.  1  Cor.v.  5.) 
 
 ICO 
 
 ICE.  (S.^e  Crystal.) 
 ICHABOD.  (lSam.iv.21, 
 22.)  The  sonofPhinehas,  and 
 grandson  of  Eli,  the  high-priest. 
 He  was  born  just  after  his  mo- 
 ther received  the  sad  tidings 
 that  her  husband  and  fatheV 
 in-law  were  dead,  and  the  ark 
 of  God  taken  by  the  Philis- 
 tines. Such  was  the  effect  of 
 these  tidings  upon  her,  that 
 she  died  immediately  upon  the 
 birth  of  her  child  ;  giving  him 
 the  significant  nanie  Lhabod, 
 or  the  slory  is  departing. 
 
 ICONIUM.  (Acts  xiii.  51.) 
 A  city  of  ancient  Lycaonia,  in 
 Asia  Minor,  at  the  foot  of 
 mount  Tauru.s,  now  called 
 Conia,  or  Cogni,  the  capital 
 cf  Caramania,  and  residence 
 
 IDD 
 
 of  a  pasha.  It  contains  at  pre 
 sent  about  15,000  inhabitants. 
 It  was  visited  by  Paul  and 
 Barnabas,  who  preached  the 
 gospel  there,  and  were  so  per- 
 secuted in  consequence  of  it 
 as  to  be  obliged  to  leare  the 
 place.  (Acts  xiv.  1—6.)  Ico- 
 nium  is  mentioned  by  several 
 ancient  historians. 
 
 IDDO.  (2Chron.ix.29.)  In 
 this  passage  are  mentioned  the 
 visions  of  Iddo  the  seer  against 
 Jeroboam,  &c.;  and  in2(;hron. 
 xii.  15,  is  mentioned  the  book 
 of  Iddo  tlie  seer  concerning 
 genealogies:  and  again,  it  is 
 said.  (2Chron.  xiii.  22,)  that  the 
 rest  of  the  acts  of  Abijah,  anc' 
 his  ways  and  his  sayings,  are 
 written  in  the  storv  (or  com 
 318 
 
IDO 
 
 mentary)  of  the  prophet  Iddo. 
 These  expressions  may  all  I 
 refer  to  one  and  the  same 
 volume.  He  was  probably  a 
 prophet  and  annalist  of  some 
 distinction,  and  is  supposed  by 
 many  to  have  been  the  person 
 who  was  slain  by  a  lion,  as  re- 
 corded 1  Kings  xiii.  Several 
 others  of  the  same  name  are 
 mentioned,  of  whose  history 
 we  know  nothine. 
 
 IDLE,  (Matt.  xii.  36,)  in  this 
 connexion,  means  pernicious, 
 false,  or  calumnious  words. 
 
 IDOL,  (I  Kings  xv.  13,)  IDO- 
 LATRY. (Acisxvii.  16.)  What- 
 ever receives  the  worship 
 which  is  due  only  to  God  is  an 
 idol.  In  a  figurative  sense,  the 
 word  denotes  any  thing  which 
 draws  the  affections  from  God, 
 (Col.  iii.5;)  and  in  a  restricted 
 sense,  it  denotes  the  visilile 
 image  or  figure  to  wliich  reli- 
 gious worship  is  paid.  (Deut. 
 xxix.  17.) 
 
 Idolatry  consists,  (1.)  In 
 worshipping,  as  the  true  God, 
 Bome  other  person  or  thins  be- 
 sides Jehovah  ;  and,  (2.)  Wor- 
 shipping the  true  God  under 
 some  image,  as  the  golden 
 calf.   (Ex.  xxxii.  4,  5.) 
 
 When  the  worship  of  idols 
 commenced  is  uncertain.  It 
 was  prevalent  at  a  very  early 
 period  of  the  world;  and,  as 
 some  suppose,  was  no  incon- 
 siderable part  of  the  sreneral 
 corruption  which  callpd  for 
 the  judgment  of  the  deluge. 
 (Geri.  vi^  12.)  The  pagans  wor- 
 shipped universal  nature,  the 
 soul  of  the  world ;  ansrels,  de- 
 mons, and  the  souls  of  departed 
 men,either  separate  and  alone, 
 or  in  union  with  some  star  or 
 other  body.  They  worshipped 
 the  heavens,  and  in  them  both 
 particular  luminaries  and  con- 
 stellations ;  the  atmosphere, 
 and  in  it  the  meteors  and  fowls 
 of  the  air;  the  earth,  and  in  it 
 Deasts,  birds,  insects,  plants, 
 groves,  and  hills,  tosether  with 
 aivers  fossils,  and  fire.    They 
 
 IDO 
 
 worshipped  the  water;  anO 
 in  it  the  sea  and  rivers;  and 
 in  them  fishes,  serpents,  and 
 insects,  together  with  such 
 creatures  as  live  in  either  ele- 
 ment. They  worshipped  men, 
 both  living  and  dead  ;  and  in 
 them  the  faculties  and  endow- 
 ments of  the  soul,  as  well  as 
 the  several  accidents  and  con- 
 ditions of  life.  Nay,  they  wor- 
 shipped the  images  of  animals, 
 even  the  most  hateful ;  such  as 
 serpents,  dragons,  crocodiles, 
 &c.;  and  at  last  descended  so 
 low  as  to  pay  a  religious  re- 
 gard to  things  inanimate,  herbs 
 and  plants,  and  the  most  offen- 
 sive vegetables. 
 
 No  wonder  that  the  com- 
 mandment which  touches  this 
 point  should  so  particularly 
 specify  the  objects  which 
 should  not  be  represented  in 
 the  form  of  graven  ima£es.  (Ex. 
 XX.  4.) 
 
 "  Usefulness  wasthe  common, 
 but  it  was  not  the  only  quality 
 that  determined  the  object  of 
 idolatry ;  for  we  may  find,  that 
 whatever   delighted   with    its 
 transcendent  beauty, whatever 
 affrighted  with  its  malignant 
 power,    whatever    astonished 
 with  its  uncommon  greatness; 
 whatever,  in  short,  was  beauti- 
 ful,  hurtful,  or   majestic,  be- 
 came a  deity,  as  well  as  what 
 was  profitable  for  its  use.  The 
 sun,  it  was  soon  perceived,  had 
 all  these  powers  and  properties 
 united   in   it:   its  beauty  was 
 glorious  to  behold  ;  its  motion 
 wonderful  to  consider ;  its  heat 
 occasioned     different    effects, 
 barrenness  in  some  places, and 
 fruilfulness  in  others;  and  the 
 immense  globe  of  its  light  ap- 
 peared highly  exalted  a'nd  rid- 
 !  ing  in  triumph  as  it  were  round 
 {  the  world.    The  moon,  it  was 
 !  seen,  supplied  the  absence  of 
 ;  the  sun  by  night,  gave  a  frieud- 
 !  ly  light  to  the  earth,  and  be- 
 1  sides  the  great  variety  of  its 
 j  phases,   had  a  wonderful  in- 
 '  fluence  over  the  sea  and  other 
 319 
 
IDO 
 
 humid  bodies.  The  stars  were 
 admired  for  iheir  height  and 
 ma^niuide,  the  order  of  their 
 positions,  and  celerity  of  their 
 motions;  and  thence  the  peo- 
 ple were  persuaded,  either  that 
 some  celestial  vigour  or  other 
 resided  in  them^  or  that  the 
 Boulsof  their  heroes  and  great 
 men  were  translated  into  them 
 when  they  died ;  and  upon 
 these  and  similar  presump- 
 tions, they  believed  all  celes- 
 tial l^odios  to  be  deities.  The 
 force  of  fire,  the  serenity  of  a  ir, 
 the  usefulness  of  water,  as  well 
 as  the  terror  and  dreadfulness 
 of  thunder  and  lightning,  gave 
 rise  to  the  consecration  of  the 
 meteors  and  elements.  The 
 sea,  swelling  with  its  proud 
 surface,  and  roaring  with  its 
 mighty  billows,  was  such  an 
 awful  sight,  and  the  earth,  be- 
 decked with  all  its  plants, 
 flowers,  and  fruits,  such  a 
 lovely  one,  as  might  well  draw 
 forth  a  pagan's  veneration ; 
 when,  for  similar  motives,  viz. 
 their  l;cneficial,  hurtful,  de- 
 lightful, or  astonishing  i^roper- 
 ties,  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  in- 
 sects, and  even  vegetables 
 themselves,  came  to  be  adored. 
 "The  pride  and  pomp  of  the 
 g^eat,  and  the  abject  spirits  of 
 the  mean,  occasioned  first  the 
 flattery,  and  then  the  worship 
 of  kings  and  princes  as  gods 
 upon  earth.  Men  famous  for 
 their  adventures  and  exploits, 
 the  founders  of  nations  or  ci- 
 ties, or  the  inventors  of  useful 
 arts  and  sciences,  were  reve- 
 renced while  they  lived,  and, 
 after  death,  canonized.  The 
 prevailing  notion  of  the  soul's 
 immortality  made  them  ima- 
 gine, that  the  spirits  of  such 
 excellent  persons,  either  im- 
 mediately ascended  up  into 
 heaven,  and  settled  there  in 
 some  orb  or  other,  or  that  they 
 hovered  in  the  air;  whence  by 
 solemn  invocations,  and  by 
 making  somo.  statue  or  image 
 to   resemble,  they  might   be 
 
 IDO 
 
 prevailed  with  to  come  down 
 and  inhabit  it." 
 
 Whether  the  idolatry  of 
 image  worship  originated  in 
 Chaldea  or  in  Egypt  we  have 
 no  flata  from  history  to  deter- 
 mine; but  wherever  it  had  its 
 oricin,  the  apostle  Paul  has 
 sufficiently  accounted  for  the 
 grounds  and  reasons  of  it.when 
 he  says  that  men  professing 
 thernselves  to  be  wise,  be- 
 came fools,  and  changed  the 
 glcny  of  the  incorruptible  God 
 into  an  image  vtade  like  to 
 corruptible  man,  and  to  birds, 
 and  fcnir footed  beasts,  and 
 creeping  things.  (Rom.  i.  22, 
 23.) 
 
 Such  is  the  strong  tendency 
 of  depraved  nature'to  fall  into 
 this  sin  that  the  Israelites,  the 
 chosen  people  of  God,  were 
 subjected  to  a  twofold  re- 
 straint. God  was  their  king, 
 and  hence  idolatry  with  them 
 was  not  only  impiety,  but  trea- 
 son. The  positive  precepts, 
 and  severe  punishments  with 
 which  the  Jewish  law  met 
 every  approach  to  idolatry,  and 
 the  rigorous  prohibition  of  all 
 intercourse  with  the  idola- 
 trous nations  which  surround- 
 ed them,  show  plainly  how 
 abominable  the  sin  of  idolatry 
 is  in  the  sight  of  God  :  so  that 
 customs  which  might  excite 
 or  entice  to  idolatrous  prac- 
 tices, and  which  in  any  other 
 view  might  seem  perfectly  in 
 nocentjwere  strictly  forbidden. 
 (Deut.  xii.xiii.)  Probably  many 
 peculiar  provisions  of  the  Jew- 
 ish law,  which  may  seem  to 
 us  arbitrary  or  trifling,  may 
 have  origniated  in  this  very 
 circumstance.  Notwithstand- 
 ing all  that  was  done  to  guard 
 them  against  it,  the  people  of 
 Israel  fell  into  some  of  the 
 most  cruel  and  shocking  prac- 
 tices of  idolatry.  Even  the 
 sacrifice  of  children,  forbidden 
 as  it  was  under  the  most  se- 
 vere and  summary  penalties, 
 (Lev.  XX.  2,)  was  very  common 
 
IDO 
 
 Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  both 
 epeak  of  it  as  a  practice  pre- 
 vailing in  or  near  their  time. 
 (Jer.  vii.31.    Ezek.  xvi.  21.) 
 
 The  rites  of  idolatry  were 
 generally  impure  and  obscene 
 in  tlie  highest  degree.  The 
 priests  and  the  gods  were 
 alike  the  slaves  and  the  pa- 
 trons of  the  most  scandalous 
 and  filthy  practices;  and  hence 
 the  word  whoredom  is  ofien 
 used  as  synonymous  with  idol- 
 atry. Indeed,  the  present  state 
 of  the  heathen  world,  as  it  is 
 represented  by  our  own  mis- 
 sionaries, who  have  seen  and 
 heard  with  their  own  senses, 
 shows  conclusively  that  de- 
 basement of  mind,  utter  alien- 
 ation of  the  heart  from  every 
 thing  pure  and  holy,  the  gross- 
 est immoralities,  and  the  most 
 licentious  practices,  are  inse- 
 parable from  idolatry. 
 
 Roman  Catholics  deny  the 
 charge  of  idolatry,  and  justify 
 their  use  of  images,  by  saying 
 that  they  merely  serve  to  re- 
 mind them  of  the  objects 
 represented.  They  say,  that 
 by  casting  their  eyes  on  the 
 images  or  pictures  of  beings, 
 their  thoughts  are  raised 
 to  the  beings  themselves. 
 They  assert,  however,  tliat 
 saints  are  to  be  honoured  and 
 invocated,  and  their  relics  re- 
 spected, and  that  the  images 
 of  Christ,  the  Virgin  Mary, 
 and  saints,  ought  to  receive 
 due  honour  and  veneration. 
 How  far  these  practices  are 
 distinguishable  from  idolatry 
 this  is  not  the  place  to  intiuire. 
 The  history  of  mankind  shows 
 us  that  those  who  are  accus- 
 tomed to  behold  allegorical 
 and  symbolical  figures  in  their 
 places  of  religious  worship  soon 
 forget  the  invisible  object  of 
 adoration  in  the  emblem  by 
 which  it  is  set  forth,  and  very 
 naturally  sink  into  that  super- 
 atilion  which  is  so  congenial 
 to  the  gross  concpplions  and 
 depraved  iiicUuations  of  man. 
 
 IMM 
 
 It  is  estimated  that  more 
 than  600,000,000,  or  about  two- 
 thirds  of  the  human  family 
 are  worshippers  of  idols. 
 
 Sometimes  idol  temples  were 
 the  repositories  of  treasure, 
 (Judg.  ix.  4,)  and  were  protect- 
 ed by  a  tower.    (Judg.  ix.  46.) 
 
 IDUME.\.    (SeeEooM.) 
 
 IJE-ABARIM.     (See    Aba- 
 
 IlLYRICUM.  (Rom.  xv.l9.> 
 A  province  north-west  of  Ma- 
 cedonia, lying  alon^the  Adri- 
 atic Sea,  having  Italy  and 
 Germany  on  the  north,  and 
 Macedonia  on  the  east.  Its 
 southern  portion  was  the  Dal- 
 matia  which  Titus  visited. 
 (2  Tim.  iv.  10.)  Taking  Jeru- 
 salem as  a  centre,  it  will  ap- 
 pear that  lUyricum  was  nearly 
 the  extreme  north-western  pro- 
 vince of  what  was  then  no 
 small  part  of  the  known  world. 
 Perhajjs  Paul  went  into  Illyri- 
 cum ;  but  he  spealcs  here  only 
 of  having  preached  the  gospel 
 unto  its  borders. 
 
 IMAGE.  (Gen.  i.  26,  27.) 
 We  are  told  that  God  created 
 man  in  his  own  image;  and 
 Christ  is  said  to  be  the  image 
 of  God.  (Col.  i.  15.  Heb.  i.  3.) 
 The  term  imports  a  complete 
 and  exact  likeness,  like  that 
 which  exists  between  a  seal 
 and  its  impression,  when  the 
 original  is  perfectly  preserved 
 in  the  representation.  The 
 word  is  usually  employed  to 
 denote  an  object  of  idolatrous 
 worship.    (See  Man,  Idol.) 
 
 IMMANUEL.  (Isa.vii.l4.) 
 A  Hebrew  word,  signifying 
 "Goii  with  us,"  and  used  as 
 one  of  the  distinctive  titles 
 of  the  Messiah.  (See  Ahaz, 
 Christ.) 
 
 IMMORTAL,  BIMORTAL. 
 ITY.  (1  Cor.  XV.  53.  1  Tim.  i. 
 17.)  A  Slate  of  being  not  sub- 
 ject to  ileath.  It  is  one  of  the  at' 
 triUites  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
 
 The  bodies  which  we  inha- 
 bit while  in  this  world  are  cor- 
 i  ruptiule,  exposed  to  sickness, 
 331 
 
INC 
 pain,  and  death  ;  but  the  soul 
 can  never  die,  as  the  Ijody 
 dies.  Us  very  nature  is  immor- 
 tal. There  is  a  sense  in  which 
 the  stale  of  being,  on  which 
 the  souls  of  all  men  enter  at 
 death,  is  immorial.  But  the 
 Scriptures  speak  of  the  future 
 existence  of  the  righteous  as  a 
 slate  of  immortality  or  eternal 
 life,  in  distinction  from  the 
 stale  of  the  wiclied,  (Matt. 
 icxv.  46.  Rom.  ii.  7 ;)  and  it  is 
 obvious  that  the  phrase  im- 
 mortal or  eternal  death,  might 
 be  employed  to  express  forci- 
 bly the  nature  of  the  punish- 
 ment to  which  the  wicked  will 
 be  doomed  in  the  world  to 
 come. 
 
 IMPUTE.  (Rom.  V.  13.)  By 
 comparing  ver.  IS  of  the  epis- 
 tle to  Philemon,  with  Rom. 
 iv.  5—13,  we  shall  see  the 
 force  of  this  term.  The  words 
 translated  put  that  on  mine 
 account  in  the  former  passage, 
 and  that  which  is  rendered  by 
 the  words  counted,  impute,  and 
 imputed,  in  the  other,  have  a 
 common  oriein  and  meaning. 
 The  plain  (Christian  sees  and 
 feels  the  force  of  the  expres- 
 sion, and  though  he  may  be 
 ignorant  of  technical  distinc- 
 tions, yet  while  he  believes 
 on  One  that  justifieth  the  un- 
 godly, he  feels  the  blessedness 
 of  him  to  whom  the  Lord  will 
 not  impute  sin.  The  great 
 principle  involved  is,  that  the 
 sinner  who  accepts  Christ  is 
 delivered  fromthe^uilt,power, 
 and  punishment  of  sin,  and  is 
 clothed  with  a  righteousness 
 which  is  not  his  own,  but  the 
 eiftofGod  through  Jesus  Christ. 
 His  sins  are  put  to  the  account 
 of  another,  and  another's  right- 
 eousness is  nut  to  his  account. 
 
 INCENSE  (Ex.  XXX.  8)  was 
 a  compound  of  frankincense 
 and  other  gums  or  spices  ;  the 
 materials  and  manufacture  of 
 which  are  particularly  pre- 
 scribed, Ex.  XXX.  34—36.  (See 
 Frankincense.)    It  was  the 
 
 INH 
 
 business  of  the  priest  to  bum 
 it  morning  and  evening,  upon 
 an  altar  s{)ecially  erected  for 
 this  purpose  ;  and  thence  call- 
 ed the  altar  of  inceitse.  The 
 preparation  of  it  for  common 
 use  was  positively  forbidden  ; 
 neither  could  any  other  com- 
 posiiion  be  offered  as  incense 
 on  tiiis  altar,  nor  could  this  bo 
 offered  by  any  but  ilie  priest. 
 (See  Censer.  See  Biblical 
 ANTiauiTiEs,  vol.  ii.  pp.  46. 
 49,  by  Am.  S.S.Union.) 
 
 INCHANTERS,INCHANT  • 
 MENTS.  (Ex.  vii.  11.  Deut. 
 xviii.  10.)  Inchanlers  were 
 persons  who  pretended  to  pos- 
 sess the  power  of  charming 
 animals,  &c.  The  practice 
 of  inchantment  is  allied  to 
 witchcraft  and  sorcery ;  and 
 both  the  practice  and  prac- 
 tisers  are  decidedly  con- 
 demned by  God's  law.  (Deut. 
 xviii.  9—12.)  It  is  unquestion- 
 ably true  that  persons  have 
 sometimes  obtained  a  wonder- 
 ful influence,  particularly  over 
 serpents  of  the  most  deadly 
 species ;  instances  of  which 
 are  often  stated  by  eastern 
 travellers. 
 
 INDIA.  (Esth.  i.  1 ;  viii.  9.) 
 The  southern  section  of  the 
 continent  of  Asia.  It  is  only 
 mentioned  as  the  eastern  boun- 
 dary of  the  dominions  of  Aha- 
 suerus. 
 
 INGATHERING,  feast  op. 
 (See  Feasts.) 
 
 INHERITANCE. (Gen.xxxi. 
 
 14.)   In  the  modern  use  of  this 
 
 word,  it  denotes  the  estate  to 
 
 which  one   succeeds   on  the 
 
 death  of  the  present  possessor, 
 
 and  who  is  hence  called  his 
 
 heir.  In  eastern  countries,how- 
 
 ever,  the  fwriions  of  children 
 
 were  distributed  to  them  by 
 
 the  father  during  his  lifetime. 
 
 I  Among  the  Hindoos,  the  father 
 
 i  is  bound  to  make   an  equal 
 
 distribution  of   his    property, 
 
 whenever  his  children,  in  a 
 
 }  tody,  apply  for  it.    Hence  the 
 
 I  legitimacy  of  the  application 
 
INN 
 which  the  prodigal  son  and 
 Lis  brother  made,  and  which 
 resulted  in  the  father's  divid- 
 ing unto  Ihem  his  living. 
 (Luke  XV.  1-2.) 
 
 Tiie  word  inheritance  is  also 
 used,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
 to  denote  property,  or  pariiii- 
 pation.  (Conip.  Ezek.  xxxiii. 
 24,  with  Acts  vii.  5  ) 
 
 INIQUITY.  (Gen.  xv.  16.) 
 Whatever  is  done  regardless 
 of  the  law  of  God.  Sin  is  ihe 
 iransLTession  of  the  law:  ini- 
 quity'is  a  contempt  or  disre- 
 gard of  the  law.  (Ps.  li.  2.  9; 
 ciii.  10.)  To  bear  ihe  iniquity 
 of  the  congregation  (Lev.  x 
 17)  is  to  make  that  expiation 
 or  atciiemeut  which  is  a  pre- 
 requisite to  their  forgiveness. 
 (Isa.  liii.fi.) 
 
 INK,  INKHORN.  (Jer.xxxvi. 
 18.  Ezeii.ix.2.)  Ii  is  supposed 
 that  the  common  ink  of  early 
 ages  was  made  of  water  and 
 pulverized  charcoal,  or  the 
 black  of  burnt  ivory,  with  the 
 addition  of  some  kind  of  gum. 
 Other  substances  were  doubt- 
 less used  l>oth  for  writing  and 
 colourins  matter.  The  Ro- 
 mans uied  a  dark  purple  li- 
 quid, nhich  was  obtained  from 
 a  species  of  fish  for  this  pur- 
 pose. The  ink  in  common 
 use  at  this  day  has  been  known 
 for  several  centuries  in  Eu- 
 ropean countries,  and  is  usual- 
 ly made  of  nutgall3,viiriol,  and 
 gum.  Ancient  ink  was  more 
 caustic,  and  less  liable  to  fade 
 or  decay.  Chinese  ink  is  of 
 ^e  same  quality.  The  pro- 
 fessed writers  or  scribes  car- 
 ried with  them,  as  they  do  at 
 the  present  day  in  eastern 
 countries,  the  implements  of 
 their  business;  and  amoue 
 these  was  an  inkhorn.  thrust 
 into  the  -rirdle  at  thp  side. 
 
 INN.  (Luke  x.  34.)  In  the 
 earliest  ases,  an  inn  was  no- 
 ihmc  more  than  the  well  or 
 other  convenient  place  where 
 the  company  of  travellers  and 
 theif    weary    beasts    reposed 
 
 ;ns 
 
 for  rest  and  refreshinent.  Al 
 a  later  period  it  was  the  cara- 
 vansary, a  very  comfortless, 
 temporary  enclosure,  without 
 nx>ms  or  doors.  Afterwards 
 the  inn  became  what  the  cara- 
 vansaries of  Persia  are  at  the 
 present  day,— a  place  where 
 travellers  may  buy  lodging, 
 food,  and  fuel.  This  was  per 
 haps  such  an  inn  as  accom- 
 moidated  the  poor  wounded 
 man,  in  the  beautiful  story  of 
 the  good  Samaritan;  and  it 
 was  to  the  stable  or  out-build 
 ing  of  such  an  in.i  that  Marv 
 was  obliged  to  resort  with  the 
 infant  Saviour,  because  the 
 general  enrolment  had  brought 
 so  many  strangers  to  the  place 
 as  to  fill  the  house  before  they 
 arrived. 
 
 INSPIRATION  (2  Tim.  iii. 
 16)  is  a  supernatural  divine 
 influence  e.xerted  upon  the 
 human  mind,  by  means  of 
 which  the  individual  is  made 
 to  know  certainly,and  to  speak 
 truly,whai  could  not  have  been 
 so  known  in  the  „rdi nary  ex- 
 orcise of  the  faculties,  and 
 without  any  such  influence. 
 When  this  influence  is  so  ex- 
 erted as  absolutely  to  exclude 
 uncertainty  and  all  mixture 
 of  error  in  a  declaration  of 
 doctrines  or  facts,  it  is  called 
 a  plenary  or  full  inspiration. 
 And  the  book  wrilien  under 
 such  an  influence,  though 
 it  may  contain  many  things 
 which  the  author  might  have 
 known  and  recorded  by  the 
 use  of  his  natural  faculties,  is 
 properly  said  to  be  an  inspired 
 book  Nor  is  it  necessary  that 
 the  particular  style  and  me- 
 thod of  the  writer  sliould  be 
 abandoned.  God  may  have 
 wise  purposes  to  answer  in 
 pres^rvine  this,  while  he  se- 
 cur<^s,  throusrh  its  agency,  an 
 infallible  declaration  of  his 
 will.  So  that  style,  manner 
 &c.,  may  be  of  the  author's 
 own  choice,  provided  the  fact.« 
 stated     and     the    doctrines 
 
INT 
 
 taught  as  of  divine  authority, 
 are  stated  and  taught  under 
 an  immediate  divine  influ- 
 ence, without  the  possibility 
 of  error.  Aad  even  if  it  should 
 appear  that  the  copies  of  such 
 a  book  now  in  the  world  have 
 suffered  from  the  injuries  of 
 time,  and  the  carelessness  of 
 transcribers  and  printers,  so 
 that  inaccuracies  and  discre- 
 pancies of  unessential  iraport- 
 
 nce  might  be  detected,  still 
 if  the  substance  of  the  book, 
 if  the  grand  system  of  truth  or 
 duty  revealed,  is  evidently,  as 
 a  whole,  the  result  of  such  di- 
 vine inspiration,  it  is  to  be  re- 
 ceived, and  may  be  entirely 
 credited  as  an  inspired  book. 
 
 Theological  writers  speak  of 
 the  inspiration  of  elevation, 
 by  whicn  the  natural  faculties 
 are  endued  with  supernatural 
 power,  and  rise  to  those  sub- 
 lime conceptions  of  divine 
 things,  which  their  natural 
 force'  could  not  attain ;  and 
 also  of  the  inspiration  of  sug- 
 gestion, by  which  the  truth  Is 
 sugsested  directly  to  the  mind 
 by" the  Spirit  of  God,  and  also 
 the  language  in  which  it  is  to 
 be  declared  to  others.  Such 
 was  the  revelation  to  John  in 
 the  isle  of  Patmos.  All  these 
 various  degrees  or  kinds  of 
 inspiration  are  supposed  to 
 occur  in  our  Scriptures.  And 
 sometimes  they  are  combined. 
 (See  Scripture.) 
 
 INSTRUI\IENTS  OF  MU- 
 SIC.   (Sf  e  Mur-'ic.) 
 
 INTERCESSION,  INTER- 
 CESSOR.  (Isa.liii.  12;  lix.16.) 
 To  intercede  for  another  is  to 
 appear  for  him  or  interpose  in 
 his  behalf,  and  to  plead  fir 
 him.  (1  Tim.  ii.  1.)  It  usually 
 implies  guilt  or  oblisation; 
 and  the  object  of  the  interces- 
 sor is  to  reconcile  or  satisfy  the 
 offended  party,  and  procure 
 the  release  and  pardon  of  the 
 offender.  It  sometimes  denotes 
 the  reverse  of  this.  (Rom. 
 iti.  2.) 
 
 IRQ 
 
 The  Spirit  is  said  to  make 
 intercession  for  its.  (Rom.viii. 
 26.)  This  is  to  be  understood 
 as  referring  to  that  peculiar 
 influence  of  the  Spirit  upon 
 the  heart  by  which  it  is  taueh', 
 and  guided,  and  enabled  to 
 cherish  and  breathe  forth  holy 
 desires,  which  God  will  gra- 
 ciously accept  through  the 
 complete  and  effectual  media- 
 tion of  Him  who  ever  liveth  to 
 make  intercession  for  us.  Aa 
 to  \hefact  of  Christ's  interces- 
 sion, see  Rom.  viii.  34.  1  Tim. 
 ii.  5.  1  John  ii.  1 ;  and  the  man- 
 ner of  it  is  illustrated.  Heb. 
 vii. — X.,  in  which  chapters 
 the  continued  intercession  of 
 Christ,  and  the  sacrifice  oi 
 himself  as  the  ground  of  his 
 intercession,  are  presented  to 
 the  mind  as  a  most  affecting 
 evidence  of  the  nature  and 
 effect  of  sin. 
 
 IRON.  (Prov.  xxvii.  17.) 
 Some  of  the  uses  of  this  well 
 known  and  most  valuable 
 metal  were  probably  known 
 at  a  very  early  period.  (Gen. 
 iv.  22.)  We  find  it  mention- 
 ed as  the  material  for  tools, 
 (Deut.  xxvii.  5.  2  Kings  vi. 
 6 ;)  weapons  of  war,  (1  Sam 
 xvii.  7;)  furniture,  (Deut.  iii. 
 11;)  implements  of  husbandry, 
 (2  Sam.  xii.  31.  Jer.  xxviii. 
 14 ;)  and  chariots  of  war.  (Josh, 
 xvii.  If),  &c.  &c.)  By  northern 
 iron  (Jer.  xv.  12)  probably  is 
 intended  a  species  of  iron  ore 
 or  manufacture,  remarkable 
 for  its  iiardness,  found  in  a  re- 
 gion bordering  on  the  Euxine 
 Sea,  and  of  course  north  of  Ju- 
 dea. 
 
 It  is  naturally  supposed, from 
 the  connexion,  that  by  the  ex- 
 pression, a  land  whose  stones 
 are  iron,  (Deut.  viii.  9,)  is  in- 
 tended an  abundance  of  iron 
 ore;  and  a  passage  of  like  im- 
 port occurs  in  the  description 
 of  the  lot  of  Asher,  (Deut.xxxiii. 
 25,)  where  the  reading  miirht 
 be,  under  thy  shoes  are  iron 
 a7id  brass. 
 
 324 
 
ISA 
 
 ISAAC,  (Gen.  xxi.  3,)  the  son 
 of  Abraham  and  Sarah,  was 
 born  A.  M.  2108.  The  origin 
 of  the  name,  which  signifies 
 laughter,  is  given  in  Gen.  xvii. 
 17;  xviii.  12;  and  xxi.  6. 
 
 Abraham's  laughter  was  that 
 of  joy;  Sarah's,  that  of  incredu- 
 lity. Isaac's  birth  was  the  sub- 
 ject of  many  remarkable  pro- 
 phecies; and  he  was  made,  by 
 express  covenant  with  Abra- 
 ham, the  ancestor  of  the  pro- 
 mised Blessiah.  (Gen.  xxi.  12.) 
 When  he  had  arrived  at  mature 
 years,  his  father  was  required 
 to  offer  him  up  in  sacrifice; 
 and  his  conduct  on  this  occa- 
 sion as  remarkably  illustrates 
 his  docility,  and  submission, 
 and  filial  confidence,  as  the 
 course  of  Abraham  did  his 
 obedience  and  faith.  (See 
 Abraham.)  He  married  Re- 
 bekah,the  daughter  of  Bethuel, 
 and  by  her  became  the  father 
 of  Jacob  and  Esau.  His  pos- 
 sessions were  very  great,  (Cren. 
 xxvi.  12,  13 ;)  but  his  old  age 
 was  embittered  by  domestic 
 trials.  (Gen.  xxvi.  35 ;  xxvii.) 
 He  died  at  Hebron,  at  the  ad- 
 vanced age  of  one  hundred 
 and  eighty  years.  (Gen.  xxxv. 
 28,  29.)  For  a  particular  his- 
 tory of  Isaac,  with  maps  and 
 engravings,  see  History  of 
 Abraham,  Story  of  Isaac, 
 Jacob  and  his  son  Joseph, 
 and  Stories  from  the  Scrip- 
 tures, all  by  Am.  S.S.Union.) 
 
 ISAIAH.  (2 Kings  xx.  1.) 
 Very  little  is  known  of  the 
 personal  history  of  this  emi- 
 nent prophet.  We  know  that 
 lie  was  the  son  of  Amoz,  and 
 tiie  Jews  say  that  Amoz  was 
 the  brother  of  Amaziah  king 
 of  Judah.  Isaiah  lived  and 
 prophesied  between  the  year 
 of  the  world  3164  and  3305 ;  for 
 the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jotham, 
 Ahaz,  a7id  Hezekiah  embrace 
 that  period,  and  his  prophecy 
 was  uttered  in  their  successive 
 reigns.  The  history  of  these 
 reigns  is  in  2  Kings  sv.— xx. 
 28 
 
 ISA 
 
 2  Chron.  xxvi.— xxxii.    Some 
 
 {)assage8  of  it  are  given  by 
 saiali,  as  in  ch.  vii.  viii.  xxxvi. 
 — xxxix.  Uzziah  or  Azariah 
 reigned  fifty-two  years,  Jotham 
 and  Ahaz  each  sixteen,  and 
 Hezekiah  twenty-nine,  mak- 
 ing in  all  one  hundred  and 
 thirteen:  of  course  Isaiah  did 
 not  live  throughout  the  whole 
 of  their  reigns.  The  period  of 
 the  four  reigns  extends  from 
 the  year  of  the  world  3194  to 
 3306,  being  before  Christ  810 
 to  698.  The  city  of  Rome  was 
 founded  in  the  time  of  Isaiah, 
 namely,  in  the  year  before 
 Christ  753. 
 
 Isaiah  was  nearly  contem- 
 porary with  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos, 
 and  Micah  ;  and  tradition  says 
 that  he  was  one  of  the  faithful 
 who  were  sawn  asunder,  (Heb. 
 xi.  37,)  and  that  the  event  hap- 
 pened about  698  years  before 
 Christ.  There  is  no  evidence, 
 however,  as  to  the  time  or 
 manner  of  his  death. 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  regarded  as 
 one  of  the  most  complete  and 
 sublime  of  all  the  prophetical 
 writings.  Its  reference  to  the 
 advent,  ofiices,  and  kingdom 
 of  the  Messiah  are  so  nume- 
 rous and  exact  as  to  have  ob- 
 tained for  its  author  the  title 
 of  the  evangelical  prophet;  and 
 the  name  Isaiah  (^the  salvation 
 of  Jehovah)  indicates  the  same 
 characteristic  of  tliis  sublime 
 book. 
 
 The  first  thirty-nine  chapters 
 of  the  prophecy  relate  to  sub- 
 jects and  events  unconnected 
 with  each  other,  and  embrac 
 the  period  during  which  th 
 prophet  was  more  actively  and 
 openly  employed  as  a  minis- 
 ter. The  residue  of  the  book 
 relates  chiefly  to  two  events, — 
 the  end  of  the  Babylonish  cap- 
 tivity, and  the  coming  of  the 
 Messiah ;  the  latter  of  which 
 he  seems  to  have  contemplated 
 with  a  very  distinct  and  ele- 
 vated conception,  not  only  of 
 the  circumstances  of  its  com- 
 225 
 
ISH 
 
 noencement,  but  of  its  progrees, 
 glory,  and  ultimate  lriumi)h. 
 
 lSHBOSHETH,(2Sam.ii.8,) 
 son  and  successor  of  Saul,  was 
 persuaded  by  Abner  to  go  up 
 to  Mahanaim,  and  assume 
 Ihe  government,  while  David 
 reigned  at  Hebron,  (2  Sam.  ii. 
 11;)  and  a  majority  of  the  nation 
 of  Israel  acknowledged  him  as 
 king.  A  severe  battle  soon 
 after  occurred  at  Gibeon,  be- 
 tween the  army  of  David,  un- 
 der Joab,  and  the  army  of 
 Ishbosheih,  under  Abner;  in 
 which  the  latter  were  utterly 
 defeated. 
 
 Soon  after  this,  Ishbosheth 
 offended  Abner,  so  that  he  for- 
 sook his  interest,  and  became 
 the  ally  of  David;  and  at 
 length  ishbosheth  was  assassi- 
 nated at  noonday,  while  he 
 lay  on  his  bed.  (2  Sam.iv.5— 7.) 
 
 ISHI,  (Hos.  ii.  16.)  signifying 
 my  husband,  and  BAALJ,  in 
 the  same  passage,  signifying 
 viy  Lord,  are  figiiratively  used 
 to  denote  the  contrast  lieiween 
 the  atfeclions  and  relations  of 
 Israel  towards  God,  at  two  dif- 
 ferent periods  of  their  history. 
 The  latter  having  been  used 
 hi  idol  worship,  the  very  name 
 was  to  become  obsolete.  (Hob. 
 ii.  17.) 
 
 ISHMAEL.  (Gen.  xvi.  11.) 
 The  son  of  Abraham  by  Hagar. 
 Previous  to  his  birth,  his  mo- 
 ther,being  ill-treated  by  Sarah. 
 fletl  from  the  house,  and  while 
 In  the  wilderness  was  informed 
 by  an  angel  what  would  be 
 the  character  of  her  child,  and 
 that  his  posterity  would  be  in- 
 numerable. The  birth  of  Ish- 
 mael  was  in  a.  m.  -2091 ;  and 
 as  Abraham  supposed  that  the 
 promises  of  God  respecting  his 
 seed  were  to  be  fulfilled  in 
 Ishmaet,  he  nurtured  him  with 
 inuch  care.    (Gen.  xvii.  18.) 
 
 When  Isaac  was  weaned, 
 Ishmael  was  about  seventeen 
 years  of  asre,  and  having  of- 
 fended Sarah  by  his  irealinenl 
 tt  her  child,  she  insisted  upon 
 
 ISH 
 
 it  that  both  he  and  his  mother 
 Hagar  should  be  banished  from 
 the  family. 
 
 Hagar  probably  made  up  her 
 mind  to  return  to  her  kindred 
 in  Egypt;  but  when  siie  had 
 reached  the  wilderness ufBeer- 
 sheba,  her  slock  of  water  was 
 exhausted,  and  the  lad,  over- 
 come with  fatigue  and  thirst, 
 sunk  down,  apparently  to  die. 
 God  appeared  lor  their  deliver- 
 ance, directed  Hagar  to  a  foun- 
 tain of  water,  and  renewed  hit 
 promise  to  make  of  him  a  great 
 nation.  They  remained  in  the 
 wilderness,  and  he  sustained 
 himself  and  his  mother  by 
 hunting.  (Gen.  xxi.13— 26.)  At 
 length  he  married  an  Egyptian 
 woman ;  and  so  rapidly  did  his 
 progeny  multiply,  that  in  a  few 
 years  afterwards  they  are  sj'H)- 
 ken  of  as  a  trading  nation. 
 (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.) 
 
 The  prophecy  that  he  should 
 be  a  wild  man,  or  literally  a 
 wild  f»88  man,  or  as  wild  as  a 
 wild  ass,  has  been  wonderfully 
 verified  in  the  history  of  the 
 Arabs,  who  are  a  branch  of  his 
 posterity.  They  are  univer- 
 sally known  as  robbers  and 
 pirates ;  and  all  who  pass 
 through  their  country  do  it 
 in  caravans,  and  with  arms. 
 They  have  never  been  driven 
 from'  their  territory,  but  have 
 maintained  their  independ 
 ence  and  peculiarity  of  man 
 ners  and  customs  up  to  the 
 present  day,  thouch  they  have 
 lived  in  the  midst  of  influ- 
 ences and  events,  and  have 
 l>een  themselves  instrumental 
 in  their  occurrence,  I  y  which 
 the  relations  of  all  the  other 
 kingdoms  of  the  earth  have 
 been  essentially  modified,  if 
 not  completely  subverted. 
 
 The  wild  man  still  spiH-ns 
 the  chains  of  a  foreign  con- 
 queror, still  waylays  the  tra- 
 veller by  the  fountain,  and 
 maintains  himself,  as  in  the 
 days  of  old.  by  violence  and 
 plunder,  sweepinghis  troop 
 
ISL 
 
 of  fierce  bandits  across  the 
 path  of  the  merchant  ani!  the 
 pilgrim.  The  parcelling  of 
 the  natives  into  independent 
 tribes  impaired  their  common 
 strength.  No  necessity  ever 
 summoned  them  to  combine 
 for  their  mutual  defence ;  no 
 motives  of  external  advantage 
 could  prevail  with  them  to 
 Buspend  their  domestic  feuds; 
 and  no  leader,  till  Mohammed 
 arose,  seems  to  have  possessed 
 the  genius  or  address  to  con- 
 centrate their  impetuous  ener- 
 gies with  a  view  to  national 
 aggrandizement. 
 
 fSHMAELITES.  (Gen. 
 xxxvii.  25.)  The  descendants 
 of  Ishmael.  The  company  of 
 Ishmaelites,  to  whom  Joseph 
 was  sold,  are  elsewhere  called 
 Midianites.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  28.) 
 Probably  they  were  Ishmael- 
 ites who  dwelt  in  Midian.  It  is 
 evident,  however,  that  the  two 
 names  were  sometimes  applied 
 to  the  same  people,  (Judg.  viii. 
 !S.  24,)  though  we  know  the 
 descendants  of  Midian  were 
 not  Ishmaelites,  (for  Midian 
 was  a  son  of  Abraham  by  Ke- 
 lurah.) 
 
 ISLANDS,  ISLES,  &c.  (Isa. 
 xlii.  12.)  These  words,  as  used 
 in  our  version,  import  either, 
 (1.)  A  settlement  or  colony,  as 
 distinguished  from  uninhabit- 
 ed country,  or  from  seas  and 
 rivers,  (as  in  Gen.  x.  5.  Job 
 xxii.  30,  and  Isa.  xlii.  15;)— so 
 at  this  day,  small  districts  of 
 cultivated  and  settled  coun- 
 try, surrounded  by  immense 
 wastes,  are,  in  the  same 
 jense,  called  islands  ; — or,  (2.) 
 Coaat  or  country  adjacent  to 
 water  or  maritime  places,  (as 
 Lsa.  XX.  6,  and  xxiii.  2.  6,  and 
 Ezek.xxvii.7;)  or,  (3.)  Distant 
 lands  beyond  the  sea,  or  places 
 which  were  reached  by  sea, 
 whether  coasts  or  islands,  and 
 especially  the  regions  west  of 
 Palestine,  whether  islands  or 
 not,  (as  Isa.  xxiv.  15;  xl.  15; 
 and  xlii.  4.  10.  12;)   or,  (4.) 
 
 ITA 
 
 Islands,  properly  so  called,  (a« 
 Esth.x.  1,)  where  it  is  express- 
 ly used  in  distinction  from  the 
 continent  or  main  land. 
 
 Isles  of  thk  Gentiles,  or 
 Heathen,  (Gen.  x.  5,  Zeph. 
 ii.ll,)  mean  generally  the  parts 
 of  Europe  most  known  to  the 
 ancient  Asiatics. 
 
 ISRAEL.  (Gen.  xxxv.  10.) 
 The  surname  of  Jacob,  sivea 
 to  him  by  the  angel  at  Maha- 
 naim.  (Gen.  xxxii.  28.  Hos, 
 xii.  3.)  It  signifies  the  prince 
 that  prevails  with  God. 
 
 We  Mnd  it  used,  however, 
 for  the  whole  race  of  Jacob's 
 posterity,  (1  Cor.  x.  18 ;)  also 
 for  the  kingdom  of  the  ten 
 tribes,  as  distinguished  from 
 Judah,  (2  Kings  xiv.  12;)  and 
 again  for  alTtrue  believers, 
 (fsa.  xlv.  17.  Rom.  ix.6;  xi.26.) 
 
 Land  of.    (See  Canaan.) 
 
 Kingdom  of.  (See  Israel- 
 ites.) 
 
 ISRAELITES.  (Josh.  iii.  17.) 
 This  was  the  usual  name  of 
 the  twelve  tribes,  from  the  time 
 of  their  leaving  Egypt  until  the 
 revolt  under  Jeroboam,  whea 
 the  ten  tribes  constituted  the 
 kingdom  of  Israel,  and  the  re- 
 maining  two  the  kingdom  ff 
 Judah.    (See  Hebrews.) 
 
 ISSACHAR  (Gen.  xxx.  18) 
 was  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and 
 Leah.  The  prophetical  de- 
 scription of  him,  uttered  by  his 
 father,  (Gen.  xlix.  14, 15,)  was 
 fulfilled  in  the  fact  that  the 
 posterity  of  Issachar  were  a 
 laborious  people,  and  addicted 
 to  rural  employments;  hardy, 
 and  patient  to  bear  the  burdens 
 both  of  labour  and  war.  (Judg. 
 V.  15.  1  Chron.  vii.  1—5.) 
 
 Tribe  of,  had  its  portion  in 
 one  of  the  most  fertile  tracts  of 
 the  country.  It  was  a  triangu- 
 lar section  on  the  Jordan,  be- 
 tween Zebulon  and  Ephraim, 
 including  the  rich  valley  of 
 Jezreel ;  thus  fulfilling  the  pre- 
 diction of  his  father  in  this  re- 
 spect.   (Gen.  xlix.  14,15.) 
 
 ITALY.  (Actsxviii.2;ixvii. 
 327 
 
ITU 
 
 1  6.  Heb.  xiii.  24.)  This  coun- 
 try, of  which  Rome  was  the 
 capital  in  the  days  of  Christ 
 and  his  apostles,  is  too  well 
 known  to  need  description. 
 It  stretches  out  into  the  Medi- 
 terranean Sea,  having  the 
 Adriatic  on  the  north-east,  the 
 Tuscan  Sea  on  the  s&uth-west, 
 and  France,  Switzerland,  and 
 Germany  on  the  north. 
 ITHAMAR.  (See  Eleazar.) 
 ITUREA.  (Luke  iii.  1.)  A 
 province  of  Syria,  which  de- 
 rived its  name  from  Jetur,  a 
 son  of  Ishmael,  (Gen.  xxv.  15. 
 IChron.  i.  31,)  whose  posterity 
 inhabited  it.  It  was  south  of 
 Trachonitis,  beyond  Jordan, 
 and  probably  included  Aura- 
 nitis  and  Batanea.  It  was 
 overrun  by  a  oarty  of  the  Isra- 
 elites in  the' time  of  Jotham 
 king  of  Judah,  and  a  vast 
 quantity  of  spoil  taken.  (IChr. 
 V.  19.  22.)  It  is  now  called 
 Djedour. 
 
 IVO 
 
 IVORY.  (IKingsx.  18.)  The 
 substance  of  the  tusk  of  the 
 elephant.  That  which  is 
 brought  from  Ceylon  is  re- 
 garded as  most  valuable.  It 
 was  among  the  merchandise 
 of  Tyre  (fizek.  xxvii.  15)  and 
 Tarshish.  (1  Kings  x.  22.)  So- 
 lomon's  throne  was  built  of  it, 
 (2  Chron.  ix.  17.  21 ;)  and  so 
 lavishly  was  it  used  in  archi- 
 tecture of  various  kinds,  and 
 cabinet  work,  as  to  justify  the 
 expressions  we  find  in  Amos 
 iii.  15;  vi.4,  and  Ezek.  xxvii. 
 6.  In  the  last  of  these  passages 
 ivory  shrines  are  meant,  used 
 as  little  images  are  by  many 
 modern  sailors  for  superstitious 
 purposes. 
 
 The  term  ivory  palaces  (Ps. 
 xlv.  8)  is  supposed  to  refer 
 either  to  the  country  whence 
 the  perfume  was  obtained,  or 
 to  boxes  richly  wrought,  or 
 inlaid  with  ivory,  in  which  it 
 was  kept. 
 
 JAB 
 
 JABBOK.  (Gen.  xxxii.  22.) 
 A  brook  rising  in  the  moun- 
 tains south-east  of  Gilead,  and 
 running  in  a  rocky  channel, 
 through  a  deep  ravine,  about 
 fifly  miles  westward  to  the  Jor- 
 dan, separating  the  Amorites 
 from  the  Ammonites.  (Num. 
 xxi.  24.)  Jacob  crossed  it  on 
 his  return  from  Mesopotamia. 
 (Gen.  xxxii.  22.)  It  is  now 
 called  Zerka,  (blue  river;) 
 and  travellers  speak  of  cliffs 
 on  either  side  of  five  hundred 
 feet  perpendicular  height,  with 
 a  breadth,  from  cliff  to  cliff,  of 
 not  more  than  one  hundred 
 feet.  In  some  places  the  stream 
 is  not  more  than  thirty  feet 
 wide. 
 
 JABESH,  (1  Sam.  xi.  5,)  or 
 JABESH-GILEAD,  (Juds.  xxi. 
 8,)  was  situated  at  the  foot  of 
 mount  Gilead,  within  the  ter- 
 ritory of  Manasseh,  on  a  small  , 
 brook  which   is   still    called  I 
 
 JAB 
 
 Tabes.  In  the  days  of  the 
 judges,  this  place  was  sacked 
 by  the  Israelites,  and  nearly 
 all  the  inhabitants  cut  off,  be. 
 cause  they  refused  their  aid 
 in  a  war  upon  the  tribe  of 
 Benjamin.  (Judg.  xxi.  10.)  Af- 
 terwards it  was  besieged  by 
 the  Ammonites,  who  refused  to 
 spare  the  citizens,  unless  they 
 would  consent  to  have  their 
 right  eyes  plucked  out.  (1  Sam. 
 xi.  2.)  Having  obtained  a  sus- 
 pension of  hostilities  for  a 
 week,  they  took  advantage  of 
 the  interval  to  secure  the  aid 
 of  Saul,  who  marched  an  army 
 to  their  rescue,  and  surprised 
 and  defeated  the  Ammonitea 
 with  great  slaughter;  a  ser- 
 vice for  which  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  city  evinced  their  grati- 
 tude. (ISam.  xxxi.  11,  12.  2 
 Sam.  ii.  5.) 
 
 JABIN.  l.(Josh.xi.l.)  King 
 of  Hazor,  a  northern  district 
 323 
 
JAC 
 
 of  Canaan.  He  attempted,  by 
 aformidablealliance,lo  oppose 
 the  progress  of  Joshua.  He  and 
 his  allies  were  terribly  defeat- 
 ed in  a  battle  at  Merom,  the 
 city  of  Hazor  was  taken,  and 
 Jabin  put  to  death. 
 
 2.  (Judg.  iv.  2.)  Another 
 king  of  the  same  name  and 
 place,  who  had  great  wealth 
 and  power,and  was  guilty  ofop- 
 
 S)ressing  the  children  of  Israel 
 or  twenty  years.  His  army 
 was  defeated  by  Deborah  and 
 Barak,  and  Sisera,  his  princi- 
 pal general,  put  to  death. 
 
 JABNEEL,  (Josh.  xv.  11,)  or 
 JABNEH,  (2Chron.  xxvi.  6,) 
 was  a  city  of  the  Philistines, 
 situated  twelve  miles  south  of 
 Joppa.  It  was  called  Jamnia 
 by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
 and  is  now  called  Gebna,  or 
 Yebna. 
 
 JACINTH.  (Rev.  ix.  17.)  A 
 precious  stone,  of  a  reddish 
 yellow  or  hyacinth  colour,  re- 
 sembling the  amethyst. 
 
 JACOB,  (Gen.  xxv.  26,)  the 
 son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  and 
 twin  brother  to  Esau,  received 
 his  name,  which  signifies  sup- 
 pCanter,  from  a  circumstance 
 which  occurred  at  his  birth. 
 (Gen.  xxv.)  When  these  bro- 
 thers grew  up,  Esau  devoted 
 himself  to  hunting,  and  often 
 gratified  his  aged  father  with 
 savoury  meat  which  he  pre- 
 pared from  the  fruits  of  the 
 chase.  By  this  means  he  be- 
 came v  ry  much  the  favourite 
 oflsaac;  while  Jacob  who  was 
 a  plain,  domestic  man,  was  no 
 less  the  favourite  of  his  mother. 
 (Gen.  xxv.  27.)  Isaac,  appre- 
 hending that  his  end  was 
 drawing  near,  was  desirous, 
 before  his  departure,  of  pro- 
 nouncing a  solemn,  paternal 
 benediction  on  his  eldest  son ; 
 and  that  his  mind  might  be 
 excited  to  the  lively  exercise 
 of  affection,  he  requested  Esau 
 to  go  out  to  the  field  and  take 
 some  venison,  and  make  him 
 savoury  meat,  such  as  he  loved, 
 23* 
 
 JAC 
 
 and  bring  it  to  him,  that  he 
 might  eat  and  bless  him  before 
 he  died.  Before  this  time,  Ja- 
 cob had,  for  a  mess  of  pottage, 
 purchased  from  Esau  his  birth- 
 right,which  included  the  bless- 
 ing now  about  to  be  given. 
 (Gen.  xxv.  34.)  Rebekah, 
 having  overheard  Isaac's  re- 
 quest to  Esau,  and  no  doubt 
 being  acquainted  with  the  cir- 
 cumstance of  the  sale  of  the 
 birthright,  immediately  con- 
 ceived a  plan  of  securing  the 
 patriarchal  blessing,  which 
 was  prophetic  in  its  nature,  for 
 her  favourite;  for,  while  Esau 
 vveus  in  the  pursuit  of  venison 
 in  the  field,  she  induced  Jacob 
 to  personate  his  brother,  and 
 to  carry  to  his  father  savoury 
 meat,  prepared  by  herself  from 
 a  tender  kid ;  and  as  Isaac's 
 eyes  were  so  dim  that  he  weis 
 unable  to  distinguish  between 
 his  sons  by  their  appearance, 
 all  that  was  necessary  was  to 
 guard  against  detection,  in 
 case  he  should  be  led  to  feel 
 the  hands  and  face  of  Jacob ; 
 for  Esau  l^eing  very  hairy,  and 
 Jacob  smooth,  it  readily  occur- 
 red to  the  latter  that  his  father 
 might  resort  to  this  method  of 
 identifying  him.  To  prevent 
 detection  in  this  way,  Rebekah 
 covered  the  neck  and  hands 
 of  Jacob  with  the  skin  of  the 
 kid.  Thus  prepared,  he  ven- 
 tured into  his  father's  pre- 
 sence, and  by  means  of  lies 
 and  fraud  obtained  the  chief 
 blessing,  which  was  intended 
 for  the  first-born.  When  Esau 
 returned,  the  deception  was 
 rendered  manifest ;  but  Isaac, 
 though  deeply  distressed  on 
 account  of  his  mistake,  and 
 importunately  and  with  tears 
 entreated  by  Esau,  would  not 
 consent  to  change  any  thing 
 which  had  gone  out  of  his 
 mouth ;  and  Esau  received,  in- 
 deed, a  benediction,  but  not 
 that  of  the  first-born,  which 
 was  already  given  to  Jacob. 
 By  this  fraud  and  injury,  the 
 329 
 
JAC 
 
 enmity  of  Esau  to  his  brother 
 was  excited  to  the  highest  de- 
 gree, (Gen.  xxvii.  41 ;)  and  he 
 threatened  to  take  away  his 
 life,  as  soon  as  his  father's 
 funeral  should  be  over.  Rebe- 
 kah,  hearing  of  these  threats, 
 persuaded  Isaac  to  send  Jacob 
 away  to  Haran,  to  her  brother 
 Laban,  until  his  brother's  an- 
 ger should  subside.  Accord- 
 ingly, Jacob  having  again  re- 
 ceived his  father's  blessing, 
 and  a  charge  not  to  take  "a 
 wife  of  the'daughters  of  Ca- 
 naan, as  Esau  had  done,  to  the 
 sore  grief  of  his  parents,  set  off 
 on  his  journey  to  Padan-aram. 
 CGen.  xxviii.5.)  As  he  journey- 
 ed, he  came  to  a  certain  place 
 where  he  resolved  to  lodge; 
 and  taking  some  stones  of  the 
 place  for  a  pillow,  he  lay  down 
 to  sleep.  As  he  slept  God  made 
 known  to  him,  in  a  remarka- 
 ble dream,  that  his  posterity 
 should  be  very  numerous ;  that 
 they  should  one  day  possess 
 the  soil  on  which  he  was  then 
 reposing ;  that  he  should  be 
 personally  protected  and  pros- 
 
 Siered;  and  that  in  him  all  the 
 amilies  of  the  earth  should  be 
 blessed.  This  place  was  after- 
 wards called  Bethel.  (Gen. 
 xxvii.  xxviii.) 
 
 When  Jacob  came  near  to 
 the  residence  of  his  mother's 
 kindred,  he  saw  in  the  field 
 a  well,  where  were  three 
 flocks  of  sheep,  and  their  shep- 
 herds with  them ;  and  on  in- 
 quiry, he  found  that  they  were 
 of  Haran,  and  that  Eachel,  the 
 daughter  of  Laban,  was  then 
 approaching.  The  meeting  be- 
 tween Jacob  and  the  young 
 and  beautiful  shepherdess,  his 
 cousin,  made  an  impression  on 
 his  heart  which  was  indeli- 
 He.  Soon  after  tiie  young  man 
 was  domesticated  in  theTiouse 
 of  Laban,  (for  Nahor,  though 
 living,  seems  to  have  been 
 superannuated,)  he  made  pro- 
 posals to  Laban  to  take 
 Kachel  in  marriage,  promis- 
 
 JAC 
 
 ing  to  serve  seven  years  for 
 her.  But  as  he  had  been 
 guilty  of  a  gross  deception 
 towards  his  father,  to  the  in- 
 jury of  his  only  brother,  he 
 hio)self  now  became  the  dupe 
 of  a  designing  and  unjust  rela- 
 tive. Instead  of  his  belovea 
 Rachel,  Leah,  her  elder  sister, 
 was  given  to  him  deceptively ; 
 and  when  he  remonstrated 
 with  his  father-in-law,  he  was 
 told  that  the  custom  of  the 
 country  required  that  the  old- 
 est should  be  disposed  of  in 
 marriage  before  a  younger  sis- 
 ter :  but  it  was  proposed,  that 
 if  he  would  serve  as  much 
 longer,  he  should  still  have 
 Rachel.  It  is  not  to  be  under- 
 stood that  he  did  not  receive 
 her  until  the  seven  years  were 
 ended:  a  careful  attention  to 
 the  history  will  show,  that  he 
 must  have  received  Rachel 
 immediately,  and  served  for 
 her  afterwards.  With  each  of 
 his  daughters  Laban  gave  a 
 maid,  both  of  whom  became 
 the  wives  of  Jacob,  of  the  se- 
 condary or  inferior  kind.  (Gen. 
 xxix.) 
 
 From  all  these  there  were 
 born  to  Jacob  while  he  sojourn- 
 ed in  Mesopotamia,  eleven 
 sons  and  one  daughter.  Of 
 these,  Joseph  only  was  the 
 son  of  Rachel ;  Benjamin,  her 
 other  son,  having  been  born 
 near  Bethlehem.  (Gen.  xxxv. 
 18.)  Avarice  seems  to  have 
 been  the  ruling  passion  with 
 Laban ;  for  the  gratification 
 of  which,  he  seemed  to  be 
 willing  to  sacrifice  even  the 
 comfort  of  his  own  children 
 and  to  take  every  advantage 
 of  a  young  and  inexperienced 
 kinsman.  Continually  he 
 seems  to  have  been  studying 
 and  contriving  some  scheme 
 by  which  he  might  obtain  the 
 services  of  Jacob  for  less  than 
 their  value;  but  the  provi- 
 dence of  God  prevented  him 
 from  eventually  injuring  his 
 servant,  with  whom  he  had 
 230 
 
JAC 
 
 entered  into  covenant  at  Beth- 1 
 el.  Whatever  plan  of  wages  | 
 Laban  would  fix  on,  the  Lord 
 overruled  it  for  the  benefit 
 of  Jacob.  (Gen.  xxx.  26—43.) 
 But  at  length  he  resolved  to 
 return  to  "his  own  country, 
 from  which  he  had  been  so 
 long  an  exile.  And  lest  his 
 father-in-law  should  hinder  his 
 purpose,  he  communicated  his 
 design  to  his  own  family  ;  but 
 took"  the  opportunity,  when 
 Laban  was  absent,  to  set  off 
 with  his  wives  and  children, 
 and  all  his  cattle,  and  all  his 
 goods,  to  go  to  Isaac  his  father, 
 in  the  land  of  Canaan,  who 
 still  continued  to  live,  beyond 
 his  own  and  the  hopes  of  all 
 his  friends.  This  important 
 step,  however,  was  not  taken 
 without  the  direction  of  his 
 covenant-keeping  God.  On  the 
 third  day  after  Jacob's  depart- 
 ure, Laban  received  intelli- 
 gence of  his  flight,  and  he  im- 
 mediately pursued  after  him 
 with  a  company  of  men,  and 
 on  the  seventh  day  overtook 
 him  in  the  mount  Gilead. 
 There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
 Laban'?  intentions  were  hos- 
 tile ;  but  on  the  night  preced- 
 ing his  coming  up  with  Jacob, 
 he  received  an  admonition 
 from  the  Lord,  in  a  dream,  not 
 to  attempt  any  thing  against 
 him.  After  a  warm  expostula- 
 tion on  both  sides,  they  agreed 
 to  part  in  peace;  and  accord- 
 ingly a  solemn  covenant  was 
 entered  into  between  them ; 
 as  a  sign  of  which,  they  piled 
 up  a  heap  of  stones,  on  which 
 they  ate  together  in  token  of 
 friendship,"and  agreeably  to  a 
 custom  prevalent  in  many  an- 
 cient nations.  The  mount  on 
 which  this  transaction  occur- 
 red received  its  name,  Gilead, 
 from  the  heap  of  stones  set  up 
 for  this  witness.  (Gen.  xxxi. 
 47, 48.) 
 
 Soon  after  Jacob  was  reliev- 
 ed from  all  fear  from  Laban, 
 and  had  the  pleasing  prospect 
 
 JAC 
 
 of  speedily  coming  to  the  end 
 of  his  journey,  new  fears  and 
 troubles  arose.  The  danger 
 which  now  threatened  him 
 was  indeed  appalling ;  his 
 brother  Esau  was  on  his  way 
 to  meet  him,  accompanied  by 
 four  hundred  men.  No  other 
 than  a  hostile  attack  could  be 
 meditated,  as  he  supposed, 
 when  he  saw  his  offended 
 brother  approach  with  such 
 an  army,  against  a  company 
 of  helpless  women  and  child- 
 ren. In  this  extremity,  Jacob 
 had  no  other  resource  but  to 
 look  to  Heaven  for  help.  Ever 
 sinceGod  had  revealed  himself 
 to  him  at  Bethel,  he  had  made 
 Him  his  confidence  and  refuge 
 in  all  his  troubles.  Now,  there- 
 fore, he  cried  to  Him  in  his  dis- 
 tress.   (Gen.  xxxii.  9.  12.) 
 
 Having  thus  committed  his 
 cause  by  fervent  prayer  to  the 
 Almighty,  he  did  not  think  it 
 unnecessary  to  make  use  of 
 the  most  probable  means  to 
 avert  the  threatening  evil ;  and 
 therefore  he  sent  messengers 
 to  meet  his  brother  with  a  va- 
 luable present  from  his  flocks 
 and  herds,  in  separate  droves. 
 In  that  night  Jacob  took  his 
 two  wives,  and  his  two  wo- 
 men servants,  and  his  eleven 
 sons,  and  passed  over  the  ford 
 Jabbok ;  and  having  sent 
 them  over  this  stream,  to- 
 gether with  all  his  properly, 
 he  remained  alone  on  the  op 
 posite  side.  And  here  a  very 
 extraordinary  scene  occurred, 
 which  is  recorded  at  length. 
 Gen.  xxxii.  24—30 ;  and  on  this 
 occasion  Jacob's  name  was 
 changed  to  Israel. 
 
 Esau  now  approached,  but 
 not  as  an  enemy.  There  was 
 revived  in  his  bosom  a  strong 
 feeling  of  fraternal  affection; 
 so  that  when  he  saw  Jacob,  he 
 ran  to  meet  him,  and  embraced 
 him,  and  they  wept.  Thus  mar 
 vellously  did  God  provide  fot 
 the  safety  and  comfort  of  his 
 servant.  Esau  inquired  kindly 
 331 
 
JAC 
 
 c(  ncerning  his  brother's  faml- 
 1; ,  who  came  forward  succes- 
 sively, and  paid  their  respects 
 to  him :  and  he  would  have 
 declined  receiving  the  present 
 which  had  been  sent  lorward 
 to  him,  but  Jacob  insisted  on 
 his  acceptance  of  it,  and  he 
 took  it.  After  this  interview, 
 Esau  returned  to  mount  Seir, 
 and  Jacob  journeyed  to  Suc- 
 coth,  where  he  made  booths  for 
 his  cattle :  from  which  circum- 
 etance,  the  place  received  its 
 name,  as  the  word  succoth  sig- 
 nifies booths.  But  he  seems 
 only  to  have  sojourned  here 
 for  a  short  time;  probably  to 
 give  rest  to  the  women  and 
 children,  and  to  the  flocks  and 
 herds,  which  had  now  been 
 driven  a  1  ng  distance,  without 
 much  cessation.  But  his  jour- 
 ney was  not  terminated  until 
 he  came  to  Shalem,  a  city  of 
 Shechem,  which  is  in  the  land 
 of  Canaan,  where  he  bought  a 
 parcel  of  ground  of  the  children 
 of  Hamor,  for  a  hundred  pieces 
 of  money,  and  erected  there 
 an  altar,  and  called  it  El- 
 Elohe-Israel,  that  is,  God,  the 
 God  of  Israel.    (Gen.  xxxiii.) 
 
 But  although  Jacob  seems  to 
 have  intended  this  as  his  place 
 of  permanent  residence,  yet 
 events  occurred  which  render- 
 ed it  expedient  for  him  to  re- 
 move to  another  part  of  the 
 country.  (Gen.  xixiv.  See 
 Dinah.) 
 
 Jacob  was  greatly  grieved  at 
 the  cruel  and  treacherous  con- 
 duct cf  his  sons  in  the  affair 
 of  Dinah,  and  foresaw  that  it 
 would  render  him  and  his 
 family  odious  to  all  the  people 
 in  the  neighbourhood,  so  as  to 
 expose  him  to  be  slain  with  all 
 his  house. 
 
 The  same  invisible  power, 
 however,  which  preserved  him 
 from  the  hostility  of  Laban  and 
 his  brother,  now  also  shielded 
 him  from  the  resentment  of 
 the  Canaanites,  so  that  they 
 were  not  interrupted  nor  pur- 
 
 JAC 
 
 sued  in  their  journey ;  for  t?ie 
 terror  of  God  uas  upon  the 
 cities  that  uere  round  about 
 thein,  and  they  did  notmirsue 
 after  the  sons  of  Jacob.  During 
 this  journey,  Jacob  purged  his 
 house  from  idolatry,  and  puri- 
 fied them  by  some  ceremony^ 
 which  has  commonly  been  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  by  washing 
 their  bodies  in  water;  for  they 
 were  commanded  to  be  clean^ 
 and  change  their  garments. 
 (Gen.  XXXV.  2.) 
 
 He  now  arrived  at  Bethel, 
 where,in  conformity  with  vow» 
 and  the  divine  sanction,  ha 
 built  an  altar,  which  he  called 
 El-Bethel,  the  God  of  Bethel. 
 Here  also  God  appeared  unto 
 Jacob  again,  and  blessed  him; 
 and,  under  the  name  of  God 
 Almighty,  renewed  the  pro- 
 mise respecting  the  multipli- 
 cation of  his  seed,  and  the 
 possession  of  the  land  of  Ca- 
 naan. 
 
 But  the  domestic  troubles  of 
 this  good  man  were  far  from 
 being  ended.  He  was  now 
 called  to  endure  a  bereave- 
 ment of  the  most  afflicting 
 kind  which  could  have  befal- 
 len him.  Having  completed 
 his  pilgrimage  to  Bethel,  he 
 was  on  his  way  to  Ephratah, 
 and  had  come  near  to  the 
 place,  when  Rachel  died,  soon 
 after  giving  birth  to  a  second 
 son,  whom,  with  her  expiring 
 breath,  she  named  Benoni ; 
 but  his  father  called  him  Ben- 
 jamin. After  the  burial  of  his 
 wife,  Jacob  continued  his  jour- 
 ney until  he  came  to  a  place 
 beyond  the  tower  of  Edar, 
 where  he  spread  his  tent,  and 
 fixed  his  abode ;  but  dom.estic 
 troubles  were  still  allotted  to 
 him ;  for  while  resident  here, 
 his  oldest  son  Reuben  acted 
 in  a  manner  so  base  and  dis- 
 honourable, that  the  feelings 
 of  his  father  must  have  been 
 deeply  wounded.  At  length, 
 pursuing  his  way,  he  came  to 
 i  Mamre,  which  had  been  the 
 332 
 
JAC 
 
 favourite  residence  of  Abra- 
 ham, and  from  which  Isaac 
 was  never  absent  for  any 
 considerable  time,  until  the 
 day  of  his  death.  Tliis  peace- 
 able and  pious  patriarch 
 was  still  alive,  though  at  a 
 very  advanced  age;  but  soon 
 after  Jacob's  arrival,  he  died, 
 and  teas  gathered  unto  his 
 people,  being  old  and  full  of 
 days:  and  his  sons  Esau  and 
 Jacob  buried  him  in  the  cave 
 of  Machpelah,  where  probably 
 were  the  ashes  of  his  father 
 and  his  mother.  Soon  after 
 this,  the  affecting  scenes  open, 
 in  which  Joseph  took  so  con- 
 spicuous a  part,  and  which 
 exhibit  the  still  heavier  trials 
 of  Jacob,  and  the  wonderful 
 dealings  of  a  covenant  God 
 towards  him  and  his  house. 
 (Gen.  xxxvii.  —  xlv.)  These 
 events  led  to  his  removal  to 
 Egypt,  (Gen.  xlvi.,)  where,  in 
 the  land  of  Goshen,  he  led  a 
 
 Jjrosperous  and  tranquil  life 
 or  seventeen  years,  and  then, 
 after  pronouncing  a  remarka- 
 ble prophetic  blessing  on  the 
 infant  children  of  Joseph, (Gen. 
 xlviil.  8. 22,)  he  died,  a.  m.  2616, 
 aged  one  hundred  and  forty- 
 Beven  years ;  and,  according  to 
 his  dying  request,  his  remains 
 were  carried  up,  attended  by 
 the  chief  officers  and  nobility 
 of  Egypt,  to  Canaan,  and  bu- 
 ried "in  the  family  vault  at 
 Machpelah.  (Gen.  1. 13.  For  a 
 full  history  of  Jacob  and  his 
 family,  see  Jacob  and  his 
 BON  Joseph,  Story  of  Isaac, 
 History  of  the  Patriarchs, 
 History  op  Joseph,  Union 
 Questions,  vol.  iii.,  and 
 Teacher's  Assistant  in  the 
 use  of  that  vol.,  all  by  the  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 The  terms  Jacob  and  the 
 seed  nr  children  of  Jacob  are 
 often  applied  to  the  body  of 
 true  believers  generally. (Deut. 
 xxxiii.  10.  Ps.xiv.  7;  xxii.  23; 
 cv.  6 ;  cxxxv.  4.  Isa.  xiv.  I ; 
 xliv.  2.  Mic.  vii.  20.) 
 
 JAD 
 
 Jacob's  Well.  (See  She 
 chem.) 
 
 JADDUA,  (Neh.  xii.  11,)  or 
 JADDUS,  the  son  of  Jonathan, 
 hi|h-priest  of  the  Jews,  who 
 officiated  a  considerable  time 
 after  the  captivity,  and  is  be- 
 lieved to  be  tlie  same  who 
 lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
 the  Great.  Concerning  him, 
 Josephus  relates  this  remarka- 
 ble story :  that  Alexander  hav- 
 ing sent  to  him  for  provisions 
 for  his  army  while  besieging 
 Tyre,  he  excused  himself  on 
 the  ground  that  he  had  taken 
 an  oath  of  fidelity  to  Darius, 
 king  of  Persia.  The  impetu- 
 ous conqueror  was  highly  pro- 
 voked, and  vowed  vengeance 
 against  the  Jews.  According- 
 ly, as  soon  as  Tyre  was  sub- 
 dued, he  put  his  army  in 
 motion  towards  Jerusalem ;  but 
 before  he  reached  the  place, 
 Jaddus  and  the  other  priests, 
 clothed  in  their  pontifical 
 robes,  and  a  multitude  of  the 
 principal  people,  all  dressed 
 in  white  garments,  met  him: 
 on  which  Alexander  bowed 
 himself  to  the  ground,  and 
 seemed  to  worship  the  high- 
 priest,  which  conduct  filled 
 all  his  followers  with  amaze- 
 ment. And  Parmenio,  request- 
 ing an  explanation  of  this 
 extraordinary  behaviour,  was 
 informed,  that  before  he  left 
 Macedonia,  he  had  seen  in  a 
 dream  the  appearance  of  the 
 person  now  before  him,  who 
 promised  him  the  empire  of 
 the  world,  and  that  his  adora- 
 tion  was  not  addressed  to  the 
 man,  but  to  the  deity  whose 
 sacred  name  he  bore  on  his 
 forehead.  Whatever  truth  there 
 may  be  in  this  story,  we  know 
 that  Alexander,  instead  of  in- 
 flicting punishment  on  the 
 Jews,  granted  them  great  im- 
 munitfes,  especially  exemp- 
 tion from  taxation  on  every 
 seventh  or  sabbatical  year, 
 and  took  many  of  them  into 
 his  own  service :  and  when  he 
 333 
 
JAH 
 
 built  the  city  of  Alexandria,  in 
 Egypt,  he  invited  muliiiudes 
 ofthis  nation  to  settle  there ; 
 and  put  them,  in  regard  to 
 privileges,  on  a  level  with  his 
 own  Macedonians. 
 
 JAEL.  (Judg.  iv.  17.)  The 
 wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite.  After 
 the  defeat  of  Jabin's  army  by 
 Deborah  and  Barak,  Sisera,  the 
 general,  fled  towards  the  lent 
 of  Jacl.  It  was  not  unusual 
 for  the  women  to  have  a  tent 
 eeparate  from  the  men,  as  in 
 Sarah's  case,  (Gen.  xxiv.  (57,) 
 and  Leah's.  (Gen.  xxxi.  33.) 
 This  was  regarded  as  a  place 
 of  security  ;  for  then,  as  now, 
 among  the  Arabs,  a  stranger 
 would"  not  venture  into  the 
 women's  tent  unasked.  Jael 
 invited  him  in,  and  concealed 
 him.  Fatigued  and  thirsty,  he 
 asked  for  water,  and  she  gave 
 him  milk,  (see  Butter,)  ^s 
 some  suppose,  to  produce  sleep 
 the  sooner.  (Judg.  v.  25.)  After 
 instructing  Jael  to  stand  at  the 
 door  of  the  tent,  and  to  deny 
 that  he  was  within,  if  any  one 
 should  inquire  for  him,  he  fell 
 into  a  sound  sleep.  She  then 
 took  a  tent-pin,  and  with  a 
 hammer  drove  it  through  his 
 temples  into  the  ground.  Un- 
 natural and  hol-rid  as  this 
 act  seems,  we  find  that  in 
 the  song  of  triumph,  which 
 was  afterwards  uttered  by  De- 
 borah andvBarak,  the  tragical 
 circumstances  are  minutely 
 related,  and  Jael  is  called 
 blessed  above  wotnen.  (Judg. 
 V.  24—27.)  And  we  are  to  sup- 
 pose that  she  was  employed, 
 under  divine  direction,  as  a 
 mere  instrument  for  accom- 
 plishing God's  purposes  in  the 
 deliverance  of  Israel  from  op. 
 pression. 
 
 JAH.  (Ps.  Ixviii.  4.)  A  con- 
 traction of  the  word  Jehovah, 
 and  imports  the  attribute  of 
 self-existence.  It  is  part  of 
 the  compound  words  Adonijah 
 iGod  13  my  Lord)  and  Halle- 
 lujah (JPraise  the  Lord.) 
 
 JAM 
 
 JAhAZ,  (Num.  \xi.  23,)  or 
 JAHAZA,  (Josh.  xiii.  18,)  or 
 JAHAZAH,  (Jer.  xlviii.2l,)  or 
 JAHZAH.  (IChron.  vi.78.)  A 
 city  on  the  northern  frontier 
 of  the  Moabiies,  in  the  vicinity 
 of  which,  Moses  defeated  the 
 army  of  Sihon,  on  his  refusal 
 to  permit  him  to  pass  through 
 it  peaceably. 
 
 JAIR.  1.  (Num.  xxxii.  41.) 
 A  son  of  Manasseh,  who  dis- 
 possessed the  Amorites,  and 
 took  several  small  towns ; 
 hence  called  Havath-jair. 
 (Judg.  X.  4.) 
 
 2.  (Judg.  X.  3.)  A  native  of 
 Gilead,  and  probably  a  de- 
 scendant of  the  foregomg.  For 
 twenty-two  years  he  was  a 
 judge  in  Israel ;  and  he  had 
 thirty  sons,  all  of  whom,  it  is 
 supposed  from  the  language 
 of  the  sacred  historian,  {they 
 rode  on  thirty  ass-colts,)  were 
 deputy  judges,  and  rode  from 
 town  to  town,  administering 
 justice.  (See  Havath-jair.) 
 The  fact  that  they  succeeded 
 to  the  paternal  inheritance 
 furnishes  some  evidence  of 
 their  good  character  and  ha- 
 bits. 
 
 JAIRUS.  (Mark  V.  22.)  An 
 officer  of  the  Jewish  church, 
 who  applied  to  Christ  to  restore 
 to  life  his  daughter,  who  was 
 at  the  point  of  death  when  he 
 left  home.  He  evinced  very 
 strong  faith.  Christ  with  his 
 disciples  went  to  the  ruler's 
 house,  and  his  daughter  was 
 restored.  (See  Susan  Ell- 
 maker,  p.  80,  \ry  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 JAMES.  1.  (Matt.  iv.  21.) 
 A  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome, 
 and  brother  of  John  the  Evan- 
 gelist.  He  was  present  at  se- 
 veral of  the  most  interesting 
 scenes  in  our  Saviour's  life, 
 and  was  put  to  death  by  Herod, 
 A.  D.  42—44,  (Acts  xii.  2;)  thus 
 fulfilling  the  prediction  of  our 
 Saviourconcerning  him. (Luke 
 xxi.  16) 
 
 2.  (Mark  xv.  40.)    A  sou  oi 
 
JAM 
 
 Cleophas  (or  Alpheus)  and 
 Mary,  called  (either  in  refer- 
 ence lo  his  years  or  stature) 
 James  the  less.  This  James  is 
 
 firobably  iiRended  in  Gal.  i. 
 9,  by  the  Lord's  brother.  (See 
 rIso  Matt.  a\\\.  55.  Mark  vi.  3.) 
 That  he  was  first  cousin  to 
 our  Savi'Uir  in  the  flesh  we 
 know,  for  his  mother  was  sis- 
 ter to  Christ's  mother,  (Jv>hn 
 xix.  25;)  and  the  term  brother 
 was  often  applied  to  near  kfn- 
 dred.  (Gen.xiii.8.  2Sam.  i.-:6. 
 Acts  vii.  25,  26;  ix.  17.)  Some 
 have  conjectured,  that  after 
 Joseph's  death,  Alpheus  mar- 
 ried nis  widow,  and  their  oft- 
 sprini;  was  James  the  Less; 
 hence  called  the  Lird's  bro- 
 ther; but  there  is  no  evidence 
 to  support  1  he  opinion.  James 
 the  Less  is  mentioned  with 
 peculiar  distinction,  Acs  xii. 
 17;  XV.  13;  xxi.  18.  1  Cor.  xv. 
 7.  Gal.  i.  19.  and  ii.  9.  12.  He 
 resided  at  Jerusalem  during 
 the  latxiurs  i>f  the  apostles ; 
 and  was  present  at  the  apos- 
 tolic council  at  Jerusalem, 
 where  he  seems  to  have  pre- 
 sided ;  as  he  was  the  last  lo 
 give  his  j  id^menl,  in  which 
 all  the  ither  members  of  the 
 council  ac(iuie«ced.  (Acts  xv. 
 13—19.)  He  was  put  lo  death 
 in  the  year  62;  and  tradition 
 says  that  he  was  thrown  by 
 the  Jews  from  the  haltlements 
 of  the  temple,  and  then  de- 
 ■patchel  with  a  fuller's  club, 
 while  on  his  knees,  and  in  the 
 act  of  praying  for  his  murder- 
 ers. 
 
 Epi.stlb  of,  was  written 
 by  Jam  "S  the  \°ss  (see  prerei 
 ing  arlirle)  abo  t  the  year 
 61  or  62.  It  was  not  addressed 
 to  any  particular  church,  but 
 to  the  whole  Jewish  nation, 
 —the  twelve  tribes  srattered 
 abroad,  (ch.  i.  1,)  believers  and 
 unbelievers,  (ch.  iv.  I— 10);— 
 and  hence  it  is  called  a  gene- 
 ral or  catholic  ei)i.<?tie.  The 
 design  of  the  epistle  is.  (1.)  To 
 correct  errors,  both  in  doctrine 
 
 JAP 
 
 and  practice,  into  which  the 
 Jewish  Christians  had  fallen, 
 especially  relating  to  justifica- 
 tion by  faith ;  (2.)  To  animate 
 their  hope,  and  strengthen 
 their  faith,  in  view  of  afflic- 
 tions fell  and  feared  ;  and,  (3.) 
 To  excite  the  unbelieving 
 Jews  to  repentance  rx>ward8 
 God,  and  fai'h  in  the  rejected 
 Messiah.  It  is  remarkable, 
 that  the  name  of  our  blessed 
 Lord  occurs  but  twice  in  this 
 epistle,  (ch.  i.  I ;  ii.  I,)  and 
 that  it  is  without  the  usual 
 apostolical  salutation  and  be- 
 nediction. 
 
 JANNES  AND  JA31BRES. 
 (2  Tim.  iii.  8.)  Two  famous 
 magicians  of  Esypt,  who  are 
 supposed  to  have  used  their 
 art  to  deceive  Pharaoh.  (Ex. 
 vii.  9—13.) 
 
 JAPHETH.  (Gen.  v.  32.) 
 The  eldest  8<jn  of  Noah.  (Gen. 
 x.  2.  21.)  The  prophetic  bless- 
 ing pronounced  on  Japhelh  by 
 his  father  (Gen.  ix.  27)  was 
 accomplished  to  the  full  extern 
 of  the  promise.  Besides  all 
 Europe  and  the  isles,  and  of 
 course  most  of  N'rlh  America, 
 his  posterity  p)sse,<ased  Asia 
 Minor,  Media,  pari  of  Armenia, 
 and  those  vast  re?i  )n3  of  the 
 north,  inhabiied  formerly  by 
 the  Scythians,  ami  then  by 
 the  Tartars.  An<l  as  to  the 
 other  l>ranch  of  the  prophecT, 
 he  (God)  sliall  du-ell  in  the 
 tents  lyf  Shein,  it  was  fulfilled 
 when  the  divin**  pres'Mice  was 
 manifested  in  the  talieniacle 
 and  tern 'lie;  or  if  we  rend,  h« 
 (Japhelh)  shall  ''well  in  the 
 ten's  '^  Shem,  it  w  13  fulfilled, 
 literally  wlien  the  Greeljs  auii 
 Romans  (descen  l"d  fruu)  Ja- 
 phelh) subdued  Juden,  the  in- 
 nerilanceofSliein  :  and  fiirura- 
 tivply,  when  the  d''S'-eiMlanta 
 of  Japheth  (the  Gentiirs)  re- 
 ceived the  gospel,  wliii  h  the 
 Jews,  who  were  "f  the  seed  of 
 Sh'^m,  rf'jected 
 
 Jaftheth  is  often  mentioned 
 in  the  early  histories  of  Greece. 
 
JAV 
 under  the  name  of  Japetus,  as 
 the  ancestor  of  that  nation. 
 
 JAPHO.    (SeeJoppA.) 
 
 JASON.  (Acts  xvii.  5.)  A 
 resident  of  Thessalonica,  and 
 perhaps  a  relative  of  Paul. 
 (Rom.ix.3.  Comp.xvi.21.)  At 
 any  rate,  Paul  lodged  at  his 
 hoiase  when  he  visited  that 
 city.  The  apostle's  plain  scrip- 
 tural preaching  a  few  Sab- 
 baths (Acts  xvii.  2,  3)  result- 
 ed in  the  conversion  of  a  great 
 multitude  of  the  citizens,  and 
 in  the  excitement  and  opposi- 
 tion of  the  unbelieving  Jews, 
 who  gathered  a  mob  from 
 among  the  idle  and  worthless 
 of  the  place,  and  attacked 
 Jason's  house,  in  order  to  seize 
 the  apostle;  but  not  finding 
 the  man  they  sought,  and  still 
 determined  to  vent  their  rage 
 on  somebody,  they  laid  violent 
 hands  on  Jason  and  some 
 friends  who  were  with  him, 
 and  dragged  them  before  the 
 police,  and  chareed  them  with 
 treason,  because'they  said  that 
 there  is  another  king,  (besides 
 Caesar,)  one  Jesus.  (Lukexxiii. 
 2.  John  xix.  12.)  However,  as 
 there  was  probably  no  evi- 
 dence to  support  the  charge, 
 they  gave  some  sort  of  security, 
 either  for  their  own  future  ap- 
 pearance or  good  conductjor  for 
 the  appearance  of  the  apostle, 
 and  were  then  discharged. 
 
 JASPER.  (Rev.  iv.  3.)  A 
 precious  sione,  usually  regard- 
 ed as  of  the  quartz  species.  It 
 is  obtained  chiefly  from  Per- 
 sia, the  Indies,  Syria,  &c.,  and 
 is  chiefly  used  for  vases,  watch- 
 seals,  &c.  Its  colours  are  beau- 
 tifully variegated  and  it  is 
 susceptible  of  a  fine  polish. 
 The  red  jasper  is  found  in 
 Saueiis,  near  Boston,  Mass. 
 
 JAV  AN.  (Gen.  x.  2.)  The 
 fourth  son  of  Japheth,  and  the 
 ancestor  of  the  Grecians  or 
 lonians.  Hence  the  word  Ja- 
 xan,  in   the  Old  Testament, 
 
 JEA 
 
 denotes  Greece,  or  the  Greeks. 
 (Isa.  Ixvi.  19.  Ezek.  xxvii.  13.) 
 
 JAVELIN.    (See  Arms.) 
 
 JAZER,  (Josh.  xxi.  39,)  or 
 JAAZER.  (Num.  xxi.  32.)  A 
 city  of  the  Ammonites,  on  the 
 river  Jabbok,  the  ruins  of 
 which  are  still  visible  about 
 fifteen  miles  from  Heshbon. 
 
 Sea  of.  (Jer.xlviii.32.)  Pro- 
 bably a  lake  existing  in  an- 
 cient times  near  the  city  of 
 Jazer.  A  body  of  water  is  now 
 to  be  seen  near  thd  city,  out 
 of  which  the  Debir  flows. 
 
 JEALOUSY.  (2  Cor.  xi.  2.) 
 It  is  most  frequently  used  to 
 denote  a  suspicion  of  conjugal 
 infidelity.  It  is  sometimes  used 
 for  anger,  or  indignation,  (Ps. 
 Ixxix.  5.  1  Cor.  x.  22,)  or  an 
 intense  interest  for  the  honour 
 and  prosperity  of  another. 
 (Zech.  i.  14;  viii.  2.) 
 
 When  God  is  said  to  be  a 
 jealous  Ood,  or  to  be  moved  to 
 jealotcsy,  or  when  the  still 
 stronger  expression  is  used, 
 Jehovah,  whose  name  is  Jea- 
 lous, (Ex.  xxxiv.  14,)  we  are  to 
 understand  this  language  as 
 employed  to  illustrate,  rather 
 than  to  represent,  the  emotions 
 of  theDivmemind.  The  same 
 causes  operating  upon  the 
 human  mind,  would  produce 
 what  we  call  anger,jealousy,re- 
 pentance,  grief, &c.;  and  there- 
 fore, when  these  emotions  are 
 ascribed  to  the  mind  of  God, 
 this  language  is  used  because 
 such  emotions  can  be  repre 
 sented  to  us  by  no  other. 
 
 Thus  God  is  represented 
 as  a  husband,  related  to  his 
 church  by  a  marriage  cove- 
 nant  that  binds  her  to  be 
 wholly  for  him,  and  not  for 
 another.  The  more  sincere 
 and  constant  the  love,  the 
 more  sensitive  is  the  heart  to 
 the  approach  of  a  rival :  and 
 the  thought  of  such  affection 
 being  alienated  or  corrupted, 
 fills  the  soul  with  grief  and 
 indignation.  So  God  commends 
 336 
 
JEA 
 
 the  purity,  the  fervency,  and 
 the  sincerity  of  his  love  to  liis 
 church,  by  the  most  terrific 
 expressions  oi  jealousy. 
 
 The  varions  significations  of 
 the  word  jealoust/  are  denoted 
 usually  by  its  connexion.  It  is 
 one  of'ihe  strongest  passions  of 
 our  nature.  (.Pfov.  vi.  34.  Sol. 
 Song  viii.6.) 
 
 The     IMAGE     OF     JEALOUSY 
 
 (Ezek.  viii.  3.  5)  is  the  same 
 with  Tammuz,  in  ver.  14. 
 (See  Tammuz.) 
 
 Jealous-s-offering.  (Num. 
 V.  13.)  The  Jewish  law  con- 
 tained a  singular  provision 
 for  the  trial  of  the  crime  of 
 adultery.  A  man  who  was 
 jealous  of  his  wife,  without 
 any  actual  evidence  of  her 
 infidelity,  was  required  to 
 bring  her  to  the  priest,  with 
 an  offering;  and  when  they 
 came  to  the  presence  of  the 
 Lord,  a  part  of  the  water  of  the 
 temple  was  taken,  with  cer- 
 tain ceremonies,and  presented 
 to  the  woman  to  drink ;  she  at 
 the  same  time  holding  the 
 offering  in  her  hand.  Before 
 drinking  the  water,  the  most 
 bitter  curses  were  imprecated 
 upon  her;  and  if  she  was 
 guilty,  the  water  was  to  be- 
 come the  cause  of  terrible  bo- 
 dily diseases. 
 
 This  imprecation-water,  cr 
 water  of  curses,  is  not  unlike 
 the  ordeal  of  later  ages;  and 
 we  are  told  that  among  the 
 savages  of  western  Africa,  the 
 custom  is  to  make  the  suspect- 
 ed wife  drink  poison ;  in  which 
 case,  innocence  can  be  pro- 
 tected only  by  a  miracle  ;  but 
 fn  the  administration  of  the 
 Jewish  law,  there  was  nothing 
 In  the  ceremony  which  could 
 harm  the  accused  person,with- 
 out  the  direct  judgment  of  God 
 In  the  infliction  of  a  particu- 
 lar and  very  peculiar  disease; 
 and  still  the  ceremony  was  so 
 Bolemn  and  imposing,  that  a 
 Jewish  woman  must  have  had 
 the  most  unparalleled  effront- 
 
 JEH 
 
 ery  to  have  gone  through  it 
 without  betraying  guilt,  if  it 
 existed. 
 
 JEBUS.  (Judg.  xix.  10.)  The 
 Jebusite  is  mentioned  among 
 the  descendants  of  Canaan  the 
 son  of  Ham,  (Gen.  x.  16,)  and 
 there  was  a  warlike  race  call- 
 ed Jebusites,  inhabiting  the 
 mountainous  country  around 
 Jerusalem,  and  keeping  pos- 
 session of  it,  (Josh.  XV.  63,)  until 
 it  was  wrested  from  them  by 
 David,  and  made  the  capital  of 
 Judea.  (1  Chron.  xi.  4—8.  See 
 Jerusalem.)  The  Jebusites 
 were  probably  permitted  to 
 remain  on  the  ground  after 
 their  conquest.  (2  Sam.  xxiv, 
 16.  24.)  It  is  supposed  they 
 were  dispossessed  for  a  season 
 by  Joshua,  (Josh*,  x.  23. 40 ;  xii. 
 10,)  and  afterwards  regained 
 some  districts,  while  the  Isra- 
 elites possessed  others.  (Comp. 
 Josh.  XV.  63.  1  Sam.  xvii.  54. 
 2  Sam.  V.  6.) 
 
 JECONIAH.    (See  Jehoia- 
 
 CHIN.) 
 
 JEDUTHUN.  (1  Chron.  xvi. 
 38.)  An  eminent  master  of 
 the  temple  music,  to  whom 
 several  of  the  psalms  are  in- 
 scribed, (see  Ps,  xxxix.  Ixii. 
 Ixxvii.  &c.,)  or,  as  some  sup- 
 pose, were  written  by  him. 
 
 JEHOAHAZ.  l.(2Kingsxiii. 
 1.)  Son  and  successor  of  Jehu 
 king  of  Israel,  whose  reign 
 was  disastrous  to  the  kingdom 
 to  such  a  degree,  that  his  army 
 was  reduced  to  a  mere  nomi- 
 nal existence ;  and  the  kings 
 of  Syria  (Hazael  and  Benha- 
 dad)  are  said  to  have  destroyed 
 them,  and  to  have  made  them 
 like  the  dust  of  the  threshing 
 floor.  (2Kingsxiii.7.)  Beforo 
 death,  however,  he  was  brought 
 to  reflect  and  humble  himself 
 before  God,  on  account  of  the 
 calamities  with  which  his  sub- 
 jects were  visited ;  and  God 
 was  pleased  to  raise  up  for 
 them  a  deliverer  in  the  person 
 of  Joash,  the  son  and  succes- 
 sor of  Jehoahaz. 
 
J£H 
 
 2.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  30.)  Son 
 and  successor  of  Josiah  king 
 of  Judah.  He  is  called  Shal- 
 lum,  1  Chron.  iii.  15.  Jer.  xxii. 
 11.  He  was  ilie  fourth  son,  and 
 of  course  not  the  riahiful  heir 
 to  the  crown ;  but  his  father, 
 being  mortally  wounded  in  the 
 battle  of  Megiddo,  the  people 
 immediately  placed  Jehoahaz 
 on  the  throne.  This  irregular 
 step,  taken  without  consulting 
 him,  offended  the  king  of 
 Egypt ;  and  before  he  had 
 reigned  four  months,  he  ma- 
 naged to  get  Jehoahaz  into  his 
 power  at  Riblah,  in  Syria, 
 whence  he  sent  him,  a  prison- 
 er, loaded  with  chains,  into 
 Egypt,  and  there  he  died,  (Jer. 
 xxii.  11,  12;)  and  his  brother, 
 Jehoiakim,  became  king  in 
 hifl  stead.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29. 
 35.) 
 
 3.  (2  Chron.  xxi.  17.)  The 
 same  with  Ahaziah  and  Aza- 
 riah.  (Comp.  2Chron.  xxi.  17; 
 xxii.  1.6.8,9.) 
 
 JEHOASH.  (See  Joash.) 
 JEH0IACHIN,(2Kings  xxi  v. 
 8,)  or  CONIAH,  (Jer.  xxii.  24,) 
 or  JECONIAH,  (1  Chron.  iii. 
 17,)  or  JECONIAS,  (Matt.  i. 
 12,)  son  and  successor  of  Je- 
 hoiakim king  of  Judah.  It  is 
 supposed  by  some  that  when 
 he  was  only  eight  years  old 
 he  was  associated  with  his 
 father  in  the  administration  of 
 the  government.  This  suppo- 
 sition is  adopted  in  order  to 
 reconcile  the  apparent  incon- 
 sistency of  2Kingsxxiv.  8,  and 
 2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9;  but  it  seems 
 hardly  necessary  to  resort  to 
 such  means  to  account  for  a 
 very  natural  error  or  omis- 
 sion of  a  trans --riber,  especial- 
 ly in  an  immaterial  chronolo- 
 gical fact  of  such  remote  date. 
 The  reign  of  Jehoiachin  ter- 
 minated at  the  end  of  three 
 months ;  at  which  lime,  the 
 city  of  Jerusalem  was  besieged 
 by  Nel  uchadnezzar,  the  king 
 01  Babylm,  in  the  eighth  year 
 of  his  reign,   (comp.  2  Kings 
 
 JEH 
 
 xxiv.  12,  and  xxv.  1 ;)  and  the 
 king  and  his  family,  and  the 
 principal  part  of  the  nation, 
 with  the  royal  treasures  and 
 the  temple  furniture,  were  car- 
 ried away  to  Babylon. 
 
 The  wickedness  of  this  king 
 is  described  in  very  strong 
 language  by  the  prophet  Jere- 
 miah.  (Jer.  xxii.  24—30.) 
 
 The  expre^on,  however,  in 
 Jer.  xxii.  30,  is  not  to  be  con- 
 strued literally.  (I  Chron.  iii. 
 17, 18.  Matt.  i.  12.)  Write  this 
 man  childless  might  as  well 
 read.  He  shall  have  no  succes- 
 sor or  heir,  or  Notie  of  his  seed 
 shall  prosper.  (See  Life  of 
 Jeremiah,  ch.  viii.,  and  Eli- 
 SAMA,  pp.  64—66.  both  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 JEHOIADA.  (2Kingsxi.4.) 
 A  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  and 
 the  husband  of  Jehosheba.  (See 
 Athaliah.)  His  administra- 
 tion was  so  auspicious  to  the 
 civil  and  reliciotis  interests  of 
 the  nation,  (2"King8  xii.  2  Chr. 
 xxiii.  16,)  that  when  he  died, 
 at  the  advanced  age  of  one 
 hundred  and  thirty  years,  he 
 was  buried  in  the  royal  sepul- 
 chres at  Jerusalem.  (2  Chron. 
 xxiv.  Ifj.) 
 
 JEHOIAKIM.  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
 36.)  Eldest  son  of  Josiah,  and 
 the  brother  and  successor  of 
 Jehoahaz  king  of  Judah.  His 
 original  name  was  Eliakim: 
 but  it  was  changed  by  order  ol 
 the  king  of  Egypt,  (2  K'ngs 
 xxiii.  34,)  who  put  him  on  the 
 ihrone.  The  iniquity  of  his 
 reign  is  strongly  depicted  by 
 Ihe  historian  and  prophet, 
 [2Kingsxxiv.4.  2Chron.  xxxvi. 
 8.  Jer.  xxii.  xxvi.  xxxvi.;)  and 
 \\'.s  end,  as  Jewish  historians 
 inform  us,  was  in  strict  accord- 
 snce  with  the  prediction  con- 
 cerning him. 
 
 For  the  first  four  years  of  his 
 reign,  Jehoiakim  was  subject 
 to  t1ie  king  of  Eg^pt,  and  paid 
 an  enormous  iriliuie.  Then 
 he  became  tributary  for  three 
 years  to  Nebuchadnezzar  king 
 
JEH 
 
 of  Babylon,  (2  Kings  xxlv.  1,) 
 who  at  first  bound  him  with 
 chains  to  carry  him  to  Baby- 
 lon, (2  Chron  xxxvi.  6.  Dan.  i. 
 2,)  but  afterwards  set  him  at 
 liberty,  and  left  him  at  Jeru- 
 salem to  reign  as  a  tributary 
 prince.  The  whole  time  of  his 
 rei^n  was  eleven  years. 
 
 The  expression,  Jer.  xxxvi. 
 30,  is  not  to  be  taken  strictly ; 
 and  yet,  as  the  reign  of  Jehoia- 
 chin  was  for  only  thirteen 
 weeks,  Jehoiakim  may  be 
 said  to  have  been  compara- 
 tively without  a  successor.  He 
 scarcely  sat  down  upon  the 
 throne  before  he  was  deposed. 
 The  same  explanation  applies 
 to2Kings  xxiii.34,  where  Eli- 
 akim  is  said  to  have  succeeded 
 his  father  Josiah ;  whereas,  the 
 rei^n  of  Jehoahaz  intervened. 
 This  was  so  short,  however,  as 
 not  to  be  reckoned  in  the  suc- 
 cession. (See  Eltsama,  ch.iii. 
 and  iv.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 JEHONADAB.  (SeeEE- 
 
 CHABITES.) 
 
 J  E  H  O  R  A  M,  or  JORAM, 
 
 (2King3  viii.  16.  21,)  was  the 
 son  and  successor  of  Jehosha- 
 phat  kin^  of  Judah.  When 
 he  wsis  thirty-two  years  of  age 
 he  was  associated  with  his 
 father  in  the  government  of 
 the  kingdom.  (2Kings  viii.  17. 
 2  Chron.  xxi.  5.)  At  the  end 
 of  four  years,  his  father  died, 
 and  he  became  sole  king.  One 
 of  the  first  acts  of  his  govern- 
 ment was  to  put  to  death  his 
 Bix  brothers  and  several  of  the 
 chief  men  of  the  kingdom. 
 (2  Chron.  xxi.  4.)  To  punish 
 him  for  this  and  other  abomi- 
 nations of  his  rei^n,  (2  Chron. 
 xxi.  11 — 13,)  the  Edomites,who 
 had  long  been  subject  to  the 
 throne  of  Judah,  revolted,  and 
 secured  their  independence. 
 (2  Chron.  xxi.  S— 10.)  One  of 
 hisown  cities  also  revolted,  and 
 about  the  same  time  he  receiv- 
 ed a  writing  from  Elijah,  or,  as 
 some  suppose,  Elisha,  admo- 
 nishing him  of  the  dreadful  ca- 
 
 JEH 
 
 lamities  which  he  was  bring 
 ing  on  himself  by  his  wicked 
 conduct.  In  due  lime  these 
 calamities  came  upon  him  and 
 his  kingdom.  Their  territory 
 was  overrun  with  enemies;  the 
 king's  palace  was  plundered, 
 and  the  royal  family,  except 
 the  youngest  son,  made  prison- 
 ers. The  king  himself  was 
 smitten  with  a  terrible  and 
 incurable  disease,  which  car- 
 ried him  to  the  grave,  unla- 
 mented;  and  he  was  buried 
 without  royal  honours.  (2Chr. 
 xxi.  14—20.) 
 
 JEHOSHAPHAT,  (1  Kings 
 XV.  24,)  or  JOSAPHAT,  (Matt, 
 i.  8,)  was  the  son  and  succes- 
 sor of  Asa  king  of  Judah.  He 
 is  called  king  of  Israel  (2Chr. 
 xxi.  2)  possibly  because  his 
 kingdom  was  a  part  of  the 
 ancient  kingdom  of  Israel,  but 
 probably  by  mistake;  Israel 
 being  written  for  Judah.  He 
 was  a  prince  of  distinguished 
 piety,  and  his  reign,  which 
 lasted  twenty-five  years,  was 
 powerful  and  prosperous.  This 
 remarkable  commendation  is 
 given  Jehoshaphat  by  the  sa- 
 cred historian,  that  the  more 
 his  riches  and  honour  increas- 
 ed, the  more  his  heart  was 
 lifted  up  in  the  ways  of  the 
 Lord.  (2  Chron.  xvii.  5,  6.) 
 Among  other  evidences  of  his 
 piety  and  benevolence,  we  are 
 told  that  he  caused  the  altars 
 and  places  of  idolatry  to  be 
 destroyed,  a  knowledge  of  the 
 law  to  be  diffused  throughout 
 the  kingdom,  and  the  places 
 of  judicial  and  ecclesiastical 
 authority  to  be  filled  by  the 
 wisest  and  best  men  of  the 
 land.  (2  Chron.  xvii.  6—9; 
 xix.  5 — 11.)  His  sin  in  form- 
 ing a  league  with  Ahab,  con- 
 trary to  the  counsel  of  Mica- 
 iah,  against  Ramoth-gilead, 
 (2Chron.  xviii.)  was  severely 
 censured  by  Jehu,  (2  Chron. 
 xix.  2,)  and  had  nearly  cost 
 him  his  life.  (2  Chron.  xviii. 
 31.) 
 
 339 
 
JEH 
 
 A  few  years  after  this,  the 
 Kingdom  of Judah  was  invaded 
 by  a  confederacy  of  Edomiles, 
 Moabites,  and  oiliers.  They 
 collected  their  forces  at  Enge- 
 di,  and  threatened  to  over- 
 throw the  kingdom.  Jehosha- 
 phat  proclaimed  a  fast;  and 
 the  people  came  from  all  parts 
 of  the  kingdom,  men,  women, 
 and  children,  up  to  Jerusalem ; 
 and  being  assembled  in  one 
 place,  the  king  himself  made 
 supplication  to  Grod  for  help 
 m  their  extremity.  His  re- 
 markable prayer  is  recorded, 
 2Chron.  xx.  6—12;  and  while 
 he  was  yet  speaking,  his  pray- 
 er wais  answered,  and  a  certain 
 and  easy  victory  was  promised. 
 On  the  following  day,  the  army 
 of  Judah  went  forth  to  meet  the 
 enemy,  preceded  by  a  compa- 
 ny of  singers,  who  praised  the 
 name  of  the  Lord.  The  vast 
 army  of  his  enemies  were  pa- 
 nic-struck, and  fell  into  irre- 
 coverable confusion ;  and  in- 
 stead of  facing  their  adver- 
 saries, turned  their  swords 
 against  each  other,  until  they 
 were  utterly  routed  and  over- 
 thrown; so  that  Jehoshaphat 
 and  his  men  had  no  occasion 
 to  engage  in  the  conflict.  And 
 such  abundance  of  spoil  re- 
 mained in  the  camp,  that  the 
 men  of  Judah  were  employed 
 three  days  in  coUectmg  it. 
 (2Chron.  XX.  14— 27.) 
 
 Still  later  in  his  life,  Jeho- 
 shaphat connected  himself 
 with  Ahaziah,  son  and  succes- 
 sor of  Ahab  king  of  Israel,  in 
 a  naval  expedition ;  but  this 
 alliance  with  a  wicked  king 
 turned  out  disastrously,  as  had 
 been  predicted  by  Eliezer,the 
 son  of  Dodavah ;  for  while  the 
 fleet  lay  at  Ezion-geber,  it 
 was  utterly  destroyed  by  a  vio- 
 lent storm.  (2  Chron.  xx.  35. 
 See  Ahaziah.) 
 
 Again  he  involved  himself 
 iu  an  alliance  with  Jehoram, 
 the  second  son  of  Ahab,  and 
 also  with  the  Edoraites,  for 
 
 JEH 
 
 the  purpose  of  invading  the 
 land  of  Moab ;  but  while  they 
 attempted  to  make  their  way 
 through  the  wilderness,  their 
 water  failed,  and  the  whole 
 army  must  have  perished  with 
 thirst,  had  not  a  miraculous 
 supply  been  granted  in  answer 
 to  the  prayers  of  Elisha,  who 
 accompanied  the  army.  (9 
 Kings  iii.  6 — 20.)  Jehoshaphat 
 left  seven  sons,  one  of  whom 
 (Jehoram)  succeeded  him. 
 
 Valley  of  Jehoshaphat. 
 (Joel  iii.  2.  12.)  A  narrow 
 glen  running  north  and  south, 
 between  Jerusalem  and  the 
 mount  ofOlives,  through  which 
 flows  the  brook  Cedron.  This 
 valley  is  supposed  to  be  meant 
 by  the  king's  dale,  (Gen.  xiv. 
 17.  2  Sam.  xviii.  18;)  and  its 
 name  to  be  derived  either  from 
 the  burial  of  king  Jehosha- 
 phat, or  for  the  great  victory 
 ne  obtained  there  over  the 
 Moabites  and  their  allies. 
 (2  Chron.  xx.  25.)  This  valley, 
 it  is  supposed  by  the  Moham- 
 medans, (from  the  passage 
 first  above  cited,)  will  be  the 
 scene  of  the  final  judgment. 
 The  better  opinion  is,  however, 
 that  the  prophetic  language  in 
 this  connexion  refers  to  the 
 event  of  the  general  judgment, 
 and  not  to  the  place ;  the 
 meaning  of  the  word  Jehosha- 
 phat being  judg7nent  of  God. 
 (For  a  beautiful  lithographic 
 view  of  this  valley,  and  a 
 minute  description  of  scenery, 
 localities,  &c.,  see  Views  op 
 Palestine,  pp.  10—12 ;  Selu- 
 MiEL,  pp.  111—114;  and  Map 
 OF  Jerusalem,  accompanying 
 the  same,  all  by  Am.  S.  & 
 Union.) 
 
 JEHOVAH.  (Ex.  vi.  3.)  A 
 title  of  the  Supreme  Being, 
 indicative  of  the  attribute  of 
 self-existence.  It  is  similar 
 in  import  to  the  title,  I  am, 
 (Ex.  iii.  14,)  and  denotes  not 
 only  self-existence,  but  perfect 
 independence,  eternity,  and 
 immutability.  (SeeJAH.GoD.) 
 340 
 
JEH 
 
 JEHU,  1,  (lKingsxvi.7,)  was 
 the  son  of  Hanani  the  seer, 
 with  whom  Asa  was  so  much 
 enraged  as  to  cast  him  into 
 prison.  (2  Chron.  xvi.  7— 15.) 
 He  was  appointed  to  carry  a 
 message  to  Baasha  from  God, 
 threatening  to  visit  upon  him 
 the  most  "fearful  judgments. 
 He  was  afterwards  employed 
 en  a  similar  errand  to  Jeho- 
 ehaphat.    (2  Chron.  xix.  1,  2.) 
 
 2.  (1  Kings  xix.  16.  Comp. 
 2  Kings  ix.  2.)  The  son  of 
 Nimshi,  and  grandson  of  Jeho- 
 shaphat,  was  selected  by  God 
 to  reign  over  Israel,  and  to  be 
 the  instrument  of  executing 
 his  judgments  on  the  house  of 
 Ahab.  (1  Kings  xix.l7.  2  Kings 
 ix.  1—10.)  In  executing  this 
 commission,  he  commenced 
 with  the  reigning  king,  Joram, 
 who  was  then  lying  ill  at  Jez- 
 reel.  Having  been  proclaimed 
 king  by  a  few  adherents  who 
 were  with  him  at  Ramoth-gi- 
 lead,  he  proceeded  towards 
 Jezreel.  Upon  his  approach 
 within  sight  of  that  place,  Jo- 
 ram  despatched  two  or  three 
 messengers  to  ascertain  his 
 design;  and  finding  they  did 
 not  return,  he  went  out  him- 
 self to  meet  him.  It  happened 
 that  they  met  on  the  ground 
 ef  Naboth  the  Jezreelite, 
 (1  Kings  xxi.  1—24 ;)  and  Jehu 
 at  once  charged  him  with  his 
 gross  iniquities,  and  immedi- 
 ately shot  him  dead  in  his 
 ehariot.  (Comp.  1  Kings  xxi. 
 19,  and  2  Kings  ix.  25.)  " 
 
 Jehu  rode  on  to  Jezreel,  and 
 as  he  was  passing  in  at  the  gate, 
 the  wicked  Jezebel,  who  had 
 prepared  herself  for  the  occa- 
 sion, and  was  looking  out  at  a 
 window,  said  something  in  al- 
 lusion to  what  had  happened 
 to  Ahab.  Jehu  called  to  two 
 or  three  persons  who  were  at 
 the  same  window  to  throw  her 
 down,  which  they  did ;  and  as 
 Bhs  struck  the  ground,  her 
 blood  flew  out  upon  the  wall, 
 and  upon  the  horses,  and  her 
 29* 
 
 JEH 
 
 body  was  actually  trodden  un- 
 der foot.  Jehu's  party  then 
 went  into  the  city,  and  dined; 
 and  after  dinner,  he  ordered 
 his  attendants  to  go  and  bury 
 the  cursed  woman,  as  this  re- 
 spect might  be  due  to  a  king's 
 daughter;  and  when  they  came 
 10  the  place,  nothing  could  be 
 found  of  her  but  the  skull,  the 
 feet,  and  a  part  of  the  hands. 
 The  dogs  had  consumed  the 
 residue,  in  fulfilment  of  the 
 prophecy.  (1  Kings  xxi.  23. 
 2Kingsix.  S2-37.) 
 
 Jehu  then  proceeded  to  ex- 
 terminate the  family  of  Ahab. 
 He  addressed  letters  to  those 
 who  had  the  care  of  his  sons, 
 (no  less  than  seventy  in  num- 
 ber,) and  proposed  to  them  to 
 select  the  fittest  of  them,  and 
 place  him  on  the  throne  of  his 
 father.  This  they  declined  to 
 do,  (through  fear  of  Jehu,)  but 
 promised  to  do  any  thing  else 
 that  might  be  required.  Ac- 
 cordingly, Jehu  directed  them 
 to  bring  to  him  the  heads  of 
 Ahab's  sons  the  next  day  at 
 Jezreel ;  and  they  were  sent 
 in  two  baskets.  He  directed 
 them  to  be  emptied  out  in  two 
 heaps,  at  the  gate  of  the  city, 
 and  to  remain  there  over  night. 
 The  next  mornino;  he  ordered 
 a  general  slaughter  of  all 
 Ahab's  family  and  adherents 
 in  the  town  of  Jezreel.  He 
 then  set  out  for  Samaria,  and 
 meeting  on  his  way  a  party  of 
 forty-two  persons,  all  the  fa- 
 mily of  Ahaziel,  (a  branch  of 
 Ahab's  house,)  he  seized  and 
 slew  them. 
 
 But  the  most  revolting  of 
 these  deeds  of  blood  remains  to 
 be  told.  When  he  arrived  at 
 Samaria,  and  had  cut  oflf  every 
 branch  of  the  house  of  Ahab 
 that  he  could  find,  (2  Kings  x. 
 17,)  he  ordered  a  general  con- 
 vention of  all  the  worshippers 
 of  Baal  throughout  the  land, 
 and  made  every  arrangement 
 as  if  he  would  have  an 
 united   universal   act  of  ho- 
 
 ail 
 
JEP 
 
 mage  to  the  false  god ;  and  so 
 strict  were  his  orders  that  no 
 worshipper  of  Baal  could  ab- 
 sent himself  but  upon  pain  of 
 death.  They  assembled ;  and 
 we  are  told  that  not  a  man 
 was  absent.  Each  of  the  wor- 
 shippers was  furnished  with  a 
 geculiar  dress,  that  they  might 
 e  distinguished  from  all 
 others ;  and  when  the  assem- 
 bly was  convened,  Jehu  took 
 pains  to  exclude  every  indivi- 
 dual except  the  worshippers 
 of  Baal.  As  soon  as  they  com- 
 menced their  worship,  Jehu 
 appointed  a  detachment  of 
 eighty  men  to  go  in  among 
 the  assembled  idolaters,  and 
 put  every  one  of  them  to  death  ; 
 and,  to  ensure  the  execution  of 
 his  orders,  he  ordained,  that  if 
 a  single  worshipper  escaped, 
 the  life  of  him  who  suffered  the 
 escape  should  be  forfeited.  But 
 there  was  no  escape;  every 
 individual  was  put  to  the 
 sword  ;  the  image  of  Baal  was 
 broken  down  and  destroyed ; 
 and  the  temple  was  made  the 
 receptacle  of  offal  and  filth,  in 
 contempt  and  abhorrence  of 
 the  idolatry  which  had  been 
 practised  there;  and  every 
 trace  of  Baal's  worship  was 
 blotted  out  of  Israel. 
 
 This  dreadful  extermination 
 of  the  house  of  Ahab,  and  of 
 the  idolatrous  worship  which 
 he  sanctioned,  was  in  accord- 
 ance with  the  divine  com- 
 mand, and  received  the  divine 
 approbation.  (2  Kings  x.  30.) 
 Jehu  himself,  however,  was 
 ambitious  and  tyrannical,  and 
 fell  into  idolatrous  practices. 
 (2  Kings  X.  31.)  His  reign  lasted 
 twenty-eight  years ;  and  he 
 was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jeho- 
 ahaz.  (For  a  full  and  inte- 
 resting account  of  Jehu,  and 
 the  various  incidents  of  his 
 life,see  Life  of  Elisha,  ch.x.) 
 JEPHTHAH,  (Judg.  xi.  1,) 
 one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  was 
 the  illegitimate  son  of  Gilead  ; 
 and  this  fact   made  hun  so 
 
 JEP 
 
 odious  to  the  other  children 
 of  the  family  that  they  banish- 
 ed him  from  the  house,  and  he 
 took  up  his  residence  in  the 
 land  of  Tob,  a  district  of  Syria 
 not  far  from  Gilead,  and  pro 
 bably  the  same  with  Ish-tob. 
 (2  Sam.  X.  8.)  Here,  it  is  sup- 
 posed, he  became  the  head  of  a 
 marauding  paity;  and  when 
 a  war  broke  out  between  the 
 children  of  Israel  and  the 
 Ammonites,  he  probably  sig 
 nalized  himself  for  courage 
 and  enterprise.  This  led  the 
 Israelites  to  seek  his  aid  as 
 their  commander-in-ctiief;  and 
 though  he  objected  at  first,  on 
 the  ground  of  their  ill  usage 
 of  him,  yet,  tfpon  their  solemn 
 covenant  to  regard  him  as 
 their  leader,  in  case  they  suc- 
 ceeded against  the  Ammon- 
 ites, he  took  command  of  their 
 army.  After  some  preliminary 
 negotiations  with  the  Ammon- 
 ites, in  which  the  question  of 
 the  right  to  the  country  is  dis- 
 cussed with  great  force  and 
 ingenuity,  and  finding  every 
 attempt  to  conciliate  them 
 abortive,  the  two  armies  met; 
 the  Ammonites  were  defeated 
 with  great  loss  of  life,  and 
 their  coun'rv  scoured  by  the 
 Israelites. 
 
 On  the  eve  of  the  battle, 
 Jephthah  made  a  vow,  that  if 
 he  obtained  the  victory,  he 
 would  devote  to  God  whatever 
 should  come  forth  from  hia 
 house  to  meet  him  on  his  re- 
 turn home.  This  turned  out 
 to  be  his  daughter,  an  only 
 child,  who  welcomed  his  re- 
 turn with  music  and  dancing. 
 Jephthah  was  greatly  afflicted 
 by  this  occurrence;  but  his 
 daughter  cheerfully  consented 
 to  the  performance  of  his  vow, 
 which  took  place  at  the  expi- 
 ration of  two  months ;  and  the 
 commemoration  of  the  event 
 by  the  daughters  of  Israel  was 
 renuired  by  a  public  ordinance. 
 
 Whether  .^ephthah  actually 
 offered  up  his  daughter  for  a 
 
JEP 
 
 mimt-olferinff,  is  a  question  of 
 great  difficulty,  and  continues 
 to  be  mucli  disputed.  Tliose 
 who  maintain  the  negative  al- 
 lege, that  by  translating  the 
 Hebrew  prefix  or,  rendered 
 and  in  our  version,  all  diffi- 
 culty will  be  removed.  His 
 vow  will  then  read,  'shall 
 surely  be  the  Lord's,  or,  I  will 
 offer  a  burnt-offering ;'  and  not 
 unfrequently  itie  sense  re- 
 quires that  the  Hebrew  should 
 be  thus  rendered.  Moreover, 
 when  Jephthah  made  this  vow, 
 he  could  not  have  intended  to 
 insult  the  Lord  by  promising  a 
 sacrifice  against  which  he  had 
 expressed  "the  utmost  abhor- 
 rence, (Lev.  XX.  2—5.  Deut. 
 ai.  31,)  especially  as  it  is  re- 
 corded that  the"  Spirit  of  the 
 Lord  was  upon  him  when  he 
 uttered  his  vow.  Suppose  a 
 do^  had  come  out  of  the  house 
 of  Jephthah,  can  any  one  sup- 
 pose that  he  would  have  offer- 
 ed this  unclean  animal  as  a 
 burnt-offering  to  the  Lord? 
 And  why  then  should  we  sup- 
 pose that  he  would  offer  a 
 numan  sacrifice,  which  would 
 have  been  so  much  more  abo- 
 minable ;  and,  in  all  such 
 cases,  the  law  allowed  the 
 right  of  redemption,  for  a 
 email  sum  of  money.  It  is, 
 moreover,  argued  that  no  men- 
 tion is  made  of  any  bloody  sa- 
 crifice of  the  young  woman. 
 But  merely  that  he  did  with 
 her  according  to  his  vow  which 
 he  had  voiced ;  and  she  knew 
 no  man;  which  last  words 
 seem  to  convey,  not  obscurely, 
 the  idea  that  Jephthah  devoted 
 his  daughter  to  the  Lord,  by 
 consecrating  her  to  a  life  of 
 celibacy.  And  it  should  not 
 be  forgotten,  that  in  the  epistle 
 to  the  Hebrews,  (ch.  xi.,)  Jeph- 
 thah is  placed  among  the  wor- 
 thies who  were  distinguished 
 for  their  faith.  Now  can  we 
 suppose  that  such  a  man  would 
 be  guilty  of  the  crime  of  sa- 
 crificing his   own   daughter? 
 
 lEP 
 
 (Comp.Heb.xi.32,with2Sam. 
 xii.  9.  1  Kings  xi.  5.  7.)  It  is 
 suggested  whether  the  insertion 
 of  Jephthah's  name  in  this  pas- 
 sage is  conclusive  evidence  of 
 his  piety.  That  he  was  distin- 
 guished for  one  kind  of  faith  is 
 evident;  but  was  it  saving 
 faith  7    (1  Cor.  xiii.  2.) 
 
 Those,  on  the  other  hand, 
 who  receive  the  common  read- 
 ing of  this  passage,  and  follow 
 the  obvious  meaning,  reason 
 in  the  following  manner:  That 
 upon  every  fair  principle  of 
 construction,  it  must  be  admit- 
 ted, that  Jephthah's  vow  was 
 single,  and  that  hedid  actually 
 bind  himself,  by  this  solemn 
 bond,  to  offer  as  a  burnt-offer- 
 ing to  the  Lord  whatever 
 should  first  come  forth  from 
 his  house  to  meet  him  on  his 
 return.  That  the  time  in  which 
 Jephthah  lived  was  one  of  gross 
 ignorance  and  idolatry,  (Judg. 
 X.  6 ;)  that  a  pious  man  might 
 have  felt  himself  bound  by  the 
 obligation  of  a  vow,  in  making 
 which  he  had  none  but  a  pious 
 intention  ;  that  the  law  of  re- 
 deeming devoted  persons  and 
 things  for  money  did  not  apply 
 to  the  case  of  such  a  vow ;  that 
 Jephthah's  excessive  grief  on 
 seeing  his  daughter  come  forth 
 to  meet  him,  can  only  be  ac- 
 counted for  on  the  supposition 
 that  he  considered  her  devoted 
 to  death;  that  the  mourning 
 for  the  daughter  of  Jephthah 
 for  four  days  in  the  year  can 
 be  reconciled  only  with  the 
 opinion  that  she  was  offered 
 up  as  a  burnt-offering ;  and 
 that  there  is  no  law  or  prece- 
 dent to  authorize  the  opinion 
 that  to  devote  her  to  perpetual 
 celibacy  was  not  an  offence  to 
 God  of  equal  enormity  with 
 that  of  sacrificing  her  as  a 
 burnt-offering.  It  seems  the 
 difficulties  which  attend  this 
 construction  of  the  passage  are 
 less  than  those  which  attend 
 the  other;  and  it  has  been 
 well  remarked,  that  if  it  was 
 343 
 
JER 
 
 perfectly  clear  that  Jephthah 
 sacrificed  his  daughter,  there 
 is  not  the  least  evidence  that 
 his  conduct  was  sanctioned  by 
 God.  He  was  a  superstitious 
 and  ill-instructed  man,  and, 
 like  Samson,  an  instrument 
 of  God's  power  rather  than  an 
 example  of  his  grace. 
 
 The  Ephraimiies,  who  had 
 not  been  invited  to  lake  part 
 in  the  war  against  the  Am- 
 monites, quarrelled  with  Jeph- 
 thah, and  in  a  battle  with  the 
 Gileadites,  were  defeated;  and 
 the  latter,  seizing  the  fords  of 
 Jordan,  slew  every  Eijhraimite 
 who  attempted  to  escape  by 
 crossing  the  river;  and  the 
 method  employed  to  ascertain 
 whether  they  belonged  to 
 Ephraim  was,  to  cause  them 
 to  pronounce  the  word  'shib- 
 boleth,' which  they  sounded 
 'sibboleth  ;'  for,  it  seems,  that 
 by  this  time  a  difference  in 
 the  manner  of  pronouncing  at 
 least  one  Hebrew  letter  had 
 arisen  between  the  inhabitants 
 on  the  different  sides  of  Jordan. 
 On  this  occasion,  42,000  men  of 
 Ephraim  were  slain ;  which 
 was  a  just  punishment  for 
 commencing  a  war  with  so 
 small   a   provocation.    (Judg. 
 
 JEREMIAH,  or  JEREMY, 
 (Matt.  ii.  17,)  or  JEREMIAS, 
 (Matt.  xvi.  14,)  one  of  the 
 chief  of  the  Hebrew  prophets, 
 was  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  and  of 
 the  sacerdotal  race.  (Comp. 
 Jer.  i.  1,  and  Josh.  xxi.  18.)  He 
 was  very  young  when  he  was 
 called  to  the  prophetic  office, 
 and  on  that  account  declined 
 it,  (Jer.  i.  6 ;)  but  God  promised 
 him  grace  and  strength  suffi- 
 cient for  his  work;  and  for 
 lorty-two  years  he  persisted  in 
 this  arduous  service,  with  un- 
 wearied dilicence  and  fidelity, 
 in  the  midst  of  the  severest 
 trials  and  persecutions. 
 
 During  all  this  time,  Jerusa- 
 lem was  in  a  most  distracted 
 and  deplorable  condition,  and 
 
 JER 
 
 the  prophet  was  calumniated, 
 imprisoned,  and  often  in  dan 
 ger  of  death.  But  no  ill  treat- 
 ment or  threatenings  could 
 deter  liim  from  denouncing 
 the  judgments  of  God,  which 
 were  coming  upon  the  nation 
 and  that  devoted  city.  His 
 exhortation  to  the  king  and 
 rulers  was  to  submit  at  once 
 to  the  arms  of  Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, for  by  that  means  they 
 would  preserve  their  lives; 
 but  he  assured  them,  as  a 
 message  received  from  God, 
 that  their  continued  resistance 
 would  have  no  other  eflTect 
 than  to  bring  certain  and 
 dreadful  destruction  upon  Je- 
 rusalem and  on  themselves. 
 At  this  time,  Jerusalem  swarm- 
 ed with  false  prophets,  who 
 contradicted  the  words  of  Jere- 
 miah, and  flattered  the  king 
 and  his  courtiers  that  God 
 would  rescue  them  from  the 
 impending  danger;  and  after 
 the  city  was  taken,  and  part 
 of  the  people  carried  away  to 
 Babylon,  these  prophets  confi- 
 dently predicted  a  speedy  re- 
 turn. On  the  other  hand,  Jere- 
 miah sent  word  to  the  captives 
 that  the  time  of  their  captivity 
 would  be  long,  and  that  their 
 best  course  was  to  build  houses 
 and  plant  vineyards  in  the 
 land  to  which  they  were  car- 
 ried, and  to  pray  for  the  peace 
 of  the  country  in  which  they 
 resided.  Indeed,  he  expressly 
 foretold  that  the  captivity 
 would  endure  for  seventy 
 years  ;  which  duration,  he  in- 
 timated, was  to  make  up  for 
 the  sabbatical  years  which 
 they  had  neglected  to  observe. 
 He  also  foretold  the  deliver- 
 ance of  the  people,  and  their 
 return  to  their  own  country. 
 Towards  the  close  of  his  lift, 
 he  was  carried  into  Egypt 
 against  his  will,  by  the  Jews 
 who  remained  in  Judea  after 
 tlie  murder  of  Gedaliah.  On 
 this  occasion,  he  was  requested 
 by  Johanan  and  his  followers 
 
JER 
 
 to  inquire  of  the  Lord  whether 
 they  should  flee  into  Egypt: 
 in  answer,  after  accusing  them 
 of  hypocrisy,  he  warned  them 
 in  the  most  solemn  manner, 
 from  the  Lord,  not  to  go  down 
 to  Egypt;  but  they  disre- 
 garded the  commandment  of 
 God,  and  went,  and  took  Jere- 
 miah forcibly  along  with  them, 
 where,  in  all  probability,  he 
 died,  some  think,  as  a  mar- 
 tyr. For  the  reference  to  Jere- 
 my in  Matt,  xxvii.  9,  see  Zech. 
 xi.  12, 13.  (See  the  Life  and 
 Prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  and 
 Elisama,  ch.  iii.— vi.,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  the  twenty- 
 fourth  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment and  the  ninth  prophet- 
 ical book  in  chronological 
 order.  It  embraces  a  period 
 of  upwards  of  forty  years,  be- 
 tween B.  c.  628  and  b.  c.  586. 
 Jeremiah  entered  upon  the  of- 
 fice of  a  prophet  in  the  thir- 
 teenth year  of  the  reign  of 
 Josiah,  (Jer.  i.  2;)  and  his 
 prophecy  relates  to  the  judg- 
 ments that  were  to  come  uiwn 
 the  people  for  their  gross  idol- 
 atry and  corruption  ;  to  the  re- 
 storation which  awaited  them, 
 whenever  they  would  repent 
 of  their  sins,  and  forsake  them ; 
 and  to  the  future  glory  which 
 would  arise  on  the  church  of 
 God,  and  on  such  as  were 
 steadfast  in  his  service ;  when 
 the  Desire  of  nations  should 
 come,  and  all  flesh  should  see 
 the  salvation  of  God. 
 
 The  just  and  natural  order 
 of  this  book  is  as  follows : 
 
 1.  The  prophecies  uttered  in 
 Josiah's  reign,  ch.  i.— xii. 
 
 2.  In  JehoTakim'SjCh.  xiii.  xx. 
 xxii.  xxiii.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  xlv. 
 — xlviii.  xlix.  1—33. 
 
 3.  In  Zedekiah's,  ch.  xxi. 
 xxiv.  xxvii. — xxxiv.  xxxvii. — 
 xxxix.  xlix.  34—39;  1.  li. 
 
 4.  In  Gedaliah's,  ch.  xl.— 
 xliv. 
 
 This  arrangement  of  the 
 matter  will  make  the   book 
 
 JER 
 
 much  more  intelligible  to  the 
 reader. 
 
 The  fifty-second  chapter, 
 which  seems  to  have  been 
 compiled  from  the  latter  part 
 of  the  second  book  of  Kings, 
 was  probably  added  to  the 
 book  by  Ezra ;  and  seems  de- 
 signed partly  as  an  illustration 
 ofthe  accomplishment  of  Jere- 
 miah's prophecies  respecting 
 Zedekiah,  and  partly  as  an 
 introduction  to  the  Lamenta- 
 tions. 
 
 Lamentations  op,(the  book 
 immediately  succeeding  the 
 prophecy,)  are  a  series  of  ele- 
 gies written  in  view  of  the 
 dreadful  calamities  which  the 
 city  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Jew- 
 ish nation  generally,  were  to 
 suffer  for  their  continued  re- 
 bellion against  God  ;  and  these 
 events  are  described  as  if  they 
 were  actually  accomplished. 
 The  lamentations  of  Jeremiah 
 have  been  regarded  by  distin- 
 guished critics  as  the  most  per- 
 fect and  regular  elegiac  com- 
 position in  the  world.  One 
 would  think  that  every  letter 
 was  written  with  a  tear,  and 
 every  word  with  the  anguish 
 of  a  broken  heart,  by  one  who 
 never  breathed  but  in  a  sighj 
 nor  spoke  but  in  a  groan.  (See 
 Life  and  Prophecies  op  Je- 
 remiah, pp.  75—78,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, who  was  at  Damascus 
 in  1823,  visited  a  place  near 
 the  gate  of  that  city,  where  it 
 is  said  Jeremiah  wrote  this 
 book.  It  is  a  natural  cave, 
 over  which  the  rock  rises  forty 
 or  fifty  feet  perpendicularly; 
 and  its  whole  appearance  be- 
 tokens a  fit  place  for  such  me- 
 lancholy musings.  The  travel- 
 ler sat  down  in  the  cave,  and 
 read  Jer.  ix.  1—8 ;  and  a  more 
 exact  description  of  the  present 
 character  and  conduct  of  the 
 people  of  Jerusalem  could  not 
 be  written. 
 
 JEKICHO,  (Num.  xxii.  1,) 
 ai5 
 
JER 
 
 one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the 
 Holy  Land,  was  situpled  >n  the 
 tribe  of  Benjainin.aboui  twenty 
 miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  two 
 from  the  river  Jordan.  This, 
 or  some  place  in  its  vicinity, 
 is  called  the  city  of  palm  trees, 
 (Deut.  xxxiv.3;)  perhaps  Horn 
 the  abundant   growth  of  the 
 
 Kalm  tree  in  that  neiphbour- 
 ood.  Tlie  word  Jeiicho  may 
 be  from  Jerah,  the  moon  ;  and 
 the  worship  of  the  moon  may 
 have  prevailed  there.  This 
 city,  which  was  next  in  size  to 
 Jerusalem,  was  besieged  and 
 subdued  by  the  Israelites  im- 
 mediately after  the  passage  of 
 the  Jordan.  The  siege  w-as 
 conducted  under  the  divine  di- 
 rection ;  and,  at  a  given  signal, 
 by  the  irrmediate  interj:)osiiion 
 of  miraculous  power,  the  walls 
 fell  dat  to  the  earth,  probably 
 destroying  many  lives,  and 
 throwins;  the  citizens  into  uni- 
 versal consternation.  The  Is- 
 raelites marched  directly  to 
 the  heart  of  the  city,  and  in 
 obedience  to  the  express  com- 
 mand nf  God,  they  put  to  death 
 every  living  creature,  except 
 Rahab  and  her  family,  and  the 
 two  men  sent  as  spies  from  the 
 camp  of  Israel,  (Josh.  ii.  1,  2,) 
 whom  she  had  concealed.  The 
 city  itself  was  then  set  on  fire, 
 every  thing  in  ii,except  the  ves- 
 sels of  gohl,  silver,  brass,  and 
 iron,  which  were  previously  re- 
 moved, was  burnt  to  ashes,  and 
 the  very  site  of  it  was  cuised. 
 (Comp.  Josh.  vi.  26.  I  Kings 
 xvi.  34.) 
 
 A  city  was  rebuilt  on  or  near 
 this  spot,  which  is  afterwards 
 mentioned  (2  Sam.  x.  5)  as  con- 
 taining a  school  of  the  prophets, 
 (2  Kings  ii.  5,)  and  as  being  the 
 residence  of  Elisha  (2 Kings  ii. 
 18)  and  Zaccheus.  (Luke  xix. 
 1—10.)  It  was  in  the  vicinity 
 of  this  place  that  a  miraculous 
 change  was  effected  by  Elisha 
 in  the  taste  of  the  waters  of  a 
 particular  spring,  and  that  the 
 two  blind  men^were  miracu- 
 
 JER 
 
 lously  restored  by  our  Saviour 
 (Matt.  XX.  29—34.) 
 
 Under  the  Romans,  Jericho 
 was  a  royal  residence,  and 
 Herod  the  Great  died  there. 
 It  was  more  thun  once  laid 
 waste,  and  rebuilt,  after  He- 
 rod's day  ;  and  there  is  now  a 
 miserable  hamlet,  called iZiAa, 
 or  Rah,  situated  on  the  ruins 
 of  the  ancient  city,  (or,  as  some 
 think,  three  or  four  miles  east 
 of  it,)  which  a  modern  travel, 
 ler  describes  as  a  poor,  dirty 
 village  of  the  Arabs.  There 
 are  perhaps  fifty  houses,  of 
 rou^h  stone,  with  roofs  of 
 bushes  and  mud,  and  the 
 population,  two  hundred  or 
 three  hundred  in  number,  is 
 entirely  Mohammedan.  The 
 road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho 
 lies  through  what  is  called  the 
 wilderness  of  Jericho,  and  is 
 described  by  modern  travellers 
 as  the  most  dangerous  and  for- 
 bidding  about  Palestine.  As 
 lately  as  1820,  an  English  tra- 
 veller. Sir  Frederick  Henni- 
 ker,  was  attacked  on  this  road 
 by  the  Arabs,  with  fire-arms 
 who  left  him  naked  and  se- 
 verely wounded.  (Lukex.30.) 
 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  King, 
 American  missionaries,  were 
 at  Jericho  in  June,  1823.  They 
 confirm  the  accounts  of  other 
 travellers,  and  mention  parti- 
 cularly the  mountain  Quar- 
 rantania,  where  tradition  says 
 Christ  fasted,  and  from  the 
 base  of  which  rises  a  fountain 
 whose  waters  were  the  subject 
 of  Elisha's  miracle.  (2King8 
 ii.  1^22.)  This  is  the  river, 
 or  water  of  Jericho,  referrea 
 to,  Josh.  xvi.  1.  (See  Omar,  » 
 pp.  137—142,  by  the  Am.  S.  & 
 Union.) 
 
 JfLAiNS  OF,  (Josh.  iv.  13,)  de- 
 note that  tract  of  country  lying 
 between  the  city  and  river 
 Jordan.,  down  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
 (See  Life  of  Elisha,  ch.  ii., 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union,"* 
 
 JEROBOAM,  1.  (1  Kings  xi. 
 26,)  the  son  of  Nebat,  is  distil*. 
 346 
 
JER 
 
 ruished  as  the  man  who  made 
 Israel  to  sin.  He  was  evidently 
 a  biild,  ambitious,  unprincipled 
 man;  and  having  received  from 
 the  prophet  Ahijah  a  most  sin- 
 gular intimation  that  the  king- 
 dom of  Solomon  was  to  be 
 divided,  and  he  was  to  become 
 the  head  of  the  ten  tril)PS,  he 
 perhaps  made  the  fact  known, 
 or  look  some  means  to  bring 
 about  the  event.  At  any  ratp\ 
 SolomoQ  was  alarmed,  and 
 look  measures  to  apprehend 
 Jeroboam,  who  fled  to  Egypt, 
 and  remained  there  till  Solo- 
 mon's death.  Rehoboam  his 
 eon  succeeded  him;  and  had 
 already  m  de  himself  so  unpo- 
 pular with  ten  of  the  tribes, 
 that  they  had  withdrawn  from 
 his  interest,  and  were  found  by 
 Jerotxiam,  on  his  retur:<,  ready 
 to  receive  him  as  their  king. 
 He  fixed  his  residence  at  She- 
 chem,  which,  with  other  cities, 
 he  f.)itified  for  the  furtherance 
 of  his  plans. 
 
 Fearing  that  if  the  revolted 
 tribes  should  go  up  to  the  so- 
 lemn national  feasts  at  Jerusa- 
 lem, they  would  be  persuaded 
 to  return  to  their  allegiance, 
 and  forgetting  his  obligations 
 to  God  and  his  dependence  on 
 him,  (1  Kings  xi.  14—39.)  he 
 caused  two  golden  calves  to  be 
 erected  ;  one  at  Dan,  and  the 
 ether  at  Bethel,  the  extremi- 
 ties of  his  dominions,  and 
 caused  a  proclaniation  to  be 
 made,  requiring  the  worship 
 of  these  idols.  (1  Kings  xii.  2i6 
 —33.) 
 
 Jeroboam,  having  set  up  the 
 idols,  assembled  tlie  people  at 
 the  f">imer  place,  to  engaure  in 
 the  .solemn  worship  of  ihem; 
 and  to  show  his  zeal  for  the 
 service,  he  officiated  at  the 
 altar  Ivimself.  But  while  he 
 was  th'^s  occupied,  a  prophet 
 from  the  land  of  Judah  appear- 
 ed in  the  inidst  of  the  ass'^m- 
 biy,  and  in  the  hearing  of  all 
 thn  people,  uttered  a  "predic- 
 liori,  that  a  man  by  the  name 
 
 JER 
 
 of  Josiah  should  arise,  and  de- 
 stroy that  altar,  and  should 
 burn  upon  it  the  bones  of  the 
 priests;  and  to  confirm  his  au- 
 thority, he  gave  this  sign,  that 
 the  altar  should  immediately 
 "be  broken  in  pieces,  and  the 
 ashes  upon  it  be  poured  out; 
 and  it  was  so.  Jeroooani,  great- 
 ly provoked  by  his  bold  intei- 
 ference,  put  forth  his  hand  to 
 seize  the  prophet;  but  in  a 
 mnnienl  it  was  stiffened,  bo 
 that  he  could  not  draw  it  in- 
 Intimidated  by  this  miracu- 
 lous judgment,  and  convinced 
 that  the  man  was  indeed  a 
 prophet  of  the  Lord,  he  begged 
 that  he  would  intercede  for 
 him,  that  his  ;irm  might  be  re- 
 stored;  which  was  done  accord- 
 ii:ply.  Jeroboam,  however,  was 
 not  reformed  by  this  divine 
 message  and  double  miracle, 
 but  continued  to  cause  Israel  to 
 sin,  in  worshipping  the  calves 
 which  he  had  srt  up.  His  son 
 was  taken  sick,  and  he  in- 
 sirocteil  his  wife  to  dissuise 
 herself  and  go  to  Ahijah,  who 
 was  now  blind  with  au;e,  and 
 consult  him  as  to  the  event  of 
 the  disease.  The  prophet  waa 
 forewarned  of  her  approach ; 
 and  as  soon  as  he  heard  her 
 footsteps,  he  called  her  by 
 name,  and  then  recoimled  the 
 sins  of  Jeroboam,  and  i^re  licted 
 the  disgrace,  and  ruin  and 
 utter  extirpation  of  his  whole 
 familv,  and  also  the  captivity 
 and  flispersiou  of  the  people 
 of  Israel.  Hp  also  u»lil  hor  that 
 the  child  should  die,  and  that 
 the  nation  should  mourn  for 
 him  as  the  only  individual  of 
 the  house  of  their  kins  who 
 should  come  to  a  peaceful  end  ; 
 and  also  as  one  who,  in  the 
 midst  of  all  the  idolatry  and 
 wickedness  of  the  times,  had 
 some  i)ious  emotion.s,  even  in 
 the  house  of  Jemboam.  As  she 
 entered  the  dotir  of  iier  house, 
 the  child  died.  (1  Kinrs  xiv.l7.) 
 Jeroboam  reigned  in  Israel 
 twenty-two   years,   and    was 
 
JER 
 
 succeeded  by  his  son  Nadab. 
 During  his  life,  there  were 
 almost  unceasing  wars  be- 
 tween him  and  the  house  of 
 David ;  and  history  records  not 
 more  destructive  wars ;  for  in 
 one  conflict,  the  Israelites  lost 
 no  less  than  500,000  men. 
 
 2.  (2Kingsxiv.  23— 29,)  the 
 son  of  Joash,  and  great-grand- 
 son of  Jehu,  reigned  forty-one 
 years,  and  followed  the  former 
 Jeroboam  in  his  idolatrous 
 ■worship.  The  Lord,  however, 
 by  him,  according  to  the  pre- 
 dictions of  the  prophet  Jonah, 
 raised  the  kingdom  of  the 
 ten  tribes  to  its  greatest  splen- 
 dour. All  the  countries  on  the 
 east  of  Jordan  he  reduced.  It 
 appears  from  the  writings  of 
 Hosea  and  Amos,  that  idleness, 
 effeminacy,  pride,  oppression, 
 injustice,  idolatry,  and  luxury, 
 greatly  prevailed  in  his  reign. 
 (Amos  ii.  6—16;  v.  vi.)  Nor 
 was  it  long  after  his  death, 
 before  the  Lord,  according  to  j 
 the  predictions  of  Amos,  cut] 
 off  his  family  with  the  sword.  ] 
 (2  Kings  XV.  10.  Hos.  i.  1,  &c.  ) 
 
 JERUB-BAAL.    (See  Gide- 
 on.) 
 
 JERUSALEM.    (Josh,  xviii. 
 28.)    The  capital  of  the  king- 
 dom of  Judah,  and  the  scene  of 
 the  most  extraordinary  events 
 which  occur  in  the  annals  of; 
 the  human  race;   events,   in  i 
 which  men  and  angels  have  i 
 and   must  for  ever  have  the 
 deepest  interest.   This  was  the 
 place  selected  by  the  Almighty  | 
 for  his  dwelling,  and  here  his 
 glory    was    rendered    visible.  I 
 This   was  the  "perfection  of, 
 beauty,"  and  the  "glory  of  all  ' 
 lands."    Here  David  sat,  and 
 tuned  his  harp,  and  sung  the 
 praises  of  Jehovah.  Hither  the 
 tribes    came    up   to   worship.  I 
 Here  enraptured  prophets  saw 
 bright    visions   of  the    world 
 above,  and  received  messages 
 from  on  high  for  guilty  man.  I 
 Here   our  Lord   and  Saviour  i 
 came  in  the  form  of  a  servant,  I 
 
 JER 
 
 and  groaned,  and  wept,  and 
 poured  out  his  soul  unto  death, 
 to  redeem  us  from  sin, and  save 
 us  from  the  pains  of  hell.  Here, 
 too,  the  wrath  of  an  incensed 
 God  has  been  pnured  out  upon 
 his  chosen  people,  and  has  laid 
 waste  his  heritage. 
 
 It  was  probably  once  called 
 -Sa^em,  ((jen.  xiv.18.  Ps.  Ixxvi. 
 2.  Heb.  vii.  1,2,)  and  in  the 
 days  of  Abraham  was  the 
 abode  of  Melchizedek.  When 
 the  Israelites  took  possession 
 of  the  promised  land,  they 
 found  this  stronghold  in  the 
 possession  of  the  Jebusites, 
 (see  Jebus,)  and  it  was  by 
 them  called  Jebus,  (Judg.  xix. 
 10,)  or  Jebusi.  (Josh,  xviii. 28.) 
 Perhaps  the  more  modern 
 name  of  the  city  may  be  com- 
 pounded of  these  two,  with  a 
 little  modification  for  the  sake 
 of  sound. 
 
 We  have  called  it  a  strong- 
 hold,and  so  indeed  it  was,  even 
 in  its  earlier  days.  (2  Sam.  v. 
 6—8.  1  Chron.  xi.  4-6.)  The 
 whole  foundation  was  of  rock, 
 with  steep  ascents  on  three 
 sides.  Then  it  was  nearly  sur- 
 rounded by  a  deep  valley, 
 which  was  again  embosomed 
 with  hills. 
 
 This  natural  position  of  the 
 city  furnishes  some  of  the 
 beautiful  illustrations  of  the 
 Bible.  (Ps.  xlviii.  2.  13;  cxxv. 
 1,  2.)    The  ancient  Salem  was 
 
 Krobably  built  upon  Acra  and 
 loriah,  the  eastern  and  west- 
 ern hills.  When  the  Jebusites 
 became  masters  of  it,  they 
 erected  a  fortress  in  the  south- 
 ern quarter  of  the  city,  which 
 was  afterwards  called  mount 
 Zion,  but  to  which  they  gave 
 the  name  of  their  ancestor, 
 Jebus  ;  and  although  the  Isra- 
 elites, under  Joshua,  took  pos- 
 session of  the  circumjacent 
 territory,  (Josh,  xviii.  28,)  the 
 Jebusites  still  held  this  fortress, 
 or  upper  town,  until  the  time 
 of  David,  who  wrested  it  from 
 them,  CiSam.  v.  7—9,)   aud 
 
JER 
 Ihnn  removed  his  court  from 
 Hebron  to  Jerusalem,  which 
 was  thenceforward  known  as 
 the  city  of  David.  (2  Sam.  vi. 
 10.  12.  1  Kings  viii.  1.)  As  the 
 city  was  on  the  boundary  line 
 between  the  tribes  of  Judah 
 and  Benjamin,  it  is  sometimes 
 spoken  of  as  the  possession  of 
 each. 
 
 Upon  this  eminence,Solomon 
 erected  the  temple,  or  place 
 of  worship  for  the  whole  Jew- 
 ish nation,  and  also  a  palace 
 for  himself,  called  the  house  of 
 the  forest  of  Lebanon,  on  ac- 
 count of  the  multitude  of  cedars 
 from  that  mountain  employed 
 in  the  construction  of  it,(lKings 
 vii.  2 ;  X.  17 ;)  and  in  his  reign 
 the  city  became  renowned 
 for  its  commercial  enterprise, 
 (1  Kings  X.  22,)  its  boundless 
 wealth,  (1  Kings  x.  14—29,) 
 and  especially  for  the  enjoy- 
 ment of  the  peculiar  presence 
 and  favour  of  the  Almighty. 
 (Ps.  ii.  6;  XV.  1;  Ixxiv.  2.) 
 This  eminence  it  maintained 
 for  nearly  five  hundred  years, 
 when  it  was  destroyed  by  Ne- 
 buchadnezzar. Then  it  lay 
 in  ruins  seventy  years,  while 
 the  Jews  were  in  captivity; 
 after  which  it  was  restored  in 
 some  degree  to  its  former  im- 
 portance, and  so  remained 
 for  nearly  six  hundred  years, 
 when  it  was  finally  destroyed 
 by  Titus,  a.  d.  70.  In  the  reign 
 of  Adrian,  the  city  was  partly 
 rebuilt,  under  the  name  of 
 .^lia.  After  being  transformed 
 into  a  pagan  city,  Helena,  the 
 mother  of  Consiantine,  over- 
 threw its  monuments  of  idola- 
 try, and  erected  over  the  sup- 
 posed site  of  the  sepulchre  of 
 Christ  a  magnificent  church, 
 which  included  as  many  of  the 
 scenes  of  our  Saviour's  suffer- 
 ings as  superstition  and  tradi- 
 tion could  conveniently  crowd 
 into  one  spot. 
 
 The  emperor  Julian,  in  the 
 true  spirit  of  an  apostate,  de- 
 signing to  give  the  lie  to  pro- 
 
 JER 
 
 fhecy,  assembled  the  Jews  at 
 erusalem,  and  endeavoured 
 in  vain  to  rebuild  the  temple. 
 In  this  attempt  he  was  frus- 
 trated by  an  earthquake,  and 
 fiery  eruptions  from  the  earth, 
 which  totally  destroyed  the 
 work,  consumed  the  materials 
 which  had  been  collected,  and 
 killed  a  great  number  of  the 
 workmen. 
 
 Jerusalem  continued  in  the 
 power  of  the  eastern  emperors 
 till  the  reien  of  the  caliph 
 Omar,  the  third  in  succession 
 from  Mohammed,  who  reduced 
 it  under  his  subjection.  This 
 Omar  was  afterwards  assassi- 
 nated in  Jerusalem,  in  643. 
 
 The  Saracens  continued  mas- 
 ters of  Jerusalem  till  the  year 
 1099,  when  it  was  taken  by 
 the  crusaders,  under  Godfrey 
 of  Bouillon.  They  founded  a 
 new  kingdom,  of  which  Jeru- 
 salem was  the  capital,  and 
 which  lasted  eighty -eight 
 years,  under  nine  kings.  At 
 last  this  kingdom  was  utterly 
 ruined  by  Saladin ;  and  though 
 the  Christians  once  more  ob- 
 tained possession  of  the  city, 
 they  were  again  obliged  to  re- 
 linquish it.  In  1217,  the  Sara- 
 cens were  expelled  by  the 
 Turks,  who  have  ever  since 
 continued  in  possession  of  it. 
 
 Seventeen  times  has  Jerusa- 
 lem been  taken  and  pillaged  ; 
 millions  of  men  have  been 
 slaughtered  within  its  walls. 
 No  other  city  has  experienced 
 such  a  fate.  This  protracted 
 and  almost  supernatural  pun- 
 ishment, betokens  unexampled 
 guilt. 
 
 The  present  political  state 
 of  Jerusalem  is  perhaps  as  low 
 as  it  has  been  at  any  time 
 while  under  the  dominion  of 
 the  Turks.  It  has  not  even 
 the  honour  of  ranking  as  a 
 provincial  capital,  and  enjoys 
 none  of  the  immunities  pecu- 
 liar to  the  other  holy  cities  of 
 Islamism.  It  is  included  with- 
 I  in  the  pashalic  of  Damascus, 
 
JER 
 
 JER 
 
 ^^"^^^^^^^^ 
 
JER  JBB 
 
 1  Castle  of  Hippicus. 
 
 2  Gate  of  the  gardens. 
 
 3  Tomb  of  high-priest  John. 
 
 4  Bridge  between  temple  and  city. 
 
 5  Supposed  site  of  the  Xistus. 
 
 6  Castle  of  Antonia. 
 
 a  Jaffa  gate. 
 b  Zion  gate. 
 e  St.'  Stephen's  gate. 
 d  Damascus  gate. 
 e  Pool  of  Bethesda. 
 f  Pool  of  Si  loam. 
 g  Fountain  of  the  virgin. 
 h  Garden  of  Gethsemane. 
 »■  Monuments  of  Absalom  and  Zechariah. 
 k  Village  of  Silor. 
 I  Mount  of  Corruption. 
 m  Jaffa  road. 
 n  Bethlehem  road. 
 o  Road  to  Bethphage  and  Bethany. 
 
 iThe  line  with  black  squares  ■■  ■  ■  upon  it  shows  the 
 course  of  the  wall  in  our  Saviour's  time. 
 
 The  zig-zag  line  vx^vx^  shows  the  extent  ol  the  wali 
 built  by  Agrippa,  after  Christ's  death. 
 
 The  dotted  line shows  the  present  wall. 
 
 The  square  on  the  eastern  side  represents  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  temple,  now  occupied  by  the  mosque  of  Omar. 
 
 351 
 
JER 
 
 and  is  governed  by  a  deputy 
 appointed  from  thence.  No 
 deference  is  created  by  the 
 peculiar  sanctity  of  the  place, 
 (except  in  the  minds  of  Chris- 
 tians,) as  is  done  by  that  of 
 the  Arabian  cities  of  Mecca 
 and  Medina;  for,  while  a  go- 
 vernor of  either  of  these  is 
 honoured  by  distinguished  pri- 
 vileges, the  governor  of  Jerusa- 
 lem ranks  only  as  a  magistrate 
 of  a  provincial  town. 
 
 The  force  usually  kept  in 
 Jerusalem  consists  of  about  a 
 thousand  soldiers,  including 
 horse  and  foot,  armed  and 
 equipped  in  the  common  Turk- 
 ish fashion,  and  composed  of 
 Turks,  Arabs,  and  Albanians. 
 These  are  stated  to  be  suffi- 
 cient to  repel  any  attack  from 
 the  armies  of  the  country,  but 
 could  offer  no  eflfectual  resist- 
 ance to  European  troops. 
 
 The  site  of^the  city  of  Jeru- 
 salem has  never  been  called 
 in  question.  The  associations 
 with  it  have  been  permanent 
 and  uninterrupted,  and  seem 
 designed  to  connect  the  great 
 eras  in  the  history  of  the 
 church  of  the  Redeemer,  to 
 b&  an  everlasting  monument 
 of  the  truth  and  faithfulness 
 of  the  God  of  Jacob. 
 
 There  have  been  many 
 changes  in  its  form  and  ap- 
 pearance ;  the  most  important 
 of  which  we  proceed  to  state, 
 and  to  illustrate  them  by  a 
 map,  which  is  prepared  from 
 the  best  materials  that  the 
 journals  of  travellers  supply, 
 down  to  the  year  1836. 
 
 The  ciiy  of  Jerusalem  stands 
 in  31°  50'  north  latitude,  and 
 35°  20'  east  longitude,  from 
 Greenwich.  It  is  thirty-four 
 miles  south-easterly  from  Jaffa, 
 (Joppa,)  its  port,  and  one  hun- 
 dred and  twenty  miles  south- 
 vvestwardly  from  Damascus. 
 It  has  the  valley  of  Jehosha- 
 phat,  or  Kedron,  on  the  east, 
 and  the  valley  of  Hinnom  on 
 the  south  and  west. 
 
 JER 
 
 Mount  Moriah  is  now  on  a 
 level  with  other  parts  of  the 
 city,  and  is  occupied  by  the 
 mosque  of  Omar,  which  stands 
 probably  very  near,  if  not  on 
 the  very  site  of  the  temple  of 
 Solomon.  So  sacred  is  this 
 edifice  in  the  view  of  the 
 Turks,  that  no  Christian  is 
 permitted  to  place  his  foot 
 even  within  the  spacious  en- 
 closure which  surrounds  it. 
 Although  the  elevation  of  this 
 mountain  has  disappeared,  its 
 position  is  beyond  controversy. 
 To  prepare  it  for  the  vast 
 structure  of  the  temple,  Solo- 
 mon enclosed  the  mountain 
 by  a  stupendous  wall,  of  an 
 average  perpendicular  height 
 of  five  hundred  feet ;  filling  up 
 the  intervening  space  between 
 the  wall  and  the  mountain,  so 
 as  to  form  a  spacious  and  level 
 area  for  the  temple  and  ita 
 extensive  courts.  At  the  north- 
 western angle  of  this  area  was 
 a  magnificent  tower,  which 
 was  called  by  Herod  the  tower 
 ofAntonia,  in  honour  of  Mark 
 Antony. 
 
 Mount  Zion  was  south-west 
 of  Moriah;  and  its  present 
 position  and  elevation  corre- 
 spond very  exactly  with  the 
 most  ancient  records. 
 
 It  is  impossible,aftersomany 
 desolations  as  the  city  has  suf- 
 fered, to  trace  the  boundaries 
 of  this  mountain.  There  is, 
 however,  a  rise  of  ground  be- 
 tween  Zion  and  Moriah,  which 
 corresponds  so  entirely  to  the 
 east  part  of  A  era,  as  described 
 by  ancient  historians,  as  to 
 leave  no  doubt  that  it  formed 
 a  portion  of  it.  The  Jews  at 
 present  call  the  whole  hill 
 Zion. 
 
 Acra  (so  called  from  a  Greek 
 word,  signifying  high)  is  some- 
 times called  th'e  loicer  city,  as 
 mount  Zion  was  called  tfie 
 upper  city.  It  was  north  of 
 mount  Zion,  from  which  it  was 
 separated  by  the  valley  of  the 
 cheesemongers.    A  town  was 
 
JER 
 onco  erected  on  a  peak  of 
 Acra,  which  overlooked  the 
 temple.  After  standing  about 
 twenty-five  years,  it  was  de- 
 molished, and  the  mountain 
 reduced  to  a  level  with  the 
 adjoining  districts. 
 
 Bezetha,  or  the  7iew  city,  was 
 a  spacious  suburb,  stretching 
 northward  from  mount  Moriah, 
 which  was  not  taken  within 
 the  city  proper  until  nearly 
 fifty  years  after  the  crucifix- 
 ion. It  embraces  what  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  scene 
 of  that  wonderful  event. 
 
 The  modern  city  of  Jerusa- 
 lem is  chiefly  built  on  mount 
 Moriah,  and  derives  its  princi- 
 pal support  from  the  visits  uf 
 pilgrims.  The  different  ac- 
 counts, given  by  travellers,  of 
 the  appearance  of  the  city, 
 may  be  accounted  for  in  part 
 by  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
 approached.  From  the  north, 
 it  appears  to  the  best  advan- 
 tage; and  from  the  west,  to 
 the  least.  It  is  about  two  miles 
 and  a  half  in  circuit,  and  con- 
 tains a  population  variously 
 estimated  from  15,000  to  50,000. 
 The  most  accurate  estimate 
 we  have  seen  places  it  at 
 20,000. 
 
 It  will  be  observed  that  the 
 map  presents  the  city  in  three 
 diflerent  aspects. 
 
 marks  the  present 
 
 boundary  of  the  city, 
 
 wr*,vw  the  wall  built  by 
 Agrippa. 
 
 ■  1  ■  H  what  was  the  city 
 at  the  time  of  the  crucifixion. 
 
 At  present,  the  south  wall 
 passes  over  mount  Zion,  near 
 Its  summit,  so  that  a  great  part 
 of  the  city  is  without  the  walls. 
 South  of  mount  Zion  is  the 
 deep  valley  of  the  son  of  Hin- 
 nom ;  the  same  valley,  turning 
 north,  bounds  Zion  likewise  on 
 the  west.  Moriah  has  on  the 
 east  the  deep  valley  of  Cedron. 
 On  the  south  of  it,  without  the 
 city,  is  a  little  elevation,which 
 IS  marked  on  D'Anville's  map 
 30* 
 
 JER 
 
 '  as  Ophel ;  thence  the  descent 
 j  is  Sleep,  till  we  come  to  the 
 I  fountain  of  Siloah.  The  val- 
 j  leys  north  and  west  of  Moriah 
 j  at  present  are  not  very  deep. 
 ,  Calvai7  was  perhaps  only  a 
 small  elevation  on  a  greater 
 hill,  which  is  now  the  north- 
 west part  of  the  city  ;  but  the 
 name  is  now  given  to  the 
 whole  hill.  Bezetha  is  sepa- 
 rated from  Calvary  by  a  wide 
 valley  ;  and  east  of  Calvary  is 
 the  dividing  valley  between 
 Moriah  and  Bezetha,  in  which 
 is  the  pool  of  Bethesda. 
 
 We  have  viewed  Jerusa- 
 lem, says  a  Christian  traveller, 
 from  different  stations,  have 
 walked  around  it  and  within 
 it,  and  have  stood  on  the  mount 
 of  Olives,  with  Josephus'  de- 
 scription of  it  in  our  hands, 
 trying  to  discover  the  hills  and 
 valleys,  as  laid  down  3y  him 
 near  eighteen  hundred  years 
 ago ;  and  after  all  our  research, 
 we  compare  Jerusalem  to  a 
 beautiful  person,  whom  we 
 have  not  seen  for  many  years, 
 and  who  has  passed  through  a 
 great  variety  of  changes  and 
 misfortunes,  which  have  caus- 
 ed the  rose  on  her  cheeks  to 
 fade,  her  flesh  to  consume 
 away,  and  her  skin  to  become 
 dry  and  withered,  and  have 
 covered  her  face  with  the 
 wrinkles  of  age ;  but  who  still 
 retains  some  general  features, 
 by  which  we  recognise  her  as 
 the  person  who  used  to  be  the 
 deliglu  of  the  circle  in  which 
 she  moved.  Such  is  the  pre- 
 sent appearance  of  the  Holy 
 City,  which  was  once  the  per- 
 fection of  beauty,  the  joy  of 
 the  jchole  earth. 
 
 Jerusalem, as  to  general  form 
 may  be  called  a  square,  or 
 rather  a  rhomboid ;  the  north- 
 east and  south-west  angles  are 
 acute,  and  the  north-west  and 
 south-east  are  obtuse.  The 
 east  wall  is  nearly  straight  the 
 whole  length.  On  the  north 
 and  south  sides,the  wall  makes 
 353 
 
JER 
 
 a  bend  outwardly,  and  on  the 
 west  side  it  makes  an  inward 
 bend ;  eo  that  it  would  not  be 
 very  inaccurate  to  call  the 
 city  a  heptagon.  There  are 
 likewise  many  little  irregu- 
 larities in  the  wall. 
 
 Near  the  bend  on  the  west 
 side  is  Jaffa  gate,  called  also 
 the  gate  of  Bethlehem  and  the 
 Pilgrim's  gate,  and  Bab  el 
 Khaleel,  (trie  gate  of  the  Be- 
 loved, i.  e.  Abraham.)  On  the 
 south  side  is  the  gate  of  Zion, 
 called  also  the  gate  of  David. 
 On  the  east  side,  near  the  pool 
 of  Bethesda,  is  the  gate  of 
 Stephen,  called  likewise  the 
 Sheep  gate,  and  the  eate  of 
 the  \  irgin  Mary.  On  the  west 
 side,  between  Calvary  and  Be- 
 zetha,is  Damascus  gate.  These 
 
 From  the  north- west  comer 
 to  JaflFa  ^te 
 to  south-west  corner   • 
 to  Zion  gate 
 to  the  bend  in  the  south  wall 
 to  the  Dung  gate 
 to  the  south-east  comer 
 to  the  Golden  gate 
 tn  St.  Stephen's  gate    • 
 to  north-east  corner     • 
 to  Herod's  gate   • 
 to  the  bend 
 to  Damascus  gate 
 to  north-west  corner    - 
 
 The  total  is  4279  paces :  and 
 allowing  five  paces  to  a  rod, 
 this  gives  eight  hundred  and 
 fifty-six  rods,  or  about  two 
 miles  and  two  thirds,  for  the 
 circumference  of  the  city. 
 Maundrell  measured  the  city, 
 and  judged  it  to  be  two  miles 
 and  a  half  in  circumference. 
 According  to  Josephus,  it  was 
 thirty-three  furlongs,  or  eight 
 miles,  in  circumference  before 
 Titus  destroyed  it.  Mount  Zion 
 was  then  included ;  and  the 
 city  seems,  from  his  descrip- 
 tion, to  have  extended  further 
 north  than  it  does  now.  The 
 wall  of  the  city  is  high,  but  not 
 thick.  From  counting  the  rows 
 of  stones,  the  heightj'in  differ- 
 ent places,  is  supposed  to  be 
 forty,  fifty,  and  perhaps  sixty 
 feet.  There  is  a  castle,  with  two 
 
 JER 
 
 four  are  the  principal  gatei 
 of  the  city,  and  are  always 
 open  from  morning  till  sunset. 
 There  are  two  other  small 
 gates,  which  are  opened  only 
 occasionally.  One  is  on  the 
 south  side,  a  little  west  of 
 mountMoriah.  Maundrell  calls 
 it  the  Dung  gale.  The  other, 
 which  Maundrell  callsHerod's 
 gale,  is  on  the  west  side,  and 
 goes  out  from  Bezetha.  On 
 the  east  side  of  Moriah  is  a  se- 
 venth gate,  or  rather  a  place 
 where  there  was  one  when  the 
 Christians  possessed  the  city  • 
 for  it  is  now  completely  walled 
 up.  Maundrell  calls  this  the 
 Golden  gate. 
 
 The  measure  of  the  city  by 
 paces  gives  the  following  re- 
 sult: 
 
 300  j  768we.t.ide. 
 
 195^ 
 
 ""H 1149  south  iide. 
 
 244 
 
 415J 
 
 353) 
 
 230  V  943  east  side. 
 
 360) 
 
 350< 
 
 ^U419  north  ilde. 
 
 660^ 
 
 towers,  on  the  west  Bide,  a 
 little  south  of  Jaffa  gate,  to 
 which  travellers  have  given 
 the  name  of  the  Pisan's 
 tower.  For  a  little  distance, 
 near  the  north-east  corner, 
 there  is  a  trench  without  the 
 wall,  but  now  nearly  filled  up. 
 The  Jews  occupy  a  much 
 smaller  part  of  the  city  than 
 the.  Turks  and  Arabs.  The 
 Armenians  live  in  and  around 
 their  convent  on  mount  Zion  ; 
 the  Greeks  and  Catholics  have 
 their  convents  and  houses  en 
 mount  Calvary.  The  Turks 
 and  Arabs  occupy  Bezetha^ 
 and  all  the  eastern  part  oi 
 the  city,  and  have  scattered 
 dwellings  in  every  quarter. 
 The  Jews  live  in  the  dust,  be- 
 tween Zion  and  Moriah.  The 
 whole  area  of  the  ancient  Jew- 
 
JER 
 
 ish  temple  on  Moriah,  which 
 now  encloses  the  mosque  of 
 Omar,  is  walled  in,  and,  as 
 was  before  observed,  none  but 
 Mussulmans  are  allowed  to 
 enter  it  on  pain  of  death, 
 though  this  rule  seems  to  have 
 been  lately  relaxed  in  some 
 degree.  In  and  near  it  are 
 four  minarets.  There  are  two 
 others  on  Bezeiha,  one  on 
 Acra,  one  on  Zion,  and  two  on 
 Calvary. 
 
 The  Jews  have  a  number  of 
 synagogues,  all  connected  to- 
 gether, in  the  quarter  where 
 they  live.  The  church  of  the 
 Holy  Sepulchre  stands  on  Cal- 
 vary. This  is  an  edifice  dis- 
 tinguished for  its  size  and  mas- 
 siveness.  It  forms  altogether 
 a  block  of  one  hundred  and 
 sixty  feet  long  and  one  hundred 
 wide ;  and  includes  what  are 
 called  the  chapel  of  the  cruci- 
 fixion, the  church  of  the  sepul- 
 chre, seven  small  chapels,  a 
 monastery  and  cloisters.  The 
 traditions  with  which  the  va- 
 rious apartments  are  associated 
 are  scarcely  worthy  to  be  pre- 
 served, and  yet  iLe  votaries  of 
 superstition  have  contrived  to 
 group  and  connect  them  in 
 such  a  manner  as  to  excite 
 strong  and  probably  salutary 
 emotions  in  the  mind  of  the 
 reflecting  visiter.  The  Catho- 
 lics have  one  convent  on  the 
 same  mountain.  The  Greeks 
 have  twelve  here,and  one  near 
 Ziongate.  The  Armenians  have 
 three  convents  on  mount  Zion, 
 a  large  one  and  a  small  one  in 
 the  city,  and  another  a  little 
 without  Zion  gale,  where,  it  is 
 believed,slood  the  house  of  Cai- 
 aphas,whereJesus  was  arraign- 
 ea,and  wherePeterdenied  him. 
 The  Copts,  Syrians,  and  Abys- 
 sinians  have  also  each  a  small 
 convent.  The  houses  are  of 
 stone,  most  of  them  low  and 
 irregular,  with  flat  roofs  or  ter- 
 races, ia  the  middle  of  which 
 usually  rises  a  small  dome. 
 The  windows  are  small,  and 
 
 JES 
 
 those  towards  the  street  have 
 usually  strong  iron  grates  for 
 defence,  and  then  fine  wooden 
 grates  to  prevent  the  women 
 from  being  seen  by  those  who 
 pass.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
 and  most  of  them  irregular. 
 There  are  but  few  gardens  in 
 the  city. 
 
 Jerusalem  is  seen  to  best 
 advantage  from  mount  Olivet. 
 
 The  substance  of  the  forego- 
 ing account  of  modern  Jerusa- 
 lem is  abridged  from  the  jour- 
 nal of  Messrs.  Fisk  and  King, 
 American  missionaries,  who 
 were  resident  there  in  1623; 
 and  its  accuracy  is  confirmed 
 by  the  descriptions  of  travel- 
 lers who  have  visited  it  more 
 recently. 
 
 (For  a  more  minute  history 
 and  description  of  the  city,  see 
 Destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
 ch.  vi.  xiv. ;  Elisama,  ch.  viii. 
 —X. ;  Omar,  ch.  iv.  viii. ;  and 
 Selumiel,  pp.  49—52. 150—174. 
 195—210,  all  by  Am.  S.S.Union. 
 See  also  Map  of  Jerusalem, 
 published  in  connexion  with 
 Selumiel,  which  corresponds 
 in  its  principal  outlines  to  the 
 foregoing  article.) 
 
 Jerusalem,  kevt,  (Rev.  xxL 
 2,)  is  a  term  empljyed  meta- 
 phorically to  represent  the  spi- 
 ritual church.  The  ancient 
 Jews  regarded  the  taberna- 
 cle, the  temple,  and  Jeru- 
 salem uself,  as  descending 
 directly  from  God ;  and  ^hey 
 suppose  that  there  is  a  spirit- 
 ual tabernacle,  temple,  and 
 city  corresponding  with  them. 
 (Comp.  Gal.  iv.  26.  2Fet.  iii. 
 10—13.  Rev.  xxi.)  Jerusalem 
 of  old  was  the  city  of  God; 
 and  Jerusalem  above  is  called 
 the  city  of  the  living  God,  or 
 heavenly  Jerusalem.  (Heb.  xii. 
 22.  Rev.  iii.  12.) 
 
 JESHURUN.  (Deut.  xxxIL 
 15.)  A  significant  name,  c'e- 
 scriptive  of  the  Israelitish  com- 
 munity, and  implying  either 
 their  general  uprightness,  or 
 the  peculiar  manifestation  of 
 
JEW 
 
 God's  presence  which  ihey 
 had  enjoyed,  and  which  agirra- 
 vated  the  guilt  of  their  rebel- 
 lion. Il  is  sometimes  used  as 
 A  term  of  fondness,  and  may 
 06  rendered  the  beloved  one, 
 or  the  object  of  God's  special 
 delight,  as  Benjamin  was. 
 (Deut.  xxxiii.  12.)  It  is  syno- 
 nymous with  Israel.  (Isa.  xliv. 
 2.) 
 
 JESSE.  (lChron.ii.l3.)  The 
 on  of  Obed,  and  father  of  Da- 
 vid. Hence  he  is  called  the 
 root  of  David,  and  the  ancestor 
 ofthe  Mes.siah.  (Isa.  xi.  1.  10.) 
 Christ  describes  himself  as  the 
 root  and  the  offsjiring  of  David, 
 (Rev.  V.  5 ;  xxii.  16,)  in  refer- 
 ence to  his  twofold  nature  ;  in 
 one  of  which,  he  was  the  crea- 
 torand  source  of  all  being, (John 
 i.  3,)  and  in  the  other,  he  was 
 born  of  a  woman  of  a  descend- 
 ant of  the  family  of  David. 
 (Matt.  i.  5—16.) 
 
 JESUS.  (Matt.  i.  21.)  This 
 term,  in  its  original,  imports 
 the  office  of  a  Saviour,  or  one 
 sent  to  save.  It  occurs  only 
 in  the  New  Testament;  and 
 though  it  is  not  exclusively 
 applied  to  Christ,  it  should  be ; 
 for  in  Acts  vii.  45.  Col.  iv.  11, 
 and  Heb.  iv.  8,  Joshua,  and 
 not  Jesus,  is  the  proper  ren- 
 dering. 
 
 In  the  evangelical  history, 
 ^ur  Saviour  is  designated  by 
 the  name  of  Christ  alone,  in 
 nearly  three  hundred  passages; 
 by  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ, 
 or  Christ  Jesus,  less  than  one 
 hundred  times;  and  by  the 
 name  ofthe  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 less  than  fifty.  (See  Christ 
 Tesus.) 
 
 JETHRO.  (Ex.  iii.  1.)    A 
 
 f)riest  or  prince  of  Midian,and 
 ather-:n-law  of  Moses.  He  is 
 called  Raguel,  Num.  x.  29,  and 
 Reuel,  Ex.  ii.  18;  and  was  pro- 
 oably  known  by  either  name. 
 [t  is  highly  probable,too,that  he 
 was  a  descendant  of  Abraham, 
 ''Gen.  XXV.  2 ;)  but  what  was 
 >he   nature  of  bis  office    as 
 
 JEW 
 
 priest,  (or  prince,  as  some  say 
 it  should  be  rendered,)  we 
 know  not.  (See  Life  of  Mo- 
 ses, pp.  36—41,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 JEWELS.  (Gen.  xxiv.  53.) 
 This  term  is  applied  to  orna 
 ments,  made  of  the  precious 
 metals,  and  used  to  adorn  the 
 person.  We  find  them  among 
 the  presents  which  the  servants 
 of  Abraham  made  to  Rebekah 
 and  her  family  when  they 
 sought  her  in  marriage  for 
 Isaac.  (Isa.  Ixi.  10.)  It  is  pro- 
 bable that  much  skill  was  at- 
 tained, at  a  very  early  period, 
 in  the  manufacture  of  metal 
 ornaments ;  such  as  chains, 
 bracelets,  ear-rings,  &c.  (Num 
 xxxi.  50.  Ezek.  xvi.  12.  Hos. 
 ii.  13.) 
 
 The  word  is  figuratively  used 
 to  denote  any  thing  peculiarly 
 precious ;  as,  the  chosen  peo- 
 ple of  God,  (Mai.  iii.  17,)  or 
 wisdom.    (Prov.  xx.  15.) 
 
 JEWRY.  (Luke  xxiii.  5.) 
 The  same  with  Judea.  (Dan. 
 V.  13.) 
 
 JEWS.  (2  Kings  xvi.  6.) 
 The  word  first  occurs  in  this 
 passage,  and  denotes  the  Ju- 
 oeans,  or  men  of  Judah,  in 
 contradistinction  from  the  se- 
 ceding ten  tribes  who  retained 
 the  name  of  Israel.  The  name 
 Israelites  was  applied  to  the 
 twelve  tribes,  or  descendants 
 of  Jacob,  (Israel,)  as  a  body; 
 but  after  the  separation  of  the 
 tribes,  the  above  distinction 
 obtained  until  the  Babylonish 
 captivity,  which  terminated 
 the  existence  of  the  kingdom 
 of  Judah  ;  and  thenceforward, 
 until  the  present  day,  the  de- 
 scendants of  Jacob  are  called 
 Jews,  and  constitute  one  of 
 the  two  classes  into  which  the 
 whole  human  family  is  fre- 
 quently divided,  viz.  Jews  and 
 Gentiles.  (Rom.  ii.  9,  10.  See 
 Hebrews.)  Since  the  over- 
 throw of  their  government,  and 
 the  final  destruction  of  their 
 city,  the  Jews  have  been  set 
 
JEZ 
 
 up  on  high  as  a  visible,  incon- 
 trovertible, and  overwhelming 
 evidence  of  the  truth  and  faith- 
 fulness of  Jehovah.  So  long  as 
 they  were  the  objects  of  his 
 regard,  no  weapon  formed 
 against  them  could  prosper; 
 but  when  they  became  the 
 objects  of  his  displeasure,  on 
 account  of  their  sins  and  re- 
 bellions, no  plan  or  efifort  for 
 their  restoration  succeeds,  or 
 will  succeed,  until  the  set  time 
 to  favour  them  shall  come. 
 Their  return  to  the  rest  and 
 privileges  of  God's  people  will 
 be  as  life  from  the  dead.  (Rom. 
 xi.  15. 25—28.  For  a  particular 
 account  of  the  calamities  of 
 this  nation,  from  century  to 
 century,  and  the  connexion  of 
 their  wonderful  history  with 
 prophecy,  see  The  Bible  is 
 True,  ch.  iv.  v.,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 The  number  of  Jews  in  the 
 world  is  estimated  at  from 
 three  to  six  millions.  Of  these, 
 there  are  reckoned  in  Europe, 
 2,000,000;  Asia,  700,000;  Africa, 
 500,000.  The  largest  numbers 
 are  in  Russia  and  Poland. 
 
 The  number  of  Jews  in  the 
 United  States  is  computed  at 
 from  6,000  to  15,000. 
 
 JEZEBEL,  (1  Kings  xvi.  31,) 
 the  wife  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel, 
 was  the  daughter  of  a  Zidonian 
 king,  and  of  course  educated 
 in  the  idolatrous  practices  of 
 her  native  country.  It  is 
 charged  upon  Ahab  as  a  sin  of 
 the  deepest  die,  that  he  should 
 connect  himself  with  such  a 
 woman.  She  introduced  the 
 worship  of  Baal  and  other 
 idols,  maintaining  four  hun- 
 dred idolatrous  priests  at  her 
 own  expense,  while  Ahab 
 maintained  four  hundred  and 
 fifty  more.    (1  Kings  xviii.  19.) 
 
 This  wicked  woman  once 
 resolved  on  the  extermina- 
 tion of  all  the  prophets  of 
 God.  Obadiah,  who  weis  a  pi- 
 ous man,  and  principal  officer 
 of  Ahab's  household,  rescued 
 
 JEZ 
 
 one  hundred  of  them  at  one 
 time  from  her  grasp,  and 
 supplied  them  with  bread 
 and  water  while  they  were 
 concealed  in  caves.  (1  Kings 
 xviii.  3, 4. 13.)  Soon  after  this, 
 Elijah  caused  the  four  hundred 
 and  fifty  priests  of  Baal,  sup- 
 ported by  Ahab,  to  be  put  to 
 death.  For  this  proceeding, 
 Jezebel  threatened  to  take  the 
 life  of  Elijah,  but  her  purpose 
 was  frustrated.  Soon  after- 
 wards, she  planned  and  per- 
 petrated  the  murder  of  Na- 
 both.  And  by  using  the  king's 
 name  and  authority  with  the 
 leading  men  of  Jezreel,  she 
 secured  their  co-operation  in 
 the  flagrant  crime,  cl  Kings 
 xxi.  1-13.) 
 
 The  doom  of  this  impious 
 woman  was  predicted  by  Eli- 
 jah, and  was  in  due  time  visit- 
 ed upon  her  to  the  very  letter. 
 (See  Jehu,  Ahab.) 
 
 In  Rev.  ii.  20,  there  is  an 
 allusion  to  this  history;  but 
 whether  the  word  Jezebel  is 
 there  used  as  the  name  of  a 
 person  then  living,  and  resem- 
 bling in  character  Jezebel  of 
 old,  or  whether  it  is  only  used 
 proverbially,  as  it  is  in  modern 
 times,  to  denote  a  cunning, 
 wicked,  deceitful,  abandoned 
 woman,  is  not  certain. 
 
 JEZREEL.  (Josh.  xix.  18.) 
 A  royal  city  within  the  bounds 
 of  Manasseh,  in  the  valley  of 
 Jezreel,  where  the  tidings  of 
 Saul's  death,  in  the  battle  at 
 Gilboa,  were  first  announced, 
 (2  Sam.  iv.  4,)  and  where  his 
 son  Ishbosheth  reigned  after 
 his  father's  death.  (2  Sam.  ii. 
 9.)  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
 the  fountain  in  Jezreel,  where 
 the  Israelites  encamped  before 
 the  battle  of  Gilboa,  (ISam 
 xxix.  1,)  was  the  very  spot 
 where  the  crusaders  encamp- 
 ed in  1183,  when  on  the  eve 
 of  a  battle  with  Saladin.  Ahab 
 and  Joram  resided  at  Jezreel, 
 (1  Kings  xviii.  45.  2  Kings  ix. 
 15;)  and  Jezebei  and  Joram 
 357 
 
JEZ 
 
 were  slain  there  by  Jehu. 
 (2  Kings  ix.ai— 33.)  There  was 
 also  a  city  in  Judah  uf  this 
 name.   (Josh.  xv.  56) 
 
 Valley  of.  (Josh.  xvii.  16.) 
 An  extensive  valley,  (1  .Sam. 
 xxxi.  7,)  called  by  the  Greeks 
 Esdraelon,  stretching  south 
 and  souih-wesl  from  mount 
 Tabor  and  Nazareth,  and  re- 
 markable for  its  beauty  and 
 fertility.  It  was  the  scene  of 
 many  battles.  Among  them, 
 one  between  Deborah  and  Ba- 
 rak and  .Siscra,  the  command- 
 er of  the  Syrians,  (Judg.  iv.  14,) 
 one  between  Ahab  and  the  Sy- 
 rians, (comp.  1  Sam.  xxix.  I. 
 1  Kings  XX.  26,)  another  be- 
 tween Saul  and  thePhilistines, 
 (I  Sam  xxix.  1,)  and  another 
 between  Gideon  and  the  Midi- 
 anites.  (Judg.  vi.  33.) 
 
 This  plain  is  computed  by 
 modern  travellers  to  be  at  least 
 fifteen  miles  square,  and  con- 
 tains five  miserable  villages, 
 with  scarcely  a  moving  inha- 
 bitant. One  of  them  speaks  of 
 it  as  a  chosen  place  for  bat- 
 tles and  military  operations  in 
 every  age,  Irom  the  lime  of 
 Barak  Co  that  of  Bonaparte; 
 Jew,  Gentiles.  Egyptians,  Sa- 
 racens, Christian  crusaders, 
 and  antichristian  Frenchmen, 
 Persians,  Druses,  Turks,  and 
 Arabs.  Warriors  out  of  every 
 nation  which  is  under  heaven 
 have  pitched  their  tents  upon 
 the  plains  of  Esdraelon,  and 
 have  beheld  the  various  ban- 
 ners of  their  nation  wet  with 
 the  dews  of  Tabor  and  Her- 
 mon. 
 
 The  soil  is  extremely  rich  ; 
 and  in  every  direction  are  the 
 most  picturesque  views.  The 
 hills  of  Nazareth  to  the  north  ; 
 those  of  Samaria  to  the  south ; 
 to  the  east  the  mountains  of 
 Tabor  and  Hermon ;  and  Car- 
 mel  to  the  south-west.  "  About 
 four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon," 
 says  a  traveller,  "  we  arrived  at 
 the  village  of  Gennyn,  which 
 is  situated  at  the  entrance  of 
 
 JOA 
 
 one  of  the  numerous  valefl 
 which  lead  out  of  the  plain  of 
 Esdraelon  to  the  mountainous 
 regions  of  Lphraim." 
 
 '*  From  the  window  of  the 
 khan  where  we  are  lodging 
 we  have  a  clear  view  of^ihe 
 tract  over  which  the  prophet 
 Elijah  must  have  passed,  when 
 he  girded  up  his  loins  and  ran 
 before  Ahab  to  the  entrance  of 
 Jezreel.  But,  in  the  present 
 day,  no  chariots  of  Ahab  or  of 
 Sisera  are  to  be  seen ;  not  even 
 a  single  wheel-carriage  of  any 
 description  whatever.'' 
 
 The  plain  opens  about  three 
 miles  from  Nazareth,  on  the 
 way  to  Jerusalem. 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, was  there  in  the  au- 
 tumn of  IS':^,  and  confirms  the 
 preceding  account  of  the  size, 
 position,  &c.  of  Esdraehn.  So 
 rich  and  fertile  is  the  soil,  that 
 he  thinks  the  piain,  though 
 less  than  fifteen  miles  square, 
 would  suf>porl  thirty  or  forty 
 villages,  ot  2000  or  3000  souls 
 each.  (See  Omar,  p.  118,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 JOAB  (2  Sam.  ii.  IS)  was  the 
 nephew  of  David,  and  the  com- 
 mander-in-chief  of  his  army. 
 (IChron  ii.  16;  xi.6.)  He  wag 
 evidently  a  valiant  man,  but 
 ambitious  and  revengeful.  To 
 revenge  the  death  of  his  bro- 
 ther Asahel,  whom  Abner  had 
 killed  in  self-defence,  (2  Sam. 
 ii.  23,)  he  treacherously  assas- 
 sinated this  distinguished  ge- 
 neral. (2  Sam.  iii'.'  27  )  He 
 brought  about  a  reconciUalion 
 between  Absalom  and  his  fa- 
 ther, after  the  murder  of  Am- 
 non ;  but  when  Absalom  re- 
 belled, Joab  adhered  to  his 
 master;  and  under  his  gene- 
 ralship, the  troops  of  David, 
 though  much  inferior  in  num- 
 ber, obtained  a  complete  vic- 
 tory over  the  army  v.hich  had 
 been  collected  by  this  aban- 
 doned and  infaiuaten  young 
 man  ;  and,  contrary  to  the  ex- 
 press orders  of  David,  he  put 
 35d 
 
JOA 
 
 hirn  to  death  with  his  own  } 
 hand,  as  he  hung  suspended 
 from  the  oak  tree.  (-iSam.  xviii. 
 14.)  After  this  event,  David 
 promotefi  Arnasa  to  be  his  gene- 
 ral in -chief,  bv  which  Joab  was 
 deeply  otfenJed,  and  secretly 
 resolved  on  the  death  of  his 
 rival ;  and  took  the  first  oppor- 
 tunity of  assassinating  him,  as  t 
 hehaddone  Abiier.  (2Sain.xx.  ' 
 10.)  David,  after  this,  seems  [ 
 to  have  taken  him  agairj  into  i 
 favour.  (iSam.  xxiv.2.)  When  j 
 David  the  king  had  t-ecome  \ 
 old,  however,  Joab  combined 
 with  Abiathar  the  priest,  and 
 others,  to  set  Adonijah  on  the 
 throne,  in  defiance  of  the  will 
 of  David,  who  had,  by  divine 
 direction,  resolved  lo  make 
 Solomon  king.  (I  Kings  ii.26.) 
 The  plot  was  seasonably  de- 
 featert,  and  Solomon  was 
 proclaimed  king  the  same 
 day.  But  Joab  now  seemed  to 
 David  stieviile'itly  an  object  of 
 the  divine  displeasure,  that  he 
 solemnly  charged  .Solomon  to 
 punish  him  for  all  liis  enor- 
 moup  crimes,  and  especially 
 for  the  murder  of  two  valiant 
 men,  bimerihan  hims' lf,Abner 
 and  A  nasa.  Joab,  conscious 
 that  his  life  was  forfeited, 
 flou!.'ht  an  asylum  at  the  horns 
 of  the  altar,  which  position  he 
 absolutely  refused  to  relin- 
 quish; and  Benaiah,  now  ad- 
 vanced 10  be  the  captain  of 
 the  host,  slew  him  by  iho  altar, 
 agreeably  l'>  the  command  of 
 the  young  king.  He  was  buried 
 •'n  his  nwn  house,  in  the  wil- 
 derness.   (1  Kint!s  ii.  5—34.) 
 
 JOANNA  (Luke  viii.  3)  is 
 meniioiud  as  the  wife  of  Chu- 
 za,  Horod's  steward,  or  head- 
 servant.  She  eeems  to  have 
 been  the  subject  of  some  mira- 
 culjus  cure  by  Christ,  h>»ni 
 she  f  i'.t  <wpd,  and  lo  whom  she 
 ministered.   (Luke  xxiv.  10.) 
 
 JOASH,  1.  (2Kiiiirs  xiii.  1,) 
 or  JEHOA^H,  (2  Ki  .is  xii.  1,) 
 was  li'.e  son  and  successor  <>f 
 Ahazialt,  king  of  Judah.    Je- 
 
 JOA 
 
 hosheba,  (or  Jehoshabeath,  2 
 Chron.  xxii.  11,)  the  wife  of 
 Jehoiada  the  high-priest,  hia 
 aunt,  preserved  him  from  the 
 murderous  desigiis  of  Athali- 
 ah,  his  grand-niolher,  when 
 he  was  but  a  year  old,  and 
 ke[ii  him  hid  six  years  in  a 
 chamber  belonging  to  ihetem- 
 
 Cle.  (See  Athaliah.)  When 
 e  was  seven  years  of  age, 
 JehoiaJa  entered  into  a  solemn 
 covenant  with  Azariah  and 
 others,  to  set  up  young  Joash 
 for  their  sovereign,  and  de- 
 throne the  wicked  Athaliah. 
 After  preparing  matters  in  the 
 kint;dom,  and  bringing  the  Le- 
 vites,  and  such  others  iis  they 
 could  trust,  to  Jerusalem,  tliey 
 crowned  him  in  the  court  of 
 the  ti-mple  with  great  solemni- 
 ty. (2Kingsxi.)  Joash  behaved 
 himself  well  white  Jehoiada 
 the  lii?h-prieel  lived  and  was 
 his  guide;  but  no  sooner  waa 
 this  good  man  removed,  than 
 he  beijan  to  listen  to  the  coun- 
 sels of  his  wicked  courtiers. 
 The  worship  of  God  fell  into 
 neglect,  and  idolatry  prevail- 
 ed. Zechariah  the  priest,  soa 
 of  Jehoiada,  warneil  him  of 
 his  sin  and  danger;  but  as 
 a  reward  of  his  fidelity,  he 
 was,  by  order  of  Joash,  stoned 
 to  deatii,  between  the  {»orch 
 and  the  altar.  When  dying,  he 
 assured  them  thai  God  would 
 avenge  his  death.  (2  Chron. 
 xxiv.SO— 22.)  Towhich  event 
 our  Saviour  is  supposed  oy 
 some  to  refer,  Matt,  xxiii.  So. 
 Hazael  invaded  ilie  kingdom; 
 but  Joiish,  w  ith  a  large  sum  of 
 money,  including  all  the  trea- 
 sures and  furniture  of  the  tem- 
 ple and  jialace,  redeemed  his 
 capital  from  plunder.  (2Ki;.ga 
 xii.  id)  After  siiffrring  other 
 iiijuries  from  liie  Syrian.^,  and 
 after  bein^  loaded' with  igno- 
 miny, hf-  was  murdered  by  his 
 own  servants,  after  a  reign  of 
 foriy-iiie  years.  (2Chron.  xxiv. 
 24-27) 
 2.  (2  Kings  xwi.  9-)  Son  an4 
 399 
 
JOB 
 
 successor  of  Jehoahaz  king  of 
 Israel,  and  grandson  of  Jehu, 
 was  for  two  or  three  years  asso- 
 ciated with  his  father  in  the 
 government ;  and  he  reigned 
 alone,  after  his  father's  death, 
 fourteen  years. 
 
 He  was  a  wicked  prince, 
 though  he  was  successful  in 
 three  campaigns  against  the 
 Syrians,  and  recovered  the 
 cities  which  they  took  from  his 
 father,  according  to  the  predic- 
 tion of  Elisha.  (2  Kings  xiii. 
 15—25.)  He  was  also  signally 
 successful  in  a  war  with  Ama- 
 ziah  king  of  Judah,  (see  Ama- 
 ziAH  ;)  soon  after  the  termina- 
 tion (if  which,  he  died.  (2  Kings 
 xiv.  12—16.) 
 
 JOB.  (Job  i.  1.)  A  man  of 
 singular  piety  and  more  singu- 
 lar trials,  who  is  supposed  to 
 have  lived  in  Idumea  at  a  very 
 early  period  of  the  world.  Some 
 have  supposed  that  he  was  the 
 same  with  Jobab,  (1  Chron.  i. 
 44,)  great-grandson  of  Esau; 
 but  others  place  him  before 
 Abraham's  time. 
 
 Book  of.  Considerable  dif- 
 ference of  opinion  has  prevail- 
 ed as  to  the  date  and  author  of 
 the  book  of  Job.  It  is  evidently 
 of  great  antiquity,  (probably 
 earlier  than  the  timeof  Moses,) 
 and  its  genuineness  appears 
 from  Ezek.  xiv.  14,  and  James 
 V.  11.  From  the  whole  current 
 of  tradition,  and  from  the  cha- 
 racter, style,  and  contents  of 
 the  book  itself,  the  prevailing 
 opinion  is,  that  the  book  was 
 written  by  Job  himself,  or  by 
 one  of  his  contemporaries.  It 
 presents  some  of  the,  most  im- 
 portant evangelical  doctrines 
 of  the  Christian  religion,  in  a 
 very  distinct  and  forcible  man- 
 ner. 
 
 Perhaps  no  portion  of  the 
 Holy  Scriptures  has  suffered 
 more  by  the  modern  division 
 into  chapters,  than  Job.  The 
 following  arrangement  of  the 
 book  is  prepared  by  a  learned 
 critic,  and  will  be  found  of 
 
 JOB 
 
 great  use  to  the  student  m 
 preserving  the  connexion  of 
 the  subject. 
 
 L  Job's  character  and  trials, 
 ch.  i. — iii. 
 
 II.  First  series  of  conversa 
 tions,  or  controversies,  vi^.. 
 
 Eliphaz's  address,  iv.  v. 
 Job's  answer,  vi.  vii. 
 Bildad's  address,  viii. 
 Job's  answer,  ix.  x. 
 Zophar's  address,  xi. 
 Job's  answer,  xii.— xiv. 
 
 III.  Second  series  of  contro- 
 versy : — 
 
 Eliphaz's  address,  xv. 
 Job's  answer,  xvi.  xvii. 
 Bildad's  address,  xviii. 
 Job's  answer,  xix. 
 Zophar's  address,  xx. 
 Job's  answer,  xxi. 
 
 IV.  Third   series   of  coatro 
 versy : 
 
 Eliphaz's  address,  xxij. 
 Job's  answer,  xxiii.  xxiv. 
 Bildad's  address,  xxv. 
 Job's  answer,  xxvi.— xxxi. 
 
 V.  Elihu's  four   speeches  to 
 Job,  xxxii.— xxxvii. 
 
 VI.  Jehovah's  first  and  second 
 address  to  Job,  xxxviii.— xli. 
 
 VII.  Humiliation  of  Job,  and 
 his  final  prosperity,  xlii. 
 (See  Evening  Recreations, 
 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  vol.  iii. 
 pp.  10-21.) 
 
 JOCHEBED.  (Ex.  vi.  20,) 
 the  mother  of^  Aaron,  Moses, 
 and  Miriam,  was  the  wife  and 
 auntof  Amram,  and  the  daugh- 
 ofLevi.   (Num.  xxvi.  59.) 
 
 JOEL,  PROPHECY  OF,  is  the 
 twenty-nimh  book  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  the  fifth  of  the 
 prophetic  books  in  chronolo- 
 gical order.  It  is  supposed  to 
 Rave  been  uttered  in  the  reign 
 of  Ahaz,  and  the  author  to 
 have  been  contemporary  with 
 Isaiah,  between  b.  c.  810  and 
 700.  It  contains  a  remarkable 
 prediction  of  the  effusion  of 
 the  Holy  Spirit,  which  is  sup- 
 posed to  haive  been  fulfilled 
 on  the  day  of  Pentecost  The 
 burden  of  the  prophecy  of  Joel 
 is  the  dreadful  temporal  judg- 
 360 
 
JOH 
 
 ments  which  were  to  come 
 upon  the  Jews,  and  which  he 
 figuratively  describes  aa  al- 
 ready present.  In  view  of 
 these,  the  people  are  exhorted 
 to  repent  and  humble  them- 
 selves before  God,  that  they 
 may  obtain  forgiveness  and 
 find  grace  in  the  day  of  his 
 merciful  visitation. 
 
 JOHN,  THE  BAPTIST.    (Matt. 
 
 iii.  1.)  The  prophet  and  fore- 
 runner of  our  Saviour,  and 
 the  Eiias  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment. He  was  the  son  of  Za- 
 charias,  the  aged  priest,  and 
 Elisabeth,  (Lulce  i.  13,)  and 
 was  born  about  six  months 
 before  Christ.  His  birth  and 
 work  were  predicted  by  tiie 
 angel  Gabriel,  (Luke  i.  5—15.) 
 and  by  Isaiah  (Isa.  xl.  3)  and 
 Malachi.  (.^lal.  iv.  5.)  He 
 grew  up  in  solitude ;  and, when 
 about  thirly  years  of  age,  began 
 to  preach  in  the  wilderness  of 
 Judea,  and  to  call  men  to  re- 
 pentance and  reformation.  By 
 divine  direction,  he  baptized 
 all  who  came  unto  him  con- 
 fessing their  sins,  with  the 
 baptism  of  repentance,  (Luke 
 iii.  3;)  and  many  supposed  he 
 might  be  the  Christ.  (John  i. 
 19—28.)  His  manner  of  life 
 was  solitary, and  even  austere  ; 
 for  he  seems  to  have  shunned 
 the  habitations  of  men,  and  to 
 have  subsisted  on  locusts  and 
 wild  honey;  while  his  dress 
 ivas  made  of  the  coarse  hair 
 of  camels,  and  a  leathern  gir- 
 dle was  about  his  loins.  John, 
 moreover,  announced  to  the 
 Jews  the  near  approach  of  the 
 Messiah's  kingdom,  called  tlie 
 kingdom  of  heaven.  (Matt.  iii. 
 2.)  Multitudes  flocked  to  hear 
 him,  and  to  be  baptized  of  him, 
 from  every  part  of  the  land ;  and 
 among  the  rest  came  Jesus  of 
 Nazareth,  and  applied  for  bap- 
 tism. John  at  first  hesitated, 
 on  account  of  the  dignity  of  the 
 person  and  his  own  unworthi- 
 ness:  but  when  Jesus  told  him 
 that  il  was  necessary,  John 
 31 
 
 JOH 
 
 acquiesced;  and  while  this 
 solemn  ceremony  was  in  the 
 course  of  performance,  hea« 
 ven  was  opened,  and  the  Holy 
 (jhost  descended  on  him  in  the 
 likeness  of  a  dove,  and  a  voice 
 was  heard  from  heaven,  say- 
 ing, T/iis  is  7ny  beloved  Soti, 
 in  xchom  I  am  well  pleased. 
 (Malt.  iii.  17.)  By  this,  John 
 knew  most  certainly  that  Je- 
 sus of  Nazareth  was  the  Mes- 
 siah ;  and,  indeed,  before  he 
 saw  this  sign  from  heaven,  he 
 knew  that  the  Lamb  of  God 
 wlio  takeih  away  the  sin  of  the 
 world  was  present,  and  pointed 
 him  out  to  his  own  discipips, 
 and  announced  to  the  people 
 that  he  was  in  their  midst. 
 (John  i.  26)  John  was  a  man 
 of  profound  humility;  and,  al- 
 though he  foresaw  that  his 
 fame  would  be  eclipsed  by  the 
 coming  of  Christ,  as  the  bright- 
 ness of  the  morning  star  is  dim- 
 med by  the  rising  of  the  sun; 
 yet  he  rejoiced  sincerely  in 
 the  event,  saying.  He  must  iti- 
 crease,  but  I  7>iust  decrease. 
 The  testimony  of  John  to  the 
 divine  nature  and  offices  of  the 
 Redeemer  is  full  and  distinct. 
 (John  i.  29;  iii.  28-32.)  The 
 message  he  sent  by  his  disci- 
 ples while  he  was  in  prison, 
 was  for  their  sakes,  and  not  for 
 his  own.  (Matt.  xi.  1—6.)  The 
 preachingof  John  seems tohave 
 been  of  a  very  awakening  and 
 alarming  kind,  and  to  have 
 produced  a  lively  impression 
 on  the  minds  of  his  hearers* 
 but  with  most  it  was  but  tem- 
 porary. They  rejoiced  in  hig 
 light  for  a  season.  Among  the 
 hearers  of  John  was  Herod, 
 the  tetrarch  of  Galilee.  This 
 wicked  prince  not  only  heard 
 him,  but  heard  him  with  da- 
 light,  and  reformed  his  con- 
 duct in  many  points  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  solemn  warn- 
 ings, (Mark  vi.  20;)  but  there 
 was  one  sin  which  he  would  not 
 relinquish.  He  had  put  away 
 his  own  wife,  and  had  married 
 361 
 
JOH 
 
 Ilerodias,  the  wife  of  his  bro- 
 ther Philip,  he  lieing  alive. 
 For  this  iniquity,  John  faithful- 
 ly reproved  the  telrarch,  by 
 which  hewassomuchoflended 
 that  he  would  have  killed  the 
 preacher,  had  he  not  feared 
 an  insurrection  of  the  people; 
 for  all  men  held  John  to  be  a 
 prophet.  (Matt.xiv.o.)  He  went 
 so  far,  however,  as  to  shut  him 
 up  in  prison.  Theresenlmentof 
 Herodias  was  still  stronger  and 
 more  implacable  towards  the 
 man  who  had  dared  to  reprove 
 her  sin.  She  therefore  watched 
 for  some  opportunity  to  wreak 
 her  vengeance  on  this  excel- 
 lent man.  And  it  was  not  long 
 before  an  occasion  such  as  she 
 desired  offered  itself;  for  on 
 Herod's  birthday,  when  all  the 
 principal  men  of  the  country 
 were  feasting  with  him,  the 
 daughter  of  Herodias  came  in, 
 and  danced  so  gracefidly  be- 
 fore the  company,  that  Herod 
 was  charmed  beyond  measure, 
 and  declared  with  an  oath  that 
 he  would  give  her  whatever 
 she  asked,  even  to  the  half  of 
 his  kingdom.  She  immediately 
 went  to'  her  mother,  to  get  her 
 advice  what  she  should  ask ; 
 who  told  her  to  request  the 
 head  of  John  the  Baptist,which 
 she  accordingly  did;  and  He- 
 rod, whose  resentment  against 
 him  seems  to  have  subsided, 
 was  exceedingly  sorry;  but 
 out  of  regard  to  his  oath,  as  he 
 6aid,  and  respect  for  his  com- 
 pany, he  sent  to  the  prison 
 and  caused  John  to  be  behead- 
 ed; and  his  head  was  brought 
 in  a  dish  and  presented  to  the 
 young  dancer,  who  immediate- 
 ly gave  it  to  her  mother.  Thus 
 terminated  the  life  of  one,  con- 
 cerning whom  our  Lord  declar- 
 ed, that  of  those  born  of  women 
 a  greater  had  not  appeared. 
 (Matt. xi.  11.)  He  also  declared, 
 that  he  was  the  Elijah  predict- 
 ed in  the  Scriptures;  that  is, 
 a  prophet  who  greatly  resem- 
 bled Elijah,  and  who  came  in 
 
 JOH 
 
 his  power  and  spirit.  John, 
 indee.1,  in  answer  to  the  ques- 
 tions proposed  by  the  deputa- 
 tion from  Jerusalem,  asserted 
 that  he  was  not  Elijah:  but 
 this  was  spoken  in  relation  to 
 the  opinion  entertained  by  the 
 Scribes  and  Pharisees,  that 
 Elijah  would  come  in  person. 
 (For  a  full  account  of  this  indi- 
 vidual, with  illustrative  maps, 
 see  John  the  Baptist,  by  Aid. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 John's  Baptism,  (Acts  xix. 
 3, —  Baptism  of  John,  Matt. 
 xxi.25,)  is  in  this  passage  taken 
 for  his  whole  ministry,  because 
 this  was  a  prominent  branch 
 of  it.  What  the  baptism  of 
 John  was  is  a  subject  of  con- 
 troversy. The  word  s  of  our  Sa- 
 viour, recorded  in  Matt,  xxviii. 
 19,  are  allowed  to  be  the  foun- 
 dation of  this  ordinance,  to  be 
 administered  in  the  Christian 
 church ;  yet  various  opinions 
 have  teen  entertained  respect- 
 ing its  origin.  Whilst  some 
 maintain  that  it  was  never 
 practised  before  the  mission  of 
 John  the  Baptist,  others  affirm 
 that  we  ought  to  look  for  its 
 origin  amon"gthe  ancient  cere- 
 moliies  of  the  Jews.  We  may 
 be  allowed  to  remark,  that  as 
 the  baptism  of  Christ  differed 
 from  that  of  John,  at  least  in 
 the  form  of  expression,  so  both 
 differed  perhaps  still  more, 
 from  the  washings  which  were 
 called  baptisms'by  the  Jews. 
 Some  maintain,  however,  that 
 a  ceremony  prevailed  at  ^ho 
 initiation  of  proselytes  intotho 
 Jewish  church,  which  bore  a 
 striking  resemblance  to  bap- 
 tism, and  which  might  induce 
 our  Saviour  to  adopt  it.  If 
 baptism  had  been  altogether 
 unknown  to  theJews,  say  they, 
 would  they  not  have  contem- 
 plated  John's  conduct  with  that 
 astonishment  which  novel  tyal- 
 vvaysexcites'?  Whileiheywere 
 so  far  from  expressing  any  sur- 
 prise, that  they  spoke  of*^  bap- 
 tism as  a  fam'iliar  rite  when 
 362 
 
JOH 
 they  said  to  him,  IVfci/  bap- 
 tizest  thou,  then,  if  thou  art 
 neither  Christ  nor  Elias  7 
 (John  1.  25.)  But  it  is  not  diffi- 
 cult to  trace  the  source  of  their 
 ideas  about  baptism ;  for  not 
 only  was  jMoses  commanded 
 to  wash  Aaron  and  his  sons  at 
 their  consecration,  but  no  per- 
 son who  had  contracted  cere- 
 monial impurity  was  admitted 
 into  the  sanctuary  till  it  was 
 removed  by  washing;  and  so  of 
 furnilure,&c.  (Mark  vii.4.)  The 
 conduct  of  Christ,  in  the  insti- 
 tution of  the  supper,  also  cor- 
 responds to  his  conduct  on 
 this  occasion  ;  for  as  the  Jews 
 concluded  their  passover  by 
 giving  to  every  person  a  piece 
 of  bread  and  a  cup  of  wine,  so 
 Christ,  though  he  set  aside,  as 
 the  natureol  his  office  required, 
 the  rites  enjoined  by  Moses  in 
 that  ordinance  which  he  had 
 been  then  commemorating,  yet 
 retained  the  bread  and  cup 
 added  by  the  Jews. 
 
 JOHN,     THE      EVANGELIST, 
 
 was  the  son  of  Zebedee  and 
 Salome,  and  was  probably 
 born  at  Beihsaida,  and  was  a 
 companion  of  Peter,  Andrew, 
 and  Philip,  who  were  all  of 
 Beihsaida.  (Matt.  iv.  18.  21.) 
 His  parents  were  probably 
 in  comfortable  circumstances. 
 (Mark  i.  20.    John  xix.  27.) 
 
 He  was  an  adherent,  and,  as 
 some  think,  a  cousin  of  John 
 the  Baptist;  and  when  Christ 
 came,  he  readily  followed  him. 
 When  they  first  met,  he  spent 
 several  hours  with  him,  and 
 afterwards  obeyej  his  call. 
 (Matt.  iv.  21.)  It  is  supposed 
 that  John  abode  at  Jerusalem, 
 and  took  care  of  tlie  mother 
 of  Jesus  until  her  decease,  as 
 that  was  the  last  request  of  his 
 Lord  and  Master. 
 
 After  the  death  of  the  apostle 
 Paul,  John  preached  in  Asia 
 Minor;  and  was  banished  to 
 Fatiilos,  in  the  Egean  Sea, 
 where  he  wrote  theRevelat  ion. 
 lEev.  i,  9.)    He  returned  from 
 
 JOH 
 
 his  exile,  laboured  in  the  gos- 
 pel at  Ephesus,  and  died"  at 
 the  age  of  ninety,  in  the  reign 
 of  Trajan.  Jerome  tells  us, 
 that  when  John  was  too  in- 
 firm to  converse  correctly,  he 
 was  continually  repealing  the 
 words,  Little  children,  lots  one 
 another;  and  when  asked  why 
 he  always  repeated  this  sen- 
 tence only,  lie  replied,  "  Be- 
 cause it  is  the  commandment 
 of  the  Lord,  and  if  this  is  done 
 it  is  enough." 
 
 John  was,  in  many  respects, 
 the  most  interesting  of  the  apos- 
 tles in  his  personal  character. 
 Among  the  earliest  disciples  of 
 the  Lol-d,  he  was  distinguished 
 not  only  by  marks  of  the  pe- 
 culiar regard  and  confidence 
 of  his  Master,  but  by  a  bold 
 and  unwavering  attachment 
 to  his  cause.  Antiquity  attri- 
 butes to  him  great  loveliness 
 of  temper  and  nigh  personal 
 attractions ;  traits  of  character 
 which,  connected  with  his 
 youth  and  relationship  to  the 
 Redeem-er,  and  his  constancy 
 of  affection,  may  well  account 
 for  his  being  so  much  beloved. 
 It  is  supposed  by  some  that  he 
 had  some  prominent  defects 
 of  natural  character,  and  es- 
 pecially that  he  was  inclined 
 to  harshness  and  selfishness; 
 (Mark  ix.  3S ;  x.  35.  Luke 
 ix.  54.  Comp.  ]\Iatt.  xx.  20.) 
 We  know  that  those  sub- 
 lime qualities  of  love,  meek- 
 ness, and  humility,  which 
 afterwards  distinguished  him, 
 were  the  fruits  of  the  Spi 
 rit,  by  wliich  he  was  rege- 
 nerated and  sanctified,  and 
 made  peculiarly  dear  to  the 
 Redeemer.  (John  xiii.23;  xix. 
 2G  ;  XX,  2 ;  xxi.  7.)  John  was 
 of  an  ardent  temperament,  as 
 appears  by  the  frequent  dis- 
 play of  zeal  and  devotednesa 
 to  the  cause  he  had  espoused 
 Sometimes,  indeed,  he  was 
 impetuous ;  but,  on  the  other 
 hand,  we  find  him  foremost  iu 
 action  and  fearless  in  danger. 
 
JOH 
 
 Hia  character  is  finely  con- 
 trasted with  that  of  his  bold 
 and  forward  associate,  Peter; 
 for  while  he  who  was  counted 
 a  rock  shrunk  away  from  his 
 post  and  denfed  his  Master, 
 the  amiable  John  was  firm  and 
 undaunted ;  nor  did  he  forsake 
 his  Lord  even  at  the  cross,  but 
 stood  by  him,  and  amid  all  the 
 violence  and  dismay  of  that 
 dreadful  hour,  received  his  last 
 message,  and  bore  witness  to 
 the  minutest  events  that  oc- 
 curred. 
 
 After  the  resurrection,  John 
 was  first,  with  Peter,  in  an- 
 nouncing the  gospel.  His  bold 
 and  zealous  conduct  on  this 
 occasion  is  worthy  of  admira- 
 tion; and  to  the  end  of  his 
 long  life,  he  was  distinguished 
 by  "the  ardour  and  affection 
 with  which  he  served  his  be- 
 loved Lord.  (For  a  full  history 
 of  John  the  Evangelist,  with 
 illustrative  maps  and  cuts,  see 
 Beloved  Disciple,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 JOHN,  GOSPEL  OF,  is  the 
 fourth  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment. It  is  supposed  by  many 
 to  have  been  w^ritten  about  the 
 year  69 ;  but  there  are  some 
 powerful  reasons  to  believe 
 that  it  was  written  as  late  as 
 9^.  It  was  published  in  Asia. 
 The  particular  design  of  it  is 
 expressed  by  the  author  to  be, 
 that  those  to  whom  it  w'as  writ- 
 ten rnieht  believe  that  Jesus 
 is  the  Christ  the  Son  of  God, 
 and  that  believing  they  might 
 have  life  through  his  name. 
 (John  XX.  31.)  Hence  the  sub- 
 iects  and  discoursesof  this  book 
 have  special  relation  to  our 
 Lord's  character  and  offices, 
 and  are  evidently  intended  to 
 establish  his  nature,  authority, 
 and  doctrines,  as  divine.  He 
 probably  had  the  other  gospels 
 Defore  him,  or  was  familiar 
 with  their  general  contents. 
 This  fact  affords  substantial 
 evidence  of  the  genuineness 
 of  the'?e   writings,   and   also 
 
 JOH 
 
 accounts  for  the  omission  of 
 many  important  occurrences 
 which  are  particularly  stated 
 by  the  other  evangelists. 
 
 This  gospel  is  divided  into 
 twenty -one  chapters;  and 
 among  the  leading  subjects 
 are:— A  plain  declaration  of 
 tlie  Eedeemer's  Godhead,  (ch. 
 i.  1-5;  iv.  14;  v.  17,18-23; 
 X.  18.  30 ;)  the  nature  and 
 necessity  of  regeneration  and 
 redemption,  (iii.  3—21;)  the 
 security  of  the  people  of  God, 
 ix. ;)  the  resurrection  of  the 
 dead,  (xi. ;)  the  descent  of  the 
 Holy  Spirit,  (xvi.;)  and  the 
 blessed  relation  of  Christ  and 
 his  true  disciples,   (xvii.) 
 
 This  whole  gospel  abounds 
 with  the  most  sublime  and 
 mysterious  truths  of  our  holy 
 religion,  expressed  with  great 
 simplicity,  and  with  the  utmost 
 zeal,  affection,  and  veneration 
 for  the  Divine  author  and 
 finisher  of  our  faith.  (The  first 
 and  second  volumes  of  Union 
 Questions,  by  Am.  S.S.Union, 
 embrace  the  gospel  by  John.) 
 
 Epistles  of,  are  three  in 
 number,  and  make  the  twenty- 
 ty-third,  twenty-fourth,  and 
 twenty-fifth  books  of  the  New 
 Testament.  The  first  has  al- 
 ways been  attributed  to  John, 
 though  his  name  is  neither 
 prefixed  nor  subscribed.  It 
 has  been  supposed  to  be  intro- 
 ductory, or  a  kind  of  dedication 
 of  the  gospel.  It  was  written 
 not  far  from  a.  d.  70.  Some 
 have  assigned  to  all  three  of 
 these  epistles  a  date  as  late  as 
 A.  D.  %  or  97.  It  is  addressed 
 to  Christians  generally,  and 
 might  more  properly  be  called 
 a  discourse  or  treatise,  though 
 some  have  thought  it  was  de- 
 signed particularly  for  the 
 church  at  Ephesus.  The  lead- 
 ing objects  of  it  are,  to  establish 
 Clirisiians  in  the  faith  of  those 
 things  to  which  the  author  and 
 his  fellow-labourers  had  test! 
 fied  as  eye-witnesses,  and  to 
 instruct  them  in  the  mysteries 
 364 
 
JOH 
 
 of  redeeming  love,  anu  in  the 
 principles  and  duties  which 
 the  religion  of  Christ  enjoins, 
 and  to  Uirnish  them  with  cer- 
 tain signsjor  criteria,hj  which 
 to  determine  the  genuineness 
 of  their  faith. 
 
 The  second  epistle  is  ad- 
 dressed to  the  elect  (excel- 
 lent, eminent,  &c.)  ladf/  and 
 her  children.  The  elect  lady 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  some 
 honourable  woman,  distin- 
 guished for  piety,  and  well 
 known  in  the  churches  as  a 
 disciple  of  Christ.  Some,  how- 
 ever, have  thought  some  parii- 
 cular  church  and  its  members 
 might  be  denoted.  Those  who 
 adopt  tlie  latier  opinion  apply 
 the  term  to  the  church  at  Jeru- 
 salem, and  the  term  elect  sister 
 (v.  13)  to  the  church  at  Ephe- 
 sus.  These  conjectures,  how- 
 ever, have  generally  yielded 
 to  the  more  natural  conclusion 
 that  some  eminently  hospita- 
 ble and  pious  woman  and  her 
 sister,  of  lihe  spirit,  are  de- 
 noted. The  title  o( elder,  which 
 the  author  assumes,  was  proba- 
 bly one  of  honourable  distinc- 
 tion in  the  primitive  church, 
 and  indicative  of  the  apostle's 
 office  or  of  his  great  age  ;  then 
 not  far  from  one  hundred  years, 
 as  it  is  supposed.  The  sub- 
 stance of  this  letter  is  an  ex- 
 hortation to  continual  obedi- 
 ence, and  an  admonition 
 against  deceivers,  especially 
 against  a  new  form  of  error, 
 that  Christ  was  a  man  in  ap- 
 pearance only,  and  not  in  re- 
 ality, and  therefore  his  suffer- 
 ings and  death  were  not  real. 
 P^'  Tlie  third  epistle,  which  is 
 
 addressed  to  Gains,  or  Caius,  a 
 private  individual,  and  is  com- 
 mendatory of  his  piety,  was 
 written  about  the  same  time 
 with  the  others.  There  are  at 
 least  five  cersons  of  this  name 
 mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
 but  nothing  is  now  known  of 
 their  respective  residence,  nor 
 of  the  other  persons  to  whom 
 31* 
 
 JOK 
 
 allusion  is  made  in  the  course 
 of  this  short  letter. 
 
 JOHN,  {suniamed,  or  called 
 also,  MAUK,)  (Acts  xii.  12,) 
 was  a  nephew  cr,  some  think, 
 a  cousin  of  Barnabas,  (Col.  iv. 
 10,)  and  is  often  mentioned  as 
 the  companion  of  the  apostles. 
 (Acts  xii.  25;  xv.  39.  2  Tim.  iv. 
 11.  Philem.  24.)  His  mother 
 was  the  Mary  at  whose  house 
 the  apostles  and  first  Christians 
 usually  met.  (Acts  xii.  12—16.) 
 
 The  same  name  (Marcus) 
 is  applied  (1  Pet.  v.  13)  to  an 
 individual  who  is  called  by 
 that  apostle  his  son,  (in  the 
 Lord.)  It  is  doubtful  by  which 
 of  the^e  persons  the  gospel  (by 
 T>Iark)  was  written,  if,  indeed, 
 it  was  written  by  either.  Many 
 modern  critics  of  deserved  ce- 
 lebrity consider  all  these  pas- 
 sages as  relating  to  one  and 
 the  same  individual,  and  that 
 to  be  the  evangelist  Mark. 
 
 JOKNEAM  "(Josh.  xii.  22) 
 was  a  city  of  Zebulon.  (Josh, 
 xxi.  34.)  It  was  situated  south 
 of  Ptolemais,  near  the  bay,  and 
 is  called  of  Carmel,  because  it 
 was  at  the  foot  of  that  moun- 
 tain. 
 
 JOKTHEEL.  (2 Kings  xiv. 
 7.)  The  name  given  by  Ama- 
 ziah  to  Selah,  or  the  modera 
 Petra.  It  was  the  capital  of 
 Idumea,  and  one  of  the  most 
 magnificent  of  the  ancient  ci- 
 ties. It  was  situated  near  the 
 base  of  mount  Hor,  about  three 
 days'  journey  from  Jericho,and 
 the  same  distance  from  mount 
 Sinai;  and  must  be  regarded 
 as  the  most  singular  spot  in  all 
 Arabia,  perhaps  in  the  whole 
 eastern  world.  Its  remarkable 
 character  and  history,  which 
 have  been  but  recently  dis- 
 closed, ai  d  its  close  connexion 
 with  prophecy,  require  a  more 
 extended  article  than  would 
 otherwise  be  siven  to  it. 
 
 "  This  city  "appears  to  have 
 been  coeval  with  the  birth  of 
 commerce ;  and  there  is  indu- 
 bitable evidence  that  it  was 
 365 
 
JOK 
 
 a  flouris'ijng  emporium  seven- 
 teen centuries  before  the  Chris- 
 tian era.  It  was  the  point  to 
 which  all  the  tratle  of  northern 
 Arabia  originally  tended;  and 
 where  the  first  merchants  of 
 the  earth  stored  the  precious 
 commodities  of  the  east. 
 
 "With  the  decline  and  fall 
 of  the  Roman  power  in  the 
 east,  the  name  of  Petra  almost 
 vanishes  from  the  page  of  his- 
 ory.  About  the  period  of  the 
 crusades,  it  was  held  in  such 
 esteem  by  the  sultans  of  Egypt, 
 •)n  account  of  its  great  strength, 
 that  they  made  It  the  deposi- 
 tory of  their  choicest  treasures; 
 and,  in  the  course  of  these  reli- 
 gious wars,  its  possession  was 
 strenuously  contested  by  the 
 Turlis  and  Christians,  who  re- 
 garded it  as  the  key  that  open- 
 ed the  gates  of  Palestine.  From 
 that  time  it  was  known  only  as 
 the  seat  of  a  Latin  bishop.  Its 
 once  crowded  marts  ceased  to 
 be  the  emporium  of  nations. 
 The  obscurity  of  nearly  a  thou- 
 sand years  covered  its  ruins. 
 The  very  place  where  it  stood 
 became  a  subject  of  contro- 
 versy. 
 
 "  The  accounts  of  recent  tra- 
 vellers, who  have  discovered 
 the  ruins  of  this  great  city,  tell 
 MS  of  the  utter  desolation  which 
 now  reigns  over  those  once 
 celebrated  regions,  described 
 by  an  inspired"  pen  as  the  fat- 
 ness of  the  earth.  It  is  scarcely 
 possible,  they  say,  to  imagine 
 now  a  wilderness  so  dreary 
 and  desolate  could  ever  have 
 been  adorned  with  walled 
 cities,  or  inhabited  for  ages  by 
 a  powerful  and  opulent  people. 
 Tne  aspect  of  the  surrounding 
 country  is  singularly  wild  and 
 fantastic.  On  one  side  stretches 
 an  immense  desert  of  shifting 
 sands,  whose  surface  is  covered 
 with  black  flints,  and  broken 
 by  hillocks  into  innumeraljle 
 undulations ;  on  the  other  are 
 rugged  and  insulated  preci- 
 pices,    among    which     rises 
 
 JOK 
 
 mount  Hor,  with  its  dark  sum- 
 mits, and  near  it  lies  the  an- 
 cient Petra,  in  a  plain  or 
 hollow  of  unequal  surface, 
 (Wady  Mousa,)  enclosed  on 
 all  sides  with  a  vast  amphi- 
 theatre of  rocks. 
 
 "  The  entrance  to  this  cele- 
 brated metropolis  is  from  the 
 east,  through  a  deep  ravine 
 called  El  Syk;  and  it  is  not 
 easy  to  conceive  any  thing 
 more  awful  or  sublime  than 
 such  an  approach.  The  width 
 in  general  is  not  more  than 
 sufficient  for  the  passage  of 
 two  horsemen  abreast ;  through 
 the  bottom  winds  the  stream 
 that  watered  the  city.  As 
 this  rivulet  must  have  been 
 of  great  importance  to  the 
 inhabitants,  they  seem  to 
 have  bestowed  much  pains 
 in  protecting  and  regulating 
 its  course.  The  channel  ap- 
 pears to  have  been  covered  by 
 a  stone  pavement,  vestiges  of 
 which  still  remain ;  and,'in  se- 
 veral places,  walls  were  con- 
 structed to  give  the  current  a 
 proper  direction,  and  prevent 
 It  from  running  to  waste.  Se- 
 veral grooves  or  beds  branched 
 ofF  as  the  river  descended,  in 
 order  to  convey  a  supply  to 
 the  gardens  and  higher  parts 
 of  the  city.  On  either  hand  of 
 the  ravine  rises  a  wall  of  per- 
 pendicular rocks,  varying  Irom 
 four  hundred  to  seven  hundred 
 feet  in  height,  which  often 
 overhang  to  s'uch  a  degree  that, 
 without  their  absolutely  meet- 
 ing, the  sky  is  intercepted; 
 scarcely  leaving  more  light 
 than  in  a  cavern,  for  a  hun 
 dred  yards  together.  The  sides 
 of  this  romantic  chasm,  fron: 
 which  several  small  stream- 
 lets issue,  are  clothed  with  the 
 tamarisk,  the  wild  fig,  the  ole- 
 ander, and  the  caper  plant, 
 which  sometimes  hang  down 
 from  the  clitfs  and  crevices 
 in  beautiful  festoons,  or  grow 
 about  the  path  with  a  luxuri 
 ance  that  almost  ol)Structs  the 
 
JOK 
 
 passage.  Near  the  entrance 
 of  the  pass  a  bold  arch  is 
 thrown  across  it  at  a  great 
 height.  Whether  this  was  the 
 fragment  of  an  aqueduct,  or 
 part  of  a  road  formerly  con- 
 necting the  opposite  clitfs,  the 
 travellers  had  no  opportunity 
 of  examining ;  but  its  appear- 
 ance, as  they  passed  under 
 it,  was  terrific  ;  hanging  over 
 their  heads  between  two  rug- 
 ged masses,  apparently  inac- 
 cessible. Without  changing 
 much  its  general  direction, 
 this  naturafdefile  presents  so 
 many  windings  in  its  course, 
 that  the  eye  sometimes  cannot 
 penetrate  beyond  a  few  paces 
 forward,  and  is  often  puzzled 
 to  distinguish  in  what  direction 
 the  passage  will  open.  For 
 nearly  two  miles  its  sides  con- 
 tinue to  increase  in  height  as 
 the  path  descends.  The  soli- 
 tude is  disturbed  by  the  in- 
 cessant screaming  of  eagles, 
 hawks,  owls,  and  ravens,  soar- 
 ing above  in  considerable 
 numbers ;  apparently  amazed 
 at  strangers  invading  their 
 lonely  habitation.  At  every 
 Btep  the  scenery  discovers  new 
 and  mo  eremarlcable  features; 
 a  stronger  light  begins  to  break 
 through  the"  sombre  perspec- 
 tive ;\mtil  at  length  the  ruins 
 of  the  city  burst  on  the  view 
 of  the  astonished  traveller  in 
 their  full  grandeur;  shut  in  on 
 every  side  by  barren,  cracrgy 
 precipices,  from  which  nume- 
 rous recesses  and  narrow 
 valleys  branch  out  in  all 
 directions. 
 
 "  The  entire  face  of  the 
 clitfs  and  sides  of  the  moun- 
 tains are  covered  with  an 
 endless  variety  of  excavated 
 tombs,  private  dwellings,  and 
 public  buildings;  presenting 
 altogether  a  spe^ctacle  to  which 
 nothing  perhaps  is  analogous 
 in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
 •  It  is  impossible,'  says  a  travel- 
 ler, '  to  give  the  reader  an  idea 
 of  the  singular  efifecl  of  rocks 
 
 JOK 
 
 tinted  with  the  most  extraordi- 
 nary hues,  whose  summits  pre- 
 sent nature  in  her  most  savage 
 and  romantic  form  ;  while  their 
 bases  are  worked  out  in  all 
 the  symmetry  and  regularity 
 of  an,  with  colonnades,  and 
 pediments,  and  ranges  of  corri- 
 dors,  adhering  to  the  perpen- 
 dicular surface.'  The  inner 
 and  wider  extremity  of  the 
 circuitous  defile  by  which  the 
 city  is  approached  is  sculptur- 
 ed and  excavated  in  a  singular 
 manner;  and  these  become 
 more  frequent  on  both  sides, 
 until  at  last  it  has  the  appear- 
 ance of  a  continued  street  of 
 tombs. 
 
 "  About,  half-way  through 
 there  is  a  single  spot,  abrupt 
 and  precipitous,  where  the 
 area  of  this  natural  chasm 
 spreads  a  little,  and  sweeps 
 into  an  irregular  circle.  This 
 had  been  chosen  for  the  site 
 of  the  most  elaborate,  if  not 
 the  most  extensive,  of  all  these 
 architectural  monuments.  The 
 natives  gave  it  the  name  of 
 Kazr  Faraoun,  the  castle  or 
 palace  of  Pharaoh,  though  it 
 resembled  more  the  sepulchre 
 than  the  residence  of  a  prince 
 On  its  summit  was  placed  a 
 large  vase,  once  furnished 
 apparently  with  handles  of 
 metal,  and  supposed  by  the 
 Arabs  to  be  filled  with  coins; 
 hence  they  denominated  this 
 mysterious'  urn  the  Treasury 
 of  Pharaoh.  Its  height  anil 
 position  have  most  probably 
 baffled  every  approach  of  ava- 
 rice or  curiosity;  from  above 
 it  is  rendered  as  inaccessible 
 by  the  bold  projection  of  the 
 rough  rocks,  as  it  is  from  below 
 by  the  smoothness  of  the  po- 
 lished surface.  The  front  of  the 
 mausoleum  itself  risps  in  seve- 
 ral stories  to  the  height  of  sixty 
 or  seventy  feet;  ornamented 
 with  columns.rich  friezes.pedi- 
 ments,  and  large  figures  ol 
 horses  and  men-^"  The  interior 
 consists  of  a  chamber  sixteen 
 367 
 
JOK 
 
 paces  square  and  about  twen- 
 ty-five feet  high ;  the  walls 
 and  roof  are  quite  smooth, 
 and  without  the  smallest  deco- 
 ration. The  surprising  effect  of 
 the  whole  is  heightened  by  the 
 situation  and  the  strangeness 
 of  the  approach.  Half  seen  at 
 first  through  the  dim  and  nar- 
 row opening,  columns,  statues, 
 and  cornices  gradually  appear 
 as  if  fresh  from  the  chisel, 
 without  the  tints  or  weaiher- 
 stains  of  age,  and  executed  in 
 stone  of  a  pale  rose  colour. 
 This  splendid  architectural 
 elevation  has  been  so  con- 
 trived that  a  statue,  perhaps 
 of  Victory,  with  expanded 
 wings,  just  fills  the  centre  of 
 tne  aperture  in  front,  which, 
 being  closed  below  by  the 
 ledges  of  the  rocks  folding  over 
 each  other,  gives  to  the  figure 
 the  appearance  of  being  sus- 
 pended in  the  air  at  a  consi- 
 derable height ;  the  ruggedness 
 of  the  cliffs'beneath  setting  off 
 the  sculpture  to  the  greatest 
 advantage.  No  part  of  this 
 stupendous  temple  is  built,  the 
 whole  being  hewn  from  the 
 solid  rock;  and  its  minutest 
 embellishments,  wherever  the 
 hand  of  man  has  not  purposely 
 effaced  them,  are  so  perfect, 
 that  it  may  be  doubted  whe- 
 ther any  work  of  the  ancients, 
 except  perhaps  some  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Nile,  has  survived 
 with  so  little  injury  from  the 
 lapse  of  time.  There  is  scarce- 
 ly a  building  in  England  of 
 forty  years'  standing  so  fresh 
 and  well  preserved  in  its 
 architectural  decorations  as 
 the  Kazr  Faraoun,  which 
 Burckhardt  represents  as  one 
 of  the  most  elegant  remains 
 of  antiquity  he  had  found  in 
 Syria. 
 
 "The  ruins  of  the  city  itself 
 open  on  the  view  with  singu- 
 lar effect,  after  winding  two  or 
 Inree  miles  through  the  dark 
 ravine.  Tombs  present  them- 
 selves not  only  fn  every  ave- 
 
 JOK 
 
 nue  within  it,  and  on  every 
 precipice  that  surrounds  it,  but 
 even  intermixed  almost  pro- 
 miscuously with  its  public  and 
 domestic  edifices ;  so  that  Petra 
 has  been  truly  denominated 
 one  vast  necropolis,  or  cittj  of 
 the  dead.  It  contains  above 
 two  hundred  and  fifty  sepul- 
 clires,  which  are  occasionally 
 excavated  in  tiers,  one  above 
 the  other ;  and  in  places  where 
 the  side  of  the  cliff  is  so  per- 
 pendicular that  it  seems  im- 
 possible to  approach  the  upper- 
 most,no  access  whatever  being 
 visible.  There  are  besides  nu- 
 merous mausoleums  of  colossal 
 dimensions,  and  in  a  state  of 
 wonderful  preservation.  Near 
 the  west  end  of  the  wady  are 
 the  remains  of  a  stately  edifice, 
 the  Kazr  Benit  Faraoun,  or 
 palace  of  Pharaoh's  daughter, 
 of  which  only  a  part  of  the 
 wall  is  left  standing.  Towards 
 the  middle  of  the  valley,  on 
 the  south  side,  are  two  large 
 truncated  pyramids,  and  a 
 theatre,  with  complete  rows 
 of  benches,  capable  of  contain- 
 ing above  3000  spectators,  all 
 cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  The 
 ground  is  covered  with  heaps 
 of  hewn  stones,  foundations 
 of  buildings,  fragments  of  pil- 
 lars, and  "vestiges  of  paved 
 streets,— the  sad  memorials  of 
 departed  greatness.  On  the 
 left  bank  of  the  river  is  a 
 rising  ground,  extending  west- 
 ward' for  about  three-quarters 
 of  a  mile,  entirely  strewn  with 
 similar  relics.  On  the  right 
 bank,  where  the  ground  is 
 more  elevated,  ruins  of  the 
 same  description  are  to  be 
 seen.  In  the  eastern  cliff  there 
 are  upwards  of  fifty  separate 
 sepulchres  close  to  each  other. 
 There  are  also  the  remains 
 of  a  palace  and  several  tern 
 pies ;  grottoes  in  vast  numbers, 
 not  sepulchral;  niches,  some- 
 times excavated  to  the  height 
 of  thirty  feet,  with  altars  foi 
 votive  offerings,  or  with  pyra* 
 
JOK 
 
 mids,  columns,  and  obelisks; 
 horizontal  grooves,  for  the  con- 
 veyance of  water,  cut  along 
 the  face  of  the  rock,  and  even 
 across  the  architectural  parts 
 of  some  of  the  excavations; 
 dwellings  scooped  out,  of  large 
 dimensions,  in  one  of  which  is 
 a  single  chamber  sixty  feet  in 
 length  and  of  a  proportional 
 breadth ;  many  other  habita- 
 tions of  inferior  note,  particu- 
 larly numerous  in  one  recess 
 of  the  city,  the  steep  sides  of 
 which  contain  a  sort  of  exca- 
 vated suburb,  accessible  only 
 by  flights  of  steps  chiselled  out 
 of  the  rock.  In  short,  the  outer 
 surface  of  the  strong  girdle  that 
 encircles  the  place  is  hollowed 
 out  into  innumerable  artificial 
 chambers  of  different  dimen- 
 eions,  whose  entrances  are  va- 
 riously, richly,  and  often  fan- 
 tastically decorated  with  every 
 order  of  architecture;  showing 
 how  the  pride  and  labour  of 
 art  has  tried  to  vie  with  the 
 Bublimii.y  of  nature.  The  effect 
 of  the  whole  in  heightened  by 
 the  appearance  of  mount  Hor, 
 lowering  above  this  city  of 
 sepulchres,  and  perforated  al- 
 most to  the  top  with  natural 
 caverns  and  excavations  for 
 the  dead. 
 
 "  The  immense  number  of 
 these  stupendous  ruins  corro- 
 borates the  accounts  given, 
 both  by  sacred  and  profane 
 writers,  of  the  kings  of  Pelra, 
 their  courtly  grandeur,  and 
 their  ancient  and  long  con- 
 tinued royally.  Great  must 
 have  been  the  opulence  of  a 
 capital  that  could  dedicate 
 such  monuments  to  the  me- 
 mory of  its  rulers.  Its  magni- 
 f.cence  can  only  be  explained 
 by  a  reference  to  the  immense 
 trade  of  which  it  was  the  com- 
 mon centre  from  the  dawn  of 
 civilization. 
 
 "  These  magnificent  remains 
 can  now  be  regarded  only  as 
 the  grave  of  Idumea,  in  which 
 its  former  wealtli  and  splen- 
 
 JON 
 
 dour  lie  interred.  The  state 
 of  desolation  into  which  it  haa 
 long  fallen  is  not  only  the 
 work  of  time  but  the  ful- 
 filment of  prophecy,  which 
 foretold  that  wisdom  and  un- 
 derstanding should  perish  out 
 of  mount  Seir;  that  Edom 
 should  be  a  wilderness;  us 
 cities  a  perpetual  waste,  the 
 abode  of  every  unclean  beast. 
 (Isa.  xxxiv.  5.  10. 17.)  Nowhere 
 is  there  a  more  striking  and 
 visible  demonstration  of  the 
 tnuh  of  these  divine  predic- 
 tions than  among  the  fallen 
 columns  and  deserted  palaces 
 of  Petra.  The  dwellers  in  the 
 clefts  of  the  rocks  are  brought 
 low  ;  the  princes  of  Edom  are 
 as  nothing;  its  eigliteen  cities 
 are  swept  away,  o~r  reduced  to 
 empty  chambers  and  naked 
 walls;  and  the  territory  of  the 
 descendants  of  Esau  affords  as 
 miraculous  a  proof  of  the  inspi- 
 ration of  Scripture  history  aa 
 the  fate  of  the  children  of 
 Israel." 
 JONADAB.    (See  Rechab- 
 
 ITES) 
 
 JONAH,  (2  Kings  xiv.  25,)  or 
 JONAS,  (Matt.  xii.  39,40,)  was 
 the  son  of  Amit:ai,and  was  born 
 at  Gath-hepher.  The  only  his- 
 tory we  have  of  him  is  given 
 us  in  connexion  with  iiis  pro- 
 phecy. It  seems  he  was  com- 
 missioned by  Gud  to  go  to  the 
 great  city  of  Nineveh,  and 
 reprove  the  people  for  their 
 abominable  iniquities.  Instead 
 of  doing  this,  he  fled  in  the 
 opposite  direction  to  Joppa, 
 and  thence  sailed  for  Tarshish. 
 On  the  voyage  they  were  over- 
 takenbya  violent storm,vvhich 
 threatened  their  destruction. 
 They  lightened  the  ship  by 
 throwing  overpartof  the  cargo, 
 and  betook  themselves  to  pray- 
 er. Jonah  was  asleep ;  but  the 
 captain  awoke  him,  and  be- 
 sought him  to  intercede  for 
 their  deliverance.  Under  the 
 superstitious  (though  in  this 
 case  correct)  impression  that 
 369 
 
JON 
 
 such  calamities  were  to  be 
 regarded  as  tiie  visitation  of 
 God  upon  one  or  more  particu- 
 lar indiviiluals,  and  that  the 
 lot  would  determine  who  they 
 were,  they  cast  lots  to  see  on 
 whose  account  tlie  present 
 judgment  was  sent.  The  re- 
 sult of  the  lot  sliowed  that 
 Jonah  was  the  ill-fated  man. 
 They  earnestly  begged  him  to 
 tell  them  all  his  history,  and 
 what  he  had  done  to  bring  this 
 distress  upon  the  ship."  He 
 gave  them  a  history  of  himself, 
 and  why  he  had  taken  the 
 voyage.  And  upon  thfir  in- 
 quiring what  they  should  do 
 with  him  to  rid  the  ship  of  his 
 presence,  and  so  save  them- 
 selves from  destruction  on  his 
 account,  he  proposed  that  they 
 should  throw  him  overboard. 
 This  they  were  very  reluctant 
 to  do,  and  made  all  possible 
 eifort  to  bring  the  sliip  to  land, 
 but  in  vain.  And  so,  afier 
 solemnly  appealing  to  God  for 
 their  justification  In  the  act, 
 they  cast  the  prophet  over- 
 board ;  and  then  the  storm 
 ceased,  and  they  were  deliver- 
 ed from  their  danger. 
 
 God  had  provided  means, 
 however,  for  the  prophet's  pre- 
 servation. He  was  swallowed 
 by  a  fish,  within  whose  body 
 he  remained  for  three  days 
 and  three  nighls,  when  he  was 
 thrown  forth'upon  the  shore. 
 
 However  extraordinary  this 
 event  may  appear,  it  is  cer- 
 tainly not  more  exlraonlinary 
 nor  more  contrary  to  all  hu- 
 man experience  and  reason, 
 than  the  events  recorded  in 
 Matt.  xiv.  25,  and  xvii.  27. 
 They  are  all  alike  the  result 
 of  Omnipotence.  The  supposi- 
 tion that  a  boat  is  intended  by 
 the  belly  or  bowels  of  the  fish, 
 (Jonah  i.  17,)  is  entirely  gratu- 
 itous, and  utterly  inconsistent 
 with  the  account  which  Jonah 
 gives  us :  llie  waters  compass- 
 ed me  about,  even  to  the  soul  : 
 the   depth   closed   me   round 
 
 JON 
 
 about  the  weeds  were  wrapped 
 abotd  my  head.  I  icent  down 
 to  the  bottoiyis  of  the  mouri' 
 tains ;  the  earth  with  her  bars 
 icas  about  me  for  ever:  yet 
 hast  thou  brought  up  my  life 
 frmn  corrupliuii,  O  Lord  my 
 God.  (Jonah  ii.  5,  6.)  Of  what 
 conveyance  would  these  ex- 
 pressions be  used,  unless  such 
 a  one  as  some  monster  of  the 
 deep  might  afford  1  The  par- 
 ticular species  of  fish  is  not 
 stated  in  the  sacred  history; 
 and  though  in  a  reference  to 
 the  event  recorded,  (Matt.  xii. 
 40.)  a  whale  is  mentioned,  the 
 original  word  there  translated 
 w/iale  signifies  any  large  fish. 
 
 After  the  fish  had  thrown  him 
 out  upon  ihesliore,he  was  again 
 directed  to  carry  the  message 
 of  the  Lord  to  Nineveh ;  and 
 he  went  and  proclaimed  the 
 purpose  of  God  to  destroy  that 
 mighty  city  in  forty  days.  His 
 prediction  was  believed;  and 
 the  whole  people,  of  every  class 
 and  age,  clothed  themselves  in 
 sackcloth,  and  devoted  them 
 selvestoactsof  penitence.  Man 
 and  beast,  herd  and  flock,  ab- 
 stained from  food  and  drink, 
 until  God  was  pleased  to  sus 
 pend  the  threatened  judgment. 
 This  was  very  irritating  to  Jo 
 nah,  who  was  afraid  he  should 
 be  regarded  and  treated  as  a 
 false  prophet ;  and  indeed  this 
 was  the  very  reason  of  his 
 attempted  flight  to  Tarshish. 
 (Jonah  iv.  2.)  He  was  so  much 
 disappointed  and  vexed  as  to 
 pray  that  God  would  take 
 away  his  life;  but  God  reproved 
 his  inhumanity  liy  a  eignifican; 
 miracle,  and  showed  him  the 
 unreasonableness  of  his  com- 
 plaints,though  with  what  effect 
 we  are  not  told. 
 
 This  incident  in  the  life  of 
 Jonah  was  alluded  to  by  our 
 Saviour  in  a  conversation  with 
 the  scribesand  Pharisees,  (Mat. 
 xii.  39—41,)  in  which  he  signi- 
 fies to  them  that  he  should  Id 
 like  manner  be  three  days  and 
 370 
 
I 
 
 JON 
 
 .hree  nishts  in  the  heart  or 
 bowels  of  the  earth.  Of  course 
 whatever  credit  was  or  should 
 have  been  given  by  the  Nine- 
 vites  to  the  preaching  of  Jonas, 
 on  the  ground  of  his  having 
 been  three  days  and  three 
 nights  in  the  bowels  of  a  fish, 
 and  having  then  been  thrown 
 out  alive  oh  the  land,  the  like 
 credit  should  the  Jews  give 
 him,  as  he  would  in  like  man- 
 ner be  three  days  and  three 
 nights  in  the  earth,  and  would 
 then  rise  alive.  If  the  Nine- 
 vites  repented  at  the  preaching 
 of  Jonas,  whose  divine  com- 
 mission was  attested  by  this 
 sign,  viz.  his  deliverance  from 
 the  body  of  the  fish;  how 
 great  mtist  be  the  condemna- 
 tion of  the  Jews  if  they  repent- 
 ed not  at  the  preaching  of 
 Christ,  (so  much  greater  than 
 Jonas,)  whose  divine  commis- 
 sion was  attested  by  a  much 
 greater  sign,  viz.  his  resurrec- 
 tion from  the  dead. 
 
 Jonah,  prophecy  of,  is  the 
 thirty-second  book  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  the  ninth  in 
 the  chronological  order  of 
 the  prophecies.  The  time  at 
 which  it  was  uttered  is  uncer- 
 tain. His  prophecy  respecting 
 Jeroboam  (2Kings  xiv.  25)  is 
 not  extant,  but  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  uttered  in  the  reign 
 of  Jehoahaz,  the  grandfather 
 of  Jeroboam.  (Comp.  2Kings 
 xiii.  3—7  with  2 Kings  xiv.  26.) 
 So  that  though  he  misrhi  be 
 contemporary  with  Hosea, 
 Amos,  and  Isaiah,  he  must 
 have  prophesied  at  an  earlier 
 period  than  thai  at  which 
 either  of  the  prophecies  now 
 extant  was  uttered.  We  are 
 safe  perhaps  in  placing  it  be- 
 tween B.  c.  8.56  and  784.  It 
 respects  the  destruction  of  the 
 city  of  Nineveh,  the  capital  of 
 the  Assyrian  empire,  which 
 (iod  threatened,  unless  they 
 would  repent  and  turn  to  him ; 
 and  it  is  at  once  a  wonderful 
 record    of    God's   long-suiTer- 
 
 JOP 
 
 ing  and  forbearance,  and  an 
 abundant  proof  that  he  has  no 
 pleasure  in  the  death  of  the 
 wicked. 
 
 JONATHAN  (1  Sam.  xiv.  1) 
 was  the  son  of  Saul,  and  distin- 
 guished for  piety  and  valour.  He 
 and  his  armour-hearer,  being 
 encouraged  by  an  intimation 
 from  God,  attacked  a  Philis- 
 tine garrison,slew  twenty  men, 
 and  put  the  garrison  to  flight. 
 Having  ignorantly  violated  a 
 decree  of  his  father,  (ihe  king,) 
 that  no  man  should  stop,  on 
 pain  of  death,  in  the  pursuit 
 of  the  enemy,  to  taste  of  food, 
 the  people "  interposed  and 
 saved  him  from  the  penalty 
 which  his  father  was  ready  to 
 inflict.   (1  Sam.  xiv.  37—15.) 
 
 After  David's  defeat  of  the 
 giant,  Jonathan  became  ac- 
 quainted with  him,  and  their 
 friendship  fur  each  other  was 
 so  remarkable  as  to  be  minute 
 ly  described  by  the  sacred  his- 
 torian. (1  Sam.xviii.1-4;  xix. 
 2.)  The  opportunity  to  show 
 their  friendship  for  each  other 
 was  greatly  extended  by  the 
 bitter  and  relentless  hostility 
 of  Saul  to  David.  (1  Sam.  xix. 
 XX.,  &c.)  Jonathan  fell  with 
 his  father  and  two  brothers  in 
 the  battle  of  Gilboa.  The  la- 
 mentation of  David  for  his 
 friend  (2  Sam.  i.  17—27)  is  just- 
 ly regarded  as  inimitably  pa- 
 thetic and  beautiful;  and  his 
 treatment  of  Meph i  bosh eth ,  Jo- 
 nalhan's  son,  shows  the  sin- 
 cerity and  strength  of  his 
 aflfection  for  the  father.  (2  Sam. 
 ix.) 
 
 JOPPA,  (Greek,  2Chron.  ii. 
 16,)  or  JAPHO,  {Hebrew,  io9h. 
 xix.  46,)  or  JAFFA  or  YAFFA, 
 as  it  is  now  called,  is  one  of 
 the  oldest  towns  of  Asia,  situ- 
 ated on  a  sandy  promontory, 
 jutting  out  from  the  eastern 
 coast  of  the  ftlediterranean, 
 between  Cesarea  and  Gaza, 
 and  thirty  or  forty  milfis  north- 
 west of  Jerusalem.  Three  of 
 its  sides  are  Vtashed  by  the 
 371 
 
JOR 
 
 sea.  It  was,  and  still  is,  the 
 principal  seaporl  of  the  land 
 of  Judea,  and  of  course  of 
 ereat  commercial  importance, 
 (2  Chron.  ii.  16.  Ezra  iii.  7. 
 Jonah  i.  3  ;)  but  its  harbour  is 
 bad,  and  ships  generally  an- 
 chor a  mile  from  the  town. 
 Several  interesting  incidents 
 in  Peter's  life  occurred  here. 
 (Acts  ix.  and  x.)  It  was  also 
 a  prominent  place  in  the 
 history  of  the  crusaders,  and 
 ia  the  Egyptian  campaign 
 of  Bonaparte.  The  modern 
 city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
 twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high, 
 and  contains  from  4000  to  5000 
 inhabitants,  chiefly  Turks  and 
 Arabs,  and  perhaps  six  hun- 
 dred nominal  Christians. 
 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  King,  Ame- 
 rican missionarieSjlodged  there 
 in  the  spring  of  1823,  and  in 
 the  house  occupied  by  the  Bri- 
 tish vice-consul,  which  stands 
 on  or  near  the  spot  where  tra- 
 dition says  Simon  the  tanner 
 lived.  (Acts  ix.  43.  See  Selu- 
 MiEL,  pp.  15,  16,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 JORAM.  (2Kin2Sviii.l6,)or 
 JEHOKAM,  (2 Kings  iii.  I,) 
 successor  to  Ahaziah,  king  of 
 Israel,  was  the  second  son  of 
 Ahab.  Though  he  put  away 
 the  worship  of  Baal,  he  was 
 still  a  very  wicked  king. 
 (2Kingsiii.3.)  After  the  death 
 of  Ahab,  the  king  of  Moab  re- 
 fused to  pay  the  annual  tribute 
 to  the  king  of  Israel,  which  he 
 had  been  'accustomed  to  pay ; 
 and  Joram  determined  for  this 
 cause  to  wage  war  with  him.  He 
 secured  the  aid  of  Jehoshaphat 
 king  of  Judah,  and  they  went 
 up  through  Edom,  whose  king 
 also  joined  the  expedition. 
 After  seven  days'  march,  they 
 found  themselves  likely  to  be 
 cut  oft'  by  a  severe  drought. 
 In  this  extremhy,  they  be- 
 sought the  help  of  Elisha  the 
 prophet,  who  had  followed  the 
 army,  (probably  under  a  divine 
 influence.)    Elisha  at  first  re- 
 
 JOR 
 
 ferred  him  to  the  gods  of  Ahab, 
 his  father,  and  his  mother,  Je 
 zebel,  for  succour;  but  finally, 
 for  the  sake  of  Jehoshaphat, 
 he  consented  to  interpose  for 
 their  relief,  and  received  a 
 command  from  God  to  make 
 the  valley  full  of  ditches 
 This  was  done,  and  then, 
 without  wind  or  rain,  at  a 
 particular  hour  of  the  next 
 morning,  water  came,  not  from 
 the  springs,  into  which  they 
 dug,  but  from  Edom,  and  sui> 
 plied  the  army  and  the  country 
 with  an  abundance  of  water. 
 (2  Kings  iii.  20.  Comp.  Ex.  xvii. 
 5,  6.) 
 
 The  Moabites  had  in  the 
 meantime  assembled  their 
 forces,  and  were  ready  for  bat- 
 tle on  the  border  of  their  land, 
 when  they  saw  the  streams 
 of  water  at  a  distance,  appa- 
 rently red  as  blood.  This 
 appearance  might  have  been 
 occasioned  by  the  reflection 
 of  the  sun's  rays,  or  perhaps 
 by  the  soil  through  which  the 
 water  flowed.  At  any  rate,  the 
 Moabites  flattered  themselves 
 that  the  army  of  Israel  and  its 
 allies  had  fallen  out  by  the 
 way,  and  had  fought  a  despe- 
 rate battle  among  themselves. 
 Encouraged  by  this  conjecture, 
 they  hastened  to  fall  on  them  ; 
 but  when  they  came  to  the 
 camp  of  Israel,  they  were  met 
 by  the  full  strength  of  the  allied 
 army,  and  were  defeated  with 
 great  slaughter.  The  king  of 
 Moab  tried  to  the  utmost  to 
 rally  his  forces,  but  did  not 
 succeed;  and  his  kingdom  was 
 completely  desolated  by  the 
 enemy. 
 
 Joram  was  at  last  wounded 
 at  the  siege  of  Ramoth-gilead, 
 and  was  lying  ill  at  'ezreel. 
 Jehu  being  sent  thither  as  an 
 instrument  of  God's  vengeance 
 upon  the  wicked  house  of  Ahab, 
 Joram  went  out  to  meet  him, 
 and  was  shot  dead  in  his  cha- 
 riot, and  his  body  was  thrown 
 out  into  the  field  of  Nabotb 
 372 
 
JOR 
 
 the  Jezreeliie,  according  to  the 
 prediction.  (1  Kings  xxi.  18— 
 29.  For  ail  inieresiing  sketch 
 of  the  life  of  Joram,  see  Life 
 OF  Elisha,  ch.  iii.,  by  Am.  S.S. 
 Usion.) 
 
 JORDAN,  1.  River,  (Josh.  i. 
 11,)  someiinies  called  simply 
 THE  RIVER,  (Gen.  xxxi.  21,) 
 was  the  eastern  boundary  of 
 Judea.  Tlie  name  Jordan  \3 
 compounded  ofJor,  or  Yar,and 
 Dan, (the  riverof  Dan,)  because 
 its  rise  was  in  the  vicinity  of 
 Dan.  It  rises  at  the  fool  of 
 mount  Lebanon,  in  the  little 
 lake  Piiiala,  and,  having  run 
 southerly,  under  ground,  some 
 miles,  to  Cesarea  Philippi,  it 
 creaks  out,  and,  receiving  two 
 or  three  considerable  streams, 
 it  passes  on  fifteen  miles  far- 
 ther south,  where  it  expands 
 into  the  marshy  lake  Merom, 
 now  Houle,  (see  Mekom  ;)  a 
 flhort  distance  south  of  which 
 is  a  stone  bridge,  called  the 
 bridge  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  in 
 allusion toGen.xxxii.  10.  After 
 running  about  twelve  miles 
 from  lake  Merom,  the  Jordan 
 passes  through  the  midst  of  the 
 sea  of  Tiberias,  in  a  current  by 
 itself,  and  thence  onward  to  the 
 Dead  Sea,  into  which  it  emp- 
 ties. It  probably  continued  its 
 course  to  the  Red  Sea,  through 
 the  valleys  of  mount  Seir,  until 
 it  was  checked  by  the  convul- 
 sions attending  the  overthrow 
 of  Sodom  and" Gomorrah,  and 
 the  filling  up  of  the  valley 
 with  sand,  &c.  The  whole 
 course  of  the  river  is  computed 
 at  one  hundred  and  fifty  or 
 one  hundred  and  sixty  miles, 
 but  in  a  direct  line  does  not 
 exceed  ninety  or  one  hundred 
 miles.  The  ordinary  breadth 
 of  the  Jordan,  opposite  Jericho, 
 and  near  where  the  Israelites 
 are  supposed  to  have  crossed, 
 13  said  by  travellers  to  be 
 sixty  feet,  about  six  or  seven 
 feet  deep,  and  with  a  current 
 so  strong  as  to  be  resisted  with 
 great  difficulty.  It  has,  how- 
 32 
 
 JOR 
 
 ever,  two  banks  o  i  each  side 
 The  first,  or  inner  one,  is  that 
 of  the  river  in  its  natural  state 
 and  the  second,  or  outer  one, 
 about  the  eighth  of  a  mile  dis- 
 tant, is  its  bank  when  it  over- 
 flows. This  overflowing  is  oc- 
 casioned by  the  melting  of  the 
 snow  on  Lebanon  and  Hermon, 
 in  March  and  April,  which  was 
 the  timeof  the  Jewish  harvest. 
 (Josh.  iii.  15.  1  Chron.  xii.  15.) 
 It  was  at  this  season  when  the 
 Jordan  was  at  its  height,  that 
 the  passage  of  the  Israelites 
 took  place ;  and  hence  the 
 miracle,  on  that  occasion,  was 
 the  more  stupendous.  At  the 
 point  of  their  passage,  the 
 pilgrims  now  collect  "for  the 
 purpose  of  bathing.  The  an- 
 nual procession  for  this  purpose 
 takes  place  soon  after  Easter. 
 Multitudes  of  pilgrims,  under 
 the  protection  of  the  governor 
 of  Jerusalem  and  his  guards, 
 visit  this  spot,  plunge  into  the 
 stream,  and,  taking  a  bottle 
 of  water  with  them,  return  to 
 Jerusalem.  For  this  privilege, 
 each  pilgrim  pays  a  tax  to  the 
 Turkish  government.  Where 
 the  Jordan  leaves  the  sea  of 
 Tiberias,  (near  the  ruins  of 
 Tarichea,)  it  is  one  hundred 
 and  twenty  feet  across,  but 
 fordable  by  horses;  and  its 
 course  for  several  miles  is 
 through  a  deep,  rich  valley, 
 shaded  with  thick  groves, 
 which,  from  its  beauty  and 
 feniliiy,  is  called  l/ie  pride  of 
 Jordan.  (Zech.xi.3.)  The  Jor- 
 dan is  said  to  be  the  only  river 
 of  Judea  that  continues  to  flow 
 the  year  round.  The  space 
 between  the  natural  bank  and 
 the  freshet  mark  is  marshy, 
 and  abounds  with  tall  grass, 
 reeds,  willows,  and  shrubs,  af- 
 fording hiding  places  for  wild 
 beasts ;  whence  they  were  dri- 
 ven by  the  rising  of  the  waters 
 (called  the  sicelling  tf  Jordan, 
 Jer.  xlix.  19;  1.  44,)  to  seek 
 food  for  their  famishing  bodies. 
 Hence  the  allusion  of  Jeremi- 
 373 
 
JOS 
 
 ah,  above  cited.  There  were 
 several  fording  places  in  the 
 river  ;  one  of  which  {the  fords 
 of  Jordan)  was  seized  by 
 Ehud  to  intercept  the  Moab- 
 ites.   (Judg.  iii.  28.) 
 
 The  vafley  of  the  Jordan  is 
 from  four  to  six  (and  some  say 
 ten)  miles  wide,  and  the  ave- 
 rage breadth  of  the  current,  as 
 given  by  different  travellers, 
 varies  from  sixty  to  one  hun- 
 dred feet.  It  is,  however,  very 
 rapid,  and  roils  a  vast  body  of 
 water  into  the  Dead  Sea. 
 
 The  waters  of  the  Jordan 
 are  turbid,  but  when  drawn 
 o:f  become  clear  and  bright, 
 pleasant  to  the  taste,  and^re- 
 niarkable  for  the  length  of 
 lime  during  which  they  will 
 retain  their  freshness. 
 
 2.  The  plain  op  Jordan, 
 (2Chron.  iv.  17,)  or  the  region 
 
 BOUND   ABOUT   JORDAN,  (Malt. 
 
 iii.  5,)  or  the  plain  south  of 
 CiNNEROTH,  (Josh.  xi.  2,)  or 
 simply  THE  PLAIN,  (2  Kings 
 XXV.  4,)  is,  strictly  speaking, 
 so  much  of  the  country  as  bor- 
 ders on  the  Jordan,  between 
 Tiberias  and  the  Dead  Sea. 
 The  modern  name  of  the  lower 
 portion  of  this  valley  is  El 
 Ghor.  The  first  of  the  above 
 names  was  sometimes  applied 
 to  ibe  whole  extent  of  country 
 watered  by  the  Jordan,  from 
 the  foot  of  Lei  lanon  to  the  wil 
 derness  of  Paran. 
 
 For  the  most  part,  this  place 
 is  a  barren  waste,  hoi  and  un- 
 ■wholesome,  inhabited  only  by 
 Bedouins,  and  by  them  only  in 
 the  cold  season.  (See  PJven- 
 iNG  Recreations,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union,  vol.  ii.  pp.  17—23.) 
 
 JOSEPH,  (Gen.  xxx.24,)  son 
 of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  was  born 
 in  Mesopotamia,  a.  m.  2256. 
 He  and  his  brother  Benjamin 
 were  the  children  of  Jacob's 
 old  age;  and  his  fondness  for 
 Joseph  particularly  seems  to 
 have  been  the  source  of  much 
 of  his  trouble. 
 
 When  Joseph  was  about  se- 
 
 JOS 
 
 venteen  years  of  age,  he  gave 
 offence  to  his  brethren,  and 
 was  cruelly  sold  by  mem  to 
 a  com.pany  of  trading  Ishma- 
 elites,  who  carried  him  into 
 Egypt,  where  he  became  the 
 property  of  Potiphar,  captain 
 of  the  royal  guard.  Perceiving 
 that  the  young  man  had  extra- 
 ordinary wisdom  and  purity- 
 of  character,  and  that  his  pre- 
 sence brought  with  it  a  bless- 
 ing upon  the  whole  household. 
 Potiphar  at  once  advanced 
 Joseph  to  the  highest  trust.  In 
 this  situation,  he  was  falsely 
 charged  by  Potiphar's  wife 
 with  the  grossest  offence,  and 
 was  for  this  cause  cast  into 
 prison.  Here  again  ho  won 
 the  confidence  of  all  around 
 him  by  his  upright  and  amia- 
 ble conduct,  and'was  entrusted 
 with  the  principal  care  of  the 
 other  prisoners. 
 
 Among  those  confined  with 
 Joseph  were  two  persons  who 
 had  held  the  offices  of  but- 
 ler and  baker  in  the  king's 
 household,  and  who  for  some 
 offence  against  the  king,  were 
 cast  into  prison.  These  two 
 men  had  each  a  remarkable 
 dream,  which  Joseph  inter- 
 preted to  mean  that  the  but- 
 ler should  be  restored  to  his 
 place  in  the  court,  and  the 
 baker  should  be  hung.  And 
 the  event  was  according  to 
 this  interpretation.  Two  years 
 after  this,  Pharaoh  had  a 
 significant  dream,  and  after 
 trying  in  vain  to  obtain  an 
 interpretation  of  it  from  the 
 magicians  and  wise  men  of 
 Egypt,  the  butler  told  him  of 
 Joseph,  and  related  what  had 
 taken  place  in  prison.  Joseph 
 was  immediately  sent  for ;  and 
 after  hearing  the  dream,  in- 
 terpreted it  to  signify  the 
 approach  of  a  seven  years' 
 famine  immediately  succeed- 
 ing the  same  period  of  plenty, 
 and,  at  the  same  time,  he  re 
 commended  to  the  king  th« 
 appointmeal  of  a  suitable  per 
 374 
 
JOS 
 
 ion  to  make  provision  for  the 
 season  of  want,  by  laying  by 
 ono  fifth  of  the  annual  pro- 
 duce of  the  lind  during  the 
 season  of  plenty.  The  sugges- 
 tion was  adopted,  and  Joseph 
 was  forthwith  api^oinled  to 
 this  important  and  responsible 
 post,  and  so  became,  at  thirty 
 years  of  aue,  second  only  to 
 the  king  in  dignity  and  au- 
 thority. "  He  also  married  tlie 
 daughter  of  one  of  the  priests 
 or  princes  of  Eeypl,  and  had 
 two  children,  Manasseh  and 
 Ephraim. 
 
 When  the  seven  years  of 
 famine  came,  it  spread  dis- 
 tress through  all  the  countries 
 around  Egypt,  in  which  no 
 provision  had  been  made;  and 
 among  them  was  the  land  of 
 Canaan,  where  Joseph's  father 
 and  brethren  still  lived.  It  was 
 soon  known  abroad  that  provi- 
 sions were  to  be  had  in  Egypt, 
 and  ten  of  Jacob's  sons  went 
 down  thither  to  obtain  a  sup- 
 ply, leavingBenjamin  at  home, 
 ashis  father  feared  some  mis- 
 chief might  befall  him  if  he 
 should  go  with  them. 
 
 It  was  necessary  for  appli- 
 cants to  appear  personally  be- 
 fore the  governor  and  procure 
 an  order  ]  and  so  the  sons  of  Ja- 
 cob went  in  before  Joseph  and 
 made  known  their  errand.  In- 
 stead of  receiving  the  expected 
 order,  they  were  charged  with 
 being  spies,  and  with"  having 
 come  thither  for  an  evil  pur- 
 pose. This  they  denied,  de- 
 claring briefly  the  history  of 
 the  family,  and  the  honesty  of 
 their  purpose.  After  a  series 
 of  expedients  which  were  de- 
 signed to  awaken  their  con- 
 sciences and  lead  tSiem  to  re- 
 pent of  their  sin,  J>seph  dis- 
 closed himself  to  his  brethren, 
 and  immediately  made  the 
 most  liberal  arrangements  for 
 the  removal  of  his  aged  father 
 and  the  whole  family  to  Egypt, 
 and  their  comfortable  settle- 
 
 JOS 
 ment  in  a  province  by  them- 
 selves. 
 
 Joseph's  political  forecast 
 and  integrity  were  displayed 
 when,  in  the  sixth  year  of  the 
 fam.ine,  the  Egyptians  were 
 obliged  to  sell  their  lands,  and 
 even  themselves,  to  pay  for 
 the  corn  they  bou-rht.  (Gen. 
 xlvii.  1— ii.) 
 
 At  the  death  of  Jacob,  seven 
 teen  years  after  his  removal 
 to  Egypt,  Joseph  was  present 
 and  'received  the  patriarch's 
 prophetic  blessing.  (Gen.  xlix. 
 22 — 26.)  His  treatment  of  his 
 brethren  after  their  father  died 
 illustrates  his  kindness  and 
 generosity.    (Gen.  1. 15—21.) 
 
 Fifty-four  years  passed  away, 
 and  he  already  saw  his  poste- 
 rity to  the  third  and  fourth 
 generation.  When  at  the  age 
 of  one  hundred  and  ten  years, 
 he  died,  leaving  it  in  charge 
 with  his  countrymen  to  take 
 his  bones  with  them,  when 
 they  should  leave  Egypt ;  an 
 event  of  which  he  doubtless 
 had  divine  intimation.  (See 
 Jacob,  Hebrews.  See  also 
 for  maps  and  other  illustra- 
 tions in  great  variety,  Life  op 
 Jacob  and  his  son  Joseph, 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 2.  Joseph  of  Arimathea. 
 (Matt.xxvii.57.59.)  A  wealthy 
 citizen,  probably  residing  in 
 the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  and 
 a  man  of  eminent  wisdom  and 
 piety.  (Mark  xv.  43.  Luke 
 xxiii.  51.)  He  was  a  disci- 
 ple of  Christ,  though  he  did 
 not  appear  openly  as  such. 
 (John  xix.  3S.) 
 
 It  is  said  that  the  Jews,  as 
 a  mark  of  ignominy,  did  not 
 allow  the  bodies  of  those  exe- 
 cuted as  malefactors  to  be  de- 
 posited in  the  tombs  of  their 
 fathers,  except  the  flesh  had 
 been  previously  consumed.  It 
 was  to  prevent  this  use  of  the 
 body  of  Christ,  that  Joseph  so 
 early  asked  leave  to  remove 
 it  and  place  it  in  his  own  tomb 
 375 
 
JOS 
 
 3.  (Matt.  i.  IS.)  The  husband 
 of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Christ, 
 was  by  occupation  a  carpen- 
 ter, (Matt  xiii.  5.5  ;)  at  which 
 trade  some  have  supposed 
 (though  without  warrant)  our 
 Lord  himseif  laboured  until  he 
 entered  on  his  public  ministry. 
 (Mark  vi.  3.) 
 
 Joseph  is  called  ajust  man, 
 (INlait.  i.  19 ;)  which,  in  this  con- 
 jQexion,  may  imply  his  kind- 
 ness and  tenderness,  as  well 
 as  his  integrity,  which  is  its 
 usual  import.  He  was  inform- 
 ed by  an  angel  that  Mary  was 
 to  be  the  rnother  of  the  pro- 
 mised Messiah,and  had  accom- 
 panied her  to  Bethlehem  to 
 be  registered  in  the  lax-books, 
 according  to  the  law  of  the 
 country,  when  Christ  was  born. 
 When  the  babe  was  forty  days 
 old,  Joseph  and  his  wife  went 
 with  him  to  Jerusalem,  in  ob- 
 servance of  the  law  of  Mo- 
 ses, and  when  about  return- 
 ing home  to  Bethlehem,  he 
 was  divinely  admonished  to  go 
 into  Egypt,  for  Herod  the  king 
 was  resolved  to  destroy  the 
 infant  Redeemer,  if  he  could 
 get  him  into  his  power.  After 
 the  death  of  Herod,  they  set 
 out  again  for  home  ;  but  appre- 
 hensive that  the  kind's  suc- 
 cessor, Archelaus,  might  be 
 equally  cruel,  they  thought  it 
 safer  to  go  ijito  Galilee ;  and 
 they  took  up  their  abode  at 
 Nazareth.  When  Jesus  was 
 twelve  years  of  age,  Joseph 
 and  Mary  look  him  with  them 
 when  they  went  up  to  Jerusa- 
 lem to  celebrate  the  feast  of 
 the  passo  ver ;  and  afier  that  we 
 find  nothing  more  of  Joseph 
 in  the  sacred  history.  It  is 
 generally  supposed  he  died 
 before  Christ  began  his  public 
 ministry,  as  he  is  not  mention- 
 ed with  JMary,  and  as  Christ 
 commended  her  to  the  care 
 of  one  of  the  disciples.  (John 
 xix.  25—27.) 
 
 JOSES  (Mark  xv.  40)  was 
 the  sen  of  Alpheus,  or  Cleo- 
 
 JOS 
 
 pas  as  he  is  called,  John  xix 
 25,  and  brother  of  James  the 
 less.    (See  James.) 
 
 JOSHUA  (Josh.  i.  1)  was  the 
 son  of  Nun.  and  is  called  the 
 riiinister  of  Moses  (Ex.  xxiv.13) 
 from  the  lact  that  he  assisted 
 him  in  the  execution  of  his 
 office.  The  original  name  was 
 Oshea,  (Num.  xiii.  8;)  and  he 
 is  also  called  Hoshea.  (Deut. 
 xxxii.  44.)  Joshua  is  a  con- 
 traction of  Jehoshua.  (Num. 
 xiii.  16;)  and  Jeshra.  or  Jesus, 
 is  the  Greek  mode  of  writing 
 Joshua,  as  in  Acts  vii.  45, 
 and  Heb.  iv.  S  ;  in  which 
 passages,  the  Hebrew  word 
 Joshua  ou^ht  to  have  been  re- 
 tained. Joshua  is  introduced 
 to  us  at  the  lime  the  Israelites 
 were  about  to  contend  with 
 the  Amalekites  at  Rephidim. 
 He  was  appointed  by  Moses 
 to  command  the  forces  of  Israel 
 on  that  occasion.  (Ex.  xvii.9.) 
 He  was  then  about  forty-four 
 years  of  age,  though  considered 
 a  young  man.  (Ex.  xxxiii.  11.) 
 In  prospect  of  the  death  of 
 B'loses,  Joshua  was  set  apart  to 
 succeed  him,  as  the  leader  and 
 deliverer  of  God's  chosen  peo- 
 ple. (Num.xxvii.16— 18.  Deut. 
 xxxi.  7—14;  xxxiv.  9.)  And 
 at  the  age  of  eighiy-fuur,  (a.  m. 
 2553,)  he  passed  over  the  Jor- 
 dan, at  the  head  of  the  hosts 
 of  Israel,  and  entered  the  land 
 of  promise.  Then  commenced 
 a  series  of  wars  with  the  Ca- 
 naanites,  in  which  Joshua  and 
 the  people  of  Israel  were  mere- 
 ly the  instruments  of  God's 
 righteous  judgments  on  thase 
 wicked  nations,  the  cup  of 
 whose  iniquity  was  now  com- 
 pletely full,  and  whose  impi- 
 ous and  abominable  deeds 
 loudly  cried  to  heaven  for  di- 
 vine ven.geance.  Jericho,  the 
 city  nearest  to  them,  and  the 
 one  first  attacked,  was  sub- 
 dued without  a  contest.  It  was 
 expressly  forbidden  to  the  Is- 
 raelites to  touch  the  spoil  of 
 this  oily ;  for  it  was  utterly 
 376 
 
JOS 
 
 devoted  to  destruction,  with 
 all  its  wealth.  But  Achan 
 coveted  and  took  part  of  the 
 spoil,  and  concealed  it  in  his 
 tent.  In  consequence  of  this 
 act,  the  host  of  Israel  were 
 unsuccessful  in  their  first  at- 
 tempt on  Ai,  and  great  distress 
 and  discouragement  seized  the 
 whole  multitude;  and  even  Jo- 
 shua lay  all  night  upon  the 
 ground  in  mourning  and  sup- 
 plication, for  now  the  Israel- 
 ites, being  once  repulsed  with 
 loss,  appeared  no  longer  to  be 
 invincible.  (Josh.  viiTG.)  The 
 crime  of  Achan  was  brought 
 to  light  by  recourse  to  the  lot, 
 and  he  and  all  his  family  suf- 
 fered an  exemplary  punish- 
 ment.   (See  Achan.) 
 
 The  (jibeouites,  who  lived 
 near,  fearing  that  destruction 
 was  at  hand,  made  use  of  a 
 stralajem  to  preserve  their 
 lives  and  their  city.  They  sent 
 messengers  to  Joshua,  who  were 
 to  pretend  that  they  came 
 from  a  very  remote  people;  and 
 to  confirm  their  story,  they 
 showed  that  their  bread  was 
 mouldy ;  their  wine  bottles  of 
 skin,  old  and  patched  ;  and 
 their  shoes  and  garments  very 
 much  worn.  On  this  occasion, 
 Joshua  neglected  to  apply  to 
 the  Lord  for  direction;  and, 
 deceived  by  the  false  appear- 
 ances above  mentioned,  en- 
 tered into  a  solemn  league 
 with  the  Gibeoniies,  which, 
 although  obtained  by  fraud,  he 
 did  not  think  it  expedient  to 
 break.  The  other  cities  of 
 Canaan,  with  their  kin^s,  now 
 entered  into  a  formidable  com- 
 bination utterly  to  destroy  the 
 Gibeonites,  because  they  had 
 made  peace  with  Joshua ;  and 
 a  mighty  army,  led  on  by  many 
 kings,  were  actually  drawing 
 near  to  Gibeah,  when  they,  in 
 all  haste,  sent  messengers  to 
 Joshua  to  come  instantly  to 
 their  relief.  He  did  not  delay 
 to  comply;  and  marched  all 
 night,  as  well  as  day,  and  im- 
 32* 
 
 JOS. 
 
 mediately  attacked  and  de- 
 feated this  mighty  arrny ;  and 
 the  day  not  bei'ng  sufficient  for 
 the  pursuit  and  destruction  of 
 the  Canaanites,  Joshua  com- 
 manded the  sun  and  moon  to 
 stand  still,  which  they  did  for 
 the  period  of  one  whole  day, 
 by  which  means  he  was  able 
 utterly  to  destroy  those  whom 
 God  had  devoted  to  death. 
 This  was  indeed  a  stupendous 
 miracle,  but  required  only  the 
 power  that  creates  the  hea- 
 venly bodies,  and  maintains 
 them  in  their  orbits.  (Josh, 
 ix.  X.) 
 
 Joshua  was  employed  about 
 sixteen  years  in  the  conquest 
 of  Canaan ;  after  which,  the 
 men  of  war  belonging  to  the 
 tribes  of  Gad,  Reuben,  and  the 
 half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  were 
 permitted  to  return  to  their 
 families,  and  to  the  inherit- 
 ance which  Moses  had  given 
 them  on  the  other  side  oY  Jor- 
 dan, where  the  land  of  the 
 Amorites  had  been,  at  their 
 own  request,  assigned  to  them. 
 (Josh,  xxii.)  OT  those  who 
 came  out  of  Egypt  in  adult 
 age  not  one  survived  to  enter 
 Canaan,  but  Joshua  and  Caleb, 
 according  to  the  word  of  the 
 Lord. 
 
 "When  the  war  was  termi- 
 nated, Joshua  lived  in  retire- 
 ment and  peace,  in  a  posses- 
 sion which  the  children  of 
 Israel  assigned  him  in  Tim- 
 nath-serah,  of  mount  Ephraim. 
 (Josh.  xix.  50.)  When  he  found 
 that  his  end  was  approaching, 
 he  assembled  the  Israelites, 
 rehearsed  to  them  the  history 
 of  the  providence  of  God  to- 
 wards them,  and  finally  put  it 
 to  them  to  choose  that  day, 
 whether  or  not  they  would 
 serve  the  Lord,  professing  his 
 full  purpose  to  continue  in  the 
 service  of  God  as  long  as  he 
 lived.  (Josh,  xxiv,  15.)  Joshua 
 died  at  the  age  of  one  hun- 
 dred  and  ten  years,  (Josh.  xxiv. 
 29;)  having  been  a  witness  of 
 377 
 
JOS 
 
 more  of  the  wonderful  works 
 of  God  than  any  man  who  ever 
 lived,  except  perhaps  his  com- 
 panion Caleb. 
 
 2.  (Zech.  vi.  11.)  Was  the 
 high-priest  of  the  Jews  when 
 they  returned  from  Babylon. 
 He  assisted  Zerubbabel  in  re- 
 building the  temple.  (Ezra  v. 
 1,  2.  Hag.  i.  1 ;  ii.  4.)  Zecha- 
 riah  saw  him  represented  as 
 standing  Ijefore  the  Lord  in 
 filthy  garments,  and  Satan 
 standing  at  his  right  hand  to 
 accuse  and  resist  him ;  but  an 
 angel  rebuked  the  devil,  and 
 arrayed  Joshua  in  other  rai- 
 ment. (Zech.  iii.  1—4.)  Not 
 long  after,  Zechariah  was  di- 
 rected to  make  a  golden  crown 
 for  him.    (Zech  vi.  10—14.) 
 
 Book  of,  is  the  sixth  in  the 
 arrangement  of  the  books  of 
 the  CJld  Testament.  It  em- 
 braces the  period  between  b.  c. 
 1451  and  1425,  and  is  a  histo- 
 ry of  the  Israelites,  under  the 
 government  of  Joshua,  the  suc- 
 cessor of  Moses.  It  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  written  by  Joshua, 
 (except  the  last  five  versps,)and 
 it  records  the  accomplishment 
 of  God's  promises  to  his  people, 
 and  his  judgments  upon  the 
 idolatrous  nations  of  Canaan. 
 The  conquest  of  the  promised 
 land  is  related,  ch.  i. — xi. ;  the 
 division  of  it  among  the  tribes, 
 dfa.  xii. — xxii.;  and  the  coun- 
 sels and  death  of  Joshua,  ch. 
 xxiii.  xxiv. 
 
 It  has  been  remarked,  that 
 the  book  of  Joshua  bears  the 
 same  relation  to  the  Penta- 
 teuch, or  five  books  of  Moses,  as 
 the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  bears  to 
 the  four  gospels.  The  Penta- 
 teuch contains  a  history  of  the 
 acts  of  the  great  Jewish  legis- 
 lation under  the  immediate 
 authority  and  direction  of  God, 
 and  the  laws  on  which  his 
 ancient  church  should  be  esta- 
 blished ;  and  the  book  of  Jo- 
 shua shows  us  the  end  of  these 
 laws,  and  how  the  church  was 
 established  in  Canaan.    The 
 
 JOS 
 
 analogy  between  this  and  the 
 relation  of  Acts  to  the  Gospels, 
 is  sufficiently  obvious.  (For 
 an  analysis  of  this  book,  see 
 Union  Questions,  vol.  iv.  less. 
 XXV.— xl.,  with  Teacher's  A.*;- 
 sisTANT  in  the  use  of  the 
 same,  both  by  Am.  .S.S.  Union.) 
 
 JOSIAH,  (2  Kings  xxi.  24,) 
 the  son  and  successor  of  Amon 
 king  of  Judah,  began  to  reign 
 when  he  was  but"  eight  years 
 of  age,  and  was  reniarkable 
 for  his  integrity  and  piety.  He 
 gradually  abolished  the  idola- 
 trous customs  of  liis  predeces- 
 sors, (2Chron.  xxxiv.  3;)  and, 
 in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his 
 reign,  began  a  thorough  repair 
 of  the  ternple.  In  the" progress 
 of  this  work,  Hilkiah  the  high- 
 priest,  found  a  complete  co'py 
 of  the  law  of  Moses;  a  rare 
 treasure  in  those  days  of  dege- 
 neracy and  corruption,  wlfen 
 God  and  his  institutions  were 
 forsaken  and  contemned  on 
 every  side.  Josiah  himself 
 was  but  imperfectly  acc^uaint- 
 ed  with  its  contents  until  they 
 were  read  to  him  by  one  of 
 his  officers ;  and  then  he  was 
 overwhelmed  with  grief  to  find 
 how  far  they  and  their  fathers 
 had  departed  from  the  right 
 way.  He,  however,  humbled 
 himself  before  God,  and  re- 
 ceived the  most  precious  pro- 
 mises of  the  divine  favour. 
 (2Chron.  xxxiv.  2<3— 28.)  He 
 then  assembled  the  people, 
 and  published  the  law  in  their 
 hearing;  and  they  all  united 
 with  the  king  in  a' .solemn  vow 
 of  obedience.  After  this,  he 
 utterly  destroyed  every  vestige 
 of  idolatry,  both  images  and 
 temples,  and  then,  by  divine 
 command,  caused  the  feast  of 
 the  passover  to  be  celebrated 
 with  unusual  solemnity.  (2  Chr. 
 XXXV.  3—18.) 
 
 This  pious  king  seems  to 
 have  been,  accessary  to  his 
 own  premature  death  ;  for  the 
 king  of  Egypt,  who  was  march 
 ing  with  a  great  army  against 
 
JOS 
 
 the  king  of  Assyria,  assured 
 him  that  he  entertained  no 
 hostile  design  against  him  or 
 his  kingdom,  and  entreated 
 nim  nol'to  interfere  with  him 
 in  his  contest  with  the  king  of 
 Assyria;  and,  to  influence  Jo- 
 siah,  Necho  pretended  to  have 
 received  a  conimunication 
 from  heaven,  by  which  the 
 kin^  of  Judali  was  expressly 
 forbidden  to  meddle  with  him 
 in  his  expedition.  But  Josiah, 
 thinking  it  a  dangerous  prece- 
 dent to  permit  a  Targe  army  to 
 march  through  his  territories, 
 or,  more  probably,  being  in 
 league  with  the  king  of  Assy- 
 ria, he  could  not  consistently 
 comply  with  the  demand  of 
 the  king  of  Egypt;  and  even 
 if  he  wislied  to'reniain  entirely 
 neutral  in  the  war,  he  could  not 
 allow  one  of  the  contending 
 
 Earties  a  free  passage  through 
 is  territoiy,  vviihoui  forfeiting 
 his  neutrality.  Whatever  might 
 have  been  the  motive,  Josfah 
 attempted  to  oppose  the  Egyp- 
 tian army,  and  a  battle  was 
 fought  at  Blegiddo,  in  which 
 he  was  mortally  wounded,  and 
 was  carried  out  of  the  field  in 
 his  carriage,  and  brought  to 
 Jerusalem,  where  he  died,  and 
 was  buried  in  one  of  the  sepul- 
 chres of  his  fathers.  No  king, 
 perhaps,  was  ever  more  de- 
 servedly beloved  :  and  cer- 
 tainly we  know  of  none  who 
 was  more  sincerely  and  ten- 
 derly bewailed  by  his  people. 
 Indeed,  his  death  was  the  end 
 of  prosperity  to  the  kingdom 
 of  Judah.  Jeremiah  the  pro- 
 phet was  greatly  affected  by 
 it,  and  composed  an  elegy  on 
 the  occasion,  (•2Chron.  xxxv. 
 25  ;)  and  all  those  accustomed 
 to  celebrate  in  song  the  worth 
 and  achievements  of  men  of 
 great  eminence,  both  men  and 
 women,  mourned  for  Josiah  for 
 ages  after  his  death.  Indeed, 
 the  mourning  was  such  as  to 
 become  proverbial.  (Zech.  xii. 
 II.)    He  was  only  thirty-nine 
 
 JOU 
 
 years  ofage  when  he  died.  (See 
 Necho.  SeealsoELisAMA,pp. 
 3G-41,  by  Am.  S.  S-  Union.) 
 
 JOT,  (Malt.  v.  IS.)  or  Yon, 
 (in  Greek  Iota.)  This  is  the 
 name  of  the  letter  i  in  the  ori- 
 ginal language  in  which  it  is 
 used,  and' tills  letter  in  that 
 language  is  the  least  of  all  the 
 letters  of  the  alphabet,  being 
 shaped  not  unlike  our  comma, 
 ( % ).  It  was  proverbially  used 
 by  the  Hebrews  to  signify  the 
 least  thing  imaginaljle ;  and 
 hence  the  text  expresses  the 
 idea  that  not  the  least  require- 
 ment of  the  commandments 
 of  God  shall  in  any  wise  be 
 dispensed  with  ;  they  shall  all 
 stand  to  the  very  letter. 
 
 JOTHAM.  1.  (Judg.  ix.  5.) 
 The  youngest  son  of  Jerubbaal, 
 or  Gideon,  the  only  one  who 
 escaped  from  the  massacre  at 
 Ophrah;  and  this  he  did  by 
 concealing  himself.   (See  Aei- 
 
 MELECH.) 
 
 2.  (2Kingsxv.32.)  The  son 
 and  successor  of  Uzziah,  or 
 Azariah,  kingofJudah.  He  ac- 
 tually reigned  forty-one  years, 
 being  associated  with  his  fa- 
 ther for  twenty-five  years  be- 
 fore his  death. "  His  sole  admi- 
 nistration of  the  government 
 was  only  for  sixteen  years. 
 (Comp.  2  Kings  xv.  30.  32,  33.) 
 His  example  was  holy ;  his 
 reign  was  peaceful  and  pros- 
 perous, and  of  course  benefi- 
 cial to  the  kiiiEfdom.  (2  Chron, 
 xxvii.  2—6.) 
 
 JOUKNEYINGS  of  Israel. 
 (Num.  ix.  20.)  The  habitation 
 of  the  Hebrews,  in  Egypt,  was 
 in  Goshen,  which  is  "supposed 
 to  have  extended  from  a  point 
 above  Cairo  to  the  fllediterra- 
 nean,  including  the  land  on 
 both  sides  of~  the  eastern 
 branch,  by  which  the  Nile 
 discharged  its  waters  ;  and 
 bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
 wilderness,  and  on  the  south 
 by  the  mountains  which  sepa- 
 rate the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea 
 from  those  of  the  Nile.  Their 
 379 
 
JOU 
 
 journeyiDgs  commenced  on 
 the  fifieenth  day  of  ihe  first 
 month,  (about  the  middle  of 
 our  April.)  Their  first  journey 
 was  from  Rameses,  ten  miles 
 north-weatof  Suez.toSuccolh ; 
 which  last,  (as  the  name  sig- 
 nifies booths,)  was  probably 
 nothing  more  than  a  conve- 
 nient encampment.  The  dis- 
 tance between  these  two  places 
 is  estimated  at  thirty  miles. 
 Their  course  must  have  been 
 a  little  north  of  east,  to  pass 
 round  the  end  of  a  mountain 
 which  stood  in  their  way.  From 
 Succolh  to  Etham,  in  the  edge 
 of  the  wilderness,  was  a  long 
 march,  the  stages  being  at 
 least  sixty  miles  apart;  but 
 they  were  flying  from  an  ene- 
 my, and  there  was  not  one 
 sick  or  feeble  among  them, 
 and  their  God  bore  them  as 
 on  eagles'  wings,  so  that  it  is 
 not  inipossiblelhai  they  pass- 
 ed over  this  distance  in  twen- 
 ty-four hours.  Tiie  distance 
 to  the  Arabian  Gulf  may,  how- 
 ever, have  been  twelve  or  fif- 
 teen miles  less,  anciently,than 
 at  present,  as  there  are  clear 
 indications  that  the  water  has 
 receded  about  that  distance. 
 Now  they  received  an  order 
 from  God  to  change  their 
 course,  and,  instead  ot'  going 
 eastward  in  the  wilderness,  in 
 a  direct  line,  to  turn  southward 
 and  pass  along  the  coast  of  the 
 Red  Sea,  keeping  it  on  their 
 left,  and  the  mountains  alrea- 
 dy mentioned  on  their  right. 
 Pursuing  this  route  for  about 
 thirty-two  miles  from  Etham, 
 which  was  formerly  on  the 
 northern  point  of  the  Arabian 
 Gulf,  or  twenty  miles  south  of 
 Suez,  now  occupying  the  land 
 at  the  end  of  one  arm  of  the 
 Red  Sea,  they  arrived  at  a 
 place  where  there  seems  to 
 have  been  a  gap  or  opening  in 
 the  mountains  towards  Egypt, 
 and  a  creek  or  estuary  which 
 obstructed  their  further  pro- 
 gress to  the  south.    Here  at 
 
 JOU 
 
 Migdol,  over  against  Baal  Ze- 
 phon,  and  ne'ar  Pihahiroth^ 
 when  enclosed  on  every  side 
 but  one,  they  were  overtaken 
 by  the  chariots  and  horsemen 
 of  Pharaoh,  and  must  have 
 been  utterly  destroyed,  had  not 
 God  miraculously  interposed, 
 and  opened  for  them  a  passage 
 through  the  sea;  and  still  the 
 Egyptian  host  would  soon  have 
 overtaken  them,  but  they  were 
 overwhelmed  by  the  sudden 
 reflux  of  the  waters  to  their 
 former  channel.  Niebuhr  and 
 some  other  learned  men  have 
 declared  in  favour  of  Suez  a3 
 the  place  of  their  passage ;  but 
 to  this  there  are  two  weighty 
 objections.  In  the  first  place, 
 there  was  nothing  here  to  shut 
 up  or  entangle  them,  so  as  to 
 need  a  miraculous  dividing  of 
 the  waters;  they  might  have 
 marched  around  as  easily  as 
 through  this  extreme  end  of 
 the  gulf;  but,  in  the  next  place, 
 the  "channel  here  is  not  wide 
 enough  to  admit  of  the  suppo- 
 sitiiin  that  the  whole  Egyptian 
 army,  marching  in  file  could 
 have  been  drowned  by  the  re- 
 turn of  the  waters.  Bryant, 
 Bruce,  and  Burckhardt  have 
 nearly  agreed,  that  the  place 
 called  Clysma,  twenty  miles 
 south  of  Suez,  and  by  the  Ara- 
 bians, Has  Musa,  the  Cape  of 
 Moses,  must  have  been  the 
 place  where  this  great  event 
 occurred. 
 
 Having  crossed  the  gulf, 
 they  went  forward  into  the 
 wilderness,  a  journey  of  three 
 days,  and  came  to  MaraJt, 
 whose  bitter  waters  were  mi- 
 raculously rendered  sweet,  for 
 their  use.  Marah  corresponds 
 with  the  well  now  called 
 Ilawara,  v.-hose  waters  are 
 bitter.  The  next  journey  was 
 to  Elim,  "  where  were  twelve 
 wells  of  water,  and  threescore 
 and  ten  palm  trees."  This 
 place,  as  Niebuhr  and  Burk- 
 hardt  agree,  is  now  called 
 Wadij  Gharendel.  about  tea 
 380 
 
JOU 
 
 miles  from  ITawara.  There  is 
 at  this  place  now  a  copious 
 epring,  and  water  may  be  ob- 
 tained any  where  around  by 
 digging  for  il;  so  that  we  need 
 not  expect  to  find  the  precise 
 numberof  wells  which  existed 
 in  the  lime  of  Moses.  Hiiherio 
 their  march  was  parallel  lo 
 tiie  sea,  and  at  no  great  dis- 
 tance from  it ;  but  now  the 
 coast  changes  from  south-east 
 to  south,  \nd  the  straii^'hi 
 course  to  Sinai  leaves  it  more 
 to  the  right.  From  Elim,  tiiey 
 journeyed  throuiih  Dophkah 
 and  Alush  to  Rephidim,  where 
 water  was  first  obtained  ty 
 emiting  a  rock  with  the  rod  of 
 Moses;  and  here  the  Israelites 
 were  first  attacked  by  their 
 implacable  enemies,  the  Ama- 
 lekites.  (Ex.  xvii.  3— S.  I  Sam. 
 XV.2.)  Their  next  encampment 
 was  in  the  desert  of  Sinai, 
 wh«re  they  remained  eleven 
 months,  having  spent  between 
 two  and  three  months  in  com- 
 ing from  E^ypt  to  this  place. 
 Here  they  received  the  laws 
 and  insiitutions  of  Jehovah; 
 and  here  the  tabernacle  was 
 erected  and  consecrated,  and 
 the  whole  ceremonial  service 
 enacted.  On  the  twentieth  day 
 of  the  second  month  of  the 
 second  year,  the  pillar  of  cloud 
 and  fire  arose  from  the  taber- 
 nacle, where  it  had  rested  for 
 some  time,  and  by  its  course 
 led  them  into  the  wilderness 
 of  Paran,  called  the  great  and 
 terrible  icilJcrness.  (Num.  x. 
 12.)  When  they  came  to  Kib- 
 roth  Hattaavah,  they  provoked 
 God  to  destroy  many  of  them 
 for  their  inordinate  lusting, 
 and  for  their  ungrateful  re- 
 bellion. (Num.  xiT34.)  This 
 place  is  also  called  Taberah ; 
 both  names  being  deri  veil  from 
 the  fearful  destruction  of  the 
 people  which  occurred  here. 
 From  this  place,  where  they 
 remained  long,  they  march- 
 e<l  northward  through  Haze- 
 roth,  Rilhma,  Rimmoa-parez, 
 
 JOU 
 
 Libnah,  and  Kadesh-barnea, 
 whf^nce  the  spies  were  sent  to 
 explore  the  land.  On  the  re- 
 bellion of  the  people,  occa- 
 sioned by  the  report  of  the 
 spies,  they  were  ordered  to  get 
 them  into  the  wilderness  of 
 the  Red  Sea.  (Num.  xiv.  25.) 
 Now  their  march  was  retro- 
 grade, and  they  came  into 
 the  same  wilderness  of  Paran 
 which  they  had  jmssed  some 
 lime  before,  but  by  a  different 
 route.  How  much  time  they 
 spent  in  the  wilderness,  before 
 they  reached   Ezion-geber,  a 
 
 gort  on  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
 :ed  Sea,  is  unknown ;  but  fif- 
 teen stations  are  distrnctly 
 named.  Probably  they  were 
 sometimes  stationary  for  a 
 long  period;  but  in  all  their 
 marches  and  restings,  they 
 were  under  the  direction  of 
 the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire 
 which  went  before  them. (Num. 
 ix.  22.)  For  many  days  they 
 encompassed  mount  Seir,  and 
 then  turned  northward  to  the 
 desert  of  Zin,  and  journeyed  to 
 mount  Hor,  where  Aaron  died 
 and  was  buried.  (Num.  xx.  20 
 —23.)  Being  disappointed  in 
 obtaining  a  passage  through 
 the  country  of  Edom,  they  re- 
 turned to  Ezion-geber,  and 
 passed  round  the  south  side  of 
 mount  Seir.  At  leneth  they 
 arrived  at  ihe  brook  Zared,  or 
 Benthammed,  in  the  thirty- 
 eighth  year  after  the  time  of 
 their  leaving  Kadesh-barnea, 
 and  the  fortieth  from  their  de- 
 parture from  the  land  of  Egypt. 
 From  Zared  they  made  one 
 march  across  tlie  Arnon,  now 
 Mudjeb,  to  Dibon,  the  ruins  of 
 which  place  are  still  visible 
 about  four  miles  from  the  Arnon. 
 Thence  they  proceeded  by  se- 
 veral stages  10  the  mountains 
 (if  Abarim,  on  the  east  of  Jor- 
 dan, which  chain  of  mountains 
 liiey  crossed  at  Pisgah,  from 
 the'  summit  of  which  Moses 
 was  indulged  with  a  view  of 
 the  land  of  Canaan,  which  he 
 331 
 
JOU 
 
 was  not  permitted  to  enter; 
 and  here  also  lerr^inated  his 
 useful  and  laborious  life.  De- 
 scending from  these  moun- 
 tains, they  came  to  Beih-jesi- 
 molh  and  Abel-shittim,  where 
 they  encamped  on  the  banks 
 of  the  Jordan,  which  river  they 
 crossed  as  they  had  done  the 
 Red  Sea,on  dry  ground.  When 
 the  Israelites  departed  from 
 Egypt,  the  number  of  males 
 above  twenty  years  of  age  was 
 60.3,550;  when  they  arrived  in 
 sight  of  Canaan,  it  was  601,730 ; 
 so"  that  the  decrease  of  their 
 number,  during  the  forty  years' 
 wandering  in  the  wilderness, 
 was  1820;  but  it  is  remarkable, 
 that  while  some  of  the  tribes 
 greatly  increased  in  popula- 
 tion, others  lost  half  their  ori- 
 ginal number,  which  is  not 
 very  easily  accounted  for  by 
 the  facts  recorded  in  the  sacred 
 history.  As  all  who  were  above 
 twenty  years  of  age  w  hen  they 
 left  Egypt  perisiied  in  the  wil- 
 derness, it  is  evident, that  when 
 they  entered  Canaan,there  was 
 not  a  man  in  all  the  host  above 
 threescore,  except  Caleb  and 
 Joshua ;  so  that  all  the  men 
 were  effective,  and  fit  for  mili- 
 tary service.  In  respect  to  the 
 fact  recorded  Deut.  viii.  4; 
 xxix.  5,  conceraing  the  clothes 
 of  the  Hebrews  during  their 
 journey ings,  it  may  be  proper 
 to  say  that  the  history  does 
 not  necessarily  imply  that  the 
 clothes  which  they  had  on  at 
 the  outset  were  miraculously 
 preserved,  or  that  they  grew 
 vvith  the  growth  of  their  child- 
 ren and  youth.  They  had 
 sheep,  and  goats,  and  cattle, 
 on  their  march ;  and  they  un- 
 derstood the  arts  by  which 
 these  animals  were  made  sub- 
 servient to  their  necessity  and 
 comfort.  Thus  they  were  en- 
 abled always  to  procure  sea- 
 sonably good  and  sufficient 
 clothing,  and  were  saved  from 
 all sufiering and  inconvenience 
 on  this  score.   (See  Hebrews, 
 
 JUD 
 
 Moses,  Joshua.  See  also  Map 
 
 OF  THB  JOUR.MTYINGS  OF  ISRA- 
 EL, On  ClOth,UKION  QUESTIONS, 
 
 vol.  i v.,  with  map,  and  Teach- 
 er's Assistant  in  the  use  of 
 thesaine,all  byAm. S.S.Union. 
 See  Map  to  article  Red  Sea.) 
 
 JOY  (1  Sam.  xviii.  6)  is  an 
 agreeable  affection  of  the  soul, 
 arising  from  the  possession  or 
 prospect  of  good.  (Ezra  vi.  IG. 
 Esth.  viii.  16.)  It  is  reckoned 
 among  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit, 
 (Gal.  V.  22,)  and  is  chiefly 
 used  by  the  sacred  writers, 
 especially  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, to  signify  a  religious 
 emotion.  That  which  springs 
 from  a  sense  of  pardoned  sfn 
 and  a  union  of  the  soul  to 
 Cin-ist  is  pure,  (Luke  xv.  10,) 
 certain,  (John  xvi.  22,)  un- 
 speakable, (1  Pet.  i.  8,)  and 
 eternal.    (Isa.  Ixi.  7.) 
 
 JUBILEE.    (See  Feasts.) 
 
 JUDAH,  (Gen.  xxix.  35,)  the 
 fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah, 
 was  born  inMesopotamia  about 
 A.M.  2249.  The  tribe,  of  which 
 he  was  the  head  and  represen- 
 tative, was  the  most  powerful 
 of  the  twelve,  (Num.  i.  27.)  and 
 had  the  first  lot  in  the  division 
 of  the  promised  land. 
 
 The  prophetic  blessing  which 
 his  father  pronounced  on  him 
 (Gen.  xlix.  8—12)  is  very  re- 
 markable. Itdescribes  the  war- 
 like character  and  gradually 
 increasing  strength  of  the  tribe, 
 (comp.  Num.  ii.3;  Josh.xiv.ll; 
 XV.  1.  Judg.  i.  1,  2.  1  Chron. 
 xiv.17.Ps. xviii. 40.  Isa.xxix.l, 
 where  Judah  is  called  Ariel— 
 lion  f/  God  Rev.  v.  5,)  the 
 duration  of  its  power,  viz.  until 
 the  coming  of  Christ,  when 
 Judea  became  a  province  of 
 Rome,  (comp.  Luke  ii.  1—7. 
 John  xviii.  31.  Acts  v.  37,)  and 
 thedestructionoftheircity,A.E. 
 70,  when  the  Christian  dispen 
 sation  had  become  establish- 
 ed, (comp.  Matt.  xxiv.  14.  Acta 
 ii.  8.  Rom.  x.  18,)  in  the  glory 
 and  triumph  of  the  Me.ssiah. 
 
 Tribe  of,  took  the  southern 
 382 
 
JUD 
 
 section  of  Canaan,  e:?tendin» 
 across  from  the  Jordan  lo  the 
 Mediterranean  Sea,  and  north- 
 wardly to  the  territory  of  Ben- 
 jamin and  Dan.  (Josh.  xv. 
 1-03) 
 
 In  the  catalogue  of  the  cities 
 of  this  tribe,  we^have  the  utter- 
 most cities,  or  those  nearest 
 Edom,  on  the  south ;  rilies  in 
 the  ralle'j.  that  is,  on  the  low- 
 lands, near  the  coast ;  cities 
 in  the  mountains,  that  is,  up 
 )n  the  interior;  and  cities  in 
 the  tcillerness,  or  along  the 
 ehore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  (Josh. 
 XV.  21.  33.  43.  61.) 
 
 Of  tiie  cities  of  Judah,  seve- 
 ral continued  in  the  possession 
 of  the  natives,  ('as.-ls/irfo^,Ga2a, 
 Askelon,  and  Ekron,)  or,  if  con- 
 quered, were  afterwards  reco- 
 vered. 
 
 JUDAH,  LAND  OF.  (See  Ca- 
 naan.) 
 
 JUDAH,  or  JUDEA,  moun- 
 tains OF,  (Josh.  XX.7,)  included 
 so  much  of  the  mountainous 
 chain  as  extended  from  the 
 borders  of  Benjamin  south  to 
 Edom  and  east  to  the  valley  of 
 the  Jordan.  This  was  formerly 
 called  the  mountain  of  the 
 Amorites.    (Deut.  i.  20.) 
 
 Wilderness  of,  (Matt.  iii. 
 1,)  was  a  wild,  uneven  region 
 on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan,  ex- 
 tending on  the  west  from  Jeri- 
 cho to  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  also 
 called  the  country  aboiit  Jor- 
 dan. (Luke  iii.  3.)  It  is  describ- 
 ed by  travellers  as  abounding 
 with  caverns  and  cells,  or 
 grouoes  of  the  most  forbidding 
 character.  Even  now  they  are 
 the  abode,  to  some  extent,  of 
 hermits;  and  amidst  the  rucks 
 and  mountains,  neither  shade, 
 nor  tree,  nor  herbage,  nor  even 
 moss,  is  found.  It  was  called 
 the  icildemess  pre-eminently. 
 (?.lalt.  iv.  1.) 
 
 JUDAS  ISCARIOT  (Matt. 
 X.  4)  was  one  of  the  twelve 
 chos'^n  disciples  of  our  Lord. 
 Nothins  is  certainly  known 
 of  his  birthplace  or  parentage. 
 
 JUD 
 
 It  is  supposed  by  some  tnat 
 the  word  Iscariot  signifie.'?  of 
 Carioth,  a  small  town  on  the 
 east  of  Jordan.  He  is  called 
 the  son  of  Simon,  John  vi.  71 ; 
 whence  some. have  supposed 
 he  was  the  son  of  Simon  the 
 Canaanite,  another  of  the 
 twelve.  He  is  almost  uniform- 
 ly mentioned  with  the  infa- 
 j  mous  distinction  of  the  man 
 '  who  betrayed  Christ.  The 
 principal  fact  related  of  him 
 by  the  evangelists,  previously 
 to  the  commission  of  the  dread- 
 I  ful  crime  into  which  he  fell, 
 was  a  marked  displeasure  al 
 Mary  for  expending  upon  our 
 1  Lord  so  much  precious  oint- 
 :  ment,  which  might  have  been 
 j  sold  for  much  and  given  lo  the 
 ,  poor.  The  truth,  ho^wever.  was, 
 that  he  cared  not  for  the  poor, 
 I  but  he  held  the  purse  of  the 
 company;  and  if  this  money 
 I  had  been  deposited  with  him 
 for  the  poor,  he  would  have 
 had  it  in  his  power  to  apply  it 
 to  his  own  use.  The  reproof 
 which  he  received  from  his 
 Master  on  this  occasion  was 
 probably  the  immediate  cause 
 of  his  determination  to  betray 
 him.  The  sacred  history  re- 
 presents him  as  going  immedi- 
 ately, and  agreeing^with  the 
 chief  priests  and  elders  t.o  de- 
 liver him  into  their  hands. 
 After  this,  however,  he  had 
 the  impudence  to  return  again, 
 and  was  present  at  ihe~last 
 interview  between  Christ  and 
 the  ether  disciples.  Here  our 
 Lord  announced  in  the  hearing 
 of  all,  that  one  of  his  disciples 
 would  betray  him,  and  pointed 
 out  Judas  as  the  person ;  on 
 which  he  seems  to  have  left 
 the  table  in  displeasure,  and 
 abruptly ;  perhaps  before  the 
 L4ird"s  supper  was  instituted. 
 Being  now  fully  under  the 
 power  of  the  devil,  he  be- 
 came the  leader  of  a  band 
 of  soldiers,  sent  to  apprehend 
 Jesus.  The  impious  man  knew 
 where  his  Master  would  be 
 363 
 
JUD 
 
 ihal  evening;  and  he  had  the 
 effrontery  lo  intrude  upon  him 
 in  his  hours  of  devotion;  and 
 had  agreed  to  make  known 
 the  proper  person  lo  the  sol- 
 diers by  the  usual  sign  of  friend- 
 ship and  love:  therefore, when 
 he  led  the  band  into  the  se- 
 questered garden  of  Gethse- 
 mane,  he  "went  up  to  Jesus 
 and  kissed  him,  saying,  Hail, 
 Master;  and  received  from  the 
 meek  Saviour  no  other  reproof 
 than,  Jwc/as,  betray  est  thou  the 
 Son  of  man  vnth  a  kiss  ?  His 
 service  was  now  done,  and  he 
 had  the  stipulated  price  of 
 his  iniquity  in  his  possession. 
 It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
 he  did  not  accompany  the  sol- 
 diers back  to  liie  cliief  priests 
 and  elders.  But  as  soon  as  his 
 mind  had  opportunity  for  re- 
 flection, remorse  seized  upon 
 him ;  and,  covetous  as  he  was, 
 he  could  no  longer  bear  about 
 with  him  the  price  of  innocent 
 blood.  Having  learned  that 
 his  Master  was  condemned, 
 he  returned  to  the  temple,  and 
 findin"  the  persons  from  whom 
 he  had  received  the  money,  he 
 cast  it  down,  and,  unable  lo 
 bear  the  burden  of  his  misery, 
 he  went  and  hanged  himself. 
 
 We  are  told  in  Acts  i.  18, 
 that, falling  headlong,  he  burst 
 asunder  in  the  midst,  and  all 
 his  bowels  gushed  out.    The 
 
 Eassages  are  not  irreconcila- 
 le  with  each  other;  for  it  is 
 evident  that  a  man  might  be 
 hung,  and  that  he  might  fall, 
 andlhat  the  parts  of  his  body 
 might  be  torn  asunder  in  the 
 fall ;  but  how  the  effect  was 
 produced  which  is  described 
 in  the  above-cited  passage  can 
 be  only  matter  of  conjecture. 
 It  may  have  been  that  he  hung 
 himself  over  a  precipice,  or 
 from  some  very  elevated  posi- 
 tion, and  that  his  body  was 
 mutilated  in  that  manner  by 
 the  fall;  or  his  body  might 
 possibly  have  remained  un- 
 discovered  until,  being  par- 
 
 JUD 
 
 lially  decayed,  it  had,  by 
 its  own  weight,  fallen,  and 
 presented  this  horrible  spec- 
 tacle. To  support  the  first 
 of  these  positions,  it  may  be 
 enough  to  say,  that  the  spot 
 which  tradition  designates  as 
 the  potter's  field  was  visited  by 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  King,  Ameri- 
 can missionaries,  in  1823;  and 
 they  tell  us,  that  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  field  are  trees  near  the 
 brink  of  huge  cliffs,  on  which, 
 if  he  hung  himself  and  fell, 
 he  must  have  been  dashed  in 
 pieces. 
 
 The  fact  that  Judas  was  with 
 our  Saviour  in  public  and  pri- 
 vate, and  had  the  confidence 
 of  the  band  of  disciples,  con- 
 nected with  his  strong  testi- 
 mony to  his  innocence,  under 
 such  extraordinary  circum- 
 stances, is  altogether  inexpli- 
 cable upon  any  other  supposi- 
 tion than  that  the  Messiah  was 
 what  he  claimed  to  be,— the 
 Son  of  God  and  the  only  Sa- 
 viour of  sinners. 
 
 JUDAS  of  Galilee.  (Acts  v. 
 37.)  An  insurgent  against  the 
 Roman  government,  who  ex- 
 cited the  Jews  lo  resist  the  en- 
 rolment and  taxation  of  their 
 people,  as  a  province  of  Rome. 
 
 JUDE  (Jude  i.  1)  was  one  of 
 the  apostles,  and  the  brother 
 of  James  the  less.  He  is  called 
 Judas,  Matt.  xiii.  55.  John  xiv. 
 22.  Acts  i.  13;  and  elsewhere 
 Lebbens,  (Mall.  x.  S,)  and 
 Tfiaddeus.   (Mark  iii.  18.) 
 
 Epistle  of,  occupies  the 
 last  place  but  one  in  the  ar- 
 rangement of  the  books  of  the 
 New  Testament.  It  was  writ- 
 ten, as  many  have  supposed, 
 about  A.  D.  65,  but  it  is  by  no 
 means  certain.  It  seems  lo 
 have  been  intended  to  guard 
 believers  against  prevalent  er- 
 rors, and  to"  urge  them  to  con- 
 stancy in  the  faith.  This  is 
 done  by  a  vivid  exhibition  of 
 the  terrors  of  God's  judgments 
 upon  the  wicked,  and  by  a 
 recurrence  to  that  great  prin- 
 
JTJD 
 
 ciple  of  our  religion,  depend- 
 ence on  Ciirisl  aloae  to  keep 
 us  from  falling. 
 JUDEA.  (See  Canaan.) 
 JUDGES.  (Acts  xiii.  20.) 
 This  was  liie  litle  of  a  class  of 
 magistrates  among  the  Israel- 
 ites. They  were  appointed 
 originally  by  Moses,  at  the  sug- 
 gestion of  his  father-in-law,  to 
 relieve  him  of  a  part  of  the 
 duties  of  the  chief  magistracy. 
 The  judges  spoken  of  in  the 
 above-cited  passage,  and  whose 
 history  is  given  in  the  book  of 
 Judges,  were  a  class  of  men 
 raised  up  in  extraordinary 
 eraergencies,and  invested  with 
 extraordinary  powers;  such  as 
 the  archons  of  Athens,  and  the 
 dictators  of  Rome.  (See  He- 
 brews.) We  are  told  that  they 
 were  given  to  the  Israelites 
 about  the  space  of  four  hundred 
 and  fifty  years,  until  Samuel 
 the  prophet.  A  chronological 
 difficulty  has  occurred  to  some 
 in  the  reading  of  this  passage 
 in  Acts ;  but  it  is  sufficient  lor 
 us  that,  if  there  is  a  difficulty, 
 Paul's  statement  is  in  accord- 
 ance with  the  received  chro- 
 nological tables  of  his  day,  as 
 Josephus  conclusively  shows. 
 List  of  judges  and  probable 
 term  of  service. 
 
 rears. 
 Othniel,  about  B.  C.  1400    -       -       40 
 
 Under  Eglon  ...  18 
 Ehud.&c &0 
 
 Under  the  Philistines  •  uiik. 
 Shamgar  ....       unli. 
 
 Under  J.ibin  ...       20 
 
 Deborah  and  Barak      •       •       •       40 
 
 Under  Midian       ...         7 
 
 Gideon 40 
 
 Abimelech  ....         3 
 
 Tola 23 
 
 Jair J8 
 
 Under  the  Ammonites  •       18 
 
 Jephthah 6 
 
 Ibzaa 7 
 
 Elon 10 
 
 Abdon  .....         g 
 
 Under  the  Philistines    -       -       40 
 
 Samson? 20 
 
 Eli        i 40 
 
 Under  the  Philistines  •  .  20 
 Samuel,  about  •  -  .  •  12 
 Saul,  the  first  king,  6.  C.  1091. 
 
 Book  op.    The  seventh  in 
 33 
 
 JUD 
 
 the  arrangement  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
 seventh  also  in  chronological 
 order,  derives  its  title  from  the 
 fact  that  it  gives  us  the  history 
 of  the  Israelites,  under  the  ad 
 ministration  of  fifteen  judges, 
 viz.  from  eighteen  or  twenty 
 years  after  ilie  death  of  Joshua, 
 or  about  b.  c.  1564,  to  the  lime 
 of  Saul,  or  about  b.  c.  1110;  a 
 period  of  more  than  four  hun- 
 dred and  fifiy  years.  (Acts  xiii. 
 20.  See  preceding  article.)  It 
 was  one  of  the  provisions  of 
 the  Jewish  constitution,  that 
 judges  or  chief  magistrates 
 should  be  appointed  i"n  every 
 city,  whose  qualifications  and 
 jurisdiction  are  sufficiently  de- 
 fined in  Deut.  xvi.  18.  and  xvii. 
 8—10.  (See  also  Biblical  An- 
 TiauiTiES.  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 vol.  i.  ch.  ix.  §  2.)  At  an  early 
 period  after  they  left  Egypt,  a 
 rank  of  judges  was  established, 
 the  lowest  of  which  were  ap- 
 pointed  over  ten  men,  and  pro- 
 bably amounted  to60,000 ;  then 
 those  of  fifty,  one  hundred,  and 
 one  thousand  men  ;  the  final 
 jurisdiction,  in  all  cases  of  dif- 
 ficulty, beins  reserved  to  Mo- 
 ses himself.  "(Ex.  xviii.  21— 26.) 
 After  they  became  settled  in 
 their  respective  districts  of  the 
 promised  land,  this  judiciary 
 system  underwent  considera- 
 ble modification.  Judges  were 
 then  appointed  for  tfie  cities 
 or  chief  towns;  but  it  does 
 not  appear  how  they  were  ap- 
 pointed, nor  that  there  was  a 
 regular  succession  of  them. 
 The  law  to  be  administered 
 being  most  familiar  to  the 
 Levites,  and  they  being,  by 
 force  of  circumstances,  more 
 conversant  with  such  subjects, 
 it  came  to  pass  that  the  judicial 
 office  generally  devolved  on 
 them.  The  book  of  Judges  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  written 
 by  Samuel  after  the  establish- 
 ment of  the  royal  government, 
 and  it  forms  a  connecting  link 
 between  Joshua  and  Samuel. 
 
JUD 
 
 JUDGMENT,  JUDG- 
 MENTS.  (Ex.  vi.  6;  xii. 
 12.)  These  are  words  of  fre- 
 quent occurrence  in  the  sa- 
 cred Scripmres,  and  the  sense 
 of  them  is  generally  determin- 
 ed by  the  connexion.  When 
 God's  judgments  are  spoken  of, 
 the  term  may  denote  either 
 the  secret  decisions  of  the  di- 
 vine will,  (Ps.  X.  5;  xxxvi.  6,) 
 or  the  declarations  of  God's 
 will  revealed  in  the  Scriptures, 
 (Ex.  xxi.  I.  Deut.  vii.  12.  Neh. 
 ix.  13,)  or  the  inflictions  of 
 punishment  on  the  wiclied. 
 (Prov.  xix.  29.   Ezelf.  xxv.  II.) 
 
 JUDGMENT  HALL.  (John 
 xviii.  28.)  A  room  or  office 
 iu  the  palace  of  the  Roman 
 governor,  where  causes  were 
 tried  and  justice  administer- 
 ed. The  Jews  declined  to 
 enter  it  when  they  were  pro- 
 secuting their  murderous  pur- 
 pose against  the  Redeemer, 
 lest  they  should  be  defiled  by 
 an  approximation  to  the  person 
 of  a  heathen. 
 
 The  JUDGMENT-SEAT  (Malt, 
 xxvii.  19)  was  an  elevated 
 place  in  the  hall  of  judgment, 
 from  which  senience  was  pro- 
 nounced. 
 
 Breastplate  of  judgment. 
 (See  Breastplate.) 
 
 JuDGiUENT  OF  Ubim.  {See 
 Urim.) 
 
 Day  of  judgment.  (Matt.x. 
 15.)  That  important  day  which 
 is  to  terminate  the  present  dis- 
 pensation of  grace;  when  time 
 shall  be  no  more,  and  the  eter- 
 nal stale  of  all  men  be  un- 
 changeably fixed.  That  such 
 an  event  is  necessary  to  vin- 
 dicate the  justice  of  God,  (Luke 
 xvl.  25,)  and  that  such  a  day  is 
 appointed,  is  abundantly  evi- 
 dent. (Eccl.xi.9.  Mall,  xii.36. 
 Actsxvii.31.  2Thess.  i.7— 10. 
 Heb.  ix.  27.  2Pet.  ii.9;  iii.  7. 
 lJohniv.l7.)  That  Jesus  Christ 
 ■will  officiate  as  Judge  is  also 
 evident.  (Mall.  xxv.  31,  32  ; 
 xxvi.  64.  John  v.  22.  Aclsxvii. 
 31,   Rom.  ii.  IC.   2  Cor.  v.  10.) 
 
 JUP 
 
 That  the  judgment  will  be 
 universal,  appears  from  Eccl. 
 xii.  14.  John  v.  28,  29.  Rom, 
 xiv.  10,  11.  2  Cor.  v.  10.  Rev. 
 XX.  12,  13.  That  its  decisions 
 will  be  final  and  irreversible, 
 admitting  the  righteous  to  the 
 joys  of  Christ's  kingdom,  and 
 dooming  the  wicked  to  outer 
 darkness  and  eternal  despair, 
 appears  from  ihe  foregoing 
 Scriptures,  and  also  from  Matt, 
 xxv.  14—46.  1  Cor.  xv.  52—57. 
 1  Thess.  iv.  14—17.  Heb.  vi,  2, 
 2Pel.  iii.  7, 
 
 JULIUS.  (Actsxxvii.  1.) 
 The  captain  of  the  Roman 
 guard,  to  whom  Feslus,  govern- 
 or of  Judea,  committed  Paul, 
 to  be  conveyed  to  Rome.  Julius 
 appears  to  have  had  great  re- 
 gard for  Paul .  He  suffered  him 
 to  land  at  Sidon,  and  to  visit 
 his  friends  there ;  and  in  a 
 subsequent  part  of  the  voyage, 
 he  opposed  the  violence  of  tne 
 soldiers,  directed  against  the 
 prisoners  generally,  in  order  to 
 save  the  aposile.  (Acts  xxvii. 
 43.) 
 
 JUNIPER.  (Job  XXX.  4.)  A 
 well  known  tree,  of  the  cedar 
 family.  Probably  by  the  word 
 rendered  juniper,  in  the  pas- 
 sage from  Job,  is  intended  the 
 broom  tree,  which  is  still  com- 
 mon in  the  deserts  of  Arabia. 
 That  such  substances  were 
 sometimes  used  for  food  is  very 
 evident.  (2  Kings  iv.  38,  39. 
 Amos  vii.  14.  Luke  xv.  16.) 
 
 Coals  of  juniper.  (See 
 Armour.) 
 
 JUPITER.  (Acts  xiv.  12.) 
 The  chief  of  the  heathen  gods, 
 having  power  over  all  the  resu 
 The  people  of  Lycaonia,  when 
 they  saw  the  impotent  man  at 
 Lyslra  instantly  healed,  were 
 disposed  10  regard  the  apostles 
 as  gods  ill  the  likeness  of  men , 
 and  as  tliere  was  a  tradition 
 among  them  that  their  pro- 
 vince was  once  visited  by  Ju- 
 piter and  Mercury,  they  were 
 inclined  to  regard  this  as  a 
 repetition  of  the  favour.     So 
 
JUS 
 they  called  Barnabas  Jupiter, 
 and  Paul  (who  was  the  chief 
 speaker,  and  probably  quiie 
 eloquent)  Mercury.  To  carry 
 the  supersiition  out,  the  priest 
 who  was  accustomed  to  sacri- 
 fice to  Jupiter,  the  tutelar  deity 
 of  the  city,  whose  image  or 
 temple  was  before  the  gates, 
 brought  t.ie  usual  sacrifices, 
 decked  out  for  the  altar,  and 
 would  have  joined  the  people 
 in  the  religious  worship  of  the 
 apostles,  had  they  not  been 
 persuaded  to  desist  by  their 
 solemn  warninsrs. 
 
 The  image  of  Diana  at  Ephe- 
 sus  was  said  by  the  town  clerk 
 to  have  fallen  from  Jupiter. 
 Probably  this  expression  refers 
 to  some  prevailing  supersti- 
 tious notion,  that  this  image 
 itself,  or  the  worsliip  paid  to  it, 
 had  some  peculiar  sanctity  or 
 virtue  imparted  to  it  directly 
 from  Jupiter. 
 
 JUSTICE.  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  14.) 
 One  of  the  glorious  and  incom- 
 
 grehensible  attributes  of  the 
 upreme  Being,  denoting  the 
 infinite  righte^iusness  of  his 
 nature,  of  his  law,  of  his  go- 
 vernment, and  of  all  his  deal- 
 ings and  proceedings  with  his 
 creatures. 
 
 JUSTIFY,      JUSTIFICA- 
 TION.    (Job  ix.  20.    Rom.  iv. 
 
 JUS 
 25.)  These  terms  involve  one 
 of  the  fundamental  principles 
 of  the  Christian  faith.  They 
 stand  opposite  to  condemn  and 
 candetnnation.  In  their  evan- 
 gelical use,  they  denote  that 
 act  of  God's  sovereign  grace, 
 by  which  he  accepts  and  re- 
 ceives those  who  believe  in 
 Christ  as  just  and  righteous. 
 When  God  has  pardoned  a 
 sinner,  he  treats  him  as  right- 
 eous, or  as  if  he  had  never 
 sinned.  This  is  called  justi- 
 fication. And  because  ther 
 is  no  way  of  being  pardoned, 
 except  by  believing  and  trusts 
 ing  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 it  is  called  justification  bv 
 faith.  For  Hia  sake,  sucn 
 persons  are  accounted  just  or 
 righteous,  and  will  not  be  pu- 
 nished for  their  sins.  (The 
 epistle  to  the  Galatians  is 
 chiefly  on  this  subject,  and 
 is  analyzed  in  Union  Ques- 
 tions, vol.  viii.,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 The  expression.  Wisdom  is 
 justified  of  her  children,  (Matt, 
 xi.  19,)  is  supposed  to  meai^ 
 either  that  the  fruits  or  ott 
 spring  of  wisdom  justify  all  her 
 claims,  or  that  the  children  of 
 God  are  taught  and  inclined 
 by  divine  grace  to  justify  all 
 his  ways. 
 
 K 
 
 KAD 
 
 AB,  or  CAB.  (See  Mea- 
 sures.) 
 
 KABZBEL,  (Josh.  xv.  21,) 
 or  JEKABZEEL,  (Neh.  xi.  25,) 
 was  a  city  in  the  northern  sec- 
 lion  of  the  inheritance  of  Judah, 
 just  west  of  the  southern  extre- 
 mity of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  was 
 the  birthplace  -if  Benaiah. 
 (2 Sam.  xxiii.  20.) 
 
 KADESH,  (Ntim.  xiii.  26,) 
 probably  the  same  with  Ka^ 
 aesh-barnea,  (Num.  xxxiv.  4,) 
 originally  called  En-mishpat, 
 (Gen.  xiv.  7,)  was  a  city  in  the 
 desert  of  Paran,  near  the  south- 
 
 KAD 
 
 ern  bounds  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
 dah, and  between  twenty  and 
 thirty  miles  south  of  Hebron. 
 It  was  a  royal  city  of  the  Ca- 
 naanites ;  and  the  spies  were 
 sent  there  to  explore  the  pro- 
 mised land. 
 
 2.  (Num.  XX.  1.)  A  place 
 east  of  the  above,  in  the  desert 
 of  Zin,  from  whence  messen- 
 gers  were  sent  to  ask  of  the 
 Edomiies  permission  to  pass 
 through  their  territory,  and 
 from  whence,  too,  the  Israelites 
 went  up  on  mount  Hor  to  bury 
 Aaron. 
 
KEN 
 
 KANAH.  (Josh.  xvi.  8.)  A 
 river  or  brook,  which  formed 
 the  boundary  line  between 
 Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and 
 falls^nto  the  Mediterranean  a 
 few  miles  south  of  Cesarea.  It 
 is  now  called  Nahr  el  Kasab. 
 There  was  also  a  town  of  tiiis 
 name  in  the  tribe  of  Asher. 
 ^ee  Cana.) 
 
 KEDAR.  (Gen.  XXV.  13.)  A 
 son  of  Ishmael,  whose  descend- 
 ants settled  in  the  soutiiern 
 part  of  Arabia.  Probably  Ke- 
 dar's  posterity  were  the  most 
 numerous  and  powerful  of  the 
 family  of  Ishmael;  whence 
 the  whole  of  that  country  is 
 sometimes  called  Kedar,  (Isa. 
 xxi.  16,17;  lx.7.  Jer.  xlix.28;) 
 and  the  Ishmaeliles  generally 
 are  called  the  men  of  Kedar. 
 
 KEDESH,(Josh.  xx.7,)called 
 Kadesa  by  Jewish  historians, 
 was  situated  in  upper  Galilee, 
 in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  twen- 
 ty or  thirty  miles  south-east 
 of  Tyre.  It  was  the  residence 
 of  Barak,  and  one  of  the  cities 
 of  refuge,  and  is  called  Kedesh 
 Naphtali,  (Judg.  iv.  6,)  to  dis- 
 tinguish it  from  another  place 
 of  the  same  name  in  the  tribe 
 of  Judah.    (Josh.  xv.  23.) 
 
 KEDRON.    (See  Kidron.) 
 
 KENATH.  (Num.xxxii.42.) 
 A  city  of  Manasseh,  east  of 
 Jordan,  the  supposed  ruins  of 
 which  are  called  Kahuat.  It 
 is  situated  on  a  brook  of  the 
 same  name,  and  there  are  in- 
 dications of  its  having  been 
 once  a  splendid  city. 
 
 KENITES.  (Gen.  xv.  19.) 
 One  of  the  tribes  or  nations 
 who  had  possession  of  Canaan 
 in  the  time  of  Abraham.  It 
 appears  that  they  were  driven 
 from  Canaan;  and  are  after- 
 wards spoken  of  as  dwelling 
 in  the  highlands,  near  the  Am- 
 monites and  Moabites.  (Num. 
 xxiv.  21,  22.)  In  the  time  of 
 Saul,  they  were  found  dwell  ing 
 among  or  near  the  Amalekites. 
 Jethro,  the  father-in-law  of 
 Moses,   was   of   this   nation, 
 
 KID 
 
 (Judg.  i.  16 ;)  and  for  his  sake, 
 the  Kenites  were  saved  from 
 the  destruction  which  came 
 upon  the  Amalekites.  (1  Sam. 
 XV.  6.    See  Rechabites.) 
 
 KEY.  (Judg.  iii.  25.)  The 
 keys  of  ancient  days  were  of 
 very  inconvenient  size,  and 
 shaped  notv unlike  a  reaping 
 hook.  As  they  were  generally 
 of  wood,  they  must  be  some- 
 what bulky,  or  their  strength 
 would  be  insufficient.  The 
 gates  of  Grand  Cairo  are  fast- 
 ened with  ponderous  wooden 
 locks  and  keys,  even  at  this 
 day.  In  modern  times,  in 
 transferring  the  government 
 of  a  city,  the  keys  of  the  gates 
 are  delivered  as  an  emblem 
 of  authority.    (Rev.  iii.  7.> 
 
 A  late  traveller  among  the 
 Bloors  says  it  is  common  to  see 
 a  man  of  authority  marching 
 along  with  a  large  brass  key 
 on  his  shoulder.  One  corner 
 of  a  kerchief  is  tied  to  the  cir- 
 cular part,  and  hangs  down  in 
 front;  and  by  this  the  key  is 
 balanced  as  it  rests  on  the 
 shoulder.  This  fact  forcibly 
 illustrates  Isa.  xxii.  22. 
 
 KID,  (Judg.  xiv.  6,)  or  the 
 young  of  the  goat,  was  among 
 tiie  luxuries  of  the  ancients, 
 (Gen.  xxvii.  9;  xxxviii.  17, 
 Judg.  vi.  19.  1  Sam.  xvi.  2n,) 
 and  is  now  esteemed  a  great 
 delicacy  by  eastern  nations  an 
 food.  Kids  were  among  the 
 sacrificial  offerings.  (Num.  vii. 
 11-87.) 
 
 KIDRON,  (1  Kings  ii.  37,)  or 
 CEDRON.  (John  xviii.  1.)  A 
 brook  running  through  the  val- 
 ley which  se)  Tarates  Jerusalem 
 from  the  mount  of  Olives,  and 
 forming  the  eastern  boundary 
 of  the  ancient  and  modern  city. 
 About  nine  months  in  the  year 
 the  channel  of  the  brook  is  dry. 
 It  is  on  an  average  nine  feet  in 
 width.  When  swollen  by  the 
 rains,  the  current  is  deep  and 
 rapid.  It  empties  into  the 
 Dead  Sea.  (See  Selumiel,  pp. 
 129-135,  by  Am.  S.  S.  UnioB.) 
 
KIN 
 
 KTNE  ((ien.  xli.  2)  is  | 
 used  by  ihe  sacred  writers  as  i 
 the  plural  of  cow.  The  word  | 
 is  used  figuratively  by  the  pro- 1 
 phet,concerning  the  Israelites, 
 to  describe  the  feebleness,  idle- 1 
 ness,  and  luxury  which  cha- ! 
 racierized  them.  They  were  : 
 like  the  fallings  of  Bashan,  i 
 feeding  carelessly  and  secure-  j 
 ly  in  rich  pastures,  only  to 
 prepare  them  for  the  slaughter.  ' 
 (Ezek.  xxxix.  18.)  | 
 
 KING.  (Gen.  xiv.  IS.)  The  \ 
 title  of  a  ruler.  It  is  applied 
 in  Scripture  to  the  chief^  of  a 
 tribe  or  to  the  ruler  of  a  single 
 town  or  city;  and,  of  course, 
 we  need  not  be  surprised  at 
 the  number  who  were  often 
 defeated  in  a  single  campaign. 
 (Josh.  xii.  24.  Judg.  i.  7.  IKings 
 XX.  1.  16.)    This  "fact  also  ex- 
 
 61ains  Gen.  xxxvi.  31,  and 
 eut.  xxxiii.  5.  The  title  is 
 applied  to  Jehovah  and  to  our 
 blessed  Saviour.  (ITim.  i.  17; 
 vi.  15.)  The  ceremony  of  coro- 
 nation is  described  2  Kings  xi. 
 12.    (See  Anoint,  Hebrews.) 
 
 KINGDOM.  (Luke  xii.  32.) 
 The  precise  import  of  this  term 
 can  usually  be  determined  by 
 its  connexion.  In  the  New 
 Testament,  it  generally  de- 
 notes either  the  spiritual  reign 
 of  Christ  over  the  hearts  of 
 individuals  or  over  his  church 
 collectively.   (John  xviii.  36.) 
 
 Kingdom  of  God,  (1  Cor. 
 XV.  50,)  Kingdom  of  Heaven. 
 (Matt.  iii.  2.)  These  terms 
 sometimes  denote  the  state  of 
 glory  beyond  the  grave.  (2  Pet. 
 1.  11.)  More  generally,  they 
 denote  tne  gospel  dispensation 
 under  the  government  of  the 
 Messiah,  in  distinction  from 
 the  typical  kingdom  of  the 
 Jews.  (Matt.  iii.  2;  xxi.  43; 
 XXV.  1.  Luke  X.  9.  11.)  And 
 sometimes  they  signify  the  gos- 
 pel exerting  a  reigning  power 
 over  the  hearts  and  minds  of 
 men.  (Luke  xvii.  21.  John  iii. 
 3.5.  Rom.  xiv.  17.) 
 
 KINGS,  BOOKS  OF.  (1  Chron. 
 33* 
 
 KIN 
 
 ix.l.)  Theeleventhand twelfth 
 books  of  the  Bible  are  call- 
 ed the  first  and  second  books 
 of  Kmgs.  In  old  versions, 
 the  books  of  Samuel  and 
 Kings  are  called  the  four 
 books  of  Kings ;  and  hence  the 
 titles  of  these  books  in  our 
 Bibles  is,  the  first  book  of  Sa- 
 muel, otherwise  called  Ihefi.rst 
 book  of  Kings,  and  the  first 
 book  of  Kings,  othericise  called 
 the  third  book  of  Kiiigs.  The 
 four  books  contain  the  history 
 of  the  Jewish  nation  under  the 
 kings  of  Israel  and  Judah.  The 
 first  two  are  called  Samuel, 
 because  that  prophet  com- 
 menced them,  and  wrote  the 
 first  twenty -four  chapters.  Na- 
 than and  Gad  finished  them. 
 (1  Chron.  xxix.  29.)  These 
 embrace  a  period  of  about  one 
 hundred  and  twenty  years,viz. 
 from  the  birth  of  Samuel  to 
 the  close  of  the  reign  of  David. 
 The  first  book  contains  an  ac- 
 count of  Eli  and  his  sons ;  of 
 Samuel,  as  prophet  and  judge ; 
 and  of  Saul,  the  first  king  of 
 Israel.  The  second  book  re- 
 cords the  prosperity  of  David's 
 kingdom,  his  sin,  and  suffer- 
 ings, and  his  restoration  to  the 
 throne  and  to  the  favour  of 
 God.  The  third  and  fourth 
 books,  supDosed  to  have  been 
 compiled  "by  Ezra  from  the 
 public  records,  embrace  a  pe- 
 riod of  about  four  hundred  and 
 twenty-five  years,  viz.  from  the 
 commencement  of  Solomon's 
 reign  to  the  destruction  of  Je- 
 rusalem by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Of  these,  the  former  gives  us 
 an  accountof  the  building  and 
 dedication  of  the  temple,  the 
 reign  of  Solomon,  the  division 
 of  The  nation,  the  fall  of  the 
 glory  of  Israel,  and  the  extra- 
 ordinary ministry  of  the  pro- 
 phet Elijah. 
 
 Tlie  latter  continues  the  his- 
 tory of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel 
 and  Judah,  inreriniugled,  till 
 they  were  both  destroyed,  and 
 the  people  carried  into  capti- 
 
KIN 
 vity.  It  informs  us  of  the  trans- 
 lation of  Elijah,  the  ministry 
 of  Elisha,  and  the  desiriiction 
 of  Jeixisalem. 
 
 The  following  catalogue  of 
 the  successive  kings  may  be 
 regarded  as  approximating  to 
 correct  chronology  : 
 Of  the  ichole  nation. 
 
 Began  to  reign.    Reigned. 
 Sau  .      B.  C.  1091    .    40  years. 
 
 David  -  -  1051  -  40i  " 
 Solomon  ■  •  1010  •  40*  « 
 971    -      1      « 
 
 OfJudah  alone. 
 
 Rehoboam 
 
 972 
 
 .    16      " 
 
 Abijam      • 
 
 954 
 
 .     3      « 
 
 Asa    .       • 
 
 951 
 
 .    41      « 
 
 Jehoshaphat 
 
 910 
 
 .    25     « 
 
 Jehoram     • 
 
 8S5 
 
 .     4      « 
 
 Ahaziah      - 
 
 881 
 
 •      1      " 
 
 Jntcrual     • 
 
 .     6      " 
 
 Joash 
 
 874 
 
 .40      « 
 
 Amaziah 
 
 835 
 
 .    29     « 
 
 Uzziah,  or  > 
 Azariah     i 
 
 806 
 
 -    52      « 
 
 Jotham       • 
 
 754 
 
 -    16      " 
 
 Ahaz 
 
 738 
 
 .    16     " 
 
 Hezekiah   - 
 
 722 
 
 .    29      " 
 
 Manasseh  - 
 
 694 
 
 .    55      " 
 
 Amon 
 
 S59 
 
 -      2      « 
 
 Josiah        - 
 
 637 
 
 -    31      « 
 
 Jehoahaz 
 
 606 
 
 5   i.or3 
 I   *  m'tbs. 
 
 Jehoiakim 
 
 606 
 
 •    11  years. 
 
 Jehoiachin 
 
 694 
 
 i   *  m'lhs. 
 •    11  years. 
 
 Zedekiah 
 
 594 
 
 Captivity 
 
 683 
 
 Of  Israel  alone. 
 
 Jeroboam  - 
 
 971 
 
 -    22      « 
 
 Nadab 
 
 950 
 
 -     2      « 
 
 Baa^ba 
 
 949 
 
 .    24      '< 
 
 £lah 
 
 926 
 
 .      2      « 
 
 Zimri 
 
 925 
 
 -      7  days. 
 
 Omri 
 
 925 
 
 .    12  years. 
 
 Abab 
 
 914 
 
 -    22      '' 
 
 Ahaziah     . 
 
 893 
 
 .     2      " 
 
 Jehoram     - 
 
 -    12      « 
 
 Jehu 
 
 880 
 
 .    28      " 
 
 Jehoahaz    - 
 
 852 
 
 -    17     « 
 
 Joash,  or  > 
 Jehoash   5 
 
 833 
 
 .    16      «' 
 
 Jeroboam  II. 
 
 819 
 
 .    41      " 
 
 Zachariah 
 
 77S 
 
 5   6  m.  or 
 I  10  years. 
 
 Shallum     - 
 
 768 
 
 •      1  month. 
 
 Menahem 
 
 767 
 
 •    10  years. 
 
 Pekaiah     • 
 
 757 
 
 .      2'  •' 
 
 Pekah 
 
 755 
 
 .    20      « 
 
 Interned    • 
 
 734 
 
 -      9      " 
 
 Hoshea       • 
 
 725 
 
 .      9      « 
 
 Captivity 
 
 716 
 
 (For  an 
 
 ar 
 
 alysis 
 
 of  these 
 
 Dooks,  and  a  map  of  the  coun- 
 
 KIR 
 
 tries  mentioned  in  them,  sea 
 Union  Questions,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union,  vol.  vii.) 
 
 KIK.  (Isa.xxii.  6.  Amos  ix. 
 7.)  A  country  north  of  Media 
 and  Assyria,  lying  along  the 
 r.i  ver  Cyrus,  now  Kur,  between 
 the  Black  and  Caspian  seas. 
 Anciently  it  was  called  Alba- 
 nia and  Iberia,  at  present  Geor- 
 gia. Thither  the  Damascenes, 
 conquered  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
 were  sent  into  extle.  (2 Kings 
 xvi.  9.  Amos  i.  5.) 
 
 KiR  OF  MoAB.  (Isa.  XV.  1.) 
 The  bulwark  or  principal  for 
 tress  of  Moab,  called  Kirhare- 
 shethf  (Isa.  xvi.  7,)  and  Kirha 
 resh,  (Isa.  xvi.  11,)  and  Kirhe- 
 res.  (Jer.  xlviii.31.)  Kerek,ot 
 Karak,  (the  modern  name  of 
 the  same  place,)  is  found  south 
 of  the  Dead  Sea.  Many  of  the 
 ruins  of  the  ancient  fortress 
 are  discernible;  and  a  travel 
 ler,  who  was  there  in  1822,  tells 
 us  that  the  population  consist- 
 ed of  four  hundred  Turks  and 
 one  hundred  and  fifty  nominal 
 Christians. 
 
 KIRJATH,  (Josh,  xviii.  28,) 
 called  also  Kirjalh-jearim,  Kir- 
 jath-baal,  and  Baalah,  (Josh. 
 XV.  9.  6U.  1  Chron.  xiii.  6.)  was 
 on  or  near  ihe  boundary  line 
 between  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
 and  is  therefore  mentioned  in 
 the  above  passages  as  a  city  of 
 both  tribes;  though  in  Judg. 
 xviii.  12,  and  2  Sam.  vi.  2,  it  is 
 called  a  cily  of  Judah.  This 
 was  the  native  place  of  Urijah 
 the  prophet,  (Jer.  xxvi.  20;) 
 and  it  was  here  that  the  ark 
 remained  many  years.  (1  Sam. 
 vii.  1,2.   2Sam.  vi.  2.) 
 
 KIKJATIIAIM.  (Josh.  xiii. 
 19.)  One  of  the  oldest  towns 
 eastward  of  Jordan.  It  was 
 once  the  possession  of  the 
 Emims,  and  was  then  called 
 Shaveh  (or,  the  plain  of)  Kiri- 
 alkaim,  (Gen.  xiv.  5;)  and  is 
 afterwards  spoken  of  as  a  city 
 of  Moab.  (Jer.xlviii.23.)  There 
 was  a  town  of  this  name  in 
 Naphtali.  (I  Chron.  vi.  76.) 
 
KIT 
 
 KIRJATH-ARBA.  (See  He- 
 bron.) 
 
 KIRJATH-SEPHER,  KIR- 
 JATH-SANNAH.  (See  Debik.) 
 
 KISHON.  (Judg.  iv.  7.  13.) 
 An  ancient  river,  (Judg.  v.  21,) 
 rising  at  the  foot  of  mount 
 Tabor,  and  winding  southerly 
 of  that  mountain,  through  the 
 plain  of  Jezreel,  about  thirty 
 miles,  to  Ptolemais,  where  it 
 falls  into  the  Mediterranean. 
 It  is  called  the  v)aters  of  Me- 
 eiddo,  (Judg.  V.  19,)  because 
 Megiddo  was  built  upon  its 
 margin.  It  is  famous  for  the 
 battfe  between  IJarak  and  Si- 
 sera,  and  for  the  destruction 
 of  Baal's  prophets.  (1  Kings 
 xviii.40.)  It  is  called  <Ac  river 
 before  Jokneatn,  (Josh,  xix.ll,) 
 and  formed  the  boundary  be- 
 tween Zebulon  and  Issachar. 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, was  there  in  the  au- 
 tumn of  1823,  and  tells  us  that 
 it  is  a  considerable  stream, 
 even  in  summer. 
 
 KISS.  (Gen.  xxvil.  26.)  A 
 kiss  was  a  mode  of  salutation 
 signifying  reverence,  (Ps.  ii. 
 12T  Prov.  xxiv.  26,)  natural 
 affection,  (Gen.  xxxi.55.  Luke 
 XV.  20,)  and  reliirious  affection. 
 (Rom.  xvi.  16.  i  Thess.  v.  26.) 
 The  eastern  mode  of  honouring 
 a  writing  from  a  sovereign  is 
 by  kissing  it,  and  then  putting 
 it  10  the  forehead.  Kissing  the 
 idol  was  a  part,  of  heathen 
 worship,  (1  Kings  xix.  18 ;)  and 
 when  the  objects  of  their  idola- 
 trous regard  were  out  of  reach, 
 they  were  accustomed  to  kiss 
 the  hand  in  token  of  adoration. 
 (Job  XXX  i.  27.) 
 
 The  expression  in  Ps.  ii.  12, 
 refers  to  a  custom  at  the  coro- 
 nation of  kings.  After  the 
 crown  had  been  imposed,  and 
 the  king  had  taken  his  cove- 
 nants, the  nobles  pledged  their 
 allegiance  with  the  kiss  of  ho- 
 mage, or,  as  the  Jews  call  it, 
 the  kiss  of  majesty.  (1  Sam. 
 X  1.) 
 
 KITE.  (Lev.  xi.l4.)  A  rapa- 
 
 KOR 
 
 cious  bird,  of  the  hawk  species, 
 unclean  by  the  ceremonial  law. 
 The  term  rendered  wild  beasts 
 of  the  islands,  in  Isa.  xiii.  22; 
 xxxiv.  14;  and  Jer.  1.  39,  is 
 supposed  by  some  to  denote 
 this  bird;  but  the  prevalent 
 opinion  is,  that  it  refers  to 
 jackals. 
 
 KNEADING  TROUGHS. 
 (See  Bread.) 
 
 KNOP.  (Ex.  XXV.  31.)  A 
 tufted  top  or  projection,  used 
 in  architecture  for  ornament. 
 
 KORAH  (Num.  xvi.  1)  was 
 the  great-grandson  of  Levi. 
 Being  jealous  of  the  authority 
 of  Moses  and  Aaron,  he  enterecl 
 int^  a  conspiracy  with  Dathan, 
 Abiram,  and  On,  to  put  them 
 down;  and  associating  with 
 themselves  two  hundred  and 
 fifty  princes  or  leading  men  of 
 the  Levites,  they  went  to  Mo- 
 ses, and  made  known  their 
 grievance.  Moses  reasoned 
 with  them  upon  the  folly  and 
 presumption  of  their  com- 
 plaint. Dathan  and  Abiram 
 made  other  charges,  and  re- 
 fused to  respect  the  authority 
 of  Moses.  Moses  proposed  to 
 test  the  reasonableness  of  their 
 complaint  by  reference  to  God 
 himself;  and,  after  separating 
 all  the  rest  of  the  people  from 
 them,  he  said  that  if  Korah 
 and  his  party  should  die  a  na- 
 tural death,  then  he  would 
 agree  that  he  was  not  a  true 
 messenger  from  God ;  but  if 
 they  should  be  destroyed  in  an 
 extraordinary  manner,  which 
 he  particularly  described,  then 
 it  should  be  admitted  that  they 
 had  provoked  God.  The  dread- 
 ful event  showed  that  Korah 
 and  his  companions  were  in 
 the  wrong;  for  they,  and  all 
 that  appertained  to  them,  were 
 swallowed  up  alive,  in  a  mo- 
 ment, by  the  earth, which  open- 
 ed to  receive  them,  and  at  the 
 same  time  a  fire  was  sent  and 
 consumed  the  two  hundred 
 and  fifty  princes.  (Num.  xvi. 
 2.  35.) 
 
,AC 
 
 LAM 
 
 LABAN.  (Gen.  xxviii.2.)  The 
 broiher  of  Rebekah,  and 
 ihe  father  of  Jacob's  wives, 
 Rachel  and  Leah.  His  con- 
 duct towards  his  kinsman  Ja- 
 cob evinced  an  avaricious  and 
 overbearing  disposition.  It  is 
 supposed  that  the  valuable 
 ornaments  which  had  been 
 given  to  Rebekah  by  the  stran- 
 ger, and  which  Laban  saw 
 upon  her  hands,  excited  his 
 cupidity,  and  made  him  so 
 anxious  to  have  the  stranger 
 entertained.  Afterwards,  he 
 grossly  deceived  Jacob,  and 
 obtained  from  him,  fraudulent- 
 ly, seven  years'  service,  iu  ad- 
 dition to  seven  which  he  had 
 agreed  to  serve,  that  he  misht 
 obtain  Laban 's  daughter,  Ra- 
 chel. In  other  ways  lie  oppress- 
 ed and  abused  his  nephew, 
 notwithstanding  his  faithful 
 and  unremitted  service,  until 
 he  was  compelled  to  flee.  La- 
 ban pursued  him,  doubtless 
 with  hostile  intentions;  but  he 
 received  an  intimation  from 
 God  which  changed  his  course, 
 and  their  differences  were  ami- 
 cably adjusted.  The  interview 
 between  them  look  place  on 
 what  was  afterwards  known  as 
 mount  Gilead,  (or  Galeed,  the 
 heap  of  witness ;)  a  name  de- 
 rived from  the  circumstance 
 that  a  heap  of  stones  was  col- 
 lected as  a  n}onument  or  wit- 
 ness of  their  treaty.  (SeejAcoB. 
 For  a  full  history  of  these  trans- 
 actions, with  illustrative  m.aps 
 and  cuts,  see  Jacob  and  his 
 Son  Joseph,  ch.  iii.  and  iv.,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 LACHISH.  (Josh.  X.  3.)  A 
 city  of  Judah,  lying  south  of 
 Jerusalem,  and  towards  the 
 border  of  Simeon.  It  was  one 
 oftheCanaanitish  cities,which 
 was  subdued  by  Joshua,  but  it 
 was  afterwards  rebuilt  by  Je- 
 roboam, (2Chron.  xi.  9,)  and 
 sustained  a  severe  and  fruitless 
 eiege  by  the  Assyriaws.  (2Kinss 
 
 xviii.  17;  xix.8.  2Chron  xxxiL 
 9.  Jer.  xxxiv.  7.) 
 LAHAIROI.  (See  Beer-la- 
 
 HAIROI.) 
 
 LAISH,  or  LESHEM.  (See 
 Dan.) 
 
 LAKE.  (Lukev.  1.)  The 
 principal  lakes  mentioned  in 
 the  Bible  are  Tiberias  or  Gen- 
 nesaret,  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea, 
 and  Merom.  {See  these  arti- 
 cles.) The  place  of  final  pun- 
 ishment is  called  the  lake  of 
 Jire,  (Rev.  xix.  20,)  the  lake 
 which  btmieth,  &c.  (Rev.  xxi. 
 8.    See  Hell.) 
 
 LA  BIB.  (Ex.  xii.  3.)  The 
 young  of  the  sheep,  though  the 
 original  word  means  also  the 
 kid  or  young  of  the  goat;  and 
 by  the  Jewish  law  it  is  ex 
 pressly  provided  that  the  sacri- 
 fice at  the  passover  might  be  a 
 lamb,  either  of  the  sheep  or 
 goat.  (Ex.  xii.  5.)  Sundry  pe- 
 culiar enactments  are  contain- 
 ed in  the  same  law,  respecting 
 the  qualities  of  the  animal. 
 (Ex.  xxii.  30;  xxiii.  19.  Lev. 
 xxii.  27.) 
 
 The  prophet  represents 
 Christ  as  a  lamb  led  to  the 
 slaughter,  (Isa.  liii.  7;)  and  the 
 same  figure  is  employed  by 
 John  when  he  announced  the 
 approach  of  Jesus  to  his  com- 
 panions. (John  i.  29.  36.)  It 
 may  denote  the  meekness  and 
 gentleness  of  the  Messiah's 
 character,  but  still  more  ex- 
 pressively designates  him  as 
 the  great  sacrifice  for  sin. 
 Hence  the  frequent  allusions 
 to  the  La7nb,  the  Lamb  thai 
 v:as  slain,  the  blood  of  the 
 Lamb,  &c.  (Rev.  v.  6 ;  vii.  9. 
 14.  17;  xii.  11 ;  xiv.  1.  4;  xvii. 
 14;  xxi.  23-27.) 
 
 LAMECH.  1.  (Gen.v.25— 
 31.)  Tlie  son  of  Methuselah 
 and  the  father  of  Noah.  He 
 died  about  five  years  before 
 the  flood. 
 
 2.  (Gen.  iv.  18.)  A  descend- 
 ant of  Cain,  and  notorious  as 
 3^2 
 
LAM 
 
 the  person  who  introJuced 
 into  the  world  the  sin  of  poly- 
 gamy. The  speech  he  made 
 to  his  wives  (Gen.  iv.  23,  24)  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  design- 
 ed to  relieve  any  apprehenston 
 they  might  have  as  to  his  per- 
 sonal safety,  as  a  descendant 
 of  the  first  murderer,  who  had 
 been  accursed. 
 
 The  words  of  Lamech  are 
 thus  rendered  by  some  critics : 
 
 '  And  Lamech  said  unto  his  wives, 
 Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  ye  my  voice  ; 
 Wives  of  La»nech,hearken  to  my  speech: 
 Have  I  slain  a  man,  that  1  should  be 
 
 wounded  ? 
 Or  a  young  man,  that  I   should  be 
 
 bruised  ? 
 If  Cain  should  be  aven?ed  seven-fold, 
 Also  Lamech  seventy  and  seven.' 
 
 That  is,  if  God  hath  guarded 
 Cain, the  murderer,  by  a  threat 
 of  dreadful  punishment  on  such 
 as  slay  him,  how  much  more 
 will  he  guard  me,  who  am  in- 
 nocent of  the  blood  of  all  men. 
 
 Others  render  the  fourth  and 
 fifth  lines  thus: 
 
 '  I  have  slain  a  man  who  wounded  me ; 
 Tea,  a  young  man  who  smote  me  j' 
 
 and  suppose  that  Lamech  had 
 slain  a  man  in  self-defence; 
 that  his  wives  were  alarmed 
 lest  the  kindred  of  the  de- 
 ceased should  seek  his  life; 
 and,  to  quiet  their  fears,  he 
 tells  them,  that  if  he  who  took 
 the  life  of  Cain,  a  wilful  mur- 
 derer, should  suffer  a  seven- 
 fold (or  great)  punishment, 
 surely  he  who  should  kill  La- 
 mech, who  had  slain  a  man 
 in  self-defence,  should  suffer 
 seventy -seven -fold  (or  still 
 greater)  punishment. 
 
 These  are  two  of  many  con- 
 structions which  have  been 
 put  upon  the  passage,  and  all 
 of  them  may  be  erroneous. 
 
 LAxMENTATIONS  OF  JE- 
 REMIAH, THE  BOOK  OF.  The 
 Hebrews  were  accustomed  to 
 compose  lamentations,  or 
 mournful  songs,  on  the  occur- 
 rence of  private  and  public 
 calamities.  Such  was  David's 
 Umenf  on  the  death  of  Absa- 
 
 LAM 
 
 lorn  and  Jonathan.  The  pro- 
 phet Jeremiah  thus  laments 
 over  the  ruin  of  the  holy  city 
 and  the  temple,  the  destruction 
 of  the  stale,  and  the  calamitous 
 condition  and  prospect  of  his 
 countrymen.  In  the  original 
 language,  the  first  four  chap- 
 ters of  this  book  are  written  so 
 that  every  verse  or  couplet  be- 
 gins with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
 alphabet,  in  regular  order.  The 
 first  and  second  chapters  con- 
 tain twenty-two  verses  each, 
 according  to  the  letters  of  the 
 alphabet.  In  these,  and  in  the 
 fourth  chapter,  the  city  and 
 church  of  God  are  presented 
 to  us  in  personified  form,  and 
 their  calamities  are  described 
 in  the  most  pathetic  and  touch- 
 ing language.  The  third  chap- 
 ter has  sixty-six  verses,  and 
 therefore  every  triplet  begins 
 with  a  Hebrew  letter  in  order. 
 In  this  chapter,  a  single  Jew 
 speaks  in  the  manner  of  a 
 chorus  of  his  countrymen,  as 
 in  ancient  dramatic  writings, 
 and  describes  iheir  state  and 
 prospects.  The  fifth  chapter 
 contains  the  united  pleadings 
 and  supplications  of  the  whole 
 people.  The  peculiar  mode  of 
 versification  above  mentioned 
 was  designed,  as  it  is  supposed, 
 to  assist  the  meinory. 
 
 It  seems  to  be  the  prevailing 
 opinion,  that  this  book  refers 
 to  events  past,  and  has  not  a 
 prophetic  character. 
 
 LAMP.  (1  Sam.  iii.  3.)  The 
 lights  of  the  east  are  of  various 
 kinds;  not  only  oil,  but  pitch, 
 naphtha,  and  wax  are  used  to 
 maintain  the  flame.  Some- 
 times strips  of  cotton  cloth, 
 soaked  in  these  combustible 
 substances,  supply  the  place 
 of  lamps;  and  in  the  Indies 
 particularly,  it  is  customary  to 
 carry  a  pot  of  oil  in  one  hand, 
 and  a  lamp  full  of  oily  rags  in 
 the  other.  The  form  of  oriental 
 lamps  was  fanciful  and  often 
 elegant,  as  appears  from  the 
 following  cuts 
 
 393 
 
LAN 
 
 LAN 
 
 The  lampsof  the  Hebrews,  it 
 isprobable, like  those  of  Aleppo 
 and  Egypt  at  the  present  day, 
 were  suffered  to  burn  all  niglit; 
 and  this  occasioned  no  great 
 expense  in  a  country  so  rich 
 in  oil.  We  are  told  that  this 
 was  considered  so  indispensa- 
 ble to  the  comfort  of  a  family, 
 that  the  poorest  people  would 
 rather  deny  themselves  food 
 than  neglect  it.  The  putting 
 out  of  the  light  denoted  the 
 ruin  and  extinction  of  the  fa- 
 mily, and  the  desertion  of  the 
 house.  This  gives  force  to  the 
 words  in  Job  xviii.  5,  6;  xxi. 
 17;  xxix.  3:  Tfie  light  of  the 
 wicked  shall  be  put  out ;  the 
 light  shall  be  dark  in  his  ta- 
 bernacle, and  his  candle  shall 
 be  put  out  icith  him.  How  oft 
 is  the  candle  of  the  wicked  put 
 out.  (Jer.  XXV.  10,11.  Prov.  xx. 
 20.)  Also  in  Prov.  xiii.  9,  7Vie 
 light  of  (he  righteous  rejoiceth, 
 but  the  lamp  of  the  wicked 
 shall  be  put  out;  and  of  the 
 prudent  wife,  Her  candle  goeth 
 not  out  by  night.  (Prov.  xxxi. 
 18.) 
 LANCE.  (See  Armour.) 
 LANDMARK.  (Prov.  xxii. 
 28.)  It  was  the  manifest  inten- 
 tion of  Jehovah,  in  bringing 
 his  people  into  Canaan,  to 
 make  them  a  nation  of  agri- 
 culturists. For  this  purpose, 
 every  citizen  had  allotted  to 
 him  a  piece  of  ground,  which 
 he  was  to  cultivate  and  leave 
 IQ  his  descendants.  This  he 
 could  not  entirely  alienate; 
 for  even  if  sold,  it  returned  lo 
 
 him  or  his  natural  heirs  at  the 
 next  jubilee.  (See  Jubilee.) 
 He  also  had  a  right  to  reclaim 
 or  redeem  land  thus  sold  when 
 he  was  in  straitened  circum- 
 stances, evenbefore  the  jubilee. 
 
 The  importance  of  preserv- 
 ing  accurately  the  boundaries 
 of  individual  or  family  posses- 
 sions is  very  obvious ;  and 
 hence  the  severe  penalty 
 threatened  for  their  removal. 
 (Deui.  xix.  14;  xxvii.  17.  Prov, 
 xxiii.  11.) 
 
 Subsequently  to  the  ordi- 
 nances given  by  Moses,  the 
 land  was  divided  by  lot  and 
 measurement  among  the  tribes, 
 families,  and  individuals  of 
 the  nation,  under  Joshua.  For 
 this  purpose,  a  cord  or  measur- 
 ing line  was  used.  (Ps.  Ixxviii. 
 55.)  This  measuring  line  is 
 often  used  in  figurative  lan- 
 guage, when  the  providential 
 assignment  of  man's  lot  or  con 
 dilion  is  mentioned.  (Ps.xvi.6. 
 See  Lines.) 
 
 LANGUAGE.  (Gen.  xi.  1.) 
 It  is  generally  supposed  tiiat 
 Adam  was  endued  with  the 
 power  of  speech,  and  furnish- 
 ed with  a  language,  at  his 
 creation,  and  that  it  was  suffi- 
 ciently perfect  and  compre- 
 hensive for  all  the  purposes 
 of  his  being.  This  was  the 
 language  of  the  whole  earth 
 for  nearly  2000  years,  or  until 
 about  a  century  after  the  flood. 
 It  was  then  that  the  tower  of 
 Babel  was  erected ;  and,  for  ihs 
 purpose  of  confounding  that 
 presumptuous  enterprise,  God 
 
LAP 
 
 caused  a  confusion  of  lan- 
 guages, so  thai  the  various 
 companies  or  tribes  should  be 
 incapable  of  understanding 
 each  other,  and  of  course  in- 
 capable of  prosecutins  their 
 plans.  This  caused  a  division 
 and  dispersion  of  mankind 
 over  the  face  of  the  earth. 
 Many  learned  men  suppose 
 that  the  Hebrew  was  the  origi- 
 nal lanjuage  given  by  God  to 
 Adam,  and  that  all  the  other 
 languages  are  derived  from 
 that  aslhe  root. 
 
 LANTERNS.  (Johnxviii.3.) 
 Probably  some  kind  of  covered 
 torch. 
 
 LAODICEA.  (Rev.  i.  IL)  A 
 city  of  Phrysia,  upon  the  river 
 Lycas,  near  Colosse,  and  about 
 furty  miles  east  of  Ephesus. 
 Eski-Mssar  is  the  name  of  the 
 town  UDon  or  near  the  curious 
 and  magnificent  ruins  of  this 
 once  proud  and  flourishing 
 city. 
 
 There  was  a  church  here,  to 
 •which  Paul  sent  affectionate 
 messages,  and  wished  the  Co- 
 lossians  would  lex  them  see  his 
 letter,  which  was  addressed  to 
 them,  when  they  had  done 
 with  it.  (Col.  iv.  lS-16.)  And 
 it  was  this  church  that  was  so 
 severely  reproved  by  Christ. 
 (Rev.  iii.  14—22.)  Of  its  rejec- 
 tion and  abandonment,  accord- 
 ing to  the  inspired  declaration 
 in  these  passages,  travellers 
 furnish  abundant  evidence. 
 
 "It  is  even  more  solitary 
 than  Ephesus,"  says  one,  "sit- 
 ting in  widowed  loneliness,  its 
 walls  srass-grown,  its  temples 
 desolate,  iisvery  name  perish- 
 ed!  lis  crime  was  pride,  its 
 punishment  desolation.  The 
 threatening  is  accomplished; 
 it  now  stands  rejected  of  God, 
 and  deserted  of  man  ;  its  2lory 
 a  ruin,  its  name  a  reproach  !" 
 
 LAPPETH.  (Judg.  vii.  5.) 
 We  are  told  that  the  eastern 
 people  are  accustomed  to  take 
 up  water  in  the  hollow  of  the 
 hand,  and  that  they  do  it  with 
 
 LAV 
 
 surprising  agiliiy.  It  is  infer- 
 red that  when  Gideon's  army 
 came  to  the  water  side,  they 
 drank  of  it  with  the  hand  as 
 fast  as  they  could,  to  be  ready 
 without  delay  to  follow  Gide- 
 on ;  while  the  thousands  of 
 faint-hearted,  that  were  sent 
 away,  either  stooped  down  to 
 drink,  or,  at  all  events,  drank 
 with  so  much  tardiness  and 
 ceremony,as  to  show  that  their 
 hearts  were  not  with  Gideon 
 i n  h is  contemplated  enterprise. 
 The  three  hundred  showed 
 themselves  men  of  alacrity 
 and  promptness,  and  therefore 
 fit  for  the  work. 
 
 L.'iPWING.  (Lev.xi.19.)  A 
 very  beautiful  but  filthy  bird, 
 unclean  by  the  Leviiical  law. 
 '  The  lapwing  of  the  Bible  is 
 ]  supposed,  however,  to  be  the 
 hoopoe  of  modern  days.    It  is 
 about  the  size  of  a  pizeon. 
 LASSA.    (See  Crete.) 
 LATCHET.  (See  Clothes.) 
 LATTICE.    (See  Dwell- 
 ings.) 
 
 LAUGH,     LAUGHTER. 
 (Gen.    xviii.   13.    Ps.    lix.  8; 
 cxxvi.  2.)     These  terms    are 
 '  employed  by  the  sacred  wri- 
 I  ters  to  denote  joy,  insult,  mock- 
 ery, as-surance,  admiration, &c. 
 I  The  meaning  can  usually  be 
 j  determined  by  the  connexion. 
 I  When  they  are  used  concern- 
 ing God.  as  in  Prov.  i.  26,  they 
 signify  that  he  despises  or  pays 
 !  no  regard  to  the  person  or  sub- 
 ject. 
 
 j  LAVER.  (Ex.  XXX.  18.)  A 
 circular  vessel,  used  in  the 
 tabernacle  service,  and  formed 
 of  the  polished  brass  which 
 served  far  looking-glasses,  (Ex. 
 xxxviii.  8,)  and  Vhich  was 
 presented  for  the  purpose  by 
 the  devout  women  who  attend- 
 ed at  the  doorof  the  tabernacle. 
 The  laver  stood  between  the 
 altar  and  the  tabernacle,  a 
 little  to  the  south ;  and  the 
 priests  washed  their  hands  in 
 it  before  they  officiated.  (See 
 Tbmplb.) 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW.  (Ps.  xix.7.)  This  word 
 has  various  significations.  The 
 psalmist  used  it  generally  to 
 denote  the  whole  will  of  God. 
 It  is  applied  to  the  Mosaical 
 institutions,  in  distinction  from 
 ihe  gospel,  (Heb.  x.  1—18,)  and 
 sometimes  to  the  ritual,  strictly 
 speaking.  (Eph.  ii.  15.)  It  de- 
 notes the  ten  commandments 
 eiven  to  the  Israelites,  (Ex. 
 XX.,)  and  confirmed  by  Christ, 
 (Matt.  V.  17,)  and  opened  and 
 explained  intheir  infinite  com- 
 prehension and  spirituality,  by 
 Him  and  his  apostles,  through- 
 out the  New  Testament.  (Luke 
 X.27.  Rom.  iii.  20.  Gal.  iii.  10. 
 13.  19-25.) 
 
 The  term  is  also  used  to  sig- 
 nify the  five  books  of  Moses. 
 (Luke  xxiv.  27.  44.  Acts  xiii. 
 15.)  This  was  what  was  read 
 in  the  synagogues;  and  a  copy 
 of  it  was  deposited  in  the  side 
 of  the  ark  to  preserve  it  from 
 injury.  (Deut.  xxxi.  26.  See 
 Ark  of  the  Covenant.) 
 
 When  It  is  said  of  believers 
 that  they  are  not  under  the 
 law,  but  under  grace,  (Rom. 
 vi.  14.)  the  meaning  is,  that 
 they  do  not  depend  on  obedi- 
 ence to  the  law  for  justification 
 before  God,  but  on  the  grace  of 
 God  as  revealed  in  the  gospel. 
 
 The  ceremonial  or  ritual 
 law,  which  stood  in  meats  and 
 drinks  and  carnal  ordinances, 
 (Heb.  ix.  10,)  was  abolished  by 
 the  introduction  of  tlie  gospel ; 
 Imt  the  law,  properly  speak- 
 ing, is  eternal  and  unchange- 
 at)le  in  its  obligations  and 
 sanctions.  It  was' fulfilled  ra- 
 ther than  abrogated  by  the 
 gospel ;  and  obedience  to  it  is 
 made  by  the  gospel  the  only 
 evidence  of  justifying  faith. 
 (Matt.  V.  17,  18.  Rom.  iii.  28; 
 vi.  15,  le.  James  ii.  18.26. 
 
 LAWYERS,  (Luke  vii.  30,) 
 or  DOCTORS  OF  THE  LAW, 
 (Luke  V.  17,)  were  a  class  of 
 men  who  devoted  themselves 
 to  the  study  and  interpretation 
 of  the  Jewish  law.    They  are 
 
 LAZ 
 
 supposed  to  have  been  charged 
 witli  transcribing  the  law,  and, 
 in  many  instances,  with  the 
 decision  of  questions  arising 
 under  it;  whence  they  are 
 called  scribes.  (Ezra  vii.  6.11.) 
 Many  of  them  were  members 
 of  the  sanhedrim.  Their  influ- 
 ence was  great,  and  they  ar' 
 often  mentioned,  under  t 
 name  of  scribes,  in  connexion 
 with  the  chief  priests  and 
 elders. 
 
 LAZARUS.  1.  (John  xi.  1.) 
 A  citizen  of  Bethany,  residing 
 with  his  two  sisters,  in  whose 
 family  Christ  was  a  frequent 
 guest.  He  was  raised  from  the 
 grave  by  the  power  of  Christ, 
 in  sight  of  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
 lem, in  the  presence  of  the 
 family  and  a  number  of  Jews, 
 after  he  had  been  dead  four 
 days.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
 stupendous  and  interesting  mi- 
 racles which  our  divine  Sa- 
 viour wrought,  as  it  proved  his 
 complete  power  over  death  and 
 the  grave,  which  was  after- 
 wards so  fully  corroborated  in 
 his  own  person.  So  incensed 
 were  the  Jews  at  this  indispu- 
 table exhibition  of  Christ's 
 power,  that  they  sought  not 
 only  to  kill  him,  but  Laza- 
 rus himself,  because  in  conse- 
 quence of  the  miracle  so 
 many  believed. 
 
 The  history  of  this  transac- 
 tion, as  given  us  by  the  sacred 
 historian,  is  intensely  interest- 
 ing. On  no  occasion,  perhaps, 
 were  the  sympathy,  dignity, 
 and  power  of  Christ,  in  his  hu- 
 miliation, more  conspicuous; 
 and  the  domestic  scenes  which 
 are  connected  wiih the  story  are 
 related  with  beautiful  simpli- 
 city. cSpe  Susan  Ellmaker, 
 pp.  72—74,  by  Am.S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 2.  (Luke  xvi.  20.)  In  the 
 parable  by  which  our  Saviour 
 illustrates  the  retributions  of 
 eternity,  one  of  the  parties  is 
 named  Lazarus. 
 
 The  word  Lazarus,  in  the 
 original,  signifies  a  poor,  needy 
 
LEA 
 man;  and  the  probability  is, 
 that  the  story  is  designed  to 
 illustrate  a  general  trutli  by  a 
 natural  arrangement  and  issue 
 of  circumstances  constantly  oc- 
 curring on  all  sides  of  us. 
 
 It  is  worthy  of  observation, 
 in  this  parable,  (1.)  That  no 
 positive  sin  is  charged  upon 
 the  rich  man ;  nor  does  it  ap- 
 pear that  he  was  guilty  of  any 
 particular  neglect  of  the  poor 
 man  ;  for  he  was  not  a  beggar, 
 (as  our  translation  lias  it,)  but 
 simply  in  need,  and  he  was 
 laid  at  the  rich  man's  gate  to 
 excite  the  sympathy  of  those 
 who  should  pass  in  and  out. 
 
 (2.)  That  while  the  rich  man 
 was  buried  probably  with  much 
 pomp,tlie  poor  man  suffers  that 
 utmost  disgrace  (as  the  Jews 
 esteem  it)  of  being  without  bu- 
 rial.   (See  Burial.) 
 
 C3.)  To  be  with  Abraham 
 was,  to  the  Jew,  to  be  blessed 
 indeed,  (Matt,  iii.9;)  and  to 
 be  in  his  bosom  imported  the 
 greatest  intimacy.  (See  Bo- 
 som.) 
 
 (4.)  The  word  hell  denotes 
 a  place  where  the  wicked  suf- 
 fer intolerable  anguish,  with- 
 out the  least  mitigation,  for 
 ever  and  ever. 
 
 (5.)  The  amazing  contrast 
 between  the  respective  condi- 
 tions of  the  righteous  and  the 
 wicked  in  this  world  and  their 
 respective  conditions  in  the 
 world  to  come.  A  comparison 
 of  the  various  circumstances 
 in  the  history  of  each,  as  they 
 a/e  set  down  in  the  parable, 
 puts  this  feature  of  the  story  in 
 a  most  striking  light, 
 
 LEAD.  (Job  xix.  24.)  A  very 
 heavy  metal,  known  to  the  an- 
 cients from  a  very  early  pe- 
 riod, (Ex.  XV.  10.  Num.  xxxi. 
 22.  Zech.  V.  6—8,)  and  abound- 
 ing in  tlie  western  parts  of 
 the  United  States.  Lead  was 
 formerly  used  in  the  process 
 of  refining  gold  and  silver. 
 Hence  the  figurative  allusions, 
 34 
 
 LEA 
 Jer.  vi.  29,  30.   Ezek.  xxii.  17 
 
 LEAF.  (Isa.  Ixiv.  6.)  The 
 bright  fresh  colour  of  the  leaf 
 of  a  tree  or  plant  shows  that  it 
 is  richly  nourished  by  a  good 
 soil.  Hence  it  is  emblematical 
 of  prosperity.  (Ps.  i.  3.  Jer. 
 xvii.  8.  Ezek.  xlvii.  12.)  A 
 faded  leaf,  on  the  contrary, 
 shows  the  lack  of  moisture 
 and  nourishment,  and  becomes 
 a  fit  emblem  of  adversity  and 
 decay.  (Job  xiii.  25.) 
 
 LEAH.  (Gen.  xxix.  16.)  The 
 wife  of  Jacob,  and  eldest  daugh- 
 ter of  Laban.  Jacob  desired  to 
 marry  Rachel,  I-eah's  sister, 
 and  served  her  father  seven 
 years  that  he  might  obtain  her 
 as  his  wife.  When  the  period 
 was  accomplished,  Leah  was 
 imposed  upon  him  instead  of 
 Rachel,  and  he  was  compelled 
 to  serve  seven  years  longer  for 
 her.  (See  Jacob  AND  Joseph, 
 chap.  iii.,and  History  of  the 
 Patriarchs,  §  xvii.,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 LEASING.  (Ps.  iv.  2.)  Lies 
 or  falsehoods. 
 
 LEA\'EN.  (Ex.  xii.  15.)  Fer- 
 ment mixed  with  dough  to 
 make  it  light;  or  a  piece  of 
 dough  or  bread  thus  mixed  and 
 used  to  lighten  a  larger  mass. 
 It  makes  a  thorough  change 
 in  the  whole  ;  and  hence  the 
 force  of  ihe  parable,  (Matt. xiii. 
 33,)  by  which  the  silent  influ- 
 ence of  the  gospel  on  the  heart 
 ofman  is  beautifully  illustrated. 
 And  so  also  it  figuratively  de- 
 notes the  influence  of  false  and 
 corrupt  doctrines,  (Matt.  xvi. 
 6,)  as  well  as  the  evil  passions 
 of  ihedepiaved  and  unregene- 
 rate  heart.  (1  Cor.  v.  7,  8.) 
 The  disuse  of  it  on  certain  oc- 
 casions was  an  important  part 
 of  the  Jewish  ritual.  (Ex.  xii. 
 15.  19.) 
 
 Dough  kept  until  it  is  grown 
 sour  is  used  in  eastern  coun- 
 tries as  a  ferment  for  fresh 
 dough ;  and  it  is  said  that  in 
 397 
 
LEB 
 
 the  wine  countries  the  lees 
 of  wine  are  used  as  we  use 
 yeast. 
 
 LEBANON.  (Isa.  xxxiii.9.) 
 A  celebrated  range  of  moun- 
 tains in  Syria,  north  of  Pales- 
 tine, running  north-east  and 
 south-west,  in  two  parallel 
 chains,  in  crescent  form,  and 
 pursuing  nearly  the  course  of 
 the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean. 
 The  south-eastern  chain  is 
 called  Anti-Libanus,  ojyposite 
 to  Libanus,or  Lebanon  proper. 
 Between  these  ranges  is  Ccale- 
 Syria  f  or  the  valley  of  Lebanon. 
 (Josh.  xi.  17.)  Some  of  its  east- 
 ern and  north-eastern  branch- 
 es were  called  Hermon,  (Deut. 
 iii.  9,)  Sion,  (Deut.  iv.48,)  and 
 Amana.  (Sol.  Song  iv.  8.)  lis 
 summits  (wliich  some  travel- 
 lers have  slated  to  be  higher 
 than  the  Alps  or  Pyrenees)  and 
 ravines  are  covered  with  snow 
 during  the  year,  and  its  rock 
 is  a  while  limestone,  from 
 which  issue  pure,  limpid 
 streams.  (Jer.  xviii.  14.)  It  is 
 described  by  travellers  as  a 
 multitude  of  mountains,  sepa- 
 rated by  deep  ravines,  and  co- 
 vered pretty  thickly  with  pine 
 'and  fruit  trees,  although  not  so 
 densely  as  the  forests  of  Ame- 
 rica. Its  ascent  is  steep  and 
 rocky.  Its  cedars  are  now 
 found  principally  at  the  foot  of 
 one  mountain,  covering  a  space 
 three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  cir- 
 cumference, and  amount  to 
 nearly  four  hundred  ;  some  of 
 ihem  forty  feet  round,  and 
 nearly  one  hundred  in  height. 
 The  balsamic  odour  of  these 
 cedars  is  alluded  to,  Hos.  xiv. 
 6.  Sol.  Song  Jv.  11;  and  so 
 many  of  them  were  used  in 
 building  Solomon's  palace,  as 
 to  give  it  the  name  mentioned 
 1  Kings  vn.  2,  and  x.  17.  The 
 samelimber  was  used  for  ship- 
 building. (Ezek.  xxvii.  5.  See 
 Cedar.) 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, who  ascended  mount 
 I.^banon  in  the  autumn  of  1823, 
 
 LEB 
 
 informs  us  that  even  the  few 
 cedars  that  remain  may  bl 
 called  the  glory  of  Lebanon 
 Their  fine  shade,  conical  fonri, 
 beautiful  symmetry,  and  loftj 
 heir;ht  fully  justify  the  flgura 
 live    language  ol    the  Bible 
 
 I  (Ps.  Ixxx.  10'.  Amos  ii.  9.)    He . 
 f  :)und  snow  upwards  of  two  feet 
 deep,  that  had  lain  through  the 
 hot  months. 
 
 Another  traveller  thus  de- 
 scribes the  mountain  and  its 
 scenery:  The  highest  eleva^ 
 tion  of  the  mountains  of  Leba- 
 non is  to  the  south-east  of  Tri- 
 poli,and  their  summits,  capped 
 with  clouds  and  covered  with 
 snow,  are  discerned  at  the  dis- 
 
 I  tance  of  thirty  leagues.  The 
 Oronles,  which  flovvs  from  the 
 mountains  of  Damascus,  and 
 I'lses  itself  below  Anlioch ;  the 
 Kasmia,  which  from  the  nonh 
 of  Balbeck  takes  its  course 
 towards  Tyre;  the  Jordan, 
 which  sends  its  waters  towards 
 the  south,  all  prove  the  altitude 
 of  the  region  from  which  they 
 deri  ve  their  source.  Lebanon, 
 which  gives  its  name  to  the 
 extensive  range  of  the  Kes- 
 ruan,  and  the  country  of  the 
 Druses,  presents  to  the  travel- 
 ler the  spectacle  of  its  majestic 
 mountains ;  at  every  step  he 
 meets  with  scenes  in  which 
 nature  displays  beauty  or  gran 
 deur,  sometimes  romantic  wild 
 ness,butalwaysvariety.  When 
 he  lands  on  the  coast  of  Syria, 
 the  loftiness  and  steep  ascent 
 of  this  magnificent  rampart, 
 which  seems  to  enclose  the 
 country,  the  gigantic  masses 
 which  shoot  into  the  clouds, 
 inspire  a.stonishment  and  reve- 
 rence. Should  he  climb  these 
 summits  which  bounded  hifl 
 view,  and  ascend  the  highest 
 point  of  Lebanon,  the  Sannin, 
 ihe  immensity  of  space  which 
 he  discovers  becomes  a  fresh 
 subject  of  admiration.  On 
 every  side  he  beholds  an  hori- 
 zon without  bounds;  while  in 
 clear  weather  the  sight  is  last 
 
 3g§ 
 
LEB 
 
 over  the  desert  which  extends  i 
 to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  over  ■ 
 the    sea    which    washes    the  ' 
 coasts  of  Europe;    the  mind  i 
 seems  to  embrace  the  world. 
 A  different  temperature  pre-  | 
 vails  in  different  pans  orihe  i 
 mountain.    Hence  the  expres-  . 
 sion  of  the  Arabian  poets,  that  I 
 "  the  Sannin  bears  winter  on 
 his    head,    spring:    upon    his 
 shoulders,  and  autumn  in  his 
 bosom,    while    summer    lies 
 sleeping  at  his  feel." 
 
 This  d'escriplionof  the  moun- 
 tains of  Lebanon  enables  us 
 to  perceive  the  reason  why 
 mention  is  so  often  made  of 
 them  in  the  writings  of  the 
 prophets.  Lebanon  and  Car- 
 mel,  being  the  most  remarka- 
 ble among  the  mountains  of 
 Palestine,  are  frequently  cele- 
 brated in  the  sacred  poetry. 
 The  one  remarkable  as  well 
 for  its  height  as  for  its  mag- 
 nitude, and  the  abundance 
 of  the  cedars  which  adorned 
 its  summit,  exhibiting  a  strik- 
 ing and  substantial  appear- 
 ance of  strength  and  majesty: 
 the  other,  rich  and  fruitful, 
 abounding  with  vines,  olives, 
 and  delicious  fruits,  in  a  most 
 flourisliing  slate  both  by  nature 
 and  cultivation,  and  display- 
 ins  a  delightful  appearance  of 
 fertility,  beauty,  and  grace. 
 The  different  form  and  aspect 
 of  these  two  mountains  are 
 5iost  accurately  defined  by 
 Solomon,  when  he  compares 
 manly  dignity  with  Lebanon, 
 and  the  beauty  and  delicacy 
 of  the  female  with  Carmel. 
 (Sol.  Song  V.  15;  vii.5.)  Each 
 of  ihem  suggests  a  different 
 general  image,  which  the  He- 
 brew poets  adopt  for  different 
 purposes,  expressing  that  by 
 a  metaphor  which  more  timid 
 writers  would  delineate  by 
 a  direct  comparison.  Thus 
 Lebanon  is  used,  by  a  very 
 bold  figure,  for  the  whole  peo- 
 ple of  the  Jews,  or  for  the 
 ■late  of  the  church,  (Isa.  xxxv. 
 
 LEG 
 
 2Hos.xiv.  5;)  for  Jerusalem, 
 (Isa.  xxxvii.24.  Jer.  xxii.6.23;) 
 for  the  temple,  (Zech.  xi.  1 ;) 
 for  tlie  Itiiig  of  Assyria, (Isa. X. 
 34;)  for  whatever  in  a  word  is 
 remarlcable,  august,  and  sub- 
 lime, (Isa.  Ix.  13.  Ezek.xxxi. 
 3—8.  15,  16.)  Hence  what- 
 ever possesses  much  fertility, 
 wealth,  or  beauty,  is  called 
 Carmel.  (Isa.  xxxv.  2.  Jer. 
 xlvi.  18.  Mic.vii.  14.) 
 
 lis  population  is  from  100,000 
 to  150,000.consisting  of  Syrian 
 and  Armenian  Catholics, 
 Greeks,  and  Greel<  Catholics, 
 Druses,  and  Marouiles.  The 
 wine  of  Lebanon  (IIos.  xiv.7) 
 is  still  celebrated,  and  its  air 
 pure,  and  its  prospects  en- 
 chanting. Some  of  Isaiah's 
 most  elegant  imagery  is  de- 
 rived from  Uiis  mountain  and 
 its  appurtenances.  Moses 
 mentions,  (Deut.  iii.  25—27,) 
 as  a  reason  for  wishing  to  go 
 over  Jordan,  his  desire  to  see 
 this  delightful  region.  (See 
 Ev.  Recreations,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union,  vol.  i.  i)p,  8—11.) 
 
 LEBBEUS.    (See  Jude.) 
 
 LEEK.  (Num.  xi.  5.)  A  IjuI- 
 bous  vegetable  like  the  onion, 
 a  particular  species  of  which 
 has  been  cultivated  in  Egypt 
 from  a  very  early  period.  In 
 the  passage  cited,  it  is  sup- 
 posed that  lelluce,  salads,  or 
 savoury  herlis  generally,  may 
 be  intended,  as  the  original 
 word  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
 twelve  times  rendered  grass, 
 and  once  herb. 
 
 LEES.  (Isa.  XXV.  6.)  The 
 dregs  of  wine  settled  to  the 
 bottom.  Hence  the  expres- 
 sion wine  oil  the  lees  denotes 
 old  and  pure  wine.  It  is  used 
 fieuratively  f.ir  indolence  and 
 sin.  (Zpph.  i.  12.) 
 
 LEGION.  (Matt.  xxvi.  53.) 
 A  band  of  soldiers  in  the  Ro- 
 man armv,  corsistins  of  from 
 6000  to  7f)0n  men :  the  origi- 
 nal number  was  6200  fool  and 
 730  horse.  In  this  passage,  and 
 
LEP 
 
 also  in  ]Mark  v.  9. 15,  it  means 
 a  larse  but  indefinite  number. 
 LEHABDI.  (See  Lybia.) 
 LENTILES.  (-2  Sam.  xxiii. 
 11.)  A  species  of  pulse  not 
 unlike  the  pea  in  its  general 
 appearance.  It  is  still  a  com- 
 mon article  of  fjoJ  in  Egypt, 
 being  dressed  like  beans,  or 
 stewed  with  oil  and  garlic, 
 and  forming  what  is  called 
 red  pottage.  (Gen.  xxv.  29, 30.) 
 Probably  they  grew  wild,  and 
 were  found  in  fields  of  grain. 
 (Comp.  2  Sam.  xxiii.  11,"  with 
 1  Chron.  xi.  13.) 
 
 LEOPARD.  (Isa.  xi.  6  )  An 
 animal  of  the  cat  tribe,  which 
 it  is  supposed  abounded  in  the 
 countries  of  the  Bible,  from  the 
 fact  that  it  is  so  often  men- 
 tioned by  the  sacred  writers. 
 The  Hebrew  name  is  tiirnrah. 
 (Num.  xxxii.  .3.)  Beth-nim- 
 rah  (Num.  xxxii.  36)  means 
 the  house  of  the  leopards;  and 
 in  Sol.  Song  iv.  8,  are  men- 
 tioned the  mou7ttai7i3  of  the 
 leopards.  Allusions  to  the  leo- 
 pard's character  and  habits 
 are  often  made  in  the  Bible, 
 especially  by  the  prophets  ;  its 
 manner  of  watching  for  its 
 prey,  (Jer.  v.  6.  HosT  xiii.  7  ;) 
 Its  fleetness.  (Hab.  i.  8;)  its 
 fierceness  and  cruelty,  (Isa. 
 xi.  6  ;)  and  in  Dan.  vii.  6,  it  is 
 made  the  emblem  of  power. 
 
 LEPER,  LEPROSY.  (Lev. 
 xiii.  42.  45.)  The  leprosy  is  a 
 loathsome  and  infectious  dis- 
 ease, still  prevalent  throughout  i 
 all  Syria,  and  corresponding  in  I 
 its  general  characteristics  with 
 that  of  former  ages.  It  is  call- 
 ed distinctively  the  stroke  or 
 wound  of  the  Lord.  It  com- 
 mences internally,  and  often 
 lies  concealed  for  years,  or  is 
 secretly  spreadins  before  there 
 is  any  6>ut ward  indication  of  it ; 
 and  after  it  breaks  out,  the 
 sufferer  often  lingers  for  years 
 before  it  reaches~a  crisis,  and 
 then  years  sometimes  elapse 
 before  the  leper  is  released  by 
 death.     The    bones  and   the 
 
 LEP 
 
 marrow  are  pervaded  with  the 
 disease,  so  that  the  joints  of 
 the  hands  and  feet  lose  their 
 power,  the  linsbs  of  the  body 
 Tail  togeilier,and  the  wholesys- 
 tem  assumes  a  most  deformed 
 and  loathsome  appearance. 
 The  progress  and  effects  of  the 
 disease  are  supposed  to  be  de- 
 scribed in  Job  li.  7,  8.  12,  and 
 vi.  2,  and  vii.  3—5,  and  xix. 
 14-21. 
 There  were  various  kinds 
 i  of  leprosy;  but  in  whatever 
 form  it  appeared,  it  was  re- 
 I  garded  as  a  judgment  from 
 ■  the  hand  of  God.  We  know 
 !  it  was  frequently  employed  for 
 this  purpose,  as  in  the  cases 
 of  Miriam,  (Num.  xii.  10,)  Ge- 
 hazi,  (2  Kings  v.  27,)  and  Uz- 
 ziah,  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  16— 23:) 
 Ijut  whether  it  ordinarily  dif- 
 fered from  other  diseases  and 
 calamities  in  this  respect  we 
 have  reason  to  doubt. 
 
 Althuugh  the  laws  respect- 
 ing this  disease  which  we  find 
 in  the  Blosaic  coile  are  exceed- 
 ingly ri?id,  it  is  by  no  means 
 clear  tfiat  the  leprosy  was 
 contagious.  The  horror  and 
 dis2us't  which  was  felt  towEirds 
 a  disease  so  foul  and  loath- 
 some might  be  a  sufficient 
 cause  for  such  severe  enact- 
 ments. (For  a  particular  ac- 
 count of  the  leprosy,  its  symp- 
 toms, treatment,  &c.  see' Bib 
 LiCAL  Antiquities,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union,  vol.  i.  chap.  vii.  $  1.) 
 With  respect  to  the  leprosy 
 of  houses  and  clothes,  (Lev. 
 xiv.  55,)  some  have  supposed 
 that  the  expression  was  only 
 analogical— the  spots  and  dis 
 figurations  which  appeared 
 upon  the  walls  and  articles 
 of  clothing  resembling  the 
 leprous  spots.  Others  suppose 
 it  was  a  species  of  mould  or 
 mildew,  indicating  a  great  de- 
 gree of  dampness,  corrupting 
 the  air,  injurious  to  health,  and 
 often  the  occasion  and  pre- 
 cursor of  fatal  diseases.  The 
 expressions  of  the  sacred  his 
 400 
 
LET 
 
 XXfTf  are  hardly  borne  out, 
 however,  by  such  an  inter- 
 prelaiion  as  the  last. 
 LESBOS.  (See  Mitylene.) 
 LESHEM.  (See  Dan.) 
 LETTER.  (2  Sam.  xi.  14.) 
 The  letters  mentioned  by  the 
 sacred  writers  were  in  the  form 
 of  rolls,  not  unlike  those  of 
 the  present  day.  Niebuhr  tolls 
 us  tnat  the  Arabs  roll  up  their 
 letters,  and  then  flatten  them 
 to  the  breadth  of  an  inch,  and 
 paste  up  the  end  of  them,  in- 
 stead of  sealing  them ;  and 
 the  Persians,  we  know,  make 
 up  their  letters  in  the  form  of 
 rolls,  about  six  inches  long, 
 and  paste  a  bit  of  paper  around 
 it  with  pum,  and  seal  it  with 
 an  impression  of  ink.  When 
 sent  10  inferiors,  they  were 
 often  sent  open,  (Neh.  vi.  5 ;) 
 but  when  sent  to  equals  or 
 superiors,  they  were  enclosed 
 in  a  purse  or  bag,  as  in  the 
 cut.    (See  Seal.) 
 
 A  modern  traveller  mentions 
 Having  seen  a  letter  from  the 
 king  of  Persia  to  the  !io\-€rnor- 
 general  of  India.  The  letter 
 was  in  the  form  of  a  roll,  en- 
 34* 
 
 LEV 
 
 closed  in  a  bag  woven  with 
 cold  thread  and  crimson  silk. 
 It  was  tied  at  the  neck  with 
 |;old  lace,  which,  after  being 
 knotted,  passed  throueh  an 
 immense  red  seal,  four  inches 
 in  diameter,  and  about  an  inch 
 thick  of  red  wax.  The  seal 
 was  entirely  covered  with  Per- 
 sian characters,  supposed  to  be 
 tiilesof  the  king.  To  preserve 
 the  seal  the  bag  was  opened 
 at  the  bottom;  but  tiie  usual 
 way  is  to  melt  the  wax,  or  cut 
 tiie  lace  between  the  wax  and 
 the  ba2. 
 
 LEVI.  (Gen.xxix.34.)  Third 
 son  of  Jacob  and  Leah.  He  was 
 concerned  in  a  bloody  affair 
 with  the  Shechemiies,  which 
 occasioned  the  denunciatory 
 and  prophetic  language  of  his 
 father  respecting  hirn,  (Gen. 
 xlix.  5—7,)  and  which  was  fully 
 verified  in  the  history  of  his 
 posterity.  The  opposition  of 
 his  descendants  to  the  idol-wor- 
 ehip,  which  was  practised  by 
 others,  was  the  occasion  of  the 
 miti'^ation  of  their  curse.  <,Ex. 
 xxxii.  26— -29.  Deut.  xxxiii.  9.) 
 His  descendants  are  called 
 Levites.  (See  Levites,  and 
 Matthevt.) 
 
 LEVIATHAN.  (Job  xli.  L) 
 The  Hebrew  name  of  an  ani- 
 mal minutely  described  in 
 this  chapter,  ijut  not  known 
 to  modern  naturalists.  The 
 description  answers  most  near- 
 ly to  the  crocodile.  Probably 
 he  was  the  monster  of  the  sea, 
 as  behemoth,  described  in  the 
 preceding  chapter,  was  the 
 monster  of  the  land.  The  object 
 of  the  sacred  writer  evidently 
 is,  to  represent  to  us  an  ex- 
 ceedingly strong  and  intracta- 
 ble aninial,  utterly  beyond  the 
 reach  and  control  of  man,  anc 
 yei  created,  preserved,  and 
 destroyed  at  (jod's  pleasure; 
 thence  he  infers  the  weakness 
 and  insisinificancy  of  man,  and 
 the  fully  of  his  calling  in  ques 
 tion  the  righteous  judgments 
 of  God.  \VIiat  is  man,  (even 
 401 
 
LEV 
 
 in  comparisou  with  some  of 
 the  inferior  works  of  creation,) 
 that  God  should  be  mindful  of 
 him  7 
 
 The  leviathan  is  figuratively 
 mentioned  as  an  elnblem  of 
 strength  and  destructiveness. 
 (Ps.  Ixxiv.  14.  Isa.  xxvii.  1.  For 
 a  fuller  description  of  this  ani- 
 mal, and  an  account  of  the 
 various  opiinions  respecting 
 him,  and  illustrative  cuts,  see 
 
 LEV 
 
 Youth's  Friend  for  Nov.  and 
 Dec.  1826,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 LEVITES.  (Ex.  iv.  14.)  All 
 the  descendants  of  Levi  may 
 be  comprised  under  this  name , 
 but  chiefly  those  who  were 
 employed  in  the  lower  ser- 
 vices in  the  temple,  by  which 
 they  were  distinguished  from 
 the  priests,  who  were  of  the 
 race  of  Levi  by  Aaron,  and 
 were  employed  in  higher  ot 
 
LEV 
 fices.  The  Levites  were  the 
 descendants  of  Levi  by  Ger- 
 shom,  Kohath,  and  Merari, 
 excepting  only  the  fimily  of 
 Aaron;  for  the  children  of  Mo- 
 ses had  no  part  in  the  priest- 
 Ciood,  and  were  only  common 
 Levites.  God  chose  the  Le- 
 vites instead  of  the  first-born 
 of  all  Israel  for  the  service  of 
 his  tabernacle  and  temple. 
 (Num.iii.C,&c.)  They  assisted 
 the  prie.sts  in  the  ministrations 
 of  the  temple,  and  sung  and 
 played  on  instruments  in  the 
 daily  services,  &;c.  They  stu- 
 died the  law,  and  were  the  or- 
 dinary judges  of  the  country; 
 but  subordinate  to  the  priests. 
 God  provided  for  the  subsist- 
 ence of  the  Levites,  by  giving 
 to  them  the  tenth  of  corn,  fruit, 
 and  cattle ;  but  they  paid  to 
 the  priests  the  tenth  of  all  they 
 received ;  and  as  the  Levites 
 possessed  no  estates  in  land, 
 the  tithes  which  the  priests 
 thus  received  from  them  were 
 considered  as  the  first-fruits 
 which  they  were  to  offer  to  the 
 Lord.  (Num  xviii.21— 24.)  The 
 preceding  cut  shows  the  dress, 
 &c.  ot  a  Levite. 
 
 God  assigned  for  the  habita- 
 tion of  theXevites  forty-eight 
 citiesjwith  fields,pastures,  and 
 gardens.  (Num.  xxxv.)  Of 
 these,  thirteen  were,  given  to 
 the  priests,  six  of  which  were 
 cities  of  refuge.  (Josh.  xx. 7— 9; 
 xxi.  19,  &c.)  While  the  Le- 
 vites were  actually  employed 
 in  the  temple,  they  were  sup- 
 ported out  of  the  provisions 
 Kept  in  store  there,  and  out 
 of  thj  daily  offerings.  (See 
 Deut.  xii.  18,  19;  xviiT.  6—8.) 
 
 The  Levites  were  divided 
 into  different  classes  ;  the  Ger- 
 shomfles,  Kohathites,  Merar- 
 ites,  and  the  Aaronites,  or 
 priests;  to  each  of  which 
 were  assigned  specified  du- 
 ties. (Num.  iii.  14,  &c.)  They 
 were  not  to  enter  upon  their 
 service  at  the  tabernacle  till 
 ihey  were   twenty-five  years 
 
 LIB 
 
 of  age.  (Num.  viii.  24.)  But 
 David  fixed  the  time  of  service 
 at  twentjr  years.  The  priests 
 and  Levites  waited,  by  turns, 
 weekly  in  the  temple.  (iChron. 
 xxiii.  24.  2Chron.  xxiii.  4 — 8; 
 xxxi.  17.    Ezra  iii.  8.) 
 
 There  is  much  of  deep  inte- 
 rest m  the  history,  office,  &c. 
 of  this  order  of  Jewish  eccle 
 siastics;  for  a  particular  ac- 
 count of  which  see  Biblical 
 ANTiauiTiES,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  vol.  ii.  ch.  iv.  §  1  and  2. 
 
 LEVITICUS,  BOOK  OF,  the 
 third  book  of  the  Bible,  was 
 written  by  Moses,  and  r.f»n- 
 tains  twenty-seven  chapters, 
 divided  into  four  principal  sec- 
 tions,—(1.)  The  laws  concern- 
 ing sacrifices;  (2.)  The  conse- 
 cration of  the  higli-priests;  (3.) 
 Purification,  &c'^  (4.)  Sacred 
 festivals.  It  is  called  Leviti- 
 cus, because  the  Levites  were 
 the  divinely  appointed  minis- 
 ters by  whom  these  sacred 
 services  were  in  part  con- 
 ducted. 
 
 It  contains,  also,  many  of  the 
 laws  by  which  the  civil  depart- 
 ment of  the  government  was 
 to  be  administered,  besides 
 many  remarkable  prophecies. 
 (See  Union  Questions,  vol. 
 iv.  less,  xii.,  and  Teacher's 
 Assistant  in  the  use  of  this 
 volume,  pp.  119—131,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Uniun.) 
 
 LE'V^'DNESS.  (Acts  xviii. 
 14.)  This  word  is  not  used 
 here  in  its  present  common 
 acceptation,  but  ratlier  denotes 
 the  daring,  flagrant  offence  of 
 one  who  is  skilled  in  deeds  of 
 iniquity,  or  an  old  offender. 
 
 LIBERTINES.  (Acts  Vi.  9.) 
 A  Jewish  sect,  said  to  be  com- 
 posed of  such  as  were  prose- 
 lytes or  free  citizens  of  Rome ; 
 but  whether  called  Ubertinea 
 from  some  circumstance  in 
 their  history  and  civil  rela- 
 tions, or  from  the  town  or  pro- 
 vince which  they  inhabited, 
 is  uncertain.  They  had  a  place 
 of  worship  at  Jerusalem  for 
 403 
 
Lie 
 
 the  accommodation  of  those  of 
 their  sect  who  mi^ht  be  dwell- 
 iiig  in  the  city,  (bee  Alexan- 
 drians.) 
 
 LIBNAH.  (Josh.  xxi.  13.)  A 
 city  in  the  western  part  of  Ju- 
 dan,  (Josh.  xv.  42,)  assigned  to 
 the  priests,  and  a  city  of  refuge. 
 (1  Chron.  vi.  57.)  Its  inhabit- 
 afits  revolted  from  Joram, 
 (2  Kings  viii.  '22,)  and  were 
 defeated  by  the  Assyrians. 
 (2  Kings  xix.  8.)  Another  Lib- 
 nah  was  situated  near  mount 
 Sinai,  (Num.  xxxiii.  20;)  and 
 a  third  in  the  country  of  Asher, 
 (Josh.  xix.  26,)  called  there 
 Shihor-Libnath. 
 
 LIBYA.    (See  Lvbia.) 
 
 LICE.  (Ex.  viii.  IC)  The 
 third  plague  of  the  Egyptians 
 was  the  turning  of  the  dust 
 of  the  land  into  lice;  and 
 when  it  is  considered  how 
 universally  the  Egyptians  ab- 
 horred vermin,  and  especially 
 now  strongly  their  contact 
 was  deprecated  by  the  priests, 
 the  affliction  will  appear  the 
 more  severe. 
 
 The  Jewish  commentators, 
 and  most  of  the  Christian,  ren- 
 der the  original  word  by  this 
 term  ;  and  learned  biblical 
 critics  have  exhausted  their 
 ingenuity  to  prove  that  this  is 
 the  correct  interpretation.  The 
 Septuagint  translators,  how- 
 ever, were  in  favour  of  gnats, 
 as  the  animal  designated  by 
 Moses  among  the  plagues  of 
 Egypt;  and  Jerome  ToUows 
 them  in  both  passages  where 
 the  word  is  used ;  and,  in 
 thingsof  this  kind;  the  ancients 
 are  much  more  worthy  of  con- 
 fidence than  the  moderns.  The 
 learned  men  above  named 
 offer  several  weighty,  if  not 
 conclusive,  objections  to  this 
 rendering;  as,  (1.)  These  in- 
 sects originated,  not  from  the 
 water,  as  do  gnats  or  mos- 
 quitoes, but  from  the  dust. 
 (2.)  They  were  on  both  men 
 and  cattle,  but  gnats  do  not 
 lake  up   their   residence   on 
 
 LIG 
 
 any  animal.  (3.)  The  He* 
 brew  word  signifies  to  he_fixed 
 OT  firrriy  which  does  not  agree 
 to  gnats,  whicli  are  ever  on  the 
 wing.  (4.)  And,  finally,  the 
 plague  of  flies  came  afterwards, 
 in  which  gnats  would  be  in- 
 cluded. Others,  however,  dis- 
 sent from  both  these  opinions, 
 and  are  disposed  to  think  the 
 tick  is  the  animal  here  signi- 
 fied, which  sticks  its  claws 
 into  man  and  beast,  so  fast, 
 that  it  never  lets  go  its  grasp 
 but  by  leaving  them  in  the 
 flesh.  In  some  parts  of  the 
 United  States,  there  is  a  spe- 
 cies of  lick  so  small  as  to  be 
 almost  invisible,  and  so  nu 
 merous  that  millions  are  often 
 grouped  on  a  single  spire  ot 
 grass. 
 
 LIEUTENANTS.  (Ezra viii. 
 36.)  A  general  name  for  depu 
 ties. 
 
 LIGHT.  (Gen.  i. 2-4.)  The 
 element  by  means  of  which 
 objects  and  their  shape,  size, 
 and  colour  are  discerned.  Its 
 motion  is  extremely  quick,  and 
 is  estimated  to  be  about  ten 
 millions  of  miles  in  a  minute. 
 
 Whether  light  really  ema- 
 nates from  the  sun,  or  whether 
 it  is  a  fluid  universally  diftused 
 through  the  universe,  which 
 the  sun  causes  to  radiate,  or  to 
 exercise  a  vibratory  motion,  is 
 not  agreed.  Light  was  created 
 on  the  first  day,  although  the 
 celestial  luminaries  did  not 
 appear  until  the  fourth.  There 
 is  every  reason  to  suppose  that 
 tlie  sun  was  created  as  early 
 as  any  part  of  the  planetary 
 system.  Light  is  an  emblem 
 much  used  in  the  language 
 of  Scripture.  Christ  is  "often 
 called  a  light,  and  God  is  said 
 to  dwell  in  light,  which  no 
 man  can  approach ;  yea,  God 
 is  light,  and  in  him  is  no  dark- 
 ness at  all.  (1  John  i.  5.)  It  is 
 constantly  used  as  the  emblem 
 of  knowledge  and  of  joy.  The 
 holy  lives  of  Christians  are 
 I  also  represented  by  light.  Th 
 401 
 
LIM 
 
 following  references  show  a 
 variety  of  figurative  usesoflhe 
 word: — Ps.  iv.  6,  and  xxvii.  1. 
 Prov.  iv.  18.  Eccl.  xi.  7.  Isa. 
 ii.  5,  and  x.  17.  Hos.  vi.  5.  Matt. 
 iv.  IG;  V.  16.  Eph.  v.  8.  Gol. 
 i.  12. 
 
 LIGHTNING.  (2Sam.xxii. 
 15.)  The  terrors  of  the  divine 
 wrath  are  often  represented 
 by  thunder  and  lightning ;  and 
 thunder,  on  account  of  its  awful 
 impression  on  the  minds  of 
 mortals,  is  often  spoken  of  in 
 Scripture  as  the  voice  of  the 
 Lord.  (Job  xxviii.  2ii;  xxxvii. 
 4,  5  ;  xxxviii.  2.5  ;  xl.  9 ) 
 
 LIGN- ALOES.  (See  Aloes.) 
 
 LIGUKE.  (Ex.  xxviii.  19.) 
 This  was  one  of  the  precious 
 stones  in  the  breastplate  of  the 
 Jewish  priests.  It  is  said  to 
 have  resembled  the  carbuncle, 
 but  it  is  not  among  any  class 
 of  gems  linown  in  modern 
 science. 
 
 LILY.  (Matt.  vi.  28.)  A  beau- 
 tiful flower,  of  a  great  variety 
 of  species,  the  most  beautiful 
 of  which  are  found  in  eastern 
 countries,  and  are  often  men- 
 tioned by  travellers.  Their 
 gorgeous  appearance  is  alluded 
 "to  in  the  passage  above  cited, 
 as  is  also  the  fact  that  the  dry 
 Kalks  were  used  as  luel. 
 
 In  Sol.  Song  ii.  1,  reference 
 is  probably  made  to  some  spe- 
 cies of  the  lily  that  grew  spon- 
 taneously in  tlie  fields,  and 
 was  seldom  admired  because 
 seldom  noticed ;  and  in  Sol. 
 Song  V.  13,  reference  is  sup- 
 jiosed  to  be  had  to  the  Persian 
 lily,  within  whose  flower-cup 
 is  found  a  collection  of  fluid 
 not  unlike  myrrh.  The  lily 
 afforded  a  pattern  for  much 
 of  the  ornamental  work  of  the 
 temple.  (1  Kings  vii.  2Chron. 
 iv.) 
 
 LIME.  (Isa.  xxxiii.  12.)  A 
 well  known  substance,  obtain- 
 ed by  burninglimestone,  bones, 
 shells,  &c.,  and  used  for  plas- 
 ter or  the  cement  of  brick- 
 work, &c.    It  is  inferred  from 
 
 LIO 
 
 the  above  passage,  and  from 
 I  Amos  ii.  1,  that  the  modern 
 mode  of  manufacturing  this 
 article  was  known  to  the  an- 
 cients. Untempered  mortar  is 
 that  which  is  so  imperfectly 
 or  unskilfully  mixed  that  it 
 cannot  be  worked.  (Ezek. 
 xiii.  10,  11.)  It  is  by  no  means 
 certain  that  lime  was  a  com- 
 ponent pan  of  the  plaster  men- 
 tioned Deul.  xxvii.  2. 
 
 LINEAGE.  (Luke  ii.  4.)  Fa- 
 mily or  race. 
 
 LINEN.  (Lev.  xiii.  47.)  A 
 cloth  made  of  flax.  It  was 
 much  valued  and  used  in 
 ancient  as  it  is  in  modern 
 times.  Fine  white  linen  is, 
 in  Scripture,  the  emblem  of 
 innocence,  or  moral  purity. 
 (Rev.  XV.  6.) 
 
 The  best  linen  was  ancient- 
 ly made  in  Egypt,  as  their 
 country  afforded  the  finest 
 flax,  (Prov.  vii.  16;)  but,  it  is 
 said,  the  most  of  their  linen 
 was  coarse;  and  Solomon,  it 
 seems,  boueht  linen-yarn  in 
 Egypt.  (1  Kings  x.  28.)  It  is 
 supposed  that  linen  was  an- 
 ciently used  fur  writing  on, 
 and  the  letters  formed  with  a 
 pencil. 
 
 This  cloth,  so  celebrated  in 
 ancient  times,  is  still  found 
 wrapped  around  mummies, 
 and  appears  to  be  of  the  qua- 
 lity of  the  common  cotton 
 sheeting.    (See  Flax.) 
 
 LINES.  (Ps.xvi.  6.)  This  ex- 
 pression refers  to  the  mode  of 
 measuring  land  with  a  cord  or 
 line,  and  is  the  same  as  if  it  was 
 said,  'My  portion  is  in  a  plea- 
 sant place.'  (See  Measures.) 
 
 LION.  (Gen.xlix.9.)  A  wild 
 and  ferocious  animal,  too  well 
 known  to  require  particular 
 description.  Lions  formerly 
 inhabited  the  marshy  banks 
 of  the  Jordan,  and  when  driven 
 'hence  by  the  annual  freshet, 
 were  much  enraged.  (Jer. 
 xlix.  19;  1.  44.)  Figurative 
 allusions  to  the  qualities  and 
 habits  of  this  aiumnl  abound 
 405 
 
LOC 
 
 in  the  Bitile,  but  are  roobvious 
 in  their  application  that  they 
 need  not  be  explained.  In 
 the  Hebrew  there  are  several 
 different  names  for  the  lion, 
 expressing  the  differences  in 
 nis  age  and  character,  as,  the 
 Hail's  whelp,  (Deut.  xxxiii.  22. 
 Ezek.  xix.  2 ;)  the  young  lion, 
 Ps.  xxxiv.  10  ;  xci.  13.  Hos. 
 V.  14 ;)  the  grown  and  vigorous 
 lion.  (Num.  xxiii.  24.  2  Sam. 
 xvii.  10.  Nah.  ii.  11, 12.)  For 
 beautiful  engravings  of  the  lion 
 and  a  minute  description,  see 
 art.  Lion  in  Nat.  Hist,  of  the 
 Bible,  and  Portfolio  of  Ani- 
 mals, pp.  1—4,  both  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 LIPS.  (Lev.  xlii.  45.)  This 
 word  has  various  peculiar  sig- 
 nifications in  the  Scriptures: 
 
 Unclean  lips  (Isa.  vi.  5) 
 are  lips  polluted  by  sinful 
 words. 
 
 Calves  of  our  lips.  (See 
 Calves.) 
 
 Burning  lips.  (Prov.  xxvi. 
 23.)  Lips  through  which  the 
 expressions  of  malice,  envy, 
 and  other  malignant  passions 
 are  continually  passing,  (Acts 
 ix.  1 ;)  or,  as  it  is  ofiener  inter- 
 preted, burning  with  false  pro- 
 fessions of  piety  and  friend- 
 ship ;  as  the  potsherd,  covered 
 with  silver  dross,  appears  with 
 burning  brightness,  though  it 
 is  in  truth  but  a  potsherd. 
 
 Covering  the  lip  (Ezek. 
 xxiv.22)  or  chin  v/ith  the  outer 
 garment  was  a  token  of  mourn- 
 ing. 
 
 LIZARD.  (Lev.  xi.  30.)  It 
 is  quite  uncertain  what  spe- 
 cies of  the  animal  known  to 
 modern  naturalists  by  this 
 name  is  intended  by  the  sa- 
 cred writers.  The  original 
 would  indicate  that  which 
 adheres  closely  to  the  earth. 
 It  was  unclean  by  the  cere- 
 monial law. 
 
 LOCK.  (Judg.  iii.23.)  The 
 doors  of  the  ancient  Hebrews 
 were  secured  by  bars  of  wood 
 or  iron,  though  the  latter  were 
 
 LOC 
 
 almost  entirely  approprialea 
 to  the  entrance  of  fortresses, 
 prisons,  and  towns.  Thus  we 
 find  it  mentioned  in  1  Kings 
 iv.  13,  as  something  remark- 
 able concerning  Bashan,  that 
 there  were  threescore  great 
 cities,  having  walls  ana  bra- 
 zen burs.  See  also  Isa.  xlv.  2. 
 These  were  almost  the  only 
 locks  known  in  early  times, 
 and  they  were  furnished  with 
 a  large  and  clumsy  key,  which 
 was  appliedjto  the  bar  through 
 an  orifice  from  the  outside,  by 
 means  of  which  the  bar  or  bolt 
 was  slipped  forward  as  in 
 modern  locks.  There  were 
 smaller  contrivances  for  inner 
 doors,  (Judg.  iii.  24,)  and  pro- 
 bably projecting  pieces  by 
 which  to  shove  the  bolt  with 
 the  hand.  (Sol.  So.  v.  4, 5.  See 
 Dwellings,  Key.) 
 
 LOCUST.  (Nah.ii  .15.)  An 
 insect  of  the  grasshopper  spe- 
 cies, remarkable  for  numbers 
 and  voraciousness,  and  hence 
 one  of  the  most  dreadful 
 scourges  of  eastern  countries. 
 The  eighth  plague  upon  Pha- 
 raoh was  in  the  form  of  locusts, 
 (Ex.  X.  4— 15.  Ps.  Ixxviii.  46; 
 cv.  34,)  and  they  are  frequently 
 alluded  to  as  instruments  of 
 divine  judgment.  (Deut.  xxviii. 
 38—42.  1  Kings viii. 37.  2Chron. 
 vi.  28.)  Many  facts  have  been 
 related  by  travellers  and  his- 
 torians of  veracity,  to  show  the 
 immensity  of  the  numbers  of 
 locusts  which  have  keen  ob- 
 served to  pass  over  some  coun- 
 tries. In  873,  in  Germany, 
 clouds  of  locusts  came  from 
 the  east,  and  continued  to 
 darken  the  air  for  two  months; 
 and  in  one  hour^would  con- 
 sume every  green  thing  on  a 
 hundred  acres  of  land;  and 
 when  driven  back  into  the 
 sea  by  the  wind,  they  occa- 
 sioned a  dreadful  pestilence. 
 Even  the  heathen  viewed  the 
 locusts  as  a  dreadful  judg- 
 ment from  heaven.  Pliny 
 say?,  "  This  plague  is  con»i- 
 
^LOC 
 
 dared  a  manifestation  of  the  : 
 wrath  of  the  goils;  liy  their! 
 number  they  darken  the  sun, 
 and  the  nations  view  them 
 with  anxious  surprise;  their 
 strength  is  unfailing,  so  that 
 they  cross  oceans,  anil  pervade 
 immense  tracts  of  land.  They 
 cover  the  harvest  with  a  dread- 
 ful cloud ;  their  very  touch  de- 
 stroying the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
 and  their  bite  utterly  consum- 
 ing every  thing."  The  cele- 
 brated traveller  Volney  un- 
 designedly illustrates  the  sa- 
 rred  Scriptures  in  relation  to 
 Ihis  plague,  as  he  does  respect- 
 ing many  other  things  :  ''  Sy- 
 ria, as  Egypt  and  Persia,"  says 
 he,  "  and  almost  all  the  south 
 of  Asia,  is  subject  to  a  calamity 
 not  less  dreadful  than  that  of 
 volcanoes  and  earthquakes, 
 1  have  mentioned ;  I  mean 
 those  clouds  of  locusts  so  often 
 mentioned  by  travellers.  The 
 t^uantily  of  these  insects  is 
 incredible  to  all  who  have  not 
 themselves  witnessed  their 
 astonishing  numbers.  The 
 whole  earth  is  covered  with 
 Ihem  for  the  space  of  several 
 leagues.  The  noise  they  make 
 in  browsing  on  the  trees  may 
 be  heard  at  a  great  distance. 
 The  Tartars  themselves  are 
 less  destructive  than  these  lit- 
 tle animals.  One  would  ima- 
 gine that  fire  had  followed  their 
 progress.  Wherever  their 
 myriads  spread,  the  verdure 
 of"  the  country  disappears: 
 trees  and  plants  stripped  of 
 their  leaves  give  the  appear- 
 ance of  winter  to  the  spring. 
 When  clouds  of  them  take 
 their  tlight,  the  heavens  are 
 literally  obscured  by  them." 
 The  prophet  Jcel,  under  a 
 figurative  prediction  of  the 
 invasion  of  Judea  by  the  Chal- 
 deans, describes  with  wonder- 
 ful exactness  the  movements 
 and  denredaiionsof  this  insect. 
 (Joel  ii.  1—11.)  It  is  supposed 
 that  the  pahncr-tcorm,  canker- 
 loorm,  and  caterpillar,  (Joel  i. 
 
 LOO 
 
 4,)  are  only  various  species  of 
 the  locust.  To  illusirate  the 
 aljove  passage,  the  f)llowing 
 extract  from  the  journal  of  an 
 eastern  traveller  is  in  point: — 
 "  The  locusts,  properly  so 
 called,  which  are  so  frequently 
 mentioned  by  sacred  as  well 
 as  profane  authors,  are  some- 
 times gregarious  beyond  ex- 
 pression. Those  which  I  saw 
 were  much  bigger  than  our 
 common  grasshoppers,  and  had 
 brown  spotted  winsrs,  with  legs 
 and  bodies  of  a  bright  yellow. 
 Their  first  appearance  was 
 towards  the  latter  end  of 
 March,  the  wind  having  been 
 some  time  from  the  "south. 
 In  the  middle  of  April,  their 
 numbers  were  so  vastly  in- 
 creased, that  in  the  heat  of  the 
 day  they  formed  themselves 
 into  large  and  numerous 
 swarms,  llew  in  the  air  like 
 a  succession  of  clouds,  and,  as 
 the  prophet  Joel  expresses  it, 
 they  darkened  the  si/n.  When 
 the  wind  blew  briskly,  so  that 
 these  swarms  were  crowded 
 by  others,  or  thrown  one  upon 
 another,  we  had  a  lively  idea 
 of  that  comparison  of  the 
 psalmist,  (Ps.  cix.  23,)  of  being 
 tossed  up  and  down  as  the 
 locust.  In  the  month  of  May, 
 when  the  ovaries  of  these  in- 
 sects were  ripe  and  turgid, 
 each  of  these  swarms  began 
 gradually  to  disappear,  and 
 retired  into  tn<>  Metijiah  and 
 other  adjacent  plains,  where 
 they  deposited  their  eggs. 
 These  were  no  sooner  hatched, 
 in  June,  than  each  of  the 
 broods  collected  itself  into  a 
 compact  body  of  an  eighth  of 
 a  mile  squaie,  and  marching 
 afterwards  directly  forward 
 towards  the  sea,  they  let  no- 
 thing escape  them  ;  eating  up 
 every  thing  that  was  green 
 and  juicy,  not  only  the  lesser 
 kinds  of  vegetables,  but  the 
 rine  likewise,  the  Jig  tree,  the 
 pomegranate,  the  palm,  and 
 the  apple  tree,  even  all  the 
 AST 
 
LOG 
 
 trees  of  the  field,  (Joel  i.  12;) 
 in  doin?  which,  ihey  kept  iheir 
 ranks  like  men  of  war,  climb- 
 ing over,  as  they  advanced, 
 every  tree  or  wall  that  was 
 in  their  way;  nay,  they  en- 
 tered into  our  very  houses  and 
 jed-chambers  like  thieves. 
 The  inhabitants,  to  stop  their 
 progress,  made  a  variety  of 
 pits  and  trenches  all  over  their 
 fields  and  gardens,  which  they 
 filled  with  water;  or  else  they 
 heaped  up  therein  heath,  stub- 
 ble, and  such  like  combustible 
 matter,  which  were  severally 
 set  on  fire  upon  the  approach 
 of  the  locusts.  But  this  was 
 all  to  no  purpose,  for  the  trench- 
 es were  quickly  filled  up,  and 
 the  fires  extinguished  by  infi- 
 nite swarms  succeeding  one 
 another,  whilst  the  front  was 
 regardless  of  danger,  and  the 
 rear  pressed  on  so  close,  that  a 
 retreat  was  altogether  impos- 
 sible. A  day  or  two  after  one 
 of  these  broods  was  in  motion, 
 others  were  already  hatched 
 to  march  and  glean  after  them, 
 gnawing  off  the  very  bark  and 
 the  young  branches  of  such 
 trees  as  had  before  escaped 
 with  the  loss  only  of  their  fruit 
 and  foliage.  So  justly  have 
 they  been  compared  by  the 
 prophet  to  a  great  army ;  who 
 further  observes,  tliat  the  land 
 is  as  the  garden  of  Eden  before 
 them,  and  behind  them  a  deso- 
 late wilderness." 
 
 Another  says, "  While  seated 
 in  our  tents  about  noon,  we 
 iieard  a  very  unusual  noise, 
 that  sounded  like  the  rustling 
 of  a  great  wind  at  a  distance. 
 On  looking  up,  we  perceived 
 an  immense  cloud,  here  and 
 there  sem  i-transparent,  in  other 
 parts  quite  black,  that  spread 
 Itself  all  over  the  sky,  and  at 
 intervals  shadowed  the  sun. 
 These  we  soon  found  to  be 
 locusts,  whole  swarms  of  them 
 falling  about  us.  These  weie 
 of  a  red  colour,  and  I  should 
 Buppose  are  the  red  predatory 
 
 LOG 
 
 locusts,  one  of  the  Egyptian 
 plagues ;  they  are  also  the 
 great  grasshopper,  mentioned 
 by  the  prophet  Nahum ;  no 
 doubt  in  contradistinction  to 
 the  lesser.  (Nah.  iii.  17.)  As 
 soon  as  they  appeared,  the 
 gardeners  and  husbandmen 
 made  loud  shouts,  to  prevent 
 their  settling  on  their  grounds. 
 It  is  to  this  custom  that  the 
 prophet  Jeremiah,  perhaps, 
 alludes,  when  he  says,  Surely 
 I  will  fill  thee  with  men,  as 
 with  caterpillars,  and  they 
 shall  lift  up  a  shout  against 
 thee.  (Jer.  li.  14.)  They  seem- 
 ed to  be  impelled  by  one  com- 
 mon instinct,  and  moved  in 
 one  body,  which  had  the  ap- 
 pearance of  being  organized 
 by  a  leader.  (Joel  ii.  7.)  Their 
 strength  must  be  very  great, 
 if  we  consider  what  immense 
 journeys  they  have  been  known 
 to  make." 
 
 Some  species  of  the  locust 
 are  eaten  at  this  day  in  east- 
 ern countries,  and  are  even 
 esteemed  a  delicacy  when 
 properly  cooked.  (Comp.  Lev. 
 xi.  22.  Matt.  iii.  4.)  After  tear- 
 ing off  the  legs  and  wings,  and 
 taking  out  the  entrails,  they 
 stick  them  in  long  rows  upon 
 wooden  spits,  roast  them  at  the 
 fire,  and  then  proceed  to  de- 
 vour them  with  great  zest. 
 There  are  also  other  ways  of 
 preparing  them.  For  exam- 
 ple: they  cook  them  and  dress 
 ihem  in  oil ;  or,  having  dried 
 them,  they  pulverize  them, 
 and  when  other  food  is  scarce, 
 make  bread  of  the  meal.  The 
 Bedouins  pack  them  with  salt, 
 in  close  masses,  which  they 
 carry  in  their  leathern  sacks. 
 From  these  they  cut  slices  as 
 they  may  need  them.  It  ia 
 singular  that  even  learned 
 men  have  sulTsred  ihemselvea 
 *,o  hesitate  about  understand- 
 ing these  passages  of  the  lite 
 ral  locust,  when  the  fact  tha' 
 these  are  eaten  by  the  orient 
 j  ala  is  so  abundantly  proved 
 
LOG 
 
 by  the  concurrent  testimony  | 
 01  travellers.  One  of  them  I 
 Bays,  they  are  brought  to  mar-  I 
 kpt  on  strings  in  all  the  cities 
 of  Arabia,  and  thai  he  saw  an 
 Arab  on  moinit  Sumara,  who 
 had  collected  a  sack  full  of 
 them.  They  are  prepared  in 
 different  ways.  An  Arab  in 
 Egypt,  of  whom  he  requested 
 that  he  would  immediately  eat 
 locusts  in  his  presence,  threw 
 them  upon  the  glowing  coals  ; 
 and  after  he  supposed  they 
 were  roasted  enough,  he  took 
 them  by  the  legs  and  head, 
 and  devoured  the  remainder 
 at  one  mouthful.  When  the 
 Arabs  have  them  in  quantities, 
 they  roast  or  dry  them  in  an 
 oven,  or  boil  them  and  eat 
 them  with  salt.  The  Arabs 
 in  the  kingdom  of  Morocco 
 boil  the  locusts;  and  the  Be- 
 douins eat  locustb,  which  are 
 collected  in  great  quantities  in 
 the  beginning  of  April,  when 
 they  are  easily  caught.  After 
 having  been  roasted  a  little 
 upon  the  iron  plate  on  which 
 oread  is  baked,  they  are  dried 
 in  the  sun,  and  then  put  into 
 large  sacks,  with  the  mixture 
 of  a  little  salt.  They  are  never 
 lerved  up  as  a  dish,  but  every 
 one  takes  a  handful  of  them 
 when  hungry. 
 
 In  the  bo'ok  of  Revelation 
 we  have  a  literal  description 
 of  the  symbolical  locust,  which 
 gives  us  a  terrific  impression 
 of  their  power,  and  which 
 \a  curiously  illustrated  by  a 
 passage  from  an  eastern  tra- 
 veller. An  Arab  from  Bagdad, 
 he  says,  compared  the  head 
 of  the  locust  to  that  of  the 
 horse;  its  breast  to  that  of 
 the  lion ;  its  feet  to  those  of  the 
 camel ;  its  body  to  that  of  the 
 serpent ;  its  tail  to  tliat  of  the 
 scorpion ;  and  so  of  other  parts. 
 In  like  majiner,  the  Italians 
 still  call  locusts  little  horses; 
 and  the  Germans  call  them 
 hay-horses.  (For  cut  and  de- 
 ecnption,  see  Youth's  Friend, 
 35 
 
 LOR 
 
 for  October,  1828,  an 'Ji  Bedouim 
 Arabs,  pp.  33—43.  65 ;  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 LOD.    (See  Lydda.) 
 
 LO-DEBAR.  (^Sam.  ix.  4; 
 xvii.  27.)  A  place  in  the  tribe 
 of  Gad,  not  far  from  Mahana- 
 im,  north  of  the  Jabbok.  Here 
 dwelt  Machir  the  Ammonite, 
 who  assisted  David  when  he 
 retired  from  Absalom's  usurpa- 
 tion, in  whose  house  lived  Me- 
 phibosheth,  Jonathan's  lame 
 son,  who  sat  at  David's  table, 
 and  received  from  him  all  that 
 pertained  to  Saul  and  his 
 house.  Some  suppose  it  to 
 be  the  same  with  Debir.  (Josh, 
 xiii.  26.) 
 
 LODGE.    (See  Garden.) 
 
 LOG.    (See  Measukes.) 
 
 LOINS.  (iKingsxviii.  46.) 
 The  dress  of  the  oriental  na- 
 tions being  loose,  it  was  neces- 
 sary when  they  were  travel- 
 ling  or  working,  to  gird  up 
 their  garments.and  fasten  them 
 about  the  loins;  (see  Clothes;) 
 hence  the  expression  is  figura- 
 tively tised  (I  Pet.  i.  13)  to 
 denote  restraint  or  abstinence 
 from  worldly  cares,  thoughts, 
 and  pursuits,  whereby  the  soul 
 would  be  entangled  or  hin- 
 dered. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASS.  (Job 
 xxxvii.  18.)  What  is  thus 
 translated  was  in  fact  a  plate 
 of  metal,  polished  so  finely  as 
 to  produce  a  very  perfect  re- 
 flection of  objecus. 
 
 LORD.  (Gen.  xxxix.  2.) 
 This  word,  though  sometimes 
 applied  as  a  term  of  reverence 
 and  respect,  usually  denotes 
 the  Supreme  Being ;  and  ia 
 this  last  sense  it  is  applied  in- 
 discriminately to  the  Father 
 and  the  Son,  (Acts  x.  36.  Rev. 
 xix.  16,)  especially  in  the  epis- 
 tles of  Paul.  In  the  common 
 English  translation  of  the  Bi? 
 ble,  the  word  LORD,  when  U 
 stands  for  Jehovah,  is  printed 
 in  capitals. 
 
 Lord's-day,  (Rev.  i.  10,)  or 
 the  Christian  Sabbath,  was  dis 
 
LOT 
 
 tinguished  by  this  name  from  ' 
 the  Sunday  of  the  Pagans,  and 
 the  Sabbath  of  the  Jews.  The 
 early  Christian  writers  gene- 
 rally made  this  distinction  ; 
 and  the  Christian  emperors 
 used  the  term  Lord's-day,  or 
 Sunday,  according  to  the  per- 
 Bons  they  addressed,  i.  e.  whe- 
 ther they  were  Pagans  or  Chris- 
 tians. Lord's-day  was  the  fa- 
 vourite name  of  ihe  day  in  the 
 times  of  the  apostles  and  first 
 Christians;  and  Sunday  was 
 used  only  in  accommodation 
 to  the  popular  usage  of  the 
 Pagans  around  them.  (See 
 Feast.) 
 
 Lord's  supper.  (1  Cor.  xi. 
 20.)  The  night  preceding  his 
 crucifixion,  the  Lord  Jesus, 
 after  ealiiig  the  paschal  sup- 
 per with  his  disciples,  present- 
 ed each  of  them  with  a  portion 
 of  broken  bread,  and  a  portion 
 of  the  fruit  of  the  vine;  and 
 declared  to  them  that  as  often 
 as  they  should  eat  of  that  bread 
 and  drink  of  that  cup  in  re- 
 membrance of  him,  they  would 
 show  forth  or  illustrate  his 
 death  and  their  faith  in  its 
 atoning  efficacy,  till  he  should 
 come.  The  great  majority  of 
 Christians  hold  this  ordinance 
 to  be  binding  on  the  church 
 till  the  end  of  the  world  ;  and 
 that  it  is  the  privileee  and  duty 
 of  all  the  disciples  of  Christ  to 
 observe  it.  (See  CoMaVUNioN.) 
 
 LOT.  1.  (Gen.  xi.  31;  xix. 
 37,  38.)  The  son  of  Haran,  and 
 nephew  of  Abraham.  (See 
 Abraham.) 
 
 2.  A  portion  or  share  of  any 
 thing,  particularly  an  inherit- 
 ance. (Josh.  XV.  L  Ps.  cxxv. 
 3.  Isa.  xvii.  14 ;  Ivii.  6.  Acts 
 viii.  21.) 
 
 3.  (Prov.  xviii.  18.)  A  me- 
 thod used  to  determine  chances 
 or  preferences,  or  to  decide  a 
 debate.  The  decision  by  lot 
 was  often  resorted  to  in  former 
 times,  but  always  with  the 
 strictest  reference  to  the  inter- 
 position of  God  J   as   in   the 
 
 LOT 
 
 choice  of  the  apostle  Matthiaa 
 (Acts  i.  26,)  and  in  the  cases 
 of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  and 
 Jonah  and  his  companions,  to 
 determine  who  had  offended 
 God,  (1  Sam.  xiv.  41,42.  Jonah 
 i.  7 ;)  and  in  the  division  of  the 
 promised  land  among  the  tribes 
 of  Israel,  the  use  of  the  lot  was 
 expressly  commanded  by  God 
 himself,  it  being  understood 
 that  the  extent  of  territory 
 should  be  proportioned  to  the 
 population  of  each  tribe.  (Num. 
 xxvi.  55.)  So  the  selection  of 
 the  scape-goat  was  to  be  deter 
 mined  by  lot.  (Lev.  xvi.  8.) 
 Property  was  divided  in  the 
 same  way.  (Ps.  xxii.  18.  Matt, 
 xxvii.  35.)  The  orders  of  the 
 priests  and  their  daily  service 
 were  also  assigned  by  lot. 
 (1  Chron.  xxiv.  xxv.) 
 
 As  to  the  manner  of  casting 
 lots,  we  have  no  certain  infor 
 mation.  It  is  supposed  by 
 some  that  the  stones  or  marks 
 which  were  used  in  determin 
 ing  the  lot  were  thrown  toge 
 ther  into  the  lap  or  fold  of  a 
 garment,  or  into  an  urs^  or 
 vase,  and  that  the  person 
 holding  them  shook  them  vio- 
 lently, so  that  there  should 
 be  a  perfect  mingling  of  the 
 whole  contents,  to  prevent  all 
 preference  by  the  hand  of  him 
 who  should  draw  ;  so  that  the 
 passage,  Prov.  xvi.  33,  is  para 
 phrased  thus :  '  In  a  lot-vase 
 the  lots  are  shaken  in  all  di 
 rections ;  nevertheless,  from 
 the  Lord  is  the  whole  decision 
 or  judgment.' 
 
 The  use  of  lots,  without  a 
 distinct  reference  to  the  provj. 
 dence  of  God  in  determining 
 the  matter,or  in  any  case  where 
 the  solution  of  doubt  is  possi- 
 ble in  any  other  way,  is  con- 
 demned, as  much  by  reason  as 
 by  religion.  A  case  can  scarce- 
 ly be  imagined  at  the  present 
 day,  in  which  a  reference  of 
 any  matter  to  a  decision  by 
 lot  would  be  justifiable.  Aj 
 any  rate,  recourse  to  the  use 
 410 
 
LUD 
 
 ol  lots,  or  any  similar  mode  of 
 determining  rights  or  claims, 
 must  always  imply  the  inosl 
 solemn  appeal  to  the  disposer 
 of  all  events,  or  an  entire  and 
 criminal  disregard  and  denial 
 of  his  particular  providence. 
 
 Lot's  wife.  (Luke  xvii.  3-2.) 
 The  allusion  in  this  passage  to 
 the  history  of  Lot's  wife,  refers 
 either  to  the  attempt  to  re- 
 turn, (which  some  suppose  she 
 made,)  or  to  the  mere  looking 
 back  with  a  desire  to  return. 
 For  her  offence,  it  is  said  she 
 was  turned  into  a  pillar  of  salt. 
 She  was  probably  made  a  mo- 
 nument of  the  divine  displea- 
 sure, but  in  what  precise  form 
 is  not  known.    (See  Salt.) 
 
 LOVE.  (IJohn  iv.  8.  16.) 
 This  term  signifies  one  of  the 
 constituent  principles  of  our 
 nature;  and  in  the  perfect 
 exercise  of  it  is  comprehended 
 the  whole  of  our  duty  to  God 
 and  to  our  fellow-creatures. 
 (Matt.  xxii.  37—40.  Rom.  xiii. 
 8.  10.  Gal.  V.  14.  James  ii.  8.) 
 Hence  it  evidently  compre- 
 hends all  holiness  of  heart  and 
 life.  The  highest  and  mcst 
 glorious  display  of  the  divine 
 character  which  has  ever  been 
 made  to  man,  is  the  love  of 
 God  in  Jesus  Christ,  (Rom.  v. 
 8,)  and  the  great  principle 
 and  fruit  of  both  faith  and  obe- 
 dience consist  in  the  posses- 
 sion and  exercise  of  love. 
 (John  xiii.  34,  35.) 
 
 LUBIM.    (See  Lybia.) 
 
 LUCIFER.  (Isa.xiv.  12.) 
 This  word,  signifying  light 
 giver,  occurs  but  once  in  our 
 Bible,  and  is  then  applied  to 
 the  king  of  Babylon  to  indicate 
 his  glory,  as  that  of  a  morning 
 star,  or,  figuratively,  o  son  of 
 the  morning.  Tertullian  and 
 some  others  suppose  the  pas- 
 sage to  relate  to  the  fall  of 
 Satan ;  and  hence  the  term  is 
 now  usually  applied  in  that 
 way;  thougli,  as  it  seems,  wilh- 
 eut  sufficient  warrant. 
 
 LUD.    (Gen.  x.  22.)    A  son 
 
 LUK 
 
 of  Shem,  from  whom  the  Lydi- 
 ans  of  Asia  Minor  are  supposed 
 to  have  descended. 
 
 LUDIM.  (Gen.  X.  13.)  Son  of 
 Mizraim,  whose  posterity,  also 
 called  Lydians,  (Jer.  xlvi.  9,) 
 settled  on  the  continent  of 
 Africa,  as  we  infer  from  the 
 connexion  in  which  they  and 
 their  country  are  mentioned, 
 Isa.  Ixvi.  19.  Ezek.  xxvii.  10; 
 XXX.  5.  Their  precise  location 
 is  unknown. 
 
 LUKE,  (Col.  iv.  14,)  or  LU- 
 CA.S.  (Phile.  24.)  The  author 
 of  one  of  the  gospels,  and  also 
 of  the  book  of  Acts.  He  was  a 
 physician,  (Col.  iv.  14;)  but 
 nis  parentage,  nativity,  and 
 precise  connexion  with  our 
 baviour  and  his  apostles,  are 
 uncertain.  It  is  evident  that 
 he  was  well  acquainted  with 
 every  thing  relative  to  our 
 Saviour,  and  to  his  ministrjr 
 upon  earth.  He  wrote  his 
 Gospel  in  Achaia,  about  a.  d. 
 63,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
 tles within  a  year  or  two 
 afterwards.  Both  these  books 
 were  dedicated  to  Theophilus, 
 a  distinguished  Christian,  and 
 supposed  to  have  been  an 
 Egyptian.  He  travelled  much 
 with  Paul,  and  was  with  him 
 on  his  first  visit  to  Rome, 
 whither  he  went  as  a  prisoner. 
 (2Tim.  iv.  11.  Phile.  24.)  By 
 some  he  is  thought  to  have 
 been  a  Greek,  and  by  others  a 
 Syrian,  and  that  he  was  con- 
 verted at  Antioch,  from  which 
 place  he  commenced  his  tra- 
 vels with  Paul.  Some  suppose 
 he  suffered  martyrdom  ;  but  of 
 the  time  and  manner  of  his 
 death  we  have  no  authentic 
 information. 
 
 Gospel  by,  coptains  many 
 things  which  are  not  found  in 
 the  other  gospels;  among  which 
 are  the  following:  the  birth  of 
 John  the  Baptist;  the  Roman 
 census  in  Judea  ;  the  cir- 
 cumstances attending  Christ's 
 birth  at  Bethlehem ;  the  vi- 
 sion granted  to  the  shepherds ; 
 411 
 
LOjS 
 
 the  early  testimony  rf  Simeon 
 and  Anna;  Ciirisi's  conversa- 
 tion with  the  doctors  in  the 
 temple  when  he  was  twelve 
 years  old ;  the  parables  of  the 
 good  Samaritan,  of  the  prodigal 
 son,  of  the  rich  man  and  Laza- 
 rus, of  the  wicked  judge,and  of 
 the  publican  and  Pharisee;  the 
 miraculous  cure  of  the  woman 
 who  had  been  bowed  down 
 by  illness  eighteen  years;  the 
 Cleansing  of  the  ten  lepers; 
 and  the  restoring  to  life  the 
 son  of  a  widow  at  Nain;  the 
 account  of  Zaccheus,  and  of 
 the  penitent    thief;    and  the 
 
 garticulars  of  the  journey  to 
 immaus.  It  is  very  satisfac- 
 tory that  so  early  a  writer 
 as  Irenseus  has  noticed  most 
 of  these  peculiarities;  which 
 proves  not  only  that  St.  Luke's 
 gospel,  but  that  the  other  gos- 
 pels also,  are  tlie  same  now 
 that  they  were  in  the  second 
 century.  (See  Gospels.  The 
 parables  and  miracles  and  ge- 
 neral history,  recorded  in  this 
 book,  are  analyzed  in  Union 
 Questions,  vol.  i.  ii.,  and  Help 
 TO  THE  Gospels,  both  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 LUNATIC.  (Matt.  iv.  24.)  It 
 was  formerly  supposed  that  the 
 changes  of  the  moon  had  an 
 influence  upon  certain  diseases 
 of  the  mind ;  and  persons  af- 
 fected with  those  diseases  were 
 therefore  called  lunatics  ;  and 
 hence,  too,  distracted  persons, 
 ■who  are  sane  at  intervals,  are 
 still  called  lunatics,  though 
 the  idea  of  their  being  at  all 
 under  the  influence  of  the 
 moon  is  generally  regarded  as 
 irrational. 
 
 LUSTS.  1.  Unlawful  pas- 
 sions and  desires.  (1  Cor.  x.  6. 
 IPet.  ii.  ll;iv.2.  2Pet.ii.  10.) 
 2.  The  corruption  of  the  heart, 
 which  inclines  to  evil,  and  is 
 both  the  effect  and  cause  of  sin. 
 (James  i.  14, 15.)  3.  The  desire 
 of  food  to  sustain  life.  (Deut. 
 iii.  15.) 
 
 LUZ.    (Judg.  i.  26.)    A  city 
 
 LYD 
 
 in  the  land  of  the  Hittitefl, 
 built  by  a  man  of  Bethel,  who 
 was  permitted  to  go  free  by  the 
 Ephraimites,  as  a  reward  for 
 making  known  to  them  a  s©. 
 cret  passage  into  the  town,  by 
 which  they  entered  and  took 
 it.  (See  Bethel.) 
 
 LYBIA,  or  LIBYA,  (Acts  ii. 
 10,)  was  anciently  among  the 
 Greeks  a  general  name  for 
 Africa,  but  properly  it  em- 
 braced only  so  much  of  Africa 
 as  lay  west  of  Egypt,  on  the 
 southern  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
 ranean. Profane  geographers 
 call  it  Lybia  Cyrenaica,  be- 
 cause Cyrcne  was  its  capital. 
 (See  Cyrene.)  It  was  the 
 country  of  theLubims  (2Chron. 
 xii.  3)  or  Lehal  im  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  from  which  it  is 
 supposed  to  have  derived  its 
 name. 
 
 LYCAONIA.  (Acts  xiv.  6. 
 11.)  A  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 which  the  apostle  Paul  twice 
 visited.  It  was  separated  from 
 Phrygia  and  created  into  a 
 Roman  province  by  Augustus, 
 and  was  bounded  north  by  Ga- 
 )!?i:a,eastbyCappadocia,soutii 
 by  Cilicia,  and  west  by  Pisidia 
 and  Phrygia.  Its  chief  towns 
 were  Iconium,  Derbe,  and  Lys- 
 tra.  ItisnowapartofCarama- 
 nia,  and  subject  to  the  Turks. 
 The  speech  of  this  province 
 (Acts  xiv.  11)  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  either  the  old  Assy- 
 rian  language,  or  a  corruption 
 of  the  Greek. 
 
 LYCIA.  (Acts  xxvii.  5.)  A 
 south-western  province  of  Asia 
 Minor,  bounded  north  by  Phry 
 gia,  east  by  the  sea  and  country 
 of  Pamphylia,  south  by  the  Me 
 diterranean,  and  west  by  Caria 
 and  the  gulf  of  Glaucus,  now 
 that  part  of  Anatolia  embraced 
 between  the  bays  of  Macri  and 
 Satalia.  Its  chief  cities  were 
 Patara  and  Myra. 
 
 LYDDA,  (Acts  ix.  32.  38,)  or 
 
 LOD;  in  Hebrew,£,Md.  (Ezra  ii 
 
 33.)  A  city  inhabited  by  Benja- 
 
 mites  after  the  captivity,  was  a 
 
 412 
 
LYD 
 
 few  miles  east  of  Joppa,  on  the 
 way  to  Jerusalem.  Here  Peter 
 curedEneasof  the  palsy.  Itwas 
 burnt  by  the  Komans  in  the 
 war  of  Judea;  but  was  rebuilt, 
 and  called  by  the  Greeks  Dioa- 
 polis,  the  city  of  Jupiter.  It  is 
 now  in  ruins,  although  in  the 
 twelfth  century  the  see  of  the 
 Bishop  of  St.  George,  who  is 
 said  to  havesuffered  martyrdom 
 there  in  the  early  persecutions 
 of  the  church,  and  over  whose 
 grave  a  cathedral  was  erected. 
 
 LYDIA.  1.  A  PERSON.  (Acts 
 xvi.  14, 15.)  A  woman  of  Thy- 
 atira,  who  dwelt  in  the  city  of 
 Philippi,  in  Macedonia,  and 
 was  converted  under  Paul's 
 ministry.  She  opened  her 
 house  to  entertain  the  apos- 
 tles, constraining  them  to  par- 
 lake  of  her  hospitality. 
 
 She  is  described  as  a  seller 
 of  purple;  which  means,  either 
 that  she  sold  the  colouring 
 matter  or  the  fabric  already 
 dyed.  (Gomp.Ezek.xxvii.7.16. 
 See  Purple.) 
 
 LYS 
 
 •2.  A  PLACE.  (Ezek.  XXX.  &.) 
 There  was  a  celebrated  king- 
 dom  of  Asia  Minor  known  by 
 this  name,  of  which  Sardis  was 
 the  capital.  It  is  supposed  tc 
 have  been  settled  by  the  pos- 
 terity of  Lud,  a  son  of  Shem. 
 It  had  Mysia  on  the  north, 
 Phrygia  on  the  east,  Caria  on 
 the  south,  and  the  Egean  Sea 
 on  the  west.  It  was  "once  un- 
 der the  dominion  of  Croisus, 
 the  wealthiest  monarch  of  his 
 age.  It  was  in  the  time  of  the 
 apostles  a  province  of  the  Ro- 
 man empire.  TheLydiaoflhe 
 above-cited  passage  is  supposed 
 to  refer  to  a  place  or  a  people 
 in  Africa.  (See  Ludim.) 
 LYRE.  (See  Harp.) 
 LYSANIAS.  (See  Abilene.) 
 LYSIAS.  (See  Claudius.) 
 LYSTRA.  (Actsxiv.6.8.21.) 
 A  city  of  Lycaonia,  where  Ti- 
 mothy was  circumcised,  (per- 
 haps born,)  and  where  Paul 
 performed  a  surprising  miracle 
 upon  a  man  lame  from  his 
 birth. 
 
 MAA 
 
 MAACAH.  (2  Sam.  iii.  3.) 
 The  daughter  of  Talmai, 
 king  of  Geshur,  and  the  mo- 
 ther of  Absalom  and  Tamar. 
 The  same  name  occurs  else- 
 where, and  designates  different 
 individuals  of  both  sexes ;  as 
 in  1  Kings  xv.  1,  2.  7,  8. 10,  the 
 daughter  of  Abishalom,  and  the 
 wife  of  Abijam,  and  the  mother 
 of  king  Asa ;  in  1  Kings  ii.  39,  it 
 designates  a  king  of  Gath ;  in 
 1  Chron.  xxvii.  16,  it  designates 
 the  father  of  Shephatiah ;  and 
 in  Gen.  xxii.  24,  it  is  a  daughter 
 of  Nahor.  In  1  Kings  xv.  1,  2, 
 Maachah,  the  dausliter  of  Abi- 
 shalom, is  called  Abijah's  mo- 
 ther; and  in  2Chron.  xiii.  2, 
 Abijah's  mother  is  said  to  have 
 been  a  daughter  of  Uriel  of 
 Gibeah ;  and  again,  in  1  Kings 
 XV.  10,  Maachah  is  called  the 
 mother  of  Asa,  who  was  Abijah's 
 35* 
 
 MAA 
 
 second  son,  and  of  course  Maa- 
 chah  was  his  grandmother,  and 
 not  his  mother. 
 
 An  attempt  has  been  made 
 to  reconcile  these  apparent  in- 
 consistencies between  1  Kings 
 XV.  2,  and  2  Chron.  xiii.  2,  by 
 supposing  that  different  per- 
 sons arelntended.  The  rela- 
 tion, it  is  said,  is  not  the  same 
 in  both  cases;  that  the  king's 
 mother  was  a  title  of  dignity, 
 and  not  of  consanguinity,  dis- 
 tinguishing her  rank  at  court, 
 and  not  her  relation  to  the 
 king.  Thus  Maachah,  Reho- 
 boani's  wife  and  Abishalom's 
 daughter,  (1  Kings  xv.  2,)  was 
 the  "natural  mother  of  Abijah, 
 or  Abijam.  When  her  son, 
 Abijah,  ascended  the  throne, 
 the  rank  of  king's  mother  was 
 given  to  Michaiah,  the  daugh 
 ter  of  Uriel  of  Gibeah ,  (2  Chron. 
 413 
 
MAC 
 
 xiii.  2;)  but,  at  her  death,  that 
 title  duvolved  on  Maachah, 
 Rehoboam's  wife,  and  she  en- 
 joyed it  at  the  accession  of 
 Asa,  her  grandson,  (I  Kings  xv. 
 10;)  and  hence,  though  she 
 was  Asa's  grandmother,  she  is 
 called,  by  her  title  of  honour, 
 the  kino's  mother.  In  confirm- 
 ation 01  this  opinion,  the  pas- 
 sage 1  Kings  ii.  19,  is  relied 
 upon;  and  "it  is  also  said  that 
 a  dignitary  with  such  a  title  is 
 riirfound  in  some  of  the  east- 
 ern courts.  Without  determin- 
 ing the  value  of  this  suggestion, 
 it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  in  a 
 political  and  ecclesiastical  his- 
 tory nearly  3000  years  old,  it 
 would  be  surprising,  (if  not 
 suspicious.)  sliould  "there  be 
 found  that  accuracy  in  the  or- 
 thography of  proper  names,and 
 the  precise  relation  of  families 
 and  individuals,  which  would 
 prevent  all  difficulty  and  con- 
 tusion. 
 
 IVIAACHAH,  or  MAACHA- 
 THI.  (Deut.  iii.  14.)  A  city 
 and  region  of  Syria,  east  and 
 north  of  the  sources  of  the  Jor- 
 dan, and  not  far  from  Geshur, 
 at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon. 
 The  Israelites  would  not  de- 
 stroy the  Maachathites,  but 
 permitted  them  to  dwell  in 
 the  land,  (Josh.  xiii.  13;)  and 
 their  king  assisted  the  Am- 
 monites aeainst  David.  (2Sam. 
 X.  8.)  The  lot  of  the  half-tribe 
 of  Manasseh,  beyond  Jordan, 
 extended  to  this  country.  (Josh. 
 
 MAALEH-AKRABBIM. 
 (See  Akraebim.) 
 
 MACEDONIA.  (Acts  xvi. 
 9.)  An  extensive  district  of 
 Greece,  west  of  the  Egean  Sea, 
 south  of  Thrace,  and  north  of 
 Thessaly,  supposed  to  have 
 been  settled  originally  by  the 
 posterity  of  ChTttim,  the  son 
 of  Javan.  It  became  celebrat- 
 ed in  the  days  of  Philip  and 
 his  son  Alexander  the  Great, 
 under  whose  reigns  Greece 
 was  subdued,  and'Macedonia 
 
 MAC 
 
 became  one  of  the  most  power- 
 ful nations  of  antiquity.  Ma- 
 cedonia received  the  gospe' 
 before  any  other  part  of  Europe. 
 It  wcis  at  that  time  a  Roman 
 province;  the  Romans,  under 
 raulus  Emilius,  having  con- 
 quered the  country,  afterwards 
 divided  the  whole  of  Greece 
 and  Blacedonia  into  two  great 
 j  provinces,  which  they  called 
 !  Macedonia  and  Achuia.  (2  Cor. 
 I  ix.  2.)  It  remained  a  Roman 
 province  for  nearly  six  hun- 
 dred years,  when  it  was  con- 
 quered by  the  Turks,  and  is 
 still  subject  to  them.  Among 
 its  chief  cities  were  Philippi 
 and  Thessalonica. 
 
 A  sketch  of  the  apostle  Paul's 
 missionary  tour  through  Mace- 
 donia, in  the  words  of  a  modern 
 missionary  travelling  over  the 
 same  ground,  is  not  inappro- 
 priate to  this  work  and  this 
 article : 
 
 Salmi'-a,  (Sabbath,)  May  l-S, 
 1834. — We  stopped  in  our  room. 
 In  the  morning  we  read  toge- 
 ther the  history  of  Paul's  visit 
 here,  and  his  two  epistles  to 
 the  Christian  church  of  this 
 place,  (Thessalonians,)  whose 
 spiritual  father  he  was.  How 
 much  more  do  we  feei,  and  re- 
 alize the  contents  of  the  Bible, 
 especially  of  its  sacred  history, 
 when  we  read  on  the  spot! 
 How  lively  every  circum- 
 stance, every  link  in  the 
 chain,  appears  there !  Paul 
 and  Silas  start  from  Antie- 
 chia.  It  is  Paul's  second  mis- 
 sionary tour.  At  Derbe  young 
 Timotheus  joins  them.  They 
 pass  througii  Phrygia  and  6a- 
 latia,  into  Mysia,  purposing  to 
 go  to  Bithynia ;  but  the  Spirit 
 suffered  them  not.  They  turn 
 aside  to  Troas.  Paul  is  di- 
 vinely instructed  to  proceed 
 to  Europe  !  What  an  eventful 
 moment!  How  worthy  of  a 
 divine  revelation!  Then  Luke, 
 a  pious  physician,  unites  with 
 the  missionary  band ;  for  it  is  at 
 this  period  that  Luke  begins  to 
 414 
 
MAC 
 
 fljpeak  in  the  first  person  plural. 
 (Acts  xvi.  11.)  His  profession 
 was  evidently  calculated  to 
 give  him  access  to  the  people, 
 where  the  rest  of  the  mission- 
 aries might  be  excluded.  They 
 forthwith  take  passage  ;  they 
 touch  upon  Samothracia,the  ro- 
 mantic,imposingrock;  thence, 
 the  following  day,  they  go  to 
 Neapolis  and  to  Philippi.  At 
 Philippi,  a  little  flock  is  ga- 
 thered; persecution  breaks  out; 
 Paul  and  Silas  are  put  into 
 prison  and  beaten;  the  keeper 
 of  the  prison  is  converted,  and 
 the  missionaries  are  honour- 
 ably released.  Timothy  and 
 Luke,  who  had  excited  no  ill- 
 will  against  themselves,  re- 
 main at  Philippi ;  while  Paul 
 and  Silas,afier  a  farewell  meet- 
 ing in  Lydia's  house,  leave  for 
 Thessalonica,  passing  through 
 Amphipolis  and  ApoUonia. 
 At  Thessalonica  a  church  is 
 planted;  the  fire  of  persecu- 
 tion is  again  kindled  up ;  Paul 
 and  Sila~s  flee  to  Berea;  there 
 Tiniotheus  joins  them  again. 
 (Acts  xvi.  19-40;  xvii.  4—10.) 
 Luke  overtakes  them  still  later. 
 At  Thessalonica,  Paul,  as  usu- 
 al, commences  by  preaching  in 
 the  regu-lar  place  of  worship; 
 for  while  at  Philippi  they  were 
 constrained  to  worship  at  the 
 river's  side,  there  being  no 
 synagogue  there.  At  Thessa- 
 lonica tliere  was  one  at  least. 
 (Acts  xvii.  1,  2.)  But  not  con- 
 tented with  a  weekly  procla- 
 mation of  the  truth,  Paul  spoke 
 as  he  had  opportunities  to  the 
 heathen  population  and  their 
 families,  and  met  with  abun- 
 dant success,  as  well  among 
 the  proselytes  (Acts  xvii.  4)  as 
 among  the  idolaters,  (1  Thess. 
 i.  9 ;)  and  then  concluded  by 
 exhorting  and  comforting  them 
 privately  and  personally.  (1 
 Thess.  ii.  10,  11.) 
 
 MACHPELAH  (Gen.xxiii. 
 9.  17.)  A  field  and  cave  near 
 to  Hebron,  which  Abraham 
 purchased  for  a  burial  place, 
 
 MAH 
 
 and  where  he  and  his  wife  and 
 several  of  his  children  were 
 buried. 
 
 Mr.  Wliiting,  an  American 
 missionary,  visited  the  spot  in 
 the  spring  of  1835.  He  tella 
 us  it  is  situated  on  the  side  of  a 
 high  hill,  sloping  to  the  south- 
 west, and  that  over  the  cave, 
 which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 the  burial  place  of  the  patri- 
 archal family,is  built  a  mosque. 
 It  is  a  noble  structure,  and  re- 
 garded as  peculiarly  sacred. 
 It  was  built  by  Helen,  the 
 mother  of  Conslantine,  though 
 the  Moslems  say  it  was  built 
 by  Solomon.  From  the  summit 
 of  the  hill  is  a  fine  view  of  the 
 plains  of  Mamre.  Here  the 
 missionary  and  his  friends 
 thought  and  conversed  of  the 
 father  of  the  faithful,  who  tra- 
 versed these  plains  three  thou- 
 sand years  before,  and  here 
 they  read  in  Arabic  to  the  na- 
 tives around  them  the  twenty- 
 third  chapter  of  Genesis.  (See 
 Hebron.) 
 MADAI.  (See  Media.) 
 MADIAN.  (See  Midian.) 
 MAGDALA,  coasts  of.  (See 
 Dalmanutha.) 
 
 MAGICIANS.  (Gen.  xli.8.) 
 Interpreters  of  hieroglyphics, 
 or,  as  some  suppose,  interpret- 
 ers of  dreams.  In  later  times, 
 it  denoted  necromancers,  or 
 enchanters. 
 
 To  consult  magicians  was 
 forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law, 
 under  the  penally  of  death. 
 (Lev.  xix.  31 ;  xx.  6.  See  Wise 
 Men.) 
 MAGOG.  (See  Gog.) 
 MAHANAIM.  (Gen.xxxii. 
 2.)  A  town  in  the  territory  of 
 Gad,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
 river  Jabbok.  It  is  called  Ma- 
 hanaim  (or  the  host,  or  two 
 hosts)  from  the  vision  which 
 occurred  to  Jacob  on  that 
 
 recorded  in  the 
 
 n  tnat  spot, 
 above-cited 
 
 It  vC'as  distinguished  as  Ish- 
 bosheth's  capital,  (2  Sam.  ii.  8 
 —12.  29,)  and  as  the  place  to 
 413 
 
MAL 
 which  David  repaired  during 
 the  rebellion  and  usurpation 
 of  Absalom.    (2  Sam.  xvii.  24.) 
 
 MAKKEDAH,  (Josh.  x.  10,) 
 one  of  the  principal  cities  of 
 the  Canaanites,  was  allotted 
 to  Judah,  and  lay  south-west 
 of  Jerusalem.  There  was  a  re- 
 markable cave  here,  in  which 
 five  petty  kings  concealed 
 themselves,  but  were  disco- 
 vered by  Joshua,  and  put  to 
 an  icrnoniinious  death. 
 
 MAKTESH  (Zeph.  i.  11)  is 
 generally  supposed  to  refer  to 
 some  street  or  square  in  the 
 lower  part  of  the  city  of  Jeru- 
 salem, which  was  chiefly  inha- 
 bited by  merchants,or  occupied 
 for  commercial  purposes. 
 
 MALACHl.  (Mai.  1.1.)  Many 
 Jews  affirm  that  Malachi  signi- 
 fies only  an  angel  or  messenger, 
 {Malachi  Jehovah,  the  Lord^s 
 messenger,  as  in  Hag.  i.  13. 
 Mai.  iii.  1,)  and  that  the  author 
 of  this  book  is  Ezra  himself; 
 but  the  general  opinion  is,  that 
 Malachi  lived  about  four  hun- 
 dred years  before  Christ,  and 
 was  the  last  of  the  inspired 
 prophets  under  the  old  dispen- 
 sation. 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  last  in  the 
 order  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament;  and  it  contains 
 sharp  rebukes  of  the  sin  and 
 folly  of  the  Jews;  the  most 
 glowing  representations  of  the 
 Messiah's  advent;  and  pre- 
 dicts the  preparation  of  his 
 way  by  the  preaching  of  John 
 the  Baptist.  Malachi  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  contempo- 
 rary with  Nehemiah. 
 
 MALLOWS.  (Job  xxx.  4.) 
 Supposed  to  be  a  kind  of  bram- 
 ble without  thorns,  the  young 
 leaves  of  which,  resembling 
 lettuce,  are  gathered,  and  boil- 
 ed by  the  poor  as  food.  We 
 are  told  that  at  Bagdad  quan- 
 tities of  this  vegetable  are 
 hawked  about,  while  those  who 
 carry  it  cry,  Molachia,  Mola- 
 chia,  which  differs  little  from 
 the  Hebrew  word.  Many  saline 
 
 MAN 
 plants  are  found  In  the  deserts 
 of  Arabia,  and  some  are  of  opi- 
 nion  this  is  a  general  name 
 for  the  class.  Others  think 
 that  the  real  plant  intended 
 is  a  species  of  salt-wort;  to 
 which  opinion  the  Greek  ver- 
 sion of  the  word  gives  some 
 countenance. 
 
 MAMMON  (Matt.  vi.  24) 
 is  a  Syriac  word,  signifying 
 riches. 
 
 Mammon  of  tmRiGHXEOUS- 
 NESs,  (Luke  xvi.  9,)  as  it  standa 
 connected  in  this  passage,  may 
 mean,  that  we  should  so  wisely 
 use  the  mammon  of  unright- 
 eousness,  or  the  unsatisfying 
 riches  of  this  world,  that  we 
 may  secure  friends  in  God  and 
 Christ,  and  in  sinners  saved 
 and  lilessed  by  our  instrument- 
 ality. 
 
 MAMRE.    (See  Hebron.) 
 
 MAN,  (Gen.  i.  26,)  in  hia 
 physical  nature,  is  the  head 
 and  lord  of  the  animal  crea- 
 tion. (Gen.  i.  26-28.)  Though 
 of  one  blood,  (Acts  xvii.  26,) 
 yet,  as  a  race,  mankind  are 
 divided  into  various  nations 
 and  tribes,  distinguished  by 
 colour,  stature,  physiognomy, 
 &c.  &c.,  and  inhabiting  such 
 portions  of  the  earth  as  God 
 m  his  wise  providence  haa 
 assigned  to  them  respectively. 
 Man  was  created  in  the  image 
 and  after  the  likeness  of  God. 
 He  was  formed  of  the  dust  of  the 
 ground;  and,  besides  the  life 
 which  was  given  him  in  com- 
 mon with  other  animals,  he 
 received  immediately  from  hia 
 Creator  a  rational  and  immor- 
 tal soul,  distinguishing  him 
 from, and  elevating  him  incom- 
 parably above,  all  other  crea- 
 tures upon  earth ;  assimilating 
 him  to  the  author  of  his  being, 
 and  enduing  him  with  moral 
 affections,  dispositions,  and  ca- 
 pacities. 
 
 We  are  told  that  God  breath' 
 ed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath 
 of  life,  (or  lives ;)  which  proba- 
 bly means  not  only  the  power 
 416 
 
MAN 
 of  respiration,  by  which  animal 
 life  is  sustained,  but  that  he 
 was  at  the  same  time  furnijhed 
 with  those  high  spiritual  facul- 
 ties which  constiiuie  him  a 
 living  soul.    (See  Adam.) 
 
 Thus  created  in  the  image 
 and  after  the  likeness  of  God 
 himself,  man  was  placed  under 
 the  restrai  nis  of  the  d  1  vine  law; 
 but,  by  the  force  of  tempta- 
 tion, he  was  led  to  break 
 through  those  restraints,  and  so 
 became  an  orjject  of  the  divine 
 displeasure;  whereby  all  his 
 relations  and  prospects  were 
 com.pleiely  changed.  Fromihis 
 time,  the  character  of  the  first 
 man  and  the  character  of  God 
 were  placed  in  direct  opposi- 
 tion to  each  other ;  the  one 
 being  sinful,  and  the  other  in- 
 finitely holy.  And  this  dread- 
 ful event  has  in  like  manner 
 changed  the  condition  and 
 prosp'ecls  of  the  whole  race; 
 for,  since  that  hour,  sin  has 
 been  the  universal  character- 
 istic of  every  son  and  daughter 
 of  Adam,  (see  Sin  ;)  and  death 
 has  reigned  over  all  but  two 
 of  them. 
 
 Man  is  still  upon  the  earth 
 as  a  probationer.  He  is  under 
 the  moral  and  providential  go- 
 vernment of  the  divine  Being, 
 and  is  required  to  love  the 
 Lord  his  God  with  all  his 
 heart,  and  soul,  and  mind,  and 
 strength,  and  his  neighbour  as 
 himself. 
 
 Such  is  the  strength  of  the 
 depravity  of  his  heart,  that  he 
 feels  no  inclination  to  obey 
 this  law,  but  readily  yields  to 
 the  temptations  which  assail 
 him  to  disregard  and  violate  it. 
 If  he  has  correct  views  of  its 
 strictness  and  spirituality,  he 
 finds,  that  however  it  may  be 
 with  him  in  the  outward  act 
 and  in  the  sight  of  his  fellow- 
 men,  there  are  thoughts  and 
 intents  of  his  heart  which  it 
 condemns. 
 
 To  save  man  in  this  hopeless 
 ftiitremity,  God  sent  his  own 
 
 MAN 
 
 Son  into  the  world,  who  not 
 only  rendered  perfect  obedi- 
 ence to  the  divine  law,  but 
 bore  the  penalty  of  its  viola- 
 tion, and  thus  made  an  atone- 
 ment for  him  and  opened  the 
 way  by  which  believing  peni 
 tents  may  approach  unto  God, 
 and  receive  tne  forgiveness  of 
 their  sins,  and  be  restored  to 
 the  divine  favour.  And  not 
 only  has  he  thus  made  an 
 atonement  for  sin;  but,  upon 
 his  ascension  to  glory,  he  sent 
 down  the  precious  influences 
 of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  renew  and 
 sanctify  the  soul,  w  hile  he  him- 
 self ever  lives  to  make  inter- 
 cession  for  us. 
 
 Though  mankind,  therefore, 
 have  lost  the  image  of  God,  in 
 which  they  were  created,  and 
 have  exposed  themselves  to  the 
 dreadful  penally  of  the  divine 
 law  ;  yet,  by  repentance  and 
 faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  me- 
 diator between  God  and  man, 
 we  obtain  forgiveness  of  sin, 
 and,  through  free,  sovereign, 
 boundless  grace,  we  are  deli- 
 vered from  the  bondage,  guilt, 
 and  pollution  of  sin,  into  the 
 glorious  liberty  of  the  children 
 of  God,  and  are  made  heirs 
 of  God  and  Joint-heirs  with 
 Christ. 
 
 Obedience  to  God's  com- 
 mands,  and  entire,  cheerful 
 submission  to  his  authority, 
 constitute  the  evidence  or 
 fruits  of  this  faith ;  but  are  not, 
 in  any  sense  or  degree,  the 
 ground  or  primary  cause  of  oar 
 justification  in  the  sight  of 
 God. 
 
 Thus  we  have  presented  to 
 us,  in  the  history  of  man, 
 a  creature  once  pure,  pejfect, 
 and  immortal ;  then  debased, 
 polluted,  and  ruined  by  sin; 
 and  finally  restored  to  favour, 
 and  made  a  partaker  of  end- 
 less glory  and  blessedness,  by 
 a  scheme  of  mercy  which  not 
 only  preserves  unsullied  the 
 character  and  government  of 
 the  divine  Being,  but  eloriousiy 
 417 
 
MAN  MAN 
 
 illustrates   his    infinite    attri- 1  Comp.  Num.  i.  32,  33. 35,  and 
 
 buies,  and  at  the  same  time 
 requires  of  the  sinner  the  ex- : 
 ercise  of  all  his  powers  in  j 
 Gxjd's  service,  the  renuncia- 1 
 lion  of  all  merit  and  righteous- 
 ness on  his  own  part^  and  a 
 cheerful,  unreserved  submis- 
 sion of  himself,  and  all  that  he 
 is  and  has,  tj  the  disposal  of 
 his  Creator.  i 
 
 In  this  Slate  of  probation  or  I 
 trial,  all  men  are  subject  to  ' 
 affliction  and  temptation,  sick- ' 
 ness  and  death ;  but  after  this  . 
 stale  is  passed,  all  will  be  \ 
 judged  according  to  the  deeds  i 
 done  in  the  botly ;  the  right-  j 
 ecus,  or  those  who,  having ! 
 been  pardoned  and  sanctified, 
 have  loved  and  served  God, 
 will  be  received  into  his  pre- 
 sence, where  is  fulness  of  joy 
 and  pleasures  for  evennore; 
 while  those  who  neglect  the 
 means  and  refuse  the  offer  of 
 salvation,  will  be  driven  away 
 in  their  wickedness  into  outer 
 darkness,  where  are  weeping, 
 and  wailing,  and  gnashing  of 
 teeth;  and' these  will  be  re- 
 spectively the  eternal  and  un- 
 chamgeable  p:>nion  of  each 
 class.  (See  Christ.  See  also 
 The  Fikst  Man,  and  Sketch- 
 es FuoM  THE  Bible,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Man  of  sin.  (See  Anti- 
 christ.) 
 
 jMAN,  son  of.  (See  Son  of 
 Man.    See  also  Acts  vii.  56.) 
 
 MANASSEH.  1.  (Gen.  xli. 
 51.)  The  first-bom  of  Joseph. 
 When  he  and  his  brother 
 Ephraim  were  boys,  and  Jacob 
 their  erandfather  was  about  to 
 die,  Joseph  took  them  into  the 
 
 Eatfiarch's  presence  to  receive 
 is  blessing.  On  this  occasion  , 
 he  adopted  them  into  his  own  ; 
 family,  as  his  own  children,  ' 
 and  in  a  most  significant  and 
 interesting  manner,  predic  ed  \ 
 the  superiority  of  Ephraim  over 
 Manasseh,  as  it  respected  num-  j 
 bers,  &c.    (Gen.  xlviii.  &-20.  i 
 
 .  IS.  20.  Ps.  Ixxx.  2.) 
 
 On  their  way  to  Canaan,  the 
 Israelites  conquered  a  large 
 territory  east  of  the  Jordan , 
 and  some  of  them,  whose  pos- 
 sessions were  chiefly  in  cattle, 
 desired  to  have  their  portioa 
 assigned  them  among  the  rich 
 pasuires  and  fruiifuF  hills  of 
 Bashan  and  the  surrounding 
 country.  This  request  was 
 Eranted  ;  and  half  the  tribe  of 
 Manasseh  received  the  terri- 
 tory stretching  from  near  to 
 Cesarea  Philip"pi  along  the  Jor- 
 dan down  nearly  to  Ma  hanaim. 
 
 The  other  half  had  its  por- 
 tion on  the  west  of  the  Jordan 
 between  Ephraim  and  Issa- 
 char,  across  the  country  from 
 the  Jordan  to  the  Mediterra- 
 nean. This  tribe  possessed 
 small  tracts  within  the  bounds 
 of  Issachar  and  Asher. 
 
 2.  (2  Kings  XX.  21.)  Son  and 
 successor  of  Hezekiah,  king 
 of  Judah,  ascended  the  throne 
 at  the  age  of  twelve  years. 
 The  former  part  of  his  reign 
 was  distinguished  for  acts  of 
 daring  impiety  and  wanton 
 cruelly;  which  are  particu- 
 larly detailed  by  the  sacred 
 historian.  (2  Kings  xxi.)  For 
 these  sins,  in  which  he  per- 
 suaded his  subjects  to  partici- 
 pate, the  country  was  visit- 
 ed with  God's  judgments;  and 
 their  severity  and  desolation 
 are  described  in  the  strongest 
 figurative  language.  (2  Kings 
 xxi.  13.)  He  was  at  last  taken 
 captive  by  the  Assyrian  king, 
 and  ignominiously  iransporte'd 
 to  Babylon.  Upon  his  repent- 
 ance and  prayer,  however,  he 
 was  liberated,  and  returned  to 
 his  capital,  where  he  died, 
 after  having  done  much  to  re- 
 pair the  evils  of  his  former 
 life.  The  term  of  his  reign 
 was  fifiy-five  years.  (2Chron. 
 xxxiii.  1—20.) 
 
 IVIANDRAKES.    (Sol.  Song 
 vii.  13.)    It  is  uncertain,  what 
 413 
 
MAN 
 
 MAN 
 
 plant  is  intended  by  ine  He- 1  The  appearance  of  the  plant 
 Brew  word,  which  is  translated  '  known  in  modern  limes  by 
 mandrakes  in  the  above  pas-  I  this  name  is  represented  in 
 sage,  and  in  Gen.  xxx.  14—16.  |  the  subjoined  cut. 
 
 Wl.at  is  generally  called  the 
 May-apple  is  also  often  called 
 mandrake,  and  bears  a  fruit 
 Bomewhal  resembling  lemons. 
 
 We  know  that  a  plant  of  this 
 name  is  now  common  in  the 
 east ;  its  fruit  ripens  from  May 
 to  June,  and  is  of  the  size  of 
 small  apples,  and  in  its  gene- 
 ral appearance  like  a  melon. 
 To  what  degree  (if  any)  it  pos- 
 sesses the  properties  ascribed 
 to  it  by  the  ancients  we  know 
 not;  certainly  no  such  proper- 
 ties belong  to  what  we  call  the 
 mandrake. 
 
 MANEH.  (See  Measures.) 
 
 MANNA.  (Ex.  xvi.  15.)  A 
 substance  miraculously  fur- 
 nished to  the  children  of  Israel 
 on  their  journey  through  the 
 wilderness,  and  designed  as  a 
 substitute  for  bread,  the  mate- 
 rial for  which  they  could  not 
 ruse  during  their  wanderings. 
 
 It  is  called  the  bread  rained 
 from  heaven,  Ex.  xvi.  4. 
 
 The  most  remarkable  things 
 about  the  manna  of  the  Is- 
 raelites were,  (1.)  That  dou- 
 ble  the  quantity  was  supplied 
 on  the  day  precedins  the  Sab- 
 bath, or  seventh  dayi  (2.)  That 
 on  the  Sabbath,  or  seventh  day, 
 none  was  furnished ;  (3.)  That 
 what  they  kept  from  the  sixth 
 day  to  the  seventh  was  sweet 
 and  good,  while  what  they 
 kept  from  any  other  day  to  the 
 next  day  bred  wonns,  and  be- 
 came offensive.  These  mira- 
 cles, it  should  be  remembered, 
 were  all  wrought  in  attestation 
 of  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath. 
 
 The  manna  of  the  Jews  is 
 described  as  a  small,  round 
 thing,  as  small  as  the  hoar- 
 frost'on  the  around  ;  that  i7  teas 
 like  coriander  seed,  tchite,  ana 
 the  taste  of  it  like  tcafers  made 
 419 
 
MAN 
 
 vnth  honey.  (Ex.  xvi.  14.  31.) 
 Wafers  were  small,  ihin  cakes 
 of  fine  flour,  mingled  with  oil, 
 and  used  in  various  offerlnss. 
 (Lev.  ii.  4;  vii.  12.)  If  to  this 
 mixture  was  added  a  portion 
 of  honey,  there  would  be  the 
 nourishmeniof  iheflour,the  fla- 
 vour of  fresh  oil,  and  the  sweet- 
 ness of  honey.  The  original 
 word  furnishes  no  clew  to  the 
 nature  of  the  substance.  It  is 
 said,  that  when  the  Israelites 
 first  saw  it,  they  exclaimed,  It 
 is  manna  ;  for  they  knew  not 
 what  it  was.    Some  have  inter- 
 
 Sreted  it  to  mean  prepared  food. 
 f  course,  we  must  be  satisfied 
 with  the  description  given  by 
 the  sacred  historian.  "As  to  the 
 size  and  colour,  it  was  proba- 
 bly that  of  the  coarsest  jiarti- 
 cles  of  white  frost,  or  the  finest 
 hailstones,  nearly  resembling 
 sleet.  It  was  ground  in  mills, 
 or  beaten  in  a  mortar,  then 
 placed  in  pans  in  the  shape  of 
 cakes,  ana  baked.  In  gather- 
 ing this  food,  each  was  per- 
 mitted to  take  what  was  ne- 
 cessary for  his  own  use,  not 
 exceeding  an  omer  or  about 
 three  quarts  for  each  member 
 of  the  family.  If  more  than 
 this  should  be  collected  by  ex- 
 traordinary industry,  the  sur- 
 plus was  to  be  distributed  to 
 those  who  had  less. 
 
 For  forty  years  this  miracu- 
 lous supply  of  food  was  fur- 
 nished daily  to  between  three 
 and  four  millions  of  people. 
 (Deut  xxix.  0,  6)  It  ceased 
 while  they  were  encamped  at 
 Gilgal,  immediately  after  they 
 had  celebrated  the  passover 
 for  the  first  time  in  the  land 
 of  promise.  (Josh.  v.  10.  12.)  It 
 is  not  improbable  that  the  usu- 
 al quantity  of  animal  food  was 
 consumed.  The  manna  was  a 
 substitute  fir  bread,  which  is 
 the  staff  of  life.  To  comme- 
 morate this  long-continued  and 
 wonderful  miracle,  Moses  was 
 instructed  that  a  golden  pot 
 should  be  provided,  (Ex.  xvi. 
 
 MAN 
 33.  Heb.  ix.  4,)  and  that  an 
 omer  (or  one  man's  portion/ 
 of  the  manna  should  be  put 
 up  for  preservation,  and  placed 
 in  or  near  the  ark,  that  sue 
 ceeding  generations  might  see 
 with  their  own  eyes  the  very 
 substance  on  which  their  fa- 
 thers were  miraculously  fed  in 
 their  long  and  perilous  jour- 
 ney ings  from  Egypt  to  Canaan. 
 The  substance  known  to  us 
 as  manna  is  so  called  from  its 
 supposed  resemblance  to  the 
 manna  of  Israel.  The  best  of 
 it  is  brought  from  Syria,  Ara- 
 bia, and  Persia.  It  falls,  or  is 
 drawn  from  a  tree  or  shrub,  in 
 various  ways;  and  the  Arabs 
 boil  and  strain  it,  and  then 
 use  it  as  honey  on  their  bread 
 or  cakes.  The  manna  of  Israel 
 was  essentially  different  from 
 the  natural  manna  in  a  variety 
 of  particulars.  The  natural 
 manna  is  not  found  in  the  de- 
 sert ;  it  falls  only  in  the  spring; 
 it  is  said  not  to  melt  m  the 
 sun ;  it  does  not  breed  worms, 
 and  become  offensive  if  kept 
 from  day  to  day.  It  cannot  be 
 ground  or  beaten  in  a  mortar, 
 as  the  manna  of  the  Israelites 
 was.  It  has  medicinal  proper- 
 ties, which  that  had  not ;  it  is 
 produced  on  every  day  alike; 
 and  it  comes  at  the  very  season 
 of  the  year  when  the  manna 
 of  Israel  ceased.  The  Israel- 
 ites never  saw  it  liefore,  nor 
 has  it  ever  appeared  again,  as 
 we  infer  from  com  paring  Deut. 
 viii.  3.  16,  with  Ex.  xvi.^lS.  32, 
 33. 
 
 A  very  reputable  eastern  tra- 
 veller gives  us  the  following 
 account  of  modern  manna  in 
 Arabia : 
 
 "  It  is  from  the  tamarisk,  or 
 tarfa,  that  the  manna  is  ob- 
 tained.  This  substance  is  call- 
 I  ed  by  the  Bedouins  mann,  and 
 I  accurately  resembles  the  de- 
 j  scription  of  manna  given  in 
 [  the  Scriptures.  In  the  month 
 i  of  June,  it  drops  from  the  thorns 
 '  of  the  tamarisk  upon  the  fallen 
 
MAN 
 twig3,leaves,  and  ihorns,which 
 always  cover  the  ground  be- 
 neath that  tree  in  the  natural 
 state;  the  manna  is  collected 
 before  sunrise,when  it  is  coagu- 
 lated; but  he  says  it  dissolves 
 as  soon  as  the  sun  shines  upon 
 it.  The  Arabs  clean  away  the 
 leaves,  dirt,  (Sec.  which  adhere 
 to  it,  boil  it,  strain  it  through  a 
 coarse  piece  of  cloth,  and  put 
 it  in  leathern  skins.  In  this 
 way  they  preserve  it  till  the 
 following  year,  and  use  it  as 
 they  do  noney,  to  pour  over 
 unleavened  bread,  or  to  dip 
 their  bread  into.  I  could  not 
 learn  that  they  ever  made  it 
 into  cakes  or  loaves.  The 
 manna  is  found  only  in  years 
 when  copious  rains  have  fal- 
 len ;  sometimes  it  is  not  pro- 
 duced at  all.  I  saw  none  of  it 
 among  the  Arabs,  but  I  obtain- 
 ed a  small  piece  of  the  la.st 
 year's  produce,  in  the  convent, 
 (of  mount  Sinai.)  where,  hav- 
 ing been  kept'  in  the  cool 
 shade  and  moderate  temper- 
 ature of  that  place,  it  had 
 become  quite  solid,  and  form- 
 ed a  small  cake ;  it  became 
 soft  when  kept  some  time  in 
 \he  hand  ;  if  placed  in  the 
 sun  for  five  minutes,  it  dis- 
 solved ;  but  when  restored  to 
 a  cool  place,  it  became  solid 
 again  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
 In  the  season  at  which  the 
 Arabs  gather  it,  it  never  ac- 
 quires that  state  of  hardness 
 which  will  allow  of  its  being 
 pounded,  as  the  Israelites  are 
 said  to  have  done,  in  Num.  xi. 
 8.  Its  colour  is  a  dirty  yellow  ; 
 and  the  piece  which  I  saw  was 
 still  mixed  with  bits  of  tama- 
 risk leaves ;  its  taste  is  agreea- 
 ble, somewhat  aromatic,  and 
 as  sweet  as  honey.  If  eaten  in 
 any  considerable  quantity,  it 
 is  said  to  be  slightly  medicinal. 
 The  quantity  of  manna  col- 
 lected at  present,  even  in  sea- 
 sons when  the  most  copious 
 rains  fall,  is  trifling,  perhaps 
 not  amountinsr  to  more  tlian 
 
 MAO 
 
 five  or  six  hundred  pounds.  It 
 is  entirely  consumed  among 
 the  Bedouins,  who  consider  it 
 the  greatest  dainty  which  their 
 country  aflfards.  Tlie  harvest 
 is  usually  in  June,  and  lasts 
 far  about  six  weeks." 
 
 Manna  is  called  the  corn  of 
 heaven,  and  angels'' food,  (Ps. 
 lxxviii.24,-25,)  perliaps  in  allu- 
 sion to  the  mode  by  which  it 
 was  supplied. 
 
 The  phrase  hidden  manna 
 (Rev.  ii.  1~)  figuratively  de- 
 scribes the  support  which 
 Christ  furnishes  to  the  true 
 believer,  of  which  the  world 
 do  not  and  cannot  partake. 
 (Comp.  John  vi.  49.  51.) 
 
 MANOAH,  (Judg.  xiii.  2,)  the 
 father  of  Samson,  was  born  at 
 Zorah.  In  the  absence  of  Ma- 
 noah,  an  angel  appeared  to  his 
 wife,  and  predicted  the  birth 
 of  Samson,  describing  particu- 
 larly the  mannerof  his  life, and 
 the  chief  purpose  for  which  he 
 should  be  born.  Manoah  pray- 
 ed for  a  repetition  of  the  visit. 
 The  angel  again  appeared.and 
 Manoah  had  an  interview  with 
 him  ;  and,  when  he  was  about 
 to  depart,  proposed  to  prepare 
 a  kid  for  him,  that  he  might 
 partake  of  the  hospitality  of 
 his  house;  but  the  angel  de- 
 clined taking  any  food,  and 
 ;  told  him  if  the  kid  was  for  an 
 otfering,  it  must  be  to  the  Lord. 
 The  kid  was  prepared  as  a 
 sacrifice,  and  offered  upon  a 
 rock.  When  the  flame  from 
 this  rude  altar  ascended  to- 
 wards heaven,  the  anael  pass- 
 ed upward  with  it.  "^lanoah 
 and  his  wife,  witne.ssing  this 
 wonderful  scene,  fell  upon 
 their  faces  to  the  ground.  He 
 was  disposed  to  construe  the 
 visit  of  the  angel  unfavoura- 
 bly; but  his  wife  more  justly 
 regarded  the  emblematical  ac- 
 ceptance of  the  sacrifice  as  a 
 token  for  good ;  and  so  it 
 proved. 
 
 MAON,  (1  Sam.  xxv.  2,)  dis- 
 tinguished as  the  residence  of 
 
MAR 
 
 Nabal,  was  on  the  southern 
 boundary  of  Judca. 
 
 Wilderness  of,  (1  Sam. 
 xxiii.  25,)  was  in  the  south- 
 ern pan  of  Judah,  south  of 
 the  wilderness  of  Ziph,  and 
 near  the  town  of  Maon,  and 
 extended  to  the  mountains  of 
 Idumea.  It  was  in  the  wil- 
 derness of  Maon  that  David 
 concealed  himself  when  the 
 Ziphiies  were  seeking  his  de- 
 struction. 
 
 MAKAH.  (Ex.  XV.  23.)  A 
 place  on  the  line  of  the  march 
 of  the  Israelites,  at  which  tit- 
 ter water  was  made  palata- 
 ble hy  casting  into  it  a  tree 
 which  God  designated  to  Mo- 
 ses. Whether  the  etfect  was 
 miraculous,  or  only  the  indi- 
 cation to  Moses  of  a  particular 
 tree  which  was  capable  of  pro- 
 ducinsi  it,  is  uncertain.  The 
 word  Marah,  signifying  bitter- 
 ness, was  adopted  by  Naomi, 
 as  applicable  to  her.se"lf,in  view 
 of  her  many  sorrows.  (Ruth  i. 
 20) 
 
 The  well  of  Hawara,  on  the 
 eastern  coast  of  the  gulf  of 
 Suez,  isspokenof  by  travellers 
 as  containing  bitter  water,  and 
 corresponds,  in  distance,  &c., 
 to  the  Blarah  of  the  sacred 
 history. 
 
 MARANATHA.  (See  Ana- 
 thema.) 
 
 MARBLE.  (Rev.  xviii.  12.) 
 Aspecies  of  limestone,  remark- 
 able for  its  durability,  and  ca- 
 pable ofreceiving  a  high  polish. 
 It  was  probably  used  in  very 
 early  times  for  building  mate- 
 rials, (1  Kings  vi.  7.36;  vii.9— 
 12.  1  Chron.  xxix.  2.)  and  for 
 many  kinds  of  vessels.  The 
 colours  of  marble  are  various 
 and  beautiful,  and  pieces  of 
 ail  sizes  may  be  wrought  to- 
 gether so  as  to  resemble  a 
 beautiful  painting.  Such  was 
 probably  the  pavement  and 
 columns  of  the  Persian  palace, 
 described  in  Esth.  i.  6. 
 
 MARCUS.  (See  John 
 Mark.) 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARESHAH.  (Josh.  xv.  44./ 
 A  town  of  Judah,  famous  as  the 
 scene  of  ilie  battle  between 
 Asa  king  of  Judah,  and  Zerak 
 king  of  Ethiopia,  with  his  nu- 
 merous army.  It  was  also  the 
 residence  of  the  prophet  Mi- 
 cah.   (Mic.  i.  15.) 
 
 MARK.  (Acts  xii.  12.)  Gene- 
 rally supposed  to  be  the  same 
 with  Marcus,  (1  Pet.  v.  13;)  but 
 whether  he  was  the  same  with 
 John  Mark  (Acts  xv.  37—39. 
 Col.  iv.  10.  2  Tim.  iv.  11)  is 
 not  clear.    (See  John  Mark.) 
 
 Gospel  by.  The  second  in 
 order  of  the  books  of  the  New 
 Testament.  It  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  written  between 
 A.  D.  56  and  65,  and  it  con- 
 tains the  substance  of  the  pub- 
 lic discourses  and  private  con- 
 versations of  our  Saviour,  olv 
 tained  in  a  great  measure,  as 
 some  have  suppo.sed,  from  the 
 lips  of  the  apostle  Peter,  whose 
 intimate  companion  he  was 
 for  several  years.  It  is  not 
 unlikely  that  the  apostle  him- 
 self had  an  opportunity  to  ex- 
 amine it,  inasmuch  as  many 
 things  commendatory  of  him, 
 mentioned  in  the  other  gospels, 
 are  omitted  in  this.  There 
 are  a  sufficient  number  of  im- 
 portant differences  between 
 this  gospel  and  the  other  three, 
 to  show  that  this  is  not  an 
 abridgmentor  compilation  from 
 them,  or  either  of  them  ;  and 
 among  these  we  may  mention 
 two  miracles  which  are  not  re- 
 corded in  any  other  gospel ; 
 and  yet  there  are  but  twenty- 
 four  verses  in  ]\Iark  which 
 contain  any  important  fact  not 
 menti  med  by  some  other  evan 
 gelist. 
 
 MARKETS,  (Matt.  xi.  16,) 
 or  MARKET-PLACE.  (Luke 
 vii.  32.)  The  markets  of  east 
 em  towns  occupy  one  side  of 
 an  area,  the  other  sides  being 
 occupied  by  public  buildings, 
 temjiles,  courts,  and  offices  of 
 various  kinds.  Hence  they 
 were  the  place  of  general  con 
 
MAR 
 
 course.  Laws  were  promul- 
 gated here ;  questions  of  philo- 
 sophy and  public  interest  were 
 discussed ;  and,  it  being  ge- 
 nerally in  or  near  the  gate  of 
 the  city,  or  the  thoroughfare,  as 
 we  might  call  it,  judicial  inves- 
 tigations were  made  here.  (Acts 
 xvi.  19;  xvii.  17.  See  Gate.) 
 
 The  country  peoj^le  would 
 be  found  at  this  point  in  the 
 greatest  numbers,  as  well  as 
 judges  and  magistrates.  Hence 
 the  force  of  the  expression, 
 Mark  xii.  38. 
 
 The  market-places  would 
 embrace  the  whole  area;  and 
 here  a  crowd  of  children  and 
 idlers  would  be  found  amusing 
 themselves.  To  reprove  the 
 inconsistency  -^f  the  Pharisees, 
 in  rejectinff  Christ  for  doing, 
 as  they  said,  the  very  things 
 which  they  rejected  John  for  not 
 doiu^  he  compares  them  to  a 
 company  of  children  who  are 
 imitating  the  customs  of  their 
 elders  on  public  occasions,  as 
 by  a  mock  marriage  or  a  mock 
 funeral.  On  the  former  of  these 
 occasions,  it  was  customary  to 
 express  joy  and  congratulation 
 by  music  and  dancing;  and  on 
 the  latter,  to  employ  persons 
 to  lead  in  loud  lamentations^ 
 In  the  children's  sport,  a  few- 
 tried  to  persuade  the  rest  to 
 join  in  some  joyful  measure, 
 but  they  preferred  to  mourn; 
 and  then  they  commenced  a 
 lamentation,  but  they  prefer- 
 red the  music.  So  perverse 
 and  inconsistent  were  they ,that 
 they  could  be  pleased  with  no- 
 thing. 
 
 The  market-place  was  re- 
 sorted to  by  labourers  who 
 sought  employment.  An  in- 
 telligent traveller  tells  us  of 
 a  scene  he  witnessed  in  Per- 
 sia, where  a  great  number 
 of  peasants  assembled  in  the 
 market-place  before  sunrise, 
 with  their  spades  in  their 
 hands,  waiting  to  be  employ- 
 ed ;  and  when  he  passed  the 
 same  place  at  night,  some  of 
 
 jmar 
 
 them  were  still  there,  waiting 
 forsomeihingtodo.  (See  Matt. 
 XX.  1-16.) 
 
 MARRIAGE  (Matt.  xxii.  2) 
 is  a  divine  institution.  (Gen. 
 ii.  21 — 2o.)  It  is  also  a  civil 
 contract,  uniting  one  man  and 
 one  woman  together  in  tlie  re- 
 lation of  husband  and  wife. 
 Among  the  benefits  of  the  insfi- 
 lution'are,  (1.)  Domestic  com- 
 fort ;  (2.)  Provision  for  the 
 health,  education,  and  support 
 of  children;  (3.)  The  distri- 
 bution of  society  into  familie 
 or  small  communities,  with  a 
 master  or  governor  over  them 
 who  has  natural  as  well  as 
 lesal  authority ;  (-1.)  The  secu- 
 rity whicli  arises  from  parental 
 anxiety,  and  the  confinement 
 of  children  to  permanent  habi- 
 tations ;  and,  (5.)  The  encou- 
 ragement of  industry. 
 
 No  sins  are  more  frequently 
 and  pointedly  condemned  by 
 the  Bible,  than  such  as  violate 
 or  impair  the  sacredness  of  the 
 marriage  relation;  and  nothing 
 is  wanting  to  raise  this  to  the 
 highest,  purest,  and  most  sa- 
 cred relation  in  which  two 
 human  beings  can  stand  to 
 each  other,  but  obedience  to 
 the  precepts  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
 tures on  this  subject. 
 
 In  the  celebration  of  mar- 
 riages in  the  east  at  the  present 
 day,  many  of  the  peculiar  cus- 
 toms of  ancient  times  are  ob- 
 served. At  a  Hindoo  marriage, 
 says  a  modern  missionary,  the 
 procession  of  which  I  saw  some 
 years  ago,  the  bridegroom  came 
 from  a  "distance,  and  the  brida 
 lived  at  Serampore,  to  which 
 place  the  bridegroom  was  to 
 come  by  water.  After  waiting 
 two  or  three  hours,  at  length, 
 near  midnight,  it  was  announc- 
 ed, in  the  very  words  of  Scrip- 
 ture, Behold,  the  bridegroom 
 comelh ;  go  ye  out  to  meet  him. 
 All  the  persms  ernpliyed  now 
 lighted  their  lamps,  and  ran 
 with  them  in  their  hands  to  fill 
 up  their  stations  in  the  proces- 
 423 
 
MAR 
 
 elon;  some  of  them  had  lost 
 iheir  lights,  and  were  unpre- 
 pared, but  it  was  then  too  late 
 toseek  them,  and  the  cavalcade 
 moved  forward  to  the  house  of 
 the  bride ;  at  which  place  the 
 company  entered  a  large  and 
 splendidly  illuminated  area, 
 before  the  house,  covered  with 
 an  awilng,  where  a  great  mul- 
 titude )f  friends,  dressed  in 
 their  best  apparel,  were  seated 
 upon  mats.  The  bridegroom 
 was  carried  in  the  arms  of  a 
 friend,  and  placed  in  a  superb 
 seat  in  the  midst  of  the  com- 
 pany, where  he  sat  a  short 
 time,  and  then  went  into  the 
 house,  the  door  of  which  was 
 immediately  shut,  and  guarded 
 by  sepoys.  I  and  others  expos- 
 tulated with  the  door-keepers, 
 but  in  vain.  Never  was  I  so 
 struck  with  our  Lord's  beautiful 
 parable  as  at  this  moment — 
 And  the  door  was  shut. 
 
 The  journal  of  one  of  the  Ame- 
 rican missionaries  in  Greece 
 contains  an  account  of  an  Ar- 
 menian wedding  which  she 
 attended  ;  and,  after  describing 
 the  dresses  and  previous  cere- 
 monies, she  says,  that  at  twelve 
 o'clock  at  nig'ht,  precisely,  the 
 cry  was  made  by  some  ol  the 
 attendants.  Behold,  the  bride- 
 groom  coMeth;  and  immedi- 
 ately five  or  six  men  set  otT  to 
 meet  him. 
 
 The  custom  of  crying  and 
 shouting  at  the  approach  of  the 
 bridegroom  seems  to  have  been 
 continued  from  the  days  of  our 
 Saviour. 
 
 (For  a  veiy  interesting  and 
 minute  account  of  the  laws  and 
 customs  of  ancient  nations,  re- 
 specting marriage,  polygamy, 
 divorce,  &c.  &c.,  the  ceremo- 
 nies attending  an  eastern  wed- 
 ding, and  the  figurative  allu- 
 sion's of  the  sacred  writers  to 
 these  topics,  the  student  is  re- 
 ferred to  Biblical  ANTiaui. 
 vol.  i.ch.  vi.§  1;  OMAF,pp.  145 
 — 152;  and  Evening  Recrea- 
 
 MAR 
 
 TioNs,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  89—99,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 It  was  the  custom  to  crown 
 the  married  couple.  Hence  the 
 allusion,  Sol.  Song  iii.  11.  Isa 
 xlix.  18,  where  the  word  orna 
 ment  might  as  well  be  rendered 
 crown.    (See  Dowry.) 
 
 MARS-HILL.     (See  Arbo- 
 
 PAGITE.) 
 
 MARTHA.  (John  xi.l.)  The 
 sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary,  and 
 the  mistress  of  their  family  at 
 Bethany.  (Luke  x.  38—40.) 
 She  is  always  named  before 
 Mary,  and  was  probably  the 
 elder.  There  is  no  question 
 of  her  piety.  (John  xi.  5.  25— 
 27.    See  Lazarcs,  Mary.) 
 
 MARTYR.  (Acts  xxii.  20.) 
 One  who  bears  witness  to  the 
 truth  at  the  expense  of  his  life. 
 The  word  occurs  thrice  only  in 
 the  Scriptures. 
 
 MARY,  1.  (Luke  i  27,) 
 the  mother  of  our  Lord,  was 
 cousin  to  Elisabeth,  the  mother 
 of  John  the  Baptist.  (Luke  i. 
 36.)  The  sacred  history  records 
 but  few  incidents  of  her  life, 
 after  the  infancy  of  the  Messi- 
 ah. She  was  present  at  the 
 marriage  in  Cana,  (John  ii.  .'•',) 
 where  he  WTought  a  miiacle. 
 She  also  sought  an  interview 
 with  him  in  company  with 
 others  of  the  family,  when  he 
 was  preaching  to  a  crowd  in  a 
 country  place.  (.Luke  viii.  19, 
 20.)  She  was  present  at  his 
 crucifixion,  (John  xix.  25,)  and 
 was  there  commended  by  the 
 expiring  Redeemer  to  the  filial 
 kindness  and  attention  of  the 
 beloved  John  ;  and  she  is  men- 
 tioned as  one  among  the  pray- 
 ing company  in  the  upper  room 
 at  Jerusalem,  after  the  ascen 
 sion  of  our  Saviour.  (Acts  i.  14.) 
 
 2.  (John  xix.  25.)  The  sister 
 of  the  above  Mary,  the  wife  of 
 Cleophas,  and  mother  of  James 
 the  less,  Simon,  Joses,  and 
 Judas.  They  were  of  course 
 cousins,and  are  called  brethren 
 of  our  Lord.  (Matt.  xiii.  55; 
 424 
 
MAR 
 
 xxvii.56.  Markvi.3.)  She  was 
 present  at  the  crucifixion  and 
 burial  of  our  Lord,  (Matt,  xxvii. 
 56.  CI,)  was  amon^  those  who 
 went  to  embalm  him,  (Mark 
 xvi.  1 — 10,)  was  among  the 
 first  to  whom  the  news  of  his 
 resurrection  was  announced, 
 (Luke  xxiv.  6,)  and  on  her  way 
 to  the  disciples  with  the  intel- 
 ligence, she  met  her  risen 
 Lord  and  worshipped  him. 
 (Matt,  xxviii.  9.) 
 
 3.  (Actsxii.l2.)  The  mother 
 of  John  Mark,  a  godly  wo- 
 man, residing  at  Jerusalem,  at 
 whose  house  the  disciples 
 were  convened  the  night 
 Peter  was  miraculously  de- 
 livered from  prison. 
 
 4.  (Johnxi.  1.)  The  sisterol 
 Lazarus,  and  a  devoted  friend 
 and  disciple  of  our  Saviour. 
 She  evinced  her  affection  for 
 him  at  the  supper  in  Bethany, 
 a  fewdays  before  his  crucifix- 
 ion,(John  xii.  3.)  and  received 
 from  him  the  testimony  that 
 shc'had  chosen  the  good  part 
 which  should  not  be  taken 
 from  her.     (Luke  x.  41,  42.) 
 
 5.  (Luke  Ym.2.)MarijMagda- 
 lene,  or  Mary  of  Magdala.  So 
 called,  probably, from  the  fact 
 that  she  was  a  native  or  resi- 
 dent of  the  village  of  Magdala. 
 
 Thegeneralimpression  that 
 she  was  an  unchaste  woman 
 isentirely  without  foundation. 
 There  is  nothing  to  warrant 
 the  opinion  that  she  was  not  a 
 woman  ingoodcircumstances 
 andof  unblemished  character. 
 Having  been  relieved  of  a  de- 
 moniacal possession  by  thedi- 
 vine  power  of  our  Saviour,she 
 became  hisfollower,(Lukeviii. 
 2, 3,)  and  evinced  her  attach- 
 ment to  him  and  his  cause  to 
 the  very  last.  She  was  at  his 
 crucifixion  (John  xix.  25)  and 
 burial,  (Mark  xv.  47,)  and  she 
 was  among  lliose  who  had  pre- 
 pared the  materials  to  embalm 
 him,  (Mark  xvi.  1,)  and  who 
 first  went  to  the  sepulchre  after 
 3G* 
 
 MAT 
 
 the  resurrection;  and  what  is 
 particularly  interesting  in  her 
 history,  she  was  the  first  to 
 whom  the  risen  Redeemer  ap- 
 peared, (Mark  xvi.  9;)  and  his 
 conversation  with  her  is  ex- 
 ceeded in  interest  and  pathos 
 by  no  passage  of  history,  sacred 
 or  profane.    (John  xx.  11—18.) 
 
 MASCHIL  is  found  in  the 
 title  or  inscription  of  Psalm 
 xxxii.and  several  other  psalms, 
 and  probably  means  an  in- 
 structive song. 
 
 MATTHEW,  (Matt.  ix.  9,) 
 called  also  Levi,  (Mark  ii.  14,) 
 was  a  native  of  Galilee,  and, 
 though  a  Jew,  was  employed 
 as  a  tax-gatherer  under  the 
 provincial  government  of  Ju- 
 dea.  He  was  called  from  his 
 official  occupation  into  the  ser- 
 vice of  Christ,  entertained  him 
 at  his  house,  (Mark  ii.  15,)  be- 
 came one  of  the  twelve  apos 
 ties,  and  was  engaged  in  the 
 propagation  of  the  gospel  after 
 our  Saviour's  ciscension.  (Acts 
 i.  13.)  There  is  no  certainty 
 respecting  the  time,  place,  or 
 manner  of  his  death. 
 
 Gospel  of,  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  written  five  years 
 after  Christ's  ascension,or  about 
 the  year  38.  It  existed  at  a  very 
 early  period,  both  in  the  He- 
 brew and  Greek  languages;  and 
 some  suppose  it  was  first  writ- 
 ten in  Hebrew,  and  translated 
 into  Greek  by  Matthew  himself 
 or,  at  least,  during  his  lifetime. 
 There  is  internal  evidence  that 
 it  was  designed  particularly  for 
 the  use  of  the  Jews.  Matthew, 
 as  appears  from  the  preceding 
 article,  was  early  called  into 
 the  company  of  Christ's  disci- 
 ples, and  was  a  constant  at- 
 tendant upon  his  ministry  to 
 its  close.  His  is  the  earliest  of 
 the  four  histories,  and  certainly 
 has  the  characteristics  of  a  nar- 
 rative written  soon  after  the 
 events  happened.  The  visit  of 
 the  wise  men;  the  slaughter 
 of  the  infants  ;  the  parable  of 
 the  ten  virgins;  the  resurrec- 
 425 
 
MEA 
 lion  of  ihe  saints  at  the  time  of 
 the  crucifixion ;  and  some  other 
 facts  are  related  by  Matthew, 
 which  are  nut  mentioned  by 
 either  of  the  other  evangelists. 
 (See  Union  Questions,  vols.  i. 
 ii.,  and  Help  to  the  Gospels, 
 both  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 MATTHIAS.  (Acts  i.  23.)  A 
 disciple  of  Christ,  and  a  con- 
 stant attendant  on  his  travels 
 and  ministry,  from  its  com- 
 mencement until  his  ascen- 
 sion. (Acts  i.  21,  22.)  He  was 
 appointed  to  supply  the  va- 
 cancy in  the  company  of  the 
 twelve  apostles,  occasioned  by 
 the  apostacy  of  Judas. 
 
 MAZZAROTH.  (Jobxxxvili. 
 32.)  Ccmst  thou  bring  forth 
 Mazzaroth  in  his  seasoti?  was 
 one  of  the  questions  by  which 
 God  reproved  the  weakness 
 and  presumption  of  his  servant 
 Job.  It  is  supposed  by  some 
 to  mean  the  twelve  signs  of 
 the  ziidiac;  each  of  which  is 
 brought  forth  in  its  season  by 
 the  wisdom  and  power  of  God 
 only. 
 
 MEALS,  MEAL -TIME. 
 (Ruth  ii.  14.)  The  meals  of  the 
 orientals,  both  ancient  and  mo- 
 dern, may  be  compared  to  our 
 dinner  and  supper.  (Luke  xiv. 
 12.)  What  is  here  called  din- 
 ner might  nevertheless  as  well 
 be  called  breakfast ;  far  it  is  a 
 light  meal,  and  is  taken  at  an 
 early  hour.  In  Persia,  they 
 partake  of  this  first  meal  be- 
 tween ten  and  eleven  o'clock 
 in  the  forenoon;  and  it  con- 
 sists principally  of  fruits,  milk, 
 cheese,  and  confectionary. 
 
 The  principal  meal  of  the 
 day  is  the  supper.  Among  the 
 Romans,  it  anciently  took 
 place  about  three  o'clock  ;  but 
 in  the  east,  as  at  the  present 
 day  in  Persia,  about  six  or 
 seven  in  the  evening,  in  order 
 to  avoid  the  enfeebling  heat  of 
 the  afternoon.  (Mark  vi.  21. 
 Luke  xiv.  16.  24.    John  xii.2.) 
 
 Before  going  to  meals  it  was 
 tommo  1  to  wash  the  hands ;  a 
 
 MEA 
 
 custom  rendered  necessary  by 
 their  method  of  partaking  of 
 food.  The  same  practice  ob- 
 tained among  the  Greeks  and 
 Romans  at  an  early  date,  and 
 still  prevails  in  the  east.  (See 
 Eating.) 
 
 The  Pharisees  had  exalted 
 this  into  a  religious  duty,  and 
 affected  to  be  greatly  scandal- 
 ized at  the  omission  of  it  by 
 the  disciples  of  our  Lord.  (Matt. 
 XV.  2.  20.    Luke  xi.  38  ) 
 
 In  Samuel's  time,  the  people 
 would  not  eat  until  he  had 
 blessed  the  sacrifice ;  and  this 
 is  the  first  notice  in  Scripture 
 of  a  blessing  on  food.  (1  &am. 
 ix.  13.)  In  the  time  of  Christ, 
 however,  it  was  conunon  before 
 every  meal  to  bless  or  give 
 thanks.  (Matt.  xiv.  Ii) ;  xv.36.) 
 
 A  distinction  of  rank  also 
 prevailed  in  sitting  at  meais. 
 (See  Feasts,  Seats,  Table. 
 See  also  Biblical  Antiq.ui- 
 TiES,  vol.  i.  ch.  V.  §  2,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 MEARAH.  (Josh.  xiii.  4.)  / 
 noted  cave  between  Sareptj 
 and  Sidon. 
 
 MEASURES  &  WEIGHTS 
 (Prov.  XX.  10.)  The  Jewisu 
 law  contains  two  precepts  re- 
 specting wf-ighis  and  measures. 
 The  first  (Lev.  xix.  35,  36)  re- 
 fers to  the  standards  kept  in 
 the  sanctuary ;  and  the  second 
 (Deut.  XXV.  13—15)  refers  to 
 copies  of  them  kept  by  every 
 family  for  its  own  use.  Much 
 perplexity  has  attended  aU 
 investigations  of  this  subject, 
 and  we  must  be  contented  with 
 ajjproximations  to  truth. 
 
 The  models  or  standards  of  the 
 weights  and  measures  which 
 were  in  earliest  use  were  pre- 
 served for  a  long  time  in  the 
 Jewish  temple,  but  were  de- 
 stroyed with  that  sacred  edifice, 
 and  afterwards  tlie  measures 
 and  weights  of  the  people 
 among  whom  the  Jews  dwelt 
 were  adopted.  Josenhus  as- 
 serts that  measures  anu  weights 
 were  invented  by  Cain.  They 
 426 
 
ME  A 
 
 were  certainly  in  use  from  the 
 earliesi  period.  (Gen.  vi.  15; 
 xxiii.  16) 
 
 As  lo  currency,  it  is  supposed 
 the  Jews  had  no  coins  or  pieces 
 of  metal  of  fixed  size  and  value, 
 but  that  the  precious  metals 
 were  exchanged  for  articles  of 
 merchandise  by  weight.  Thus 
 Abraham  bought  th'e  field  of 
 Ephron  for  iom  hundred  she- 
 kels of  silver,  as  we  should  buy 
 an  acre  of  land  for  a  hundred 
 bushels  of  wheat,  or  a  hundred 
 pounds  of  flax.  This  is  the 
 usual  mode  of  dealing  among 
 uncivilized  nations  at  the  pre- 
 sent day.  Every  piece  or  mass 
 of  metal  was  valued  according 
 to  its  purity  and  weight.  Hence 
 the  practice  of  carrying  weights 
 in  a  bag,  to  which  allusion  is 
 frequently  made  by  the  sacred 
 writers.  (Deut.  xxv.  13.  Prov. 
 XVI.  11.  Mic.  vi.  11.)  We  have 
 abundant  evidence  that  in  Da- 
 vid's time  gold  was  used  as  an 
 anicle  of  merchandise,  and  not 
 as  a  standard  of  value. 
 
 In  preseminsr  this  subject  in 
 euch  a  form  as  to  aid  the  bibli- 
 cal student  or  teaclier,  we  shall 
 include  only  those  terms  which 
 are  actually  used  in  the  Bible, 
 and  shall  endeavour  to  esta- 
 blish a  definite  ride  rather  than 
 to  perplex  by  an  array  of  con- 
 flicting opinions  and  authori- 
 ties. 
 
 I.  Of  measures  of  length. 
 
 The  handbrea/lth,  or  pahru, 
 (1  Kings  vii.  26,)  was  four  digits, 
 or  the  breadth  of  the  four  fingers 
 —from  three  inches  to  three  and 
 a  half 
 
 A  iT^an,  (Lam.  ii.  20,)  which 
 e.vpressps  the  distance  across 
 the  hand  from  the  extremity 
 of  the  thumb  to  the  extremity 
 of  the  little  finger,  when  they 
 are  stretched  as  far  apart  as 
 possible,  say  nine  to  ten  mches. 
 
 A  cubit.  (Gen.  vi.  16.)  It  is 
 obvii  )us  that  this  term  is  applied 
 by  the  sacred  writers  to  differ 
 ent  lengths,  one  being  at  least 
 a  hand-breadth  longer  than  the 
 
 ME  A 
 
 I  other.  It  is.  however,  generally 
 
 I  agreed  that  the  common  cubil 
 
 was  about  eighteen  inches. 
 
 X  fathom' iKc\s  xxvil.  2S) 
 was  from  six  feel  to  six  feet 
 I  and  a  half 
 
 The  measuring  reed  (Ezek. 
 xlii.  16)  is  supposed  to  hav3 
 been  from  ten  to  eleven  feet; 
 and  tlie  measuring  line  (Zech. 
 ii.Dahundredandforty-sixfeet. 
 
 The/urlong  (Luke  xxiv.  13) 
 was  a  Greek  measure,  and 
 nearly  the  same  as  at  present, 
 viz.  one-eighth  of  a  mile,  or 
 forty  rods. 
 
 The  mile,  (I\Iatt.  v.  41,)  pro- 
 bably 1612  yards,  or  about  one- 
 twelfth  less  than  ours. 
 
 The  Sabbath-da'/s  journey 
 (Acts  i.  12)  was  about  seven- 
 eighths  of  a  mile;  and  the 
 term  denoted  the  distance 
 which  Jewish  tradition  said 
 one  might  travel  without  a 
 violation  of  the  law.  (Ex.  xvi. 
 •29.)  It  is  supposed  that  this 
 distance  extended  first  from 
 the  tabernacle  to  the  remotest 
 section  of  the  camp,  and  after- 
 wards from  the  temple  to  the 
 remotest  parts  of  the  holy  city. 
 
 The  term  a  day''s  journey 
 (Num.  xi.  31.  Luke  ii.  44)  pro- 
 bably indicated  no  certain  dis- 
 tance, but  was  taken  to  be  the 
 ordinary  distance  which  a  per- 
 son travels  on  foot  in  the  prose- 
 cution of  a  journey,  perhaps 
 twenty  miles. 
 
 II.  Hollow  sieascres. 
 
 (1.)  Dry.  A  cab,  or  kab, 
 (2  Kings  vi.  25,)  one-third  of  an 
 omer,  or  two  pints. 
 
 An  omer,  (Ex.  xvi.  36,)  one- 
 tenth  of  an  ephah,  or  six  pints. 
 
 The  measure,  or seah,  (Gen. 
 xviii.  6.  Matt.  xiii.  33.  Luke 
 xiii.21,)  one-third  of  an  ephah, 
 or  twenty  pints. 
 
 The  ephah,  (Ex.  xvi.  3<i,")  ten 
 omers,  or  three  seahs,  or  sixty 
 pints. 
 
 Tlie  homer,  (Isa.  v.  10,)  when 
 used  for  dry  measure,  one  hun- 
 dred omers,  or  six  hundred 
 pints. 
 
MEA 
 
 Ta xh  deal  (Lev.  xxiii.  17, 
 or  ♦'".nth  part)  is  supposed  to 
 ha->  e  been  the  same  with  the 
 omer,  or  the  tenth  part  of  an 
 ephah. 
 
 The  Greek  word  translated 
 bushel    (Malt.  v.  15)    is   sup- 
 
 g)sed  by  some  to  answer  to  the 
 e'vew  word  seah.  The  Ro- 
 man ousliel  was  very  nearly 
 the  same  with  the  English 
 peck. 
 
 (2.)  Liquid.  The  log,  (Lev. 
 xiv.  10,)  six  egg-shells  full, 
 one-tenth  of  a  hin,  or  nearly 
 one  pint. 
 
 The  hin,  (Ex.  xxix.  40,)  one- 
 sixth  of  a  bath,  or  ten  pints. 
 
 The  bath,  (Isa.  v.  10,)  one- 
 enth  of  a  homer,  (Ezek.  xlv. 
 n,)  seven  and  a  half  gallons, 
 or  sixty  pints. 
 
 The  homer,  or  cor,  (Ezek. 
 xlv.  14,)  ten  baths,  seventy -five 
 gallons,  or  six  hundred  pints. 
 
 The  lirkin  (John  ii.  (3)  was 
 a  Greek  measure,  containing 
 seven  and  a  half  gallons. 
 
 III.  Of  weights. 
 
 In  the  time  of  Moses  the 
 common  weight  was  a  shekel, 
 which  signifies  a  tre?^W.  There 
 were  also  the  parts  of  a  shekel, 
 as  the  fourth,  third,  and  half 
 The  shekel,  the  maneh,  and 
 the  talent  were  all  originally 
 names  of  weights;  and  here 
 it  may  be  remarked  that  there 
 appears  no  sufficient  warrant 
 for  the  opinion  tliat  tlie  Jews 
 had  two  kinds  of  weights. 
 When  the  phrase  shekel  of  the 
 sanctuary  is  used,  (Ex.  xxx. 
 13,)  it  means,  not  that  this  was 
 diilerent  from  the  common 
 shekel,  but  that  it  was  a  true 
 standard  weight,  according  to 
 the  authorized  standard  pre- 
 served in  the  sanctuary,  or,  as 
 we  should  say,  a  sealed  weight 
 or  measure,  to  denote  that  its 
 accuracy  is  certified  by  autho- 
 rity. To  weigh  substances  the 
 Jews  had — 
 
 The  shekel,  (Amos  viii.  5,) 
 half  an  ounce  avoirdupois. 
 
 The  maneh  or  mina,  (Ezek. 
 
 MEA 
 xlv.  12,)  one  hundred  shekels, 
 or  fifty  ounces,  equal  to  three 
 pounds  two  ounces  avoirdupois. 
 
 The  talerU,  (2Sam.  xii.  30,) 
 three  thousand  shekels,  thirty 
 manehs,fifieenhundred  ounces, 
 equal  to  ninety-three  pounds 
 twelve  ounces  avoirdupois. 
 
 IV.  Of  currency. 
 
 (1.)  Before  the  captivity. 
 
 The  gerah,  cne-twentieth  of 
 a  shekel,  would  be  worth  now 
 nearly  two  and  a  half  cents. 
 
 The  bekah,  half  a  shekel, 
 equal  to  twenty-five  cents. 
 
 The  shekel,  twenty  gerahs, 
 weighing  half  an  ounce  troy, 
 equal  to  fifty  cents. 
 
 The  maneh  or  mina,  one 
 hundred  shekels,  fifty  ounces, 
 or  four  pounds  two  ounces  troy, 
 equal  to  fifty  dollars. 
 
 The  talent,  thirty  minae  or 
 three  thousand  shekels,  ninety- 
 three  pounds  twelve  ounces, 
 equal  to  fifteen  hundred  dollars. 
 
 The  pound  is  the  same  with 
 the  iniiia. 
 
 The  value  of  gold  was  to  that 
 of  silver  about  as  twelve  to  one. 
 
 The  dram,  (IChron.  xxix. 
 7,)  or  drachm,  was  the  same 
 with  the  daric. 
 
 (2.)  After  the  captivity. 
 
 The  daric,  dram,  or  drachm, 
 (Ezra  ii.  69,)  was  a  Persian  gold 
 coin,  equal  to  about  five  dol- 
 lars fifty  cents. 
 
 The  stater  ov  piece  of  money, 
 (Matt.  xvii.  27,)  a  Greek  or 
 Roman  silver  coin,  (a  shekel 
 in  w&ight,)  and  in  value  over 
 fifty  cents.  The  stater  or 
 coined  shekel  of  the  Jews  is 
 often  found  in  the  cabinets 
 of  antiquaries  at  the  present 
 dav. 
 
 The  penny,  (Malt.  xxii.  19,) 
 or  drachm,  a  Roman  silver 
 coin,  equal  to  from  twelve  and 
 a  half  to  fourteen  cents. 
 
 The  farthing,  (Malt.  x.  29,) 
 a  Roman  silver  coin,  equal  W 
 one  cent  and  a  quarter. 
 
 Another  piece  of  money 
 equal  to  one-fourth  of  a  far- 
 thing is  called  by  the  same 
 
MEA 
 
 naine,  (Malt.  v.  26 ;)  and  the  ] 
 mite  (Mark  xii.  42)  was  half 
 of  this  last  farthing,  or  about 
 one-eighth  of  a  cent  and  a  half. 
 
 An  erroneous  impression  pre- 
 vails respecting  the  real  value 
 of  money,  from  our  associations 
 with  its  nominal  value.  The 
 penny  a  day  (Matt.  xx.  2)  seems 
 to  be  a  mean  compensation  for 
 ten  or  twelve  hours'  labour, 
 and  the  twopence  (Luke  x.  35) 
 affords  very  equivocal  evidence 
 of  generosity  in  the  good  Sa 
 mariian;  but  when  it  is  con- 
 sidered what  these  sums  could 
 obtain  of  the  comforts  and  ne- 
 cessaries of  life,  the  case  ap- 
 pears differently. 
 
 As  lately  as  the  year  1351, 
 the  price  of  labour  was  regu- 
 lateu  in  Endand  by  parlia- 
 ment, and  "Tiaymakers,  corn- 
 weeders,  without  meal,  drink, 
 or  other  courtesy,"  (in  modern 
 phrase,  finding  themselves,) 
 were  to  have  a  penny  a  day. 
 In  many  places  higher  wages 
 are  given  for  haymaking  than 
 for  any  other  kind  of  agricul- 
 tural labour.  The  pay  of  a 
 chaplain  in  England,  in  1314, 
 was  three  half-pence,  or  about 
 three  cents  a  day.  At  the  same 
 lime  wheat  was  sixteen  cents 
 a  bushel,  and  a  fat  sheep  twelve 
 cents.  A  penny  a  day  under 
 such  circumstances  would  not 
 be  inconsiderable  wages.  It 
 has  been  estimated  that  four 
 hundred  and  forty  grains  of 
 silver  would  purchase  as  much 
 in  the  fourth  century  before 
 Christ,  as  four  thousand  four 
 hundred  grains  would  purchase 
 in  England  in  17S0. 
 
 MEAT,  MEATS.  (Gen.  i.  29. 
 Mark  vii.  19.)  The  food  of  the 
 Hebrews  was  regulated  by  the 
 appointment  of  God.  Their 
 methods  of  cooking  meats  were 
 various,  though  they  never  ate 
 of  food  dressed  by  any  other 
 than  a  Jew,  nor  of  food  pre- 
 pared by  other  kitchen  uten- 
 sils than  those  of  their  own 
 nation.     What  animals   they 
 
 MEA 
 
 might  eat,  and  what  they  ought 
 nof,  was  particularly  command- 
 ed. (Lev.xi.  Deut.xiv.)  The  iiiv- 
 njrt  of  the  word  meat  seems  to 
 have  undergone  a  considerable 
 change  since  our  version  of  the 
 Bible  was  made;  for,  in  this, 
 it  means  food  in  general;  or, 
 when  confined  to  one  species 
 of  food,  always  signifies  meal, 
 flour,  or  grain,  but  never  flesh, 
 which  is  now  the  usual  accep- 
 tation of  the  word.  A  meat- 
 offering in  the  Scriptures  is 
 always  a  vegetable  and  never 
 an  animal  offering ;  and  it 
 might  now  be  rendered  a 
 bread-offering,  or  a  meal-offer- 
 ing,  instead  of  a  meat-offering. 
 Meats  offered  to  idols. 
 (1  Cor.  viii.  7.  10.)  At  the  first 
 settling  of  the  church,  there 
 were  many  disputes  concern- 
 ing the  use  of  meats  offered  to 
 idols.  Some  newly  converted 
 Christians,  convinced  that  an 
 idol  was  nothing,  and  that  the 
 distinction  of  clean  andunclean 
 creatures  was  abolished  by  our 
 Saviour,  ate  indifferently  of 
 whatever  was  served  up  to 
 them,  even  among  pagans, 
 without  inquiring  wliether  the 
 meats  had  been  offered  to  idols. 
 They  took  the  same  liberty  in 
 buying  meat  sold  in  the  mar- 
 ket, not  regarding  whether  it 
 were  pure  or  impure,  accord- 
 ing to  the  Jews;  or  whether 
 it  had  been  offered  to  idols  or 
 not.  But  other  Christians, 
 weaker  or  less  instructed,  were 
 offended  at  this  libertv,  and 
 thought  that  eating  of  meat 
 which  had  been  offered  to  idols 
 was  a  kind  of  partaking  in  that 
 wicked  and  sacrilegious  act. 
 j  This  diversity  of  opinion  pro- 
 duced some  scandal,  for  which 
 ■  Paul  thought  it  behoved  hira 
 !  to  provide  a  remedy.  (Roiii. 
 I  xiv.  20,  21.)  Ho  determined, 
 I  tlierefjre,  that  all  things  were 
 ;  clean  to  such  as  were  clean, 
 (Tit.  i.  15,)  and  that  an  idol 
 j  was  nothing  at  all.  That  a 
 I  man  might  safely  eat  of  what- 
 429 
 
MED 
 
 ever  was  sold  ia  the  market, 
 and  need  not  scrupulously  in- 
 q'lire  from  whence  it  came; 
 and  that  H"an  unbeliever  should 
 invite  a  believer  to  eat  with 
 him,  the  believer  might  eat 
 of  whatever  was  set  before 
 him,  &c.  (I  Cor.  x.  25.  &c.) 
 But  at  the  same  lime  lie  en- 
 joins, that  the  laws  of  charity 
 and  prudence  should  be  ol> 
 served;  that  believers  should 
 lie  cautious  of  scandalizing  or 
 offending  weak  uiinds;  for 
 though  all  things  might  be 
 lawlul,  yet  all  things  were  not 
 always  expedient. 
 
 MEDEBA.  (Josh.xiii.  16.)  A 
 city  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
 territory  of  Reuben,  which  still 
 retains  nearly  its  ancient  name 
 Madaba.  The  site  of  the  old 
 town  shows  the  ruins  of  a 
 temple,  and  the  excavations 
 of  ponds  and  reservoirs. 
 
 MEDIA.  (Isa.  xxi.  2.)  This 
 country,  which  probably  de- 
 rives its  name  from  Madai, 
 (Gen.  X.  2,)  anciently  occupied 
 what  is  now  part  of  the  king- 
 dom of  Persia,  and  was  bound- 
 ed north  by  the  Caspian  Sea 
 and  Armenia,  south  by  Persia 
 
 f)roper,  and  west  by  Assyria, 
 t  was  a  fertile  and  well-cul- 
 tivated region,  and  was  divided 
 into  greater  and  lesser  Media. 
 Ninus,  king  of  Assyria,  added 
 this  country  to  his  kingdom, 
 and  retained  it  until  the  time 
 of  Sennacherib,  when  it  re- 
 volted, and  his  son  became 
 king,  B.  c.  700.  It  fell  into 
 the  hand  of  Cyrus  the  Great, 
 about  556  B.  c,  who  perfectly 
 united  Media  and  Persia,  form- 
 ingthe  Medo-Persian  kingdom. 
 Hence,  by  Esther  and  Daniel, 
 the  laics  and  chronicles  of  the 
 Medes  and  Persians  are  always 
 mentioned  together.  God  em- 
 ployed the  Medes  to  punish 
 Babylon,  and  then  sent  them 
 the  cup  of  his  wrath  by  Cyrus. 
 (Isa.  xiii.  17,  18;  xxi.  2,3.  Jer. 
 XXV.  25.) 
 MEDIATOR.   (Gal.  iii.  19.) 
 
 MKD 
 
 One  who  interposes  between 
 two  parties  at  variance,  with 
 the  view  of  effecting  a  recon- 
 ciliation between  tHem.  The 
 title  belongs  pre-eminently  to 
 the  divine  Redeemer,  in  and  by 
 whom  God  is  reconciling  the 
 world  unto  himself  (1  Tim.  ii. 
 5.  Heb.  viii.6,  and  xii.  24.)  And 
 it  is  to  be  remembered  that  he 
 is  the  ONLY  mediator  between 
 God  and  man.  Of  course  our 
 blessed  Saviour  has  always 
 stood  in  that  relation,  as  well 
 before  as  since  his  manifesta- 
 tion in  the  flesh.  He  is  the 
 Angelof  the  covenanl,by  whom 
 all  the  divine  communications 
 were  made  under  the  several 
 dispensations.  Of  the  new  co- 
 venant he  became  the  surety 
 as  well  as  the  mediator,  seal- 
 ing it  with  his  own  blood  ;  and 
 the  blessings  of  this  covenant 
 are  now  and  ever  will  be  be- 
 stowed in  virtue  of  his  merits 
 and  intercession.  The  errors 
 and  absurdities  into  which 
 many  are  betrayed  who  reject 
 this  doctrine  are  without  num- 
 ber; and  no  view  of  the  subject 
 accords  with  the  divine  ora- 
 cles, or  brings  into  their  just 
 relation  all  "the  parties  con- 
 cerned, except  that  which  con 
 templates  the  Redeemer  both 
 in  his  divine  and  human  na- 
 ture ;  as,  on  the  one  hand,  iden- 
 tified with  the  infinite  Jehovah 
 whose  honour  and  elory  are  to 
 be  maintained,  and  whose  fa- 
 vour is  to  be  secured;  while, 
 on  the  other,  he  is  the  self- 
 offered,  atoning  sacrifice  for 
 sin ;  and,  as  the  friend  of  sin- 
 ners, invites  them  to  come  to 
 him  in  faith  and  penitence, 
 and  receive  the  boundless 
 blessings  of  God's  grace,  se- 
 cured to  them  by  his  own  pre- 
 vailing intercession.  In  all 
 ages,  and  in  all  parts  of  the 
 v/orld,  there  has  constantly 
 prevailed  such  a  sense  of  the 
 noliness  of  the  supreme  Di- 
 vinity, as  to  make  recourse  to 
 some  sort  of  mediation  uni- 
 430 
 
verbal.  There  is  not  a  larm 
 of  religion  known,  even  among 
 the  sava^e.s  and  heathen  na- 
 tions, which  does  not  recog- 
 nise, witli  more  or  less  dis- 
 linctnes?,  the  necessity  of  a  me- 
 diator between  the  divinity  and 
 man.  This  fact,  together  with 
 the  consideration  that  there  is 
 notliing  in  the  doctrine  itself 
 coiHrary  to  reason  and  ana- 
 logy, sufficiently  establishes 
 it  against  the  objections  and 
 cavils  of  scoffers  and  unbe- 
 lievers. 
 
 MEGIDDO.  (Josh.  xii.  21.) 
 A  city  belonging  to  Manasseh, 
 but  lying  wiiliin  the  limits  of 
 Issacliar,  not  far  from  the  river 
 Kishon,  whose  waters  are  hence 
 called  the  waters  of  Megiddo. 
 (Judg.  V.  19.)  Its  inhabitants 
 were  not  expelled  by  Manas- 
 seh, but  when  Israel  became 
 Btrong  were  made  tributary. 
 Solomon  f  Ttified  it,  and  made 
 it  the  residence  of  one  of  his 
 commissaries,  who  provided 
 stores  of  provision  for  his  house- 
 hold (1  Kings  iv.  12;  ix.  15.) 
 There,  too,  Ahaziah  died,  in 
 consequence  of  a  wound  in 
 battle,  and  Josiah  was  slain 
 by  Pharaoh-necho  of  Esypt. 
 C2KinE:s  ix.  '27:  xxiii.  2y.) 
 
 MELCHIZEDEC  (Gen.  xiv. 
 18)  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 king  of  the  Salem  which  was 
 afterwards  Jerusalem,  (though 
 it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
 title  king  of  Salem  was  a 
 mere  appellation.)  He  is  men- 
 tioned before  the  institution 
 of  the  Aaronic  order  as  a 
 priest  of  the  most  high  God. 
 Some  have  strangely  suppos- 
 ed him  to  have  been  Shem, 
 but  his  birth  and  genealogy 
 are  concealed,  (perhaps  pur- 
 posely.) or  the  phrase  with- 
 out father,  &c.  may  mean  that 
 his  parpnts  were  of  obscure  or 
 low  origin ;  and  we  know  not 
 that  he  iiad  a  predecessor  or 
 successor ;  at  any  rate  the  time 
 of  his  priesthood  was  unlimit- 
 ed, and  in  this  respect  differ 
 
 MEL 
 
 ent  from  the  Levitical  prie^l- 
 hood .  (Num.  v  i  i  i .  24, 25.)  The 
 phrase  having  neither  begin- 
 jitng  of  da^s  no?'  end  of  life 
 may  apply  either  to  the  time 
 of  his  binh  and  death  being 
 unknown,  or  to  the  indefinite 
 termofhisoffjcial  life.  Abraham 
 showed  his  respect  for  the  age, 
 rank,  piety,  and  priestly  office 
 of  Melchizedec,  by  paying  him 
 a  tithe  of  the  spoils  he"  had 
 taken  in  the  battle  with  Che- 
 dorlaomer  and  his  allies,  in 
 the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat;  and 
 hence  the  argumentof  the  apos- 
 tle, that  if  Abraham,  whom  the 
 Jews  regarded  so  highly,  and 
 who  was  the  ancestor  of  the 
 sons  of  Levi,  thus  acknow- 
 ledged the  dignity  and  supe- 
 riority of  Melchizedec;  surely 
 Christ,  the  great  High-jiriest, 
 of  whom  Melchizedec  was  but 
 an  imperfect  type,  was  worthy 
 of  like  or  still  greater  homage. 
 And  if  the  anceswr  of  Levi 
 thus  paid  homage  to  Melchi- 
 zedec the  type  of  Chrbt,  surely 
 the  priesthood  w  hich  was  filled 
 by  the  sons  of  Levi  must  be 
 regarded  as  far  inferior  in  die- 
 nity  and  excellence  to  the 
 priesthood  of  Christ  himself 
 (Hell.  V.  vi.  vii.) 
 
 MELITA,  (Acts  xxviii.  1,) 
 now  Malta,  an  island  twelve 
 miles  in  breadth  and  twenty 
 in  length,  lying  between  Sicily 
 and  Africa,  about  two  hundred 
 miles  east  of  Tunis,  and  in 
 that  pan  jf  ihe  Mediterranean 
 which,  in  the  apostle's  day, 
 was  often  called  Adria,  in- 
 cluding the  Ionian  and  Sici- 
 lian seas,  according  to  the  tes- 
 timony of  rtolemy  and  Strabo. 
 Here  Paul  and  his  company 
 were  shipwrecked  on  the  pas- 
 sage to  Rome,  and  very  kindly 
 treated  by  the  inhabitants,  es- 
 pecially by  Publius  the  govern 
 or.  A  modern  traveller  says, — 
 "Passed  St.  Paul's  harbour 
 where  the  apostle  was  ship- 
 wrecked.  In  reading  the  ac- 
 count of  ihid  shipwreck,  \ 
 43. 
 
MEL 
 
 nad  ever  experienced  difficulty 
 in  comprenending  how  there 
 could  be  a  place  formed  on 
 the  coast  of  an  island,  where 
 two  seas  met.  But  in  view- 
 ing the  spot  pointed  out  where 
 the  ship  wa3  thrust  in.  the 
 difficulty  was  removed.  The 
 island  Gozo  lies  west  of  the 
 main  island,  (MallaO  and  is 
 separated  only  by  a  strait,  from 
 half  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
 width.  Wnen  a  violent  Euro- 
 clydon  (east-wind)  prevails, 
 and  the  seas  run  high,  a  power- 
 fell  current  is  forced  in  at  each 
 end  of  this  strait,  which  ranges 
 nearly  north  and  south.  The 
 ship  was  driven  in  at  the  north 
 end,  and  struck  in  a  small 
 nook,  on  the  Malta  side,  about 
 forty  rods  from  the  entrance. 
 This  strait  must  have  been, 
 I  think,  the  creek  tcith  a 
 shore,  into  which  they  tcere 
 minded,  if  possible,  to  thrust 
 in  the  ship.  For,  while  lying 
 off  to  the  north,  the  entrance 
 of  the  strait  has  the  exact  ap- 
 pearance of  the  mouth  of  a 
 creek  or  river." 
 
 This  island  was  settled  by  a 
 Phenician  colony,  about  b.  c. 
 1500.  Since  the  Christian  era, 
 it  has  belonged  successively 
 to  the  (joins",  Vandals,  Sara- 
 cens, Normans,  Germans,  and 
 French,  until  Charles  V.  sur- 
 rendered it  to  the  knights  of 
 St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  who 
 were  dispossessed  by  Bona- 
 parte ;  and  by  the  treaty  of 
 1814  it  was  allotted  to  England. 
 At  present  it  is  the  centre  of 
 exter.sive  missionary  opera- 
 tions. Publications  in  the  mo- 
 dern Greek,  Armenian,  Turk- 
 ish, and  Arabic  languages  are 
 widely  circulated  ; 'and  it  is 
 also  a  depository  for  Bibles  in 
 various  languages. 
 
 MELONS.  (Num.  xi.  5.) 
 Probably  what  is  known  to  us 
 as  the  water-melon,  a  fruit 
 which  is  still  faund  in  great 
 lK.'rtection  in  Egypt,  and  which 
 
 MEP 
 travellers  tell  us  furnished  the 
 chief  food  and  drink  of  the 
 lower  classes  during  the  heat 
 of  summer. 
 
 MEN  AHEM  (2  Kin-s  xv. 
 14)  was  the  son  of  (radi,  and 
 having  slain  Shallum,  king 
 of  Samaria,  reigned  in  his 
 steao.  His  reign,  which  lasted 
 ten  years,  was  distinguished 
 for  cruelty  and  oppression. 
 (2  Kings  XV.  16—20.) 
 
 MENE.  (Dan.  v.  25.)  A  word 
 of  that  significant  sentence 
 which  appeared  on  the  wall 
 of  Belshazzar's  banqueting, 
 hall,  to  warn  him  of  the  im- 
 pending destruction  of  Baby- 
 lon. The  whole  sentence  ia 
 in  the  pure  Chaldee  language, 
 and  reads,  when  translated 
 literally,  'i\Iene,  he  is  nu7r> 
 bered — 3Iene,Ac  isnuinbered — 
 Tekel,  he  is  iceighed—VjohaT- 
 sin,  they  are  divided.'  Peres, 
 in  the  original  language,  is  the 
 same  word  with  Upharsin,  but 
 in  a  different  case  or  number. 
 It  means,  he  rras  divided. 
 
 MEPHAATH  (Josh.  xiii.  18) 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
 tiguous to  Kedemoth,  Bezer, 
 and  Jahzah.  (1  Chron.  vi.  78, 
 79.)  In  later  times  it  was  in 
 the  hands  of  the  Moabites.  (Jer. 
 xlviii.  21.) 
 
 MEPHIBOSHETH,  1.  (2 
 Sam.  xxi.  8,)  was  a  son  of  Saul, 
 who,  with  his  brother  and  five 
 others  of  the  family,  suffered 
 a  violent  death  at  the  hands 
 of  the  Gibeonites. 
 
 2.  (2  Sam.  iv.  4.)  Or  Merib- 
 baal,  (1  Chron.  viii.  34,)  was  a 
 son  ol  Jonathan,  and  grandson 
 of  Saul,  who,  at  the  age  of  five 
 years,  fell  from  his  nurse's 
 arms,  and  wm  ever  after  a 
 cripple.    When  David  was  in 
 
 auiet  {X)ssession  of  his  kin^- 
 om,  he  sought  out  this  branch 
 of  the  family  of  Jonathan  his 
 friend,  and  not  only  gave  hiiw 
 an  honourable  place  in  his 
 palace,  but  made  ample  pro- 
 vision for  his  family.  The  in- 
 432 
 
MER 
 
 leresling  history  of  this  liberal 
 
 f)roceedingof  Da  viil's  is  minuie- 
 y  related  in  2  Sain.  ix. 
 
 MERAB.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49.) 
 The  eldest  daughter  of  Saul, 
 who  promised  her  to  David  in 
 marriage;  but  she  married 
 Adriel  of  Meholath,  by  whom 
 she  had  five  sons,  and  David 
 look  her  sister  Michal.  The 
 five  sons  of  Merab  suffered  a 
 violent  death  at  the  hands  of 
 theGibeonites.  (2Sam. xxi.8.) 
 They  are  called  the  Jive  sons 
 of  Michal,  ichom  she  brought 
 up  f'^r  Adriel ;  and  the  proba- 
 bility is,  if  the  text  is  correctly 
 expressed,  that  Michal  adopted 
 her  sister's  children,  (their  mo- 
 ther being  dead.)  At  all  events, 
 we  may  be  sure  that  if  the  his- 
 tory was  fabulous,  such  ap- 
 parent inconsistencies  would 
 nave  been  avoided ;  so  liiat 
 their  occurrence  shows  the  ab- 
 sence of  any  cunnins. 
 
 MERCHANTS.  (Isa.  xxiii. 
 2.)  The  earliest  mode  of  com- 
 merce was  doubtless  by  cara- 
 vans. The  merchants  to  whom 
 Joseph  was  sold  were  probaljly 
 of  this  character.  The  earliest 
 commerce  with  India,  of  which 
 we  have  any  knowledge,  was 
 carried  on  in  this  way  by 
 the  merchants  of  Arabia  and 
 Egypt.  Tliere  was,  however, 
 considerable  intercourse  be- 
 tween many  countries  by 
 water.  The  Phenicians  held 
 the  first  rank  as  a  commercial 
 nation,  and  their  first  metro- 
 polis was  Sidon,  and  after- 
 wards Tyre.  Something  may 
 be  learned  of  their  commerce 
 from  Ezek.  xxvii.  and  xxviii. 
 (See  Ships.)  The  commerce 
 of  the  Egyptians  was  also  very 
 extensive.  They  imported 
 goods  from  India,  and  carried 
 on  an  export,  trade  with  various 
 parts  of  ihe  Mediterranean. 
 
 MERCY.  (Gen.  xix.  19.)  An 
 essential  attribute  of  the  Di- 
 vine Being,  fur  the  knowledge 
 of  which  we  are  indebted 
 wholly  to  revelation.  The 
 37 
 
 iVIER 
 
 )  plan  of  salvation  by  JesuB 
 I  Christ  provides  for  the  exercise 
 1  of  infinite  mercy,  consistently 
 I  with  the  most  rigid  demands 
 j  of  truth  and  righteousness ;  so 
 I  that,  under  this  gracious  dis- 
 pensation, mercy  and  truth 
 are  said  to  have  met  together, 
 and  righteousness  and  peace 
 to  have  kissed  each  other.  (Ps. 
 Ixxxv.  10.) 
 
 The  expression  /  will  have 
 mercy,  and  not  sacrifice,  (Hos. 
 vi.  6.  Matt.  ix.  13,)  signifies  (as 
 its  connexion  indicates)  th,-it 
 God  is  pleased  with  the  ex- 
 ercise of  mercy  rather  Ihaa 
 with  the  otiering  of  sacrifices, 
 though  sin  has  made  the  latter 
 necessary.  (Comp.  1  Sam.  xv. 
 22.) 
 
 Mercy  is  also  a  Christian 
 grace,  and  no  duty  is  more 
 strongly  urged  by  the  Scrip- 
 lures  than  the  exercise  of  it 
 towards  all  men,  and  espe- 
 cially towards  such  as  have 
 trespassed  against  us.  (Mall. 
 j  xviii.  33 — 35.) 
 
 I     ]\Lercy-seat.  (Ex.  xxv.  17.) 
 
 This  was  the  lid  or  cover  of  the 
 
 ark  of  the  covenant.    It  was 
 
 j  made  of  gold,  and  two  cherubs 
 
 I  of  gold  were  placed  at  each 
 
 I  end,  and  stretching  their  wings 
 
 '  towards  each  other,  formed  a 
 
 I  kind  of  throne,  upon  which 
 
 God  was  supposed  to  ije  present 
 
 in  ?  peculiar  manner,  to  hear 
 
 j  and    answer   prayer,   and   tu 
 
 .  make  known  his  holy  will. 
 
 I      MERIBAH.      (See   Rephi- 
 
 '  DIM.) 
 
 j     MERODACH.  (Jer.  1. 2.)  The 
 name  of  an  idol  g  )d  of  the  Ba- 
 bylonians, supposed  by  some 
 to  have  represented  the  planet 
 Mars,  and  by  others  to  have 
 i  been  the  statue  of  some  famous 
 j  king.    It  was  the  surname  of 
 some  of  the  Babylonish  mo- 
 narchs.    (Isa.  xxxix.  1.) 
 i     MEROM.  (Josh.  xi.  5,  6.)  A 
 marshy  lake  in  the  northern 
 pan  of  Judea,  through  which 
 I  the  Jordan  flows.     It  is  now 
 I  called  Houle,  as  is  the  valley 
 433 
 
MES 
 
 which  encloses  it.  It  is  about 
 twelve  miles  above  Tiberias, 
 and  is  regarded  by  many  as  pro- 
 perly the  source  of  the  Jordan. 
 Most  of  its  bed  is  dry  in  sum- 
 mer, and  is  overgrown  with 
 grass  and  shrubbery,  aflbrding 
 retreats  for  wild  beasts.  In  the 
 spring  freshets  the  hike  swells 
 to "  six  miles  in  length,  and 
 three  and  a  half  in  breadth,  and 
 abounds  with  fish.  It  is  called 
 the  waters  of  Merom,  or  high 
 waters,  because  it  was  higher 
 than  the  other  lakes  of  Juclea. 
 (See  Omau,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 p.  123.) 
 
 MEROZ.  (Judg.  V.  23.)  A 
 place  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 brook  Kishon,  whose  inhabit- 
 ants were  accursed  fir  refusing 
 to  come  to  the  help  of  Israel", 
 in  the  contest  with  Sisera, 
 
 MES  EC  H,  (Ps.  cxx.  5,)  or 
 MESHECH.  (Ezek.xxxii.26.) 
 The  name  of  the  country  in  the 
 north-eastern  angle  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, supposed  to  iiave  been  set- 
 tled by  the  posterity  of  Mesech, 
 the  son  of  Japheth.  They  had 
 considerable  commerce  with 
 Tyre.  (Ezek.xxvii.13.)  Some 
 suppose  the  Muscovites  were 
 of  this  race.  The  terms  Me- 
 sech and  Kedar,  in  the  above 
 passage  from  Psalms,  is  sup- 
 posed to  denote  northern  and 
 southern  barbarians  generally. 
 
 MESHA.  1.  A  PLACE.  (Gen. 
 X.  30.)  Supposed  to  denote 
 the  country  called  by  the 
 Greeks  Messene,  and  lying 
 near  the  modern  Bassora. 
 
 2.  A  PERSON.  (2Kingsiii.4.) 
 A  king  of  Moab,  who  refused 
 to  pay  to  Jehoram,  king  of  Is- 
 rael, the  annual  tribute  which 
 he  had  Ijeen  accustomed  to  pay 
 to  his  father  Ahab.  For  this 
 ofTence  Jehoram  determined  to 
 punish  him;  and  calling  to  his 
 aid  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah, 
 and  the  king  of  the  Edomites, 
 he  invaded  the  territory  of 
 Moab,  signally  defeated  them, 
 de3olate<r  their  country,  and  at 
 last   the  king  and   his  army 
 
 MES 
 
 were  closely  besieged  in  a 
 walled  town.  In  this  extremitv 
 Mesha  attempted  to  cut  h:9 
 way  through  the  enen)y's 
 ranks;  but  failing  in  this,  he 
 made  the  horrible  sacrifice  of 
 his  eldest  son  to  some  idol  god , 
 and  it  was  done  openly  upon 
 the  wall,  in  sight  of  the  camp 
 of  Israel,  that  they  might  be 
 persuaded  by  such  a  revolting 
 spectacle  to  raise  the  siege. 
 This  effect  was  produced,  for 
 we  are  told  that  they  imme 
 diately  retired,  amtenting 
 themselves  with  great  spoil. 
 MESHACH.    (SeeABEDNB 
 
 GO.) 
 
 MESHECH.  (See  Mesech.) 
 MESOPOTAMIA,  (Deul. 
 xxiii.  4,)  or  Syria,  between  the 
 two  rivers,  elsewhere  called 
 Padan-aram,  (Gen.  xxviii.  2,) 
 or  the  plaifi  of  Syria,  was  the 
 name  of  the  country  lying  be- 
 tween the  Tigris  and  the  Eu- 
 phrates. It  was  the  first  abode 
 of  men  both  heioTe.  and  after 
 the  flood,  and  was  bounded 
 north  by  Armenia,  east  by 
 Assyria,  south  by  Arabia,  and 
 west  by  Syria,  and  embraced 
 the  modern  El-jesira  of  Turkey, 
 MESSENGER.  (Mal.iii.I.) 
 The  laws  and  edicts  of  the  Jew- 
 ish kingswere  proclaimed  near 
 the  royal  residence  by  public 
 criers;  but  they  were  made 
 known  to  more  distant  towns 
 and  i^rovinces  by  messengers 
 sent  for  that  purpose.  (1  Sam. 
 xi.7.  2Chron.xxxvi.22.  Amos 
 iv.  5.)  They  stood  in  the  gate 
 of  the  city,  where  the  largest 
 mass  of  people  might  be  found, 
 and  proclaimed  the  law  or 
 message,  as  in  Jer.  xi.  6;  xvii. 
 19,  20.  At  Jerusalem,  these 
 messages  were  proclaimed  in 
 the  temple,  where  a  concourse 
 of  people  was  always  found. 
 Our  Saviour  is  called  the  ilfcs 
 seyiger  of  the  covenant,  (Mai. 
 iii.  1,)  inasmuch  a?  he  divested 
 himself  of  his  divine  and  eter- 
 nal glory,  and,  taking  the  form 
 of  a  servant,  came  to  declare 
 4»1 
 
MES 
 
 the  will  of  God;  to  seal  the 
 covenaat  of  grace  with  his 
 precious  blood,  and  thus  to 
 make  propitiation  for  our  sins; 
 so  that  we,  by  the  exercise  of 
 faith  and  repentance,  wrought 
 in  us  by  ilie  blessed  Spirit, 
 may  be  made  meet  for  the 
 inheritance  which  that  cove- 
 nant seciu-es,  and  of  which  he 
 was  Prince  and  lM«diator  as 
 well  as  Messenger. 
 
 The  .<!pies  concealed  by  Ra- 
 hab  (Josh.  vi.  17)  are  called 
 jfiessengers;  and  the  punish- 
 ment which  God  inflicts  on 
 the  wicked  fur  their  sins  is 
 also  called  a  messengei:  (Prov. 
 xvii.  11.) 
 
 Ministers  of  the  gospel  are 
 also  called  messengers,  (2  Cor. 
 viii.  23,)  because  they  declare 
 or  announce  tlie  message  of 
 mercy  which  the  gospel  con- 
 tains. 
 
 MESSIAH,  (Dan.  ix.  ;25,)  or 
 MESSIAS,  (John  iv.  25,)  sig- 
 nifies anointed;  a  title  given 
 by  way  of  eminence  to  Jesus 
 Christ.  It  is  sometimes  applied 
 by  the  sacred  writers  in  a  sul> 
 ordinate  sense,  as  in  Isa.  xlv.  1. 
 Ezek.  xxviii.  14 ;  but  when  ap- 
 plied to  Christ,  it  denotes  that 
 he  unites  in  himself  the  offices 
 of  a  prophet,  a  priest,  and  a 
 king;  not  of  the  Jews  only, 
 but  of  all  mankind. 
 
 The  Jews  expected  the  Mes- 
 siah would  be  their  deliverer 
 from  civil  bondage,  and  would 
 raise  them,  as  a  nation,  to  great 
 power.  Hence  they  rejected 
 the  meek  and  lowly  Jesus,  and 
 nut  him  to  shame  and  death. 
 They  were  disappointed  and 
 offended  because  his  kingdom 
 was  not  of  this  world,  and  pro- 
 mised no  privileges  to  them  in 
 distinction  from  the  Gentiles. 
 The  whole  Scriptures  abound 
 with  evidence  that  they  were 
 and  are  under  a  gross  delusion ; 
 and  the  Christian  clmrch  is 
 looking  with  deep  interest  for 
 the  time  when  the  veil  shall 
 be   taken   from   iheir   eyea; 
 
 MIC 
 
 when  they  shall  look  on  Hira 
 whom  they  have  pierced,  and 
 mourn ;  and  when  they  dhall 
 receive  him  as  the  long-pro- 
 mised and  long-expected  Mes- 
 siah.   (See  Christ.) 
 
 METHEG-AMMAH.  (2Sam. 
 viii.  1.)  The  same  with  Galh. 
 (Comp.  1  Chron.  xviii.  1.) 
 
 MIC  AH.  1.  (Judg.  xvii.  I.) 
 A  celebrated  idolater  in  mount 
 Ephraim,  who  persuaded  a  Le- 
 vite  to  officiate  as  his  priest 
 for  a  stipulated  reward.  The 
 emissaries  sent  out  by  the  tribe 
 of  Dan  to  find  a  settlement  for 
 them  happened  to  call  at  Mi- 
 cah's  house,  and  saw  the  idols 
 and  the  Levite;  and  the  party 
 of  the  Danites,  who  afterwards 
 went  to  Laish,  took  Micah's 
 house  in  their  way,  secured  all 
 his  images,  and  persuaded  his 
 priest  to  accompany  them. 
 Micah  endeavoured  to  obtain 
 them  again,  but  in  vain.  (Judg. 
 xviii.) 
 
 2.  (Micah  i.  I.)  The  prophet, 
 was  a  native  of  Mareshah, 
 (hence  called  the  Morasthite,) 
 a  village  in  the  south  of  the 
 territory  of  Judah.  (Josh,  xv.44.) 
 It  is  supposed  that  a  reference 
 to  one  of  his  predictions  saved 
 the  life  of  Jeremiah.  (Jer.  xxvi. 
 18-21.) 
 
 Prophecy  ck,  is  the  thirty- 
 third  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Bible.  It  was  uttered 
 within  the  space  of  fifty  years. 
 V  iz.from  the  commencement  of 
 the  reign  of  Jotham,  a.  m.  324o^ 
 to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  He- 
 zekiah,  a.  m.  3306,  or  nearly 
 contemporary  with  Isaiah.  The 
 prophecies  of  Micah,  which  are 
 recorded  in  the  sacred  canon, 
 make  but  seven  chapters,  and 
 are  divided  into  three  sections: 
 §  1.  Prophecies  in  the  reign  of 
 
 Jotham,  ch.  i. 
 §  2.  Prophecies  in  the  reign  of 
 
 Ahaz,  ii.— iv.  8. 
 §  3.  Prophecies  in  the  reign  of 
 
 Hezekiah,  iv.  9— vii. 
 
 The  remarkable  feature  o 
 this  whole  prophecy  is,  that  l», 
 435 
 
MIC 
 
 is  very  explicit  respecting  the 
 birthplace  and  prominent  cha- 
 racteristics of  the  Messiah,  and 
 the  blessings  of  his  reign  upon 
 earth. 
 
 MICAIAH.    (SeeAHAB.) 
 
 MICHAEL.  (Dan.  x.  13.)  A 
 name  of  frequent  occurrence 
 in  the  sacred  writings.  It  is 
 applied  particularly  to  an  an- 
 gel, or  a  prince  of  angels,  (as 
 the  name  denotes,)  (Jude9;) 
 and  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  the 
 same  Michael  is  spoken  of  as 
 a  prince.  (See  Archangel.) 
 
 MICHAL.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  49.) 
 Second  daughter  of  Saul,  and 
 the  wife  of  David.  She  was 
 evidently  an  unprincipled  wo- 
 man. When  she  hat!  aided 
 David  to  escape  from  the  fury 
 of  her  enraged  father,  she 
 placed  an  image  in  the  bed  ; 
 and  when  the  messengers  came 
 to  seize  him,  Michal  told  them 
 he  was  sick  in  bed.  Saul  di- 
 rected him  to  be  brought,  sick 
 or  well ;  and  when  the  mes- 
 sengers came  again  and  disco- 
 vered the  trick,  Michal  ex- 
 cused herself  to  her  father  by 
 a  direct  falsehood. 
 
 During  David's  exile,  Michal 
 married  another  man,  with 
 whom  she  lived  nine  or  ten 
 years.  David,  having  in  the 
 mean  time  become  established 
 on  the  throne,  required  of 
 Abner,  as  one  of  the  cond  i  tions 
 of  a  treaty,  that  Michal  should 
 be  restored  to  him,  which  was 
 accordingly  done. 
 
 As  another  and  conclusive 
 evidence  of  her  impiety,  we 
 are  told  that  she  despised  Da- 
 vid when  she  saw  the  expres- 
 sions of  his  gratitude  and  joy 
 at  the  approach  of  the  ark  of 
 the  Lord,  and  was  evidently 
 filled  with  passion  and  con- 
 tempt. For  this  sin  she  was 
 visited  with  a  special  judg- 
 ment.   (2  Sam.  vi.  16—23.) 
 
 MlCHMASH,(lSam.xiii.2,) 
 or  MICHMAS.  (Neh.  vii.  31.) 
 A  place  on  the  borders  of 
 Ephraim  and  Benjamin.    It  is 
 
 MID 
 
 supposed  to  lie  on  the  road 
 through  Rama,  nine  miles  from 
 Jerusalem.  Probably  a  narrow 
 defile,  formed  by  two  abrupt, 
 rugged  rocks  in  mount  Ephra- 
 im, was  called  ihe  passage  of 
 Michmash,  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5S,)  in 
 which  was  the  garrison  of  the 
 Philistines, and  which  was  pro- 
 bably so  well  defended  as  to 
 make  it  a  safe  dep6t  for  the 
 stores  of  Sennacherib's  army, 
 in  hisadvance  upon  Jerusalem. 
 (Isa.  X.  28, 29.)  The  place  was 
 in  later  limes  of  some  import- 
 ance, (Neh.  xi.  31 ;)  and  is 
 mentioned  by  profane  histori- 
 ans four  hundred  years  after 
 Christ. 
 
 MIDI  AN,  (Ex.  ii.  15,)  or 
 MADIAN.  (Acts  vii.  29.)  A 
 country  lying  around  the  east- 
 ern branch  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
 supposed  to  have  been  settled 
 by  the  posterity  of  Midian, 
 fourth  son  of  Abraham  and 
 Keturah.  Midian  was  cele 
 brated  for  its  camels,  (Judg.vii. 
 12:)  and  the  descendants  ot 
 Ephah,  who  were  the  posterity 
 of^Midian,  were  rich  in  camels 
 and  dromedaries.  (Isa.  Ix.  6.) 
 Hither  Moses  fled,  and  here 
 he  married  the  daughter  of 
 Jethro. 
 
 It  is  supposed  that  another 
 country  of  the  same  name  was 
 situated  on  the  eastern  coast 
 of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  Arabia 
 Petrea,  adjoining  Moab;  but 
 very  learned  geographers  de- 
 scribe but  one  lancl  of  Midian, 
 and  this  embraces  both  sides 
 of  the  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red 
 Sea,  extending  southwardly 
 near  to  mount  Sinai.  Perhaps 
 they  might  have  been  distin- 
 guished as  northern  and  south- 
 ern Midianites. 
 
 When  the  children  of  Israel 
 were  encamped  in  the  plains 
 of  Moab,  the  Midianites  were 
 invited  by  the  Moabiies  to  join 
 in  the  deputation  to  Balaam,  to 
 procure  his  services  to  curse 
 the  children  of  Israel.  For 
 their  conduct  towards  the  Isra 
 
MIL 
 
 elites,  they  were  completely 
 flubdued ;  their  kings  and  their 
 male  population  slain;  their 
 cities  and  fortifications  were 
 burned ;  and  their  properly  of 
 every  kind,  to  an  almost  in- 
 credible amount,  with  their 
 wives  and  children,  were 
 brought  to  the  camp  of  Israel, 
 and  there  disposed  of  by  Moses 
 and  Eleazar.  (Num.  xxxi.)  Pro- 
 bably a  few  escaped  the  gene- 
 ral massacre ;  for,  about  two 
 centuries  afterwards,  the  Mi- 
 dianites  were  again  a  powerful 
 nation,  mustering  an  immense 
 army,  who,  for  their  oppressive 
 treatment  of  the  Israeliies,were 
 miraculously  defeated  by  Gide- 
 on, (Judg.  vi.  vii.  viii. ;)  after 
 which,  they  seem  to  have  been 
 incorporated  with  the  Moab- 
 ites  and  Arabians. 
 
 A  modern  traveller  describes 
 the  scene  in  the  solitudes  of 
 Midian,  where  tradition  says 
 Moses  kept  the  sheep  of  Jethro 
 his  father-in-law.  It  is  seen 
 from  the  convent  on  mount 
 Sinai,  in  a  valley  in  rear  of 
 the  mount,  between  two  ridges. 
 A  group  of  trees  stands  in  Uie 
 midst  of  the  plain. 
 
 The  curtains  of  Midian  (Hab. 
 iii.  7)  is  a  figurative  expression 
 denoting  the  borders  or  inha- 
 oitants  of  Midian. 
 
 MIGDOL.  (Ex.  xiv.  2.)  A 
 fortress  or  tower,  (probably  the 
 modem  Bir  Suez,)  erected  at 
 a  watering  place  a  few  miles 
 north  of  Suez,  tov/ards  Etham. 
 
 MIGRON.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  2.) 
 A  place  in  the  vicinity  of  Mich- 
 mash.  (Gomp.  Isa.  x.  23.    See 
 
 MlOHMASH.) 
 
 MILCOLM.  (See  Moloch.) 
 BIILE.    (See  Measures.) 
 MILETUS,  (Acts  xx.  15,)  or 
 MILETUM.  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  A 
 city  and  seaport,  and  the  capi- 
 tal of  ancient  Ionia.    It  stood 
 about    forty    miles    south    of 
 Ephesus,  and  was  second  only 
 to  that  city  in  wealth,  com- 
 merce, and   luxury.    Miletus 
 is  distinguished  as  the  birth- 
 37* 
 
 MIL 
 
 place  of  Thales,  and  Anaxime- 
 nes  his  pupil,  and  also  for  a 
 magnificent  temple  and  oracle 
 of  Apollo.  It  was  here  that 
 Paul  received  the  elders  of 
 Ephesus,  whom  he  could  not 
 visit  in  his  journey,  and  here 
 he  left  Trophimus  sick.  There 
 are  ruins  of  an  old  town  near 
 the  mouth  of  the  river  Mean- 
 der; but  wlielher  they  are  those 
 of  Miletus  is  very  doubtful. 
 The  Turkish  town  of  Melas  is 
 said  to  occupy  the  site  of  the 
 ancient  IMiletus;  and  the  Mi- 
 lelum,  where  Trophimus  was 
 left,  is  also  placed  by  some 
 geographers  on  the  island  of 
 Crete,  but  without  sufficient 
 warrant. 
 
 MILK.  (I  Cor.  iii.  2.)  A 
 liquid  and  very  nourishing 
 food,  drawn  principally  from 
 cows.  The  simplest  spiritual 
 food,  or  the  plain  and  easy 
 truths  of  the  gospel,  wherewith 
 the  new-born  soul  is  nourished 
 and  sustained,  is  compared  to 
 milk.  (Heb.  v.  12.   1  Pet.  ii.  2.) 
 
 A  land  flowing  icith  milk 
 and  honey  (Josh.  v.  6)  means 
 a  country  of  extraordinary  fer- 
 tility, alfording  every  thing 
 which  is  needed  for  the  sup- 
 port and  comfort  of  life.  The 
 phrase  wine  and  imlk  (Isa.  Iv. 
 1)  denotes  all  spiritual  bless- 
 ings and  privileges. 
 
 Cheese  was  made  of  milk. 
 (2  Sam.  xvii.  29.) 
 
 The  word  rendered  cheeses  in 
 1  Sam.  xvii.  18,  means  cheeses 
 of  milk,  supposed  to  have 
 been  slices  of  coagulated  or 
 curdled  milk,  which  had  been 
 strained  through  a  leathern 
 strainer,  and  after  it  had  grown 
 hard,  was  cut  in  pieces  lor  use. 
 This  is  much  like  the  modern 
 process  of  making  cheese;  and 
 food  made  in  the  same  way  is 
 common  in  some  parts  of  this 
 country  under  the  name  of 
 cheese-curd.    (See  Chee.se.) 
 
 MILL.  (Ex.  xi.  5.)  The 
 simplest  mill  for  bruising 
 grain  was  nothing  more  than 
 437 
 
MIL 
 
 two  stones,  between  which 
 they  were  Droken.  Such  were 
 seen  in  the  country  of  the 
 Niger  by  Richard  and  John 
 Lander,  on  their  recent  expe- 
 dition in  Africa.  If  one  of  these 
 stones  be  hollowed  out,  so  as  to 
 contain  the  corn  to  be  pounded 
 by  another  stone,  or  by  a  piece 
 of  wood  or  metal,  it  is  not  a 
 mill,  but  a  mortar.  When 
 manna  was  gi  ven  in  the  desert, 
 the  people  icent  about,  and  ga- 
 thered it,  and  ground  it  in 
 mills,  or  beat  it  in  a  mortar. 
 (Num.  xi.  8.)  In  the  law  it 
 is  ordained,  No  man  shall 
 take  the  nether  or  the  upper 
 millstone  to  pledge;  for  he 
 taJceth  life  to  pleoge;  that  is, 
 he  who  lends  money  must 
 be  humane  to  the  borrower, 
 and  must  not  make  tl)e  poor 
 man  pawn  his  mill,  without 
 which  his  life  cannot  be  sus- 
 tained. (Deui.  xxiv.  6.)  P'rom 
 these  mills  and  mortars  there 
 must  have  been  obtained  at 
 first  only  a  kind  of  peeled 
 grain,  which  may  be  compared 
 to  the  German  graupe,  the 
 English  groats,  and  the  Ame- 
 rican grits,  or  hominy.  Fine 
 flour  was  more  lalwriously  ob- 
 tained from  household-mills, 
 like  our  cofiee  mills.  The  lat- 
 ter implement  is  indeed  far 
 more  refined  and  ingenious 
 than  the  eastern  hand-mills. 
 Yet  we  read  that  Sarah  set 
 before  the  three  angels  who 
 visited  Mamre  cakes  oijine 
 ineal.  (Gen.  xviii.  6)  ft  is 
 almost  needless  to  observe, 
 that  sieves  must  have  been 
 known  at  the  same  time. 
 
 Niebuhr  describes  two  kinds 
 of  eastern  hand-mills.  The 
 first  is  very  simple,  and  con- 
 sists of  an  oblong  stone,  some- 
 what roughened  or  hollowed 
 upon  the  surface;  u|X)n  which 
 the  corn,  after  being  moisten- 
 ed, is  rubbed  with  another 
 stone,  of  a  long  and  round 
 shape.  Niebulir  saw  these 
 milki  only  once.    They  seem, 
 
 MIL 
 
 therefore,  not  to  be  common. 
 The  other,  which  is  also  de- 
 scribed by  Shaw  and  Tourne- 
 fort,  was  seen  by  Niebuhr  in 
 Egypt.  It  consists  of  two 
 round  stones,  each  about  two 
 feet  in  diameter,  and  six 
 inches  high.  The  under  one, 
 or  nether  millstone,  (Job  xli. 
 24,)  is  immoveable,  and  is 
 somewhat  lower  around  the 
 edse  than  in  the  centre ;  that 
 is,  it  is  slightly  convex  on  the 
 top.  The  upper  one  is  just  the 
 reverse,  being  concave  on  the 
 bottom,  or  thicker  at  the  cir- 
 cumference, so  as  to  fit  pretty 
 closely  to  the  other.  In  the 
 centre  there  is  a  hole,  and 
 above  this  a  funnel,  or  hopper, 
 into  which  the  grain  is  poured, 
 and  thus  it  runs'in  between  the 
 stones,  and  is  broken  between 
 them  into  meal,  which  falls 
 over  the  edge  upon  a  board. 
 On  the  top  of  the  other  stone 
 there  is  an  upright  peg,  by 
 means  of  which  it  is  turned 
 around.  Such  mills  cost,  says 
 Tourneforljless  than  a  Spanish 
 dollar. 
 
 a  is  a  section  of  the  upper 
 millstone,  in  which  we  see  the 
 hopper  and  ihepeg,  or  handle 
 438 
 
MIL 
 
 6  is  the  loAver  millstone,  con- 
 vex above,  to  fii  tlie  other. 
 
 c  is  the  complete  mill. 
 
 Frequent  allusions  are  made 
 in  Scripture  to  tliese  utensils. 
 Of  Leviathan,  It  is  said,  that 
 his  heart  is  as  hard  as  a  piece 
 of  the  nether  millstone.  (Job 
 xli.24.)  AllhesiegeofThebez, 
 a  certain  woman  cast  a  piece 
 of  a  millstone  uponAbimelech's 
 head,  and  entirely  brake  his 
 skull.    (Judg.  ix.  53.; 
 
 Wlieat  was  tlie  grain  com- 
 monly used  for  bread.  The 
 poor  people,  however,  lived 
 much  upon  barley,  as  at  the 
 present  day,  the  Arabs  do  up- 
 on millet,  or  durra.  Niebuhr 
 thinks  this  durra  was  the  first 
 kind  of  corn  which  was  ground 
 and  made  into  bread.  Tlie 
 durra  bread,  like  barley  bread, 
 is  very  good  while  fresh;  the 
 latter,  however,  is  superior, 
 and  has  a  better  tasie  in  hot 
 climates  than  with  us.  After 
 some  hours,  it  becomes  taste- 
 less ;  yet  the  same  thing  takes 
 place  with  regard  to  the  wheat- 
 en  bread  of  the  orientals.  They 
 are  forced,  therefore,  to  bake 
 every  day,  and  no  more  is 
 ground  daily  than  is  wanted 
 for  the  baking.  This  daily 
 grinding  makes  such  a  noise 
 m  the  houses  as  is  heard  in  the 
 streets.  The  sound  was  pleas- 
 ing, because  it  wa^  naturally 
 associated  with  industry,  and 
 the  supports  and  enjoyments 
 of  life.  Hence  the  prediction 
 in  Jer.  xxv.  10.  The  noise  of 
 the  millstones,and  the  lighting 
 up  of  candles,  are  circum- 
 stances belonging  to  inhabited 
 places,  and  are  striking  when 
 we  call  to  mind  ihe  fa~ct  that 
 they  grind  at  a  very  early  hour 
 in  the  morning.  Chardin  says 
 it  is  this  noise  which  often 
 awakens  people  in  the  morn- 
 ing ;  and  Hamier  supposes  the 
 import  of  the  verse  just  quoted 
 to  be,  "Gloomy  shall  be  the 
 silence  of  the  morning,  melan- 
 choly the  shadows  of  the  eve- 
 
 ning;  no  cheerful  noise  to  ani- 
 mate the  one,  no  enlivening 
 ray  to  snften  the  gloom  of  the 
 other.  Desolation  shall  every- 
 where reign."  ''See  farther, 
 Biblical  Antiq,uitie.s,  \o1.  i. 
 ch.  V.  §  2,  by  Am.  .S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 MILLET.  (Ezek.  iv.  9.)  A 
 plant  resembling  wheat  and 
 rye,  the  stallc  of  which  grows 
 about  three  feet  in  height",  and 
 bears  a  great  number  of  grains. 
 This  grain  was  coarse,  and 
 chiefly  used  for  beasts. 
 
 Niebuhr  informs  us,  that 
 there  is  a  kind  of  millet  used 
 in  the  east.called  rfMr7-a,which, 
 made  into  bread  with  camels' 
 milk,  butter,  or  grease,  is  al- 
 most the  only  food  eaten  by 
 the  common  people  in  Arabia ; 
 but  he  says  he  found  it  so  un- 
 palatable, that  he  would  have 
 preferred  plain  barley  bread, 
 which  furnishes  the  reason  of 
 its  being  appointed  as  a  pari 
 of  the  hard  fare  of  Ezekiel. 
 
 MILLO,  HOUSE  OF.  (Judg.ix. 
 6.)  Supposed  by  some  to  denote 
 either  the  senate  or  chief  men 
 of  the  place,  or  to  be  the  name 
 of  a  distinguished  individual 
 in  Shechem,  whose  family 
 and  adherents  joined  in  ele- 
 vating Abimelech  to  the  throne. 
 Other's  suppose  it  to  be  a  vil- 
 lage. Millo  in  Jerusalem  (2Chr. 
 xxxii.  5)  was  a  section  of  the 
 fortifications,  or  perhaps  the 
 public  edifices  in  that  city. 
 The  expression  in  2Kings  xii. 
 20,  describes  the  place  as  above 
 Silla— perhaps  Siloam. 
 
 MINA.    (See  Measures.) 
 
 MIND.  (Gen.  xxiii.8.)  The 
 meaning  of  this  word,  when 
 employed  by  the  writers  of 
 Scripture,  must  be  determined 
 by  its  connexion.  According 
 to  this,  it  sometimes  means 
 the  soul  renewed,  in  oppo- 
 sition to  the  flesh  under  the 
 dominion  of  sin,  (Kom.  vii 
 25 ;)  and,  at  others,  the  im- 
 material, in  opposition  to  the 
 material  nature.  (Eph.  ii.  3.) 
 Sometimes  it  means  temper  or 
 
MIN 
 
 disposition,  as  in  Phil.  ii.  3.  5 ; 
 or  a  particular  faculty  is  meant, 
 as  in  Ps.  xxxi.  12.  Isa.  xlvi.  8; 
 Ixv.  17.  Mark  xiv.  72.  Some- 
 times the  motive  or  intention, 
 as  in  Prov.  xxi.  27;  or  thought, 
 as  in  Isa.  xxvi.  3.  Jer.  li.  50; 
 or  opinions,  as  in  Judg.  xix.  30 ; 
 or  affections,  as  in  Ezek.  xxiv. 
 25.  When  used  in  reference 
 to  God,  it  signifies  \vill,counsel, 
 or  purpose,  as  in  Rom.  viii.  27 ; 
 xi.  34.  1  Cor.  ii.  16.  When 
 used  as  a  verb,  it  signifies  to 
 regard  and  care  for,  as  in  Rom. 
 viii.  5;  xii.  16;  and  Phil.  iii. 
 19 ;  or  to  incline,  as  in  2  Chron. 
 xxiv.  4.  Matt.  i.  19.  Acts  xx. 
 13;  or  to  be  disposed,  as  in 
 Phil.ii.  2.  20;  iii.  15. 
 
 MINISTER.  (1.)  One  who 
 eerves  another.  (Ex.  xxiv.  13. 
 Josh.  i.l.  Matt.  XXV.  44.)  When 
 applied  to  Christ,  as  the  minis- 
 ter of  the  sanctuary.,  (Heb.viii. 
 2,)  it  denotes  his  official  cha- 
 racter as  our  high-priest,  who 
 is  set  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
 throne  of  the  Majesty  in  the 
 heavens,  and  who  ever  liveth 
 to  make  intercession  for  us. 
 (2.)  Those  persons  who  are 
 appointed  to  preach  the  gospel 
 and  administer  its  ordinances. 
 (ICor.iv.l.  2Cor.iii.6.  Eph.iii. 
 7.  1  Thess.  iii.  2.  lTim.iv.6.) 
 (3.)  To  magistrates,  (Rom.  xiii. 
 6,)  as  God's  ministers,  to  punish 
 vhe  evil  and  protect  the  good  ; 
 and,  (4.)  To  the  angels,  who 
 stand  ready  to  do  the  will  of 
 God.  (Ps.  ciii.21.  Dan.  vii.  10. 
 Rom.  xiii.  6.  Heb.  i.l4.) 
 
 MINISTRATION.  (1.)  The 
 
 {)eriod  during  which  an  office 
 s  administered.  (Luke  i.  23.) 
 (2.)  Distribution  of  alms.  (Acts 
 vi.  1.  2  Cor.  ix.  13.)  The  law 
 of  Moses  was  the  ministration 
 of  death  and  condemnation. 
 It  convinces  men  of  sin,  the 
 penalty  for  which  is  eternal 
 death;  and  to  this  they  are 
 already  condemned.  The  gos- 
 pel is  the  ministration  of  the 
 Spirit  thai  giveth  life  ;  it  pro- 
 ceeds from  the  Holy  Ghost;  is 
 
 MIR 
 
 confirmed  and  applied  by  him; 
 and  by  means  of  it,  he  conveys 
 life,  and  all  spiritual  graces 
 and  benefits,  to  the  souls  of 
 men.  (2 Cor.  iii.  7,  8.) 
 
 MINNI.  (Jer.  li.27.)  A  pro- 
 vince  of  Armenia,  or,  more  pro- 
 bably one  of  several  clans  or 
 tribes  who  were  settled  on 
 mount  Taurus,  east  and  south 
 of  the  Black  Sea.  The  Ash- 
 keniies  were  another  of  these 
 tribes. 
 
 MINNITH.  (Judg.  xi.  33.) 
 A  place  east  of  Jordan,  four 
 miles  from  Heshbon,  on  the 
 Philadelphia  road,  famous  foi 
 its  wheat.   (Ezek.  xxvii.  17.) 
 
 MINSTREL.  (2Kingsiii.l5.) 
 A  musician  or  piper.  It  seems, 
 from  the  case  of  Jairus,  to  have 
 been  customary  in  the  time 
 of  our  Saviour  to  employ  min- 
 strels at  funerals;  for  when 
 Christ  came  into  the  house  to 
 raise  his  daughter,  he  saw  the 
 minstrels  ana  the  people  mak- 
 ing a  noise.   (Matt.  ix.  23.) 
 
 MINT.  (Matt,  xxiii.  23.)  A 
 garden  herb  of  several  species. 
 The  law  of  Moses  required 
 that  tithes  should  be  paid  of 
 the  produce  of  the  field,  (Dent, 
 xiv.  22 ;)  but  the  Jews,  in  their 
 Pharisaical  precision,  tithed  an 
 article  which  could  scarcely 
 be  regarded  as  tithable  by  the 
 law,  while  its  most  important, 
 plain,  and  imperative jirecepts 
 were  neelected.  (See  Tithes.) 
 
 MIRACLE.  (Ex.  vii.  9.)  An 
 effect  caused  by  an  extraordi- 
 nary interposition  of  divine 
 power.  It  is  not  an  effect  con- 
 trary to  the  laws  of  nature,  (as 
 they  are  called,)  nor  does  it 
 necessarily  require  a  suspen- 
 sion of  those  laws.  It  is  at 
 most  but  a  suspension  of  the 
 operation  of  those  laws,  as  to  a 
 specific  event.  It  would  not 
 and  could  not  be  produced  by 
 the  ordinary  operation  of  those 
 laws;  and  hence,  being  beyond 
 or  above  the  order  of  nature,  it 
 requires  the  exercise  of  divine 
 power  to  accomplish  it. 
 4iO 
 
MIR 
 
 Miracles  were  performed  in 
 attestation  of  the  truth  of  some 
 particular  doctrine  or  system 
 of  religion.  Those  performed 
 by  our  Saviour  incontrovertibly 
 prove  his  divine  power.  They 
 exceed  thirty  in  number.  Many 
 of  them  were  wrought  before 
 a  great  multitude  of  people, 
 friends  and  enemies,  in  the 
 open  day,  and  where  there  was 
 no  chance  to  deceive.    And  it 
 
 Miracles. 
 Water  turned  into  wine  - 
 The  Capernaum  nobleman's  son  cured 
 Drau?lit  of  fisties      .... 
 Demoniac  cured        .        .        .        • 
 Peter's  mother-in-law  healed    - 
 
 Leper  healed 
 
 Centurion's  ser\'ant  healed 
 
 Widow's  son  raised  from  the  dead  • 
 
 Tempest  calmed 
 
 Demoniacs  of  Gadara  cured     - 
 
 Man  sict  of  the  palsy  cured    • 
 
 Jairus'  daughter  raised  to  life 
 
 Woman  diseased  with  issue  of  blood  he.a]ed 
 
 Sight  restored  to  two  blind  men 
 
 Dumb  demoniac  cured     - 
 
 Diseased  cripple  at  Bethesda  cured 
 
 A  withered  hand  cured    • 
 
 Demoniac  cured       ... 
 
 Five  thousand  fed     - 
 
 Canaanile  woman's  daughter  cured 
 
 Alan  deaf  and  dumb  cured 
 
 Four  thousand  fed     . 
 
 Blind  man  restored  to  sight 
 
 Boy  possessed  of  a  devil  cured 
 
 Man  born  blind  restored  to  sight 
 
 Woman  cured  of  eighteen  years'  infirmity 
 
 Dropsical  man  cured        ... 
 
 Ten  lepers  cleansed          ... 
 
 Lazarus  raised  from  the  grave  to  life 
 
 Two  blind  men  restored  to  sight 
 
 Fig  tree  blasted        .       .        .       - 
 
 The  ear  of  Malchus  healed      • 
 
 Draught  of  fishes      .        .       -       . 
 
 MIRIAM,  (Ex.  XV.  21,)  the 
 sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  ten  or 
 twelve  years  older  than  Moses; 
 and  being  appointed  to  watch 
 the  ark  of  bulrushes,  in  which 
 her  infant  brother  was  laid, 
 among  the  flags  of  the  river, 
 ehe  was  there  when  Pharaoh's 
 daughter  came  down  and  dis- 
 covered it,  and  proposed  to  go 
 for  a  nurse,  concealing  her  fe- 
 lation  to  the  child.  She  imme- 
 diately called  her  mother  as 
 the  nurse,  and  the  infant  was 
 placed  under  her  care.    She 
 
 MIT 
 
 really  requires  more  faith  to 
 believe  that  such  a  multitude 
 of  people  could  be  so  often 
 deceived  by  one  of  the  most 
 blameless  men  that  ever  lived 
 on  the  earth,  than  it  requires 
 to  believe  the  miracles  them- 
 selves. 
 
 The  following  is  a  taVjle  of 
 Christ's  miracles,  arranged  in 
 the  order  in  which  they  are 
 supposed  to  have  been  wrought. 
 
 Place. 
 Cana     • 
 Ditto     - 
 Sea  of  Galilee 
 Capernaum  • 
 Ditto     - 
 Ditto     • 
 Ditto     • 
 Nain     - 
 Sea  of  Galilee 
 Gadara  • 
 Capernaum 
 Ditto     - 
 Ditto     • 
 Ditto     - 
 Ditto     - 
 Jerusalem 
 Judea    - 
 Capernaum 
 Decapolis 
 Near  Tyre 
 Decapolis 
 Ditto     - 
 Bethsaida 
 Tabor    - 
 Jerusalem 
 Galilee  • 
 Ditto     - 
 Samaria 
 Bethany 
 Jericho 
 Olivet    - 
 Gethsemane 
 Sea  of  Galilee 
 
 Record. 
 Johnii.  1-11. 
 
 iv.  46—54. 
 
 Luke  V.  I— II. 
 Mark  i.  23—26. 
 30.31. 
 
 -10—45. 
 
 Matt.  viii.  5—13 
 Luke  vii.  11—17. 
 Matt. viii.  23—27. 
 
 2S-34. 
 
 ix.  1—8. 
 
 18-26. 
 
 Luke  viii.  43— 4S. 
 Matt  ix.  27—31. 
 
 32;  33. 
 
 John  V.  1—9.. 
 Matt.  xii.  10—13. 
 
 22,  23. 
 
 xiv.  15-21. 
 
 XV.  22— 2S. 
 
 Mark  vii.  31—37. 
 Matt.  XV.  32-33. 
 .Mark  viii.  22— 26. 
 Matt.xvii.l4— 21. 
 John  ix. 
 Lukexiii.  11 — 17. 
 
 xiv.  1-4. 
 
 xvii.  11—19. 
 
 John  xi. 
 
 Matt.  XX.  30—34. 
 
 xxi.  18—21. 
 
 Luke  xxii.  50,  51. 
 John  xxi.  1 — 14. 
 
 was  smitten  with  leprosy  fot 
 her  treatment  of  Moses,  but 
 was  restored  in  answer  to  the 
 prayer  of  Moses.  (Num.  xii. 
 1—15.)  She  died,  and  was  bu- 
 ried at  Kadesh.    (Num.  xx.  1 ) 
 
 MIRRORS.  (See  Looking- 
 glass.) 
 
 MITE.  (Luke  xii.  59.)  The 
 lowest  denomination  of  Jewish 
 money,  and  probably  of  the 
 value  of  two  mills  of  our  cur- 
 rency.   (See  Measures,  &c.) 
 
 IMITRE.  (Ex.  xxviii.  4—7.) 
 This  was  the  head-dress  of  the 
 Jewish  priest.  It  was  of  fine 
 441 
 
MIZ 
 flax  or  linen,  made  with  many 
 folds,  making  in  lengtii  eight 
 yards,  finished  with  elegance 
 and  taste,  and  wreathed  round 
 the  head  in  the  shape  of  an 
 eastern  turban.  It  bore  upon 
 its  front  a  gold  plate,  on  which 
 was  inscribed  "Holiness  to 
 THE  Lor4D."  The  Jews  tell  us 
 that  the  mitre  and  the  bonnet 
 were  the  same  thing,  only  fold- 
 ed up  differently,  according  to 
 the  dignity  of  tlie  wearer. 
 
 MITYLENE.  (Acts  xx.  14.) 
 The  capital  of  the  ancient 
 island  of  Lesbos.  The  whole 
 island  is  now  under  the  Turk- 
 ish power,  and  is  called  Miti- 
 lene,  and  the  chief  town  is 
 called  Castra,  near  which  the 
 ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are 
 discernible.  Tlie  island  lies 
 on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia 
 Minor,  nearly  opposite  Perga- 
 mos,  and  is  about  one  hundred 
 and  seventy  miles  in  circum- 
 ference. The  population  is  at 
 present  25,000.  The  chief  pro- 
 ductions are  wine  and  figs. 
 Paul  passed  through  this  island 
 on  his  way  from  Corinth  to 
 Jerusalem  :  and  it  is  famous  as 
 the  birthplace  of  many  wise 
 and  learned  men. 
 
 MIZPAH,  (I  Kings  xv.  22,)  or 
 MIZPEH.  (Josh.  XV.  38.)  This 
 name  is  given  to  several  places, 
 and  implies  a  post  of  observa- 
 tion or  a  watcn-tower.  They 
 seem  to  have  been  kn-iwn  as 
 places  of  convocation  on  public 
 occasions,  religious  and  civil. 
 
 1.  (Josh.xv.38.)  Aciiy  inthe 
 territory  of  Judah,  north  of 
 Hebron,  and  nearly  twenty 
 miles  south  from  Jerusalem. 
 Some  geographers  place  it  in 
 the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  (Josh, 
 xviii.  26.) 
 
 Samuel  dwelt  at  Mizpah, 
 (1  Sam.  vii.  5,  6,)  and  Saul  was 
 anointed  king  there,  (1  Sam.  x. 
 17—24;)  and  hither,  it  is  sup- 
 posed, the  Jews  often  resorted 
 lor  business  and  devotion. 
 (Jud^.  XX.  1.  ISam.  vii.5— 7;  X. 
 17.)  It  was  fortified  by  Asa  with 
 
 MOA 
 
 the  stone  and  timber  which 
 Baasha  had  been  using  for  the 
 like  purpose  at  Rama,  (1  Kings 
 XV.  22;)  and  was  the  residence 
 of  Gedaliah,  the  governor  ap- 
 pointed by  Nebuchadnezzar 
 after  his  subjection  of  the  land. 
 (Jer.  xl.  6.)  We  find  it  rebuilt 
 after  the  return  from  Babylon. 
 (Neh.  iii.ia.) 
 
 2.  (Gen.  xxxi.  49.)  A  city 
 in  the  territory  of  Gad,  where 
 Laban  and  Jacob  entered  into 
 a  covenant  of  friendship,  and 
 where  Jephthah  resided  and 
 mustered  his  army.  (Judg.  i'i. 
 11.29.) 
 
 3.  (Josh.  xi.  3. 8.)  A  tract  of 
 country  lying  near  the  base  of 
 mount  Hermon. 
 
 4.  (1  Sam.  xxii.  3.)  A  town 
 of  flloab,  where  David  placed 
 his  father  and  mother  during 
 his  reverses. 
 
 MIZRAIM  (Gen.  x.  6)  is  the 
 original  word  translated  Egypt; 
 and  the  modern  Arabian  name 
 Mitzr  is  an  abbreviation  of  the 
 Hebrew  word  Mizraim.  (See 
 Egypt.) 
 
 MIZREPHOTH-MAIM. 
 (Josh.  xi.  8.)  A  place  near 
 Sidon,  and  supposed  to  be  the 
 same  with  Sarepla. 
 
 MNASON.  (Actsxxi.16.)  A 
 native  of  Cyprus,  but  a  resident 
 of  Jerusalem.  He  was  an  early 
 convert  to  Christianity,  and  hos- 
 pitably entertained  the  apos- 
 tles. It  is  supposed  by  some 
 that  the  reading  of  the  passage 
 should  be, '  brought  us  to  Mna- 
 son  of  Cyprus,'  &c. 
 
 MOAB,  PLAINS  OF,  (Num. 
 xxii.  1;  xxxiii.  43—50,)  were 
 situated  east  of  Jordan  and  the 
 Dead  Sea,  on  both  sides  of  the 
 Arnon.  The  country  belonged 
 principally  to  the  Amorites, 
 north  of  the  Arnon,  where  the 
 Israelites  encamped  before  the 
 passage  of  the  Jordan.  After- 
 wards it  fell  to  the  lot  of  Reu- 
 ben. 
 
 The  inhabitants  were  called 
 Moabites,  and  the  country  de- 
 rived its  name  from  Moab  the 
 442 
 
MOL 
 
 son  of  Lot,  (Gen.  xix.  37,)  by 
 whose  posterity  it  was  conquer- 
 ed, when  in  possession  of  the 
 fiant  race  of  Eminis.  (Deut.  ii. 
 1, 12.)  They  were  severely 
 punished  for  their  treatment 
 of  the  Israelites.  (Deut.  xxiii. 
 S-6.  Judg.  iii.  12— 30.  2  Sam. 
 viii.  2.  See  Mesha.)  They 
 were  an  idolatrous  nation,  and 
 are  made  the  subject  of  seve- 
 ral prophecies.  (Isa.  xv.  xvi. 
 Jer.  xlviii.) 
 
 Their  country  seems  to  have 
 been  exceedingly  fertile  in  an- 
 cient times;  but  now  it  is  a 
 barren  desert,  traversed  only 
 by  wandering  Arabs,  according 
 to  that  prediction  of  the  pro- 
 phet, Moah  shall  be  a  perpetu- 
 al desolation.  fZeph.  ii.  'J.) 
 
 MOLE.  (Isa.  ii.  20.)  .Some 
 are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
 word  in  Lev.  xi.  30,  which 
 our  translators  render  mole,  is 
 properly  the  chameleon;  and 
 that  the  word  translated  wea- 
 sel, in  the  preceding  verse,  is 
 the  mole;  and  in  the  east,  at 
 this  day,  the  mole  is  called 
 khuld,  which  is  evidently  the 
 same  as  the  Hebrew  word 
 choled,  here  used.  A  learn- 
 ed author  is,  moreover,  of  opi 
 nion  that  the  words  rendered 
 moles  and  bats,  in  the  passage 
 first  above  cited,  should  be  read 
 as  one  word,  and  that  no  animal 
 is  meant,  but  a  deep  sink,  or 
 subterranean  vault;  and  an- 
 other concurs  in  the  opinion, 
 but  thinks  t'hat  sepulchres  are 
 intended. 
 
 The  habits  of  the  mole  are 
 well  known;  and  the  idea  of 
 the  prophet  is  fully  sustained 
 by  any  expression  denoting  the 
 cavsrnsordesolate  placesof  the 
 earth.  (See  Youth's  Friend, 
 for  Aug.  1^29,  by  Am.  S.  S.  U.) 
 MOLECH,  (Lev.  xviii.  21,) 
 or  MILCOLM,  (1  Kines  xi.  5,) 
 or  MOLOCH.  (Acts'vii.  4-3.) 
 The  name  of  an  idol  god,  wor- 
 shipped by  the  Ammonites 
 with  human  sacrifices. 
 
 MON 
 
 The  Rabbins  tell  us  tliat  it 
 was  made  of  brass,  and  jilaced 
 on  a  brazen  throne,  and  that  the 
 head  was  that  of  a  calf,  with  a 
 crown  upon  it.  The  throne 
 and  image  were  made  hollow, 
 and  a  furious  fire  was  kindled 
 within  it.  The  flames  pene- 
 trated into  the  body  and  limbs 
 of  the  idol ;  and  when  the  arms 
 were  red-hot,  the  victim  was 
 thrown  into  them,  and  was  al- 
 most immediately  burned  to 
 death.  Its  cries  were  drowned 
 by  drums,  &c.  Some  have 
 doubted  whether  there  was  an 
 actual  sacrifice  of  life  on  these 
 occasions;  and  they  refer  to  cus- 
 toms still  prevalent  in  China, 
 and  among  some  of  the  Indian 
 nations,  where  the  devotees 
 walk  barefoot  over  burning 
 coals,  and  often  carry  their 
 children  in  their  arms  for  the 
 purpose  of  consecrating  them. 
 This  they  cM  passing  through 
 the  fire.  (2Kms3  x\i.  3.)  No 
 objection  can  be  made  to  the 
 credibility  of  the  Rabbins'  ac- 
 count, from  the  barbarity  of  it ; 
 for  the  burning  of  widows,  and 
 the  drowning  of  children,  in 
 India,  are  certainly  no  less  re- 
 volting instances  of  cnielty, 
 than  the  throwing  of  infanta 
 into  the  heated  anus  of  an  idol 
 god.  We  subjoin  a  cut  of  this 
 idol. 
 
 The  tabernacle  of  Moloch 
 was  the  tent  or  small  house  in 
 which  the  image  of  the  idol 
 was  placed.  It  was  of  a  size 
 and  shape  to  be  portable,  and 
 was  taken  up  like  other  bag- 
 gage, and  carried  from  place  to 
 place. 
 
 MONEY.(Gen.  xxiii, 9.)Thig 
 is  the  first  mention  of  money  in 
 the  sacred  Scriptures.  It  was 
 silver,  and  was  weighed,  and 
 is  said  to  have  been  current 
 with  the  merchant.  The  prac- 
 tice of  weighing  money  is  ge- 
 neral in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  all 
 Turkey.  No  piece,  however 
 effaced,  is  refused  there.  The 
 443 
 
MON 
 
 MON 
 
 The  worship  of  Moloch,  p.  443. 
 
 merchant  chairs  md  his  scales 
 and  iceighs  if,  as  in  the  days 
 of  Abraham,\vhen  he  purchased 
 his  sepulchre.  In  considerable 
 payinenls,aii  agent  of  exchange 
 IS  sent  for,  who  counts  it  by 
 thousands,  rejects  pieces  of 
 false  money,  and  weighs  all 
 the  coin  either  separately  or 
 together.  With  us,  the  piece  of 
 metal  is  stamped  according  to 
 its  value,  as  fixed  by  public 
 authcflrity.  (See  Changers, 
 Measures,  &c.) 
 
 MONTH.  (Gen.viii.4.)The 
 twelfth  part  of  a  year.  The 
 ancient  Hebrews  called  the 
 months  by  their  numbers;  as 
 first  month,  second  month,tiiird 
 
 month,  &c.  The  length  of  the 
 month  was  regulated  by  the 
 changes  of  the  moon.  After 
 they  left  Egypt,  the  Jews  had 
 two  courses  of  months;  one 
 making  the  civil,  and  the  other 
 the  sacred  year ;  the  former 
 commenced  from  the  first  new- 
 moon  in  October,  and  this  waa 
 used  in  civil  and  agricultural 
 concerns  onlj  j  and  the  latter 
 from  the  first  new  moon  in 
 April,  because  they  left  Egypt 
 on  the  fifteenth  of  that  montli, 
 and  was  used  in  regulating  the 
 time  of  their  feasts,  &c.  The 
 prophets  use  this  reckoning. 
 
 The  names  of  the  Hebrew 
 months  follow. 
 
 44A 
 
MOR 
 
 CML 
 VI  [. 
 
 VIII. 
 IX. 
 X. 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 I. 
 
 H. 
 IlL 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 VL 
 
 MOR 
 
 Btginning  with  the  new  moon. 
 
 T.  Nisan,  or  Abib  March,  or  April    •    • 
 
 H.  Zif,  or  Ziv    -  April,  or  May  •    •    - 
 
 III.  Sivan       .    -    -    .  May,  or  June    •    -    - 
 
 IV.  Tammuz     •    .    -  June,  or  July    ... 
 V.  Ab July,  or  August     -    - 
 
 VI.  Elul        ....  August,  or  September 
 
 VII.  Tisliri,  or  Ethanim  September,  or  October 
 
 VIII.  Bui October,  or  November 
 
 Neh.  ii.  1. 
 I  Kings  Ti.  U 
 Esth.  viii.  9l 
 
 IX.  Kislcu,  or  Chisleu    November,  or  December    -    Neh 
 
 Neh.  vi.  15. 
 I  Kings  viii.  2. 
 •    1  Kings  vi.  33. 
 
 X.  Tebeth  • 
 XI.  She-bat  - 
 XII.  Adir       • 
 
 •  December,  or  January 
 
 •  January,  or  February     •    •    Zech.  i.  7. 
 
 •  February,  or  March       -    -    Esth.  iii.  7. 
 
 Twelve  lunar  months,  mak- 
 ing but  three  hundred  and  fif- 
 ty-four days  and  six  hours,  the 
 Jewish  year  was  short  of  the 
 Roman  by  twelve  days.  To 
 compensate  for  ihis  difference, 
 the  Jews  every  three  years  in- 
 tercalated a  thirteeyith  month, 
 which  they  called  Vedar,  the 
 second  Adar.  By  this  means, 
 their  lunar  year  equalled  the 
 solar. 
 
 MOON,  (Deut.  xxxiii.  14,)  or 
 lesser  light.  (Gen.  i.  16.)  The 
 moon  is  a  planet  revolving 
 round  the  earth,  and  reflecting 
 the  light  of  the  sun.  The 
 church  is  compared  to  the 
 moon  with  great  force  and 
 beautv,  (Sol.  Song  vi.  10,)  as 
 she  derives  from  the  Sun  of 
 righteousness  all  her  bright- 
 ness and  glory. 
 
 The  new  moon  regulated 
 many  of  the  feasts  and  sacred 
 services  under  the  old  dispen- 
 sation. The  new  moon  was 
 always  the  beginning  of  the 
 month,  and  this  day  they  called 
 Neomenia,  new-moon  day,  or 
 new  month. 
 
 The  heathens  have  generally 
 worshipped  the  moon,  under 
 the  names  of  Queen  of  heaven, 
 Venus  Ur(tnia,Succoth-benoth, 
 Ashtaroth,  Diana,  Hecate,  or 
 
 ferhaps  Meni,  &c.  (Deut.  iv. 
 9;  xvii.3.  Job  xxxi.26,27.) 
 The  orientals  regulate  their 
 journeys  by  the  moon,  and  set 
 off  soon  after  her  change. 
 
 MOKDECAI.  (Esth.'ii.S.)  A 
 
 captive  Jew  of  the  family  of 
 
 Saul,  resident  at  the  court  of 
 
 Ahasuerus.    An  uncle  of  his 
 
 33 
 
 died,  leaving  an  orphan  ( 
 ter  named  Hadassah,  whom 
 Mordecai  adoi)ted,  and  who 
 afterwards  became  the  queen 
 of  Persia.  (See  Esther.)  Mor- 
 decai fell  under  the  displeasure 
 of  Haman,  one  of  the  king's 
 principal  officers  of  state,  a 
 very  proud  and  ambitious  man ; 
 and  to  be  revenged  on  the  de- 
 spised Jewj  he  laid  a  plan  for 
 the  extermmation  of  the  whole 
 body  of  Jews  in  the  empire. 
 His  purpose  was,  however,  de- 
 feated by  the  interposition  of 
 the  queen.  Haman  lost  his 
 life,  and  Mordecai  was  ele- 
 vated to  wealth  and  power. 
 (See  Haman.  See,  also,  Ha- 
 DASSAH,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 MOREH,  PLAIN  or  plains  op, 
 (Gen.  xii.  6.  Deut.  xi.  30,)  was 
 probably  a  famous  oak  or  grove 
 of  oaks  in  the  vicinity  of  She- 
 chem,  and  perhaps  at  the  foot 
 of  a  hill  of  the  same  name, 
 (Judg.  vii.  1.)  It  was  near  the 
 mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  and 
 some  think  it  the  same  with 
 Ebal.  (Deut.  xi.  29,  30.)  The 
 oak  of  Shechem  is  often  re- 
 ferred  to,  (Gen.  xxxv.  4.  Josh, 
 xxiv.  25,  26,)  and  in  these  and 
 other  passages  is  supposed  to 
 be  the  same  with  the  plain  of 
 Moreh. 
 
 Hence,  from  Judg.  vii.  1,  it 
 would  appear  that  the  hill  of 
 Moreh  was  in  or  near  the  \'al- 
 ley  of  Jezreel.  As  the  original 
 phrase  means  high  oak,  it  might 
 be  applied  to  several  places 
 designated  in  each  case  by  the 
 connexion. 
 
 MORIAH.    (Gen.  xxii.  2.) 
 415 
 
MOS 
 This  hill  was  situated  north- 
 east of  Jerusalem,  and  was 
 originally  separated  from  Acra 
 by  a  valley,  which,  accord- 
 ing to  Jewish  historians,  was 
 filled  up  by  the  Asmoneans; 
 and  thus  the  two  hills  be- 
 came one.  In  the  time  of 
 David,  mount  Moriah  was  not 
 included  within  the  limits  of 
 the  cUy,  but  formed  a  part  of 
 the  cultivated  ground  of  Arau- 
 nah  the  Jebusiie,  from  whom 
 David  bought  it.  (2  Sam.  xxiv. 
 16—25.)  On  this  spot  Solomon 
 built  the  temple.  (2  Chron. 
 iii.  1.)  It  is  supposed  that  this 
 is  the  mount  Rloriah  on  which 
 Abraham  was  directed  to  offer 
 up  his  son  Isaac  for  a  burnt- 
 offering.  (See  passage  first 
 cited.) 
 
 This  mount  was  raised  by 
 artificial  means  to  the  height 
 of  about  seven  hundred  feet. 
 Being  at  first  a  rocky  precipice, 
 it  was  enclosed  by  a  square 
 wall,  and  filled  in,  until  it 
 formed  a  level  area  for  the 
 temple  and  its  courts.  Moriah 
 is  now  a  piece  of  level  ground. 
 It  is  occupied  by  an  open 
 court  fifteen  hundred  feet  long, 
 and  one  thousand  feet  wide, 
 surrounded  by  a  wall,  and 
 planted  with  trees.  In  the 
 centre  of  this  area  is  a  large 
 platform,  paved  with  marble, 
 on  which  stands  the  mosque 
 which  the  caliph  Omar  erected 
 in  the  seventh  century,  and 
 which  is  considered  the  second 
 only  to  the  holy  house  at  Mecca 
 in  point  of  sanctity,  and  the 
 first  in  size  and  magnificence. 
 NoChristian  is  allowed  toenter 
 this  enclosure;  though  this  pro- 
 hibition has  been  relaxed  in  fa- 
 vour of  several  modern  travel- 
 
 lerS.(SPejERUSALEM,TEMPLE.) 
 
 MORNING.     (See   Day, 
 
 Watch.) 
 Morning    watch.       (See 
 
 Watch.) 
 Morning  STAR.(SeeSTARS.) 
 MORTAR.    (See  Lime.) 
 MOSES,  (Ex.  ii.  10.)  the  dia 
 
 MOS 
 
 tinguished  leader  aud  general 
 of  the  Hebrews,  was  born  in 
 Esypt,  A.  M.  2433.  For  three 
 months  he  escaped  thf>  general 
 massacre  of  all  the  male  chil- 
 dren of  the  Hebrews  by  being 
 secreted,  and  then  he  was 
 placed  in  an  ark  or  basket  of 
 reed  or  osier  work  made  water- 
 tight, and  deposited  among  the 
 flags  on  the  river  bank.  The 
 sister  of  the  infant  was  sta- 
 tioned near  to  watch,  and  by 
 and  by  one  of  the  daughters 
 of  Pharaoh,  walking  near  the 
 spot,  discovered  the  basket, 
 and,  upon  opening  it,  saw  the 
 helpless  babe,and,bein^  moved 
 by  its  cries,  was  disposed  to  save 
 it,  notwithstanding  she  saw  it 
 was  one  of  the  Heljrew  ch  ildren 
 that  her  father's  tyrannical  de- 
 cree doomed  to  death.  Miriam 
 asked  the  princess  if  she  should 
 call  a  nurse,  and  being  told  to 
 do  so,  immediately  called  hei 
 mother,  who  was  directed  to 
 take  the  child  and  nurse  it  fon 
 the  princess  upon  wages.  This 
 commission  the  mother  joy- 
 fully executed.  She  nourished 
 the  child,  and  probably  in- 
 structed him  in  the  principles 
 of  religion;  and  at  a  proper 
 time  took  him  to  Pharaoh's 
 daughter,  and  he  became  her 
 son.  She  gave  him  the  name 
 of  Moses,  signifying  that  he 
 was  drawn  out  of  the  water. 
 Being  mstructed  in  the  various 
 branches  of  Egyptian  learning, 
 (Acts  vii.  22,)  and  having  great 
 advantages  from  his  connexion 
 with  the  royal  family,  the  pros- 
 pects of  the  young  Hebrew 
 were  extremely  flattering ;  but, 
 at  the  age  of  forty,  he  chose  t» 
 renounce  them  all, and  become 
 the  servant  of  God.  (Heb.  xi. 
 24—26.)  He  espoused  the  cause 
 of  an  oppressed  Israelite,  and, 
 I  in  his  defence,  put  an  Egyp- 
 tian to  death,  for  which  cause 
 i  he  fled  into  Midian,  where  he 
 !  married  Zipporah,  a  daughtet 
 !  of  Jethro,  and  lived  forty  years 
 '  as  a  shepherd.  At  the  end  of 
 446 
 
MOS 
 that  period,  he  received  a  mi- 
 raculous intimation  from  God 
 ,hat  he  was  to  be  the  leader 
 and  deliverer  of  his  chosen 
 people,  for  which  high  and 
 responsiljle  office  he  was  fur- 
 nished with  the  necessary  gifts 
 and  graces.  His  brother  Aaron 
 was  associated  with  him,  and 
 the  history  of  their  official 
 career  would  be  a  history  of 
 the  Jews  from  the  close  of  their 
 bondage  in  Egypt  to  their  ap- 
 
 ? roach  to  the  land  of  promise. 
 'he  miracles  God  wrought  by 
 his  hands ;  his  frequent  oppor- 
 tunities of  communion  imme- 
 diately with  the  divine  ma- 
 jesty; the  wonderful  displays 
 he  witnessed  of  the  power  and 
 glory  of  Jehoval),  and  his  con- 
 nexion with  the  grand  and 
 significant  system  of  religious 
 rites  and  ceremonies,  which  is 
 called  after  him  the  Mosaic 
 ritual  or  dispensation;  the  se- 
 verity of  the  rebukes  he  suf- 
 fered in  consequenceof  a  single 
 sinful  act,  (Num.  xx.  12);  his  ex- 
 traordinary meekness,  (Num. 
 xii.  3) ;  the  singular  manner  of 
 his  death,  andlhe  fact  that  he 
 is  the  hislufian  of  ages  and 
 events  so  remote  and  so  in- 
 tensely interesting  to  us,  in  our 
 various  relations,  prospects, 
 and  circumstances,  al  1  combine 
 to  make  him,  perhaps,  the  most 
 extraordinary  man  that  ever 
 lived.   (Deut.  xxxiv.  10—12.) 
 
 He  retained  his  faculties  to 
 4  very  extraordinary  degree, 
 for  we  are  told  that  al  his  death, 
 which  took  place  at  an  ad- 
 vanced age,  his  eye  teas  not 
 dim,  nor  his  natural  force 
 ubated.  (Deut.  xxxiv.  7.)  After 
 having  seen  the  most  con- 
 clusive tokens  that  God  would 
 accomplish  all  his  purposes  in 
 bringing  his  people  into  the 
 prornised  land,  (Num.  xxxi. 
 xxxii.,)  he  assembled  the  na- 
 tion, and  recaiiitu  ated  in  their 
 hearing  the  events  of  their 
 history.  He  exhorted  them  to 
 obedience;  proposed  to  them 
 
 MOS 
 
 the  blessings  and  the  curses 
 
 which  were  suspended  on  their 
 faithfulness ;  solemnly  testified 
 to  the  truth  and  holiness  of 
 tlie  Divine  Being,  (Deut.  xxvii. 
 xxviii.  xxix.  xxx.,)  and  made 
 all  necessary  arrangements 
 with  his  successor  for  tlie  com- 
 pletion of  the  commission.  He 
 then  celebrates  the  glory  of 
 God  in  one  of  the  most  sublime 
 and  animated  hymns  of  praise 
 that  we  find  on  record;  and 
 after  pronouncing  on  the 
 tribes,  respectively,  the  most 
 solemn  prophetic  blessings,  he 
 went  up  into  a  mountain  ap- 
 pointed for  that  purpose  by 
 God,  from  the  summit  of  which 
 he  could  survey  the  whole 
 length  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
 and  across  from  the  Jordan  to 
 the  Mediterranean.  When  he 
 had  thus  seen,  for  himself,  the 
 promised  possession  of  his 
 countrymen,  he  cheerfully  re- 
 si£ned  his  spirit  to  the  hands 
 of  a  covenant-keeping  God, 
 and  at  the  advanced  age  of 
 one  hundred  and  twenty  years, 
 he  died  upon  or  in  the  vicinity 
 of  the  mountain,  and  was  bu- 
 ried in  a  valley  of  Moab ;  but 
 the  precise  place  of  his  burial 
 was  never  known. 
 
 What  is  said  respecting  his 
 burial,  (Deut.  xxxiv.  6 ;)  what 
 Jude  says  of  the  archangel  dis- 
 puting with  the  devil  about  his 
 body,  (Jude  9  ;)  and  his  appear- 
 ing with  Elijah  on  the  mount 
 of  transfiguration,  (Matt.  xvii. 
 3,)  have  led  some  to  conjecture 
 that  he  was  immediately  raised 
 from  the  dead,  and  translated 
 to  heaven ;  but  where  the 
 Scriptures  are  silent,  it  is  our 
 wisdom  to  be  so  also,  and  not 
 attempt  to  be  wise  above  what 
 is  written. 
 
 Moses  uttered  a  remarkable 
 prophecy  respecting  the  Mes- 
 siah, (Deut.  xviii.  17—19.  comp. 
 Acts  iii.  22,  and  vii.  37;)  and 
 the  similarity  of  their  character 
 and  offices  is,  in  many  re- 
 spects,  very  strikinsr. 
 447 
 
MOS 
 
 We  have  already  alluded  to 
 Moses  as  the  author  of  the  first 
 five  books  of  the  Bible  called 
 the  Pentateuch,  containing  the 
 history  of  the  creation  of  the 
 world  and  its  inhabitants ;  the 
 fall  and  curse  of  man  ;  the  de- 
 struction of  all  the  human  race 
 save  one  family  of  eight  souls ; 
 the  dispersion  of  the  nations ; 
 the  deliverance  of  the  chosen 
 people  of  God  from  oppression, 
 and  the  introduction  of  that 
 wonderful  dispensation  of 
 which  the  Divine  Being  him- 
 self was  the  author  and  exe- 
 cutor, and  under  which  the 
 civil  and  ecclesiastical  govern- 
 ment of  these  nations  wa"3  ad- 
 ministered for  so  many  ages. 
 
 In  relation  to  this  portion 
 of  the  sacred  history,  and  es- 
 pecially the  earliest  chapters 
 of  it,  the  late  Baron  Cuvier, 
 who  has  been  justly  called  the 
 prince  of  geologists,  says  :  "  His 
 books  (i.  e.  the  books  of  Moses) 
 show  us  that  he  had  very 
 perfect  ideas  respecting  se- 
 veral of  the  highest  questions 
 of  natural  philosophy.  His 
 cosmogony  especially,  consi- 
 dered purely  in  a  scientific 
 view,  13  extremely  remark- 
 able; inasmuch  as  the  order 
 which  it  assigns  to  the  different 
 epochs  of  creation,  is  precisely 
 the  same  as  that  which  has 
 been  deduced  from  geological 
 considerations." 
 
 This,  then,  is  the  issue,  in 
 the  opinion  of  Baron  Cuvier, 
 of  that  science  which  has  been 
 held  by  many  persons  to  teach 
 conclusions  at  variance  with 
 the  book  of  Genesis;  when, 
 at  last,  more  matured  by  a 
 series  of  careful  observations 
 and  legitimate  induction,  it 
 teaches^is  precisely  what  Mo- 
 ses had  taught  more  than  three 
 thousand  years  a^o. 
 
 And  whence  did  Moses  re- 
 ceive the  knowledge  which 
 philosophy  has  been  so  long 
 m  reaching,  through  the  paths 
 of  geology  ?    Was  the  genera- 
 
 MOT 
 
 tion  in  which  he  lived,  more 
 learned  than  any  which  suc- 
 ceeded for  thousands  of  years? 
 There  is  not  the  slightest  sha- 
 dow of  evidence  to  "sustain  so 
 incredible  a  position.  It  could 
 not  be  through  the  slow  pro- 
 cesses of  geological  investiga- 
 tion, either  of  himself  or  his 
 contemporaries,  that  Moses 
 learned  the  sublime  truths 
 which  were  hidden  from  Aris- 
 totle   and   Pythagoras.     The 
 
 superior  wisdom  which  dis- 
 tinguishes the  Hebrew  prophet 
 from  all  his  contemporaries, 
 and  renders  his  simple  nar- 
 rative a  standard  of  truth  in 
 all  ages,  was  from  above.  It 
 was  from  Him  who  made  the 
 world  that  Moses  learned  the 
 history  of  its  creation,  and  in 
 no  other  way  could  his  suc- 
 cessors on  the  inspired  page 
 be  possessed  of  the  truth  and 
 wisdom  which  shines  as  brist- 
 ly in  their  pages  as  in  his.  (See 
 Aaron,  Hebrews  ;  and  f»r  a 
 full  history  and  character  of 
 this  extraordinary  man,  with 
 illustrative  maps  and  engrav- 
 inga,  see  Life  op  Moses,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 MOTH.  (Luke  xii.  33.)  A 
 well  known  insect,  one  spe- 
 cies of  which,  in  its  caterpillar 
 state,  is  very  destructive  to 
 furs,  woollen  cloths,  &c.  The 
 egg  of  the  moth,  being  depo- 
 sited on  the  fur  or  cloth,  pro- 
 duces a  very  small  shining 
 insect,  which  immediately 
 forms  a  house  for  itself  by  cut- 
 tings from  ihe  cloth.  It  eats 
 away  the  nap,  weakens  or 
 destroys  the  thread,  and  finally 
 ruins  the  fabric.  There  is  fre- 
 quent reference  to  this  weak, 
 but  destructive  insect,  in  the 
 sacred  Scriptures.  In  Job  iv. 
 19,  man  is  said  to  be  crushed  be- 
 J^orethemoth.wheTelhisanimal 
 is  the  emblem  of  man's  weak- 
 ness and  defenceless  condition. 
 In  Job  xiii.  28,  the  wasting, 
 decaying  life  of  man  is  com- 
 pared to  a  moth-  eate  n  garment  • 
 443 
 
MOU 
 *Aid  in  Isa.  li.  6,  the  earth  ia 
 told  to  wa.x  old  as  a  garment ; 
 Uial  is,  a  moth-eaten  garment, 
 as  the  original  imports.  lu.Tob 
 xxvii.  IS,  the  man  who  rises 
 by  injustice  is  compared  to  the 
 moth,  which,  by  eating  into 
 the  garment  where  it  dwells, 
 after  a  while  destroys  its  own 
 liabitation.  In  Ps.  vi.  7,  the 
 word  rendered  in  our  version 
 consumed,  properly  means 
 moth-eaten.  In  Ps.  xxxix.  11, 
 the  effect  of  God's  judgments 
 on  mankind  is  illustrated  by 
 the  consuming  power  of  the 
 moth ;  and  so  in  Hos.  v.  12. 
 The  devastations  of  this  insect 
 are  particularly  referred  to  in 
 Isa.  1.  9.  As  much  of  the  trea- 
 sure of  the  ancients  consisted 
 in  costly  garments,  we  may 
 readily  understand  why  the 
 moth  was  considered  so  noxious 
 an  insect;  and  this  will  teach 
 us  the  true  import  of  our  Sa- 
 viour's words.  (Matt.  vi.  19, 20.) 
 It  was  common  in  Asia  to  lay 
 up  stores  of  precious  garments, 
 which  descended  as  an  inherit- 
 ance to  children;  for  their 
 modes  of  dress  never  changed: 
 but  the  moth  was  a  formidable 
 enemy  to  such  treasures,  so  as 
 to  render  it  useless  to  take 
 much  pains  to  lay  them  up. 
 (See,  also,  James  v.  2.) 
 
 MOURN,  MOURNERS. 
 (Gen.  xxiii.  2.)  The  Hebrews, 
 at  the  death  of  their  friends  and 
 relations,  gave  all  possible  de- 
 monstralionsof  ";rief  and  mourn- 
 ing. (Gen.  1.  10.)  They  wept, 
 lore  their  clothes,  smote  their 
 breasts,  fasted,  and  lay  upon 
 the  ground;  went  barefooted, 
 pulled  their  hair  and  beards, 
 or  cut  them,  and  made  incisions 
 on  their  breasts,  or  tore  them 
 with  their  nails.  (Lev.  xix.  28; 
 xxi.  5.  Deut.  xiv.  1.  Jer.  xvi. 
 6.)  The  time  of  mourning  was 
 commonly  seven  days;  but  it 
 was  lengthened  or  shortened 
 according  to  circumstances. 
 That  for  Moses  and  Aaron  was 
 prohnged  to  thirty  days.  (Num. 
 38* 
 
 MOU 
 
 XX.  29.  Deut.  xxxiv.  8.)  They 
 mourned  excessively  for  an 
 only  son,  as  his  deaih  cut  off 
 the  name  of  the  family.  (Zech. 
 xii.  10.) 
 
 The  priest  mourned  only  for 
 near  relatives,  but  the  high- 
 priest  for  none.  (Lev.  xxi.  1 — 
 12.) 
 
 During  the  time  of  their 
 mourning,  they  continued  sit- 
 ting in  their  houses,  and  ate 
 on  the  ground.  The  food  they 
 took  was  thought  unclean,  and 
 even  themselves  were  judged 
 impure.  (Hos.  ix.  4.)  Their 
 faces  were  covered  ;  and  in  all 
 that  time  they  cijuld  not  apply 
 themselves  to  any  occupation, 
 nor  read  the  book  of  the  law, 
 nor  say  their  usual  prayers. 
 They  did  not  dress  themselves, 
 nor  make  their  beds,  nor  un- 
 cover their  heads,  nor  shave, 
 nor  cut  their  nails,  nor  go  into 
 the  bath,  nor  salute  anybody. 
 Nobody  spoke  to  them  unless 
 they  spoke  first.  (Job  ii.  11 — 13.) 
 Their  friends  commonly  went 
 to  visit  and  comfort  them,  bring- 
 ing them  food.  They  also  went 
 up  to  the  roof,  or  upon  the  plat- 
 form of  their  houses,  to  bewail 
 their  loss.  (Isa.  xv.  3.) 
 
 It  was  reckoned  a  very  pious 
 work  to  comfort  mourners ;  and 
 v/hen  they  came  to  the  mourn- 
 ers, they  stood  around  them, 
 ten  in  a  row,  and  approaching 
 towards  them,  one  by  one,  wish- 
 ed them  comfort  from  heaven. 
 If  they  sat,  it  was  on  the  ground, 
 and  the  chief  mourner  had  the 
 chief  seat.  The  friends  came 
 not  to  comfort  them  till  after  the 
 interment,  and  not  many  till 
 the  third  or  fourth  day  after  the 
 decease.  (John  xi.  19. 39.)  They 
 sometimes  went  to  the  graves 
 to  lament  their  dead;  and  s& 
 the  Turkish  women  do  to  this 
 day.    The  Jews  had  a  kind  of 
 
 grayer,  or  rather  benediction,  of 
 od,  as  of  Him  who  raises  the 
 dead,  which  they  repeated  as 
 they  mourned,  or  even  passed 
 the  graves  of  their  dead.    The 
 4i9 
 
MOU 
 
 Tews  in  Chaldea  did  not  mourn 
 and  weep,  but  jnourned  one 
 towards  another  ;  ihai  is,  ihey 
 durst  not  openly  bewail  their 
 misery,  but  did  it  secretly. 
 (Ezek.  xxiv.23.  See  Evening 
 Recreations,  vol.  ii.  pp.  62 — 
 73,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 The  mourning  habit  amon^ 
 the  Hebrews  was  not  fixed 
 either  by  law  or  custom.  An- 
 ciently, in  times  of  mourning, 
 they  clothed  themselves  in 
 sackcloth,  or  hair-cloth;  that 
 is,  in  coaree  or  ill-made  clothes, 
 of  brown  or  black  stuff.  2  Sam. 
 iii.  31.) 
 
 They  hired  women  to  weep 
 and  mourn,  and  also  persons 
 to  play  on  instruments,  at  the 
 funerals  of  the  Hebrews.  (Jer. 
 ix.  17.  Matt.  ix.  23.)  All  that 
 met  a  funeral  procession,  or  a 
 company  of  mourners,  were  to 
 
 {'jin  them,  as  a  matter  of  civi- 
 ity,  and  to  mingle  their  tears 
 with  those  who 'wept.  Some- 
 thing like  this  is  still  customary 
 in  Turkey  and  Persia,  where  he 
 who  meets  the  funeral  takes  the 
 place  of  one  of  the  bearers,  and 
 assists  in  carrying  the  bier,  un- 
 til they  meet  some  one  by 
 whom  he  is  relieved. 
 
 The  custom  of  hiring  women 
 to  weep  and  mourn  is  common 
 at  this  day  in  many  of  the  east- 
 ern nations.    (See  Burial.) 
 
 MOUSE.  (Lev.  xi.  29.)  It 
 is  supposed  by  some  that  the 
 animal  called  the  mouse  in 
 our  Bible  was  the  jerboa,  or 
 field  mouse,  which  is  larger 
 than  the  common  mouse,  and 
 entirely  different  in  its  motions 
 and  habits.  (For  a  particular 
 description  and  cut,  see  art. 
 Mouse,  in  Natural  History 
 OF  THE  Bible,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.)  Others  suppose  that 
 some  other  species  oi  the  com- 
 mon mouse  is  intended,  the 
 flesh  of  which  was  forbidden 
 to  be  used  for  food.  (Lev.  xi.  29. 
 Comp.  Isa.  Ixvi.  17.)  Common 
 field  mice  are  very  destructive 
 
 MUF 
 
 to  the  fruits  of  the  field.  Mice 
 made  great  havoc  in  the  fields 
 of  the  Philistines,  after  the 
 people  had  taken  the  ark  of 
 the  Lord.  (I  Sam.  v.  6,  &c.; 
 vi.  4,  5.) 
 
 In  the  twelfth  century,  they 
 destroyed  the  young  sprouts  of 
 grain  in  some  parts  of  Syria 
 for  four  successive  years,  and 
 came  near  to  producing  a  gene- 
 ral famine;  and  they  abound 
 in  those  regions  at  the  present 
 day.  A  modern  traveller,  in 
 speaking  of  Hamath,  says:— 
 "  The  western  part  of  its  terri- 
 tory is  the  granary  of  northern 
 Syria;  though  the  harvest  never 
 yields  more  than  ten  for  one, 
 chiefly  in  consequence  of  the 
 immense  numbers  of  mice, 
 which  sometimes  wholly  de- 
 stroy the  crops." 
 
 MOWINGS,  king's.  (Amos 
 vii.  I.)  It  was  the  custom  in 
 Judea  to  lead  out  the  cattle  to 
 feed  in  the  common  pastures 
 in  the  month  of  April.  The 
 horses  of  the  kings,  and  those 
 designed  for  war,  were  turned 
 in  during  the  month  of  March, 
 and  of  course  had  the  best 
 of  the  feeding;  and  the  flocks 
 and  herds  in  general  were 
 not  suffered  to  go  into  the  pas- 
 tures until  after  these  horses 
 were  taken  out  and  put  to  bar- 
 ley, which  was  then  common 
 food  during  the  residue  of  the 
 year.  The  vision  of  Amos  re- 
 presents the  judgment  of  God 
 in  sending  locusts  to  eat  off' 
 and  destroy  the  grass,  which 
 had  sprung  up  after  the  king's 
 feftdings  had  past,  and  on  which 
 the  people  depended  for  the 
 sustenance  of  their  flocks  and 
 herds.    (See  Hay.) 
 
 MUFFLERS,  (Isa.  iii.  19,)  or 
 spangled  ornaments^  (as  it  is 
 in  the  margin,)  are  supposed 
 to  have  been  a  covering  for  the 
 face,  such  as  is  now  worn  by 
 women  of  the  east.  It  is  seen 
 on  the  face  of  the  subjoined 
 figure. 
 
MUL 
 
 MUR 
 
 MULBERRY  TREES. 
 CJSam.v. 23,24)  A  common  fruit 
 tree,  whose  leaf  atfords  the  ap- 
 
 firopriate  food  of  the  silkworm. 
 n  one  of  David's  campaigns 
 against  the  Philistines,  it  be- 
 came a  question  whether  he 
 should  attack  them  as  they  lay 
 encamped  in  the  valley  of 
 Rephaun.  He  was  told  to  take 
 a  certain  position  over  against 
 a  grove  ot  mulberry  trees,  per- 
 haps under  a  hill  which  was 
 surmounted  by  such  a  grove, 
 and  at  a  given  signal,  probably 
 a  rushing  of  wind  in  the  top- 
 most branches  of  the  trees, 
 resembling,  we  may  suppose, 
 such  signals  of  God's  presence 
 as  were  given  on  other  occa- 
 sions, (Jonah  i.  4.  Acts  ii.  2,)  he 
 Wcis  to  make  the  onset,  (iChron. 
 xiv.  14, 15 ;)  which  he  did,  and 
 was  completely  victorious. 
 
 MULE.  (2 Sam.  xiii.  29.) 
 The  name  of  the  offspring  of 
 the  horse  and  the  ass.  It  is 
 much  smaller  than  the  former, 
 and  is  a  remarkably  hardy, 
 patient,  obstmate,  sure-footed 
 animal,  living  ordinarily  twice 
 as  long  as  a  horse.  Mules 
 are  much  used  in  Spain  and 
 South  America  for  transporting 
 goods  across  the  mountains.  So 
 also  in  the  Alps,  they  are  used 
 by  travellers  among  the  moun- 
 
 tains, where  a  horse  would 
 hardly  be  able  to  pass  with 
 safety. 
 
 Even  the  kings  and  most  dis- 
 tinguished nobles  of  the  Jews 
 were  accustomed  to  ride  upon 
 mules.  (See  passage  above 
 cited,  and  also  2  Sam.  xviii.  9. 
 1  Kings  i.33;  x.  25;  xviii.  5. 
 2Chron.  ix.  24.  Esth.  viii.  10. 
 14.)  It  is  probable  that  the 
 Jews  purchased,  but  did  not 
 raise  mules.   (Lev.  xix.  19.) 
 
 The  Hebrew  word  translated 
 mules,  in  Gen.  xxxvi.24,  signi- 
 fies more  properly  hot  foun- 
 tains, or  baths.  That  these 
 places  should  be  discovered  by 
 means  of  animals  who  were 
 burnt  bv  them,  or  refused  to 
 drink  of  them,  is  nothing  won- 
 derful. This  would  give  a  bet- 
 ter meaning  to  this  pasage. 
 The  desert  of  Arabia  has  many 
 warm  baths.  There  is  in  the 
 neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
 in  the  ancient  country  of  the 
 Edomites,  where  Anah  belons- 
 ed,  a  famous  bath  of  this  kind 
 known  to  the  Greeks  and  Ro 
 mans  under  the  name  of  Calir 
 rlioe.  This  place  is  mentioned 
 by  Josephus  amon-r  others,  who, 
 in  speaking  of  Herod's  sick- 
 ness, says,  "  He  not  only  hoped 
 for  restoration,  but  thought  of 
 the  means.  He  caused  htmself 
 451 
 
MUR 
 
 to  be  carried  over  ihe  Jordan, 
 and  used  the  warm  ballis  at 
 Calirrhoe,  which  flow  into  tiie 
 lake  Asnhalliies."  Pliny  also 
 says  of  them:  "Upon  ihe  south 
 slue  of  the  lake  Asphaliiies  is 
 a  warm  founiain  (;f  sreal  virtue 
 in  restoriiis  health, whiiso  name 
 indicates  the  lame  of  the  wa- 
 ter." The  Greek  word  Calir- 
 rhoe sigiiifies  beautiful  foun- 
 tain. The  remarkable  cha- 
 racter of  this  water  may  be 
 the  reason  wliy  il  is  introduced 
 in  the  narrative  in  so  unusual 
 a  manner. 
 
 MURDER.  (Ps.  X.  8.)  The 
 Jewish  law  calls  a  murderer 
 one  who  slays  another  from 
 enmity,  hatred,  or  by  lying  in 
 wait.  For  this  crime  there  was 
 no  pardon  ;  the  city  of  refuge, 
 and  even  the  altar,  furnished 
 no  asylum,  nor  might  money  be 
 taken  in  satisfaction.  (Ex.  xxi. 
 14. 28, 29.  Num.  xxxv.  30—32. 
 1  Kings  ii.  5,  6.  28-34.)  It 
 seems  to  have  been  regarded 
 as  one  of  the  most  odious  and 
 abominable  crimes,  (Deul.  xix. 
 13;  xxi. 9.  Num. xxxv. 33, 34;) 
 and  was  a  subject  of  early  and 
 severe  lesislation.  (Gen.  ix.  6.) 
 In  case  of  the  inadvertent  kill- 
 ing of  another,  provision  was 
 made  for  the  protection  of  tlie 
 offender  by  cities  of  refuge. 
 (See  Cities  of  Refuge.) 
 
 M  U  R  R  A  I  N.  (Ex.  ix.  3.) 
 This  was  the  fifth  in  order  of 
 the  plagues  with  which  the 
 Esyptians  were  visited  when 
 they  held  the  Israelites  in 
 bondage.  The  word  translated 
 jnurrain  signifies  death  ;  and 
 may  mean  death  by  plague,  or 
 pestilence,  or  any  other  fatal 
 disease.  The  term  mortality 
 would  be  nearest  in  sense  to 
 the  original,  as  no  particular 
 disorder  is  specified  by  the 
 Hebrew  word. 
 
 This  sudden  and  dreadful 
 mortality  was  amona:  the  cattle 
 in  the  field,  including  horses, 
 asses,  camels,  oxen,  and  sheep. 
 It  was,  however,  confined  to 
 
 MUS 
 
 the  Egyptian  cattle,  and  to 
 those  that  were  in  the  field; 
 for  thoiigli  the  cattle  of  Israel 
 breathed  llie  same  air,  and 
 drank  the  same  water,  and 
 fed  in  the  same  pastures,  not  a 
 creature  of  their's  died.  The 
 word  all  is  often  used  in  Scrip- 
 ture for  the  mass  or  great  pro 
 portion.  It  is  probable  that 
 nearly  all  the  cattle  in  the 
 field  were  destroyed  by  this 
 plague,  and  the  few  that  sur 
 vived  or  were  afterwards  sent 
 into  the  field,  were  destroyed 
 by  the  succeeding  storm  of  fire 
 and  hail.  Many  horses  must 
 have  escaped  ;  perhaps  all  the 
 war  horses.  (CJomp.  Ex.  xiv. 
 27,28:  XV.  21.) 
 
 MUSIC.  (ISam.  xviii.6.) 
 This  was  an  important  part  of 
 the  festivities  and  religious  ser- 
 vices of  the  Jews.  In  their 
 annual  pilgrimages  to  Jerusa- 
 lem, their  inarch  was  thus  en- 
 livened. (Isa.  XXX.  29.)  This 
 is  still  the  custom  in  oriental 
 pilgrimages.  The  practice  of 
 music  was  not  restricted  to  any 
 one  class  of  persons.  (1  Chron. 
 xiii.  8;  xv.  16.)  The  sons  of 
 Asaph,  Heman,  and  Jeduthun 
 were  set  apart  by  David  for 
 the  musical  service,  and  the 
 nu  ber  of  theiriy  tcilh  their 
 brethren,  that  were  vistructed 
 in  the  songs  of  the  Lord  were 
 two  hu7idred  and  eighty-eight. 
 They  were  divided,  like  the 
 pri  ests,i  nto  twenty -fou  r  courses, 
 which  are  enumerated, IChron. 
 XXV.  Of  the  38,000  Leviles/owr 
 thousand  praised  the  Lord  with 
 ms/rwmen/s,  (IChron.  xxiii.  5 ;) 
 being  more  than  one  in  ten  of 
 the  whole  available  members 
 ofthe  tribeofLevi.  Eachofthe 
 courses,or  classes, had  one  hun- 
 dred and  fifiy-four  musicians 
 and  three  leaders,  and  all  were 
 under  llie  general  direction  of 
 Asapli  and  his  brethren.  Each 
 course  served  for  a  week ;  but, 
 upon  the  festivals,  all  were  re- 
 quired to  be  present.orfourthou^ 
 sand  musicians.  Heman,  with 
 153 
 
MUS 
 
 one  of  his  leaders,  directed  the 
 central  ciioir,  Asaph  the  right, 
 and  Jeduthun  the  left  wlhg. 
 These  several  choirs  answererd 
 one  another,  as  is  generally 
 supposed  J  in  that  kind  of  al- 
 ternate singing  which  is  call- 
 ed antiphonal,  or  responsive. 
 The  pnesis,  in  the  mean  time, 
 performed  upon  the  silver  trum- 
 pets. (2Chron.  v.  11—14.)  It  is 
 necessary  to  suppose,  that,  in 
 order  to  ensure  harmony  from 
 such  a  number  of  voices  as 
 this,  some  musical  notes  were 
 used.  This  truly  regal  direction 
 of  sacred  music  continued  after 
 the  death  of  David  until  the 
 captivity ;  for  though  under  the 
 impious  reign  of  some  kings, 
 the  whole  of  these  solemnities 
 fell  into  disuse,  they  were  re- 
 vived by  Hezekiah  and  Josiah. 
 And  although  during  the  exile 
 the  sweet  singers  of  Israel 
 hanged  their  hai-ps  upon  the 
 willows  by  the  waters  of  Baby- 
 lon, yet  two  hundred  musicians 
 returned  with  Ezra  to  the  Holy 
 Land.   (Ezra  ii.  65.) 
 
 Musical  instruments. (Eccl. 
 ii.  8.)  They  were  invented  by 
 Jubal,  the  son  of  Lamech,(Gen. 
 iv.  21,)  and  had  appropriate 
 names.  (Gen.  xxxi.  27.)  They 
 may  be  divided  into  three 
 classes:  stringed  instruments, 
 wind  instrunTents,  and  such 
 as  gave  their  sounds  on  being 
 Btruck.  Of  stringed  instru- 
 ments were  the  harp,  the  in- 
 strument of  ten  strings,  the 
 sackbut,  and  psaltery.  They 
 are  described  under  their  pro- 
 per names. 
 
 The  instruments  of  music 
 mentioned  in  1  Sam.  xviii.  6, 
 as  used  by  women,  are  suppos- 
 ed to  have  been  metallic  tri- 
 angles, as  the  name  indicates. 
 
 The  instrument  often  strings 
 resembled  a  modern  guitar,hav- 
 ing  its  strings  stretched  over 
 something  not  unlike  a  drum; 
 and  it  was  played  with  the 
 fingers.  (For  description  and 
 engravings  of  several  ancient 
 
 MYR 
 
 musical  instruments,  see  He- 
 brew Customs,  pp.  79—87,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 MUSTARD.  (Matt.  xiii.  31.) 
 A  species  of  the  plant  known 
 to  us  by  the  same  name,  but 
 of  much  larger  size,  and  espe- 
 cially in  the  fertile  soil  of  Ju- 
 dea.  With  us  it  is  a  small 
 annual  herb,  but  there  it  grew 
 to  the  size  of  a  fig  tree,  ancTwaa 
 sufficiently  large  to  bear  the 
 weight  of  a  man  to  climb  upon 
 it.  The  seeds  are  very  small; 
 so  that  it  proverbially  express- 
 ed the  least  thing,  or  the  mi- 
 nutest particle.  It  was  the 
 largest  plant  from  the  small- 
 est seed  which  was  then  or 
 is  now  known.  Hence  the 
 figure  used  in  our  Saviour's 
 parable  forcibly  illustrates  the 
 contrast  between  the  infancy 
 of  his  charch  and  its  final  pros, 
 perity,  as  well  as  between  the 
 early  fruits  of  God's  grace  in 
 the  soul,  and  the  full  develope- 
 ment  of  Christian  character  in 
 the  believer. 
 
 MYRA.  (Acts  xxvii.  5.)  A 
 seaport  of  Syria,  and  one  of  its 
 principal  cities,  was  situated 
 near  tiie  southernmost  cape  of 
 Asia  Minor,  where  Paul  em- 
 barked for  Rome  in  a  ship  of 
 Alexandria. 
 
 The  magnificent  ruins  of 
 Myra,  now  Cacamo,-  attest  the 
 opulence  of  the  age  of  Adrian 
 and  Trajan.  The  necropolis. 
 or  place  of  interments,  has  ol 
 itself  the  appearance  of  a  city. 
 
 MYRRH.  (Gen.xliii.il.)  A 
 medicinal  gum,  yielded  oy  a 
 thorny  tree  which  grows  eight 
 or  nine  feet  high,  chiefly  im 
 ported  from  Arabia  to  the  East 
 indies.  It  was  at  a  very  early 
 period  an  article  of  commerce, 
 (Gen.  xxxvii.  2.5,)  and  was  an 
 ingredient  of  the  holy  oint- 
 ment. (Ex.  XXX.  23.)  and  of  the 
 embalming  substance.  (John 
 xix.  39.)  It  was  also  used  as 
 an  agreeable  perfume,  ^sth. 
 ii.  12.  Ps.xlv.8.  Prov.  vii.  17.) 
 It  w^as  also  regarded  amone 
 453 
 
MYR 
 
 the  valuable  gifts  which  it  was 
 customary  to  present  lo  kings, 
 nobles,  and  oiiiers,  as  a  token 
 of  respect  in  ancient  limes 
 and  countries.  (Gen.  xliii.  11. 
 Matt.  ii.  1.  11.) 
 
 In  Matt.  XX  vii.34,it  is  said,lhat 
 they  gave  Jesus  to  drink  vine- 
 gar mixed  with  gull,  which, 
 in  Mark  xv.  2-3,  is  called  wine 
 mingled  with  myrrh.  It  was 
 prv)bably  the  sour  wine  which 
 the  Roman  soldiers  used  to 
 drink,  mingled  with  myrrh 
 and  other  bitter  substances; 
 very  much  like  the  bitters  of 
 modern  limes. 
 
 MYRTLE.  (Isa.  xli.  19.)  A 
 beauiiful,  fragrant,  and  orna- 
 mental evergreen.  The  seeds 
 of  one  species  of  the  myrtle, 
 being  collected  and  dried  be- 
 fore ihey  are  ripe,  are  called 
 pimento,  or  allspice.  Groves 
 of  the  my  rile  are  siill  found  of 
 spontaneous  growth  in  Judea 
 and  corresponding  latitudes; 
 and  for  the  rich  hue  of  their 
 green,  polished   leaves,  their 
 
 MYS 
 
 agreeable  fragrance,  and  beau- 
 tiful flowers,  are  used  by  the 
 sacred  writer,  in  contrast  with 
 the  noxious,  useless  brier,  to 
 illustrate  the  prosperity  and 
 glory  of  the  church.  (Isa.  Iv.l3, 
 See  also  Isa.  xli.  19 ;  and  Zech. 
 i.8-11.) 
 
 The  myrtle  furnished  the 
 wreaths  of  ancient  lieroes  and 
 victors.  Branches  of  the  myrtle 
 were  gathered,  among  others, 
 to  cover  the  booths  and  tents  of 
 the  Jews  at  the  celebration  of 
 the  feast  of  tabernacles.  (Lev. 
 xxiii.  40.  Comp.  Neh.  viii.  15.) 
 
 MY  SI  A.  (Actsxvi.7.)  A 
 province  of  Asia  Minor,  and  at 
 this  day  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
 country.  It  has  the  sea  of  Pro- 
 ponlis  on  the  north,  Lydia  on 
 the  south,  and  Bythinia  on  the 
 east.  In  the  northern  section 
 of  Mysia  was  the  province  in 
 which  the  ancient  city  of  Troy 
 was  situated,  and  not  far  dis- 
 tant was  the  Troas  mentioned 
 by  Paul.  (Acts  xvi.  8 ;  xx.  6. 
 2Cor.  ii.  12.  2  Tim.  iv.  13.) 
 
 N 
 
 NAA 
 
 A  AM  AN.  (2King3v.6.)  A 
 Syrian  general  of  great 
 distinction  and  bravery,  (2 
 Kings  V.  1,)  who  applied  to  the 
 prophet  Elisha  to  relieve  him 
 of  the  leprosy  with  which  he 
 was  severely  afflicted.  He  was 
 induced  to  make  the  applica- 
 tion in  consequence  of  what 
 was  said  to  his  wife,  about  the 
 prophet,  by  a  little  girl,  who 
 had  been  taken  captive  from 
 among  the  Israelites,  and  was 
 living  in  the  general's  family. 
 Taking  with  him  a  letter  of 
 introduction  from  the  king  of 
 Syria  to  the  king  of  Israel, 
 (supposing,  perhaps,  that  the 
 king  of  Israel  would  know 
 what  prophet  was  meant,  and 
 would  have  influence  over 
 him,)  Naaman  ascended  his 
 chariot,  and,  with  much  pomp, 
 :2  Kings  V.  9.  13,)  went  to  the 
 
 NAA 
 king  of  Israel,  who  resided  in 
 Sumaria. 
 
 The  king  of  Israel  expressed 
 his  surprise  and  grief  that  the 
 king  of  Syria  should  send  him 
 such  a  letter ;  and  it  was  soon 
 noised  abroad  thai  the  Syrian 
 general  was  at  the  palace,  and 
 for  what  purpose  he  had  come. 
 Elisha  sent  word  lo  the  king 
 ihai  he  need  not  be  concerned. 
 If  the  leprous  stranger  would 
 come  lo  him,  he  should  see 
 that  there  was  a  prophet  in 
 Israel.  So  Naaman  applied 
 lo  Elisha,  and  was  directed 
 merely  to  wash  seven  limes  in 
 the  river  Jordan.  This  simple 
 remedy  seemed  to  Naaman 
 altogether  inadequate.  If  the 
 mere  washingof  the  body  would 
 suffice,  there  were  waters  in 
 Syria  purer  and  more  salutary 
 than  all  the  waters  of  Israel 
 454 
 
NAB 
 
 Why,  then,  make  a  journey  to 
 Samaria  to  wash  in  the  Jordan'.' 
 Ae  was  about  to  leave  the  place 
 in  icdignalion,  when  some  of 
 his  retinue  very  wisely  sug- 
 gested to  him,  that  if  the  pro- 
 phet had  proposed  some  ex- 
 pensive or  difficult  remedy,  he 
 would  have  tried  it  at  once  ; 
 and  surely  he  could  not  refuse 
 to  try  onewhich  was  so  simple, 
 and  which,  whether  successful 
 or  not,  would  cost  neither  toil 
 nor  money.  Thus  they  per- 
 suaded him  to  follow  the  pro- 
 phet's prescription ;  and,  upon 
 washing  in  the  Jordan  seven 
 times,  his  flesh  and  health 
 were  perfectly  restored. 
 
 Deeply  impressed  with  the 
 power  of  the  God  of  Israel,  by 
 which  his  loathsome  disease 
 was  thus  suddenly  cured,  he 
 offered  a  reward  to  Elisha, 
 which  he  promptly  declined. 
 He  then  voluntarily  renounced 
 all  his  idolatrous  practices ; 
 and  asked  for  a  quantity  of 
 earth  from  the  soil  on  which  the 
 prophet  and  the  people  of  God 
 dwelt,  perhaps  that  he  might 
 build  with  it  an  altar  to  the 
 God  of  Israel;  and  so  tender 
 had  his  conscience  become, 
 that  he  feared  even  to  attend 
 his  master  the  king  in  his  idol- 
 atrous services,  as  his  ofl5cial 
 duty  required,  without  asking 
 beforehand  if  such  attendance 
 might  be  pardoned.  It  seems 
 that  Elisha  was  disposed  to 
 trust  him  to  the  dictates  of  his 
 own  conscience,  which  was 
 evidently  under  divine  influ- 
 ence. We  are  not  informed  of 
 his  subsequent  history.  (For 
 map,  and  particular  history  of 
 this  transaction,  see  Elisha, 
 ch.  vi.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 NABAL.  (1  Sam.  XXV.  3.)  A 
 very  wealthy  citizen  of  Maon. 
 When  David  was  in  the  wil- 
 derness of  Paran,  Nabal  was 
 in  the  vicinity  of  Carmel,  a 
 place  west  of*^  the  Dead  Sea, 
 shearing  his  sheep,  of  which 
 h»  had  no  less  than  three  thou- 
 
 NAB 
 sand.  David  sent  ten  of  his 
 young  men  to  ask  him  for  sup- 
 plies in  the  most  courteous 
 manner;  but  Nabal,  who  was 
 proverbially  churlish,  refused, 
 in  the  most  offensive  terms,  to 
 grant  his  request.  David  im- 
 mediately ordered  four  hun- 
 dred of  his  men  to  arm  them- 
 selves and  follow  him  to  the 
 place  where  Nabal  lodged,  in- 
 tending to  destroy  him  and  all 
 that  pe'rtained  to' him.  When 
 they  drew  near,  Abigail,  the 
 discreet  and  beautiful  wife  of 
 this  son  of  Bplial,  was  admo- 
 nished of  their  purpose.  She 
 promptly  made  uo  a  sumptuous 
 present,  and, without  the  know- 
 ledge of  her  husband,  set  forth 
 to  meet  Daviii,  wiih  her  ser- 
 vants, and  with  asses  to  bear 
 the  gifts.  When  David  met 
 her,  she  showed  him  the  most 
 profound  reverence,  and  so  en- 
 tirely conciliated  him,  that  he 
 received  her  present,  and  gave 
 her  his  blessins.  When 'Abi- 
 gail returned,  she  found  her 
 husband  at  a  feast  which  he 
 had  made  at  his  own  house; 
 and  she  deferred  communi- 
 cating to  him  the  history  and 
 result  of  her  embassy  until  he 
 should  recover  froui  the  effects 
 of  his  indulgence.  He  had  no 
 sooner  received  her  statement, 
 than  he  was  seized  with  a  se- 
 vere illnessjwhich  proved  fatal 
 at  the  end  of  ten  days.  (For  a 
 full  and  interesting  account  of 
 this  scene,  with  cuts,  &c.,  see 
 Life  of  David,  ch.  xv.,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 NABOTH.  (IKingsxxi.  1.) 
 An  Israelite  of  the  town  of 
 Jezreel,  who  owned  a  vineyard 
 adjoining  the  palace  of  king 
 Ahab.  Anxious  to  secure  this 
 particular  spot  that  he  mi^^hl 
 use  it  for  a  garden,  the  king 
 proposed  to  buy  it,  or  give  him 
 some  other  property  of  equal 
 value;  but  Naboth  declined, 
 to  the  great  disappointment 
 and  mortification  of  the  wick 
 ed  monarch.  Jezebel,  his  mo;  e 
 455 
 
NAH 
 
 wicked  wife,immedialely  form- 
 ed a  plan  lo  take  the  life  of 
 Naboih,  in  which  she  succeed- 
 ed; and  so  Ahab  obtained  pos- 
 session of  his  inheritance.  (See 
 Ahab,  Jezebel.) 
 
 NADAB.  (1  Kings  xv.  25,) 
 son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam, 
 king  of  Israel,  reigned  two 
 years.  His  rei|n  was  wicked 
 and  corrupt,  and  he  was  finally 
 assassinated  while  prosecuting 
 the  siege  of  Gibbethon,  a  Phi- 
 istine  city.    (See  Aeihxt.) 
 
 N  A  H  A  S  H.  (See  Ammon- 
 ites.) 
 
 NAHOR,  (Gen.  xi.23,)  or 
 NACHOR,  (Josh.  xxiv.  2,)  was 
 the  name  of  Abraham's  grand- 
 father, and  also  the  name  of 
 one  of  Abraham's  brothers, 
 (Gen.  xi.  26,)  who  married  Mil- 
 cah,  the  daushter  of  Haran. 
 (Gen.  xi.29.)  "He  lived  at  Ha- 
 ran ;  which  is  thence  called 
 the  city  ofNahor.  (Gen.  xxiv. 
 10.) 
 
 NAHUM.  (Nah.i.l.)  A  na- 
 tive of  Eli-Koshai,  a  village  of 
 (Jalilee,  the  ruins  of  which 
 were  plainly  discernible  as 
 lately  as  the  fourth  century. 
 There  is  considerable  diversity 
 of  opinion  as  to  the  lime  in 
 which  he  lived. 
 
 Prophecy  of,  is  the  thirty- 
 fourth  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  Though 
 divided  into  three  chapters,  it 
 is  a  continuous  poem  of  unri- 
 valled spirit  and  sublimity, 
 and  admirable  for  the  elegance 
 of  its  imagery.  It  relates 
 chiefly  to  the  destruction  of 
 the  magnificent  city  of  Nine- 
 veh, which  had  been  prophe- 
 sied by  Jonah  nearly  a  century 
 before.  These  predictions  (it 
 is  supposed)  were  made  in  the 
 reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  have 
 been  remarkably  fulfilled, 
 both  as  to  the  fact  and  the 
 manner  of  their  fulfilment. 
 The  city  of  Nineveh  was  de- 
 stroyed about  a  century  after 
 the  prophecy  of  Nahum  was 
 uttered ;  and  so  complete  was 
 
 NAM 
 its  overthrow,  that  the  site  on 
 which  it  stood  has  been  matter 
 of  mere  conjecture  for  nearly 
 or  quite  sixteen  centuries. 
 
 NAIL.  (Ezra  ix.  8.)  Travel 
 lers  tell  us,  what  we  might 
 infer  from  the  frail  materials 
 and  weak  construction  of  east- 
 ern dwellings,  that  the  nails 
 or  spikes  which  are  necessary 
 to  hang  up  garments,  curtains 
 and  utensils  of  various  kinds, 
 are  not  driven  in,  but  are  built 
 in  firmly  with  the  wall,  in  the 
 process  of  its  erection.  They 
 are  large,  and  being  quite  con- 
 spicuous, are  well  finished. 
 The  force  of  the  figure  in  the 
 above  passage  is  obvious,  inas- 
 much Eis  the  nail  bei  ng  not,  like 
 ours,  easily  drawn  and  placed 
 elsewhere,  was  a  part  of  the 
 fabric  itself,  and  could  only  be 
 removed  with  the  wall  itself, 
 or  some  part  of  it.  Hence  the 
 word  in  the  margin  is  ren- 
 dered a  constant  mid  sure 
 abode.  (See,  also,  Zech.  x.  4.) 
 The  nail  with  which  Jael 
 killed  Sisera  was  a  tent  pin, 
 with  which  the  cords  of  a  tent 
 are  fixed  to  the  ground. 
 
 NAIN.  (Lukevii.  11.)  Acity 
 of  Galilee,  south  of  Mount  Ta- 
 bor, and  but  a  little  distance 
 from  Capernaum.  It  is  now  a 
 Turkish  village,  inhabited  by 
 Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  a 
 few  (jhristians.  The  place  is 
 distinguished  as  the  scene  of 
 one  of  Christ's  most  remark 
 able  and  affecting  miracles 
 (Luke  vii.  11—1.5.) 
 
 NAIOTH.  (1  Sam.  xix.  22.) 
 A  part  of  the  town  of  Ramah, 
 (or,  as  the  word  signifies,  the 
 meadows  of  Ramah,)  where  a 
 school  of  the  prophets  was  es- 
 tablished. 
 
 NAME.  (Gen.  ii.  19.)  This 
 word,  in  some  passages  of 
 Scripture,  has  a  peculiar  sig- 
 nification, as  in  Prov.  xviii.  10, 
 where  the  term  denotes  Goo 
 himself,  with  al.l  his  attributes 
 and  perfectioni.  (See,  also, 
 Ps.  XX.  1.  5.  7)  in  the  New 
 456 
 
NAO 
 
 Testament,  it  usually  means 
 the  character,  faith,  or  doctrine 
 •  or  Christ.  (Acts  v.  41 ;  viii.  12; 
 ix.  15,  and  xxvi.  9.) 
 
 Names  among  the  Jews  were 
 often  given,  in  allusion  to  some 
 peculiar  circumstances  in  the 
 character,  birth,  or  destiny  of 
 •the  individual,  (Ex.  ii.  10,  and 
 xviii.3,4;)  and  sometimes  it  had 
 a  prophetic  meaning.  (Matt.  i. 
 21.)  Many  instances  occur  in 
 Scripture  of  the  same  person 
 having  two  names.  Names 
 were  changed,  and  are  still, 
 in  eastern  countries,  for  slight 
 reasons.  A  change  of  office 
 3r  station  often  occasioned  a 
 change  of  name. 
 
 And  upon  his  thigh  a  name 
 vrritten.  (Rev.  xix.  16.)  This 
 phrase  alludes  to  an  ancient 
 custom  in  the  eastern  nations 
 of  adorning  the  images  of  their 
 gods  and  the  persons  of  princes 
 and  heroes  with  inscriptions 
 expressive  of  their  character, 
 titles,  &c.  They  were  made  on 
 the  garment,  or  on  one  of  the 
 thighs;  and  several  ancient 
 statues  have  been  discovered, 
 with  inscriptions  of  one  or  two 
 lines,  written  sometimes  hori- 
 zontally and  sometimes  per- 
 pendicularly both  on  the  inside 
 and  outside  of  the  thigh,  and 
 sometimes  upon  both  thighs. 
 Men  surname  themselves  by 
 the  name  of /sraeZ,  when,  hav- 
 ing been  before  Gentiles  and 
 sinners,  they  join  themselves 
 to  Jesus  and  his  church.  (Isa. 
 xliv.  5.    See  Stone,  Thigh.) 
 
 NAHSHON,  (Num.  vii.  12,) 
 Bon  of  Amminadab,  and  head 
 of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  made  the 
 first  offering  for  the  tabernacle 
 in  the  wilderness.  He  is  the 
 only  one  of  the  heads  of  tribes 
 who  is  not  called  a  prince  in 
 the  history  of  this  transaction. 
 Probably  the  omission  was  de- 
 signed; as,  to  be  the  head  of 
 the  tribe  of  Judah  was,  from 
 the  pre-eminence  of  that  tribe, 
 a  sufficient  honour. 
 
 NAOMI.    (Ruth  i.  2.)    The 
 
 NAT 
 
 wife  of  Elimelech,  and  the 
 mother-in-law  of  Ruth,  whe 
 moved  with  their  two  sons  from 
 Judea  to  Moab.  Elimelech 
 died,  and  also  his  two  sons, 
 each  leaving  a  widow;  and 
 Naomi,  having  thus  been  leti 
 alone,  returned  to  her  home  in 
 Judea.  So  severe  had  been 
 her  afflictions,  that  she  pro- 
 posed to  her  friends  on  her  re- 
 turn to  call  her  Mara,  (which 
 signifies  bitter,)  rather  than 
 Naomi,  (which  signifies  fteajt- 
 tiful.)  (Ruth  i.  19—21.  See 
 Ruth.  See  also  Affection- 
 ate Daughter-in-law,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 NAPHTAIJ,  (Gen.  xxx.  8,) 
 or  NEPHTHALIM.  (Matt.  iv. 
 15.)  A  son  of  Jacob  by  Bilhah. 
 
 Tribe  of,  received  their 
 portion  of  the  promised  land 
 in  the  northern  part,  be- 
 tween the  Jordan  on  the  east, 
 and  the  possessions  of  Asher 
 on  the  west.  It  was  one  of  the 
 most  fruitful  sections  of  the 
 country,  and  included  the 
 sources  of  the  Jordan.  (Josh, 
 xxi.  32—39.)  This  tribe  was 
 peculiarly  blessed  of  God, 
 (Deut.  xxxiii.  23;)  and  the  figiv 
 rative  language  in  which  th» 
 benediction  of  Jacob  is  ex 
 pressed  (Gen.  xlix.  21)  implies 
 the  increase,  power,  and  jjros- 
 perity  of  the  family  of  Naph- 
 tali.  The  city  of  Capernaum, 
 where  Christ  resided  and 
 taught  so  much,  was  situated 
 in  the  borders  of  Zebulon 
 and  Naphtali,  near  Tiberias. 
 Hence  the  language  of  the 
 prophet.  (Isa.  ix.  1.  See  Hind. 
 See  also  Youth's  Friend-  for 
 December,  1828,  by  Am.  d.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 NATHAN.  (2  Sam.  vii.  2.) 
 A  distinguished  prophet  of  Ju- 
 dea, who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
 David,  and  enjoyed  a  large 
 share  of  his  confidence.  To 
 him  David  first  intimated  his 
 design  to  build  the  temple;  and 
 he  was  divinely  instructed  to 
 inform  the  king  that  this  ho> 
 457 
 
JNAT 
 
 nour  was  not  for  him,  but  for 
 his  posterity.  Nathan  was  also 
 charged  with  the  divine  mes- 
 sage 10  David,  upon  the  occa- 
 sion of  his  sin  against  Uriah, 
 which  he  conveyed  under  a 
 most  beautiful  and  significant 
 allegory,  by  which  he  made 
 the  king  to  condemn  himself 
 Nathan  was  one  of  David's  bi- 
 ographers. (1  Chron.  xxix.  29.) 
 There  are  several  others  of 
 this  name  mentioned  in  the 
 Bible,  of  whose  history  we  are 
 uninformed.  (iSam.v.H;  xxiii. 
 36.  1  Chron.  xi.  38.  Ezra  viii. 
 16.  Luke  iii.  31.) 
 
 NATHANAEL,  (John  i.  45,) 
 one  of  the  twelve  disciples,  is 
 supposed  to  be  the  same  with 
 Bartholomew.  (See  Bartho- 
 lomew.) He  was  called  upon 
 by  Philip  to  go  with  him  and 
 see  the  Messiah,  who  had  just 
 appeared.  Naihanael  seems  to 
 have  doubted  his  friend's  tes- 
 timony; but,  to  resolve  his 
 doubts,  consented  to  accompa- 
 ny him.  As  they  approached 
 the  Messiah,  he  received  the 
 most  emphatic  testimony  to  his 
 integrity  that  can  be  found  on 
 record.  (John  i.  47.)  Jesus  on 
 this  occasion  declared  his  om- 
 niscience; fur  he  professes  to 
 know  his  character  and  heart 
 at  their  first  interview,  and 
 assures  him  that  his  eye  was 
 upon  him  under  a  fig  tree,  be- 
 neath the  shade  of  which  he 
 had  probably  been  engaged  in 
 religious  exercises.  (John  i.  50.) 
 Nathanael  was  convinced;  and 
 acknowledged  him  as  the  true 
 Messiah.  Cfhrist  thereupon  as- 
 sured him  in  suljstance  that 
 he  should  see  still  more  con- 
 vincing evidences  of  his  mes- 
 fiiaiiship  in  the  progress  of  his 
 ministry;  in  the  doctrines  he 
 should  leach  ;  in  the  miracles 
 he  should  work;  and  in  the 
 peculiar  favour  and  protection 
 of  God  which  he  should  enjoy. 
 Among  those  greater  evidences 
 may  have  been  the  eventa  re- 
 corded   Matt.  iii.  17;    iv    11; 
 
 NAZ 
 xvii.  5.  John  xi.  42;  xii.  28— 
 30. 
 
 NAZARENE.  (Malt,  ii.23.) 
 An  inhabitant  of  Nazareth. 
 The  passage  from  the  prophets, 
 to  which  reference  is  here 
 made,  is  not  known;  and  the 
 probability  is,  that  the  refer- 
 ence is  rather  to  the  general 
 current  of  prophecy  respecting 
 the  humble  and  despised  con- 
 dition of  Christ.  To  come  out 
 of  Nazareth,  or  to  be  a  Naza- 
 rene,  rendered  one  an  object  of 
 reproach  and  contempt.  (See 
 Christ.  Comp.  Isa.  liii,  2—12, 
 and  John  i.  46;  vii.  52.) 
 
 NAZARETH.  <Matt.  xxi.ll.) 
 A  town  in  Galilee,  within  the 
 territory  of  Zebulon,  from  fifty 
 to  seventy  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
 salem, now  known  as  Nasse- 
 ra,  or  Nasernh.  It  was  note-<l 
 for  its  wickedness.  (John  i. 
 46.)  It  occupies  an  elevated 
 site  about  midway  between 
 mount  Tabor  and  Cana.  Jesus 
 spent  much  of  his  time  here; 
 and  hence  the  title  J^sus  of 
 Nazareth.  (Mark  xvi.  6.  Luke 
 xxiv.  19.  Acts  ii.  22.) 
 
 A  precipice  of  fifty  feet,which 
 lies  about  a  mile  from  the  vil- 
 lage, is  regarded  as  the  place 
 to  which  the  people  of  the  town 
 carried  Jesus,  with  the  savage 
 intention  of  casting  him  oflT. 
 (Luke  iv.  29.)  There  is  a  Ro- 
 man Catholic  church  here, 
 called  the  Church  of  the  An- 
 7iuncialion,  erected,  as  they 
 say,  on  the  spot  where  Mary 
 the  mother  of  our  Lord  received 
 the  divine  message.  It  is  the 
 most  magnificent  church  in  the 
 land,  except  that  of  the  Holy 
 Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  The 
 traditions  of  the  inhabitants  re- 
 specting the  fountain  of  Mary, 
 the  house  of  Joseph,  and  the 
 synagogue  where  Christ  taught, 
 are  not  vs^orthy  of  remembrance. 
 
 A  modern  traveller  describes 
 Nazareth  as  situated  upon  the 
 declivity  of  a  hill,  the  vale 
 which  spreads  out  before  it 
 resembling  a  circular  basii\ 
 458 
 
NAZ 
 
 encompassed  by  mountains. 
 Fifteen  mountains  appear  to 
 meet  to  form  an  enclosure  for 
 this  beautiful  spot,  around 
 which  they  I  ise  like  the  edge 
 of  a  shell,'to  guard  it  against 
 intrusion.  It  is  a  rich  and 
 beautiful  field  in  the  midst  of 
 barren  mountains. 
 
 Another  traveller  speaks  of 
 the  streets  as  narrow  and 
 steep,  the  houses,  which  are 
 flat-roofed,  are  about  two  hun- 
 dred and  fifty  in  number,  and 
 ihe  inhabitants  he  estimates 
 at  2000.  The  population  of 
 the  place  is  variously  stated, 
 thoush  the  average  estimate 
 is  3000  ;  of  wliom  about  five 
 hundred  are  Turks,  and  the 
 residue  nominal  Christians. 
 
 As  all  testimony  to  the  truth 
 and  fidelity  of  the  sacred  nar- 
 rative is  important,  we  have 
 thought  ourselves  justified  in 
 connecting  with  this  article  a 
 passage  from  the  journal  of 
 Mr.  Jowett,  an  intelligent  mo- 
 dern traveller;  especially  as  it 
 is  so  full  an  illustration  of  the 
 passage  of  Luke  already  cited. 
 
 "Nazareth  issituated  on  the 
 side,  and  extends  nearly  to  the 
 foot,  of  a  hill,  which,  though 
 not  very  high,  is  raiher  steep 
 and  overhanging.  The  eye  na- 
 turally wanders  over  its  sum- 
 mit, in  questof  some  point  from  1 
 which  it  might  probably  be 
 that  the  men  of  this  place  en-  | 
 deavoured  to  cast  our  Saviour  i 
 down,  (Luke  iv.  29,)  but  in  | 
 vain:  no  rock  adapted  to  such 
 an  object  appears  here.  At  the 
 foot  of  the  hill  is  a  modest, 
 simple  plain,  surrounded  by 
 low  hills,  reaching  in  length 
 nearly  a  mile  ;  in  breadth,  near 
 the  city,  a  hundred  and  fifty 
 yards:  but  farther  south,  about 
 four  huncired  yards.  On  this 
 plain  there  are  a  few  olive  and 
 fig  tress,  safiicient,  or  rather 
 scarcelysiitticient,to  make  the 
 spot  picturesque.  Then  fol- 
 lows a  ravine,  which  gradual- 
 ly grows  deeper  and  narrower 
 
 JSAZ 
 
 towards  the  south  ;  till,  after 
 walking  about  another  mile, 
 you  find  yourself  in  an  im- 
 mense chasm,  with  steep  rocks 
 on  either  side,  from  whence 
 you  behold,  as  it  were  beneath 
 your  feet,  and  before  you,  the 
 noble  plain  of  Esdraelon.  No- 
 thing can  be  finer  than  the  ap- 
 parently immeasurable  pros- 
 pect of  this  plain,  bounded  on 
 the  south  by  the  mountains  of 
 Samaria.  Tiie  elevation  ofthe 
 hills  on  which  the  spectator 
 stands  in  this  ravine  is  very 
 great ;  and  the  whole  scene, 
 when  we  saw  it,  was  clothed 
 inthe  most  richmountain-blue 
 colour  that  can  be  conceived. 
 At  this  spot,  on  the  right  hand 
 of  the  ravine,  is  shown  the 
 rock  to  which  the  men  of  Na- 
 zareth are  supposed  to  have 
 conducted  our  Lord,  for  the 
 purpose  of  throwing  himdown. 
 With  the  Testament  in  our 
 hands,  we  endeavoured  to  ex- 
 amine the  probabilities  of  the 
 spot;  and  I  confess  there  la 
 nothing  in  it  which  excites  a 
 scruple  of  incredulity  in  my 
 mind.  The  rock  here  is  per- 
 pendicular for  about  fit^y  feet, 
 down  v.-hich  space  it  would  be 
 easy  to  hurl  a  person  who 
 should  be  unawaresbroughtto 
 the  summit  J  and  his  perishing 
 would  be  a  verycertain  conse- 
 quence. That  the  spot  might 
 be  at  a  considerable  distance 
 from  the  city  is  an  idea  not 
 inconsistent  with  St.  Luke's 
 account ;  for  the  expression, 
 thrusting-  Jesus  out  of  the  citi\ 
 and  leading  him  to  the  brow  of 
 the  hill  on  which  their  city  was 
 built,  gives  fair  scope  for  ima- 
 gining, that  in  their  rage  and 
 debate,  the  Nazarenes  might, 
 without  originally  intending 
 his  murder,  press  upon  him 
 for  a  considerable  distance 
 after  they  had  quitted  the 
 synasogue.  The  distance,  as 
 already  noticed,  from  mo- 
 dern Nazareth  to  this  spot,  ia 
 scarcely  two  miles  ;  a  space 
 459 
 
NAZ 
 which,  in  the  fury  of  persecu- 
 tion, might  soon  be  passed 
 over.  Or,  should  this  appear 
 too  considerable,  it  is  by  no 
 means  certain  but  that  Naza- 
 reth may  at  that  time  have 
 extended  through  the  princi- 
 
 Sal  part  of  the  plain,  which  I 
 ave  described  as  lying  before 
 the  modern  town.   In  this  case, 
 
 the  distance  passed  over  might 
 not  exceed  a  mile.  I  can  see, 
 therefore,  no  reason  for  think- 
 ing otherwise,  than  that  this 
 may  be  the  real  scene  where 
 our  divine  prophet  Jesus  re- 
 ceived so  great  a  dishonour 
 from  the  men  of  his  own  coun- 
 try and  of  his  own  kindred." 
 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, was  at  Nazareth  in 
 the  autumn  of  18-23.  His  de- 
 scription corresponds  general- 
 ly with  that  of  Mr.  Jowett.  He 
 estimates  the  population  to  be 
 from  3000  to  5000,  viz.  Greeks, 
 three  hundred  or  four  hundred 
 families ;  Turks,  two  hundred ; 
 Catholicsjone  hundred ;  Greek 
 Catholics,  forty  or  fifty;  Ma- 
 ronites,  twenty  or  thirty;  say 
 in  all  seven  hundred  houses. 
 
 (For  a  beautiful  sketch  of 
 modern  Nazareth,  and  the  sur- 
 rounding country,  with  particu- 
 lar descriptions^  see  Views  of 
 Palestine,  pp.  23—27,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 NAZARITES.  (Num.  vi.  2, 
 &c.)  The  term  is  derived  from  a 
 Hebrew  word  sisnifying  io  se- 
 parate. A  Nazarile,  under  the 
 ancient  law,  was  one  engaged 
 lay  a  vow  to  abstain  from  wine 
 and  all  intoxicating  liquors,  to 
 let  the  hair  grow,  not  to  enter 
 any  house  polluted  by  having  a 
 dead  body  in  it,  nor  to  be  pre- 
 sent at  any  funeral.  If,  by 
 accident,  any  one  should  have 
 died  in  his  or  her  presence,  the 
 Nazarite  was  bound  to  recom- 
 mence the  whole  term  of  con- 
 secration and  Nazariteship. 
 This  vow  general'.y  lasted 
 eight  days,  sometimes  a  month, 
 and    sometimes    during    life. 
 
 NEA 
 When  the  time  of  Nazarite- 
 ship  had  expired,  the  person 
 brought  an  offering  to  the  tem- 
 ple; the  priest  then  cut  off  his 
 hair  and  burnt  it ;  after  which 
 the  Nazarite  was  free  from  his 
 vow,  and  might  again  drink 
 wine.  (Num.  vi.)  Perpetual 
 Nazarites  were  consecrated  as 
 such  by  their  parents  from  their 
 birth,  and  continued  all  their 
 lives  in  this  slate,  neither 
 drinking  wine  nor  cutting  their 
 hair.  Such  were  Samson  and 
 John  the  Baptist.  (Judg.  xiii. 
 4,5.  Luke  i.  15;   vii.  33.) 
 
 Those  who  made  a  vow  of 
 Nazariteship  out  of  Palestine, 
 and  could  not  come  to  the 
 temple  when  their  vow  had 
 expired,  contented  themselves 
 with  observing  the  abstinence 
 required  by  the  law,  and  cut- 
 ting off  their  hair  in  the  place 
 where  they  were.  The  offer- 
 ings and  sacrifices  prescribed 
 by"  Moses,  to  be  offered  at  the 
 temple,  by  themselves,  or  by 
 others  for  them,  they  deferred 
 till  a  convenient  opportunity. 
 Hence  Paul,  being  at  Corinth 
 and  having  made  the  vow  of 
 a  Nazarite,  had  his  hair  cut 
 off  at  Cenchrea,  but  deferred 
 the  complete  fulfilment  of  his 
 vow  till  he  came  to  Jerusalem. 
 (Acts  xviii.  18.) 
 
 Why  tliis  vow  was  made  by 
 Paul  we  know  not,  unless  it 
 was  upon  his  deliverance  from 
 some  imminent  danger,  and  to 
 conciliate  the  Jews  by  com- 
 plying with  a  very  solemn  and 
 salutary  requirement  of  their 
 ritual.  Tlie  charges  (Acts  xxi. 
 24)  were  for  offfrings  required 
 at  the  completion  of  the  vow. 
 The  Nazarites  constituted  a 
 sect  or  a  class  by  themselves, 
 like  ihe  prophets,  and  were 
 examples  of  self-denial  and 
 holy  livinff.   (Amos  ii.  11. 12.) 
 
 NEAPOLIS.  (Acts  xvi.  11,) 
 A  city  of  Macedonia,  on  the 
 Egean  coast,  known  in  modern 
 times  as  Napoli.  Paul  visited 
 it  on  his  way  to  Philippi. 
 
NEB 
 
 NEBAIOTH,  (Isa.  Ix.  7,)  or 
 NEBAJOTH.  (Gen.  xxv.  13.) 
 A  son  of  Ishmael,  whose  de- 
 6cendants  are  supposed  to  have 
 settled  in  Arabia,  and  to  have 
 been  ihe  Nabatheans  of  Greek 
 and  Roman  history.  They 
 were  probably  rich  in  flocks 
 and  herds ;  whence  the  beau- 
 tiful figure  of  the  prophet  above 
 cited,  respecting  the  gathering 
 of  the  Gentile  nations  to  the 
 sceptre  of  the  Messiah.  , 
 
 NEBO.  1.  (Deut.  xxxii.49.)  ' 
 One  of  the  summits  of  the 
 mountains  of  Abarim,  the  peak 
 of  which  overlooked  the  whole 
 length  and  breadth  of  the  pro- 
 mised land.  (Deut.  xxxiv.l — 4.) 
 
 2.  (Jer.  xlviii.  1.)  A  town  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  mount 
 Nebo,  the  name  of  which  was 
 derived  from  an  idol  worship- 
 
 gBd  there,  (Isa.  xlvi.  1,)  where 
 el  is  supposed  to  mean  the 
 sun,  and  Nebo  the  moon.  The 
 possession  of  the  place  was 
 contested  by  the  tribe  of  Reu- 
 ben and  the  Moabites.  (Num. 
 xxxii.33.  Isa.  XV.  2.  Jer.  xlviii. 
 22.) 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 
 (2  Kings  xxiv.  1,)  king  of  Baby- 
 lon, was  son  and  successor  of 
 Nabopolassar.  He  lived  about 
 six  hundred  years  before  the 
 birth  of  Christ,  and  shared 
 in  the  administration  of  the 
 government  about  two  years 
 Before  his  father's  decease. 
 Hence  there  is  some  diversity 
 in  the  chronological  references 
 to  his  reign;  some  computing 
 it  from  the  time  of  his  associa- 
 tion with  his  father,  and  others 
 from  the  time  his  sole  reign 
 commenced.  (Corap.  Dan.  ii. 
 1.  Jer.  xxv.  1.)  We  cannot  but 
 advert  here  to  the  casual  evi- 
 dence of  the  genuineness  of 
 the  sacred  history.  The  Jews 
 compute  the  reign  of  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar from  the  time  of 
 his  association  with  his  father, 
 which  makes  the  fourth  year 
 of  Jehoiakim,  the  first  of  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. The  Babylonians, 
 39* 
 
 NEB 
 
 on  the  other  hand,  begin  his 
 reign  at  the  death  of  his  father; 
 and  as  Daniel  wrote  in  Chal- 
 dea,  he  adopts  the  latter  mode 
 of  computation,  rather  than  the 
 other. 
 
 The  king  of  Egypt,  having 
 subjugated  the  Jews,  and  seem- 
 ing inclined  to  extend  his  con- 
 quests to  the  Euphrates,  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar not  only  checked 
 his  advance,  but  entirely  de- 
 feated his  army  at  Carchemish, 
 dispossessing  him  of  his  newly- 
 acquired  dominions,  leaving 
 Jehoiakim  at  Jerusalem  in  a 
 state  of  vassalage  to  Babylon, 
 and  taking  with  him,  as  cap- 
 tives, Daniel  and  other  princes 
 of  Judah.  (2  Kings  xxiv.)  In 
 the  reign  of  Jehoiachin,  Ne- 
 buchadnezzar again  invaded 
 Judea,  and  took  several  of  the 
 royal  family  and  a  multitude 
 of  others  captive,  and  carried 
 them,  with  a  part  of  the  sacred 
 vessels  of  the  temple,  to  Baby- 
 lon. In  the  ninth  year  of  the 
 reign  of  Zedekiah,  the  Jewa 
 attempted  to  throw  off  the 
 yoke,but  Nebuchadnezzar  was 
 too  powerful  to  be  successfully 
 resisted.  The  Egyptians,  on 
 whom  the  Jews  had  relied  for 
 succour,  failed  to  assist  them, 
 and  were  themselves  defeated. 
 The  holy  city  was  besieged, 
 captured,  and  destroyed,  and 
 the  magnificent  temple  burn- 
 ed; and  Nebuchadnezzar  car- 
 ried their  king  and  a  multitude 
 of  his  subjects  as  captives  to 
 Babylon.  Elated  by  the  suc- 
 cess of  his  expedition,  the 
 haughty  king  gloried  in  his 
 power,  and  in  the  wealth  and 
 magnificence  of  his  capital, 
 (Dan.  iv.  30 ;)  but  his  pride  was 
 suddenly  humbled  by  a  most 
 wonderful  visitation  of  God's 
 hand.  He  was  thrown  into- a 
 state  of  delirium,  madness,  or 
 idiocy,  in  which  he  continued 
 seven  years ;  as  the  compa- 
 nion of  the  beasts  of  the  field 
 living  on  grass  or  herbs.  At 
 the  end  of  that  term,  his  reason 
 
NEC 
 was  restored,  and  he  was  re-in- 
 stated upon  the  throne,  though 
 in  a  very  ditferent  stale  of 
 mind  from  that  in  which  he 
 was  deposed.  The  whole  peri- 
 od of  his  reign  was  thirty-five 
 or  forty  years,  as  he  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  died  b.  c.  5G2. 
 (See  Babylon,  Daniel.  See 
 also  Life  of  Daniel,  ch.  i.— xi., 
 Elisama,  ch.  i.  v.,  and  Union 
 Questions,  vol.  ix.,  all  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 NEBUZAR-ADAN.  (2  Kings 
 XXV.  8.)  General  of  the  armies 
 of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  con- 
 ducted xhe  siege  of  Jerusalem 
 to  a  successful  issue ;  the  par- 
 ticulars of  which  a>re  given  in 
 2Kia2:sxxv.  8— 21. 
 
 NEtHO.  (2Chron.  xxxv.20.) 
 A  king  of  Egypt,  whose  expe- 
 ditions are  often  mentioned 
 in  profane  history.  As  he  was 
 advancing  upon  Carchemish, 
 an  Assyrian  city,  he  passed 
 through  the  possessions  of  the 
 kingdfJudah.Josiah,  regarding 
 *Jiis  as  an  act  of  hostility,  pre- 
 pared to  resisthis  progress.  Ne- 
 cho  sent  ambassadors  to  inform 
 him  of  the  object  of  his  expe- 
 dition ;  but  as  he  was  already 
 in  his  kingdom,  and  avowed 
 his  hostile  purposes  against  an 
 ally  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
 Josiah  thought  himself  justified 
 in  opposing  him.  There  was 
 no  evidence  to  Josiah  that 
 Necho  was  under  the  divine 
 guidance,  though  he  claimed 
 to  be  so.  It  may  be  regarded 
 as  precipitate  in  him  to  have 
 opposed  such  a  force  upon  such 
 grounds;  and  the  issue  was 
 fatal.  The  battle  was  fought 
 at  Megiddo,  and  josiah  lost 
 his  life.  Necho,  on  his  return 
 from  his  expedition  into  As- 
 syria, stopped  at  Riblah,  in 
 Syria,  and  sent  for  Jehoahaz, 
 who  had  succeeded  to  the 
 throne  of  Judah  upon  the  death 
 of  Josiah,  and  deposed  him, 
 loading  him  with  cliains,  and 
 sending  him  into  Egypt.  He 
 then  put  the  land  of  Judah 
 
 WEH 
 
 under  a  heavy  tribute,  maliirg 
 Eliakim  (whose  name  he 
 changed  to  Jehoiakim)  king 
 in  the  place  of  Jehoahaz. 
 (See  Elisama,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union,  ch.  i.  ii.  and  iii.) 
 
 NECROMANCER.  (Deut. 
 xviii.  11.)  One  vvlio  pretends 
 to  divine  future  events  by 
 questioning  the  dead.  The 
 practice  has  prevailed  from  a 
 very  early  period  among  the 
 pagan  nations  of  the  east.  It 
 was  forbidden  by  the  Levitical 
 law. 
 
 NEESINGS.  (Job  xli.  18.) 
 By  the  force  with  which  the 
 leviathan  breathes  and  throws 
 forth  water  (in  a  manner  not 
 unlike  sneezing)  a  light  is 
 caused.  This  is  not  impossi- 
 ble by  the  laws  of  nature,  but 
 perhaps  the  expression  is  po- 
 etical. Sneezing  is  occasioned 
 by  throwing  the  breath  through 
 the  nose,  and  hence  was  an 
 evidence  of  returning  life.  (2 
 Kings  iv.  35.) 
 
 NEHEMIAH,  (Ezra  ii.  2,) 
 son  of  Hachaliah,  (Neh.  x.  1,) 
 was  a  Jew  of  distinguished 
 piety  and  zeal,  born  in  cap- 
 tivity, but  rai  "^d  to  the  ho- 
 nourable pos^t  of  cup-bearer  to 
 Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia. 
 He  used  his  influence  with 
 that  monarch  in  belialf  of  his 
 afflicted  countrymen,  and  be- 
 came their  permanent  bene- 
 factor.  He  was  commissioned, 
 at  his  own  request,  to  visit 
 Jerusalem,  and  repair  its  ruins, 
 which  he  accomplished  under 
 the  most  perplexing  difficul- 
 ties. Nehemiah,  as  the  tir- 
 shatha  or  governor,  and  Ezra 
 as  the  priest  and  scribe,  (Neh. 
 viii.  9,)  were  instrumental  in 
 restoring  the  worship  of  the 
 Jews ;  and  the  sacred  books 
 were  collected  and  compiled 
 under  their  direction. 
 
 Nehemiah  administered  the 
 government  of  Jerusalem 
 twelve  years  without  salary, 
 and  in  a  manner  most  expen- 
 sive to  himself,  (Neh.  v.  14— 
 462 
 
NEH  NET 
 
 19 ,)  and  at  the  end  of  this  I  addressed   to   the   master  of 
 period  he  returned  to  Persia, '  music,    presiding     over    the 
 
 where    he   remained    for    an 
 uncertain  period.    (Neh.  xiii 
 
 flutes.' 
 NEHUSHTAN, 
 
 (2  Kings 
 
 6.)  He  was  absent  long  enough  I  xviii.  4,)  ftra^en,  a  name  given 
 to  allow  great  abuses  to  arise  i  by  Hezekiah  king  of  judah 
 in  Jerusalem,  (Neh.  xiii.  comp.  :  to  the  brazen  serpent  that  Mo- 
 
 Mal.   ii.   10—17; 
 
 which,  on  his  return,  he  made 
 it  his  first  business  to  correct, 
 especially  the  violation  uf  the 
 
 6—12,)    ses  had  set  up  in  the  wilder- 
 
 ness, (Num.  xxi.8,)  and  which 
 had  been  preserved  by  the 
 Israelites  to  that  time.     The 
 
 Sabbath.    By  these  means  he  i  superstitious    people    havin 
 
 restored  his  people,  in  some 
 degree,  to  their  former  happy 
 condition,  and  probably  re- 
 mained inpovvertill  his  death, 
 which  it  is  supposed  took  place 
 in  Jerusalem.  (See  Elisama., 
 chap.  xii.  and  xiii.,  and  Union 
 Questions,  vol.  ix.,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Book  of,  is  the   sixteenth 
 in  the  order  of  the  books  of  the 
 
 made  an  idol  of  this  serpent, 
 Hezekiah  caused  it  to  be 
 burned,  and  in  derision  gave 
 it  the  name  of  Nehushtan, 
 i.  e.  little  brazen  serpent,  or 
 d  piece  of  brass. 
 
 NEIGHBOUR.  (Luke  x.  29.) 
 The  Pharisees  restrained  the 
 meaning  of  the  word  neigh- 
 bour to  those  of  their  own  na- 
 tion, or  to  their  own  friends. 
 
 Old  Testament.     It   may  be  j  But  our  Saviour  informed  them 
 regarded    as    a    continuation  ;  that  all  the  people  of  the  world 
 or  supplement  to  the  book  of  j  were  neighbours  to  each  other; 
 Ezra,  which  immediately  pre-      ■         ■     ""        ■ 
 cedes  it ;  and  in  some  Bibles 
 it  is  called  the  second  book 
 of  Ezra,  though  it  is  unques- 
 tionably the  "work  of  Nehe- 
 miah. 
 
 This  book  contains  an  ac- 
 count of  the  motives  and  de- 
 signs of  Nehemiah  in  wishing 
 to"restore  Jerusalem,  the  place 
 of  his  fathers'  sepulchres;  of 
 the  commission  he  received ; 
 his  associates  in  the  work ; 
 their  various  successes  and 
 difficulties;  the  introduction 
 of  a  belter  order  of  things,  Iwth 
 in  the  religious  and  civil  de- 
 pariments  of  the  government ; 
 and  a  census  or  register  of  the 
 
 Keople.  The  Old  Testament 
 istory  closes  with  this  book 
 B.  c.  420.  After  the  death  of 
 Nehemiah,  Judea  became  sub- 
 ject to  tlie  governor  of  Syria. 
 
 NEHILOTH,  a  word  found 
 at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
 Psalm,  and  which  signifies 
 probably  the  Jlutes,  of  icind 
 instruments.  The  title  of  the 
 fi,fth  Psal  m  may  be  thus  trans 
 lated 
 
 that  they  ought  not  to  do  to 
 another  what  they  would  not 
 have  done  to  themselves ;  and 
 that  this  charily  extended  even 
 to  enemies. 
 
 NERGAL.  (2  Kings  xvii.  30.) 
 One  of  the  gods  of  those  hea- 
 then who  were  transplanted 
 into  Palestine.  This  idol  pro- 
 bably represented  the  planet 
 Mars,  which  was  the  emblem 
 of  bloodshed.  The  name  A^er- 
 gal  appears  also  in  the  proper 
 name  Nergalsharezer.  (Jer. 
 xxxix.  3.) 
 
 NETHINIMS.  (Ezra  ii.  43. 
 53.)  The  word  signifies  given 
 or  dedicated  perscms.  They 
 were  a  remnant  of  the  Gibeon 
 ites,  and  were  given  as  sacred 
 servants  or  bondmen  to  the 
 priests,  (1  Kings  ix.  20—22,) 
 and  were  employed  as  hewers 
 of  wood,  and  drawers  of  water 
 for  the  house  of  the  Lord. 
 (1  Chron.  ix.  2.)  They  were 
 not  the  first,  however,  wiw 
 were  set  apart  as  the  Lord's 
 bondmen ;  for  Moses  had  pre- 
 viously mentioned  vows,  bjr 
 'h.  Psalm   of  David, '  which    men    devoted    then* 
 
 463 
 
NIC 
 
 Bt'lves  or  others— that  is,  child- 
 ren or  servants — to  God,  to 
 minister  in  the  sanctuary. 
 The  number  of  these  was 
 greatly  increased  in  later  limes 
 by  David  and  others.  Their 
 condition  appears  to  have  been 
 easy.  It  was  not  till  after  the 
 captivity  that  they  were  called 
 Nethinims.  (Neh.  iii.  26;  vii. 
 46.60.73;  x.  28;  xi.  3.  21.) 
 
 The  Nethinims  were  carried 
 Into  captivity  with  the  tribe 
 of  Judah,  and  great  numbers 
 were  placed  not  far  from  the 
 Caspian  Sea,  whence  Ezra 
 brought  two  hundred  and 
 twenty  of  them'  into  Judea. 
 (Ezra  viii.  17—20.) 
 
 NETTLES.  (Prov.xxiv.31.) 
 A  well  known,  wild  plant,  the 
 leaves  of  which  are  armed 
 with  stings,  connected  with  a 
 small  bag  of  poison  ;  and  when 
 the  leaves  are  pressed  by  the 
 hand,  the  stines  penetrate  the 
 flesh,  and  produce  a  swelling 
 with  a  sharp  burning  pain. 
 The  leaf  when  wet  or  dead 
 does  not  possess  this  power. 
 The  presence  of  nettles  be- 
 tokens a  waste  and  neglected 
 soil ;  hence  the  figure  in  the 
 passage  above  cited,  and  in 
 Isa.  xxxiv.  13.  Hos.  ix.  6.  The 
 word  rendered  nettles  in  Job 
 xxx.  7,  and  Zeph.  ii.  9,  is  sup- 
 posed to  refer  to  different  spe- 
 cies of  nettles,  or  to  some  larger 
 shrub  of  similar  properties, 
 else  it  could  not  afford  shelter. 
 
 NEW  MOON.  (See  Moon, 
 Fea.sts,  Month.) 
 
 NEW  TESTAMENT.  (See 
 
 ScRIPTtTRES.) 
 
 NIBHAZ.  (2Kingsxvii.  31.) 
 An  idol  god  of  the  Avites.  The 
 signification  of  the  original 
 word  is  the  seeing  barker. 
 Hence  a  connexion  is  traced 
 between  this  idol  and  the 
 Amibis  of  the  Egyptians,  repre- 
 senting a  dog'S  head  and  a 
 man's  body. 
 
 NICODEMUS.  (John  iii.  1.) 
 A  luler  of  the  Jews,  and  a  dis- 
 tinguished member  of  the  sect 
 
 NIG 
 
 of  Pharisees,  whose  conversa 
 tion  with  the  Messiah,  as  re- 
 corded in  this  chapter,  reveals 
 one  of  the  grand  doctrines  of 
 the  Christian  system,  viz.  re- 
 generation BY  THE  Spirit  op 
 God.  The  simple  but  pointed 
 instruction  he  received  on  thia 
 occasion  seems  to  have  been 
 made  effectual  upon  the  heart 
 and  conscience  of  Nicodemus, 
 as  we  find  him  afterwards 
 evincing  on  more  than  one 
 occasion  his  attachment  to  the 
 Redeemer.  (John  vii.  45—53; 
 xix.  39.) 
 
 NICOLAITANS,  or  NlCa 
 LAITANES.  (Rev.  ii.  6.  15.) 
 An  ancient  sect,  whose  deeds 
 are  expressly  and  strongly  re- 
 probated. Some  have  supposed 
 that  the  name  is  symbolical— 
 Nicolans  corresponding  to  Ba- 
 laam, and  that  it  denotes  all 
 false  and  seducing  teachers 
 like  Balaam.  (See  Nicolas.) 
 NICOLAS.  (Acts  vi.  5.)  One 
 of  the  deacons  of  the  church 
 at  Jerusalem  in  the  days  of 
 the  apostles.  He  was  a  native 
 of  Antioch,  converted  to  Juda- 
 ism, and  ihence  to  Christianity. 
 It  is  supposed  by  some  that  he 
 was  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
 Nicolaitans,  but  without  suf- 
 ficient warrant.  (See  Nico- 
 laitans.) 
 
 i  NICOPOLIS,  (Tit.  iii.  12,) 
 the  place  where  Paul  deter- 
 mined to  winter,  is  now  called 
 Nicopi,  or  Nicopoli,  a  town 
 upon  the  river  Nessus,  (now 
 
 j  Karasa,)  which  divided  Thrace 
 from    Macedonia.      (See   the 
 
 I  subscription  to  the  epistle.) 
 Another  town  of  the  same 
 name  was  in  Epirus,  opposite 
 Actium,  to  which  some  have 
 thought  the  apostle  refers  in 
 
 i  the  above  passage. 
 
 1      NIGHT-HAWK.  (Deut.  xiv. 
 
 j  15.)   A  species  of  bird  unclean 
 
 j  by  the  Levilical  law,  (Lev.  xi. 
 
 [  16,)  but  not  the  bird  known  to 
 us  by  this  name.  Probably  the 
 night-owl   is  intended,  which 
 
 .  is  described  as  of  the  size  of 
 464 
 
NIN 
 the  common  owl,  and  lodges  | 
 in  the  large  buildings  or  ruins  j 
 of  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  sopie-  i 
 times  even  in  the  dwelling- 
 nouses.     It  is  extremely  vo- 
 racious. 
 
 NIMRIM.  (Isa.  xv.  6.)  A 
 stream  in  the  north  part  of 
 Moab,  near  to  the  village  of 
 Beth-nimrah,  (Num.  xxxii.  36,) 
 the  ruins  of  which  now  bear 
 the  name  of  Nimrein. 
 
 NIMR0D.  (Gen.  x.  8.)  The 
 eon  of  Gush.  The  Hebrews 
 regard  him  as  the  leader  of 
 those  who  attempted  to  build 
 the  tower  of  Babel;  and  the 
 orientals  make  him  the  author 
 of  idolatry.     He  was  princi- 
 
 Eally  concerned  in  building 
 oth  Babylon  and  Nineveh". 
 (See  Assyria.)  The  expres- 
 sion a  mighty  hunter  (or  a 
 hunting  giant)  before  the 
 Lord  means  that  he  was  re- 
 markably skilful  and  powerful 
 in  hunting  wild  beasts.  Before 
 the  Lord  is  a  figurative  phrase, 
 signifying  very  powerful.  The 
 land  of  Nimroa  (Mic.  v.  5)  is 
 the  same  with  Babylon. 
 
 NINEVEH,  (Jonah  iii.  6,) 
 the  capital  of  Assyria,  (2  Kings 
 xix.  33,)  and  rival  of  Babylon, 
 was  situated  on  the  Tigris, 
 north-east  of  Babylon,  pro- 
 oably  near  the  modern  village 
 of  Nania,  opposite  to  Mosul. 
 It  signifies  the  dwelli?ig  of 
 Ninusy  and  therefore  v/e  may 
 presume  was  founded  by  Nira- 
 rod,  also  called  Ninus,  though 
 pome  regard  Ashur  as  the 
 founder. 
 
 It  was  a  City  of  nineteen 
 miles  in  length  and  eleven 
 in  breadth,  and  from  forty-eight 
 to  sixty  miles  in  circumference, 
 (as  may  be  inferred  from  Jo- 
 nah's account,  Jonah  iii.  3, 
 confirmed  by  that  of  Slrabo.) 
 and  contained  a  population 
 of  about  six  hundred  thousand. 
 (Jonah  iv.  11.)  It  was  sur- 
 rounded by  a  wall  one  hun- 
 dred feet  high,  and  wide  enough 
 for  three  carriages  to  go  abreast, 
 
 NIT 
 
 fortified  by  fifteen  hundred 
 towers,  of  two  hundred  feet 
 in  height.  For  its  luxury  and 
 Avickedness  the  judgments  of 
 God  fell  upon  it.  (Nah.  iii.  I. 
 Zeph.  ii.  13—15.) 
 
 Nineveh,  which  had  long 
 been  mistress  of  the  east,  was 
 first  taken  by  Arbaces '  and 
 Belesis,  under  the  reign  of 
 Sardanapalus,  in  the  time  of 
 Ahaz,  kingof  Judah,  about  the 
 time  of  the^foundation  of  Rome, 
 B.  c.  753.  It  was  taken  a  se- 
 cond time  by  Cyaxares  and 
 Nabopolassar,  about  b.  c.  632, 
 after  which  it  no  more  reco- 
 vered its  former  splendour. 
 It  was  entirely  ruined  in  the 
 time  of  Lucian  of  Samosata, 
 who  lived  under  the  emperor 
 Adrian.  It  was  rebuilt  under 
 the  Persians,  but  was  destroyed 
 by  the  Saracens  about  the 
 seventh  century. 
 NISAN.  (See  Month.) 
 NITRE.  (Jer.  ii.  22.)  An 
 earthy  alkaline  salt,  resem- 
 bling and  used  like  soap,  which 
 separates  from  the  bottom  of 
 the  lake  Natron,  in  Egypt,  and 
 rising  to  the  top,  is  condensed 
 by  the  heat  of  the  sun  into  a 
 dry  and  hard  substance,  simi- 
 lar to  the  Smyrna  soap,  and  is 
 the  soda  of  common  earth.  It 
 is  found  in  many  other  parts 
 of  the  east.  Vinegar  has  no 
 effect  upon  common  nitre,  and 
 of  course  this  could  not  be 
 meant  by  the  wise  man,  who, 
 in  Prov.  xxv.  20,  says,  As  he 
 that  taketh  away  a  garment 
 in  cold  tceathcr,  and  o-s  tine- 
 gar  to  nitre,  so  is  lie  tliat  sing- 
 elh  songs  to  a  heavy  heart. 
 Now  as  vinegar  has  no  effect 
 upon  nitre,  but  on  natron  or 
 soda  iis  action  is  very  obvi- 
 ous, it  seems  the  English 
 translation  should  have  been 
 natron.  In  Jeremiah,  ch.  ii. 
 22,  the  same  word  again  is 
 improperly  used.  For  though 
 thou  wash  thee  with  nitre, 
 and  take  thee  much  soap,  yet 
 thy  iniquity  is  marked  before 
 4(w 
 
NOA 
 
 me,  saith  the  Lord  God.  The 
 alkaline  earth  natron  is  ob- 
 viously designed  in  this  pas- 
 sage. It  is  found,  as  an  impure 
 carbonate  of  soda,  on  the  sur- 
 face of  the  earth  in  Egypt  and 
 Syria;  and  is,  also,  native  in 
 some  parts  of  Africa,  in  hard 
 strataor  masses,  and  is  called 
 trona,  being  used  for  the  same 
 purposes  as"  the  barilla  of  com- 
 merce. 
 
 NO  (Jer.  xlvi.  25.  Ezek.  xxx. 
 14)  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
 the  famous  city  of  Thebes,  in 
 upper  Egypt,  extending  itself 
 on  both  sides  of  the  Nile. 
 (Nah.  iii.  8.)  The  fact  is  so 
 uncertain,  however  that  we 
 should  not  feel  justified  in  in- 
 troducing an  article  upon 
 Thebes.  Instead  of  A'b,  in  Jer. 
 xlvi.  25,  it  should  be  rendered 
 Ammon  of  No,  or  the  seat  or 
 dwelling  of  the  god  Ammon. 
 It  was  probably  applied  to  two 
 or  three  places.  A  distinction 
 is  sometimes  made  between 
 the  No  spoken  of  in  Nahum 
 iii.  8—10,  and  the  No  men- 
 tioned by  Jeremiah  and  Eze- 
 kiel.  The  destruction  of  the 
 former  (supposed  to  be  Thebes) 
 isdescribed  in  detail  as  already 
 past,  while  the  doom  of  the 
 other  (which  is  supnased  to 
 have  been  in  lower  Egypt)  is 
 predicted  by  Jeremiah  and 
 Ezekiel  as  a  future  event. 
 
 NOAH,  (Gen.  vi.  8,)  or,  as 
 the  Greeks  write  it,  Noe, 
 (Matt.  xxiv.  37,)  the  ninth  in 
 descent  from  Adam,  is  de- 
 scribed as  a  just  man,  perfect 
 (or  upright)  in  his  generations, 
 and  walking  with  God.  (Gen. 
 vi.  9.)  In  the  midst  of  the 
 universal  corruption  which 
 overspread  the  earili,  he  found 
 grace  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord, 
 and  was  not  only  warned  of 
 the  approach  of  the  general 
 deluge,  but  instructed  in  the 
 means  of  saving  himself,  and 
 his  family,  and  a  sufficient 
 Humberof  the  animal  creation, 
 
 NOA 
 
 to  preserve  the  several  tribes 
 (See  Ark.)  Believing  the  di 
 vine  declaration,  he  prepared 
 the  ark,  and  diligently  warned 
 the  world  of  the  approaching 
 judgment,  but  without  effect. 
 In  'due  time  it  came.  (See 
 Flood.)  Noah,  and  his  wife, 
 and  his  three  sons,  and  their 
 wives,  and  the  required  num- 
 ber of  beasts  and  fowls,  en- 
 tered into  the  ark,  and  were 
 saved.  All  the  rest  in  whose 
 7iostrils  was  the  breath  of 
 life,  of  all  that  v:as  in  the  dry 
 land,  died.  When  the  waters 
 subsided,  the  ark  rested  on  a 
 mountain  of  Armenia.  (See 
 Ararat.)  Noah  and  his  fa- 
 mily went  forth,  and  the  crea- 
 tures they  had  preserved.  The 
 first  act  of  this  new  progenitor 
 of  the  human  race  was  to  offer 
 a  sacrifice  to  God,  which  was 
 acceptable  in  his  sight,  for  he 
 immediately  entered  into  a 
 covenant  with  him,  that  such 
 a  judgment  should  not  again 
 visit  the  earth,  nor  should  the 
 regular  succession  of  the  sea- 
 sons be  again  interrupted  while 
 the  earth  remains.  As  a  token 
 of  the  covenant  thus  made, 
 God  established  the  rainbow. 
 He  also  put  the  irrational  cre- 
 ation in  subjection  to  Noah,  as 
 he  had  originally  done  to  Adam, 
 and  enacted  some  general  lawa 
 for  his  government. 
 
 Noah  became  a  husband- 
 man, and  partaking  too  freely 
 of  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  exposed 
 himself  to  shame.  When  in 
 this  state  he  was  treated  inde- 
 corously by  one  of  his  sons, 
 who,  on  that  account,  was  the 
 subjei;t  of  severe  judgments ; 
 while  his  brothers,  for  an  op- 
 posite course  of  conduct,  re- 
 ceived peculiar  blessings. 
 Noah  lived  three  hundred  and 
 fifty  years  after  the  flood,  but 
 the  place  of  his  residence 
 is  matter  of  vain  conjecture. 
 (For  a  particular  account  of 
 the  settlement  of  Noah's  fa- 
 466 
 
NOP 
 
 mlly,  see  Eveninc;  Recrea- 
 tions, by  Am.  S.  S.  Union, 
 ▼ol.  ii.  pp.  2S -50.) 
 
 NOB  (1  Sam.  xxii.  19)  was  a 
 tily  of  the  priests,  in  the  ter- 
 ritory of  Benjamin,  and  within 
 Jight  of  Jerusalem  on  the  north. 
 To  this  place  David  fled  from 
 the  fury  of  Saul,  and  ootained 
 from  Ahimelech,  the  high- 
 priest,  some  of  the  shew-hread, 
 M  satisfy  his  hunger;  and  also 
 Goliath's  sword  for  his  defence. 
 For  this  act  Saul  caused  the 
 ;ity  and  all  ihat  was  in  it  to  be 
 jestroved.    (See  Ahimelech.) 
 
 NOT),  LAND  OF,  (Gen.  iv.  16,) 
 probably  designates  no  par- 
 ticular place.  It  might  be 
 literally  rendered  (with  re- 
 ference to  the  doom  of  Cain) 
 land  of  wandering,  eastward 
 of  Eden. 
 
 NOPH.  (Isa.  xix.  13.  Je'.  ii. 
 !6.  Ezek.  xxx.  13.  16.)  The 
 ancjenl  Memphis,  in  middle 
 Esrypt,  on  the  Nile,  fifteen 
 miles  south  of  old  Cairo.  It 
 was  the  residence  of  the  earlier 
 kings  of  Egypt,  and  is  said  to 
 have  been  about  twenty  miles 
 in  circumference.  In  the  se- 
 venth century  it  fell  into  the 
 hands  of  the  Saracens ;  and 
 the  predicted  judgments  of 
 God,  on  account  of  its  idolatry 
 and  gener.il  corruption,  gra- 
 dually effaced  every  trace 
 of  its  ancient  magnificence. 
 In  the  lime  of  Strabo,  there 
 were  many  splendid  remains; 
 among  wiiich,  he  describes  a 
 temple  of  Vulcan,  of  ereal 
 magnificence;  another  of  Ve- 
 nus; and  a  third  of  Osiris, 
 vhere  the  Apis  or  sacred  ox 
 was  worshipjied.  He  also 
 mentions  a  large  circus:  but 
 he  remarks,  that  many  of  the 
 palaces  were  in  ruins;  and 
 oescribes  an  immense  colossus 
 which  lay  prostrate  in  the  front 
 of  the  city  ;  and  among  a  num- 
 ber of  sphinxes,  some  were 
 buried  in  sand  up  to  the  mid- 
 dle of  the*  body;  while  of 
 others,  only  the  heads  were 
 
 NUR 
 
 visible  above  the  sand.  Some 
 monuments  were  to  be  seen  six 
 hundred  years  after  the  time 
 of  Strabo's  visit,  when  the  Sa- 
 racens had  possession  of  the 
 country:  but  at  present  there 
 is  scarcely  a  vestige  of  its 
 former  grandeur  to  be  found. 
 This  has  led  some  to  conjec- 
 ture that  its  site  wag  over- 
 flowed by  the  Nile;  but  it  is 
 much  more  probable  that  it 
 has  been  covered  by  the  con- 
 tinual encroachment  of  the 
 sands,  which,  we  see,  were 
 advancing  in  the  time  of 
 Strabo.  And  it  cannot  be 
 doubted,  but  that  a  large  part 
 of  ancient  Egypt  has  already 
 been  completely  Imried  by  the 
 sands  from  the  wilderness. 
 
 NORTH.  (Jer.  vi.  1.)  North 
 and  sovth  in  the  Scriptures 
 are  used  relatively  to  the  situa- 
 tion of  countries  in  regard  to 
 Judea.  Thus  Syria  is  north  ; 
 Egypt  south;  Babylon  and 
 Assyria  lay  to  the  north-east ; 
 but  the  Assyrian  army  always 
 invaded  Palestine  from  the 
 north.  Media  was  still  far- 
 ther to  the  north.  (Jer.  iii.  12. 
 Dan.  xi.  13,  14.) 
 
 NUMBERS.  This  is  the 
 fourth  in  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
 derives  its  name  fi-om  the  cir- 
 cumstance that  it  contains  the 
 vtimbers  and  ordering  of  the 
 Hebrews  and  Levites,  after  the 
 erection  and  consecrationof  the 
 tabernacle.  (For  an  account 
 of  their  removal  from  Sinai, 
 and  their  subsequent  marches 
 in  the  wilderne.ss;  and  of  the 
 wonderful  dealing  of  God 
 with  them,  imtil  their  arrival 
 on  the  borders  of  Moab,  see 
 Union  Questions,  vol.  iv.,  and 
 Teachers'  As.sistant  in  the 
 u.se  of  the  same.  See,  also 
 Life  op  Moses,  all  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 NURSE.  (Gen.  xxiv.  53) 
 This  domestic  relation  wae 
 and  is  still  one  of  the  most  im- 
 portant in  eafliern  families  Ir 
 467 
 
NUR 
 
 Syria  the  nurse  is  regarded  as  a 
 sort  of  second  parent,  always 
 accompanying  the  bride  to  the 
 husband's  house,  and  ever 
 remaining  there  an  honoured 
 
 giest.  So  it  was  in  ancient 
 reece.  And  in  Hindostan, 
 the  nurse  passes  her  days 
 among  the  children  she  has 
 helped  to  rear;  and  in  mosc[ues 
 and  mausoleums  are  sometimes 
 seen  the  monuments  of  prince- 
 ly affection  towards  a  favourite 
 nurse ;  and  the  relation  on  the 
 part  of  the  nurse  must  have 
 
 NUT 
 
 corresponded  in  tenderness 
 and  affection ;  and  hence  the 
 force  of  the  figurative  expres- 
 sions, lsa.xl'xr23.  IThess.  ii.7. 
 NUTS  (Gen.  xliii.  11)  are 
 generally  supposed  to  have 
 been  what  are  now  known  as 
 pistachio  or  pistacia  nuts, 
 which  were  produced  in  great 
 perfection  plentifully  in  Syria, 
 but  not  in  Egypt.  This  nui 
 is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and,  in 
 its  green  state,  of^  exquisite 
 taste.  When  dried  for  export- 
 ation, they  are  very  inferior. 
 
 o 
 
 OAK 
 
 AK.  (Gen.xxxv.4.8.)  There 
 is  a  word  in  the  Hebrew 
 Bible  which  is  often  translated 
 in  our  version  oak,  but  which 
 is  the  name  of  a  tree  peculiar 
 to  the  eastern  world.  This  is 
 the  terebinth,  or  turpentine 
 tree,  which  abounds  in  Syria, 
 Mesopotamia,  and  Palestine. 
 It  grows  to  a  considerable  size, 
 and  has  a  rich  and  luxuriant 
 foliage.  From  this  tree  is  ob- 
 tained the  genuine  turpentine 
 of  the  ancients,  and  a  rich 
 and  balsamic  gum,  which 
 exudes  from  the  trunk.  It  is 
 said  to  live  one  thousand  years, 
 and  when  it  dies  the  race  is 
 renewed  by  young  shoots  from 
 the  root ;  so  that  the  tree  may 
 in  a  sense  be  called  perpetual. 
 Hence  the  figurative  allusion 
 in  Isa.  vi.  13,  where  the  teil  or 
 Jinden  tree  might  as  well  be 
 rendered  terebinth. 
 
 For  the  same  reason  it  was 
 an  important  landmark,  and 
 served  to  fix  the  topography 
 of  the  lands,  as  we  find  oaks 
 very  often  named  for  the  pur- 
 pose of  designating  the  locality 
 of  great  events.  (Josh.  xxiv. 
 26.  Judg.  vi.  11.  2Sam.  xviii. 
 9.  1  Kings  xiii.  14.  1  Chron. 
 X.  12.) 
 
 The  strength  of  the  oak  is 
 alluded  to  by  the  prophet, 
 CAmos  ii.  9p  and  the  district 
 
 OAT 
 
 of  Bashan  is  often  mentioned 
 as  peculiarly  favourable  to 
 the  growth  of  this  tree.  (Isa. 
 ii.  13.    Zech.  xi.  2.) 
 
 The  word  translated  plains 
 in  several  passages,  (Gen.  xii. 
 6;  xiii.  18;  xiv.  13;  xfiii.  1. 
 Deul.  xi.  30.  Judg.  ix.  6,)  are 
 places  noted  for  clusters  or 
 groves  of  the  terebinth  or  oak. 
 
 The  wood  of  the  oak  was 
 used  for  idols.  (Isa.  xliv.  14.) 
 
 OATH.  (Heb.  vi.  16.)  To 
 take  an  oath  is  solemnly  to 
 call  on  God  to  witness  or  take 
 notice  of  what  we  affirm.  It 
 invokes  the  vengeance,  or 
 renounces  the  favour  of  God, 
 if  what  is  asserted  is  false,  and 
 if  what  is  promised  is  not  per- 
 formed. It  has  been  matter  of 
 doubt  among  some  Christians, 
 in  almost  all  ages,  whether 
 the  practice  of  taking  an  oath 
 on  any  occasion  is  not  a  vio- 
 lation of  the  express  command 
 of  our  Saviour,  (Matt.  v.  34 ;) 
 and  there  is  great  force  in  the 
 arguments  which  are  used  in 
 support  of  this  opinion.  Even 
 those  who  allow  the  practice, 
 require  that  it  never  be  taken 
 but  in  matters  of  importance, 
 nor  sworn  by  the  name  of  any 
 but  the  true  God,  as  it  is  an 
 act  of  solemn  worship,  (Dent. 
 vi.  13.  Josh,  xxiii.  7.  Jer.  v.  7. 
 Matt.  V.  34,  35.  James  v.  12  j) 
 468 
 
OAT 
 
 nor  irreverently,  without  20(11  y 
 fear  and  awe  of  the  Most  High  ; 
 and  he  is  represented  as  a 
 wicked  man  who  is  not  deep 
 iy  impressed  with  an  oatn, 
 (Eccles.  ix.  2;)  nor  rashly, 
 without  caution,  (Gen.  xxiv. 
 2—8.  Lev.  V.  4.  Matt,  xi  v.  7;) 
 nor  falsely,  nor  deceitfully, 
 affirming  what  is  fabe,  or 
 without  a  sincere  intention  to 
 perform.  (Lev.  vi.  3 ;  xix.  12. 
 Jer.  xlii.  5.)  But  every  oath 
 ought  to  be  sworn,  in  truth, 
 and  with  judgment,  having 
 respect  to  tiie  nature  of  an 
 oath,  and  of  the  thing  sworn  ; 
 and  with  fearof  God,  by  whom 
 we  swear;  and  only  in  things 
 that  are  eood,  and  for  a  good 
 end.  (Jer.  iv.  2.  1  Gor.  x.  31. 
 Heb.  vi.  17.)  Oaths  may  be 
 sinful,  even  when  prescribed 
 by  the  law  of  the  land :  they 
 may  contain  things  in  them- 
 selves unlawful,  whicli  no  hu- 
 man laws  can  render  consist- 
 ent with  right;  or  they  may 
 be  enjoined  without  necessity, 
 and  multiplied  beyond  reason  ; 
 or  administered  in  a  manner 
 so  manifestly  irreverent,  that 
 they  are  rather  an  insult  to 
 Jehovah,  than  a  solemn  act 
 of  worship.  The  very  nature 
 '  and  terms  of  an  oath  show  that 
 atheists,  who  profess  to  believe 
 that  there  is  no  God,  and  per- 
 sons who  do  not  believe  in  a 
 future  state  of  reward  and 
 punishment,  cannot  consist- 
 ently take  one.  In  their  I 
 mouths  an  oath  can  be  only  j 
 Tain  mockery. 
 
 God  himself  is  represented  \ 
 as  confirming  his  promise  by 
 oath,  which  is  a  mere  figura- 
 tive allusion  to  what  is  prac- 
 tised among  men.  (Heb.  vi.  13. 
 16,  17.) 
 
 The  forms  of  swearing  are 
 various.  Anciently  the  lifting 
 up  of  one  of  the  hands  towards 
 heaven,  (Ps.  cxliv.  8.  Rev.  x. 
 5,)  and  putting  the  hand  under 
 the  thigh,  (Gen.  xxiv.  2.)  were 
 used.  (See  Right  Hand.)  1 
 40 
 
 ODE 
 I  OBADIAH.  (1  Kings  xviil. 
 I  3.)  A  godly  man,  and  prin- 
 I  cipal  officer  in  the  household 
 I  of  Ahab,  by  whose  interposition 
 '  one  hundred  prophetd  were 
 j  preserved  from  the  murderous 
 !  persecution  of  Jezebel,  and 
 I  supplied  with  food. 
 
 Some  have  supposed  that 
 this  was  no  other  than  the 
 prophet  of  the  same  name; 
 but  there  is  better  reason  to 
 suppose  that  Obadiah  the  pro- 
 phet lived  at  the  same  periofl 
 with  Jeremiah  and  EzekieL 
 There  are  several  other  per- 
 sons of  this  name  mentioned 
 in  the  Old  Testament. 
 
 Prophkcy  of,  is  the  thirty- 
 first  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  It  re- 
 lates  to  the  judgments  im- 
 pending over  Edom,  and  to 
 the  restoration  and  prosperity 
 of  the  Jews.  Some  portions  of 
 this  prophecy  are  supposed  to 
 have  relation  to  events  still 
 future.  The  similarity  of  a 
 portion  of  Obadiah's  jwjphecy 
 and  that  of  Jeremiah  is  strik- 
 ing. (Comp.  Jer.  xlix.  7 — 10, 
 and  14-16.  Obad.  1—9.) 
 
 OBED-EDOM.  (IChron.xvL 
 38.)  A  Levite  who  lived  in 
 David's  time,  and  at  whose 
 house  the  ark  was  deposited, 
 after  the  dreadful  death  of 
 Uzzah.  (2  Sam.  vi.  6— 10.)  Th€ 
 blessing  which  came  on  tht 
 house  of  Obed-edom  for  th» 
 ark's  sake,  encouraged  Davie 
 to  remove  it  to  Jerusalem 
 (2  Sam.  vi.  10-12.)  Obed 
 edom  and  his  sons  were  ap> 
 pointed  keepers  of  the  door^ 
 of  the  tabernacle.  (1  Chron, 
 xvi.  38,)  and  of  the  sacrec 
 vessels.  (2  Chron.  xxv.  24.) 
 
 OBLATIONS.    (See  Offer 
 
 INGS.) 
 
 ODED.  (2Chron.  XV.  S.)  A 
 prophet,  by  whose  instructior 
 Asa,  king  of  Judah,  was  in 
 duced  to  put  away  idols  out 
 of  his  kingdom  and  possessions 
 and  to  renew  the  worship  of 
 the  true  God.  (2  Chron.  xv.  1— 
 463 
 
OFF 
 
 8.)  Oded  was  at  Samaria,  and 
 when  the  Israelites  returned 
 from  the  war  against  Judah, 
 with  their  liing  Pekah,  and 
 brought  two  hundred  thousand 
 captives,  he  wenttomeetthem, 
 and  remonstrated  so  effectu- 
 ally with  them  that  the  princi- 
 pal men  in  Samaria  look  care 
 of  them,  gave  them  clothes, 
 food,  and  other  assistance,  with 
 asses  to  ride  upon,  because  the 
 greater  part  of  them  were  ex- 
 hausted, and  unable  to  walk. 
 Thus  they  conducted  them  to 
 iheir  brethren  at  Jericho. 
 
 OFFENCE.  (Rom.  ix.  33.) 
 This  term  in  the  sacred  writ- 
 ings often  means  that  which 
 causes  or  is  likely  to  cause  us 
 to  sin.  Thus  in  Matt.  v.  27, 
 the  right  eye  which  would  al- 
 lure to  sin  is  said  to  offend ; 
 and  in  Matt,  xviii.  7,  causes  of 
 Bin,  sufferins,  or  wo  are  called 
 effences:  so"  in  Malt.  xvi.  23. 
 In  the  same  sense  our  Saviour 
 is  called,  in  the  above  passage 
 from  Romans,  a  rock  of  offence ; 
 whereby  we  underslauo,  that 
 to  the  Jews  he  was  offensive  in 
 all  the  circumstances  of  his 
 birth  and  history.  They  stum- 
 bled at  his  word,  and  were  dis- 
 obedient. A  reference  to  Lev. 
 xix.  14.  Isa.  viii.  14.  Luke  ii. 
 34.  Rom.  ix.  32, 33,  will  furnish 
 a  sufficient  illustration  of  the 
 word  and  its  connexion.  The 
 cffence  of  the  cross  (Gal.  v. 
 11)  is  that,  in  the  doctrines  of 
 Christ,  or  the  cross,  which  is 
 offensive  to  carnal  men. 
 
 OFFERINCJ,  (Gen.  iv.  3,) 
 OBLATION.  (Lev.  ii.  7.)  An 
 offering,  in  a  religious  sense, 
 is  whatever  one  offers  as  a  gift 
 by  way  of  reverence  to  a  su- 
 perior. (Matt.  ii.  11.)  The  Jew- 
 ish sacrifices,  and  in  general 
 all  the  religious  sacrifices,  are, 
 properly  speaking,  oblations. 
 Sometimes  they  seem  to  be 
 used  indiscriminately,  as  in 
 Lev.  iii.  I,  if  his  oblation  be  a 
 sacrifice  of  peace-offerings  &c. 
 The  word   sacrifice  is  some- 
 
 OFF 
 
 times  used  in  a  sense  so  gene 
 ral,  as  to  embrace  whatever  i» 
 in  any  way  devoted  to  the 
 service  of  God ;  but,  strictly 
 speaking,  offerings  were  sim- 
 ple, bloodless  gifts,  as  all  sorts 
 of  tithes,  first-fruits  in  their  na- 
 tural  state,  meal,  bread,  cakes, 
 ears  of  corn,  parched  grain,  &c. 
 To  these  oil  was  often  added, 
 and  sometimes  they  were 
 baked  with  oil.  Proper  sacri> 
 fices  involved  the  destruction 
 of  animal  life,  or  the  shedding 
 of  blood ;  and  also  the  entire  or 
 partial  consumption  of  the  vic- 
 tim by  fire.  Birds  and  quadru- 
 peds constituted  the  sacrifices ; 
 hence  their  blood  was  forbid- 
 den to  be  drunk,  but  not  that 
 of  fishes,  which  were  not 
 allowed  to  be  brought  to  the 
 altar.  Probably  all  clean 
 birds  might  be  offered,  (Lev. 
 xiv.  4—7,)  but  not  all  clean, 
 beasts.  The  dove  was  the 
 most  common  offering  of  birds ; 
 and  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats 
 from  among  quadrupeds.  No 
 wild  beast  could  be  offered, 
 and  in  killing  and  eating  them 
 all  idea  of  sacrifice  was  to  be 
 avoided,  (Deut.  xii.  15.  22;  xt. 
 22,)  except  that  the  blood  was 
 to  be  thrown  away.  (Deut.  xv. 
 23.)  Leaven  and  honey  were 
 excluded  from  all  offerings 
 made  by  fire,  (Lev.  ii.  11,)  and 
 salt  was  required  in  all.  (Lev. 
 ii.  13.) 
 
 Drink-offerings  were  a  kind 
 of  accompaniment  tothebloody 
 and  bloodless  offerings.  They 
 consisted  chiefly  of  wine,  part 
 of  which  was  poured  on  the  vic- 
 tim, and  the  residue  was  given 
 to  the  priests.  (Num.  xv.  5.  7.) 
 Amongthe  offerings  required  by 
 the  Jewish  law  were  the  burnt 
 offering,  (Lev.  i.4,)socalledbe' 
 cause  the  thing  offered  was  en 
 tirely  consumed  ;  the  trespass 
 offering,  (Lev.  v.  6,)  in  which 
 the  guilt  of  the  offerer  was 
 confessed,  and  an  atonement 
 made;  the  sin-offering,  (Lev 
 iv.  3 ;)  the  meat-offering,  (Lev 
 470 
 
OFF 
 
 fl.  1,)  which  was  usually  a 
 tomjDound  of  corn,  flour,  oil, 
 and  frankincense,  prepared  in 
 various  ways,  and  burnt  on 
 the  altar  of  burnt-offering; 
 the  peace-offering,  (Lev.  iii.  1.) 
 and  the  cmisecration-offering. 
 The  six  foregoing  are  the 
 offerings  by  fire,  as  expressly 
 required.  (Lev.  vii.  37.)  The 
 drink-offering,  wiiieh  always 
 attended  the  meat-offering, 
 (Ex.  xxix.  40 ;)  the  heave-offer- 
 ing, (Ex.  xxix.  27,)  and  the 
 toave-offering,  (Ex.  xxix.  24 :) 
 the  last  two  are  so  called  from 
 a  particular  motion  used  in 
 the  presentation  of  them.  The 
 oblation  of  the  first-fruits 
 (Lev.  ii.  12)  was  regarded  as 
 a  meat-offering,  and  was  pre- 
 sented before  the  harvest  was 
 ripe,  the  fruit  being  dried  or 
 parched.  (Lev.  ii.  14.) 
 
 The  Jews  were  required,  as 
 a  general  rule,to  bring  all  their 
 offerings  to  an  appointedplace, 
 first  the  tabernacle,  and  after- 
 wards the  temple;  and  the 
 manner  of  presenting  them  is 
 described  in  most  minute  de- 
 tails. 
 
 The  burnt-offering  was  to  be 
 a  male  without  blemish,  of  the 
 herd  and  of  the  flock  offered 
 voluntarily  at  the  door  of  the 
 tabernacle,  the  hand  of  the 
 offerer  beine  upon  the  head  of 
 the  victim.  "(Lev.  i.  2—4.)  The 
 animal  was  then  taken  to  the 
 altar,  slain  on  the  north  side, 
 and  the  blood  sprinkled  about 
 the  altar.  (Lev.  i.  5.  Comp. 
 Heb.  xii.  24.)  The  east  side  of 
 the  altar  was  appropriated  to 
 the  ashes,  &c.  (Lev.  i.  16)  On 
 the  south  was  the  ascent  to  the 
 altar,  and  on  the  west  was  the 
 sanctuary.  The  body  of  the 
 victim  was  flayed,  opened,  cut 
 in  pieces,  salted,  laid  in  order 
 on  the  altar  of  burnt-offering, 
 and  consumed  to  ashes.  (Lev. 
 i.  5.  8.  Comp.  Heb.  iv.  12.)  So 
 of  killing  and  offering  fowls. 
 (Lev.  1.14— 17.)  The  end  of  the 
 bu^n^offe^ing  was  an  atone- 
 
 OFF 
 
 ment  for  sin.  (Lev.  i.  4.  Comp. 
 Heb.  X.  1—3.  11.)  This  offering 
 constituted  a  morning  and  eve- 
 ning sacrifice,  and  was  often 
 made  on  other  prescribed  occa.- 
 sions. 
 
 The  meat-offering  consisted 
 of  flour  prepared  with  oil  and 
 frankincense.  (Lev.  ii.  1.)  It 
 was  to  be  free  from  leaven  and 
 honey,  but  was  to  have  salt. 
 (Lev.  i.  11.13.)  With  this  was 
 connected  the  drink-offering, 
 which,  as  before  observed,  was 
 never  used  separately,  but  was 
 an  appendage  of  wine  to  some 
 sacrifices.  Hence  the  con- 
 demnation of  their  supersti- 
 tious practice  of  using  blood 
 for  a  drink-offering.  (PsTxvi.4.) 
 
 In  this,  and  other  sacrificial 
 observances,  it  would  appear, 
 that  generally  the  offerer  was 
 to  kill  the  victim,  take  off  the 
 skin,  cut  up  the  body,  and 
 wash  the  different  parts.  The 
 priest  was  to  sprinkle  the  blood, 
 prepare  the  fire,  and  lay  the 
 sacrifice  upon  the  altar.  The 
 Levites,  and  afterwards  the 
 Nethinims,  assisted  in  these 
 labours. 
 
 The  meat-offering  was  pre- 
 sented on  prescribed  occasions. 
 It  always  attended  burnt-offer- 
 ings and  peace-offerings,  and 
 also  the  sin-offering  and  tres- 
 pass-offering of  the  leper.  A 
 handful  of  the  composition  was 
 burned  by  the  priest  upon  the 
 altar,  (Lev.  ii.  16,)  and  the  re- 
 sidue was  for  his  own  and  his 
 family's  use. 
 
 The  peace-offerings  were 
 vows  of  thanksgiving,  or  a  sup- 
 plication for  mercies,  and  were 
 similar  in  kind,  and  manner 
 ofpresentation,  with  theburnt- 
 offp.ring.  (Lev.  iii.) 
 
 The  sin-offering  had  pecu- 
 liar respect  to  sins  committed 
 ignorantly,  and  was  modified 
 according  to  the  persons  pre 
 sentins  it.  (Comp.  Lev.  iv.  3. 
 13.  22.  27.)  Part  of  the  blood 
 of  the  victim  was  poured  out 
 at  the  bottom  of  the  altar;  a 
 471 
 
OIL 
 
 Eart  was  sprinkled  on  the 
 orns  of  ihe  altar  of  incense ; 
 and  a  pan  was  carried  by  the 
 priest  into  the  most  holy  place. 
 (Lev.  xvi.) 
 
 The  trespass  •  offering,  the 
 manner  and  occasion  of  which 
 are  described,  Lev.  v. — vii., 
 seems  to  have  differed  but  , 
 slightly  from  the  last.  It  may 
 be  remarked,  that  all  the  blood 
 of  the  trespass-offering  appears 
 to  have  been  sprinkled  around 
 the  altar,  and  tnat  it  was  offered 
 only  for  individuals,  and  nover 
 (as  the  sin-offering)  for  the  con- 
 gregation. The  burnt,  sin.  and 
 trespass-offeritig  were  of  an  ex- 
 piatory character,  though  not 
 exclusively  so. 
 
 The   consecration  -  offerings 
 were  made  at  the  time4)f  con-  j 
 seorating  the  priests,  (Lev.  viii. 
 22;)  from  which  circumstance  , 
 (and  not  from  any  thing  pecu-  j 
 liar  in  the  ceremony)  the  name  1 
 is  derived.    (See  Sacrifices. 
 See   also   Biblical  Antiq,oi-  i 
 TIES,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  vol.  j 
 ii.  ch.  v.,  for  a  clear  and  most 
 interesting  history  of  the  sub- 
 ject.) 
 
 OG.  (Deut.  iii.  1.)  A  king 
 of  Bashan,  of  gigantic  stature, 
 (Deut.  iii.  11,)  who  opfiosed  the 
 passageof  the  Israelites  through 
 his  territories.  Moses,  being  di- 
 vinely admonished  of  his  suc- 
 cess, attempted  to  force  his  way 
 through  the  country,  and  suc- 
 ceedea  in  capturing  the  king, 
 and  ultimately  became  master 
 of  the  whole  country.  (Deut. 
 iii.  3—6.) 
 
 OIL.  (Ps.  xcii.  10.)  Among 
 eastern  nations  the  practice 
 has  prevailed,  from  the  earliest 
 periods,  of  anointing  the  head 
 with  oil,  made  fragrant  with 
 the  richest  aromatTcs  of  the 
 east,  especially  on  festivals  and 
 other  joyous  occasions.  The 
 Greeks  and  Romans  applied 
 oil  to  the  whole  body,  and  the 
 modern  orientals  anoint  their 
 beards.  Hence  the  use  of  oil 
 e  significant  of  joy  and  glad- 
 
 OLI 
 
 ness,  (Ps.  xxiii.  5,)  and  tha 
 omission  of  it  betokened  sor 
 row.  (2  Sam.  xiv.  2.  IMatl.  vi 
 17.  See  Olive.) 
 
 Oil  teee  (Isa.xli.  19)  is  pro- 
 bably the  same  with  the  olive 
 tree,  (1  Kings  vi.23 ;)  but  whe- 
 ther the  olive,  properly  speak- 
 ing, is  intended  in  these  pas- 
 sases,  admits  of  some  doubt. 
 
 OINTMENT.  (See  Anoint.) 
 
 OLIVE.  (Job  XV.  33.)  The 
 soil  and  climate  of  Syria  were 
 very  favourable  to  the  produc- 
 tion of  the  olive.  (Deut.  vi.  11; 
 vii.  13;  viii.  8;  xi.  14;  xxviii. 
 40.  1  Kings  V.  11.)  The  fruit 
 is  like  a  plum  in  shape  and 
 colour;  being  first  green,  then 
 pale,  and,  when  ripe,  nearly 
 black.  Tliey  are  sometimes 
 plucked  in  an  unripe  state, 
 and  put  into  some  pickle,  or 
 other  preserving  liquid,  and 
 exported.  For  the  most  part, 
 however,  they  are  valuable 
 for  the  oil  they  produce,  and 
 which  is  expressed  from  the 
 fruit  in  various  ways,  and  con- 
 stitutes an  important  article 
 of  commerce  and  luxury.  (Job 
 xxiv.  11.  Ezck.  xxvii.  17.)  The 
 fruit  is  gathered  by  beating 
 (Deut.  xxiv.  20)  or  shaking  the 
 tree,  (Isa.  xvii.  6;)  and  gfean- 
 ings  were  to  be  left  for  the  poor 
 A  full-sized  tree  in  its  vigour 
 produces  a  thousand  pounds 
 of  oil. 
 
 The  olive  is  a  beautiful  and 
 durable  tree,  and  the  fruit  rich 
 and  valuable;  hence  the  fre- 
 quent figurative  allusions  to 
 it,  which  are  self-explanato- 
 ry. (Judg.  ix.  8,  9.  Ps.  Iii.  8; 
 cxxviii.3.  Jer.  xi.  16.  Hos.  xiv. 
 6.)  The  olive  branch  is  re- 
 garded universally  as  an  em- 
 blem of  peace.    (Gen.  viii.  11.) 
 
 The  wild  olive  (Rom.  xi.  17) 
 is  smaller,  and  its  fruit,  if  it 
 produces  any,  far  inferior  to 
 the  cultivated. 
 
 The  olives,  from  which  oil  is 
 
 to  be  expressed,  must  be  ga 
 
 thered  by  the  hands,  or  softly 
 
 shaken  from  the  trees  before 
 
 472 
 
OLl 
 
 they  are  fully  ripe.  The  best 
 oil  is  that  which  comes  from 
 the  fruit  with  very  light  pres- 
 Bure.  This  is  sometimes  called 
 in  Scripture  green  oil,  not  be- 
 cause of  its  colour,  for  it  is 
 pellucid,  but  because  it  is  from 
 unripe  fruit.  It  is  translated 
 in  Ex.  xxvii.  20,  pure  oil-olive 
 beaten,  and  was  used  for  the 
 golden  candlestick.  For  the 
 extraction  of  this  first  oil,  pan- 
 niers or  baskets  are  used,  which 
 are  gently  shaken.  The  second 
 and  third  pressing  produces  in- 
 ferior oil.  The  best  is  obtained 
 from  unripe  fruit;  the  worst, 
 from  that  which  is  more  than 
 ripe.  The  oil  of  Egypt  is  worth 
 little,  because  the  olives  are 
 too  fat.  Hence  the  Hebrews 
 sent  gifts  of  oil  to  the  Egyptian 
 kings.  (Hos.  xii.  1.)  The  in- 
 ferior quality  is  used  in  mak- 
 ing soap.  But  the  Hebrews 
 used  oil  not  merely  in  lamps, 
 and  with  salads,  but  in  every 
 domestic  employment  in  which 
 butter  is  serviceable,  and  in  the 
 meat-oflerings  of  tlie  temple. 
 It  is  observed  by  travellers, 
 that  the  natives  of  oil  countries 
 manifest  more  attachment  to 
 this  than  to  any  other  article 
 of  food,  and  find  nothing  ade- 
 quately to  supply  its  place. 
 
 A  press  was  also  used  for  the 
 extraction  of  the  oil,  consist- 
 ing of  two  reservoirs,  usually 
 eight  feet  square  and  four  feet 
 deep,  situated  one  above  the 
 other.  The  berries,  being  in 
 the  upper  one,  were  trodden 
 out  with  the  feet.   Mic.  vi.  15. 
 
 OLIVES,  MOUNT  OF,  (Matt, 
 xxvi.  30,)  or  OLIVET,  (2  Sam. 
 XV.  30,)  or  Mount  of  Corrup- 
 tion, (2  Kings  xxiii.  13,)  over- 
 looks Jerusalem  on  the  east ,  so 
 that  every  street,  and  almost 
 everyhouse  maybedistinguish- 
 ed  from  its  summit.  It  doubtless 
 had  its  name  from  the  abun- 
 danceofoliveswhichgrewupon 
 it;  8omeofwhich,of  remarkable 
 age  and  size,  are  still  standing. 
 
 A  late  traveller  describes  the 
 40* 
 
 OLl 
 
 mount  of  Olives  as  about  a 
 mile  in  length,  and  about  seven 
 hundred  feel  in  height.  To  a 
 spectator  on  the  west,  it  has  a 
 gently  waving  outline,  and 
 appears  to  have  three  summits 
 of  nearly  equal  height.  On 
 the  top  of  the  centre  "one  is  a 
 church,  erected  over  the  spot 
 where,  they  inform  us,  our  Sa- 
 viour ascended  into  heaven; 
 and,  in  confirmation  of  the  tra- 
 dition, point  to  a  stone  with  the 
 impressionoftheleftfoot.made, 
 as  they  pretend,  when  he  was 
 about  leaving  the  earth ;  that  of 
 the  right  foot  having  been  car- 
 ried away  by  the  Turks.  On 
 Ascension-day  they  come  up  in 
 great  crowds,  and  have  service 
 here.  The  chapel  had  been 
 shaken  down  by  a  recent  earth- 
 quake, and  the  floor  was  cover- 
 ed by  rubbish,  so  that  he  did 
 not  see  the  stone  of  such  sacred 
 pretensions.  In  Luke  xxiv 
 50,  it  is  very  clearly  stated, 
 that  the  ascension  occurred 
 near  Bethany,  which  is  on  the 
 eastern  side  of  the  mountain, 
 more  than  a  mile  from  this. 
 (Comp.  this  passage  with  Acts 
 i.  12,  where  the  ascension  is 
 also  spoken  of)  There  are 
 two  roads  to  Bethany;  one 
 around  the  southern  end  of 
 the  mount  of  Olives,  and  one 
 across  its  summit;  the  latter 
 being  considerably  shorter,  but 
 more  difficult.  It  was  probably 
 on  this  latter  road,  in  the  de- 
 scent to  Bethany,  that  the 
 Saviour  was  taken  up  from  the 
 apostles. 
 
 "  From  this  central  height  a 
 ridge  stretches  off  towards  the 
 east  for  a  distance  of  three- 
 fourths  of  a  mile,  when  it  ter- 
 minates by  a  bold  descent.  AVe 
 were  conducted  to  the  end  of 
 it  in  order  to  enjoy  tlie  view 
 eastward,  which  is  very  exten- 
 sive. The  plain  of  Jordan,  the 
 mountain  beyond,  the  Dead 
 Sea,  and  the  dark  and  singular 
 chain  of  mountains  on  the  east 
 of  it,  were  in  full  view,  as  well 
 473 
 
ON 
 
 as  all  the  country  intermediate 
 between  them  and  us.  Some 
 of  us  thought  that  we  could 
 see  the  waters  of  the  Jordan ; 
 but,  although  this  was  uncer- 
 tain, we  could  easily  trace  the 
 course  of  the  river,  through 
 the  plain,  by  the  verdure;  and, 
 where  this  failed,  by  the  bro- 
 ken nature  of  the  ground. 
 Beyond  it  towered  the  lofty 
 mountains  of  Moab,  rising 
 peak  above  peak  in  great  ma- 
 jesty, including  among  them 
 mount  Nebo." 
 
 (For  a  minute  description  of 
 the  geography  and  scenery  of 
 mount  Olivet,  see  Selumiel, 
 ch.  viii.  pp.  154—169,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 OMEGA.  (See  Alpha.) 
 OMER.  (See  Measubks.) 
 OMRI.  (1  Kings  xvi.  16.) 
 An  officer  in  the  army  of  Is- 
 rael. He  was  engaged  in  the 
 siege  of  Gibbethon,  a  Philis- 
 tine city,  when  lie  received  in- 
 telligence that  Zimri,  another 
 officer  of  the  army,  had  assas- 
 sinated the  king,  and  had 
 usurped  the  throne.  The  ar- 
 my, by  general  acclamation, 
 made  Omri  king,  and,  raising 
 the  siege  of  Gibbethon,  they 
 forthwith  marched  to  Tirzah, 
 where  Zimri  resided,  and  cap- 
 tured it.  Zimri  set  fire  to  the 
 house  he  occupied,  and  was 
 consumed.  The  Israelites  were 
 then  divided  into  two  parties; 
 but,  afler  a  short  struggle, 
 Omri  prevailed,  and  took  the 
 throne,  which  he  polluted  and 
 disgraced  through  a  reign  of 
 twelveyears.  OmribuiltSama- 
 ria,  which  thereafter  became 
 the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes. 
 ON,  (Gen.  .xli.45,)  or  AVEN, 
 (Ezek.  XXX.  17,)  is  the  same 
 with  Bethshemesh,  or  house  of 
 the  sun,  {.lev.  xliii.  13,)  and 
 was  called  by  the  Greeks  He- 
 liopolis,  or  city  of  the  su7i. 
 These  names  are  given  to  the 
 place,  because  it  was  i  he  prin- 
 cipal seat  of  the  Egyptian 
 worship  of  the  sun.    It  was 
 
 ONE 
 
 I  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the 
 world,  and  was  situated  in 
 Egypt,  in  the  land  of  Goshen, 
 on  the  east  of  the  Nile,  about 
 five  miles  above  modern  Cai- 
 ro. Eighteen  centuries  ago, 
 this  city  was  in  ruins,  when 
 visited  by  Strabo. 
 
 According  to  Josephus,  this 
 city  was  given  to  the  family 
 of  Jacob,  when  they  first  came 
 to  sojourn  in  Egypt ;  and  we 
 know  that  it  was  a  daughter 
 of  the  priest  of  the  temple  si- 
 tuated here  who  was  given  in 
 marriage  to  Joseph.  Here  also, 
 in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
 delphus,  Onias,  a  Jew,  obtain- 
 ed leave  to  erect  a  temple  si- 
 milar to  the  one  at  Jerusalem, 
 which  was  for  a  long  time  fre- 
 quented by  thellellenist  Jews. 
 There  is  an  apparentreference 
 to  it  by  several  of  the  prophets. 
 (See  passages  above  cited.) 
 
 The  ruins  of  this  ancient 
 city  lie  near  the  modern  vi.- 
 lage  Matarea,  about  six  miles 
 from  Cairo,  towards  the  north- 
 east. Nothingnowremainsbut 
 immense  dikes  and  mounds, 
 full  of  pieces  of  marble,  gra- 
 nite, and  pottery,  some  rem- 
 nants of  a  sphinx,  and  an  obe- 
 lisk, still  erect,  of  a  single 
 block  of  granite,  fifty-eight 
 feet  above  ground,  and  co- 
 vered with  hieroglyphics. 
 
 ONESIMUS.  (Col.  iv.  9.)  A 
 servant  of  Philemon,  at  Co- 
 losse,  who,  having  been  guilty 
 of  some  delinquency,  had  fled 
 to  Rome  ;  and,  being  convert- 
 ed under  the  preaching  of 
 Paul,  was  sent  back  to  Phile- 
 mon with  a  most  affectionate 
 letter,  commending  the  peni- 
 tent, not  only  to  the  forgive- 
 ness of  Philemon,  but  to  his 
 love  and  confidence  as  a  fel- 
 lowdisciple.  (SeePniLEMON.) 
 
 ONESIPHOUUS.  (2Tim.L 
 16.)  A  primitive  Christian,  re- 
 sident at  Ephesus,  where  he 
 ministered  very  seasonably  to 
 the  relief  and  comfort  of  Paul. 
 (2  Tim.  i.  18.)  When  Paul  was 
 474 
 
OPH 
 
 Imprisoned  at  Rome,  Onesi- 
 phorus  came  thither,  and  again 
 afforded  timely  relief  to  the 
 afflicted  apostle;  for  which  he 
 expresses  his  gratitude  in  the 
 warmest  terms  in  the  passage 
 above  cited. 
 
 ONION.  (Num.  xi.  5.)  A 
 well  known  garden  vegetable, 
 which  grew  in  great  perfection 
 ia  Egypt.  The  onions  of  Egypt 
 are  described  Dy  travellers  as 
 of  large  size  and  exquisite  fla- 
 vour ;"ditfering  (says  one)  from 
 the  onions  of  our  country  as 
 much  as  a  bad  turnip  differs 
 in  palatableness  from  a  good 
 apple. 
 
 ONO.  (Neh.  vi.  2.)  A  city 
 and  its  suburbs,  occupying  a 
 small  section  of  the  plain  of 
 Sharon.  It  was  about  five 
 miles  from  Lod.  or  Lydda, 
 (1  Chron.  viii.  12.)  and  is  called 
 the  valley  of  Charashhn,  or 
 tfie  craftsmen.  (I  Chron.  iv.  14. 
 Neh.  xi.  35.) 
 
 ONYCHA.  (Ex.  XXX.  34.)  An 
 ingredient  of  the  sacred  in- 
 cense, which  was  prepared 
 under  divine  direction.  It  was 
 probably  an  odoriferous  shell 
 or  gum.  A  species  of  muscle  is 
 still  found  in  the  Red  Sea,  the 
 shell  of  wh-ich,  when  burnt, 
 emits  a  smtU  not  unlike  musk. 
 
 ONYX,  (Ex.  xxviii.  20,)  or 
 banded  agate.  A  precious  stone 
 (Ex.  XXV.  7)  or  gem,  (Ezek. 
 xxviii.  13,)  exhibiting  two  or 
 more  colours  disposed  in  paral- 
 lel bands  or  zones.  It  was 
 obviously  of  hish  value,  from 
 the  uses  made  of  it,  (Ex.  xxviii. 
 9—12.  20;  xxxix.  6.  13,)  and 
 from  its  being  named  with 
 other  highly  valuable  sub- 
 Btances.  (Job  xxviii.  16.)  Per- 
 haps the  onyx  used  in  the 
 construction  of  the  temple 
 (1  Chron.  xxix.  2)  was  a  spe- 
 cies of  marble  resembling  the 
 onyx. 
 
 OPHEL.  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  3.) 
 In  the  angle  formed  by  the 
 eastern   extremity   of  mount 
 
 OPH 
 
 Zion,  and  the  southern  extre- 
 mity of  mount  Moriah,  or,  in 
 other  words,  at  the  outlet  of 
 •.he  valley  of  Cheesemongers, 
 there  was  a  considerably  ele- 
 vated point,  called  Ophel.  It 
 was  strongly  defended  by  its 
 natural  position,  and  by  a  tow- 
 er, and  was  separated  from 
 mount  Zion  by  a  wall .  (2Chron. 
 xxxiii.  14.)  This  lower  is  per- 
 haps intended  in  Blic.  iv.  8. 
 In  some  modern  maps  this  is 
 called  Ophlas. 
 
 OPHIR.  (1  Kings  ix.  23.)  A 
 country  of  the  east,  celebrated 
 for  its  production  of  gold  and 
 precious  stones.  (IKinesx.  11. 
 2  Chron.  viii.  18;  ix.  100  It  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  settled 
 by  the  descendants  of  Joktan. 
 (Gen.  X.  29.)  It  is  certain  that 
 its  gold  was  renowned  in  the 
 timeofjob, (Jobxxii.24;  xxviii. 
 16;)  and  that,  from  the  time 
 of  David  to  the  time  of  Jeho- 
 shaphat,  the  Hebrews  traded 
 with  it,  and  that  Uzziah  re- 
 vived this  trade  when  he  made 
 himself  master  of  Elath,  a 
 noted  port  on  the  Red  Sea.  In 
 Solomon's  time,  the  Hebrew 
 fleet  took  up  three  years  in 
 their  voyage  to  Ophir,  and 
 brought  home  gold,  apes,  pea- 
 cocks, spices,  ivory,  ebony,  and 
 almug  trees. 
 
 The  articles  imported  from 
 this  place,  the  port  from  which 
 the  ships  sailed  engaged  in  the 
 trade,  and  tlie  time  required 
 for  the  performance  of  the  voy- 
 age, all  go  to  prove  that  Ophir 
 could  not  be  anywhere  in  the 
 west  of  Asia,  or  "on  the  conti- 
 nent of  Europe;  and  some  of 
 these  facts  are  also  sufficient  to 
 render  it  entirely  improbable 
 that  it  was  anywhere  on  the 
 coast  of  Arabia,  or  even  any- 
 where on  the  coast  of  Africa. 
 It  seems  far  more  probable 
 that  this  place  was  situated 
 somewhere  in  the  East  Indies ; 
 hut  the  precise  spot,  or  even 
 district,  cannot  now  be  ascer- 
 475 
 
ORI 
 
 tained.  Not  fewer  than  sixteen 
 different  countries  liave  been 
 regarded  as  the  site  of  Ophir. 
 
 OPHNI.  (Josh,  xviii.  24.)  A 
 city  of  Benjamin,  latterly  call- 
 ed Gophna  between  Shechem 
 and  Jerusalem.  It  is  men- 
 tioned by  profane  historians 
 among  the  places  through 
 which  Tespasian  and  Titus 
 ^ssed  in  their  march  of  con- 
 quest. 
 
 OPHRAH,  (Judg.  vi.  11,)  or 
 APHRAH.  (Mic.  f.  10.)  Tliere 
 were  two  cities  of  this  name ; 
 one  in  the  territory  of  Benja- 
 min, (Josh,  xviii.  23.  1  Sam. 
 xiii.  17;)  and  the  other  in  that 
 of  Manasseh,  where  Gideon 
 was  born.  (Judg.  vi.  11 ;  viii. 
 27;  ix.  5.) 
 
 ORACLE,  (2Sam.  xvi.  23.) 
 This  term  is  sometimes  applied 
 to  the  most  holy  place,  whence 
 God  declared  his  will  to  an- 
 cient Israel.  (lKingsvi.5. 19 — 
 23;  viii.  6.)  It  is  also  applied 
 to  the  sacred  writings,  which 
 were  intrusted  to  the  nation 
 of  Israel.  (Acts  vii.  38.  Rom. 
 iii.  2.)  It  is  probable  that  the 
 oracles  of  the  heathen  world 
 were  invented  in  imitation  of 
 the  responses  given  by  Jeho- 
 vah to  the  patriarchs  and 
 priests  of  ancient  days. 
 
 ORDINANCES.  (Ex.  xviii. 
 20.)  As  used  by  the  sacred 
 writers,  the  term  generally  de- 
 notes established  laws,  rules, 
 or  appointments  of  God's  go- 
 vernment. 
 
 OREB.  (Judg.  vii.  25.)  A 
 prince  of  Midian,  whose  fate 
 IS  alluded  to,  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  11 ; 
 and  Isa.  x.  26. 
 
 ORGAN.  (Gen.iv.21.)  The 
 organ,  as  it  is  called,  is  thought 
 to  have  been  what  the  ancient 
 Greeks  called  the  pipe  of  Pan. 
 It  consisted  of  seven  or  more 
 reeds  of  unequal  length.  These 
 are  still  used  by  the  shepherds 
 of  the  east,  and,  in  skilful 
 hands,  produce  quite  tolerable 
 music. 
 ORION.  (Jobix.9.)    A  con- 
 
 OST 
 
 stellation  of  about  eighty  stars, 
 seen  in  the  southern  hemi- 
 sphere about  the  middle  of  No- 
 vember; and  hence  associated 
 w  <h  cold  and  frost,  fi^rative- 
 Ij  .represented  as  bands  which 
 no  human  power  can  dissolve. 
 (Jobxxxviii.  31.) 
 
 ORNAN.    (See  Araunah.) 
 
 OSEE.  (Rom.  ix.  25.)  The 
 Greek  form  of  writing  Hosea. 
 
 OS  PR  AY,  OSSIFRAGE, 
 (Lev.  xi.  13,)  are  both  reckoned 
 among  unclean  birds,  and  pro- 
 bably  both  belonged  to  the 
 eagle  family.  The  black  eagle 
 of  Egypt  might  have  been  the 
 ospray ;  and  the  sea  eagle  of 
 modern  science,  the  ossifrage. 
 
 OSTRICH.  (Job  xxxix.  13.) 
 A  remarkable  bird,  of  the  hot 
 regions  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
 often  attaining  the  height  of 
 seven  feet,  of  which  the  head 
 and  neck  make  three.  It  is 
 also  seven  feet  from  the  head 
 to  the  end  of  the  tail,  when  the 
 neck  is  stretched  horizontally 
 on  a  line  with  the  body.  It 
 loves  solitary  and  desolate 
 places;  and  is  the  bird  intend- 
 ed in  Job  XXX.  29.  Isa.  xiii.  21 ; 
 xxxiv.  13.  Jer.  1.  39,  (though 
 called  the  owl,)  and  its  cry  is 
 piercing  and  mournful. 
 
 The  plumage  of  the  ostrich 
 is  white  and  black.  Its  weight, 
 (which  is  often  seventy-five  or 
 eighty  pounds,)  and  the  con- 
 struction of  its  body,  prevent 
 its  flying. 
 
 The  habits  of  this  bird  are 
 described  with  scientific  accu- 
 racy, Job  xxxix.  13—18.  Its 
 timidity  is  such,  that  the  least 
 noise  frightens  it  from  the 
 nest,  which  is  often  made  on 
 the  ground,  and  in  the  most 
 exposed  places  ;  and  from  the 
 same  cause  the  young  of  the 
 ostrich  are  often  suddenly 
 abandoned.  Hence  she  seems 
 to  be  regarded  as  lacking  the 
 usual  share  of  instinct  or  na- 
 tural  affection.  (Lam.  iv.  3.) 
 A  modern  traveller  tells  us 
 that  the  Arabs  meet  sometimes 
 476 
 
OST 
 
 with  whole  nests  of  these  egsjs, 
 (containing  from  thirty  to  fifty 
 in  number,)  five  inciies  in  di- 
 ameter, and  weighing  several 
 pounds;  some  of  them  are 
 sweet  and  good,  others  are 
 addled  and  corrupted  ;  others, 
 again,  have  their  young  ones 
 of  different  growth,  according 
 to  the  time,  it  may  be  pre- 
 sumed, since  they  have  been 
 forsaken  of  the  dam.  They 
 often  meet  with  a  few  of  the 
 little  ones  no  bigger  Cnan  well- 
 grown  pullets,  naif  starved, 
 straggling  and  moaning  about, 
 like  so  many  distressed  or- 
 phans, for  their  mother.  In 
 this  manner,  the  ostrich  may 
 be  said  to  be  hardened  against 
 her  young  ones,  as  though  they 
 were  not  hei's ;  her  labour,  in 
 hatching  and  attending  them 
 80  far,  being  vain,  without/ear, 
 or  the  least  concern  of  what 
 becomes  of  them  afterwards. 
 
 The  most  remarkable  cha- 
 racteristic of  the  ostrich  is  the 
 rapidity  with  which  it  runs, 
 and  which  the  fleetest  horse 
 cannot  equal.  The  surprising 
 swiftness  of  this  bird  is  ex- 
 pressly mentioned  by  Xeno- 
 phon.  Speaking  of  the  desert 
 of  Arabia,  he  states  that  the 
 ostrich  is  frequently  seen 
 there;  that  none  could  take 
 them,  the  horsemen  who  pur- 
 sue them  soon  giving  it  over; 
 for  they  escaped  far  away, 
 making  use  both  of  their  feet 
 to  run,  and  of  their  wings, 
 when  expanded,  as  a  sail  to 
 waft  them  along.  This  repre- 
 sentation is  confirmed  by  the 
 writer  of  a  voyage  to  Senegal, 
 who  says,  "  bhe  sets  off  at  a 
 hard  gallop;  but.  after  being 
 excited  a  little,  she  expands 
 her  wings  as  if  to  catch  the 
 wind,  and  abandons  herself  to 
 a  speed  so  great,  that  she  seems 
 not  to  touch  the  ground.  I 
 am  persuaded,"  continues  that 
 writer,  "she  w^uld  leave  far 
 behind  the  swiftest  English 
 courser." 
 
 OVE 
 
 The  Persians  call  the  ostrich 
 the  camel-bird.  (See  Peacock. 
 For  a  full  description  of  the 
 ostrich,  and  illustrative  cut, 
 see  Youth's  Friend,  vol.  Iv. 
 pp.  28—30.  See,  also,  Bedouin 
 Arabs,  p.  36,  both  bj  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 OTHNIEL.  (Judg.  i.  13.)  The 
 son  of  Kenaz,  who  displayed 
 his  valour  in  seizin;:  the  city 
 of  Debir,  or  Kirjath-sepher, 
 for  which  exploit  he  was  re- 
 warded by  the  gift  of  the  daugh- 
 ter of  his  uncle,  Caleb,  in 
 marriage.  Afterwards  he  was 
 made  the  instrument  of  de- 
 livering the  Israelites  from 
 the  oppression  of  the  king  of 
 Mesopotamia.  (Judg.  iii.  8, 9.) 
 
 OUCHES  (Ex.  xxxix.  6) 
 were  probably  sockets  for  fast- 
 ening the  precious  stones  into 
 the  shoulder-pieces  of  the  high- 
 priest's  ephod.  These  ouches, 
 with  their  stones,  are  supposed 
 to  have  served  for  buttons  to 
 confine  the  goLlen  chains 
 whereon  the  bieast-plate  was 
 hunsr.    (Ex.  xxviii.  11.  25.) 
 
 OUTER.  (Matt.  viii.  12.) 
 This  word,  when  connected 
 as  it  frequently  is  with  dark- 
 ness, implies  the  uttermost 
 degree  or  very  extreme  of 
 darkness,  both  as  it  respects 
 depth,  or  intensity,  and  dura- 
 tion. 
 
 OVENS.  (Ex.  viii.  3.)  In  the 
 eastern  cities  the  ovens,  at 
 the  present  day,  are  not  mate- 
 rially different  from  our  own. 
 The  more  common  way  of 
 constructing  them  in  the  coun- 
 try, however,  is  to  take  a  jar, 
 or  pot,  of  a  cylindrical  shape, 
 and  after  having  partly  filled 
 it  with  pebbles,  to  apply  heat, 
 and  use  it  for  baking.  The 
 dough  is  plastered  upon  tho 
 outside,  and,  when  baked,  (as 
 it  is  almost  instantly,)  comes 
 off  in  thin  cakes.  All  eastern 
 bread  is  of  this  thin  sort.  The 
 bread  made  in  this  way  is 
 clean  and  white.  The  Bedouin 
 Arabs  use  three  or  four  different 
 477 
 
OWL 
 
 ovena,  the  description  of  which 
 may  throw  some  light  upon 
 the  oven  of  liie  Bible. 
 
 1.  The  sand  or«n.— This  is 
 nothing  more  than  the  sand 
 of  the  earih,  upon  which  a  fire 
 is  made,  until  it  is  sujjposed  to 
 be  sufficiently  heated.  The 
 fuel  and  fire  are  then  cleared 
 away,  and  the  dough  is  laid 
 on  the  hot  sand,  in  fiat  pieces, 
 about  the  thickness  of  a  plate. 
 (Isa.  xliv.  15.  19.)  These  are 
 the  as/i-cakes.  (Gen.  xviii.  6. 
 1  Kings  xvii.  13 ;  xix.  6.  See 
 Cake.) 
 
 2.  The  earth  oven  Is  a  round 
 hole  in  the  earth.  Stones  are 
 first  put  into  this,  and  a  fire  is 
 kindled  upon  them.  When  the 
 stones  have  become  thoroughly 
 hot,  the  fire  is  removed,  and 
 the  dough  spread  in  thin  flakes 
 upon  tiie  heated  stones,  and 
 turned  as  often  as  may  be  ne- 
 cessary. A  modern  traveller 
 tells  us  that  this  kind  of  bread 
 is  left  all  night  in  the  earth 
 ©venj  and  the  ovens  used  in 
 
 OWL 
 
 Persia  are  about  two  and  a 
 half  feet  wide,  and  not  less 
 than  five  or  six  feel  deep.  L© 
 Bruyn  tells  us  that  they  re- 
 semble pits  or  wells,  and  that 
 sheep  are  hung  lengthwise 
 in  them,  and  cooked  whole. 
 These  may  be  what  are  ren 
 der^  in  our  version  ranges 
 for  pofs.    (Lev.  xi.  35.) 
 
 3.  Portable  oven.— T\i\s  is 
 an  earthen  vessel,  without  a 
 bottom,  about  three  feet  high, 
 smeared  outside  and  inside 
 with  clay,  and  placed  upon  a 
 frame,  or  support.  Fire  is  made 
 within  it,  or  below  it.  When 
 the  sides  are  suflSciently  heat- 
 ed,  thin  patches  of  dough  are 
 spread  on  the  inside,  and  the 
 top  is  covered^  without  remov- 
 ing  the  fire  as  in  the  other 
 cases ;  and  the  bread  is  quick- 
 ly baked.  To  this  we  may 
 refer  the  phrase  baken  in  tht 
 oi;e7i.  (Lev.  ii.4.)  The  follow- 
 ing representation  of  it  is  taken 
 from  Niebuhr. 
 
 Convex  plates  of  iron,  paoB 
 
 or  plates,  flat  stones,  &c.  are 
 often  used  for  baking.  (See 
 Bake,  BIIead.) 
 
 OWL.  (Lev.  xi.  16.)  Though 
 the  owl  is  freciuently  men- 
 tioned in  our  Scriptures,  it 
 seldom    if  ever   denotes   the 
 
 bird  known  to  us  by  this  name 
 The  allusions  of  the  sacred 
 writers  are  evidently  to  some 
 bird  that  loves  solitary  and 
 desolate  places.  Some  ver 
 sions  render  the  original  words 
 translated  great  owl  (Lev.  xk 
 478 
 
ox 
 
 17)  the  ibis,  and  the  little  owl 
 in  the  same  passa^  some  kind 
 of  water-bird.  The  screerh 
 otol  (Isa.  xxxlv.  14,  rendered 
 night-vionster  in  the  margin) 
 must,  have  resembled  the  barn 
 owl,  known  to  us  as  the  com- 
 mon screech  or  white  owl.  It 
 haunts  deserted  barns,  and 
 old  and  decayed  buildings; 
 and  in  Europe,  old  towers  and 
 buildings  in  the  vicinity  of 
 churchyards.  By  night  it 
 seeks  its  prey,  and  often 
 makes  a  doleful  and  even 
 frightful  sound,  rendered  more 
 80  by  the  surrounding  still- 
 ness.    (See  Ostrich.) 
 
 OX.  (Isa.  i.  3.)  A  well  known 
 domestic  animal,  clean  by  the 
 Levitical  law,  strong  and  pa- 
 tient of  labour,  of  "great  use 
 
 OX 
 
 in  agricultural  pursuits,  and 
 forming  a  large  item  of  the 
 wealth~of  the  patri.irchs.  (Gen. 
 xxiv.  35;  xxx.  43.  Job  i.  3.) 
 They  were  used  for  ploughing, 
 (Deut.  xxii.  10.  1  Kings  xix.  19. 
 Job  i.  14.  Prov.  xiv,  4.  Isa, 
 XXX.  24;)  for  drawing,  (Num. 
 vii.  3.  7,  8;)  for  threshing 
 or  treading  out  gram,  (Deut. 
 XXV.  4.  1  Cor.  ix^  9,)  and  for 
 fwd.  (I  Kings  xix.  21.  1  Chron. 
 xii.  39,  40.   TVIalt.  xxii.  4.) 
 
 The  wild  ox  is  mentioned 
 Deut.  xiv.  5,  and  the  wild  bull, 
 Isa.  li.  20;  the  former  is  thought 
 to  be  a  species  of  the  stag  or 
 goat ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to 
 doubt  that  the  animal  might 
 be  found  in  a  wild  state' in 
 Judea,  or  some  of  the  moun- 
 tainous districts  in  its  vicinity. 
 
 PAL 
 
 PADANARAM,  (Gen.  xxv. 
 20,)  or  the  plain  of  Syria, 
 one  of  me  Hebrew  names  of 
 Mesopotamia.  (See  Mesopo- 
 tamia.) 
 
 PALESTINA.  (Ex.  xv.  14.) 
 The  country  lying  along  the 
 Mediterranean  coast,  between 
 Joppa  and  Gaza,  was  inhabited 
 by  the  Philistines,  and  was 
 hence  called  Palestina;  but  in 
 the  above  passage,  and  in  tsa. 
 xiv.  29—31,  it  seems  to  denote 
 the  whole  of  Judea,  as  the  word 
 Palestine  does  in  its  modern 
 acceptation. 
 
 PALM  TREES.  (Ex.  xv.  27.) 
 The  palm  tree  abounds  in 
 Arabia,  Egypt,  and  the  whole 
 of  southern  Asia,  from  the 
 Indus  to  the  Nile,  but  is  rare 
 in  Palestine.  Yet,  in  ancient 
 times,  when  the  land  was  peo- 
 
 Rled  with  many  industrious 
 ihabitants,  it  was  very  com- 
 mon. (Lev.  xxiii.  40.  Deut. 
 xxxiv.  3.  Judg.  i.  16;  iii.  13; 
 iv.  5.)  Aacieiit  historians  cor- 
 roborate these  statements,  and 
 inform  us  that  the  resion  of  the 
 Oead  Sea  was  noted  for  the 
 
 PAL 
 
 palm,  of  which  there  were 
 groves  twelve  miles  in  extent. 
 
 The  palm  tree  is  f  mnd  upon 
 ancient  Hebrew  coins,  as  the 
 symbol  of  Judea;  and  Roman 
 coins,  struck  after  the  conquest 
 of  .Tudea,  have  a  palm  with 
 an  inscription  commemorating 
 that  event. 
 
 The  general  figure  and  ap- 
 peanmce  of  this  tree  is  fami- 
 liar to  our  minds,  from  pictures 
 and  descriptions.  It  grows  in 
 sandy  soils,  in  hot  and  dry 
 climates,  but  flourishes  l)est  in 
 the  vicinity  of  strpanis,  and 
 where  it  can  be  watered,  and 
 in  valleys  and  plains,  espe- 
 cially where  the  water  is 
 moderately  salt  or  brackish. 
 It  is  always  ereen,  and  erows 
 to  a  great  hpiehl,  from  sixty  to 
 one  hundred  feet.  Its  straiirht 
 and  slender  trunk  risps  very 
 high  before  it  puts  forth  any 
 branches,  and  its  f  iliase  is  in 
 one  mass  at  the  lop.  (Sol.  Song 
 vii.  7.  Jer.  x  5.)  This  ever- 
 green and  stately  tree  is  the 
 emblem  of  the  riVhiP'.us.  (Pa. 
 i.  3,  and  xcii.  12.)  The  co- 
 479 
 
PAL 
 
 lumns  of  costly  edifices  were 
 sometimes  hewn  in  imitation 
 of  its  trunk,  as  may  be  observed 
 in  some  of  tiie  ruins  of  Egypt. 
 Palm  trees  were  carved  upon 
 
 PAL 
 
 the  doors  of  the  temple.  (IKings 
 vi.  32.  Comp.  Ezek.  xli.  19.) 
 
 Strictly  speaking,  the  palm 
 has  no  branches;  but  at  the 
 summit,  from  forty  to  eighty 
 
PAL 
 
 twigs,  or  leaf-stalks,  spring 
 forth,  which  are  intended  in 
 Neh.  viii.  15.  The  leaves  are 
 Bet  around  the  trunk  in  circles 
 of  about  six.  The  lower  row 
 is  of  great  length,  and  the  vast 
 leaves  bend  themselves  in  a 
 curve  towards  the  earth ;  as 
 the  circles  ascend,  the  leaves 
 are  shorter.  In  the  month  of 
 February,  there  sprout  from 
 between  the  junctures  of  the 
 lower  stalks  and  the  trunk 
 little  scales,  which  develope 
 a  kind  of  bud,  the  germ  of  the 
 coming  fruit.  These  germs 
 are  contained  in  a  thick  and 
 tough  skin,  not  unlike  leather. 
 According  to  the  account  of  a 
 modern  traveller,  a  single  tree 
 ia  Barbary  and  Egypt  bears 
 from  fifteen  to  twenty  large 
 clusters  of  dates,  weighing 
 from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds 
 each.  The  palm  tree  lives 
 more  than  two  hundred  years, 
 aod  is  most  productive  from 
 the  thirtieth  until  the  eightieth 
 year.  The  Arabs  speak  of 
 three  hundred  and  sixty  uses 
 to  which  the  ditfereni  parts 
 of  the  palm  tree  are  applied. 
 
 The  inhabitants  of  Egypt, 
 Arabia,  and  Persia  depend 
 much  on  the  fruit  of  the  palm 
 tree  for  their  subsistence. 
 Camels  feed  on  the  seed,  and 
 the  leaves,  branches,  fibres, 
 and  sap  are  all  very  valuable. 
 
 When  the  dates  are  ripe, 
 they  are  plucked  by  the  hand, 
 or  are  shaken  into  a  net  which 
 ifl  held  below.  The  person 
 who  ascends  the  lofty  trunk  is 
 assisted  by  the  ragged  pro- 
 cesses or  scales  with  which 
 the  body  of  the  tree  is  armed. 
 (For  an  illustrative  engraving 
 of  the  process  of  gathering 
 dates,  see  Hebrew  Customs, 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  pp.  73— 
 7B.)  The  dates  ripen  at  dif- 
 ferent times,  so  that  a  tree  is 
 commonly  ascended  two  or 
 three  times  in  a  season.  When 
 gathered,  they  are  spread  upon 
 mala  in  the  open  air,  and  after 
 41 
 
 PAL 
 
 a  few  days  begin  to  be  used. 
 Some  are  eaten  fresh,  and 
 some  laid  aside  for  future  use. 
 Others  yield  a  rich  syrup, 
 which  being  expressed,  the 
 remaining  mass  is  steeped  in 
 hot  water,  and,  after  being  ma- 
 cerated and  cleansed,  affords 
 a  pleasant  drink.  These  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  syrup  are  the 
 celebrated  date  wine,  which 
 was  greatly  prized  in  ancient 
 times  by  the  Orientals.  Some 
 suppose  it  to  be  the  strong 
 drink  often  named  in  the 
 Scriptures;  but  this  term  ra- 
 ther designates  all  intoxicating 
 liquors  except  wine.  (See 
 Wine.) 
 
 The  shoots,  which  are  an- 
 nually cut  away  from  the  bot- 
 torn  of  the  tree,  and  the  leaves 
 themselves,  are  used  for  mak- 
 ing ropes,  baskets,  sacks,  mats, 
 fans,  nais,  and  sandals.  The 
 Hebrews  were  accustomed  to 
 carry  these  branches  in  the 
 solemn  festivities  of  the  feast 
 of  tabernacles,  and  to  strew 
 them  in  the  way  of  triumphal 
 processions.  Thus  branches 
 were  strewed  in  the  wa^  of 
 Christ,  upon  his  entry  into 
 Jerusalem.  (John  xii.  13.) 
 
 The  branches  of  the  palm 
 were  anciently  used  as  a 
 symbol  of  victory,  and  car- 
 ried before  the  conqueror  in 
 triumphal  processions.  Hence 
 the  force  and  beauty  of  the 
 figure.  Rev.  vii.  9. 
 
 The  word  Tamar,  signify- 
 ing  a  palm,  was  a  common 
 female  name  among  the  He- 
 brews, and  was  derived  from 
 the  tall,  straight,  and  graceful 
 appearance  of  the  tree. 
 
 PALMER- WORM.  (Joel  I. 
 4.)  A  destructive  insect  of  the 
 caterpillar  or  locust  tribe, 
 figuratively  spoken  of  in  these 
 passages,  as  an  instrument 
 employed  to  afflict  the  rebel- 
 lious Jews.  (Amos  iv.  9.) 
 
 PALSY.  (Matt.  iv.  24.)  A 
 disease  which  deprives  the 
 part  affected  of  sensation,  w 
 48i        '■ 
 
PAR 
 
 the  power  tf  motion,  or  both. 
 As  the  term  is  used  in  the 
 New  Testament,  it  imports 
 apoplexy,  or  paralysis  of  the 
 whole  system;  paralysis  of 
 one  side ;  a  paralysis  affecting 
 the  whole  body  below  the  neck, 
 and  a  paralysis  caused  by  a 
 contraction  of  the  muscles, 
 so  that  the  limbs  can  neither 
 be  drawn  up  nor  extended, 
 and"  soon  become  emaciated 
 and  dried  up.  (1  Kings  xiii. 
 4—6.  Matt.  xii.  10—13.  Luke 
 Ti.  6.  John  V.  5—7.) 
 
 A  fearful  disease  called  pal- 
 sy, is  known  in  eastern  coun 
 tries.  The  limbs  remam  im- 
 moveably  fixed  in  the  position 
 in  which  they  were  at  the  time 
 of  the  attack  ;  and  the  suffering 
 is  so  exquisitely  severe,  that 
 death  is  often  occasioned  in  a 
 few  days.  (Matt.  viii.  6.) 
 
 PA3IPHYL1A.  (Acts  xiii. 
 13.)  A  hilly  province  of  Asia 
 Minor,  lying  north  of  the 
 Mediterranean,  between  Ci- 
 licia  and  Lycia.  Perga  was 
 once  its  chief  town,  and  was 
 twice  visited  by  the  apostle 
 Paul. 
 
 PAPER,  PAPER  REEDS. 
 (See  Book.) 
 
 PAPHOS.  (Acts  xiii.  6.)  A 
 celebrated  maritime  city,  lying 
 at  the  western  extremity  of 
 the  island  of  Cyprus,  now 
 called  Baffa.  It  was  the  place 
 where  Barjesus,  or  Elymas 
 the  sorcerer,  was  struck  with 
 blindness ;  and  where  Sergius 
 Paulus  was  convened  to  Chris- 
 tianity.   (See  Cyprus.) 
 
 PARABLE,  (Num.  xxiii.  7,) 
 or  PROVERB,  (John  xvi.  29,)  is 
 aform  of  speech,  i  n  whichsome- 
 ihing  is  presented  to  us  in  lieu 
 of  some  other  thing  which  it 
 resembles,  and  which  we  wish 
 to  illustrate.  (Matt.  xiii.  3—52.) 
 It  is  derived  from  a  Greek 
 word  signifying  to  compare 
 together.  Thus  a  narrative  of 
 events,  either  real  or  supposed, 
 is  made  the  medium  by  which 
 ihe  attention  is  arrested,  of- 
 
 PAR 
 
 fence  is  avoided,  conviction 
 is  secured,  and  important  tnith 
 is  illustrated  and  enforced 
 with  great  power  upon  tne 
 heart  and  conscience.  (Judg. 
 ix.  7—20.  2  Sam.  xii.  1—9 
 2 Kings  xi V.  9.  Eccl.  xii.  1—7.) 
 Our  Saviour's  parables  are 
 remarkable  for  clearness, 
 force,  simplicity,  and  appro- 
 priateness;  and  they  are 
 always  employed  to  convey 
 truths  of  the  first  importance. 
 They  relate  to  daily  objects, 
 (Matt.  XX.  1—14.  Mark  iv. 
 26—29;)  to  domestic  labours, 
 (Matt.  xiii.  33;)  to  common 
 occurrences,  (Lukevii.36 — 50; 
 X.  25—37 ;)  and  to  the  scenery 
 by  which  he  and  his  audience 
 were  surrounded.  (Matt.  xiiL 
 47—50.  Luke  xiii.  6—9.  John 
 iv.  35—38.)  Thus  they  were 
 especially  adapted  to  his  un- 
 learned and  prejudiced  hear- 
 ers, and,  being  easily  appre- 
 hended, the  force  of  them  was 
 insuntly  felt  and  acknow- 
 ledged. 
 
 PARADISE,  auke  xxiii.  43. 
 Rev.  ii.  7.)  This  is  a  word  of 
 Persian  origin,  and  means  a 
 garden,  orchard,  or  other  en 
 closed  place,  filled  with  objectB 
 fitted  to  regale  the  senses. 
 Hence  it  is  used  figuratively 
 for  any  place  of  peculiar  hap- 
 piness, and  particularly  for  the 
 kingdom  of  perfect  happiness 
 which  is  the  abode  of  the  bless- 
 ed beyond  the  grave.  (2  Cor. 
 xii.  4.  See  Eden.) 
 
 PARAN,      WILDERNESS     OF. 
 
 (Gen.  xxi.  21,)  was  situated 
 south  of  Jordan,  and  extended 
 to  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and 
 from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  desert 
 of  Egypt ;  80  that,  in  its  largest 
 sense,  it  included  the  desert* 
 of  Kadesh  and  Zin.  It  was  in 
 this  wilderness  that  Hagar 
 dwelt  with  Ishmael,  and  to  thifl 
 place  David  retired  after  the 
 death  of  Samuel.  (1  Sam.  xxt. 
 1.)  Nearly  all  the  wanderings 
 of  the  children  of  Israel  were 
 in  the  great  and  terrible  wil 
 
PAR 
 
 derness  of  Paran.  (Deut.  i.  19. 
 Comp.  Num.  x.  12,  and  lii.  16.) 
 It  is  now  a  dreary  expanse 
 of  calcareous  soil,  covered  with 
 black  flints. 
 
 Mount  Paran  was  within 
 the  wilderness  of  Paran.  A 
 modern  traveller  represents 
 its  appearance  as  singular 
 and  indescribably  grand.  Its 
 sides  are  formed  of  precipitous 
 rocks,  and  three  sharp-pointed 
 summits  rise  like  towers. 
 When  seen,  as  it  reflects  the 
 rich  beams  of  the  rising  or 
 declining  sun,  the  sublime  de- 
 scription of  the  prophet  forces 
 itself  upon  the  mind.  (Deut. 
 xxxiii.  2.  Hab.  iii.  3.) 
 
 PARCHMENTS.  (2 Tim.  iv. 
 13.)  The  skins  of  beasts  were 
 early  and  extensively  used 
 for  writing.  Herodotus  says 
 that  the  lonians,  who  received 
 the  art  from  the  Phenicians, 
 wrote  upon  sheepskins,  which, 
 he  adds,  the  barbarians  also 
 do,  (B.C.  500.)  Very  slight  pre- 
 paration was  used,  untfl  under 
 Eumenes,  a  "kAngoi  Pergamus, 
 a  mode  of  prepari  ng  fi  ne  parch- 
 ment was  discovered,  whence 
 the  prepared  skins  were  call- 
 ed by  <.he  Latins  pergamena, 
 whichistranslated  parchments. 
 (See  Book.)  The  mode  of 
 preparing  it  is  to  remove  the 
 wool  or  hair  and  every  particle 
 of  flesh  from  the  skin ;  then 
 scrape  it  with  an  iron  instru- 
 ment while  wet,  and  stretch  it 
 light  on  a  frame,  and  then  rub 
 and  smooth  it  with  a  pumice 
 stone ;  after  which  it  is  fit  for 
 writing. 
 
 Vellum  is  prepared  in  nearly 
 the  same  manner,  from  the 
 skins  of  very  young  calves. 
 It  is  much  finer  and  whiter, 
 and  was  formerly  in  common 
 use. 
 
 PARDON.  (Ps.xxv.ll.)  The 
 scriptural  import  of  this  term 
 is  very  imperfectly  indicated 
 by  the  common  acceptation  of 
 it  among  men.  In  the  dispen- 
 sation of  grace,  pardon  is  inse- 
 
 PAR 
 
 parably  connected  with  justifi- 
 cation.  Hence  it  is  spoken  of 
 as  the  eovering  of  sin,  (Ps. 
 Ixxxv.  2,)  the  non-imputation 
 of  it,  (Ps.  xxxii.  2;)  a  blotting 
 out,  (Ps.  li.  1.9.  Isa.  xliii.25;) 
 forgetting  it,  (Heb.  viii.  12;) 
 passing  by  it,  or  removing  it  to 
 an  immeasurable  d  istance  from 
 us.  (Ps.  ciii.  12.  Mic.  vii.  19.) 
 It  is  evident  that  God  only 
 has  power  to  bestow  pardon, 
 (Mark  ii.  7. 10-12 ;)  and  that  it 
 proceeds  from  free,  sovereign 
 grace,  (Eph.  i.  6,7,)  through  the 
 mediation  and  atonement  of 
 Jesus  Christ.  (Heb.  ix.  9—28. 
 1  John  i.  7.) 
 
 Men  are  commissioned  to 
 preach  pardon  and  salvation 
 through  the  blood  of  Christ; 
 but  no  man  can  forgive  sin,  or 
 pretend  to  the  right  and  power 
 of  absolution,  without  direct 
 and  daring  blasphemy. 
 
 PARLOUR.  (See  Dwell- 
 ings.) 
 
 PARTHIANS,  (Acts  ii.  9,)  or 
 the  inhabitants  of  Parthia,  ori- 
 ginally a  province  of  Media, 
 on  its  eastern  side,  situated  be- 
 tween the  Persian  Gulf  and  the 
 Tigris.  TheParthiansseem  to 
 have  resembled  the  Cossacks 
 of  our  day,  and  were  celebrated 
 for  their  skill  in  archery,  and 
 especially  for  shooting  as  they 
 fled,  and  were  a  part  of  the 
 Scythian  horde  who  so  long 
 disputed  with  Rome  for  the 
 dominion  of  the  east.  Parthia 
 was  united  to  the  Persian  em- 
 pire, A.  n.  226.  The  Persian 
 laneuage  was  spoken  there: 
 an(f  incleed  in  Scripture  and 
 other  ancient  writings,  Persia 
 and  Parthia  are  often  used  aa 
 svnonymous. 
 
 '  PARTITION,  MIDDLE  WALL 
 
 OP,  (Eph.  ii.  14,)  is  supposed  to 
 have  reference  to  the  wall  in 
 the  temple  which  separated 
 the  court  of  Israel  fi-om  the 
 court  of  the  Gentiles.  In  this 
 passage  it  is  figuratively  used 
 to  denote  whatever  in  their 
 laws  or  customs  separated  the 
 
PAS 
 
 Jews  from  the  Gentiles,  and 
 rendered  the  former  any  more 
 the  objects  of  divine  favour 
 than  the  latter. 
 
 PARTRIDGE.  (Jer.xvii.ll.) 
 The  bird  commonly  known 
 by  this  name  is  also  known 
 in  the  east.  Travellers  tell 
 us  that  the  Arabs  esteem 
 Iheir  flesh  a  luxury,  and  pur- 
 sue them  until  they  are  weary 
 with  flying,  when  they  kill 
 them  with  the  hand.  The 
 figurative  allusion  in  1  Sam. 
 xxvi.  20,  may  express  the  labo- 
 rious ana  persevering  zeal  with 
 which  Saul  pursued  David; 
 and  in  Jer.  xvii.  11,  reference  is 
 probably  made  to  the  exposure 
 of  the  partridge's  nest,  which 
 is  built  on  the  ground,  and  is 
 exposed  to  be  trampled  on  and 
 destroyed,  and  from  which  she 
 is  also  liable  to  be  driven  sud- 
 denly by  similar  causes. 
 
 PAS-DAMMIM.  (1  Chron.xi. 
 13.)  A  valley  in  the  north- 
 west of  Judah,  the  same  with 
 Ephes-dammim,  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
 1.) 
 
 PASSENGERS,  valley  of 
 THE.  (Ezek.  xxxix.  1 1.)  A  plain 
 on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  at  the 
 southern  extremity  of  the  sea 
 of  Tiberias,  where  there  is  a 
 ford  or  passage  over  the  river. 
 
 PASSION.  (Acts  i.  3.)  The 
 word,inthisconnexion,denotes 
 the  last  sufferings  of  Christ,  or 
 rather  his  death,  as  the  con- 
 summation of  his  sufferings. 
 The  expression  in  Acts  xiv. 
 15,  and  James  v.  17,  signifies 
 like  propensities,  feelings,  and 
 susceptibilities. 
 
 PASSOVER.  (Lev.  xxiii.  5.) 
 A  Jewish  feast,  appointed  to 
 commemorate  the  exemption 
 or  passing  over  of  the  families 
 of  the  Israelites,  when  the  de- 
 stroying angel  smote  the  first- 
 born of  Egypt;  and  also  their 
 departure  from  the  land  of 
 bondage. 
 
 On  the  fourteenth  day  of  the 
 first  month,  (Nisan,)  between 
 ihe  evenings,  the  paasover  was 
 
 PAS 
 
 to  be  celebrated ;  and  on  the 
 fifteenth  day  commenced  the 
 seven  days'  feast  of  unlea- 
 vened bread.  The  term  7)cs»' 
 over  is  strictly  applicable  only 
 to  the  meal  of  the  oaschal 
 lamb,  or  the  fourteenth  day; 
 and  the  feast  of  unleavened 
 bread  was  celebrated  on  the 
 fifteenth  onward,  for  seven 
 days,  to  the  twenty-first,  incite 
 sive.  This  order  is  recognised, 
 Josh.  v.  10, 11.  But,  in  the  sa- 
 cred history,  the  term  passover 
 is  used  to  denote  the  whole 
 period ;  the  fourteenth  day,  and 
 the  festival  of  the  seven  days 
 following.  (Luke  ii. 41.  John  li. 
 13.23;  vi.  4;  xi.  55.) 
 
 This  mode  of  expression  ia 
 recognised  by  Josephus,  the 
 Jewish  historian,  who  uses  the 
 expression,  "the  festival  of 
 unleavened  bread,  which  is 
 called  the  passover."  (Luke 
 xxii.  1.) 
 
 As  to  the  time  of  the  cele- 
 bration  of  the  passover,  it  is 
 expressly  appomted  between 
 the  evenings,  or,  as  it  is  else- 
 where expressed,  at  even,  at 
 the  going  doum  of  the  sun. 
 (Deut.  XVI.  6.)  This  is  supposed 
 to  denote  the  commencement 
 of  the  fourteenth  day  of  Nisan, 
 or  at  the  moment  when  the 
 thirteenth  day  closed,  and  the 
 fourteenth  began.  The  twenty- 
 four  hours,  reckoned  from  this 
 point  of  lime  to  the  same  period 
 of  the  next  day^  or  fourteenth, 
 was  the  day  of  the  passover. 
 At  sunset  of  the  fourteenth 
 day,  the  fifteenth  began ;  and 
 with  it  the  feast  of  unleavened 
 bread.  The  lamb  was  to  be 
 selected  on  the  tenth  day,  by 
 each  individual  or  family,  and 
 kept  up  till  the  fourteenth  day, 
 in  the  evening  of  which  day  it 
 was  to  be  killed.  (Ex.  xii.  3— 
 6.)  Then  fullowed  the  feast  of 
 unleavened  bread,  occupying 
 seven  days ;  the  first  and  last 
 of  which  were  peculiarly  holy, 
 like  the  Sabbath.(Ex.xii. 15,16.) 
 
 The  preparation  of  the  pass 
 
PAS 
 
 over,  (John  xix.  14,)  or  the  day 
 cf  the  preparation,  (Matl.xxvii. 
 62,)  was  the  fourteenth  day,  or 
 the  day  preceding  thefirstdayof 
 unleavened  bread.  At  the  time 
 of  our  Saviour's  passion,  it  so 
 happened  that  the  fifteenth  of 
 the  month,  or  the  first  day  of 
 the  festival,  was  also  the  proper 
 Sabbath.  Hence  we  find,  upon 
 comparing  the  various  histories 
 of  this  event,  and  its  attendant 
 circumstances,  that  at  the  close 
 of  the  thirteenth  day  of  the 
 month,  when  the  feast  of  un- 
 leavened bread,  called  in  the 
 largest  sense,  the  passover, 
 (Luke  xxii.  1,)  approached,  Je- 
 BUS  directed  the  lamb  for  the 
 paschal  sacrifice  to  be  pre- 
 pared for  himself  and  his  dis- 
 ciples. This  being  done  im- 
 mediately after  sunset  of  the 
 ♦.hirteenth,  which  was  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  fourteenth,  the 
 paschal  supper  was  eaten.  After 
 this  supper,  and  in  the  course 
 of  that  night,  Christ  was  arrestr 
 ed,  the  next  morning  was  tried, 
 and  in  the  afternoon  was  cru- 
 cified and  buried.  This  was 
 on  the  eve  of  preparation  for 
 the  Sabbath,  and  also  for  the 
 festival,  (which  fell  on  the 
 same  day,)  towards  the  close 
 of  the  fourteenth.  The  whole 
 series  of  events  occurred  be- 
 tween what  we  should  call 
 Thursday  and  Friday  evening. 
 The  facts  of  chief  import- 
 ance in  reconciling  all  the 
 evangelists  are,  that  the  word 
 passover  is  applied  sometimes 
 strictly  to  the  fourteenth  day, 
 and  at  other  times  to  the 
 whole  festival  of  unleavened 
 bread;  that  the  passover,  or 
 paschal  supper,  strictly  speak- 
 ing, was  celebrated  at  the  be- 
 ginning of  the  fouiteenth  day 
 of  the  month,  or  immediately 
 after  sunset  of  the  thirteenth ; 
 and  that  the  fourteenth,  or 
 Friday  of  passion  week,  hap- 
 pened to  oe  the  day  of  pre- 
 fiaration  for  the  feast  of  un- 
 eavened  bread,  and  also  for 
 41* 
 
 PAS 
 
 the  Sabbath.  (For  a  particular 
 account  of  the  mode  of  cele- 
 bration, see  Feasts.  See  also 
 Biblical  Antiquities,  vol.  ii. 
 ch.  v  i .  §  4 ;  Selumiel,  jip.  72 — 
 82.99;  and  Youth's  Fkibnd, 
 1835,  p.  186-188,  all  by  Am.  S, 
 S.  Union.) 
 PASTOR.  (See  Shepherd.) 
 PASTURE.  (Isa.  xxxii.  14.) 
 This  word  is  used  by  the 
 sacred  writers  chiefly  in  a 
 figurative  sense.  The  places 
 of  pasturage  in  Canaan  were 
 chiefly  those  uninhabited  spots 
 which  are  called  deserts,  or 
 wildernesses,  in  the  sacred 
 writings.  These  were  some- 
 times hilly  range.s,  abounding 
 in  herbage  and  shrubbery; 
 sometimes  sandy  plains,  m 
 which,  here  and  there,  in  moist 
 places,  a  little  green  grass  is 
 found.  These  meagre  spots 
 are  better  for  sheep,  goats, 
 and  camels,  than  rich  mea- 
 dows,  which  are  necessary  for 
 kine. 
 
 These  tracts  belong  to  no 
 persons  in  particular,  but  are 
 commons  which  all  may  use ; 
 though  sometimes  they  are  the 
 property  of  tribes  of  people,  as 
 sucn.  The  whole  land  of 
 Canaan  was  originally  such  a 
 possession,  and  as  such  was 
 occupied  by  Abraham,  Isaac, 
 and  Jacob.  When  the  country- 
 became  settled  by  the  Israel- 
 ites, they  had  particular  pas- 
 turages connected  with  their 
 farms.  Sharon  and  Achor 
 (Isa.  Ixv.  10)  are  named  as 
 affording  good  pasturage  for 
 flocks,  and  Gilead  and  Bashan 
 for  neat  cattle.  (Mic.  vii.  14.) 
 Among  these  widely  scattered 
 and  numerous  pastures,  the 
 shepherds  and  herdsmen  of 
 Palestine  wandered,  as  their 
 descendants  continue  to  do. 
 In  siunmer  they  migrate  north- 
 ward, to  the  hill  country ;  in 
 winter  southward,  to  the 
 plains:  thus  not  only  avoiding 
 the  winter's  cold  and  the  heat 
 of  summer,  but  finding  ample 
 
PAT 
 
 sustenance  for  their  cattle  at 
 both  seasons. 
 
 PATARA.  (Acts  xxi.  1.) 
 A  large,  rich,  seaport  town 
 of  Lycia,  lying  over  against 
 Rhodes,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
 Xanthus,  called  by  Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus,  Arsinoe,  in  ho- 
 nour of  his  queen.  Here  Paul 
 took  ship  for  Phenicia,  when 
 going  from  Philippi  to  Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 PATHROS.  (Isa.  xi.  11. 
 Comp.  Jer.  xliv.  1.  15.  Ezek. 
 xxix.  14— XXX.  14.)  The  The- 
 bais  of  the  Greeks,  and  Said 
 of  the  Arabs,  the  same  with 
 upper  or  southern  Egypt. 
 Some  of  the  Jews  had  with- 
 drawn to  this  region,  and 
 there  given  themselves  up 
 to  idolatry ;  but  Jeremiah  fore- 
 warns them  of  the  tremendous 
 judgments  which  awaited 
 them.  The  Patkrusim,  its 
 inhabitants  and  early  settlers, 
 were  descendants  of  Mizraim. 
 (Gen.  X.  14.) 
 
 PATHRUSIM.  (See  Path- 
 bos.) 
 
 PATMOS.  (Rev.  i.  9.)  An 
 island  in  the  Egean  Sea,  now 
 called  Patimo  cr  Patmosa, 
 situated  near  the  promontory 
 of  Miletus,  between  Samos 
 and  Naxos,  about  twenty  or 
 twenty-five  miles  in  circum- 
 ference. It  was  used  by  the 
 Romans  as  a  place  of  exile 
 for  convicts,  and  is  distin- 
 guished as  the  place  to  which 
 John  the  Evangelist  was  ba- 
 nished by  Domitian,  a.  d.  94. 
 
 Its  soil  is  very  thin  and 
 sterile,  lying  on  a  rugged  rock, 
 probably  of  volcanic  origin. 
 About  a  mile  back  from  the 
 beach  is  a  chapel,  enclosing 
 the  cave  which,  it  is  said,  John 
 occupied  when  writing  the 
 book  of  Revelation  during  bis 
 banishment. 
 
 PATRIARCH.  (Acts  ii.  29.) 
 la  the  early  history  of  the 
 Jews,  we  find  the  ancestor  or 
 father  of  a  family  retaining 
 authority  over   his    children, 
 
 PAU 
 
 and  his  children's  children,  so 
 long  as  he  lived,  whatever 
 new  coHnexions  they  might 
 form.  When  the  father  died, 
 the  branch-families  did  not 
 break  ofi"  and  form  new  com  • 
 munities,  but  usually  united 
 under  another  common  head. 
 The  eldest  son  was  generally 
 invested  with  this  dignity 
 His  authority  was  paternal. 
 He  was  honoured  as  the  cen 
 tral  point  of  connexion,  and 
 as  the  representative  of  the 
 whole  kindred.  Thus  each 
 great  family  had  its  patriarch 
 or  head,  and  each  tribe  its 
 prince  selected  from  the  seve- 
 ral heads  of  the  families  it 
 embraced.  These  princea 
 were  called  elders  of  Israel. 
 (See  Elders.)  The  word  pa- 
 triarch is  also  applied  to  the 
 founder  of  a  family,  or  any 
 illustrious  ancestor.  (Acts  iu 
 29.)  In  later  ages  of  the 
 church,  the  same  title  is  found, 
 but  is  applied  to  ecclesiastical 
 dignitaries,  and  denotes  the 
 supposed  paternal  character 
 of  their  authority.  The  sons 
 of  Jacob,  as  the  progenitors 
 of  the  Jewish  nation,  are 
 called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
 the  twelve  patriarchs.  (Acta 
 vii.  8.) 
 
 PAUL,  or  SAUL,  (Acts  xiii. 
 9,)  was  a  native  of  Tarsus,  In 
 Cilicia,  and  inherited  the  pri- 
 vileges of  a  Roman  citizen- 
 (Acts  xxii.  28,29.)  His  descent 
 and  education  were  wholly 
 Jewish,  and  the  latter  was  of 
 the  highest  order.  Under  the 
 instruction  of  Gamaliel,  a  dis- 
 tinguished Jewish  Rabbi  at 
 Jerusalem,  (Acts  v.  34,)  he  be- 
 came master  of  the  Jewish 
 law,  (Acts  xxii.  3.  Gal.  i.  14;) 
 and  was  also  taught  a  useful 
 mechanical  trade,  according 
 to  the  custom  of  the  nation. 
 (Acts  xviii.  3.)  His  residence 
 at  Jerusalem  commenced  at 
 an  early  period,  (Acts  xxvi.  4,) 
 and  he  was  probably  from 
 t weuty-t wo  to  twenty-five  years 
 
PAU 
 
 old  when  Christ  commenced 
 his  public  ministry.  He  be- 
 longed to  the  sect  of  the  Phari- 
 sees, as  did  also  his  father. 
 (Acts  xxiii.  6.) 
 
 The  preaching  of  the  gospel 
 by  the  apostles,  and  especially 
 tne  fact  of  Christ's  resurrection 
 from  the  dead,  on  which  they 
 placed  their  chief  stress,  ex- 
 cited, of  course,  a  violent  op- 
 position among  the  Jews, 
 which,  before  long,  broke  out 
 in  open  violence.  Stephen, 
 an  eloquent  and  powerful  ad- 
 vocate of  the  new  religion,  was 
 seized  and  stoned  to  death. 
 Among  the  spectators,  and 
 perhaps  promoters,  of  this 
 bloody  deed,  was  Paul;  who, 
 we  may  suppose,  from  the 
 manner  in  which  he  was  re- 
 garded  by  the  murderers,  and, 
 indeed,  from  his  own  confes- 
 sion, w£is  fully  with  them  in 
 \he  act.  (Acts  vii.  58.  Comp. 
 xxii.  20.)  His  temperament, 
 talents,  and  education  fitted 
 him  to  become  a  leader  in  the 
 persecution  of  the  apostles 
 and  their  adherents ;  and  he 
 commenced  his  career  with  a 
 degree  of  zeal  bordering  on 
 madness.  He  even  sought  for 
 authority  to  go  to  Damascus, 
 whither  many  of  the  disciples 
 had  fled  after  the  murder  of 
 Stephen,  and  bind  and  drag 
 to  Jerusalem,  without  distinc- 
 tion of  age  or  sex,  all  the  fol- 
 lowers of  Christ  whom  he  could 
 find.  Just  before  he  reached 
 Damascus,  however,  he  was 
 arrested  by  a  miraculous  light, 
 8o  intense  as  to  deprive  him 
 of  sight.  (Acts  xxii.  11.)  At 
 the  same  time  Christ  revealed 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Riul's  conversion,  (Actsix.  21st  year 
 of  Tiberius) 36 
 
 He  go«  into  Arabia,  (see  Arabia,) 
 and  returns  to  Damascus,  (Gal.  i. 
 17 ;)  at  the  end  of  three  years  in 
 all,  he  escapes  from  Damascus  and 
 goes  to  Jerusalem.  (Acts  ix.  23,  kc.)  39 
 
 From  Jerusalem  Paul  goes  to  Cilicia 
 and  Syria.  (Acts  ix.  30.  Gal.  i.  21.) 
 From  Antioch  be  it  sent  with  Bar- 
 
 1  AO 
 
 himself  as  the  real  object  of 
 his  persecution.  (Actsxxvi.  15, 
 Comp.  ICor.  xv.  8.)  From 
 this  time  he  became  a  new 
 man,  and  received  from  the 
 lips  of  Christ  himself  his  com- 
 mission as  an  apostle  to  the 
 Gentiles.  (Actsxxvi.  16.)  The 
 miraculous  restoration  of  his 
 sight,  his  baptism,  and  the 
 gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  fol- 
 lowed in  quick  succession ;  and 
 we  soon  find  him  zealously 
 preaching  the  faith  he  had  set 
 out  to  subvert.  (Acts  ix.  20, 21. 
 Gal.  i.  16.)  To  this  one  pur- 
 pose he  thenceforth  gave  all 
 the  energies  of  his  mind  and 
 all  the  affections  of  his  heart. 
 Forsaking,  and  indeed  forget- 
 ting, all  other  purposes  and 
 pursuits,  he  seems  to  have 
 resolved  to  crowd  into  the 
 residue  of  his  life  whatever  he 
 could  do  to  repair  the  injury 
 he  had  done  to  the  cause  of 
 Christ,  and  to  show  his  strong 
 and  exclusive  attachment  to 
 the  interests  of  his  kingdom. 
 The  miracles  he  wrought ;  the 
 churches  he  gathered ;  his  ser- 
 mons, orations,  and  letters; 
 the  extent  and  success  of  his 
 missionary  tours;  the  visions 
 and  revelations  with  which 
 he  was  favoured,  and  the  final 
 attestation  which  it  is  gene- 
 rally supposed  he  gave  to  the 
 faith  he  had  preached,  by  the 
 suffering  ofmartyrdom,  (2  Tim. 
 iv.  6,  7,)  all  place  him  among 
 the  very  chief  of  the  apostles. 
 The  following  chronological 
 arrangement  will  enable  the 
 student  to  connect  the  prin- 
 cipal events  in  the  life  of 
 Paul. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 nabas  to  Jerusalem  to  carry  alms. 
 (Acts  li.  30.) 4i 
 
 The  first  missionary  journey  of  Paul 
 and  Barnabas  from  Antioch,  con- 
 tinued about  two  years,  (Acts  xiii. 
 xiv.,)  commencin? 4S 
 
 After  spendin?  several  years  in  Anti- 
 och, (Acts  xiv.  28,)  Paul  and  Bar- 
 nabas  are  sent  a  second  time  to  Je- 
 rusalem, to  consult  the  apostles  re- 
 487 
 
PAU 
 
 AD. 
 
 gpecting  circumcision,  &c.  (Acts 
 XV.  2.) 5Q 
 
 The  Jews  expelled  from  Rome,  A.  D. 
 52 — 64  ;  Paul,  on  bis  second  mis- 
 sionary journey,  (Acts  xv.  40,) 
 after  passing  thr>ugh  Asia  Minor 
 to  Europe,  finds  Aquila  and  Pris- 
 cilia  at  Corinth.  (Acts  xviii.  2.)    .  54 
 
 Paul  remains  eighteen  months  in 
 Corinth.  (Acts  xviii.  II.)  After 
 being  brought  before  Gallio,  he 
 departs  for  Jerusalem  the  fourth 
 time,  and  then  goes  to  Antiocb. 
 (Acts  xviii.  22.) 56 
 
 The  apostle  winters  at  Nicopolis, 
 (Tit.  iii.  12.)  and  then  goes  to 
 Ephesus.  (Acts  xix.  1.)  .    .    .    .57 
 
 The  places  visited  by  the 
 aposlle,  in  his  various  jour- 
 neys, are  presented  at  one 
 view  in  the  following  sketch. 
 
 After  he  was  recognised  as 
 a  disciple  by  the  brethren  at 
 Jerusalem,  he  became  so  bold 
 an  advocate  for  the  tnith,  as 
 to  excite  the  anger  of  the  Gre- 
 cians, who  were  taking  mea- 
 Bures  to  slay  him.  This  led 
 to  h\s  first  journey  from  Jeru- 
 salem, in  the  course  of  which 
 he  visited  Cesarea,  Tarsus, 
 (where  he  continued  four 
 years,)  Antioch  in  Syria, 
 (where  he  tarried  one  year^) 
 thence  to  Jerusalem. 
 
 Second  journey. — From  Je- 
 rusalem to  Antioch,  Seleucia, 
 Salamis,  and  Paphos  in  the 
 island  of  Cyprus,  Perga,  An- 
 tioch in  Pisidia,  Iconium, 
 Lystra,  Derbe,  Pisidia,  Pam- 
 phylia,  Perga,  Attalia,  Antioch 
 in  Syria,  Phenice,  Samaria, 
 and  thence  to  Jerusalem. 
 
 Third  journey.— From  Jeru- 
 salem to  Antioch,  Syria,  Cili- 
 cia,  Derbe,  Lystra,  Phrygia, 
 Galatia,  Mysia,  Troas,  (where 
 he  was  joined  by  Luke,)  Sa- 
 mothracia,  Neapolis,  Phiiippi, 
 Amphipolis,  ApoUonia,  Thes- 
 salonica,  Berea,  Athens,  Co- 
 rinth, Cenchrea,  Ephesus,  Ce- 
 sarea, and  thence  to  Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Fourth  journey.— From  Je- 
 rusalem to  Antioch,  Galatia, 
 Phrygia,  Ephesus,  Macedonia, 
 
 PAU 
 
 A.9. 
 
 After  a  residence  of  two  years  or 
 more  at  Ephesus,  Paul  departs  for 
 Macedonia.  (Acts  xi.  1.)     .    .    .59 
 
 After  wintering  in  Achaia,  Paul 
 goes  the  fifth  time  to  Jerusalem, 
 nhere  be  is  imprisoned.  (Acts 
 XX.  xxi.) GB 
 
 The  apostle  remains  two  years  in 
 prison  at  Cesarea,  and  is  then 
 sent  to  Rome,  where  he  arrives 
 in  the  spring,  after  wintering-  in 
 Malta.  (Acts  xxiv.  27:  xxv. — 
 xxviii.) 63 
 
 The  history  in  Acts  concludes,  and 
 Paul  is  supposed  to  have  been  set 
 at  liberty 65 
 
 Probable  martyrdom 65 
 
 Greece,  Philippi,  Troas,  Assos, 
 Mitylene,  Chios,  Samos,  Tro- 
 eyll  ium,  Miletus,  Coos,  Rhodes, 
 Patara,  Tyre,  Ptolemais,  Cesa- 
 rea, and  thence  to  Jerusalem. 
 
 Fifth  journey.— From  Jeru- 
 salem to  Antipatris,  Cesarea, 
 Sidon,  Myra,  Fair  Haven, 
 Melita,  Syracuse,  Rhegium, 
 Puteoli,  Appii  Forum,  Three 
 Taverns,  Rome,  where  the 
 narrative  in  the  Acts  ends. 
 
 Probable  journeys  from  his 
 first  to  his  second  imprison- 
 ment in  iZcwic.— Spain,France, 
 Britain,  Jerusalem,  Antioch  in 
 Syria,  Colosse,  Ephesus,  Phi- 
 lippi, Corinth,  Troas,  Miletus, 
 Rome,  where  he  suffered  mar- 
 tyrdom. (For  a  full  and  com- 
 plete biography  of  the  apostle 
 Paul,  with  a  map  of  his  tra 
 vels,  see  Life  of  Paul,  Union 
 Questions,  vol.  v.,  and  Help 
 TO  THE  Acts,  parts  i.  and  ii., 
 see  also  a  large  outline  map 
 of  Paul's  travels,  drawn  on 
 muslin;  all  by  Am.  S.S.Union.) 
 
 Epistles  of.  These  are 
 fourteen  in  number,  and  are 
 unquestionably  among  the 
 most  important  of  the  primi- 
 tive documents  of  the  Chris- 
 tian  religion,  even  apart  from 
 their  inspired  character.  Al- 
 though tney  have  reference 
 often  to  transient  circum- 
 stances and  temporary  relji- 
 tions,  yet  they  everywhere 
 bear  the  stamp  of  the  great 
 and  original  mmd  of  the  apos- 
 488 
 
PAD 
 
 PAU 
 
 llBP|^ll|-3^iri.|5|i»lll|l 
 
PEA 
 
 tie,  as  purified,  elevated,  and 
 sustained  by  llie  influences 
 of  the  Holy  Spirit.  (For  the 
 order  in  which  these  letters 
 were  written,  and  the  date 
 of  them,  see  Epistles.) 
 
 PAVEMENT.  (John  xix.  13.) 
 An  area  in  Pilate's  court-room, 
 the  floor  of  which  was  paved 
 with  marble  or  other  stones. 
 (Esth.  i.  6.) 
 
 PAVILION.  (Jer.  xliii.  10.) 
 A  small  moveable  tabernacle 
 or  tent,  chiefly  used  for  a  king, 
 prince,  or  "eneral.  (1  Kings 
 XX.  12.  16.)  Jahn  thinks  it  was 
 the  cloth  used  for  Jewish  meals, 
 and  which,  when  done  with, 
 was  drawn  up  by  a  cord,  like 
 a  wine  skin  or  bottle,  and  hung 
 upon  a  nail. 
 
 The  psalmist  sublimely  de- 
 Bcribes  Jehovah  as  surrounding 
 himself  with  dark  waters,  and 
 thick  clouds  of  the  skies,  as 
 with  a  tent  or  pavilion.  (Ps. 
 xviii.  11.) 
 
 PEACOCKS.  (IKings  x.  22.) 
 This  singular  and  beautiful 
 bird  is  mentioned  among  the 
 articles  imported  by  Solomon, 
 though  some  suppose  the  origi- 
 nal word  might  be  more  pro- 
 perly rendered  parrots.  In  Job 
 aacxix.  13,  also,  the  word  pea- 
 cocks would  be  better  rendered 
 ostriches,  and  the  word  ostrich 
 should  be  translated  (as  it  is 
 elsewhere)  stork.  The  wings 
 of  the  ostrich  cannot  raise  it 
 from  the  ground ;  yet,  in  run- 
 ning, it  catches  (or,  as  the 
 word  rendered  goodly  imports, 
 drinks  in)  the  wind.  The 
 construction  of  the  ostrich  and 
 the  stork  are  thus  contrasted, 
 as  are  also  their  habits ;  for  the 
 stork  is  as  proverbial  for  her 
 tenderness  to  her  young,  as 
 the  ostrich  for  her  seeming 
 indifference.  (Job  xxxix.  14— 
 16.  See  Ostrich.  See,  also, 
 for  description  and  engravings. 
 Youth's  Friend  for  June,  1829, 
 and  Natural  History  of  Bi- 
 ble, art.  Peacock,  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 PEA 
 
 PEARLS  (Matt.  xiii.  45,  46) 
 are  produced  by  a  shell-fish 
 of  the  oyster  species.  It  is  a 
 malady  of  the  animal,  which 
 completely  developes  itself  in 
 seven  years.  If  not  secured 
 at  or  about  the  end  of  that 
 period,  the  animal  dies,  and 
 the  pearl  is  lost.  The  pearl 
 oysters  are  found  in  clusters 
 on  rocks,  (hence  called  pearl 
 banks,)  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  on 
 the  western  coast  of  Ceylon, 
 and  on  the  coasts  of  Java, 
 Sumatra,  &c.,  and  in  some 
 parts  of  Europe.  The  shells 
 are  obtained  by  diving,  and 
 this  is  done  by  a  class  of  per- 
 sons  trained  to  the  business. 
 The  Ceylon  pearl-fishery  bank 
 is  about  fifteen  miles  from  the 
 shore,  and  seventy-two  feet 
 deep  on  an  avere^e.  The 
 fishery  begins  in  April,  when 
 the  sea  is  most  calm,  and  con- 
 tinues five  or  six  weeks.  One 
 shell  contains  from  eight  to 
 twelve  pearls.  The  largest 
 are  of  the  size  of  a  walnut, 
 but  they  are  rarely  as  large 
 as  a  cherry-stone.  The  shells 
 of  the  pearl  oyster,  or,  more 
 properly,  the  interior  coat,  is 
 called  another  of  pearl.  A  sin- 
 gle pearl  has  been  valued  at 
 «350,000. 
 
 In  our  version  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  this  word  occurs 
 only  in  Job  xxviii.  18.  In  Prov. 
 iii.  15;  viii.  11;  xx.  15;  xxxi. 
 10.  Lam.  iv.  7,  the  word  trans- 
 lated  rubies  some  suppose 
 means  coral,  but  it  probably 
 means  pearls ;  and  in  the  pas- 
 sage last  cited,  reference  is 
 probably  had  to  the  beautiful 
 red  blush  of  some  species  of 
 the  pearl. 
 
 Pearls  were  anciently  used 
 in  the  east  as  personal  orna- 
 ments, (1  Tim.  ii.  9.  Rev.  xvii. 
 4;  xviii.  12.  16,)  and  are  so 
 used  now.  From  the  various 
 illustrations  in  which  the  pearl 
 is  introduced,  it  was  evidently 
 regarded  as  among  the  most 
 precious    substances.     (Matt. 
 
PEN 
 vii.  6;  xiii.  45,  46.   Rev.  xxi. 
 «1.) 
 
 PEKAH.  (2  Kings  xv.  25.) 
 A  general  of  the  Israel  itish 
 army.  He  assassinated  the 
 king  Pekahiah  in  his  palace, 
 and  usurped  the  government. 
 His  reign,  which  lasted  twenty 
 years,  was  highly  inauspicious ; 
 the  country  was  invaded  and 
 greatly  harassed  by  the  Assy- 
 rians, and  Pekah  himself  was 
 the  victim  of  a  conspiracy. 
 
 PEKAHIAH.    (See  Pekah.) 
 
 PELATIAH  (Ezek.  xi.  1) 
 was  one  of  the  five-and-twenty 
 men  who  withstood  the  pro- 
 phet, and  counselled  the  peo- 
 ple of  Israel  wickedly.  He 
 was  suddenly  struck  dead, 
 while  the  prophet  was  utter- 
 ing his  prediction.  (Ezek.  xi. 
 13.) 
 
 PELETHITES.    («ee  Che- 
 
 RBTHIMS.) 
 
 PELICAN.  (Deut.  xiv.  17.) 
 A  voracious  water  bird,  unclean 
 by  the  Levitical  law,  (Lev.  xi. 
 18,)  of  singular  construction 
 and  habits,  resembling  the 
 goose,  though  nearly  twice  as 
 large.  Its  bill  is  fifteen  inches 
 long.  The  female  has  a  large 
 pouch,  or  bag,  capable  of  con- 
 taining two  or  tnree  gallons 
 of  water,  and  food  enough  for 
 six  common  men.  Out  of  this 
 pouch  she  feeds  herself  and 
 ner  young,  whence  the  vulgar 
 notion  that  she  feeds  them  on 
 her  own  blood.  It  is  classed 
 with  the  bittern,  and  other 
 birds  who  delight  in  solitary 
 and  desolate  places,  and  its 
 cry  is  harsh  and  melancholy, 
 (Job  XXX.  29.  Ps.  cii.  6.  Isa. 
 xxxiv.  II.  Zeph.  ii.  14;)  in 
 some  of  which  passages  the 
 same  word  is  translated  owl, 
 cormorant,  or  bittern,  which, 
 In  others,  is  translated  pelican. 
 (For  description  and  engrav- 
 Inc,  see  Youth's  Fkiend  for 
 July,  1829,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 PEN.  (Judg.  V.  14.)  The  in- 
 struments with  which  the  cha- 
 raciers   were  formed   in   the 
 
 PEN 
 
 writing  of  the  ancients,  varied 
 with  the  materials  upon  which 
 the  letters  were  to  be  traced. 
 (1.)  Upon  hard  substances,  such 
 as  stone  or  metallic  plates,  a 
 graver  of  steel  was  used,  the 
 same  which  Job  calls  an  iron 
 pen.  It  is  possible  that  an 
 mstrument  pointed  with  dia- 
 mond, such  as  glaziers  now 
 use,  was  not  unknown,  as  the 
 sin  of  Juduh  is  written  with 
 a  pen  of  iron,  arid  with  a  point 
 of  a  diamo7id ;  it  is  graven 
 upon  the  table  of  their  heart, 
 and  upon  the  norns  of  your 
 altars.  (Jer.  xvii.  1.)  Pliny 
 gives  an  account  of  such  an  in- 
 strument as  having  been  long 
 in  use.  (2.)  Upon  tablets  of  wax 
 a  metallic  pen  or  stylus  was 
 employed,  having  one  end 
 pointed  to  trace  the  letters, 
 the  other  broad  and  flat,  to 
 erase  any  erroneous  marks  by 
 smoothing  the  wax.  We  have 
 seen  a  copper  style,  several 
 inches  in  length,  now  used  by 
 the  natives  of  Ceylon  in  writing 
 upon  the  leaves  of  trees. 
 
 Upon  paper,  linen,  cotton, 
 skins,  and  parchments,  it  was 
 in  very  early  times  common 
 to  paint  the  letters  with  a  hair 
 pencil,  brought  to  a  fine  point, 
 as  the  Chinese  do  at  this  day. 
 Afterwards,  however,  the  reed 
 penwas  introduced,  which  vAa 
 at  first  used  without  being  split 
 at  the  point.  The  reed  pen  is 
 used  by  the  modern  Turks,  Sy- 
 rians,  Persians,  Abyssinians, 
 Arabs,  and  other  orientals,  as 
 their  languages  could  not  be 
 written  without  difficulty  with 
 pens  made,  like  ours,  from 
 quills.  A  particular  kind  of 
 knife  is  used  to  split  the  reed, 
 (Jer.  xxxvi.  23.    See  Book.) 
 
 PENIELj  (Gen.  xxxii.  30,) 
 or  PENUEL.  (Judg.  viii.  9!) 
 The  Dlace  at  the  ford  of  the 
 Jabbok,  east  of  Jonian,  where 
 Jacob  wrestled  with  the  angel 
 on  his  return  from  Mesopo. 
 tamia.  There  was  a  town 
 built  here,  the  tower  of  which 
 
PER 
 
 was  beaten  down  by  Gideon. 
 t,»udg.  viii.  17.)  Jeroboam  re- 
 built and  fortified  the  place. 
 (1  KinffS  xii.  25.) 
 
 PENNY.    (See  Measures, 
 &c.) 
 PENTECOST.  (See  Feast.) 
 PENUEL.    (See  Peniel.) 
 PEOR,  MOUNT.  (Num.  xxiii. 
 28.)    A  rise  of  ground  east  of 
 the  Jordan,  and  part  of  the 
 same   chain  with    Nebo  and 
 Pisgah.    It  is  supjxysed  to  have 
 been  the  site  of  an  idol  tem- 
 ple.   (Num.  XXV.  3.   Deut.  iv. 
 §.  46.) 
 
 PERAZIM,  MOUNT.  (See 
 Baal-perazim.) 
 PEREZ.  (See  Mene.) 
 PERFECTION.  (Ps.  1.  2.) 
 That  which  is  entire  and  com- 
 plete in  all  its  parts,  without 
 defectjblemish, or  redundancy, 
 is  called  perfect.  The  word 
 perfection  is  used  in  various 
 senses,  which  can  generally 
 be  determined  by  the  subject 
 and  connexion.  The  most  de- 
 sirable things  in  the  view 
 of  worldly  men,  are  honour, 
 wealth,  pleasure,  learning ; 
 and  to  see  an  end  of  these,  is 
 to  see  how  insufficient  any 
 thing  but  God  himself  is,  to 
 satisfy  an  immortal  soul,  (Ps. 
 cxix.  96.)  The  word  also  means 
 the  more  mysterious  principles 
 of  the  Christian  faith,  (Heb.  vi. 
 1,)  or  the  full  measure  and  de- 
 #  gree  of  excellence,  holiness, 
 
 or  happi  ness.  (2  Cor.  xiii.  9.) 
 PERGA.  (See  Pamphylia.) 
 PERGAMOS,  (Rev.  i.  11,) 
 now  Bergamo.  A  city  of  the 
 province  of  Troas,  in  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, about  sixty  miles  north 
 of  Smyrna.  Here  was  one 
 of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia 
 addressed  by  John,  from  whose 
 language  we  infer  that  the  city 
 was  infested  by  false  teach- 
 ers, who  grossly  corrupted 
 the  people,  and  led  tnem 
 into  many  abominable  errors. 
 There  are  still  to  be  seen  evi- 
 dences of  the  former  magni- 
 ficence of  this  place,  such  as 
 
 PER 
 
 granite  walls  and  marine  co- 
 lumns, and  the  ruins  of  what 
 is  said  to  have  been  the  tem- 
 ple of  Esculapius. 
 
 The  population  of  the  mo- 
 dern city  is  variously  estimat- 
 ed from  15,000  to  30,000,  and 
 among  them  3000  nominal 
 Christians.  It  was  the  birth 
 place  of  Galen.  There  was 
 once  at  Pergamos  a  royal  li- 
 brary, containing  200,000  vo- 
 lumes,  which  were  added  by 
 Cleopatra  to  the  Alexandrian 
 library.  It  is  said  that  perga- 
 mentum,  the  Latin  word  for 
 parchment,  is  derived  from 
 this  place.  (See  Parchment.) 
 Pergamos  was  visited  by 
 INlessrs.  Fisk  and  Parsons, 
 American  missionaries,  in  No- 
 vember, 1820.  The  people  of 
 the  place  pretend  to  show  the 
 very  church  where  the  disci- 
 ples assembled,  to  whom  John's 
 message  wais  addressed,  (Rev. 
 ii.  12,)  and  also  the  tomb  of 
 Antipas.  (Rev.  ii.  13.) 
 
 PERIZZITES,  (Gen.  xxxiv*. 
 30,)  sisnifying  lowlanders,  in- 
 habitalits  of  the  plain,  or  of 
 unwalled  villages:  a  tribe  of 
 the  Canaanites,  or  a  people 
 mingled  with  them,  and  scat- 
 tered over  the  land.  (Gen.  xiiL 
 7.  Josh.  xvii.  15.  Judg.  iii.  5. 
 1  Kings  ix.  20.  2  Chron.  viii.  7. 
 Ezra  IX.  1.) 
 
 PERSIA.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  10.) 
 An  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia, 
 whose  limits  have  varied  con- 
 siderably at  different  periods. 
 The  kingdom  as  such  was 
 founded  by  Cyrus,  its  inhabit- 
 ants  having  been  anciently 
 called  Elamites,  from  therr 
 ancestor  Elam  the  son  of 
 Shem.  and  in  later  limes 
 Parthians.  The  thrones  of 
 Media  and  Persia  were  united 
 under  Cyrus,  b.  c.  536,  (comp. 
 Dan.  vi.  8.  12;)  and  indeed  the 
 whole  country,  from  Egypt  to 
 the  Ganges,  became  incop- 
 porated  in  what  was  called 
 the  Persian  empire. 
 
 This  empire  was  overthrowa 
 492 
 
PES 
 
 by  Alexander's  invasion,  and 
 m  the  seventh  century  fell 
 into  the  power  of  the  Saracens, 
 subject  to  the  caliphs  of  Bag- 
 dad, until  the  middle  of  the 
 thirteenth  century,  when  it 
 was  taken  by  Gengis  Khan, 
 and  in  the  close  of  the  four- 
 teenth by  Timour,  or  Tamer- 
 lane. 
 
 Modern  Persia  is  bounded 
 north  by  Georgia,  the  Caspian 
 Sea,  and  Tariary,  east  by  Af- 
 ghanistan and  Beloochistan, 
 South  by  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
 straits  of  Ormus,  and  west  by 
 Turkey.  But  thedistrict  known 
 lo  the  Hebrews  as  Persia  is  the 
 modern  Farsesian,  bounded  by 
 Irak-Adjemi  on  the  north,  Ker- 
 man  on  the  east,  Saristan  and 
 the  gulf  on  the  south,  and 
 Khusistan  on  the  west;  and  is 
 about  equal  in  extent  loFran'-e. 
 
 For  some  time,  tlie  Persians 
 have  been  governed  by  their 
 dwn  kings;  and  no  country  has 
 ever  been  the  theatre  of  more 
 crusliy  and  confusion;  Ijul 
 still  it  has,  as  a  counti7,  re- 
 tained its  name  and  integrity  ; 
 and  modern  travellers  are  of 
 opinion,  that  the  manners  de- 
 scribed in  the  Bible  are  no- 
 where upon  earth  so  perfectly 
 retained  as  in  Persia,  of  which 
 they  give  many  illustrations. 
 
 An  interesting  American 
 mission  is  now  in  successful 
 progress  in  Persia.  The  trans- 
 lation of  the  Bible  into  the 
 language  cf  the  Nestorians 
 has  been  commenced,  and 
 schools  have  been  opened 
 with  flatterins  prospects. 
 
 PESTILENCE,  (Jer.  xxi.  G,) 
 or  plague,  expresses  all  sorts 
 of  distempers  and  calamities. 
 The  Hebrew  word,  which  pro- 
 perly signifies  the  plague,  is 
 applied  to  all  epidemical  and 
 eontagious  diseases. 
 
 Pestilences    are    still    very 
 
 common  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
 
 It  is  supposed  to  have  been  by 
 
 a  species  of  pestilence  that  the 
 
 42 
 
 PET 
 
 firstborn  of  Egypt  were  cut 
 off.  (Ps.  lxxviii.00,51.) 
 
 h.  pestilent  fellow  is  one  who 
 is  n)ischievous,  and  disposed 
 to  corrupt  and  ruin  a  multi- 
 tude. (Acts  xxi  v.  5.) 
 
 PETER,  (John  i.  40,)  the  son 
 of  Jonas,  or  Jona,  and  brother 
 of  Andrew,  was  a  native  of 
 Bethsaida.  His  original  name 
 was  Simon,  or  Simeon.  The 
 name  Cephas  (a  Syriac  word 
 signifying  a  rock, and  in  Latin 
 Petra,  translated  Peter)  was 
 given  him  when  he  was  called 
 to  the  aposlleship.  (John  i.  ^ 
 Comp.  Matt.  xvi.  18.)  He  had 
 a  family  resident  at  Caper- 
 naum, (i\Ialt.  viii.  14.  Mark  L 
 29.  Luke  iv.  38,)  and  was  by 
 occupation  a  fisherman.  (Luke 
 V.  1—3.)  The  religious  life 
 of  this  apostle^  from  its  con> 
 mencement  to  its  close,  is  filled 
 with  the  most  interesting  inci- 
 dents. He  was  with  Christ 
 during  his  ministry,  probably, 
 more  than  any  other  man- 
 He  was  the  most  decided  and 
 forward  of  tiie  disciples,  fol- 
 lowed his  Divine  Master  in 
 his  most  eventful  journeys, 
 and  was  with  him  when  he 
 performed  his  most  wonderful 
 miracles;  and  though  he  fell 
 into  some  dreadful'  sins,  he 
 probably  did  more  to  extend 
 the  religion  of  the  Redeemer 
 than  al  most  any  other  man  thai 
 ever  lived. 
 
 From  the  beginning  to  the 
 end  of  his  illustrious  course, 
 we  are  struck  with  Peter's  fear- 
 lessness and  simplicity ;  his 
 strong  faith  and  ardent  love; 
 the  promptness  and  decision 
 with  which  he  carried  out  his 
 Master's  instructions;  and  the 
 distinguished  regard  in  which 
 he  was  held  by  his  fellow 
 apostles. 
 
 That  Peter  was  too  forward 
 and  positive  in  his  professions 
 of  attachment  to  Christ  may 
 be  admitted,  without  any  ira 
 peachment  of  his  motives,  or 
 493 
 
PET 
 
 doubt  of  his  sincerity.  Cer- 
 tainly, we  see  nothing  in  him 
 like  cunning  or  hypocrisy.  ! 
 The  general  impression  made  j 
 on  the  mind  of  a  superficial 
 reader  of  the  Bible  respecting 
 Peter's  character,  might,  how-  i 
 ever,  be  unfavourable ;  and, 
 besides  this  general  impression 
 against  him,  wliich  is  confirm- 
 ed and  strengthened  by  the 
 frequent  and  severe  reproofs 
 he  received  from  the  lips  of 
 Christ,  ihere  is  the  one  deep 
 and  aggravated  sin  of  denying 
 him.  Peter  was  alone  in  de- 
 nying his  Master ;  but  he  was 
 not  alone  in  forsaking  and 
 fleeing  from  him.  Then  all 
 the  disciples  forsook  him,  and 
 Jled,  is  the  mournful  record 
 of  inspiration.  The  fulness  of 
 Peter's  forgiveness  exceeded, 
 immeasurably,  all  the  guilt 
 and  aggravation  of  his  sin; 
 and  the  history  of  his  life  and 
 apostleship  is,  of  itself,  an  eter- 
 nal monument  of  the  purity, 
 consistency,  and  elevation  of 
 his  Christian  character. 
 
 It  is  quite  uncertain  when 
 or  where  Peter  died.  It  is  sup- 
 posed that  he  suffered  martyr- 
 dom; and  the  circumstances 
 of  his  arrest,  imprisonment, 
 and  crucifixion  are  related 
 very  particularly  by  some  of 
 the  ancient  historians.  There 
 is,  however,  so  liitle  confidence 
 to  be  placed  in  these  accounts, 
 that  we  shall  present  only  one 
 of  them  to  the  reader,  and  that 
 rather  as  a  matter  of  curiosity. 
 
 There  is  an  ancient  prison 
 in  Rome  called  the  Mamertine 
 prison.  It  is  considered  the 
 oldest  building  of  any  kind  in 
 the  city,  and  derives  its  name 
 from  Martius,  or  Mamertinus, 
 the  fourth  king  of  Rome,  by 
 whom  it  was  built. 
 
 The  tradition  is,  that  Peter 
 and  Paul  were  both  confined 
 in  this  prison  by  order  of  Nero, 
 the  Roman  emperor,  and  it  is 
 not  improbable  that  they  both 
 suffered  martyrdom  here  about 
 
 PHA 
 
 the  year  65.  But  few  can  be 
 found  credulous  enough  to  be- 
 lieve the  guides  in  the  Mamer- 
 tine prison,  when  they  pretend 
 to  show  the  very  pillar  to  which 
 Peter  was  fastened  when  he 
 sealed  his  faithfulness  as  an 
 apostle  of  the  Lord  Jesus  with 
 liie  blood  of  a  martyr.  (For  a 
 full  history  of  Peter,  and  his 
 letters,  with  a  beautiful  view 
 of  his  birthplace,  and  illus- 
 trative maps  and  cuts,  see  Life 
 OF  Peter,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Epistles  of.  They  are 
 called  epistles  general  be- 
 cause they  were  not  addressed 
 to  any  particular  church  or 
 community  of  believers.  They 
 are  supposed  to  have  been 
 written  in  a  time  of  violent 
 persecution,  by  which  the  con- 
 verts were  scattered  abroad. 
 (1  Pet.  i.  1 ;  iv.  16—19.)  The 
 date  usually  assigned  to  them 
 is  between  a.  d.  64  and  66. 
 Babylon,  from  which  the  first 
 of  these  ejustles  was  written, 
 (1  Pet.  v.  13,)  is  supposed  to 
 be  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates, 
 which,  though  in  ruins,  con- 
 tained many  thousand  inhabit- 
 ants, among  whom  were  very 
 many  Jews.  There  is  no  rea- 
 son to  believe  that  this  Baby- 
 lon is  not  intended;  and,  in 
 the  absence  of  all  evidence 
 in  favour  of  any  other  place, 
 it  is  safest  to  take  the  place 
 which  is  most  generally  knowu 
 and  mentioned  by  that  name. 
 Both  the  epistles  of  Peter  ex- 
 press the  noble  vehemence 
 and  fervour  of  his  spirit;  hia 
 full  knowledge  of  the  genius 
 and  tendency  of  Christianity, 
 and  his  strong  assurance  of 
 the  truth  and  certainty  of  all 
 he  taught.  (See  preface  to  the 
 letters  of  Peter  in  Life  op 
 Peter,  pp.  213,  214,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 PETHOR.  (Deut.  xxiii.  4.) 
 A  city  of  Mesojxitamia,  and 
 the  residence  ol^  the  prophet 
 Balaam.  (Num.  xxii.  5.) 
 
 PHARAOH.  (Gen.  xii.  15.) 
 494 
 
PHA 
 
 An  Egyptian  word  signifying 
 &/«£•,  adopted  into  the  Hebrew, 
 ancf  applied  to  eight  or  ten 
 (litferent  persons  mentioned  in' 
 llie  Bible  as  kings  of  Egypt. 
 (Gen.  xii.  17;  xxxix.  1.  Lx. 
 1.8.  11.  1  Kings  iii.  1  ;  xi.  19 
 —21.  2  Kings  xxiii.  29.  Jer. 
 xliv.  30.)  After  tlie  subjuga- 
 tion of  Egyi'i,  the  word  Pto- 
 lemy was  substituted.  The 
 Pharaoh  who  is  distinguished 
 as  the  oppressor  of  Israel,  anil 
 the  object  of  such  signal  judg- 
 ment's from  the  Almighty,  is 
 supposed  to  have  reigned  from 
 B.  c.  1493  to  1473.  Ii  is  said 
 by  the  sacred  historian  that 
 God  hardened  his  heart,  (Ex. 
 iv.  21 ;)  by  which  we  are  to 
 understand  simply  that  he  did 
 not  impose  upon  him  those 
 providential  gracious  restraints 
 Dy  which  men  are  often  kept 
 from  the  commission  of  crimes, 
 but  suffered  him  to  become  the 
 slave  of  his  own  heart's  lusts, 
 (Ex.'  viii.  15,)  and  to  be  led 
 captive  by  Satan  at  his  will. 
 To  one  tiius  abandoned,  all 
 the  dealings  and  dispensations 
 of  God  serve  only  as  occasions 
 of  increasing  obduracy,  and 
 pride,  and  obstinacy,  and  pre- 
 sumption. In  the  case  of 
 Pharaoh,  God  simply  let  him 
 alone;  forebore  to  extend  to 
 him  the  gracious  influences 
 of  his  Spirit,  and  suffered  his 
 character  to  develope  itself 
 under  the  circumstances  in 
 which  he  was  placed. 
 
 PHARAOH-HOPHRAH, 
 against  whom  several  of  Eze- 
 kiel's  prophecies  are  uttered, 
 (Ezek.  xxix.  xxxii.,)  and  with 
 whom  Zedekiah  formed  an 
 alliance  against  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar king  of  Babylon,  reign- 
 ed over  Egypt  twenty -five 
 rears.  The  prophecy  against 
 him  (Jer.  xliv.  30)  was  lite- 
 rally fulfilled.  He  was  unfor- 
 tunate in  an  expedition  against 
 Cyrene,  and  his  army  was  dis- 
 contented. Amasis,  one  of  his 
 generals,  was  sent  to  suppress 
 
 PHE 
 
 a  rebellion  which  had  broken 
 out;  tut,  instead  of  submitting 
 to  his  expostulations,  the  army 
 made  him  king,and  he  march- 
 ed at  their  head  against  Pha- 
 raoh, and  finally  took  him  pri- 
 soner. Amasis  was  disposed 
 to  save  him;  but  the  enraged 
 soldiery  forced  the  unhappy 
 monarch  from  under  his  pro- 
 tection, and  strangled  him. 
 
 PHARISEES.  (Matt,  xxiii. 
 26.)  A  famous  sect  which 
 arose  among  the  Jews  after 
 their  return  from  their  long 
 captivity  in  Babylon.  Their 
 name  is  derived  from  a  He- 
 brew word  which  signifies  to 
 separate ;  but  the  history  of 
 their  origin  is  buried  in  obscu- 
 rity. Pride  and  hypocrisy 
 were  their  prominent  cha- 
 racteristics. They  affected  un- 
 common sanctity,  and  abound- 
 ed in  rites  of  purification,  which 
 they  received  on  the  authority 
 of  tradition,  (Matt.  ix.  11 ;)  but 
 in  many  cases  they  made  void 
 the  law  of  God  by  their  super 
 stiiious  observance  of  the  com- 
 mandments of  men,  and  were 
 the  slaves  of  lust,  and  avarice, 
 and  pride.  They  were  re- 
 proved by  our  Saviour,  par- 
 ticularly for  ostentation  in 
 their  prayers  and  alms,  (Matt, 
 vi.  2.  5;)  for  pride  in  dress, 
 salutations,  titles,  broad  phy- 
 lacteries, and  taking  the  high- 
 est seats  at  feasts  and  in  the 
 synagogues.  (Matt,  xxiii.  2 — 
 36.)  On  account  of  the  de- 
 tection of  their  hypocrisy 
 and  the  open  denunciation  of 
 their  crimes,  they  became 
 almost  universally  the  bitter 
 enemies  of  Christ.  Their  the- 
 ological opinions  were  more 
 correct  than  those  of  the  Saddu- 
 cees ;  as  they  believed  in  the 
 resurrection  of  the  body,  and 
 in  a  future  slate  of  rewards 
 and  punishments,  as  also  in 
 the  existence  of  angels  and 
 spirits.  (Acts  xxiii.  8.) 
 PHARPAR.  (SeeABANA.) 
 PHEBE.  (Rom.  xvi.  1.)  A 
 495 
 
PHI 
 
 distinguished  member  of  the 
 church  at  Cenchrea,  a  city  of 
 Corinth.  She  is  called  a  ser- 
 vant of  the  church,  (see  Dea- 
 con;) and  the  strong  com- 
 mendation of  the  apostle  shows 
 her  to  have  been  prominent 
 in  works  of  faith  and  labours 
 of  love. 
 
 PHENICE.(Actsxxvii.l2.)A 
 winter  harbour  on  the  southern 
 shore  of  Crete.    (See  Crete.) 
 
 PHENICIA.  (Acts  xxi.  2.)  A 
 
 f)rovince  of  Syria,  and,  in  the 
 argest  extent  of  the  term,  em- 
 bracing a  strip  of  lani»l  adjoin- 
 ing the  eastern  coast  of  the 
 Mediterranean,  eighty  miles 
 long  ami  twelve  broad.  Pro- 
 perly, however,  it  included 
 only  the  territories  of  Tyre 
 and  Sidon.  The  Phenicians 
 were  descendants  of  the  C'a- 
 naanites,  and  a  Syro-pheni- 
 cian  was  a  Phenician  of  Syria. 
 Phenicia  was  also  subject  to 
 the  Greek  government  in  the 
 lime  of  our  Saviour,  and  hence 
 Tyre  and  Sidon  might  be  re- 
 
 farded  as  Greek  cities.  (Comp. 
 datt.  XV.  22.  Mark  vii.  2G.) 
 The  Jews  regarded  all  the  rest 
 of  the  world  as  Greeks.  (See 
 Greece.)  Phenicia  is  how 
 subject  to  the  Turks,  and  is 
 included  in  the  pashalic  of 
 Acre. 
 
 Phenicia  is  considered  as 
 the  birthplace  of  commerce, 
 if  not  of  letters.  The  soil  is 
 siiU  fertile,  producing  a  rich 
 variety  of  grains  and  fruits; 
 but  all  the  enterprise  and 
 prosperity  of  the  people  is 
 blasted  by  the  despotism  of 
 the  government. 
 
 Carthage  was  established  by 
 a  colony'of  Phenicians;  and 
 Cadiz,  in  Spain,  is  also  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  settled  by 
 the  same  people  about  one 
 thousand  years  bpfore  Christ. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA.  (Rev.  iii. 
 7—13.)  A  city  of  the  province 
 of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  about 
 seventy  miles  east  of  Smyrna. 
 Its   modern   name  is   Allah- 
 
 PHI 
 
 shehr,  or  Alah-sher,  {city  of 
 God.)  It  contains  a  popula- 
 tion of  about  fifteen  thousand, 
 one-twelfth  of  vrhom  are  nomi 
 nal  Christians.  This  church 
 was  highly  commended ;  more 
 than  any  of  the  seven  churchep 
 of  Asia,  and  while  her  sister 
 cities  have  fallen  into  decay, 
 she  still  survives,  with  the 
 remains  of  her  Christian  tem- 
 ples and  worship.  Her  popu- 
 lation is  said  to  be  the  purest 
 in  Asia  Minor.  Even  Gibbon 
 says  of  her :  "  Among  the  Greek 
 colonies  and  churches  of  Asia, 
 Philadelphia  is  still  erect— a 
 column  in  a  scene  of  ruins.  ' 
 
 This  place  was  visited  by 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  Parsons, 
 American  missionaries,  in  the 
 autumn  of  1820.  The  inha- 
 bitants pretend  to  show  the 
 church  in  which  the  disciples, 
 tC  R-hom  the  message  of  John 
 was  addressed,  formerly  as» 
 sembled. 
 
 PHILEMON  (Phile.  1)  is 
 generally  supposed  to  have 
 been  a  resident  at  Colosse,  and 
 a  Christian  of  some  distinction^ 
 who  was  probably  convertea 
 under  Paul's  preaching.  (Phile. 
 19.) 
 
 Epistle  to,  was  written  by 
 Paul  from  Rome,  where  he 
 was  detained  as  a  prisoner, 
 Onesimus,  a  servant  of  Phile- 
 mon, had  lied  to  that  city,  and 
 was  there  converted  to  the  faith 
 of  the  gospel.  Being  about  to 
 return  to  Philemon,  Paul  wrote 
 this  letter,  chiefly  with  a  design 
 to  conciliate  the  feelings  of 
 Philemon  towards  his  penitent 
 servant,  and  now  fellow  dis- 
 ciple. The  letter  has  been 
 regarded  by  learned  critics  as 
 a  master-piece  of  epistolary 
 composition.  An  eminent  cri- 
 tic of  ancient  days  says  of  it: 
 "The  apostle  craves  pardon 
 in  behalf  of  a  fugitive  and  pil- 
 fering slave,  whom  he  senda 
 back  to  his  master;  but  while 
 pleading  his  cause,  he  dis- 
 courses with  so  much  weighl 
 496 
 
PHI 
 
 respecting  the  rules  of  Chris- 
 tian kindness,  that  he  seems 
 to  be  consulting  for  the  whole 
 church,  rather  than  managing 
 the  business  of  a  particular 
 individual.  He  intercedes  for 
 the  humble  man  so  modestly 
 and  submissively,  as  to  show, 
 more  clearly  than  almost  any- 
 where else,  the  gentleness  of 
 his  nature,  which  is  here 
 drawn  to  the  life." 
 
 PHILIP,    (1.)    THE   APOSTLE, 
 
 (John  i.  43,)  was  a  native  of 
 Bethsaida,  and  a  firm  believer 
 in  the  messiahship  of  Christ. 
 (John  i.  45.) 
 
 (2.)  The  evangelist,  (Acts 
 xxi.  8,)  one  of  the  seven  per- 
 sons appointed  to  the  office  of 
 deacon  in  the  primitive  church 
 in  Jerusalem,  (Acts  vi.  3—5,) 
 and  who  afterwards  went  to 
 Samaria,  and  there  preached 
 the  gospel  with  great  success. 
 (Acts  viii.  6—8.)  While  in 
 Samaria,  Philip  received  a 
 divine  intimation  (comp.  Acts 
 viii.  26.  29  and  39)  to  go  south- 
 ward from  Samaria,  to  the  road 
 leading  from  Jerusalem  to  Ga- 
 za. In  the  course  of  this  jour- 
 ney, he  found  a  distinguished 
 Ethiopian  traveller,  on  his  way 
 home  from  Jerusalem.  He 
 was,  probably,  either  a  Jew  or 
 a  proselyte  to  the  Jewish  reli- 
 gion ;  and  had  been  to  the  city 
 of  their  solemnities  to  celebrate 
 some  feast.  He  was  an  officer 
 of  high  rank,  in  the  court  of 
 Candace,  queen  of  Ethiopia; 
 and  as  he  was  silting  in  his 
 chariot,  in  the  leisurely  pur- 
 suit of  his  journey,  he  read 
 aloud  a  portion  of  "the  Jewish 
 Scriptures.  At  this  time  Phi- 
 lip saw  him,  and  was  divinely 
 admonished  to  approach  him. 
 Philip,  without  hesitation, 
 obeyed  the  suggestion,  and 
 ran  to  overtake  the  chariot. 
 He  overheard  him  reading 
 Isa.  liii.  7,  8,  and  immediately 
 inquired  of  him  if  he  under- 
 stood the  force  and  scope  of 
 the  passage.  The  traveller 
 42* 
 
 PHI 
 
 meekly  acknowledged  his 
 need  of  instruction,  and  in- 
 vited Philip  to  take  a  seat 
 with  him  in  the  chariot.  The 
 latter  improved  the  opportu- 
 nity to  explain  the  great  sub- 
 ject of  redemption,  to  which 
 the  passage  so  naturally  led  ; 
 and  the  result  was,  that  the 
 traveller  became  a  convert  to 
 the  faith  of  the  gospel,  and 
 was  baptized.  Philip,  again 
 divinely  directed,  immediately 
 separated  himself  from  the  tra- 
 veller, who  pursued  his  jour- 
 ney towards  rlgypt,  while  he 
 himself  proceeded  to  Azotus, 
 about  forty  miles  from  Gaza, 
 in  the  opposite  direction.  He 
 afterwards  settled,  it  is  sup- 
 posed, in  Cesarea.  (Acts  xxi. 
 8.)  He  had  four  daughters, 
 who  were  endued  with  gifts 
 of  prophecy.  (Acts  xxi.  9.) 
 
 3.  The  tetrarch.  (Luke 
 iii.  1.    See  Herod.) 
 
 4.  The  husband  of  Hero- 
 DiAS.    (Matt.  xiv.  3.    See  Hb- 
 
 ROD.) 
 
 PHILIPPI.  (Acts  xvi.  12.)  A 
 city  of  Macedonia,  formerly 
 called  Dathos;  but  being  re- 
 built and  greatly  magnified  by 
 Philip,  father  of  Alexander  the 
 Great,  it  took  from  him  the 
 name  Philippi.  It  is  at  the 
 head  of  the  Egean  Sea,  nine 
 or  ten  miles  north-west  of  Ne- 
 apolis,  and  its  modern  name 
 is  Diliba.  It  is  a  place  of  great 
 celebrity  in  profane  history, 
 and  is  called  the  chief  or  first^ 
 city  of  that  part  of  Macedonia^ 
 and  a  colony.  The  latter  ex- 
 pression denotes  that  it  enjoyed 
 the  privileges  of  a  Roman  co- 
 lony, a  fact  established  by 
 ancient  medals;  and  the  for- 
 mer may  mean  either  that 
 Philippi  was  the  first  city  they 
 arrived  at  in  that  part  of  Mace- 
 donia, or  that  it  was  the  chief 
 city  of  that  district  of  the  coun- 
 try. 
 
 About  A.  D.  50,  a  chych  was 
 gathered  in  Philippi  by  Paul 
 and  Silas,  the  former  of^whom 
 
PHI 
 
 addressed  to  them  the  affec- 
 tionate and  frrateful  letter 
 called  the  EpisUe  to  the  Plii- 
 lippians.  This  was  the  first 
 apostolic  labour  on  European 
 ground. 
 
 At  Philippi,  Lydia  was  con- 
 verted under  Paul's  preaching, 
 (Acts  xvi.  14—16,)  and  hospita- 
 bly entertained  the  apostles 
 at  her  house.  The  populace 
 became  excited  against  them, 
 however,  and  they  suffereu 
 scourging  and  ihiprisonment 
 in  the  most  cruel  form.  By 
 miraculous  power  the  pri- 
 son doors  were  all  opened  at 
 midnight,  and  the  bands  of 
 the  prisoners  were  all  loosed, 
 though  none  escaped.  The 
 jailer,  fearing  that  the  prison- 
 ers had  escaped,  and  knowing 
 that  death  might  be  the  pe- 
 nalty for  his  seeming  neglect, 
 (Acts  xii.  19,)  was  about  to 
 commit  suicide.  At  Paul's 
 entreaty  he  desisted,  and  im- 
 mediately applied  to  the  apos- 
 tles to  teach  him  the  way  of 
 salvation.  This  they  did,  and 
 their  teaching  being  made 
 effectual  by  the  Spirit  of  God, 
 he  and  all  his  were  imme- 
 diately baptized.  (Acts  xvi. 
 22—34.)  At  the  solicitation 
 of  the  magistrates,  they  soon 
 after  left  the  city. 
 
 Two  American  missionaries 
 visited  tiie  site  of  Philippi  in 
 May,  1834.  They  describe  some 
 of  the  monuments  of  the  for- 
 mer magnificence  of  the  city. 
 They  saw  the  ruins  of  what 
 might  have  been  the  forum  or 
 market-place,  where  the  apos- 
 tles were  beaten,  (Acts  xvi. 
 19;)  and,  also,  the  fragments 
 of  a  splendid  palace.  The 
 road  by  which  Paul  went  from 
 Neapolis  to  Philippi,  they 
 think,  is  the  same  that  is 
 now  travelled,  as  it  is  cut 
 through  the  most  difficult 
 passes  of  the  mountains,  and 
 IS  now  naved  throughout. 
 
 PlilLlPPIANS,  EPISTLE   TO, 
 
 is  the  elevi'nth  in  the  order  of 
 
 PHI 
 
 the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
 ment, and  was  addressed  by 
 Paul  to  the  Christians  at  Phi- 
 lippi. It  was  probably  writ- 
 ten about  A.  D.  62,  when  Paul 
 was  a  prisoner  at  Kon^.e.  (Phil, 
 iv.  22.)  The  Philippians  had 
 kindly  ministered  to  his  ne- 
 cessities, by  sending  Epaphro- 
 diius  to  him  with  the  fruits 
 of  their  benevolence.  (Phil, 
 iv.  18.)  On  his  return  to  Phi- 
 lippi, Paul  acknowledged  their 
 kindness  in  grateful  and  affect- 
 ing terms,  and  mingled  with 
 his  thanks  some  of  the  most 
 sublime  and  animating  exhi- 
 bitions of  divine  truth  that  are 
 to  be  found  in  the  sacred  pages. 
 
 PHILISTIA,  (Ps.  Ix.  8,)  or 
 the  land  of  the  Philistines, 
 (Ex.  xiii.  17,)  was  situated  on 
 the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, between  Joppa  and  the 
 border  of  Egypt.  It  is  sup- 
 posed that  the  Philistines  were 
 of  Egyptian  origin,  (Gen.  x. 
 14,)  and  that  they  came  to 
 Canaan  from  Caphto?;  or  Crete, 
 (Amos  ix.  7,)  whence  they  are 
 called  Caphlorims.  (Deut.  ii. 
 23.)  Wiien  the  Hebrews  took 
 possession  of  Canaan,  Philistia 
 was  divided  into  five  districts, 
 or  satrapies.  (Josh.  xiii.  3.)  The 
 historical  lxx)ks  of  the  Old 
 Testament  abound  with  ac- 
 counts of  the  conflicts  of  the 
 Piiilislines  and  the  Hebrews, 
 and  their  alternate  victories 
 and  defeats.  (1  .Sam.  iv.  vii. 
 xvii.  2  Sam.  v.  17;  viii.  1; 
 xxiii.  y.  2  Kings  xviii.  & 
 2Chron.  xxi.  16;  xxvi.  6,  7; 
 xxviii.  18.  Isa.  xx.  1.)  They  are 
 the  subject  of  several  remark- 
 able prophecies,  (Jer.  xlvii. 
 Ezek.  XXV.  15—17.  Amos  i. 
 6—8.  Zech.  ix.  5,)  which  were 
 fulfilled  to  the  very  letter ;  and 
 they  are  scarcely  mentioned 
 as  a  distinct  people  after  the 
 destruction  of  Gaza  by  Alex- 
 ander the  Great. 
 
 Volney  describes  the  former 
 land  of  the  Philistines  par- 
 ticularly, and  he  says,  that 
 49S 
 
PHR 
 
 except  the  immediate  environs 
 of  a  few  villages,  tiie  wliole 
 country  is  a  desert  abandoned 
 to  tlie  Bedouin  Arabs,  wlio  feed 
 their  tloclis  on  it.  (Zeph.  ii. 
 5,  6.)  Another  traveller  tells 
 us,  that  while  Gaza  still  sub- 
 8ists,and  Ashkelon  and  Ashdod 
 retain  their  names  in  their 
 ruins,  the  very  name  of  Ekron 
 is  missing.  (Zeph.  ii.  4.) 
 
 PHILOSOPHY.  (Col.  ii.  8.) 
 This  term  denotes  the  system 
 of  opinions  embraced  by  va- 
 rious sects,  both  amon^Jews 
 and  Gentiles,  as  the  Epicu- 
 reans, Stoics,  &c.,  in  the  apos- 
 tolic age.  (Acts  xvii.  18.)  As 
 their  system  was  framed  ac- 
 cording to  human  traditions 
 and  the  principles  of  worldly 
 science,  and  not  according  to 
 the  doctrine  of  Christ,  it  was 
 vain  and  false,  and  therefore 
 a  proper  subject  of  caution. 
 (1  Tim.  vi.  20.) 
 
 PHINEHAS.  1.  (lSam.i.3.) 
 A  son  of  Eli,  and  noted  for  his 
 wickedness.    (.See  Eli.) 
 
 2.  (Ex.  vi.25.)  AsonofEle- 
 azar  and  grandson  of  Aaron. 
 He  filled  ihe  office  of  high- 
 priest  of  the  Jews  for  nearly 
 twenty  years.  His  zeal  and 
 jjTomptitude  in  punishing  the 
 sin  of  Zimri,  a  distinguished 
 Simeonite,  turned  away  the 
 anger  of  the  Lord  against  the 
 nation,  and  secured  to  him  and 
 his  family  the  right  of  perpe- 
 tual succe.ssion  in  the  Jewish 
 priesthood.  This  promise  was 
 fulfilled;  for,  except  the  in- 
 terval from  Eli  to  Zadok,  the 
 f)rie8thood  continued  in  the 
 amily  of  Phinehas  until  the 
 destruction  of  the  temple  and 
 the  captivity  of  the  nation. 
 Phinehas  was  remarkable  for 
 his  zealous  attachment  to  the 
 purity  and  integrity  of  the  Jew- 
 ish church.  (Niun.  xxv.  7.  Josn. 
 xxii.  3(|,  31.    See  Eleazar.) 
 
 PHRYGIA.  (Acts  ii.lO.)  The 
 largest  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
 having   Bylhinia   north,  and 
 
 PHY 
 Lycia  south.  Its  chief  town."* 
 were  Colosse,  Laodicea,  anU 
 Hierapolis.  Some  of  its  inha- 
 bitants were  at  Jerusalem,  and 
 among  the  converts,  on  the 
 day  of  Pentecost.  The  pro- 
 vince was  more  than  once  vi- 
 sited by  the  apostle  Paul.  (Acta 
 xvi.  6;  xviii.  23.) 
 
 PHUT,  (Gen.  x.  6,)  or  PUT, 
 (Nah.  iii.  9,)  was  the  third  son 
 of  Ham;  and  his  descendants, 
 sometimes  called  Libyans,  are 
 supposed  to  be  the  Mauritani- 
 ans,  or  Moors  of  modern  times. 
 They  served  the  Egyptians  and 
 Tyrians  as  soldiers.  (Jer.  xlvi, 
 9.  Ezek.  xxvii.  10;  xxx.  5; 
 xxxviii.  5.) 
 
 PHYLACTERIES.  (Malt, 
 xxiii.  5.)  The  original  word 
 i\eno\.es preservation;  and  may 
 indicate  either  the  preserving 
 of  the  words  of  the  law  in  the 
 memory,  or  the  preservation 
 of  the  person  from  danger,  as 
 by  the  amulets  or  charms  of 
 modern  superstition. 
 
 The  practice  of  using  phy- 
 lacteries was  founded  on  a  lite- 
 ral interpretation  of  that  pas- 
 sage, where  God  commands 
 the  Hebrews  to  have  the  law 
 as  a  sign  on  their  foreheads, 
 and  as  frontlets  between  their 
 eyes.  (Ex.xiii.  16.  Comp.Prov. 
 iii.  1. 3 ;  vi.  21.)  It  is  probable 
 that  the  use  of  phylacteries 
 came  in  late  with  other  super- 
 siitions ;  but  it  should  be  re- 
 membered, that  our  Lord  does 
 not  censure  the  Pharisees  for 
 wearing  them,  but  for  making 
 them  broad,  out  of  ostentation ; 
 and  it  is  still  uncertain  svhether 
 the  words  referred  to  ought  not 
 to  be  taken  literally.  One  kind 
 of  phylactery  was  called  a 
 froJitlet,  and  was  composed  of 
 four  pieces  of  parchment;  oa 
 the  first  of  which  was  written, 
 Ex.  xii.  2—10;  on  the  second, 
 Ex.  xiii.  11—21;  on  the  third, 
 Deut.vi.4 — 9;  and  on  the  fourth, 
 Deut.xi.  18— 21.  These  pieces 
 of  parchment,  thus  inscribed,  " 
 they  enclosed  in  a  piece  of 
 499 
 
PHY 
 
 tough  skin,  making  a  square, 
 on  one  side  of  which  is  placed 
 the  Hebrew  letter  shin,  a*,  and 
 
 bound  them  round  their  fore- 
 heads with  a  thong  or  riband, 
 when  they  went  to  the  syna- 
 gogue. Some  wore  them  eve- 
 ning and  morning;  and  others 
 only  at  the  morning  prayer. 
 
 As  the  token  upon  the  hand 
 was  required,  as  well  as  the 
 frontlets  between  the  eyes,  the 
 Jews  made  two  rolls  of^  parch- 
 ment, written  in  square  letters, 
 with  an  ink  made  on  purpose, 
 and  with  much  care.  They  were 
 rolled  up  to  a  point,  and  en- 
 closed in  a  sort  of  case  of  black 
 calfskin.  They  then  were  put 
 upon  a  square  bit  of  the  same 
 
 leather,  whence  hung  a  thong 
 of  the  same,  of  about  a  finger 
 in  breadth,  and  about  two  feet 
 long.    These  rolls  were  placed 
 
 PIL 
 
 at  the  bending  of  the  left  arm, 
 and  after  one  end  of  the  thong 
 had  been  made  into  a  little 
 knot  in  the  form  of  the  Hebrew 
 letter  yod,  >,  it  was  wound 
 about  the  arm  in  a  spiral  line, 
 which  ended  at  the  top  of  the 
 middle  finger.  (See  Omar,  p. 
 23.  by  Am.^S.  S.Union.) 
 
 PHYSICIAN.  (Mark  V. 26.) 
 Physicians  are  mentioned  in 
 the  time  of  Joseph,  (Gen.  1.2;) 
 and  many  suppose  that  medi- 
 cine was  among  the  professions 
 of  Egypt,  and  that  Moses  was 
 learned  in  it.  There  is  abun- 
 dant evidence  that  the  healing 
 art,  in  some  branches,  was  a 
 profession.  (2Chron.  xvi.  12. 
 Prov.  xvii.22.  Jer.viii.22;  xlvi. 
 11.  Ezek.xxx.21.  Matt.  ix.  12. 
 Luke  iv.  23.   Col.  iv.  14.) 
 
 PIBESETH.  (Ezek.xxx.  17.) 
 The  Bubastis  of  modern  geo- 
 graphers, the  ruins  of  which 
 are  supposed  to  be  discernible 
 between  Cairo  and  Sin,  or  Pe- 
 lusium. 
 
 PIGEON.    (See  Dove.) 
 
 PILATE,  (John  xix.  1,)  or 
 PONTIUS  PILATE,  (Matt, 
 xxvii.  2,)  was  appointed  the  Ro- 
 man  governor  or  procurator  of 
 Judea,  A.  D.  29,  and  was  inoflSce 
 at  the  time  of  Christ's  trial,  and 
 some  years  after.  His  proper 
 residence  was  Cesarea;  but  he 
 went  up  to  Jerusalem  at  stated 
 periods,  and  though  his  chief 
 duly  respected  the  revenues,  he 
 exercised  his  judicial  authority 
 there  (John  xix.  10)  in  a  palace 
 or  government  house  provided 
 for  the  purpose.  (Johnxviii.28.) 
 His  administration  was  exceed- 
 ingly offensive.  Profane  history 
 tells  us  that  he  was  accustomed 
 to  sell  justice,  and,  for  money, 
 to  pronounce  any  sentence  thai 
 was  desired.  It  mentions  his 
 rapines,  his  injuries,  his  mur- 
 ders, the  torments  he  inflicted 
 on  the  innocent,  and  the  per 
 sons  he  put  to  death  wiinou* 
 form  or  process.  In  short,  he 
 seems  to  have  been  a  man 
 that  exercised  excessive  cru 
 
PIL 
 
 dty  during  all  the  time  of  his 
 government.  (Luke  xiii.  1.) 
 He  was  finally  recalled,  and 
 banished,  and  died  in  exile, 
 probably  by  suicide. 
 
 The  character  of  Pilate  ren- 
 ders more  remarkable  the  fact, 
 that  when  Jesus  was  arraigned 
 before  him,  he  was  not  only 
 anxious  to  avoid  trying  him, 
 (Luke  xxiii.  4. 7,)  but  he  once 
 and  again,  in  the  inost  solemn 
 and  impressive  manner,  even 
 in  presence  of  liis  malicious 
 and  bloodthirsty  persecutors, 
 declared  his  conviction  of  his 
 
 fierfect  innocence.  (Lukexxi4i. 
 4.  John  xix.  6.)  He  even  re- 
 monstrated with  them  on  the 
 iniquity  and  unreasonableness 
 of  their  conduct,  and  would 
 fain  throw  upon  them  the  whole 
 responsibility  of  the  deed  they 
 were  about  to  perpetrate.  This 
 they  assumed  in  the  most  dread- 
 ful imprecaticn  ever  uttered  by 
 human  lips-  (Matt,  xxvii.  25.) 
 Pilate,  moved  probably  by  a 
 fear  of  losing  his  office,  (John 
 xix.  12,)  notwithstanding  his 
 full  conviction  of  his  inno- 
 cence, scourged  him,  and  tiien 
 resigned  him  to  the  hands  of 
 the  enraged  multitude  to  be 
 crucified. 
 
 He  directed  the  form  of  in- 
 scription which  was  placed  on 
 the  cross ;  and  when  the  Jews 
 would  persuade  him  to  alter 
 the  phraseology,  so  as  to  re- 
 present him  claiming  to  be 
 king  of  the  Jews,  and  not  as 
 being  so  in  fact,  Pilate,  con- 
 scious probably  of  having  al- 
 ready sacrificed  justice  to  ex- 
 pediency or  popularity,  pe- 
 remptorily refused  to  do  it. 
 (John  xix.  19—22.)  He  gave 
 Joseph  the  privilege  of  remov- 
 ing the  body  from  the  cross, 
 and  placing  it  in  his  own  tomb; 
 and,  at  the  solicitation  of  tlie 
 Jews,  he  appointed  a  guard  to 
 protect  it  from  violation.  (Malt. 
 xxvii.  57—66.) 
 
 PILLAR.  (Ex.  xiii.  21.)  This 
 word  is  used  in  the  Bible  for 
 
 PIN 
 
 the  most  part  metaphorically. 
 Thus  a  pillar  of  fire,  cloud, 
 smoke,  &c.,  denote  a  fire,  a 
 cloud,  or  a  column  of  smoke  in 
 the  form  of  a  pillar.  (Ex.  xiii. 
 21.  Judg.  XX.  40.)  It  was  com- 
 mon to  erect  a  pillar  as  a  mo- 
 nument of  some  distinguished 
 person  or  event.  (Geii.  xxviii. 
 18;  XXXV.  20.  Josh.  xxiv.  26.) 
 Pillar  OF  SALT.  (See  Salt.) 
 Pillar  OF  Absalom.  (2  Sam. 
 xviii.  18.)  This  proud  prince, 
 during  his  own  life,  erected  in 
 the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  a 
 pillar,  or  column,  as  a  monu- 
 ment to  himself,  to  perpetuate 
 the  remembrance  of  his  name ; 
 as  at  that  time  he  had  no  chil- 
 dren to  preserve  it. 
 
 PILLED.  (Gen.  XXX.  37.) 
 The  same  vilih  peeled. 
 
 PILLOWS.  (Ezek.  xiii.18.) 
 In  this  passage  those  women 
 are  intended  who  utter  false 
 prophecies,  and  use  every  art 
 and  device  to  allure  to  luxury 
 and  voluptuousness.  'Wo  to 
 those  who  sew  or  embroider 
 luxurious  cushions  for  all  arms, 
 making  pillows,  bolsters,  head- 
 coverings,  &c.,  for  persons  of 
 every  stature,  age,  and  condi- 
 tions: so  nicely  adapted  in 
 their  dimensions  as  to  suit  all 
 leaning  arms,  and  produce 
 their  full  voluptuous  effect, 
 thus  making  effeminacy  more 
 effeminate.  These  are  like 
 toils  and  snares,  by  which 
 hunters  secure  their  game.' 
 (Comp.  Amos  vi.  4.) 
 
 PINE.  (Neh.  viii.  15.)  The 
 original  word  denotes  a  class 
 of  oily  or  gummy  plants  or 
 trees,  and  probably  means  here 
 the  cypress,  or  some  tree  of 
 that  family.  The  pine  is  a  state- 
 ly and  beaut  iful  tree,  and  hence 
 is  used  as  an  emblem  of  the 
 flourishing  slate  of  a  church, 
 (Isa.  xli.  19;  Ix.  IS.) 
 
 PINNACLE.    (Matt.  iv.  5.) 
 
 The  word  translated  pinnacle 
 
 signifies  not  a  summit,  but  a 
 
 wing ;  and  the  part  of  the  tem- 
 
 501 
 
PIT 
 
 pie  to  which  our  Lord  was 
 taken  by  Salan,  was  probably 
 the  elevation  over  the  roof 
 of  Solomon's  porch,  to  which 
 there  was  a  passage  by  stairs, 
 and  which  overlooked  the  val- 
 ley of  the  east,  and  had  be- 
 neath a  perpendicular  depth 
 of  six  or  seven  hundred  feet; 
 for  at  this  part  of  the  valley  a 
 wall  had  been  carried  up  to  a 
 level  with  the  ground  on  which 
 the  temple  stood,  (some  histo- 
 rians say  seven  hundred  and 
 fifiy  feel.) 
 PIPE.  (See  Flute.) 
 PISGAH.  (SeeABABiM.) 
 PISIDIA.  (Acts  xiii.  14.)  A 
 province  of  Asia  Minor,  north 
 ofPamphylia.  Anlioch,  though 
 within  the  province  of  Phrygia, 
 belonged  to  Pisidia,  and  was 
 called  Antioch  in  (or  of)  Pisi- 
 dia, to  distinguish  it  from  Anti- 
 och in  Syria.  Paul  laboured  in 
 the  gospel  not  only  at  Antioch, 
 but  throughout  the  province. 
 (Acts  xiv.  24.) 
 
 PIT.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  20.)  This 
 is  spoken  of  an  empty  cistern, 
 or  a  reservoir,  which  the  east- 
 ern people  are  in  the  hatil 
 of  preparing  in  those  regions 
 where  there  are  few  or  no 
 springs,  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
 serving rain  water  for  travel- 
 lers and  cattle.  These  cisterns 
 and  trenches  are  often  without 
 water,  no  supply  being  to  be 
 had  for  them,  except  from  the 
 rain. 
 
 It  was  in  such  a  dry  cistern 
 that  Joseph  was  cast.  In  old 
 decayed  cisterns,  the  water 
 leaks  out,  or  becomes  slimy. 
 (Jer.  ii.  13.)  The  word  is  often 
 used  for  the  grave,  (Ps.  xxviii. 
 1 ;  XXX.  3.  9;  Ixxxviii.  4,)  and 
 for  the  place  used  to  entrap 
 game.  (Ezek.  xix.  8.)  The 
 pit  here  spoken  of  is  used  at 
 this  day  in  all  wild'  countries. 
 A  deep  hole  in  the  earth 
 is  covered  very  slightly  with 
 boughs  or  shrubs,  upon  which 
 is  placed  a  living  lamb,  which 
 by  its  cries  allures  the  lion  or 
 
 PIT 
 
 wolf;  and  when  the  beast 
 makes  a  sudden  spring  upon 
 his  prey,  he  is  caught  in  the 
 pit  below.  This  affords  a  sig- 
 nificant figure  of  the  devices 
 of  crafty  men  and  devils.  (Ps 
 cxix.  85.  Prov.  xxvi.27.  Ezek. 
 xix.  4.  See  Biblical  Anti^., 
 ch.  vii.  §  2,  by  Am.  S.  Union.) 
 PITCH.  (See  after  Pitcher.) 
 PITCHER.  (Gen.  xxiv.  14.) 
 The  custom  of  drawing  water 
 in  pitchers  still  prevails  in  the 
 east,  an  earthen  vessel  with 
 two  handles  being  used  for  the 
 purpose ;  and  the  letting  down 
 of  the  pitcher  upon  the  hand 
 (Gen.  xxiv.  18)  justifies  the  in- 
 ference  that  it  was  carried 
 upon  the  head,  or  left  shoulder, 
 
 502 
 
PLA 
 
 and  balanced  wiih  the  right 
 hand,  and,  when  presented, 
 was  rested  on  the  left  hand. 
 The  preceding  cut  of  an  an- 
 cient pilcher  shows  their  size, 
 shape,  and  beauty  of  workman- 
 
 StCH.  (Gen.  vi.  14.)  This 
 word  is  supposed  to  be  used  in 
 the  above  passage,  and  in  Ex. 
 ii.  3,  for  a  sort  of  bitumen  or 
 asphaltuni,  elsewhere  called 
 slime.  (Gen.  xi.  3;  xiv.  10.) 
 It  is  obtained  in  a  soft  or  liquid 
 state,  in  pits,  and  on  the  sur- 
 face of  the  Dead  Sea,  (hence 
 called  the  lake  of  Asphaltites,) 
 and  becomes  dry  and  hard, 
 like  mortar,  when  exposed  to 
 the  weather.  It  is  found  at 
 this  day  in  masses  of  wall  and 
 other  ruins  on  the  supposed 
 site  of  Babylon,  and  is  now 
 employed  for  the  like  purpose 
 in  that  part  of  the  world. 
 
 PITHOM.  (Ex.  i.  11.)  One 
 of  Pharaoh's  treasure  -  cities, 
 public  granaries,  or  places  for 
 the  storage  of  grain.  It  is  sup- 
 posed, from  its  relative  situa- 
 tion, to  be  the  Po/omotos  of  the 
 Greeks,  inasmuch  as  the  faci- 
 lities of  access  to  it,  and  trans- 
 portation from  it,  would  lead 
 to  its  selection  for  this  purpose. 
 
 PLAGUE.  (Ex.  xi.  1.)  An 
 eminently  contagious  and  de- 
 structive diseajse,  prevalent  ia 
 the  east  from  the  earliest  ages. 
 It  has  ranged  over  the  princi- 
 pal parts  of  the  habitable  world, 
 and  sometimes  for  many  suc- 
 cessive years.  The  sacred 
 writers  employ  the  word  to 
 express  any  terrific  and  deso- 
 latmg  disease,  (Lev.  xiii.  3. 
 1  Kings  viii.  37  ;)  and  not  un- 
 frequently  as  a  general  term 
 for  the  judgment  of  God.  (Ex. 
 ix.  14.)  It  is  also  used  to  denote 
 any  severe  calamity  orscourse. 
 (Mark  v.  29.  34.  Luke  vii.  2\.) 
 The  judgments  of  God  on  Pha- 
 raoh are'called  plagues.  (See 
 Pharaoh.  See  also  Biblical 
 ANTIQ.UITIES,  ch.  vii.  §  6,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 PLO 
 1     PLAIN.  (Deut.~ll;  U  8.) 
 j  This  word  is  often  used  alone» 
 j  leaving   the    particular  plain 
 intended  to  be  inferred,  as  in 
 the  above  passages,  from  the 
 '  connexion.   So  of  Gen.  xiii.  12. 
 j  2  Kings  XX v.  4,  &c.,  where  the 
 plain  of  Jordan  is  obviously  in- 
 tended. 
 
 PLAITING.    (IPet.  iii.  3.) 
 I  Weaving  or  braiding  the  hair. 
 ;  The  business  of  dressing  the 
 \  hair  is  mentioned  by  Jewish 
 writers  as  an  art  by  itself,  prac- 
 tised by  women.  It  was  folded 
 up  in  curls,  tied  up  in  knots, 
 and  put  into  the  form  of  horns 
 I  and    towers,    made    by   theii 
 crisping-pins,  with  their  cauls 
 and  round  tires,  like  the  moon, 
 (Isa.  iii.  18 — 22,)    as    was  the 
 custom   of  those    times,    and 
 still  is. 
 PLANETS.    (See  Stars.) 
 PLATTED.      (Matt.  xxviL 
 29.)    Woven  together. 
 
 PLEDGE.  (Ezek.  xxxiii.  15.) 
 That  which  is  given  as  security 
 for  the  {icrformance  of  a  'coo- 
 tract.  The  Jewish  law  con- 
 tained many  wise  and  Isenevo- 
 lent  provisions  on  this  subject, 
 (Ex.  xxii.  25,26.  Deut.  xxiv.  6. 
 10.  12. 17;)  and  any  thing  like 
 oppression  in  respect  to  pledges 
 was  severely  reprobated.  (Job 
 xxii.  6 ;  xxiv.  3.  7.)  For  a  Jfew 
 to  he  obliged  to  give  these 
 pledges,  anH  then  to  see  them 
 used  by  idolaters  in  their  vain 
 worship,  was  a  sore  grief  to 
 him.    (Amos  ii.  8.) 
 
 PLEIADES.  (Job  ix.  9; 
 xxxviii.31.)  A  cluster  of  stars, 
 placed  in  modern  times  in  the 
 neck  or  near  the  shoulder  of 
 the  constellation  Taurus.  They 
 appear  about  the  middle  of 
 April,  and  hence  are  associated 
 with  the  return  of  spring,  the 
 season  of  sweet  influences. 
 
 PLOUGH.  (Luke  ix.62.)  The 
 process  of  ploughing  is  men- 
 tioned so  early  as  the  lime  of 
 Job.  It  is  also  mentioned  ia 
 Gen.  xlv.  6 ;  for  earing  proper 
 ly  means  ploughing:,  and  th* 
 
 ,=in3 
 
POE 
 
 original  ^Yord  is  elsewhere 
 translated  so.  (1  Sam.  viii. 
 12.) 
 
 Considering  the  shape  of  the 
 ^are  and  coulter,  we  may  see 
 fcat  the  prophecy,  Isa.  ii.  4, 
 and  Joel  iii.  10,  might  well 
 have  been  literally  fulfilled. 
 The  proper  direction  of  so  light 
 a  plough  requires  constant  and 
 Close  attention;  and  the  least 
 diversion  of  the  husbandman 
 from  his  work  would  not  only 
 make  a  crooked  furrow,  but 
 probably  his  whole  weight  was 
 tequired  to  secure  the  entrance 
 of  so  light  an  implement  into 
 the  soil.  Hence  the  figure  in 
 the  above  passage  from  Luke. 
 
 In  the  first  instance  the 
 plough  was  probably  nothing 
 more  than  the  bough  of  a  tree, 
 from  which  another  limb  or 
 piece   projected,    which    was 
 
 POM 
 
 sharpened,  and  tore  up  th« 
 earth  in  a  rude  manner.  At  the 
 present  day  they  have  in  east* 
 em  countries  ploughs  which 
 are  entirely  wooden.  Travel- 
 lers describe  ploughs  of  the 
 former  construction  as  usual  iQ 
 Syria.  They  are  drawn  chiefly 
 by  cows  and  asses.  In  Persia 
 one  ox  or  one  ass  is  used.  The 
 next  improvement  was  the  ad- 
 dition of  handles  or  stilts,  by 
 which  it  might  be  more  easily 
 directed.  In  process  of  time, 
 the  various  forms  of  the  imple- 
 ment, as  known  among  our- 
 selves, were  added;  though  U 
 is  probable  that  the  best  of  an- 
 cient ploughs  was  inferior  to 
 the  worst  which  we  have  evet 
 seen. 
 
 The  following  cut  represents 
 the  form,  &c.  "of  the  ecistem 
 plough. 
 
 PLUMB-LINE,  (Amosvii.7, 
 8,)  PLUMMET.  (Isa.  xxviii. 
 17.)  A  line  by  which  a  plum- 
 met or  leaden  weisht  hangs, 
 and  by  the  application  of 
 which,  the  exactness  of  perpen- 
 dicularity may  be  ascertained. 
 
 POETS.  (Acts  xvii.  28.) 
 The  poet  referred  to  in  this 
 verse  is  supposed  to  be  Aratus, 
 a  citizen  of  Cilicia,  and  of 
 course  a  townsman  of  Paul. 
 Aratus  was  speakiag  of  a  hea- 
 Uien  deity  as  the  author  and 
 upholder  of  all  things  ;  and 
 Paul  attempts  to  persuade  them 
 Chat,  if  this  sentiment  is  true, 
 (as  it  emphatically  is  when  ap- 
 plied to  the  true  God,)  we 
 ^ould  worship  him,  and  not  a 
 
 senseless  image,  graven  by  art 
 and  man's  device^ 
 
 POLL,  POLLED.  (Num.  iii. 
 47.)  When  used  as  a  noun, poll 
 means  a  head  ;  and  when  used 
 as  a  verb,  it  means  to  cut  the 
 hair  from  the  head.  (2  Sam. 
 xiv.  26.) 
 POLLUX.  (See  Castor.) 
 PO.MEGRANATE,  (Num. 
 xiii.  2-3,)  or  granate  apple, 
 grows  wild  in  Palestine,  (Num. 
 XX.  5.  Deut.  viii.8.  ISam.  xiv, 
 2,)  and  Syria,  as  well  as  in 
 Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and 
 some  pans  of  Europe.  Africa, 
 and  theUnited  Stales.  The  fruit 
 is  of  the  size  of  an  orange,  flat 
 tened  at  the  ends  like  an  ap- 
 ple; and  when  cultivated,  ts 
 501 
 
POO 
 
 «>f  a  beautiful  colour,  (Sol.  Song 
 iv.  3;  vi.  7,)  and  of  a  highly 
 grateful  flavour.  (Sol.  Song  iv. 
 13.)  It  was  sometimes  used, 
 perhaps,  as  lemon-juice  is  at 
 the  present  day,  to  which  re- 
 ference may  be  had  in  Sol. 
 Song  viii.  2.  The  rind  is  at 
 first  green;  but,  in  August  and 
 September,  when  the  fruit  is 
 ripe,  it  assumes  a  brownish-red 
 colour,  becomes  thick  and  hard , 
 yet  easily  brol<en.  The  inside 
 of  the  pomegranate  is  of  a  bright 
 
 f>ink,  with  skinny  partitions 
 ike  those  of  the  ora  iige;  abounds 
 with  a  juice  which  is  both 
 sweet  and  acid,  and  a  great 
 multitude  of  little  white  and 
 purplish-red  seeds.  Henry  IV. 
 of  Spain  chose  this  fruit  fir  his 
 royal  arms,  with  the  motto, 
 "Sour,  yet  sweet;"  intimating 
 that  in  a  good  king  severity 
 should  be  thus  tempered  with 
 mildness. 
 
 Figures  resembl  i  ng  th  e  pome- 
 granate in  appearance  were 
 worked  into  the  high-priest's 
 robe,  (Ex.  xxviii.  33,)  and  were 
 alao  used  in  the  ornamental 
 work  of  architecture.  (1  Kings 
 vii.  18.  For  a  full  description 
 and  beautiful  engravins  of  the 
 
 FDmegranate,     see     Youth's 
 RiEND  for  Nov.  1329,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 PONTUS.  (IPet.  i.  1.)  The 
 north-eastern  province  of  Asia 
 Minor,  lying  along  the  Black 
 Sea,  having  Colchis  on  the  east, 
 Caf^adocia  south,  and  Paphla- 
 eonia  west.  Many  Jews  resided 
 here  in  the  time  of  Christ,  (Acts 
 ii.  9,)  and  the  gospel  was  early 
 introduced  and  entertained  by 
 many,  whom  Peter  addresses 
 in  his  first  epistle. 
 
 Aquila,  Paul's  companion, 
 wais  of  this  province.  (Acts 
 xviii. 2.)  It  became  a  province 
 of  Rome  in  the  timeof  Pompey. 
 
 POOLS  OF  WATER.  (Eccl. 
 ii.  6.    See  Cisterns,  Water.) 
 
 POOLS  OF  SOLOMON.  (See 
 Solomon.) 
 
 43 
 
 POR 
 
 POOR.  (Matt.  xxvi.  11.)  Un- 
 der  the  Jewish  dispensation, 
 God  accommodated  almost 
 every  kind  of  offering  to  the 
 case  of  the  poor;  he  seems 
 to  take  special  notice  of  them ; 
 he  appointed  the  gleanings  of 
 fields  and  vineyards,  ana  the 
 increase  of  the  seventh  year, 
 and  part  of  the  third  lithe,  to 
 be  Iheir's.  (Lev.  xix.  10;  xxv. 
 25—47.)  Christians  are  alsc 
 charged  to  provide  for  them; 
 and  a  blessing  is  promised  on 
 such  as  wisely  consider  their 
 case  and  help  them.  (Ps.  xli. 
 1—3.  Gal.  ii.  10.)  Judges  are 
 charged  to  do  them  justice,  but 
 not  unjustly  to  favour  them 
 for  their  poverty.  (Ex.  xxiii.  6. 
 Lev.  xix.  15.  Ps.  Ixxxii.  4.) 
 God  claims  to  be  the  special 
 protector  of  them.  (Prov.  xiv. 
 31.) 
 
 POPLAR.  (Hos.  iv.  13.)  Pro- 
 bably the  white  poplar,  com- 
 mon in  the  south  of  Europe,  is 
 here  meant,  as  it  is  a  hand- 
 some shade-tree;  and  hence 
 might  be  chosen  for  idolatrous 
 worship. 
 
 PORCH.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 
 Solomon's  porch.  (See 
 Temple.) 
 
 PORTERS.  (1  Chron.  xvi. 
 42.)  Such  as  attend  the  gate 
 of  a  cily  or  house,  to  open  and 
 shut  it.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  26.  2 
 Kings  vii.  10.)  The  temple 
 had  fnir  thousand  of  them. 
 (1  Chron.  xxiii.  5.)  They  were 
 classified,  and  had  leaders  or 
 directors.  (ICliron.  xxvi.  1— 
 13.  2 Chron.  viii.  14.) 
 
 PORTION.  (Neh.  viii.  10.) 
 Among  the  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
 and  Hebrews  oiancient  times, 
 the  portion  of  food  intended  for 
 every  guest  was  set  before  him 
 separately.  Something  of  the 
 same  kind  is  common  at  the 
 court  of  Persia.  Wlien  it  was 
 intended  lo  confer  special 
 honour  upon  any  one,  a  por 
 tion  much  greater  than  com 
 mon  was  given  to  him.  (Gen. 
 505 
 
POS 
 xliii.  340     A  worthy  porhon  | 
 (I  Sam.  i.  5)  means,  literally, 
 a  double  portimi. 
 
 POSSESSED.  (Matt,  iv.24.)  | 
 The  possession  of  devils,  which 
 is  often  mentioned  in  the  sa- 
 cred Scriptures,  is  generally 
 regarded  as  an  actual  and 
 complete  possession  of  the 
 faculties,  held  by  one  or  more 
 evil  spirits,  and  manifesting 
 itself  in  various  diseases  of  the 
 mind  and  body,  such  as  melan- 
 choly, madness,  epilepsy,  &c. 
 They  are  represented  as  going 
 oiit  of  persons,  and  entering 
 into  them.  They  speak  and 
 are  spoken  to,  ask  and  answer 
 questions,  express  their  know- 
 ledge and  fear  of  Christ,  are 
 threatened  and  commanded, 
 and,  indeed,  are  always  treated 
 and  regarded  as  living,  active, 
 sensibfe  beings.  The  same 
 degree  of  power  which  was 
 given  to  Satan  in  the  case 
 of  Job,  may  be  exercised  in 
 various  forms,  and  with  greater 
 or  less  malignity,  on  others. 
 Nor  is  there  any  thing  more 
 irrational  or  anomalous  (so  far 
 as  we  know)  in  the  fact  that 
 evil  spirits  should  have  power, 
 under  the  government  of  God, 
 to  execute  his  will  in  one  form, 
 than  that  holy  angels  should 
 be  employed  to  minister  to  his 
 purposes  in  another.  (Heb.  i. 
 14.)  It  is  much  more  difficult 
 10  reconcile  the  language  of 
 the  sacred  writers  with  the 
 idea  that  possessions  so  called 
 were  merely  bodily  diseases 
 affecting  the  mind,  and  lead- 
 ing the  sufierer  to  suppose 
 himself  possessed,  than  it  is 
 to  admit  that  the  possession 
 was  real ;  though  an  entire 
 ignorance  of  the  nature  of  spi- 
 ritual existences  prevents  us 
 from  understandin'g  how  it 
 could  be.  (Comp.  Matt.  x.  1. 
 Mark  vi.  12,  13.  Luke  ix.  38- 
 42;  x.  17—20.     See  Biblical 
 
 ANTiauiTiES,   vol.  i.    ch.  vii. 
 
 §  1,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 POST.   (Job  ix.  25.)  A  mes- 
 
 POT 
 
 senger  or  bearer  of  tidings 
 (2  Sam.  xviii.  27.  Jer  li.  31."* 
 There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
 persons,  fleet  of  foot,  were 
 trained  to  the  business  of  run- 
 ning; and  we  are  told,  by  pro- 
 fane historians,  of  those  who 
 travelled  from  Tyre  to  Jerusa- 
 lem, a  distance  of  one  hundred 
 miles,  in  twenty-four  succes- 
 sive hours.  To  convey  intel- 
 ligence quickly,  the  rersian 
 kings  had  sentinels  placed  al 
 proper  distances,  who,  by  cry- 
 ing  one  to  another,  gave  notice 
 of  public  occurrences.  This 
 method,  however,  was  imprac- 
 ticable for  secret  intelligence. 
 Cyrus  therefore  settled  posts 
 that  rode  night  and  day,  in  the 
 manner  of  our  expresses.  (Esth. 
 iii.  13.)  Nothing  swifter  wa8 
 known  for  a  journey  by  land. 
 The  expression  (Ezek.  xliii 
 8)  that  the  Jews  set  up  their 
 posts  by  (rot/'spos/,  figurative- 
 ly alludes  to  their  valuing  and 
 observing  their  idolatries  and 
 traditions  equally  with  his 
 statutes  and  worship. 
 
 POT.  (Jobxli.20.)  The  word 
 here  translated  «o<  is  trans- 
 lated basket,  (Jer.  xxiv.  2.) 
 kettle,  (1  Sam.  ii.  14,)  and  cal- 
 dron. (2Chron.  xxxv.  13.)  In 
 Ps.  Ixxxi.  6,  reference  is  pro- 
 bably had  to  the  close-wrought 
 baskets  which  the  eastern 
 labourers  now  use  as  we  do 
 the  hod  for  carrying  mortar. 
 The  same  vessel  is  probably 
 intended  inJudg.vi.  19.  2Kingf 
 X.  7.  Jer.  vi.  9. 
 
 Ranges  for  pots  (Lev.  li 
 
 35)    probably  means   the  ex 
 
 cavaiions  for  the  fire  over  whick 
 
 the  pots  were  placed.    Sucl 
 
 er^cavations  are  still  found  if 
 
 Persia   and    Arabia,   and   arf 
 
 used  i  n  like  manner.  (See Oven. 
 
 POTIPHAR.    (Gen.  xxxvii. 
 
 36.)    A  dislingui,shed  officer  in 
 
 Pharaoh's  court,  whfl  elevated 
 
 Joseph  to  a  place  of  trust,  and 
 
 commitied  to  him  the  charge 
 
 of  the  household. 
 
 POTI-PHERAH.  (Gen.  xli 
 
 506 
 
PRa 
 45.)    A  priest  or  prince  of  On, 
 and  falher-in-law  of  Joseph. 
 
 POTSHERD.  Cisa.  xlv.  9.) 
 The  fragment  of  an  earthen 
 vessel.  (Job  ii.  8.)  When  such 
 fragments  are  brought  into  col- 
 lision, being  alike  brittle,  each 
 breaks  the  other  into  pieces. 
 Not  so  in  the  unequal  contest 
 between  man  and  liis  Maker. 
 
 POTTAGE.  (Gen.  xxv.  29.) 
 At  this  day,  in  many  parts  of 
 the  east,  lentiles  are  boiled  or 
 stewed  like  beans  with  oil  and 
 garlic,  and  make  a  dish  of  a 
 chocolate  cclour,which  is  eaten 
 as  pottage.  Other  ingredients 
 were  used,  as  in  soups  of  mo- 
 dern times.  (2  Kings  iv.  39.) 
 
 POTTER.  (Rom.  ix.  21.)  A 
 manufacturer  of  earthen  ware. 
 The  manner  of  working  the 
 clay  into  shape  is  alluded  to 
 by  the  prophet,  (Jer.  xviii.  3,) 
 and  may  be  seen  in  some 
 branches  of  the  modern  manu- 
 facture. The  freedom  of  the 
 potter  to  make  what  sort  of 
 vessel  he  chooses,  and  to  mould 
 or  mar  it  at  his  pleasure,  is 
 used  as  an  illusiratiou  of  God's 
 dominion  over  the  works  of  his 
 hands.  (Ps.  ii.  9.  See  also 
 the  passages  before  cited  from 
 Jeremiah  and  Romans.) 
 
 POTTER'S  FIELD.  (See 
 AcELDAiMA.  See  also  Selu- 
 MiEL,  pp.  187—194,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 POUND.    (See  Measures.) 
 
 PRAISE.  (Ps.  xxxiii.  1.)  In 
 the  ordinary  Scripture  use  of 
 the  term,  it  denotes  an  act  of 
 worship,  and  is  often  used 
 synonymously  with  thanks- 
 giving. It  is  called  forth  by 
 the  contemplation  of  the  cha- 
 racter and  attributes  of  God, 
 however  they  are  displayed; 
 and  it  implies  a  grateful  sense 
 and  acknowledgment  of  past 
 mercies.  Expressions  of  praise 
 abound  in  the  Psalms  of  David, 
 in  almost  every  variety  of  force 
 and  beauty;  and  the  nature 
 of  the  duty,  as  well  as  the  pro- 
 per manner  of  its  performance, 
 
 PRE 
 
 may  be  best  ascertained  by  a 
 diligent  study  of  his  language 
 and  spirit. 
 
 PRAYER  (2Sam.  vii.27)  is 
 the  expression  of  our  desires 
 unto  God.  It  is  a  privilege 
 with  which  our  Maker  has 
 favoured  us,  and  a  necessary 
 part  of  that  obedience  which 
 he  has  required  of  us,  to  pray 
 without  ceasing;  in  everything, 
 by  prayer  and  supplication, 
 with  thanksgiving,  letting  our 
 requesi.s  be  made  known  unto 
 God  ;  praying  always  with  all 
 prayer  and  supplication.  (Eph. 
 \l  18.  Phil.  iv.  6.  1  Thess.  v. 
 17.)  Condidered  as  a  duty  of 
 worship,  prayer  has  been  re- 
 garded as  consisting  of  invoca- 
 tion, (Ps.  v.  2 ;)  adoration,  (2 
 Chron.  xx.  6 ;)  confession,  (Ezra 
 ix.  6;)  petition,  (Ps.  vii.  1;) 
 pleading,  (Jer.  xii.  1 ;)  profes- 
 sion or  self-dedication,  (Ps 
 Ixxiii.  25 ;)  thanksgiving,  (Ps. 
 cxlvii.  ITim.  ii.  1;)  blessing. 
 (Ps.  ciii.  20-22.) 
 
 God  is  the  only  object  of 
 prayer.  His  throne  of  grace  is 
 to  be  approached  by  sinful  and 
 dying  men,  through  Christ  the 
 one  Mediator  between  God  and 
 man,  and  in  entire  dependence 
 on  the  Holy  Spirit  to  help  our 
 infirmities.  This  ia  not  the 
 place  to  enter  upon  the  con- 
 sideration of  the  kinds,  forms, 
 and  postures  of  prayer.  (For 
 postures  in  prayer,  with  illus- 
 trative cuts,  see  Youth's 
 Friend  for  Aug.  1836,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 PREACH.  (Isa.  Ixi.  1.)  To 
 preach  is  to  discourse  publicly 
 on  religious  subjects.  From 
 the  earliest  period  of  associa- 
 tions for  the  worship  of  God, 
 preaching  has  been  the  chief 
 instrument  by  which  the  know- 
 ledge of  the  truth  has  been 
 spread,  (2 Pet.  ii.  5.  Jude  14, 
 15 ;)  and  is  still  to  be  so.  (1  Cor. 
 i.  21.)  We  have  a  beautiful 
 account  of  the  ancient  mode 
 of  preaching  in  Neh.  viii.,  from 
 which  timelill  the  appearance 
 5O7 
 
PRE 
 
 of  Christ, public  preaching  was 
 universal :  synagogues  were 
 multiplied  and  well  attended, 
 and  officers  were  duly  appoint- 
 ed for  the  purpose  of  order  and 
 instruction.  John  the  Baptist 
 was  especially  commissioned 
 to  preach  the  coming  of  Christ, 
 the  great  teacher  sent  from 
 God.  Since  the  introduction 
 of  the  gospel,  the  preaching 
 of  it  has  been  generally  re- 
 garded as  a  sacred  profession, 
 and  has,  for  the  most  part,  been 
 confined  to  an  appointed  order 
 of  men. 
 
 PREPARATION.  (Matt, 
 xxvii.  62.)  Tlie  first  day  of 
 the  feast  of  the  passover  was 
 called  the  day  of  preparation, 
 because  all  things  were  on  that 
 day  made  ready  for  the  solem- 
 nities of  the  paschal  week. 
 (See  Passover.) 
 
 PRESBYTERY.  (1  Tim.  iv. 
 14.)  A  court  or  council  of  ec- 
 clesiastics, for  ordaining  offi- 
 cers, and  governing  the  church. 
 
 PRESENTS.  (1  Sam.  ix.  7.) 
 \  Gifts  or  otferings  with  which 
 
 men  in  authority  or  hi|h 
 esteem  are  approached.  In 
 many  eastern  countries  at  this 
 day,  even  the  common  people, 
 in  their  familiar  visits,  take  a 
 flower,  or  an  orange,  or  some 
 other  token  of  respect,  to  the 
 person  visited. 
 
 PRESSES,  (Isa.  xvi.  10,)  or 
 PRESSFATS,  (Hag.  ii.  16,) 
 were  vessels  or  cisterns  placed 
 in  the  side  of  a  hill,  into  which 
 the  juice  of  grapes  flowed 
 when  it  was  pressed  out  by 
 treading  them  with  the  feet, 
 or  by  pressing  them  with  a 
 machine.  (Prov.  iii.  10.  Matt. 
 xxi.33.)  Such  are  now  used  in 
 Persia.  The  upper  vessel,  being 
 eight  feet  square  and  four  deep, 
 is 'used  to  press  out  the  juice, 
 which  runs  into  another  cistern 
 below.    (Spb  Wine.) 
 
 PRETORIUM.  (Mark  xv. 
 16.)  The  palace  in  Jerusalem 
 where  the  pretor  or  Roman 
 governor  resided,  and  in  the 
 
 PRI 
 
 I  hall  of  which  he  sat  to  admJ 
 nister  justice.  (Comp.  Malt, 
 xxvii.  27.  John  xviii.  28.  33.) 
 There  was  a  similar  place  at 
 Cesarea.  (Acts  xxiii.  So.) 
 
 PRICKS,  (Acts  ix.  5;)  or 
 goads.  Long,  sharp-pomted 
 sticks,  which  were  used  to 
 drive  cattle,  &c.,  by  pricking 
 them.  The  expression  in  this 
 passage  was  a  proverb,  and 
 originated  in  this,  that  restive 
 oxen  often  push  themselves 
 or  kick  back  against  the  goa»1s, 
 and  thus  wound  themselves 
 the  more  deeply.  Hence  the 
 the  proverb  is  used  to  denote 
 the  folly  and  madnessof  resist- 
 ing lawful  authority.  A  great 
 number  of  heathen  writers  use 
 the  proverb  familiarly,  and 
 always  to  signify  the  abstu"dity 
 of  such  rebellion. 
 
 PRIEST.  (Gen.  xiv.  18.)  This 
 is  the  general  name  for  minis- 
 ters of  religion  in  all  ages  and 
 countries.  In  the  sacred  Scrip- 
 tures it  denotes  one  who  off"ers 
 sacrifice.  Previous  to  the  Mo- 
 saic ritual,  the  ofFeringof  sacri- 
 fices pertained  to  private  indi- 
 viduals. Fathers  were  the 
 priests  of  their  own  families. 
 Perhaps  a  more  general  priestly 
 office  existed,  such  as  that  ex- 
 ercised by  Melchizedek.  But 
 when  the  dispensation  by  Mo- 
 ses was  introduced,  a  particu- 
 lar order  of  men  were  appointed 
 to  that  special  service,  (Ex. 
 xxvii i.)  with  very  solemn  and 
 imposing  ceremonies ;  and  from 
 that  time  the  offering  of  sacri- 
 fices was  chiefly  restricted  to 
 those  who  were  duly  invested 
 with  the  priestly  office.  (2 
 Chron.  xxvi.  18.)  All  the  male 
 descendants  of  Aaron  were 
 priests;  and  the  first-born  of 
 every  family  of  his  descend- 
 ants in  succession  sustained 
 the  dignified  and  important 
 office  of  high-priest.  (See  High- 
 priest.)  "The  principal  em 
 ployments  of  the  priests,  next 
 to  attending  on  the  sacrifices 
 and  the  temple  service,  con- 
 508 
 
PRO 
 
 sisted  in  the  instruction  of  the 
 people  and  the  deciding  of 
 controversies  and  questions 
 arising  under  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  Jewish  law,  which 
 were  very  numerous.  In  time 
 of  war  their  duty  was  to  carry 
 the  ark  of  the  covenant;  to 
 consult  the  Lord  ;  to  sound  the 
 holy  trumpets,  a  nd  to  encourage 
 the  army.  (Num.  x.  8, 9.  Deut. 
 XX.  2.  For  a  full  account  of 
 the  manner  of  their  consecra- 
 tion, dress,  duties,  &c.  see  Ex. 
 xxix.  1—35.  Lev.  viii.  1—36. 
 See  also  Biblical  ANxiaui- 
 TiES,  ch.  iv.  §  ii.  and  iii.,  and 
 Evening  Recreations,  vol. 
 iv.  pp.  26 — 43,  both  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 PROPHECY,  (Matt.  xiii.  \4,) 
 PROPHETS,  (1  Sam.  x.  5,)  or 
 SEERS.  (ISam.  ix.  9.)  To 
 prophesy  is  to  foretell,  under 
 divine  inspiration,  certain 
 things  which  are  to  happen. 
 Of  course  prophecy  is  a  reve- 
 lation from  God,  made  through 
 man  to  man,  respecting  future 
 events.  (2  Pet.  i.  2i.)  In  a 
 strict  sense,  a  prophet  is  one 
 to  whom  tlie  knowledge  of 
 secret  things  is  revealed,  whe- 
 ther past,  (John  iv.  19,)  present, 
 (2  Kings  V.  26,)  or  to  come. 
 (Lnke  i.  76—79.) 
 
 Different  modes  seem  to  have 
 been  employed  to  convey  to 
 the  prophets  the  knowledge 
 of  future  events.  Some  sup- 
 pose that  the  events  passed 
 before  their  minds  like  a  pic- 
 ture or  panorama,  and  that 
 they  describe  its  parts  in  suc- 
 cession, as  one  would  an  ex- 
 tended landscape.  This,  it  is 
 supposed,  will  account  for  llieir 
 often  speaking  of  the  occur- 
 rences which  they  predict  as 
 passing  at  the  moment,  or  al- 
 ready passed :  as,  for  instance, 
 in  the  liii.  chapter  of  Isaiah. 
 Objects  and  symbols  were  pre- 
 sented to  the  prophetic  eye 
 waking  and  sleepin?,  and 
 someiinies  there  was  probably 
 »n  articulate  audible  voice; 
 43* 
 
 PRO 
 
 but  in  whatever  form  the  com- 
 munication  was  made,  the  im- 
 pression was  doubtless  as  dis- 
 tinct and  vivid  as  were  objects 
 of  ocular  vision.  The  spirit 
 of  prophecy,  seating  itself  in 
 the  rational  powers,  informed, 
 enlightened,  and  employed 
 them  to  understand  and  de- 
 clare to  others  the  will  of  God. 
 
 Some  think  it  uncertain 
 whether  the  prophets  always 
 or  even  generally  knew  the 
 time  of  the  future  events,  or 
 the  meaning  of  what  was  com- 
 municated to  them.  Hence  it 
 is  said  that  Daniel  and  John 
 made  inquiries  as  to  the  mean- 
 ing of  certain  portions  of  their 
 revelations,  and  they  were 
 distinctly  explained  to  them. 
 (Dan.  viii.  15,  &c.  Rev.  xvii. 
 7,  &c.  Comp.  Dan.  xii.  8,  9. 
 IPet.   i.  11.) 
 
 Others,  on  the  contrary, 
 maintain  that  there  is  no 
 sufficient  ground  for  this  opi- 
 nion, and  "that  there  is  every 
 reason  to  believe  that  the  fa- 
 culties of  the  prophets  were 
 purified,  strengthened,  and  ele- 
 vated, in  a  supernatural  de- 
 gree; that  they  understood  dis- 
 tinctly the  subject  of  prophetic 
 revelation;  and  that  the  ob- 
 scurity in  which  the  prophetic 
 writings  are  involved  in  our 
 view,  arises  from  our  imperfect 
 conceptions,  and  not  from  any 
 want  of  clearness  in  the  pro- 
 phecies themselves. 
 
 The  predictions  were  some- 
 times announced  by  the  pro 
 phets  to  the  people,  both  in 
 assemblies  and  by  writing. 
 (Isa.  viii.  2;  Iviii.  1,  &c.  Jer. 
 vii.  2.)  Sometimes  they  were 
 posted  up  on  the  public 
 gates,  and  sometimes  an- 
 nounced with  the  most  affect- 
 ing tokens  upon  the  persons 
 or  in  the  conduct  of  the  pro- 
 phets, that  the  predictions  they 
 uttered  were  true.  (Isa.  xx. 
 Jer.  xix.  and  xxvii.) 
 
 The  heathen  poets  are  called 
 prophets,  because  it  was  sup- 
 509 
 
PRO 
 
 posed  they  wrote  under  the 
 influence  of  the  gods.  (Tit.  i. 
 12.)  Aaron  is  called  the  pro- 
 phet of  Moses,  (Ex.  vii.  1,) 
 because  he  declared  the  com- 
 munications of  Moses  to  the 
 j)eople. 
 
 The  term  prophesy  is  also 
 used  analogically,  (1  Cor.  xi.  4, 
 5;  xiv.  l,&c.,)  probably  because 
 those  who  exercised  these  func- 
 tions were  regarded  as  under 
 the  direction  oT  the  Holy  Spirit. 
 So  it  is  said  that  Judas  and 
 Silas  were  prophets;  and  in 
 Acts  xiii.  1,  that  there  were  in 
 the  church  at  Antioch  cer- 
 tain prophets  and  teachers; 
 that  is,  official  instruciers. 
 (Comp.  1  Cor.  xii.  28.  See  also 
 Acts  xxi.  9.  Eph.  ii.  20.  Rev. 
 xviii.  20.)  It  is  also  applied  to 
 the  sacred  musicians.  (iChron. 
 XXV.  1.)  Ii  may  be  only  because 
 Miriam  led  the  concert  (Ex. 
 XV.  20, 21)  that  she  is  reckoned 
 as  a  prophetess. 
 
 Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
 and  Daniel  are  called  the 
 greater  prophets  from  the  size 
 of  their  books,  and  the  extent 
 and  importance  of  their  prophe- 
 cies. The  others  are  called  the 
 minor  or  lesser  prophets. 
 
 The  supposed  chronological 
 arrangement  of  the  prophe- 
 cies, and  the  order  in  which 
 they  may  be  most  intelligibly 
 read,  is  as  follows. 
 
 Jonah  .  -B.C.  856—784 
 
 Amos      •  •        -    810—785 
 
 Hosea-  -       -       810—725 
 
 Isaiah     •  .       -    810—698 
 
 Joel      -  .       .       810—660 
 
 Micah     •  •       •    758-699 
 
 Nahum  •       720—698 
 
 Zephaniah  •       •    640—609 
 
 Jereii.iah  -        -        628—586 
 
 Habakkuk  -       .    613—698 
 
 Daniel  •       .        606—534 
 
 Obad:ah-  •        .    588— 5«3 
 
 Ezekiel  •       .       595—536 
 
 Hag23i    •  •        .    620-518 
 
 Zechariah  -        -        520—518 
 
 Maiaclii-  -       .    436—420 
 
 A  useful  classification  of  the 
 prophets  assigns  the  first  eischt 
 to  the  period  'before  the  Baby- 
 lonian captivity  ;  ihe  five  next 
 
 PRO 
 
 to  a  period  near  to  and  during 
 the  captivity ;  and  the  three 
 last  after  the  return  of  the  Jews 
 from  Babylon.  The  historical 
 books  of  these  three  periods  il- 
 lustrate the  prophetical.  They 
 were  all  uttered  within  a  pe- 
 riod of  about  four  liundred 
 years. 
 
 The  prophets  were  the  di- 
 vines, the  philosophers,  the  in- 
 structers,  and  the  guides  of  the 
 Hebrews  in  piety  and  virtue. 
 They  generally  lived  retired. 
 Their  habitations  and  mode  of 
 life  were  plain,  ani'  simple, 
 and  consistent. 
 
 Sons  of  the  prophets. 
 C2.  Kings  ii.  3.  5.)  Probably  pu- 
 pils of  the  prophets,  trained  up 
 by  them  in  a  knowledge  of  re- 
 ligion, and  in  habits  of  devotion 
 and  piety.  Periiaps  they  were 
 employed  as  assisiants  to  the 
 
 prophets,  and  stood  in  the  rela- 
 tion which  evangelists  are  sup- 
 posed by  some  to  have  borne 
 to  the  apostles. 
 
 The  phrase,  that  it  might 
 be  fulfilled  ichich  was  spoken, 
 Sec,  (Matt.  i.  22,)  does  not  al- 
 ways mean  that  the  event  hap- 
 pened, or  was  brought  about,  in 
 order  to  make  good  the  predic- 
 tion ;  but  often  merely  that 
 thus,  or  in  this  manner,  a 
 certain  prophecy  was  accom- 
 plished.    (See  P  ULFILLED.) 
 
 PROPHETESS.  (Ex.xv.20.) 
 Prophetess  signifies  not  only 
 the  wife  of  a  proj)het,  (Isa.  viii. 
 3,)  but  also  a  woman  thai  has 
 the  gift  of  prophecy.  Among 
 these  were  Miriam,  Deborah, 
 Hannah,  and  Anna. 
 
 PROPITIATION.  (Rom.  iii. 
 25.)  The  word,  wherever  it  oc- 
 curs in  our  Scriptures,  (1  John 
 ii.  2;  iv.  10,)  is  of  like  deriva- 
 tion, and  denotes,  in  the  origi- 
 nal use  of  it,  the  action  of  a 
 person  who  in  some  appointed 
 way  averts  the  wrath  of  a  de- 
 ity, or  pacifies  an  offended 
 party.  A  word  of  kindred  ori- 
 gin is  elsewhere  translated 
 sin-qfferifig,  (Ezek.  xliv.  27 
 510 
 
PRO 
 
 and  xlv,  19 ;)  and  atonement, 
 Num.  V,  8;)  the  mercy-seat, 
 (Heb.  ix.  5 ;)  or  the  place 
 or  instrument  of  propitiation, 
 where  the  blood  of  the  sin-of- 
 fering was  sprinked  by  the 
 high-priest  to  make  an  atone- 
 ment for  sin.    (Lev.  xvi.  14.) 
 
 PROSELYTE.  (Matt.xxiii. 
 15.)  A  name  given  by  the  Jews 
 to  such  as  were  converted  from 
 heathenism  to  the  Jewish  faith. 
 The  Jewish  Rabbins  mention 
 ftt  least  two  classes.  Proselytes 
 •)f  righteousness,  who  fully  em- 
 braced the  Jewish  religion, 
 were  admitted  to  the  enjoy- 
 ments of  all  its  rites  and  ordi- 
 nances; (proselytes  of  this 
 class  are  described  in  Ezra  vi. 
 21 ;)  and  proselytes  of  the 
 gate,  who  renounced  heathen- 
 ism, and  conformed  in  some 
 respects  to  the  Jewish  religion, 
 and  were  allowed  only  limited 
 privileges.  (See  Biblical  An- 
 TiauiTiEs,  vol.  ii.  ch.  vii.,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.)  It  seems  to 
 be  the  better  opinion,  however, 
 that  this  distinction  is  without 
 authority,  and  that  the  only 
 proselytes  were  such  as  em- 
 braceci  the  whole  system  of 
 Jewish  worship. 
 
 PROVERB.  (1  Sam.  x.  12.) 
 This  word  is  sometimes  used 
 as  synonymous  with  parable. 
 (John  xvi.  29.)  Strictly  speak- 
 ing, a  proverb  is  a  short  moral 
 sentence,  expressing  an  im- 
 portant principle  in  a  striking 
 and  forcible  manner. 
 
 The  Provkrbs  of  Solomon 
 constitute  an  important  por- 
 tion (and  the  twentieth  in 
 order  of  the  books)  of  the  Old 
 Testament.  It  is  a  collection 
 of  wise  maxims  or  sayings, 
 chiefly  of  Solomon,  concern- 
 ing almost  every  duty  and  re- 
 lation of  life.  It  is  indeed 
 a  storehouse  of  wisdom,  and 
 abounds  with  the  most  plain 
 and  practical  rules  for  the  re- 
 gulation of  the  life  and  heart. 
 
 The  first  ten  chapters  con- 
 tain cautions  and  exhortations 
 
 PSA 
 
 on  a  variety  of  subjects.  From 
 ch.  X.  to  ch.  xxii.  16,  we  find 
 what  are,  strictly  speaking,  pro- 
 verbs. From  ch.  xxii.  17,  to 
 ch.  xxiii.  we  have  important 
 instruction  addressed  in  a  con- 
 nected form  to  a  pupil  supposed 
 to  be  present.  Cii.  xxiii. — xxix. 
 constitute  a  collection  of  in- 
 spired proverbs,  which  there 
 is  some  reason  to  believe  were 
 derived  not  exclusively  from 
 the  lips  of  Solomon.  Ch.  xxx. 
 contains  the  admonitions  of 
 Agur,  and  ch.  xxxi.  the  coun- 
 sels given  to  king  Lemuel  by 
 his  mother.  The  general  simi- 
 larity of  the  matter  which  con- 
 stitutes the  book  of  Proverbs 
 may  well  account  for  the 
 mingling  of  authors,  without 
 resorting  to  the  presumption 
 that  Agur  and  Lemuel  were 
 none  other  than  Solomon  him- 
 self, under  a  fictitious  name. 
 It  is  said  by  judicious  critics 
 that  the  canonical  authority  of 
 no  part  of  the  Old  Testament 
 is  better  ratified  by  the  evi- 
 dence of  apostolic  quotations 
 than  the  book  of  Proverbs. 
 
 PSALMS,  (Luke  xxiv.  44,) 
 or  holy  songs.  A  psalm  is  a 
 poetic  composition  adapted  to 
 music,  vocal  or  instrumental, 
 but  especially  the  latter.  When 
 psalms,  hymns,  and  spiritual 
 sotigs  are  mentioned  together, 
 psalms  may  denote  such  as 
 were  sung  on  instruments ; 
 hymns,  such  as  contain  only 
 matter  of  praise  ;  and  spiritual 
 songs,  such  as  contain  doc- 
 trines, history,  and  prophecy 
 for  men's  instruction.  (Eph. 
 v.  19.) 
 
 The  Psalms  of  David  con- 
 stitute the  nineteenth  in  the 
 order  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  and  their  right  to  a 
 place  in  the  canon  has  never 
 been  disputed.  They  consist 
 of  inspired  hymns  and  songs, 
 meditations  and  prayers,  chief- 
 ly of  David.  It  is"  supposed 
 they  were  collected  into  one 
 book  by  Ezra,  though  without 
 oil 
 
PSA 
 
 MV  regard  to  chronological 
 oraer.  They  are  a  complete 
 and  perfect  manual  of  devo- 
 tional exercises;  and  there  is 
 scarcely  a  grief  or  disease  of 
 the  soul,  for'which  there  is  not 
 in  this  divine  book  a  present 
 comfortable  remedy  always  to 
 be  found  by  those  who  rightly 
 seek  it. 
 
 They  are  sometimes  called 
 The  Psalter,  from  the  psaltery, 
 a  musical  instrument  used  to 
 accompany  them  when  sung. 
 
 The  titles  of  the  Psalms 
 sometimes  have  reference  to  a 
 thoiceof  tunes,  or  instruments, 
 or  contain  some  directions  to 
 persons  appointed  to  set  them 
 to  music,  or  to  the  leaders  of 
 the  choir,  or  something  pecu- 
 liar in  the  subject,  season,  or 
 style  of  the  composition.  The 
 conjectures  as  to  their  meaning 
 are  various. 
 
 This  book  was  once  publish- 
 ed in  five  parts,  each  conclud- 
 ing with  a  do.\-ology,  viz.i. — xli.; 
 xlii.— Ixxii.;  Ixxiii.— Ixxxix. ; 
 xc— cvi;  cvii.— cl.;  but  it  is 
 cited  as  one  book,  Luke  xx. 
 42. 
 
 The  original  collection  would 
 seem  to  have  comprised  psalms 
 i.— Ixxii.  (See  the  subscription, 
 Ps.  Ixxii.  20.  And  for  a  chro- 
 nological arrangement  of  the 
 Psalms,  with  the  occasion 
 which  led  to  the  composition 
 of  them,  see  Life  of  David,  hy 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  pp.  273—275.) 
 
 PSALTERY  (Ps.  xxxiii.  2) 
 was  a  Babylonish  instrument. 
 In  our  version  of  the  Bible  the 
 name  is  given  to  other  instru- 
 ments: but  the  genuine  psal- 
 tery was  a  stringed  instrument, 
 as  far  as  we  can  learn,  like  the 
 len-stringed  lyre,  or  harp.  (See 
 Harp.) 
 
 The  modern  instrument  call- 
 ed psaltery  is  flat,  and  in  the 
 form  of  a  trapezium,  or  triangle 
 cut  off  at  the  top,  and  is  strung 
 with  thirteen  strings.  It  is 
 Btruck  with  a  plectrum,  or 
 •mall  iron  rod. 
 
 PUR 
 
 PTOLEMAIS.  (SeeAccHO.) 
 
 PUBLICAN.  (Matt,  xviii. 
 17.)  An  inferior  collector  of 
 the  Roman  tribute.  The  prin- 
 cipal farmers  of  this  revenue 
 were  men  of  great  credit  and 
 influence  ;  but  the  under-farm- 
 ers,  or  publicans,  were  remark- 
 able for  their  rapacity  and  ex- 
 tortion, and  were  accounted  as 
 oppressive  thieves  and  pick- 
 pockets. Hence  it  is  even  said 
 that  the  Jews  would  not  allow 
 them  to  enter  the  temple,  or 
 the  synagogues ;  to  partake  of 
 the  public  prayers,  or  offices 
 of  judicature ;  or  to  give  testi- 
 mony in  a  court  of  justice. 
 
 There  were  many  publicans 
 in  Judea  in  the  time  of  our  Sa- 
 viour. Zaccheus,  probably,  was 
 one  of  the  principal  receivers, 
 since  he  is  callecl  chief  among 
 the  publicans,  (Luke  xix.  2;) 
 but  Matthew  was  only  an  in- 
 ferior publican.  (Luke  v.  27.) 
 The  Jews  reproached  Jesus 
 with  being  a  ^ricncZ  of  publi- 
 cans and  sinners,  and  eating 
 with  them.    (Luke  vii.  34.) 
 
 PUL.  (2  Kings  XV.  19.)  The 
 first  king  of  Assyria,  who  in- 
 vaded Canaan,  and  by  a  pre- 
 sent of  one  thousand  talents  of 
 silver,  (equivalent  to  nearly 
 two  millions  of  dollars  in  our 
 day,)  was  prevailed  on  by  Me- 
 nahem  to  withdraw  his  troops, 
 and  recognise  the  title  of  that 
 wicked  visurper.  This  is  the 
 first  mention  of  Assyria  in  the 
 sacred  history  after  the  days  of 
 Nimrod,  and  Pul  was  the  first 
 Assyrian  invader  of  Judea.  A 
 town  of  this  name  is  mentioned 
 Isa.  Ixvi.  19;  which  is  sup- 
 posed, without  authority,  to  be 
 the  island  of  Philoe,  in  the  Nile, 
 not  far  from  Syene,  where  are 
 found  magnificent  ruins. 
 
 PULSE.  (2  Sam.  xvii.  23.) 
 Coarse  grain,  as  peas,  beans, 
 and  the  like.    (Dan.  i.  12. 16.) 
 
 PUR,  or  PURIM,  feast  of. 
 (See  Feasts.) 
 
 PURPLE.  (Ex.  XXV.  4.)  Thp 
 purple  dye,  so  famous  among 
 512 
 
PTJR 
 
 the  orientals  in  ancient  days, 
 was  much  used  by  the  Babylo- 
 nians. (Jer.  X.  9.  Ezek.  xxiii. 
 15;  xxvii.  16.)  The  hangings 
 of  the  temple  and  some  of  the 
 oriesis'  garments  were  of  this 
 colour.  "(Ex.  XXV.  4 ;  xxxv.  6; 
 xxxix.29.  2Chron.  iii.  14.)  It 
 was  imported  from  some  coun- 
 try beyond  Persia,  and  there 
 is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
 it  was  obtained  from  the  body  of 
 an  insect.  The  robes  of  royalty 
 and  distinction  were  of  purple, 
 and  hence  the  intended  gross- 
 ness  of  the  insult  and  mockery 
 of  our  Saviour.  (John  xix.  2. 5.) 
 The  colour  called  purple  was 
 probably  scarlet.     The  term 
 
 {mrple  was  applied  to  any  co- 
 our  into  which  red  entered. 
 
 PURSE.  (Mark  vi.  8.)  A 
 son  of  girdle,  such  as  is  often 
 found  at  the  present  day  in 
 eastern  countries.  A  part  of 
 the  girdle,  sufficient  to  encom- 
 pass the  body,  is  sewed  double, 
 and  fastened  with  a  buckle. 
 The  residue  is  wound  around 
 above  or  below  the  first  fold, 
 and  tucked  under.  The  first 
 fold  has  an  opening,  closed 
 witii  a  leathern  cover  and  strap, 
 through  which  the  contents  of 
 the  purse  are  passed.  (See 
 Clothes.) 
 
 A  modern  traveller  says— 
 "  I  bought  to-day  in  the  bazaar 
 a  woollen  girdle,  whose  con- 
 struction amply  explains  the 
 
 PYG 
 
 phrase  so  often  occurring  ^n  orh 
 ental  tales,  of  "  carrying  mo- 
 ney in  the  belt.'^  On  one  end 
 being  passed  once  round  the 
 waist,  it  is  fastened  by  a  buckle; 
 and  this  entire  portion,  being 
 sewed  double  all  round,  con- 
 tains the  money,  which  is 
 extracted  by  means  of  a  small 
 opening  in  the  front,  closed 
 with  a  leathern  cover  and 
 strap.  This  being  secured,  the 
 remainder  of  the  zone  is  folded 
 around  the  body  till  tlie  suc- 
 cessi  ve  envelopemems  take  up 
 all  the  cloth,  the  end  of  which 
 is  then  tucked  in  at  the  side  so 
 as  to  secure  the  folds." 
 
 The  word  translated /)!frses, 
 in  Matt.  x.  9,  signifies  literally 
 girdles ;  and  from  their  adap- 
 tation to  the  use  pointed  out  by 
 our  Saviour,  were  undoubtedly 
 of  the  same  fashion  with  that 
 which  is  above  described. 
 
 PUTEOLI,  (Actsxxviii.  13,) 
 or  the  wells,  now  Pozztioli,  a 
 city  eight  miles  north-west 
 from  Naples,  containing  about 
 ten  thousand  inhabitants,  for- 
 merly celebrated  for  its  warm 
 baths  and  springs.  The  har- 
 bour was  once  re^garded  as  the 
 best  in  Italy. 
 
 PYGARG  (Deut.  xiv.  5)  is 
 the  name  of  a  bird  of  the  eagle 
 kind  ;  but  here,  probably,  de- 
 notes a  beautiful  species  of  the 
 gazelle,  or  the  mountain  goat, 
 found  in  Africa  and  Asia. 
 
 QUA 
 pvUAILS,  (Ex.  xvi.  13,)  or 
 \dI,  partridges,  as  they  are 
 called  in  some  parts  of  the 
 United  Stales,  were  a  part  of 
 the  food  miraculously  supplied 
 to  the  Israeliies  in  ilie  wilder- 
 ness. (Ps.  Ixxviii.  27.)  Quails 
 are  still  common  in  the  deserts 
 of  Arabia,  and  are  brought  to 
 the  market  at  Jerusalem  iiy 
 thousands.  The  supply  to  the 
 Israelites  was  furnishecf  on  two 
 occasions.  (Ex.  xvi.  13.  Num. 
 
 QUA 
 xi.  31.)  Both  were  at  *.ne  sea 
 son  when  the  quails  pass  from 
 Asia  into  Europe,  and  are 
 found  in  immense  flocks  on 
 the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
 and  Red  Sea.  That  they  were 
 thrown  in  such  vast  quantities 
 into  the  camp  of  ihe  Israelites 
 as  to  sulfice  fir  the  food  of 
 perhaps  a  million  of  persons 
 for  more  than  a  month,  is  cer- 
 tainly supernatural.  The  de- 
 scription  of  the  quantity  is  lia 
 513 
 
QUA 
 
 QUI 
 
 ble  to  misapprehension.  The 
 original  does  not  represent  the 
 exact  height,  as  our  translation 
 does ;  and  some  suppose  it  has 
 ao  reference  at  all  to  quantity ; 
 xior  does  it  mean  that  the  least 
 amount  gathered  was  exactly 
 a  homer/In  the  latter  instance 
 a  large  but  indefinite  quantity 
 is  intended.  They  were  proba- 
 bly dried  in  the  sun  and  salted, 
 as  many  kinds  of  provisions 
 are  at  this  day.  Hence  the  ex- 
 pression, they  spread  them 
 abroad  for  themselves  round 
 about  the  camp.  (Num.  xi.  32.) 
 QUATERNION.  (Acts  xii. 
 4.)  When  Peter  is  said  to  have 
 been  delivered  to  four  quater- 
 nions of  soldiers,  it  is  to  be  un- 
 derstood that  he  was  guarded 
 by  four  men  at  a  time,  viz.  two 
 in  the  prison  with  him,(ver.  6,) 
 and  two  before  the  doors,  and 
 that  they  were  relieved  every 
 three  hours,  or  at  each  suc- 
 cessive watch  of  the  night,  by 
 four  others ;  making  in  all  six- 
 teen men.  (See  Life  of  Pe- 
 ter, pp.  194—196,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 Common  Quail 
 
 QUEEN  OF  HEAVEN 
 (Jer.  vii.  18.)  The  t-ile  under 
 which  the  moon  was  worship- 
 ped by  the  heathens.  Cakes 
 having  the  image  of  the  moon 
 stamped  on  them  are  supposed 
 to  have  been  presented  in  sa- 
 crifice, as  a  pan  of  their  idola- 
 trous worship. 
 
 QUICKSANDS.  (Actsxxvii. 
 17 )  Reference  is  had  in  this 
 passage  (as  it  is  supposed)  to 
 two  very  dangerous  sandbars 
 on  the  coast  of  Africa,  over 
 against  Sicily,  which  were  con- 
 tinually shifting  their  position, 
 and  forming  powerful  currents, 
 by  which  ships  were  drawn 
 from  their  course. 
 
 QUIVER.  (Ps.  cxxvii.  5.) 
 The  box  or  case  for  arrows. 
 The  word  is  often  used  figura- 
 tively. (Isa.  xlix.  2.  Lam.  iij. 
 2.)  In  Jer.  v.  16,  the  slaugh- 
 ter and  desolation  which  should 
 be  brought  upon  the  Israelites 
 by  the  invasion  of  the  Chal 
 deans,  is  expressed  by  calling 
 their  quivers  an  open  sepul- 
 chre, or  their  arrows  certain 
 death.    (See  Armour.) 
 
 RAA 
 
 RA.VMAH.  (Ezek.xxvii,22.) 
 A  country  or  district  of 
 Arabia,  trading  with  Tyre  in 
 spices,  stones,  and  gold ;  and  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  settled 
 by  tne  descendants  of  Raamah, 
 grandson  of  Ham.  (Gen.  x.  7.) 
 
 RAA 
 
 RAAMSES  or  RAMESES 
 (Gen.  xlvii.  11.  Ex.  xii.  37 
 Num.  xxxiii.  3.)  One  of 
 Pharaoh's  treasure-cities,  or 
 public  granaries,  probablj*  for 
 lifted  for  the  security  of  the 
 Travellers  tell  lu  of  a 
 614 
 
RAC 
 
 mass  of  ruins  found  at  the  mo- 
 dern villaee  of  Aben-keyshid, 
 about  forty  miles  from  Suez, 
 and  near  the  canal  connecting 
 that  city  with  the  Nile.  The 
 central  and  convenient  loca- 
 tion of  this  place  points  it  out 
 as  the  probable  site  of  the  an- 
 cient city.    (See  Pithom.) 
 
 RABBATH,  of  the  children 
 cf  Amnion,  (Deut.  iii.  11,)  was 
 the  chief  city  of  the  land  of  the  ; 
 Ammonites,  and  was  situated 
 in  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  not 
 far  from  the  source  of  the  Ar- 
 non.  It  was  here  that  Uriah  ' 
 lost  his  life  in  the  siege  of  the 
 city  by  Joab,  (2  Sam.  xi.  17;) 
 and  afterwards  i'.  was  captured, 
 David  himself  taking  the  head 
 of  the  army.  (2  Sam.  xii.  29.) 
 As  the  capital  of  the  Amnion- 
 ites,  the  severest  judgments 
 are  denounced  against  it  in 
 several  propheciesr  (Jer.  xlix. 
 1—3.  Ezek.  xxi.  20;  xxv.  5.) 
 Its  modern  name  is  Ajmnon, 
 about  twenty  miles  south-east 
 of  Szalt,  where  extensive  ruins 
 arenowf>und.  (S^e  Ammonites.) 
 
 RA  BBATH-MOAB.  (See  Ar.) 
 
 RABBI.  (Malt,  xxiii.  7.)  A 
 title  of  dignity,  literally  signi- 
 fying grejat  or  cfiief.  It  was 
 given  bj*lhe  Jews  to  distin- 
 guished teachers  of  their  law. 
 
 RABBUNI.  (John  xx.  16.)  A 
 Hebrew  word  signifying  my 
 master,  and  Tezardea  as  the 
 highest  title  of  honour  among 
 .hte  Jews. 
 
 RABSHAKEH,  (2 Kings 
 xviii.  17,)  or  the  chief  butler  or 
 cv.p-bearer,  was  sent  with  Rab- 
 saris,  or  the  chief  of  the  eu- 
 nuclis,  and  Tartan,  messengers 
 of  the  king  of  Assyria,  to  Heze- 
 kiah,  Bum'moning  him,  in  the 
 most  indecent  and  blasphe- 
 mous manner,  to  surrender  his 
 capital.  The  history  is  record- 
 ed in  2  Kines  xviii.  17—37. 
 
 RACA.  (l\Iatt.  v.  22.)    A  Sy- 
 riac  term  denoting  perfect  con- 
 tempi   of    the    individual    to 
 whom  it  is  applied. 
 RACE.  (1  Cor.  ix.  21.)    The 
 
 RAC 
 
 word  which  is  rendered  race 
 (Ps.  xix.  5)  signifies  tray,  road, 
 or  path.  Races  were  known 
 to  the  Hebrews.  (Eccl.  ix.  11.) 
 The  eastern  couriers  are  usu- 
 ally taken  from  among  the 
 strong  or  distinguished  officers 
 of  the  king's  Tforces.  Hence 
 the  sun, in  the  above  passage 
 from  Psalms,  is  represented  as 
 an  officer  honoured  by  the  Al- 
 mighty to  bear  the  announce- 
 ment of  his  power  through 
 every  clime  of  his  dominion, 
 in  language  silent,  but  expres- 
 sive, and"  equally  intelligible 
 to  all. 
 
 When  the  word  occurs  in 
 the  New  Testament,  it  alludes 
 to  the  Grecian  games  for  the 
 trial  of  strength' and  skill  in 
 running  on  foot  or  horseback, 
 or  in  chariots.  To  win  a  prize 
 at  these  games  was  considered 
 as  the  highest  honour  to  be  at- 
 tained o'n  earth.  The  most 
 strict  and  laborious  preparation 
 was  made  for  it,  (1  Cor.  ix.  24— 
 27,)  and  the  contest  was  go- 
 verned by  established  rules. 
 (2  Tim.  ii.  5.)  Those  who  con- 
 tended for  the  prize  were  di- 
 vested of  clothing;  every  im- 
 pediment was  removed;  the 
 prize  was  in  full  view  ;  and  the 
 crown  was  placed  upon  the 
 conqueror's  head  the  moment 
 the  issue  was  proclaimed.  (Phil, 
 iii.  12—14.  2Tim.  iv.6— 8.  Heb. 
 xii.  1.) 
 
 RACHEL.  (Gen.  xxix.  6.) 
 The  daughter  of  Laban,  the 
 wife  of  the  patriarch  Jacob, 
 and  the  mother  of  Joseph  and 
 Benjamin.  (See  Jacob.)  The 
 name  of  Rachel  is  used  by  the 
 prophet  (Jer.  xxxi.  15)  figura^ 
 lively,  as  the  maternal  ancestor 
 of  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
 IManasseh;  and  the  prophecy 
 he  uttered  is  supposed  to  have 
 been  fulfilled  when  those  tribes 
 were  carried  into  captivity  be- 
 yond the  Euphrates.  A  similar 
 use  is  made  of  her  name  by  the 
 evangelist,  (Malt.  ii.  18,)  where 
 Rachel,  who  was  buried  in  tha* 
 515 
 
vicinity,  is  supposed  to  renew 
 her  lamenlalions  at  the  slaugh- 
 ter of  so  many  of  her  descend- 
 ants ELS  fell  under  the  barbarous 
 edict  of  Herod.  (See  Rama.) 
 RAGUEL.  (See  Jethro.) 
 RAHAB.  (Josh.ii.  1.)  A  wo- 
 man of  Jericho,  who  kept  a 
 public  house,  and,  as  some  supr 
 pose,  was  of  depraved  charac- 
 ter. She  had  heard  of  the  Israel- 
 ites, and  of  the  favour  of  God 
 towards  them,  (Josh,  ii.8— 11 ;) 
 and  when  the  two  spies  sent 
 out  by  Joshua  came  to  Jericho 
 to  explore  the  land  of  promise, 
 she  concealed  them  from  the 
 officers  who  were  sent  in  search 
 of  them,  and  at  a  convenient 
 lime  let  them  down  by  a  cord, 
 upon  the  outside  of  the  city 
 wall,  to  which  her  house  joined ; 
 and  following  her  directions, 
 they  escaped.  It  was  agreed 
 between  her  and  the  spies, 
 that  she  should  take  a  scarlet 
 thread  and  fasten  it  in  the 
 window  or  aperture  through 
 which  they  had  escaped  ;  and 
 when  the  city  was  destroyed, 
 her  house  and  all  that  were  in 
 it  should  be  protected.  (Josh. 
 ii.  17—23.)  The  intelligence 
 received  from  Rahab  induced 
 Joshua  to  go  forward  at  once  to 
 the  siege  of  Jericho ;  and  when 
 the  city  was  taken  and  burnt, 
 Rahab  and  her  family  were 
 rescued  and  preserved,  accord- 
 ing to  the  premise  of  the  spies. 
 (Josh.  vi.  1/— 2.5.)  The  faith 
 of  Rahab  is  commended,  (Heb. 
 xi.  31.  James  ii. -25 ;)  and  it  is 
 supposed  she  married  into  a 
 nobl3  family  of  the  tribe  of 
 Judah.  (Malt.  i.  5.)  The  term 
 Rahab  is  used  poetically  as 
 descriptive  of  Egypt,  in  Ps. 
 lxxxvii.4;  Ixxxix.  10.  Isa.  Ii.  9. 
 (See  Egypt.) 
 RAIMENT.  (See  Clothes.) 
 RAIN.  (Gen.  ii.  5.)  The 
 force  of  the  various  allusions  to 
 this  subject  cannot  be  appre- 
 hended without  some  know- 
 ledge of  the  seasons  in  Judea. 
 (See   Seasons.)     Bain    falls 
 
 RAT 
 
 very  frequently  during  what 
 we  call  the  cold  months,  from 
 November  to  April.  Sometimes 
 it  rains  powerfully  for  several 
 days,  with  thunder  and  light- 
 ning, and  a  strong  wind.  In 
 the  summer  season,  from  INIay 
 to  October,  the  earth  is  parched, 
 verdure  is  destroyed,  and  vege- 
 tation lanjniishes.  The  first 
 rain  after  the  summer  drought 
 usually  falls  in  October,  and 
 is  called  the  former  or  au- 
 tumnal rain,  because  it  pre- 
 ceded seed-time,  and  prepares 
 the  earth  for  cultivation.  The 
 latter  rain  falls  in  April,  just 
 before  liarvest,  and  perfects 
 the  fruits  of  the  earth.  (Hos. 
 vi.  3.  Joel  ii.  23.  See  Evening 
 Recreations,  vol.  i.  p.  82,  and 
 Bedouin  Arabs,  ch.  i. ;  twth 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 RAINBOW.  (Rev.iv.3.)  A 
 natural  phenomenon  which 
 consists  of  two  arches,  and  is 
 always  formed  in  the  part  of 
 the  sky  which  is  opposite  to 
 the  sun.  It  is  never  seen  ex- 
 cept when  the  sun  shines  while 
 rain  is  falling,  through  which 
 the  rays  of  the  sun  pass,  and 
 are  so  reflected  as  to  produce 
 the  rainbow.  The  jame  phe- 
 nomenon is  produmi  by  the 
 spray  of  a  water-fall,  and  even 
 by  throwing  water  up  from  a 
 brush  or  syringe,  when  the 
 sun's  rays  can  ]5as3  through, 
 and  be  reflected  on  an  opposite 
 surface.  The  same  laws  by 
 which  this  effect  is  produced 
 were  probably  in  operation  be- 
 fore the  delude,  and  we  may 
 suppose,  thereljre,  that  the  bow 
 was  then  employed  or  appoint- 
 ed as  a  sign  of  the  covenant 
 that  the  earth  should  not  be 
 again  destroyed  by  a  flood 
 The  phrase,  /  do  set  my  bow 
 in  the  clouds,  (Gen.  ix.  13,) 
 might  with  equal  propriety  be 
 translated,  /  have  set,  &c. 
 The  language  of  the  covenant 
 would  be  In  substance,  'As 
 surely  as  that  bow  is  the  result 
 of  established  »ws  wliich  must 
 616 
 
RAM 
 
 continue  as  long  aa  the  sun 
 and  atmosphere  endure,  so  sure- 
 ly shall  the  world  be  preserved 
 from  destruction  by  a  deluge. 
 Its  preservation  shall  be  as  ne- 
 cessary an  effect  of  my  promise 
 aa  that  bow  is  the  necessary 
 effect  of  the  shining  of  the  sun 
 upon  the  falling  drops  of  rain.' 
 
 RAISINS.    (See  Grapes.) 
 
 RAM.  (Mic.  vi.  7.)  A  clean 
 animal  by  the  ceremonial  law, 
 and  used  for  sacrifice.  (Gen. 
 XV.  9.)  In  prophetic  language 
 the  ram  denotes  power  and 
 wealth,  and  also  cruelty  and 
 oppression. 
 
 The  rum  of  consecration, 
 (Ex.  xxix.  26,)  was  sacrificed 
 when  the  priests  were  invested 
 with  their  office  ;  and  the  put- 
 ting of  part  of  the  blood  of  this 
 sacrifice  on  the  three  extremi- 
 ties of  the  body,  aptly  denoted 
 the  consecration  of  the  whole 
 body  to  the  service  of  the  Lord. 
 
 RAM  SKINS.  (Ex.  XXV.  5.) 
 Probably  the  beautiful  article 
 common  at  this  day  in  Asiatic 
 Turkey  and  Morocco,  made 
 of  goat  skins  and  dyed  red. 
 CComp.  2Kines  iii.  4.) 
 
 RAM,  MATTERING.  (See 
 Battering  Ram.) 
 
 RAMA,  (Matt.  ii.  18,)  or  RA- 
 MAH,  (1  Sam.  i.  19,)  was  a 
 small  town,  situated  on  an 
 eminence  in  the  territory  of 
 Benjamin,  (Josh,  xviii.  25,)  and 
 about  six  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
 salem, on  the  way  to  Bethel. 
 The  name  Rama,  or  Ramoth, 
 signifies  an  eminence,  and 
 hence  is  a  constituent  part  of 
 the  names  of  several  places, 
 and  is  sometimes  used  gene- 
 rally for  any  high  place.  It 
 waa  here  that  the  Jews  were 
 assembled  after  the  destruction 
 of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuzara- 
 dan,  (Jer.  xl.  1,)  to  take  their 
 departure  from  their  beloved 
 country,  and  to  go  as  captives 
 into  a  land  of  strangers,  if  not 
 of  tyrants.  It  waslhis  place 
 that  Baasha,  king  of  Israel, 
 once  possessed  and  fortified; 
 44 
 
 RAM 
 
 but  tlie  king  of  Judah  \>j  str»> 
 tagem  wrested  it  from  him.  (1 
 Kings  XV.  17.)  Near  to  Ra- 
 mah  Rachel  w^as  buried  ;  and 
 she  is  represented  by  the  pro- 
 phet (Jer.  xxxi.  15)  as  weep- 
 ing over  the  loss  of  her  chil- 
 dren, and  refusing  to  be  com- 
 forted because  of  their  cap- 
 tivity. This,  though  called 
 Ramathaim-zophim,  was  also 
 the  place  of  Samuel's  birth, 
 residence,  death,  and  burial, 
 and  where  he  anointed  Saul  as 
 king.  (ISam.  i.  1.  19;  ii.  II; 
 vii.  17;  viii.  4;  xix.  18;  xxv. 
 1.)  Ramah,  or  Ramathaim,  or 
 Ramathaim-zophim  of  the  Old, 
 is  the  Arimathea  of  the  New 
 Testament,  where  dwelt  Jo- 
 seph, in  whose  tomb  the  body 
 of  Christ  was  buried.  (John 
 xix.  38.)  There  is  now  a  vil- 
 lage on  the  hill  which  was  the 
 site  of  Ramah,  called  Samuele 
 by  the  Arabs.  Jerusalem  is 
 easily  seen  from  this  height. 
 
 There  was  another  Rama  in 
 Naphiali.  (Josh.  xix.  36.)  Mr. 
 King,  an  American  missionary, 
 was  at  Arimathea,  now  Romba, 
 in  February,  1824,  and  sold  to 
 the  Arabs  several  copies  of  the 
 Bible  in  Arabic ;  and  Mr.Whit- 
 ing,  another  American  mission- 
 ary, was  there  in  April,  1835.  He 
 says, "  The  situation  is  exceed- 
 ingly beautiful.  It  is  about 
 two  hours  distant  from  Jerusa- 
 lem, to  the  north-west,  on  an 
 eminence  commanding  a  view 
 of  a  wide  extent  of  beautifully 
 diversified  country.  Hills, 
 plains,  and  valleys,  highly 
 cultivated  fields  of  wheat  and 
 barley,  vineyards  and  olive- 
 yards,  are  spread  out  before 
 you  as  on  a  map ;  and  nume- 
 rous villages  are  scattered  here 
 and  there  over  the  whole  view. 
 To  the  west  and  north-west, 
 beyond  the  hill-country,  ap- 
 pears the  vast  plain  of  SJriaron, 
 and  farther  still  you  look  out 
 upon  the  great  and  wide  sea. 
 It  occurred  to  me  as  not  impro- 
 bable that  in  the  days  of  David 
 517 
 
RAM 
 
 and  Solomon,  this  place  may 
 have  been  a  favourite  retreat 
 during  the  lieat  of  summer; 
 and  that  here  the  former  may 
 have  often  struck  his  sacred 
 lyre.  Some  of  the  psalms,  or 
 at  least  one  of  them,  (see  Ps. 
 civ.  25,)  seem  to  have  been 
 composed  in  some  place  which 
 commanded  a  view  of  the  Me- 
 diterranean; and  this  is  the 
 only  place,  I  believe,  in  the 
 vicmiiy  of  Jerusalem,  that  af- 
 fords such  a  view." 
 
 Ramah  was  once  a  strongly 
 fortified  city,  but  there  is  "no 
 city  here  at  present.  A  half- 
 ruined  Mohammedan  mosque, 
 which  was  originally  a  Chris- 
 tian church,  stands  over  the 
 tomb  of  the  prophet;  besides 
 which,  a  few  miserable  dwell- 
 ings are  the  only  buildings  that 
 remain  on  this  once  celebrated 
 spot. 
 
 There  is  a  town  about  thirty 
 miles  nor!  h- west  of  Jerusalem, 
 on  the  road  to  Joppa,now  called 
 Ramla,  or  Ramie,  which  is  de- 
 scribetl  by  many  geographers, 
 and  some  of  the  best  maps,  as 
 ihe  Rama  of  Samuel,  and  the 
 Arimathea  of  Joseph.  It  com> 
 manded  a  view  of  the  whole 
 valley  of  Sharon,  from  the 
 mountains  of  Jerusalem  to  the 
 sea,  and  from  the  foot  of  Car- 
 mel  to  the  hills  of  Gaza. 
 
 RAMATHAIM-ZOPHIM. 
 (See  Rama.) 
 
 RAMESES.  (SeeRAAMSES.) 
 
 RAMO  I'H,  CJosh.  xx.  8,)  or 
 RAMOTH-GILEAD,  (1  KinM 
 xxii.  29,)  or  KAMATH  MIZ- 
 PEH,  (Josh.  xiii.  26,)  or  watcfi- 
 tower,  li  was  a  famous  city 
 in  the  mountains  of  Gilead, 
 within  the  territory  of  Gad, 
 about  fifi?en  miles  from  Rab- 
 bah.  It  'VJis  appointed  for  one 
 of  the  ci.ies  of  refuge.  (Deut. 
 iv.  43.)  During  the  reigns  of 
 the  later  kings  of  Israel,  this 
 place  wa:>  the  occasion  of  seve- 
 ral wars  Ijptween  them  and  the 
 kings  of  Damascus,  who  had 
 coiiauered  it,  %nd  from  whom 
 
 RAV 
 
 I  the  kings  of  Israel  endeavoured 
 I  to  regam  it.  (1  Kinss  xvii.  9 
 Kin^s  viii.  28,  29.  See  OsiAii, 
 p.  137,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 South  Ramoth  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
 27)  is  probably  so  called  to  dis- 
 tinguish it  from  Ramoth  beyond 
 JorBan. 
 
 RANSOM.  (Matt.  xx.  28. 
 Mark  x.  45.)  The  price  paid 
 to  purchase  the  freedom  of  a 
 captive  or  slave.  (1  Cor.  vi.  19, 
 20.  1  Tim.  ii.  6.)  Under  the 
 Levitical  law,  an  ofTering  was 
 required  of  every  Israelite  over 
 twenty  years  of  age,  at  the  time 
 the  census  was  taken.  This 
 ofTering  is  called  a  ransom,  or 
 atonement  money.  (Ex.  xxx.  12 
 —16.)  It  amounted  to  half  a  she- 
 kel, or  about  twenty-five  cents. 
 It  was  to  be  made  upon  penalty 
 of  the  plague  ;  and  every  per- 
 son, rich  or  poor,  was  required 
 to  give  that  sum,  and  neither 
 more  or  less.    (1  Pet.  i.  18,  19.) 
 
 RAVEN.  (Gen.  viii.  7.)  A 
 bird  of  prey,  resembling  the 
 common  crow  of  the  United 
 States  in  size,  shape,  and  co- 
 lour, and  ceremonially  un- 
 clean, (Lev.  xi.  15:)  and  de- 
 lighting in  deserted  and  soli- 
 tary places.  (Isa.  "xxxiv.  11.) 
 When  about  to  feed  upon  a 
 dead  body,  it  is  said  to  seize 
 first  upon  the  eyes.  Hence  the 
 allusion,  Prov.  xxx.  17,  imply- 
 ing the  exposure  of  the  body 
 in  the  open  field,  than  which 
 nothing  was  regarded  as  more 
 disgraceful.    (See  Burial.) 
 
 The  young  of  the  raven  leave 
 the  nest  early,  before  they  are 
 able  to  supply  themselves  with 
 food.  This  fact  is  alluded  to,  Job 
 xxxviii.  41.  Ps.  cxlvii.9.  Luke 
 xii.  24.  Whether  the  raven 
 sent  out  of  the  ark  by  Noah 
 ever  returned  to  him,  is  not 
 agreed :  according  to  the  litpjal 
 reading  of  the  Hebrew,  also  of 
 the  Samaritan  text,  and  the 
 Chaldee,  it  did;  but  a  differ 
 ent  opinion  is  supported  by  the 
 LXX.,  the  Syriac,  the  Latin, 
 and  most  of  the  faihere.  (Gen 
 518 
 
REB 
 
 viii.  7.)  There  is  also  some  i 
 difference  of  opinion  respecting 
 the  ravens  by  which  Elijah  1 
 was  fed  at  the  brook  Cheriih.  [ 
 An  ingenious  writer  has  dis- 
 covered  that  in  that  region  j 
 there  was  a  village  called  JEro- 1 
 bi,  and  a  brook  called  Coriih,  | 
 and  he  conjectures  that  the  i 
 ^robites  supplied  the  prophet  [ 
 with  food :  but  if  they  supplied 
 him  with  food,  why  not  with  ' 
 water,  when  the  brook  failed  7  ] 
 and  why,  in  that  case,  could 
 not  Ahab  find  him  ?  (I  Kinjis 
 xvii.  4—7)  There  seems  to  6e 
 no  good  reason  to  doubt  that 
 the  natural  and  commonly  re- 
 ceived impression  of  the  history 
 is  just,  (For  cut  and  explana- 
 tion, see  Youth's  Friend  for 
 April,  1S29,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 REBEKAH.  (Gen.  xxiv.  15.) 
 The  sister  of  Laban  and  wife 
 of  Isaac.  The  circumstances 
 of  her  marriage  with  Isaac  con- 
 stitute one  of  the  most  simple 
 and  beautiful  passages  of  the 
 sacred  history.  ((Jen.  xxiv. 
 See  Christian  Politeness, 
 pp.40— 45, and  Story  ofIsaac, 
 pp.  65—76 ;  both  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.)  After  she  had  been 
 married  twenty  years,  she  be- 
 came the  mother  of  Jacob  and 
 Esau,  and  at  the  same  time  re- 
 ceived a  remarkable  divine 
 intimation  concerning  the  fu- 
 ture destiny  of  the  infants. 
 When  they  grew  up,  Jacob 
 became  the  favourite  of  his 
 mother,  and  this  undue  par- 
 tiality was  the  source  of  much 
 mischief.  (See  Jacob.) 
 
 She  died  before  Isaac,  and 
 was  buried  in  Abraham's  tomb. 
 (Gen.  xlix.31.) 
 
 RECHAB,  RECHABITES. 
 (Jer.  XXXV.  16, 18.  TheRechab- 
 jtes  were  a  tribe  of  Kenites 
 or  Midianiles,  (1  Chron.  ii.  55,) 
 descended  from  Jonadab,  or 
 Jehonadab,  the  son  or  descend- 
 ant of  Rechab,  (2  Kings  x.  15,) 
 from  which  last  they  derive 
 their  name.     (Comp.  Num.  x. 
 
 kEC 
 
 29—32,  with  Judg.  i.  16,  and  iv. 
 11.)  Jonadab  appears  to  have 
 been  zealous  for  the  pure  wor- 
 ship of  God,  and  was  associated 
 with  Jehu  in  the  destruction  of 
 the  idolatrous  house  of  Ahab. 
 He  established  a  rule  for  his  pos- 
 terity, that  they  should  possess 
 neither  land  nor  houses,  but 
 should  live  in  tents ;  and  should 
 drink  no  wine  or  strong  drink. 
 In  obedience  to  this  rule,  the 
 Rechabites  continued  a  sepa- 
 rate but  peaceable  people,  liv- 
 ing in  tents,  and  removing 
 from  place  to  place,  as  circum- 
 stances required.  When  Ju- 
 dea  was  first  invaded  by  Nebu- 
 chadnezzar they  fled  to  Jeru- 
 salem for  safety,  where  it 
 pleased  God,  by  the  prophet 
 Jeremiah,  to  exhibit  them  to 
 the  wicked  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
 salem, as  an  example  of  con- 
 stancy in  their  obedience  to 
 the  mandates  of  an  earthly  fa- 
 ther.   (Jer.  XXXV.  2—19.) 
 
 Some  highly  interesting  facts 
 are  known  respecting  the  pre- 
 sent condition  of  the  Rechab- 
 ites. They  still  dwell  in  the 
 mountainous  tropical  country  to 
 the  north-east  of  Medina.  They 
 are  called  Beni  Khaibr,  sons  of 
 Heber ;  and  their  land  is  called 
 Khaibr.  They  have  no  inter- 
 course with  their  brethren,  the 
 Jews,  who  are  dispersed  over 
 Asia;  and  are  esteemed  as/aZse 
 brethren,  because  they  observe 
 not  the  law.  These  persons 
 cannot  accompany  a  caravan, 
 because  their  religion  permits 
 them  not  to  travel  on  the  Sab- 
 bath; yet  their  country  is  so 
 surrounded  by  deserts,  that 
 unless  in  a  caravan,  it  can  nei- 
 ther be  entered  or  left  safely. 
 
 A  late  traveller  inquired  of 
 
 a  Jew  about  them,  and  whether 
 
 ,  they  ever  came  to  Jerusalem 
 
 '  and  the  Jew  proved  that  they 
 
 came  to  that  city  in  the  time 
 
 of  Jeremiah,  by  reading  ch. 
 
 XXXV.  of  his  prophecy.    This 
 
 Jew  stated  that  these  persons, 
 
 who  were  unquestionably  tha 
 
 519 
 
1  NOPH  or  MEMPHIS 
 
 2  SAIS  or  SIN 
 
 3  ON  or  HELIOPOLIS 
 
 4  RAMESES 
 
 5  Succoth 
 
 6  Etham 
 
 7  Migdol 
 
 8  BAAL-ZEPHON 
 
 9  Marah 
 
 10  £iim 
 
 11  Dophkab 
 
 12  Aiush 
 
 13  Repbidim 
 
 14  Kibroth-hattaavah 
 
 15  Hazeroth 
 
 16  Rithmab 
 
 17  Rimmon-parez 
 
 18  Libnah 
 
 19  Kadesh-barnea 
 
 20  Rissah 
 
 21  Kebelatbah 
 
 23  Haradali 
 
 24  Makeloth 
 
 25  Taliath 
 
 26  Tarah 
 
 27  Mithcah 
 
 2S  Hashmonah 
 
 29  Moserolh 
 
 30  Bene-jaakam 
 
 31  Hor-hasidgad 
 
 32  JolbatMh_ 
 
33  Ebronah 
 
 43  Beer 
 
 53  Abarim 
 
 34  Elath 
 
 44  Almon-diblathaim 
 
 54  JERICHO 
 
 35  EZION-GEBER 
 
 45  Matianah 
 
 55  Bethlehem 
 
 36  Kadesh 
 
 46  Nahaliel 
 
 66  HEBRON 
 
 37  Zalmonah 
 
 47  Bamoth 
 
 r>7  Hor 
 
 38  Punoc 
 
 48  Pis?ah 
 
 58  GAZA 
 
 39  Oboth 
 
 49  Nebo 
 
 59  ASCALON 
 
 40  Ije-abarim 
 
 50  Zarad  or  Bcnthammed 
 
 60  ASHUOD 
 
 41  Aroer 
 
 51  Joktheel 
 
 61  EKRON 
 
 42  DIBON 
 
 52  HESHBON 
 
 @  JERUSALEM 
 
 44« 
 
 521 
 
RED 
 
 descendants  of  the  Rechabites, 
 are  now  known  to  drink  no 
 wine;  to  fiave  neither  vine- 
 yards, fiehl,  nor  seed ;  and  to 
 be  wandering  nomades,  dwell- 
 ing like  Arabs  in  tents ;  and 
 they  have  never  wanted  a  man 
 to  stand  before  the  Lord,  but 
 have  maintained  strictly  and 
 constantly  the  worship  of  the 
 true  God. 
 
 RECONCILE,  (Enh.  ii.  16,) 
 RECONCILLITION:  (Heb.  ii. 
 17.)  These  terms,  as  used  by 
 the  sacred  ^vriters,  imply  the 
 restoration  of  man  to  the  favour 
 and  grace  of  God,  through  the 
 atonement  made  by  Jesus 
 Christ.  (2  Cor.  v.  19.)  They 
 suppose  a  previous  stale  of  va- 
 riance and  hostility,  such  as 
 must  necessarily  exist  between 
 beings  so  perfectly  opposite  in 
 character  elS  the  holy  God  and 
 his  fallen,  sinful  creature,  man. 
 (Rom.  vii.  5—25.) 
 
 RED  SEA.  (Ex.  xiii.  18.)  A 
 gulf  setting  up  eleven  hundred 
 and  sixty  miles  from  the  Ara- 
 bian Sea,  through  the  straits  of 
 Babelmandel,  nearly  to  Cairo 
 on  the  Nile.  Its  mean  breadth  is 
 about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
 miles.  It  derives  its  name  pro- 
 bably from  the  fact  that  it  was 
 bordered  by  the  possessions  of 
 Edom,  (which  signifies  red.) 
 The  original  is  supposed  to 
 mean  weedy  sea  ;  but  the  sig- 
 nificancy  of  this  name  is  still 
 more  obscure;  for  a  modern 
 traveller  tells  us  that  the  wa- 
 ter of  the  Red  Sea  is  so  very 
 clear,  that  he  read  on  the 
 wooden  stock  of  an  anchor  the 
 name  of  the  ship,  at  the  depth 
 of  twenty-five  fathoms,  (one 
 hundred  and  fifty  feet.)  Still, 
 the  bottom  is  covered  with 
 coral  reefs;  and  if  examined 
 in  calm  weather,  has  the  ap- 
 pearance of  verdant  meadows 
 and  submarine  forests.  Hence 
 it  is  supposed  the  Jews  and 
 Arabs  have  called  it  the  sea  of 
 green  weeds. 
 
 The  northern  extremity  of 
 
 KED 
 
 the  Red  Sea  is  divided  into  two 
 gulfs,  Akaba  and  Suez.  The 
 latter  was  crossed  by  the  Israel- 
 ites in  their  passage  from  Egypt 
 to  Canaan.  The  precise  point 
 at  which  this  miraculous  event 
 happened  is  not  certainly 
 known. 
 
 The  remembrance  of  this 
 memorable  transaction  is  pre- 
 served in  the  local  tradili  ns 
 of  the  inhabitants.  The  Wells 
 of  Closes  {Ayoun  Mousa)  and 
 the  Baths  of  Pharaoh  (Ham- 
 mam  Faraoun)  are  associated 
 with  the  names  of  the  Jewish 
 deliverer  and  the  Egyptian 
 monarch;  and  the  superstitious 
 Arabs  call  the  sulf  the  Dahr  of 
 Kolzoum,  or  Sea  of  Destruc- 
 tion; in  whose  roaring  waters 
 they  still  pretend  to  hear  the 
 cries  and  wailin^s  of  the  ghosts 
 of  the  drowned  Egyptians. 
 
 Diodorus  seems  distinctly  to 
 allude  to  the  passage  of  the 
 Israelites :  "It  has  been  an  an- 
 cient report  among  iUe  Ichthy- 
 ophagi, continued  down  to  them 
 from  their  forefathers,  that  by 
 a  mighty  reflux  of  the  watera, 
 which  happened  in  former 
 days,  the  whole  gulf  became 
 dry  land,  and  appeared  green 
 all  over,  the  water  overflowing 
 the  opposite  shore ;  and  thau 
 all  the  ground  being  thus  left 
 bare  to  the  very  lowest  bottom 
 of  the  gulf,  the  sea,  by  an  ex- 
 traordinary high  tide,  returned 
 again  into  its  ancient  chan- 
 nel." It  is  not  unimportant  to 
 find  a  heathen  writer  uncon- 
 sciously bearing  testimony  to 
 the  truth  of  Scripture  history. 
 
 The  passage  of  the  Red  Sea 
 has  been  attributed  to  the  pe- 
 culiarities of  the  tides,  aided 
 by  the  winds ;  but  this  is  no 
 less  the  act  of  God  than  an 
 immediate  or  supernatural  in 
 terposition.  It  is  well  known, 
 say  the  skeptical,  that  in  the 
 Arabian  Gulf,  the  Persian  Gulf, 
 the  Ganges,  and  other  open 
 ings  into^the  great  ocean,  tlies* 
 tides  are  often  overwhelming. 
 522 
 
REE 
 
 So  that  the  Hebrews,  whose 
 knowledge  was  confined  to  the 
 limits  of  Ihe  tideless  sea,  were 
 sirondy  impressed  by  an  event 
 which  caused  the  destruction 
 of  their  enemies  upon  ground 
 which  they  had  passed  dry- 
 shod,  m  consequence  of  a  re- 
 ceding tide,  assisted  by  a 
 strong  east  wind  all  that 
 night.  This  interpretation, 
 however,  is  entirely  gratuitous 
 and  fanciful.  The  inspired 
 historian  declares  explicitly 
 c/.at  the  children  of  Israel 
 wen*  through  the  midst  of  the 
 sea.  The  waters  were  a  wall 
 unto  them  on  the  right  hand 
 and  on  the  left.  The  whole 
 account  gives  the  impression 
 of  a  stupendous  miracle.  (See 
 Life  of  Moses,  ch.  xi.,  and 
 Evening  Recreations,  vol. 
 iii.  pp.  96—104;  both  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 REDEEM,  (Luke  i.  68,)  RE- 
 DEEMER. (Jobxix.  25.)  To 
 redeem  a  person  is  to  purchase 
 his  liberty  for  him.  The  price 
 paid  is  called  the  ransom. 
 (See  Ransom.)  Sinners  are  in 
 bondage  to  sin,  and  of  course 
 Ihey  are  in  the  bondage  of 
 condemnation.  The  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  having  given  his  life 
 or  his  blood  a  ransom  for 
 them,  he  redeems  them,  and  is 
 therefore  called  their  Redeem- 
 er. (Matt.  XX.  28.  1  Pet.  i.  18.) 
 This  ransom,  though  sufficient 
 to  redeem  all  men  from  capti- 
 vity, avails  only  for  the  re- 
 demption of  such  as  are  in 
 Christ  Jesus,  and  walk  not 
 after  the  flesh,  but  after  the 
 Spirit.  (See  First  Lessons, 
 pp.  63—73,  and  Sister  Ma- 
 ry's Stories,  No.  vi.;  both  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 REED.  (Job  xl.  21.)  A  plant 
 of  the  grass  family.  The  bam- 
 boo and  common  cane  are 
 species  of  the  reed,  and  so  are 
 the  calamus  and  flag.  Fish- 
 poles,  canes,  and  rods  (Malt, 
 xxvii.  29)  are  formed  of  it. 
 'rhese  plants  flourish  in  marsh- 
 
 REF 
 
 es  or  in  the  vicinity  of  water- 
 courses: hence  the  allusioD} 
 Job  xl.  21—23.  It  is  often  used 
 by  the  sacred  writers  to  illus- 
 trate weakness  and  fragility. 
 (2  Kinss  xviii.  21.  Isa.  xxxvi. 
 6 ;  xliirs.  Ezek.  xxix.  6.  Matt, 
 xii.  20.) 
 
 Reeds  were  also  used  as  pens 
 are  now,  (see  Pen,)  and  also 
 as  measuring  rods.  (Ezek.  xl. 
 5.  See  Measures.)  From  their 
 height  and  slender  shape, 
 plants  of  this  kind  are  moved 
 by  the  slightest  breath  of  wind, 
 (I  Kings  xiv.  15,)  and  hence 
 nothing  could  be  more  unim- 
 portant in  itself  than  such  a 
 motion,  and  nothing  more 
 strikingly  illustrative  of  fickle- 
 ness and  instability.  (Comp. 
 Matt.  xi.7.  Lukevii.24.  Eph. 
 iv.  14.) 
 
 Measuring  reed.  (See 
 Measures.) 
 
 REFINER.  (Mai.  iii.  3.)  This 
 word  is  often  used  figuratively 
 by  the  sacred  writers.    Its  pe- 
 culiar force  in  the  passage  cited 
 will  be  seen,  when  it  is  remem- 
 bered that  refiners  of  silver  sit 
 with  their  eyes  steadily  fixed 
 on  the  furnace,  that  they  may 
 watch  the  process ;  and  that 
 the  process  is  complete   and 
 perfected  only  when  the  re- 
 finer sees  his  own  image  in 
 the  melted  mass.  WTien  Christ 
 sees   his    image  perfectly  re- 
 flected in  the  holy  life  and 
 conversation  of  his  people,  the 
 object  of  the  refining  process  is 
 accomplished. 
 REFUGE.    (See  City.) 
 REGENERATION.    (Matt, 
 xix.  28.  Tit.  iii.  5.)    This  term 
 occurs  in  no  other  passages  of 
 the  Bible.    It  signifies  being 
 born  ao:ain.    As  used  by  Mat- 
 I  thew,  the  meaning  of  the  word 
 will  depend  on  the  punctuation 
 of  the  passage,  and  will  either 
 1  refer  to  the  new-birth  which 
 ;  the   followers   of  Christ   had 
 j  undergone,  or  to  the  renovation 
 or  consummation  of  all  things 
 '  at  Christ's  second  ad  vent,  when 
 523 
 
REG 
 
 there  shall  be  7iew  heaveyis  and 
 a  new  eartk.  The  last  is  the 
 most  naluFiil  construction.  By 
 the  waslUng  of  regeneration, 
 in  the  latter  passage,  is  to  be 
 understood  what  is  understood 
 by  other  words  conveying  pre- 
 cisely the  same  idea,and  which 
 are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Our 
 Saviour  says  to  Nicodemus,£x- 
 cept  a  i7ian  be  born  again,  he 
 cannot  see  the  kingdom  of  God. 
 (John  iii.  3.)  Christians  are 
 described  as  born  of  God,  (John 
 i.  12,  13.  IJohn  ii.  29;  v.  1. 
 4.)  They  are  also  represented 
 as  begotten  of  God,  or  by  the 
 word  of  God.  (James  i.  18. 
 1  Pet.  i.  3.  23.)  And  the  same 
 thing,  in  substance,  is  present- 
 ed under  the  idea  of  a  new  cre- 
 ation, (2  Cor.  V.  17;)  a  renew- 
 ing of  the  mind,  (Rom.  xii.  2;) 
 a  renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 (Titus  iii.  5;)  a  resurrection 
 from  the  dead,  (Eph.  ii.  6;)  a 
 being  quickened,  &c.  (Eph.  ii. 
 1,5.)  Regeneration,  tlten,  may 
 be  regarded  as  the  commu- 
 nication of  spiritual  life  to  a 
 soul  previously  dead  in  tres- 
 passes and  sins, by  the  almighty 
 energy  of  tlie  Holy  Spirit,  mak- 
 ing use  of  the  word  of  truth  as 
 the  instrument:  in  consequence 
 of  which  divine  operation  the 
 soul  begins  to  apprehend  spi- 
 ritual thing3  in  a  new  light; 
 to  believe  Them  in  a  new  man- 
 ner ;  to  love  them  with  an  af- 
 fection not  before  felt ;  and  to 
 act  henceforth  from  new  mo- 
 tives and  to  new  ends.  The 
 effects  of  regeneration  cannot 
 but  be  very  perceptible,  in  the 
 bumble  penitence  and  contri- 
 tion for  sin  which  is  produced  : 
 in  the  ardent  breathings  after 
 the  knowledge  of  God ;  after 
 conformity  to  his  holiness,  and 
 communion  with  him  through 
 Christ  Jesus;  and  in  the  kind 
 and  fraternal  feelings  which 
 spontaneously  flow  from  the 
 regenerated  soul  towards  all 
 men,  and  especially  towards 
 the  household  of  faith :  for  to  the 
 
 REH 
 
 brethren  of  Christ  the  soul  bora 
 of  God  cannot  but  entertain  an 
 affection  of  peculiar  strength 
 and  tenderness;  both  because 
 they  belong  to  Christ,  and  be- 
 cause they  possess  and  mani- 
 fest something  of  the  lovely 
 image  of  Him  that  hath  begot- 
 ten them  anew. 
 
 REHOB.  (Num.  xiii.  2l.yPro- 
 bably  the  same  wiihBeth-rehob, 
 (Judg.  xviii.  28,)  a  ciiy  of  .Syria, 
 north  of  Cesarea  Philippi,  ana 
 near  Dan.  It  belonged  to  the 
 tribe  of  Asher.    (Josh.  xix.  28.) 
 
 REHOBOAM,  (1  Kings  xiv. 
 21,)  son  and  successor  oT  Solo- 
 mon, ascended  the  throne  of 
 Judah  at  the  age  of  forty-one, 
 and  reigned  seventeen  years. 
 At  the  commencement  of  his 
 career,  he  had  an  opportunity 
 to  conciliate  the  prejudices  and 
 discontents  which  had  been  ex- 
 cited by  the  closing  acts  of  hi? 
 father's  reign;  but  rejecting 
 the  wise  counsel  of  the  aged, 
 and  adopting  the  precipitate 
 counsel  of  the  young,  he  in- 
 flamed his  subjects  by  the  most 
 insolent  and  tyrannical  reply 
 to  their  petitions  and  repre- 
 sentations, (2Chron.  x.  1—14,) 
 and  hastened  a  division  of  the 
 kingdom.  Tenof  the  tribes  re- 
 volted,  (see  Jeroboam.)  leav- 
 ing Judah  and  Benjamin  alone 
 in  their  allegiance  to  Rehobo- 
 am.  The  latter  proposed  at 
 once  to  employ  force  for  the 
 purpose  of  reducing  the  rebels, 
 but  was  divinely  admonished 
 to  forbear.  (1  Kings  xii.  24.) 
 Continual  wars  prevailed,  how 
 ever,  between  the  two  parties 
 (2Chron.  xii.  15.)  In  about 
 three  years  after  the  division 
 of  the  kingdom,  the  tribes  of 
 Judah  followed  the  tribes  of 
 Israel  in  their  idolatrous  prac- 
 tices ;  and  for  this  they  suffered 
 the  invasion  of  Shisliak,  king 
 of  Egypt,  who  desolated  the 
 country,  and  threatened  the 
 utter  destruction  of  their  city, 
 but  upon  their  repentance,  the 
 scourge    was    stayed,  though 
 
REM 
 they  suffered  immense  loss, 
 and  were  made  tributary  to 
 the  invader.  (2Chron.  xii.  2 — 
 12.)  We  are  told  that  a  his- 
 tory of  Rehoboam's  reign  was 
 written  by  Shemaiah  and  Iddo, 
 (2Chron.  xii.  15,)  but  it  has  not 
 been  preserved.  A  distinguish- 
 ed modern  antiquary  has  fur- 
 nished evidence  that  on  the 
 remains  of  edifices  believed  to 
 have  been  erected  by  this  very 
 Shishak,  he  has  discovered  se- 
 veral effigies  of  captive  kings, 
 and  among  them  one  of  Reho- 
 fcoam,  the  son  and  successor 
 of  Solomon. 
 
 REHOBOTH  (Gen.  x.  11; 
 meaning  ample  room,  Gen. 
 xxvl.  22)  is  supposed  to  ex- 
 press, in  the  passage  cited, 
 either  the  spaciousness  of  the 
 streets  or  the  extent  of  the  city 
 of  Nineveh.  If  it  was  a  city, 
 we  have  no  knowledge  of  its 
 site. 
 
 Rehoboth  by  the  kiver, 
 (Gen.  xxxvi.  37,)  the  birth- 
 place of  Saul  the  Idumean 
 king,  was  probably  a  town  on 
 the  Euphrates,  the  site  of  which 
 is  supposed  to  be  occupied  by 
 khe  modern  town  of  Errachabi. 
 
 Rehoboth  is  also  the  name 
 of  a  famous  well  of  Isaac,  near 
 to  Gerar.    (Gen.  xxvi.  22.) 
 
 REINS.  (Job  xvi.  13.)  This 
 word,  which  properly  signifies 
 the  loins,  or  region  of  the  kid- 
 neys, is  used  "figuratively  by 
 the  sacred  writers,  to  denote 
 the  seat  of  the  affections  and 
 dispositions. 
 
 REMPHAN.  (Acts  vii.  43.) 
 Probably  a  name  given  to  some 
 planet  (perhaps  Saturn)  which 
 was  regarded  as  an  object  of 
 worship.  The  image  of  the 
 object  of  their  idolatry,  being 
 enclosed  in  a  small  tabernacle 
 or  portable  case,  was  carried 
 about  from  place  to  place  like 
 other  baggage.  Such  were  the 
 shrines.  Acts  xix.  24.  (Comp. 
 Isa.  xlvi.  7.)    What  the  pro- 
 
 Shet  calls  Chiun,  (Amos  v.  26,) 
 le  martyr   calls  Remphan. 
 
 EEP 
 
 I  Probably  the  words  signify  the 
 same  thing  in  different  lan- 
 guages. 
 
 REND.  (Gen.  xxxvu.  29— 
 34.)  To  rend  the  garments,  or 
 tare  them,  (2  Sam.  xiii.31,)  was 
 from  the  earliest  period  a  sign 
 of  ^rief  or  penitence.  Jacob 
 anu  David  did  it  on  various 
 occasions;  and  so  did  Joshua, 
 (Josh.  vii.  6,)  and  Hezekiah. 
 (2  Kings  xix.  1.)  The  high- 
 priest  was  forbidden  to  rend 
 his  clothes,  (Lev.  x.  G ;  xxi.  10,) 
 probably  meaning  his  sacred 
 garments.  Perhaps  those  re- 
 ferred to,  Matt.  xxvi.  65,  were 
 such  as  were  ordinarily  worn, 
 or  merely  judicial  and  not  pon- 
 tifical garments.  Sometimes  it 
 denoted  anger  or  indignation, 
 mingled  with  sorrow.  (Isa. 
 xxxvi.  22;  xxxvii.  1.  Acts  xiv. 
 14.)  The  phrase  to  rend  the 
 face  (Jer.  i v.  30)  alludes  to  the 
 practice  of  introducing  paints 
 j  into  the  flesh,  particularly  the 
 eyelids.    (See  Eyelids.) 
 
 KENEW,  RENEWING. 
 (See  Regeneration.) 
 
 REPENT,  REPENTANCE, 
 (Ezek.  xiv,  6.  Matt.  ix.  13,)  is 
 a  change  of  mind,  accompa- 
 nied with  regret  and  sorrow  for 
 something  done,  and  an  earn- 
 est wish  that  it  was  undone. 
 Such  was  the  repentance  of 
 Judas,  (Matt,  xxvii.  3;)  and  so 
 it  is  said  that  Esau  found  no 
 place  of  repentance  in  his  fa- 
 ther Isaac,  although  he  sought 
 it  with  tears,  (Heb.  xii.  17 ;)  i.e. 
 Isaac  would  not  change  what 
 he  had  done,  and  revoke  the 
 blessing  given  to  Jacob.  (Gen. 
 xxvii.  34—40.) 
 
 Repentance  unto  life  is  sor- 
 row for  sin,  grief  for  having 
 committed  it,  and  a  turning 
 away  from  it  with  abhorrence 
 accompanied  with  sincere  en 
 deavours,  in  reliance  on  God's 
 grace  and  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
 Spirit,  to  live  in  humble  and 
 holy  obedience  to  the  com- 
 mands and  will  of  God.  (Jer. 
 iii.  10.  Matt.  iii.  8.  Acts  v.  31 ; 
 
REF 
 
 x\.  IS.  23.  2  Cor.  vii.  &-10. 
 2  Tim.  ii.  25.)  This  is  thai 
 repentance  to  which  is  pro- 
 mised the  free  forgiveness  of 
 ein  through  the  merits  of  Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 The  expression  in  Rom.  xi. 
 29,  denotes  geiiei-ally  the  sta- 
 bility and  unchangeableness 
 of  God's  commands  and  pur- 
 poses, which  w  ill  not  be  chang- 
 ed or  revoked  from  any  change 
 of  mind  or  purpose  in  him ; 
 and  particularly  in  relation  to 
 the  Jews,  that  God  was  mind- 
 ful of  his  covenant  with  them, 
 and  that  it  was  firm  and  irre- 
 vocable. 
 
 When  God  is  said  to  repent, 
 it  does  not  imply  any  change 
 or  sorrow,  for  he  is  of  one  mind, 
 (1  Sam.  XV.  29.  Job  xxiii.  13. 
 Jer.  xviii.  7—10 ;)  but  it  denotes 
 a  course  of  proceeding  which, 
 if  pursued  by  men,  "vould  be 
 indicative  of  repentance  or 
 change  of  purpose.    For  exam- 
 
 Ele,  if  one  attempts  to  build  a 
 ouse,  and  because  he  is  un- 
 successful, or  disappointed  in 
 the  appearance  or  construction 
 of  it,  pulls  it  down,  such  a 
 course  indicates  regret  and 
 sorrow.  So  when  it  is  said  of 
 God,  that  when  he  saw  the 
 great  wickedness  of  the  world, 
 It  repented  him  that  he  had 
 made  man  on  the  earth,  (Gen. 
 vi.  6,)  the  expression  is  to 
 be  regarded  in  this  figurative 
 eea^e,  as  denoting  an  emotion 
 which  in  man  is  called  re- 
 pentance, but  of  which  in  that 
 sense  the  divine  mind  is  inca- 
 pable. The  purpose  of  God 
 comprehends  all  the  apparent 
 chanses  in  his  dispensations. 
 
 REPETITIONS,  vain, 
 (Matt.  vi.  7,)  were  short  forms 
 or  particular  expressions  in 
 prayer,  which  the  Jews  were 
 accustomed  to  repeat  a  certain 
 number  of  times.  There  are 
 eiill  iho.=:e  who  repeat  the  Lord's 
 prayer,  and  other  prayers,  a 
 great   number  of  times,   and 
 
 REP 
 
 vainly  think  that  the  oftener 
 the  prayer  is  repeated,the  more 
 efficacious  it  is ;  i.  e.  if  repeat- 
 ed two  hundred  times,  it  will 
 be  twice  as  good  as  if  repeated 
 only  one  hundred  times.  It 
 was  a  maxim  among  the  Jews 
 that  he  who  multiplies  prayer 
 must  be  heard  ;  but  as  their 
 prayers  were  in  words  or  for 
 form  merely,  they  were  justly 
 liable  to  the  censure  which 
 this  passase  implies. 
 
 REPHAIM,  (-2  Sam.  xxiii.  13,) 
 or  valley  of  the  giatits.  (Josh. 
 XV.  8;  xviii.  16.)  A  remark- 
 ably fertile  valley  (Isa.  xvii.  5)  ■ 
 between  Bethlehem  and  Jeru- 
 salem, formerly  inhabited  by 
 a  race  of  giants,  (Gen.  xiv.  5,) 
 and  remarkable  for  two  of  Da- 
 vid's victories  over  the  Philis- 
 tines. (2  Sam.  V.  18—22.  IChron. 
 xi.  14;  xiv.  9— 11.) 
 
 REPHIDIM.  (Ex.  xvii.  1.) 
 One  of  the  stations  of  the  Is 
 raelites,  on  the  western  arm 
 of  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  distin 
 guished  as  the  place  where 
 water  was  miraculously  sup- 
 plied to  the  murmuring  people, 
 (Ex.  xvii.  6;)  and,  also,  for 
 Joshua's  victory  over  Amalek. 
 (Ex.  xvii.  8—10.)  Here,  too, 
 Jethro  and  his  family  came  to 
 visit  Moses,  and  united  with 
 the  elders  of  Israel  in  acts  of 
 worship.  (Ex.  xviii.  1—12. 
 Comp.  Ex.  iii.  12.) 
 
 This  place  is  called  Meribah 
 (strife  or  contention)  from  the 
 circumstance  of  the  conduct 
 of  the  Israelites  above  men- 
 tioned. Modern  travellers 
 tell  us  that  the  supposed  rock 
 from  which  the  water  was  sup- 
 plied is  a  beautiful  granite, 
 about  fifteen  feet  in  height 
 and  breadth,  and  quite  insu- 
 lated in  a  narrow  valley,  which 
 opens  directly  into  a  vast  plain; 
 that  the  Arabs  reverence  it,  and 
 stuff  shrubs  into  the  fissures, 
 which  become  impregnated,  as 
 they  say,  with  medicinal  vir- 
 tues  and  of  which  the  camels 
 526 
 
RES 
 
 are  made  to  eat  when  they  are 
 sick,  for  the  purpose  of  restor- 
 ing them. 
 
 REPROBATE,  (Jer.  vi.30,) 
 CASTAWAY,  (ICor.  ix.  27,) 
 or  REJECTED,  (Heb.  vi.  8,) 
 are  nearly  synonymous.  As 
 used,  Tit.  i.  16,  it  may  mean 
 either  that  the  persons  de- 
 scribed are  without  knowledge, 
 (comp.  Jer.  iv.  22.  Rom.  i.  28;) 
 or  that,  so  far  as  any  good  works 
 are  concerned,  they  are  reject- 
 ed ;  or  that  their  sujjposed  good 
 works,  like  base  coin,  are  spu- 
 rious and  uncurrent.  (2  Cor. 
 xiii.  5—7.) 
 
 To  be  reprobate  conreming 
 the  faith,  (2  Tim.  iii.  8,)  is  to 
 prove  corrupt,  false,  or  unsound 
 as  to  the  true  faiih. 
 
 RESURRECTION.  (1  Cor. 
 XV.  21.)  That  there  shall  be 
 a  resurrection  or  raising  of  the 
 dead,  both  of  the  just  and  un- 
 just, is  a  fundamental  doctrine 
 of  the  Christian  faith,  and  one 
 of  unspeakable  importance. 
 For  if  the  dead  rise  not,  then 
 is  not  Christ  raised ;  and  if 
 Christ  is  not  raised,  then  is 
 our  faith  vain ;  we  are  yet  in 
 our  sins.  No  truth  is  more 
 clearly  and  forcibly  presented 
 in  the  Scriptures,  than  the 
 resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ. 
 (I.)  It  was  prophesied.  (Ps. 
 xvi.  10,  11.  Acts  ii.  25—32.) 
 (2.)  Christ  himself  repeatedly 
 and  distinctly  foretold  it. 
 (3.)  The  precautions  of  his 
 enemies  to  prevent  it;  the 
 failure  of  all  these  precau- 
 tions, and  the  measures  taken 
 to  disprove  the  event.  (4.)  The 
 abundant,  decided,  and  con- 
 sistent testimony  of  witnesses 
 who  could  not  be  deceived, 
 and  who  had  no  inducement 
 to  deceive  others,  and  all  this 
 in  the  face  of  every  danger. 
 (5.)  The  change  which  took 
 place  in  the  minds  and  con- 
 duct of  the  apostles  imme- 
 diately after  and  in  conse- 
 quence of  his  resurrection ;  and 
 (6.)  The  supernatural  evidence 
 
 RE  U 
 
 arising  from  the  fulfilment  of 
 the  j)romise  that  the  Holy  Spi- 
 rit should  be  poured  out  on 
 them. 
 
 Thus  the  resurrection  of 
 Christ  from  the  dead  is  clearly 
 proved;  and  bein?  proved,  it 
 ratifies  and  confirms,  in  the 
 fullest  manner,  the  truth  and 
 divinity  of  his  character  and 
 mission;  shows  the  efficacy 
 of  his  atonement;  is  an  evi- 
 dence, earnest,  and  example 
 of  tlie  resurrection  of  his  peo- 
 ple (John  xiv.  19,)  and  inv 
 ports  that  all  judgment  ia 
 committed  into  his  hand.  (Acta 
 xvii.  30,  31.)  It  is  a  sufficient 
 answer  to  the  cavils  of  infidels 
 on  this  subject,  that  there  is 
 no  evidence  from  reason  or  the 
 analogy  of  nature  against  the 
 resurrection  of  the  dead,  while 
 there  is  much — very  much — 
 from  both  these  sources  in  its 
 favour.  Indeed,  so  deep-rooted 
 is  the  natural  conviction  of  the 
 human  mind  on  this  point,  thai 
 no  nation,  people,  or  tribe  have 
 ever  yet  been  found  who  do 
 not,  in  some  form,  recognise 
 the  doctrine  of  a  state  of  exist- 
 ence after  the  death  of  the 
 body ;  and  this  conviction  is 
 satisfactorily  met  only  by  the 
 simple  and  sublime  doctrine 
 of  our  holy  religion,  which 
 brings  life  and  immortality  to 
 light.  (John  V.  28.  For  a  "full 
 and  simple  exposition  of  this 
 whole  subject,  see  Susan  Ell- 
 maker,  or,  an  ansiter  to  the 
 question,  if  a  man  die,  shall 
 HE  LIVE  AGAIN  1  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 REUBEN,  (Gen.  xxix.  M,) 
 signifying  behold  a  son,  was 
 the  eldest  son  of  Jacob  and 
 Leah.  He  lost  the  privileges 
 of  birthright  in  consequence 
 of  a  grievous  sin,  (Gen.  xxxv. 
 !S;  xlix.  3,  4,)  and  his  poste.- 
 rity  WM  neither  numerous  nor 
 powerful. 
 
 Tribe  of,  took  their  portion 
 of  the  promised  land  east  of 
 Jordan,  between  Arnon  on  the 
 
REV 
 
 south,  and  Jazer  on  the  north, 
 and  Gilead  east,  and  Jordan 
 west.  It  is  the  same  district 
 that  is  now  called  Belkah, 
 and  is  still  famous  for  its  pas- 
 turage. 
 
 REVELATION.  (1  Cor.  xiv. 
 26.)  An  extraordinary  and 
 Bupernatural  disclosure  made 
 by  dream,  vision,  or  otherwise. 
 (Dan.  ii.  19.)  The  apostle  Paul 
 was  favoured  with  many  spe- 
 cial revelations,  (2 Cor.  xii.  1. 
 Gal.  i.  120  but  the  most  full 
 and  complete  communication 
 of  this  character  was  made  to 
 the  apostle  John,  when  he  was 
 a  prisoner  upon  the  isle  of 
 Patmos ;  and  it  is  hence  some- 
 times called  by  way  of  emi- 
 nence 
 
 The  Book  op  the  Revela- 
 tion. This  is  the  last  in  the 
 order  of  the  books  of  the  Bible, 
 and  is  commonly  called  the 
 Apocalypse,  from  a  Greek  word 
 wnich  signifies  revelation.  It 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  writ- 
 ten about  the  years  95—96. 
 It  is  the  design  of  this  book 
 to  present  the  prophetic  his- 
 tory of  the  church,  until  the 
 end  of  the  world ;  and  it  is 
 called  the  revelation  of  St.  John 
 the  divine,  because  to  him  was 
 more  fully  revealed  the  divine 
 counsels  than  to  any  other 
 prophet  under  the  Christian 
 dispensation.  It  has  been  ob- 
 served that  hardly  any  one 
 book  has  received  more  early, 
 more  auihenlic,  and  more 
 lasting  attestations  to  its  ge- 
 nuineness than  this;  and  trie 
 gradual  accomplishment  of  its 
 mysterious  predictions  are  well 
 calculated  to  afford,  in  every 
 succeeding  age,  additional  tes- 
 timony to  the  ilivine  origin  of 
 the  sacred  canon. 
 
 REVENGE,  (Jer.  xv.  15,)  or 
 returnins  evil  for  evil,  is  e.Y- 
 pressly  forbidden  by  the  divine 
 law.  (Lev.  xix.  17,  18.  1  Pet. 
 iii.  9.)  When  God  is  spoken 
 of  as  a  revenger,  it  is  m  the 
 iatne  sense  in  which  he  is  said 
 
 RHO 
 
 to  be  furious,  or  to  be  a  jealous 
 God,  or  to  repent.  He  does  that 
 in  infinite  justice  and  holiness, 
 which  sinful  man  does  from 
 anger  and  malice,  or  other 
 unholy  passion  or  emotion. 
 The  term  is  used  to  denote 
 the  effect  of  God's  dealings, 
 and  not  the  motive.  (See 
 Avenge.) 
 
 REVENGER.  (See  A- 
 vengb.) 
 
 REZEPH.  (2Kingsxix.  12.) 
 Probably  it  stood  where  At' 
 sqffix  now  is,  from  twenty  to 
 thirty  miles  west  of  the  Eu- 
 phrates. Rabshakeh  mentions 
 It  among  the  cities  conquered 
 by  the  Assyrians.  (Isa.  xxxvii. 
 
 REZON,  (1  Kings  xi.23,)  son 
 of  Eliadah,  revolted  from  Ha- 
 dadezer,  and  having  enlisted 
 a  company  of  ad  venturers,  and 
 after  making  several  incur- 
 sions into  the  country  around 
 Damascus,  finally  succeeded 
 in  obtaining  the  crown,  and 
 became  a  sore  vexation  to 
 Israel  in  the  days  of  David 
 and  Solomon. 
 
 RHEGIUM,  (Actsxxviii.  13,) 
 now  Reggio,  is  a  maritime  city 
 of  Italy,on  the  souih-west  point, 
 about  ten  miles  from  Messina 
 in  Sicily,  where  Paul  tarried 
 a  day  on  his  way  to  Rome. 
 In  1782,  it  was  nearly  destroyed 
 by  an  earthquake.  It  is  now 
 a  considerable  town,  with  a 
 population  of  sixteen  thousand, 
 and  flourishing  manufactures. 
 
 RHODES.  (Acts  xxi.  1.)  An 
 island  in  the  Levant,  off  the 
 south-west  point  of  Asia  Mi- 
 nor, containing  a  city  of  the 
 same  name.  It  is  forty  milea 
 long,  and  fifteen  broad,  having 
 a  population  of  eighteen  thou- 
 sancl,  anciently  celebrated  for 
 its  schools,  and  for  the  flou- 
 rishing slate  of  the  arts  and 
 sciences,  as  well  as  for  a  co- 
 lossal statue  one  hundred  and 
 five  feet  in  height,  standing 
 astride  of  the  harbour's  mouth, 
 so  that  vessels  could  pass  undei 
 
RIG 
 
 It.  It  stood  fifty-six  years,  and 
 was  then  overthrown  by  an 
 earthquake,  and  the  braiss  of  it 
 loaded  nine  hundred  camels, 
 and  weighed  seven  h  und red  ana 
 twenty  thousand  pounds.  In 
 the  fifteenth  century  it  was 
 the  residence  of  the  knights 
 of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  At 
 this  island  Paul  touched,  on 
 his  way  from  Miletus  to  Jeru- 
 salem. It  is  supposed  by  some 
 that  the  name  Rhodes  is  de- 
 rived from  the  multitude  of 
 roses  produced  on  the  island. 
 The  modern  town  occupies 
 about  a  quarter  of  the  site  of 
 the  ancient  city.  One  of  its 
 harbours  is  still  called  Rhodes, 
 but  no  traces  of  the  glory  of 
 Rhodes  are  discernible. 
 
 RIBLAH.  (Num.xxxiv.il.) 
 Probably  th«  Rebla  mentioned 
 by  modern  travellers  on  the 
 Orontes,  thirty  miles  south  of 
 Hamath.  This  must  at  least 
 have  been  the  neighbourhood, 
 as  it  was  on  the  north-east 
 border  of  the  land,  and  not 
 far  from  Hamath.  It  was 
 doubtless  a  pleasant  place, 
 and  therefore  chosen  by  the 
 kings  of  Babylon  as  a  resi- 
 dence. Pharaoh-necho  stoppetJ 
 here,  on  his  return  from  Car- 
 chemish,  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33,) 
 and  deposed  Jehoahaz,  put- 
 tine  Jehoiakim  in  his  place; 
 and  here  Nebuchadnezzar 
 abode  while  Nebuzaradan, his 
 chief  commander,  laid  siege  to 
 Jerusalem.  Hither  the  prison- 
 ers were  brought,  when  Ze- 
 dekiah's  children  and  many 
 others  were  put  to  death,  and 
 that  king  himself  deprived  of 
 his  eyes  and  cast  into  prison. 
 
 RIGHTEOUSNESS  (Isa. 
 xlv.  23)  is  an  essential  attri- 
 bute of  the  divine  nature;  and 
 as  it  is  frequently  used,  is  near- 
 ly allied  to,  if  not  trie  same 
 with,  justice,  holiness,  and 
 faithfulness.  (Ps.cxix.  142.  Isa. 
 xlvi.  13;  li.  5,  6.  8;  Ivi,  1.)  It 
 is  also  used  to  denote  the  per- 
 fect obedience  of  the  Son  of 
 45, 
 
 RIM 
 
 God.  (Rom.  V.  18,  19.)  The 
 righteousness  ichich  is  of 
 faith  (Rom.  x.  6)  is  the  right- 
 eousness which  is  obtained  by 
 the  grace  of  Gud  through  faith 
 in  Jesus  Christ,  (lirom.  iii.  21— 
 26;  X.  4.  10.  2Cor.  V.  21.  Gal. 
 ii.21.)  Righteousness  is  very 
 commonly  ^used  for  upright- 
 ness and  just  dealing  between 
 man  and  man,  as  in  Isa.  Ix. 
 17 ;  and  for  holiness  of  life 
 and  conversation,  as  in  Dan. 
 iv.  27.  Luke  i.  6.  Rom.  xiv. 
 17.    Eph.  V.  9. 
 
 RIGHT  HAND.  (Ps.xxi.8.) 
 The  right  hand  is  the  sym- 
 bol of  power  and  strength; 
 whence  the  effects  of  the  di- 
 vine omnipotence  are  often 
 ascribed  to  the  right  hand 
 of  the  Most  High.  (Ex.  xv.  6. 
 Ps.  Ixxvii.  10.)  The  riuht  hand 
 commonly  denotes  the  soulh, 
 as  the  left  hand  denotes  the 
 north.  (Gen.  xiv.  15.)  It  is 
 said  to  have  been  the  custom 
 among  the  Jews  to  swear  by 
 the  right  hand,  and  that  this 
 is  implied  in  Isa.  Ixii.  8.  It 
 was  certainly  common  to 
 swear  by  the  hand.  (Gen.  xiv. 
 22.  Deut.  xxxii.  40.)  To  give 
 the  right  hand  was  a  mark  of 
 friendship.  (Gal.  ii.  9.)  Hence 
 the  force  of  the  expression, 
 (Ps.  cxliv.  8,)  their  right  hand 
 is  a  right  hand  of  falsehood. 
 The  right  hand  lieing  a  most 
 useful  member  of  the  body, 
 especially  to  labouring  men, 
 to  cut  it  off  implies  the  greatest 
 sacrifice.  (Matt.  v.  30.)  To  be 
 seated  at  the  right  hand  is  a 
 token  of  peculiar  honour,  (1 
 Kings  i*i.  19;)  and  when  the 
 expression  is  used  respecting 
 Christ,  (Acts  vii.  55,)  it  implies 
 his  unequalled  dignity  and  ex- 
 altation. 
 
 RIMMON,  (Josh.  XV.  32,)  off- 
 REMMON.  (Josh.  xix.  7.)  l.A 
 city  south  of  Jerusalem,  in  Ju- 
 dah,  belonging  to  Simeon,  re- 
 built after  the  captivity. 
 
 2.  RIMMON,  or  RIMMON- 
 METHOAR.    (Josh.  xix.  13. 
 
RIZ 
 
 ,  Chron.  vi.  77.)  A  city  of 
 Zebulun,  belonging  lo  tlie  L&- 
 viies. 
 
 3.  (Zech.  xiv.  10.)  A  town 
 m  the  southern  section  of  Ju- 
 dea,  first  belonging  to  Judah, 
 and  afterwards  to  Simeon.  (1 
 Chron.  iv.  32.)  There  were 
 other  places  in  Judea  of  this 
 nan-e. 
 
 1  (2  Kings  V.  18.)  The  name 
 of  an  idol  "worshipped  in  Da- 
 mascus. Naaman,  who  was 
 in  the  habit  of  attending  the 
 king  in  his  idolatrous  services 
 in  the  temple  of  Rimmon. 
 seems  to  have  been  perplexea 
 about  a  question  of  duty  as  to 
 continuing  this  practice.  (See 
 Naaman.) 
 
 RINGS  (Isa.  iii.  21)  were 
 used  for  ornaments  (James  ii. 
 2)  and  for  seals.  (1  Kings  xxi. 
 S."*  That  tlioy  were  sometimes 
 used  formerly  as  they  are  in 
 modern  times  isobvious,(Ezek. 
 ivi.  12;)  and  we  are  told  that 
 the  servant  save  a  golden  ear- 
 ring of  halt  a  shekel  or  a 
 ciuarter  of  an  ounce  weight  to 
 Kebekah.  (Gen.  xxiv.  22.) 
 Rings  were  doubtless  worn  as 
 ornaments  for  the  hands.  (Isa. 
 iii.  20,  21.  Luke  xv.  22.  James 
 ii.  2.)  The  ring  was  also  a 
 token  of  authority,  and  the 
 giving  a  ring  the  sign  of  im- 
 parling auth'oriiv.  (Gen.  xii. 
 42.  Esth.  iii.  10.'  12.  Dan.  vi. 
 17.    See  Clothi.ng.) 
 
 RING-STRKAKED.  (Gen. 
 XXX.  35.)    Circularly  streaked. 
 
 RIVER,  THE.  (Gen.  .xxxi. 
 21 .)  The  Nile  is  called  by  way 
 of  pre-eminence  the  river ;  but 
 the  term  is  often  used  un- 
 connected with  any  specific 
 name,  (Ex.  iv.  9;)  in  which 
 cases  the  particular  river  in- 
 tended is  to  be  determined  by 
 reference  to  the  place  and  sub- 
 ject-matter of  narration.  It  is 
 used    figuratively   to    denote 
 
 freat  abundance.    (Isa.  xlviii. 
 8.    See  Egypt,  river  op.) 
 RIZPAH.   (2  Sam.  iii.  7.)  A 
 concubine  of    Saul.    A  very 
 
 ROM 
 
 atTipcting  evidence  of  the 
 strength  of  maternal  fu-eling 
 was  given  by  her,  when  she 
 watched  day  and  niizht,  for 
 many  months,  (probably  from 
 March  to  October,)  over  tke 
 bodies  of  iter  two  sons,  who 
 had  been  put  to  a  violent  death 
 by  the  Gibeonites.  (2  Sam.  xxi.) 
 KOBE.  (See  Clothes.) 
 ROD,  (Gen.  xxx.  37,)  or  staff. 
 This  word  has  various  signifi- 
 cations in  the  sacred  writings. 
 It  means  a  shoot  or  branch  of 
 a  tree,  and,  in  this  sense,  is 
 applied  figuratively  to  Chris', 
 (Isa.  xi.  1,")  and  to  the  irilcs 
 of  Israel  as  springing  from  one 
 rcxU,  (Ps.  Ixxiv.  2.  Jer.  x.  16;') 
 for  tliat  which  supports  and 
 strengthens,  (Ps.  xxiii.  4.  Isa. 
 iii.  l."Ezek.  xxix.  6;)  for  power 
 and  authority,  (Ps.  ii.  9;  ex. 2; 
 cxxv.  3.  Jer.  xlviii.  17.  Ezek. 
 xix.  14.  1  Cor.  iv.  21.  Rev.  ii. 
 27;)  and  afflictions  with  which 
 Gvxl  disciplines  his  people. 
 (Job  ix.  34.  Conifi.  Heb.  xii.  6, 
 7.) 
 
 Passing    under  the  bod. 
 (Ezek.  XX.  37.)     It   was   the 
 custom  of  the  Jews  to  select 
 the  tenth  of  their  sheep  (Lev. 
 xxvii.  32)  after  this  manner. 
 The    lamlis    were    separatenl 
 from  the  dams,  and  enclosed 
 in  a  sheepcote,  with  only  one 
 narrow  way    out :    the    dams 
 were  at  the  entrance.  On  open- 
 ing the  gate,  the  lambs  has- 
 tened to  join  their  dams,  and 
 a  man  placed  at  the  entrance 
 with  a  rod    dipped   in  ochrey 
 touched  every  tenth  lamb,  and 
 so  marked  it  witli  his  rod,  say- 
 ing, Let  this  be  holy  in  the 
 name  of  the  tenth. 
 Aaron's  ROD.  (See  Aaron.) 
 ROE.    (See  Hart.) 
 ROGEL.    (See  Enrogel.) 
 ROLL.    (Soft  Books.) 
 ROLLS,   HOUSE  OF.      (See 
 Hol'sb.) 
 
 ROMANS,  EPISTLE  OP  Pa  PL 
 
 TO,  is  the  sixth  in  order  of  the 
 
 books  of  the  New  Testament 
 
 It  was  written  at  Corinth,  a.  d 
 
 530 
 
fh 
 
 ROM 
 
 57—59,  just  as  he  was  leaving 
 thai  cily  for  Jerusalem.  (Rom. 
 XV.  25.  Coinp.  Acts  xx.  2, 3. 16. 
 Rom.  xvi.  11.2:3.  1  Cor.  i.  14. 
 2  Tim.  iv.  2U.)  The  Iloman 
 church  was  composed  partly 
 of    converted    heathens    and 
 
 nly  of  Jewish    Christians. 
 
 he  Gentile  converts  claimed 
 the  same  Christian  privileses 
 with  the  Christian  Jews;  Fjut 
 refused  to  submit  to  tiiose  cere- 
 monies which  the  members  of 
 the  Jewish  church  were  per- 
 mitted to  retain,— such  as  cir- 
 cumcision, abstinence  from 
 Krticular  meats,  Sec.  ice.  The 
 wfl  also  had  very  false  no- 
 tions of  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
 cation through  faith.  They 
 Bupposeil  that  their  former  co- 
 venant relation  to  God,  their 
 knowledge  of  the  Leviiical  law, 
 and  their  obedience  to  the 
 riles  and  ceremonies  it  im- 
 posed, constituted  some  part  of 
 the  ground  of  their  acceptance 
 with  God. 
 
 This  epistle  is  designed  to 
 correct  these  mi.sapprehen- 
 sions,  and  to  show  that  the 
 whole  system  of  Jewish  rites 
 and  ceremonies  is  done  away 
 by  the  ffospel  dispensation,  and 
 that  the  way  of  salvation 
 through  Christ  is  opened  alike 
 to  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  that 
 whosoever  will  may  lake  of 
 the  water  of  life  freely. 
 
 RO.ME.  (Acts  xxviii.  16.) 
 The  capital  of  the  Roman  em- 
 pire, and  once  the  meirop<jlis 
 of  the  worhl,  is  situated  on  the 
 river  Tiber,  in  Italy.  It  was 
 tniill  by  Romulus  seven  hun- 
 dred and  fifty  years  before 
 Christ,  and  though  at  first  it 
 occupied  a  single  hill  of  less 
 than  a  mile  in  extent,  it  in- 
 cluded in  the  days  of  its  glory 
 seven  (sf^me  say  fifteen)  hills, 
 and  overed  a  territory  twenty 
 miles  in  circumference,  and 
 had  a  population  of  two  or  th  ree 
 millions.  It  had  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  thousand  houses,  be- 
 •ides  the  mansions  of  the  no- 
 
 ROM 
 
 bility ;  and  it  had  four  hundred 
 and  twenty  temples  <  rowded 
 with  pagan  deities.  The  cily 
 was  piven  up  to  the  grossest 
 idolatry  and  superstition,  while 
 in  arts  and  amis  she  was  de- 
 cirledly  the  mistress  of  the 
 world.  This  was  the  state 
 of  Rome  at  the  birth  of  Christ. 
 Juiiea  formed  a  part  of  her  im- 
 mense empire,  and  many  Jews 
 were  resident  in  ihe  city.  Al 
 what  lime  the  Christian  reli- 
 gion was  ininxluced  is  uncer- 
 tain;  probably  S'xtn  after  the 
 day  of  Pentecost.  (Acts  ii.  10.. 
 We  know  that  as  early  as 
 A.  L».  61,  eight  or  ten  years 
 afK-r  a  church  was  established 
 there  and  addressed  by  Paul, 
 (Rom.  i.  8;  xvi.  19,)  the  em- 
 peror Nero  commenced  afurious 
 persecution  aeainst  its  mem- 
 bers, which  the  emperor  Do- 
 milian  renewe<l  a.  d.  81,  and 
 the  emperor  Trajan  carried 
 out  with  implacable  malice. 
 (A.  D.  97—117.)  Seasons  of 
 suffering  and  repxjse  succeeded 
 each  other  alternately  until 
 the  reign  of  Conslaniine,  (a.d. 
 32.5,)  when  Christianity  was 
 established  as  the  religion  of 
 the  empire. 
 
 The  modern  cily  is  cele- 
 brated not  only  for  its  own 
 magnificence  and  splendour, 
 but  for  the  ruins  of  its  former 
 greatness.  It  is  called  the 
 great  school  of  painters,  sta- 
 tuaries, and  architects;  and 
 the  lovers  of  the  arts  from  all 
 quarters  of  the  globe  are  found 
 at  all  limes  wilhin  her  walls, 
 or  on  a  pilgrimage  thither.  In 
 1S30,  Rome  contained  nearly 
 150,000  inhabitants,  among 
 whom  were  35  bisiiops  and 
 archbishor.s,  1490  priests,  1983 
 monks,  2390  nuns,  and  10,000 
 Jews,  who  occupy  a  particular 
 section  of  the  cily.  The  ma- 
 jestic ruins;  the  grandeur  of 
 I  the  churches  and  palaces; 
 I  the  religious  cus'om."?;  the 
 j  boundless  treasures  of  ami 
 I  quity  and  art,  and  the  recol 
 531 
 
RUB 
 
 lections  of  what  Rome  once 
 was,  may  well  produce  the 
 highest  degree  of  excitement 
 in"  the  mind  of  the  traveller 
 to  that  renowned  city. 
 ROOF.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 ROOM.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 ROPES,  (IKines  xx.  31,)  and 
 CORDS.  (Josh.li.  15.)  The 
 putting  ropes  upon  the  necks 
 was  significant  of  great  earn- 
 estness and  distress.  So  when 
 the  city  of  Calais  was  besieged 
 in  the  time  of  Edward  III.  of 
 England,  six  of  the  noblest  and 
 wealthiest  citizens,  with  ropes 
 around  their  necks,  presented 
 themselves  to  the  king,  and 
 offered  their  lives  as  a  ransom 
 for  their  fellow  citizens.  The 
 cords  of  sin  (Prov.  v.  22)  proba- 
 bly denote  tiie  power  of  sinful 
 habits.  AnJ  in  Isa.  xxxiii.  20, 
 and  Jer.  x.  20,  allusion  is  made 
 to  the  construction  of  a  tent. 
 The  silver  cord  (Eccl.  xii.  6) 
 is  generally  supposed  to  refer 
 to  the  spinal  marrow,  to  which, 
 as  to  its  form  and  colour,  it  may 
 be  not  inaptly  compared. 
 
 ROSE.  (Sol.  Song  ii.  1.)  In 
 the  east  the  pride  of  flowers  for 
 fragrance  and  elegance.  It 
 was  used  among  the  ancients 
 in  crowns  and  chapleis,  at  fes- 
 tive meetings,  and  at  religious 
 sacrifices.  "A  traveller  in  Per- 
 sia describes  two  rose-trees,  full 
 fourteen  feet  high,  laden  with 
 thousands  of  flowers,  in  every 
 degree  of  expansion,  and  of  a 
 bloom  and  delicacy  of  scent 
 that  imbued  the  whole  atmo- 
 sphere with  the  most  exquisite 
 perfume.  (Isa.xxxv.  1,2.)  The 
 vale  of  Sharon,  from  its  soil 
 and  position,  was  fitted  to  pro- 
 duce the  rose  in  great  perfec- 
 tion. Hence  the  allusion  in 
 the  passage  above  cited. 
 
 RUBY."  (Prov.  iii.  15;  viii. 
 11.)  A  precious  stone  of  a 
 rose-red  colour,  and  of  great 
 beauty  and  value.  (Job  xxviii. 
 18.  Prov.  xxxi.  10.)  It  is  se- 
 cond only  to  the  diamond  in 
 hardness,  and  is  usually  found 
 
 RUT 
 
 no  lareer  than  the  finest  shot, 
 (See  Pearls.) 
 
 RUDIJVIENTS.  (Col.  ii.  8.) 
 The  elements,  or  first  and  low 
 est  principles  of  a  science  or 
 literature.  With  religion  (says 
 one)  it  fareth  as  with  other 
 sciences;  the  first  delivery  of 
 the  elements  or  rudiments 
 thereof  must  be  framed  accord- 
 ing to  the  weak  and  slender 
 capacity  of  young  beginners. 
 The  phrase  rudiments  of  the 
 world  signifies  the  rites  and 
 observances  of  the  Jewish  re- 
 ligion, which  are  to  the  full 
 knowledge  imparted  in  the 
 gospel  what  the  alphabet  is  to 
 a  language,  or  what  the  ele- 
 mentary principles  are  to  the 
 science  of  astronomy  or  che- 
 mistry. The  word  is  translated 
 rudiments  or  elements  without 
 distinction,  as  both  mean  the 
 same  thing.  (Gal.  iv.  -3.  9.  Col. 
 ii.  20.    See  Elements.) 
 
 RUE.  (Luke  xi.  42.)  A  small 
 garden  herb,  possessing  medi- 
 cinal properties,  and  among 
 the  things  which  the  hypocri- 
 tical andlnconsistent  Pharisees 
 tithed,  though  uncommanded, 
 while  they  neglected  to  obey 
 the  important  and  positive  pre- 
 cepts of  the  law. 
 
 RUMAH.    (SeeARDMAH.) 
 
 RUSH.  (Isa.  xix.  15.)  A  well 
 known  plant,  found  in  wet 
 and  miry  ground,  (Job  viii.  11^ 
 and  used  for  mats,  baskets, 
 chair-bottoms,  &c.  The  pith 
 is  used  for  wicks  to  burn  in 
 lamps,  (rush-light.)  In  the 
 passage  first  cit"ed,  it  probably 
 means  the  least  important 
 class  of  people;  for  notwith 
 standing  the  many  uses  of  the 
 rush,  it  is  proverbially  without 
 value. 
 
 RUTH.  (Ruth  i.  4.)  A  Mo- 
 abitish  woman,  who  married 
 the  son  of  Naomi,  and  showed 
 her  strong  attachment  to  her 
 mother-in-law  by  leaving  her 
 own  country, and  following  her 
 mother-in-law  into  Judea.  Her 
 kindness  was  abundantly  r©" 
 532 
 
RUT 
 
 warded,  as  she  soon  found  fa- 
 vour in  ihe  eyes  of  a  kinsman, 
 whom  she  afterwards  married, 
 by  which  event  slie  became  the 
 ancestor  of  the  royal  family  of 
 David. 
 
 The  Book  of  Euth  is  the 
 eigiith  in  order  of  the  books  of 
 the  Old  Testament,  and  is  re- 
 garded as  a  kind  of  supplement 
 to  the  book  of  Judges.  It  con- 
 tains a  biography  of  the  indi- 
 vidual above  named,  and  her 
 family.  It  has  only  four  chap- 
 ters, and  though  there  are  at  its 
 close  some  highly  important 
 genealogical  facts,  its  promi- 
 nent  design   is   to   show  the 
 
 RYE 
 
 watchful  care  of  God's  provl. 
 dence  over  such  as  fear  and 
 trust  Him.  (The  Affectionate 
 Daughter-in-law,  published 
 by  the  Am.  S.  S.  Union,  is  the 
 history  of  Ruth,  connected  with 
 the  manners  and  customs  of 
 the  age  in  which  she  lived.) 
 
 RYE.  (Ex.  ix.  32.)  A  well 
 known  species  of  grain  used 
 for  bread,  and  for  provender 
 for  animals.  The  word  signi- 
 fies bearded;  but  barley  and 
 some  kinds  of  wheat  are  beard- 
 ed also.  The  word  occurs  Isa. 
 xxviii.  25.  In  Ezek.  iv.  9,  the 
 same  word  is  rendered  J?/ cAes 
 in  our  English  Bibles. 
 
 SAB 
 
 SABACTHANI.  (Matt,  xxvii. 
 46.)  This  is  part  of  the 
 exclamation  of  our  divine  Re- 
 deemer in  the  extremity  of  his 
 sufferings  upon  the  cross.  It  is 
 the  first  clause  of  the  twenty- 
 second  psalm  in  the  Syro-Chal- 
 daic  tongue,  and  answers  to 
 the  wordyorsaken. 
 
 SABAOTH.  (Rom.  ix.  29.) 
 A  Hebrew  word,  signifying 
 hosts,  or  military  bodies,  pre- 
 pared for  war ;  and  when  used 
 in  relation  to  Jehovah,  indi- 
 cates his  power  and  majesty. 
 
 The  Lord  of  Sabaoth  or 
 Hosts.  The  term  hosts  may 
 refer  to  angels,  to  the  heavenly 
 bodies,  or  to  the  people  of  God — 
 or  all  of  them. 
 
 SABBATH.  (Ex.  xvi.  23.) 
 This  was  the  title  given  to  the 
 Jewish  day  of  rest.  It  is  from 
 a  Hebrew  word  signifying  rest. 
 Since  the  Christian  era,  the  day 
 of  rest  is  (and,  as  many  think, 
 most  properly)  called  the  Lord  "s- 
 day,  because  it  is  now  comme- 
 morative of  Christ's  resurrec- 
 tion from  the  dead  ;  and  there 
 is  thus  connected  with  it  an 
 affectionate  remembrance  of 
 the  whole  character  and  offices 
 of  Him  to  whose  service  and 
 glory  it  is  to  be  devoted.  Sun- 
 45* 
 
 SAB 
 
 day  was  a  name  given  by  the 
 heathens  to  the  first  day  of  the 
 week,  because  it  was  the  day 
 on  which  they  worshipped  the 
 sun;  and  this  name,  together 
 with  those  of  the  other  days 
 of  the  week,  has  been  con- 
 tinued to  our  times.  There  is 
 reason  to  believe  that  as  soon 
 as  man  was  created,  and  en- 
 dowed with  capacities  to  love 
 and  worship  (jod,  he  was  re- 
 quired to  consecrate  at  least 
 one-seventh  of  his  time  to  the 
 special  and  exclusive  service 
 of  his  Maker.  The  sanctifica- 
 tion  of  this  portion  of  time  is 
 regarded  throughout  the  whole 
 of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  fun- 
 damental principle  of  duty 
 and  no  sin,  except  perhaps 
 idolatry,  is  threatened  with 
 heavier  penalties  than  Sab- 
 bath-breaking. 
 
 The  commandment  which 
 stands  fourth  in  the  order  of 
 the  decalogue,  (Ex.  xx.  8,)  Re- 
 member the  Sabbath-day  to 
 keep  it  holy,  is  founded  on  the 
 fact  that  the  seventh  day  was 
 blessed  and  hallowed  by  God 
 himself,  and  that  he  requires 
 his  creatures  to  keep  it  holy  to 
 him.  This  commandment  is  of 
 universal  and  perpetual  obliga« 
 533 
 
SAB 
 tion.  The  object  to  be  accom- 
 plished by  the  insiiiution  is 
 general,  and  applies  to  all 
 people  everywhere  with  like 
 force.  Wherever  there  is  a 
 human  being  capable  of  con- 
 lemplaiing  the  character  of  the 
 Supreme  Bein^— of  studying 
 his  revealed  will,  and  of  con- 
 sidering his  own  nnmortal  des- 
 linj— this  commandment  re- 
 quires him  to  consecrate  at 
 least  one-seventh  pari  of  his 
 time  to  these  holy  purposes. 
 The  terms  of  the  command- 
 ment do  not  fix  the  precise  day 
 in  order, except  that  it  is  lobe 
 every  seventh  day ;  in  other 
 words,  it  simply  requires  thai 
 after  six  days  of  labour,  one 
 day  is  to  be  given  to  rest. 
 
 There  is  abundant  evidence 
 from  history  that  the  seventh 
 day  of  the  week  has  been  ob- 
 served from  the  earliest  times 
 as  a  day  of  rest ;  and  the  change 
 from  the  seventh  to  the  first 
 day  does  not  in  any  degree 
 change  or  impairthe  obligation 
 to  sanctify  a  seventh  part  of 
 our  time.  So  far  from  it,  the 
 sacredness  and  glory  of  the  day 
 are  much  increased  by  its  as- 
 sociation with  that  great  event 
 on  which  our  hope  of  life  and 
 immortality  entirely  depends. 
 
 It  seems  to  be  admitted  by 
 intelligent  men  of  every  class 
 and  profession,  that  the  obser- 
 vance of  a  weekly  day  of  rest 
 is  as  essential  to  our  intellec- 
 tual and  physical  as  to  our 
 moral  and  spiritual  nature. 
 
 The  simple  rule  as  to  the 
 mode  of  observing  the  day 
 seems  to  be  this,— tliat  there 
 should  be  a  cheerful  resting,  all 
 the  day,  from  such  worldly  em- 
 ployments and  recreations  as 
 may  be  lawful  on  other  days, 
 and  the  spending  of  the  wiiole 
 lime  in  the  public  or  private 
 worship  of  God,  except  so  much 
 as  may  be  occupied  by  works 
 of  necessity  or  mercy.  To  test 
 Ihe  propriety  of  any  act  or  pur- 
 suit on  that  day,  it    is  only 
 
 SAB 
 
 needful  to  inquire  whether  the 
 doingof  it  will  tend  to  advance 
 us  m  noly  exercises  and  affec- 
 tions, and  in  preparation  for  the 
 heavenly  rest;  or  whether  it  is 
 an  act  of  necessity  whicli  can* 
 not  be  postponed  without  seri- 
 ous injury.  (See  Feasts.  See 
 also  Omar,  pp.  211—213,  and 
 Biblical  ANTiauixiES,  vol.  ii. 
 ch.  vi.  §  11,  both  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 The  following  are  amon^  the 
 leading  authorifies  of  the  Bible 
 respecting  the  Sabbath  and  ita 
 proper  observance. 
 
 The  profanation  of  the  Sab- 
 bath the  cause  of  national  judg- 
 ments. (Neh.  xiii.  15—18. 
 Ezek.  XX.  15,  16  ;  xxiii.  38. 47.) 
 
 The  divine  institution  of  the 
 Jewish  Sabbath.  (Gen.  ii.  2,3. 
 Ex.  XX.  8—11.  Deut.  v.  12.  15. 
 Ezek.  XX.  12;  xliv.  24.) 
 
 Servile  labour  forbidden. 
 (Ex.  xvi.  23.  29;  xx.  10,  11; 
 xxiii.  12 ;  xxxiv.  21  ;  xxxv.  2, 3. 
 Deut.  v.  14.  15.  Jer.  xvii.  21, 
 22.  Mark  x v.  42;  xvi.  1,  2. 
 John  xix.  14.  31.  42.) 
 
 The  Jewish  Sabbath  re-es- 
 tablished under  the  eospel  dis- 
 pensation. (Matt.  V.  17;  xii.  12. 
 Mark  ii.  27.) 
 
 The  change  of  the  Sabbath 
 from  the  seventh  to  the  first 
 day  of  the  week.  (Gen.  ii.  2. 
 Ex.  XX.  11.  Luke  xxiii.  56. 
 John  XX.  19.  Acts  xx.  7.  1  Cor. 
 xvi.  2.   Rev.  i.  10.) 
 
 The  duties  of  the  Sabbath 
 enjoined.  (Lev.  xix.  30;  xxvj,- 
 2.  Ezek.  xlvi.  3.  Mark  vi.  2 
 Luke  iv.  16,  31.  Acts  xiii.  14— 
 16.27.42.44;  xvii.  2,  3.) 
 
 Works  of  necessity  a.id  mer- 
 cv  to  be  done  on  this  day. 
 (Matt.  xii.  1—3.  5.  7.  12,  13. 
 Markii.  23.  27;  iii.  2.  4.  Luke 
 vi.  9;  xiii.  15,  16;  xiv.  3.  5. 
 John  V.  8— 10.  IS;  vii.  22;  ix. 
 14.) 
 
 Blessings  promised  to  those 
 who  keep  the  Sabbath.  (Isa. 
 Ivi.  2.  4,5-7;  Iviii.  13,  14) 
 
 Threateninss  against  Sab- 
 bath breakers.  (Ex.  xxxi.  1'^ 
 534 
 
SAC 
 i5 ;    XXXV.  2.    Num.  xv.  32— 
 36   Jer.  xvii.  27.  Ezek.  xx.  13, 
 16.  23,24;  xxii.  8.  14.  26.  31; 
 xxiii.  38.  46.) 
 
 Sabbath  privileges  taken 
 away.  (Isa.  i.  13.  Lam.  i.  7 ; 
 ii.6."  Hos.  ii.  11.  Amos  viii.  11.) 
 
 Sabbath-day's  journey. 
 (See  Measures.) 
 
 SABEANS.    (SeeSHEBA.) 
 
 SACKBUT.  (Dan.  iii.  5.)  A 
 musical  instrument.  It  is  some- 
 times described  as  a  gtrins^ed 
 instrument;  and  it  is  said  that 
 it  had  four  strings,  and  was 
 played  with  the  fingers,  and 
 had  a  very  penetrating  sound. 
 In  process  of  time  the  strings 
 were  increased  to  twenty.  It 
 was  of  a  triangular  form. 
 
 It  is  mentioned  in  a  modern 
 work  on  this  subject,  that  one 
 of  these  instruments  was  dis- 
 covered in  Herculaneum, 
 where  it  had  been  for  nearly 
 two  thousand  years  under 
 ashes ;  the  lower  part  of  it  was 
 made  with  bronze,  and  the 
 upper  with  the  mouthpiece 
 of  gold.  It  was  presented  by 
 the  king  of  Naples  to  George 
 III.  of  England,  and  from  the 
 model,  the  modern  trombone, 
 used  in  military  bands  with  so 
 much  effect,  was  fashioned. 
 According  to  this  account,  it 
 was  a  wind  instrument. 
 
 SACKCLOTH.  (Gen.xxxvii. 
 34.)  This  was  a  coarse  fabric, 
 made  of  black  goats'  hair  and 
 other  materials,  and  worn 
 either  as  a  sign  of  repentance, 
 (Matt.  xi.  21,)  or  as  a  token  of 
 mourning.  (2  Sam.  iii.  31. 
 Eslh.  iv.  1,  2.  Job  xvi.  15.  Ps. 
 XXX.  11.  Isa.  XX.  2.  Rev.  vi.l2.) 
 Hence  the  frequent  occurrence 
 in  Scripture  of  figurative  lan- 
 guage, connecting  sackcloth 
 with  mourning  arid  darkness. 
 (Isa.  1.  3.  Ezek.  vii.  18;  xxvii. 
 31.    Am.os  viii.  10.) 
 
 SACRIFICE.  (Gen.  xxxi. 
 54.)  In  addition  to  the  dis- 
 tinction pointed  out  under  the 
 word  offering,  (see Offerings,) 
 it  may  be  observed  that  sacred 
 
 SAC 
 
 gifts  were  in  use  from  iho 
 earliest  periods  of  the  world. 
 (Gen.  iv.  3,  4.)  The  Jewish 
 religion,  however,  contained  a 
 complete  system  of  sacrificial 
 rites,  and  required  their  scru- 
 pulous observance.  According 
 to  the  law  of  Moses,  sacrifices 
 could  not  be  offered  upon  the 
 altar,  except  by  the  priests; 
 nor  at  any  other  place  than  in 
 the  court  of  God's  sanctuary. 
 (Deut.  xii.  5—28.) 
 
 Animal  sacrifices  were  of 
 four  general  kinds  ;  viz.  burnt- 
 offerings,  sin-offerings,  tres- 
 pass-offerings, and  peace-offer- 
 ings. We  have  a  particular 
 account  of  these  in  the  first 
 seven  chapters  of  Leviticus. 
 The  three  kinds  first  mention- 
 ed had  an  expiatory  virtue ; 
 that  is,  they  made  atonement 
 for  those  that  offered  them. 
 The  peace-offerings  were  more 
 particularly  sacrifices  express- 
 ive of  gratitude  and  praise  for 
 mercies  received,  or  of  suppli- 
 cation for  mercies  desired. 
 Burnt-offerings,  however,  were 
 not  exclusively  expiatory  in 
 their  character,  but  had  in  them 
 also  a  meaning  of  thankful  and 
 adoring  worship  presented  to 
 the  Most  High ;  and  in  them 
 all  some  regard  was  had  to  the 
 euiltofsin.  Blood  poured  out, 
 in  sacrifice  of  any  son,  could 
 have  no  meaning  other  than 
 that  of  atonement.  It  was  so- 
 lemnly consecrated  by  the 
 Lord  to  be  an  expiation  for  the 
 soul,  and  accordingly  never 
 flowed  about  the  altar  without 
 a  design  of  calling  to  remem- 
 brance the  existence  of  sin, 
 and  symbolically  washing 
 away  its  evil.  (Lev.  xvi.  10 — 14. 
 Heb.  X.) 
 
 The  word  is  sometimes  used 
 figuratively,  (Rom.  xii.  1.  Heb. 
 xiii.  15.  16.  IPet.  ii.  5;)  and 
 the  use  of  it  implies  that  the 
 duties  enjoined  under  the  figure 
 are  to  be  performed  with  a  view 
 to  God's  glory,  and  not  wiihou* 
 the  alienation  of  something 
 535 
 
SAD 
 
 from  ourselves,  which  is  dedi- 
 cated to  the  Lord,— as  lime, 
 Rropeny,  easp,  «5cc.  (Ps.  li.  17.) 
 leal-offerings  and  drink-offer- 
 ings were  bloodless  sacrifices, 
 always  connected  with  each 
 other,  however,  and  generally- 
 connected  with  bloody  sacri- 
 fices. (Sen  Offerings,  Al-  ' 
 TAH,  High-priest.  And  for  a 
 particular  and  interesting  dis- 
 cussion of  the  whole  subject, 
 eee  Biblical  Antiquities, 
 vol.  ii.  ch.  v.,  and  Selumiel, 
 ch.  iv.,  both  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 SACRILEGE.  (Rom.  ii.  22.) 
 The  crime  of  violating  or  pro- 
 faning sacred  things.  The 
 Jews  at  some  periods  were 
 eminently  guilty  in  this  parti- 
 cular, inasmuch  as  they  with- 
 held the  tithes  and  offerings 
 which  God  required  of  ihein, 
 (Mai.  iii.  8— 10,)  and  converted 
 his  holy  temple  into  a  market. 
 (Matt.  xxi.  12,  1.3,) 
 
 SADDUCEES.  (Matt.  iii.  7.) 
 A  Jewish  sect  often  mentioned 
 in  the  New  Testament.  Its 
 founder  was  Tzadoc,  a  disciple 
 of  Antigonus,  who  was  presi- 
 dent of  the  Jewish  sanhedrim, 
 and  lived  about  two  hundred 
 and  sixty  years  before  Christ. 
 He  taught  that  there  were  no 
 future  rewards  or  punishments 
 appointed  unto  men ;  and,  con- 
 sequently, no  world  of  retribu- 
 tion, and  no  angels  or  spirits. 
 (Matt.  xxii.  23.  Acts  xxiii.  8.) 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Sadducees 
 was  received  by  few ;  though 
 such  as  did  embrace  it  were 
 commonly  persons  of  wealth 
 and  dignity.  As  a  sect,  how- 
 ever, they  had  no  influence 
 over  the  people. 
 
 The  Sadducees,  as  well  as 
 the  Pharisees,  were  bitterly 
 opposed  to  Christ,  and  often 
 contended  with  him  on  the 
 points  which  were  peculiar  to 
 their  sect;  but  they  seem  to 
 have  mustered  their  strength, 
 and  to  have  come  forth  with 
 all  their  power,  against,  the 
 
 SAL 
 
 apostles,  when  they  preached 
 the  resurrection  of  Jesus  from 
 the  dead ;  which  single  fact 
 was  a  death-blow  to  their  sys- 
 tem. The  sect  of  the  Saddu- 
 cees  made  some  figure  in  the 
 third  century,  and  again  in  the 
 eighth  ;  but  for  a  long  lime  pasi 
 they  have  been  extinct. 
 
 SAFFRON.  (Sol.  Song  iv. 
 14.)  A  well  known  flower  of 
 the  crocus  family,  used  for  me- 
 dicinal purposes,  and  also  for 
 colouring.  There  may  be  a 
 species  of  it  with  aromatic  pro- 
 perties. 
 
 SAINTS.  (Heb.  vi.  10.)  The 
 title  given  by  the  sacred  writ- 
 ers to  believers  in  Christ,  or 
 the  peo})le  of  God.  (Ps.  xvi.  3. 
 Rom.  i.  7 ;  viii.  27.)  The  literal 
 imix)rt  of  the  term  is  holy  one  ; 
 and  in  Deut.xxxiii.2,andJude 
 14,  it  probably  means  angels. 
 When  it  is  applied  to  men,  it 
 is  to  such  as  lead  holy  lives, 
 and  give  evidence  of  being  re- 
 newed and  sanctified.  As  there 
 can  be  no  absolute  certainty, 
 however,  respecting  their  real 
 character  in  the  sight  of  God, 
 all  human  decisions  as  to  who 
 are  to  be  regarded  or  treated  as 
 saints  must  be  fallacious. 
 
 SALAMIS  (Acts  xiii.  5)  was 
 the  principal  city  and  seaport 
 of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and 
 received  the  gospel  frcm  Paul 
 and  Barnabas,  a.  d.  44.  (See 
 Cyprus.)  The  ruins  of  Salamis 
 were  visited  in  1S35  by  two 
 American  missionaries.  Very 
 little  of  the  ancient  town  ifl 
 standing;  but  on  the  outside  of 
 the  city  they  found  the  remains 
 of  a  building  two  hundred  feet 
 in  length,  and  six  or  eight 
 high  ;  also  a  stone  church,  ai^d 
 portions  of  an  aqueduct,  by 
 which  water  was  brought  to 
 the  city  from  a  distance  of 
 thirty  miles. 
 
 SALCAH,  (Deut.  iii.  10,)  now 
 known  as  Salchat,  lies  on  the 
 south-east  corner  of  the  terri- 
 tory of  Manasseh,  east  of  Jor 
 dan. 
 
 536 
 
SAL 
 
 SALEM  (Gen.  xiv.  18)  has 
 been  generally  supposed  to  be 
 Ihe  place  which  was  afterwards 
 called  Jerusalem.  (Comp.  Ps. 
 Ixxvi.  2.)  But  some  think  that 
 the  placeof  which  3Ielchizedec 
 was  king,  was  the  Shalem  of 
 Gen.  xxxiii.  IS,  or  the  Salim  of 
 the  New  Testament,  (see  Sa- 
 lim;) and  that  the  Salem  of 
 the  psalmist  is  a  contraction  of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 SALIM,  (John  iii.  23,)  or 
 SHALEM,  (Gen.  xxxiii.  18,)  or 
 SHALIM,  (1  Sam.  ix.  4,)  was 
 south  of  Bethshean,  and  west 
 of  Enon.  Some  suppose  it  was 
 the  same  with  Shalem  or  Sy- 
 chem,  but  that  is  not  placed 
 near  Enon  by  any  geographers. 
 Probably  Mechizedec  was  king 
 of  one  of  these  places,  and  not 
 of  Jerusalem,  as  some  have 
 maintained. 
 
 SALMON,  (Ps.  Ixviii.  14,) 
 or  ZALMON,  (Jude.  ix.  48,) 
 was  one  of  the  high  hUls  which 
 environed  the  ancient  She- 
 chem,  and  afforded  pasturage 
 for  Jacob's  flocks.  (SeeZALMON.) 
 
 SALMONE.    (See  Crete.) 
 
 SALOME,  (Mark  xv.  40,)  the 
 wife  of  Zebedee,  and  the  mo- 
 ther of  James  the  elder  and 
 John  the  Evangelist,  was  one 
 of  the  followers  of  Christ, 
 (Matt,  xxvii.  56.  Mark  xv. 
 40  ;  xvi.  1  ;)  though  she  seems, 
 like  many  others,  to  have  mis- 
 taken the  true  nature  of  his 
 kingdom.    (Matt.  xx.  21.) 
 
 SALT  (Lev.  ii.  13)  is  abun- 
 dant in  Palestine.  From  the 
 water  of  the  Dead  Sea  an  ex- 
 cellent table  salt  is  obtained. 
 On  the  eastern  shore  it  is  found 
 in  lumps  often  more  than  a 
 foot  thick,  in  places  which  the 
 lake  had  overflowed  in  the 
 rainy  season.  The  stones  on 
 the  shore  are  covered  with  an 
 incrustation  of  lime  or  gypsum. 
 Branches  and  twigs,  which 
 fall  into  the  water  from  the 
 bushes,  become  encased  in 
 salt ;  and  if  a  piece  of  wood  is 
 thrown  in,  it  soon  acquires  a 
 
 SAL 
 
 bark  or  rind  of  saU,  From  this 
 factjSonie  have  attempted  lo  ex- 
 plain thetransformalion  of  Lot's 
 wife  into  a  pillar  o*"saU,  (Gen. 
 xix.  26 ;)  while  others  suppose 
 that  the  expression  is  figura- 
 tive, denoting  that  she  was 
 made  an  everlasting  monu- 
 ment of  divine  displeasure; 
 (salt  being  an  emblem  of  per- 
 petuity ;)  and  others  still  think 
 that  she  was  miraculously 
 transformed  into  a  solid  co- 
 lumn of  salt. 
 
 At  the  south-western  extre- 
 mity of  the  Dead  Sea,  there  is 
 a  plain  of  considerable  extent, 
 the  soil  of  which  is  entirely 
 covered  with  salt,  without  the 
 slightest  trace  of  vegetation. 
 This  is  probably  the  valley  (or 
 plain)  of  salt,  where  David's 
 army  vanquished  the  Edom- 
 ites.  (2Sam.  viii.  13.  1  Chron. 
 xviii.  12.    2  Chron.  xxv.  11.) 
 
 By  the  salt-pits  (Zeph.  ii.  9) 
 we  are  not  to  understand 
 quarries  from  which  rock-salt 
 is  extracted,  but  such  pits  as 
 the  Arabs,  even  at  this  day, 
 make  upon  the  shore  of  the 
 Dead  Sea,  in  order  that  they 
 may  be  filled  when  the  spring 
 freshets  raise  the  waters  of  the 
 lake.  When  the  water  eva- 
 porates, it  leaves  in  the  pits  a 
 salt  crust  about  an  inch  thick, 
 which  furnishes  the  salt  used 
 throughout  the  country.  Pits 
 of  this  sort  seem  to  be  alluded 
 to  in  Ezek.  xlvii.  11.  In  Josh. 
 XV.  62,  a  city  of  salt  is  men- 
 tioned, in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  the  Dead  Sea. 
 
 The  uses  of  salt  are  suffi- 
 ciently known.  Most  food 
 would  without  it  be  ins'pid. 
 (Job  vi.  6.)  Salt  being  thus 
 essential  to  the  enjoyment  of 
 food,  the  word  was  used  lo  de- 
 note the  subsistence  which  a 
 person  obtained  in  the  service 
 of  another.  Thus  in  Ezra  iv. 
 14,  the  words  translated  we 
 have  our  maintenance  from 
 the  king^s  palace,  are  in  the 
 original,  we  salt  (or  are  salted) 
 537 
 
SAL 
 
 wi'lh  the  salt  of  the  palace 
 And  even  now  among  itie  Per- 
 sians and  East  Indians,  to  eat 
 the  salt  of  any  one  is  lo  be  in 
 his  employment.  Salt  was  also 
 used  in  sacrifices.  (Lev.  ii.  13. 
 Mark  ix.  49.)  In  the  last  pas- 
 sage reference  is  had  to  the 
 perpetuity  of  suffering. 
 
 New-born  children  were 
 rubbed  with  salt.  (Ezek.  xvi.  4.) 
 
 As  salt  is  a  preservative  from 
 corruption  and  dissolution,  it 
 was  customary  at  the  ratifica- 
 tion of  solemn  treaties  to  pre- 
 sent a  vessel  of  it,  from  which 
 either  party  ate  a  few 
 grains.  Hence  an  indissoluble 
 and  perpetual  covenant  is 
 called  a  covenant  of  salt. 
 (Num.  xviii.  19.  2Chron.  xiii. 
 5.  See  Bedouin  Arabs,  pp. 
 78,  79,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 No  plants  can  germinate  in 
 a  soil  covered  with  salt.  Hence 
 a  salt  land  is  an  unfruitful, 
 desert  land.  (Jer.  xvii.  6.) 
 Salt  was  also  used  as  a  visible 
 emblem  of  sterility.  When 
 Abimelech  took  Shechem, 
 (Judg.  ix.  45.)  he  beat  down 
 the  city  and  sowed  it  with  salt, 
 as  a  token  that  it  should  con- 
 tinue desolate.  In  like  man- 
 ner the  Emperor  Frederick 
 Barbarossa,  when  he  destroyed 
 Milan,  in  the  year  1 162,  caused 
 the  ground  to  be  ploughed  and 
 strewed  with  salt. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  as  salt 
 renders  food  savoury,  it  is  em- 
 
 filoyed  as  an  emblem  of  holy 
 ife  and  conversation,  (Mark 
 ix.50.  Col.  iv.  6;)  and  in  Matt, 
 v.  13,  Christ  calls  his  disciples 
 the  salt  of  the  earth,  i.e.  of 
 mankind,  because  the  latter 
 were  lo  be  enlightened  and 
 improved  by  their  holy  instruc- 
 tion and  example. 
 
 Salt,  valley  of.  (See 
 Salt.) 
 
 Salt,  pillar  op.  (See 
 Salt.) 
 
 Salt,  covenant  of.  (See 
 Salt.) 
 
 Salt  Sba.    (Num.   xxxlv. 
 
 SAL 
 
 12.)  The  sea  into  which  the 
 Jordan  empties,  and  which  oc- 
 cupies the  ground  where  once 
 stood  the  cities  of  the  plain,  in 
 the  vale  of  Siddim.  (Gen.  xiv. 
 3.)  It  is  also  called  the  sea  of 
 the  plain,  (Deut.  iii.  17;)  and 
 from  its  geographical  location, 
 the  East  Sea.  (Joel  ii.  20.)  The 
 Greeks  called  it  Asphallites, 
 from  the  bitumen  which  it 
 yields  ;  and  the  Arabs  the  Sea 
 of  Lot.  Its  usual  appellatioa 
 now  is  the  Dead  Sea,  from  the 
 destructive  influence  of  its  ex- 
 halations, on  both  animal  and 
 vegetable  life.  As  the  Jordan, 
 Isefore  the  destruction  of  the 
 plain,  discharged  itself  in  the 
 same  place  that  it  now  does, 
 the  conclusion  is  a  necessary 
 one,  that  the  lake  which  then 
 existed  was  subterranean.  It 
 was  covered  with  a  crust  of 
 earth,  sustained  by  the  asphal- 
 tum,  a  pitchy  substance  which 
 rose  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
 lake,  and  collected  during  a 
 long  course  of  years  in  large 
 masses.  An  American  mis- 
 sionary who  visited  the  spot 
 says,  "The  water  looks  re- 
 markably clear  and  pure ;  but 
 on  taking  it  into  my  mouth,  I 
 found  it  nauseous,  and  bitter, 
 I  think,  beyond  any  thing  I 
 ever  tasted.  My  clothes  were 
 wet  by  the  waves,  and  as  they 
 dried,  I  found  them  covered 
 with  salt.  It  has  been  said 
 that  birds  cannot  fly  over  this 
 sea;  but  we  saw  a  great  num- 
 ber on  its  shores,  and  observed 
 three  at  a  time  flying  over  the 
 water."  Another  traveller 
 says,  "  I  went  till  up  to  the 
 knee  into  the  sea,  and  took 
 some  water  into  my  mouth. 
 It  was  impossible  lo  keep  it 
 there.  Its  saltness  is  even 
 greater  than  that  of  the  ocean, 
 and  it  produces  a  sensation  on 
 the  lips  similar  to  that  from  a 
 strong  solution  of  alum.  My 
 boots  were  scarcely  dry,  when 
 they  Avere  already  covered 
 with  salt;  our  clothes,  hais, 
 538 
 
SAL 
 
 ha:Js,  faces,  were  impreg- 
 nated by  this  mineral  in  less 
 Ihan  two  hours."  Ii  is  agreed 
 by  all  that  its  water  is  strongly 
 Impre^nnted  with  saline  sub- 
 Btances,  having  lime,  magne- 
 sia, and  soda,  neutralized  with 
 hydrochloric  and  sulphuric 
 acids.  Il  yiel'is  about  one- 
 fourth  of  its  weight  of  salt  by 
 evaporation.  The  lake  is 
 enclosed,  except  on  the  north- 
 west, by  ranges  of  broken  and 
 barren  hills,  and  is  about 
 seventy  miles  in  length,  and 
 twenty  in  its  greatest  width, 
 and  nearly  two  hundred  in 
 circumference.  Every  travel- 
 ler on  its  shores  has  searched 
 for  the  famous  apple  of  Sodom. 
 The  missionary  above  cited 
 found  two  species  of  fruit, 
 either  of  which,  he  says,  may 
 pass  for  it;  the  one,  on  being 
 opened,  presenting  a  dry  pith 
 like  that  of  the  corn-sUlk,  w  ith 
 one  or  two  seeds;  the  other, 
 very  inviting  in  appearaiice, 
 but  very  bitter  to  the  taste. 
 
 The  Dead  Sea  has,  appa- 
 rently, no  outlet;  and  though 
 it  is  computed  that  the  Jordan 
 discharges  into  it  upwards  of 
 six  millions  of  tons  daily,  it  is 
 said  there  is  never  any  per- 
 ceptible variation  in  the  height 
 of  its  waters.  The  opinion  of 
 the  Arabs  is,  that  it  loses  its 
 waters  by  evaporation ;  but  it 
 is  more  probable  that  il  has 
 one  or  more  subterraneous  out- 
 lets. (See  Evening  Recrea- 
 tions, vol.  ii.  pp.  23,  24,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 SALUTE.  (Malt.  x.  12,) 
 SALUTATION.  (Luke  i.  41.) 
 The  salutations  of  the  Jews 
 were  usually  of  a  religious 
 character,  at  least  in  form, 
 and  were  attended  with  much 
 ceremony.  Sometimes  there 
 was  nothing  but  the  simple 
 exclamation,  "God  be  with 
 you,"  or  "  Peace  be  with  you." 
 To  this  last  and  most  common 
 form,  striking  allusion  is  made 
 by  our  Saviour.  (John  xiv.  27.) 
 
 SAM 
 The  time  occupied  in  the  cere 
 monies  of  salutation,  repeat- 
 edly bowing, kissing  the  beard, 
 &c.,  was  often  very  consider- 
 able, (Gen.  xxxiii.3,  4;)  and 
 hence  the  caution,  2  Kines  iv. 
 29.  Luke  x.  4.  The  prohibi- 
 tion in  this  last  passage  is 
 probably  designed  to  secure 
 the  close  and  undivided  atten- 
 tion of  the  apostles  to  the  work 
 before  them,  and  to  prevent 
 the  loss  of  time  or  the  waste 
 of  thought  on  mere  matters 
 of  firm  and  ceremony. 
 
 SALVATION,  (Ex.  xiv.  13) 
 or  deliverance,  supposes  evil 
 or  danser.  (Comp.  Ps.  cvi.  8— 
 10,  with  Isa.  Ixiii.  S,  9.)  Bui 
 in  its  ordinary  use,  in  the  New 
 Testament  especially,  the  term 
 denotes  the  deliverance  of  sin- 
 ners from  eternal  perdition, 
 through  faith  in  Christ.  The 
 (lay  of  salvation,  (2  Cor.  vi.  2,) 
 the  gospel  of  salvation,  (Eph.  i. 
 13,)  and  other  like  phrases,  are 
 employed  in  this  sense.  They 
 all  suppose  mankind  to  be 
 lost  and  mined  by  sin,  and 
 hence  to  be  in  a  state  of  guilt, 
 danger,  and  deplorable  misery, 
 and  exposed  to  the  just  and 
 dreadful  penalty  of  the  divine 
 law.  The  salvation  which  the 
 gospel  offers  includes  in  it  the 
 pardon  of  sin,  and  deliverance 
 from  its  power,  pollution,  and 
 consequences ;  and  also  sanc- 
 lification  of  the  soul,  and  the 
 joys  of  the  eternal  world.  (Malt. 
 1.21.  Gal.  iii.  13.  1  Thess.  i.  10. 
 Heb.  V.  9)  Hence  it  is  justly 
 called  a  great  salvation 
 (Heb.  ii.  3.) 
 
 SAMARIA.  1.  (1  Kings  xiii. 
 32.)  The  central  province  oi 
 section  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
 having  Galilee  on  the  north 
 and  Judea  on  the  south,  was 
 called,  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
 Samaria.  It  included  the  pos- 
 sessions of  Ephraim  and  Ma- 
 nasseh,  and  comprehends  the 
 modern  districts  of  Arefa  and 
 Nablouse;  in  the  former  of 
 which  are  the  sites  of  Cesarea 
 
SAM 
 and  Carmel,  aod,  in  the  lat- 
 ter, Shechem  and  the  city  ol 
 Samaria. 
 
 2.  The  city  of  Samaria, 
 (1  Kings  xvi.  24,)  from  which 
 the  above  province  had  ita 
 name,  was  situated  about  forty 
 miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  and 
 a  short  distance  norih-west 
 of  Nablouse,  (Shechem.)  It 
 was  founded  by  Omri,  king  of 
 Israel,  as  the  capital  of  Israel, 
 or  the  ten  tribes.  (1  Kings  xvi. 
 29.  2Kings  iii.  1.)  The  terri- 
 tory was  purchased  of  Shemer, 
 (hence  Samaria,)  and  fortified. 
 (2  Kings  X.  2.)  It  withstood 
 two  unsuccessful  sieges  by 
 Benhadad  king  of  Syria,  and 
 his  powerful  allies,  (1  Kings 
 XX,)  and  was  finally  subdued 
 by  Shalmanezer,  in  the  reign 
 of  Hoshea;  but  not  till  after  a 
 iiege  of  three  years.  (2  Kings 
 xvii.  1—6.)  Previous  to  its  faU, 
 it  was  given  up  to  every  spe- 
 cies of  sensuality,  oppression, 
 and  idolatry.  It  recovered  its 
 prosperity,  however,  and  reach- 
 ed the  height  of  its  glory  in 
 the  time  of  Herod  the  Great, 
 who  enlarged  and  adorned  it. 
 The  ruins  attest  its  former 
 magnificence,  though  it  is  now 
 but  an  insignificant  village. 
 A  modern  traveller  says,— 
 "  The  situation  is  extremely 
 beautiful  and  strong  by  nature : 
 more  so  than  Jerusalem.  It 
 stands  on  a  fine  larire  insulated 
 hill,  compassed  all  round  by 
 a  broad  deep  valley ;  and  when 
 fortified,  must  have  been,  ac- 
 cording to  the  ancient  mode 
 of  warfare,  impregnable.  The 
 valley  is  surrounded  by  four 
 hills,  which  are  cultivated  in 
 terraces  to  the  top,  and  sown 
 with  grain,  and  planted  with 
 fig  trees  and  olive  trees;  as  is 
 also  the  valley.  The  hill  of 
 Samaria  itself  rises  in  ter- 
 races to  a  height  equal  to  any 
 of  those  in  its  vicinity.  The 
 present  village  is  small  and 
 poor,  and  the  ascent  to  it  very 
 •teep;  but  viewed   from  our 
 
 SAM 
 
 tents  was  extremely  interest- 
 ing, from  its  natural  situation, 
 and  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
 convent,  which  are  very  pic- 
 turesque." An  American  mis- 
 sionary,  who  visited  the  ruins 
 in  the  autumn  of  1823,  says, 
 "  it  must  have  been  a  mighty 
 city."  The  site  of  it  is  now 
 overgrown  with  orchards. 
 
 SAMARITANS.  (2 Kings 
 xvii.  29.)  The  inhabitants  of 
 Samaria ;  but  in  the  New  Tes 
 tament  it  is  applied  to  the  peo 
 pie  that  were  planted  in  Sa 
 maria,  in  the  place  of  the  ex- 
 iled Israelites,  by  the  Assyrian 
 king.  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.)  This 
 defiled  origin,  (Ezra  iv.  1 ;)  the 
 course  pursued  by  the  Samari- 
 tans before  the  Persian  kings, 
 (Neh.  iv.  1 ;)  connected  with 
 their  construction  of  the  Mosaic 
 law,  (Deut.  xxvii.  11—13,)  and 
 their  separation  from  the  Jews 
 in  their  place  of  worship,  (Luke 
 ix.  52,  53.  John  iv.  20,  21,)  ren- 
 dered the  animosity  between 
 tliem  very  bitter,  (Matt.  x.  5. 
 John  iv.  9;)  and  hence  the 
 very  name  Samaritan  was, 
 with  the  Jew,  a  term  of  re- 
 proach and  contempt.  (John 
 viii.  48.)  The  Samaritans  ex- 
 pected a  Messiah,  (John  iv.  25,) 
 and  many  of  them  followed 
 Christ.  (Acts  viii.  1 ;  i.x.  31 ; 
 XV.  .3.  See  Shechem.  See  also 
 Elisama,  pp.  186—189,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 SAMOS.  (Acts  XX.  15.)  Aa 
 island  in  the  Egean  Sea,  or 
 Grecian  Archipelago,  at  which 
 Paul  touched  on  his  passage 
 from  Greece  to  Jerusalem.  It 
 is  situated  a  few  miles  from 
 the  coast  of  Natolia  in  Asia 
 Minor,  and  is  about  seventy 
 miles  in  circumference,  con- 
 taining not  more  than  twelve 
 thousand  inhabitants.  The 
 soil  is  very  fertile,  producing 
 oil,  wine,  oranges,  and  silk, 
 and  is  capable  of  fine  cultiva- 
 tion. Marble  is  at  present 
 found  in  the  island ;  and  once 
 it  contained  a  temple  of  Juno 
 540 
 
SAM 
 whose  remains  are  yel  visible. 
 It  was  the  birthplace  of  Pylha- 
 
 Ejras,  and  the  burial-place  of 
 ycurcus. 
 
 SAJlOTHRACIA,  (Acts  xvi. 
 11,)  or  Santos  of  Thrace.  An 
 island  in  the  Archipelago, 
 seventeen  miles  in  circum- 
 ference, lying  off  the  province 
 of  Romania,  and  not  far  from 
 Thrace.  It  was  passed  by 
 Paul  in  his  passage  from  Troas 
 to  Philippi.  It  was  once  called 
 Samos;  and  the  word  Thracia 
 was  annexed  to  distinguish  it 
 from  the  Samos  above  men- 
 tioned. The  name  is  appro- 
 priate; for  it  was  inhabited 
 chiefly  by  emigrants  from 
 Samos  and  Thrace.  Once 
 celebrated  for  its  mysteries, 
 ii  is  now  inhabited  principally 
 by  fishermen,  and  in  many 
 parts  covered  with  forests.  Its 
 modern  name  is  Samodraki. 
 
 SAMSON.  (Jud^.  xiii.  iM.) 
 Son  of  Manoah,  and  for  twenty 
 years  a  judge  of  Israel.  The 
 circumstances  attending  the 
 annunciation  of  his  birth  are 
 remarkable,  (Judg.  xiii.  3—23, 
 see  Manoah;)  and  he  was 
 distinguished  for  his  gigantic 
 Blrenglh.  Contrary  "to  the 
 wishes  of  his  parents,  who 
 were  observers  of  the  law, 
 (Ex.  xxxiv.  16.  Deut.  vii.  3,) 
 he  married  a  woman  of  Tim- 
 nalh,  a  Philistine  city.  On 
 his  way  to  that  city,  he  slew  a 
 lion,  (Judg.  xiv.  5—9;)  and 
 afterwards" found  in  the  car- 
 cass of  the  beast  a  swarm  of 
 bees;  and  he  ate  of  the  honey 
 himself,  and  took  some  to  his 
 parents.  This  gave  rise  to  an 
 enigma,  which  he  propounded 
 at  his  marriage  feast,  promis- 
 ing a  valuable  present  to  any 
 one  who  would  solve  it  within 
 seven  days;  provided  they 
 would  make  a  like  present 
 to  him  if  they  failed.  Unable 
 to  solvs  the  riddle  themselves, 
 they  resorted  to  Samson's  wife, 
 who,  by  the  most  urgent  en- 
 treaties, had  obtained  from  him 
 46 
 
 SAM 
 
 a  solution  of  it.  By  cruel  threats 
 they  extorted  from  her  the 
 secret,  and  told  it  to  him. 
 But  he  knew  their  treachery; 
 and  though  he  kept  his  word, 
 and  made  them  the  present, 
 It  was  at  the  expense  of  the 
 lives  of  thirty  of  their  coun- 
 trymen. He  also  forsook  his 
 wife,  who  had  been  thus  false 
 to  his  interest. 
 
 On  returning  to  Timnath, 
 with  a  view  to  a  reconciliation 
 with  his  wife,  he  found  she 
 had  married  again,  and  he  was 
 not  permitted  to  see  her.  H© 
 immediately  caught  three  hun- 
 dred foxes,  and  fastening  a  fire- 
 brand to  every  pair  of  them, 
 let  them  loose  upon  the  fields 
 and  vineyards  of  the  Philis- 
 tines, and  spread  fire  and  deso- 
 lation over  the  country.  The 
 Philistines,  to  be  avenged,  set 
 fire  to  the  house  where  Sam- 
 son's wife  lived;  and  she  and 
 her  father  were  burnt  in  it. 
 This  wanton  barbarity  drew 
 upon  them  again  the  ven- 
 geance of  Samson,  who  came 
 upon  them,  and  routed  them 
 with  immense  slaughter. 
 (Judg.  XV.  1-8.) 
 
 He  then  tooii  up  his  abode 
 on  the  rock  Etam,  in  the  ter- 
 ritory of  Judah,  whither  the 
 Philistines  came  to  revenge 
 themselves,  laying  waste  the 
 country  on  every  side.  Three 
 thousand  of  the  men  of  Judah 
 remonstrated  with  Samson  for 
 thus  exciting  the  resentment 
 of  the  Philistines  ;  and  he  con- 
 sented that  they  should  bind 
 him,  and  deliver  him  into  their 
 hands.  This  they  did  ;  tut  ia 
 the  midst  of  their  exultations, 
 he  burst  his  bands,  and  fell 
 upon  his  enemies,  putting  a 
 thousand  of  them  to  death,  and 
 the  residue  to  flight.  (Judg. 
 XV.  9—19.)  It  wason  this  oc- 
 casion that  he  was  miraculousi 
 ly  supplied  with  water  from  « 
 fountain  opened  on  the  spot* 
 not  in  the  jawbone  with  which 
 he  had  slain  the  Philistines 
 
 941 
 
SAM 
 
 but  in  the  place  where  the 
 bone  was  found  and  used. 
 
 After  this,  Samson  went  to 
 Gaza,  where  he  attached  him- 
 self to  Delilah,  a  mercenary 
 woman,  by  whom,  after  a  va- 
 riety of  arts  and  stratagems, 
 the  secret  of  his  great  sirenjrih 
 was  discovered  to  lie  in  the 
 preservation  of  his  hair,  for  he 
 was  a  Nazarite.  (Judg.  xvi. 
 17.)  The  Philistines  came 
 upon  him  while  he  was  asleep ; 
 removed  his  hair;  bound  him 
 with  fetters  of  brass;  put  out 
 his  eyes ;  carried  him  to  Gaza, 
 and  threw  him  into  prison. 
 Having  thus  secured  their 
 formidable  foe,  the  Philistine 
 nobles  assembled  for  a  feast 
 of  joy,  and  to  add  to  their  mer- 
 riment, they  proposed  to  have 
 Samson  brought.  So  a  lad  led 
 him  in,  and  sat  him  down  be- 
 tween the  two  main  pillars 
 of  the  house,  where  the  nobles 
 and  a  multitude  of  people,  both 
 men  and  women,  were  assem- 
 bled; besides  three  thousand 
 persons  upon  the  roofs  of  the 
 cloisters  around,  beholding  the 
 cruel  sport.  Samson  requested 
 of  the  lad  that  had  charge  of 
 him,  to  rest  himself  against  the 
 pillars  on  either  side  of  him. 
 This  being  granted,  he  prayed 
 for  strength,  and,  laying  hold 
 of  the  pillars,  he  bowed  with 
 all  his  might,  carrying  the  pil- 
 lars and  the  whole  structure 
 with  him,  and  burying  him- 
 eelf  and  the  vast  multitude 
 within  and  around  the  courts 
 in  one  common  destruction. 
 Samson  is  ranked  with  the 
 company  of  the  faithful.  (Heb. 
 xi.  ^2,  33.  See  Dwellings. 
 See  also  Story  op  Samson,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 SAMUEL,  (1  Sam.  i.  20,)  the 
 Bon  of  Elkanah  and  Hannah, 
 was  a  celebrated  Hebrew  pro- 
 phet, and  the  last  of  their 
 judges.  While  he  was  a  child, 
 he  officiated  in  some  form  in 
 the  temple,  and  was  favoured 
 with  remarkable   revelations 
 
 SAN 
 of  the  divine  will  respecting 
 the  family'  of  Eli  tlie  high- 
 priest,  under  whose  care  and 
 training  his  mother  had  placed 
 him.  (1  Sam.  iii.  4—14.  See 
 Eli.) 
 
 After  the  death  of  Eli,  Sa- 
 muel was  acknowledged  as  a 
 prophet,  and  soon  commenced 
 a  work  of  reformation.  Idol- 
 atry was  banished ;  the  wor- 
 ship of  the  true  God  was  re- 
 stored, and  Samuel  was  pub- 
 licly recognised  aa  a  judge  in 
 Israel.  Residing  on  his  patri- 
 monial estate  in  Raman,  he 
 made  annual  circuits  through 
 the  country  to  administer  jus- 
 tice, until  his  infirmities  were 
 too  many  to  permit  it,  and  then 
 he  deputed  his  sons  to  execute 
 this  duty.  They  proved  them- 
 selves unworthy  of  the  trust; 
 and  so  general  was  the  dis- 
 satisfaction of  the  people,  that 
 they  determined  on  a  change 
 of  government.  To  this  end 
 they  applied  to  Samuel,  who, 
 under  the  divine  direction, 
 anointed  Saul  to  be  their  king ; 
 and  Samuel  resigned  his  au 
 thority  to  him.  (ISam.  xii.) 
 After  Saul  was  rejected  for  his 
 disobedience  in  the  matter  of 
 A  gag,  Samuel  was  instructed 
 to"anoint  David  as  king,  after 
 which  he  returned  to  Ramah, 
 where  he  died.  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1. 
 See  Saul.) 
 
 First  and  second  books 
 OF,  the  tenth  and  eleventh  in 
 order  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  are  called  also  th« 
 first  and  second  books  of  Kings. 
 They  bear  Samuel's  name, 
 because  that  prophet  wrot« 
 twenty-four  chapters  of  the  first 
 book.  Nathan  and  Gad  are  sup 
 posed  to  have  completed  them. 
 (lChron.xxix.29.)  They  con 
 stitute  an  important  part  of 
 the  annals  of  the  Jewish  na- 
 tion. The  first  book  embracej 
 a  period  of  eighty  years,  from 
 the  birth  of  Samuel  to  the 
 death  of  Saul;  and  relates  to 
 Eli  and  Samuel,  the  last  two 
 642 
 
SAN 
 of  \he  judges,  and  Saul  and 
 Iteivid,  the  first  two  of  their 
 kings.  The  second  book  em- 
 braces a  period  of  about  forty 
 years ;  and  contains  the  na- 
 tional records  during  the  long 
 reign  of  David,  as  well  as  the 
 events  of  his  personal  history. 
 (Union  Questions,  vol.  vi.,  liy 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union,  embraces 
 these  two  books.) 
 
 SANCTIFY  (Ex.  xiii.  2)  is 
 to  prepare  or  set  apart  persons 
 or  things  to  a  holy  use.  The 
 term  sanctificaiion,  when  ap- 
 plied to  men,  denotes  that 
 effect  of  (rod's  Spirit  upon  the 
 Boul,  by  which  it  is  made  7neet 
 forthe  inheritance  of  the  saints 
 in  light.  It  comprehends  all 
 the  graces  of  knowledge,  faith, 
 love,repentance,humility,&c., 
 and  the  exercise  of  them  to- 
 wards God  and  man.  (2  Thess. 
 ii.  13.  1  Pet.  i.  2.)  It  is  a  pro- 
 cess by  which  the  soul  is 
 cleansed  from  the  pollution 
 and  delivered  from  the  power 
 of  sin,  and,  at  the  same  lime, 
 endued  with  those  spiritual 
 graces  above  named,  without 
 which  there  could  be  no  taste 
 or  fitness  for  the  joys  or  em- 
 ployments of  the  heavenly 
 world.  (Heb.  xii.  14.)  Sanc- 
 tificaiion is  the  fruit  of  union 
 to  Christ  by  faith;  and  it  is  in 
 the  knowledse  and  belief  of 
 the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus  that 
 the  soul  becomes  the  subject 
 of  the  sanctifyinsr  influences 
 of  the  Spirit.  (John  xvii.  17.) 
 From  this  inward  sanctifica- 
 iion proceeds  every  good  word 
 and  work.  (Tit.  ii.  11—14.) 
 \VTien  Christ  speaks  of  sanc- 
 tifying himself,  (John  xvii.  19,) 
 it  is  in  allusion  to  liie  vow 
 which  required  the  sacrifice 
 to  be  set  apart  to  a  holy  use. 
 He  separates  or  dedicates  him- 
 self as  a  sacrifice  to  God  for 
 them. 
 
 SANCTUARY.  CPs.  xx.  2.) 
 A  holy  or  sanctified  place. 
 By  this  name  that  part  of  the 
 temple  of  Jerusalem  was  call- 
 
 SAK 
 
 ed  which  was  the  most  secret 
 and  most  retired;  in  which 
 was  tlie  ark  of  the  covenant; 
 and  where  none  but  the  high- 
 priest  might  enter,  and  he  only 
 once  a  year,  on  the  day  of 
 solemn  expiation.  (Lev.  iv.  6.) 
 It  is  also  applied  to  the  furni- 
 ture of  this  holy  place,  (Num. 
 X.  21  ;)  the  apartment  where 
 the  golden  candlestick,  table 
 of  shew-bread,  altar  of  incense, 
 &;c.  stood,  (2Chron.  xxvi.  18;) 
 and  to  the  whole  tabernacle  or 
 temple.  (Josh.xxiv.26.2Chroa. 
 XX.  S)  It  is  called  the  sanc- 
 tuary of  strength,  because  it 
 was  a  strong  place,  and  easily 
 fortified;  and  it  belonged  to 
 God,  the  strength  of  Israel, 
 (Dan.  xi.  31 ;)  a  tcorldly  sanc- 
 tuary, as  it  wasof  a  carnal  and 
 earthly  typical  nature.  (Heb. 
 ix.  I.)  It  is  also  applied  to  any 
 place  appointed  for  the  public 
 worship  of  God,  (Ps.  Ixxiii.  17;) 
 to  heaven,  where  God  and  his 
 holy  an^ls  and  saints  for  ever 
 dwell,  (Ps.  cii.  19;)  and  in  al- 
 lusion to  the  Jewish  sanctuary,  * 
 whose  brazen  allar  protected 
 petty  criminals,  a  place  of 
 refuge  and  shelter  is  called  a 
 sanctuary.  (Isa.  viii.  14.  Ezek. 
 xi.  16.) 
 
 SANBALLAT,  (Neh.  ii.  10,) 
 the  governor  of  the  Samaritans, 
 was  a  native  of  Horon,  or  Ho- 
 ronanor,  and  is  hence  called 
 the  Horonite.  He  was  very 
 inimical  to  the  Jews;  and  en- 
 deavoured, by  every  means 
 of  force  and  fraud,  to  hinder 
 Nehemiah  in  the  work  of  re- 
 building the  temple.  (Neh. 
 VI.  1-9.) 
 SANDALS.  (See Clothing.) 
 SAPPHTRA.  (See  Ananias.) 
 SAPPHIRE.  (Ex.  xxviii.  18.) 
 A  precious  stone,  obtained 
 chiefly  from  the  East  Indies, 
 anil  surpassed  in  beauty,  lustre, 
 and  hardness  only  by  the  dia- 
 mond. Its  colour  is  various, 
 from  a  deep  azure  like  the 
 sky,  (whence,  perhaps,  the  al 
 lusion,  Ex.  xKiv.  10.  Ezek.  i 
 &43 
 
SAR 
 
 26;  X.  1,)  to  the  highest  tint, 
 and  even  to  pure  white.  The 
 sapphire  was  the  second  stone 
 in  the  high-priest's  breast- 
 plate. 
 
 SARAH,  or  SARAI.  (Gen.  xi. 
 31.)  The  sister-in-law  and  wife 
 of  Abraham.  In  addition  to 
 the  notice  of  her  in  the  article 
 Abraham,  it  may  be  proper  to 
 say  that  she  was  the  subject  of 
 special  promises,  as  well  as 
 Abraham.  (Gen.  xvii.  16.)  Her 
 conduct  in E^pt,  (Gen.  xii.  15,) 
 and  towards  Ha?ar,  (Gen.  xvi. 
 6;  xxi.  10,)  and  also  when  Isaac 
 was  promised,  (Gen.  xviii.  15,) 
 evinced  great  weakness;  but 
 her  exemplary  faith  is  com- 
 mended by  the  apostles.  (Heb. 
 xi.  11.  lPet.iii.6.)  She  lived 
 to  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
 seven  years  of  age,  or  upwards 
 of  ihirly-six  years  after  the 
 birth  of  Isaac ;  and  was  buried 
 in  a  field  of  Machpelah,  which 
 Abraham  bought  for  the  pur- 
 
 SARDINE.  (See  Sardius.) 
 SARDIS.  (Rev.  i.  11.)  A  city 
 of  ancient  Lydia,  and  the  site 
 of  one  of  the  seven  churches 
 of  Asia.  Its  modern  name  is 
 Sart,  and  it  lies  about  thirty 
 miles  south-east  of  Thyatira. 
 It  is,  however,  but  a  miserable 
 village,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
 shepherds,  though  it  is  one 
 of  the  stopping-places  of  the 
 Persian  caravans.  The  ori- 
 ginal city  was  plundered  by 
 Cyrus,  and  afterwards  deso- 
 lated by  an  earthquake,  the 
 ruins  of  it  being  still  visible  a 
 little  distance  to  the  south  of 
 the  present  town. 
 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  Parsons, 
 American  missionaries,  visited 
 Sardis  in  the  autumn  of  1820. 
 They  speak  of  "  the  ruins  of 
 this  once  splendid  city,  with 
 nothing  now  to  be  seen  but  a 
 few  mud  huts,  inhabited  by 
 ignorant,  stupid,  filthy  Turks, 
 and  the  only  men  who  bear 
 the  Christian  name,  at  work 
 all  day  in  their  mill.    Every 
 
 SAR 
 
 thing  seems  as  if  God  had 
 cursed  the  place,  and  left  it 
 to  the  dominion  of  Satan  "  A 
 modern  traveller  says,  "I  sat 
 beneath  the  sky  of  Asia,  to 
 gaze  upon  the  ruins  of  Sardis, 
 from  the  banks  of  the  golden- 
 sanded  Paclolus.  Bestae  me 
 were  the  cliffs  of  that  Acropo- 
 lis, which,'  centuries  before, 
 the  hardy  Median  scaled  while 
 leading  en  the  conquering 
 Persians,  whose  tents  had  co- 
 vered the  very  spot  on  which 
 I  was  reclining.  Before  me 
 were  the  vestiges  of  what  had 
 been  the  palace  of  the  gorgeous 
 Croesus  :  within  its  walls  were 
 once  con.qregaied  the  wisest 
 of  mankind,  Thales,  Cleobu- 
 lus,  and  Solon.  Far  in  the 
 distance  were  the  gigantic 
 tumuli  of  the  Lydian  mo- 
 narchs ;  and  around  them 
 spread  those  very  plains  once 
 trodden  by  the  countless  hosts 
 of  Xerxes,  when  hurrying  on 
 to  find  a  sepulchre  at  Mara- 
 thon. But  all,  all  had  passed 
 away !  There  were  before  ma 
 the  fanes  of  a  dead  religion, 
 the  tombs  of  forgotten  mo 
 narchs,  and  the  palm  tree  tha< 
 waved  in  the  banquet-hall  ol 
 kinss." 
 
 SARDIUS,  (Ex.  xxviii.  17,) 
 or  SARDINE,  (Rev.  iv.  3,)  com- 
 monly  called  cornelian,  is  a 
 precious  stone  susceptible  of  a 
 beautiful  polish,  highly  valueo 
 for  seals  and  ornamenis.  The 
 finest  specimens  are  from  Ju- 
 dea.    (See  Sardonyx.) 
 
 SARDONYX.  (Rev.  xxi.  20.) 
 A  precious  stone,  combining 
 the  appearances  of  the  sardius 
 and  onyx,  (whence  its  name.) 
 Both  the  above  are  species  of 
 the  chalcedony,  and  are  found 
 in  greatest  perfection  in  Judea, 
 though  specimens  of  both  are 
 found  on  lake  Superior,  near 
 Portage  river,  in  Missouri,  and 
 at  Deerfield  in  Massachusetts. 
 
 SAREPTA,  (Luke  iv.  26,)  or 
 ZAREPHATH.  (1  Kings  xvii. 
 9)  A  Gentile  town,  lying  oo 
 544 
 
SAU 
 the  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, between  Tyre  and  Si- 
 don,  and  belonging  to  the  lat- 
 ter. Its  modern  name  is  Zxir- 
 vfia,  or  Zarphant.  Though 
 there  were  many  widows  in 
 Israel,  distressed  with  the  pre- 
 vailing famine,  Elijah  was  not 
 sent  to  them,  but  to  a  Zidoniau 
 widow  in  Sarepia.  Messrs. 
 Fisk  and  King  passed  the 
 place  in  the  summer  of  1823. 
 SARGON.    (See  Esarhad- 
 
 DON.) 
 
 SARON.    (See  Sharon.) 
 
 SATAN.  (IChron.  xxi.  I.) 
 A  Hebrew  word  signifying  cm 
 enemy;  and  in  Scripture  it  is 
 commonly  applied  to  the  devil, 
 who  is  the  enemy  of  God,  and 
 the  great  tempter  and  destroy- 
 er of  the  souls  of  men.  Its  use 
 in  Matt.  xvi.  23,  denotes  the 
 influence  under  which  Peter 
 acted.    (See  Devil.) 
 
 SATYR.  (Isa.  xiii.  21 ;  xxxiv. 
 14.)  A  fabled  creature  of  Greek 
 mythology,  compounded  of  a 
 man  and  a  goat,  and  supposed 
 to  be  the  deity  of  forests  and 
 rural  places.  The  expression 
 eatyrs  shall  dance  there,  &c. 
 denotes  that  the  place  shall 
 become  as  a  rude,  wild,  uncul- 
 tivated wa-^le. 
 
 SAUL,  (ISam.  ix.  2,)  the 
 first  king  of  Israel,  was  the 
 son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
 jamin. His  personal  appear- 
 ance was  so  remarkably  fine 
 and  noble,  as  to  be  particularly 
 mentioned  by  the  sacred  his- 
 torian. 
 
 It  happened  that  some  asses 
 of  his  father's  had  strayed 
 away,  and  he  took  one  of  the 
 servants  and  went  in  search 
 of  them.  In  the  course  of  their 
 wanderings,  they  came,  on  the 
 third  day^  to  a  place  where 
 Samuel  the  seer  (or  prophet) 
 resided;  and  the  servant  pro- 
 posed that  they  should  apply  to 
 him  for  information.  This  they 
 did.  Samuel,  having  been  di- 
 vinely admonished  of  the  ap- 
 proach of  Saul,  and  instructed 
 4(J* 
 
 SAU 
 
 what  to  do,  invited  him  to  hil 
 house,  and  treated  him  with 
 marked  distinction.  The  next 
 day  Samuel  made  known  to  him 
 privately  that  he  was  to  have 
 the  rule  over  Israel ;  and  while 
 they  were  in  the  way,  he  took 
 a  vial  of  oil,  and,  pouring  it  on 
 his  head,  anointed  him  for  the 
 regal  office.  To  convince  Saul 
 that  this  thing  was  of  the  Lord, 
 Samuel  told  liim  particularly 
 what  should  befall  him  on  his 
 way  home;  and  they  were 
 such  events  as  Samuel  could 
 not  have  known  but  by  reve- 
 lation from  God.  (1  Sam.  x. 
 2—6.)  In  a  few  days  after 
 this,  Samuel  went  to  Mizpeh, 
 and  summoned  the  people  of 
 Israel  ^  to  meet  him  there. 
 "When  they  were  assembled, 
 he  announced  to  them  the 
 appointment  of  Saul  to  be 
 their  king. 
 
 Very  early  in  his  reign,  Saul 
 acquired  considerable  popu- 
 larity by  a  splendid  victory 
 over  the  Philistine  army,  at 
 the  siege  of  Jabesh-gilead; 
 and  immediately  afterwards 
 the  people  met  at  Gilgal,  and 
 celebrated  his  accession  to  the 
 throne  with  sacrifices  and  fes- 
 tivities. After  a  series  of  mili- 
 tary successes,  Saul  was  com- 
 missioned by  divine  authority 
 to  execute  the  vengeance  long 
 before  denounced  upon  the 
 Amalekites  for  their  conduct 
 towards  the  children  of  Israel ; 
 but  he  disobeyed  the  explicit 
 directions  he  had  received,  and 
 for  this  sin  was  ultimately  de 
 prived  of  his  crown.  From 
 this  period  onward  he  is  ex 
 hibited  as  the  slave  of  jealousy, 
 duplicity,  and  malice.  His 
 conduct  towards  David  was 
 detestable  in  the  extreme,  and 
 shows  him  to  have  lost  every 
 manly  and  generous  feeling. 
 A  little  before  his  death,  the 
 Philistines  mustered  an  army 
 60  formidable  as  to  intimidate 
 the  king  of  Israel;  and,  in 
 the  midst  of  his  perplexity, 
 545 
 
SAU 
 he  found  himself  abandoned 
 of  God,  whose  direction  he 
 Bought  in  vain.  In  this  emer- 
 gency, he  took  two  of  hia  ser- 
 vants, and  went  by  night  to 
 Endor,  a  distance  of  about  ten 
 miles  from  his  camp,  to  con- 
 sult a  sorceress,  desiring  her 
 to  cause  the  spirit  of  Samuel 
 to  appear,  that  Ire  might  ask 
 of  him  the  counsel  which  he 
 so  much  needed.  Though  the 
 sorceress  had  no  power  over 
 spirits,  God  was  pleased  to 
 make  use  of  the  opportunity 
 thus  afforded  to  rebuke  the 
 wicked  king,  and  to  make 
 known  to  him  the  fearful 
 retribution  that  was  at  hand. 
 Samuel  was  permitted  to  re- 
 turn to  the  earth,  and  to  hold 
 conversation  with  Saul,  as 
 man  with  man.  After  hearing 
 his  complaint  against  God, 
 Samuel  charged  him  with  his 
 disobedience  to  the  divine  com- 
 mand in  the  matter  of  Ama- 
 lek;  assured  him  that  all  his 
 efforts  to  obtain  aid  elsewhere 
 were  vain,  if  God  had  become 
 his  enemy;  and  admonished 
 him  that  defeat  and  ruin  were 
 at  hand,  and  that  he  and  his 
 sons  should  be  the  next  day 
 inhabitants  of  the  world  of 
 spirits.  This  intelligence,  thus 
 supernaturally  communicated, 
 overwhelmed  the  wicked 
 king;  and  the  very  next  day 
 the  Israelites  were  routed  with 
 dreadful  slaughter.  Among 
 the  killed  were  Saul's  three 
 sons.  Saul,  finding  himself 
 wounded  and  likely  to  fall 
 into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
 threw  himself  upon  the  point 
 of  his  own  sword.  When  the 
 Philistines  found  the  body  of 
 Saul,  they  severed  the  head 
 from  it,  and  fastened  the  body 
 on  the  city  wall ;  from  which 
 it  was  afterwards  taken,  in  the 
 night,  by  some  of  his  friends 
 from  a  distance,  and  carried 
 to  Jabesh-gilead,  and  buried. 
 (1  Sam.  xxviii.— xxxi.) 
 
 SCE 
 
 Saul  op  Tarsus.  (See 
 Paul.) 
 SAVIOUR.  (See  Christ.) 
 SCAPE-GOAT.  (See  Goat.) 
 SCARLET.  (2Sam.i.24.)  A 
 brilliant  dye,  valued,  like  the 
 purple  and  crimson,  for  rich 
 apparel  (Ex.  xxviii.  15)  and  / 
 tapestry.  (Ex.  xxv.  4.)  Hence 
 it  was  an  emblem  of  luxury 
 and  licentiousness.  (Rev.  xvii. 
 3, 4.)  It  was  also  an  emblem  of 
 honour  and  prosperity.  (Prov. 
 xxxi.  21.)  Sometimes  the  scar- 
 let and  purple  are  confounded. 
 (Dan.  V.  7.  29.  Comp.  Matt, 
 xxvii.  28.  Mark  xv.  17.  John 
 xix.2.)  The  depth  and  strength 
 of  this  colour  gives  force  to  the 
 figure,  Isa.  i.  18.  (See  Purple.) 
 SCEPTRE.  (Eslh.  viii.  4.)  A 
 wooden  staff  or  wand,  five  or 
 six  feet  long,  usually  overlaid 
 with  gold  or  ornamented  with 
 golden  rings,  with  an  orna- 
 mented point.  It  was  borne  in 
 the  handsofkings  and  others  in 
 authority,  as  a  token  of  power. 
 (Gen.  xlix.  10.  Num.  xxiv,  17.) 
 It  probably  had  its  origin  in 
 the  shepherd's  staff,  as  the  pa- 
 triarchal chiefs  were  shepherds 
 as  well  as  princes.  When  this 
 sceptre  was  held  out  to  be 
 touched  by  an  individual  ap- 
 proaching the  throne,  it  was  a 
 sign  of  the  royal  acceptance 
 and  favour. 
 
 SCEVA.  (Acts  xix.  14.)  A 
 Jew  residing  at  Ephesus.  He 
 is  called  chief  of  the  priests, 
 which  probably  means  that  he 
 was  of  the  sacerdotal  order, 
 holding  an  office  of  distinction, 
 perhaps,  in  the  national  coun- 
 cil. He  had  seven  sons,  who, 
 with  other  Jewish  vagabonds, 
 practised  exorcism;  and  it  was 
 their  custom,  after  they  had 
 seen  the  miracles  wrought  by 
 Paul,  to  adjure  the  evil  spirits 
 by  Jesus  whom  Paul  preached. 
 Sceva's  sons  attempted  to  do 
 so,  and  the  possessed  man 
 fell  upon  them  with  prodigious 
 power,  stripped  and  wounded 
 546 
 
SCH 
 
 them,  and  obliged  them  inlhat 
 state  to  flee  from  the  house. 
 The  failure  of  the  imposture 
 ■was  overruled  to  the  further- 
 ance of  the  truth ;  for  many 
 conversions  look  place,  and 
 those  who  had  practised  the 
 foolish  arts  of  magic  and  sor- 
 cery brought  tog'eiher  their 
 books  on  those  subjects,  and 
 burned  them;  thus  showing 
 their  detestation  of  such  prac^"- 
 tices,  and  their  determination 
 to  renounce  them. 
 
 SCHISM  (ICor.  xii.  25) 
 means  a  rupture  or  separation  ; 
 but  it  is  supposed  to  denote  in 
 this  passage  any  such  aliena- 
 tion of  feeling  among  Chris- 
 tians as  violates  the  spiritual 
 union  which  ought  to  exist 
 among  them,  though  there  be 
 no  doctrinal  error  or  separate 
 communions. 
 
 SCHOOL,  (Acts  xix.  9,) 
 SCHOLAR,  (1  Chron.  xxv.  8,) 
 SCHOOLMASTER.  (Gal.  iii. 
 24.)  Schools  existed  among  the 
 Jews  from  a  very  early  period. 
 They  were  established  under 
 the  supervision  of  the  prophets 
 to  train  young  men  to  become 
 expounders  of  the  law,  and  so 
 fit  ihem  for  the  priestly  and 
 prophetical  offices.  (I'Sam. 
 xix.  18—24.  2  Kings  ii.  3.  5.  7. 
 12.  15.)  The  children  were 
 taught  to  read  in  common 
 schools;  and  in  higher  semi- 
 naries were  instructed  by  doc- 
 tors in  the  law  and  traditions. 
 It  is  supposed  that  Gamaliel 
 was  at  the  head  of  such  an 
 insiituLion,  and  much  distin- 
 guished, (Acts  xxii.  3;)  and  it 
 is  said  that  the  tutor's  chair 
 ■was  raised  so  much  above  the 
 floor  on  which  the  pupils  sat 
 that  his  feet  ■were  even  with 
 .their  heads.  It  is  much  more 
 probable,  however,  that  this  is 
 a  figurative  expression,  denot- 
 ing his  (Gamaliel's)  eminent 
 qualifications  as  a  teacher.  In 
 these  institutions  public  dis- 
 cussions were  often  held.  (Luke 
 •Ii.  46.  Acts  xix.  8— 10.i 
 
 SCO 
 
 The  schoolmaster  among  the 
 ancients,  as  at  the  present-day, 
 was  a  person  to  whom  they 
 committed  the  care  of  their 
 children,  to  lead  them,  to  ob- 
 serve them,  and  to  instruct 
 them  in  their  first  rudiments. 
 Thus  the  office  nearly  an- 
 swered to  that  of  a  governor 
 or  tutor,  (Gal.  iv.  2,  3,)  who 
 constantly  attends  his  pupil, 
 teaches  nim,  and  forms  his 
 manners.  It  is  said,  Gal.  iii. 
 24,  25,  the  laic  was  our  school- 
 master to  bring  vs  to  Christ. 
 It  pointed  out  Christ  in  the 
 Scriptures,  especially  in  the 
 figures  and  the  prophecies  of 
 the  Old  Testament;  but  since 
 we  are  supposed  to  be  advanced 
 to  superior  learning,  and  are 
 committed  to  the  tuition  of  the 
 faith  which  we  have  embraced, 
 we  have  no  longer  need  of  a 
 schoolmaster;  as  such  are  of 
 no  further  use  to  young  per- 
 sons when  advanced  to  years 
 of  maturity. 
 
 SCORNER.  (Prov.  xiii.  1.) 
 One  who  is  disposed  to  laugh 
 at  persons  and  things  of  im 
 portance;  who  mocks  at  sin, 
 and  the  judgments  of  God  on 
 account  of  if;  and  scoffs  at  re- 
 ligion and  the  professors  and 
 and  teachers  of  it;  and  derides 
 and  hales  wholesome  reproof 
 and  advice.  (Ps.  i.  1.  Prov.  ix. 
 8.) 
 
 SCORPION.    (Luke  xi.  12.) 
 A  venomous  insect  allied  to 
 the  spider,  but  resembling  the 
 lobster  so  much,  that  the  latter 
 is  called  the  sea-scorpion  by 
 the  Arabs.  Its  shape  and  gene- 
 ral appearance  are  seen  in  the 
 cut.    Its  usual  length  is  one  or 
 two  inches,  but  in  tropical  cli- 
 mates it  is  sometimes  found 
 i  six  or  eight  inches  (and  some 
 '  say  even  a  foot)  in  length  ;  and 
 j  its  sting  is  attended  with  ex- 
 I  crucialing  pain,   (Rev.  ix.  3— 
 I  6,)  terminating  often  in  violent 
 ;  convulsions  and  death.    The 
 I  malignity  of  their  venom  is  ac 
 cording  to  the  size  and  com 
 ^  547 
 
SCO 
 
 SCK 
 
 Blexion  of  the  different  species. 
 The  insect  conceals  Itself  in 
 crevices  and  under  stones,  and 
 when  coiled  up,  (especially  the 
 while  or  yellow  species,)  re- 
 eembles  an  egg;  whence  the 
 allusion,  Luke  xi.  12. 
 
 Ah  instrument  resembling  a 
 whip,  but  so  formed  with  knots 
 or  small  stones  as  that  each 
 blow  should  inflict  a  sharp 
 stinging  pain,  is  probably  al- 
 luded to  in  1  Kings  xii.  11. 
 (See  Scourge.) 
 
 Mount  Akrabbim  (Josh.  xv. 
 3.  Judg.  i.  36)  is,  literally,  the 
 mount  of  scorpions,  and  de- 
 rives its  name  from  ine  multi- 
 tude of  scorpionswhich  infest  it. 
 
 SCOURGE.  (John  ii.  15.) 
 The  scourge  was  usually  form- 
 ed of  three  lashes  or  thongs 
 made  of  leather  or  small  cords ; 
 thirteen  strokes  of  which  were 
 equal  to  thirty-nine  lashes ; 
 and  not  more  than  forty  could 
 be  given  by  law.  (Deut.  xxv. 
 1—3.  2  Cor.  xi.  24.)  The  suf- 
 ferer was  tied  by  his  arms  to  a 
 low  pillar,  his  back  laid  bare, 
 and  his  body  bent  forward,  and 
 the  blows  applied  so  severely 
 that  life  was  often  terminated. 
 Sometimes  iharp  iron  points 
 or  sharp-cornered  pieces  of  me- 
 tal were  fastened  to  the  end  of 
 the  thongs,  to  render  the  suffer- 
 ingstill  more  extreme.  Among 
 the  Romans  the  number  of 
 blows  was  unlimited.  Hence 
 our  blessed  Redeemer  suffered 
 in  this  form  all  that  his  mur- 
 
 derers thought  he  could  bear- 
 So  degrading  was  this  punish- 
 ment in  its  nature  and  effects, 
 that  no  citizen  of  the  Roman 
 empire  could  be  subjected  to  it. 
 (Actsxxii.  25, 26.)  Many  were 
 known  to  die  under  the  cruel 
 infliction.  Sometimes  it  took 
 place  on  the  way  to  execution, 
 and  sometimes  it  was  itself  the 
 only  punishment.  The  holy 
 body  of  the  innocent  Redeemer 
 was  torn  and  lacerated  by  this 
 cruel  and  shameful  outrage; 
 and  with  those  stripes  we  are 
 healed.  (Isa.  liii.  5.)  The  pu- 
 nishment with  rods  or  twigs 
 seems  to  have  been  a  separate 
 infliction.  (2  Cor.  xi.  25.) 
 
 SCRIBE.  (2  Sam.  viii.  17.) 
 This  name  was  first  given  to 
 the  king's  secretary  or  messen- 
 ger, (2  Sam.  XX.  25,)  and  to  such 
 as  excelled  in  the  use  of  the 
 pen,  (Judg.  V.  14.  Jer.  lii.25;) 
 but,  in  lime,  it  came  to  mean 
 simply  a  learned  man.  (1  Cor. 
 i.  20.) 
 
 It  was  the  peculiar  office  of 
 the  priests andLevites  notonlj 
 to  study  the  book  of  the  law 
 with  great  diligence,  (Ezra 
 vii.  6-10.  Matt,  ii.  4;  xii. 
 35;  XV.  1,  2;  xvii.  10;  xxiii. 
 2,)  and  to  read  and  explain 
 it  to  the  congregation,  but 
 to  transcribe  it,  and  multiply 
 copies  among  the  nation  at 
 large.  Thescribesbyprofession 
 were  usually  priests  or  Le- 
 vites,  and  earned  with  them, 
 as  oriental  scribes  do  at  thia 
 548 
 
SCR 
 day,  the  implements  of  their 
 art— an  ink-horn  thrust  into 
 the  girdle;  attached  to  this,  a 
 knife  to  sharpen  the  reed  or 
 pen ;  a  pumice-stone  to  smooth 
 the  paper  or  skin;  and  a  sponge 
 to  correct  mistakes.  (Ezek.  ix. 
 2.)  The  scribes  and  doctors  of 
 the  law  are  terms  often  applied 
 to  the  same  class  of  people. 
 (Comp.  Matt.  xxii.  35.  Mark 
 xii.  28.  Luke  v.  17.  21.) 
 
 SCRIP.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40.)  A 
 sort  of  knapsack  of  various 
 sizes,  made  of  skin  or  coarse 
 cloth,  hung  round  the  neck, 
 and  used  to  carry  provisions 
 for  a  journey.    (Matt.  x.  10.) 
 
 SCRIPTURE,  SCRIP- 
 TURES. (2Tim.iii.  15,16.) 
 These  terms  are  applied  to 
 the  inspired  writings  contain- 
 ed in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ments. They  are  also  called 
 The  Bible,  or  The  Book, 
 in  distinction  from  all  other 
 books,  from  the  Greek  word 
 biblos,  signifying  book.  The 
 word  scripture  is  also  applied 
 to  a  single  passage,  (Mark  xv. 
 28,)  and  sometimes  figuratively 
 to  the  Holy  Ghost.  (Gal.  iii.  8.) 
 
 These  books  are  divided  into 
 the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
 (2  Cor.  iii.  14,)  because  they 
 contain  the  history  of  God's 
 revelations  to  mankind,  and 
 his  dealings  with  them  under 
 two  dispensations.  Hence  they 
 are  sometimes  called  the  old 
 and  new  covenants.  (See 
 Testament.)  The  former,  or 
 Old  Testament,  was  ^vritten 
 mostly  in  Hebrew,  and  was 
 the  Bible  of  the  ancient  Jew- 
 ish church.  It  was  divided 
 into  three  parts— the  Law,  the 
 Prophets,  and  the  Psalms. 
 (Luke  xxiv.  44.)  The  latter, 
 or  New  Testament,  was  written 
 mostly,  if  not  wholly,  in  Greek, 
 and  fully  unfolds  the  history 
 and  doctrines  of  our  divine  Re- 
 deemer, and  of  the  way  of  sal- 
 vation through  him.  They  are 
 united  in  one  book,  and  called 
 TTie  Scriptures,  because  they 
 
 SCR 
 
 form  a  connected  history,  and 
 are  necessary  to  illustrate,  ex 
 plain,  and  confirm  each  other. 
 
 Versions  of  the  Bible.  The 
 Old  Testament  was  translated 
 from  Hebrew  into  Greek  about 
 three  hundred  years  before 
 Christ.  Thistranslation  is  call- 
 ed the  Septuagint,  from  a  La- 
 tin word  signifying  seventy. 
 either  because  a  company  of 
 seventy  or  seventy-two  elders 
 were  employed  in'ilie  work, or 
 because  it  was  approved  by  the 
 Jewish  council  or  sanhedrim, 
 which  consisted  of  seventy  or 
 seventy  two  persons. 
 
 Soon  after  the  apostolic  writ- 
 ings were  published,  the  Bible 
 was  translated  into  Latin,  for 
 the  use  of  Christians  usi  ng  that 
 language.  This  is  callecl  the 
 Vulgate.,  because  the  Latin 
 language  was  the  vulgar  or 
 common  tongue  of  the  Ro- 
 mans. The  first  edition  of 
 this,  and  the  first  entire  Bible 
 in  print  in  any  language,  bear- 
 ing any  date,  name  of'printer, 
 or  place  of  publication,  was 
 the  Latin  Vulgate,  published 
 at  Mentz  in  Germany.  It  is 
 commonly  called  the  Mazarin 
 Bible,  a  copy  having  been 
 found  about  the  middle  of  the 
 last  century  in  cardinal  Maza- 
 rin's  library  at  Paris.  It  is  re- 
 markable that  its  existence 
 was  unknown  before ;  for  it 
 can  hardly  be  called  a  book 
 of  very  great  scarcity,  nearly 
 twenty  copies  being  in  differ- 
 ent librariesj  half  of  them  in 
 those  of  private  persons  in 
 England.  No  date  appears  in 
 this  Bible,  and  some  have  re- 
 ferred its  publication  to  1452, 
 or  even  to  1450.  In  a  copy 
 belonging  to  the  royal  library 
 at  Paris,  an  entry  is  made,  im- 
 porting that  it  was  completed 
 in  binding  and  illuminating  at 
 JMentz,  on  the  feast  of  the  As- 
 sumption, (Aug.  15,)  145G.  As 
 the  binding  and  illuminating 
 of  the  above-mentioned  copy  is 
 likely  to  have  fi)llowed  the  pub 
 
SCR 
 
 lication  at  no  great  distance 
 of  lime,  we  may  not  err  in 
 placing  its  appearance  in  the 
 year  1455,  which  will  secure 
 Its  hitherto  unimpeached  pri- 
 ority in  the  records  of  iiiblio- 
 graphy.  It  is  a  very  striking 
 circumstance,  that  the  high- 
 minded  inventors  of  this  great 
 art  tried  at  the  very  outset  so 
 bold  a  flight  as  the  printing  of 
 an  entire  Bible,  and  executed 
 it  with  astonishing  success.  It 
 •was  far  within  the  first  twenty- 
 five  years  of  the  first  invention 
 of  the  art  in  its  rudest  form, 
 that  this  stupendous  labour 
 was  undertaken.  The  Maza- 
 rin  Bible  is  printed,  some 
 copies  on  vellum,  some  on 
 paper  of  choice  quality,  with 
 strong,  black,  and  tolerably 
 handsome  characters,  but  with 
 a  want  of  uniformity,  which 
 has  led.  perhaps  unreasonably, 
 to  doubt  whether  they  were 
 cast  in  a  matrix.  We  may  see, 
 in  imagination,  this  venerable 
 and  splendid  volume  leading 
 up  the  crowded  myriads  of  its 
 followers,  and  imploring,  as  it 
 were,  a  blessing  on  the  new 
 art,  by  dedicating  its  first- 
 fruits  to  the  servfce  of  hea- 
 ven. This  Bible  is  sometimes 
 called  Guitenberg's  Latin  Bi- 
 ble, as  it  was  printed  by 
 the  joint  labour  of  Gutlenberg, 
 Faustus,  and  Scheffler;  and  it 
 is  called  the  forty-two  lijie 
 Bible,  because  each  full  co- 
 lumn contained  forty-two  lines. 
 The  first  complete  impressions 
 of  this  Bible  bearing  a  date  on 
 the  title-page  were  printed  in 
 1462,  and  carried  by  Faustus 
 to  Paris  for  sale.  The  monks 
 were  so  astonished  at  this  sur- 
 prising multiplication  of  co- 
 pies, that  they  ascribed  it  to 
 demoniacal  influence. 
 
 English  versions  and  edi- 
 tions. TtieBible,  entire  and  in 
 parts,  was  translated  into  Sax- 
 on by  several  different  hands, 
 between  a.  b.  706  and  995.  For 
 •everal  centuries  after  this,  the 
 
 SCR 
 
 Scriptures  appear  to  have  been 
 buried  in  oblivion. 
 
 In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  of 
 England,  (1250,)  the  price  of  a 
 fairly  written  Bible  was  thirty- 
 seven  pounds,  or  one  hundred 
 and  sixty -four  dollars.  At  the 
 same  time  the  hire  of  a  labourer 
 was  three  half-pence,  or  three 
 cents  a  day.  So  that  it  would 
 take  the  labourof  fifteen  years 
 and  a  quarter,  exclusive  of  Sun- 
 days, to  purchase  a  single  copy. 
 A  copy  of  the  New  Testament, 
 in  clear  good  type, and  well  and 
 strongly  bound,  can  be  had  in 
 this  country  now  at  nine  cents, 
 and  the  whole  Scriptures  for 
 thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents. 
 
 The  first  English  transla- 
 tion of  the  Bible  known  to  be 
 extant,  is  supposed  to  bear 
 date  as  early  as  1290.  Three 
 MS.  copies  of  it  are  in  exist- 
 ence now.  The  next  transla- 
 tion of  the  whole  Bible  into 
 English  was  by  Wickliflfe, 
 about  1380.  Manuscript  copies 
 of  this  work  are  also  in  exist 
 ence  in  many  public  libraries ; 
 but  only  the  New  Testament 
 was  ever  printed.  In  the  year 
 1429,  a  copy  of  Wickjiffe's 
 New  Testament  in  manuscrip* 
 brought  nearly  two  hundred 
 dollars. 
 
 The  first  printed  English 
 Bible  was  translated  by  Wil- 
 liam TyndaJe.  His  transla- 
 tion of  the  New  Testament 
 was  published  at  Antwerp  in 
 1526.  In  1529  this  edition  was 
 bought  up  and  burnt:  which  af- 
 forded him  the  means  of  going 
 on.  In  1530  he  published  the 
 Pentateuch,  and  the  next  year 
 Jonah.  These,  with  Nehemiah, 
 made  Tyndale's  Bible.  In  1535 
 it  was  pui>lished  by  Coverdale, 
 one  of  Tyndale's  assistants; 
 and  Tyndale  himself  was 
 strangled  and  burnt  in  1.536. 
 In  the  reisn  of  Henry  VIII. 
 the  possession  of  a  copy  of 
 Tyndale's  translation  of  the 
 New  Testament  was  sufficient 
 to  convict  the  individual  of 
 550 
 
SCR 
 
 neresy,  and  subject  bim  to  the 
 flames.  Still,  the  desire  to 
 possess  it  was  so  strong  that 
 some  gave  a  load  of  hay  for  a 
 few  chapters  of  James  or  Paul's 
 epistles  in  English.  "  It  was 
 wonderful,"  says  a  writer,  "  to 
 see  with  what  joy  this  book  of 
 God  was  received,  not  only 
 among  the  learned  sort,  and 
 those  who  were  noted  for  lovers 
 of  the  reformation,  but  gene- 
 rally all  England  over,  among 
 all  the  vulgar  and  common 
 people  ;  and'with  what  greedi- 
 ness God's  word  was  read, 
 and  what  resort  to  places  where 
 the  reading  of  it  was.  Every- 
 body that  could,  bought  the 
 book.  7T  ousily  read  it,  or  got 
 othera  to  read  i  to  them,"  if 
 thev  could  not  themselves; 
 and  divers  more  elderly  peo- 
 ple learned  to  read  on  purpose, 
 and  even  little  boys  flocked 
 among  the  rest  to  hpar  por- 
 tions of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 read."  In  1537,  a  revised  edi- 
 tion of  Tyndale's  Bible  was 
 published  on  the  continent; 
 and  two  years  afterwards  it 
 was  also  published  in  England. 
 In  1540  a  copy  of  this  Bible 
 was  required  by  law  to  be 
 placed  in  every  parish  church ; 
 but  in  two  years  more  the 
 papist  power  succeeded  in 
 suppressing  it.  It  was  soon  re- 
 stored again,  and  before  1570, 
 was  quite  common. 
 
 In  1603,  Dr.  John  Reynolds 
 of  Oxford  proposed  a  new  trans- 
 lation, and  the  king  (James  I.) 
 favoured  the  suggestion,  and 
 appointed  fifty-four  learned 
 men  to  do  the  service.  Only 
 forty-seven  engaged  in  the  la- 
 bour. They  divided  themselves 
 into  six  companies,  and  assign- 
 ed a  portion  to  each.  Each  In- 
 dividual of  each  company  was 
 directed  to  take  the  same  por- 
 tion, and  having  translated  or 
 amended  it  by  himself  as 
 he  thought  good,  all  were  to 
 meet  together  auJ  report  what 
 ihey  had   done,   and   decide 
 
 SCR 
 
 what  should  stand.  When  a 
 book  was  finished  by  one  com- 
 pany, it  was  to  be  sent  to  the 
 rest'to  be  considered  and  exa- 
 mined. If  a  book  thus  sent 
 was  disapproved  in  any  part, 
 it  was  to  be  returned  to  the 
 company,  with  the  objections 
 and  proposed  alterations  noted, 
 and  the  reasons  assigned.  If 
 the  force  of  the  objections  was 
 not  perceived,  the  matter  was 
 to  be  adjusted  at  the  general 
 meeting  of  all  the  translator* 
 In  cases  of  special  obscurity 
 letters  were  to  be  directed,  by 
 authority,  to  any  learned  men 
 in  the  land,  for  their  judgment 
 upon  the  passages.  Letters 
 were  directed  by  the  bishops 
 to  such  of  their  clergy  as  had 
 the  reputation  of  being  skilful 
 in  the  languages,  to  send  their 
 observations  to  the  translators. 
 In  addition  to  this  provision, 
 the  vice-chancellors  of  the  uni 
 versities  of  Cambridge  and  Ox- 
 ford chose  each,  at  the  com- 
 mand of  the  king,  several  of 
 the  most  eminent  divines,  as 
 general  assistants  and  over- 
 seers of  the  translation. 
 
 Great  praise  has  been  justly 
 awarded  to  James  for  the  ex- 
 cellent selection  he  made  for 
 the  discharge  of  a  trust  so  mo- 
 mentous. It  was  universally  al- 
 lowed that  the  persons  chosen 
 were,  for  the  most  part,  recom 
 mended  equally  by  their  skill 
 in  the  oriental  languages,  and 
 by  a  character  for  judicious  dis 
 crimination.  Among  these,  Dr. 
 Reynolds  held  the  first  rank; 
 and,  indeed,  he  appears  to  have 
 been  so  eminently  and  vari- 
 ously gifted,  that  he  would 
 have  found  few  equals  in  any 
 age.  His  memory  was  almost 
 rriiraculous,  not  only  for  its 
 comprehensiveness,  but  for  the 
 astonishing  minuteness  of  its 
 power,  which  enabled  him  to 
 refer  not  only  to  pages  and 
 paragraphs,  but  even  to  the 
 lines  of  the  books  he  had  occa- 
 sion 10  quote.  He  was  pro 
 551 
 
SCR 
 
 foundly  skilled  in  the  learning 
 and  languages  of  the  east ;  and 
 from  his  knowledge  of  the  dia- 
 lects spoken  in  Judea  in  the 
 days  01  our  Saviour,  was  admi- 
 rably  qualified  to  furnish  cor- 
 rect and  natural  versions  of 
 expressions  otherwise  obscure. 
 To  these  great  endowments 
 he  added  sincere  and  ardent 
 piety,  and  the  most  exemplary 
 humility. 
 
 The  regulations  under  which 
 he  work  was  to  be  prosecuted 
 were  very  strictly  observed ; 
 the  Bible  then  used  in  the 
 church  being  the  standard,  and 
 not  to  be  altered,  even  in  a 
 letter,  unless  the  sense  of  the 
 original  could  be  more  accu- 
 rately conveyed. 
 
 For  three  years  the  transla- 
 tors were  closely  engaged  ;  but 
 of  the  incidents  of  their  labour 
 little  can  be  gathered  from  con- 
 temporaneous history,  and  little 
 was  probably  known  beyond 
 the  circle  of  the  translators.  A 
 passing  remark  of  Selden  fur- 
 nishes nearly  all  that  can  now 
 be  known  of  what  may  be 
 termed  the  private  history  of 
 our  English  Bible :  "  When 
 they  met  together,  one  read 
 the  translation,  the  rest  hold- 
 ing in  their  hands  some  Bible, 
 either  of  Greek,  or  Hebrew,  or 
 French,  Italian,  or  Spanish. 
 If  they  found  any  fault,  they 
 spoke ;  and  if  not,  he  read  on." 
 Three  copies  of  the  transla- 
 tion being  prepared,  they  were 
 committed  to  six  persons,  se- 
 lected from  the  translators,  who 
 were  to  review  the  whole,  and 
 select  one  copy  for  the  press. 
 This  service  occupied  them 
 daily  for  nine  months.  The 
 copy  thus  revised  was  again 
 examined  entirely  by  two  of 
 the  most  eminent  of  the  trans- 
 lators, viz.  the  bishop  of  Win- 
 chester and  Dr.  Smith,  the  lat- 
 ter of  whom  wrote  the  learned 
 and  devout  preface  which  is 
 found  in  many  of  our  common 
 Bibles. 
 
 SCR 
 
 In  1611,  the  Bible  was  a* 
 length  published,  after  having 
 been  long  impatiently  expect 
 ed  by  the  people,  whose  inte- 
 rest in  the  undertaking  can 
 hardly  be  conceived.  Anfl  with 
 all  proper  allowance  for  thp 
 limited  extent  of  general  and 
 especially  biblical  science  in 
 that  day,  it  will  probably  nevei 
 cease  to  be  regarded  as  a  very 
 honourable  monument  of  the 
 labour,  learning,  and  failhfu> 
 ness  of  the  translators. 
 
 The  title-page  of  the  Old 
 Testament  was  engraved  on 
 copper,  and  that  of  the  New 
 Testament  on  wood.  The  first 
 edition  was  printed  in  black 
 letter,  folio  size  ;  but  a  quart© 
 edition,  in  Roman  type,  was 
 published  as  early  as  1612. 
 
 This  is  the  common  English 
 translation  of  the  present-day. 
 It  is  called  king  James's  ves- 
 sion ;  and  it  may  be  proper  to 
 state  that  among  other  testi- 
 monials from  learned  divines 
 of  different  communions,  of  its 
 general  correctness,  are  those 
 of  Selden,  Lowth,  Horsley, 
 Walton,  Middleton,  Geddes, 
 Doddridge,  Beattie,  Scott, 
 Clarke,  and  a  host  of  others. 
 
 Bibles  in  the  United  States. 
 The  first  Bible  printed  on  the 
 continent  of  America  was  in 
 native  Indian— the  New  Testa- 
 ment in  1661,  and  the  Old  in 
 1663,  both  by  Rev.  John  Eliou 
 They  were  published  at  Can>- 
 bridge,  Mass.  The  second 
 was  in  German,  a  quarto  edi- 
 tion, published  at  German- 
 town,  near  Philadelphia,  by 
 Christopher  Sower,  in  1676. 
 
 The  first  American  edition 
 of  the  Bible  in  English  was 
 printed  by  Kneeland  and 
 Green,  at  Boston,  in  1752,  in 
 small  quarto,  700  or  800  copies. 
 It  was  published  by  Hench- 
 man, a  bookseller,  but  to  avoid 
 a  prosecution  by  those  who  had 
 a  patent  from  "the  king,  they 
 reprinted  the  whole  title-page 
 of  the  English  copy,  incli  " 
 
SCR 
 
 flie  London  imprint.  The  next 
 edition  was  by  Robert  Aitken, 
 ofPhiladelphia,  in  1781—2.  He 
 sent  a  memorial  to  congress 
 
 graying  for  their  patronage, 
 [is  memorial  was  referred  to 
 a  committee,  who  obtained  the 
 opinion  of  the  chaplains  of 
 :ongress,  as  to  its  general  typo- 
 graphical accuracy,  and  there- 
 upon a  resolution  was  passed 
 (Sept.  12,  1782)  recommending 
 this  edition  of  the  Bible  to  the 
 people  of  the  United  States. 
 
 The  Bible  is  regarded  by  all 
 Protestant  Christians  as  the 
 only  infallible  rule  of  faith  and 
 practice.  Having  been  origin- 
 ally composed  by  holy  men 
 of  God,  who  spake  as  they 
 were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 (2  Pet.  i.  21,)  and  bearing  in  its 
 own  history  and  character  con- 
 clusive testimony  that  it  is  so 
 given  by  inspiration  of  God, 
 and  is  not  only  profitable  for 
 doctrine,  for  reproof,  for  correc- 
 tion, for  instruction  in  right- 
 eousness, but  able  also  to  make 
 men  wise  unto  salvation, 
 through  faitli  that  is  in  Christ 
 Jesus,  (2  Tim.  iii.  15,  16;)  the 
 distribution  of  it  all  over  the 
 world,  in  the  various  tongues 
 spoken  by  the  inhabitants,  be- 
 comes an  imperative  duty. 
 The  Christian  church  general- 
 ly regard  it  as  a  true  and  just 
 translation  from  the  languages 
 in  which  these  sacred  books 
 were  at  first  written,  and  of 
 course  receive  them  as  having 
 like  authority  with  the  ori- 
 ginals. 
 
 As  to  the  evidences  of  the 
 mith  of  the  Bible,  the  inquirer 
 18  referred  to  Alexander's 
 Evidences,  The  Bible  is 
 True,  The  Infidel  Class, 
 and  Family  Conversations, 
 all  published  by  the  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.  It  has  been  well  said 
 of  the  sacred  writings,  that  the 
 divine  authority,  majesty,  wis- 
 dom, holiness,  and  goodness 
 discovered  therein ;  the  depth, 
 Hv'- 'amity,  purity,  and  benevo- 
 47 
 
 SCR 
 lence  of  their  matter;  their 
 scope,  to  render  all  to  the  glory 
 of  God,  and  crush  the  corrupt 
 inclinations  of  man  ;  the  Iran- 
 scendant  loftiness  of  their  stylet, 
 even  when  suited  to  the  capa- 
 city of  the  weak  ;  the  obvious 
 candour  of  the  writers,  in  re- 
 lating the  weaknesses  and 
 faults  of  themselves  and  their 
 nation ;  their  amazing  har- 
 mony, though  of  very  ditferent 
 stations  and  ages,  and  pub- 
 lishing things  contrary  to  the 
 natural  inclinations  of  menj 
 the  attestation  of  these  writ* 
 ings  by  vast  numbers  of  im- 
 portant, public,  and  incontest- 
 able miracles  ;  the  joyful  suf- 
 ferings of  millions  for  their 
 steadfast  adherence  thereto; 
 the  marvellous  preservation 
 of  them,  and  the  signal  strokes 
 of  divine  vengeance  on  such 
 as  attempted  to  destroy  them ; 
 their  amazing  success,  pre- 
 vailing over  the  lusts  of  men, 
 and  furious  opposition  of  world 
 ly  power,  to  the  civilizing  of 
 nations,  and  to  convince,  con- 
 vert, and  comfort  liie  hearts  of 
 millions,  the  most  obstinate; 
 the  exact  fulfilment  of  the  nu- 
 merous, the  particular  and  cir- 
 cumstantial predictions  there^- 
 of,— are  infallible  proofs  that 
 they  only  are  the  word  of  God, 
 able  to  make  us  wise  unto  sal- 
 vation. 
 
 Much  interest  has  been  felt 
 in  the  efforts  in  modern  times 
 to  translate  and  circulate  the 
 Scriptures  in  the  various  lan- 
 guages of  the  earth.  The  num- 
 ber of  these  lanauajres  is  esti- 
 mated at  3000,  only  80  of  which 
 are  supposed  to  be  strictly  ori- 
 ginal languages,  the  rest  being 
 dialect.s.  Of  tiiese  1200  are 
 spoken  in  America,  278  in  Af- 
 rica, 545  in  Europe,  and  1000 
 in  Asia  and  its  islands.  The 
 Scriptures  are  already  trans 
 lated  into  nearly  175.  Amon^ 
 these  are  the  English,  whicb 
 is  spoken  by  nearly  50,000,000, 
 and  partially  spoken  by 
 553 
 
SCR 
 
 150,000,000;  Chinese,  which  is 
 spoken  by  3G0,000,000;  Bur- 
 mese, which  is  spoken  by  15 
 or  20,000,000;  and  various 
 others.  So  that  probably  more 
 than  one-hal  f  of  the  inhabitants 
 of  the  world  might  now  read 
 the  Bible  in  their  own  lan- 
 guage if  they  could  be  furnish- 
 ed with  it;  and  it  is  ready  to  be 
 sent. 
 
 The  idf  a  of  the  formation  of 
 the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
 Society,  which  was  organized 
 in  1804,  was  first  suggested  by 
 Rev.  Thomas  Charles,  of  Bala. 
 He  was  labouring  in  connexion 
 with  the  Welch  Methodists, 
 and  being  on  a  visit  to  London 
 in  1802,  and  feeling  very  great- 
 ly the  need  of  Bibles  to  supply 
 Sunday  schools,  proposed  an 
 association  f)r  the  purpose. 
 Such  an  association  was  form- 
 ed under  the  name  of  the 
 British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
 ciety. It  was  called  the  Bible 
 Society  because  its  object  was 
 to  distribute  the  simple  Bible 
 without  note  or  comment; 
 British,  because  its  first  atten- 
 tion was  directed  to  the  supply 
 of  Great  Britain  ;  and  Foreign, 
 because  it  proposed,  as  far  as 
 its  means  would  allow,  to  send 
 the  Bible  in  all  languages  to 
 all  parts  of  the  world.  And 
 there  are  now  (1837)  more  than 
 5000  kindred  institutions,  of 
 which  3000  are  in  Great  Bri- 
 tain and  Ireland.  The  society 
 has  printed  the  Scriptures  In 
 121  languages  and  dialects,  in 
 72  of  which  they  had  never 
 before  been  published.  It  is 
 now  engaged  in  56  other  trans- 
 lations." Since  its  establish 
 ment  it  has  circulated  nearly 
 10,000,000  of  copies  of  the  sa- 
 dred  Scriptures,  and  has  ex 
 pended  nearly  « 10,000,000. 
 The  i.ssues  from  its  depository 
 during  the  years  1835—6,  were 
 at  the  rate  of  one  copy  every 
 minute,  and  its  expenditures 
 exceeded  half  a  million  of  dol- 
 lars.    And    yet  upwards  of 
 
 SCR 
 
 500,000,000  of  immortal  beingg 
 are  without  the  knowledge  of 
 even  the  existence  of  this  bless- 
 ed volume. 
 
 The  first  Bible  society  in 
 America  is  said  to  have  been 
 established  in  1804,  by  a  fevr 
 Baptists  in  New  York.  A  Bi- 
 ble was  stolen  from  a  pew  in 
 a  church,  and  this  started  the 
 inquiry  whether  a  person  might 
 not  desire  to  possess  the  volume 
 for  the  sake  of  reading  it,  wl» 
 would  not  wait  to  get  it  ho 
 neslly ;  and  at  any  rate,  whe 
 ther  there  mi^ht  not  be  a  great 
 destitution  of  the  sacred  vo 
 lume.  A  society  was  formed  to 
 purchase  and  loan  Bibles  for  a 
 month  at  a  time.  Many  of  the 
 public  institutions  were  sup- 
 plied on  this  plan.  The  Phila- 
 delphia Bible  Society  was  in- 
 stituted May  8,  1808,  and  foi 
 many  years  was  the  only  source 
 of  supply  for  gratuitous  distri- 
 bution. It  had  auxiliaries  in 
 several  states,  and  acted  as  the 
 centre  of  Bible  distribution  in 
 this  country,  till  the  American 
 Bible  Society  was  formed  in 
 ISIG,  which  has  issued  (1837) 
 upwards  of  two  millions  of  Bi- 
 bles and  Testaments,  or  parta 
 of  them,  and  in  eleven  differ 
 ent  languages. 
 
 Canm  qT  Scripture.  The 
 Scriptures,  or  sacred  writings, 
 were  published  in  separate 
 books,  and  at  different  periods, 
 through  a  space  of  fifteen  hun- 
 dred years.  They  were  col- 
 lected in  a  volume  for  conve- 
 nience. In  determining  their 
 genuineness,  each  part  or  book 
 must  be  examined  by  itself. 
 In  other  words,  what  writings 
 properly  constitute  the  sacred 
 Scriptures'?  The  word  canon 
 literally  signifies  a  rule,  and 
 was  early  used  by  the  Chris- 
 tian fathers  to  denote  the 
 Scriptures,  because  they  form 
 a  perfect  rule  or  standard  of 
 faith  and  duty,  which  Chris- 
 tians regard  eis  authoritative ; 
 or  perhaps  because  they  were 
 554 
 
SCR 
 
 legistered  in  the  ecclesiastical 
 canons  as  genuine.  It  is  gene- 
 rally adiniued  that  the  canon 
 of  the  Old  Testament  was  set- 
 tled soon  after  the  return  of  the 
 Jews  from  Babylon,  or  about 
 five  hundred  years  before 
 Christ. 
 
 The  following  are  the  ca- 
 nonical books  of  the  Bible,  ar- 
 
 SCR 
 
 ranged  in  the  order  m  whick 
 they  are  published,  with  the 
 number  of  chapters  in  each, 
 and  the  chronological  order 
 according  to  many  critics.  It 
 is  not  pretended,  however,  that 
 this  arrangement  is  chronolo- 
 gically accurate,  nor  indeed  is 
 it  always  adopted  under  the 
 distinct  articles  in  this  volume. 
 
 IN   THE   OLD   TESTAMENT. 
 
 No.  of  Chapters 
 
 Date. 
 
 No.  of  Chaptera. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Genesis    .       . 
 
 56    .        . 
 
 B.C.  1491 
 
 Proverbs 
 
 31    .         B.  C.  1000 
 
 Exodus    .        . 
 
 40    . 
 
 .    1491 
 
 Ecclesiastes  . 
 
 12    .        .              975 
 
 Leviticus  . 
 
 27    . 
 
 .     1490 
 
 Song  of  Solomon 
 
 8    . 
 
 1013 
 
 Numbers .        . 
 
 36    . 
 
 ,     1451 
 
 Isaiah    . 
 
 66    .        . 
 
 698 
 
 Deuteronomy  . 
 
 34    .        . 
 
 .     1451 
 
 Jeremiah       . 
 
 62    .       . 
 
 .      688 
 
 Joshua     .       . 
 
 24    .        . 
 
 .    1427 
 
 Lamentations 
 
 5    . 
 
 .     688 
 
 Judges      .        . 
 
 21    .        . 
 
 .     1406 
 
 Ezekiel 
 
 48    . 
 
 .      674 
 
 Rath        .        . 
 
 4    . 
 
 .    1312 
 
 Daniel .        . 
 
 .     634 
 
 1  Samuel  . 
 
 31    .        . 
 
 .     1055 
 
 Hosea  .        . 
 
 .      740 
 
 2  Samuel . 
 
 24    .        . 
 
 .    1018 
 
 Joel       .        . 
 
 .      800 
 
 1  Kings    . 
 
 22    i.-xi 
 
 .    1002 
 
 Amos   . 
 
 .      787 
 
 xii.  &c 
 
 .      .      897 
 
 Obadiah 
 
 .      687 
 
 2  Kings    .        . 
 
 25    . 
 
 .      590 
 
 Jonah   . 
 
 .      862 
 
 1  Chronicles     . 
 
 29    . 
 
 .     1015 
 
 Micah  .        . 
 
 .      750 
 
 2  Chronicles    . 
 
 36    i.-ix 
 
 .     1004 
 
 Nahum 
 
 .      7)3 
 
 X.&C. 
 
 .      623 
 
 Habbakuk    . 
 
 .      626 
 
 Ezra        .       . 
 
 10    .        . 
 
 .      457 
 
 Zepbaniah    . 
 
 .      630 
 
 Nehemiah        . 
 
 13    .        . 
 
 .      434 
 
 Haggai  .        . 
 
 .      620 
 
 Esther     .       . 
 
 10    .        . 
 
 .      509 
 
 Zechariah    . 
 
 14    .*       .* 
 
 .      620 
 
 Job ,        .        . 
 
 42    .        . 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 Malachi       . 
 
 4    . 
 
 .      397 
 
 Psalms     ;       . 
 
 150    .        . 
 
 do. 
 
 IN   THE  NEW 
 
 TESTAMENT. 
 
 Matthew  .       . 
 
 28    . 
 
 A.D.  38 
 
 1  Timothy  . 
 
 6    .         A.  D.  64 
 
 Mark        .        . 
 
 16    . 
 
 .        .    65 
 
 2  Timothy 
 
 4    .       .       .    65 
 
 Luke        .       . 
 
 24    . 
 
 .        .    63 
 
 Titus.        . 
 
 3    . 
 
 64 
 
 John        .       . 
 
 21    . 
 
 .    97 
 
 Philemon   . 
 
 1    , 
 
 ee 
 
 Acb 
 
 28    . 
 
 .        .    64 
 
 Hebrews    . 
 
 13    . 
 
 63 
 
 Romans    . 
 
 16    . 
 
 .        .    58 
 
 James 
 
 5    . 
 
 61 
 
 1  Corinthians   . 
 
 16    . 
 
 .       .    56 
 
 1  Peter       . 
 
 5    . 
 
 64 
 
 2  Corinthians  . 
 
 13    . 
 
 .        .    57 
 
 2  Peter       . 
 
 3    . 
 
 65 
 
 6    . 
 
 .        .    52 
 
 1  John        , 
 
 5    . 
 
 69 
 
 Ephesians 
 
 6    . 
 
 .        .    61 
 
 2  John       . 
 
 1    . 
 
 69 
 
 Philippians      . 
 Colossians 
 
 4    . 
 
 .        .    62 
 
 3  John       . 
 
 1    . 
 
 69 
 
 4    . 
 
 .        .    62 
 
 Jude  . 
 
 1    . 
 
 70 
 
 1  Thessalonians 
 
 6    . 
 
 .        .    52 
 
 Revelation 
 
 22    . 
 
 96 
 
 2  Thessalonians 
 
 3    . 
 
 .        ,    62 
 
 Divisions  of  the  Bible.  The 
 dividing  of  the  Old  Testament 
 into  chapters,  as  they  still 
 stand  in  our  translation,  is  at- 
 tributed to  Cardinal  Hugo,  who 
 lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
 thirteenth  century,  and  who 
 did  it  for  convenience  of  refer- 
 ence in  a  Latin  concordance 
 he  was  preparing.  To  refer 
 more  easily  to  a  particular  sen- 
 tence, he  placed  the  first  seven 
 
 letters  of  the  alphabet  along 
 the  margin  of  each  page.  Rat> 
 bi  Nathan,  a  Jew,  for  the  same 
 convenience  of  reference  to 
 his  Hebrew  concordance, 
 adopted,  in  1438,  Hugo's  chap- 
 ters, and  marked  every  fifth 
 verse  with  a  figure.  In  1661, 
 Athias,  a  Jew  of  Amsterdam, 
 in  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew 
 Old  Testament,  divided  the 
 sections  of  Hugo  into  verses,  as 
 556 
 
SCR 
 
 we  now  have  them.    Robert  | 
 Stephens,  a  French    printer,  | 
 had  previously  (1551)  divided 
 the  New  Testament  into  verses 
 as  they  now  stand  in  the  va- 
 rious versions. 
 
 This  division  into  verses, 
 though  very  convenient,  is  not 
 to  govern  the  sense  ;  and  there 
 are  several  instances  in  which 
 the  sense  is  injured,  if  not  de- 
 stroyed, by  an  improper  divi- 
 sion. Very  often  the  chapter 
 breaks  off  in  the  midst  of  a  nar- 
 rative, and  if  the  reader  stops 
 because  the  chapter  ends,  he 
 loses  the  connexion.  (Matt.  x. 
 42;  xii.  1.  Luke  xix.  41 — 48; 
 xx.l— 8.  Actsxxi.;  xxii.;  xxiii. 
 Gal.i.23;  ii.l.)  Sometimes  the 
 break  is  altogether  inthe  wrong 
 place,  and  separates  two  sen- 
 tences which  must  be  taken 
 together  in  order  to  be  under- 
 stood. (1  Cor.  xii.  31 ;  xiii.  1. 
 2Cor.  vi.  18;  vii.l.  Eph.iv.31, 
 32;  v.;, 2.  Phil.  iii.  2l;iv.l.) 
 Again,  the  verses  often  divide 
 a  sentence  into  two  different 
 paragraphs,  when  there  ought 
 scarcely  to  be  a  comma  be- 
 tween them.  (Luke  iii.  21,22. 
 2  Cor.  vi.  6,  7,  &c.  1  Pet.  i.  3, 
 4,  &c.)  And  sometimes  a  frag- 
 ment of  a  subject  is  separated 
 from  its  proper  place,  and  put 
 where  it  is  without  any  con- 
 nexion. (Col.  iii.  25 ;  iv.  1.)  The 
 punctuation  of  the  Bible  was 
 probably  introduced  as  lately 
 as  the  ninth  century. 
 
 Contents  of  the  Bible.  The 
 numberof  books  in  the  OldTes- 
 tament  is  39,  and  in  the  New 
 27— total,  66  books. 
 
 The  Old  Testament  has  929  chapters. 
 New       "         "   260       " 
 
 Old  Testament,    23.214 
 New        «  7,959 
 
 OldTestamen:,  592,439  words. 
 New       "         181,253      " 
 
 SCR 
 
 Old  Testament,  2,728,100  letter*. 
 
 The  word  Jehovah,  or  Lord 
 occurs  in  the  Old  Testamem 
 6855  times. 
 
 The  middle  chapter  of  tne 
 Bible,  and  the  shortest,  is  Ps. 
 cxvii. ;  the  middle  verse  is 
 Fs.  cxviii.  8.  The  middle  book 
 of  the  Old  Testament  is  Pro- 
 verbs ;  the  middle  chapter,  Job 
 xxix. ;  middle  verse,  2  Chron. 
 XX.  17 ;  least  verse,  1  Chron.  i. 
 25.  Middle  book  of  the  New 
 Testament  is  2  Thess. ;  middle 
 verse,  Acts  xvii.  17;  least  verse, 
 John  xi.  35.  Ezra  vii.  21,  has 
 all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
 
 To  read  the  Bible  through 
 in  a  year,  we  have  only  to  read 
 three  chapters  every  week- 
 day, and  five  every  Lord's-day  ; 
 and  if  we  read  two  chapters  in 
 the  Old  and  one  in  the  New 
 every  week-day,  and  six  in  the 
 Old  and  four  in  the  New  every 
 Sabbath,  we  shall  read  the  Ola 
 Testament  once  and  the  New 
 twice  in  the  year. 
 
 The  Apocri/pha,  which  is 
 sometimes  bound  up  with  the 
 Bible,  is  a  collection  of  books 
 which  were  declared  to  be 
 sanctioned  by  divine  authority 
 as  lately  as  1550,  at  a  council 
 held  at  Trent,  under  the  influ- 
 ence of  pope  Pius  IV.  The 
 evidence  by  which  their  au- 
 thority is  supported  is  so  dip 
 ferent  from  that  on  which  the 
 received  books  rest,  that  they 
 are  generally  rejected  as  spu- 
 rious, whatever  may  be  tha 
 intrinsic  value  of  their  con 
 tents. 
 
 Jetcish  traditionary  Scrip- 
 tures. About  the  year  a.  d.  180 
 Jehuda,  a  Jewish  Rabbi,  wrote 
 out  the  received  trad  itionsof  the 
 fathers.  This  was  nearly  1700 
 years  after  the  giving  of  the 
 law;  and  it  should  be  remarked 
 that  no  force  or  authority  is 
 given  to  these  traditions  in  the 
 intervening  period,  during 
 556 
 
SEA 
 
 •which  Joshua,  Samuel,  Ezra, 
 and  the  prophets  lived.  This 
 work  of  Jehuua  is  called  the 
 Mishna  ;  the  comnienlary  up- 
 on it  is  called  the  Gemara ; 
 and  these  together  constitute 
 the  Ihimud,  which  is  more 
 highly  reverenced  by  the  Jews 
 than  even  the  Old  Testament. 
 That  traditions  are  not  to  be 
 received  as  of  divine  authority, 
 is  sufficiently  clear  from  our 
 Saviour's  language  in  Mark  vii. 
 1-13. 
 
 SCROLL.    (See  Book.) 
 
 SCURVY.  (Lev.  xxi.  20,  and 
 xxii.  22.)  The  disease  known 
 by  this  name,  in  modern  times, 
 is  usually  caused  by  long  con- 
 finement in  cold  and  damp 
 climates,  without  fresh  pro- 
 visions. In  the  progress  of  it, 
 the  skin  becomes  dry  and 
 scaly,  and  livid  spots  appear. 
 Probably,  this  appearance  of 
 the  skin  is  all  that  is  denoted 
 by  the  use  of  the  word  scurvy 
 in  the  passages  cited. 
 
 SCYTHIANS.  (Col.  iii.  11.) 
 A  name  used  indefinitely  by 
 ancient  writers,  sometimes  to 
 denote  all  the  nomadic  tribes 
 that  roamed  over  the  countries 
 north  of  the  Black  and  Cas- 
 pian seas,  and  sometimes  to  a 
 f)articular  people  remarkable 
 or  their  rude  and  barbarous 
 condition. 
 
 SEA.  (Isa.  xi.15.)  This  term 
 is  applied,  by  the  sacred  writ- 
 ers, to  lakes,  rivers,  and  any 
 large  collection  of  water,  as 
 well  as  to  seas  properly  so 
 called.  (Isa.  xxi.  1.  Jer.  li.  36.) 
 In  the  passage  from  Isaiah 
 first  above  cited,  it  is  used  for 
 the  Nile  at  that  point  which 
 is  called  the  Delta.  The  sea 
 and  the  west  denoted  the  same 
 thing  to  the  Hebrews,  on  ac- 
 count of  their  position  in  re- 
 gard to  the  Mediterranean. 
 (See  Salt  Sea.) 
 
 Great  Sea,  (Num.  xxxiv. 
 
 60  or  Sea  of  the  Philistines, 
 
 jEx.  xxiii.  31,)  is  the  Mediler- 
 
 jranean  or  Western  Sea,  a  large 
 
 47* 
 
 SEA 
 body  ol  water  between  the 
 continents  of  Europe,  Asia, 
 and  Africa,  (whence  its  name, 
 which  signifies  Mid-land.)  On 
 its  northern  shore  are  several 
 gulfs  or  seas,  as  the  Adriatic, 
 the  Ionian,  the  Egean,  &c.  Its 
 length  from  east  to  west  is 
 about  two  thousand  miles ;  and 
 its  breadth  varies  from  four  to 
 eight  hundred  miles.  About 
 midway,  on  its  eastern  shore, 
 was  the  land  of  Canaan. 
 
 Sea  of  the  plain,  or  Salt 
 SEA,  called  also  the  East  Sea, 
 and  Sea  of  Sodoin.  (See  Salt 
 Sea.) 
 
 Sea  op  Merom.    (See  Me- 
 
 ROM.) 
 
 Sea,  brazen.  (See  Laver.) 
 SEAL.  (1  Kings  xxi.  8.)  This 
 was  usually  employed  to  au- 
 thenticate public  or  private 
 papers.  (Jer.  xxxii.  10.)  If  a 
 door  or  box  was  to  be  sealed, 
 it  was  first  fastened  with  some 
 ligament,  upon  which  clay  or 
 wax  was  spread,  and  then  im- 
 pressed with  a  seal  or  signet. 
 Frequently  a  ring  with  some 
 inscription  on  it  was  used  as 
 a  seal,  by  the  del  i  very  or  trans- 
 fer of  which  the  highest  offices 
 of  the  kingdom  were  bestowed. 
 (Gen.  xli.  42.  Esth.  iii.  10.) 
 In  sealing  the  sepulchre, 
 (Matt,  xxvii.  66,)  it  is  probable 
 that  the  fastening  of  the  stone 
 which  secured  the  entrance  . 
 was  covered  with  clay,  cr 
 wax,  and  so  impressed  with 
 a  public  or  private  seal,  tb it 
 any  violation  of  it  could  De 
 discovered  at  once.   (See  Li  t- 
 
 TERS.) 
 
 IModern  travellers  describe 
 the  seals  used  in  the  east,  at 
 the  present  day,  as  made  of 
 cornelian,  or  agate,  with  the 
 name  or  title  of  the  writer,  or 
 some  verse  of  the  Koran,  or 
 other  motto,  engraved  upon  it. 
 (2  Tim.  ii.  19.)  It  is  fastened 
 into  a  ring,  and  worn  on  the 
 hand.  (Sol.  Song  viii.  6.)  "When 
 used,  it  is  either  applied  to  the 
 wax,  or  is  covered  with  some 
 557 
 
SEA 
 substance,  which, being  stamp- 
 ed on  the  paper,  leaves  the 
 desired  impression.  The  fol- 
 lowing is  a  cut  of  an  eastern 
 signet,  or  seal-ring. 
 
 The  word  seal  is  used  figu- 
 ratively in  the  Bible,  to  denote 
 an  act,  or  token,  or  process  of 
 confirmation.  (Rom.  iv.  11. 
 Eph.  iv.  30.) 
 
 SEARED.  (ITim.  iv.  2.)  To 
 sear  tiesh  is  to  cauterize  or 
 burn  it,  and  thus  deprive  it 
 of  the  power  of  sensation.  As 
 used  in  the  passage  cited,  it 
 denotes  the  effect  of  habitual 
 sin,  by  which  the  conscience 
 becomes  so  hardened  and  stu- 
 pified,  as  to  be  insensible  to 
 the  most  enormous  guilt  and 
 the  most  fearful  threatenings 
 of  punishment. 
 
 SEASONS.  (Gen.  i.  14.)  The 
 year  is  very  conveniently  di- 
 vided by  Hebrew  writers  into 
 six  seasons,  which  are  all  men- 
 tioned in  the  promise  made  to 
 Noah :  seed-time,  harvest,  cold, 
 heat,  summer,  icinter.  (Gen. 
 viii.  22.)  There  is  the  same 
 division  among  the  Arabs  at 
 this  day. 
 
 The  first  season,  or  harvest, 
 is  from  the  middle  of  April 
 u.  .til  near  the  middle  of  June. 
 D  iring  this  period  the  sky  is 
 clear,  the  air  warm,  -rd  even 
 hot  in  the  valleys  and  on  the 
 coast,  very  much  like  the  be- 
 ginning of  summer  with  us. 
 As  it  proceeds,  the  heat  in  the 
 plains  is  severe. 
 
 The  second  season,  or  the 
 heat,  is  from  the  middle  of 
 June  to  the  middle  of  August. 
 The  Arabs  call  this  the  vernal 
 summer.  The  heat  now  in- 
 creases, and  the  nights  are  so 
 warm  that  the  people  sleep  in 
 
 SEA 
 the  open  air  upon  the  roofs 
 of  their  houses. 
 
 The  third  season,  or  s«7?t- 
 mer,  (season  of  fruits,)  is  from 
 the  middle  of  August  to  the 
 middle  of  November.  The 
 intensity  of  the  heat  is  greater, 
 almost  intolerable.  Towards 
 the  end  ©f  summer  the  nights 
 begin  to  be  cool. 
 
 During  these  three  periods, 
 up  to  the  beginning  or  middle 
 of  September,  there  are  no 
 showers,  rain  being  as  scarce 
 in  summer  as  snow.  (1  Sam. 
 xii.  17.)  Hence  the  proverb, 
 Prov.  xxvi.  1.  From  the  end 
 of  April  until  September  no* 
 a  cloud  is  to  be  seen  upon  the 
 face  of  the  heavens.  During 
 all  this  time  the  earth  is  moist 
 ened  by  the  dew,  which  is, 
 therefore,  a  frequent  emblem 
 of  Divine  grace  and  goodness. 
 Sometimes  a  cloud  appears  in 
 the  morning;  but  it  disappears 
 with  the  dew  as  soon  as  the 
 sun  exerts  its  power.  (Hos.  vi. 
 4.)  The  dry  grass  of  the  fields 
 sometimes  takes  fire,  and  pro- 
 duces desolating  conflagration ; 
 and  the  parched  earth  is  cleft 
 and  broken  into  chasms.  This 
 is  more  particularly  the  case 
 when  the  east  wind  blows. 
 (.Gen.  xli.  6.  Hos.  xiii.  15.) 
 Between  the  middle  of  Sep- 
 tember and  the  middle  of  Oc- 
 tober there  are  two  or  three 
 days  of  rain,  which  suffices  to 
 refresh  all  nature,  so  that  the 
 whole  land  is  clad  in  verdure. 
 This  prepares  the  earth  for 
 
 The  fourth  season,  or  seed- 
 time,\^\\\ch  includes  from  early 
 in  October  until  early  in  De- 
 cember. This  begins  with  the 
 former  or  early  rain,  which  is 
 so  needful  for  tlie  sower.  In 
 the  early  part  of  this  period  it 
 is  still  quite  hot,  so  that  all  jour- 
 neys  are  made  by  night,  as  the 
 temperature  is  then  agreeable, 
 and  the  sky  is  clear.  As  the 
 year  advances,  however,  there 
 are  alternations  of  heat  and 
 cold,  as  with  us  in  autumn.  The 
 658 
 
SEA 
 weather  becomes  unsettled, 
 and  there  are  fogs  and  clouds, 
 even  when  there  is  no  rain. 
 In  the  mountains,  snow  some- 
 times falls  towards  ihe  middle 
 of  December.  The  streams 
 are  still  small,  and  many  of 
 their  channels  altoeether  dry. 
 In  the  latter  part  orNovember 
 the  trees  lose  their  foliage,  and 
 fires  are  made  towards  the  last 
 days  of  seed-time. 
 
 The  fifth  season,  or  whiter, 
 includes  from  the  middle  of 
 December  until  the  middle  of 
 February.  Snow  falls,  but  sel- 
 dom lies  ui5on  the  ground  a 
 day,  except  in  the  mountains. 
 (Ps.  cxlvii.  17.)  In  shady 
 places  the  ice  will  occasion- 
 ally bear  a  man's  weight,  but 
 thaws  as  soon  as  the  sun  rises 
 upon  it.  The  roads  are  very 
 bad.  (Matt.  xxiv.  20.)  The 
 eevere  cold  lasts  about  forty 
 days,  from  the  12th  of  Decetri- 
 ber  to  the  20th  of  January. 
 The  north  wind  is  now  exceed- 
 ingly penetrating.  (Gen.  xxxi. 
 40.)  Yet,  in  the  level  coun- 
 try, when  the  sun  shines,  it  is 
 Siite  warm.  Josephus  says 
 at  in  his  day  it  was  as  warm 
 at  Cesarea,  on  the  coast,  in 
 winter,  as  at  other  places  in 
 summer.  In  this  season  hail 
 and  thunder  storms  are  com- 
 mon ;  the  brooks  rise,  and  all 
 the  streams  fill  their  chan- 
 nels. Towards  the  end  of 
 January  the  fields  become 
 green,  and  there  is  every 
 appearance  of  approaching 
 spring.  In  the  early  part  of 
 February  the  trees  are  in  leaf; 
 and  before  the  middle  of  the 
 month  some  fruit  trees  are  in 
 blossom,  first  the  almond,  then 
 the  apricot,  peach,  and  plum. 
 Other  trees  blossom  in  March. 
 
 The  sixth  and  last  season, 
 or  the  cold,  includes  from  the 
 middle  of  February  until  the 
 middle  of  April.  It  is  still 
 cold,  but  less  so,  and  the  spring 
 may  be  said  to  have  arrived. 
 The  heats  of  noon  are  greater 
 
 SEA 
 
 and  greater,  especially  m  the 
 flat  country.  The  rains  con- 
 tinue, but  in  smaller  and 
 smaller  quantities.  Thunder 
 and  hail  are  more  frequent. 
 Towards  the  close  of  this  pe- 
 riod the  rains  cease,  and  the 
 last  fails  in  the  early  part  of 
 April,  and  is  called  the  latter 
 rain,  which  seems  to  give 
 strength  to  the  filling  grain. 
 
 The  crops  of  gram  are  as 
 much  advanced  in  February 
 as  with  us  in  May  and  June. 
 The  wheat  and  barley  have 
 at  this  time  nearly  attained 
 their  height. 
 
 The  grain  has  fully  ripened 
 in  the  southern  part  of  Pales- 
 tine by  the  middle  of  April, 
 and  in  the  northern  and  moun- 
 tainous parts  three  weeks 
 later;  and  sometimes  when 
 the  sowing  has  been  in  Janu- 
 ary, the  grain  does  not  come 
 to  maturity  before  July  or 
 August. 
 
 tJpon  the  sixteenth  day  after 
 the  first  new  moon  in  April, 
 there  was  a  solemn  presenta- 
 tion made  to  the  Lord  of  the 
 first  sheaf  of  ripe  barley.  The 
 grain,  however,  as  we  may 
 readily  suppose,  was  mature, 
 sometimes  earlier  and  some- 
 times later.  It  was  common 
 to  reckon  four  months  from 
 seed-time  to  harvest.  The 
 cutting  and  securing  the  grain 
 was  carried  on  for  about  seven 
 weeks,  that  is,  from  the  Pass* 
 over  until  Pentecost,  which 
 last  is  therefore  called  the 
 feast  of  weeks.  This  was  a 
 season  of  very  great  enjoyment 
 and  festivity,  when  the  harvest 
 had  been  plentiful.  The  reap- 
 ers, that  is  to  say,  the  children, 
 slaves,  and  other  domestics, 
 indulged  in  mirth,  joined  in 
 songs  suitable  to  the  occasion, 
 and"  in  congratulations  to  the 
 master  of  "the  harvest.  (Ps. 
 cxxvi.  Isa.  ix.  3.)  The  grain 
 was  then  gathered  and  bound 
 into  sheaves,  as  with  us.  (See 
 Biblical  Antiq,0ities,  vol,  i 
 559 
 
SEA 
 ch.  i.  §  3,  and  Evening  Recre- 
 ATioNS,  vol.  i.  pp.  78—82,  both 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 SEATS.  (Malt.xxi.  12.)  The 
 nations  of  the  east  seat  them- 
 selves upon  the  mats  or  car- 
 pets with  which  their  floors 
 are  covered.  In  the  houses 
 of  the  rich  there  are  spread 
 pillows,  or  cushions,  stuffed 
 with  cotton ;  or  in  some  cases, 
 a  broad,  but  very  low,  sofa  or 
 divan,  with  arms,  stuffed 
 cushions,  and  cosily  orna- 
 ments. Upon  these  divans,  as 
 well  as  upon  the  floor  or  grouud, 
 they  sit  with  the  legs  bent 
 under,  and  crossed,  in  a  half- 
 kneeling  posture.  (Seep. 561.) 
 The  ancient  Hebrews  used 
 the  posture  which  has  just  been 
 described.  After  the  captivity, 
 however,  the  rich  and  noble 
 adopted  the  Persian  method  of 
 lying  down  at  table  upon  couch- 
 es, (Amos  vi. 4,)  which  was  like- 
 wise practised  by  the  Greeks 
 and  Romans.  In  the  passage  of 
 Amos,  it  is  said  of  the  luxurious 
 sinners  who  lived  nearly  eight 
 hundred  years  before  Christ, 
 they  lie  upon  beds  of  ivory  ^  and 
 stretch  themselves  upon  their 
 couches.  These  beds  of  ivory 
 were  probably  divans,  such  as 
 those  above  mentioned,  but 
 richly  decorated  with  ivory. 
 They  used  at  table  very  low 
 and  broad  divans,  and  the 
 guests  stretched  themselves  at 
 full  length.  Each  divan  held 
 three  persons.  The  back  was 
 supported  by  a  cushion,  and 
 the  face  so  turned  towards  the 
 table,  that  the  head  was  held 
 up  with  the  left  hand  upon 
 another  cushion.  The  right 
 hand  was  thus  free  to  reach 
 the  food.  The  second  person 
 lay  with  the  back  part  of  his 
 head  towards  the  breast  of  the 
 former;  and  the  third,  in  like 
 manner,  with  the  back  part 
 of  his  head  towards  the  second. 
 Thus  they  lay,  so  to  speak,  in 
 the  bosoms  of  their  neighbours. 
 (.Luke  xvi.  23.  John  xiii.  23.) 
 
 SEA 
 This  was  the  ordinary  posture 
 at  meals,  and  the  feet  of  the 
 guests  were  distant  from  the 
 table.  Hence  we  can  readily 
 form  an  idea  of  the  scene  in 
 Luke  vii.  38. 
 The    following    cut    shows 
 
 the  reclining  position;  and 
 those  on  the  next  page  show 
 the  present  Turkish  method  of 
 sitting  at  meal  and  in  conver- 
 sation. 
 
 In  the  eating  room  there 
 were  commonly  three  such 
 divans:  the  middle  place  of 
 the  middle  divan  was  account- 
 ed most  honourable.  This  was 
 the  seat  which  the  Pharisees 
 so  much  affected  at  feasts. 
 (I  Sam.  ix.  22.  Matt,  xxiii.  6. 
 Luke  xiv.  8,  9.)  At  the  pre- 
 sent day,  the  corner  of  the 
 bed-divan  is  the  seat  of  dig- 
 nity, and  so  it  was  in  ancient 
 times  among  the  Hebrews,  at 
 least  upon  ordinary  occasions. 
 (Amos  iii.  12.)  This  manner 
 of  reclining  at  meals,  it  ja 
 believed,  was  not  imitated  by 
 the  women,  tliough  some  doubt 
 upon  this  point  is  suggested 
 by  Esih.  vii.  8.  It  is  to  "be  re- 
 membered in  this  connexion, 
 that  the  Hebrew  women,  like 
 those  of  Greece,  ate  in  a  sepa- 
 rate apartment.    (Esih.  i.  9.) 
 
 Moses'  seat  (Malt,  xxiii.  2) 
 is  a  figurative  expression,  de- 
 noting" the  assumption  of  the 
 same  authority  or  office  as  Le- 
 longed  to  Moses. 
 
 560 
 
SEB 
 
 SEB 
 
 SEBA.  (Isa.  xliii.  3.)  A  pe- 
 ninsular district  of  African 
 Ethiopia,  deriving  its  name 
 from  the  eldest  son  of  Cush, 
 (Gen.  X.  7,)  who  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  the  progenitor  of  the 
 Ethiopians.  It  is  called  Seba 
 by  the  Hebrews,  and  by  the 
 
 Romans,  Mero6.  Its  wealth  is 
 alluded  to  by  the  sacred  writ- 
 ers, (Ps.  Ixxii.  10;)  and  this 
 circumstance,  as  well  as  the 
 remarkable  stature  of  the  peo- 
 ple, (Isa.  xlv,  14,)  is  confirmed 
 by  profane  history.    (See  She- 
 
 BA.) 
 
 561 
 
SEL 
 
 SEBAT,  or  SHEBAT.  (See 
 Month.) 
 
 SECT,  (Acts  V.  17,)  or  party, 
 not  necessarily  implying  any 
 fundamental  error  of  doctrine. 
 Christianity  was  originally  con- 
 sidered as  a  new  sect  of  Juda- 
 ism; lienceTenulUis,  accusing 
 Paul  before  Felix,  says  that  he 
 wad  chief  of  the  seditious  sect 
 of  the  Nazarenes,  (Acts  xxiv. 
 5;)  and  the  Jews  of  Rome  said 
 to  the  apostle,  when  he  arrived 
 in  that  city,  that  as  to  this  sect, 
 it  was  everywhere  spoken 
 against.  (Acts  xxviii.  22.)  The 
 word  heresy  in  Acts  xxiv.  14, 
 is  the  same  in  the  original  with 
 the  word  sect  in  Acts  xxiv.  5; 
 so  that  the  apostle  replies  di- 
 rectly to  the  argument  of  Ter- 
 tuUus,  and  admits  that,  after 
 the  manner  of  a  sect,  produc- 
 ing division  and  schism,  as  my 
 persecutors  say,  so  worship  1 
 the  God  of  my  fathers. 
 
 SEED,  MINGLED.  (Lev.  xix. 
 19.)  Travellers  tell  us  that  wo- 
 men are  employed  in  Aleppo 
 and  elsewhere  in  cleansing  the 
 mingled  seed  from  all  admix- 
 ture, to  prepare  it  for  sowing. 
 SEED-TlIVlE.(SeeSEASONs.) 
 SEIR,  MOUNT.  1.  (Gen.  xiv. 
 6.)  A  most  rugged  and  desolate 
 chain  of  mountains,  stretching 
 from  the  southern  shore  of  the 
 Dead  Sea  to  the  eastern  gulf  of 
 the  Red  Sea.  Mount  Hor  was 
 one  of  its  summits;  and  the 
 Hivites  are  mentioned  among 
 its  inhabiunts,  and  one  of  this 
 people  was  named  Seir.  (See 
 Edom,  Hor.) 
 
 2.   (Josh.  XV.   10.)    Another 
 mount  Seir  was  situated  near 
 Kirjath-iearim. 
 SELA,orSELAH.  (SeeJoK- 
 
 THEEL.) 
 
 SELAH.  (Hab.  iii.  3.  9.  13.) 
 This  word,  which  occurs  no 
 less  than  seventy-four  times  in 
 the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Psalms, 
 is  generally  construed  to  be  a 
 note  of  admiration,  demanding 
 a  solemn  pause.  It  is  usual- 
 ly placed  at  some  remarkable 
 
 SEP 
 
 passage,  and  seems  designed 
 to  excite  and  quicken  the  at- 
 tention  and  observation.  If,  as 
 is  very  probable,the  tunes  were 
 expressly  composed  for  the 
 words,  such  pauses  and  chang 
 es  of  voice  would  be  observed 
 as  were  most  adapted  to  pye 
 them  proper  emphasis;  and  the 
 most  impressive  and  important 
 passages  would  naturally  be 
 repeated. 
 
 SELEUCIA.  (Acts  xiii.  4) 
 A  city  of  Syria,  on  the  shores 
 of  the  Mediterranean,  west  of 
 Antioch,  and  near  the  mouth 
 of  the  Orontes. 
 
 SENATE.  (Acts  v.  21.)  An 
 assembly  of  aged  and  experi- 
 enced men,  not  membera  of  the 
 general  council,  but  called  in 
 on  a  particular  emergency. 
 They  may  have  been  the  same 
 class  with  those  called  elders 
 of  Israel,  (Acts  iv.  8,)  and  elders 
 g^  tlie  Jews.  (Acts  xxv.  15.) 
 Such  persons  are  called  sena- 
 tors, Ps.  cv.  22. 
 
 SENNACHERIB  (2  Kings 
 xviii.  13)  was  king  of  Assyria 
 when  Hezekiah  reigned  in  Ju- 
 dah.  He  was  the  son  and  suc- 
 cessor of  Shalmaneser;  and 
 having  invaded  and  laid  waste 
 much  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
 was  contemplating  an  attack 
 on  the  capital.  Hezekiah,  in 
 this  extremity,  proposed  to  ca- 
 pitulate on  certain  terms ;  but 
 Sennacherib  treated  his  em- 
 bassy with  the  utmost  inso- 
 lence. Hezekiah  made  sap- 
 plication  to  God  for  deliver- 
 ance, and  his  prayer  was  an- 
 swered, (2  Kings  xix.  20;)  for 
 the  Assyrian  army  was  mira- 
 culously cut  off,  Sennacherib 
 hastily  retreated  to  Nineveh, 
 and  was  finally  assassinated 
 by  his  own  sons  while  he  was 
 eneaeed  in  idolatrous  worship. 
 (2Kih2Sxix.  37.) 
 
 SEPHARVAIM.  (2  Kings 
 xvii.  24.)  A  province  of  Meso- 
 potamia, whence  colonies  emi- 
 grated to  Canaan  after  the  la 
 raelites  were  carried  beyoad 
 562 
 
SER 
 
 the  Euphrates  by  Shalmane- 
 eer.  The  Sepharvaim  of  the 
 Bible  is  supposed  to  be  the 
 same  with  the  Siphara  of  pro- 
 fane hisiory. 
 
 SEPULCHRE.  (See  Buri- 
 al.) 
 
 SERAPHIM.  (Isa.  vi.  2.  6.) 
 This  is  the  name  given  by  the 
 prophet  to  the  spirits  which 
 waited  by  the  throne  of  the 
 Lord,  as  they  appeared  in  his 
 sublime  and  wonderful  vision. 
 The  number  of  them  is  not 
 etated ;  but  the  description, 
 their  appearance,  their  song 
 of  praise,  the  effect  produced 
 upon  and  within  the  temple 
 by  the  voice  of  one  of  them, 
 the  office  which  another  exe- 
 cuted towards  the  prophet  him- 
 eelf,  and,  indeed,  the  whole 
 Bcene,  justifies  the  opinion  that 
 they  were  from  the  most  ex- 
 alted order  of  the  angelic  host. 
 (Heb.  i.  7.) 
 
 SERGEANTS.  (Acts  xvl  35. 
 38.)  This  was  a  class  of  public 
 officers  under  the  Roman  go- 
 vernment. They  were  appoint- 
 ed to  carry  the  fasces,  or  bun- 
 dle of  rods,  before  the  supreme 
 magistrates,  and  to  inflict  the 
 
 Eunishment  of  scourging  and 
 eheadins  upon  criminals. 
 SERGIUS  PAULUS  (Acts 
 xiii.  7)  was  proconsul  or  deputy- 
 governor  of  the  island  of  Cy- 
 prus, a  province  of  the  Roman 
 empire.  He  was  a  man  of  in- 
 telligence and  candour,  (for 
 this  the  word  prudent  imports,) 
 and  sought  to  hear  the  gospel 
 from  the  apostles  who  were  at 
 the  island— probably  from  curi- 
 osity, or  from  a  laudable  desire 
 to  obtain  information  of  the 
 new  religion  from  its  advocates 
 and  professors.  An  impostor  of 
 considerable  influence,  named 
 Elymais,  finding  his  own  occu- 
 pation in  danger,  attempted  to 
 controvert  the  doctrines  of  the 
 apostles,  and  to  divert  or  pre- 
 judice the  mind  of  the  govern- 
 or. For  his  sin  in  this  respect. 
 be  was  severely  rebuked  ana 
 
 SER 
 
 punished  by  the  immediate  in- 
 terposition of  Providence,  (see 
 Barjesus;)  and  such  was  the 
 effect  of  the  whole  scene  upon 
 the  mind  of  the  governor,  that 
 he  embraced  the  faith  of  the 
 gospel. 
 
 SERPENT.  (Gen.  iii.  1.)  An 
 animal  distinguished  for  its 
 subtlety,  (Matt.  x.  16,)  as  well 
 as  for  the  instinctive  dread 
 which  it  inspires  in  man  and 
 in  most  animals.  Three  hun- 
 dred species  are  known,  the 
 largest  of  which  are  indeed 
 terrific  in  their  power  and 
 venom.  About  one-sixth  of  all 
 the  species  known  are  venom- 
 ous. 
 
 The  devil  is  called  the  ser- 
 pent, and  the  old  serpent,  (Rev. 
 xii.  9.  14, 15,)  probably  in  allu- 
 sion to  his  subtlety  and  malice, 
 and  also  to  the  fact  that  in 
 tempting  our  first  parents  to 
 disobey  God,  he  employed  a 
 serpent,  or  assumed  the  form 
 of  one.   (2  Cor.  xi.  3.) 
 
 The  serpent  is  used  by  the 
 sacred  writers  as  an  emblem 
 of  wickedness,  (Matt,  xxiii.33,) 
 cruelly,  (Ps.lviii. 4.  Prov.  xxiii. 
 32.  Eccl.  X.  II .)  and  treachery. 
 (Gen.  xlix.  17.) 
 
 Serpent,  brazen,  (Num. 
 xxi.  9,)  was  erected  by  Moses 
 in  the  camp  of  Israel,  at  the 
 express  command  of  Jehovah. 
 As  a  punishment  fur  their  mur- 
 muring and  rebellion,  God  sent 
 into  the  midst  of  the  camp  a 
 venomous  serpent,  called  Jicry 
 probably  from  the  effect  of  its 
 bite.  Modern  travellers  who 
 have  passed  through  the  valley 
 where  this  judgment  was  suf- 
 fered by  the  Israelites,  assure 
 us  from  the  Arabs  and  from 
 their  own  observation,  that  a 
 I  vast  number  of  serpents  infes» 
 it.  The  destruction  of  life  was 
 fearful,  and  the  people  sought 
 to  Moses  to  intercede  for  their 
 deliverance.  To  tpst  the  sin- 
 cerity of  their  penitence.  Mo- 
 ses  was  commanded  to  make 
 a  serpent  of  brass,  resembling 
 563 
 
SER 
 
 the  serpents  which  were  among 
 them,  and  put  it  upon  a  pole, 
 thai  it  might  be  seen  from  all 
 parts  of  the  camp;  and  then 
 whoever  was  bitten  should  be 
 healed  by  simply  looking  at 
 the  brazen  figure :  and  it  was 
 accordingly  done,  and  all  the 
 promised'effecis followed.  This 
 
 Eassage  of  history  is  alluded  to 
 y  our  Saviour  in  the  most  in- 
 terestiner  and  instructive  man- 
 ner. (John  iii.  14,  15.  For  a 
 fiill  illustration  of  this  subject, 
 Bee  The  Brazen  Serpent,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 In  Egypt  and  other  eastern 
 countries,  the  serpent  was  the 
 common  symbol  of  power. 
 Hence  it  was  embroidered  on 
 the  robes  of  kings.  It  was  also 
 an  object  of  religious  worship; 
 and  is  often  seen  on  ancient 
 medals  and  relics,  as  symboli- 
 cal of  power.  Rites  were  de- 
 vised and  temples  built  to  its 
 honour;  and  priests  were  ap- 
 pointed to  conduct  the  ceremo- 
 nies. These  miserable  idola- 
 ters appeared  before  the  altars 
 of  their  contemptible  deity  in 
 gorgeous  vestments,their  heads 
 adorned  with  serpents,  or  with 
 the  figures  of  serpents  embroi- 
 dered on  their  tiaras,  when  the 
 creatures  tliemselves  were  not 
 to  be  had  ;  and  in  their  frantic 
 exclamations  cried  out;  in  evi- 
 dent allusion  to  the  triumph 
 which  the  old  serpent  obtained 
 over  our  first  mother,  Eva,Eva. 
 So  completely  was  Satan  per- 
 mitted to  insult  our  fallen  race, 
 that  the  serpent,  his  chosen 
 agent  in  accomplishing  our 
 ruin,  was  actually  raised  to 
 the  first  place  among  the  dei- 
 ties of  the  heathen  world,  and 
 reverenced  by  the  most  solemn 
 acts  of  worship.  The  figure  of 
 the  serpent  adorned  the  portals 
 of  the  proudest  temples  in  the 
 east.  Serpent-worship  in  its 
 origin  was  probably  depreca- 
 tory; suETgesied  by  traditionary 
 fears,  which  regarded  the  ser- 
 pent as  the  personification  of 
 
 SER 
 
 all  evil.  They  worshipped  his 
 ima^e  to  avert  the  evil  he 
 might  do  them. 
 
 The  following  cuts  and  that 
 under  the  article  Pitcher  ex- 
 emplify the  forms  in  which 
 the  image  of  the  serpent  was 
 anciently  preserved  in  the 
 east. 
 
 t 
 
 The   cut  on  the  following 
 page  is  copied  from  the  altar 
 of  an  idol  god  found  in  the 
 664 
 
SER 
 
 SER 
 
 ruins  of  Herculaneum.  The 
 serpent  is  represented  as  glid- 
 ing round  tlie  altar,  and  con- 
 Buming  the  figs  or  other  fruits 
 Ihat  are  offered  in  sacrifice. 
 
 SERVANT.  (Gen.  ix.  26.) 
 The  Hebrews  had  several 
 kinds  of  servants:  (1.)  Bond- 
 men and  bondwomen,  pro- 
 cured from  the  heathen.  (Lev. 
 XXV.  44 — 46.)  The  Gibeoniies 
 were  cursed  with  a  perpetual 
 bondage  to  a  particular  service, 
 (Josh-  ix.  23,)  as  a  punish- 
 nient  for  the  deception  which 
 they  practised  on  Joshua  and 
 the  elders  of  Israel.  It  seems 
 reasonable  to  suppose  that 
 every  proselyted  and  circum- 
 tised  servant  obtained  his 
 liberty  on  the  same  conditions 
 83  a  Hebrew  servant.  The 
 48 
 
 Mosaic  law  provided  that  ser- 
 vants and  prisoners,  of  all  de- 
 scriptions, went  out  free  at 
 the  jubilee;  and  the  punish- 
 ment of  one  who  should  steal 
 a  fellow  being,  to  seil  him  for 
 a  slave,  was  death.  <^Ex.xxi.l6. 
 See  art.  Feasts,  IF  Jubilee.'* 
 
 (2.)  The  second  class  of  ser- 
 vants among  the  Hebrews  were 
 bondmen  and  boiidmaidens  of 
 their  brethren.  The  term  of 
 service  for  these  could,  in  no 
 event,  be  longer  than  six  years ; 
 unless  in  the  case  of  the  ser- 
 vant, who  expressed  an  utter 
 unwillingness  to  leave  his  mas- 
 ter.  (See"Ex.  xxi.  5,  6.) 
 
 (3.)  The  third  class  of  Hebrew 
 
 servants  were  hirelings,  whose 
 
 ordinary  time  of  service  seems 
 
 to  have  been  three  years,  as  ia 
 
 565 
 
SER 
 
 Inferred  from  its  being  said  that 
 the  bondman  of  six  years  was 
 worth  a  double  hired  servant. 
 (Deut.  XV.  18.)  But  this  seems 
 to  be  a  slender  foundation  for 
 Buch  an  opinion.  It  might, 
 indeed,  have  been  customary 
 to  hire  for  three  years;  but  of 
 this  there  is  no  intimation 
 besides  in  the  whole  Bible. 
 Hired  servants,  therefore,  were 
 probably  employed,  as  was 
 customary  in  the  lime  of 
 Christ,  by  the  day,  by  the 
 month,  by  the  year,  or  for  any 
 term  of  years  that  might  be 
 agreed  upon. 
 
 It  can  scarcely  be  denied 
 that  there  were  persons  held 
 in  involuntary  servitude  by 
 the  Hebrews,  from  the  earli- 
 est times.  The  government 
 of  the  master  was  strictly 
 patriarchal,  and  secured  the 
 safety  and  comfort  of  his  nu- 
 merous retinue.  Great  care 
 was  taken  to  secure  for  them 
 civil  and  religious  privileges. 
 (Ex.  XX.  10.  Ex.  xxi.  20. 26^27. 
 Deut. xii.  18;  xvi.  11.)  Involun- 
 tary servitude  originated,  pro- 
 bably, in  one  or  more  of  the 
 following  ways: 
 
 1.  By  being  taken  captive 
 in  war,  which  is  by  many  sup- 
 posed to  have  been  the  earliest 
 kind  of  servitude.  (Deut.  xx. 
 14;  xxi.  10.) 
 
 2.  By  becoming  insolvent 
 debtors.  (2Kinesiv.  1.  Isa.  1. 
 1.  Matt,  xviii.  2o.) 
 
 3.  By  the  crime  of  theft, 
 when  the  offender's  property 
 did  not  amount  to  the  lawful 
 equivalent.  (Ex.  xxii.  3.  Neh. 
 V.  4,  5.) 
 
 4.  By man-stealing,a9  when 
 free  men,  by  deceit  or  violence, 
 were  made  slaves.  In  Ex.  xxi. 
 16,  death  is  fixed  as  the  punish- 
 ment of  this  crime;  but  the  pe- 
 nalty is  more  fully  expounded 
 in  Deut.  xxiv.  7,  and  restricted 
 to  the  case  where  the  thief,  by 
 offering  the  slave  for  sale,  or 
 keeping  him  confined,  evinces 
 
 SEV 
 
 his  determination  not  to  libe- 
 rate him. 
 
 5.  By  being  descended  from 
 a  married  slave.  Such  slaves 
 were  called  home-born, boinin 
 the  house,  son  of  the  bondwo- 
 man, or  son  of  the  house.  Abra- 
 ham had  noless  than  three  hun- 
 dred and  eighteen.  (Gen.  xiv. 
 14;  XV.  3;  xvii.  23;  xxi.  10.) 
 
 6.  By  sale,  as  when  a  free 
 man,  who  could  not  get  a  live- 
 lihood, sold  himself  as  a  slave. 
 A  Hebrew  might  thus  sell  him- 
 self, not  only  to  a  rich  man  of 
 his  own  nation,  but  also  to  a 
 foreigner  residing  in  Palestine, 
 though  not  for  a  longer  term 
 than  six  years,  as  already  in- 
 timated. The  condition  of 
 such  a  one  was  plainly  dis- 
 tinguished from  that  of  other 
 slaves.  (Lev.  xxv.  39.)  Even 
 captives  in  war  seem  to  have 
 been  sold,  and  those  who  had 
 a  right  to  the  booty  received 
 only  the  price.  (Num.  xxxi- 
 12.  26-28.) 
 
 In  the  east,  during  a  meal, 
 the  servants  stand  with  great 
 silence  and  respectful  demean- 
 our before  the  master  of  the 
 house,  receiving  hia  tokens 
 and  obeying  his  orders.  By 
 eastern  custom  the  commands 
 of  the  master  are  communi- 
 cated chiefly  by  signs,  and 
 these  are  regarded  with  singu- 
 lar earnestness  and  attention 
 by  domestics.  This  illustrates 
 the  words  of  the  psalmist. 
 (Ps.  cxxiii.  2.)  Hence  also  the 
 expressiveness  of  the  phrase 
 to  stand  before  the  Lord,  that 
 is  to  serve  hitn. 
 
 SERVITOR.  (2Kingsiv.43.) 
 A  servant. 
 
 SETH,  (Gen.  v.  3,)  son  of 
 Adam  and  Eve,  was  born  when 
 Adam  was  one  hundred  and 
 thirty  years  old,  and  lived  nine 
 hundred  and  twelve  years. 
 Tradition  ascribes  to  Seth  the 
 invention  of  letters. 
 
 SEVEN.  (Gen.  xli.  2.)  As 
 from  the  beginning  this  was 
 (•66 
 
SHA 
 
 ihe  number  of  days  in  the 
 week,  so  it  has  ever  in  Scrip- 
 ture a  sort  of  emphasis  attached 
 to  it,  and  is  very  often  and 
 generally  used  as  a  round 
 number,  or,  as  some  would 
 say,  a.  perfect  number.  Clean 
 leasts  were  taken  into  the 
 ark  ty  sevens.  (Gen.  vii.  2.) 
 Theyears  of  plenty  and  famine 
 in  Eeypt  were  marked  by 
 seven's.  (Gen.  xli.  2,  3.)  With 
 the  Jews,  not  only  was  there  a 
 seventh  day  sabbath,  but  every 
 seventh  year  was  a  sabbath, 
 and  every  seven  times  seventh 
 year  was  a  jubilee.  Their  sreat 
 feasts  of  unleavened  bread  and 
 of  tabernacles  were  observed 
 for  seven  days;  the  number 
 of  animals  in  many  of  their 
 sacrifices  was  limited  to  seven. 
 The  golden  candlestick  had 
 sevenhra.nches.  Seven  priests 
 with  seven  trumpets  went 
 around  the  walls  of  Jericho 
 seven  days;  and  seven  times 
 on  the  seventh  day.  In  the 
 Apocalypse  we  find  seveji 
 churches  addressed,  seven  can- 
 dlesticks, seven  spirits,  seven 
 stars,  seven  seals,  seven  trum- 
 pets, seven  thunders,  seve7i 
 vials,  seven  plagues,  and  seve?i 
 angels  to  pour  them  out. 
 
 Seven  is  often  put  for  any 
 round  or  whole  number,  just 
 as  we  use  ten,  or  a  dozen ;  so 
 in  1  Sam.  ii.  5.  Job  v.  19.  Prov. 
 xxvi.  16.  25.  Isa.  iv.  1.  Jer.  xv. 
 9.  Matt.  xii.  45.  In  like  man- 
 ner seven  times,  or  seven-fold, 
 means  often,  abundantly,  com- 
 pletely. (Gen.  iv.  15.  24.  Lev. 
 xxvi.  24.  Ps.  xii.  6;  Ixxix.  12. 
 Matt,  xviii.  21.)  KnA  seventy 
 times  seven  is  still  a  higher 
 superlative.  (Malt.xviiL21,22.) 
 
 SHAARAIM.  1.  (I  Chron.  iv. 
 31.)  A  city  of  Simeon,  and 
 probably  the  same  with  Sha- 
 raim,  which  at  first  belonged 
 to  Judah.  (Josh.  xv.  36.) 
 
 2.  (1  Chron.  viii.  8.)  A  de- 
 scendant of  Benjamin,  and 
 the   ancestor  of  a  numerous 
 
 and  powerful  people.  (1  Chron, 
 viii.  8-28.) 
 
 SHADOW.  (Heb.x.l.)  Sha- 
 dows  or  types  signify  those 
 events  or  institutions  by  which 
 some  other  future  event  or 
 institution  is  represented  to 
 us.  The  thing  thus  represent- 
 ed to  us  is  called  the  anti-type. 
 For  example — the  slaying  of 
 the  paschal  lamb  for  the  sins 
 of  the  Jewish  worshippers  was 
 a  broad  and  striking  repre- 
 sentation of  the  sacrifice  of  the 
 Lamb  of  God  for  the  sins  of  th 
 world.  In  determining  wha 
 is  typical,  there  is  no  safe 
 rule  but  the  declaration  of  the 
 inspired  writers  themselves. 
 When  they  authorize  a  typical 
 construction,  it  may  be  safely 
 applied,  but  not  otherwise. 
 (See  Types.) 
 
 SHADRACH.     (See   Abed- 
 
 NEGO.) 
 
 SHALLUM.  (2Kinssxv.  10.) 
 The  murderer  of  Zachariah 
 kingof  Judah,  and  the  usurper 
 of  his  crown.  At  the  end  of 
 the  first  month  of  his  reign,  he 
 was  himself  murdered  by  Men- 
 ahem. 
 
 SHALIWAN.      (See    Shal- 
 
 MANESER.) 
 
 SHALMANESEK,  (2  Kings 
 xvii.  3,)  king  of  Assyria,  was 
 probably  the  son  of  Tielath- 
 pileser.  He  commenced  his 
 reign  b.  c.  724,  and  reiened 
 fourteen  years.  He  found  the 
 countries  of  Israel  and  Judah 
 entirely  open  to  invasion.  He 
 had  compelled  Hoshea,  king 
 of  Israel,  to  pay  him  an  annual 
 tribute:  but.  at  last,  being 
 weary  of  this  exaction,  Hoshea 
 combined  secretly  with  the 
 king  of  Egypt  to  resist  it. 
 Shalmaneser  brought  an  army 
 against  him,  ravaged  Samaria, 
 besieged  Hoshea  in  his  capi- 
 tal, and  notwithstanding  his 
 lone  resistance  of  three  years, 
 (2  Kings  xvii.— xviii.  9—12,)  he 
 took  the  city,  put  Hoshea  into 
 bonds,  and  carried  away  the 
 567 
 
SHA 
 
 people  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
 He  thus  ruined  the  city  and 
 kingdom  of  Samaria,  which 
 had  subsisted  two  hundred  and 
 fifty-four  years,  (iKings  xviii. 
 9,  10,)  from  b.  c.  970  to  717. 
 He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
 Sennacherib.  Some  suppose 
 that  Shahnan  (Hos.  x.  14)  is 
 the  same  with  Shalmaneser. 
 
 SHAMBLES.  (1  Cor.  x.  25.) 
 A  meat  market. 
 
 SHARON.  (IChron.  xxvii. 
 29.)  An  exceedingly  beauti- 
 ful and  fertile  plain  stretching 
 along  the  Mediterraneanshore, 
 south  of  mount  Carmel,  from 
 Cesarea  to  Joppa.  Its  fertility 
 and  beauty  are  often  alluded 
 to  by  the  sacred  writers. 
 (1  Chron.  v.  16;  xxvii.  29.  SoL 
 Song  ii.  1.  Isa.  xxxiii.  9;  xxxv. 
 2.) 
 
 In  the  spring  of  1834,  Mr. 
 Thompson,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, passed  over  this  plain. 
 The  view  of  it  from  a  high 
 tower  in  Ramla  is  thus  de- 
 scribed : 
 
 "  The  whole  valley  of  Sha- 
 ron, from  the  mountains  of 
 Jerusalem  to  the  sea,  and  from 
 the  foot  of  Carmel  to  the  hills 
 of  Gaza,  is  spread  before  you 
 like  a  painted  map,  and  is  ex- 
 tremely beautiful,  especially 
 at  evenins,  when  the  last  rays 
 of  the  setting  sun  gild  the  dis- 
 tant mountain  tops,  the  weary 
 husbandman  returns  from  his 
 labour,  and  the  bleating  flocks 
 come  frisking  and  joyful  to 
 their  fold.  At  such  a  time  I 
 eaw  it,  and  lingered  long  in 
 jiensive  meditation  until  the 
 stars  looked  out  from  the  sky, 
 and  the  cool  breezes  of  eve- 
 ning began  to  shed  soft  dew.s 
 on  the  feverish  land.  What  a 
 paradise  was  here  when  Solo- 
 mon reigned  in  Jerusalem,  and 
 eang  of  the  roses  of  Sharcm  ! 
 And  what  a  heaven  upon  earth 
 will  be  here  again,  when  He 
 that  is  greater  than  Solomon 
 shall  ait  on  the  throne  of  David 
 hia  father;  for  in  his  days  shall 
 
 SHE 
 
 the  righteous  flourish,  and 
 abundance  of  peace  so  long  as 
 the  moon  endureth." 
 
 SHA  VHE.  (Num.  vi.  9.)  The 
 custom  of  shaving  the  head  as 
 a  token  of  deep  affliction  is 
 very  ancient.  (Job  i.  20.)  It 
 seems,  however,  to  have  been 
 generally  significant  of  repent- 
 ance and  humiliation  for  sin, 
 or  of  bondage  and  reproach. 
 (Jer.  xlviii.  37.) 
 SHEAR.  (See  Sheep.) 
 SHEBA,  (1  Kings  x.  1,)  or 
 the  Saba  of  prolane  history. 
 A  province  in    the    northern 
 
 gart  of  Arabia,  between  the 
 .ed  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 
 It  was  probably  settled  by 
 Sheba,  a  descendant  of  Shem, 
 and  the  inhabitants  are  called 
 Sabeans.  (Job  i.  15.)  The  queen 
 of  Sheba  may  well  be  supposed 
 to  have  some  traditional  know- 
 ledge of  true  religion;  and,  in 
 the  commercial  intercourse  of 
 her  country  with  that  of  the 
 Hebrews,  might  have  heard 
 much  of  the  wisdom  and  piety 
 of  Solomon,  the  wisest  man 
 and  one  of  the  greatest  kings 
 that  ever  lived  on  the  earth. 
 To  see  and  converse  with  him, 
 she  undertook  a  journey  from 
 what  was  then  regarded  as  the 
 uttermost  parts  of  the  earth. 
 (Matt.  xii.  42.)  Of  this  jour- 
 ney the  present  Ethiopians  or 
 Abyssines,  who  are  Christians 
 of  the  Greek  church,  have  very 
 ancient  traditions.  Among  the 
 princely  presents  she  made 
 to  Solomon,  were  gold,  ivory, 
 and  spices;  and  the  Sabeans 
 were  celebrated,  on  account 
 of  their  important  commerce 
 in  these  very  products,  among 
 the  Greeks  also.  (Ps.  Ixxii.  1(£ 
 15.  Isa.  Ix.  6.  Jer.  vi.  20.  Ezek. 
 xxvii.  22.  Joel  iii.  8.) 
 
 SHECHEM,  1.  A  PLACB, 
 (Gen.  xxxiii.  18,)  or  SYCHEM, 
 (Acts  vii.  16,)  or  SYCHAR, 
 (John  iv.  5,)  was  one  of  the 
 most  ancient  cities  of  Canaan. 
 The  change  tOiS'//fAar(aSyrJac 
 word  signifying  drunkenness 
 563 
 
SHE 
 
 and  falsehood)  was  made  by 
 the  Jews  to  stigmatize  the  vices 
 of  the  place,  which  were  drunk- 
 enness, lying,  and  idolatry. 
 Its  more  modern  name  is  Ne- 
 apdis,  and  it  is  at  present 
 known  as  Nabloiise,  or  Nap- 
 lotise.  It  is  situated  from  thirty- 
 five  to  forty  miles  northerly 
 from  Jerusalem,  and  was  made 
 the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
 Israel  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam. 
 
 Shechem  is  associated  with 
 some  of  the  most  interesting 
 events  of  patriarchal  times, 
 (Gen.  xlix.  29— 3-2;  1.13.  Josh. 
 xxiv.  1.  32.  Judg.  ix.  46-49;; 
 and  also  for  one  of  the  most 
 interesting  of  our  Lord's  dis- 
 courses, (John  iv.  4—42,)  the 
 result  of  which  was  the  con- 
 version of  several  of  the  Sa- 
 maritans to  the  true  faith. 
 (Johniv.  39.  41.) 
 
 Shechem  is  situated  between 
 mount  Ebal  on  the  north  and 
 Gerizim  on  the  south.  The 
 modern  town  has  two  long 
 streets  runnin"  paral'.el  with 
 the  valley.  Nothing  can  be 
 finer,  travellers  assure  us,  than 
 the  view  of  the  city  from  the 
 heights  around  it.  As  it  is  ap- 
 proached from  the  hills,  it  ap- 
 pears luxuriantly  emljosomed 
 in  the  most  delishiful  and 
 fragrant  bowers,  half  concealed 
 by  rich  gardens  and  by  stately 
 trees,  collected  into  groves,  all 
 around  the  bold  and  beautiful 
 valley  in  which  it  stands.  It 
 contains  six  mosques,  a  church 
 of  the  Greek  Christians,  pub- 
 lic baths,  and  a  variety  of  manu- 
 feclories  of  soap,  clothes,  &c. 
 The  population  is  estimated  at 
 eight  or  ten  thousand,  gene- 
 rally Mohammedans.  A  dozen 
 or  fifteen  Jews  are  found  there ; 
 fifty  to  one  hundred  Greek 
 Christians,  and,  perhaps,  forty 
 Samaritans.  These  last  have 
 a  synagogue,  where  they  have 
 service  every  Saturday.  They 
 have  also  a  school,  where  their 
 language  is  taught.  They  de- 
 fend their  worship  on  Geri- 
 4S* 
 
 SHE 
 
 zim  by  Deut.  xxvii.  4,  where, 
 for  the  word  Ebal,  they  put 
 Gerizim,  alleging  that  the 
 Jews  fraudulently  inserted 
 Ebal  in  their  Scriptures,  out 
 of  contempt  and  prejudice 
 towards  their  nation. 
 
 The  Samaritans,  notwith- 
 standing their  enmity  against 
 the  Jews,  joined  them  in  their 
 revolt  again.st  the  Komans, 
 and,  in  the  issue,  eleven  thou- 
 sand of  them  were  put  to  the 
 sword  by  the  Romans  on 
 mount  Gerizim,  where  they 
 had  posted  themselves,  trust- 
 ing, like  the  Jews,  to  the  pro- 
 tection of  their  temple.  Under 
 the  emperor  Justinian,  another 
 revolt  took  place,  in  the  course 
 of  which  one  hundred  thou- 
 sand of  them  were  slain,  or 
 sold  as  slaves,  converting  their 
 once  fertile  province  into  a 
 wilderness.  A  remnant,  how- 
 ever, rallied  on  mount  Geri- 
 zim, and  are  still  found  there. 
 
 In  1811,  it  was  estimated  that 
 not  more  than  two  hundred 
 Samaritans  were  known  at 
 the  then  present  day;  and  that 
 these  reside  partly  at  Shechem 
 and  partly  at  Joppa.  It  is  said 
 they  have  synagogues  in  Da- 
 mascus, Cairo,  &c. ;  but  it  is 
 not  on  authentic  evidence.  In 
 their  manners,  rites,  and  reli- 
 gious ceremonies,  they  adhere 
 strictly  to  the  Mosaic  law. 
 Instead  of  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
 salem, they  worship  on  mount 
 Gerizim,  where,  in  more  pros- 
 perous limes,  they  celebrated 
 their  festivals,  and  offered  sa- 
 crifices. The  worship  of  one 
 God,  circumcision,  the  purifi- 
 cations, and  feasts,  (except  the 
 Purim  and  the  feast  of  the 
 dedication,)  they  have  in  com- 
 mon with  the  Jews.  They  be- 
 lieve in  the  existence  of  an- 
 gels, in  a  resurrection  and 
 future  retribution,  and  expect 
 the  coming  of  a  Messiah,  in 
 whom  they  look  only  for  a  pro- 
 phet. Their  priests  are  of  the 
 tribe  of  Levi,  and  are  treated 
 569 
 
SHE 
 
 as  superiors.  On  account  of 
 their  poverty,  their  only  sacri- 
 fice is  a  lamb  on  the  feast  of 
 Pentecost.  In  the  synagogue, 
 the  Samaritan  dialect  is  used  ; 
 but  they  generally  speak  Ara- 
 bic, and  they  are  distinguished 
 by  a  white  turban.    They  sup- 
 
 Srt  themselves  by  mechanical 
 3our,  and  by  money  deal- 
 ings. They  avoid  any  con- 
 nexions with  other  sects,  and 
 marry  only  among  their  own 
 nation.  Each  man  is  allowed 
 two  wives  on  his  first  mar- 
 riage ;  but  on  the  death  of  one 
 of  "them,  he  cannot  marry 
 again.  In  case  both  of  them 
 die,  he  is  suffered  to  have  one 
 wife.  (SpeEBAL, Samaritans.) 
 
 The  Samaritans  at  Shechem 
 were  visited  by  Mr.  Fisk,  an 
 American  missionary,  in  the 
 autumn  of  1S23.    He  says, 
 
 "  We  went  to  visit  the  Sa- 
 maritans, having  first  sent  to 
 the  kohen,  or  priest,  to  know 
 if  a  visit  would  be  agreeable. 
 He  received  us  in  a  neat  apart- 
 ment, and  we  immediately  en- 
 tered into  conversation.  Ten 
 or  twel  ve  other  members  of  the 
 sect  soon  came  in.  Our  con- 
 versation was  in  Arabic.  They 
 represent  the  number  of  their 
 houses  to  be  twenty  or  thirty. 
 They  all  speak  Arabic,  but 
 their  books  and  public  prayers 
 are  in  Samaritan.  They  call 
 their  language  Hebrew,  and 
 that  which  we  call  Hebrew 
 they  call  Jewish ;  for  they  say 
 their  language  is  the  true  He- 
 brew in  which  the  law  was 
 given.  The  difl'erence  con- 
 sists in  the  use  of  a  different 
 alphabet  and  diflerent  pro- 
 nunciation. They  go  three 
 times  a  year  to  mount  Gerizim 
 to  worship;  but  do  not  offer 
 sacrifices  there  now,  as  they 
 did  formerly,  lest  they  should 
 be  molested  by  the  Turks. 
 But  they  offer  their  sacrifices, 
 in  a  more  private  way,  in  the 
 
 ty.  On  the  former  occasions 
 tl  ley  meet  before  sunrise,  and 
 
 SHE 
 
 continue  reading  the  law  until 
 noon.  We  understood  them 
 to  say,  that  they  have  no  dail^ 
 sacrifice.  We  visited  their 
 synagogue.  It  is  a  small,  dark, 
 but  rieat  room,  with  an  altar, 
 but  without  seals.  We  were 
 obliged,  before  entering,  to  pull 
 off  not  only  our  over-shoes,  but 
 also  our  slippers,  which  are  not 
 prohibited  even  in  mosques. 
 They  expect  a  Messiah,  who 
 is  to  be  a  prophet  and  king, 
 but  a  mere  man,  to  live  one 
 hundred  and  twenty  years,  as 
 Moses  did,  and  to  reign  at 
 Naplouse  over  all  the  world. 
 Those  who  do  not  receive  him 
 are  to  be  destroyed  with  the 
 sword.  The  promise  concern- 
 ing the  woman's  seed  does  not, 
 they  believe,  refer  to  the  Mes- 
 siah ;  but  that  concernins  a 
 prophet  like  unto  Moses  does 
 refer  to  him,  as  does  also  that 
 concerning  Siuloh.  (Gen.  xlix. 
 10.)  They  admit  the  sense 
 of  this  passage  as  given  in  our 
 translation,  and  try  to  show 
 that  there  is  still  a  sceptre 
 somewhere  in  the  hands  of 
 Judah.  The  Messiah  will 
 come  when  Israel  repent. 
 They  say  the  story  of^  the 
 separation  between  Israel  and 
 Judah,  under  Jeroboam  and 
 Rehoboam,  is  a  lie  of  the  Jews. 
 The  city  of  Luz  or  Bethel, 
 they  say,  was  on  mount  Ge- 
 rizim. (Gen.  xxviii.  19)  Je- 
 bus,  they  say,  was  also  on  this 
 mount,  and  that  Judg.  xix.  10, 
 as  it  stands  in  our  copies,  is 
 not  true.  AVe  had  requested 
 to  see  their  ancient  copy  of 
 the  law.  The  kohen  objected, 
 but  after  much  persuadine, 
 and  indirectly  presenting  the 
 motive  which  generally  pre- 
 vails in  this  country,  i.  e.  the 
 offer  of  money,  he  at  last  con- 
 sented to  show  it  to  us  this 
 morning.  In  order  to  do  it, 
 he  said  he  must  first  bathe, 
 and  then  put  on  a  parJcular 
 dress  for  the  occasion.  On  our 
 arrival  at  the  synagogue,  we 
 570 
 
SHE 
 
 waitevf  a  short  lime,  and  he 
 appeared,  entered    the  syna- 
 
 f)gue,  approached  the  altar, 
 neeled  and  put  his  face  to 
 the  floor,  then  opened  the  little 
 closet  which  contained  the 
 holjr  book,  kneeled  and  put 
 his  face  to  the  floor  again,  then 
 brought  out  the  brass  case 
 which  contained  the  roll,  and 
 opened  it  so  as  to  show  us  the 
 manuscript,  but  we  were  not 
 allowed  to  touch  it.  It  is  in 
 the  Samaritan  character,  and 
 the  kohen  says  it  was  written 
 by  Abishua,  the  grandson  of 
 Aaron,  thirteen  years  after  the 
 death  of  Bloses,  and  three 
 thousand  two  hundred  and 
 eixty  years  ago.  (1  Chron.  vi. 
 4.)  Another  brass  case  stood 
 near  this,  containing  an  exact 
 copy  of  the  original  manu- 
 script, said  to  have  been  made 
 eight  hundred  years  ago.  On 
 a  shelf,  in  the  synagogue,  were 
 a  considerable  number  of  co- 
 pies of  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
 teuch. The  Bible  of  the  Sa- 
 maritans contains  only  the 
 five  books  of  Moses.  They 
 have,  however,  Joshua  and 
 Judges,  but  in  separate  books. 
 They  say  that  since  Joshua 
 there  has  been  no  prophet. 
 He  was  the  disciple  of  Muses, 
 and  inferior  to  him.  David 
 was  king  in  Jerusalem,  but 
 not  a  prophet.  We  inquired 
 whether  the  Samaritans  held 
 it  lawful  to  read  the  books  of 
 Christians.  They  said  there 
 was  no  law  against  it,  and  we 
 left  with  them  one  Testament 
 in  Arabic,  and  another  in  He- 
 brew." (See  Evening  Recre- 
 ations, vol.  ii.  pp.  27—30,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 2.  A  PERSON.  (See  Dinah.) 
 SHEEP,  (Gen.  iv.  2,)  SHEP- 
 HERD,(Gen.xlvi.32,)  SHEEP- 
 MASTER,  (2  Kinss  iii.  4,) 
 SHEEPCOTE,  (ISam.  xxiv. 
 3,)  SHEEPFOLD,  &c.  (John 
 X.  1.)  As  these  terms  are  inti- 
 mately blended  in  the  sacred 
 writings,  they  are  treated  of 
 
 SHE 
 
 under  one  head.  Sheep  often 
 constituted  the  chief  wealth 
 of  a  man  in  patriarchal  times; 
 and  hence  with  the  Jews  the 
 care  of  sheep  was  among  the 
 earliest  and  most  respectable 
 employments,  (Gen.  iv.  2.  Ex. 
 iii.  1.  iSam.  xvi.  11,)  though 
 it  was  odious  to  the  Egyptians. 
 (Gen.  xlvi.  34.)  The  passage 
 1  Sam.  xvii.  20,  is  the  only  in- 
 stance in  which  the  hired  ser- 
 vant is  distinguished  from  the 
 master,  or  one  of  his  family,  as 
 a  shepherd.  Doeg  had  charge 
 of  the  whole  pastoral  establish- 
 ment of  Saul.  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7.) 
 The  ofiice  of  chief  herdman 
 was  abolished,  and  the  duties 
 divided.  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  29.) 
 The  cffice  of  chief  shepherd 
 (Heb.  xiii.  20,  and  1  Pet.  v.  4) 
 is  often  mentioned  by  heathen 
 writers.  It  was  an  office  of 
 great  trust  and  responsibility, 
 as  well  as  of  distinguished 
 honour.  (2 Kings  iii.  4.)  Char- 
 dm  saw  a  clan  of  Turcoman 
 shepherds,  whose  flocks  con- 
 sisted of  four  hundred  thousand 
 beasts  of  carriage,  such  aa 
 camels,  horses,  oxen,  cows, 
 and  asses,  and  three  million 
 of  sheep  and  goats.  Dr.  Shaw 
 confirms  his  statement. 
 
 The  shepherd  or  sheep-mas- 
 ter was  constantly  with  his 
 flocks  by  night  and  by  day, 
 to  number,  gather,  feed,  con- 
 duct, and  guard  them,  (Gen. 
 xxxi.  39.  Luke  ii.  8;)  and  was 
 often  attended  with  a  dog.  (Job 
 XXX.  1.)  His  care  of  the  sheep 
 was  constant  and  tender,  and 
 his  power  over  them  very  great. 
 (Isa.  xl.  11.  John  x.  1—16.)  Rev. 
 John  Hartley,  a  missionary  i» 
 Greece,  tells  us  that  he  was 
 once  passing  by  a  flock  of 
 sheep,  and,  having  heard  it 
 said  that  they  would  obey  the 
 shepherd's  voice,  he  a.sked 
 him  to  call  one  of  his  sheep, 
 which  inslanlly  left  its  pas- 
 turage, and  approached  the. 
 hand  of  the  shepherd  with  a 
 prompt  obedience  which  he 
 5/ 1 
 
SHE 
 
 never  saw  in  any  olher  animal. 
 It  is  also  universally  true  in 
 that  country  that  a  stranger 
 tliey  will  not  follow.  They 
 flee  from  him ;  for  they  know 
 not  the  voice  of  a  stranger. 
 
 It  is  said  that  the  shepherds 
 of  Judea  gave  each  lamb  a 
 distinct  name,  and  that  they 
 promptly  obeyed  the  voice  of 
 the  shepherd,  coming  and 
 going  daily  at  his  call.  An 
 kncient  Jewish  writer,  born 
 and  bred  in  Egypt,  states  that 
 the  sheep,  in  "the  season  of 
 shearing,  would  run  to  the 
 shepherd  at  his  call,  and, 
 stooping  a  little,  put  them- 
 selves into  his  hands  to  be 
 shorn,  and  stand  quietly  until 
 he  had  done. 
 
 The  docility,  timidity,  and 
 liability  to  wander,  all  which 
 are  among  the  characteristics 
 of  this  animal,  are  often  figu- 
 ratively employfid  by  the  sa- 
 cred writers,  as  2Chron.  xviii. 
 16.  Ps.  cxix.  176.  Tsa.xi.6;  liii. 
 6,  7.  Mic.  V.  8.  Matt.  ix.  36.) 
 
 In  the  Old  Testament,  the 
 word  shepherd  is  used  figu- 
 ratively for  Jehovah,  (Ps.  Ixxx. 
 1.  Jer.  xxxi.  10,)  and  for  kings, 
 (Ezek.  xxxiv.  10;)  but  in  the 
 New  Testament  it  denotes 
 Christ,  (John  x.  11,  &c.  Heb. 
 xiii.  20.  1  Pet.  v.  4,)  and  also 
 those  teachers  who  presided 
 in  the  synagogues.  This  use 
 of  the  word  gave  rise  to  the  ap- 
 plication of  the  word  shepherd 
 or  pastor,  in  modern  times,  to 
 ministers  of  the  gospel,  and 
 those  under  their  spiritual  care 
 are  called  the/oZd  ox  Jlock. 
 
 It  was  the  business  of  the 
 shepherd  to  count  the  sheep 
 daily,  perhaps  oftener,  and  he 
 was  accountable  for  any  that 
 were  missing.  (Gen.  xxxi.  38, 
 39.  Ex.xxii.  12,  13.  Lev.xxvii! 
 32.   Jer.  xxxiii.  13.    See  PvOD.) 
 
 The  ram,  on  the  call  of  the 
 shepherd,  came  forth,  and  pre- 
 ceded the  flock  in  their  march 
 as  leader  or  principal.  (Jer.  1. 
 
 SHE 
 
 8.)  Hence  the  expressions  in 
 Ps.  Ixxx.  1.  Jer.  xxv.  34,35. 
 
 Sometimes  a  lamb  was  taken 
 into  the  tent,  and  brought  up 
 like  a  dog.  (2Sam.  xii.  3.)  It 
 is  common  in  Armenia  to  see 
 shepherds  carrying  in  their 
 bosoms  the  lambs  of  the  flocks 
 they  were  tending.  They 
 were  too  feeble  to  roam  with 
 their  dams;  and  nothing 
 evinces  more  tenderness  and 
 care  than  gently  leading  such 
 as  have  young  lambs  to  which 
 they  give  suck.  (Isa.  xl.  II.) 
 Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight, 
 American  missionaries,  tell  us 
 that  while  travelling  in  Ar- 
 menia, they  passed  several 
 shepherds,  probably  from  the 
 neighbouring  villages,  carry- 
 ing in  their" bosoms  the  lambs 
 of  the  flocks  they  tended.  The 
 same  scene  had  already  fre- 
 quently interested  them,  by 
 presenting  the  source  of  the 
 beautiful  imagery  of  the  pro- 
 phet. It  is  exhibited  only  at 
 one  season  of  the  year;  when 
 lambs  are  frequently  brought 
 forth  during  the  day  at  a  dis- 
 tance from  the  fold.  The  new- 
 comers, being  too  weak  to  fol- 
 low the  flock  in  its  rovings 
 after  grass,  are  carried  in  the 
 bosom  of  the  shepherd,  and 
 notunfrequently  they  multiply 
 so  as  to  fill  his  arms  before 
 night.  They  are  then  taken 
 to  the  fold,  and  guarded  there 
 until  sufficiently  strong  to  ram- 
 ble with  their  dams.  One  of 
 these  enclosures,  when  the 
 sheep  return  anxiously  bleat- 
 ing in  the  evening  from  their 
 day's  pasture,  and  scores  of 
 hungry  young  ones  are  con- 
 ducted, by  shepherd's  boys 
 each  to  its  own  mother,  pre- 
 sents an  amusing  scene. 
 
 The  time  of  sliparing  was  a 
 season  of  great  festivity.  (1 
 Sam.  xxv.  8. 11.  2  Sam.  xiii.  23.) 
 The  flock  was  collected  in  an 
 uncovered  enclosure  called  a 
 sheepfold  or  sheepcote.  (Num. 
 572 
 
SHE 
 xxxii.  16.  2 Sam.  vii.  8.  Jer. 
 xxiii.  3.  Zeph.  ii.  6.  John  x. 
 16.)  Here  iheir  legs  were  lied 
 together;  and  the  shearing- 
 house  (2 Kings  x.  12.  14)  lite- 
 rally means  the  tie-house. 
 They  were  never  housed  at 
 any  season  of  the  year. 
 
 A  watch-house  was  often 
 erected  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
 flocks,  from  which  the  ap- 
 proacii  of  danger  could  be 
 easily  descried.  This  is  called 
 the  tower  of  the  flock.  (Mic. 
 iv.  8.)  The  wool  of  the  sheej) 
 was  probably  made  into  cloth 
 (Lev.  xiii.  47.  Deut.  xxii.  11) 
 by  women.  (Prov.  xxxi.  13.)  It 
 formed  part  of  the  tribute  paid 
 by  the  ]\Ioabites  to  Israel, 
 (2 Kings  iii.  4,)  and  was  a  com- 
 mon article  of  merchandise. 
 (Ezek.  xxvii.  18.) 
 
 SHEETS,  (Judg.  xiv.  12, 13,) 
 or  shirts,  as  it  is  in  the  margin ; 
 or  spoils,  or  apparel,  as  in 
 \erse  19  and  margin;  or fijie 
 linen,  as  it  is  rendered  in  Prov. 
 xxxi.  24,  and  Isa.  iii.  23:  all 
 which  are  from  the  same  He- 
 brew word.  The  word  which 
 corresponds  with  this  in  Greek 
 is  translated  linen  cloth  in 
 Matt,  xxvii.  59;  fine  linen, 
 (Mark  xv.46.)and  linen.  (Luke 
 xxiii.  53.)  The  word  doubtless 
 means  a  bed-covering,  as  well 
 as  a  garment,  (see  Clothes,) 
 and  corresponds  with  the  hyke 
 of  the  Arabs.  These  hykes,  or 
 blankets,  as  we  should  call 
 them,  are  of  different  sizes. 
 and  of  different  qualities  and 
 fineness.  The  usual  size  of 
 them  is  six  yards  long,  and 
 five  or  six  feet  broad,  serving 
 the  Kabyle  or  Arab  £is  a  com- 
 plete dress  in  the  day;  and, 
 as  they  sleep  in  their  raiment, 
 as  the  Israelites  did  of  old, 
 (Deut.  xxiv.  13,)  it  served  like- 
 wise for  his  bed  and  covering 
 by  night.  The  plaid  of  the 
 Highlander  of  Scotland  is  the 
 very  same. 
 
 SHEKEL.  (See  Measures.) 
 
 SHEM.  (Gen.  vi.  10.)  Second 
 
 SHI 
 
 I  son  of  Noah,  from  whom  de- 
 scended the  Jews,  and  through 
 I  ihem    the   Messiah.    He  had 
 five   sons,   who   peopled   the 
 finest  provinces  of   the  east. 
 The  languages  of  these  nations 
 are  still  caUed  the  Shemitish 
 languages,  including  the  He- 
 brew, Chaldee,  SyriaC;  Arabic, 
 Ethiopic,  &c. 
 SHEMINITH.   (See  Harp.) 
 SHENIR.    (SeeHERMON.) 
 SHKPHERD.    (See  Sheep.) 
 SHESHAGH.     (See  Baby- 
 lon.) 
 
 SHEW-BREAD.      (See 
 Bread.) 
 
 SHIBBOLETH.  (.Tudg.  xii. 
 6.)  In  the  course  of  a  war 
 between  the  Ephraimiies  and 
 the  Gileadites,  the  former  were 
 routed,  and  fled  towards  the 
 Jordan.  The  Gileadites  had 
 taken  care  to  post  a  parly  at 
 the  fords,  and  when  an  Ephra- 
 imite  who  had  escaped  came 
 to  the  river  side,  and  desired 
 to  pass  over,  they  asked  him 
 if  he  were  not  an  Ephraimiie. 
 If  he  said,  No,  they  bade  him 
 pronounce  shibboleth,  (signi- 
 fying a  stream ;)  and  if  he  pro- 
 nounced it  sibboleth,  accord- 
 ing to  the  dialect  of  the  Ephra- 
 imiies, they  killed  him.  Thus 
 fell  forty-two  thousand  Ephra- 
 imiies in  a  single  day.  (Comp. 
 Malt.  xxvi.  73.) 
 SHIELD.  (See  Armour.) 
 SHIGGAION.  (Ps.  vii.  title.) 
 The  plural  of  this  word  occurs 
 in  Hab.  iii.  1.  We  find  various 
 conjectures  as  to  the  import  of 
 it,  but  they  are  all  very  unsatis- 
 factory, nor  is  the  knowledge 
 of  it  important.  It  probably 
 means  a  song  or  ode  of  praise. 
 SHIHOR.  (See  Egvpt,  ri- 
 ver OF.) 
 SHILOAH.  (SeeSiLOAM.) 
 SHILOH,  1.  (Josh,  xviii.  1,) 
 where  Samuel  began  to  prophe- 
 sy, (ISani.  iii.  2r,)  and  where 
 Abijah  lived,  (1  Kings  xiv.  2,) 
 was  a  city  of  Ephraim,  between 
 Lebanon  and  Bethel,  ten  miles 
 southof  Shecheni,  and  twenty 
 673 
 
SHI 
 
 five  north  of  Jerusalem.  Here 
 Joshua  erected  the  tabernacle, 
 and  divided  the  land  of  pro- 
 mise, by  lot,  among  the  tribes. 
 The  tabernacle  remained  at 
 Shiloh  upwards  of  three  hun- 
 dred years,  and  was  then  re- 
 moved thence  during  the  ad- 
 ministration of  Eli,  and  taken 
 by  the  Philistines.  Its  ruinous 
 condition  was  proverbial  in 
 after  times.  (Jer.  vii.  13—15 ; 
 xxvi.  6—9.) 
 
 2.  (Gen.  xlix.  10.)  A  title 
 of  Messiah  the  king ;  but 
 •whether  it  signifies  one  who 
 is  sent,  or  one  whose  right  it  is 
 to  reign,  or  the  peace-maker, 
 or  him  in  whom  the  kingdom 
 of  Judah  should  have  an"end, 
 is  not  agreed.  All  these  in- 
 terpretations have  been  given 
 to  it  by  different  writers,  and 
 ail  of  them  are  significant  and 
 appropriate.  That  the  Mes- 
 siah is  intended  is  evident  from 
 the  literal  fulfilment  of  the 
 prophecy.  Within  a  single 
 generation  after  the  death  of 
 Christ,  the  temple  and  the  city 
 of  Jerusalem  were  destroyed, 
 their  whole  civil  and  ecclesi- 
 astical government  subverted, 
 and  the  people  themselves 
 scattered  abroad  over  the  earth, 
 a  poor,  weak,  despised,  and 
 oppressed  remnant  of  a  great 
 nation.  Thus  the  sceptre  de- 
 parted from  Judah,  where  it 
 had  remained  until  the  Mes- 
 siah came,  and  has  never  been 
 restored. 
 
 SHIMEI.  (2  Sam.  xvi.  5.)  A 
 relative  of  Saul,  who  met  Da- 
 vid as  he  was  leaving  Jerusa- 
 lem, in  the  time  of  Absalom's 
 revolt,  and  treated  him  and  his 
 retinue  with  the  grossest  in- 
 dignity. (2  Sam.  xvi.  6—13.) 
 For  this  offence  Shimei  after- 
 wards sought  David's  forgive- 
 ness, who  not  only  spared  his 
 life  then,  but  covenanted  with 
 him  never  to  put  him  to  death. 
 (2  Sam.  xix.  23.)  On  his  deaih- 
 Ded,  however,  he  charged  So- 
 .omou  to  remember  Shimei  as 
 
 SHI 
 
 a  guilty  man,  who,  having  re 
 ceived  such  a  charge,  forbade 
 him  to  leave  Jerusalem  on 
 pain  of  death.  This  prohibi- 
 tion he  violated,  by  going  to 
 Gath  in  search  of  two  fugitive 
 servants,  and  suffered  the 
 threatened  penalty. 
 
 SHINAR.  (Gen.  x.  10.)  An 
 extensive  and  fertile  plain,  ly 
 ing  between  Mesopotamia  on 
 the  west  and  Persia  on  the 
 east,  and  watered  by  the  Eu 
 phraies.  It  was  upon  this  plain 
 that  Noah's  posterity  attempted 
 to  build  the  tower  of  Babel, 
 and  the  site  of  the  great  city 
 of  Babylon  was  also  here. 
 (Dan.  i.  1,2.)  The  territory  ia 
 now  within  the  pashalic  of 
 Bagdad,  but  its  ancient  bounds 
 are  not  known. 
 
 SHIPS.  (Gen.  xlix.  13.)  Some 
 of  the  ancient  ships  were  very 
 large.  An  account  of  one  is 
 given  by  Athenseus,  which  was 
 nearly  five  hundred  feet  in 
 length,  and  sixty  in  breadth. 
 Upwards  of  four  thousand  row- 
 ers, and  at  least  three  thou 
 sand  other  persons,  were  em- 
 ployed in  the  navigation  of  it. 
 The  art  of  navigation  was,  how- 
 ever, but  little  understood.  The 
 Phenicians  were  principally 
 concerned  in  it,  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
 xxviii.,)  and  had  ports  of  their 
 own  in  almost  every  country, 
 (Isa.  xxiii.,)  the  most  famous 
 of  which  were  Carthage  and 
 Tarshish  in  Spain.  The  ships 
 from  Tarshish  undertook  dis- 
 tant voyages,  and  hence  any 
 vessels  that  were  capable  of 
 such  voyages  were  called  sAijps 
 of  Tarshish.  (Isa.  xxiii.  1.) 
 
 The  galley  is  a  low,  flat-buill 
 vessel,  navigated  with  oars 
 and  sails,  and  used  particularly 
 in  the  Mediterranean.  The 
 expression  in  Isa.  xxxiii.  21, 
 denotes  that  Jerusalem  would 
 be  a  glorious  city,  though  des. 
 titute  of  the  commercial  ad 
 vantages  enjoyed  by  most  othei 
 cities. 
 
 SHISHAK.  (1  Kings  xiv.  25.) 
 574 
 
SHI 
 
 A  king  of  Egypt,  and  supposed 
 to  be  the  Sesostris  of  profane 
 history.  In  the  rei^n  of  Reho- 
 boam,  he  invaded  Judea  with 
 an  immense  army,  look  pos- 
 Bcssion  of  Jerusalem,  pillaged 
 the  temple,  and  bore  off  the 
 treasures  of  the  king.  (1  Kings 
 xiv.  26.    2Chron.  xii.  9.) 
 
 The  Scripture  account  of  this 
 invasion  is  confirmed  in  the 
 most  satisfactory  manner,  by 
 recent  discoveries  in  Egypt. 
 Upon  a  ruined  colonnade  at 
 Thebes  is  a  representation  of 
 Shishak  dragging  at  the  feet 
 of  the  Egyptian  sods  more  than 
 thirty  "vanquished  nations, 
 among  which  is  written,  at  full 
 length,  in  the  oriental  lan- 
 guage, The  kingdom  of  the 
 Jews,  or  qfJiidah. 
 
 Other  inscriptions  give  a 
 particular  list  of  \.he  fenced  ci- 
 ties mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xii. 
 4,  as  having  been  taken  in  this 
 expedition;  and  exhibit,  also, 
 various  effigies  commemora- 
 live  of  the  "victory  over  the 
 Jews,  and  even  the  name  of 
 Ihe  conquered  Rehoboam  is 
 etill  preserved  in  Egyptian 
 sculpture,  after  the  lapse  of 
 8700  years. 
 
 SHITTIM.  (Joel  iii.  18.) 
 This  term,  as  used  in  this  pas- 
 Bage,  probably  denoted  some 
 valley  well  known  as  abound- 
 ing in  shittim-wood ;  or  it  may 
 be  poetically  used  to  denote 
 any  barren  or  uncultivated 
 place. 
 
 Shittim  wood,  (Ex.  xxv.  5.) 
 'rom  the  Shittah  tree,  (Isa. 
 3tli.  19,)  is  a  tough  and  very 
 durable  wood,  much  used  in 
 the  structure  and  furniture  of 
 the  tabernacle.  It  is  generally 
 supposed  to  be  a  species  of  the 
 acacia,  which  abounds  in  all 
 deserts  from  northern  Arabia 
 to  Ethiopia,  and  from  which  is 
 obtained  our  gum-arabic.  It  is 
 a  beautiful  tree,  with  spreading 
 branches  and  fragrant  flowers, 
 and  hence  is  figuratively  em- 
 ployed by  the  p'rophet,  in  the 
 
 SHO 
 
 above-cited  passage,  to  repre 
 sent  the  happy  influence  of  a 
 general  diffusion  of  divine 
 knowledge. 
 
 SHOCOH,  (1  Sam.  xvii.  ],) 
 or  SOCOH,  (Josh.  xv.  35,)  or 
 SHOCO.  (2Chron.  xi.  7.)  There 
 were  probably  two  places  to 
 which  one  or  more  of  these 
 names  was  applied.  Both  of 
 them  were  in  Judah,  and  in 
 one  of  them,  near  Azekah,  Da- 
 vid gave  battle  to  Goliath. 
 
 SHOES.  (Acts  vii.  33.)  In 
 addition  to  what  is  said  under 
 the  article  Clothes,  it  may 
 be  remarked  that  to  take  oflf 
 the  shoes  in  token  of  reverence 
 was  an  early  custom,  (Josh.  v. 
 15 ;)  and  as  no  mention  is 
 made  of  them  in  the  articles 
 of  the  high-priest's  official 
 dress,  it  is  interred  that  they 
 officiated  with  the  feet  unco- 
 vered. To  remove  the  shoe 
 was  also  a  token  of  humiliation 
 and  subjection.  (2  Sam.  xv.  30. 
 Isa.  XX.  2—4.  Ezek.  xxiv.  17.) 
 Hence  the  expression,  Ps.  Ix.  8; 
 cviii.  9,  imports  the  subjuga- 
 tion of  the  country  over  which 
 the  shoe  is  cast.  The  pluck- 
 ing off  one's  shoe  and  giving 
 it  to  anoilier  was  a  significant 
 token  of  a  surrendered  right  of 
 privilege.  (Deut.  xxv.  9.  Ruth 
 iv.  7.  See  Youth's  Friend, 
 April,  1837,  and  The  Affec- 
 tionate Daughter-in-law, 
 44-47,  both  by  Am.  S.  S 
 
 niort.) 
 
 The  phrase  (Deut.  xxxiii.25) 
 thy  shoes  shall  be  iron  and 
 brass  is  prophetical  of  the 
 abundance  of  precious  metals 
 with  which  the  soil  of  Asher's 
 inheritance  should  be  supplied. 
 
 Shoe     latchet.  (See 
 
 Clothes.) 
 
 SHOSHANNIM,  (Ps.  xlv. 
 Ixix.  title,)  or  SHOSHANNIM- 
 EDUTH,  (Ps.  Ixxx.  title,)  pro 
 bably  signifies  a  particular 
 musical  "instrument.  Some 
 have  regarded  it  as  the  title  of 
 a  bridal  song ;  and  if  it  onlv 
 occurred  in  Ps.  xlv.,  we  migh't 
 575 
 
 K 
 
SHU 
 
 admit  this  interpretation ;  but 
 surely  nothing  can  be  farther 
 from  a  song  oi  delight  and  fes- 
 tivity than  the  other  two 
 psalms  which  have  a  corres- 
 ponding title. 
 
 SHOULDER.      (Gen.  xlix. 
 
 15.)    To  bare  the  shoulder  is 
 
 significant  of  servitude,  and  to 
 
 withdraw  it  denotes  rebellion. 
 
 (Noh.  ix.  29.)    To  bear  upon 
 
 the  shoulder  is  to  sustain.  (Isa. 
 
 ix.  6;  xxii.  22.) 
 
 SHRINE.    (See  Diana.) 
 
 SHUHITE.    (SeeBiLDAD.) 
 
 SHULAMITE.    (Sol.  Song, 
 
 vi.  13.)    A  poetical  figurative 
 
 title  of  the  church  personified. 
 
 SHUNAMMITE.  (SeeSHU- 
 
 NEM.) 
 
 SHUNEM.  (Josh.  xix.  18.) 
 A  town  in  the  territory  of  Issa- 
 c4iar,  and  a  little  south  of  Nain. 
 It  is  associated  with  several 
 important  incidents  of  Jewish 
 history,  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4.  1 
 Kings  i.  3.  2  Kings  viii.  1—16,) 
 and  especially  as  the  place 
 where  Elisha  tarried  on  his 
 journeys  between  Gilsal  and 
 Carmel,  and  where  he  per- 
 formed a  miracle  under  cir- 
 cumstances of  unusual  interest. 
 (2  Kings  iv.  8-37.)  The  inha- 
 bitants were  called  Shmiam- 
 mites. 
 
 SHUR.  (Ex.  XV.  22.)  The 
 name  of  a  wilderness  (and 
 perhaps  a  town  also)  lying 
 north-east  of  the  gulf  of  Suez, 
 into  which  the  children  of  Is- 
 rael entered  after  the  passage 
 of  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  now  call- 
 ed J)j()far. 
 
 SHDSHAN.  (Neh.  i.  1.)  An 
 ancient,  extensive,  and  mag- 
 nificent city,  (called  by  the 
 Oreeks  Susa,  or  the  city  of 
 lilies,)  situated  on  the  river 
 Ulai,  (now  A'er;a/i.)  It  was  in 
 the  province  of  Elam,  in  Per- 
 sia, now  known  as  Khusistan, 
 and  formerly  as  Susiana.  Shu- 
 shan  was  the  capital,  and  the 
 residence  of  the  kings,  (Esth. 
 i,  5.  Dan.  viii.  2,)  and  is  said 
 to  have  been  fifteen  miles  in 
 
 SHU 
 
 circumference.  It  is  ucv  a 
 heap  of  ruins,  about  thirty 
 miles  west  of  Shousier,  the 
 present  capital  of  the  province 
 of  Khusistan,  occupy  inga  space 
 of  from  six  to  twelve  miles  in 
 extent,  and  consisting  of  hil- 
 locks of  earth  and  rubbish,  co- 
 vered with  broken  pieces  of 
 brick  and  coloured  tile.  The 
 largest  is  a  mile  in  circumfe- 
 rence, and  nearly  one  hundred 
 feet  in  height.  They  are  form- 
 ed of  clay  and  pieces  of  tile, 
 with  irregular  layers  of  brick 
 and  mortar,  five  or  six  feet  in 
 thickness,  to  serve,  as  it  should 
 seem,  as  a  kind  of  prop  to  the 
 mass.  Large  blocks  of  mar- 
 ble, covered  with  hierogly- 
 phics, are  not  unfrequently 
 nere  discovered  by  the  Arabs, 
 when  digging  in  search  of  hid- 
 den treasure  ;  and  at  the  foot 
 of  the  most  elevated  of  the 
 ruins,  stands  the  tomb  of  Da- 
 niel, a  small  and  apparently  a 
 modern  building,  erected  on 
 the  spot  where  the  relics  of 
 that  prophet  are  said  to  rest. 
 
 Intelligent  modern  travellers 
 are  of  the  opinion  that  these 
 are  no  other  than  the  ruins  of 
 the  ancient  Shushan.  One  of 
 the  most  intelligent  of  them 
 (Sir  John  Malcom)  observes 
 of  the  tomb  of  Daniel,  that  "  It 
 serves  to  shelter  some  der 
 vishes  who  watch  the  supposed 
 relics  of  the  prophet,  and  are 
 supported  by  the  alms  of  pil- 
 grims ;  that  these  dervishes 
 are  the  only  inhabitants  of  th© 
 place  ;  and  that  every  species 
 of  wild  beast  roams  at  large 
 over  the  spot  on  which  some 
 of  the  proudest  palaces  ever 
 raised  by  human  art  once 
 stood."    (See  Elam.) 
 
 Shushan-eduth.  (Ps.  Ix. 
 title.)  The  same  with  Sho- 
 shannim.  (See  Shoshannim.; 
 
 SHUTTLE.  (Jobvii.  6.)  A 
 well  known  instrument,  used 
 by  weavers  for  throwing  the 
 thread  of  the  woof  across  the 
 warp.  As  it  moves  with  grea* 
 576 
 
SID 
 
 swiftness  from  one  side  to  Ihs 
 other,  so  as  scarcely  to  be  seen 
 In  its  passage,  it  is  used  figu- 
 ratively to  denote  the  rapid 
 flight  of  lime. 
 
 giBBOLETH.  (See  Shib- 
 boleth.) 
 
 SIBMAH,  (Isa.  xvi.  8,  9,)  or 
 SHIBMAH.  (Num.  xxxii.  38.) 
 A  city  of  Reuben,  near  by  Hesh- 
 bon,  celebrated  for  the  luxuri- 
 ant growth  of  the  vine.  (Jer. 
 xlviil  32.)  It  fell  into  the  hands 
 of  the  Moabiies  after  the  cap- 
 tivity of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  Ma- 
 nasseh  by  Tiglath-pileser ;  and 
 hence  the  prophets  Isaiah  and 
 Jeremiah  weep  for  Moab,  be- 
 cause the  spoiler  had  broken 
 the  vines  of  Sibmah. 
 
 Probably  the  expression  in 
 the  passage  from  Jeremiah  re- 
 fers either  to  the  universal 
 reputation  of  the  vines  of  Sib- 
 mah, or  it  is  poetically  used  to 
 denote  the  luxuriance  of  their 
 growth.  The  sea  of  Jazer 
 was  perhaps  fifteen  or  twenty 
 miles  from  Sibmah. 
 
 SICHEM.    (See  Shechem.) 
 
 SICKLE.  (Deui.  xvi.  9.)  We 
 have  preserved  in  Egyptian 
 monuments  the  form  of  the  an- 
 cient sickle,  and  it  bears  a 
 very  close  resemblance  to  that 
 implement  in  modern  times. 
 
 SIDDIM,VALE  OF,  (Gen.  xi v. 
 3,)  now  covered  by  the  waters 
 of  the  Dead  Sea,  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  the  site  of  Sodom 
 and  Gomorrah. 
 
 SIDON,  (Matt.  xi.  21,)  or  ZI- 
 DON.  (Judg.  i.  31.)  A  city  of 
 Phenicia,  deriving  its  name 
 probably  from  Sidon,  the  eld- 
 est son  of  Caanan.  (Gen.  x. 
 1.5 ;  xlix.  13.)  It  was  situated 
 at  the  north-west  angle  of  the 
 land  of  Canaan,  about  20  or  30 
 miles  north  of  Tyre.  It  was 
 assigned  to  Asher,  (Judg.  xviii. 
 28,)  but  the  aborigines  were 
 never  wholly  expelled,  (Judg. 
 i.  31,)  and  proved  an  annoy- 
 ance to  the  Israelites.  (Judg. 
 X.  12.)  Its  position  on  tire 
 shore  of  tlie  Mediterranean, 
 49 
 
 SID 
 
 I  the  fame  of  its  timber,  and 
 I  skilful  workmen,  and  its  ejt- 
 '  cellence  in  many  ingenious 
 and  useful  arts,  made  its  com- 
 mercial advantages  peculiar; 
 and  they  are  noliced  in  pro- 
 fane history.  Their  prosperous 
 and  luxurious  habits  led  them 
 into  a  careless  and  secure 
 mode  of  life,  which  is  alluded 
 to,  Judg.  xviii.  7.  It  is  called 
 Great  Zidon.  (Josh.  xi.  8;  xix. 
 28.)  This  city  is  the  subject 
 of  some  very  remarkable  pro- 
 phecies. (Isa.  xxiii.4— 18.  Jer. 
 XXV.  17—38.  Ezek.  xxviii. 
 21—24.)  It  was  subdued  suc- 
 cessively by  the  Babylonians, 
 Egyptians,  and  Romans,  the 
 latter  of  whom  deprived  it  of 
 its  freedom. 
 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  King,  Ame 
 rican  missionaries,  "p^^ssed 
 through  Sidon  in  the  summer 
 of  1823,  and  eslimaied  the  po 
 pulatio'n,  as  others  have  esti- 
 mated it,  at  eight  or  ten  thou 
 sand ;  but  Mr.  Goodell,  anolhei 
 American  missionary,  took  up 
 his  residence  there  in  June, 
 1624,  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
 ing the  Armenian  language 
 with  a  bishoj)  of  the  Arme- 
 nian church  who  lives  there, 
 and  of  course  had  far  better 
 opportunities  to  know  the  sta- 
 tisiics  of  the  place.  He  tells 
 us  there  are  six  Mohammedan 
 mosques,  a  Jewish  synagogue, 
 a  Maroniie,  Laiin,  and  Greek 
 church.  The  number  of  inha- 
 bitants may  he  estimated  al 
 three  thousand,  of  whom  one- 
 half  may  be  Mussulmans. 
 From  Tyre  and  Sidon  it  was^ 
 that  part  of  that  great  multi- 
 tude was  made  up,  who, on  one 
 occasion,  came  to  Jesus,  havin" 
 heard  what  great  things  he  did. 
 (IMark  iii.  8.)  And  on  these 
 coasts  it  was  that  the  woman 
 of  Canaan  manifested  a  faith 
 which  received  the  approba- 
 tion of  the  Saviour,  anci  which 
 will  be  told  for  a  memorial 
 of  her  wherever  the  gospel 
 shall  be  preached.  (Mark  via. 
 577 
 
SIE 
 
 J4— 30.)  "For  several  days," 
 rays  Mr.  Goodell, "  I  ha%'e  been 
 much  affecied  with  the  con- 
 eideralion,  that  probably  no 
 such  individual  can  now  be 
 found  here ;  thai  there  is  firo- 
 bably  no  one  who  knows  any 
 thin^  of  the  spirit  of  adoption, 
 or  ofcommunion  with  God  in 
 prayer ;  and  have  endeavoured 
 to  intercede  for  them,  as  if  the 
 way  to  the  throne  of  grace  was 
 known  to  no  other,  and  every 
 thing  was  depending  upon  the 
 prayers  which  I  made.  May 
 all  who  love  to  read  of  tliis 
 Syrophenician  by  valion,  lift 
 up  their  hearts  in  prayer,  that 
 the  Lord  Jesus  may  again  pass 
 this  way,  and  again  mani- 
 fest his  glory  on  these  coasts, 
 in  giving  sight  to  the  blind, 
 health  to  the  sick,  and  life  to 
 the  dead." 
 
 The  apostle  Paul  visited  Si- 
 don  on  his  voyage  to  Rome. 
 (Acts  xxvii.  3.)  At  present 
 the  name  of  the  place  is  Saide. 
 It  is  a  trading  town  of  some 
 importance.  The  harbour  is 
 rendered  comparatively  use- 
 leaa,  however,  by  sandbars, 
 and  the  town  itself  is  badly 
 built,  and  very  dirty.  The  in- 
 habitants are  called  Sidonians. 
 (Deut.  iii.  9) 
 
 SIEGE.  (Deut.  xx.  19.)  The 
 surrounding  of  a  city  or  castle 
 ■with  an  army,  in  order  to  starve 
 or  for»:e  the  inhabitants  to  sur- 
 render. The  sieges  of  Sama- 
 ria, Nineveh,  Babylon, Jerusa- 
 lem, and  Tyre  are  most  noted. 
 The  judgments  of  God,  reduc- 
 ing men  to  great  hardships,  are 
 figuratively  called  sieges.  (Isa. 
 xxix.  3.) 
 
 SIEVE.  (Isa.  XXX.  23.)  The 
 bolter,  or  sieve,  which  is  so  ne- 
 cessary an  article  in  our  day, 
 in  the  preparation  of  meal  for 
 bread, &c.,  was  in  ancient  times 
 made  of  rushes,  or  papyrus. 
 Ancient  writers  say  that  only 
 the  Gauls  had  sieves  of  horse 
 hair.  What  was  left  in  the 
 bolter  wa^  put  into  the  mill  a 
 
 STL 
 
 second  time.  Sieves  of  various 
 degrees  of  fineness  were  no 
 doubt  used,  for  the  same  au- 
 thors tell  us  of  four  dillerent 
 qualities  of  meal. 
 
 SIGNET.    (See  Seal.) 
 
 SIGNS  (John  iv.  48)  and 
 tconders  (as  they  are  usually 
 connected)  sometimes  denote 
 those  proofs  or  demonstrations 
 of  power  and  authority  which 
 were  furnished  by  miracles, 
 and  by  other  tokens  of  the  di- 
 vine presence,  as  in  Acts  ii.22. 
 And  at  other  times  those  un- 
 usual appearances  which  be- 
 token the  approach  of  a  great 
 event,  as  in  Luke  xxi.  U.  25. 
 
 SIHON.  (Num.  xxi.  21-31.) 
 A  king  of  the  Amonies,  who 
 lost  his  dominions  in  cons(v 
 quence  of  his  refusal  to  permit 
 the  Hebrews  to  pass  through 
 them  on  their  way  from  Egypi 
 to  Canaan.  Sihon  himself  was 
 slain  in  battle,  his  army  was 
 routed,  Heshbon  his  capital 
 Wcis  taken,  and  his  country  dis 
 iributed  among  the  Israelites. 
 (Ps.  cxxxv.  10—12:  cxxxvi. 
 18,  19.) 
 
 SIHOR.  (See  Egypt,  rivkr 
 
 OF.) 
 
 SILAS,  (Acts  XV.  40,)  con- 
 tracted from  SYLVANUS,  (S 
 Cor.  i.  19,)  is  called  one  of  the 
 chief  of  the  brethren,  (Acts  xv. 
 22,)  and  a  faithful  brother.  (1 
 Pet.  V.  12.)  He  is  supposed  lo 
 have  been  a  native  of  Antioch, 
 and  a  member  of  the  Christian 
 church  there.  (Actsxv.  37—41.) 
 He  was  the  associate  of  Paul 
 in  several  of  his  missionary 
 lours,  and  his  fellow  prisonei 
 at  Philippi.  (Acts  xv.  40 ;  xvi. 
 25.29;  xvii.  4.  10.  15.)  He  is 
 called  a  prophet,  (Acts  xv.  32;J 
 but  what  was  the  precise  na- 
 ture of  this  office  in  the  day« 
 of  the  apostles  is  not  clear. 
 
 SILK.  (Prov.  xxxi.  22.)  Per- 
 haps the  ancient  Hebrews 
 knew  nothing  of  silk;  and  the 
 word  may  signify  cotton,  or 
 JiTiefiax.  '  (Isa.  xix.  9.) 
 
 In  Ezek.  xvi.  10.  13,  an  arli- 
 678 
 
SIL 
 
 cle  called  picked  silk,  is  doubt- 
 less inienued  ;  and  Pliny  says 
 thai  silk  was  brought  from 
 Eastern  Asia  to  Greece,  in 
 robes  which  were  only  half 
 silk,  and  was  then  unravelled 
 or  picked  out,  and  made  up 
 again  into  earments  of  entire 
 silk.    (Revr.xviii.  12.) 
 
 SILOAH,  (Neh.  iii.  15,)  or 
 SILOAM,  (John  ix.  7.  11,)  or 
 SHILOAH.  (Isa.  viii.6.)  A  ri- 
 vulet on  the  south-east  of  Jeru- 
 salem, at  the  foot  of  Zion  and 
 Moriali ;  supposed  by  some  to 
 be  the  same  with  En-rogel  and 
 Gihon.  There  seem  to  have 
 been  two  pools,  the  upjier,  (Isa. 
 vii.  3,)  or  ki7t^'s  jmoI,  (Neh.  ii. 
 14,)  and  the  lutcer  pool.  (Isa. 
 xxii.  9.  See  Condiut.)  A 
 modern  traveller  says,  "  We 
 passed  the  Jewish  burying 
 ground,  south-east  of  the  city 
 of  Jerusalem,  and  came  to  the 
 pool  of  Siloam,  whose  icatersgo 
 softly:  they  have  a  current, 
 but  it  is  almost  iin])erceptible. 
 I  alighted  to  descend  more  than 
 twenty  steps,  and  taste  the 
 waters  of  this  fountain,  at 
 which,  in  ancient  times,  the 
 Jews  were  wont  to  celebrate  a 
 festival,  singing  the  twelfth 
 chapter  of  Isaiah.  On  the 
 other  side  of  the  projecting  hill, 
 (Ophel.)  after  passing  under 
 ground  two  or  three  hundred 
 feet,  these  waters  re-appear; 
 and  here  they  are  drawn  otf  to 
 irrigate  a  lovely  spot,  consist- 
 ing'of  gardens  and  small  fields. 
 These  gardens  are  in  summer 
 often  frequented  by  the  Turks. 
 Over  asrainst  the  pool,  on  the 
 slope  of  a  lofty  mountain,  is  a 
 village  they  call  Siloa." 
 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  King,  Ame- 
 rican missionaries,  visited  the 
 pool  of  Siloam  in  the  spring  of 
 1S23,  and  thus  describe  it: 
 
 "  Near  the  south-east  corner 
 of  the  city,  at  the  foot  of  Zion 
 and  Moriah,  is  the  pool  of  Si- 
 loah,  whose  waters  flow  with 
 penile  murmur  from  under  the 
 holy  mountain  of  Zion,  or  rather 
 
 SIL 
 
 j  from  under  Ophel,  having  Zion 
 '  on  the  west,  and  Moriah  on  the 
 '  north.    The  very  fountain  is- 
 [  sues  from  a  rock,  twenty  or 
 I  thirty  feel  below  the  surface  of 
 :  the  ground,  to  which  we  de- 
 scended by  two  flights  of  steps. 
 Here  it  flows  out  without  a  sin- 
 I  gle  murmur,  and  appears  clear 
 I  as  crystal.    From  this  place  if 
 winds  its  way  several  rods  un 
 der  the  mountain,  then  makes 
 its  appearance  with  gentle  gur- 
 gling, and,  forming  a  beautiful 
 rill, "takes  its  way  down  into 
 the  valley,  towards  tlie  south- 
 I  east.    (See  Selumiel,  ch.  vi., 
 i  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 1      Tower   in   Siloam    (Luke 
 xiii.  4)    was   probably  a  high 
 I  wall  or  tower,  contiguous  to  the 
 I  pool  of  Siloam,  by  the  sudden 
 fall  of   which  eighteen  lives 
 were  lost.    This  being  a  noto- 
 1  torious  event,  as  the  like  inci- 
 dent in  New  York  or  Philadel- 
 phia would  be  now  in  our  coun- 
 try, it  was  alluded  to  by  our 
 Saviour  to  illustrate  the  fact 
 that  such  events  are  not  al- 
 ways to  be  regarded  as  special 
 judgments  for  an  unusual  de- 
 gree" of  guilt. 
 
 SILVER.  (Gen.  xiii.  2.)  A 
 well  known  precious  metal, 
 obtained  chiefly  from  South 
 America.  Many  suppose  that 
 the  Tarshish  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment was  in  Spain,  and  hence 
 that  we  obtain  a  portion  of  our 
 silver  from  the  same  mines 
 which  furnished  it  in  the  days 
 of  Solomon.    (1  Kings  x.  22.) 
 
 That  silver  was  known  at  a 
 very  early  period  is  evident. 
 (Gen.  xliv.  2.  Ex.  xi.2;xxv. 
 3.  Job  xxviii.  1.)  And  the 
 reason  probably  is,  that  like 
 gold,  it  is  often  found  in  a  stale 
 of  purity  in  the  earth,  and 
 therefore  easily  discovered.  It 
 was  used  in  the  construction 
 of  tlie  temple,  (Ex.  xxvi.  19. 
 32,)  and  for  its  furniture,  (1 
 Chron.  xxviii.  14—17;)  and  also 
 for  musical  instruments,  (Num. 
 X.  2,)  and  fur  adorning  idols. 
 579 
 
SIM 
 (Isa.  xl.  19.)  And  that  it  was  i 
 abundant  in  tiiat  day  appears 
 from  1  Kings  x.  27. 
 
 Silver  constituted  the  chief 
 medium  of  trade,  though  it  was 
 not  coined,  but  used  by  weight. 
 (Gen.  xxiii.  16.)  The  pieces  of 
 silver  (thirty  of  which  were 
 given  as  the  price  of  innocent 
 blood,  Matt.  xxvi.  15  ;  xxvii.  3) 
 were  probably  shekels  of  sil- 
 ver, worth  fifty  cents  each. 
 
 The  silverling  (Isa.  vii.  23) 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  of 
 like  value. 
 
 SIMEON.  1.  (Gen.  xxix.  33.) 
 Son  of  Jacob  and  Leah.  Ac- 
 cording to  the  prediction  of  Ja- 
 cob, (Gen.  xlix.  5—7,)  and  as  a 
 punishment  fur  his  offence  in 
 the  matter  of  the  Shechemites, 
 (Gen.  xxxiv.— see  Dinah,)  his 
 posterity  dwindled,  (comp. 
 Num.  i.  22;  xxvi.  14,  15,)  and 
 their  inheritance  was  only  a 
 dismembered  portion  of  the 
 territory  of  Judah.  (Josh.xix.  1.) 
 
 Tribe  of,  occupied  nineteen 
 cities,  within  the  boundsof  Ju- 
 dah, principally  south  of  Dan, 
 on  the  coast.  (Josh.  xix.  2—7.) 
 In  Hezekiah's  time  they  pos- 
 Bessed  parts  of  mount  Seir.  (1 
 Chron.  iv.  42.) 
 
 2.  (Luke  ii.  25.)  A  man  of 
 singular  piety,  residing  at  Je- 
 rusalem. He  had  been  favour- 
 ed with  a  divine  intimation 
 that  he  should  live  to  see  the 
 incarnateRedeemer,  the  Lord's 
 Christ.  And  being  led  by  the 
 Spirit  into  the  temple  at  the 
 particular  time  whpn  the  in- 
 fant Jesus  was  brought  thither 
 by  his  parents,  according  to 
 the  requirement  of  the  law, 
 (Ex.  xiii.  12;  xxii.  29,)  he  took 
 him  up  in  his  arms  and  uttered 
 the  most  devout  thanksgivings 
 to  God,  accompanied  with  a 
 remarkable  prediction  respect- 
 ing the  various  effects  of  his 
 advent. 
 
 3.  (Acts  xiii.  1.)  Was  amons 
 the  prophets  and  teachers  of 
 the  Christian  church  at  Anil- 
 och.      Some    have    supposed 
 
 SIN 
 
 (though  without  warrant)  that 
 he  is  the  same  with  Simon  the 
 Cyrenian.    (Matt,  xxvii.  32.) 
 
 4.  (Acts  XV.  14.)  Simeon  is 
 a  Hebrew  name,  and  in  this 
 passage  is  the  same  with  Si- 
 mon. 
 
 SIMON.  (Act3viii.9.)  A  na- 
 tive of  Samaria,  and  a  famous 
 sorcerer,  who  professed  to  be  a 
 convert  to  the  Christian  faith, 
 and  was  baptized  as  such  by 
 Philip ;  but  was  severely  re- 
 buked by  Peter  as  a  hypocrite, 
 because,  under  the  influence 
 of  mercenary  motives,  he  de- 
 sired apostolic  gifts.  Hence 
 the  buying  and  selling  of  ec- 
 clesiastical rights,  benefits,  or 
 privileges,  is^called  simony, 
 a  high  offence  against  the  pu- 
 rity and  integrity  of  the  Chris- 
 tian faith,  and  one  of  which 
 the  seller  and  buyer  is  equally 
 guilty. 
 
 G.SimonPetek.  (See  Peter.) 
 
 7.  Simon  the  Canaanite, 
 (Matt.  X.  4,)  or  Simon  Zelotes, 
 (or  the  zealous,)  one  of  the 
 twelve  disciples,  was  perhaps 
 a  native  of  Cana ;  though  some 
 suppose  the  word  Canaan ite, 
 like  Zelotes,  denotes  his  cha- 
 racteristic zeal.  Several  other 
 persons  of  this  name  are  men- 
 tioned, as  the  Pharisee,  (Luke 
 vii.  36,)  the  leper,  (Matt.  xxvi. 
 6,)  the  father  of  Judas  Iscariot, 
 (John  vi.  71,)  and  the  tanner 
 at  Joppa,  with  whom  Peier 
 la1|ed.   (Acts  ix.  43.) 
 
 SIN  (Gen.  iv.  7)  is  the  trans- 
 gression of  the  law  of  God.  (1 
 John  ill.  4.)  Any  departure  in 
 thought,  word,  or  deed,  from 
 the  rule  of  conduct  which  re- 
 quires us  to  love  the  Lord  our 
 (jod  with  all  the  heart,  and 
 soul,  and  mind,  and  strength, 
 and  our  neighbours  as  our- 
 selves, is  sin.  (I  John  v.  17.'> 
 The  word  is  sometimes  used 
 for  a  sin-offering,  as  in  Hos.  iv. 
 8.  Rom.  viii.  3.  2Cor.  v.21.  In 
 the  text  first,  cited,  referencp 
 is  had  to  the  eating  of  that 
 which  was  brought  as  a  sin-of 
 
SIN 
 
 fering,  either  from  greoJinpss, 
 or  in  violation  of  the  lavv.  The 
 disobedience ofour  first  parents 
 to  the  positive  command  of 
 God  introduced  sin  with  all  its 
 dreadful.consequences  into  our 
 world. 
 
 Tlie  sin  not  unto  death,  and 
 the  sin  unto  death,  (1  John 
 V.  16,)  have  been  variously 
 interpreted.  As  there  are  of- 
 fences under  human  govern- 
 ments which  are  capital,  in- 
 volving the  certain  penalty  of 
 death  without  the  hope  of  par- 
 don, so  under  the  divine  gn- 
 vernment  there  are  si  lis  of  such 
 malignancy  and  aggravation, 
 evincing  an  impious  and  unal- 
 terable determination  to  reject 
 the  offered  mercy  of  God,  that 
 we  have  little,  if  any  ground, 
 for  the  prayer  of  fa'ith,  or 
 even  for  the  hope  that  the 
 offender  may  be  forgiven.  It 
 seems  difficult  to  suppose  a 
 case,  however,  in  the  existing 
 state  of  God's  government,  in 
 which  the  character  of  a  sin 
 can  be  so  determined  by  any 
 human  tribunal,  as  to  make 
 him  who  commits  it  no  longer  a 
 subject  of  praver.  (John  iii. 
 15.  Acts  xvii.  So.  2  Pet.  iii.  9.) 
 Some  have  supposed  that  ex- 
 clusive reference  is  had  to  a 
 distinction  in  the  Jewish  law 
 between  offences  capital  and 
 not  capital ;  or  to  the  civil  law 
 of  some  particular  place,  by 
 which  some  offences  were  pu- 
 nishable with  death,  without 
 the  possibility  of  pardon.  These 
 were  sins  unto  death,  for  no 
 entreaty  availed  to  avert  the 
 punishment.  But  there  were 
 other  capital  cases  in  which 
 the  law  authorized  a  commu- 
 tation of  punishment,  if  the 
 circumstances  ju.stified  it. 
 These  were  sins  not  unto  death; 
 for  the  powerful  intercession  of 
 friends  for  the  offender  might 
 save  him.  Whether  what  is 
 called  the  unpardonable  sin 
 (Matt.  xii.  31,  32)  can  be  com- 
 luitied  except  hy  such  as  were 
 40* 
 
 SIN 
 
 witnesses  of  the  mighty  worTis 
 wrouHht  by  Christ,  and  by  his 
 apostles  through  the  power  of 
 tlie  Holy  Ghost,  is  considered 
 doubtful  by  many.  From  the 
 connexion  of  the  above  cited 
 passage  from  Matthew  we  have 
 a  very  explicit  illustration  of 
 one  species  of  this  sin;  and 
 perhaps  the  unpardonable  sin 
 is  the  same  with  the  sin  unto 
 death.  (See  SACRnpiCE.) 
 
 Sin  (Ezek.  xxx.  15,  16)  is 
 the  Pelusium  of  the  Greeks^ 
 and  is  called  the  stre?tgth  of 
 Egypt  because  of  its  position 
 as  a  bulwark.  The  ruins  of  it 
 are  supposed  to  have  been  dis- 
 covered by  the  French  army, 
 in  the  invasion  of  Egypt  under 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 Sin,  desert  of,  or  wilder- 
 ness OF,  (Num.  xxxiii.  11,)  was 
 entered  by  the  Israelites  imme- 
 diately after  they  passed  the 
 Red  Sea.  (Ex.  xvi.  1.)  It  was 
 between  Elim  and  Sinai,  and 
 was  the  i)lace  where  manua 
 was  supplied.   (See  Zin.) 
 
 SIN-OFFERINGS.  (See  Sa- 
 crifice.) 
 
 SIN-MONEY.  (2  Kings  xii. 
 16.)  Money  sent  by  persona  at 
 a  distance,  with  which  to  buy 
 the  required  offerings;  and  as 
 there  was  usually  some  sur- 
 plus, it  was  the  i)erquisite  of 
 the  priest,  and  was  called  sin- 
 money,  or  sin- offering  money 
 (Num.  xviii.  9.) 
 
 SINAI.  (Ex.  xvi.  1.)  We 
 have  already  given,  under  the 
 article  Hokeb,  a  general  view 
 of  the  district  of  Arabia  ia 
 which  Sinai  is  situated.  We 
 subjoin  a  description  of  the  as- 
 cent and  position  of  this  sin- 
 gular spot,  associated  with  one 
 of  the  most  sublime  and  mo- 
 mentous events  recorded  in  sa- 
 cred history;  which,  connected 
 with  the  former  article,  furnish- 
 es a  clear  view  of  the  whole 
 legion.  (See  Map,  pp.  520, 521.) 
 
 An  English  missionary  who 
 visited  mount  Sinai  in  the 
 summer  of  1834,  says,  "Wo 
 581 
 
SIN 
 
 SIN 
 
 look  our  dinner  on  a  high 
 plain,  where  was  much  ver- 
 dure; and  we  had  very  inte- 
 resting views  on  every  side; 
 the  whole  country  being  filled 
 with  bold  granite  mountains, 
 from  which,  in  a  certain  revo- 
 lution in  our  earth,  the  water 
 appears  to  have  washed  all  the 
 cultivatable  earth  down  into 
 the  valleys :  for  you  see  on  the 
 mountains  nothing  but  bare 
 granite;  except  here  and  there, 
 in  a  recess,  some  fertile  ground, 
 covered  with  shrubs.  We  first 
 ascended  a  little;  then  descend- 
 ed very  much  into  a  deep  val- 
 ley, shut  up  on  every  side  by 
 high  mountains.  Here  the  tem- 
 perature was  raised  to  such  a 
 height  at  once,  that  I  do  not 
 recollect  ever  to  have  felt  so 
 great  a  heal;  but  we  passed 
 this  valley  in  less  than  a  quar- 
 ter of  an  hour.  In  the  middle 
 of  this  passage,  through  which 
 our  camels  passed,  but  with 
 great  danger,  we  took  some  re- 
 pose in  a  small  ravine,  where 
 we  found  a  well  with  very  good 
 water,  and  a  few  small  palm 
 trees.    We   took   our   dinner 
 
 here,  under  the  shade  of  a 
 rock ;  and  then  again  ascend- 
 ed, until  we  had  reached,  I 
 think,  the  height  of  one  thou- 
 sand feet  above  the  level  of 
 the  sea.  Here  we  found  our- 
 selves in  a  fine  large  plain, 
 situated  between  two  high  ridg- 
 es of  mountains  on  both  sides, 
 between  which  it  runs,  south- 
 ward, to  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
 tains of  Horeb.  In  my  humble 
 opinion,  this  must  have  been 
 the  place  where  the  Israelites 
 made  their  encampment  dur- 
 ing their  stay  at  mount  Sinai ; 
 because  none  of  the  surround- 
 ing valleys  which  we  observed 
 there  were  so  fit  to  receive  so 
 large  an  army  for  a  whole 
 year.  In  front  of  this  plain, 
 to  the  south,  was  a  cluster  of 
 mountains,  which  I  think  are 
 the  mountains  of  Horeb.  From 
 the  circumsia  nee  that  the  Scrip- 
 tures speali  of  mount  Sinai  only 
 on  one  occasion— that  of  the 
 giving  of  the  law,— while,  on 
 the  contrary,  the  name  of  Ho- 
 reb is  mentioned  on  different 
 occasions,  I  infer,  that  Horeb 
 is  applied  by  Scripture  to  thp 
 582 
 
SIN 
 
 whole  collection  of  niounlains 
 which  stand  here  togetiier,  as 
 the  common  name;  and  the 
 name  of  Sinai  to  one  mountain 
 only,  namely,  that  on  the  top 
 of  which  liie  law  was  given. 
 As  we  are  in  so  many  instances 
 led  into  mistalces  by  tradition, 
 80  I  think  here,  also,  a  mistake 
 has  taken  place.  The  name 
 of  Horeb  ha.s  been  applied,  by 
 tradition,  to  one  mount  only, 
 namely,  that  which  I  should 
 consider  to  be  mount  Sinai, 
 because  it  faces  the  valley 
 where  the  Israelites  lay.  If 
 we  suppose  that  this  was  the 
 case,  then  the  whole  array 
 could  witness  the  important 
 transaction,  and  receive  the 
 most  powerful  impression  from 
 it;  whereas  the  s»/5Joseii  mount 
 Sinai, or(77e6e/Afoi/sa,although 
 a  little  higher  than  the  former, 
 is  yet  solfar  situated  behind, 
 that  whatever  passed  on  the 
 top  of  it  could  only  be  seen  by 
 that  part  of  the  army  which 
 lay  at  the  utmost  distance, 
 where,  through  a  space  left 
 between  what  is  called  mount 
 Horeb  and  mount  Catherine, 
 they  could  have  seen  the  top 
 of  djebel  Mousu. 
 
 "  The  first  view  I  enjoyed 
 Cff  mount  Sinai  made  the 
 deepest  impression  upon  my 
 mind.  I  felt  myself,  els  it  were, 
 iran.'sported  among  the  Israel- 
 ites, whom  the  Lord  here  had 
 separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
 world,  and  led  into  this  soli- 
 tude, in  order  to  declare  them 
 his  chosen  people.  I  saw,  as 
 it  were,  Jehovah  in  the  pil- 
 lar of  cloud,  on  the  summit  of 
 that  bold  mountain;  and  when 
 he  lifted  his  voice,  saying,  / 
 am  the  Lord  thy  God,  the  thun- 
 der of  his  voice  re-echoed  from 
 all  the  surrounding  mountains. 
 
 "  The  convent  of  St.  Cathe- 
 rine lies  in  a  small  valley  to 
 the  east  of  Horeb,  where  the 
 basis  of  djebel  Mousa  joins  that 
 of  the  so  called  mount  Horeb. 
 Before  we  arrived  at   it,  we 
 
 SIN 
 
 passed  the  garden  belonging  to 
 it, surrounded  with  a  high  wall, 
 in  which  an  abundance  of  Eu- 
 ropean and  Asiatic  plants  grow, 
 particularly  a  quantity  of  fine 
 cypresses.  The  convent,  from 
 without,  looks  like  a  castle, 
 and,  from  within,  like  a  small 
 town.  It  has  no  entrance  be- 
 low, except  one  that  is  shut  up 
 with  stones,  and  is  opened  only 
 at  the  arrival  of  a  new  bishop 
 for  the  convent.  On  our  arri- 
 val, some  friars,  standing  at  a 
 large  window  above,  and  ob- 
 serving us,  let  down  a  rope,  to 
 which  we  first  fixed  our  letters 
 of  recommendation :  these  were 
 taken  up  and  looked  at.  An- 
 other rope  was  then  let  down 
 for  our  baggage ;  and,  at  last, 
 one  for  oiu-se'lves,  which  we 
 had  to  put  round  our  bodies; 
 whereuiDon  we  made  an  aerial 
 passage,  forty  feet  high ;  and 
 entered  the  conveni  through 
 the  window,  at  which  the  su 
 perior  waited  to  give  us  a 
 friendly  welcome. 
 
 "  We  went  up  to  the  moun 
 tain  by  steps  which  have  been 
 made  on  purpose  for  the  pil- 
 grims, by  putting  stone  upon 
 stone  from  the  bottom  to  the 
 top  of  the  mountain,  except  at 
 a  few  even  places,  where  no 
 stairs  are  necessary.  On  our 
 way  upward,  we  found  several 
 fine  spots,  where  fountains  of 
 sweet  water  refreshed  us.  We 
 soon  arrived  at  the  chapel  de- 
 dicated to  Eiias  the  prophet, 
 where  is  shown  the  place  oi 
 his  taking  refuge  from  Jeze- 
 bel. Near  this  ciiapel  we  saw 
 what  is  called  Elias'  well, 
 where  there  is  a  valley,  from 
 which  the  tops  of  severed 
 mountains  diverge ;  and  also 
 the  place  where  Moses  is  said 
 to  have  sat  with  Aaron  and 
 Hur  during  the  battle  with 
 the  Amalekites ;  the  steep  and 
 small  valley  which  isoJMerved 
 below  this,  being  the  supposed 
 valley  of  Rephidim."  (See 
 Bedouin  Arabs,  ch.  xiv. :  see 
 583 
 
SMY 
 also  engraving   and  descrip- 
 tion in  Youth's  Friend  for 
 June,  1829,  and  May,  1833;  all 
 Dy  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 SINCERITY  (2  Cor.  i.  12) 
 stands  opposed  to  dissimula- 
 lion  or  hypocrisy,  and  implies 
 the  entire  correspondence  of 
 the  heart  with  the  expressions 
 of  the  lips.  The  original  word 
 refers  to  the  bright  and  pene- 
 trating light  of  "the  sun,  and 
 denotes  such  things  as,  on 
 being  examined  by  the  bright- 
 est lisht,  are  found  pure  and 
 unadulterated. 
 SION.  (See  Zion.) 
 SIRION.  (See  Hermon.) 
 SISERA.  (See  Barak,  De- 
 borah, Jael.) 
 SIVAN.  (See  Month.) 
 SKINS.  (See  Clothing.) 
 SLAVE.  (See  Servant.) 
 SLIME.  (See  Pitch.) 
 SLING.  (See  Arms.) 
 SMYRNA.  (Rev.  ii.  8—10.) 
 A  celebrated  Ionian  city,  and 
 one  of  the  finest  of  the  Levant, 
 is  situated  about  fifty  miles 
 north  of  Ephesus,  and  the 
 same  distance  from  the  coyst, 
 on  a  bay  formed  by  the  river 
 Melas,  on  the  western  coast  of 
 Asia  Minor.  It  was  extolled 
 by  the  ancients  as  the  crown 
 of  Ionia,  the  jewel  of  Asia, 
 overflowing  with  wealth,  and 
 beautiful  in  works  of  art.  It 
 has  been  overthrown  at  least 
 six  times  by  earthquakes,  lost 
 sixty  thousand  inhabitants  by 
 the  plague  in  1814,  and  was 
 severely  scourged  by  the  cho- 
 lera in  1831.  It  is  now  called 
 by  the  Turks  Ismir,  and  is 
 about  four  miles  in  circum- 
 ference. The  harbour  is  capa- 
 cious, and  affords  the  finest 
 anchorage  for  ships  of  the  larg- 
 est class.  The  city  contains  a 
 population  of  from  100,000  to 
 130,000 ;  among  whom  are  up- 
 wards of  20,000  to  30,000  Greeks, 
 10,000  Jews,  8000  Armenians; 
 and  the  residue  principally 
 Turks.  The  city  has  twenty 
 mosques,  besides  churches  and 
 
 SO 
 
 monasteries;  and  some  of  the 
 ruins  of  hs  former  magnificence 
 are  still  visible. 
 
 The  church  in  this  place  is 
 one  of  the  seven  addressed  in 
 the  Apocalypse.  And  in  the 
 efforts  of  the  present  day  to 
 evangelize  the  world,  Smyrna 
 is  one  of  the  most  important 
 centres  of  action.  Several 
 newspapers  are  published,  one 
 or  two  of  which  are  decidedly 
 religious  in  their  character: 
 and  the  schools,  presses,  and 
 agencies  established  by  (Chris- 
 tian benevolence  in  this  inte- 
 resting city  promise  well  for 
 religion. 
 
 SNAIL.  (Lev.  xi.  30.)  A 
 species  of  worm.  In  the  pas- 
 sage alx)ve  cited,  the  original 
 word  is  thought  to  denote  some 
 species  of  lizard.  And  in  Ps. 
 Iviii.  8,  the  only  place  besides 
 in  which  it  occurs,  reference 
 may  be  had  to  the  common 
 snail,  or  slug,  which  is  found  in 
 cellars  and  damp  places,  and 
 which  seems  to  waste  itself  by 
 covering  its  path  with  a  thick 
 shining  slime. 
 
 SNOW.  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20.) 
 Vapour  congealed  in  the  air, 
 ana  often  falling  in  large  broad 
 flakes  resembling  wool.  (Fs. 
 cxlvii.  16.)  The  allusion  to 
 snow  in  the  sacred  writings, 
 especially  to  its  whiteness,  are 
 frequent.  (Ex.  iv.6.  Num.  xii. 
 10.  2  Kings  v.  27.  Fs.  li.7.  Isa. 
 i.  18.)  The  comparison  in  Prov. 
 XXV.  13,  has  reference  to  the 
 use  of  snow  brought  from  the 
 mountains  to  cool  the  drink  of 
 the  reapers  in  the  heat  of  har- 
 vest, as  we  use  ice.  Snow 
 water  is  softer  and  more  deter- 
 gent than  common  water; 
 hence  the  allusion.  Job  ix.  30. 
 Mr.  Fisk,  an  American  mis 
 sionary,  found  snow  on  mount 
 Lebanon  upwards  of  two  feet 
 deep,  Oct.  4,  1823 ;  and  hence 
 concludes  that  it  lies  through 
 the  year. 
 
 SO.  (2  Kings  xvii.  4.)  An 
 Ethiopian  king,  and  supposed 
 554 
 
SOL 
 
 to  be  the  same  with  Sabacus 
 or  Sabacon  of  profane  history. 
 He  is  called  king  of  Egypt  in 
 the  above  passage  because  he 
 invaded  Egypt,  and  reigned  for 
 a  term  of  years  over  that  coun- 
 try, during  which  time  he  re- 
 ceived the  proposition  of  an 
 alliance  from  Hoshea,  king  of 
 Israel;  which  incensed  Shal- 
 raaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  to 
 attack  the  country. 
 SOAP.  (See  Nitre.) 
 SOCHOH.  (See  Shocoh.") 
 SODOM  (Gen.  xiii.  13)  and 
 Gomorrah,  two  of  the  cities 
 of  the  plain  which  were  mira- 
 culously destroyed  because  of 
 the  deep  and  almost  universal 
 corruption  of  theinhabitants. 
 (See  Salt  Sea.  See  also 
 Ev.  Recreations,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
 46—50.  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 SOLDIERS.  (See  Armies.) 
 SOLOMON,  (2  Sam.  v.  14,) 
 king  of  Israel,  was  the  son  and 
 successor  of  David.  His  cha- 
 racter, and  the  general  condi- 
 tion of  the  country  during  his 
 reign,  were  predicted  in  re- 
 markable terms,  (I  Chron.  xxii. 
 9,  10  ;)  and  especially  remark- 
 able, as  the  prediction  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  ultimate  and 
 more  comprehensive  reference 
 to  the  Messiah  and  his  reign. 
 Soon  after  the  birth  of  Solo- 
 mon, the  prophet  Nathan  was 
 sent  by  divine  authority  to  give 
 him  the  name  of  Jedidiah,  sig- 
 nifying beloved  of  the  Lord. 
 
 Towards  the  close  of  David's 
 life,  a  conspiracy  was  detected 
 to  place  Adonijah  on  the  throne. 
 To  settle  the  government  in 
 the  order  of  the  divine  appoint- 
 ment, David  caused  Sulomon 
 lo  be  invested  with  the  robes 
 of  royalty,  and  resigned  to  him 
 voluntarily  the  sceptre  of  go- 
 vernment, giving  him  a  solemn 
 charge  respectin^g  the  adminis- 
 tration of  it.  The  early  part 
 of  his  reign  was  exceedingly 
 orosperous,  and  was  markedljy 
 several  public  acts  which  dis- 
 played his  wisdom  and  piety. 
 
 SOL 
 
 (1  Kings  ii.  19.27.31;  iiJ.  1.9. 
 16—28.)  He  was  also  favoured 
 with  a  remarkable  promise  of 
 the  divine  favour.  (1  Kings  iii. 
 12—14.)  His  court  was  distin- 
 guished for  its  magnificence; 
 his  dominions  and  revenue 
 were  vast;  his  personal  cha- 
 racter exalted ;  his  wisdom  pro- 
 verbial; and  his  capital  and 
 palace  renowned  for  wealth 
 and  splendour.  (1  Kings  iv. 
 and  X.)  The  great  event  of 
 his  reign,  however,  was  the 
 erection  of  the  temple  in  Jeru- 
 salem, (hence  called  Solomon's 
 temple,)  which  was  designed 
 by  David  his  father.  (I  Chron. 
 xxii.  1— 11.)  The  plan  and 
 materials  of  the  house,  and  the 
 furniture,  as  well  as  of  the 
 royal  palace,  are  minutely  de- 
 scribed, 1  Kings  vi.  vii.,  (see 
 Temple,)  as  a^re  also  the  ser- 
 vices at  the  dedication  of  it, 
 1  Kings  viii.  After  this,  Solo- 
 mon received  a  renewed  as- 
 surance of  tVie  divine  favour, 
 and  of  a  gracious  answer  lo  his 
 prayers  and  supplications ;  and 
 at  the  same  time,  one  of  the 
 most  fearful  denunciations  of 
 wrath  in  case  they  should  for- 
 sake God's  law.  (1  Kings  ix. 
 1— 10.)  In  the  latter  part  of 
 Solomon's  reign,  he  was  led 
 into  the  practice  of  idolatry 
 and  other  abominable  sins, 
 which  drew  upon  him  and  the 
 country  heavV  judgments.  (1 
 Kings  xi.)  We  are  told  that 
 the  Arabs  call  the  southern 
 side  of  tlie  mount  of  Olives  the 
 mount  of  Solomon,  because  his 
 idolatrous  altars  were  built 
 here.  It  is  called  the  mount 
 of  Corruption  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
 13)  from  the  same  cause.  He 
 reigned  forty  years,  and  was 
 succeeded  by  his  son  Rehobo- 
 am.  (1  Kings  xi.  42,  43.  See 
 Life  of  David,  ch.  xxiv. ;  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 We  are  told  of  the  book  of 
 
 the  acts  of  Solomon,  (1  Kings 
 
 xi.  41,)  and  elsewhere  that  his 
 
 acts  were  written  in  the  book 
 
 585 
 
SOL 
 
 of  Nathan,  the  prophecy  of 
 A.hijah,  and  the  visions  of  Idilo 
 against  Jeroboam,  (2Chron.  ix. 
 29;)  but  no  other  knowledge 
 of  these  books  has  come  down 
 to  us ;  and  perhaps  they  were 
 chiefly  genealogical,  and  were 
 destroyed  with  other  Jewish 
 wriiings  in  the  frequent  revo- 
 lutions of  the  country. 
 
 Pools  of.  (Eccl.  ii.  6.)  We 
 have  from  Mr.  Whiting,  an 
 American  missionary,  the  fol- 
 lowing description  of  what  are 
 called  the  pools  of  Solomon, 
 upon  the  sup'^osition  that  they 
 were  erected  by  him.  "  These 
 pools  are  on  the  road  to  He- 
 bron, about  three  miles  south- 
 west of  Bethlehem,  in  a  nar- 
 row sloping  valley.  They  are 
 three  in  number,  placed  one 
 above  another  in  the  valley. 
 They  are  immensely  large  cis- 
 terns, built  of  stone  and  moriar, 
 and  plastered  within.  The 
 length  of  the  uppermost  is  one 
 hundred  and  sixty  yards,  the 
 second  we  estimated  at  two 
 hundred  yards  in  length,  and 
 the  third  is  still  longer.  The 
 width  cf  the  three  is  nearly  the 
 same,  and  is  perhaps  somewhat 
 less  than  one  hundred  yards. 
 They  may  be  thirty  feet  in 
 depth.  At  the  distance  of 
 thirty  or  forty  rods  from  the 
 upper  pool  are  the  subterra- 
 nean sprinss,  sometimes  call- 
 ed the  Seafed  Fountains,  from 
 which  the  pools  are  supplied. 
 Descending  through  a  small 
 hole,  like  the  mouth  of  a  well, 
 to  the  depth  of  ten  or  twelve 
 feet,  you  find  yourself  in  an 
 excavated,  vaulted  room,  or 
 rather  two  rooms  connected  by 
 a  door,  at  one  side  of  which  the 
 water  flows  out  of  the  rock  in 
 a  copious  and  pure  stream,  and 
 descends  by  an  underground 
 conduit  to  the  poohs.  From 
 the  pools  it  is  conveyed  by  an 
 aqueduct  around  on  tlie  sides 
 of  the  hills  to  Jerusalem.  The 
 tradition  is  that  these  pools 
 were  built  by  Solomon,  which 
 
 SOL 
 
 is  perhaps  not  improbable 
 They  certainly  are  ancient. 
 It  is  somewhat  remarkable 
 that  no  history  extant  informs 
 us  of  their  origin,  or  makes 
 any  evident  mention  of  them. 
 If  we  consider  them  the  work 
 of  the  Jewish  monarch,  and 
 that  this  valley  was  once 
 adorned  with  gardens,  groves, 
 and  palaces,  it'must  have  been 
 a  delightful  retreat.  A  short 
 distance  below  the  pools,  in 
 the  valley,  there  are  still  some 
 beautiful  gardens,  watered  from 
 the  aqueduct." 
 
 Proverbs  of.  (See  Pro- 
 verbs.) 
 
 Solomon's  porch.  (See 
 Temple.) 
 
 Song  of  Solomon.  This  )a 
 the  twenty-second  in  the  order 
 of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment. A  Greek  translation  of 
 it  is  extant,  which  is  ascribed 
 without  contradiction  to  the 
 authors  of  the  Septuagint.  who 
 lived  about  two  centuries  before 
 Christ.  The  ancient  Jews,  with- 
 out exception,  regarded  it  as  a 
 sacred  book ;  Josephus  inserts 
 it  in  his  catalogue  of  sacred 
 books ;  and  it  is  cited  as  of  di- 
 vine authority,  from  the  earlies* 
 period  of  the  (Christian  church. 
 That  it  is  in  the  highest  degree 
 figurative,must  be  allowed;  but 
 whether  it  is  to  be  regarded  as 
 a  poem,  or  a  series  of  poems,  or 
 as  a  nuptial  dialogue,  or  as  a 
 drama,  is  not  determined.  The 
 prevailing  opinion  is,  that  the 
 book  consists  of  twelve  distinct 
 poems  or  idyls,  such  as  are 
 common  among  Arabian  poets- 
 and  that  it  should  be  divided 
 thus  : 
 
 Idyl  1  Chap.  i.  1-S. 
 
 2  •       -       i.9-ii.7. 
 
 3  -        -  ii.  8-17. 
 
 4  -       -     iii.  1—5. 
 
 5  -       -        iii.  6— iv.  7. 
 
 6  .       .     iv.  8— V.  1. 
 
 7  .       .  V.  2— vi.  10 
 
 8  .        -     vi.  11—13. 
 
 9  -       •       vii.  1—9. 
 
 10       •       •    vii.  lU— viii.  4 
 n    .       -       viii.  5— 7. 
 12  .  viii.  8-14. 
 
SON 
 
 The  allusions  with  which 
 this  book  abounds  are  made  to 
 scenes  and  cusioins  of  which 
 our  knowledge  is  very  imper- 
 fect; and  hence  much  per- 
 plexity must  attend  any  at- 
 tempt to  analyze  the  truths  it 
 teaclies;  and  much  care  and 
 judgment  are  necessary  so  to 
 use'this  part  of  divine  truth  as 
 not  to  abuse  it. 
 
 SON  OF  MAN.  (Matt.  viii. 
 20.)  This  title  is  given  to  our 
 Saviour  eighty  times  in  the 
 New  Testament,  and  in  thir- 
 ty instances  he  ap[)lies  it  to 
 himself.  It  is  also  applied  to 
 him  by  Daniel,  (vii.  13.)  The 
 Jews  uerfectly  understood  it  to 
 denote  the  Messiah.  It  pro- 
 bably denotes  his  peculiar  and 
 intimate  relation  to  mankind 
 in  his  incarnate  slate,  as  the 
 phrase  Son  of  Gud  denotes  his 
 peculiar  relation  to  the  Divine 
 Being. 
 
 The  term  Son  of  man  is  ap- 
 plied to  Ezekiel  not  less  than 
 eighty-nine  times,  and  may  be 
 Recounted  for  on  the  ground 
 that  this  prophet  was,  in  many 
 respects,  an  eminent  typs  of 
 Christ. 
 
 Son  of  God.  (Dan.  iii.  25.) 
 This  is  one  of  the  titles  of  our 
 Divine  Redeemer,  and  is  ap- 
 plied to  none  else,  except  in  a 
 connexion  which  shows  the 
 eense.  It  is  applied  to  angels, 
 (Job  xxxviii.  7,)  and  tc  Adam, 
 (Luke  iii.  -38,)  as  created  imme- 
 diately by  his  hand,  and  to  be- 
 liever's, (Rom.  viii.  14,  15.  2 
 (Jor.  vi.  18p  as  adopted  into 
 God's  sf'intual  family  ;  but 
 when  applied  to  Christ,  it  is  in 
 a  peculiar  and  exalted  sense, 
 which  cannot  be  mistaken. 
 
 Sons  of  God.  (Gen.  vi.  2.) 
 The  original  word,  translated 
 God  in  this  passage,  is  some- 
 limes  renJered  piinces,  or  dis- 
 tinguisle-i  persons;  and  the 
 reading  iiiight  properly  be, 
 •  sons  of  ih'e  patriarchs,'  or 
 eminent   men   mentioned    in 
 
 SOR 
 
 '  the  preceding  chapter.    (See 
 '  Adoption.) 
 
 1      SOOTHSAYER  (Dan.  ii.  27) 
 j  was  one  who  pretended  to  fore- 
 tell  future  events.      The  ori- 
 ginal word  is  su})posed  to  de- 
 I  note    that  they  dissected  the 
 entrails  of  animals,  for  the  pur- 
 '  pose  of  discerning  what  would 
 come  to  pass.    The  Pliilistinea 
 !  appear  to  have  been  n  iiorious 
 for  their  practice  of  this  magic 
 imposition.    (Isa.  ii.  6.)    This 
 was  a  common  mode  of  divin- 
 ing among  the  Romans. 
 
 SOP.  (John  xiii.  26.)  Our 
 ordinary  table  utensils  were 
 unknown  among  the  Hebrews. 
 Hence  in  eating  broth  or  milk, 
 it  was  either  taken  with  the 
 hollow  of  the  hand,  or  the 
 bread  was  dipped  into  it.  This 
 is  at  present  the  usage  in  all 
 the  oriental  countries,  even  at 
 the  table  of  the  Perdiaa  king. 
 Thus  the  reapers  of  Boaz  dip- 
 ped their  morsel  hi  the  vine- 
 far,  (Ruth  ii.  14;)  and  thus  our 
 aviour  dipped  the  sop  or  mor- 
 sel, and  gave  it  to  tlie  traitor 
 Judas. 
 
 SORCERY.     (Acts  viii.  9; 
 xiii.  6.)    One  of  the  arts  of  the 
 '  magicians,  (Ex.  vii.  11,  hence 
 I  called  sorcerers,)  by  the  use 
 I  of  which    they  pretended  te 
 I  predict    future    events,    cure 
 diseases,  work  miracles,  &c. 
 The    practice   of  sorcery,  or 
 any  confidence  in  it,  is  threats 
 ened  with  the  severest  judg- 
 ments.  (Mai.  iii.  5.   Rev.  xxi. 
 8;  xxii.  15.) 
 
 SOREK.  (Judg.  xvi.  4.)  A 
 brook  and  vale  in  the  south 
 of  the  territory  of  Dan,  where 
 Delilah  dwelt.  It  probably 
 derived  its  name  from  its 
 choice  grapes,  and  was  but  a 
 mile  or  two  from  Eshcol.  The 
 brook  empties  into  the  Medi- 
 terranean near  Askehm. 
 
 SORROWS  OF  HELL,  and 
 
 SORROWS  OF  DEATH,  (Ps. 
 
 xviii.  4,  5,)  signifies  pangs,  or 
 
 pahis,  as  in  Acts  ii.  24.    lu  both 
 
 587 
 
SPA 
 
 passages  the  word  cords  may 
 be  read.  Death  is  personified 
 in  many  systems  of  pao;an  wor- 
 ship. There  is  a  Hindoo  deity 
 Yama,  or  the  catcher  of  the 
 sotils  of  men,  whose  image  is 
 represented  as  holding  a  cord 
 or  snare,  which  he  throws  over 
 his  victim,  and  thus  secures 
 him. 
 
 SOSIPATER,  (Rom.  xvi.21,) 
 or  SOPATER.  (Acts  xx.  4.)  A 
 native  of  Eerea,  and  a  kins- 
 man of  Paul. 
 
 SOSTHENES.  (Acts  xviii. 
 [7.)  A  ruler  of  the  Jewish 
 synagogue  at  Corinth.  He  was 
 seized  and  beaten  by  a  party 
 of  Greeks  in  that  city,  who 
 were  excited  thus  to  acts  of 
 violence  by  what  they  thought 
 the  unjustifiable  and  malicious 
 persecution  of  Paul.  It  is 
 thought  that  he  afterwards  be- 
 came a  convert  to  the  Chris- 
 tian faith.  (1  Cor.  i.  1,  2.) 
 
 SOUL.  (Gen.  ii.  7.)  The 
 Scriptures  evidently  distin- 
 guish between  the  spirit  and 
 soul.  (1  Thess.  v.  23.  Heb.  iv. 
 12.)  The  word  which  we  call 
 soul  is  used  to  denote  mere 
 animal  life,  the  seat  of  sensa- 
 tions, appetites,  and  passions. 
 (Gen.  i.  20.)  Here  the  word 
 translated  life  is  the  same  with 
 that  which  is  elsewhere  trans- 
 lated soul.  Hence  it  may  be 
 inferred,  that  as  we  have  our 
 bodies  and  animal  life  in  com- 
 mon with  brutes,  it  must  be 
 the  spirit  which  was  created 
 in  the  likeness  or  image  of  God, 
 and  which  raises  man  above 
 the  brutes  that  perish,  and 
 makes  him  a  rational  and 
 accountable  being.  We  can- 
 not comjuehend  tfie  exact  con- 
 nexion and  relation  of  these 
 various  parts  of  our  being;  but 
 that  they  exist  is  the  declara- 
 tion of  Scripture,  fully  sup- 
 ported by  observation  and  ex- 
 perience. 
 
 SPAIN.  (Rom.  XV.  24.)  For- 
 merly this  term  included  the 
 whole  Spanish  peninsula,  em- 
 
 SPI 
 
 bracing  Portugal.  In  Paul's 
 time  it  was  subject  to  Rome, 
 and  the  resort  of  many  Jews. 
 It  is  uncertain  whether  that 
 apostle's  intention  to  visit 
 Spain  was  ever  executed.  (See 
 Life  of  Paul,  chap,  xxi.,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 SPAN.  (See  Measures.) 
 SPARROW  (Ps.  Ixxxiv.  3) 
 is  well  known  to  be  one  of  the 
 smallest  and  least  valuable 
 of  all  birds.  Hence  the  force 
 of  the  allusion,  Matt.  x.  29. 
 Luke  xii.  6.  The  original 
 word  is  generic,  and  means  a 
 bird  generally,  as  in  Ps.  cii.  7. 
 The  probable  allusion  in  Ps. 
 Ixxxiv.  3,  may  be  better  under- 
 stood by  placing  the  former 
 part  of  the  third  verse  in  a 
 parenthesis,  and  thus  connect- 
 ing the  latter  part  with  the 
 second  verse,  thus,  My  soul 
 longeth,yea,  even  fainteth,  for 
 the  courts  of  the  Lord :  my 
 heart  and  my  flesh  crieth  out 
 for  the  living  God,  ( Yea,  the 
 sparrow  hathfouyid  a  house, 
 and  the  swallow  a  nest  for 
 herself,  where  she  may  lay  her 
 young,)  even  thine  altars,  O 
 Lord  of  hosts,  my  King^  and 
 my  God.  Then  the  desire  of 
 the  psalmist  to  go  up  to  the 
 courts  of  the  Lord's  house  is 
 beautifully  compared  with  the 
 instinctive  desire  of  the  bird 
 for  its  nest— its  home. 
 SPEAR.  (See  Armour.) 
 SPICES.  (Gen.  xliii.  II.) 
 This  term,  as  used  by  the  sa- 
 cred  writers,  is  much  more 
 comprehensive  than  the  mo- 
 dern use  of  it.  With  them  it 
 includes  not  only  fragrant 
 gums,  as  myrrh,  and  also  roots 
 and  barks,  as  cassia,  cinna- 
 mon, cane,  &c.,  but  the  odours 
 of  flowers  and  various  per- 
 fumes. (Sol.  Song  iv.  14,  15.) 
 Spices  were  imported  into 
 Judea  chiefly  from  southern 
 Arabia.  Sweet  spices  (Mark 
 xvi.  1)  are  merely  aromatic 
 substances  used  in  embalm 
 ing.  The  word  spices  fully 
 588 
 
SPI 
 
 expressed  the  meaning  of  the  ' 
 original  word  wittioul  ilie  ad- 
 ieciive. 
 
 SPIDER.  (Job  viii.  14.)  A 
 well  known  insect  of  very 
 singular  structure  and  habits. 
 Its  method  of  weaving  its  web, 
 — the  thinness  and  Trailty  of 
 which  are  strikingly  emble- 
 matical of  a  false  hope,  and  of 
 the  schemes  of  wicked  men, 
 (Isa.  lix.  5,)— and  the  remark- 
 able construction  of  iis  foot  so 
 as  to  resemble  a  part  of  the 
 human  hand,  will  be  found 
 fully  illustrated  with  engrav- 
 ings, &c.  in  Bible  Natural 
 History,  art.  Spider,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union. 
 
 The  expression  in  Prov. 
 XXX.  -28,  is  supposed  by  some 
 to  refer  to  some  other  and 
 larger  animal ;  but  the  strik- 
 ing correspondence  between 
 the  construction  of  the  spider's 
 foot  and  the  terms  usecl  to  ex- 
 press its  method  of  working, 
 goes  far  to  establish  the  cor- 
 rectness of  the  present  render- 
 ing. 
 
 SPIKENARD.  (Johnxii. 
 3—5.)  A  plant  of  the  grass 
 kind,  of  strong  aromatic  taste 
 and  smell,  and  found  chiefly 
 in  India.  The  ointment  made 
 of  the  genuine  Indian  nard 
 ■was  very  precious,  (Mark  xiv. 
 3,)  a  single  pound  costing,  in 
 ooir  Saviour's  day,  what,  in 
 the  modern  value  of  money, 
 would  be  upwards  of  forty 
 dollars.  Profane  history  tells 
 us  that  the  crude  vegetable 
 was  worth  one  hundred  denarii 
 (or  nearly  forty-five  dollars)  a 
 pound,  at  Rome,  in  the  time 
 of  Christ.  Like  other  unguents 
 and  perfumes,  it  was  carried 
 in  a  box  closely  sealed,  so  as 
 to  be  air-tight.  Opening  this 
 seal  is  called  breakmg  the  box. 
 SPIRIT.  (Gen.  vi.  3.)  This 
 term  is  often  employed  figu- 
 ratively by  the  sacred  writers, 
 and  its  import  may  be  gene- 
 rally determined  by  its  con- 
 aexioQ. 
 
 50 
 
 SPR 
 
 The  Holy  Spirit  is  the  title 
 of  that  divine  Agent— the  Com- 
 forter, the  Holy  Ghost,  plainly 
 distinguished  from  the  Father 
 and  the  Son,  (John  xiv.  26; 
 xvi.  7,  8;)  by  whose  influence 
 the  truth  is  received,  under- 
 stood, believed  and  obeyed. 
 Ke  quickens  those  who  are 
 dead  in  trespasses  and  sins, 
 purifies  and  sanctifies  them, 
 and  thus  prepares  them  to  glo- 
 rify God  and  enjoy  him  for 
 ever.  (John  xv.  1—6.  Rom.  v. 
 5 ;  viii.  16.     See  Discernujo 
 
 OF  SPIRITS.) 
 
 SPIRITUAL  BODY.  (1  Cor. 
 XV.  44.)  We  are  probably  to 
 understand  by  this  that  the 
 body  which  will  be  raised  will 
 be  divested  of  all  sensual  and 
 animal  apr^etites;  and  while 
 it  will  retain  a  bodily  shape  or 
 form,  it  will  be  perfectly  fitted 
 for  pure  spiritual  exercises  and 
 enjoyments,  in  perfect  unison 
 with  the  redeemed  and  sanc- 
 tified soul. 
 
 SPOIL.  (Ex.  iii.  22.)  The 
 original  word  in  this  passage 
 means  to  recover  property 
 taken  away  by  violence.  (1 
 Sam.  XXX.  22.) 
 
 SPONGE.  (Matt,  xxvii.  48.) 
 A  submarine  substance,  com- 
 posed of  fibres  interwoven  in 
 a  surprising  manner,  and  sur- 
 rounded by  thin  membranes, 
 which  arrange  themselves  in 
 a  cellular  form.  It  imbibes  a 
 great  quantity  of  fluid,  and 
 parts  with  it  upon  a  strong 
 pressure.  Drink  could  be  easily 
 conveyed  in  this  form  where 
 cups  could  not  be  used.  It  is 
 inhabited  by  animals,  like  the 
 coral,  who  use  the  openings  of 
 the  sponge  to  suck  in  and  tftrow 
 out  water. 
 
 SPRINKLING,  BLOOD  op. 
 (Heb.  xii.  24.)  The  Jewish 
 high-priest,  on  the  great  day 
 of  atonement,  carried  blood 
 into  the  inner  sanctuary,  and 
 sprinkled  it  upon  the  mercv- 
 seat.  It  was  by  this  sprink- 
 ling of  blood  that  an  atonement 
 5(39 
 
STA 
 
 was  made  for  the  holy  place, 
 because  of  tlie  inideanness  of 
 the  children  of  Israel.  (Lev. 
 xvi.  16.)  The  blood  of  sprink- 
 ling was  typical  of  the  aton- 
 ing blood  of  Christ.  When 
 this  has  been  applied  to  the 
 Boul  of  the  believer,  he  may 
 approach  the  presence  of  a 
 holy  God,  in  the  name  of  the 
 great  Advocate  and  Redeemer, 
 confident  of  a  gracious  recep- 
 tion. The  blood  of  Abel,  al- 
 luded  to  in  the  above  passage 
 from  Hebrews,  called  only  for 
 vengeance,  (Gen.  iv.  10,  11;) 
 but  the  blood  of  Christ  speaks 
 of  pardon,  peace,  and  eternal 
 
 STACTE.  (Ex.  ^xx.  34.) 
 One  of  the  prescribed  ingre- 
 dients of  the  sacred  incense. 
 It  is  the  Greek  name  for  the 
 purest  myrrh ;  or  that  which 
 flows  freely  from  the  tree  with- 
 out incision. 
 
 STARS.  (Deut.  iv.  19.)  Un- 
 der the  name  of  stars,  the  He- 
 brews comprehended  all  con- 
 stellations, planets,  and  hea- 
 venly bodies;  all  luminaries, 
 except  the  sun  and  moon.  The 
 psalmist,  to  exalt  the  power 
 and  omniscience  of  God,  (Ps. 
 cxlvii.  4,)  describes  him  tak- 
 ing a  survey  of  the  stars,  as  a 
 king  taking  a  review  of  his 
 army,  and  knowing  the  name 
 of  every  one  of  his  soldiers. 
 To  express  a  very  extraordi- 
 nary increase  and  multiplica- 
 tion, the  sacred  writers  use 
 the  similitude  of  the  stars  of 
 heaven,  or  of  the  sands  of 
 the  sea.  (Gen.  xv.  5;  xxii.  17; 
 xxvi.  4.    Ex.  xxxii.  13,  &;c.) 
 
 No  part  of  the  visible  crea- 
 tion exhibits  the  glory  of  the 
 Creator  more  illustriously  than 
 ■the  sinrry  heavens.  (Ps.  xix. 
 I.)  When  we  seriously  con- 
 template the  moon  and  stars, 
 the  work  of  the  fingers  of  God, 
 we  cannot  but  be'astonished 
 that  he  should  condescend  to 
 pay  any  attention  to  men.  (Ps. 
 viii.  3.) 
 
 STE 
 
 The  star  of  Bethlehem,  which 
 appeared  to  the  Magi,  to  direct 
 them  to  the  birthplace  ol  the 
 Messiah, was  not  a  natural  phe- 
 nomenon, but  evidently' mi- 
 raculous, and,  when  it  had  an- 
 swered its  purpose,  it  vanished. 
 It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  of  the 
 fixed  stars  some  have  entirely 
 disappeared;  while  others  not 
 marked  in  any  catalogue  have 
 become  visible,  where  they 
 could  not  have  existed  before 
 without  being  noticed. 
 
 Jesus  Christ  is  called  the 
 Morning  Star,  (Rev.  xxii.  16,) 
 as  he  introduced  the  light  of 
 the  gospel  day,  and  made  a 
 fuller  manifestation  of  the 
 truths  of  God  than  the  pro- 
 phets, whose  predictions  are 
 now  accomplished. 
 
 STEEL.  (Ps.  xviii.34.)  The 
 degree  of  strength  and  agility 
 which  one  possessed  was  often 
 shown  among  the  ancient  na- 
 tions in  the  use  of  the  lx)w. 
 The  word  rendered  steel  in 
 this  passage  might  (according 
 to  some  critics)  be  more  pro- 
 perly rendered  copper.  So  of 
 Job  XX.  24.  (Comp.  Jer.  xv.  12. 
 Ezek.  xxvii.  19.) 
 
 STEPHANAS  (1  Cor.  i.  16) 
 was  one  of  the  earliest  con- 
 verts to  Christianity  in  Corinth, 
 (1  Cor.  xvi.  15,)  and  received 
 baptism  at  the  hands  of  Paul. 
 
 STEPHEN,  (Acts  vi.  5,) 
 usually  known  as  the  first 
 martyr,  was  one  of  the  seven 
 men  of  honest  report  who  were 
 elected,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
 twelve  apostles,  to  relieve  them 
 of  a  particular  class  of  their 
 labours.  His  character  is  given 
 by  the  sacred  historian  as  a 
 man  full  of  faiih  and  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost;  and  he  was  en- 
 dowed, in  a  remarkable  de- 
 gree, with  divine  power  and 
 grace.  (Acts  vi.  8.  10.)  His 
 defence  against  the  false  and 
 malicious  charges  of  hisopfo- 
 nents,  (Acts  viiTa— 53,)  amon<? 
 whom  was  Saul  of  Tarsus,  is 
 a  masterly  exhibition  of  tnuh; 
 690 
 
STO 
 
 and  flo  direct  was  its  appeal  to 
 the  consciences  of  llie  popu- 
 lace, thai  liiey  were  excited 
 to  madness,  (Acts  vii.  54,)  and 
 fell  upon  Stephen  lilie  wild 
 beasts,  shouting,  and  slopping 
 their  ears;  and  after  they  had 
 forced  him  beyond  the  walls  of 
 the  city,  (Lev.  xxiv.  14,)  they 
 stoned  him  to  death,  Saul  being 
 present  and  conspicuous  in 
 this  barbarous  transaction.  The 
 last  breath  of  the  martyr  was 
 Bpent,  liiie  that  of  his  divine 
 Master,  in  prayerfor  the  forgive- 
 ness of  his  murderers.  Ii  is 
 worthy  of  remark  that  this 
 prayer  of  Stephen's  is  directed 
 to  the  Lord  Jesus,  or  rather  it 
 seems  to  be  a  continuation  of 
 the  prayer  respecting  himself 
 which  was  addressed  imme- 
 diately to  Christ;  the  word 
 God  in  verse  59  of  our  trans- 
 lation not  being  in  any  ancient 
 manuscript  or  version. 
 
 STEWARD.  (Gen.  xv.  2.) 
 The  chief  overseer  of  the 
 household.  (Comp.  Gen.  xxiv. 
 2,  with  passage  first  cited. 
 See  Eliezer,  Joanna.) 
 
 STOCKS.  (Job xiii.27'.)  The 
 
 STO 
 
 name  of  a  machine  or  instru- 
 ment by  which  the  feet  and 
 arms  of  prisoners  are  secured. 
 It  is  said  that  the  jailer  at  Phi- 
 lippi,  to  whose  custody  Paul 
 and  Silas  were  committed  with 
 a  strict  charge  to  keep  them 
 safely,  not  only  put  them  in  an 
 inner  ])rison  or  dungeon,  but 
 made  their  feet  fast  in  the 
 stocks.  The  form  of  this  in- 
 strument, as  seen  in  the  east 
 at  this  day,  is  given  in  the 
 following  cuts. 
 
 The  upper  half  (a)  being  re- 
 moved, each  leg  is  placed,  just 
 above  the  ankle,  in  the  groove 
 of  the  lower  half,  and  then  the 
 upper  part  is  fastened  down 
 so  as  to  confine  them  inex- 
 tricably. The  instrument  for 
 confining  the  hands  is  formed 
 on  the  same  principle,  and  is 
 represented  in  the  subjoined 
 cut.    (For  still  another  form, 
 
 and  more  nearly  resembling  | 
 that  in  modern  use,  see  Chris- 
 tian Martyrs,  p.  71,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 STOICS  (Acts  xvii.  18) 
 were  a  sect  of  heathen  philo- 
 sophers, (much  like  the  Phari- 
 sees,) who  took  their  rise  from 
 one  Zeno,  a  Cyprian.  It  is 
 said,  ho  borrowed  many  of  his 
 opinions  from  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
 tures; but  it  is  certain  that 
 Socrates  and  Plato  had  taught 
 
 some  of  them  before.  The 
 Greek  word  for  porch  is  stoa, 
 and  from  the  circumstance  of 
 his  teaching  his  scholars  in  a 
 famous  public  portico  or  porch 
 at  Athens,  his  followers  were 
 called  Stoics.  They  gene- 
 rally taught,  that  it  is  wisdom 
 alone  that  renders  men  happy ; 
 that  the  ills  of  life  are  but  fan- 
 cied evils;  and  that  a  wise 
 man  ought  not  to  be  moved 
 either  with  joy  or  grief:  and 
 
STO 
 
 In  their  practice,  they  affect- 
 ed much  paiieace,  austerity, 
 and  insensibility.  The  Stoics 
 were  known  for  many  ages, 
 especially  at  Athens,  where 
 Bome  of  them  encountered 
 Paul. 
 
 Of  all  the  ancient  sects,  the 
 Stoics  were  most  strict  in 
 their  regard  to  moral  virtue. 
 They  believed  in  the  unity 
 of  the  Divine  Being;  the  crea- 
 tion of  the  world  by  the  Logos 
 or  Word,  and  a  superintend- 
 ing providence  administered 
 in  conformity  with  the  will 
 and  purpose  of  God ;  but  all 
 their  ©pinions  were  mingled 
 with  the  grossest  error. 
 
 STONE.  cGen.  xxxv.  14.) 
 Houges  of  stone  were  as  com- 
 mon among  tlie  Hebrews  as 
 among  ourselves.  The  more 
 elegant  structures  were  built 
 of  hewn  and  squared  stones. 
 Amos  says  to  the  luxurious 
 Israelites,  Ye  have  built  houses 
 of  hewn  stone,  but  ye  shall  not 
 dwell  in  them.  (Amos  v.  11.) 
 When  Solomon  was  about  to 
 raise  the  temple,  he  command- 
 ed, and  th<  y  broiight  great 
 stones,  costly  stones,  and 
 hewed  stones,  to  lay  the  foun- 
 dation of  the  house.  (1  Kings 
 V.  17.) 
 
 Stones  were  often  used  as 
 we  use  knives,  (Ex.  iv.  25. 
 Josh.  V.  2;)  and  we  are  told 
 that  stone  knives  were  used 
 by  the  Egyptians  in  preparing 
 dead  bodies  for  the  process  of 
 embalming.  The  disciples  of 
 Christ  are  called  stones,  or 
 lively  (living)  stones,  (1  Pet. 
 ii.  5,)  in  allusion  to  their  con- 
 nexion with  Christ,  upon  whom 
 they  are  built  up  compactly 
 together,  as  upon  the  one 
 only  foundation  which  God 
 has  laid,  the  living  stone^ 
 (1  Pet.  ii.  4,)  or  the  source  of 
 life.  A  heart  of  stone  is  a  figu- 
 rat'va  expressi®n,  importing 
 great  hardness  and  impeni- 
 tency.  A  stone  is  sometimes 
 put  for  an  idol.    (Hab.  ii.  19.) 
 
 STO 
 
 Heaps  of  stones  were  raised 
 to  mark  some  signal  provi- 
 dence of  God,  in  the  way  either 
 of  deliverance  or  punishment. 
 (Josh.  iv.  5—7.)  The  weights 
 of  the  Hebrews  were  also  called 
 stones. 
 
 White  stone,  (Rev.  ii.  17,) 
 here,  is  supposed  by  many  ic 
 be  an  allusion  to  the  practice 
 of  some  ancient  nations  of  pass- 
 ing judgment  on  an  accused 
 person.  Those  in  favour  of 
 acquitting  him  cast  a  white 
 ball  into  an  urn,  and  those  who 
 adjudged  him  guilty  cast  in  a 
 black  ball ;  and  if  the  number 
 of  the  former  exceeded  that  of 
 the  latter,  the  prisoner  was  dis- 
 charged.  Others  think  refer- 
 ence is  made  to  the  white  stones 
 which  were  given  to  conquerors 
 in  the  Olympian  games,  with 
 their  names  written  upon  them, 
 and  the  value  of  the  prize 
 they  won.  So  the  new  name 
 mentioned  in  Isa.  Ixii.  2,  may 
 denote  the  adoption  of  the  in 
 dividual  into  the  family  of  God, 
 by  which  he  is  admitted  to  pri 
 vileges  and  blessings  known 
 only  to  him  who  possesses  them. 
 
 STONING  was  the  most  ge- 
 neral punishment  inflicted  on 
 notorious  criminals,  and  is 
 usually  meant  where  no  other 
 description  of  punishment  is 
 expressly  mentioned,  as  in 
 Lev.  XX.  10.  Idolaters,  blas- 
 phemers. Sabbath-breakers,  in- 
 cestuous persons,  and  stubborn 
 or  rebellious  children,  werelia 
 ble  to  it.  The  culprit  was  led 
 out  of  the  city,  and,  as  some 
 have  supposed,  was  bound. 
 The  witnesses  against  him 
 were  required  to  commence 
 the  work  of  death  ;  and  proba- 
 bly they  divested  themselves 
 of  clothing,  that  it  might  be 
 done  more  effectually.  (Acts 
 vii.  58.)  At  the  murder  of  Ste- 
 phen they  committed  the  cus- 
 tody of  their  clothes  to  Saul, 
 who  was  not  improbably,  from 
 his  talents  and  ardour,  a  ring- 
 leader of  the  mob,  and  one  of 
 
STO 
 
 the  most  violent  of  the  perse- 
 cutors; and  ihe  muUiluae  fol- 
 lowed the  example  of  the  lead- 
 ers, until  the  victim  was  beaten 
 to  death.  It  is  said  that  the 
 frequent  taking  up  of  stones 
 by  the  Jews  to  throw  at  our  Sa- 
 viour, and  the  stoning  of  Ste- 
 phen, (Acts  vii.59,)andof  Paul. 
 (Acts  xiv.  19.)  were  vestiges  of 
 a  punishment  called  the  rebels' 
 beating,  inflicted  by  the  mob, 
 with  fists,  staves,  or  stones, 
 on  the  excitement  of  the  mo- 
 ment. 
 
 STORK.  (Jer.  viii.  7.)  A 
 bird  of  passage,  formed  much 
 like  the  crane,  but  larger.  It 
 feeds  on  insects  and  frogs,  and 
 was  reckoned  among  the  un- 
 clean birds.  (Lev.  xi.  19.)  It 
 has  long  legs,  with  which  it 
 seeks  food  in  marshes  and  wa- 
 tery places,  and  its  bill  is 
 formed  so  as  to  retain  its  slip- 
 pery prey.  Ii  builds  its  nest 
 sometimes  in  trees, (Ps. civ.  17,) 
 and  sometimes  in  high  ruined 
 lowers.  Its  name,  in  the  He- 
 brew, means  mercy,  or  piety  ; 
 and  its  English  name,  taken 
 (indirectly  at  least)  from  the 
 Greek  storge,  signifies  natural 
 affection.  This"^ accords  with 
 our  knowledge  of  its  character, 
 which  is  remarkable  for  ten- 
 derness, especially  in  the 
 young  towards  the  old  birds. 
 An  eminent  naturalist  tells  us 
 of  a  Dane,  who  related,  from  his 
 own  personal  knowledge,  facts 
 which  occurred  in  the  southern 
 part  of  Jutland,  that  the  two 
 parent  birds  guard  and  feed  the 
 brood  alternately,  one  always 
 remaining  in  the  nest  while  the 
 other  goes  for  food  ;  and  after 
 their  young  become  old  enough 
 to  fly,  the  parent  birds  bring 
 them  back  at  night,  and  long 
 preserve  the  nest  as  their  na- 
 tural and  proper  home.  The 
 old  birds  teach  their  young 
 with  great  care  how  to  find  and 
 distinguish  proper  food.  In  the 
 autumn  they  fly  to  a  warm  cli- 
 mate, and  returning  in  the 
 50* . 
 
 STR 
 
 spring,  betake  themse/ves  and 
 families  to  their  several  nests. 
 The  people  of  the  country  often 
 assemble  to  see  them  come,  as 
 there  are  certain  superstitious 
 observances  connected  with 
 their  return  ;  and  it  is  not  un- 
 common to  see  several  of  the 
 old  birds,  which  are  tired  and 
 feeble  with  the  long  flight, 
 supported  aitimeson  the  backs 
 of  the  young;  and  the  peasants 
 speak  of  it  as  well  known,  that 
 such  are  carefully  laid  in  their 
 old  nests,  and  cherished  by  the 
 young  ones  whom  they  reared 
 there  the  spring  before.  A 
 modern  traveller  speaks  of  the 
 storks  which  build  their  nests 
 in  the  old  ruins  of  Pergamus, 
 and  he  says  he  saw  their  habits, 
 and  that  the  male  bird  would 
 often  caress  his  mate  before 
 he  left  her,  and  then  stretch 
 his  broad,  snow-white  wings, 
 and  fly  away  to  provide  for  his 
 faithful  partner  at  home.  (For 
 further  description  and  illus- 
 trative engravings.seeYouTH's 
 Friend,  for  Feb.  1829,  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 STRANGER.  (Gen.  xv.  13.) 
 This  word  has  a  variety  of  sig- 
 nifications in  the  sacred  writ- 
 ings; as,  1.  One  who  is  in  a 
 foreign  land,  at  a  distance  from 
 the  place  of  his  nativity.  (Gen. 
 xxiii.  4.)  2.  One  who  is  not  a 
 Jew.  (Ex.  XX.  10.  Isa.  xiv.  1.) 
 3.  One  not  of  Aaron's  family. 
 (Num.  iii.  10;xvi.40.)  4.  One 
 that  is  not  of  the  royal  stock 
 and  family.  (Matt.  xvii.  25, 26.) 
 5.  Unknown,  disregarded.  (Pa. 
 Ixix.  8.) 
 
 The  Jewish  laws  had  many 
 provisions  for  the  protection 
 and  comfort  of  the  stranger  or 
 loreigner.  Those  who  are  called 
 strangers,  in  1  Chron.  xxii.  2, 
 were  probably  persons  taken 
 in  war,  and  so  by  the  custom 
 of  nations  liable  to  any  service 
 imposed  upon  them.  Hospi- 
 tality to  strangers  is  a  duty  en 
 joined  by  the  sacred  writers 
 both  in  precept  and  example 
 593 
 
SUM 
 
 Judg.  xix.  15 — 20.  Job  xxxi. 
 32.  1  Tim.  V.  10.    Heb.  xiii.  2.) 
 
 STRAW.  (Gen.  xxiv.  25.) 
 The  straw  wanted  by  the  Jews 
 for  bricks  (Ex.  v.  7—18)  was 
 to  lay  them  on  wheri  fresh 
 moulded.  For  want  of  it  their 
 mould  fell  in  pieces,  and  their 
 work  was  vain. 
 
 STREET.  (Gen.  xix.  2.)  The 
 streets  of  oriental  cities  are 
 usually  narrow.  Mats  are  some- 
 times spread  across  from  roof 
 to  roof  to  shade  the  streets  from 
 the  sun.  The  streets  were 
 named  as  in  modern  limes, 
 (Ezra  X.  9.  Acts  ix.  11 ;)  but 
 it  is  supposed  that  in  other  pas- 
 sages, (2  Ghron.  xxxii.  6.  Neh. 
 viu.  1.  3.  16,)  the  word  trans- 
 lated streets  means  squares,  or 
 open  places  around  the  gates. 
 Modern  travellers  often  men- 
 tion it  as  a  common  custom  in 
 the  eastern  countries  to  sit  in 
 the  streets.  (1  Sam.  iv.  13.  Job 
 xxix.  7.    See  Bake,  City.) 
 
 SUBURBS.    (See  City.) 
 
 SUCCOTH.  (Josh.  xiii.  27. 
 Judg.  viii.  15.)  The  place  men- 
 tioned in  Num.  xxxiii.  5,  was 
 probably  a  resting  place  for 
 caravans  to  and  from  Egypt. 
 In  other  passages,  Succoth  de- 
 notes a  city  or  valley  on  the 
 east  of  Jordan,  between  it 
 and  Jabbok,  where  Abra- 
 ham pitched  his  tent  on  his 
 return  from  Mesopotamia. 
 (Gen.  xxxiii.  17.)  It  was  al- 
 lotted to  the  tribe  of  Gad,  and 
 its  inhabitants,  for  insolent 
 language  to  Gideon,  were  se- 
 verely punished  by  him.  (Judg. 
 viii.  15.)  It  is  called  the  val- 
 ley of  Succoth,  (Ps.  Ix.  6,)  or 
 booths,  because  of  J  acob's  build- 
 ing booths  there  for  his  cattle. 
 
 SUKiaiMS.  (2  Chron.  xii. 
 3.)  The  name  of  a  portion  of 
 the  allies  of  Shishak,  king  of 
 Egypt,  in  the  invasion  of  Ju- 
 dea.  They  are  supposed  lo 
 have  been  a  tribe  of  Ethiopi- 
 ans from  the  shores  of  the  Red 
 Sea. 
 
 SUMMER.  (See  Seasons.) 
 
 SUR 
 Summer     house.         (See 
 Dwellings.) 
 SUPERSCRIPTION.     (See 
 
 Cross.) 
 
 SUPERSTITIOUS.  (Acts 
 xvii.  22.)  This  term  in  the 
 original  is  at  best  ambiguous. 
 Perhaps  it  signifies  nothing  of- 
 fensive, but  simply  that  the 
 Athenians  were  remarkably 
 addicted  to  worship.  They  had 
 more  gods,  more  temples,  more 
 festivals,  in  short,  more  reli 
 gious  observances,  than  the 
 apostle  had  seen  elsewhere; 
 and  he  was  about  to  tell  them 
 what  he  thought  were  errors  in 
 these  services. 
 SUPPER.  (See  Meals.) 
 SUPPLICATION.  (1  Tim. 
 ii.  1—5.)  It  is  supposed  that  the 
 distinction  made  in  this  pas- 
 sage between  prayers  and  sup- 
 plications is,  that  the  latter 
 rather  respected  the  averting 
 of  threatened  or  the  removal 
 of  inflicted  judgments,  and  the 
 former  the  beslowing  of  bless- 
 
 luRETY.  (Heb.  vii.  22.) 
 Some  have  supposed  that  the 
 word  thus  translated  means  one 
 who  draws  nigh  to  God,  or 
 brings  others  nigh.  Thus,  as 
 in  Heb.  vii.  19,  the  apostle  had 
 spoken  of  the  introduction  of  a 
 better  hope,  by  which  we  draw 
 nigh  unto  God,  so  (ver.  22)  he 
 speaks  of  Jesus  diShim  by  whom 
 we  draw  nigh,  thus  denoting 
 
 i  the   effect  of  his   mediation. 
 
 I  The  word  sponsor,  pledge,  or 
 surety,  is  of  equal  significancy. 
 
 ,  The    better    hope    had    been 
 
 j  mentioned.  If  it  were  asked 
 what  security  there  is  that  it 
 
 j  will  be  realized,  it  might  be 
 
 1  answered  that  Jesus  is  the 
 surety  of  thedispensation  which 
 affords  or  supports  this  hope. 
 
 The  danger  of  becoming 
 surely  for  otliers  is  strongly  re- 
 presented. (Prov.  vl.  1 ;  XI.  15 ; 
 xvii.  18;  xx.  16  ;  xxii.  26.)  The 
 striking  or  joining  of  hands  was 
 a  token  of  sureiiship.     (Job 
 
 '  xvii.  3.) 
 
 594 
 
SWE 
 
 SWALLOW.  (Prov.  xxvi.  2.) 
 A  well  known  bird  of  passage, 
 whose  insiinctive  knowledge 
 of  its  lime  of  migration  is  used 
 by  the  prophet  (Jer.  viii.  7)  to 
 reprove  the  infidelity  of  the 
 Jews.  The  allusion  in  Prov. 
 xxvi.  2,  probably  signifies  that 
 the  curses  or  imprecations  of 
 the  wicked,  when  uttered, 
 against  the  innocent,  pass 
 away  like  the  birds  in  their 
 flight.  The  short,  broken  twit- 
 tering of  the  swallow  is  alluded 
 to,  Isa.  xxxviii.  14. 
 
 SWAN.  (Deut.  xiv.  16.)  A 
 large  and  very  beautiful  water 
 bird,  unclean  by  the  ceremo- 
 nial law,  (Lev.  xi.  18,)  though 
 it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
 some  other  bird  is  not  intended 
 in  this  passage. 
 
 SWEAR.    (See  Oath.) 
 
 SWEARINC^,  VOICE  of. 
 (Lev.  v.  1.)  The  import  of  this 
 expression  in  the  Hebrew  is, 
 "  hear  the  voice  of  adjuration, 
 execration,  oath,  or  curse,-'  i.  e. 
 hears  this  voice  when  one  is 
 adjured  or  put  upon  his  oath  as 
 a  witness  in  court.  The  pre- 
 cept unquestionably  relates, 
 not  to  the  duty  of  informing 
 against  a  common  swearer,  but 
 to  the  case  of  one  who  is  sum- 
 moned to  give  evidence  before 
 the  civil  magistrate.  Judges 
 among  the  Jews  had  power  to 
 adjure  not  only  the  witnesses, 
 but  the  persons  suspected,  as 
 appears  from  the  high-priest's 
 aajuring  our  Saviour,who  there- 
 upon answered,  though  he  had 
 before  been  silent.  (JMatt.  xxvi. 
 63.)  If  a  person  heard  the  voice 
 (^swearing,  i.  e.  if  he  were  ad- 
 jured by  an  oath  of  the  Lord  to 
 testify  what  he  knew  in  rela- 
 tion to  any  matter  of  fact  in 
 question,  and  yet,  through  fear 
 or  favour,  refused  to  give  evi- 
 dence, or  gave  it  but  in  part, 
 he  was  to  bear  his  iniquity.  It 
 seems  to  be  implied  that  sucn 
 a  one  should  be  considered  in 
 the  eight  of  God  as  guilty  of  the 
 
 SYC 
 
 transgression  which  he  has 
 thus  endeavoured  to  conceal. 
 
 SWINE,  (Deut.  xiv.  8,)  or 
 hogf  was  unclean  by  the  ritual 
 law,  and  an  object  of  utter  ab- 
 horrence to  the  Jews.  Hence 
 the  employment  of  the  prodi- 
 gal son  implies  the  most  con- 
 temptible degradation.  (Luke 
 XV. 15.)  Eating  the  flesh  of  swine 
 is  mentioned'among  the  sinful 
 practices  of  the  Jews.  (Isa. 
 Ixv.  4;  Ixvi.  17.)  The  filthy 
 habits  of  this  animal  illustrate 
 one  feature  in  the  character  o. 
 sinners.    (2  Pet.  ii.  22.) 
 
 The  herd  of  swine  miracu- 
 lously destroyed  (Matt.  viii. 
 32)  perhaps  belonged  to  Jews, 
 and  were  of  course"kept  in  vio- 
 lation of  their  own  law.  (Lev. 
 xi.  7.) 
 
 To  cast  pearls  before  swine 
 (Matt.  vii.  6)  is  not  more  vain 
 and  wasteful  than  to  offer  the 
 words  of  truth  and  wisdom  to 
 those  who  are  known  to  de- 
 spise them,  and  who  would 
 only  return  the  offer  with  in- 
 sult and  abuse. 
 
 SWORD.    (See  Arms.) 
 
 SYCARHNE.  (Luke  xvii. 
 6.)  A  tree  common  in  Egypt, 
 and  closely  resembling  ine 
 mulberry  tree  in  its  general 
 appearance. 
 
 SYCAMORE.  (Luke  xix.  4.) 
 A  common  tree  in  Judea,  and 
 tne  east  generally.  The  name 
 is  applied  (though  improperly) 
 to  our  butionwood,  or  plane 
 tree,  and  also  to  a  species  of 
 maple.  The  sycamore  of  the 
 Scriptures  is  the  Egyptian  fig 
 tree.  Its  fruit,  which  closely 
 resembles  figs,  is  much  esteem- 
 ed, and  the  gathering  of  it  was 
 intrusted  to  special  officers. 
 (1  Chron.  xxvii.  28.  Amos  vii, 
 14.)  The  wood  was  used  for 
 building,  anl  though  much 
 less  valuable  than  the  cedar, 
 (1  Kings  X.  27.  Isa.  ix.  10,)  was 
 very  durable.  Egyptian  cof 
 fins,  made  of  sycamore  wood 
 have  been  found  in  a  sound 
 595 
 
SYN 
 state  after  the  (supposed)  lapse 
 of  3000  years.  (For  description 
 and  engravinsrof  tree  and  fryit, 
 see  Youth's  Triend  for  Janu- 
 ary, 1829,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 SYCHAR.  (See  Shechem.) 
 SYCHEM.  (See  Shechem.) 
 SYENE.  (Ezek.  xxix.  10.) 
 A  very  ancient  city,  on  tlie 
 Bouthern  frontier  of  Egypt,  near 
 the  ruins  of  which  is  the  mo- 
 dern c'ny  of  Assooar, or  Asican. 
 The  site  of  Syene  shows  some 
 granite  columns  and  a  confused 
 iiiixtureofmoaumenls.  "Here," 
 says  a  celebrated  modern  geo- 
 grapher, "  the  Pharaohs  and 
 the  Ptolemies  raised  the  tem- 
 ples and  the  palaces  which  are 
 found  half  buried  under  the 
 drifting  sand.  Here  are  the 
 quarries  from  which  the  obe- 
 lisks and  colossal  statues  of 
 the  Egypiiantemples  were  dug. 
 And  on  the  polished  surface 
 of  some  of  the  native  rocks  are 
 found  hieroglyphic,  sculptured 
 representations  of  Egyptian 
 deities." 
 SYLVANUS.  (See  Silas.) 
 SYRACUSE.  (Acts  xxviii. 
 12.)  A  wealthy  and  important 
 city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
 island  of  Sicily.  It  was  founded 
 B.  c.  730,  and  is  distinguished 
 as  the  birthplace  of  Archime- 
 des. Syracuse  was  on  the  di- 
 rect course  from  INIalia  to  Rome, 
 and  the  apostle  stopped  there 
 two  or  three  days.  It  is  now 
 called  Syracusa,  or  St/ragossa, 
 and  contains  about  18,000  in- 
 habitants. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE.  (Matt.  xii. 
 9.)  There  is  no  conclusive 
 evidence  that  stated  meetings 
 of  the  people  for  social  re- 
 ligious services,  or  meetings 
 for  receiving  public  instruc- 
 tion, were  known  among  the 
 Jews  before  the  captivity.  Af- 
 ter that  event  such  meetings 
 became  common,  and  were 
 called  synagogues.  They  were 
 probably  held'at  first  in  private 
 nouses  or  in  the  open  air.  Af- 
 ter a  time,  however,  buildings 
 
 SYN 
 were  erected  expressly  fortheit 
 use,  and  these  were  called  sy- 
 nagogues, signifying  properly 
 the  collection  of  worshippers, 
 but  figuratively  the  place  of 
 meeting.  Tradition  says  there 
 were  no  less  than  four  hundred 
 and  eighty  of  these  buildings 
 in  the  city  of  Jerusalem  before 
 it  was  subdued  by  the  Romans. 
 Probably  this  is  an  exaggera- 
 tion. To  build  a  synagogue 
 was  considered  a  deed  ofpiety 
 and  public  advantage.  (Luke 
 vii.  5.)  They  might  be  built 
 in  any  place  where  there  were 
 worshippers  enough  to  asso- 
 ciate lor  the  purpose.  There 
 was  some  resemblance  be 
 tween  the  construction  of  these 
 synagogues  and  that  of  the 
 temple.  The  centre  building, 
 which  was  called  the  temple, 
 was  furnished  with  an  ark,  or 
 chest,  containing  the  copy  of 
 the  law  which  was  read.  A 
 low  desk  or  pulpit  was  erected 
 about  the  middle  of  the  syna- 
 gogue. Some  of  the  seats  were 
 higher  than  others,  and  were 
 assigned  to  the  elders.  They 
 were  called  chief  or  uppermost 
 seats.  (Matt,  xxiii.  6.)  Each 
 synagogue  had  its  proper  of- 
 ficers. The  council,  to  whom 
 the  supreme  direction  be- 
 longed, consisted  of  elders,  or 
 cigedand  influential  men.  The 
 president  of  this  council  was 
 called  the  ruler,  or  chief  ruler 
 of  the  synagogue.  (Mark  v. 
 22.  Acts  xiii.  15;  xviii.  8.) 
 The  rulers  of  the  synagogue 
 had  power  to  excommunicate 
 and  to  scourge  offenders.  (Matt. 
 X.  17.  John  xvi.  2.)  The  put- 
 ting  one  out  of  the  synagogue 
 was  a  punishment  greatly 
 dreaded  by  the  Jews— much 
 more  than  scourging.  It  would 
 seem,  also,  that  judicial  pro- 
 ceedings were  sometimes  had 
 in  the  synagogues,  where  cer- 
 tain offences  were  tried,  the 
 punishment  of  which  was 
 scourging.  The  stripes  were 
 inflicted  under  the  direction 
 596 
 
SYN 
 of  the  tribunal,  in  the  syna- 
 
 fogue,  (Acts  xxii.  19;  xxvi.  11,) 
 y  an  appointed  person. 
 
 When  the  apostles  were  ex- 
 cluded from  the  Jewish  syna- 
 gogues, they  held  their  reli- 
 gious meetings  in  private 
 houses.  Hence  we  repeatedly 
 hear  of  churches  in  houses. 
 (Acts  ii.  46;  v.  43.  Rom. 
 xvi.  5.  1  Cor.  xvi.  19.  Col.  iv. 
 15.  See  Biblical  Antiqui- 
 ties, vol.  ii.  ch.  viii.,  and  Se- 
 LUMiEL,  ch.  xi.,  both  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 The  service  of  the  synagogue 
 was  as  follows.  The  people 
 being  sealed,  tlie  minister,  or 
 angel  of  the  synagogue,  as- 
 cended the  pulpit,  and  offered 
 up  the  public  prayers;  the 
 people  rising  from  their  seals, 
 and  standing  in  a  posture  of 
 deep  devotion.  (Mait.  vi.  5. 
 Mark  xi.  25.  Luke  xviii.  11. 
 13.)  The  prayers  were  nine- 
 teen in  number,  and  were 
 closed  by  reading  the  execra- 
 tion. The  next  thing  was  the 
 repetition  of  their  phylacteries ; 
 after  which  came  the  reading 
 of  the  law  and  the  prophets. 
 The  former  was  divided  into 
 fifty-four  sections,  with  which 
 were  united  con-esponding  por- 
 tions from  the  prophets,  (see 
 Acts  xiii.  15.27;  xv.  21 ;)  and 
 these  were  read  through  once 
 in  the  course  of  the  year.  After 
 the  return  from  the  captivity. 
 an  interpreter  was  employed 
 in  reading  the  law  and  the 
 prophets,  (Neh.  viii.  2—8,) 
 who  interpreted  them  into  the 
 Syro-Chaldaic  dialect,  which 
 was  then  spoken  by  the  people. 
 The  last  part  of  the  service 
 was  the  exixtunding  of  the 
 Scriptures,  and  preaching  from 
 them  to  the  people.  This  was 
 done  either  by  one  of  the  of- 
 ficers, or  by  some  distinguished 
 person  who  happenecjf  to  be 
 present.  This  happened  with 
 our  Saviour,  (Luke  iv.  17 — 20,) 
 and  there  are  several  other 
 kostaaces  recorded  of  himself 
 
 SYR 
 
 and  his  aisciples  teaching  in 
 the  synagogues.  (Matt.  xiii. 
 54.  Mark  vi.  2.  John  xviii.  20. 
 Acts  xiii.  5. 15.  44 ;  xiv.  1 ;  xvii. 
 2—4.  10.  17 ;  xviii.  4.  26  ;  xix. 
 8.)  The  whole  service  con- 
 cluded with  a  short  prayer,  or 
 benediction.  (For  an  accurate 
 engraving  of  tlie  interior  of  a 
 modern  Jewish  synagogue,  and 
 a  description  of  the  service, 
 see  Youth's  Friend  for  Janu- 
 ary, 1836,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 SYRIA.  (2 Sam.  viii.  12.) 
 When  Babylon,  instead  of 
 Nineveh,  was  the  seat  of  su- 
 preme power,  the  words  Baby- 
 lonia and  Chaldea  were  equi- 
 valent to  Assyria,  and  com- 
 prehended two  extensive  re- 
 gions on  opposite  sides  of  the 
 Euphrates.  These  are  called 
 by  the  sacred  writers  Aram 
 beyond  the  river,  (2  Sam.  x.  16,) 
 and  Aram  on  this  side  of  the 
 river.  To  the  former,  by  way 
 of  distinction,  the  Greeks  gave 
 the  name  Assyria,  and  to  the 
 latter  the  name  of  Syria,  of 
 which  Zobah  first,  and  after- 
 wards Damascus,  (Isa.  vii.  8,) 
 was  the  capital.  (See  As- 
 syria.) 
 
 The  word  Syria,  called  in 
 the  Hebrew  Ara7n,  from  a  son 
 of  Shem,  (Gen.  x.  22,)  in  its 
 largest  acceptation,  extended 
 from  the  Mediterranean  and 
 the  river  Cydnus  to  the  Eu- 
 phrates, and  from  mount  Tau- 
 rus on  the  north  to  Arabia  and 
 the  border  of  Egypt  on  the 
 south.  It  was  divided  into 
 Syria  Palestina,  including 
 Canaan  and  Phenicia,  Casle 
 Syria,  between  two  ridges 
 of  mount  Lebanon,  and  Upper 
 Syria.  The  last  was  known 
 as  Syria  in  a  restricted  sense. 
 The  kings  of  these  provinces 
 were  engaged  in  frequent  wars 
 with  the  children  of  Israel, 
 sometimes  subject  to  them, 
 sometimes  independent,  some- 
 times opposed,  and  sometimes 
 in  alliance  with  them.  Syria 
 was  successively  subject  to  the 
 597 
 
SYR 
 
 Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Persian, 
 Macedonian,  Seleucidan,  Ko- 
 man,  and  Blohammedan  do- 
 minion, to  wliich  last  it  now 
 belongs. 
 
 The  leading  features  in  the 
 physical  aspect  of  Syria  con- 
 sist of  the  great  mouniainous 
 chainsof  Lebanon,  or  LiLianus, 
 and  Anti-Libanus,  extending 
 from  north  to  s.  ulh,  and  the 
 great  desert  lyine  on  the  south- 
 east and  east.  The  valleys 
 are  of  great  fertility,  and  yield 
 abundance  of  grain,  vines, 
 mulberries,  tobacco,  olives, 
 excellent  fruits,  as  oranges, 
 figs,  pistachios,  &c.  The  cli- 
 niate,  in  the  inhabited  parts, 
 is  exceedingly  fine.  Syria  is  , 
 inhabited  by  various  descrip- 
 tions of  people,  but  Turks  and 
 Greeks  form  the  basis  of  the 
 population  in  the  cities.  The 
 only  tribes  that  can  be  con- 
 sidered as  peculiar  to  Syria 
 are  the  tenants  of  the  heights 
 of  Lebanon.  The  most  remark- 
 able of  these  are  the  Druses 
 and  Maronites.  The  general 
 language  is  Arabic :  the  sol- 
 diers and  officers  of  govern- 
 ment speak  Turkish.  Of  the 
 old  Syriac  no  traces  exist. 
 
 No  country  was  more  cele- 
 brated in  antiquity  than  Syria. 
 In  the  south-west  was  the  land 
 of  promise,  the  country  of  the 
 Israelites,  and  the  cradle  of 
 Christianity.  Phenicia,  par- 
 ticularly its  cities  of  Tyre  and 
 Sidon,  were  famous  for  com- 
 merce. Damascus  was  long 
 the  capital  of  a  powerful  king- 
 dom, and  Antioch  was  once  a 
 royal  residence,  and  accounted 
 the  third  city  in  the  world  in 
 wealth  and  population.  Balbec 
 andPalmyra  still  exhibit  splen- 
 did ruins  of  their  ancient  great- 
 ness. Here  have  the  Assyrians, 
 Jews,  Greeks,  Parthians,  Ro- 
 mans, Saracens,  the  crusaders, 
 and  the  Turks,  struggled  at 
 different  periods  for  possession. 
 Ninus,  Semiramis,  Sesostris, 
 Alexander,  Pompey,  Antony, 
 
 SYU 
 
 Caesar,  Titus,  Aurelian,  &c. . 
 at  a  later  period,  Godfrey  of 
 Bouillon,  Richard  Cosur  de 
 Lion,  Saladin,  &c. ;  and,  still 
 more  recently.  Napoleon  and 
 Blohammed  Ali,  have  in  turn 
 acted  a  part  on  the  plains  of 
 Syria.  Ignorance,  superstition, 
 and  barbarism  now  cover  the 
 land,  and  no  traces  of  its  civil- 
 ization remain  but  ruins. 
 
 The  Nestorians  of  the  pre 
 sent  day  call  ihe:nselves/S>/7-to»' 
 Cliristiuns,  because  they  use 
 the  ancient  Syriac  in  their 
 forms  of  worship;  and  they 
 possess  the  New  Testament  in 
 this  language.  At  present  the 
 Arabic  language  prevails  in 
 Syria,  and  the  Bible  is  there- 
 fore within  their  power. 
 
 Syria  is  one  of  the  most  in 
 teresting  fields  of  missionary 
 effort  known  in  our  times. 
 Within  its  limits  are  to  be 
 found  nine-tenths  of  the  scenes 
 of  the  sacred  history.  It  was 
 the  only  home  for  the  church 
 for  thousands  of  years:  it  was 
 the  candlestick  for  the  only 
 light  which  shined  in  a  dark 
 world  for  nearly  twenty  cen 
 luries :  all  pans  of  it  have  been 
 trodden  by  the  feet  of  the  Son 
 of  God,  or  by  his  prophets  and 
 apostles:  scarcely  a  hill  or  a 
 valley  but  has  resounded  with 
 the  songs  of  Moses,  of  David, 
 and  of  Isaiah ;  while,  above  all, 
 here  was  shed  that  blood  which 
 taketh  away  the  sin  of  the 
 tcorld.  The  whole  country  is 
 one  vast  livin?  commentary 
 on  the  word  of  God,  spread  out 
 for  the  perusal  of  every  age, 
 and  for  the  confusion  of  every 
 skeptic. 
 
 And  if  these  countries  are 
 unrivalled  in  the  thrilling  in- 
 terest of  their  past  history,  they 
 are  equally  so  in  the  singular 
 features  of  their  present  con- 
 dition, and  in  the  solemnity 
 of  their  future  expectations. 
 Palestine,  robbed  and  spoiled, 
 sits  in  desolate  widowhood 
 amidst  the  dusl  and  ruins  of 
 598 
 
SYR 
 
 her  former  greatness ;  and  the 
 remnant  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
 once  the  entire  church  of  God, 
 live  lilce  aliens  and  bond-ser- 
 vants in  the  land  of  their  fa- 
 thers. But  if  we  have  not  read 
 the  word  of  God  in  vain,  there 
 is  much  of  unfulfilled  prophecy 
 and  promise  scattered  along 
 the  whole  track  of  revelation, 
 which,  touching  and  glancing 
 on  every  age,  throw  a  strong 
 and  cheering  light  over  the 
 bappy  future ;  and  faith  rests 
 assured,  that 
 
 "  These  ruins  shall  be  built  aeaiD, 
 And  all  this  dust  shall  rise." 
 
 The  present  number  of  in- 
 habitants is  variously  estimated 
 
 SYR 
 
 I  from  800,000  to  2,500,000.  Pro- 
 bably it  does  not  dilfer  far  from 
 1,CKX),000.  This  last  estimate 
 is  somewhat  confirmed  by  that 
 part  of  the  census  which  has 
 already  been  taken  by  the 
 present  new  government. 
 
 Several  missionary  stations 
 have  been  advantageously 
 taken.  Nine  male  mission- 
 aries are  now  (1S37)  on  the 
 ground;  tenor  twelve  schools 
 are  established ;  and  the  suc- 
 cess of  their  proceedings  is 
 encouraging. 
 
 Syria~-Maachah.  Thesame 
 with  Aram-Maachah.  (See 
 Aram.) 
 
 SYRO-PHENICIA.  (See 
 Phenicia.) 
 
 TAB 
 
 TAANACH,  (Josh.  xii.21,)  or 
 TANACH,  (Josh.  xxi.  25,) 
 waaa  city  of  Manasseh,  though 
 within  the  boundaries  of  Issa- 
 char.  It  was  not  far  from  Me- 
 giddo,  in  connexion  with  which 
 It  is  usually  mentioned. 
 
 TABEKAH.  (Num.  xi.  3.) 
 An  encampment  of  the  Israel- 
 ites in  the  wilderness  of  Haran. 
 This  name  was  given  to  it  to 
 commemorate  the"  judgment  by 
 fire  that  came  on  the  people 
 for  their  murmurings  at  this 
 place.    (Num.  xi.  3—34.) 
 
 TABERNACLE  (Ex.  xxv. 
 9)  properly  means  a  tent,  or 
 moveable  dwelling-place.  In 
 this  sense  it  is  used.  Num. 
 xxiv.  5.  Job  xi.  I4;  xxii.  23. 
 Matt.  xvii.  4;  but,  in  the 
 Scriptures  generally,  it  is  ap- 
 plied to  the  structure  which 
 was  prepared  by  Moses,  under 
 the  divine  direction,  for  the 
 Jews  to  worship  in.  The  tr^ 
 bemacle  of  the  congregation 
 (Ex.  xxxiii.  7)  was  erected  by 
 Mosea  f)r  his  own  use.  In  it 
 he  gave  audience  to  the  people, 
 heard  and  decided  controver- 
 sies, and  sought  divine  direc- 
 tion.     Probably    the    public 
 
 TAB 
 
 offices  of  religion  were  also 
 performed  here,  and  hence  the 
 name.  Another  tabernacle 
 was  erected  by  David  for  the 
 reception  of  the  ark.  (2  Sam. 
 vi.  17.  IChron.  xvi.  1.)  Bui 
 the  tabernacle,  pre-eminently 
 80  called,  was  built,  as  above 
 intimated,  by  Moses  for  (rod, 
 partly  to  be  the  palace  of  his 
 presence  as  the  King  of  Israel, 
 and  partly  as  the  place  of  the 
 most  solemn  acts  of  public 
 worship.  It  was  constructed 
 with  extraordinary  magnifi- 
 cence in  every  part,  according 
 to  the  express  instruction  of 
 Jehovah,  and  evidently  with 
 typical  design  and  use.  (Heb. 
 ix.  1 — 8.)  The  means  of  build- 
 ing it  were  furnished  in  super- 
 abundance by  the  voluntary 
 contributions  of  the  people, 
 (Ex.  xxxv.  4 — 9;  xxxvi.  3 — 7^ 
 who  had  enriched  themselves 
 with  the  spoils  of  the  Egyp- 
 tians, which  they  were  directed 
 to  take  as  a  remuneration  for 
 their  labour.  (Ex.  iii.  21,22. 
 See  Spoil.)  The  oversight  of 
 the  work  was  intrusted  to  Be 
 zaleel  and  Aholiab,  who  were 
 endued  with  supernatural  skill 
 599 
 
TAB 
 
 for  that  purpose.  (Ex.  xxxi.  i — 
 6.)  The  plan,  size,  materials, 
 furniture,  &c.,  to  the  most  mi- 
 nute particular,  were  revealed 
 to  Moses  in  mount  Sinai.  (Ex. 
 XXV.  9—40.)  The  whole  sp»ace 
 enclosed  for  the  tabernacle 
 was  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
 by  seventy-five.  This  space 
 was  surrounded  by  fine  linen 
 curtains,  nearly  eight  feet  in 
 height,  and  hung  from  brazen 
 (or  copper)  pillars.  They  were 
 secured  by  rods  or  cords  at- 
 
 TAB 
 
 lached  to  the  top,  and  stretched 
 80  as  to  fasten  to  wooden  or 
 metal  pins  in  the  ground,  as 
 represented  in  the  annexed 
 cut.  Twenty  of  these  pillara 
 or  columns  were  on  each  side, 
 and  ten  on  each  end.  The 
 entrance  or  gate  of  the  court 
 was  closed  with  a  curtain  of 
 different  colour  and  texture 
 from  the  rest,  stretched  on  four 
 of  the  pillars,  and  so  hung  as 
 to  be  drawn  up  or  let  down  at 
 pleasure.   (Ex.  xxvii.  9—18.) 
 
 At  the  upper  part  of  this 
 enclosure,  and  facing  the  en- 
 trance, was  the  tabernacle 
 properly  so  called ;  represent- 
 ed in  its  proper  place  in  the 
 above  cut,  and  in  a  more  dis- 
 tinct form  on  the  following 
 Eage.  This  was  forty-five  by 
 fteen  foet,  and  fifteen  feet 
 high.  The  sides  and  rear 
 were  enclosed  with  boards, 
 and  the  front  was  open.  Over 
 the  top  was  thrown  a  rich, 
 gorgeous  fabric,  of  various  ma- 
 terials, the  connexion  and  dis- 
 position of  which,  as  well  as 
 of  the  other  parts  of  the  cover- 
 
 ing, are  prescribed  with  thd 
 utmost  minuteness.  (Ex.  xxvi. 
 1—30.)  The  entrance  or  door 
 of  the  tabernacle  was  covered 
 with  a  beautifully  embroidered 
 curtain,  suspended  on  five 
 columns.  The  interior  was 
 subdivided  into  two  apart- 
 ments, and  separated,  each 
 from  the  other,  by  a  richly 
 wrought  curtain  hanging  en- 
 tirely across,  and  reaching 
 from  the  top  to  the  bottom. 
 This  was  called  the  veil,  or 
 second  veil,  (Heb.  ix.  3,)  be- 
 cause the  first  entrance  was 
 also  curtained.  The  outer 
 600 
 
TAB 
 
 TAB 
 
 apartment  was  called  the  holy 
 piace,  or  sanctuary,  or  \.\\e  first 
 tabernacle,  and  the  inner  was 
 the  second  tabernacle,  or  the 
 most  holy  place,  or  the  holiest 
 qfall.  (Heb.  ix.  2—8.) 
 
 As  to  the  furniture  of  the 
 court,  there  were— (1.)  The 
 altar  of  burnt-offering,  which 
 stood  near  the  centre  of  the  en- 
 closure. (See  Altar.)  (2.)  The 
 brazen  laver,  (Ex.  xxx.  18,  cor- 
 responding to  the  molten  sea, 
 1  Kings  vii.  23,)  which  stood 
 between  the  altar  and  the 
 tabernacle,  in  its  shape  re- 
 sembling an  urn.  It  contained 
 water  for  washing  the  hands 
 and  feet  of  the  priests,  when 
 they  were  about  to  enter  the 
 sanctuary. 
 
 As  to  the  furniture  of  the 
 tabernacle  itself,  there  was — 
 (I.)  The  golden  candlestick, 
 standing  on  the  left  of  a  person 
 entering  the  sanctuary.  (See 
 Candlestick.)  (2.)  The  table 
 qf  shew-bread,  opposite  to  the 
 candlestick.  (See  Bread.) 
 (3.)  The  altar  of  incense,  be- 
 tween the  shew-bread  and  the 
 51 
 
 candlestick,  and  in  front  of 
 the  ark,  (see  Altar;)  and  (4.) 
 The  ark  of  the  covenant.  (See 
 Ark.) 
 
 The  tabernacle  and  its  court 
 were  finished  with  perfect  ex- 
 actness, according  to  the  pat 
 tern  or  model  supernaturally 
 revealed  to  Moses.  (Heb.  viii. 
 5.)  And  it  is  estimated  that 
 the  silver  and  gold  used  in  its 
 I  construction  (to  say  nothing 
 of  the  brass  or  copper,  the 
 wood,  the  curtains  and  ca- 
 nopies, the  furniture,  &c.) 
 amounted  to  nearly  one  mil- 
 lion dollars,  at  the  present 
 value  of  the  precious  metals. 
 
 When  it  was  finished,  it 
 was  consecrated,  with  very 
 solemn  and  imposing  rites, 
 to  the  service  of  Jehovah.  (Ex. 
 xxx.  23-33;  xl.  9-11.  Heb. 
 ix.  21.) 
 
 While  passing  through  the 
 wilderness,  the  tabernacle  was 
 always  pitched  in  the  midst 
 of  the  camp.  The  tents  of  the 
 priests  and  Levites  surrounded 
 It  in  appointed  order;  and,  at 
 some  distance  from  them,  the 
 601 
 
TAB 
 
 residue  of  the  tribes  in  four 
 great  divisions,  consisting  of 
 uiree  tribes  each,  and  each 
 division  with  its  appropriate 
 name  and  standard  or  ban- 
 ner. (Num.  ii.  2—29.)  The 
 tabernacle  and  its  furniture 
 were  so  constructed  as  to  be 
 conveniently  taken  down, 
 transported,  and  set  up  again; 
 And  particular  individuals  or 
 classes  had  their  respective 
 dutiesassignedtothem.  Every 
 encampment  and  removal,  and 
 (Sven  the  order  of  the  march, 
 were  directed  expressly  by 
 ichovah.  On  the  day  the  ta- 
 bernacle was  completed,  God 
 revealed  himself  in  a  cloud, 
 which  overshadowed  and  filled 
 it.  By  this  cloud  assuming 
 the  shape  of  a  pillar  or  column, 
 their  subsequent  course  was 
 governed.  When  it  rested  over 
 the  tent,  the  people  always 
 rested  ;  and  when  it  moved,  the 
 tabernacle  was  taken  down, 
 and  the  whole  host  followed 
 wherever  it  led.  In  the  niehi 
 this  cloud  became  bright  like 
 a  pillar  of  fire,  and  preceded 
 them  in  like  manner.  (Ex.  xl. 
 35-38.  Num.  ix.  15—23.)  When 
 the  journeyings  of  the  people 
 •were  ended,  and  they  entered 
 Canaan,  the  tabernacle  was 
 erected  at  Gilgal,  (Josh.  iv.  19,) 
 where  it  continued  until  the 
 country  was  subdued,  and  then 
 it  was  removed  to  Shiloh, 
 (ISam.  i.  3,)  where  it  stood 
 between  three  hundred  and 
 our  hundred  years.  It  was 
 thence  removed  to  Nob,  (1  Sam. 
 xxi.  1—9,)  and  thence,  in  the 
 reign  of  David,  to  Gibeon, 
 (1  Chron.  xxi.  29,)  where  it  was 
 at  the  commencement  of  Solo- 
 mon's reign,  (2  Chron.  i.  1—13,) 
 and  when  the  temple  was 
 finished,  the  sacred  fabric,  with 
 its  vessels  and  furniture,  was 
 removed  into  it.  (See  Temple. 
 See  also  Biblical  ANTiaui- 
 liES,  vol.  ii.  chap,  ii.,  Scrip- 
 ture Illustrations,  vol.  i. 
 pp.  68—123,  and  Evendig  Eb- 
 
 TAB 
 
 CREATIONS,  vol.  iv.  pp.  16—26. 
 all  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 The  worshippers  of  the  hea- 
 then  gods  had  tabernacles, 
 (Amos  v.  26,)  the  idea  of  which 
 they  probably  took  from  the 
 Jews.  These  tabernacles  were 
 probably  portable,  carried  upon 
 the  shoulders,  and  contained 
 the  idol. 
 
 Tabernacle  of  witness, 
 (Num.xvii.  7,8,)  Tabernacle 
 
 OF     TESTIMONY.     (Ex.    XXXViii, 
 
 21.)  These  terms  may  refer 
 to  the  law,  which  was  deposited 
 in  the  tabernacle,  and  which 
 testified  to  God's  authority  and 
 holiness,  (Ex.  xxv.21 ;)  or  they 
 may  refer  to  the  revelations 
 which  God  made  of  himself  in 
 the  tabernacle,  and  by  which 
 he  testified  his  presence  and 
 majesty  in  the  most  sublime 
 and  mysterious  manner. 
 
 Tabernacles,  feast  of. 
 (See  Feasts.) 
 TABITHA,or  DORCAS.  (Acts 
 ix.  36.)  An  exemplary  disciple 
 of  Christ  at  Joppa,  wliose  deeds 
 of  benevolence  had  greatly 
 endeared  her  to  the  people. 
 (Acts  ix.  39)  After  she  was 
 dead,  and  her  body  prepared 
 for  the  grave,  she  was  mira- 
 culously restored  to  life  through 
 the  instrumentality  of  Peter. 
 
 TABLE.  (ISam.  xx.  29.) 
 The  table  of  ancient  times 
 was  nothing  but  a  circular 
 skin,  or  piece  of  leather,  spread 
 upon  the  matted  or  carpeted 
 floor ;  and  this,  at  home  as  well 
 as  by  the  way,  answers  for 
 table  and  cloth.  Near  the 
 edges  of  this  leathern  tray, 
 there areholes, or  loops,  through 
 which,  when  the  meal  is  com- 
 pleted, a  cord  is  drawn,  by 
 means  of  which  the  whole  at 
 fair  is  compressed  into  a  small 
 compass,and  hung  upon  a  nail. 
 Some  have  thought  that  this  is 
 the  pavilion  mentioned  inJer. 
 xliii.  10.    (See  Bread.) 
 
 The  nearest  approach  to 
 what  we  call  a  table  is  a  mere 
 stool,  which  is  placed  in  the 
 
TAB 
 
 centre  of  the  leather  we  have  I 
 mentioned.  This  mi^ht  be  | 
 intended  in  Judg.  i.  7.  Its  only 
 iLse  is  to  hold  "the  principal 
 dish,  or  dishes.  There  have 
 been  seen  among  the  Arabian 
 nobles,  and  in  cities,  long  ta- 
 bles. These,  however,  were 
 only  a  span  high,  and  not  a 
 yard  wide,  and  were  entirply 
 uncovered,  and  usually  held 
 nothing  but  the  dishes.  More 
 frequently  all  such  conve- 
 niences are  wanting,  and  the 
 dishes  stand  on  the  leather. 
 
 Instead  of  a  table  cloth,  there 
 is  spread  round  the  leathern 
 tray,  a  long  cloth,  or  two  such 
 cloths,  of  a  dark  colour,  which 
 prevent  the  soiling  of  the  car- 
 pet. Among  poorer  people 
 there  is  nothing  of  the  kind, 
 and  every  one  uses  his  hand- 
 kerchief, by  way  of  napkin. 
 Instead  of  plates,  there  are  set 
 thin,  round  cakes,  of  a  coarse 
 kind.  (See  Omar,  pp.  30,  31, 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 After  the  captivity,  raised 
 tables  like  ours  became  com- 
 mon, and  the  Persian  practice 
 of  reclining  on  couches  at 
 meals  was  introduced.  (For 
 the  manner  of  sitting,  see 
 Seats,  Eat.) 
 
 To  SERVE  TABLES.   (ActS  vl. 
 
 2.)  This  expression  may  de- 
 note attention  to  the  pecuniary 
 or  secular  affairs  of  the  church, 
 (Matt.  xxi.  12,  and  xxv.  27,)  or 
 it  may  relate  to  the  oversight 
 of  the  distribution  of  the  cha- 
 rityof  the  church  for  the  relief 
 of  the  poor. 
 Writing  TABLE.  (See  Book.) 
 TABLET.  (See  Book.) 
 TABOR,  mount.  (Judg.  iv. 
 6.)  A  limestone  mountain 
 which  rises  on  the  northern 
 border  ofthe  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
 about  fifty  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
 salem, and  six  from  Nazareth. 
 Its  shape  resembles  a  cone 
 with  the  point  struck  off,  the 
 summit  presenting  a  level 
 area  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
 length,  and  the  eighth  of  a 
 
 TAB 
 
 mile  in  breadth.  This  area 
 was  once  enclosed,  and  pro- 
 bably fortified,  as  there  are 
 the  ruins  of  a  thick  wall  of 
 solid  masonry  and  bastions  all 
 around  the  circumference  of 
 it,  and  the  foundations  of  pi  i- 
 vale  dwellings  within.  The 
 height  of  the  mount  is  va- 
 riously estimated  from  one 
 thousand  feet  to  three  miles. 
 By  some  the  estimate  is  made 
 from  the  time  taken  to  ascend, 
 and  by  others  from  the  actual 
 measurement  of  the  circuitoi.3 
 path,  which  may  be  pursuea 
 on  horseback  even  to  the 
 summit.  The  declivities  on 
 every  side  are  covered  to 
 the  very  top  with  verdure, 
 and  clumps  of  trees,  (oaks, 
 olives,  and  sycamores.)  inter- 
 spersed with  a  rich  variety  of 
 plants  and  flowers.  The  view 
 irom  the  summit  of  Tabor  is 
 described  by  all  travellers  in 
 terms  of  the  highest  admira- 
 tion. It  overtops  all  the  neigh- 
 bouring hills.  (Jer.  xlvi.  f8.) 
 On  the  west  is  the  noble  ex- 
 panse of  the  Mediterranean. 
 Beneath  are  spread  the  beau- 
 tiful plains  of  Esdraelon  and 
 Galilee,  while  in  the  distance 
 appear  Carmel,  and  the  heights 
 of  Samaria  and  Gilboa.  East- 
 ward, thirty  miles  off,  is  the 
 sea  of  Tiberias  ;  and  north  are 
 the  snow-covered  peaks  of 
 Lebanon.  The  modern  name 
 of  Tabor  is  djebel  Toor. 
 
 On  this  mountain,  Barak 
 encamped  with  ten  thousand 
 of  the  men  of  Zebulon  and 
 
 ,  Naphtali,  on  the  eve  of  tha 
 battle  with  Sisera,  (Judg.  iv. 
 6.  12.  14;)  and  here,  according 
 
 I  to  tradition,  was  the  wonderful 
 scene  of  the  transfiguration  of 
 Christ.  (Matt.  xvii.  1.) 
 
 Mr.  King,  an  American  mis- 
 sionary, ascended  this  moun- 
 tain in  the  autumn  of  1823,  and 
 speaks  of  the  summit  as  "a 
 lovely  spot,  and  one  on  which 
 every  man,  even  if  without  any 
 feelings  of  devotion,  would  love 
 603 
 
TAD 
 
 to  linger.  It  resembles  the 
 centre  of  one  immense  gar- 
 den." The  woody  parts  of  the 
 mountain  abound  in  some  spe- 
 cies of  wild  beasts,  and  have 
 ever  been  a  resort  for  hunters 
 and  fowlers.  (Hos.  v.  1.  For  a 
 more  particulardescriptionand 
 accurate  engraving  of  this  cele- 
 brated mountain,  see  Views  of 
 Palestine,  p.  20;  see  also 
 Evening  Recreations,  vol. 
 ii.  pp.  13—18,  and  ElisaiMa, 
 pp.  143-145,  all  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 TABRET,  (Gen.  xxxi.  27,) 
 an  instrument  of  music  used 
 in  the  east  at  the  present  day, 
 and  called  dift,  was  formed  and 
 played  like  the  modern  tam- 
 bourine. 
 
 TACHES  (Ex.  xxvi.  6.  11) 
 were  hooks  or  clasps  of  gold 
 and  copper,  used  in  connect- 
 ing the  curtains  of  the  taber- 
 nacle. 
 
 TACKLING.  (Isa.  xxxiii. 
 23.  Acts  xxvii.  19.)  Strictly, 
 in  the  former  passage,  it  is 
 used  for  the  ropes  attached  to 
 the  mast;  in  the  latter,  it  is 
 used  loosely,  and  imports  the 
 sails,  cordage,  baggage,  and 
 indeed  all  the  instruments  of 
 sailing  except  the  anchors,  or 
 what  was  indispensable  to  the 
 preservation  of  the  ship. 
 
 TADMOR,  (1  Kings  ix.  18,) 
 signifying  palm  tree.  An  an- 
 cient city,  said  to  have  been 
 founded  by  Solomon,  and  one 
 of  the  finest  and  most  magnifi- 
 cent cities  of  the  world.  It  was 
 situated  about  one  hundred 
 miles  east  of  Damascus,  twenty 
 west  of  the  Euphrates,  and  one 
 hundred  and  twenty  from 
 Aleppo,  on  a  kind  of  island, 
 separated  from  the  habitable 
 earth  by  an  ocean  of  barren 
 sands.  Alexander  the  Great, 
 who  conquered  it,  gave  it  the 
 name  of  Palmyra,  oithe  city  of 
 palms,  because  of  its  position 
 amid  palm  groves.  There  is 
 extant  a  folio  volume  with  fifty 
 plates,  illustrating  the   ruins 
 
 TAD 
 
 of  this  ancient  city.  Its  deso. 
 late  situation  in  the  midst  of  a 
 vast  and  arid  plain ;  its  high 
 antiquity,  and  its  almost  count- 
 less remains  of  architectural 
 splendour,  claim  for  it  the  first 
 attention  among  the  famous 
 monuments  of  past  ages.  At 
 present,  it  may  be  said  to  con- 
 sist of  a  forest  of  Corinthian 
 pillars,  erect  and  fallen.  So 
 numerous  are  they,  that  the 
 spectator  is  at  a  loss  to  reduce 
 them  to  any  order,  or  to  con- 
 ceive for  what  purpose  they 
 were  designed.  "In  the  space 
 covered  by  these  ruins,"  says 
 a  celebrated  modern  traveller, 
 "  we  sometimes  find  a  palace 
 of  which  nothing  remains  but 
 the  court  and  the  walls ;  som.e- 
 times,  a  temple  whose  peristyle 
 is  half  thrown  down ;  and  then 
 a  portico  or  gallery,  or  triumph- 
 al arch.  Here  stood  groups  of 
 columns  whose  symmetry  is 
 destroyed  by  the  fall  of  some 
 of  them ;  there  we  see  them 
 ranged  in  rows  of  such  length, 
 that  like  rows  of  trees  they  de- 
 ceive the  sight,  and  assume  the 
 appearance  of  solid  walls.  And 
 if  we  cast  our  eyes  on  the 
 ground,  we  behold  nothing  but 
 subverted  shafts,  some  above 
 others  shattered  to  pieces,  or 
 dislocated  in  their  jomts.  And 
 whichever  way  we  look,  the 
 earth  is  strewed  with  vast 
 stones  half  buried  with  broken 
 entablatures,  mutilated  friezes, 
 disfigured  relics,  effaced  sculp- 
 tures, violated  tombs,  and  al- 
 tars defiled  by  dust."  Of  all 
 the  ruins  those  of  the  temple 
 of  the  sun  are  the  most  mag- 
 nificent. 
 
 Situated  on  the  great  com- 
 mercial thoroughfare  between 
 Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  it  is 
 probable  that  Tadmor  was  a 
 place  of  importance  long  be- 
 fore the  time  of  Solomon,  and 
 was  used  by  him  for  purposes 
 of  commercial  enterpnise.  It  is 
 very  obvious  that  the  present 
 ruins  belong  to  different  and 
 604 
 
TAR 
 
 far  distant  ages.  The  place  is 
 now  occupie3  by  some  twenty 
 or  thirty  huts,  or  hovels,  which 
 afford  shelter  to  a  few  wild 
 Arabs. 
 
 TAHAPANES,  (Jer.  ii.  16,) 
 TEHAPHNEHES,(Ezek.xxx. 
 18,)  TAHPANHES,  (Jer.  xliii. 
 7,)  or  HANES.  (Isa.  xxx.  4.) 
 These  several  names  were 
 given  to  an  Egyptian  city, 
 known  to  the  Greeks  as  Daph- 
 ne, not  far  from  Pelusium.  It 
 seems  to  have  been  an  import- 
 ant place,  containing  a  palace 
 ofthekin^.  (Jer. xliii.  9.)  Thi- 
 ther the  Jews  under  Johanan 
 fled  from  the  Chaldeans,  after 
 the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ; 
 butwere  pursued  by  Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, king  of  Babylon,  who 
 established  his  throne  there, 
 in  accordance  with  Jeremiah's 
 prophecy.  Jeremiah  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  died  there. 
 
 TALENT.  (See  Measures.) 
 
 TALITHA  CUMI.  (Mark  v. 
 41.)  A  phrase  in  the  Syrian- 
 Chaldaic  language,  the  literal 
 translation  of  which  is  given 
 by  the  evangelist:  Damsel,  (or 
 maiden,)  arise. 
 
 TAMMUZ.  (Ezek.  viii.  14.) 
 Probably  the  same  with  the 
 Adonis  of  Grecian  mythology ; 
 a  pagan  idol,  the  rites  of  whose 
 worship  were  in  the  highest  de- 
 gree obscene.  (See  Jealousy, 
 IDOL  OF.    Month.) 
 
 TAPESTRY.  (Prov.  xxxi. 
 22.)  Cloth  woven  or  wrought 
 with  fisnires. 
 
 TAPPUAH.  (Josh.  XV.  34.) 
 There  were  evidently  two  ci- 
 ties of  this  name;  one  in  the 
 low  country  of  Judah,  towards 
 the  Mediterranean ;  the  other 
 belonging  to  Ephraim,  on  the 
 border  of  Manasseh,  and  most 
 
 Sirobably  the  En-tappuah  of 
 osh.  xvii.  7. 
 
 TARES.  (Matt.  xiii.  25.) 
 This  term,  as  used  in  the  Bible, 
 is  supposed  to  mean  the  darnel 
 grass,  now  known  in  eastern 
 countries.  Its  resemblance  to 
 wheat  is  very  exact,  but  some 
 51* 
 
 TAR 
 
 of  its  properties  are  highly  let 
 nicious.  Travellers  describe 
 the  process  of  pulling  up  this 
 grass,  and  separating  it  from 
 the  genuine  grain,  and  their 
 descriptions  perfectly  accord 
 with  the  language  of  our  Sa- 
 viour in  the  parable.  Perhaps, 
 however,  he  referred  to  any 
 noxious  weed  which  is  suffered 
 to  grow  with  the  grain  for  the 
 sake  of  the  latter,  until  the 
 time  of  harvest,  and  is  then 
 sure  to  be  separated  and  cast 
 away. 
 TARGET.  (See  Armour.) 
 TARSHISH,  (Isa.  xxiii.  1,) 
 or  THARSHISH.  (1  Kings  x. 
 22.)  It  is  supposed  that  some 
 place  of  this  name  existed  on 
 the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  or 
 among  the  southern  ports  of 
 Asia,  with  which  the  ships  of 
 Hiram  and  Solomon  traded  in 
 gold,  and  silver,  ivory,  and 
 apes,  and  peacocks.  (2Chron. 
 ix.  21.)  It  is  said  that  once  in 
 every  three  years  these  ships 
 completed  a  voyage,  and 
 brought  home  their  merchan- 
 dise. Hence,  it  is  inferred,  the 
 place  with  which  they  traded 
 must  have  been  distant  from 
 Judea ;  or  (what  may  be  con- 
 firmed by  the  variety  which 
 was  imported)  that  after  visit- 
 ing Tarshish,  and  procuring 
 what  it  furnished,  they  traded 
 with  other  and  more  distant 
 ports,  and  accomplished  the 
 whole  in  three  years.  The  - 
 more  rational  hypothesis  is, 
 that  in  that  age  of  the  world,  in 
 those  seas,  and  on  that  coast,  a 
 voyage  of  three  years  would 
 not  necessarily  imply  a  great, 
 distance  from  port  to  port 
 Ophir  was  perhaps  in  the  land 
 of  Tarshish ;  ana  it  is  not  im- 
 probable, that  from  the  value 
 of  its  productions,  and  the  ex- 
 tent of  its  commerce,  vessels 
 trading  in  that  direction,  and 
 always  touching  there,  would 
 be  called  ships  of  Tarshish. 
 The  vessels  given  by  Hiram  to 
 Solomon,  and  those  built  by 
 605 
 
TAR 
 
 Jehoshaphat,  fo^o<o  Tarshish, 
 were  all  launched  at  Ezion- 
 geber,  at  the  nonhern  extre- 
 mity of  the  eastern  gulf  of  the 
 Red  Sea,  now  called  the  gulf 
 of  Ahaba.  (2  Ohron.  xx.  36.) 
 The  trade  of  Ophir  and  Tar- 
 shish, wherever  these  places 
 were  situated,  is  generally  ad- 
 mitted to  be  what  is  now  called 
 the  East  India  trade. 
 
 There  appears  also  to  have 
 been  a  place  of  this  name 
 somewhere  on  the  Mediterra- 
 nean, to  which  Jonah  intended 
 to  flee ;  perhaps  Tartessus,  of 
 Spain.  (Jonah  i.  3  ;  iv.  2.)  Or 
 we  may  suppose  this  name  to 
 have  been  originally  applied 
 to  Tartessus,  to  which  it  is  evi- 
 dently similar,  and  afterwards 
 used  to  express  any  distant 
 port.    (See  Ships,  Tarsus.) 
 
 TARSUS,  (Acts  xxi.  39,)  the 
 chief  town  of  the  ancient  Cili- 
 cia,  and  the  birthplace  of  the 
 apostle  Paul,  was  situated  on 
 the  river  Cydnus,  about  six 
 miles  from  its  mouth,  and  like 
 Alexandria,  was  celebrated 
 both  for  its  commerce  and  lite- 
 rature. When  Cilicia  became 
 a  Roman  province.  Tarsus  re- 
 ceived from  the  emperor  Au- 
 gustus the  privileges  of  a  Ro- 
 man colony.  HencerPaul  speaks 
 of  himself  as  free-born,  and 
 claims  the  immunities  of  a  Ro- 
 man citizen.  (Acts  xxii.  28.) 
 The  privileges  of  this  city  made 
 it  the  resort  of  many  wealthy 
 and  learned  men,  and  was  the 
 occasion  of  its  rising  to  great 
 commercial  eminence,  and  to 
 be  highly  distinguished  as  a 
 seat  of  learning.  In  regard  to 
 the  latter,  profane  historians 
 say  that  in  philosophy  and  po- 
 lite learning,  the  schools  of 
 Tarsus  even  excelled  those  of 
 Athens  and  Alexandria.  Paul 
 was  indebted  to  his  native  city 
 not  only  for  his  privileges  of 
 Roman  citizensliip,  but  for  his 
 literary  acquirements.  Tarsus 
 was  a  very  ancient  town,  and, 
 as  some  suppose,  derived  its 
 
 TEK 
 
 [  name  from  Tarshish,  one  of  the 
 sonsofJavan.  (Gen.  x.  4.)  It. 
 is  now  poor  and  dilapidated, 
 though  it  has  a  population  of 
 30,000,  and  some  commerce. 
 Its  modern  name  is  Tarsous. 
 
 TAVERNS.  (See  Threb 
 Taverns.) 
 
 TEARS.  (Ps.lvi.8.)  Allu- 
 sion is  sujjposed  to  be  made  in 
 this  passage  to  an  ancient  cus- 
 tom, which  was  preserved 
 among  the  Romans,  of  collect- 
 ing the  falling  tears  of  mourn- 
 ers at  funerals,  and  putting 
 them  into  a  bottle,  or  urn,  call- 
 ed a  lacrymatory .  or  tear-bottle. 
 These  vessels  were  afterwards 
 fixed  upon  the  sepulchres  of 
 the  dead,  thus  seeming  to  pre- 
 serve a  memorial  of  the  affec- 
 tion and  srief  of  the  survivors. 
 TEBETH.  (See  Month.) 
 TEETH.  (See  Tooth.) 
 TEHAPHNEHES.  (See  Ta- 
 
 HAPANES.) 
 
 TEIL  TREE.  (Tsa.  vi.  13.) 
 Though  the  original  word  in 
 this  passage  is  rendered  oak,  it 
 is  generally  supposed,  from  the 
 connexion,  that  the  lime,  or 
 linde?!,  is  here  meant.  Perhaps 
 two  different  species  of  the  oak 
 may  be  intended. 
 
 TEKEL.    (SeeMENE.) 
 
 TEKOA,  (2  Chron.  xi.  6,)  or 
 TEKOAH.  (2Sam.  xiv.  2.)  A 
 city  of  Judah,  south-east  of  Je- 
 rusalem, and  a  few  miles  from 
 Bethlehem.  It  was  probably 
 founded  by  Ashur,  (1  Chron, 
 ii.  2;  iv.  5,)  and  was  fortified 
 by  Rehoboam.  (2  Chron.  xi.  6.) 
 This  seems  to  have  been  a  spot 
 resorted  to  by  herdsmen,  among 
 whom  v/as  Amos  the  prophet. 
 (Amos  i.  1.)  It  was  here  too 
 that  Joab  obtained  a  woman  of 
 peculiar  skill  and  address  to 
 present  a  fictitious  case  to  Da- 
 vid, in  order  to  f>rce  from  him 
 a  favourable  judgment  in  the 
 parallel  case  of  Absalom.  Da- 
 vid,  however,  detected  the  hand 
 of  Joab  in  the  whole  device. 
 
 WiLDERNRSs  OF,  was  in  the 
 same  region,  and  constituted 
 606 
 
TEM 
 
 Eart  of  the  wilderness  of  Judah. 
 [ere  Jehoshaphat  defeated  the 
 Ammonites  and  Moabites.  (2 
 Chron.  xx.  20.) 
 
 TELABIB.  (Ezek.  iii.  15.) 
 A  town  on  the  river  Chebar, 
 where  Ezekiel  and  many  of 
 the  Jewish  exiles  dwelt.  Its 
 site  is  supposed  to  be  occupied 
 by  the  modern  Thelabar. 
 
 TEM  AN.  (Amos  i.  12.)  A 
 city  of  Edom,  not  far  from 
 Joktheel,  supposed  to  have 
 been  settled  by  Teman,  grand- 
 son of  Esau.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11.) 
 In  Hab.  iii.  3,  allusion  is  made, 
 in  the  highest  grade  of  poetic 
 imagery,  to  the  removal  of  the 
 symbols  of  the  divine  presence 
 from  the  land  of  Teman  and 
 Paran  to  Sinai.  (Ex.  xix.  See 
 Edom.) 
 
 TEMPLE.  (1  Sam.  i.  9.)  The 
 sacred  edifice  erected  at  Jeru- 
 salem as  a  permanent  place  of 
 worship  for  the  Jewish  church. 
 In  lis  general  form  it  resembled 
 the  tabernacle,  for  which  it 
 was  substituted,  and  it  was  the 
 centre  of  the  same  great  system 
 of  ceremonial  worship.  (See 
 Tabernacle.)  The  temple 
 was  built  on  mount  Moriah. 
 (2 Chron.  iii.  1.)  Thiswasone 
 summit  of  a  range  of  hills,  the 
 general  name  of  which  was 
 mount  Zion.  (Ps.  cxxxii.  13, 
 14.  SeeJERUsALEji.)  The  idea 
 of  building  it  was  suggested  to 
 the  mind  of  David,  (1  Chron. 
 xvii.  1,)  and  became  a  subject 
 of  his  lively  and  unceasing  in- 
 terest. He  collected  what  was 
 equal  to  forty-eight  thousand 
 tons  of  cold  and  silver,  or,  as 
 some  Rave  estimated  the 
 amount,  «35,520,000,0(X),  (the 
 lowest  estimates  give  one-fifth 
 of  this  amount;)  besides  im- 
 mense quantities  of  brass, 
 iron,  stone,  limber,  &c. ;  and 
 he  secured  skilful  mecha- 
 nics and  artificers  for  every 
 branch  of  the  work.  (1  Chron. 
 xxii.  14;  xxix.  4.  7.)  He  also 
 furnished  the  design,  plan,  and 
 location  of  the  building,  in  all 
 
 TEM 
 
 which  he  was  divinely  in- 
 structed. (1  Chron.  xxi. ;  xxii. ; 
 xxviii.  11—19.)  He  was  not 
 permitted,  however,  to  see  a 
 single  step  taken  in  its  erec- 
 tion. (1  Kings  v.  3.)  The  su- 
 perintendence of  the  building 
 was  committed  to  Solomon,  the 
 son  and  successor  of  David, 
 who  in  the  fourth  year  of  hia 
 reign  commenced  the  work. 
 Tliere  were  183,600  Jews  and 
 strangers  employed  on  it ;  of 
 Je\vs,"30,000,  by  rotation  10,000 
 a  month;  of  Clanaanites,  153,600, 
 of  whom  70,(K)0  were  bearers 
 of  burdens,  80,000  were  hewers 
 of  wood  and  stone,  and  3600 
 overseers.  The  parts  were  all 
 prepared  at  a  distance  from 
 the  site  of  the  building,  and 
 when  they  were  brought  toge- 
 ther, the  whole  immen"se  struc- 
 ture was  erected  without  the 
 sound  of  hammer,  axe,  or  any 
 tool  of  iron,  (1  Kings  vi.7,)  and 
 at  the  end  of  seven  and  a  half 
 years  it  stood  complete  in  all 
 its  splendour,  the  glory  of  Jeru- 
 salem, and  the  most  magnificent 
 edifice  in  the  world. 
 
 The  temple,  like  the  taber-^ 
 nacle,  had  its  front  towards  the 
 east.  The  porch,  or  portico,  ex- 
 tended across  the  whole  fi-ont, 
 projecting  fifteen  feet  from  the 
 main  building,  and  rising  to 
 the  height  of  one  hundred  and 
 eighty  feet.  Upon  the  sides 
 and  rear  of  the  main  building 
 was  an  additional  building  oT 
 three  stories,  each  nearly  eight 
 feet  high.  This  structure  was 
 about  half  the  height  of  the 
 temple,  and  though  bui  It  against 
 the  walls,  was  not  fastenei 
 into  them.  (1  Kings  vi.  6.)  It 
 was  divided  into  apartments 
 like  chambers,  which  opened 
 into  the  gallery  thatsurrounded 
 it.  There  was  a  flight  of  stairs 
 on  the  south  side^which  led 
 into  the  second  story,  and  an- 
 other leading  from  the  second  to 
 the  third,  (f  Kings  vi.  8.)  The 
 whole  building  and  its  envi- 
 rons were  entered  by  two  Pourl& 
 G07 
 
TEJM  TEM 
 
 The  subjoined  engraving  re-  I  oug  courla,  as  described  by  Jew 
 presents  ihetemple  and  its  vari-  ( ish  historians  and  antiquaries. 
 
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 BF 
 
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 3) 
 
 East. 
 
TEM 
 
 A  The  outer  will. 
 
 B  iTie  gates  in  the  outer  wall. 
 
 C  The  gale  Shushan,  which  is  called  the 
 
 gate  of  the  ting.    (I  Chron.  ix.  18.) 
 D  Gate  of  Huldah. 
 E  Another  gate  of  the  same  name. 
 F  The  gate  Tedi. 
 G  Solomon's  porch.    (John  i.  23.) 
 H  Court  of  the  Gentiles. 
 I  The  enclosure,  or  outer  verge  of  the 
 
 court,  within  which  none  but  Jews 
 
 might  come,  called  the  outer  court, 
 
 or  court  of  the  women. 
 K  The  temple  itself. 
 L  The  foundation  of  the  temple. 
 M  The  flight  of  steps  to  the  temple, 
 N  The    columns    called    Jachin    and 
 
 TEM 
 
 P  Tlie  vestibule,  or  porch  of  the  temple. 
 Q  The  holy  place. 
 R  The  most  holy  place. 
 S  A  court  on  each  side  of  the  temple, 
 which  separated  the  people  from 
 the  court  of  the  priests. 
 V  The  brazen  laver. 
 :   W  Ten  brazen  vessels,  five  on  each  side, 
 (I  Kings  vii.  38,  39,)  where  thesa. 
 crifices  were  washed  before  they 
 were  brought  to  the  altar. 
 '   X  The  ereat  altar  of  burnt-offerings. 
 :  Y  Twenty-four  rings,  to  which  the  ani. 
 i         mals  were  fastened  that  were  de- 
 I         signed  for  sacrifice. 
 ;  Z  Eight  marble  tables,  on  which  th« 
 j         slain  animals  were  laid  to  be  pre- 
 I         pared  for  the  altar. 
 
 C  Eight  small  marble  columns,on  which 
 the  slain  animals  were  suspended. 
 
 t  Gazitb,  the  room  or  court  where  the 
 great  sanhedrim  or  Jewish  court 
 held  its  sessions. 
 
 C  Another  part  of  the  same  court,  where 
 the  priests'  courses  were  distributed 
 by  lot. 
 
 d  The  place  where  was  distributed  all 
 the  wood  required  for  the  use  of 
 the  temple. 
 
 e  The  court  or  chamber  of  the  wheels, 
 where  the  water  for  the  officers  of 
 the  temple  to  drink  was  drawn  up 
 by  means  of  a  wheel. 
 
 'The  gate  of  burnt-ofFeriag,  through 
 which  the  wood  was  brought. 
 
 g  The  gate  of  firstlings,  through  which 
 the  firstlings  were  brought  to  be  of- 
 fered up. 
 
 h  The  water  gate. 
 
 t  Barriers  to  prevent  the  overlooking  of 
 the  temple. 
 
 ft  Thekitchen,in  whichthatportionof  the 
 sacrifices  which  were  desisned  for 
 the  priests  wasprepared  for  their  use. 
 The  court  of  the  lambs,  where  eight 
 lambs  were  kept  for  the  daily  sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 m  The  court  of  fire,  where  fire  was 
 constantly  preserved. 
 
 n  The  court  of  shew-hread,  where  the 
 
 shew,  bread   was  prepared  in  the 
 
 evening  before  the  Sabbath. 
 0  The  court  in  which  was  distributed 
 
 oil  or  wine  for  the  sacrifices. 
 p  The  fire  gate,  leading  to  the  place 
 
 where  the    guards  of   the   priests 
 
 were,  and  where  was  a  fire  for  the 
 
 priests'  use. 
 q  The  gate  of  sacrifices,  through  which 
 
 the  sacrifices  were  carried  into  the 
 
 inner  court, 
 r  The  gate  of  the  singers,  near  to  the 
 
 singing  Levites. 
 *  The  washing  gale,  where  the  sacrifices 
 
 were  washed  preparatory  to  being 
 
 taken  to  the  altar. 
 t  Parbar,  or  court  ga'e,  where  the  skins 
 
 of  animals  were  taken  off  and  salted, 
 u  The  chamber  of  salt. 
 w  The  court  of  the  priests,  twenty-five 
 
 feet  wide  and  two  hundred  and  sixty 
 
 long. 
 X  Two  tables,  one  of  silver  and  the  other 
 
 of  marble,  near  the  altar  of  burnt- 
 
 offering,    containing    ninety-thiee 
 
 golden  vessels. 
 yAsh  vessels,  designed  to  receive  the 
 
 ashes  of  the  consumed  sacrifices, 
 z  A  cistern  of  water. 
 
 1  The  court  of  the  Israelites. 
 
 2  The  throne  of  Solomon.  (2  Chron.  vi. 
 
 13.) 
 
 5  The  place  where  the  half  shekel  tax 
 
 was  received.    (Ex.  xxx.  13.) 
 4  The  outer  court  of  the  women. 
 
 6  The  gate  of  Nicanor,  called  the  higher 
 
 gate,  (2  Kings  xv.  35.)  and  the  new 
 gite.     (Jer.  xxxvi.  10.) 
 
 6  A  co-jrt  for  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 
 
 7  Pulpit  of  the  high-priest,  from  which 
 
 a  part  of  the  law  was  read  at  the 
 feast  of  propitiation. 
 
 t  The  great  golden  candlesticks. 
 
 •  Places  between  the  columns  for  receiv- 
 ing gifts. 
 
 JO  The  court  of  the  Nazaritcs. 
 
 j  11  The  court  of  wood,  where  wood  was 
 I  selected  for  the  burnt-offerings, 
 j  12  The  court  where  the  lepers  showed 
 i  themselves  to  the  priests  before  of- 
 f  fering  their  sacrifices. 
 I  13  The  court  where  oil  and  wine  were 
 \  deposited  for  the  daily  sacrifices, 
 I  and  for  the  lamps.  (Ex.  xxvii.  20  ) 
 '  14  Synagogue  where  the  law  was  ex- 
 '.  plained  on  the  Sabbatb.  and  feast 
 {         davs.  , 
 
 5  15  The  beautiful  gate  of  the  temple. 
 '   16  The  flight  of  steps  on  which  the  Le- 
 vites  stood  and    sung  the   fifteen 
 psalms,  from  cxx.  to  cxxxiv.  in 
 elusive,  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 
 17  Openings  for  the  passage  nf  smoke. 
 609 
 
TEM 
 
 The  inner  court,  called  tlie 
 court  before  the  temple,  or  the 
 court  of  the  priests,  correspond- 
 ed generally  with  the  court  of 
 the  tabernacle,  as  did  also  the 
 eacred  apartments,  furniture, 
 and  utensils. 
 
 The  temple  of  Solomon  stood 
 altogether  four  hundred  and 
 twenty-four  years ;  but  in  the 
 Bhort  space  of  thirty  years  after 
 its  completion,  it  was  plunder- 
 ed by  S'hishak,  king  of  Egypt. 
 (1  Kings  xiv.  25, 26.)  After  this 
 it  was  frequently  profaned  and 
 
 Sillaiged,  and  was  at  last  broken 
 own  and  destroyed  by  the 
 king  of  Babylon,  b.  c.  588,  and 
 the  nation  itself  carried  into 
 captivity.  In  fifty-two  years 
 after  these  events,  a  number 
 of  the  Jews  returned,  and  the 
 rebuilding  of  the  temple  was 
 commenced  under  the  superin- 
 tendence of  Zerubbabel,  the 
 Jewish  governor,  and  Jeshua, 
 or  Joshua,  the  high-priest. 
 They  were  permitted  and  en- 
 couraged to  undertake  it  by 
 Cyrus,  the  Persian  emperor,  to 
 whom  Judea  had  now  become 
 tributary.  (Isa.  xliv.28;  xlv.13.) 
 Much  interruption  and  delay 
 attended  the  enterprise,  of 
 •which  we  have  a  full  account 
 in  the  book  of  Ezra.  It  was 
 completed,  however,  and  dedi- 
 cated B.  c.  515,  or  about  seven- 
 ty-three years  after  the  destruc- 
 tion of  it ;  and  though  inferior 
 in  many  respects  to  the  first 
 temple,  having  no  ark,  no  mer- 
 cy-seat, no  visible  revelation 
 of  the  divine  glory,  no  sacred 
 fire,  no  urim  and  thummim, 
 and  no  spirit  of  prophecy,  (Ezra 
 iii.  12,  13;)  still  it  was  in 
 breadth  and  height  twice  the 
 size  of  Solomon's.  It  furnished 
 a  fixed  place  of  worship  for  the 
 nation,  and  ultimately  became 
 the  theatre  of  far  more  glorious 
 illustrations  of  the  divine  glory 
 than  the  first  temple  ever  wit- 
 nessed. (Has.  11.  6—9.  Mai. 
 ill.  1.  Col.  11.^9.  ITirn.  iil.16.) 
 The  temple  of  Zerubbabel  had 
 
 TEM 
 
 stood  nearly  fivehundred  years, 
 and  was  much  decayed,  when 
 Herod  the  Great,  with  a  view 
 to  secure  the  favour  of  the 
 Jews,  and  obtain  to  himself  a 
 great  name,  undertook  to  re- 
 build it;  so  that  It  was  not  a 
 new  edifice,  strictly  speaking, 
 but  rather  a  complete  repair  of 
 the  second  temple.  He  began 
 the  work  only  seventeen  years 
 before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
 completed  the  main  building 
 in  less  than  ten  years,  so  that 
 it  was  fit  for  the  service.  The 
 whole  work  occupied  forty-six 
 years.  (John  ii.  20.)  We  shall 
 describe  it  as  it  stood  in  the 
 davs  of  our  Saviour. 
 
 The  outer  wall,  which  en- 
 closed the  buildings,  was  about 
 one-eighth  of  a  mile  square, 
 and  nearly  forty  feet  above  the 
 summit  of  the  mount.  This 
 wall  was  built  up  from  the  val- 
 ley beneath,  and  was  in  some 
 places  from  six  hundred  to  se- 
 ven hundred  feet  high.  It  is 
 supposed  to  have  been  from 
 this  height  (or  pinnacle)  that 
 our  Saviour  was  urged  to  cast 
 himself  (Matt.  iv.  5—7.)  In 
 these  walls  were  seven  mas- 
 sive and  costly  gates,  each  fif- 
 teen feet  wide,  and  thirty  feet 
 high.  These  were  in  addltioa 
 to  the  beautiful  gate,  (Acts  iii. 
 2,)  which  was  on  the  east  side, 
 and  was  called  beautiful  be- 
 cause it  was  of  the  finest  brass, 
 (copper,)  seventy-five  feet  in 
 height,  highly  polished,  and 
 richly  adorned.  Between  the 
 gates,  along  the  inside  of  the 
 wall,  were  piazzas  supported 
 partly  by  the  wall  itself,  and 
 partly  by  a  double  row  of  co- 
 lumns, except  on  the  south 
 side,  where  were  three  rows  of 
 columns.  The  porch  on  the 
 east  side  was  called  Solomon's, 
 (John  x.  23,)  because  he  built 
 It,  or  at  least  the  stupendous 
 wall  on  which  it  rested.  All 
 within  the  area  which  these 
 walls  enclosed  was  called  the 
 temple. 
 
 610 
 
TEM 
 
 The  larger  part  of  the  area 
 was  vacant  ground,  completely 
 
 Saved  with  marble,  and  was 
 istinguished  as  the  court  of 
 theGentiles,  because  all  classes 
 of  persons  might  enter  it.  But 
 beyond  the  wall  which  sepa- 
 rated this  from  the  next  court 
 no  uncircumcised  person  was 
 permitted  to  pass.  A  prohibi- 
 tion to  that  effect  was  inscribed 
 upon  the  gate-post.  (Eph.  ii. 
 \3, 14  )  Around  this  outer  court 
 the  stock  for  the  supply  of  the 
 temple  service  was  kept,  and 
 the  money-changers  had  their 
 places  of  business.  The  second 
 court  was  enclosed  by  a  wall. 
 It  was  called  the  new  court,  (2 
 Chron.  xx.  5,)  the  outer  court, 
 (Ezek.  xlvi.  21,)  or  court  of  the 
 toomen,  because  women  were 
 not  allowed  to  go  beyond  it  to- 
 ward the  sanctuary,  unless 
 when  they  brought  a  sacrifice. 
 In  this  court  men  and  women 
 performed  their  ordinary  wor- 
 ship unaccompanied  witli  sa- 
 crifices. (Luke  xviii.  10—14. 
 Acts  iii.  1 ;  xxi.  26—30.)  Here 
 also  was  the  treasury,  (Mark 
 xii.  41,)  where  the  gifts  for  the 
 service  of  the  temple  were  de- 
 posited in  small  chests  or  cof- 
 fers, fixed  in  the  surrounding 
 wall ;  and  this  was  the  place 
 where  some  of  our  Saviour's 
 most  impressive  discourses 
 were  delivered.  (John  viii.20.) 
 The  next  court  towards  the 
 sanctuary  was  the  court  of  Is- 
 rael. The  outer  half  of  this 
 court  was  entered  by  common 
 Israelites  to  attend  on  particu- 
 lar services  of  religion;  but  the 
 inner  half,  next  to  the  sanctu- 
 ary, was  called  the  court  of  the 
 priests,  and  they  were  sepa- 
 rated from  each  other  by  a  low 
 railing.  Our  Saviour,  being 
 of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  had  no 
 privileges  in  th»temple  above 
 any  other  Israelite.  Hence 
 whatever  he  is  said  to  have 
 done  in  the  temple  must  be 
 intended  of  the  courts  of  the 
 temple. 
 
 TEM 
 
 "Within  the  court  of  th 
 priests  stood  the  altar  ofbtimt- 
 offering  and  the  brazen  laver, 
 and  not  even  an  Israelite  could 
 on  any  condition  pass  the  rail- 
 ing that  enclosed  them,  unless 
 when  he  came  to  offer  his  sa- 
 crifice before  the  altar. 
 
 Next  came  tlie  sanctuary, 
 the  materials  of  which  were 
 beautiful  and  costly  beyond  de- 
 scription. (Mark  xiii.  I.)  The 
 porch  extended  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  feet  across  Ine  front 
 of  the  main  building.  It  was 
 tliirty  feet  wide,  and  rose  at 
 the  highest  elevation  to  nearly 
 one  hundred  and  eighty  feet. 
 The  entrance  to  this  porch  was 
 one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
 feet  by  thirty-seven.  It  had  no 
 door.  The  sanctuary  itself  was 
 ninety  feet  high,  ninety  feet 
 long,  and  thirty  feet  wide. 
 Around  it,  except  in  front,  was 
 a  structure  of  three  stories  high, 
 like  that  attached  to  the  first 
 temple  as  Ijefore  described. 
 The  sanctuary  had  two  apart- 
 ments, separated  from  each 
 other  by  a  curtain  or  veil, 
 (Matt,  xxvii.  51,)  viz.  the  holy 
 place,  which  occupied  sixty 
 feet  of  the  whole  length,  and 
 in  which  were  the  altar  of  in- 
 cense, the  golden  candlestick, 
 and  the  table  of  shew-bread ; 
 and  the  7nost  holy  place,  which 
 measured  thirty  ieei  every  way. 
 It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in 
 our  translation  of  the  Bible, 
 when  these  apartments  are 
 mentioned  by  these  terms,  the 
 word  place  is  generally,  if  not 
 always,  supplied  by  the  trans- 
 lators. 
 
 This  temple  was  razed  to 
 its  foundation  by  the  Romans, 
 A.  D.  70—71,  and  the  site  of  it 
 was  made  like  a  ploughed  field. 
 (Jer.  xxvi.  18.  Matt.  xxiv.  2.) 
 It  is  now  occupied  by  a  Turk- 
 ish mosque,  which  neither  Jew 
 nor  Christian  was  until  lately 
 permitted  to  enter. 
 
 The  veneration  with  which 
 the  temple  was  regarded  by  the 
 
TEN 
 
 Jews  appears  from  the  manner 
 »a  which  they  treated  any  sup- 
 posed disrespectful  allusion  to 
 It.  (Matt.  xxvi.  61.  John  ii.  19, 
 20.  Acts  xxi.  28,  29;  xxiv.  6; 
 XXV.  8.  See  Jerusalem.  For 
 a  full  account  of  the  temple, 
 and  its  imposing  services,  see 
 Selumiel,  ch.  iv.,  Scripture 
 Illustrations,  part  ii.,  Elisa- 
 MA,  ch.  viii.— X.,  and  Biblical 
 ANTiauiTiEs,  vol.  ii.  ch.  iii.— 
 v.,  all  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 TEMPT,  (Matt.  xxii.  18,) 
 TEMPTATION.  (Luke  iv.I3.) 
 These  words  are  used  in  va- 
 rious senses  by  the  sacred  writ- 
 ers. The  ordinary  import  of 
 them  is  allurement  or  entice- 
 ment to  sin.  Hence  our  great 
 adversary  the  devil  is  called 
 the  tempter.  (Matt.  iv.  3.) 
 These  words  sometimes  denote 
 the  trial  of  a  person's  faith  or 
 obedience,  (Gen. xxii.  1.  James 
 i.  2,  3,)  or  the  trial  of  God's 
 patience  and  forbearance,  (Ex. 
 xvii.  2.  1  Cor.  x.  9 ;)  but  gene- 
 rally they  signify  that  which 
 persuades  to  sin,  The  prayer 
 lead  us  not  i?ito  temptation 
 (Matt.  vi.  13)  does  not  imply 
 that  God  leads  us  into  tempta- 
 tion, (James  i.  13,  14.)  but  n  is 
 a  prayer  that  we  may  not  be 
 suffered  to  fall  into  temptation. 
 When  it  is  said  that  the  law- 
 yer and  others  tempted  our 
 Saviour,  (Matt.  xvi.  1 ;  xix.  3. 
 Mark  x.  2.  Luke  x.  25,)  it  is 
 meant  that  they  tried  to  en- 
 snare him,  or  lead  him  into 
 the  commission  ofsomeotfence. 
 (See  th  is  subject  plai  nly  treated 
 in  the  House  of  Refuge,  ch. 
 y.  and  vi.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 TENT.  (See  Dwellings. 
 See  also  Bedouin  Arabs,  ch.  v. 
 and  viii.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Tent-maker.  (Acts  xviii. 
 8.)  This  is  said  to  have  been 
 Paul's  trade ;  but  it  is  supposed 
 to  refer  to  the  manufacture  of 
 tent-cloth  rather  than  to  the 
 preparing  of  tents.  Some  sup- 
 pose that  he  made   military 
 
 TES 
 
 tents,  the  material  of  which 
 was  goatskins. 
 
 TENTH  DEAL.  (See  Mea- 
 sures.) 
 
 TERAH.  (Gen.  xi.  31,32.) 
 The  father  of  Abraham,  who 
 accompanied  him  to  Haran,  in 
 Mesopotamia,  where  he  died 
 at  the  age  of  two  hundred  and 
 five,  Abraham  being  then  se- 
 venty-five years  of  age. 
 
 TERAPHIM.  (Judg.xvii.5.) 
 From  comparing  Gen.  xxxi.  19. 
 30,  ii  would  seem  tnatthis  word 
 sometimes  denotes  household 
 idol  gods  or  images.  Perhaps 
 it  was  also  applied  to  the  forms 
 or  instruments  of  astrology, 
 and  so  might  be  found  in  pos- 
 session of  those  who  were  not 
 idolaters.  As  it  is  used  by  the 
 prophet  in  relation  to  the  stale 
 of  the  Jews,  (Hos.  iii.  4,)  it  pro- 
 bably means  that  that  unhappy 
 nation  should  be  without  any 
 god,  true  or  false;  not  only 
 without  sacrifice  and  ephod, 
 which  belonged  to  their  reli- 
 gious system,  but  also  without 
 images  and  teraphim,  which 
 were  parts  of  their  idolatry. 
 
 TEKTULLUS.  (Acts  xxiv. 
 1.)  Probably  a  Roman  lawyer, 
 who  acted  as  prosecutor  in  the 
 case  of  Paul  before  Felix.  The 
 Jews,  being  ignorant  of  the  Ro- 
 man forms  of  law,  &c.,  would 
 naturally  employ  a  person  ac- 
 quainted with  them  to  manage 
 their  causes. 
 
 TESTAMENT.  (Heb.  ii. 
 15.)  The  word  testament, 
 when  applied  toour  Scriptures, 
 (as  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
 ment,) is  used  in  the  same  sense 
 with  covenant.  The  old  cove- 
 nant is  sjwken  of  i  n  Ex.  xxiv.  8, 
 and  the  new  in  Matt.  xxvi.  28. 
 The  former  was  ratified  by  the 
 blood  of  sacrifices,  and  the  lat- 
 ter (of  which  the  other  was  a 
 type)  was  ratified  by  the  blood 
 of  Christ. 
 
 According  to  some  critics,  the 
 word  testament  is  also  used  by 
 the  sacred  writers,  as  it  is  in 
 612 
 
THA 
 
 modem  times,  to  signify  the  in- 
 ■Irunient  by  which  a  man  di- 
 rects what  disposition  shall  be 
 made  of  his  properly  after  his 
 death.  (Heb.  ix.  16)  It  is  well 
 known  that  such  an  instrument 
 takes  effect  only  at  the  death 
 of  the  testator,  (or  he  who  makes 
 the  testament.)  Hence  the  apos- 
 tle, in  allusion  to  this  fact,  says 
 in  substance,  that  the  death  of 
 Christ  has  the  same  effect  on 
 the  covenant  of  redemption, 
 which  is  the  new  testament, 
 as  the  death  of  the  testator  has 
 on  his  last  will  and  testament, 
 viz.  gives  it  force  and  validity. 
 Others,  however,  have  sup- 
 posed that  the  apostle  refers  to 
 the  ancient  custom  of  confirm- 
 ing covenants  by  sacrifices, 
 (Gen.  XV.  8,  9,)  in  reference  to 
 which  it  is  true  that  a  covenant 
 was  of  no  force  so  long  as  the 
 victim  by  whose  death  it  was 
 to  be  confirmed  was  living- 
 
 TESTIMONY,  TESTIMO- 
 NIES. (Ps.cxix.88.99.)  These 
 terms  sometimes  denote  the 
 whole  revelation  of  God's  will. 
 They  frequently  occur  in  this 
 sense  in  the  above  Psalm.  They 
 also  refer  to  the  tables  of  stone, 
 which  were  part  of  the  cove- 
 nant between  God  and  the 
 people  of  Israel,  (Ex.  xxv.  16;) 
 and  hence  the  ark  in  which 
 they  were  deposited  is  called 
 Xhe  ark  of  the  testimony .  (Ex. 
 XXV.  22.  See  Ark.)  The  gos- 
 pel is  also  called  the  testimony 
 in  ICor.  i.  6.  Rev.  i.  2,  and 
 elsewhere.  (See  Witness.) 
 
 TETRARCH.  (Matt.  xiv.  1.) 
 This  title  was  given  to  a  sove- 
 reign prince,  and  strictly  de- 
 notes one  who  governs  the 
 fourth  pan  of  a  province  or 
 kingdom.  In  our  Scriptures, 
 however,  it  is  applied  to  any 
 •ne  who  governed  a  province 
 •f  the  Roman  empire,  what- 
 ever portion  of  the  territory 
 might  be  within  his  jurisdic- 
 lion.  The  tetrarch  had  the 
 title  of  kin".   (Matt.  xiv.  9.) 
 
 THADDEUS.    (SeeJuDE.) 
 52 
 
 THE 
 THAMMUZ.      (See    Tam- 
 
 MUZ.) 
 
 THANK-OFFERING.   (See 
 Offerings.) 
 THARSHISH.     (See  Tar. 
 
 SHISH.) 
 
 THEATRE.  (Acts  xix.  29. 
 31 .)  A  place  of  public  amuse- 
 ment, where  popular  assem- 
 blies, courts,  elections,  &C., 
 were  often  held. 
 
 THEBEZ.  (Jud^.  ix.  50.) 
 A  city  north-east  oiShechem, 
 within  the  territory  of  Ephra- 
 im,  celebrated  as  the  place 
 where  Abimelech  was  slain. 
 (See  Abimelech.) 
 
 THEOFHILUS.  (Luke  i.  3.) 
 A  distinguished  individual, 
 probably  of  Greece  or  Rome, 
 to  whom,  as  his  particular 
 friend  or  patron,  Luke  address- 
 ed both  his  gospel  and  his  his- 
 tory of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
 Tiie  title  most  excellent  pro- 
 bably denotes  official  dignity. 
 (Acts  xxiii.  26;   xxiv.  3,  and 
 
 ^THESSALONICA.  (Acts 
 xxvii.  2.)  The  capital  of  one 
 of  the  pretorial  districts  of  Ma- 
 cedonia. It  is  now  called  Sa- 
 loniki,  and  is  situated  in  Eu- 
 ropean Turkey,  at  the  northerL 
 extremity  of  the  gulf  of  Salo- 
 niki,  (formerly  the  Thermaic 
 gulf,)  two  hundred  and  seven- 
 ty-two miles  west  of  Constan- 
 tinople; and,  of  the  towns  of 
 European  Turkey,  is,  in  point 
 of  commerce,  second  only  to 
 that  city.  Its  population  is 
 estimated  at  70,000,  of  whom 
 30,000  to  35,000  are  Turks, 
 10,000  or  12,000  Greeks,  20,000 
 to  30,000  Jews,  and  a  few  hun 
 dred  Franks.  The  Jews  are 
 the  principal  business  men. 
 The  ancient  walls  are  nearly 
 entire,  and  are  five  or  six  mileis 
 in  circuit.  The  Greeks  have 
 twenty-six  churches,  eighteen 
 of  which  are  spacious;  and  the 
 Jews  have  seventy-six  syna- 
 gogues, thirty-six  of  which  are 
 small,  and  connected  with 
 private  dwellings. 
 
 613 
 
THI 
 
 Messrs.  Dwight  and  Schauf- 
 fler,  American  missionaries, 
 visited  Thessalonica  in  the 
 spring  of  1834.  They  speak 
 01  the  Jews  as  in  a  miserable 
 condition,  and  as  having  fully 
 
 })reserved  the  spirit  of  their 
 brefathers  respecting  Chris- 
 tianity. (Acts  xvii.  5.)  Paul 
 and  his  associates,  Timotheus 
 and  Silas,  (1  Thess.  i.  1;  ii.  1, 
 2,)  planted  a  church  here  about 
 the  year  a.  d.  52 ;  and  Aris- 
 tarchus  and  Secundus  were 
 among  the  converts  to  the 
 faith.  (Acts  xx.  4,  and  xxvii. 
 2.)  Two  of  his  letters  are  ad- 
 dressed to  the  disciples  of 
 Christ  in  this  city. 
 
 THESSALONIANS,  epis- 
 tles TO.  These  constitute  the 
 thirteenth  and  fourteenth  in 
 erder  of  the  books  of  the  New 
 Testament.  They  were  writ- 
 ten by  the  apostle  Paul  to  the 
 church  of  the  Thessalonians. 
 (See  Thessalonica.)  The 
 first  epistle  was  probably  writ- 
 ten near  the  close  of  a.  d.  52 
 or  beginning  of  53 ;  and  its  de- 
 sign is  to  establish  the  follow- 
 ers of  Christ  there  in  all  those 
 graces  for  which  they  were 
 so  conspicuous,  and  encourage 
 them,  by  the  most  affectionate 
 and  pointed  exhortations,  in 
 seeking  for  higher  attainments 
 and  richer  consolations  in  the 
 divine  life.  The  fourth  chap- 
 ter is  remarkable  for  the  dis- 
 tinctness with  which  it  reveals 
 the  order  of  the  general  resur- 
 rection. 
 
 The  second  epistle  was  writ- 
 ten soon  after  the  first,  and 
 seems  to  have  been  designed 
 to  correct  some  misapprehen- 
 sions which  had  occurred  re- 
 specting the  first;  and,  at  the 
 same  time,  still  farther  to  esta- 
 t^ish  and  encourage  them  in 
 the  works  of  faith  and  labours 
 of  love.  The  second  chapter 
 contains  a  very  full  prophecy 
 respecting  the  revelation  of 
 antichrist, 
 
 TKIGH.  (Gen.xxiv.2.)  The 
 
 THI 
 
 practice  of  putting  the  hand 
 under  the  thigh  might  denote 
 the  obedience  or  subjection  of 
 the  individual,  or  it  might  be 
 connected  with  the  rile  of  cir 
 cumcision  as  a  token  of  God'l 
 faithfulness.  The  inscription 
 upon  the  thigh  (Rev.  xix.  16) 
 alludes  to  the  custom  of  in- 
 scribing the  names  and  deeda 
 of  conc[uerors  on  their  garm.enta 
 and  weapons.  The  name 
 might  be  inscribed  on  the 
 sword,  which  was  girded  on 
 the  thigh,  or  on  that  part  of 
 the  dreFS  which  covered  the 
 thigh.  Jacob's  ihieh  was  smit- 
 ten by  the  angel,  "(Gen.  xxxii. 
 25,)  to  show  that  he  had  super- 
 natural power,  and  that  he 
 yielded  in  mercy,  and  not  from 
 necessity.     (See   Jacob,   Uk- 
 
 COVER.) 
 
 THISTLES  AND  THORNS. 
 (Gen.  iii.  18.)  These  terms 
 are  generally  connected  in  the 
 Scriptures,  and  probably  often 
 denote  any  kind  of  useless  or 
 noxious  plants  that  grow  spon- 
 taneously, to  the  annoyance 
 of  the  husbandman,  and  the 
 great  i  njury.  of  his  crops.  The 
 figurative  use  of  these  terms 
 denotes  desolation,  (Prov.  xxiv. 
 31.  Isa.v,6.  Hos.ii.6;  ix.6;  x. 
 8;)  the  visitations  of  Provi- 
 dence, (Num.  xxxiii.55.  Judg. 
 ii.  3.  2Cor.  xii.7;)  difficulties 
 and  hinderances.(Prov.  XV.  19 ;) 
 and  troubles.  (Prov.  xxii.  5.) 
 
 The  crowning  with  thorns 
 (Matt,  xxvii.  29)  was  probably 
 the  wanton  invention  of  the 
 Roman  soldiery,  and  made  no 
 part  of  the  established  punish- 
 ment. We  are  not  certain 
 as  to  the  kind  of  thorns  used; 
 some  suppose  the  white  thorn, 
 which  grows  in  abundance 
 near  Jerusalem;  some  the 
 acacia,  and  others  the  acan- 
 thus, which  blossoms  in  March. 
 The  object  of  the  soldiers  was 
 to  ridicule  the  idea  of  (Christ 
 being  a  king,  and  also  to  aggra- 
 vate his  sufferings. 
 
 The  passage  (Hos.  ii.  6)  above 
 614 
 
THR 
 
 cited  is  forcibly  illustrated  by 
 ihe  remark  of  a  modern  tra- 
 veller in  Judea.  "As  we  rode 
 through  Riphah,  we  perceived 
 it  to  be  a  setllenieni  of  about 
 fifty  dwellings,  all  very  mean 
 in  their  appearance,  anil  every 
 one  fenced  in  front  with  ihorn- 
 bushes,  while  a  barrier  of  the 
 same  kind  encircled  the  whole 
 of  the  town.  This  was  one 
 of  the  most  effectual  defences 
 which  they  could  have  raised 
 against  the  incursions  of  horse 
 Arabs,  the  only  enemies  whom 
 they  have  to  dread,  as  neither 
 will  the  horse  approach  to 
 entangle  himself  in  these 
 thickets  of  brier,  nor  cuuld  the 
 rider,  even  if  he  dismounted, 
 get  over  them,  or  remove  them 
 to  clear  a  passage,  without 
 assistance  from  some  one 
 within." 
 
 THOMAS,  (John  xx.  24,) 
 one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  was 
 also  called  Didymus,  (the 
 twin.)  We  know  little  of  his 
 history.  He  seems  to  have 
 been  of  singular  temperament. 
 (Johnxi.  IG;  xiv.  5;  xx.  20— 
 29.)  It  is  supposed  he  was 
 actively  engaged  in  propa- 
 gating the  gospel,  and  suffered 
 martyrdom. 
 
 THORNS.  (See  Thistles.) 
 
 THREE  TAVERNS.  (Acts 
 xxviii,  15.)  A  place  so  called, 
 perhaps,from  thecircumslance 
 that  three  houses  of  public  en- 
 tertainment were  established 
 there.  It  was  about  thirty -three 
 miles  from  Rome ,  and  Paul 
 was  met  at  that  place,  when 
 on  his  way  to  Rome  as  a  pri- 
 soner, by  some  brethren  from 
 that  city,  who  had  heard  of  his 
 approarh. 
 
 THRESH,  (Isa.  xli.  15,) 
 THRESHING  FLOOR.  (Gen. 
 1.10.)  The  ancient  threshing- 
 floors  were  selected  on  the 
 hiiihest  summits,  open  on  every 
 side  to  the  wind.  Though 
 calle<?  floors,  they  were  an- 
 ciently nothing  but  plats  of 
 ground,  levelled  and   rolled, 
 
 THR 
 
 so  as  to  be  as  hard  as  a  floof 
 The  sheaves  were  thrown  to- 
 gether in  a  loose  heap,  and  the 
 grain  beaten  out  by  a  machine, 
 or  by  the  feet  of  oxen.  (DeuU 
 XXV.  4.)  The  threshing  ma- 
 chine was  formed  of  a  heavy 
 square  frame,  with  rollers,  each 
 of  which  was  encircled  by 
 three  or  four  iron  rings  or 
 wheels,  serrated  like  theleeth 
 of  a  saw.  (Isa.  xli.  15,16.)  The 
 machine  was  drawn  by  a  pair 
 of  oxen,  the  driver  sitting  on 
 a  cross-piece  fastened  into  the 
 frame ;  and  as  the  heavy  roll- 
 ers passed  over  it,  the  grain 
 was  crushed  out  on  every  side. 
 Sometimes  this  frame  was  so 
 constructed  as  to  resemble  a 
 cart,  (Isa.  xxviii.  27,  28,)  and 
 furnishes  a  striking  figure  of 
 violence  and  destruction.  (A- 
 mos  i.  3.  Hab.  iii.  12.)  Afler 
 the  grain  was  threshed  and 
 winnowed,  (see  Fan,)  the  chaff 
 and  fine  straw  were  collected 
 on  a  neishbouring  hill  and 
 burned.  (ls"a.  v.  24.  Malt.  iii.  12.) 
 In  Isa.  xli.  15,  a  new  sharp 
 threshing  inst?U7nent  having 
 teeth  is  mentioned.  One  of 
 these  instruments  is  thus  de- 
 scribed by  a  traveller  in  Sy- 
 ria, in  1837:— "The  threshing 
 instrument  is  a  board  abovt 
 three  feet  wide,  six  or  eight 
 feet  long,  and  three  inchea 
 thick.  Dn  the  lower  side, 
 many  holes  are  made,  from  aa 
 inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches, 
 in  which  are  fastened  pieces 
 of  stone,  flint,  or  iron.  These 
 project,  it  may  be,  from  a  half 
 to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
 from  the  fnce  of  the  board,  and 
 serve  as  teeth  to  tear  the  beards 
 of  the  grain  in  pieces.  Oxen 
 are  faslened  to  the  forward 
 end  of  the  boards,  and  driven 
 round  the  floor,  drawing  it  after 
 them.  The  driver  of  the  oxen 
 usually  stands  or  sits  on  the  ji 
 instrument.  This  is  the  com- 
 mon threshing  instrument  in 
 these  countries.  I  saw  it  every- 
 where, and  1  have  seen  no 
 615 
 
THY 
 other.  The  oxen  are  usually 
 without  muzzles,  and  are  often 
 as  they  pass  around  taking  up 
 from  time  to  lime  a  few  straws 
 and  feeding  on  them.  I  do  not 
 recollect  of  seeing  the  horse 
 used  in  any  instance  on  the 
 barn  floor— the  oxen  very 
 often."  (For  cuts  of  threshing- 
 instruments^  and  a  minute  de- 
 scription of  the  process,  see 
 Hebrew  Customs,  pp.  63—65, 
 Elnathan,  pp.  119—123,  and 
 Scripture  Illustrations, 
 part  i.  pp.  16—20;  all  by  Am. 
 S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Threshing  floor  of  Or- 
 NAN.  The  apparent  discre- 
 pancy between  2  Sam.  xxiv. 
 24,  and  1  Chron.  xxi.  2o,  is  re- 
 conciled by  the  probable  sup- 
 position that  in  the  former  case 
 nothing  is  included  but  the 
 floor,  oxen,  and  threshing  ma- 
 chine; and,  in  the  latter,  the 
 whole  hill  whereon  the  temple 
 was  afterwards  erected.  (See 
 Araunah.) 
 THRONE.  (See  Footstool.) 
 THUMMIM.  (See  Urim.) 
 THYATIRA.  (Acts  xvi.  14.) 
 A  city  of  the  province  of  Lydia, 
 'n  Asia  Minor,  now  known  as 
 Akhisar.  It  is  situated  in  an 
 extensive  plain,  near  a  small 
 river,  a  branch  of  the  Caicus, 
 south-east  of  Smyrna,  between 
 Sardis  and  Fergamos,  and  was 
 the  site  of  one  of  the  seven 
 churches  of  Asia,  to  which  John 
 wrote.  (Rev.  i.  11.)  It  was  also 
 the  residence  of  Lydia,  whom 
 Paul  met  and  baptized  at  Phi- 
 lippi.  Its  present  population 
 may  be  a  thousand  families, 
 between  three  and  four  hun- 
 dred of  which  are  composed 
 of  nominal  Christians  of  the 
 Greek  and  Armenian  faith. 
 Except  the  Moslem's  palace, 
 there  is  scarcely  a  decent 
 house  in  the  place.  Every 
 thing  indicates  poverty,  igno- 
 rance, and  degradation. 
 
 Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight, 
 American   missionaries,  were 
 
 TIM 
 
 at  this  city  in  the  spring  of 
 1830.  It  had  been  devastated 
 by  fire  a  year  or  two  previous. 
 They  found  many  ruins  and 
 inscriptions  which  bespoke  a 
 hieh  antiquity. 
 
 TH  YINE  WOOD  (Rev.  xviii. 
 12)  may  mean  sweet  scented 
 wood  generally,  or  the  wood 
 of  a  particular  species  of  ever- 
 green resembling  the  cypress, 
 which  was  prized  for  its  aro- 
 matic properties,  and  for  being 
 susceptible  of  a  fine  polish. 
 
 TIBERIAS.  (See  Chinne- 
 reth.) 
 
 TIBERIUS  CESAR  (Luke 
 iii.  1)  was  the  son-in-law  and 
 successor  of  Augustus,  (Lukff 
 ii.  1,)  and  though  with  some 
 apparent  virtues,  was  one  of 
 the  most  infamous  tyrants  that 
 ever  scourged  the  empire  of 
 Rome.  He  began  his  reign 
 A.  D.  14,  reigned  during  the 
 eventful  period  of  the  succeed- 
 ing twenty-three  years,  and 
 was  finally  murdered  by  suffo- 
 cation with  pillows.  (See  Ce- 
 sar.) 
 
 TIGLATH-PILESER.  (See 
 Ahaz.) 
 
 TILING.  (See  Dwellings.) 
 
 TIMBREL.  (Ex.  xv.  20.)  A 
 musical  instrument,  supposed 
 to  have  resembled  very  nearly 
 the  instrument  of  modern  days 
 called  the  tambourine.  A  skin 
 is  stretched  over  a  rim  like  the 
 end  of  a  drum ;  around  the  rim 
 are  hung  little  bells,  and  the 
 player  strikes  the  skin  with 
 the  knuckles  of  one  hand,  and 
 shakes  it  with  the  other  hand. 
 It  was  used  in  ancient  times 
 chiefly  by  women. 
 
 TIME.  (See  Days,  Hours, 
 Watches.) 
 
 TIMNATH.  (Gen.  xxxviii. 
 12,)  or  TIMNAH,  (2  Chron. 
 xxviii.  18,)  situated  on  the 
 northern  border  of  Judah,  was 
 one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Ca- 
 naan. In  Samson's  time  il 
 belonged  to  the  Philistines, 
 and  he  obtained  his  wife  there. 
 616 
 
TIM 
 
 ^Judg.  xiv.  1—5.)  The  inha- 
 oitanta  were  called  Timnitcs. 
 (Judg.  XV.  6.) 
 
 TIMNATH-SERAx4,  (Josh. 
 xix.  50,)  or  TIMNATH-HE- 
 RES,  (Judg.  ii.  9,)  was  a  ciiy 
 on  mount  Ephraim,  given  to 
 Joshua  at  his  own  request,  and 
 the  place  of  his  residence  and 
 burial. 
 
 TIMOTHY,  (I  Tim.  i.  2,)  or 
 TIMOTHEUS,  (Acus  xvi.  1,) 
 was  a  native  either  of  Derbe 
 or  Lystra.  His  mother's  name 
 wais  Eunice,  and  a  woman  of 
 distinguished  piety,  as  was  also 
 his  grandmother  Lois,  (2Tim. 
 i.  5;)  and  by  them  he  was  edu- 
 cated religiously.  (2 Tim.  iii. 
 15.)  His  father  was  a  Greek. 
 Paul  found  him  in  one  of  the 
 cities  above  named,  and  being 
 informed  of  his  good  standing 
 among  the  Christians  there, 
 selected  him  as  an  assistant 
 in  his  labours,  and,  to  avoid 
 the  cavils  of  the  Jews,  perform- 
 ed on  him  the  rite  of  circum- 
 cision. (I  Cor.  ix.  20.)  He  after- 
 wards became  the  companion 
 of  Paul ;  and  that  he  was  the 
 object  of  the  extraordinary  af- 
 fection and  solicitude  of  that 
 apostle,  his  letters  plainly 
 show.  He  was  left  in  charge 
 of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  and 
 that,  probably,  when  he  was 
 quite  young.    (1  Tim.  iv.  12.) 
 
 Epistles  of  Paul  to. 
 These  are  the  fifteenth  and 
 sixteenth  in  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  New  Testament.  The 
 first  is  supposed  to  have  been 
 written  about  the  year  60, 
 and  contains  special  instruc- 
 tions respecting  the  qualifi- 
 cations and  the  duties  of 
 sundry  ecclesiastical  officers, 
 and  other  persons,  and  the 
 most  affectionate  and  pungent 
 exhortations  to  faithfulness. 
 The  second  epistle  was  writ- 
 ten a  year  or  two  later,  and 
 while  Paul  was  in  constant 
 expectation  of  martyrdom, 
 (2Tim.  iv.  6— 8,)  and  may  be 
 regarded  as  the  dying  counsel 
 52* 
 
 TIS 
 
 of  the  venerable  apostolic  (k- 
 ther  to  his  son  in  the  Lord. 
 It  contains  a  variety  of  injunc- 
 tions as  to  the  duties  of  Chris- 
 tians under  trials  and  tempta- 
 tions, and  concludes  with  ex- 
 pressions of  a  full  and  tri- 
 umphant faith  in  the  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ,  and  in  all  the 
 glorious  promises  made  to  his 
 true  followers. 
 
 TIN.  (Num.  xxxi.  22.)  A 
 well  known  metal,  in  use  at 
 a  very  early  period,  and  an 
 article  of  Tyrian  commerce. 
 (Ezek.  xxvii.  12.)  In  Isa.  i.  25, 
 the  word  rendered  tin  probably 
 means  a  sort  of  dross. 
 
 TINKLING.  (See  Bells, 
 Clothes.) 
 
 TIPHSAH,  (1  Kings  iv.  24,) 
 meaning  a  ford,  is  the  same 
 as  Thapsacus,  and  was  situated 
 on  the  western  bank  of  the 
 Euphrates.  It  was  the  extreme 
 limit  of  Solomon's  dominions  in 
 that  direction.  It  is  generally 
 supposed  that  the  place  of  this 
 name  mentioned  2  Kings  xv. 
 16,  was  near  Samaria. 
 
 TIRSHATHA,  (Neh.  vii. 
 65.)     An  officer  of  stale. 
 
 TIRES.  (Isa.  iii.  18.)  This 
 generally  denotes  an  orna- 
 mental head-dress,  but  it  may 
 mean  other  parts  of  the  attire ; 
 and  in  the  text  cited  the  origin- 
 al probably  signifies  a  neck- 
 lace, the  parts  of  which  might 
 have  resembled  the  moon  in 
 shape. 
 
 TIRZAH  (1  Kings  xvi.  17) 
 was  the  residence  of  the  kings 
 of  Israel  from  the  time  of  Jero- 
 boam to  that  of  Zimri,  or  nearly 
 fifty  years.  Its  exact  site  is 
 uncertain,though  it  is  supposed 
 to  have  been  within  the  terri- 
 tory of  Ephraim. 
 
 TISHBITE  (1  Kings  xvii. 
 I.)  Elijah  is  called  the  Tish- 
 bite;  but  whether  it  denotes 
 the  place  of  his  nativity  or 
 residence,  or  whether  it  simply 
 describes  his  office  as  a  re- 
 prover and  reformer,  is  uncer 
 tain. 
 
 617 
 
TIT 
 
 TISHRI.    (See  Month.) 
 
 TITHES,  (Gen.  xiv.  20,)  or 
 tenths.  A  sort  of  tax  known 
 long  before  the  lime  of  Moses, 
 and  practised  under  the  civil 
 and  religious  government  of 
 heathen  nations.  It  was  intro- 
 duced into  the  Levitical  code, 
 and  consisted  in  rendering  a 
 fixed  proportion  of  the  produce 
 of  the  earth,  herds,  &c.  to  the 
 service  of  God  their  King, 
 whom  they  were  taught  to 
 consider  as  the  proprietor  of 
 all.  One-tenth  of  this  produce 
 went  to  the  use  of  the  Levites, 
 who  had  no  part  in  the  soil, 
 and  of  course  were  dependent 
 on  their  brethren  for  the  means 
 of  subsistence.  One-tenth  of 
 their  tenth  they  paid  in  their 
 turn  to  the  priests.  (Num.  xviii. 
 21-32.) 
 
 The  nine  parts  were  tithed 
 again,  and  of  this  second  tithe 
 afeast  was  made  in  the  court 
 of  the  sanctuary,  or  in  some 
 apartment  connected  with  it. 
 If,  however,  the  Jew  could  not 
 with  convenience  carry  his 
 tithe  thither,  he  was  permitted 
 to  sell  it,  and  to  lake  the 
 money,  adding  one-fifih  of  the 
 amount,  (that  is,  if  he  sold  the 
 tithe  for  a  dollar,  he  should 
 Dring  in  money  a  dollar  and 
 twenty  cents,)  and  to  purchase 
 therewith  what  was  required 
 at  the  feast,  after  they  came 
 to  the  sanctuary.  (Lev.  xxvii. 
 31.  Deut.  xii.  17,  18;  xiv.  22- 
 27.) 
 
 At  this  feast  of  thanksgiving, 
 they  entertained  their  families 
 and  friends,  and  also  the  Le- 
 vites. It  has  been  supposed 
 by  some,  from  Deut.  xiv.  28,29, 
 that  in  every  third  year  a  third 
 lithe  was  required ;  but  it  is 
 more  probable  that  in  the  third 
 year  the  second  tithe  above 
 mentioned  was  consumed  at 
 home,  instead  of  at  the  sanc- 
 tuary, so  that  the  poor  neigh- 
 bours and  friends,  and  espe- 
 cially such  as  were  aged  and 
 infirm,  might  partake  of  it. 
 
 TIT 
 
 The  cattle  were  tithed  by 
 letting  them  pass  out  of  an 
 enclosure,  under  a  rod  held 
 by  some  person,  who  touched 
 every  tenth  beast,  which  there- 
 upon became  the  property  of 
 the  Levites;  so  that  if  ex- 
 changed, both  were  forfeited. 
 (Lev.  xxvii.  32,  33.) 
 
 It  does  not  appear  that  the 
 tithe  of  herbs  was  demanded. 
 The  Pharisees,  however,  tithed 
 their  mint,  anise,  cummin,  and 
 rue ;  nor  was  it  for  this  that  our 
 Saviour  condemned  them^  but 
 for  neglecting  weightier  things, 
 as  mercy,  judgment,  and  faith, 
 while  they  were  so  scrupu- 
 lously exact  in  matters  of  infe- 
 rior moment.  (Matt,  xxiii.  23.) 
 
 Under  the  gospel  dispensa- 
 tion, the  ministers  of  relision 
 seemed  to  have  relied  for  their 
 support  chiefly  on  the  hospi- 
 tality of  their  brethren  and 
 friends,  (Matt.  x.  10.  Luke  x. 
 7 ;)  and  it  is  certainly  reason- 
 able that  those  who  give  them- 
 selves wholly  to  the  ministry 
 of  the  word  should  be  exempt- 
 ed from  all  anxiety  respecting 
 their  own  subsistence.  The 
 system  of  tithes  known  in 
 modern  times  has  very  little, 
 if  any,  resemblance  to  thfit 
 under  the  Jewish  dispensation, 
 either  in  the  collection  or  dis- 
 bursement of  them. 
 
 TITLE.    (See  Cross.) 
 
 TITTLE.  (Matt.  v.  18.)  The 
 least  point. 
 
 TITUS.  (Gal.  ii.  1.)  A  Gen- 
 tile by  descent,  and  probably 
 converted  to  Christianity  undei 
 the  preaching  of  Paul.  (Tit.  i. 
 4.)  He,  however,  refused  to 
 subject  him  to  the  rite  of  cir 
 cumcisiou,  though,  as  some 
 have  inferred,  he  was  strongly 
 urged  so  to  do.  (Gal.  ii.  3-^5.) 
 Titus  was  the  companion  ot 
 Paul  in  many  of  his  trials  and 
 missionary  tours,  (2  Cor.  viii. 
 6.  16.  23,)  and  was  intrusted 
 with  several  important  com- 
 missions. (2  Cor.  xii.  18.  3 
 Tim.  iv.  10.  Tit.  i.  5.) 
 618 
 
TOO 
 
 Epistle  of  Paul  to,  is  the 
 peventeenth  in  order  of  the 
 hooks  of  tlie  New  Testament. 
 It  was  designed  to  instruct  Ti- 
 tus in  the  right  discharge  of  his 
 ministerial  offices  in  Crete,  or 
 rather  to  furnish  the  Cretans, 
 through  Titus,  with  a  variety 
 of  important  rules  of  Christian 
 conduct. 
 
 TOB.  (Judg.  xi.  3.  5.)  A  dis- 
 trict in  the  south-east  of  Syria, 
 whither  Jephihah  fled,  and 
 whence  he  was  called  to  lead 
 the  army  of  Israel  against 
 Ammon. 
 
 TOBLA.H.  (Neh.  ii.  10.)  An 
 Ammonite  of  considerable  in- 
 fluence, and  a  leader  in  the 
 opposition  which  was  made 
 to  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple 
 by  Nehemiah.  Being  con- 
 nected by  marriage  with  some 
 influential  families,  he  became 
 the  head  of  a  formidable  party, 
 and  maintained  a  correspond- 
 ence with  the  nobles  of  Judah 
 adverse  to  the  interests  of  Ne- 
 hemiah and  his  party,  and 
 even  descended  to  threats,  for 
 the  purpose  of  deterring  that 
 devoted  man  from  the  "prose- 
 cution of  his  purpose.  During 
 the  absence  of  Nehemiah  from 
 Jerusalem,  Tobiah  obtained 
 apartments  in  the  temple  for 
 his  private  residence ;  but  Ne- 
 hemiah, as  soon  as  he  returned 
 to  Jerusalem,  expelled  him 
 and  his  furniture  from  the 
 holy  place,  and  ordered  the 
 chamoer  which  had  been  thus 
 desecrated  to  be  thoroughly 
 cleansed. 
 
 TOGARMAH.  (Ezek.xxvii. 
 14.)  A  country  deriving  its 
 name  probably  from  a  descend- 
 ant of  Japheth,  (Gen.  x.  3,)  and 
 trading  with  Tyre  in  horses 
 and  mules.  The  connexion  in 
 which  Togarmah  is  usually 
 mentioned^would  place  it  in 
 Armenia.  (Ezek.  xxxviii.5,  6.) 
 
 TOMB.    (See  Burial.) 
 ■   TONGUE.  (See  Language.) 
 
 TOOTH.  (Ex.xxi.24.)  The 
 Liw  of  reulialion  allowed  the 
 
 TOW 
 
 Jewish  magistrate  to  give  to 
 one  who  had  been  deprived  of 
 a  tooth  or  an  eye,  the  tooth  or 
 eye  of  the  aggressor  in  revenge. 
 The  Jews  construed  this  law 
 to  justify  private  revenge;  and 
 this  construction  and  the  w  hole 
 principle  of  the  law  were  con- 
 demned by  our  Saviour,  and  the 
 law  of  forbearance  and  forgive- 
 ness commended.  (Matt.  v.  39.) 
 Cleanness  of  teeth  is  a  figu- 
 rative expression  for  famine. 
 (Amos  iv.  6.)  Gnashing  the 
 teeth  indicates  terror,  rage,  and 
 despair.  (Matt.  viii.  12.)  The 
 phrase  in  Ezek.  xviii.  2,  de- 
 notes that  the  children  suffer 
 for  the  sins  of  their  fathers. 
 
 TOPAZ.  (Ex.  xxviii.  17.)  A 
 precious  stone  of  various  co- 
 lours, which  is  supposed  by 
 many  to  have  been  the  ancient 
 chrysolite.  A  single  topaz  has 
 been  sold  for  upwards  of  a  mil- 
 lion of  dollars.  The  finest  spe- 
 cimens are  found  in  the  East 
 Indies. 
 
 The  tcmaz  of  Ethiopia,  (Job 
 xxviii.  19,)  or  southern  Arabia, 
 (see  Ethiopia,)  was  probably 
 distinguished  for  its  beauty  and 
 value;  and  that  the  most  pre- 
 cious stones  were  once  found 
 there,  profane  history  asserts. 
 
 TOPHET.    (See  Hell.) 
 
 TORMENTORS.  (Matt 
 xviii.  34.)  This  probably  means 
 the  keepers  of  the  prison,  who 
 were  often  employed  to  torture 
 criminals  in  various  ways. 
 
 TORTOISE.  (Lev.  xi.  29.) 
 It  is  generally  supposed  that 
 this  word,  in  the  original,  de- 
 notes a  species  of  lizard,  and 
 not  the  amphibious  animal 
 known  to  us  as  the  tortoise. 
 
 TOWER.  (Matt.  xxi.  33.) 
 Towers  were  common  in  vine- 
 yards, (Isa.  v.  2,)  and  are  often 
 seen  at  the  present  day.  They 
 are  sometimes  thirty  feet 
 square,  and  sixty  feet  high, 
 and  are  a  kind  of  pleasure- 
 houses,  serving  as  a  shelter  for 
 the  watchmen,  and  as  a  sum 
 mer  retreat  of  the  owner,  af 
 619 
 
TRA 
 fcrding  an  extensive  prospect 
 and  fresh  air. 
 
 Tower  of  Babel.  (See 
 Babel,  Language.) 
 
 TowerofEdar,  (Gen.xxxv. 
 21,)  or  tower  qfthejlock,  as  it 
 is  called,  Mic.  iv.  8.  This  is 
 Supposed  to  have  been  a  par- 
 ticular tower  about  a  mile  from 
 Bethlehem,  and  to  have  been 
 erected,  like  other  towers,  for 
 the  use  of  shepherds  and  herds- 
 men to  superintend  theirflocks, 
 and  descry  the  approach  of 
 danger.  (2Chron.  xxvi.  10.) 
 Some  have  supposed  ihat  the 
 phrase  tower  of  the  fiock  had 
 prophetic  reference  to  Beth- 
 lehem, as  the  birthplace  of  the 
 Saviour. 
 
 Tower  of  Shechem.  This 
 seems  to  have  been  a  very 
 strong  and  spacious  citadel, 
 in  tlie  vicinity  of  the  town  of 
 Shechem,  to  which  the  inha- 
 bitants fled  for  refuge  when 
 the  town  was  besieged  by 
 Abimelech.  Fearing  that  this 
 would  not  protect  them,  they 
 escaped  to  the  temple  of  one 
 of  their  idol  gods,  which  was 
 also  fortified,  and  the  supposed 
 sanctity  of  which  they  hoped 
 would  deter  Abimelech  from 
 attacking  it;  but  he  surrounded 
 it  with  fire  made  of  green 
 boughs,  and  burned  or  suffo- 
 cated the  whole  multitude. 
 (See  Vines.) 
 
 Tower  in  Siloam.  (Luke 
 xiii.  4.)  Supposed  to  have  been 
 a  high  structure  erected  near 
 the  fountain  or  pool  of  Siloam. 
 To  those  whom  our  Saviour 
 addressed,  the  loss  of  life  occa- 
 sioned by  the  falling  of  this 
 tower  was  familiar. 
 
 TOWNS.    (See  Cities.) 
 
 TRACHONITIS.  (Lukeiii. 
 1.)  A  rocky  broken  district 
 east  of  the  Jordan.  It  was  in- 
 fested with  robbers,  and  Herod 
 theGreatobtained  the  province 
 on  condition  that  he  would 
 extirpate  them.  At  his  death 
 his  son  Philip  succeeded  to 
 the  government  of  it. 
 
 TRA 
 
 TRADITION.  (Matt.  xv.  2.) 
 A  precept  or  custom  not  con- 
 tained in  the  written  law,  but 
 handed  down  from  eeneration 
 to  generation.  The  Jews  main- 
 tain that  God  gave  Moses,  be- 
 sides the  law  which  we  have 
 in  the  Old  Testament,  a  va- 
 riety of  precepts,  which  he 
 made  known  to  Joshua,  by 
 whom  they  were  communi- 
 cated to  the  elders,  and  by 
 them  to  the  judges,  prophets, 
 &c. ;  that  they  were  finally 
 collected  from  various  sources, 
 and  recorded  in  what  is  called 
 the  Talmud.  Many  of  their 
 traditions  were  in  direct  oppo- 
 sition to  the  law  of  God,  a  strik- 
 ing example  of  which  is  given 
 by  our  Saviour  in  connexion 
 with  the  passage  above  cited. 
 There  were,  however,  a  variety 
 of  traditions,  or  doctrines  and 
 precepts,  which  persons  di- 
 vinely inspired  taught  by  word 
 of  mouth.  (2Thess.  ii.  15,  and 
 iii.  6.)  The  only  way  in  which 
 we  can  know  satisfactorily 
 that  any  tradition  is  of  divine 
 authority,  is  by  its  having  a 
 place  in  those  writings  wliich 
 are  generally  acknowledged 
 to  be  the  genuine  productions 
 of  inspired  men.  All  tradi- 
 tions which  have  not  such 
 authority  are  without  value, 
 and  tend  greatly  to  distract 
 and  mislead  the  minds  of  men. 
 
 TRANCE.  (Acts  x.  10.)  This 
 word  occurs  but  twice  in  the 
 Old  Testament,  (Num.  xxiv. 
 4.  16,)  and  in  both  mslances 
 is  supplied  by  the  translators, 
 and  not  found  in  the  original. 
 The  word  denotes  a  state  of 
 mind  in  which  external  objects 
 are  entirely  unnoticed  and  for- 
 gotten, so  that  the  soul  seems, 
 for  the  time,  to  have  passed 
 out  of  the  body,  and  to  be  occu- 
 pied in  purely  spiritual  con- 
 templations. This  Slate  may 
 sometimes  be  the  effect  of  na- 
 tural causes ;  but,  in  the  case 
 of  Peter,  there  was  an  inter- 
 position of  supernatural  power, 
 620 
 
TRE 
 
 TRANSFIGURE.  (Matt. 
 xvii.  2.)  This  term  denotes  a 
 change  of  aspect  or  appear- 
 ance, not  of  substance  or  body. 
 The  change  was  seen  in  the 
 face  of  the  Redeemer,  and  in 
 his  apparel.  It  was  exceed- 
 ingly majestic  and  glorious, 
 and  is  particularly  described 
 by  the  e vanselists,  md  alluded 
 to  by  Peter."  (2  Pel.  i.  16—18.) 
 The  design  of  this  miraculous 
 event  was  manifold,  but  chiefly 
 to  attest,  in  the  most  solemn 
 and  mysterious  manner,  the  di- 
 vinity of  the  Messiah's  person 
 and  mission;  to  support  the 
 faith  of  the  disciples  by  evi- 
 dence of  the  existence  of  a 
 separate  state,  which  was  fur- 
 nished by  the  appearance  and 
 conversation  of  Moses  and 
 Elias,  and  as  showing,  by  the 
 audible  declaration  of  the  Fa- 
 ther, a  broad  distinction  be- 
 tween this  prophet  and  all 
 others— T7ns  is  my  beloved 
 Son,  hear  him.  (See  Life  of 
 Peter,  pp.  53—56,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.  Union.) 
 
 TRANGRESSION.  (Heb. 
 ii.  2.)  The  two  words  used  in 
 this  passage  are  by  common 
 usage  nearly  synonymous.  Per- 
 haps the  former  may  be  con- 
 sidered as  passing  over  the 
 bounds  prescribed  by  a  law, 
 or  doing  the  things  we  ought 
 not  to  do ;  and  disobedience 
 as  a  refusal  to  do  what  it  en- 
 joins, or  not  doing  the  things 
 we  ought  to  do. 
 
 TREASURE  CITIES,  (Ex. 
 i.  II,)  TREASURE  HOUSES. 
 (Ezra  v.  17.)  The  kings  of 
 Judah  had  keepers  of  the'irea- 
 sures  both  in  city  and  country, 
 (i  Chron.  xxvii.25;)  and  the 
 towns  where  these  treasures 
 were  deposited  were  called 
 treasure  cities,  and  the  maga- 
 zines or  houses  for  their  safe 
 keeping  were  called  treasure 
 houses.    (See  Pithom.) 
 
 TRE.\SURY,(John  viii.  20,) 
 TREASURIES.  (1  Chron.  ix. 
 26.)    The  place  in  the  temple 
 
 TRl 
 
 where  gifts  were  received.  (See 
 Temple.) 
 
 TREE  OF  KNOWLEDGE 
 (See  Adam.  See  also  Thb 
 First  Man,  §  ii.,  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 TRESPASS  (Lev.  vi.  2) 
 usually  denotes  an  offence 
 committed  against,  or  an  inju- 
 ry done  to  another.  It  implies 
 a  departure  from  duty  in  re- 
 spect to  God  or  man.  (Malt, 
 vi.  15.) 
 
 Trespass-offering.  (See 
 Offering.) 
 
 TRIBE.  (Num.  i.  4.)  The 
 posterity  of  each  of  the  twelve 
 sons  of  Jacob  is  called  a  tribe. 
 Jacob,  on  his  death-bed,  adopt- 
 ed Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
 the  sons  of  Joseph,  as  his  own 
 children,  (Gen.  xlviii.  5,)  and 
 thus  made  two  tribes  of  one. 
 In  the  distribution  of  the  pro- 
 mised land,  however,  only 
 twelve  shares  were  made  ;  for 
 the  tribe  of  Levi  were  to  mi- 
 nister in  the  temple,  and  to 
 be  supported  by  the  contri- 
 butions of  the  rest.  (See  Le- 
 viTEs,  Tithes,  &c.)  The 
 twelve  tribes  continued  to  be 
 one  people  until  after  the  death 
 of  Solomon,  when  ten  of  them 
 revolted,  and  became  a  sepa- 
 rate monarchyu  nder  Jeroboam, 
 and  were  called  the  kingdom 
 of  Israel,  leaving  the  tribes  of 
 Benjamin  and  "Judah  under 
 the  government  of  Rehoboam, 
 with  the  name  of  the  kingdom 
 of  Judah.    (See  Hebrev^ts.) 
 
 TRIBUTE.  (Gen.xlix.  15.) 
 That  which  is  paid  to  rulers 
 in  token  of  subjection,  and 
 for  the  support  of  government. 
 By  the  Jewish  law,  (Ex.  xxx. 
 13,)  a  tribute  or  capitation  tax 
 was  half  a  shekel,  or  twenty- 
 five  cents,  which  was  expend- 
 ed in  the  temple  service.  The 
 conversation  ol  our  Saviour 
 with  Peter,  on  the  subject  of 
 paying  this  tribute  money,  was 
 designed  to  show  him  that, 
 being  himself  the  Son  of  God, 
 the  king  for  whose  service  iha 
 621 
 
TUR 
 
 tribute  was  paid,  he  might 
 justly  be  exempted  from  paying 
 it;  but  to  prevent  any  need- 
 less irritation  on  the  part  of  the 
 officers  or  nation,  he,  by  mira- 
 culous power,  provided  the 
 means  of  paying  the  required 
 tribute,which  amounted  to  fifty 
 cents  for  both.  (Malt.  xvii.  24.) 
 
 TROAS.  (Acts  xvi.  8.)  A 
 maritime  city  of  Mysia,  on  the 
 Mediterranean,  near  the  site 
 of  ancient  Troy,  so  celebrated 
 n  Grecian  history.  Paul  vi- 
 sited it  repeatedly.  (Acts  xx. 
 5—12.  2  Cor.  ii.  12.  2  Tim.  i v. 
 13.) 
 
 TROGYLLIUM.  (Acts  xx. 
 15.)  A  town  at  the  base  of 
 mount  Mycale,  in  Ionia,  op- 
 posite to  Samos,  where  Paul 
 tarried  one  night  on  his  way 
 from  Troas  to  Miletus. 
 
 TROPHIMUS.  (Acts  xx.  4.) 
 Anativeof  Ephesus,  (Actsxxi. 
 29,)  and  a  convert  to  the  faith 
 of  the  gospel,  probably  under 
 Paul's  miaistry.  He  became 
 one  of  the  apostle's  compa- 
 nions and  helpers  in  mission- 
 ary travels  and  labours.  (2 
 Tim.  iv.  20.) 
 
 TRUMPET.  (Ex.  xix.  16.) 
 The  trumpet  differed  littlefrom 
 the  horn,  and  in  particulars 
 which  are  no  longer  discover- 
 able. The  silver  trumpets 
 were  used  by  the  priests  alone 
 in  publishing  the  approach  of 
 festivals,  and  giving  signals 
 of  war.    (See  Feasts.) 
 
 TUBAL.  (Gen.  x.  2.)  Fifth 
 sonof  Japheth,  whose  descend- 
 ants probably  peopled  a  coun- 
 try lying  south  cf  the  Cauca- 
 sus, between  the  Black  Sea 
 and  the  Aranes,  whose  inha- 
 bitants were  the  Tibareni  of 
 the  Greeks.  The  Circa.ssians, 
 who  inhabit  this  region,  are 
 slave-dealers,  and  they  of  Tu- 
 bal traded  in  the  persons  of 
 men.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  13;  xxxviii. 
 2.  Comp.  Rev.  xviii.  13.) 
 
 TURBAN.  (See  Clothes.) 
 
 TURTLE  DOVE.  (Lev.  i. 
 14.)    A  species  of  pigeon.    By 
 
 TYR 
 
 the  Jewish  law,  the  poor  who 
 could  not  afford  a  more  costly 
 sacrifice  were  permitted  to 
 bring  two  turtle  doves,  or  two 
 young  pigeons.  (Lev.  xii.  6—8.) 
 By  this  the  outward  circum- 
 stances of  Mary,  the  mother 
 of  Christ,  are  known.  (Luke 
 ii.  24.) 
 
 It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  (Jer. 
 viii.  7,)  and  hence  the  allusion, 
 Sol.  Song  ii.  12.  Our  transla- 
 tion of  Ps.  Ixxiv.  19,  would  be 
 more  conformable  to  ancient 
 versions,  if  it  should  read,  O 
 deliver  vot  the  soul  of  him 
 that  confesseth  thee,  Sec.  And 
 this  variation  can  easily  be 
 accounted  for,  only  by  sup- 
 posing, that,  in  the  Hebrew, 
 one  letter  has  been  substituted 
 fur  another  very  much  like  it. 
 There  is,  therefore,  a  strong 
 probability  that  the  Septuagint 
 and  the  Syriac  have  preserved 
 the  true  reading  in  this  place. 
 
 TYCHICUS.  (Acts  xx.  4.) 
 A  companion  of  Paul,  and  evi- 
 dently a  devoted  and  faithful 
 disciple.  (Eph.  vi.21,  22.  Col. 
 iv.  7,  8.) 
 
 TYRE,  (Josh.  xix.  29,)  or 
 TYRUS.  (Ezek.  xxvi.  2.)  A 
 city  of  Phenicia,  now  in  the 
 pachalic  of  Acre,  about  ninety 
 miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem, 
 and  20  or  30  miles  south-west 
 of  Sidon,  and  a  city  whose  anti- 
 quity is  of  ancient  days.  (Isa. 
 xxiii.7.)  It  was  probably  built 
 thirteen  hundred  years  before 
 Christ.  This,  which  was  on  the 
 continent,  and  was  destroyed 
 by  Nebuchadnezzar  after  a 
 siege  of  thirteen  years,  must  be 
 distinguished  from  Insular,now 
 Peninsular,  Tyre,  called  Sour, 
 (Sur.)  The  latter  is  about  five 
 miles  distant  from  the  other, 
 and  was  the  city  which  Alex- 
 ander reached  by  means  of  a 
 causeway  from  the  main  land, 
 and  entirely  consumed,  in 
 accordance  with  prophecy. 
 (Zech.  ix.  3,  4.)  Subsequently 
 to  this  it  revived,  and  belong- 
 ed successively  to  Syria,  and 
 
TYR 
 
 Egypt,  to  the  Romans,  Sara- 
 cens, crusaders,  and  finally 
 was  razed  to  ihe  ground  by 
 the  Mamelukes  of  "Egypt,  to 
 I)revent  the  ingress  of  Chris- 
 tians. The  city  has  now  about 
 four  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
 has  some  commercial  pros- 
 perity. 
 
 The  luxury,  vice,  and  de- 
 struction of  til  is  mighty  city, 
 which  once  had  the  entire 
 control  of  the  trade  with  India, 
 and  into  whose  lap  the  trea- 
 sures of  the  world  were  poured, 
 form  the  subjects  of  some  of  the 
 most  interesting  prophecies, 
 (Isa.  xxiii.  Ezek.'xxvi.  xxviii.;) 
 and  we  are  told  by  modern 
 travellers  that  its  desolation 
 is  complete.  Messrs.  Fisk  and 
 Jowett,     missionaries,     were 
 
 TYR 
 
 there  in  the  fall  of  1823,  and 
 the  former  describes  the  town 
 and  harbour  as  environed  by 
 rocks,  on  th,e  ledges  of  which 
 are  scattered  in  every  direction 
 the  fragments  of  ancient  co- 
 lumns. They  counted  not  less 
 than  one  hundred  columns  in 
 one  place  on  the  rocks,  and 
 some  ten  or  fifteen  feet  under 
 water.  The  harbour  is  small 
 and  shallow,  and  they  express 
 their  conviction  that  the  waves 
 of  the  sea  now  roll  where  once 
 stood  the  vast  and  magnificent 
 palaces  of  Tyrian  wealth  and 
 luxury,  and  that  the  monu- 
 ments of  commercial  enter- 
 prise and  prosperity  have  been 
 overwhelmed  by  the  storm  of 
 divine  indignation,  and  are 
 as  if  they  had  never  been. 
 
 UND 
 
 ULAI.    (See  Shushan.) 
 UNCIKCUMCISION. 
 (See  Circumcised.) 
 
 UNCLEANf.  (See  Clean 
 and  Unclean.) 
 
 UNCOVER.  (Lev.  x.  6.)  Un- 
 covering the  head  was  a  token 
 of  mourning  and  captivity. 
 (Isa.  xlvii.  2.)  Uncovering  the 
 thigh  was  removing  the  gar- 
 ments from  it  preparatory  to 
 passing  through  the  water. 
 Uncovering  the  arm  (Ezek.  iv. 
 7)  was  a  preparation  for  the 
 siege,  by  removing  every  en- 
 cumbrance. 
 
 UNCTION  (1  John  ii.  20) 
 denotes  the  grace  of  God's  Spi- 
 rit bestowed  on  believers,  and 
 uS6ui  figuratively  (in  reference 
 10  the  ceremony  of  anointing) 
 to  signify  either  health  or  pu- 
 rity, or  as  a  token  of  rejoicing. 
 (See  Anoint.) 
 
 UNDERGIRDTNG.  (Acts 
 xxvii.  17.)  Encircling  the  ves- 
 sel with  a  stout  cable.  Lord  An- 
 son mentions  a  Spanish  man- 
 of-war  that  was  saved  by  throw- 
 ing overboard  one  tier  of  guns, 
 and  taking  six  turns  of  a  cable  ' 
 
 UNI 
 
 around  the  ship,  by  which  she 
 was  prevented  from  opening. 
 
 UNDERSETTERS.  (iKings 
 vii.  30.)  Projections  by  which 
 the  brazen  laver  was  orna- 
 mented and  supported. 
 
 UxNICORN,  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
 17,)  or  one  homed.  The  ani- 
 mal designated  by  this  name 
 was  evidently  distinguished 
 for  its  ferocity,  (Isa.  xxxiv.  7,) 
 strength,  (Num.  xxiii. 22 ;  xxiv. 
 8,)  agility,  (Ps.  xxix.  6,)  wild- 
 ness,  (Job  xxxix.  9,)  and  the 
 prominency  of  its  horn.  (Deut. 
 xxxiii.  17.  Ps.  xcii.  10.)  But 
 whether  the  original  word 
 translated  unicorn  means  any 
 particular  animal,  or  at  least 
 any  animal  now  known,  is  very 
 problematical.  That  it  was 
 not  the  rhinoceros  seems  gene- 
 rally agreed  by  modern  critics 
 and  that  it  might  have  been 
 the  eastern  buffalo  is  not  im 
 probable. 
 
 UNITY  OF  THE  SPIRIT  (Eph 
 
 iv.  3)  signifies  a  unian  of  judg 
 ment,  affection,  and  feeling, 
 among  those  who  constitute  the 
 one  body  of  Christ.  It  is  the 
 623 
 
URl 
 
 gift  of  God.  (Jer.  xxxii.39.)  It 
 was  remarkably  enjoyed  in  the 
 early  ages  of  the  church,  (John 
 xvii.21.  Acts  iv.  32,)  and  is  to 
 be  desired  and  sought  after  as 
 among  the  chief  of  Christian 
 graces.  (2  Cor.  xiii.  11.) 
 
 UNRIGHTEOUS  MAM- 
 MON.   (See  Mammon.) 
 
 UPHARSIN.    (See  Mene.) 
 
 UPPER  ROOM.  (See 
 Dwellings.) 
 
 UPPERMOST  SEATS.  (See 
 Synagogues.) 
 
 UR,  (Gen.  xi.  28,)  called  Ur 
 of  the  Chaldees,  was  the  birth- 
 place of  Abraham.  Its  con- 
 nexion with  the  history  of 
 Abraham  and  Jacob,  and  the 
 position  of  the  only  Haran 
 now  known,  have  induced 
 modern  geographers  to  place 
 Ur  in  the  riorih-west  part  of 
 Mesopotamia,  which  was  the 
 land  of  the  Chaldeans,  (Ezek. 
 i.  3,)  where  O/fuh  (formerly 
 Edessa)  now  staiids.  A  modern 
 missionary  tells  us  that  Orfah 
 is  between  twenty  and  thirty 
 miles  distant  from  Haran,  and 
 that  the  eastern  Jews  still 
 make  their  pilgrimage  to  this 
 place  as  Ur  of  the  Chaldees, 
 and  the  birthplace  of  their 
 great  progenitor.  Orfah  is 
 known  in  modern  history  as 
 the  seat  of  war  between  the 
 emperor  Julian  and  the  Per- 
 sians. It  has  now  a  population 
 of  30,000,  and  derives  its  suste- 
 nance from  manufactures  and 
 the  caravan  of  Aleppo. 
 
 URIAH,  (2  Sam.  xi.  3,)  or 
 URIAS.  (Matt,  i.6.)  The  hus- 
 band of  Bathsheba,  and  an  of- 
 ficer in  David's  army.  His 
 death  was  purposely  brought 
 about  by  an  understanding  be- 
 tween Joab  and  David,  in  order 
 that  David's  guilt  in  the  case 
 of  Bathsheba  might  be  con- 
 cealed, and  that  he  might  ob- 
 tain her  for  his  wife. 
 
 URIM  AND  THUMMIM. 
 (Ex.  xxviii.  30.)  These  words 
 literally  signify  lights  andper- 
 
 uzz 
 
 fections.  And  whether  they 
 denote  some  divine  manifesta 
 tionmade  in  or  upon  the  breast- 
 plate itself,  or  whether  it  was 
 a  visible  appendage  to  the 
 breastplate,  indicating  its  pe- 
 culiar and  sacred  use  in  tnia 
 respect,  we  know  not.  The 
 utmost  that  can  be  satisfacto- 
 rily known  respecting  the  sub- 
 ject is,  that  it  was  the  manner 
 or  thing  through  which  a  know- 
 ledge of  the  "divine  will  was 
 sought  and  conveyed.  (Deut. 
 xxxiii.  8.    1  Sam.  xxviii.  6.) 
 
 USURY.  (Matt.  xxv.  27.) 
 The  word  usury,  by  modern 
 usage,  means  exorbitant  or  un- 
 lawful interest;  but  in  the 
 Scriptures  it  means  any  inte- 
 rest. The  law  of  Moses  prohi- 
 ,tiited  the  Jews  from  taking  any 
 interest  of  each  other  for  the 
 loan  of  money,  or  any  thing 
 else,  though  they  were  allowed 
 to  take  it  of  foreigners.  The 
 exchangers  of  money  were  in 
 the  habit  of  receiving  it  at  low 
 interest,  and  loaning  it  at  high 
 interest,  taking  the  difference 
 for  their  gain.  (Ezek.  xxii.  12.) 
 The  practice  of  usury  is  severe- 
 ly denounced  in  the  Scriptures. 
 (Neh.  v.  7. 10.  Ps.  xv.5.  Prov. 
 xxviii.  8.) 
 
 UZ.  (Lam,  iv.  21.)  A  dis- 
 trict of  Arabia,  which  was  pro- 
 bably settled  by  the  posterity 
 of  Uz,  or  Huz,  a  descendant  of 
 Shem,(Gen.x.23;  xxii. 21,) and 
 distinguished  as  the  dwelling- 
 place  of  Job,  whose  estate  was 
 like  that  of  a  modern  Bedouin 
 sheikh.  It  was  probably  an 
 extensive  district,  (Jer.  xxv 
 20,)  and  perhaps  subject  to  Wu» 
 mea.    (Lam.  iv.  21.) 
 
 UZZAH.  (2  Sam.  vi.  3.)  A 
 son  of  Abinadab,  who  was  iiv 
 stantly  killed,  by  the  immedi- 
 ate act  of  God,  for  laying  his 
 hands  upon  the  ark,  in  viola- 
 tion of  the  express  provisions 
 of  the  divine  law.  (Num.  iv, 
 2-15.) 
 
 UZZIAH.    (SeeAzABiAH) 
 
VIN 
 
 VIN 
 
 VAIL,  or  VEIL.  (See  Tem- 
 ple, Clothes.) 
 
 VALLEY  OF  SALT.  (See 
 Salt.) 
 
 VASHTI.  (Esth.  i.  9.)  Queen 
 of  Persia,  and  ihe  repudiated 
 wife  of  Ahasuerus.  (See  Ha- 
 DASSAH,  pp.  14—16,  by  Am.  S. 
 S.Union.) 
 
 VENGEANCE.  (Rom.  xii. 
 19.)  Tills  word  often  denotes 
 merely  punishment,  wiiiioul 
 any  reference  to  the  slate  of 
 mind  in  which  it  is  inflicted. 
 In  the  passage  cited,  and  else- 
 where, (Deut.  xxxii.  35,)  the 
 exclusive  right  of  God  to  pu- 
 nish wrong-doers,  and  to  vin- 
 dicate the  right,  is  plainly 
 asserted.  Hence  every  act  of 
 revenge  is  an  interference  with 
 the  divine  prerogative.  The 
 word  is  applied  to  God  in  the 
 same  manner  in  which  anger, 
 hatred,  &c.  are  applied ;  not  as 
 denoting  a  state  or  temper  of 
 mind,  but  as  implying  an  act 
 or  course  of  proceeding  such 
 as  usually  indicates  a  particu- 
 lar state  of  mind,  when  done 
 or  pursued  by  man. 
 
 VERMILION.  (Ezek.  xxiii. 
 14.)  A  chemical  substance, 
 used  for  colouring  red,  and 
 much  valued  for  ornamenting 
 dwellings  (Jer.  xxii.  14)  and 
 painting'  imases.  (Ezek.  xxiii. 
 14.)  Modern  travellers  men- 
 tion that  the  custom  of  paint- 
 ing and  sometimes  gilding  the 
 ceilines  of  eastern"  houses  is 
 still  prevalent. 
 
 VIAL.    (See  Censer.) 
 
 VILLAGES.    (See  Cities.) 
 
 VINEGAR.  (Prov.x.26.)  The 
 Hebrews  seem  to  have  had  two 
 kinds  of  vinegar;  one  of  which 
 they  used  as  a  drink,  (Num. 
 vi.  3,)  which  was  probably  a 
 weak  red  wine;  and  the  other 
 AS  an  acid  diluted  with  wa- 
 ter. Bread  and  cider  formerly 
 made  a  conmion  article  of  food 
 among  labouring  men  in  some 
 parts  of  this  country.  Ru'h  ii. 
 53 
 
 14.)  The  first  kind  was  proba- 
 bly provided  for  the  Roman 
 soldiers  on  the  occasion  of 
 the  crucifixion.  (John  xix.  29.) 
 The  unpleasant  sensation  pro- 
 duced upon  the  teeth  by  vine- 
 gar illufslrateslhe  offensiveness 
 of  a  sluggard  to  those  who  em- 
 ploy him.  (Prov.  x.  26.)  And 
 the  effervescence  occasioned 
 when  vinegar  is  poured  upon 
 nitre,  or  soda,  represents  the 
 opposition  or  incongruity  of 
 mirth  and  sorrow,  and  the  ef- 
 fect of  attempting  to  mingle 
 them.   (Prov.  XXV  ^20.) 
 
 VINES  (Num.  xx.  5)  and 
 VINEYARDS  (Ezek.  xxviii. 
 26)  have  been  hiehly  prized  in 
 every  country.  \Ve  first  read 
 of  a  vineyard  in  the  history  of 
 Noah.  (Gen.  ix.  20.)  The  culti- 
 vation of  the  vine  had  obtained 
 to  some  perfection  in  very  early 
 times.  In  the  accounts  of  Mel- 
 chizedek,  who  set  bread  and 
 wine  before  Abraham  ;  of  Lot, 
 who  was  drunken;  of  aged 
 Isaac,  when  regaled  by  his 
 sons  ;  in  the  prophecy  of  dying 
 Jacob,  and  in  the  book  of  Job, 
 we  have  the  earliest  accounts 
 of  wine  as  a  common  drinli 
 (Gen.  xiv.  18;  xix.  32;  xxvii. 
 25  ;  xlix.  12.  Job  i.  18.  Prov. 
 xxiii.  30,  31.  Isa.  v.  11.) 
 
 The  vineyard  is  commonly 
 mentioned  in  the  Bible  in  con- 
 tradistinction from  the  field, 
 and  is  occasionally  used  in 
 speaking  of  ordinary  gardens. 
 Vines  were  usually  planted 
 upon  heights  and  precipitous 
 crags,  (Jer.  xxxi.  5,)  where  it 
 was  sometimes  necessary  to 
 build  walls  in  order  to  retain 
 the  soil. 
 
 The  methods  of  planting  the 
 vine  were  various.  They  were 
 usually  propagated  by  suckers. 
 The  branches' were  sometimes 
 suffered  to  creep  upon  the 
 earth ;  or  the  vine  stood  up- 
 right without  support ;  or  a  poat 
 was  erected  with  a  cross-piece; 
 €20 
 
VIN 
 
 or  a  trellis  or  arbour  was  set 
 up,  with  four  or  more  upright 
 pillars,  over  which  the  boughs 
 spread.  We  are  told  that  the 
 vines  in  Africa,  Syria,  and  all 
 Asia  were  left  to  trail  upon 
 tlie  ground,  and  this  method  is 
 observed  in  the  region  of  Le- 
 banon, and  about  Joppa.  (Ezek. 
 xvii.  6.)  Very  often,  however, 
 the  Syrian  vines  are  trained 
 upon  trellis,  or  frame-work,  in 
 straight  rows  ;  sometimes  upon 
 trees,  and  particularly  the  fig 
 tree,  whence  the  proverbial 
 expression,  to  repjse  under 
 one's  own  vine  and  fig  tree,  as 
 an  emblem  of  peace  and  secu- 
 rity. (Mic.  iv.  4.  Zech.  iii.  10.) 
 Vines  are  found  at  Hebron 
 trained  in  this  manner,  and 
 bearing  clusters  of  ten  pounds 
 weight.  Sometimes  they  run 
 up  upon  the  sides  of  the  house. 
 (Ps.  cxxviii.  3.    See  Walls.) 
 
 Vineyards  were  enclosed 
 with  a  hedge  or  a  wall,  to  de- 
 fend them  from  the  ravages  of 
 beasts,  to  which  they  are  often 
 exposed.  A  tmcer  was  also 
 buili  as  the  station  of  a  watch- 
 man. (Num.  xxii.  24.  Ps.lxxx. 
 t>-13.  Prov.  xxiv.  31.  Sol. 
 Song  ii.  15.  Matt.  xxi.  33.  See 
 Tower.) 
 
 The  Hebrews  devoted  as 
 much  care  to  their  vineyards 
 as  to  their  agriculture.  When 
 Isaiah  predicts  the  invasion  of 
 the  Assyrians,  he  declares  that 
 the  vineyard  where  there  were 
 a  thousand  vines  for  a  thou- 
 sand pieces  of  silver,  shall  bo 
 even  for  briers  and  thonis. 
 (Isa.  vii.  23.)  "^Tien  he  would 
 represent  sorrow,  he  says.  The 
 new  tcifie  moumeth,  the  xme 
 !anguisheth,and  all  the  merry- 
 hearted  do  sigh.  (Isa.  xxiv.  7.) 
 SoZechariah  (viii.  12)  foretells 
 future  prosperity  thus :  77ie 
 seed  shall  he  prosperous,  the 
 vine  shall  give  her  fruit.  (See 
 also  Hab.  iii.  17.    Mai.  iii.  11.) 
 
 The  pruning  of  the  vine  is  a 
 famili  xr  operation,  which  we 
 
 VIN 
 
 all  know  to  be  necessary  in 
 order  to  its  fruitfulness.  The 
 law  which  forbade  the  Israel- 
 ites to  gather  the  grapes  of  tho 
 first  three  years,  (Lev.  xix.  23,) 
 gave  occasion  to  the  more  care- 
 ful and  unsparing  use  of  the 
 pruning  knife;  "hence  the 
 young  stock  came  to  much 
 greater  strength.  A  traveller 
 mentions  a  custom  of  the  vine- 
 dressers to  prune  their  vines 
 thrice  in  the  year;  the  first 
 time  in  March  ;  and  when  clus- 
 ters begin  to  form,  they  again 
 lop  off  those  twigs  which  have 
 no  fniit;  the  stock  puts  out 
 new  twigs  in  April,  some  of 
 which  form  clusters,  and  those 
 which  have  none  are  again  cut 
 off  in  May  ;  the  vine  shoots  a 
 third  time,  and  the  new 
 branches  have  a  third  set  of 
 clusters.  (See  John  xv.  2,  in 
 which  passage  the  word  purg- 
 eth  may  be  rendered  pruneth.") 
 
 What  remains  of  the  culture 
 of  the  vine  is  very  simple. 
 Once  or  twice  in  the  season 
 the  ploush  was  run  through  the 
 vineyard,  to  loosen  the  earth, 
 and  free  it  from  weeds;  the 
 stones  were  gathered  out,  and 
 a  proper  direction  was  given 
 to  the  growing  branches.  (Isa. 
 V.  2.)  The  vinedressers,  or 
 keepers  of  the  vineyard,  formed 
 a  distinct  branch  of  labourers. 
 (2  Kings  XXV.  12.) 
 
 The  regular  vintage  begins 
 in  Syria  about  the  middle  of 
 September,  and  lasts  about 
 two  months.  (Lev.  xxvi.  5. 
 Amos  ix.  13.)  Ripe  clusters, 
 however,  are  found  in  Pales- 
 tine as  early  as  June  and  JUy, 
 although  the  regular  vintage 
 begins  in  September.  This  dif- 
 ference may  arise  from  the 
 threefold  growth  of  the  vine 
 already  mentioned.  The  first 
 gathered  in  Canaan  is  probably 
 meant  in  Num.  xiii.  20. 
 
 The  vintage  was  celebrated 
 by  the  Hebrews  with  still  more 
 festivity  than  the  harvest,  (Isa 
 
vow 
 
 xvi.  9,)  and  was  someiimes  a 
 season  of  wicked  mirth.  (Judg. 
 ix.  27.) 
 
 VINTAGE.  (See  Wine, 
 Vine.) 
 
 VIOL.  (Amos  vi.  5.)  This 
 was  an  instrument  of  music, 
 and  supposed  to  be  the  same 
 with  the  psaltery.  (See  Music.) 
 Chanting  to  the  sound  of  it  was 
 to  make  like  sounds  with  the 
 voice,  modulating  the  tones  so 
 as  to  correspond  with  the 
 sounds  of  the  instrument. 
 
 VIPER.  (Job  XX.  16.)  A  ve- 
 nomous serpent,  from  two  to 
 five  feet  in  length.  Its  bite  is 
 extremely  painful,  and,  in 
 many  species,  quickly  and 
 certainly  fatal ;  so  that  it  was 
 anciently  regarded  as  a  special 
 judgment  from  heaven  to  be 
 bitten  by  one.  (Acts  xxviii. 
 1—6.)  Hence  the  viper  is  an 
 emblem  of  whatever  is  deceit- 
 ful and  destructive.  (Matt.  iii. 
 7;  xii.  34;  xxiii.  33.  Luke  iii. 
 7.    See  Cockatrice.) 
 
 VISION.  (Num.xxiv.  4.)  In 
 former  times  God  was  pleased 
 to  reveal  himself,  and  commu- 
 nicate his  will  in  what  were 
 called  visions,  which  were 
 caused  either  in  the  night  in 
 ordinary  sleep,  (Dan.  vii.  1,) 
 or  by  day  in  a  temporary 
 trance.  (Acts  xxvi,  13.  See 
 Dream,  Trance.) 
 
 VOW.  (Num.  vi.  2.)  In  the 
 ficriptural  use,  this  word  means 
 a  solemn  religious  promise,  or 
 covenant,  by  which  one  binds 
 himself  to  do  or  suffer  certain 
 things,  depending  on  God  for 
 power  to  accomplish  it.  Hence 
 vows  were  made  with  prayer, 
 and  paid  with  thanksgiving. 
 (Num.  vi.  2-21.    Judg.  xi.  30, 
 
 VUL 
 
 31.  Ps.  Ixi.  5.  Acts  xviii.  la 
 See  Nazarite.  See  also  Bib- 
 lical Antiquities,  vol.  ii.  ch. 
 V.  §  1,  by  Arn.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 VULTURE.  (Lev.  xi.  14.) 
 A  filthy,  rapacious  bird,  un- 
 clean by  the  ceremonial  law, 
 (Deut.  xiv.  13,)  but  useful  for 
 destroying  substances  which 
 might  otherwise  produce  pes- 
 tilence. They  flock  to  fields 
 of  battle  to  satiate  themselves 
 upon  the  unburied.  (Isa.  xxxiv. 
 6.15.)  The  extreme  acuteness  of 
 the  sense  of  sight  in  the  vulture 
 enables  it  to  discern  its  prey 
 at  a  great  distance :  and  it  is  a 
 striking  instance  in  the  accu- 
 racy of  the  Scripture  writers, 
 that  while  common  sentiment 
 attributes  to  the  sense  of  smell- 
 ing the  peculiar  faculties  of 
 this  bird,  its  Hebrew  name 
 means  seeing.  And  in  the  re- 
 cital of  God's  wonders  in  the 
 animal  creation,  in  the  book 
 of  Job,  the  characteristic  of  the 
 eagle  (one  of  the  same  tribe 
 with  the  \'tilture)  is,  that  her 
 eyes  behold  afar  off.  The  same 
 peculiarity  is  referred  to,  Job 
 xxviii.  7,  there  is  a  path  which 
 the  vulture^s  eye  hath  not 
 seen;  implying  that  its  vision 
 is  most  acute  and  penetrating. 
 Recent  experiments  by  a  natu- 
 ralist in  South  Carolina,  where 
 vultures  abound,  prove  satis- 
 factorily that  this  bird  is  guided 
 solely  by  its  sight  in  the  pur- 
 suit of  its  prey,  and  that  its 
 powers  of  vision  are  very  extra- 
 ordinary: thus  sustaining  the 
 truth  of  Scripture,  even  in  mat- 
 ters not  of  a  religious  or  moral 
 character;  and  this,  in  contra- 
 diction to  the  common  opinion 
 of  mankind. 
 
 V   S27 
 
WAL 
 
 WAL 
 
 WAFER.  (Ex.  xvl.  31.)  A 
 thia  cake  of  fine  flour, 
 used  in  various  offerings  anoint- 
 ed with  oil.    v.See  Manna.) 
 
 "WAGON.  (Gen.  xlv.  19.) 
 Wagons,  and  similar  vehicles, 
 which  are  considered  by  us  so 
 indispensable  in  transporta- 
 tion, are  not  used  at  this  day  in 
 the  east,  or  in  Egypt.  Niebuhr 
 states  that  he  saw  nothing  of 
 the  kind  either  in  Arabia  or 
 Egypt.  In  ancient  times,  how- 
 ever, they  were  well  known, 
 and  frequently  employed. 
 (Num.  vii.  3.  Amos  ii.  13.) 
 We  have  figures  of  rude  vehi- 
 cles of  this  kind  on  monu- 
 ments, supposed  to  be  as  an- 
 cient as  the  age  succeeding 
 that  of  Joseph. 
 
 WAIL.  (Ezek.  xxxii.  18.) 
 To  mourn  with  loud  and  vio- 
 lent expressions  of  distress  and 
 despair. 
 
 WALLS.  (Gen.  xlix.  G.)  The 
 walls  of  ancient  limes  were 
 generally  built  of  earth,  or 
 clay,  mixed  with  straw,  and 
 hardened  in  the  sun.  Hence 
 it  was  necessary  to  build  them 
 of  great  thickness,  in  order 
 to  ensure  their  permanency. 
 When  any  breach  took  place 
 in  such  a  mass  of  earth,  either 
 by  heavy  rains  or  some  defect 
 in  the  foundation,  the  conse- 
 quences were  very  serious. 
 (Ps.  Ixii.  3.  Isa.  xxx.  13.)  The 
 fact  that  bricks  were  made  in 
 such  a  rude  and  perishable 
 manner  gives  force  to  the  con- 
 trast presented  in  Isa.  ix.  10; 
 and  as  considerable  straw  en- 
 tered into  their  composition, 
 and  the  ea.nh  of  which  they 
 were  made  wCs  dry  and  porous, 
 it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
 could  be  destroyed  by  fire, 
 (Amos  i.  7.  10.  14.) 
 
 The  expression  in  Job  xxiv. 
 11,  is  supposed  by  some  to  refer 
 to  the  low  walls  which  were 
 built  in  vineyards  for  the  vines 
 to  run  upon ;  and  they  maintain 
 
 that  the  passage  should  read 
 thus— 'They  work  at  midday 
 among  their  walls  on  rows  of 
 vines.'  It  may  be  that  olive- 
 yards  were  enclosed  with 
 walls,  as  we  know  vineyards 
 were,  and  then  the  passage 
 would  be  plain  as  it  stands. 
 
 The  walls  of  vineyards  were 
 temporary,  being  probably  de- 
 signed chiefly  to  guard  the 
 enclosure  against  the  jackals, 
 which  were  numerous  in  Pales- 
 tine, especially  during  the 
 vintage,  often  destroying  whole 
 vineyards  and  fields  of  cucum- 
 bers. Hence  the  bitterness 
 of  the  sarcasm  of  Tobiah,  (Neh. 
 iv.  3,)  as  if  the  wall  the  Jews 
 were  buildingforthe  protection 
 of  their  capital,  was  scarcely 
 better  or  stronger  than  a  tem- 
 porary vineyard  wall  to  bar 
 out  jackals  or  foxes. 
 
 A  fenced  wall  (Isa.  il.  15)  is 
 a  fortified  wall.    (See  Cities.) 
 
 WAR.  (Gen.  xiv.  2.)  We 
 read  of  vast  armies  in  the  land 
 of  Palestine.  (2Chron.  xiii.  3; 
 xiv.  8,  9;  xvii.  14—18;  xxv. 
 5—7;  xxvi.  11—15.) 
 
 From  the  nature  of  the  arms 
 and  the  customs  of  the  an- 
 cients, their  battles  were  truly 
 murderous.  In  those  times, 
 heroes  sought  through  the 
 whole  field  for  their  personal 
 enemies.  Scarcely  ever  was 
 any  quarter  given,  except 
 where  the  vanquished  was  re- 
 tained as  a  slave,  and  conse- 
 quently the  number  of  killed 
 was  often  immense.  (2Chron. 
 xiii.  17.) 
 
 Although  the  military  art 
 was  comparatively  simple,  yet 
 ingenious  stratagems  of  various 
 kinds  were  practised.  Ene- 
 mies were  then,  as  now,  sur- 
 prised and  overcome  by  unex- 
 pected divisions  of  the  forces, 
 by  ambushes,  and  by  false 
 retreats.  (Gen.  xiv.  15.  Josh, 
 viii.  12.  Judg.  xx.  36—39.  2 
 Kings  vii.  12.) 
 
WAR 
 
 Previously  to  the  invention 
 of  fire-arms,  it  was  found  ne- 
 cessary to  resort  to  many  com- 
 plicated and  unwieldy  ma- 
 chines for  casting  heavy  stones, 
 and  other  destructive  missiles. 
 We  find,  however,  little  allu- 
 sion to  these  in  the  Bible. 
 About  the  end  of  the  ninth  or 
 the   beginning  of  the  eighth 
 
 WAR 
 
 century  before  Christ,  Uzziah 
 made  in  Jerusalem  engines 
 invented  by  cunning  meji,  to 
 be  on  the  towers  and  bulwarks 
 to  shoot  arrows  and  great 
 stones  withal.  (2Chron.  xxvi. 
 15.)  These  were  obviously 
 similar  to  those  in  use  by  the 
 Greeks  and  Romans. 
 Among  these  was  the  batter 
 
WAR 
 
 ing-rain.  (Ezek.  iv.  1,2;  xxi. 
 22,)  This  was  nothing  more 
 than  a  long  beam  of  strong 
 wood,  usually  oak.  It  was 
 ^tended  to  batter  down  walls, 
 and  the  end  with  which  the 
 assault  was  made  was  armed 
 with  a  mass  of  heavy  metal, 
 in  the  shape  of  a  ram's  head. 
 Occasionally  they  were  sharp- 
 ly pointed  at  this  end.  These 
 great  beams  were  at  first  car- 
 ried by  the  soldiers,  and  driven 
 against  the  walls;  afterwards 
 tiiey  were  placed  upon  wheels ; 
 
 WAR 
 
 I  but  in  process  of  lime,  they 
 were  suspended  by  heavy 
 chains, so  that  a  comparatively 
 small  force  would  impel  them 
 with  vast  etfect  against  a  forti- 
 fication. The  meii  who  worked 
 the  battering-ram  were  pro- 
 lected  by  a  covering  or  roof, 
 spread  with  somethilig  damp 
 and  tough,  (as  wet  hides,)  to 
 resist  the  fire  and  the  weapons 
 of  the  besieged. 
 
 The  crow  was  also  the  name 
 of  an  instrument  of  war,  a  figure 
 of  which  is  here  given. 
 
 It  is  supposed  that  Hushai 
 (2  Sam.  xvii.  13)  alluded  to  a 
 machine  like  the  crow,  when 
 he  said  to  Absalom,  If  David 
 be  in  a  city,  then  shall  all  Is- 
 rael bring  ropes  to  that  city, 
 and  tee  will  draw  it  into  the 
 river,  until  there  be  not  one 
 sinall  stone  found  there.  The 
 crow  could  only  be  effective 
 where  the  walls  of  a  town 
 were  not  in  good  condition,  or 
 not  well  defended;  and  then 
 if  the  besiegers  were  sufficient- 
 ■y  numerous  to  work  it,  by  ap- 
 
 plying a  great  number  of  ropes 
 to  the  same  beam,  they  could 
 soon  open  a  way  for  the  be- 
 sieging army.  There  certainly 
 is  "reason  to  conclude  that 
 Hushai's  proposition  arose  from 
 his  knowmg  that  king  David 
 was  almost  deserted,  and  that 
 the  hearts  of  the  men  of  Israel 
 tcere  after  Absalom,  and  that 
 the  plan,  though  injudicious  in 
 itself,  alluded  to  the  use  of 
 some  weapon  of  attack  similar 
 to  the  crow,wiiich  was  worked 
 by  means  of  ropes,  so  pointedly 
 
WAR 
 
 mentioned  in  this  otherwise 
 obscure  passage. 
 
 But  there  was  no  part  of  the 
 ancient  military  preparations 
 which  was  more  terrible  than 
 the  chariot.  (Ex.  xiv.  7.  Deut. 
 XX.  1.  Josh.  xvii.  16.  Judg.  iv. 
 3.)  They  were  in  common 
 use  wherever  there  was  any 
 cavalry.  (2  Sam.  x.  IS.  1  Chron. 
 xviii.  4.  2Chron.  xii.  3;  xiv.  9. 
 See  Chariot.) 
 
 Walls  and  towers  were  used 
 in  fortifications,  and  the  latter 
 were  guarded  by  soldiers,  and 
 are  called  garrisons.  (2  Sam. 
 viii.  6.  Ezek.  xxvi.  11.  See 
 Ward.) 
 
 As  to  the  order  of  battle,  we 
 have  no  certain  knowledge. 
 The  prophet  alludes  to  it.  (Jer. 
 xlvi.  3, 4.)  Among  all  ancient 
 nations,  it  was  customary  to 
 take  previous  refreshment  of 
 food,  in  order  to  give  strength 
 to  the  army.  T?he  soldiers, 
 and  especially  the  command- 
 ers, arrayed  themselves  in 
 their  costliest  garments  and 
 fairest  armour,  except  in  cases 
 where  disguise  was  attempted. 
 (1  Kings  xxii.  30.) 
 
 Various  passages  lead  to  the 
 opinion  that  divisions  of  the 
 army  were  common,  as  in 
 modern  times.  (Gen.  xiv.  15. 
 Judg.  vii.  16.  ISam.  xi.  11.) 
 The  most  frequent  division  of 
 the  host  was  into  tens,  hun- 
 dreds, and  thousands;  and 
 each  of  these  had  its  com- 
 mander, or  captain.  (Judg.  xx. 
 10.  ISam.  viii.  12.  2 Kings  xi. 
 4.)  This  is  an  ancient  metiiod, 
 and  is  still  common  in  Persia. 
 Among  the  Hebrews  these  di- 
 visions had  some  reference 
 to  the  several  families,  and 
 were  under  the  heads  of  fami- 
 lies, as  their  officers.  (2  Chron. 
 XXV.  5 ;  xxvi.  12.)  The  cap- 
 tains of  hundreds  and  of  thou- 
 sands were  of  high  rank,  or 
 (so  to  speak)  staff-officers,  who 
 were  admitted  to  share  in  the 
 councils  of  war.  (1  Chron.  xiii. 
 1.)    The  whole  army  had  its 
 
 WAR 
 
 commander-in-chief,  or  cap- 
 tain, who  was  over  the  hosi, 
 and  its  scribe,  or  keeper  of  the 
 muster-roll.      (1  Kings    iv.    4. 
 
 1  Chron.  xviii.  15,  16;  xxvii. 
 32—34.  2  Chron.  xvii.  14;  xxvi. 
 1 1.)  In  Isa.  xxxiii.  18,  the  words 
 translated  he  that  counted  the 
 towers  probably  indicate  what 
 we  should  call  a  chief  en- 
 gineer. 
 
 Under  David,  the  army  of 
 288,000  men  was  divided  into 
 twelve  corps,  each  of  which 
 was  consequenlly24,000  strong; 
 and  had  its  own  general. 
 (1  Chron.  xxvii.)  Under  Je- 
 hoshaphat  this  was  altered, 
 and  there  were  five  unequal 
 corps,  under  as  many  com- 
 manders. (2  Chron.  xvii.  14 — 
 19.) 
 
 The  cohort  had  five  or  six 
 hundred  men,  and  the  legion 
 embraced  ten  cohorts. 
 
 The  light  troops  were  pro- 
 vided with  arms  which  they 
 used  at  some  distance  from  the 
 enemy.    They  are  designated 
 
 2  Chron.  xiv.  8;  while  the 
 heavy  armed  were  those  who 
 bore  shield  and  spear.  (IChron. 
 xii.  24.)  The  light  troops  were 
 taken  principally  from  the 
 tribe  of  Benjamin,  as  appears 
 from  the  last  cited  texts. 
 
 Kings  and  generals  had  ar- 
 mour-bearers,  selected  from 
 the  bravest  of  their  favourites, 
 and  who  not  only  carried  their 
 armour,  which  was  in  those 
 days  a  necessary  service,  but 
 stood  by  them  in  the  hour  of 
 danger,  carried  their  orders, 
 and  were  not  unlike  modern 
 adjutants.    (1  Sam.  xxxi.  4.) 
 
 The  troops  were  excited  tc 
 ardour  and  bravery  by  address- 
 es from  their  priests,  who  were 
 commanded  to  appeal  to  them 
 (Deut.  XX.  2.)  In  later  times  . 
 kings  themselves  were  accus 
 tomed  to  harangue  their  ar 
 mies.  (2Chron.  xiii.  4.)  Final 
 ly  (perhaps  after  the  sacrifices 
 had  been  offered)  the  summons 
 was  given  by  the  holy  trum 
 631 
 
WAS> 
 
 pets.  (Num.  x.  9,  10.  2  Chron. 
 xlii.  12-14.) 
 
 It  was  the  practice  of  the 
 Greeks,  when  ihey  were  with- 
 in half  a  mile  of  the  enemy,  to 
 sing  their  war-song.    A  simi- 
 
 lar custom  probablyprevailed 
 
 •■  Jews. 
 21.) 
 
 among  the , 
 
 (2 Chron.  xx. 
 
 Next  followed  the  shout,  or 
 tcar-cry,  which  the  Romans 
 accompanied  with  the  noise 
 of  shields  and  spears  struck 
 violently  together.  This  war- 
 cry  was  common  in  the  east, 
 as  it  is  to  this  day  among  the 
 Turks.  It  was  the  alarm  or 
 shout  so  often  mentioned  in 
 Scripture.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  52. 
 2  Chron.  xlii.  15.  Job  xxxix.25. 
 Jer.  iv.  19.) 
 
 The  frequent  figurative  allu- 
 Bions  to  the  art  and  weapons 
 of  war,  used  by  the  sacred 
 writers,  are  obvious  without 
 explanation. 
 
 The  practice  of  offensive  war 
 ia  modern  times  cannot  be  de- 
 fended by  reference  to  sacred 
 history.  We  have  a  new 
 and  better  dispensation,  which 
 breathes  forgiveness  and  for- 
 iDearance ;  and  the  tendency 
 and  promised  fruit  of  which  is 
 to  banish  wars  and  fightings 
 from  the  earth,  and  make  it  the 
 abode  of  peace  and  love.  (For 
 further  information  on  this  sub- 
 ject, see  Arms,  Ahmour.  See 
 also  Omak,  ch.  iii.— v.,  and 
 Biblical  Antiq,tiities,  vol.  i. 
 ch.  ix.  §  6,  both  by  Am.  S.  S. 
 Union.) 
 
 WARD.  (Gen.  xl.  3.  Acts 
 xii.  10.)  A  prison,  or  an  apart- 
 ment thereof.  Also  a  garrison 
 or  military  post,  (Neh.  xii.  25,) 
 or  a  class  or  detachment  of 
 persons  for  any  particular  ser- 
 vice. (1  Ciiron.  ix.  23;  xxv.  8. 
 Neh.  xiii.  30.) 
 
 WARDROBE.  (2Kingsxxii. 
 14.)  The  place  where  the 
 royal  robes  or  priests'  vest- 
 ments were  deposited. 
 
 WASHING.    (See  Feet.) 
 
 WASHPOT.  (Ps.  Ix.  8.)  This 
 
 WAT 
 
 word  in  its  connexion  signifies 
 that  the  lAIoabiies  should  be 
 reduced  to  the  most  abject  and 
 degrading  servitude. 
 
 WATCH.  (Ex.xiv.24.)  The 
 original  division  of  the  night 
 was  into  the  first,  middle,  and 
 morning  walch;  but  after  the 
 captivity,  the  Jews  adopted 
 the  custom  of  Romeand  Greece, 
 which  divided  the  twelve  hours 
 of  the  night  into  four  watches, 
 beginning  with  six  in  the  after- 
 noon. (!»Iark  xiii.  35.  See 
 CocK-cRowiNG.)  The  time 
 that  passed  between  the  watch- 
 es seems  to  a  person  that  sleeps 
 soundly  as  but  a  single  mo- 
 ment.   (Ps.  xc.  4.) 
 
 WATCHER.  (Dan.  iv.  17. 
 23.)  This  word  is  supposed  to 
 denote  either  the  Divine  Being 
 himself  (ver.  24)  or  his  holy 
 messengers,  (ver.  13.)  It  im- 
 ports the  special  universal  pro- 
 vidence of  God,  by  which  the 
 affairs  of  the  universe  are  or- 
 dered, and  the  rise  and  fall  of 
 kings  and  empires  controlled. 
 The  twelve  superior  gods  of 
 the  Chaldeans  were  called 
 counsellor  gods,  and  were  sup- 
 posed to  watch  over  and  inte- 
 rest themselves  in  the  minutest 
 affairs  of  men. 
 
 WATCHMAN.  (Sol.  Song 
 V.  7.  Isa.  xxi.  11.)  In  Persia, 
 the  watchmen  were  required 
 to  indemnify  those  who  were 
 robbed  in  the  streets,  and  hence 
 they  were  extremely  vigilant 
 to  give  the  alarm,  and  protect 
 the  city  and  its  inhabitants 
 from  violence.  (Ezek.  xxxiii. 
 2-6.)  The  watchman  was  also 
 required  to  call  the  hours  of 
 the  night  in  a  loud  voice,  as 
 he  patrolled  the  streets.  This 
 is  customary  at  the  present  day 
 in  some  large  cities.  In  time 
 of  danger  the  watchmen  were 
 postedln  towers  over  the  gates 
 of  the  city.  (Isa.  xxi.  8 ;  Ixii.  6.) 
 
 WATER.  (Gen.  xviii.  4.) 
 The  scarcity  of  water  is  orte 
 of  the  calamities  of  the  eastern 
 world,  and  the  distress  which 
 
WAT 
 
 is  often  experienced  by  man 
 and  beasl  for  want  of  it  is 
 indescribable.  Park,  the  Af- 
 rican iraveller,  tells  us  that 
 after  several  days  of  privation, 
 he  had  fallen  asleep,  and  his 
 fancy  would  carry  him  to  the 
 banks  of  some  clear  and  beau- 
 tiful river,  which  he  surveyed 
 with  transport,  and  eagerly 
 hastened  to  quench  his  parch- 
 ing thirst,  and  the  fancied 
 effort  would  wake  him  to  the 
 dreadful  disappointment.  How 
 admirably  does  this  illustrate 
 Isa.  xxix.  8. 
 
 In  Prov.  xxi.  1,  the  original 
 term  rendered  rivers  signifies 
 divisions,  partitions,  sediotut, 
 and  refers  to  the  ancient  ori- 
 ental methods  of  conveying 
 water  to  orchards  and  gardens. 
 This  was  by  means  of  canals, 
 or  rivulets  flowing  in  artificial 
 channels,  called  in  Hebrew 
 divisions,  i.  e.  cvts  or  trenchen, 
 which  distributed  the  water  in 
 everydirection,to  irrigateabun- 
 danlly  their  otherwise  parched 
 and  barren  soil.  With  a  simi- 
 lar allusion,  the  psalmist  (Ps. 
 i.  3)  says  of  the  godly  man,  the 
 lover  of  the  divine  law,  that 
 he  shall  be  like  a  tree  platited 
 by  the  rivers  of  water,  (divi- 
 sions or  sections  of  water,)  that 
 bringeth  forth  his  fruit  in  his 
 season,  and  his  leaf  shall  not 
 toither.  The  reference  is  doubt- 
 less to  trees  nourished  by  arti- 
 ficial irrigation,  like  those  in 
 the  neighbourhood  of  Damas- 
 cus. The  gardens  are  thick- 
 set with  fruit  trees  of  all  kinds, 
 kept  fresh  and  verdant  by  the 
 waters  of  the  Barady.  This 
 river,  as  soon  as  it  issues  out 
 from  the  cleft  of  the  mountain 
 into  the  plain,  is  immediately 
 divided  into  three  streams,  of 
 which  the  middlemost  and 
 largest  runs  directly  to  Damas- 
 cus", through  a  large  open  field 
 called  the  Ager  Daniascenus, 
 and  is  distributed  to  all  the 
 cisterns  and  fountains  in  tne 
 city.  The  other  two,  which  are 
 
 WAT 
 
 I  taken  to  be  the  work  of  art,  ar 
 I  drawn  round,  the  one  to  the 
 j  right  hand,  and  the  other  to 
 the  left,  {as  the  rivers  of  water 
 I  are  turned,)  on  the  borders  of 
 the  gardens,  into  which  they 
 are  let  out  as  they  pass,  by 
 little  currents,  (divisions,)  and 
 so  dispersed  all  over  the  vast 
 wood;  insomuch  that  there  is 
 j  not  a  garden  but  has  a  fine 
 I  c^uick  stream  running  through 
 it.  A  traveller  describing  the 
 orange  garden  of  the  emir  of 
 Beyroot,  observes  that  "  it  con- 
 tains a  large  quadrangular  plat 
 of  ground,  divided  into  sixteen 
 lesser  squares,  four  in  a  row, 
 with  walks  between  them. 
 The  walks  are  shaded  with 
 orange  trees,  of  a  large  spread- 
 ing size.  Every  one  of  these 
 sixteen  lesser  squares  in  the 
 garden  was  bordered  with 
 stone ;  and  in  the  stone  work 
 were  troughs  very  artificially 
 contrived,~for  conveying  the 
 water  all  over  the  garden: 
 there  being  little  outlets  cut 
 at  every  tree,  for  the  stream, 
 as  it  passed  by.  to  flow  ont 
 and  water  it."  With  these 
 items  of  oriental  custom  be- 
 fore us,  we  perceive  at  once 
 the  point  of  the  comparison  in 
 the  passage,  Prov.  xxi.  1.  la 
 Deut.  xi.  10,  it  is  said  of  the 
 land  of  promise,  T7t,e  land  whi- 
 ther thou  goest  in  to  possess 
 it,  is  not  as  the  land  of  Egypt, 
 front  whence  ye  came  out, 
 where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed, 
 and  wateredst  it  with  thy  foot, 
 as  a  garden  of  herbs.  The 
 phrase  watering  with  the  foot 
 may  refer  to  the  construction  of 
 channels  and  water-courses 
 like  those  above  mentioned, 
 which  was  accomplished  by 
 the  action  of  the  foot  in  dig- 
 ging. So  also  in  SKingsxix. 
 24,  /  have  digged  and  drunk 
 strange  waters,  and  with  the 
 sole  of  my  feet  have  I  dried 
 up  all  the  rivers  of  besieged 
 \  places ;  i.  e.  I  have  digged  new 
 i  channels  by  the  labours  of  the 
 633 
 
WAT 
 
 spade,  have  turned  the  rivers 
 out  of  their  ancient  courses, 
 which  consequently  were  dried 
 up,  and  tiius  have  made  my 
 army  to  drink  of  strange  wa- 
 ters, flowing  in  channels  to 
 which  they  had  never  before 
 been  accustomed.  It  would 
 with  us  be  a  very  bold  figure 
 to  say  that  Cyrus  dried  up  the 
 Euphrates,  the  river  of  Baby- 
 lon, with  his  foot;  but  when 
 understood,  as  now  explained, 
 of  dig^inganew  channel,  which 
 was  aone  with  proper  imple- 
 ments by  the  agency  of  many 
 thousand  feet,  the  expression 
 would  be  by  no  means  high- 
 wrought  to  the  imagination  of 
 an  oriental.  Anoth'er,  and  as 
 some  think,  much  more  natu- 
 ral opinion  is,  that  allusion  is 
 made  to  the  machinery  for 
 drawing  up  water, by  means  of 
 a  rope  or  string  of  buckets  at- 
 tached to  a  wheel,  which  was 
 turned  like  a  modern  tread- 
 mill;  a  description  and  cut  of 
 which  may  be  seen  in  Scrip- 
 ture Illustrations,  part  i. 
 pp.  22—39,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union. 
 In  the  hot  countries  of  the  east 
 the  assuaging  of  thirst  is  one  of 
 the  most  delightful  sensations 
 that  can  be  felt,  and  hence  the 
 frequent  allusions  to  it  in  the 
 sacred  writings.  (Ps.  cxliii.  6. 
 Prov.  XXV.  25,  &c.)  Every  at- 
 tention which  humanity  and 
 hospitality  can  suggest  is  paid 
 at  the  present  day  to  furnishing 
 travellers  with  water.  We  are 
 told  that  public  reservoirs  or 
 pools  are  opened  in  Arabia  and 
 Egypt;  and  in  the  Moham- 
 medan villages  of  Palestine, 
 bread  and  water  were  furnished 
 by  the  inhabitants  gratuitously. 
 In  India,  at  this  day,  the  na- 
 tives offer  water  to  weary  tra- 
 vellers, in  honour  of  their  gods. 
 Hence  the  force  and  beauty 
 of  the  allusion;  Matt.  x.  42. 
 Water  was  commonly  drawn 
 out  of  wells  by  females,  and 
 transported,  upon  the  shoulder 
 »r  head,  in  large  leathern  or 
 
 WEE 
 
 earthen  vessels.  (See  Con 
 DuiT.  See  Evening  Recrea 
 TioNS,  vol.  ii.  pp.  110—114,  and 
 Bedouin  Arabs,  ch.  ii.,  both 
 by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Water-spouts.  (Ps.xlii.7.) 
 This  surprising  phenomenon 
 was  not  unfrequently  i^een  on 
 the  Syriac  and  Jewish  coasts. 
 It  is  forcibly  alluded  to  by  the 
 psalmist  in  the  passage  above 
 cited.  He  represents  the  ca- 
 lamities that  came  upon  him, 
 according  to  the  prediction, 
 (2  Sam.  xii.  11,)  as  like  a  vio- 
 lent storm  at  sea,  where  the 
 torrents  that  pour  down  from 
 above  meet  the  columns  of 
 water  that  ascend  from  the 
 depths  beneath;  the  clouds 
 above  calling  to  the  waters 
 below,  and  exciting  each  other 
 to  join  their  force  and  over- 
 whelm the  despairing  sufferer 
 in  hopeless  destruction. 
 
 WAX.  (Ps.  xxii.  14.)  A  well 
 known  substance,  easily  soft- 
 ened and  dissolved  by  heat. 
 (Ps,  Ixviii.  2:  xcvii.  5.  Mic. 
 i.4.) 
 
 WEASEL.  (Lev,  xi.29.)  Ge- 
 nerally agreed  to  mean  the 
 mole.    (See  Mole.) 
 
 WEATHER.  (Job  xxxvii 
 22.)  The  words  fair  weather 
 might  better  be  rendered  gold- 
 en splendour,  and  then  the 
 allusion  to  the  aurora  borealis 
 is  obvious. 
 
 WEDDING  GARMENT. 
 (Matt.xxii.il.)  The  wedding 
 garments  were  furnished  hy 
 the  host,  and  were  required  to 
 be  worn  by  those  who  were 
 admitted  as  guests  at  marriage- 
 suppers.  So  holiness  and  right- 
 eousness are  called  the  gar- 
 ments in  which  the  guests 
 must  appear  at  the  marriage 
 supper  of  the  Lamb.  (See 
 Marriage.) 
 
 -WEEK.  (Gen.xxix.27.)  The 
 word  in  this  passage  means 
 the  term  of  seven  days,  during 
 which  the  marriage  festival 
 lasted,  as  if  Laban  had  said, 
 'Attend  to  the  ceremonies  of 
 631 
 
WEL 
 
 the  present  marriage  first,  and 
 then  commence  another  term 
 of  seven  years  service  for  Ra- 
 chel.' The  division  of  time 
 into  portions  of  seven  days 
 had  its  origin  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  creation,  (Gen.  vii.  4— 
 10;  viii.  10.  12,)  and  traces  of 
 it  are  found  in  every  quarter 
 of  the  world.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
 served that  this  is  not  a  divi- 
 sion of  lime  suggested,  like  the 
 day,  month,  or  year,  by  the 
 revolutions  of  the  heavenly 
 bodies.  It  is  perfectly  arbi- 
 trary, and  yet  in  all  the  coun- 
 tries of  the  east,  among  ancient 
 nations,  before  they  had  any 
 knowledge  of  the  sacred  his- 
 tory, or  even  in  the  unculti- 
 vated tribes  of  Africa,  this 
 division  is  recognised,  and  the 
 days  of  the  week  named. 
 
 The  Jews  save  no  names  for 
 the  days  of  the  week,  but  sim- 
 ply the  number,  as  the  first, 
 6econd,or  third  day.  And  this 
 practice  is  adopted  by  many 
 persons  at  the  present  day, 
 especially  by  the  society  of 
 Friends.  The  names  of  the 
 days  in  modern  use  are  de- 
 rived from  the  Saxon  language, 
 in  which  they  have  a  mytho- 
 logical signification. 
 
 Besides  weeks  of  seven  days, 
 which  were  rendered  from  one 
 Sabbath  to  another,  they  had 
 a  week  of  years,  or  seven  years, 
 and  a  week  of  seven  times 
 ■even  years,  which  brought  in 
 the  fiftieth  or  jubilee  year. 
 
 Feast    of   weeks.       (See 
 
 FSASTS  ^ 
 
 WEIGHTS.  (See  Mea- 
 sures.) 
 
 WELLS.  (Ex.  XV.  27.)  These 
 were  very  essential  in  a  coun- 
 try of  flocks  and  herds,  and 
 were  generally  provided  at 
 each  place  of  pasturage.  They 
 were  deep,  (John  iv.  11,)  and 
 expensive  to  dig  and  preserve, 
 and  hence  were  a  valuable 
 part  of  the  husbandman's  pro- 
 perty. (Num.  XX.  17—19.)  They 
 were  sometimes  owned  in  com- 
 
 f„i 
 
 WHE 
 
 mon.  (Gen.xxix.2,3.)  To  protect 
 them  from  the  sand,  and  from 
 being  used  by  others,  they  were 
 covered  usually  with  a  stone. 
 (Gen.xxix.  2.8.)  To  slop  them 
 up  was,  and  still  is,  regarded 
 as  an  act  of  hostility,  (Gen, 
 xxvi.  15;)  and  to  invade  the 
 ri^ht  of  property  in  them  Wcis 
 often  the  cause  of  sore  con 
 tention.  (Gen.  xxi.  25.)  In  a 
 country  where  water  was  so 
 valuable,  and  so  difficult  to  be 
 procured,  it  was  an  appro- 
 priate emblem  of  rich  bless- 
 ings. (Jer.  ii.  13;  xvii.  13.) 
 
 ^Jacob's  well.  (See  Omar, 
 110-114,    by   Am.   S.  S. 
 
 nion ) 
 
 WHALE.  (Job  vii.  12.)  In 
 the  IMosaic  account  of  the  ere 
 alion,  we  are  told  that  on  the 
 fifth  day  God  created  great 
 whales.  (Gen.  i. 21.)  The  word 
 probably  means  no  particular 
 species  of  animals,  but  the 
 largest  classof  creeping  things, 
 whether  inhabiting  the  land^or 
 the  water.  The  geological  in- 
 vestigations of  the  present  day 
 determine  such  to  have  exist- 
 ed, of  a  character  diflerenl 
 from  any  now  known;  and 
 comparative  anatomy  proves 
 their  nature  to  he  niosl  accu- 
 rately described  by  the  term 
 great  creeping  things.  This 
 use  of  a  general  word  lu  denote 
 some  huge  monster  is  supposed 
 by  some  to  occur  in  Ps.  civ.  26. 
 Ezek.  xxxii.  2,  compared  with 
 Matt.  xii.  40,  and  also  Job  vii. 
 12.    (See  Jonah.) 
 
 WHEAT.  (Judff.  vi.  11.) 
 This  most  useful  and  imjKirtanl 
 of  all  grains  was  produced 
 abundantly  in  the  land  of 
 Canaan.  In  our  translation 
 it  is  often  mentioned  under  the 
 general  name  of  corn.  (See 
 Corn.  For  a  particular  de- 
 scription of  the  grain,  and  a 
 cut  illustrative  of  it,  see  Scrip- 
 ture Illustrations,  part  i. 
 pp.11— 15,  by  Am.  S.S.Union.) 
 The  cut  referred  to  shows  the 
 appearance  of  the  erain,  and 
 633 
 
WIL 
 
 is  probably  not  more  rank  and 
 full  tlian  the  common  crop  of 
 Egyptian  wheat,  and  it  shows 
 also  that  Pharaoh's  dream 
 about  seven  ears  of  corn  com- 
 ing up  upon  one  stalk  (Gen. 
 xli.  5)  was  according  to  the 
 course  of  nature. 
 
 The  figurative  allusions  to 
 this  erain  (Ps.  Ixxxi.  16.  Jer. 
 xii.  13.  Joel  ii.  24.  Matt.  iii.  12) 
 are  sufficiently  obvious. 
 
 WHISPERERS.  (Rom.  i.  29.) 
 Such  as  secretly  excite  suspi- 
 cions against  others,  and  pro- 
 pagate an  evil  report  with  an 
 affected  desire  to  speak  of  it 
 only  in  a  whisper. 
 
 WHiTED  Sepulchres. 
 
 (Matt,  xxiii.  27.)  It  was  cus- 
 tomary to  whitewash  the  Jew- 
 ish sepulchres  annually,  that 
 they  might  be  distinctly  seen 
 and  avoided,  inasmuch  as  com- 
 ing in  contact  with  them  was 
 the  occasion  of  ceremonial  de- 
 filement. (Num.  xix.  16)  This 
 Eractice  gave  them  a  neat  and 
 eautiful  appearance,  and  pre- 
 sented a  striking  contrast  to  the 
 dark  and  offensive  mass  of 
 putrefaction  within. 
 
 WIDOW.  (1  Tim.  v.  4.)  By 
 the  Jewish  law,  (Deut.  xxv.  5,) 
 if  a  married  man  died  leaving 
 uo  children,  his  brother  was 
 required  to  marry  the  widow, 
 in  order— first,  that  the  estate 
 might  be  kept  in  the  family; 
 and  second,  that  he  might  in 
 their  descendants  perpetuate 
 the  name.  There  is  reason  to 
 believe  that  more  distant  rela- 
 tives were  permitted  to  enter 
 into  the  same  relation  for  like 
 purposes,  as  in  the  case  of  Boaz 
 and  Ruth. 
 WIFE.  (See  Marriage.) 
 WILDERNESS  (Ex.  xiv.  3) 
 and  desert.  These  words  do 
 not  necessarily  import  a  mere 
 waste,  but  rather  extensive 
 tracts  not  under  cultivation, 
 but  affording  rich  and  abun- 
 dant pasturage.  (Josh.  xv.  61. 
 Isa.  xlii.  11.)    Tlie  principal 
 
 WIN 
 
 tracts  of  this  description  were 
 the  wilderness  of  Jericho,  Ju- 
 dah,  Engedi,  Ziph-maon,  Beer- 
 sheba,  Tekoa,  Gibeon,  and 
 Beihaven.  (See  these  under 
 their  respective  heads.) 
 
 WILD  HONEY.  (See  Ho- 
 ney.) 
 
 WILL  OF  GOD  (Mark  iii, 
 35)  signifies  either  his  purpose 
 or  pleasure,  (Eph.  i.  11,)  or  his 
 laws,  (Matt.  vii.  21,)  or  his  re- 
 vealed will  contained  in  the 
 Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New 
 Testament.    (Rom.  xii.  2.) 
 
 WILL  WORSHIP  (Col.  ii. 
 23)  means  the  practice  of  such 
 expedients  for  serving  and 
 pleasing  God  as  are  not  re- 
 quired nor  sanctioned  by  di- 
 vine authority ;  but  are  such 
 as  man  chooses  for  himself,  in- 
 dependently of  revelation,  as 
 deism,  and  the  whole  system 
 of  idolatry. 
 
 WILLOW.  (Lev.  xxiii.  40.) 
 A  well  known  tree,  which 
 flourishes  best  in  marshy 
 ground,  and  on  the  borders  of 
 water-courses.  (Job  xl.  22.  Isa. 
 XV.  7;  xliv.  4.  Ezek.  xvii.  5.) 
 The  beautiful  species  known 
 to  us  as  the  weeping  willow, 
 is  called  the  Babylonian  wil- 
 low, in  allusion  to  Ps.  cxxxvii. 
 2. 
 
 WIMPLES.  (Isa.  iii.  22.) 
 Supposed  by  some  to  mean  a 
 broad  full  mantle,  or  shawl, 
 like  the  veil  which  Ruth  had, 
 (Ruth  iii.  15  :)  and  by  others  a 
 veil,  coif,  or  nood,  and  this  last 
 is  its  German  signification  at 
 the  present  day. 
 
 WIND.  (Ex.  XV.  10.)  The 
 east  wind  was  injurious  to  ve- 
 getation, and  dangerous  at  sea. 
 (Ps.  xlviii.  7.)  The  south  wind 
 brought  heat,  (Luke  xii.  55;) 
 the  south-west  and  the  north 
 fair  weather.  (Job  xxxvii.  9.  22, 
 Prov.  XXV.  23.)  The  character 
 of  the  east  wind  may  be  infer- 
 red from  Gen.  xli.  6.  Job  i.  19, 
 Ps.  xi.  6.  Isa.  xxvii.  8.  Jer.  iv. 
 11-13.  Ezek.  xvii.  10:  xix.  12; 
 636 
 
WIN 
 xxvii.  26.    Hos.  xiii.  15.    (See 
 
 EUROCLYDON.) 
 
 WINDOW.  (Gen.  vi.  16.) 
 In  eastern  houses  the  windows 
 open  upon  the  court  within, 
 and  not  upon  the  street  with- 
 out. (See  Dwellings.)  One 
 of  the  objects  in  view  is  to  es- 
 cape the  dust  of  the  narrow 
 eastern  streets.  This  gives  a 
 melancholy  aspect  to  the 
 streets,  as  nothing  but  an  un- 
 broken line  of  blind  walls  is 
 eeen  on  either  side.  There  is 
 Bometimes  a  projecting  balco- 
 ny, or  porch,  in  front  of  the 
 house,  carefully  closed  by  lat- 
 tices of  what  is  called  Venetian 
 work,  and  opened  principally 
 upon  some  festival.  From  such 
 a  place  Jezebel  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  looking  out  when 
 Bhe  was  seized  and  put  to  death 
 by  Jehu.  (2  Kings  ix.  30.)  And 
 this  was  probably  called  the 
 casement.  (Prov.  vii.  6.  See 
 also  Sol.  Song  ii.  9.)  Glazed 
 windows  were  entirely  un- 
 known among  the  Hebrews, 
 and  are  scarcely  ever  seen  in 
 the  east  at  the  present  day. 
 This  is  not  wonderful,  for  in 
 later  limes  glass  has  been  as 
 costly  as  gold,  and  it  was  not 
 until  long  after  the  Christian 
 era  that  glass  windows  were 
 used. 
 
 WINE.  (Gen.  xiv.  18.)  There 
 has  been  some  controversy  as 
 to  the  nature  and  qualities  of 
 the  liquor  which  is  called  wine 
 LQ  our  Scriptures.  The  plain 
 reader  of  the  Bible  will  be  sa- 
 tisfied, however,  that  it  was 
 unquestionably  an  intoxicating 
 drink.  (Lev.  x.  9.  Eph.  v.  18. 
 1  Pet.  iv.  3.) 
 
 TheancientEgyptiansdrank 
 no  wine,  unless  w?  give  that 
 name  to  the  sweet,  unlermented 
 juice  of  the  grape ;  such  as 
 Pharaoh's  butler  was  accus- 
 tomed to  express  into  the  cup 
 in  the  king's  hand,  (Gen.  xl. 
 9—11,)  and  which  was  mixed 
 with  water.  Fermented  wine 
 they  considered  as  the  inven- 
 54 
 
 WIN 
 
 tion  ol  an  evil  spirit,  and  It  waa 
 nc  t  oflfered  to  their  god.s  Yet 
 in  very  early  limes  they  had 
 learned  the  art  of  brewing  a 
 kind  of  beer  from  barley,  which, 
 according  lo  the  Greek  histo- 
 rians, was  called  barley  wine. 
 This  beer  is  said  to  have  been 
 cosily,  and  little,  if  at  all,  in 
 ferior  lo  wine.  It  was  also 
 known  to  the  Hebrews,  who, 
 however,  had  liie  less  need  of 
 it,  as  their  land  was  productive 
 of  the  richest  vintage. 
 
 Like  all  other  countries,  Ca- 
 naan had  wines  of  various 
 strength ;  and  a  distinguished 
 writer  on  Jewish  antiquities 
 observes,  "the  wines  in  those 
 countries  cannot  easily  be  used 
 without  water."  Another  an- 
 cient author  says,  that  "the 
 wine  at  Aleppo  resembles  that 
 of  Cyprus,  and  is  so  fiery  that 
 when  drunk  unmixed  it  causes 
 great  inconvenience."  It  is 
 very  clear,  however,  that  in- 
 temperance prevailed  among 
 the  Jews,  (Isa.  v.  11;  xxviii. 
 1—8;  Ivi.  12;)  and  it  is  not 
 inconsistent  with  any  known 
 facts  to  supposelhat  their  wines 
 generally  had  the  intoxicating 
 principle.  Whether  the  wine 
 into  which  our  Saviour  mira- 
 culously changed  the  water  at 
 Cana  (John  ii."3)  possessed  this 
 principle  or  not  we  cannot 
 know,  nor  would  a  decision  of 
 the  question  in  the  least  degree 
 affect  the  character  of  the  trans- 
 action, any  more  than  it  would 
 affect  the  prescription  of  the 
 apostle  to  Timothy.  (1  Tim, 
 v.  23.)  The  process  by  which 
 the  juice  of  grapes,  apples, 
 pears,  &c.,  becomes  an  intoxi- 
 cating drink,  is  as  kindly  and 
 benevolently  provided  as  the 
 process  by  which  those  fruits 
 themselves  come  lo  maturity. 
 And  so  far  as  the  use  of  the 
 liquid,  after  this  process  has 
 taken  place,  tenuo  clirecUv  or 
 indirectly  to  the  injury  of  boay 
 or  soul,  so  far  are  we  forbidden 
 to  use  it  on  any  pretence  or 
 
WIN 
 
 consideration  whatever.  The 
 inquiry,  therefore,  what  the 
 wine  01  the  Bible  was  in  this 
 respect,  seems  to  be  without 
 any  practical  advantage,  inas- 
 much as  the  injurious  use  of  it 
 isforbiddeninathousandforrns; 
 and  when  it  possesses  the  in- 
 toxicating quality,  the  unne- 
 cessary use  of  it  is  inexpedient, 
 if  not  sinful.    (See  Drink.) 
 
 In  the  east  casks  were  un- 
 known. Tiie  wine  was  kept 
 'n  jugs,  or  flagons,  and  im- 
 proved by  age,  (Luke  v.  39,) 
 and  by  standing  on  the  lees. 
 (Isa.  XXV.  6.)  "The  original 
 word  rendered  lees  signifies 
 preservers. 
 
 The  mixed  wine,  often  men- 
 tioned by  the  sacred  writers, 
 (Ps.  Ixxv.  8.  Frov.  xxiii.  30,) 
 was  not  diluted  with  water, 
 but  on  the  contrary  was  in- 
 creased in  strength,  or  improv- 
 ed in  flavour  and  colour,  by  a 
 mixture  of  drugs,  herbs,  and 
 spices.  (Sol.  Song  viii.  2.)  Saf- 
 fron is  used  at  this  day  among 
 the  Persians  to  give  a  deep  co- 
 lour to  theirwines.  Some  sup- 
 pose, however,  that  the  phrase 
 mixed  icinc  denotes  wine  ren- 
 dered stronger  by  being  shaken 
 up  and  mingled'vvith  the  lees. 
 
 It  was  necessary  for  the  li- 
 quor to  remain  on  the  lees  for 
 a  time  after  the  fermentation 
 has  ceased.  Whenever  this 
 first  fermentation  has  been 
 deficient,  the  wine  will 
 have  a  richer  and  sweeter 
 taste.  Unless,  however,  it  un- 
 dergo a  farther  fermentation, 
 the  lying  upon  the  lees  will 
 not  secure  strength  or  flavour, 
 but  after  repeated  partial  fer- 
 mentation, will  run  into  a  thin 
 acid.  This  beautifully  explains 
 Jer.  xlviii.  11. 
 
 Wine  vessels.  The  He- 
 brews, as  well  as  the  Greeks, 
 preserved  their  wine  in  large 
 earthen  vessels,  or  jars,  which 
 were  buried  up  to  their  necks 
 in  the  ground.  (See  Cellar.) 
 These  jars  are  quite  large,  con- 
 
 WIN 
 taining  eften  as  much  as  one 
 of  our  barrels.  The  must,  or 
 new  wine,  after  being  poured 
 into  such  vessels,  is  stirred  for 
 about  twenty  days,  thrice  a  day, 
 with  wooden  rods.  When  wine 
 is  to  be  transported,  the  Per- 
 sians sometimes  decant  it  into 
 flasks,  or  bottles,  but  skins  are 
 in  common  use,  as  they  were 
 among  the  ancients.  The  He- 
 brews poured  even  the  must, 
 or  new  wine,  into  skins;  but  for 
 this  purpose  they  used  such  as 
 were  fresh  and  flexible,  and 
 therefore  not  liable  to  be 
 broken  by  the  fermentation  of 
 I  he  liquor.    (Matt.  ix.  17.) 
 
 By  7iein  wine  (Joel  i.  5)  is  in- 
 tended sweet  wine,  which  was 
 purer  and  stronger,  and  more 
 capable  of  preservation,  and 
 of  course  more  inebriating. 
 (Isa.  xlix.  26.    Acts  ii.  13.) 
 
 Red  wine  is  more  esteemed 
 in  eastern  countriesthan  while. 
 
 The  wines  of  Lebanon  and 
 of  Helbon,  near  Damascus, 
 were  celebrated  for  their  ex- 
 cellence, (Ezek.  xxvii.  18.  Hos. 
 xiv.  7,)  and  the  former  retains 
 its  character  to  this  day. 
 
 Drinking  wine  in  bowls 
 (Amos  vi.  6)  is  supposed  to  re- 
 fer to  the  richness  and  magni- 
 ficence of  the  vessel,  and  not 
 to  the  quantity  of  wine  drank. 
 
 Wine-presses  (Job  xxiv.  11) 
 were  cavities  in  the  ground, 
 (Matt.  xxi.  33,)  built  up  or 
 lined  with  mason  work.  They 
 are  now  found  in  this  form  in 
 Persia,  eight  feet  square  and 
 four  feet  deep.  In  Isa.  v.  2.  and 
 Mark  xii.  1,  the  term  wine- 
 press rather  means  the  open 
 place  or  vessel  which  received 
 the  expressed  juice  from  the 
 v/ine-press.  It  was  in  one  of 
 these  cavities  that  Gideon 
 worked.    (Judg.  vi.  11.) 
 
 Eastern  travellers  tell  us  that 
 the  first  vintage  usually  begins 
 in  the  latter  part  of  August; 
 that  they  often  see  the  black 
 grapes  spread  on  the  ground  in 
 beds,  exposed  to  the  sun  to 
 638 
 
WIS 
 
 dry  for  raisins.  While  at  a 
 little  distance,  one  or  two,  and 
 sometimes  as  many  as  five  men, 
 are  seen  with  feet  and  legs 
 bare,  treading  the  fruit  in  a 
 kind  of  cistern,  or  vat,  usually 
 about  eight  feei  square,  and  four 
 feet  high,  with  a  grated  aperture 
 near  the  bottom,''through  which 
 the  expressed  juice  runs  into  a 
 vessel  beneath.  (Isa.  Ixiii.  3. 
 Hag.  ii.  16.)  The  treaders  sung 
 and  shouted,  (Isa.  xvi.  10,)while 
 the  red  blood  of  the  grape  flowed 
 
 WIS 
 
 around  them,  and  thoroughly 
 stained  their  garments.  (Isa- 
 Ixiii.  1— 3.  Jer.  XXV.  30;  xlviii, 
 33.  Lam.  i.  15.  Rev.  xix.  IS- 
 IS.) 
 
 The  ancient  Egyptian  mode 
 of  expressing  the  juice  of  grapes 
 may  be  learned  from  the  fol- 
 lowing cut,  from  a  monument 
 in  Memphis.  The  fruit  is 
 placed  in  a  cloth,  which  is 
 twisted  and  strained  until  tho 
 liquor  is  wrung  out  into  a  ves- 
 sel below. 
 
 WINNOW,  asa.  XXX.  24.) 
 The  process  of  winnowing 
 among  the  Hebrews  was  much 
 like  that  in  use  al  the  present 
 day.  The  grain  was  taken 
 upon  a  shovel  and  thrown  up 
 in  the  wind,  and  the  lighter 
 chaff  and  straw  separated, 
 sometimes  by  the  help  of  a  fan. 
 (Isa.  xli.  15,  16.  Malt.  iii.  12. 
 See  Threshing  Floor,  Fan.) 
 WINTER.  (See  Seasons.) 
 WISE  MEN.  (Matt.  ii.  1.) 
 Men  of  wisdom  and  learning 
 in  things  natural  and  divine  ; 
 devoted  to  philosophy,  espe- 
 cially to  astronomy,  and  to  the 
 (toniemplation  and  worship  of 
 
 the  Deity.  They  were  of  Per- 
 sian origin,  but  had  spread  in 
 Arabia  and  other  neighbouring 
 countries  of  the  east ;  distin- 
 guished from  other  classes  of 
 their  countrymen  by  their  pe 
 culiar  habits  and  pursuits. 
 They  worshipped  the  only  one 
 God ;  and  so  blameless  did 
 their  studies  and  their  religion 
 appear  to  be,  ;.hat  the  prophet 
 Daniel,  scrupulous  as  ne  was, 
 to  the  hazard  of  his  life,  with 
 respect  to  the  Jewish  religion, 
 did  not  refuse  to  accept  the 
 office  which  Nebuchadnezzar 
 gave  him,  of  being  master  of 
 the  Magi,  and  chief  governor 
 
WIT 
 
 over  all  the  wise  men  of  Baby- 
 lon. As  they  thus  acquired 
 great  honour  and  influence, 
 Ihey  were  introduced  inio  the 
 courts  of  kings,  and  consulted 
 on  all  occasions.  They  also 
 followed  them  in  warlike  ex- 
 peditions; and  so  much  im- 
 portance was  attached  to  their 
 advice  and  opinions,  that  no- 
 thing was  attempted  without 
 their  approbation. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT,  (ISam.xv. 
 23,)  WITCH,  (Deui.  xviii.  10,) 
 WIZARD.  (Lev.  xx.  27.)  A 
 man  who  pretends  to  superna- 
 tural power,  so  that  he  can 
 foretell  future  events,  cure  dis- 
 eases, call  up  or  drive  away 
 spirits,  or  disclose  information 
 beyond  the  reach  of  the  natural 
 powers,  is  called  a  wizard.  A 
 woman  of  like  practices  is  call- 
 ed a  witch,  and  the  evil  art 
 itself  is  called  witchcraft.  No 
 sin  is  more  severely  denounced 
 by  the  sacred  writers,  not 
 only  under  the  Mosaic  dispen- 
 sation, (Ex.  xxii.  18.  Deut. 
 xviii.  11,  12,)  but  under  the 
 gospel.  (Gal.  v.  20.)  Those 
 who  consult  such  foolish  and 
 wicked  pretenders  are  partak- 
 ers of  their  guilt,  and  are  abo- 
 minable in  (Sod's  sight.  (Lev. 
 XX.  6.  Nah.  iii.  4.)  A  famous 
 pretender  to  supernatural 
 power  lived  at  Endor.  (See 
 Saul.) 
 
 WITHS.  (Judg.  xvi.  7.)  A 
 band  of  pliable  twigs,  (as  of  the 
 willow  or  osier  kind,)  twisted 
 closely  together  while  green, 
 and  used  instead  of  ropes.  The 
 marginal  reading  of  the  above 
 passage  is  sniall  cords. 
 
 WITNESS.  (Gen.  xxi.  30.) 
 One  who  gives  testimony.  Two 
 or  more  were  required  in  judi- 
 cial investigations,  (Deut.  xvii. 
 6,7;)  and  when  the  sentence 
 of  stoning  was  pronounced, 
 they  were  required  to  com- 
 mence the  process  of  execu- 
 tion. (Acts  vii.  58.  See  Ston- 
 ing.) 
 
 The  witness  of  the  Spirit 
 
 WOL 
 
 with  our  spirit  (Rom.  viii.  16) 
 denotes  the  consciousness,more 
 or  less  distinct,  of  the  opera- 
 tions of  the  Spirit  upon  the 
 mind,  enlightening  the  under- 
 standing, and  incliningthesub- 
 ject  of  them  to  do  the  will  of 
 Gk)d. 
 
 The  exY)xess\on  faithful  wit- 
 ness (Ps.  Ixxxix.  37)  is  sup- 
 posed to  refer  to  the  moon,  (Jer. 
 xxxiii.20,)  that  rules  the  night, 
 and  will  remain  as  long  as  the 
 night  itself,  which,  by  the  terms 
 of  God's  covenant,  shall  not 
 cease.    (Gen.  viii.  22.) 
 
 John  often  exhibits  the  gos- 
 pel in  the  light  of  a  testimony, 
 (1  John  V.  9 ;)  and  Christ  him- 
 self is  called  the  faithful  and 
 true  witness,  (Rev.  i.  5 ;  iii. 
 14,)  not  only  to  the  glory  and 
 perfection  of  the  Father,  but 
 also  to  his  own  divine  mission, 
 and  to  the  universality  and 
 perpetuity  of  his  kingdom. 
 
 WIZARD.    (See  Witch.) 
 
 WO.  (Num.  xxi.  29.)  This 
 term  often  denotes  a  feeling  of 
 com  passion  or  sympathy,(lVratt 
 xxiv.  19,)  or  a  simple  lamenta- 
 tion, as  "  Alas  for  me !"  (Ps. 
 cxx.  5.)  In  other  connexions 
 it  is  equivalent  to  the  threat- 
 ening of  punishment.  (Hab.  ii. 
 6.  9.  15.  19.    Zech.  xi.  17.) 
 
 WOLF,  (lsa.xi.6.)  A  fierce, 
 cruel,  ravenous  animal,  in  size 
 and  general  appearanceresem- 
 bling  a  dog,  and  a  most  terrible 
 enemy  to  sheep.  (Isa.  Ixv.  25. 
 Matt.  vii.  15;  x.  16.  John  x. 
 12.  Acts  XX.  29.)  The  rapa- 
 ciousness  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
 min was  foretold  by  Jacob  by  a 
 comparison  with  the  wolf  (Gen. 
 xlix.27.  See  Judg.  XX.  and  xxi.: 
 and  comp.  1  Sam.  ix.  1,  ana 
 XX.  31,  and  Acts  ix.  1.  Rom. 
 xi.  1.  Phil.  iii.  5.)  The  sacred 
 writers  also  illustrate  the  cru- 
 elty of  Israel's  oppressors  by 
 an  allusion  to  the  wolf,  (Ezek. 
 xxii.  27;)  and  the  sallying 
 forth  of  the  evening  wolf  in 
 search  of  prey  (Hab.  i.  8)  is  em 
 blematical  of  the  destruction 
 fi40 
 
WOR 
 
 which  awaits  wicked  men. 
 (Jer.  V.  5,  6.)  The  allusion, 
 Zeph.  iii.  3,  is  to  the  circum- 
 stance that'  the  wolf  in  its 
 greediness  often  seizes  on  more 
 than  it  can  consume. 
 
 WOIMAN.  (1  Cor.  xi.  8,  9.) 
 The  companion  and  helper  of 
 man,  and  by  express  command 
 made  subject  to  him.  (Gen.  iii. 
 16.)  The  word,  when  used  as 
 a  term  of  salutation,  as  in  Matt. 
 XV.  28,  implies  no  disrespect, 
 but  great  tenderness  and  cour- 
 tesy. It  was  thus  that  our  Sa- 
 viour addressed  Mary  under 
 the  most  touching  circum- 
 stances.   (John  XX.  15.) 
 
 WOOL.    (See  Sheep.) 
 
 WORD.  (John  i.  1.)  This  is 
 one  of  the  titles  of  Jesus  Christ. 
 h  may  denote  that  he  is  the 
 medium  by  which  the  Father 
 declares  his  word  or  will.  The 
 Jews  commonly  used  this  term 
 to  designate  the  Messiah  ;  and 
 so  prevalent  was  its  use  among 
 the  Gentiles  also,  that  the  evan- 
 gelist is  particular  to  define 
 clearly  the  true  doctrine  re- 
 specting him  to  whom  it  was 
 applied  ;  and  no  language  can 
 more  clearly  express"  the  idea 
 of  eternity  and  self-existence 
 than  the  language  he  employs 
 to  describe  the  being  and  attri- 
 butes of  the  Messiah.  The 
 Scriptures  are  figuratively  call- 
 ed the  word  of  God,  (Rom.  ix. 
 6;)  the  icord  of  righteousness, 
 (Heb.  V.  13 ;)  the  word  qffaith, 
 (Rom.  x.  8,)  and  the  word  qf 
 salvation.  (Acts  xiii.  26.) 
 
 WORKS.  (Ps.  cxlv.  9.)  The 
 toorks  qf  God  are  the  things 
 created  and  governed  by  his 
 wisdom  and  power. 
 
 Good  works  (Eph.  ii.  10) 
 are  such  as  proceed  from  love 
 to  God,  and  are  done  in  obe- 
 dience to  his  law,  and  from  a 
 regard  to  his  glory. 
 
 vVe  are  saved  by  faith ;  but 
 
 faith  without  works  is  dead, 
 
 i.  e.  it  is  without  any  evidence 
 
 uf  life.    Works  constitute  the 
 
 54* 
 
 WOR 
 
 evidence  and  determine  the 
 strength  and  character  of  faith. 
 
 WORLD.  (lSam.ii.8.)  This 
 term  is  used  by  the  sacred 
 writers  in  a  variety  of  senses, 
 each  of  which  may  ordinarily 
 be  determined  by  its  connex- 
 ion. Among  them  may  be  men- 
 tioned the  following :  The  habi- 
 table earth,  (Ps.  xxxiii.  8;) 
 time,  (Isa.  xlv.  17.  Matt,  xxviii, 
 20;)  present  existence,  (John 
 i.  9 ;)  future  existence,  (Mark 
 X.  30;)  the  nations  and  king- 
 doms sul:iject  to  Rome  in  the 
 time  of  our  Saviour,  (Luke  ii. 
 1 ;)  an  indefinite  number,  (John 
 xii.  19.  Actsxix.  27;)  close  of 
 the  Jewish  dispensation  con- 
 nected with  the  final  consum- 
 mation of  all  things,  (Matt, 
 xxiv.  3;)  the  corrupt  senti- 
 ment, disposition,  and  prac- 
 tices of  sinners.  (James  i.  27. 
 1  John  iv.  5.) 
 
 WORMS.  (Ex.  xvi.  20.)  A 
 large  class  of  animals  without 
 any  of  the  senses  belonging  to 
 other  animals,  except  feeling. 
 From  the  circumstance  that 
 one  or  more  species  of  worms 
 are  found  in  putrefying  flesh, 
 we  have  the  figurative  expres- 
 sions in  Job  xix.  26;  xxi.  26; 
 xxiv.  20.  Isa.  xiv.  11.  Owing 
 to  the  constant  accumulation 
 of  filth  and  putrefaction  in  a 
 valley  near  Jerusalem,  it  was 
 always  alive  with  worms,  and 
 fires  were  maintained  day  and 
 night  to  consume  the  sources 
 of  pestilence.  Hence  the  allu- 
 sion, Isa.  lxvi.24.  Mark  ix.44. 
 46.  48.  At  an  advanced  stage 
 of  some  diseases,  worms  are 
 bred  in  the  flesh.  (Jobvii.  5; 
 xvii.  14.  Acts  xii.  23.)  The 
 meanness  of  the  worm,  and  its 
 liability  to  be  trodden  down 
 unnoticed,  afford  the  illustra- 
 tions in  Job  XXV.  6.  Ps.  xxii.  6, 
 and  Isa.  xii.  14. 
 
 WORMWOOD.  (Deul.  xxix. 
 
 18.)    A  plant  of  which  there 
 
 are   several   species,  and  all 
 
 distinguished  for  intense  bitter 
 
 641 
 
WRI 
 
 ness,  and  probably  some  may 
 be  not  only  biaer  and  nauseous, 
 but  positively  hurtful.  Hence 
 it  is  often  joined  with  or  used 
 in  the  same  sense  as  gall  and 
 hemlock,  to  denote  what  is 
 offensive  or  injurious.  (Deut. 
 xxix.  18.  Prov.  V.  4.  Amos  v.  7; 
 \i.  12.)  To  be  obliged  to  use 
 it  as  food  expresses  the  extreme 
 of  suffering.  (Jer.  ix.  15;  xxiii. 
 15.  Lam.  iii.  15.  19.) 
 
 WORSHIP.  (Matt.  ii.  2.) 
 This  word,  as  used  in  our  Bi- 
 ble, has  various  significations. 
 In  most  instances  it  means 
 simply  an  act  of  respect,  (Matt. 
 ix.  18.  Acts  X.  25,)  and  does 
 not  imply  any  religious  emo- 
 tion. Where  the  act  respects 
 the  Divine  Being,  the  only  pro- 
 per object  of  religious  worship, 
 the  connexion  shows  it.  (John 
 iv.  24.  Heb.  i.  6.  Rev.  .xxii.  9.) 
 It  is  used,  however,  in  relation 
 to  idol  sods.  (Dan.  iii.  5.  12. 14. 
 Acts  xix.  27.) 
 
 WRITING.  (Ex.  xxxii.  16.) 
 Writing  by  pictures  or  in  hiero- 
 glyphics is  an  art  of  very  an- 
 cient date,  and  is  even  now 
 common  in  many  savage  na- 
 tions. An  eye  represented 
 God  as  the  Omniscient ;  an  eye 
 and  sceptre,  a  king;  a  lion, 
 courage,  &c.  This  is  common, 
 in  its  most  unimproved  form, 
 among  our  American  abori- 
 gines; and  was  the  common 
 method  used  by  the  Mexicans, 
 come  of  whose  ancient  pictures 
 of  this  kind  are  preserved. 
 
 The  most  numerous  and  re- 
 markable specimens  of  hiero- 
 
 WRl 
 
 glyphic  writing  exist  in  Egypt, 
 they  have  been  sought  out  by 
 travellers,  and  copied  in  draw- 
 ings and  copperplates,  but  have 
 balRed  the  ingenuity  and  la- 
 bour of  all  ages,  until  within 
 a  few  years,  a  distinguished 
 French  antiquary  has  succeed- 
 ed in  deciphering  a  great  num- 
 ber of  them,  and  iTis  labours 
 have  thrown  great  light  upon 
 the  Scriptures,  and  vindicated 
 the  Mosaic  history  from  a  mul- 
 titude of  objections. 
 
 It  is  not  improbable  that 
 these  pictures,  which  were  at 
 first  accurate  resemblances  of 
 objects,  became  at  last  merely 
 signs  of  ideas,  and  that  hence 
 alphabetical  writing  came  into 
 use.  It  is  the  prevailing  opi- 
 nion that  the  Israelites  were 
 acquainted  with  letters  when 
 they  were  in  Egypt  as  bond- 
 men ;  and  when  they  took  pos- 
 session of  the  land  of  Canaan 
 they  found  a  city  called  Kir- 
 jath-sepher,  which  means  the 
 city  of  books  or  letters,  and 
 indicates  the  existence  of  the 
 art  among  that  people.  Through 
 all  the  Mosaic  history,  books 
 and  writing  are  mentioned  as 
 in  familiar  use.  The  practice 
 of  employing  an  amanuensis 
 was  much  more  common  in 
 ancient  days  than  now.  Hence 
 Paul  notices  it  as  a  special  cir- 
 cumstance that  he  wrote  the 
 letter  to  the  Galatians  with  his 
 own  hand.  (Gal.  vi.  11.)  This 
 fact  also  explains  Rom.  xvi. 
 22.  1  Cor.  xvi.  21.  Col.  iv.  18, 
 and2Thess.iii.l7.  (See  Book.; 
 
 YAR 
 
 YARN,  LINEN.  (1  Kings  x. 
 28.)  There  is  a  diversity 
 of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning 
 of  this  term.  There  is  very 
 strong  reason  to  doubt  the  cor- 
 rectness of  the  rendering  in 
 our  translation,  though  we  have 
 mentioned  it  without  comment 
 in  the  article  Linsn. 
 
 YEA 
 
 YEAR.  (Gen.xvii.2l.)  That 
 space  of  time  wherein  the  sun 
 finishes  his  course  through  all 
 the  signs  of  the  zodiac  circle 
 of  the"  heavens,  consisting  of 
 the  four  seasons  of  spring,  sum- 
 mer, autumn,  and  winter.  It 
 consists  of  three  hundred  and 
 sixty -five  days  five  hours  forty- 
 642 
 
YEA 
 nine  minutes.  Julius  C£Esar 
 fixed  the  Roman  year  at  lliree 
 hundred  and  sixty-five  days 
 and  six  hours,  which  in  four 
 years  make  one  day,  and  in 
 the  fourth  year  is  added  to 
 February,  and  occasions  that 
 year  to  be  called  leap-year. 
 By  this  year  we  still  reckon 
 our  time;  but  as  it  includes 
 about  eleven  minutes  too  much, 
 this,  in  one  hundred  and  thirty 
 years,  runs  the  reckoning  for- 
 ward one  day,  and  in  our  reck- 
 oning had  run  forward  the  year 
 full  eleven  days,  till  this  was 
 rectified  by  tiie  introduction 
 of  the  new  style  among  us,  as 
 it  was  in  several  countries 
 abroad,  by  pope  Gregory,  al- 
 most two  hundred  years  ago. 
 In  prophetic  language,  a  year 
 signifies  three  hundred  and 
 Bixty  years,  and  awow^/i  thirty, 
 a  t/oy  being  put  for  a  year;  and 
 so  three  years  and  a  half,  and 
 times,  time,  and  half  a  time,  or 
 forty-two  months,  or  twelve 
 hundred  and  sixty  days,  denote 
 the  twelve  hundred  and  sixty 
 years  duration  of  antichrist. 
 (Rev.  xi.  2,3;  xii.  6. 14.)  With 
 the  Jews  the  year  was  civil  or 
 sacred,  solar  or  lunar.  (See 
 Month.) 
 
 Fallow  year.  In  the  se- 
 venth year  all  agricultural 
 labour  was  suspended,  and 
 spontaneous  productions  were 
 
 YOK 
 
 left  to  the  poor,  the  traveller, 
 and  the  wild  beasts.  (Lev.  xxv. 
 1—7.)  This  was,  (1.)  For  the 
 sake  of  the  ground ;  (2.)  For  the 
 preservation  of  wild  beasts; 
 and,  (.3.)  To  make  the  people 
 provident  and  sensible  of  de- 
 pendence. The  people  could 
 fish,  hunt,  take  care  of  bees 
 and  flocks,  repair  buildings, 
 manufacture  clothes,  and  cany 
 on  commerce.  This  year  was 
 religiously  observed.  (Deut. 
 xxxi.  10—13.) 
 
 Year  of  jubilee.  (See 
 Feast.) 
 
 YOKE.  (Gen.xxvii.40.)  The 
 yoke  was  laid  upon  the  neck 
 of  the  beast,  and  fastened  with 
 thongs  to  the  animal,  and  to 
 the  plough-beam.  It  thus  be- 
 came a  lively  image  of  slavery, 
 subjection,  imprisonment,  and 
 severe  rule,  while  the  removal 
 of  the  yoke  indicated  the  cor- 
 responding deliverance.  (Jer. 
 ii.  20.)  Breaking  the  yoke  also 
 represents  the  rejection  of  au- 
 thority. (Jer.  V.  5.  Nah.  i.  13.) 
 The  following  cut  represents 
 the  ancient  Egyptian  yoke. 
 
 ZAC 
 
 ZAANAN.  (Mic.  i.  11.)  Most 
 probably  a  city  of  Judah, 
 the  same  as  Zenan  mentioned 
 in  Josh.  XV.  37,  situated  in  the 
 valley  or  plain  towards  the 
 Mediterranean  coast. 
 
 ZA.\NA  NNBI.  ( Josh.  xix.  33.) 
 A  city  of  Naphtali,  in  the;j/am 
 of  Zaanaim,  (Judg.  iv.  11,) 
 north-east  of  Kedesh,  near  the 
 waters  of  Merora. 
 
 ZACCHEUS.  (Luke  xix.  2.) 
 A  rich  Jew  resident  in  Jericho, 
 and  chief  officer  of  the  tax  or 
 
 ZAC 
 
 tribute  collectors  in  that  place, 
 and  hence  he  is  called  a  sin 
 ner.  for  the  Jews  regarded  all 
 publicans  or  tax-gatherers  in 
 this  light.  His  curiosity  to  see 
 Christ  was  so  much  excited, 
 that  he  took  pains  to  climb 
 into  a  tree  by  the  road-side, 
 that  he  might  have  a  fair  view 
 of  him  as'  the  crowd  passed. 
 Jesus,  knowing  his  character 
 and  motives,  proposed  to  spend 
 the  day  with  him,  to  which 
 Zaccheus  gladly  assented.  His 
 643 
 
ZAC 
 
 mind  waa  probably  brought  at 
 »ace  under  the  influence  of  the 
 Spirit  of  God,  and  on  that  very 
 day  he  and  his  family  became 
 interested  in  the  salvation  of 
 the  gospel.  (Luke  xix.  1—10.) 
 The  expression /o?-as??n«c/i  as 
 he  also  is  a  son  of  Abraham 
 probably  denotes  that,  he  waa 
 not  only  a  natural  descend int 
 of  the  patriarch,  but  that  he 
 had  now  become  a  pariaker  of 
 the  like  faith  and  promises. 
 
 ZACHARIAH,  1.(2  Kings 
 xiv.  29,)  waa  son  and  siiccesior 
 to  Jeroboam  II.  king  of  Israel. 
 He  reigned  but  six  months, 
 and  then  fell  by  the  hand  of 
 .Shallum,  who  took  the  throne. 
 (2  Kings  XV.  8—11.  Comp.  Amos 
 vii.  9.) 
 
 2.  (Ezra  v.  1.)  The  prophet, 
 was  the  son  of  Barachiah,  and 
 the  grandson  of  Iddo.  (Zech. 
 i.  1.)  The  expression  in  Ezra 
 is  consonant  to  the  Jewish 
 usage  of  calling  a  descendant 
 son  or  daughter,  and  an  an- 
 cestor father  or  mother,  though 
 they  might  be  removed  two  "or 
 three  degrees  from  these  rela- 
 tions. Zechariah  returned  from 
 Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  and 
 prophesied  contemporaneously 
 with  Haggai. 
 
 Proph'ecv"  of,  is  the  last  but 
 one  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  lis  grand 
 design  is  to  encourage  the  Jews 
 in  the  re-establishment  of  their 
 national  institutions.  Though 
 the  language  is  often  obscure, 
 and  the  .style  seemingly  un- 
 connected, it  contains  several 
 animating  predictions  of  the 
 future  glory  of  Christ's  king- 
 dom, in  terms  remarkably  full 
 and  explicit. 
 
 ZAC  H ARIAS.  1.  (Matt, 
 xxiii.  35.    See  Barachias.) 
 
 2.  (Luke  i.  5.)  A  priest  of 
 the  family  of  Abia,  (see  Abia,) 
 the  father  of  John  the  Bap- 
 list.  The  character  of  him- 
 ?elf  and  his  wife  is  given 
 .!S  in  ihe  simplest  yet  "most 
 expressive  language.     (Luke 
 
 ZAR 
 
 I  i.  6.)  The  birth  of  John  was 
 announced  to  him  in  a  mi- 
 raculous manner,  and  seemed 
 so  beyond  the  range  of  pro- 
 bability, that  his  faith  failed, 
 and  he  asked  for  some  extra- 
 ordinary sign  that  the  promise 
 should  be  accomplished.  He 
 waa  immediately  deprived  of 
 the  power  of  speech,  and 
 remained  dumb  until  the 
 eighth  day  after  the  birth  of 
 the  promised  child  ;  when 
 being  asked  to  give  the  in- 
 fant a  name,  in  obedience  to 
 the  angelic  direction  he  called 
 him  John,  and  forthwith  the 
 power  of  speech  was  restored 
 to  him,  and  he  employed  it  in 
 a  strain  of  the  most  devoitt 
 gratitude  and  praise.  (Luke  i. 
 57-80.) 
 
 ZADOK,  (2  Sam.  viii.  17,) 
 the  successor  of  Abiaihar  in 
 the  Jewish  priesthood,  waa  the 
 son  of  Ahiiub,  of  the  family 
 of  Eleazar.  (CJomp.  1  Sam.  ii 
 30—36.    1  Kings  ii.  27.  35.) 
 
 ZALMON,  (Juds.  ix.  48,)  or 
 SALMON.  (Ps.  Ifviii.  14.)  A 
 hill  near  to  Shechem,  which, 
 it  appears  from  the  above  pas- 
 sage in  Psalms,  was  covered 
 with  snow,  li  is  also  the  name 
 of  a  person.    (Matt.  i.  5.) 
 
 ZAMZUMMIMS,  (Deut.  ii, 
 20,)  or  ZUZIMS.  (Gen.  xiv.  5.) 
 A  tribe  of  people  of  gigantic 
 stature  and  strength,  who  in- 
 habited the  country  east  of  the 
 Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea.  They 
 were  attacked  and  routed  by 
 Chedorlaomer,  and  afterwards 
 expelled  by  the  Ammonites. 
 
 ZANOAH.  (Josh.  xv.  34.  56.) 
 There  were  probably  two  cities 
 of  this  name,  both  in  Judah; 
 one  in  the  valley  or  low  coun- 
 try, the  other  in  the  maun- 
 iai7is,  or  interior. 
 
 ZAPHON,  (Josh.  xiii.  27,)  or 
 SHOPHAN.  (Num.  xxxii.  35.) 
 One  of  the  cities  of  Gad,  situ 
 ated  in  the  valley,  lying  along 
 the  east  side  of  the  Jordan. 
 
 ZARED,  (Num.  xxi.  12,)  oi 
 ZERED.  (Deut.  ii.  13.)  A  brook 
 6U 
 
2AR 
 
 rising  in  mount  Abarim,  and 
 emptying  into  tlie  Dead  Sea, 
 south  of  Arnon,  in  ttie  land  of 
 Moab.  On  its  banlis  tiie  Israel- 
 lies  encamped,  on  their  journey 
 from  Egypt  to  the  promised 
 land. 
 ZAREPHATH.       (See    Sa- 
 
 REFTA  ^ 
 
 ZARETAN,  (Josh.  iii.  16,)  or 
 ZARTANAH,  (I  Kings  iv.  12,) 
 orZARTHAN,  (IKings  vii.46,) 
 or  ZEREDA,  (1  Kings  xi. 26,)  or 
 ZEREDATHA,  (2Chron.  iv. 
 17,)  or  ZERERATH,  (Judg.  vii. 
 22,)  all  supposed  to  denote  one 
 and  the  same  place,  viz.  a  town 
 on  the  west  bank  cf  the  Jordan, 
 at  the  place  where  the  Israel- 
 ites crossed,  when  the  waters 
 were  gathered  into  a  heap  on 
 either  side.  It  was  near  Belh- 
 shean,  and  opposite  to  Succoih, 
 and  was  distinguished  as  the 
 birthplace  of  Jerotioam. 
 
 ZEKOIM.  (Gen.  X.  19;  xiv. 
 2.)  One  of  tlie  cities  of  the 
 plain,  destroyed  with  Sodom 
 and  Gomorrah.  There  was 
 also  a  city  and  valley  of  tiiis 
 name  in  the  lot  of  Benjamin. 
 (1  Sam.  xiii.  18.  Neh.  xi.  34.) 
 
 ZEBULON,  (Gen.  xxx.  20,) 
 or  ZABULON.  (Rev.  vii.  8,) 
 the  sixth  son  of  Jacob  and 
 Leah.  The  portion  of  his  de- 
 scendants in  the  promised  land 
 was  assigned  prophetically  by 
 his  father  and  their  ancestor. 
 (Gen.  xlix.  13.) 
 
 Tribe  op,  possessed  that  dis- 
 trict of  Canaan  which  lay  be^^ 
 tween  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Matt. 
 iv.  13)  and  the  Mediterranean; 
 bounded  south  by  Issachar,  and 
 north  by  Asher  and  Naphtali. 
 This  last  tribe  allied  itself  to 
 the  tribe  of  Zebulon,  and  joined 
 the  forces  of  Barak  and  Debo- 
 rah against  the  army  of  Jabin. 
 (Judg.  V.  18.) 
 
 The  town  of  Zebulon  (Josh, 
 xix.  27)  was  within  the  terri- 
 tory of  Asher,  but  was  probably 
 a  possession  of  the  tribe  of  Ze- 
 bulon. Elon,  a  judge  of  Israel, 
 was  of  this  tribe,  and  was  bu- 
 
 ZED 
 
 ried  within  its  bounds.    (Judg 
 xii.  12.) 
 ZECHARIAH.  (See  Zacha 
 
 RIAH.) 
 
 ZEDAH,  or  ZEDAD.  (Num. 
 xxxi  V.  8.)  A  comparison  of  this 
 passage  with  Ezek.  xlvii.  15, 
 shows' the  place  to  have  been 
 on  the  north-eastern  frontier 
 of  the  land  of  Israel,  but  its 
 exact  position  is  not  known. 
 
 ZEDEKLAH,  (2  Kings  xxiv. 
 17,)  the  lastkingof  Judah,  was 
 the  son  of  Josiah,  and  the  uncle 
 of  Jehoiachin,  his  immediate 
 predecessor  on  the  throne.  His 
 proper  name  was  Mattaniah, 
 but  Nebuchadnezzar  changed 
 ittoZedekiah.  Recommenced 
 his  reisn  at  twenty-one,  and 
 reignedfeleven  years.  (2Chron. 
 xxxvi.  11.)  He  is  represented 
 as  a  very  wicked  man,  and  the 
 nation  during  his  reign  was 
 remarkably  bold  and  oljdurate 
 in  sin.  For  this  cause  the  pro- 
 phet Jeremiah  was  commis- 
 sioned to  threaten  them  with 
 severe  judgments,  which  were 
 visited  upon  them  in  the  most 
 fearful  manner.  In  the  ninth 
 year  of  his  reign,  he  revolted 
 against  Nebuchadnezzar,  in 
 consequence  of  which  the  As- 
 syrian monarch  marched  his 
 army  into  Judea,  and  took  all 
 the  fortified  places.  In  the  ele- 
 venth year  of  his  reign,  on  the 
 ninth  day  of  the  fourth  month, 
 (July,)  Jerusalem  was  taken. 
 The  king  and  his  people  endea- 
 voured to  escape  by  night ;  but 
 the  Chaldean  troops  pursuing 
 them,  they  were  overtaken  in 
 the  plain  of  Jericho.  Zedekiah 
 was  seized  and  carried  to  Ne- 
 buchadnezzar, then  at  Riblah, 
 in  Syria,  who  reproached  him 
 with  his  perfidy,  caused  all  his 
 children  to  be  slain  before  his 
 face,  and  his  own  eyes  to  be 
 put  out;  and  then  loading  him 
 with  chains  of  brass,  he  ordered 
 him  to  be  sent  to  Babylon.  (2 
 Kings  xxv.  1— 11.  2  Chron. 
 xxxvi.  12.  20.)  It  is  worthy  of 
 special  remark,  that  two  pro- 
 645 
 
ZER 
 
 pliecies,  seemingly  irreconcile- 
 able,  were  both  literally  fulfil- 
 led in  ihe  case  of  Zedekiah. 
 (Jer.  xxxii.  4,  5;  xxxiv.  3. 
 Comp.  Ezek.  xii.  13.) 
 
 There  were  two  or  three 
 false  prophets  of  this  name, 
 one  of  whom  withstood  Mi- 
 caiah  in  a  most  insolent  man- 
 ner. (1  Kings  xxii.  11—37.  See 
 also  Jer.  xxix.  22.) 
 
 ZELOTES.    (See  Simon.) 
 
 ZEMARAIM,  MOUNT,  (2 
 Chron.  xiii.  4,)  was  in  mount 
 Ephraim,  and  a  city  of  the 
 same  name  was  in  the  southern 
 section  of  the  territory  of  Ben- 
 jamin, near  Bethel.  (Josh. 
 xviii.22.) 
 
 ZENAN.    (See  Zaanan.) 
 
 ZEPHANIAH  (Zeph.  i.  1) 
 was  the  son  of  Cushi,  and  lived 
 in  the  days  of  Josiah. 
 
 Pkophecy  of,  is  the  thirty- 
 sixth  in  the  order  of  the  books 
 of  the  Old  Testament.  It  was 
 uttered  in  the  early  part  of  the 
 ministry  of  Jeremiah,  and  is 
 desii^ned  mainly  to  excite  the 
 Jewish  nation  to  repentance, 
 in  view  of  threatened  judg- 
 ments, and  to  comfort  the  peo- 
 ple of  God  with  promises  of  the 
 final  triumph  of  righteousness. 
 (See  Elisama,  pp.  46,  4.7,  by 
 Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 Zephaniah,  (Jer.  xxix.  25,) 
 the  son  of  Maaseiah,  who  is 
 called  the  second  priest,  (2 
 Kings  XXV.  IS,  — see  High- 
 priest,)  was  put  to  death  by 
 Nebuciiadnezzar  at  Riblah. 
 (2  Kings  XXV.  18—21.) 
 
 ZEPHATHA,  VALLEY  op,  (2 
 Chron.  xiv.  9—13,)  was  in  the 
 south-western  section  of  the 
 territory  of  Judah,  near  Mare- 
 shah,  and  is  memorable  for 
 the  battle  of  the  Jews  with  the 
 Ethiopians.  There  was  also  a 
 city  of  this  name  (Zephath) 
 within  the  bounds  of  Simeon. 
 (Jude.  i.  17.) 
 
 ZERAH.  (2  Chron.  xiv.  9.) 
 An  Arabian  king,  who,  with  an 
 immense  army,  invaded  the 
 kingdom  of  Judah  in  the  reiga 
 
 ZIK 
 
 of  Asa.  The  pious  king  of  Ju- 
 dah, depending  on  the  arm  of 
 the  Lord,  went"out  against  him 
 without  fear,  and  obtained  a 
 signal  victory.  The  prayer  of 
 Asa  on  this  occasion  is  worthy 
 of  all  admiration.  (2  Chron. 
 xiv.  11.) 
 
 ZERED.    (See  Zared.) 
 
 ZEREDA.    cSee  Zaretan.) 
 
 ZEREDATHAH.  (See  Za- 
 retan.) 
 
 ZERESH.  (Esth.v.lO.)  The 
 wife  of  Haman,  and  his  coun- 
 sellor and  instigator  in  ini- 
 quity. 
 
 ZERUBBABEL,  (1  Chron. 
 iii.  19,)orZOROBABEL,(Matt. 
 i.  12,)  was  the  leader  of  the 
 first  colony  of  Jews  that  re- 
 turned from  the  captivity  in 
 Babylon,  (Ezra  ii.  2,)  and  was 
 of  the  family  of  David.  To  him 
 Cyrus  committed  the  sacred 
 vessels  that  were  returned  to 
 Jerusalem.  He  laid  the  foun- 
 dations of  the  temple,  (Zech.  iv. 
 6—10,)  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
 mental in  restoring  the  usual 
 religious  riles  of  the  nation. 
 (Ezra  iii.  2—13.  See  Temple. 
 See  alsoELisAMA,  ch.  viii.  and 
 ix.,  by  Am.  S.  S.  Union.) 
 
 ZIBA.  (2  Sam.  xix.  17.)  A 
 servant  of  Saul,  whom  David 
 appointed  a  sort  of  steward  to 
 Mephibosheth.  (2  Sam.  ix.  2— 
 12.) 
 
 ZIDON.    (See  Sidon.) 
 
 ZIF.    (See  Month.) 
 
 ZIKLAG.  (Josh.  xix.  5.)  A 
 city  in  the  southern  extremity 
 of  the  territory  of  Judah,  though 
 allotted  to  Simeon.  In  the 
 time  of  Saul  it  was  in  the 
 hands  of  the  Philistines,  and 
 Achish,  their  king,  granted  it 
 to  David  as  a  temporary  resi- 
 dence when  he  was  flying  from 
 the  persecution  of  that  wicked 
 monarch.  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  6.) 
 Daring  the  absence  of  David 
 and  tlie  principal  men  on  a 
 campaign,theAmalekites  burn- 
 ed the  city,  and  made  the  wo- 
 men and  children  prisoners. 
 David  pursued  them  under  di- 
 fri6 
 
ZIO 
 
 v1iietii.-eclion,andsurpri:)edthe 
 Aniali'kiies,and  nolonl  ydefeat- 
 ed  ihem,  but  recovered  all  that 
 had  been  taken.  (iSam.  xxx.) 
 
 ZILPAH.  (Gen.xxx.9.)  The 
 handmaid  of  Leah,  and  the 
 mother  of  Gad  and  Asher. 
 
 ZTMRI.    (See  Omri.) 
 
 ZIN,  DESERT  OF,   (Num.  XX. 
 
 1,)  or  v/iLDERNESs  OF,  (Num. 
 xiii.21,')  stretched  southwardly, 
 about  five  miles  in  breadth.from 
 the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Red  Sea, 
 and  was  once  probably  the  val- 
 ley of  the  Jordan.  It  is  now 
 called  El  G/ior.  It  is  often 
 mentioned  in  the  journeyings 
 of  the  Israelites,and  is  connect- 
 ed with  some  of  the  most  inte- 
 restinz  events  of  that  period. 
 
 ZION,  (Ps.  cxxxiii.  3,)  or 
 SIGN.  (Deut.  iv.  48.;)  The  last 
 name  seems  to  have  been  ap- 
 
 Elied  to  mount  Hermon.  (See 
 [ermon.)  Both  names  are 
 applied  principally  to  the  hill 
 or  fortress  (called  the  castle  of 
 Zion,  1  Chron.  xi.  5)  which  was 
 taken  from  the  Jebusiies  by 
 Joab,  one  of  David's  chief  cap- 
 tains. Thither  David  removed 
 from  Hebron,  whence  it  was 
 called  the  cily  of  David.  (2 
 Sam.  V.9;  vi.lO.)  It  was  the 
 southernmost  of  the  hills  on 
 which  Jerusalem  was  built, 
 having  the  valley  of  Kedron 
 on  the  east,  and  the  valley  of 
 Hinnom  or  Gehenna  south  and 
 west,  Acra  to  the  north,  and 
 Moriah  north-east.  On  it  was 
 erected  Solomon's  palace,  call- 
 ed the  house  of  the  forest  of 
 Lebanon ;  and  afterward  the 
 magnificent  palace  of  Herod, 
 destroyed  by  the  Romans.  The 
 temple  and  its  courts  on 
 mount  Moriah  were  called 
 Zion,  (Ps.  Ixv.  1 ;  Ixxxiv.  7;) 
 and  the  appellation  is  ap- 
 propriated figuratively  to  the 
 church,  whether  on  earth  or 
 in  heaven,  as  the  livin"  temple 
 of  Jehovah.  (Isa.  ii.  3.  Heb. 
 xii.  22.    Rev.  xiv.  1.) 
 
 Messrs.  Fisk  and  King,  Ame- 
 rican    missionaries,     visited 
 
 ZOA 
 
 mount  Zion  in  the  spring  of 
 18-23.  They  describe  it  as 
 partly  covered  with  the  tombs 
 of  Greek  and  Armenian  Chris- 
 tians. On  the  east  and  south 
 sides  it  is  ploughed  and  culti- 
 vated. Near  the  summit  isa 
 little  walled  village,  contain- 
 ing a  mosque  and^a  few  Mus- 
 sulmans' houses.  The  Jews 
 call  this  village  the  city  of 
 Zion,  and  it  is'  generally  be- 
 lieved by  them  to  contain  the 
 tombs  of  David,  and  Solomon, 
 and  the  other  kings  of  Israel. 
 
 A  modern  traveller  speaks 
 of  it  as  about  a  mile  in  circum- 
 ference, and  raised  about  three 
 hundred  and  sixty  feet.  The 
 soil,  which  was  then  being 
 ploughed,  (Mic.  iii.  12,)  con- 
 sisted of  stones  and  lime  mixed 
 with  earth,  which  is  usual  in 
 the  foundations  of  ruined  cities. 
 (See  Jerusalem.) 
 
 Daughter  of  Zion  (Isa.  i. 
 8)  means  Jerusalem,  and  is  so 
 called  because  Zion  was  the 
 original,  or  mother  setilemenu 
 Hence  also  the  kindred  expres- 
 sions, sons  of  Zion,  (Zech.  ix. 
 13.)  children  of  Zion,  &c.,  (Joel 
 ii.  23.) 
 
 ZIPH.  (Josh.  XV.  24.)  There 
 were  two  cities  of  this  name  in 
 the  lot  of  Judah;  one  towards 
 the  coast  of  Edom,  south-west, 
 (Josh.  XV.  55,)  the  other  (Josh. 
 XV.  24)  a  few  miles  east  of  He- 
 bron on  a  hill,  on  the  border  of 
 the  wilderness  of  Ziph,  (1  Sam. 
 xxiii.  13—24.)  into  which  Da- 
 vid fled  from  Saul  and  conceal- 
 ed himself  The  latter  was 
 probably  the  one  which  Reho- 
 boam  fortified.  (2  Chron.  xi.  8.) 
 
 ZIPHRON.  (Niim.xxxiv.g.) 
 Inihe  vicinity  of  Zedad.  (See 
 Zedad.) 
 
 ZOAN.  (Num.  xiii.  22.)  By 
 the  Greeks  called  Tanis,  and 
 by  the  Arabs  San,  was  one  of 
 the  oldest  cities  of  the  world, 
 founded  only  seven  years  later 
 than  Hebron,  and  situated  on 
 the  Tanailic  arm  of  the  Nile. 
 It  was  evidently  the  residence 
 647 
 
ZOP 
 
 of  a  line  of  princes,  (Isa.  xix. 
 11 — 13;  XXX.  4,)  and  probably 
 the  place  where  Moses  wrought 
 the  Egyptian  miracles.  (Ps. 
 Ixxviii.  12.  43.)  Ezekiel  pro- 
 phesied against  it,  (Ezek.  xxx. 
 14,)  and  its  ruins  are  yet  visi- 
 ble, and  present  numerous  pil- 
 lars and  obelisks,  as  evidence 
 of  its  former  magnificence. 
 
 ZOAR.  (Gen.  xiv.  2.)  A 
 small  city,  originally  called 
 Beta,  atthe  southern  extremity 
 of  the  Dead  Sea,  whose  king, 
 with  four  others,  rebelled 
 against  Chedorlaomer,  and 
 •\as  conquered.  It  was  after- 
 ward threatened  with  the  same 
 destruction  as  Sodom,  but 
 spared  at  Lot's  request,  who 
 fled  to  it  for  safety  from  the 
 storm  of  divine  wrath.  (Gen. 
 xix.  20.  22.) 
 
 ZOBAH.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47.)  A 
 town  and  province  of  Syria, 
 lying  along  the  Euphrates, 
 north  of  Damascus,  and  ex- 
 tending towards  Aleppo,  whose 
 king  (Hadarezer)  was  smitten 
 by  David,  when  he  went  to  re- 
 cover his  border  on  the  Eu- 
 phrates.   (2  Sam.  viii.  3.) 
 
 ZOPHAR.  (Jobii.  11.)  One 
 of  Job's  three  friends.  He  is 
 called  the  Naamathite,  proba- 
 bly because  he  belonged    to 
 
 zuz 
 
 Naamah,  (Josh.  xv.  41,)  a  town 
 assigned  to  Judah. 
 
 ZORAH,  (Josh.  xix.  41,)  or 
 ZORAN.  A  city  belonging  ori- 
 ginally to  Judah,  and  after- 
 wards to  Dan,  near  the  bound 
 ary  line  between  them;  the 
 birthplace  of  Samson,  (Judg. 
 xiii.  2,)  and  probably  fortifieli 
 by  Rehoboam.  (2Chron.  xi.  10.) 
 It  is  called  Zoreah,  (Josh,  xv. 
 33,)  and  its  inhabitants  are 
 called  Zorites,  (1  Chron.  ii, 
 54,)  and  Zorathites.  (1  Chron. 
 iv.  2.) 
 
 ZOROBABEL.  (See  Zerub- 
 
 BABEL.) 
 
 ZUPH.  (1  Sam.  ix.  5.)  The 
 land  of  Zuph  probably  derived 
 its  name  from  Zuph,  one  of  the 
 ancestors  of  Samuel  the  pro- 
 phet. (1  Chron.  vi.  35.)  Ra- 
 math,  which  was  within  the 
 province  of  Zuph,  was  thence 
 called  Ramath-zophim,  or  Ra- 
 viathaim.  (1  Sam.  i.  1.  See 
 Rama.) 
 
 ZUR.  (Josh.  xiii.  21.)  A 
 Midianilish  prince,  (Num. 
 XXV.  15,)  who  was  slain,  with 
 others,  by  the  Israelites,  when 
 the  Midianiles  suffered  the 
 judgments  of  God  for  their 
 sins.    (Num.  xxv.  17,  18.) 
 
 ZUZIMS.     (See    Zamztjm- 
 
 MIMS.) 
 
 643 
 
 THE  END. 
 
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