m I ■l i» MR HI No, 23476 X.3^3 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. CHIEFLY A TRANSLATION MANUEL D'HERMENEUTIQUE BIBLIQUE, PAR J. K. CELLERIER, PROFESSEUR DE THEOLOGIE EXEGETIQUE A L'ACADEMIE DE GENEVE. BY CHARLES ELLIOTT, D.D., AND REV. WILLIAM JUSTIN HARSHA. De Deo homo dixit, et quidem inspiratus a Deo, sed tamen homo. — St. Augustine. (Tract. I. in Joann. Evang.) NEW YORK: ANSON D. F. RANDOLPH & COMPANY, 9OO BROADWAY, COR. 20th STREET. COPYRIGHT, 1 88 1, BY ANSON D. F. RANDOLPH & COMPANY. NEW YORK: EDWARD O. JENKINS, ROBERT RUTTER, Printer and Stereotyper, Binder^ 20 North William St. 116 and 118 East 14th Street. PREFACE. The following treatise is principally a translation of the "Manuel d'Hermeneutique "of the late M. Cellerier, Profes- sor in the Academy of Geneva, Switzerland. Of that work, an able hermeneut, the late Principal Fairbairn, of Glasgow, Scotland, says, that " however objectionable in respect to the principles it occasionally enunciates, it is one of the most systematic and complete in form."* The translator of Dr. A. Immer's " Hermeneutics of the New Testament," remarks : "Cellerier, Manuel d'Hermeneutique Biblique " .... is "very valuable, as well for the principles set forth, as for the abundant examples of the application of the principles."! The objectional principles to which Dr. Fairbairn alludes, have been eliminated, and others, especially on the subject of inspiration, have been substituted by the senior translator and editor, who alone is responsible for all omissions, changes, and additions. Though he assumes this responsibility, he wishes, at the same time, the book to appear as the joint pro- duction of himself and of his friend and former pupil, the Rev. W. J. Harsha, without whose assistance he could not have found time to finish it. Consent to the translation and to the changes made has been obtained from the family of Professor Cellerier by my friend, the Rev. Dr. Godet, Professor of Theology, Neuchatel, Switzerland. In the letter containing the permission, Dr. * Preface to the " Hermeneutical Manual," by Patrick Fairbairn, D.D. Philadelphia: Smith, English & Co., 1859. f Dr. Immer's " Hermeneutics of the New Testament," page 159, note. Andover : Warren F. Draper, 1877. iv Preface. Godet says : u La famille Cellerier consent de tout son cceur a l'usage que vous desirez faire de l'ouvrage de venerable Professeur Cellerier. Elle demande simplement que vous ayez la bonte d'indiquer au lecteur le rapport entre votre travail et celui de M. Cellerier." Dr. G., in the same letter, suggests the propriety of indi- cating, by certain marks, the matter of Prof. Cellerier and that of the translators, which suggestion has not been literally fol- lowed, inasmuch as it would 'interrupt the continuity of the work. It has been deemed best to give the numbers of the sections that have been changed or omitted. The numbers have been taken from Prof. Cellerier's work, and are the following : (i). Sections partly omitted, viz., 21, 25, 30, 31, 54, 57, 60, 71, 79, 81, 90, 91, 93, 96, 104, 116, 119, 122, 155, 170, 179. (2). Sections entirely omitted, viz, 26, 38, 65, 74, 153, 163, 165, 166. 168, 169, 176, 184, 185, 187, 188, and from 189 to 210 inclusive. (3). Sections modified, viz, 20, 170, 175, 182, 183. (4). Sections to which additions have been made, viz, 1, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 27, 28, 39, 43, 126. (5). Sections supplied by the senior translator, the numbers of which correspond to those of the translation, viz, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149. Several sections are occasionally thrown into one. These changes, though not in accordance with the letter of Dr. Godet's suggestions, are yet in harmony with their spirit, and are, in the opinion of the translators, within the limits prescribed by Prof. Cellerier's family. In its character as a scientific treatise, the work remains as it came from the hands of its author. It is published under the impression that a convenient Manual on the subject of Hermeneutics is needed for the use of ministers of the Gospel, and of Students of Theology. The arrangement is as nearly complete as it can be made ; and for the purposes of a text-book, it is perhaps superior to anything of the kind that has appeared. Preface. v It will be observed that the book treats of general, not special Hermeneutics. There are works, such as Dr. David- son's " Sacred Hermeneutics," Dr. Fairbairn's " Hermeneuti- cal Manual," and Dr. Immer's " Hermeneutics of the New Testament," which discuss particular points and special ques- tions more fully than that of Prof. Cellerier does ; but the latter covers better than any of them the whole field of Her- meneutical Science. If this work shall promote in any degree the study and right understanding of God's Holy Word, the object of the translators and editors will be accomplished. To the glory of Him, who " hath in these last days spoken unto us by His Son " (Heb. i. 2), it is dedicated. Charles Elliott. Chicago, March, 1879. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION, 1-55 SECTION FIRST. Nature of Hermeneutics. Par. 1. — Relation of Hermeneutics to Exegetical Theol- ogy, 1-2 " 2. — Definition of Hermeneutics and Distinctions, 3-4 " 3. — Distinctions Continued, .... 4-6 " 4. — Importance of Hermeneutics, . . . 6-7 SECTION SECOND. History of Hermeneutical Principles. Par. 5. — First Period. — From the time of the Apostles until the time of Origen, .... 8-9 '' 6. — Second Period. — Fathers of the Church; third, fourth, and fifth centuries, . . 9-12 " 7. — Third Period. — The Middle Ages, . . 12-13 " 8. — Fourth Period. — The Reformation, . . 13-18 " 9. — Fifth Period. — Seventeenth Century, . . 18-20 " 10. — Sixth Period. — Reactions and Struggles dur- ing the first part of the Eighteenth Cent- ury, 20-24 " 11. — Seventh Period. — The Scientific Era. — Latter part of the Eighteenth and beginning of the Nineteenth Centuries, . . . 24-29 " 12. — Eighth Period.— Present Era, . . . 29-34 SECTION THIRD. The Unity of the Sense of Scripture. Par. 13. — State of the Question, . . . 35 " 14. — Examination a Priori, .... 35—37 viii Contents. PAR. 15. — Consequences of the hypothesis of a multiple sense 37-39 " 16. — Examination a Posteriori, .... 39-40 " 17. — Philological Facts, 40-42 " 18. — Symbolical Facts, 42-43 " 19. — Prophetical Facts, 44-46 " 20. — Typical Facts, 46-47 " 21. — Results of these Facts, .... 47-48 " 22. — Tendencies which have favored the theory of a double sense, 48-50 SECTION FOURTH. Natural Division of Hermeneutics. Par. 23. — General Reflections, 51-52 " 24. — Analysis of the Elements of the Science . 52-54 " 25. — Conditions necessary to the prosecution of the Science, 54- 5 5 PART FIRST. PSYCHOLOGICAL HERMENEUTICS. Par. 26. — Its Necessity, 56-57 SECTION FIRST. Faculties with which the Interpreter should be En- dowed. Par. 27. — Intellectual Faculties, 58—59 " 28. — Moral Faculties, 59~6o SECTION SECOND. Dispositions Necessary to the Interpreter. Par. 29. — Love of Truth, 61-64 " 30. — Search for Clear Ideas, 64-66 " 31. — Faith and Piety, 66-69 SECTION THIRD. Duties of the Interpreter. Par. 32. — His examination to embrace the whole Bible, 70-71 " 33. — His examination to be made with distrust of self, and with a feeling of his own weak- ness, 71-72 Contents. ix PART SECOND. GRAMMATICAL HERMENEUTICS. I. DIFFICULTIES. Par. 34.— Nature of the Task 73~74 " 35. — Want of sufficient Analogy between Lan- guages, 74-75 " 36. — Variations in the Sense of Words, . . 75—76 " 37. — Special Nature of the Languages of the Holy Scriptures, 7&-77 II. RESOURCES AND DUTIES. Par. 38.— Considered Generally, 77~78 SECTION FIRST. Resources Derived from the Text. PAR. 39. — Employment of the Original Texts, . . 79-81 A. Study of the Words. Par. 40. — Ordinary Resources of Philology, . . . 81-83 " 41. — Study of the Special Language of the New Testament, 83-86 " 42. — Rules and Suggestions, .... 86-87 " 43. — Diversity of Language among the Sacred Writers, 87-89 B. Study of Constructions. Par. 44. — Considered Generally, 90 " 45. — Idioms, 90-92 " 46. — Anomalies, 92-93 " 47. — Exceptions of Form, 93~97 " 48. — Augmentations of Sense, .... 97-98 " 49. — Rules 9S--99 C. Study of the Phrases and the Discourse. Par. 50. — Modifications of the General Sense of the Phrases, 99-100 : Contents. SECTION SECOND. Resources Derived from the Context. Far. 51. — Considered Generally, .... 101 " 52. — Determination of Vague Words and of Vari- able Senses, 102-105 " 53. — Determination of the Local and General Senses, 105-107 " 54. — Determination of Obscure Phrases, . . 107-109 " 55- — Faults of Interpreters with reference to the Context, iio-iii " 56. — Duty of the Interpreter in reference to the Context, in SECTION THIRD. Resources Derived from Parallel Texts. Par. 57. — Considered Generally, 11 2-1 14 " 58. — Parallels of Words, 114-116 SECTION FOURTH. Resources Foreign to the Text, PAR. 59. — General Suggestions, 11 7-1 18 " 60. — A choice to be made, 118-119 " 61. — Use to be made, 119-121 PART THIRD. HISTORICAL HERMENEUTICS. INTRODUCTION. Par. 62. — Definitions and Explanations, . . . 122-123 SECTION FIRST. Personal Circumstances of the Author. Par. 63. — Education and Profession, .... 124-125 " 64. — Degree of Natural Intelligence, . . . 125-126 " 65. — Moral Character, 126-127 Contents. XI SECTION SECOND. Social Circumstances of the Author. Par. 66. — Geographical Circumstances, . . . 128-129 " 67. — Natural and Ordinary Circumstances, . . 129-130 " 68.— Political Position, 130-132 " 69. — Religious Circumstances 132-134 " 70. — Traces left in the Sacred Writings by these Circumstances, 134-136 " 71. — Means to be employed by the Interpreter . 136-137 SECTION THIRD. Philological Habits of the Authors. Par. 72. — Generally Considered, 138 A. Language Wanting in Precision. Par. 73. — A Priori. Authors and Language, . . 138-139 " 74. — Style of the Bible, 1 39-141 " 75. — Rules arising from the peculiar nature of the Style, 141-142 B. Figurative Language. Par. 76. — Relation of this Fact to Inspiration, . . 142-144 " 77. — Consequences to Hermeneutics, . . . 144 " 78.— Investigation of Figurative Language, . 145 " 79.— Investigation of the Figurative Sense, . . 146-151 SECTION FOURTH. Circumstances Peculiar to the Writings. A. Internal Circumstances. Par. 80. — Influence of the Diversity of Kinds, . . 152-153 " 81. — The Historical Writings, .... 153-154 " 82. — Chronology 154-156 " 83. — Influence of the Individuality of the His- torians, 156-157 " 84. — The Didactic Writings, .... 157-158 " 85. — Oratorical Writings, 158-159 " 86. — Poetical Writings, 159-160 Xll Contents. B. External Circumstances of the Writings. Par. 87. — Persons to whom the Writings were addressed — influence upon the Writings, . . 160-162 " 88. — Circumstances of the Epoch . . . 162 " 89. — Occasion of the Writing, .... 162-164 " 90. — Object of the Writing 164-165 " 91. — Importance of the Investigation, . . 165-166 " 92. — Abuse of the Consideration of the Object, . 166-167 " 93. — Means of Determining the Object, . . 167-169 PART FOURTH. SCRIPTURAL HERMENEUTICS. Par. 94. — Generally Considered, .... 170-171 SECTION FIRST. Analogy of Faith. Par. 95. — Its Nature and Principle, .... 172-173 A. Conditions. " 96. — Superior Degrees of Analogy of Faith, . 173-175 " 97. — Inferior Degrees of Analogy of Faith, . . 175-177 " 98. — Number, unanimity, clearness, and distribu- tion, 177-178 B. Real Utility of the analogy of Faith. " 99. — General Utility, 179 " 100. — Special Utility, 179-180 " 101. — Hermeneutical Consequences, . . . 180-181 " 102. — Doctrinal Consequences, .... 181-182 SECTION SECOND. Parallels of Ideas. A. Classification and Graduation of the Parellels of Ideas. Par. 103. — Necessity and Principle of this Classification, 184-185 " 104. — Attempt at Graduation, .... 185-187 B. Appreciation of the Utility of Parallels. " 105. — Considered Generally, .... 187-188 " 106. — Particular Cases of Utility, .... 188-192 Conte?its. xiii C. RULES AND CAUTIONS. i. In the Choice of Parallels. Par. 107.— Avoid the Parallels of Words, . . . 192-193 " 108. — Avoid Seeming, but false Parallels, . . 193-195 2. In the Use of Parallels. Par. 109. — Logical Use, i95- ! 97 " no. — True Nature of Doctrinal Clearness, . . 197-199 " III. — Careful and Judicious Use, .... 199 SECTION THIRD. Special Study of Each of the Sacred Books. Par. 112. — Principle of this Study, .... 200 " 113. — The subject Developed, .... 201-203 1. Method of each sacred author, . . 201-202 2. Instruction and doctrine, . . . 202-203 SECTION FOURTH. Moral and Intellectual Character of the Bible. Par. 114. — Introduction, 204 A. Nature of the Principle. Par. 1 1 5. — Its Nature Explained, 204-206 B. Application of the Principle. " 116. — General Application, 206-209 " 117. — Modified Application 209 " 118. — Special Application to the New Testament, 209-211 " 119. — Special Application to the Old Testament, . 211-212 C. Appreciation of the Principle. Par. 120.— Objections 212-213 " 121. — Value of these Objections, .... 213-214 " 122. — Limits of the Principle 215 " 123. — Consequences of the Principle, . . . 216 XIV Contents. PART FIFTH. DOCTRINAL HERMENEUTICS. INTRODUCTION. Par. 124. — Exposition of the Subject, .... 217-218 " 125. — Critical Question, 218-220 " 126. — Different Methods of Answering the Ques- tion, 220-221 " 127. — The true Method, 221 Par. 128, SECTION FIRST. Proofs of Inspiration. -Definition and Exposition, . A. Proofs. " 129. — Arguments a Priori, " 130. — Biblical Arguments, or the Argument drawn from the testimony of Scripture, " 131. — Historical Argument, , " 132. — Critical Argument, " J 33- — Argument from Feeling, or the Testimony of the Holy Spirit, B. Consequences. Par. 134. — General Indetermination, .... " 135. — Consequences from the Proofs adduced, " 136. — Questions to be determined, 222-223 223-228 229-232 232-235 235-237 237-239 239-240 240-242 242 SECTION SECOND. Nature of Inspiration. First Question relating to the Individuality of the Sacred Writers. CJiaptcr First. — Facts. A. Anterior Facts. Par. 137. — Inspiration was imparted sometimes succes- sively and by degrees 243-244 " 138. — The religious knowledge of inspired men was sometimes acquired by human means, 244-245 Contents. xv B. Posterior Facts. i. Historical Facts. Par. 139. — Activity and Liberty, . " 140. — Uncertainty and errors of Conduct, 2. Critical Facts. 246-247 247 Par. 141. — Ordinary Tone of the Writings, . . . 248 " 142. — Influence of Circumstances, . . . 248-249 " 143. — Prominent Diversities among the Sacred Writers 250-251 " 144. — Declarations of the Sacred Writers, . . 251 Chapter Second. The Relation of Inspiration to the Indi- viduality of the Sacred Writers. Par. 145. — The Bible contains two elements — a divine and a human, " 146. — Inspiration did not destroy the conscious self-control of the Sacred Writers, . " 147. — The two elements — the divine and the hu- man — are so combined as to produce one indivisible result, " 148. — The union of the two elements inexplicable, " 149. — Analogies illustrating the union of the di- vine and the human elements in Scripture, 252-253 253-254 254 254-255 255-257 SECOND QUESTION. Did Inspiration exclude Occasionality from the Sacred Writings? CJiaptcr First. Par. 1 50. — General Facts, " 151. — Special Facts, -Facts. CJiaptcr Second. A. Elucidations and Consequences. Par. 152. — Intention and Method of Revelation, . 258-259 259-261 261-263 xvi Contents. B. Hermeneutical Consequences. Par. 153. — Relative Character of Certain Portions of the Bible, 264 " 154- — Necessary reunion of the different Biblical elements, 264-266 THIRD QUESTION. Does Inspiration Exclude all Accommodation? Chapter First. STATE OF THE QUESTION. Par. 155. — Distinction. Definition .... 266-268 Chapter Second. Necessity of Accommodation. Par. 156. — General Necessity, 268-269 " 157. — Special Necessity, 269-270 Chapter Third. FACTS OF SCRIPTURE. Par. 158. — General Statement, 271 A. Accommodation Pertaining to the Gen- eral Plan of Revelation. Par. 159. — Accommodations of Form, . . . . 271-272 " 160. — Accommodation of Matter — Old Testament, 272-273 " 161. — Same Continued — New Testament, . . 273-275 " 162. — Accommodations in the Discourses of Jesus Christ, and on the part of His Apostles, . 275-276 " 163. — Concluding Remarks, 276-278 Index of Scripture Passages, 279 *b INTRODUCTIO N ? SECTION FIRST. NATURE OF HERMENEUTICS. § I. RELATION OF HERMENEUTICS TO EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. The object of Exegetical Theology is the interpreta- tion of the Holy Scriptures ; and it attains this object by four distinct, yet coherent and successive operations. (a). The Christian divine, called to expound and in- terpret the Word of God, ought first to explain the history, the circumstances, and the form of the Bible. This is the special object of Introduction, or Isagogics. (b). He must, in the second place, determine, as nearly as possible, the true and original text ; and endeavor to disengage it from the numerous variations with which eighteen centuries of citations and transcriptions have encumbered it. This is the object of the Criticism of the Text. (c). Before attempting the explanation of the phrases and ideas of the Bible, a third task, and the most im- portant of all, is necessary. The theologian should understand the principles, according to which they must be explained. The exposition of these principles re- ceives the name of Hcrmcncutics. (d). After these three successive processes have been finished, the Biblical interpreter enters upon his work. Biblical Hermeneutics. He reads, he analyzes, he develops, he comments on the Holy Word, line after line. He no longer constructs a science : he practices an art — Exegetics : he accom- plishes a task — Exegesis. Hermeneutics comes from the Greek, tf epjx^vevriHTf sub. rkx. v V- 'EpfjirfvEVTixri is derived from the verb ipjAr/vEveiv, to interpret, to put into words, to give ut- terance to, to explain, to make clear. Hermefieut, Greek, epjuyvevT^, is an interpreter, or one who instructs others in Hermeneutics. Hermeneuti- cal (hermeneutical standpoint, hermeneutical laws), Greek ip^vevtiKo?, signifies belonging to, or suited to interpretation, or explanation. c Eppu]vsia is the expres- sion of the thoughts by means of words ; explanation, interpretation. Hermeneutics is properly the art of to s'p^vevsiv, or of i] £ Persia; but the word is now generally used to indicate the theory of that art, or the doctrine of what is to be observed in to ep^vsveiv. Exegesis, Greek e&jyijffis, derived from e^jryEiffdai, to lead, to go first, to shozv the way, to point out, to expound, to narrate, to describe, is used in the sense of exposition, ex- planation. Exegete, Greek E^y^y^rlji, is one skilled in Exegesis. At Athens e^rjy?}tai were those who had to observe signs and portents, and give instruction in the sacred rites. Exegetical, Greek £'£??y?/Tiu6?, signifies per- taining to exegesis. (See Doedes' Manual of Herme- neutics. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1867, pp. 1-4). [Note. Isagogics is derived from the Greek word eloayuKindq, pertaining to uaayuyq (a leading in, or introduction), which comes from the verb eladyeiv, to lead in, to introduce. We use the cor- responding term, Introduction, derived from the Latin, Introduc- tio, derived from introduco, to bring or lead in, or into.] Nature of Hermeneutics. § 2. DEFINITION OF HERMENEUTICS AND DIS- TINCTIONS. Hermeneutics, as already intimated, is the science which teaches the principles of interpretation. Biblical Hermeneutics, in particular, is the science which deter- mines the principles of the interpretation of the Holy- Scriptures. This definition is vague and indefinite. We must, in order to make ourselves understood, add two classes of distinctions, by separating, in the first place, Hermeneu- tics proper from all that has been falsely classed under its name ; and by indicating, in the next place, the methodical and scientific elements of Hermeneutics properly so called. To the latter we restrict ourselves in the present treatise. We first distinguish Hermeneutics from all that has been falsely classed under its name. Some have confounded it with Isagogics. This mis- take was made before any one had produced a plain statement of the different elements of Exegetical Theol- ogy. Those theologians, who had no idea of the posi- tion which method and logic should occupy in the inter- pretation of the Holy Scriptures, were disposed to give the name of Hermeneutics to those works, in which facts were everything, and in which methods had no place. From these facts they deduced rules, or canons, but no principles. Certain preconceived doctrinal views, the authority of Confessions of Faith, and traditions, ex- cluded all independent examination, and consequently all Hermeneutics proper. The Roman Catholic divines, with some exceptions, have made the same mistake, and from a similar cause. The authority of the Church does not allow among them any field for the science of interpretation. Their inter- Biblical Hermeneutics. pretations are given officially, and there is nothing left for them but to study the facts, to admit those which confirm the doctrines of their Church, and to conceal or attack those which are opposed to those doctrines. But those who recognize the right and duty of exami- nation make of Hermeneutics a special science very dif- ferent from Isagogics. Still further, we distinguish Hermeneutics from Exe- gesis. Exegesis is the practice of an art : Hermeneutics is the science that governs that art. The practice of an art, it is true, has need of some rules, which have been classed under the name of Exegetics. There is no science in these rules : they are a simple indication of precautions and methods. Exegetics may, strictly speak- ing, be considered as an appendage to Hermeneutics; but it has neither the importance, nor the utility, nor the unity, nor the depth of the latter, and ought to be regarded as the result, or end aimed at. § 3. DISTINCTIONS CONTINUED. We distinguish, in the second place, that which, in the domain of Hermeneutics, is methodical, scientific, and, at the same time, essential, from that which is not. To that part which is methodical and scientific, we give the name of Formal Hermeneutics ; that which is not, we denominate Material Hermeneutics* * Formal (Prof. Cellerier uses the term " Real ") is that which lies within the jurisdiction of Logic, and which Logic guaran- tees ; Material is that which lies without the domain of Logic, and for which Logic is not responsible. All that \s> formal is true as consciously necessitated by the laws of thought ; all that is material is true, not as necessitated by the laws of thought, but as legitimated by the conditions and probabilities discover- able in the objects about which we chance to think. — Sir Wil- liam Hamilton 's Logic, pp. 539, 541. Nature of Hermeneutics. Under Material Hermeneutics, we class those attempts which have been made in treatises upon Hermeneutics to formulate, in an absolute manner, certain general dog- matic, historic, and aesthetic results of the Holy Script- ures. These attempts, more ambitious than happy, seek now by analysis, now by synthesis, now by both combined ; now in general, now in particular and in de- tail ; now by a priori principles, now by canons deduced from facts ; to determine the nature and value of the Bible histories, of its miracles, of its doctrines, of its poetry, and of its discourses. Material Hermeneutics, instead of forming a science, consists chiefly of scattered attempts, in which authors do not define sufficiently the object of Hermeneutics and state its results. Here we dismiss the subject of Material Hermeneutics, because it does not belong to the science — at least to the elementary and methodical science necessary to every theologian intrusted with the duty of expounding the Scriptures. Formal Hermeneutics seeks methodically, not for results, but for the rules and principles by means of which one may find the results. It searches for, points out, and expounds the methods by means of which the in- terpreter may find in the Bible the truth which it contains. But here arise new distinctions, marked with the con- fusion that has reigned in the science. Some have dis- tinguished General from Special Hermeneutics. General Hermeneutics is that which embraces the entire science, which lays the foundations of the true method of interpretation, and which, setting out from the very nature of the act of interpreting, establishes the general principles of all interpretation of whatever kind, and proceeds thence to the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. Biblical Hermeneutics. Special Hermeneutics investigates the rules applicable to the different characters of the particular books of the Sacred Writings, as historical, or poetical, or didactic. It is a practical, and, we might say, an empirical science, whereas the former is methodical and philosophical. It seeks for rules and solutions ; the former, for principles and methods. It is nearly allied to Material Hermeneu- tics ; the former, to Formal Hermeneutics. We think that General Hermeneutics is more im- portant than Special to Theology, truth, and faith. It is of the former alone that we will treat, seeking, at the same time, to illustrate it constantly, by examples and analyses of particulars, which shall occupy the place, and, to a certain extent, partake of the character, of Special Hermeneutics. § 4. IMPORTANCE OF HERMENEUTICS. Perhaps no branch of theological science exerts an in- fluence so great and fruitful as Formal-General Herme- neutics, which furnishes to the theologian his methods of interpretation. It decides, to a certain degree, the sys- tems of dogmatics, instruction in religion, the faith of the people, and often the peace of the Church. One may see, by the place which it occupies in Exe- getical Theology, the high position which it holds. It aspires to nothing less than to be the key of the Sacred Books, unlocking all the science and learning founded upon them. Without it, Dogmatics must be uncertain ; and consequently our doctrinal views must rest upon an unstable foundation. It goes still further. It applies logic to the study of the sacred volume. It demands as auxiliaries, besides learning and criticism, reason and method, philosophy, pyschology, and all the means which God has given to Nature of Hermeneutics. men to discover the truth. It is in that way unceasingly occupied in bringing into harmony reason and revelation, in illustrating the one by the other, and in making mani- fest between them that accord which is one of the grand proofs of the divine perfection and heavenly origin of our faith. Well directed, it enables us to contem- plate the Holy Scriptures in all their native purity, in all their divine depth, in their intimate relations to the per- fections of God on the one hand, and to the heart of man on the other. In other words, it exhibits them in all their beauty, at once human and divine. It thus re- animates the faith, and founds it solidly upon truth and reason. It prevents, as far as possible, false interpreta- tions and false systems, which are so frequently causes of unbelief. If ever the Church of Christ be united in the bond of peace by love ; if she ever arrive at the unity of the faith ; or, rather, if she ever approach this ideal goal — impossible perhaps to be attained here below — it will be by an interpretation of the Holy Scriptures at once de- vout, experimental, intelligent, and clear ; which is, in short, by a true and complete science of Hermeneutics. Biblical Hermeneutics. SECTION SECOND. HISTORY OF HERMENEUTICAL PRINCIPLES. § 5. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. — THE FIRST PERIOD.— FROM THE TIME OF THE APOSTLES UNTIL THE TIME OF ORIGEN. — FIRST AND SECOND CENT- URIES. Hermeneutics is essentially a science of principles. Before entering upon the analysis, which shall enable us to determine the principles upon which the science is to be constructed, we will indicate those upon which the- ologians have, in different ages, attempted to found it. We are not in a condition, at this late date, to appreciate these attempts in detail, nevertheless it will not be with- out utility to pass them in review. This historical pict- ure will enable us to recognize the ground upon which the edifice of the science should be erected — the ground which it is absolutely necessary to clear from rubbish before it can be built upon. For the purpose of observing order, in this rapid sketch, we will divide it into eras, although they may be vague and merely approximative. The first era comprehends the first two centuries. It commences with the Christian Church and ends before Origen. During this era Hermeneutics did not exist, and could not exist. The Church was too much occupied with practice, too little instructed by meditation and experi- ence, too much harassed, at times, by persecutions, and absorbed in polemics, to think of discovering for itself History of Hermeneutical Principles. g the scientific principles of interpretation. The Church of this era was, moreover, so near to the time of the preaching of the Apostles and of the publication of their writings, that these were sufficiently perspicuous and fully explained by the oral traditions so carefully sought for at that time. One has need of principles and meth- ods to assure himself of the sense of a book only when that sense is not evident. An interpreter is necessary only for that which is obscure. § 6. SECOND PERIOD. — FATHERS OF THE CHURCH (FROM ORIGEN TO THE MIDDLE AGES, i. e., THE THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH CENTURIES). During this period a scientific spirit sprang up and developed itself ; but the science of Hermeneutics had yet no existence. Certain principles of interpretation\ are discerned in the writings of the Fathers ; but these principles are not formulated. y The more prominent are the following : (a). The divinity of the Bible. The Bible is divine?^ Therefore, it can contain nothing unworthy of God — in f other words, nothing false, absurd, or immoral. This fundamental principle is admitted by every true Chris- tian as the basis of his Hermeneutics ; but it has, never- theless, need of being illustrated and limited. It has the logical inconvenience of being a priori, and of pre- scribing, previous to examination, what it ought to de- duce as the result of inquiry. (b). Multiple sense of the Bible. This bold principle had its origin in the logic and imagination of the East, especially of the School of Alexandria. The Palestinian Jews brought out of Chaldea the remains of the ancient Oriental-Greek philosophy, whose conflict with their own religion gave rise to the system of allegorizing among io Biblical Hermeneutics. them. Moreover, the Platonic philosophy, so prevalent in Egypt, considerably affected the interpretation adopted by the Alexandrine Jews. It led them comparatively to disregard the literal sense, and to seek after a hidden one which would coincide with their philosophical ideas. This, however, can not be truly regarded as the cause of such a method of exposition. The origin of allegorizing is to be traced to a pious feeling seeking to introduce into the Scriptures more than sound judgment sanctions, or the Bible itself approves. Finding in the New Testament an appearance of sup- port, the early Church Fathers, with a true piety united to an exalted imagination, accepted the allegorical method of interpretation with enthusiasm. They dis- tinguished and arranged the multiple sense as something firmly established. Confounding the uses which may be made of a passage of Scripture with its meaning, they adopted a variety of senses, which they classed under the following categories, viz. : grammatical, moral, ana- gogical or mystical, and allegorical. The meaning of these senses becomes clear from the well-known couplet : " Litera gesta docet, quid credas allegoria, Moralis quid agas, quo tendas anagogia." The principle of a multiple sense is opposed, as we shall see in the sequel, to logic and to facts. It is dan- gerous in that it introduces into the Holy Scriptures an element of confusion and of error, and arbitrary human opinions into our belief. It has little respect for the Scriptures, inasmuch as it delivers them over to the im- agination and caprice of the interpreter, that is, to the fancies and whims, which they ought to control. (c). Mystic force of tlic Holy Scriptures. Some attrib- uted to the Bible, not only to its ideas, but also to the book itself, an inherent and secret virtue, which had the History of Hermcnctitical Principles. 1 1 power of strengthening, edifying, and consoling those who read it, although they might incorrectly understand the sense, or be entirely mistaken about it. This was a pious, but dangerous superstition. It deified the words, rendered the true sense superfluous, truth unworthy of research, and set aside the divine thought. As a her- meneutical principle, it is not worthy of being debated. This grave error, however, conceals a truth, which we will do well to recognize. It is that the believer, who meditates upon the Bible, with pious dispositions, is edified by the very efforts which he makes to compre- hend it. These efforts place him in the presence of God, reanimate whatever pious and elevated sentiments he may possess, recall to him what he already knows of the Bible, the lessons which he has heard deduced from it, the holy emotions which it has excited in his heart ; and in this way, should he even be mistaken in regard to the sense which he assigns to its sacred pages, he leaves his meditations with increased piety, and consequently a better Christian. In such a case his errors of interpre- tation can never be very serious. He interprets the Bible by the Bible and by its general analogy. There is, therefore, in this case no mystic force, but an influ- ence of the Bible very happy and very real. These three principles, which we have now explained, were universally admitted in this era. The immense influence of Origen's writings introduced them into general use. But a century after him other principles began to be added to them. This was due to a man, whose imagina- tion, sensibility, eloquence, and piety have seldom been equalled in the Church. St. Augustine introduced, not into the science of Hermencutics (since that did not yet exist), but into the practice of interpretation, three new elements, viz. : The qualifications necessary to the inter- 12 Biblical Hermeneutics. prefer, the analogy of faith, and the authority of tradi- tion. These three principles gained ascendency only by slow degrees, and consequently we must refer to other eras to notice their development. § 7. THIRD PERIOD.— THE MIDDLE AGES. This era extends from the sixth to the fifteenth century. During this period Hermeneutics still remain- ed without the shape of a science ; but all the principles of the preceding era were put in practice. They were, however, subject to tradition, and employed in its serv- ice. This is the period of the reign of authority. The principle of authority, taken in an absolute sense, is in opposition to logic and all philosophy ; for it sup- poses all progress impossible, and, consequently, all examination useless. Nevertheless, even in the middle ages, progress, or at least a condition of change, existed ; and it was very necessary to discover some means by which to render it legitimate. The system of pontifical authority developed itself ; and how was this development to be reconciled with the ancient authority of the early traditions? To effect the reconciliation, they assumed an inspiration constantly renewed in the Popes and the Councils ; and consequently a tradition ever increasing, and maintained without losing anything of its authority — an authority infallible and, at the same time, progress- ive. This was a means, if not logical, at least ingeni- ous, of reconciling contrary principles, which the Church wished equally to preserve, while it left the respect due to the Scriptures to exist only in appearance. What became of the Holy Bible under the dominion of such a system ? It became a book of no value, per- verted at will to suit the passions and interests of the chiefs of the corrupted Church. It was a treasure un- History of Hermeneutical Principles. 13 known, forgotten, buried. The revelation of Jesus Christ was replaced by a new revelation, which pre- sumptuously assumed its name ; by a revelation with- out miracles, and without proofs, which had the prom- ises neither of this life, nor of that which is to come. Nevertheless, even in this monstrous error, there was a principle of truth. We must distinguish between the two elements of the system : the authority of tradition, and the continued in- spiration of the leaders of the Church. This last element was only an invention to subserve the interests of scheming men. It contains no principle of Hermeneutics, of logic, or of truth. It is not so with the principle of authority. After it has been deprived of its despotic and absolute character, and has assumed that of respect for experience and antiquity, it has a right, as well as the others, to a place among the aids, which the interpreter ought not to neg- lect. In this sense, to have recourse to the authority of the ancients, is to consult men who have examined the Bible before us in a different and often more favorable position. It is to enrich ourselves with the knowledge of all times and of all places. It is necessary to observe that all the principles passed in review have a philosophic and true element. They become dangerous only when isolated from others and invested with an absolute value. § 8. FOURTH PERIOD. — THE REFORMATION. We must include in this era those distinguished exegetes who preceded a little the time of the Reforma- tion. Influenced by the revival of learning and the intellectual movement of the age, they had much in common with the spirit of the new era ; and though 14 Biblical Hermeneutics. they did not yet employ precisely the principles of inter- pretation, which were soon to prevail, they nevertheless presented them, and thus contributed to bring them in- to use. The Reformation was destined to exercise, and did exercise, an immense influence upon Hermeneutics. This influence had a twofold character, general and intellectual, special and biblical. The Reformation was a revolt and a victory of the human intelligence, and of the spirit of examination. It was impossible that Hermeneutics should not derive from this event more life, more independence, and more originality. It is only in this era, indeed, that the true history of Hermeneutics commences — the history of its free and spontaneous development. It is necessary, however, to observe that the very nature of the examination which produced the Reforma- tion, that of the struggle which succeeded it, and that of the tendencies and religious wants which arose from it, continue to give to hermeneutical researches a char- acter much more intellectual than aesthetic and subject- ive. Hermeneutics was often too dry and dialectic. It forgot, for a long time, the lively, emotional, and poet- ical character so strongly impressed upon the Bible, or made at least very little account of it. It remained, al- most until the present day, without appreciating the extent of the influence which the noble and prolific emotional and aesthetic elements ought to exert upon Biblical interpretation. On the other hand, the Reformation was made in the name of the Bible and directed to it the attention, the respect, and the faith of the Church. It was a necessary consequence, therefore, that this great event should in- crease the use and importance of Biblical Hermeneutics, and, in the course of time, bring it into accord with the History of Hermeneutical Principles. 15 sacred text. It immediately impaired the authority of those principles which had diminished that of the Holy Scriptures. It established and developed principles en- tirely opposed to those which had hitherto obtained. The authority of tradition was annihilated, and the multiple senses were diminished. If any typical and allegorical interpretations were still maintained, it was because they had, or appeared to have, their foundation in the Bible itself. Some new principles, supported by the authority of the Bible, replaced the old ones ; or at least so far that the latter were neglected and placed in a second rank. These new principles were developed by the aid of the Reformation, so successfully as to pre- vail over all others. They are the following : (a). Thcopncusty, or inspiration taken in its absolute sense. The successors of the reformers, rather than the reformers themselves, understood it in a much stricter sense than the first centuries of the Church had used it. The doctrine of inspiration is the basis of Protestantism, but only so far as it is supported by the Bible, and illus- trated and limited by Biblical facts. The principle of a literal theopneusty was generally admitted in theory by the great exegetes of the Reformation, but often con- tradicted by them in practice. But "within the pale of the Protestant Church there soon emerged a difference of opinion, which has sub- sisted with growing divergence ever since. The one principle of the singular and supreme authority of Scripture found its natural expression in the views of Calvin and his followers in the Reformed Churches, with respect to inspiration. They approved themselves heirs to the faith of Augustine and the early Church in the complete infallibility of the Bible ; while as to the man- ner in which the doctrine was held, and the explanation of it was to be given, their definite and systematic views 1 6 Biblical Hermeneutics. of all divine truth led them to give it a more dogmatic shape and formal expression than it had received before. In the writings of Calvin himself there is the fullest recognition of the human element in the sacred volume, along with an unequivocal assertion of that divine con- trol over the instrumentality employed in composing it, which secures it against error. But there is also a wise abstinence from speculative views as to the theory of inspiration, and no presumptuous attempts in the way of defining the manner in which the supernatural result of an infallible text was brought about. " The same abstinence from hypothesis in explaining the doctrine was not observed by some of Calvin's fol- lowers in the subsequent discussions that arose concern- ing it ; and in their teaching we observe a tendency to make the divine element in inspiration supersede the human, and to reduce the inspired man, when under the influence of the Spirit, to the level of an unconscious and unintelligent instrument. The language of the Formula Consensus Helvetica in 1675, and of some the- ologians about the same period and afterwards, who maintained the cause of Scripture inspiration, can hardly be accepted in consistency with the fact of the complete freedom and individuality, in the exercise of their proper powers, of the inspired writers. And yet it is difficult to believe that the purely mechanical hypothesis of an entire suspension of will and intellect and consciousness in the prophet, so much akin to the Montanist heresy in the early Church, was ever seriously entertained by many of those divines whose language might seem con- sequentially to lead to it. On the contrary, in the case of some at least, there is distinct evidence that, what- ever their theory might logically imply, they truly held by the idea of the conscious individuality and intelligent History of Hermeneutical Principles. 1 7 co-operation of the inspired man under the power of God's Spirit."* {b). The analogy of faith, which regulates the inter- pretation of each passage in conformity with the whole tenor of revealed truth. This principle, according as it is explained and applied, is a fruitful source of error, or of truth. It is very much like reposing on a treacherous wheel, which is ready to run either way. Nevertheless it merits all confidence, so long as we take for the rule of faith the uniform teaching of Scripture. But if, on the contrary, we take the faith of the Church or official doctrinal symbols for the rule of faith, and apply it in theory, or in fact, to the interpretation of the Scriptures, we are guilty of the fallacies of petitio principii and of reasoning in a circle. This would be the death of all examination, and of all Hermeneutics, and of all exe- gesis. Undisguised Popery could not be worse. (e). The comparative study of the Scriptures. The Reformation, while rendering Hermeneutics more intel- lectual, more logical, and more Biblical, enabled inter- preters to derive more benefit, than their predecessors had done, from the Bible itself, by the method of com- paring its different portions. In this way originated, among the Protestant theologians, the great hermeneu- tical use of parallel passages and of the context. We shall speak at length, in the sequel, of these two aids to interpretation, and will, therefore, not detain ourselves longer here. Suffice it to remark that this new tend- ency, to compare Scripture with Scripture, did more than anything else to prepare a conscientious and logi- cal exegesis, and began the work of placing Hermeneu- tics upon its true foundation. To this era the science * Bannerman on Inspiration. Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1865. pp. 135, 136. Biblical Hcrmaicutics. really owes its birth. Nevertheless it was only in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that it appeared in a more distinct manner upon the horizon of theology, and that it was reduced to a system, though still rude and heterogeneous. Since the Reformation and the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church, the slave of authority, has no Hermeneutics worthy of the name : we must, therefore, seek for the principles of the science in the Protestant Churches. § 9. FIFTH PERIOD. — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. The impulse given by the Reformation bore its fruits. New exegetical methods were adopted ; and new prin- ciples, due to the special tendencies of some men, or of some sects, were added to the old hermeneutical prin- ciples of perpetual validity. The Socinians demanded that the Scriptures should be interpreted in a rational sense. This principle has a legitimate foundation ; but it must be received with proper limitations. Reason — the instrument of truth, a gift of God of great value, although feeble and fallible — reason has the right, and it is under obligation, to ex- amine the evidences of Scripture, to accept it, and to in- terpret it. This is not all : it ought, besides, to derive nourishment from the Bible. While meditating upon it, it should derive from it lessons for practice, assimilate its teachings to its own substance, instruct, develop, and regulate itself by the devout and constant study of its sacred pages. Between these two sources of light — the Bible and reason — there should always be a conscien- tious and prudent action and reaction. The rights of reason are those of a friend called in to counsel with one, and not those of a sovereign, who despotically chooses, History of Hermeneutical Principles. 19 rejects, disposes, and, if need be, effaces, or perverts everything in the Holy Word that displeases him, or surpasses his understanding. To admit a positive reve- lation and to reject things positively revealed is a great inconsistency. The Socinians wished to subject revelation to reason : the Quakers, at the other extreme, made the same mis- take in wishing to subject the written Word to the "Inner Word," that is, to an individual revelation. Here we still find, as always, a mingling of the false with the true. Without doubt, the mind nourished by holy thoughts, aided by God, using its noblest faculties, can, as it were, by a spontaneous bound, raise itself to a sufficient height, to grasp, rapidly and without the aid of analysis, certain truths of sentiment and of conscience. In hermeneuti- cal science it is necessary to recognize this, which some have too often forgotten. According to them man would seem to be made up entirely of intelligence and reason. But if this intuition of sentiment has its rights, it has nevertheless less right than reason to exercise authority over the Holy Scriptures. It can not aspire to this office without subjecting them to the caprice of the im- agination and the follies of mysticism. The principle of the Quakers corresponds so exactly to that of the Socinians, that there is only a difference in the nature of the faculties elevated to a superiority over Scripture. But this difference produced, in the two sects, consequences totally opposite. In reality the error of the mystical sect was more dangerous to man, to society, to faith, than was the error of the philosophi- cal sect, at least in theory. However grave the errors of reason may have been, those cf the imagination are still more deplorable. 20 Biblical Hermeneutics. To this era pertains another principle, which is the product neither of the Reformation, nor of the century, but of the eccentric tendencies of an individual. If this man formed a sect, it was the result of his individual in- fluence. It was also the consequence and the natural chastisement of the fault committed by the reformed theologians, in preserving in their Hermeneutics so many of the capricious allegories of Origen and of Augustine. Cocceius, a Hollander, undertook, in his Hermeneutics, to pull down all the barriers that still controlled the im- agination of interpreters, to give full liberty to their audacity, and, if need be, to their extravagance. Alle- gories and double senses were not sufficient for him : he freed them from all rules and from all limits. He de- clared legitimate all the senses which it is possible to give to Scripture ; which practically amounts to declar- ing true and divine all the vagaries of the most fanciful interpreters. § IO. SIXTH PERIOD. — REACTIONS AND STRUGGLES DURING THE FIRST PART OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. The intellectual activity, the independence, the in- creasing boldness of religious systems, the incomplete, illogical, scholastic, or too purely intellectual charac- ter of the usual hermeneutical methods caused men to desire and frequently to attempt changes. The first half, or rather the first two-thirds of the eighteenth century witnessed new efforts to constitute the science of inter- pretation. But these efforts, made in contrary directions by the opposite schools, introduced a state of struggle rather than of decided progress. They furnished to the advancing science the materials which it had too much neglected ; but still these materials were not arranged History of Hermeneutical Principles. 21 scientifically. They formed a confused collection of contrary elements, from which we are now able to de- rive advantage in the way of selection. But being, dur- ing this era, in a state of mutual antagonism, no one ever thought of attempting to combine them. Never- theless these materials, like all the principles which we have passed in review, were in part sound and useful, and in part of an opposite character. In respect to them, as in respect to everything else, it was necessary to examine, to weigh, to select, and to reject. In this era we must distinguish three schools of very different principles, viz : The Logical School, the Pietistic School, and the Naturalistic School. (a). The Logical School, the successor of the Arminians and of Grotius, was especially represented by two dis- tinguished men, Le Clerc and J. A. Turretini, men of different mental characteristics, both Genevese ; but the former was adopted by Holland. Tired of Cocceianism and of imaginary senses, this School adopted the prin- ciple that the Holy Scriptures ought to be explained like other books, by the aid of logic and analysis. It combated successfully the double, mystic, allegorical, and anagogical senses. It broke the despotism of the analogy of faith, and made Cocceianism succumb be- neath its blows. It thus enabled theology to make a great advance toward a sound and true Hermeneutics. Nevertheless it was at fault in neglecting too much an essential element. Too much preoccupied with the logical succession of ideas, it paid too little regard to their aesthetic development. The warmth, the sentiment, the emotion of the sacred writers, the appreciation of which forms a key necessary to the understanding of come of their writings, continued to be too much neg- lected, and consequently the problem of interpretation was not yet solved. 22 Biblical Hermeneutics. (o). The Pictistic School. The key, which we have just mentioned as too much neglected, was to a certain de- gree employed by the School of Spener, a worthy repre- sentative of which was the venerable Francke. They demanded two things of the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures, both of which are of great importance in the accomplishment of his task. The first, is sufficient learning ; and the second, feelings in harmony with those of the writer, whom he wished to understand and explain. This was the first time, perhaps, in exegesis that any one proclaimed clearly the evident necessity of sharing in the emotions of an author, in order to repro- duce them. It supposes the obligation of studying him emotionally, and of taking into consideration some- thing else than pure ideas and their logical connection. This School has been accused of mysticism ; and it may not be entirely free from the charge. " Spener agreed with the mystics in this, that the dead letter avails nothing." But he opposed quite as decidedly the pre-eminence assigned to the Spirit without Scripture. Thus he said, in opposition to the notions of the Quakers : " Our feelings are not the norm of truth, but divine truth is the norm of our feelings. This rule of truth exists in the Divine Word apart from ourselves."* (c). The Naturalistic School. Naturalism, as pertain- ing to Hermeneutics, was a dangerous reaction, called forth by the abuses of the preceding century. The naturalists, or disciples of a purely natural religion, should be distinguished from the rationalists. The rationalist, properly so called, mutilates revelation, sub- jects it to the sovereign sway of reason, and sees in it only a providential, though a divine work ; nevertheless * Hagenbach's History of Doctrines. New York : Sheldon & Company. 1868. Vol. II., p. 246. History of Hermeneutical Principles. 23 he loves it, or thinks that he loves it, and in a certain sense admits it. Those who are called naturalists in Germany have gone farther ; they have shown them- selves the enemies of the Holy Scriptures and of their teaching ; they have disguised their contents, denied their value, and attacked them with hatred. The Ger- man naturalists of the eighteenth century were dis- tinguished from the French deists only by a more scien- tific character ; and from the English deists only by their theological pretensions. This naturalistic school did not develop itself fully until the second part of this century, although it commenced much earlier ; and at the point of view which now occupies us, it ought to be noticed in connection with the views of the English deists, who made their appearance in the literary world before the naturalists. This infidel school has doubtless no right to be placed among those that employed her- meneutical methods, since to hate and deny is not to interpret. If we mention it in this connection, it is only because of the influence which the Hermeneutics of a past age exercised upon it ; and because of the in- fluence which it, in its turn, exercised upon the new her- meneutical science. Naturalism was, as we have said, a dangerous reaction ; but it was nevertheless a reaction provoked by real abuses. Extreme views of inspiration, double sense, types, allegorical and mystical interpreta- tions, examination determined by an arbitrary theo- logical despotism in aid of the principles of the analogy of faith, of the inner word, of the revelation by the Holy Spirit of the true sense to the regenerate only, of the incapacity of the natural man to understand what is in the Bible and to recognize its divine character — these and such extreme views in theology had a tendency to repel far from the faith men who joined a reflective head to a cold and wickedly-disposed heart. The rage of in- 24 Biblical Hermeneutics. fidelity was terrible. It opened, both in the faith of the Church, and particularly in the German theology, a huge wound, which has not yet been healed. We must not, however, forget the good effects produced by this violent treatment of the science. We may indicate three dif- ferent and intimately connected results, (a). It over- threw forever, at least in Germany, a certain number of errors in criticism, which had been confidently admitted up to that time, or at least it caused a more thorough examination of them, a modification of theories, and a search for more logical foundations. (b). It brought theologians to feel the necessity of strengthening re- ligion, which had undergone such a violent attack, and of constructing more solidly the edifice of theology. (c). It led the way to and introduced the revival of her- meneutical studies, together with the wise combination of their different elements. § II. SEVENTH PERIOD. — THE SCIENTIFIC ERA. Latter part of the Eighteenth and beginning of the Nine- teenth Centuries. From this time we must seek chiefly in Germany for activity in the department of Hermeneutics. England, during this period, rested in traditional routines, and France troubled herself very little about Hermeneutics. The Roman Catholic countries, out of Germany, shunned examination and were afraid of science. Belgium* published, under the name of Her- meneutics, works in which their authors seriously re- pelled the accusation of disobeying the Church in admit- ting the motion of the earth, and in denying the power of sorcerers. The United States, it is true, followed * Janssens, 1818-1828. History of Hermeneutical Principles. 25 Germany very closely ; but they devoted themselves more to the labors of erudition and exegesis than to the investigation of principles and the philosophy of meth- ods. Holland is always laborious and scholarly, but its science and language remain almost unknown to the rest of Europe. We have, therefore, to investigate the development of Hermeneutics in Germany during the last half, or rather during the last third of the eighteenth century. Setting out from this epoch, the science of Herme- neutics is represented by two great, opposite schools — the Grammatical and the Historical. The founder of the School of Grammatical Herme- neutics was Ernesti, who based sound interpretation upon the philological study of the text, conducted in a con- scientious, profound, and learned manner. This method assumed a great respect for the text : it bound itself to the doctrine of inspiration, which made the very words of the text the legitimate source of au- thentic interpretation and of religious truth. The gram- matical school was, therefore, essentially supernatural- istic. The founder of it and his disciples were, generally speaking, conscientious and pious theologians. But this method was evidently insufficient, not only in the means which it employed, as we shall see, but also in its object. In fact, it was able to attain only to a pure and simple interpretation of the text, which is not always enough for its exposition. The Historical School, on the contrary, occupied itself principally, and too much, with exposition. Its founder was Semler, who, although personally worthy of esteem, and though of a religious and sincere character, was the real father of German rationalism. The fundamental principle of this school was the exposition of the Holy Scriptures, by the facts, the usages, and prejudices of 26 Biblical Hermencutics. the times. This principle, true within certain limits and as a simple auxiliary of the science, becomes dangerous and improper, when employed exclusively. Connected, from that time, almost necessarily, with the idea that the Scriptures are fallible human productions, containing error, it led directly to rationalism. This school bore its fruits. It filled Germany with a crowd of theologians, without piety, without faith, and without life, with now and then original thinkers and keen critics, distinguished only by the rashness and fickleness of their theories, and by the superficial and vain levity of the hypotheses which they advanced with jealous rivalry. To sum up in few words, the grammatical school was judicious, methodical, enlightened ; but it was in- sufficient ; to complete it other methods and other prin- ciples were necessary. The historical school would have been useful if it had been inspired by a spirit of sound criticism and of pious prudence, and, in the exercise of this spirit, been contented with the modest character of an auxiliary, instead of aspiring to supremacy. But it had a very different ambition. It was in reality less a cause than an effect. It was an accident, a result of the movement of the naturalistic reaction of which we have just spoken. We can affirm, without rashness, that it developed itself under the influence of sentiments slightly Christian, and of dispositions slightly philosophic. Its first thought was hostile to the Holy Scriptures. From effect it became cause, and exerted a powerful influence upon the rationalistic movement, which was the curse of Hermeneutics during the latter part of the last century. It had no respect for the divine authority of the Bible, and this barrier having been removed, the science was agitated like a stormy sea lashing on every hand this ancient monument of the faith. The Bible, mutilated by a great variety of hypotheses, and under the efforts History of Hermeneutical Principles. 2 J of a multitude of interpreters, was sometimes viewed as a collection of enigmas, of which it was the glory of men of talent to give some new solution ; sometimes as a canvas, on which aspirants after fame attempted to try their powers and to write their names ; sometimes as rude material, on which distinguished intellects should exercise themselves to polish and fashion it after their image. The great mass of scholars thought no more of searching for moral and dogmatic instruction in the Holy Scriptures, and recognized only, in appear- ance, their right to impart it. In the midst of such a commotion of minds what could Hermeneutics become? We may distinguish, in the development of rational- ism, three principal hermeneutical phases, in connection with the Historical school, but applying to the Bible very different processes of interpretation. (a). The old, ridiculous, stiff rationalism represented by Paulus, explained all the miracles by natural causes, and, in so doing, tortured the words and phrases of the Bible until it imposed a sense upon them suitable to its aims. (b). Logical rationalism, represented by Wegscheider, laid down the principle that the Bible has no authority, and that it contains less truth than error. However, when once delivered from its authority, and having no more interest to pervert it, this division of rationalism interpreted the Bible, in general, logically and impar- tially, although without depth, and consequently without intelligence. (c). Pietistic rationalism, represented by De Wette, assigned great value to faith, but placed its foundation elsewhere than in the Bible : in the necessities of the heart, for example, or in the work of Christ, or in the history of Christianity and of its efficacy; but not in the Holy Scriptures. These, in its view, are a venerable and 28 Biblical Hermenetttics. providential, but a human and imperfect work. Ac- cordingly it interprets them with remarkable science and sincerity, blended sometimes with admiration, some- times with aspersion and disdain. In these phases which we have indicated by their prom- inent traits and noted advocates were found many mixed shades of less intense colors. These strange movements of the historical school reacted in a deplorable manner upon the grammatical study of the Holy Scriptures. This study was not abandoned, but it was rarely conducted in a severe and conscientious manner. Instead of exercising authority over historical study, it was made subject to it. Often it did not seem to aspire to a faithful interpretation regulated by the principles of a sound Hermeneutics, but to a paradoxical exposition, according to the taste of the day, and consequently false and forced. This is what was then called exegesis, and what has, for a long time, drawn down upon that name a grave and unjust disfavor. In the midst of this confusion in hermeneutical science and of the subversion of the faith, certain pious men and certain elevated minds became frightened at the re- sults, and desired to save from ruin the efficacy of the Bible and the respect which is due to it. Storr employ- ed himself in the defence of its dogmatic authority, but he made some concessions, which were, in his opinion, required by sound criticism and facts. He also admitted the principle of accommodation in the quotation of Old Testament passages by Christ and His apostles. "Kant introduced the system of moral interpretation, according to which preachers and schoolmasters ought to explain Scripture, without regard to its original historical mean- ing, in such a manner as is likely to prove useful to the moral condition of the people, and also to put such useful History of Hcrmcncutical Principles. 29 matter into passages which do not contain it. The his- torical part of Scripture, which, according to Kant, con- tributes nothing to make men better, is purely indiffer- ent, and may be disposed of as we please. " The moral amendment of mankind is the proper object of the entire religion of reason, and therefore the religion of reason contains the supreme principle of all Scriptural exegesis. " This method of interpretation Kant applies, in all its fruitfulness of result, to the gospel history and the doctrines of the New Testament, by setting forth the personified idea of the good principle."* § 12. EIGHTH PERIOD. — PRESENT ERA. In a state of things such as that which we have just described, Hermeneutics agitated by dogmatic warmth, by imaginary hypotheses, by methods inconsiderately adopted and abandoned, could not take a logical and durable form. Nevertheless the very errors of the science contributed to its progress, for agitation is al- ways, in the end, more useful to a cause than apathy. This era, which was full of aberrations and constructed nothing of solid worth, was nevertheless eminently scientific. It made experiments, gained victories, estab- lished truths, and collected materials, by which the present era can profit. The present era has not been characterized, thus far, by labors of the first order, or by any remarkable school, or by a decided movement. We can, nevertheless, observe in it two favorable symptoms. In the first place, attention has been directed to Her- * Hagenbach's Hist, of Doctrines, Vol. ii., p. 468. New York: Sheldon & Co., 1868. Davidson on Sacred Hermeneutics, p. 194. 37 many significations ; that instead of a clear and single sense, of a nature to be investigated methodically, and accepted with confidence, it should have several mysteri- ous senses, accessible only to certain cultured, subtile minds ; that instead of being a perspicuous and popular book, level to every capacity and in harmony with our faculties, it should contain an enigma under each phrase. What would be the consequences, and what would be- come of the Bible? The consequences would be the following : § 15. CONSEQUENCES OF THE HYPOTHESIS OF A MULTIPLE SENSE. (a). First of all, the problem of interpretation becomes indeterminate. If all solutions, or if only several solu- tions are equally good, they can not be found methodi- cally. Among the many zealous advocates of a multi- plicity of senses, the man is still to be found, who would be willing to determine these senses by logic and analy- sis. They employ only their individual and arbitrary methods, or rather they leave the sense to each one's imagination. This proves the first consequence. We pass to the second. (b). With a sense easy to be determined, the active dispositions excited in the interpreter and exercised by him are logic and good sense, united to love of truth and earnestness of faith. With the multiple sense, the subtile spirit, ingenious skill, the art of foreseeing mys- teries, of discovering enigmas, and a vain curiosity, oc- cupy in him the first place. In this case the Bible is not considered as given to man to instruct, to edify, and to direct him ; but as given to the theologian to furnish a field for the display of his wit and vanity. (c). In the third place, the hypothesis of a multiple 38 Biblical Hcrmencutics. sense supposes and establishes a profound and radical distinction between the logical methods which God has given us in order to discover the truth, and the methods to be followed in the interpretation of Scripture ; conse- quently between our faculties and Revelation, between the God of the intellect and the God of the Bible. It is no longer necessary to seek for those wonderful analo- gies between reason and faith, between nature and the Gospel, which delight the intelligent Christian, which persuade and convince the pious thinker. There is war, relentless war, between these two classes of truths. Man finds himself obliged to listen to two systems of logic, to two consciences, to two revelations, to two contradic- tory Gods. The Christian has a Bible that trifles with his candor and lays snares for his feet. Thus this hy- pothesis, apparently due to an extreme respect for the Bible, really conduces to bring it into contempt. id). Another consequence. In practice, even in the practice of pious people and of the most humble be- lievers, what will the Bible become? It will become a changeable, doubtful law, flexible at the will of their fancies, or of their passions. In the case of different senses, given not by a logical method and a sound judg- ment, but by imagination and instinct, no one can claim the preference over others, no one has exclusive author- ity ; but each one is left to arbitrary choice. In vain will we acknowledge, as legitimate, the authority of all : we will, in fact, choose, prefer, and direct our attention most favorably to the sense which we have discovered, to that which flatters our self-love, corresponds to our ideas, to our tendencies, and to our tastes, perhaps to our inclinations. In the meantime we will leave, in the shade and in oblivion, the clear and positive sense ; the imperative and literal sense, which displeases us, perhaps because it condemns us, and perhaps the very sense The Unity of the Sense of Scripture. 39 which must save us. Sad experience confirms what has just been said. (c). Our last consequence is only the result and neces- sary conclusion of all those which precede. Delivered up to human fancies, the Bible is covered over with them and disfigured. The simple and transparent beauty of the Sacred Book gives place to a mass of human fan- cies, of mystical, allegorical, scholastic, philosophical, physical, and astronomical, glosses, sometimes ingenious and witty, never simple and popular. The pious Chris- tian, who " hungers and thirsts after righteousness," seeks for the word of life, and finds in its place only hu- man fancies and brilliant trifles. He longs bitterly for the simple, clear, edifying, and divine Bible of his youth. He feels like a godly theologian,* who, having listened to a sermon without piety, said with the weeping Mary: " They have taken away my Lord, and I know not where they have laid him." (John xx. 13). § 16. EXAMINATION A POSTERIORI. The theory of the multiple sense of Scripture is, there* fore, a paradox. But everything, even a paradox, must have a cause. Where shall we search for that of the theory in question? Is it found in real facts, or in self- ish feelings ? This is the point that now presents itself for examination. We shall, therefore, proceed to inves- tigate (1) those Biblical facts which, without justifying this hypothesis, have been the occasion of it ; and (2) the tendencies which have fortified it. As to the Biblical facts, we are forced to enter some- what into detail, and even to say many things which may seem useless ; but that is not our fault. The advocates * Lavater. 40 Biblical Hermeneutics. of a multiple sense have supported their theory not only by the facts, which appear to prove something and which deserve to be discussed ; but also by a multitude of false and confused analogies, which can not sustain examina- tion. To attain our object we are obliged to cite all the particulars and to reply to them. The Biblical facts, upon which reliance has been placed to defend the theory of a multiple sense, are of very dif- ferent kinds. They may be distinguished into philologi- cal, symbolical, prophetical, and typical facts. § 17. PHILOLOGICAL FACTS, t. C, THOSE PERTAINING TO LANGUAGE. These are, in the first place, passages so obscure as to be susceptible of several senses, which fact has led to the supposition that all these senses are equally well founded. But these obscurities belong to the very essence of Revelation, which is composed of truths for the most part superior to our limited intelligence, and yet placed in harmony with it. These truths must be expressed in human language, made for this world and inadequate to the expression of them. Hence, passages which possess an obscure character, depths which can not be completely sounded, mysteries that can not be fully unveiled, prob- lems which the human mind has attempted to resolve in different ways, frequently occur. In such instances several senses may seem to be equally plausible and to fulfill equally the requirements of exegesis, and hence it has been concluded that such passages possess several senses, or a double sense. But the double sense lies in the feebleness of the human mind, not in Revelation. It pertains either to our incapacity to grasp divine things in their totality, or to the impossibility of express- The Unity of the Sense of Scripture. 41 ing them with sufficient clearness, but not to the real nature of the truths revealed. In other words, the diffi- culty exists only in ourselves ; it does not exist in God. Other facts, in the second place, pertain to the special nature of the language which has been employed as the vehicle of Revelation, which has been clothed with popular forms strongly impressed with the habits of the East, that is to say, with metaphorical, poetical, and parabolical forms, which convey a meaning different from that of the literal sense of the words. But even then there are not two senses, the literal and the meta- phorical. The metaphorical is alone the real sense; the literal does not exist as a sense ; it is only the vehicle of the former; it contains in itself no result, no truth. There is, therefore, only one real sense. Some may perhaps offer, by way of objection, two particular cases of metaphorical language, allegories and paronomasias. The consideration of these cases will de- tain us a moment. Allegories are only prolonged metaphors, which we may treat as we do ordinary metaphors. They have only the appearance of a double sense ; but one finds in them really no double idea. And, which is a remarkable fact, allegories, which are so frequent with the writers of the East, are in the Bible, rare, brief, and clear. Con- sidered under this point of view, the Scriptures arc widely distinguished from other Oriental writings ; and we are led to see, in this distinction, the spirit of clear- ness, of simplicity, and of unity, which God has made the essential characteristic of His work. Paronomasias arc frequent in the Bible ; but no more than allegories do they contain a double sense. Paron- omasia is a play upon words. It is a figure of speech by which the same word is used in different senses, or words similar in sound arc set in opposition to each 42 Biblical Hermeneuiics. other, so as to give a kind of antithetical force to the sentence. It is a play upon the sound of a word, by which a new and unexpected meaning is given to it. But are there, in such a case, two senses, that is, two simultaneous ideas, between which we may hesitate or choose ? No. There are two distinct and successive ideas connected by a play upon words. Often they contain only a single idea, which is rendered more striking by the resemblance between the syllables of similar sound. To call that a double sense, to see in it a motive, an argument, a reason to suppose that the phrases of the Bible may properly be interpreted in dif- ferent senses, is to take up a vague semblance as a reality, without the least endeavor to distinguish what is literal from a metaphor, and from a play upon words. § 1 8. SYMBOLICAL FACTS. We designate as such facts that are real and suffi- ciently clear, facts which do not prove a double sense, nor form any presumption in its favor, but from which some have believed that they could derive support for this theory on account of their singular and striking character. These facts are first the symbolical actions of the prophets — a means wholly Oriental — which they em- ployed to impress the imagination and to fix firmly in the memory the future events thus announced. For example, Ezekiel (xii. 7) made a breach in the wall ot his house, and escaped through it by night, laden with his goods, in order to announce the assault which was to be made upon Jerusalem, and the disastrous flight of the king of Judah. Acts of this kind are very frequent with some prophets; but the prophet himself took care to explain them : the sense, far from being multiple, was The Unity of the Sense of Scripture. 43 very positive, and attained its object only on this con- dition. What connection can we find between these sig- nificant actions and words of a double sense ? They furnish, without doubt, evident proof of the Oriental taste for figurative language ; but that is all. How can any one, from these perfectly clear facts, intended to convey, in a more striking manner, instruction no less clear and incontestable, draw anything in favor of the extravagant conceits of Origen and Cocceius? There is another class of facts about which we ought to say a word — a class very different from the first, but as little applicable to the point which they are intended to prove. We mean institutions, designed, at least secondarily, to preserve, or to awaken certain ideas. The science, the object of which is to collect and explain the facts of these institutions, is called Symbolics. For example, a bloody sacrifice implied, on the part of him who offered the victim, the confession of his faults and of sins worthy of punishment. The offerings and first-fruits, required by the Mosaic law, were a recog- nition of the right of property which Jehovah, the God and King of the Hebrews, claimed in their country. The concentric enclosures of the temple of Jerusalem and the gradual purifications of those who had the privilege of entering them, taught clearly the holiness of God and the pollution of man. All this is true, without doubt ; but in what does it conduce to the double or to the quadruple sense of a single phrase, or of a single passage ? Symbolics, an interesting and an important science, has been sometimes exaggerated to a ridiculous and absurd degree. Nevertheless, in its greatest exaggerations, it has remained completely and necessarily distinct from the theories of the multiple sense. 44 Biblical Hermeneutics. § 19. PROPHETICAL FACTS. It is on the prophecies that the advocates of the theory of a double sense chiefly rely for support ; and from the prophetical writings the theory has been ex- tended to the whole Bible. Some special facts explain this: 1. The first is the obscurity more or less inherent in all the prophecies, in consequence of their object and their very nature. It results from the nature of Revelation that, while revealed laws must be clear and doctrines distinctly and positively taught, prophecies can be clearly understood only after the event. It is not difficult to perceive that their entire freedom from all ambiguity, or indefiniteness, would be accompanied with many inconveniences : it would be in opposition to the analogy of the divine methods ; and moreover, it would be impossible in fact. Was not the prophet under the necessity of expressing himself in images, in ideas, in contemporaneous and local phrases concerning facts and truths, with which the men of his time were not conversant, and which consequently they could not clearly understand ? He, therefore, who uttered prophecies, uttered obscure revelations, and yet of a nature to fix attention and to excite curiosity. The result of this has been that prophecies oftentimes appear susceptible of different solutions ; and that, instead of choosing between these solutions, some have yielded to the temptation of adding others to them. 2. The attentive study of the prophecies has led some men of science, and at the same time devout Christians, to admit that a portion of this obscurity is due to the individuality of the prophets. According to this hypoth- esis, the natural faculties of the prophet were, as a con- sequence of the nature of prophetical inspiration, the The Unity of the Sense of Scrip tii re. 45 recipients of the supernatural but incomplete knowledge imparted to him. His faculties retained their normal condition and were exercised in a normal manner, while under the prophetic afflatus. It was, moreover, generally by a species of vision that the prophet acquired a knowl- edge of the future. Some confusion would result from this, especially as to the time to which the prophet re- ferred the objects of the vision, and consequently as to the objects themselves, when there was any analogy be- tween them. Events of the same nature, which might appertain really to times very different, presented them- selves to him as connected in time, and as types, the one of the other. For example, the deliverance of Israel and redemption, the restoration of worship and the calling of the Gen- tiles. In this state of things, interpreters who have not discovered this key to the obscurities of prophecy, have been led to the conclusion that such prophecies have, at the same time, two objects and two senses. 3. The New Testament contains a great many proph- ecies, quoted by the Apostles from the Old Testament, in a sense which some imagine to be very different from the primary one in the O. T. It is not necessary to pro- duce these examples here, since everybody knows them. Setting out from the correct idea that the Apostles were inspired and infallible expounders of Scripture, and as- suming that the sense given by them to the quotations just mentioned is different from that which they have in their original place, some have adopted the view that all such passages have two senses, and, perhaps, more. In this way the theory of a double sense is made to rest on the inspiration of the Apostles. The quotations from the Old Testament in the New have occasioned much difficulty to Biblical critics. This difficulty arises sometimes from the application of such 46 Biblical Hermeneutics. quotations ; for example, when they are applied to a purpose to which they seem to have no relation, accord- ing to their original design. The writers of the New Testament make quotations from the Old with very dif- ferent views ; we must attend, therefore, to their real view in a particular quotation. An accurate distinction must be made between such quotations as, being merely borrowed, are used as the words of the writer himself, and such as are quoted in proof of a doctrine, or the completion of a prophecy. § 20. TYPICAL FACTS. These facts are the most prominent, the best known, and those upon which theologians who advocate the double sense, rely with the greatest confidence. It is the opinion of theologians, both of early and modern times, that many of the events, personages, and institutions of the Old Testament were designed by the Holy Spirit to typify and predict events, personages, and institutions of the New. These events, personages, and institutions of the Old Testament, which were so designed, are called types ; and their corresponding ob- jects in the New are called antitypes. Admitting the existence of such types, the theory of a double sense does not follow. Nevertheless they contribute indirectly to the theory by accustoming the reader to look at something else than the literal sense and the recorded fact. Some theologians who reject the theory of a double sense, to evade the conclusion that it seems to result from the system of types in the Old Testament, discard types altogether and have recourse to the convenient principle of accommodation. This principle, or theory, is perhaps more dangerous than that which it seeks to The U?iity of the Sense of Scripture. 47 displace. It fails to take sufficiently into account the con- nection subsisting between the O. T. and the N. T. dispen- sations. In the words of St. Augustine, the former is a prophecy of the latter. The Old Testament contains the New in germ. Moreover, it is necessary to have a due regard to the essential difference between the nature of type and antitype. The typical is Divine truth on a lower stage, exhibited by means of outward relations and terrestrial interests ; the antitypical is Divine truth on a higher stage, with a more heavenly aspect. In the former, we see the outward, the present, the worldly ; in the latter, the inward, the future, the heavenly. Con- sidered thus, types lend no aid to the theory of a double sense. § 21. RESULTS OF THESE FACTS. If we now sum up this rapid examination of the dif- ferent classes of facts, and of the Biblical phenomena, upon which some have pretended to found the theory of a double sense, we will discover the two following results — the one negative, the other positive : 1. The negative result : The imperfection of human language, the imperfection of men to whom Revelation was made ; and the imper- fection of those who were employed as its instruments. 2. Positive result : The intimate relations, real and divine, between the Old and the New Testaments — relations that evidently rendered the former preparatory to and predictive of the latter. This is particularly proved by the symbol- ical institutions, prophecies, and types of the Old. Nothing is found to support the theory of a double sense. This theory has its origin in the forgetfulness of the negative result, in the exaggeration of the positive, 48 Biblical Hernteneutics. and especially in the badly regulated imaginations of certain divines. This brings us to a new element in our examination a posteriori — that of the intellectual tendencies, which have developed and fortified, in the Church, the theory of a double sense. § 22. TENDENCIES WHICH HAVE FAVORED THE THEORY OF A DOUBLE SENSE. There are three tendencies which have favored the theory of a double sense. l. An intellectual tendency. Among the divines of the primitive Church, and among those of the Middle Ages, there was a common lack of logic and of method. Generally speaking, the methodical and philosophical spirit, especially in the theological sciences, is modern. The men of genius, in the first centuries of the Church — the Origens and the Augustines — who exercised a commanding influence upon succeeding generations, were distinguished for their sensibility, piety, and imagination, qualities neces- sary, without doubt, to a student and interpreter of Scripture ; but they lacked that logical and profound critical spirit which is so essential to enable him to ac- complish his work successfully. They eagerly adopted the theory of a double sense, a theory which was in har- mony with their mental constitution, and with their mystical tendencies ; and their eminence in the Church and the force of their genius gave authority to it in the following ages. In our day we see many theologians who are inclined to prefer the imagination to reason, the ingenious to the true, the new to the useful. The imagination is some- times unduly excited by the study of theology, especially when it treats of prophecies and miracles. The Unity of the Sense of Scripture. 49 2. A moral tendency, or the absence of a humble and profound love of the truth. It is a matter of regret that many interpreters are not actuated, above every other consideration, by a con- scientious desire to discover and possess the truth. Certain dispositions of heart unite themselves to tenden- cies of the mind and lead into error. The want of logic, with which the fathers of the Church have been re- proached, is less common in our days ; but by way of compensation, there is much less real respect for the true sense of the Holy Scriptures. It is a common thing to meet with interpreters who are possessed with the desire to dazzle by the novelty of their interpreta- tions, and who, wedded to a system, have recourse to forced expositions for the purpose of harmonizing it with embarrassing passages. The theory of a double sense is singularly convenient to sustain a cherished in- terpretation, without appearing to deny the common one. 3. Religious tendency. A third defect, which is often found united to the second, is want of faith. This assertion will, without doubt, as- tonish many, and yet it is not too severe. When an in- terpreter of the Holy Scriptures seeks any other sense than that which naturally presents itself, he often does it because that sense is repugnant to his convictions. He seeks, in this case, to evade the natural sense, and labors to replace it by another more favorable to his views and tastes. Sometimes, like the ancient Jews of Alexandria, he is ashamed of the literal sense of Script- ure and endeavors to give to it one more agreeable to men of refined wits. He rejects its severe precepts, the doctrines which condemn his system, and interprets them in harmony with it. In all these cases he fails in love, or admiration, or 50 Biblical Hermeneutics. respect for the Scriptures, or in docility ; in other words, he is wanting in faith. Such are the moral causes, which, joined to the Bib- lical facts, of which we have spoken above, appear to us to have originated and promoted the theory of a double sense. We conclude, therefore, from the foregoing inquiry, that the theory of a multiple sense is without foundation ; that the Scripture has a sense unique, positive, and capable of being investigated. This being admitted renders Hermeneutics a possible science. Natural Division of Hermeneutics. 51 SECTION FOURTH. NATURAL DIVISION OF HERMENEUTICS. § 23. GENERAL REFLECTIONS. Hermeneutics is the science which furnishes the true principles of interpretation. To interpret is to reproduce the impression produced by the author upon his contemporaries; it is to repro- duce exactly this entire impression, with all its elements, the emotions as well as the ideas. It is still more. It is to reproduce what the author himself experienced while writing, and what he wished to make his readers experience. These principles are the basis of Hermeneutics, what- ever may be the books interpreted. Biblical Hermeneutics, which is occupied in the inter- pretation of the Bible, does not differ at all in its nature from General Hermeneutics. It differs only in extent, inasmuch as it does not aim only at reproducing the thought of the respective authors of the Bible, but also and principally the revealed thought of which they were the depositaries. It is the aim of Hermeneutics to attain to this revealed thought. If it should cease its efforts to this end, it would lose its value and utility. The method of arriv- ing at it is by the study of the sacred authors, whose writings are to be analyzed according to the laws of lan- guage. To accomplish this we must make a legitimate use of those mental and moral faculties necessary for such labor. 52 Biblical Hcrmcncutics. The utility of the science being admitted, the question arises: What arc its elements, or constituent parts, upon which hermeneutical principles are founded, or from which they are drawn ? To attain to a full interpretation of the Holy Script- ures, the interpreter must perform successively different operations upon their contents. These operations we will now briefly describe. § 24. ANALYSIS OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE SCIENCE. First step : The books to be interpreted are written in different languages. It is necessary, therefore, first of all, that the interpreter should have an exact knowledge of the precise meaning of the words and phrases with which he meets in these languages. After he has acquired this knowledge, he must then make a careful elementary analysis of each passage, determine it, and elucidate it by all the resources of philology. The rules that guide the interpreter in this part of his task are furnished by Sacred Philology, and we call the collection of them Grammatical Hcrmcncutics. Second step: The sense of words thus found will still, in many in- stances, have equivocal elements, and it will often be too vague to attain fully the proposed object. Some- thing more, therefore, than the grammatical sense is necessary. The exegete must assure himself of the pre- cise ideas which the sacred writers attached to the words, and of the minute shades of these ideas. Two methods are required to accomplish this, the one a priori, and the other a posteriori ; and these two meth- ods furnish two new classes of rules. 1. A priori. — According to this method, the inter- Natural Division of Hermeneutics. 53 pretcr inquires about the influence exercised upon the thoughts and expressions of the writer by means of the circumstances of position, time, country, and, in general, by means of his external relations. Rules drawn from this source guide our investigations in Isagogics and Archaeology, and the collective body of them constitutes Historical Hermeneutics. When the interpreter has arrived at this point his task will not be accomplished. Suppose that he undertakes to explain the words of Jesus to the paralytic: " My son, thy sins be forgiven thee " (Mark ii. 5), Grammatical Hermeneutics may readily do its work, but it will not fathom the depth of meaning which these words con- tain. Historical Hermeneutics may show that our Savi- our alludes to a contemporary Jewish opinion that cor- poreal infirmities are the providential punishment of sin. It will reduce, perhaps, the declaration of Christ to this idea : " I deliver thee from thy infirmity by pardoning the sin which has caused it." Many witnesses of the scene could not, indeed, understand the words otherwise. But we ought not to lower ourselves to their level, and believe that this pardon of sins, so often offered and granted by Jesus, was only an accommodation to a pre- vailing opinion. Is not something else necessary to understand these words correctly ? Jesus said : " Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect " (Matt. v. 48). Grammatical Hermeneutics may search deeply into, discuss, and analyze the word "perfect": Historical Hermeneutics may explain learnedly the origin and force of the title, " Father which is in heaven " ; but with all this, will the precept of Jesus be explained, and will we acquire its real value and the precise idea ? For the purpose, therefore, of arriving at the com- plete sense of the sacred writers, we add to Historical 54 Biblical Hcrmeneutics. Hermencutics a posteriori rules deduced from the Bible itself. 2. A posteriori. — These rules are deduced from the general study of the Bible, from the special study of its several portions, and from the relations of these to the whole. This class of rules we call Scriptural Hcrme- neutics. By these different methods we arrive at the literal sense of the words and the precise idea of the sacred writers. But the science of Hermeneutics is not yet complete. A third step is necessary. We must search for and determine the divine revelation, the revealed idea de- posited in the chapter, or phrase. Prior to examination we can have no proof of the identity of the divine and the human idea. Granting that the sacred writers were inspired, they were never- theless men subject to all the limitations of humanity. St. Augustine uttered a profound saying, which serves as a motto, and sums up the entire subject : De Deo homo dixit, et quidem inspiratus a Deo, sed tamen Jwmo. Hence arrives a new and grave problem to be solved, namely, that of the nature and extent of inspiration. This part of our inquiry we designate Doctrinal Herme- neutics. §25. CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSECUTION OF THE SCIENCE. Having stated the different elements of the science, we must mention a condition essential to its successful prosecution. It is the dispositions which an interpreter should possess. To make good music requires some- thing more than good musical instruments : it requires, in addition to these, a skillful musician. In the same Natural Division of Her7nene7itics. 55 way, something more than rules is necessary to interpre- tation : there must be a properly qualified interpreter. What are the conditions which render him such ? This question demands examination. We do not speak of scientific conditions. These are taken for granted ; and the enumeration of them would more appropriately find a place in a theological encyclo- pedia than in Hermeneutics. Neither do we speak of exegetical conditions, which apply to habit, sagacity, and practice. These belong to art rather than to science, to practical details rather than to general rules, to Exegetics rather than to Hermeneu- tics. The dispositions, which we have now in view, are the intellectual and moral dispositions of the interpreter, his faculties more than his erudition, his tendencies of mind more than his methods. Hermeneutics has, too long, neglected to make account of these dispositions so neces- sary to an interpreter. Now it is disposed to recognize their importance. The investigation of these conditions we denominate Psychological Hermeneutics. With this we begin, as being the most important, and that which most nearly concerns the interpreter. The conditions should be known before the means. PART FI RST. PSYCHOLOGICAL HERMENEUTICS. § 26. ITS NECESSITY. PSYCHOLOGICAL Hermeneutics is the investigation of the moral and intellectual conditions, devoid of which the interpreter is incapable of accomplishing his task. The developments already made, and those which shall yet be made throughout the whole of this treatise, are sufficient to show its importance. One can not interpret without understanding that which he interprets. This is a self-evident truth. Now, to understand the thought of another is so to conceive it in one's own mind as to be able to reproduce it to others without change or modification. In order to this, it is necessary first of all to possess a variety of faculties sufficiently developed. According as these are sound or vitiated, exercised or dormant, will the inter- preter attain to a right or a wrong understanding of his subject. This is not all. In addition to these absolute qualifications he must possess qualifications relative to the author whom he intends to interpret. To under- stand and reproduce the thoughts of another in their full meaning, it is necessary to assimilate them and make them one's own ; which supposes in the interpreter not only a variety of faculties sufficiently developed, but faculties of the same order with those of the writer. In order to receive and reproduce a sublime impression, or a philosophic idea, something more is required than a grammatical knowledge of the language, or a historical (56) Psychological Hermenciitics. 57 knowledge of the times : the writer must possess facul- ties specially adapted to aesthetic and philosophical studies. Will any one pretend that the child who re- cites the fables of Fontaine understands them? Will a Geometer, who is only a geometer, easily understand Racine; or a peasant, Tacitus, or Bossuet? A Newton or a La Place would be a poor commentator on Homer or Milton. This is still more evident in regard to the religious than it is in regard to the literary intelligence ; for relig- ious truths and feelings constitute a special sphere, into which the soul must enter and live in order to under- stand them. The man who has neither experience in these things, nor taste for them, mistakes their import and falls into error. How many Biblical commentaries there are sparkling with genius and replete with knowl- edge, but from which very little profit is to be derived, because they lack that good religious sense which is born of the habit of applying religion to the life. As loni; as the critical faculty and erudition suffice, the au- thor appears an eminent exegete ; but when a question of experience and of religious feeling presents itself, through the want of common sense and piety, he either disfigures, or entirely misses the meaning of the simplest teachings. How much importance, then, ought the theologian worthy of the name, to attach to that internal capacity, to that state of intelligence and of soul, which can either open to him or close the doors of truth, which can breathe life into his work, or blight it with death. The normal condition, which we require of the inter- preter of the Holy Scriptures, appears to us to be com- posed of faculties, tendencies or dispositions, and principles. We can give in this treatise only a rapid and imperfect sketch of the points that are most important and most neglected. 58 Biblical Hermeneutics. SECTION FIRST. FACULTIES WITH WHICH THE INTERPRETER SHOULD BE ENDOWED. § 27. INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. The interpreter has need of a clear and vigorous un- derstanding, and of a sound judgment. Without judg- ment he can not discriminate between truth and false- hood ; and without truth his labor will fail of any good result. Without judgment science is only a snare to the inter- preter, who, in that case, resembles a lawyer that en- tangles himself scientifically in the application of the clearest laws. The exegete has, moreover, need of imagination, but under proper control. To symbolize this the Greeks represented Pegasus with a bridle as well as with wings. The language of Scripture is strongly colored : the style is loaded with images. It was addressed directly to readers accustomed to the language of poetry, and ha- bituated to call in the aid of imagination, in order to ex- press even religious and abstract truth. The cold and learned theologian, who analyzes this language as a formula, is often deceived, and sometimes grievously. He resembles a blind man who discourses upon colors. However, if a certain degree of imagination is necessary to the exegete, the excess of it is pernicious, for it de- stroys the judgment. Good sense should, at all times, be his ruling and regulative faculty — a faculty which leaves to the other faculties a sufficient, but limited, The Interpreter s Mental Endowment. 59 field of action. The excess of imagination is, peihaps, more to be feared in religious science than elsewhere, because this science tends to exalt this faculty. Upon each page the Bible presents to the theologian for ex- amination the supernatural and the mysterious. Hence it calls his imagination into play, and invites him to have recourse to it ; but, at the same time, it exposes him to serious errors, unless he knows how to regulate it. In this, as always and everywhere, that which is use- ful to the theologian is the equilibrium of all his facul- ties, rather than the excessive and isolated development of a few. § 28. MORAL FACULTIES. What we have just said of the imagination is equally true of the sensibility. This should not predominate over the intelligence. It can not legitimate an interpre- tation ; but it is indispensable to the interpreter ; for without it, he is incapable of understanding many things. At least he can understand them only imperfectly ; and he will notice, as obscure, vague, or unimportant, perhaps the richest instructions, even such as, addressed to the sensibility, were intended to produce upon the reader the most powerful and decisive impression. There are many passages of Scripture which present a good sense only on the condition of their being felt, sub- lime when they affect the heart, but absurd when logic alone analyzes them. Job exclaims, in a transport of confidence, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him " (xiii. 15). Here we have a proposition logically absurd: it is a cry of the heart, and as such it is sublime. The epistles of Paul are understood only when we seek the train of the emotions along with that of the ideas. As long as we deduce from them only formulas, the}' often appear obscure and confused ; but when we seek for the 60 Biblical Hermeneutics. movements, the struggles, and the outpourings of a lov- ing soul torn with anguish, we discover new and precious treasures. And the Psalms, the book of suffering, loving, and penitent souls — the Psalms, an admirable monument of an all-embracing piety, which embellishes nature, charms life, alleviates grief, transforms afflictions, and unites the soul to God, how can they be understood, and what can we make of them, if we reduce them to logical formulas, and neglect, in the interpretation of them, to consult our own hearts and the heart of the royal prophet ? The Scriptures were evidently written as much for the heart as for the intellect. God intended this, and for reasons easy to be understood. He intended them not only for enlightened men, for men of logical ability and accustomed to investigation, not for theologians only, but for all classes of men, for men of every nation and of every degree of intelligence. He intended them to be the nourishment and the consolation of the weak in in- tellect and of the young, to furnish instruction for the ignorant, and to be the inheritance of the poor. In a word, He intended that they should be addressed to the most numerous and the most unhappy portion of the human race. Now, in this mass, how many are there who are capable of attaining to a logical understanding of the Scriptures? Very few. How many, on the con- trary, are capable of feeling their power, and of receiving from them, by the aid of the sensibility, a just and strong, though vague and incomplete, impression ? It is safe to say, nearly all. The friends of humanity ought, therefore, to thank God for addressing His word es- pecially to hearts susceptible of feeling and emotion. The interpreter, then, should, in order to accomplish the duties of his office, possess sensibility. He should seek the aid of his heart, and not bind himself slavishly to the requirements of logic. Dispositions Necessary to the hitcrpretcr. 61 SECTION SECOND. DISPOSITIONS NECESSARY TO THE INTERPRETER. § 29. LOVE OF TRUTH. FACULTIES are natural gifts, which the theologian can and ought to develop. The germ of these he received at his birth. We specify here the dispositions which he ought to cultivate, and which are necessary to him. The first is the love of truth. In order to discover the truth it is necessary to seek for it ; in order to obtain it, we must love it, and love it in preference to every speculative theory, to every inter- est of the heart and of the life. The interpreter must be animated to the pursuit of it as to that of a noble object and a holy work. He should regard his responsibility with a feeling blended with fear and respect and impose silence upon his passions in the presence of his high ministry. Only piety and faith can give him this disposition in a sufficient degree ; but he ought, at the very start, to place himself on guard against three elements of error incompatible with sincere love of truth. (1). We specify first, attachment to preconceived opin- ions, which, instead of guiding and shaping our investi- gations, should be kept in abeyance. The interpreter should, if possible, undertake the task of interpretation without preconceived opinions ; but, as that can not be done, he should, at least, subject such opinions to the special result of his interpretation legitimately deduced from the Scriptures. He should be desirous above all 62 Biblical Hermeneutics. to discover the truth, and disposed to modify his ideas in accordance with the result of his examination. The exegete sits down to read and to analyze an epis- tle of St. Paul. No one can, nor ought to, demand of him to come to this task, without a conviction of the fundamental doctrines of natural religion and of the Christian faith, and even of the inspired authority of St. Paul ; but he ought to forget, as far as possible, during his work, the opinions that he has already formed of the Apostle and of his epistle, in order to elicit sincerely, by a conscientious and philosophic interpretation of it, all that it can teach him. This disposition is rare. Moreover, it is scarcely ever seriously enough applied, or judiciously enough regu- lated. Some exaggerate it by demanding, under the name of impartiality, a complete skepticism ; though all that can be required of the exegete is a conscientious examination of the doctrine of the author that occupies his attention. Others, by far the greatest number, neg- lect it and are decided, in advance, upon what they wish to find. Facts prove this in the most sad and decisive manner, since religious denominations, holding doctrines the most opposite, put forward, with the utmost sincerity, their respective creeds as the only true summaries of Scriptural doctrine. Philosophical sects do the same thing, at least those which do not place themselves out of the pale of Christianity. The disciples of Plato, of Aristotle, of Locke, of Descartes, of Hegel, and of St. Martin, all endeavor to show that they have the true sense of Scripture. Was it not, at least at first, in the name of Scripture that the modern Socialists attacked society, the family, and the faith ? (2). To impartiality of mind the interpreter should join impartiality of heart. If preconceived opinions op- Dispositions Necessary to the Interpreter. 63 pose obstacles to honesty of examination, strong feel- ings of interest present obstacles equally strong. The fear of man, the prejudices of the Church and of society, the desire of reputation and of glory destroy the love of truth. How frequent is this evil. How many vision- ary hypotheses have had their origin in the desire of occupying some conspicuous place in some learned uni- versity. A sincere desire to be the servant of truth is necessary to the discovery of it. This noble desire should put to silence all others. The scholar who studies, the Chris- tian who examines, and the ecclesiastic who teaches, have each a responsibility from which the pure love of truth alone can release them. This triple responsibility the theologian who interprets incurs in all its extent. If there is anything humiliating to criticism and the- ology, it is that this responsibility is sometimes so im- perfectly understood. Let the student ponder it deeply beforehand, and contemplate his future career less from the point of view of his interests than from that of his duties. (3). The work of the interpreter is not only vitiated in its source by opinions previously and obstinately formed, or by opposite interests ; it is also vitiated, in a greater or less degree, by all the moral defects of the heart. The interpreter should be not only impartial and disinterested, but also, so far as corrupt human nature will allow, morally perfect. This statement may occa- sion surprise; but the least reflection will show that the heart always influences the mind, and that defects of the former cause imperfections in the latter. The proud man will not easily renounce his opinions when proved to be untenable. He will not be impartial, and will zealously seek for discoveries which he expected to make. The egotist will fail in sensibility, and will form 64 Biblical HermcnetUics. a very imperfect idea of the emotional in Scripture. The low, interested, vicious, degraded man will always see through a veil of flesh and blood. How important is it, therefore, that the interpreter should labor to purify his soul and raise it to the height of Christian virtue, in order to attain to the true dignity of his task — a task fearful in its responsibility, but noble and exalted. § 30. SEARCH FOR CLEAR IDEAS. The second disposition required of the interpreter is the desire to acquire clear ideas. He needs them and must use effort to attain them. Every man of intelligence, be he student or scholar, pupil or teacher, advances toward his object only by enlarging the extent of his ideas, and by acquir- ing clearness of them. The means to attain clearness is study. As we have said in regard to truth, in order to obtain this clearness of ideas we must love it and seek after it. The man who does not make it his duty and does not employ his energy to secure it, will be con- tented with appearances, with phrases, with formulas, with confused theories, that is to say, with errors. In the moral and metaphysical sciences this danger is greater than in the physical and experimental sciences. The former do not possess, like the latter, material facts, visible and repeated experiments to serve as tests ; hence shallow minds are much more liable to take, in the for- mer, the appearance for the reality, and words for things. This fault is very common in the moral and metaphysical sciences. Nowhere is clearness of idea more rare, and, at the same time, more necessary. These considerations are still more applicable to The- ology, especially to Biblical Theology, than to any of Dispositio7is Necessary to the Interpreter. 65 the sciences just mentioned. Here, as the truth pertains to a supernatural and mysterious order of things, and, consequently, obscure, it is more necessary, than in other sciences, to endeavor to have clear ideas of the matters which come under consideration. The sensibility and the imagination exercise, and ought to exercise, such an influence upon interpretation as sometimes to evade this keen scent of logic. In short, personal interests, passions, and strifes, very often intimately concern the results to be obtained. Hence arises frequently and inevitably the temptation to make use of formulas in default of ideas, in order to disguise or modify these results. No one can deny that many theologians have erred much in this respect. In the different hermeneutical applications, and especially in ancient dogmatics, there are a great many arguments and interpretations which are only formulas traditionally handed down from former centuries, and which contain no positive nor distinct idea. They do not enlighten the understanding in any- thing. Their words can neither be changed nor com- mented upon without losing their import. Nevertheless they are generally received, because they are convenient and dispense with thought, doubt, and close attention. Some of the theological formulas employed to explain the mysterious doctrine of the Trinity, and of the con- stitution of the Person of Christ, are of this kind. It is the duty of the interpreter never to be contented with purely traditional words, but to pursue his medita- tion until he has associated a positive idea with such words as he decides to employ. This statement is not intended to imply that he can arrive at the possession of clear ideas upon everything which pertains to religion, for the nature of man, as well as that of God, precludes this. All that is meant is that his words should always express, without ambiguity, a real idea. He should un- 56 Biblical Hermc?te?ctics. derstand clearly everything which he declares to be clear, and everything which he pretends to explain by a precise formula ; and he should declare positively obscure that which remains obscure. In those matters of religion which surpass intelligence, he ought to comprehend clearly the fact that they do surpass it ; also in what they surpass it, and in what they do not surpass it. The fact that they surpass our intelligence should not hinder us from believing them, for while we can not believe what is contrary to reason, we can and do believe many things that are above it. § 31. FAITH AND PIETY. The interpreter, in order to accomplish his task well, has need of faith and piety. Let us explain this state- ment. It does not mean that the interpreter, in order to un- derstand the Bible and exhibit its meaning, must be en- lightened by the Holy Spirit ; so that, in fault of this supernatural illumination, the Bible would be a sealed book calculated to blind and harden. On this hypothe- sis there would be no place for the human faculties ; no religious examination would be possible and legitimate ; there would be no motive to distribute the Bible abroad ; and consequently no Hermeneutics to study. But it does mean that, in order to apprehend the con- tents of the Bible, in order to elucidate its difficulties, in order to find the key to obscure passages, and thus to accomplish fully the task of interpretation, the interpre- ter must have already known, felt, and examined with pleasure and success the prominent characteristics of the Scriptures, and derived from them the sentiment of the beauty, the sanctity, and divinity of his work. The sci- ence of Apologetics, when complete, ought to be a re- Dispositions Necessary to the Interpreter. 67 suit of Hermeneutics. The former can not precede the latter. While this is true, Hermeneutics, on the other hand, can be complete only by the aid of Apologetics. Between the proofs furnished by Apologetics and Her- meneutics there should be a constant action and reaction, and thus there will be a continual and simultaneous progress of both sciences. 1. A religious conviction is often logically necessary to interpretation ; not a particular conviction of such and such a doctrine, but a general conviction of the attributes of God and of the authentic and divine origin of the Bible. According as we believe that God is holy, we will choose the one or the other of the opposite in- terpretations of such or such a passage. According as we are, or not disposed to accept Jesus Christ as the Saviour of the world, we will receive His discourses with the spirit of the apostles, or with that of the Pharisees. Without doubt, it would be better, viewing the matter from a purely intellectual and logical point of view, as we have already said, that the interpreter should have no preconceived opinions ; but as this is intellectually and morally impossible, he must have a judicious, stable intellect, exempt from all selfish influences, fully capable of, and prepared for, philosophical investigation. This condition can not be dispensed with in the interpreter. 2. More than intelligence is required in order to un- derstand the Bible. Religious sensibility is also neces- sary. This alone can place the interpreter in complete harmony with the thoughts and feelings of the author. Piety has its own language, which a stranger to it can not understand. It can only be understood by experi- encing pious emotions. Where pious hearts find ideas, knowledge, emotions, and sources of conviction, cold and worldly hearts find only inexplicable words, which they reject with disdain, after having vainly endeavored to 68 Biblical Hermeneutics. penetrate into their sense. How can an emotion or a joy be explained to one who has never felt it? How can a science be rendered intelligible, to a man who does not even apprehend its object ? How can a blind man understand colors ? How can a sensual and avaricious materialist appreciate the Psalms or St. John ? 3. One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Bible is the wonderful and profound accord which reigns between its teachings, its precepts, and the wants and sorrows of the human heart. The heart of man is at once the complement, the commentary, and the key of the Bible. How, then, can it be understood, explained in its details, and appreciated in its entirety by one who is not in the habit of living with it, and of entering into its heart, who, a stranger to religious thoughts, is un- conscious of his moral maladies, and ignorant of him- self? We must not, however, forget the real inconveniences which beset the interpreter, who has already commenced to expound the Scriptures, and to expound them in a certain sense, for the purpose of being able to advance in his work, and not remain lost in chaos. There is always a danger of not being rigorously impartial ; but, as we have said, no interpreter can attain to such a state of mind. There is always a danger of deciding in accord- ance with one's internal and individual experiences ; but it is thus only that the interpretation of the Bible can be complete and applied to life. There is this danger ; it is inevitable and universal, and explains the great variety of interpretations. If one can not remove this evil, he can, at least, diminish it : (a) by determining his own religious convictions by a profound, complete, re- peated, and varied self-examination ; (b) by striving to forget, in the act of biblical interpretation, his own relig- ious sentiments. He must impose silence, for the time, Dispositions Necessary to the Interpreter. 69 upon his will, his desires, and preconceived opinions, in order to perform, with the utmost conscientiousness and sincerity, the hermeneutical examination of each pas- sage. To sum up : The irreligious interpreter is morally unfit for the task of biblical interpretation. The re- ligious interpreter is exposed to the danger of deceiving himself. The duty which Hcrmeneutics imposes is not simply scientific and logical : it is principally moral. The interpreter must be conscientious, circumspect, and labo- rious. He ought constantly to mistrust his passions and opinions, and also be diffident of his ability and even of his success. jo Biblical Hcrmeneutics. SECTION THIRD. DUTIES OF THE INTERPRETER. A WORD, before concluding, upon the point from which the interpreter ought to consider his task, or upon the nature and extent of the examination which he un- dertakes. § 32. THIS EXAMINATION OUGHT TO EMBRACE THE ENTIRE BIBLE AND TO BE FREQUENTLY RE- PEATED. The more delicate and difficult the hermeneutical task is, the greater responsibility it imposes upon the interpreter, the more imperative is his duty to attain to a knowledge of the whole Bible, and to examine pro- foundly into its meaning. Unless he does this, he will be much more exposed to the influence of selfish inter- ests and of preconceived opinions than he would other- wise be. It is this labor alone that will make the inter- preter acquainted with the spirit of the Bible, the suc- cessive progress of its teachings, the special character- istics and relative value of its different parts, its general character, and the purposes of God in revelation. Every theologian ought to be an exegete. But many read and study only certain portions of the Bible. Some confine their reading and meditations to the New Testa- ment. Many read superficially, without stopping to examine and elucidate obscure passages. Many neglect the original texts. Hence mutual recrimination in re- gard to vagueness of ideas. They are guided in the Duties of the Interpreter. 71 adoption of their opinions more by circumstances, edu- cation, and authority, than by independent examination. This examination ought, moreover, to be continued throughout life. In proportion as one advances in age, psychological data, the experience of society, and posi- tive knowledge, present themselves under new aspects ; and, accumulating, modify and increase the resources of the interpreter, and furnish him with the means of renewing the examination with increased advantage. Moreover, if this examination were ever interrupted, its results would be obliterated from the heart and mem- ory ; faith in the Bible, rendered inoperative by the cares of life, would become vague and incoherent. Med- itation and constant study of the Holy Scriptures are absolutely necessary to refresh, nourish, and render clear, vivid, and fruitful the knowledge and religious convictions of the theologian. These are his daily food, just as necessary to his soul and his faith as bread is to his body. Can there be, then, any need of directing attention to the importance of this complete and constant examina- tion of the Scriptures, in relation to the other duties of the theologian, to Apologetics, to the pastoral functions, to preaching ? § 33. THIS EXAMINATION OUGHT TO BE MADE WITH DISTRUST OF ONE'S SELF AND WITH A FEELING OF ONE'S OWN WEAKNESS. This is evident, since the interpreter is liable to be deceived through the imperfection of his faculties, the limitation of his knowledge, and the bent of his disposi- tions. What diversities do we find in the results to which Hermencutics conducts different theologians ; and consequently what errors — errors not only on the part of men of moderate ability, but on that of men whose J 2 Biblical Hermeneutics. ability is universally acknowledged. Where is the critic so eminent; who has not sometimes, in spite of his science and sagacity, fallen into some strange and unex- pected mistake ? What scientific motives, therefore, has the judicious theologian to regard with jealousy his methods and results ; and what motives of duty and piety has he to fear presumption, which, painful to say, is too common. The theologian ought, while preparing himself for the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, to consider his task carefully not only from a scientific, but also and chiefly from a moral and religious point of view. He is charged with the duty of interpreting a book, the reposi- tory of Divine truth, in which are found many obscure passages. On the success of his labor may depend the faith, the conduct, and salvation of his readers. And while charged with such a weighty responsibility he must keep in mind that he is only a man, subject to all the limitations, passions, and imperfections of humanity. Errors, he knows, are almost inevitable ; and every error may be followed by grave consequences. If he gives a too absolute character to occasional precepts, he attrib- utes human thoughts to God. If he forgets the uni- versal and absolute character of Divine teachings, he mutilates the Divine thought, and changes the com- mandments of God. Such is the position, such ought to be the mental and moral qualifications of the interpreter of the Holy Script- ures. His task should be begun, continued, and ended with prayer ; and it should be conducted with constant vigilance. Luther said, Oratio, weditatio, tcntatio f admit tJicolo- gum. We say the same. Prayer, study, and experience will aid the interpreter to accomplish his task, so far as it depends upon human ability. PART SECOND. GRAMMATICAL HERMENEUTICS. The interpreter should begin his work by studying the grammatical sense of the text, with the aid of Sacred Philology. As in all other writings, the grammatical sense must be made the starting-point. The meaning of the words must be determined according to the lin- guistic usage and the connection. The several particu- lars comprehended under this branch of our subject now require consideration. I.— DIFFICULTIES. § 34. NATURE OF THE TASK. This task is far from being so easy as it might, at first, appear. To determine, with accuracy, an important, abstract, and complex idea, without other aid than the science of language, is a task the difficulty of which is known only to those who have conscientiously attempt- ed it. This difficulty will be manifest when we consider that the meaning of words is often uncertain, compli- cated, and vague. Every dictionary, it is true, professes to give the sense of words. But the interpreter would not be materially aided even by an infallible dictionary, for he needs not the general sense of a word so much as its precise im- port, with its shades of meaning and its degree of in- tensity. He is in need of the sense of a word in a given passage, determined, it may be, by a certain occasion, 4 (73) 74 Biblical Her?ue7ietitics. by certain circumstances of place, and by the individual- ity of the author. Now this is what is difficult to be determined, and usually difficult in proportion to the importance of the meaning. We deem some illustrations of this difficulty necessary. §35- WANT OF SUFFICIENT ANALOGY BETWEEN LAN- GUAGES. There is seldom an identity of sense between the cor- responding words of different languages ; between the English word, for example, and the corresponding Hebrew word, the Greek word and its representative in Latin, or any other language. This is evident even in regard to words of those languages which are derived the one from the other. "Emperor," "tyrant," "to exterminate," are the literal translations of " Imperator," "Ti'jpawoS," and " exterminare," from which they are derived. The distinctions in sense, however, between them and their derivatives are known to all. We meet with the same thing in the principle the- ological terms. trilby @£o$, and "God " are far from being expressive of the same idea. E^bi* is used when speaking of the Being who commands reverence, because He surpasses all others in power and grandeur. The Old Testament employs the term when speaking not only of the true God, but of angels (Ps. viii. 6, etc.), and of magistrates (Ps. Ixxxii. 6, etc.) ©so?, unlike Q^fib&j etymologically expresses a physical, instead of a moral, idea, and, like it, is not exclusively applied to the true God in the Scriptures. John x. 34, 35, and 1 Cor. viii. 5, prove this. The refer- ences of the first Greek Fathers to the divinity of the Saviour furnish additional proof. Thus Clement of Grammatical Hermeneutics. 75 Alexandria says : (Strom vii.) tovtco itaaa vitoTzroniTcu. arpcxria ylyy^Acov re nai Qeaov. To the same effect Origen (Vol. II. in Job.) developing the idea of 7tpooro- roKOi applied to Jesus Christ : Ti/.iiooT€po? roJi Xoi7ro7? nap avrov SeofS, cav 6 Qeo5 Beoi iari, nara to Xzyoj-ie- vov. Geo? Secov nvpiot sXaXijffe, etc. As to the English word God — " the Good " — it indi- cates, without equivocation, the supreme divinity when- ever it is not used in accommodation to Pagan theories and to metaphors which owe their origin to them. § 36. VARIATIONS IN THE SENSE OF WORDS. Diversities of sense exist not only between the corre- sponding words in different languages, but also between the different modes of employing the same words in the same languages, especially in the biblical languages. 1. These variations often pertain to the abstract, vague, or mysterious sense of certain expressions. As examples, we mention 7cio~TiS and \6yoS, which we will have occasion to study hereafter. Further examples of this variation may be found in ftvxt}, which sometimes indicates the life of the body (Luke vi. 9; John xii. 25, etc.), sometimes the scat of the animal appetites (1 Thess. v. 23, etc., comp. James iii. 15), and sometimes the immortal and redeemed soul (James i. 21, v. 20) ; in nv£vi.iot, which unites the idea of wind with that of res- piration, and especially with that of the principle of spiritual and divine life ; in ppl, which combines the different meanings of 7rvevjua; in t!5S5, which comprises the sense of respiration, of animal life, and of the per- sonal soul. 2. Many words come to express, in consequence of different circumstances, or of etymology, several diverg- j 6 Biblical Hcrmeneutics. ent ideas. For example, avopoS signifies " transgressor of the law" (Acts ii. 23), but avo/xoj? (Rom. ii. 12) " not having received the law " ; avrdpiaia, " contentment of spirit" (1 Tim. vi. 6) and "sufficiency" (2 Cor. ix. 8); grjkot, "zeal" (Rom. x. 2) and "envy" (1 Cor. iii. 3). 3. Others have been modified by shadings of expres- sion, such as hyperboles, emphases, etc., or simply by usage, as ad&qjoZ, ayio? P which are used to designate Christians. 4. Figures are a fruitful source of new variations, either when the same word is taken sometimes in its proper sense and sometimes in a figurative sense, as 8,001), SdvaroS, Wptio?(i Cor. xiv. 20: Heb. v. 13); Svpa (1 Cor. xvi. 9) ; or when it is employed in two distinct figurative senses, as yprjyopeiv and uaSevdeiv, used not only in their proper senses "to watch" and "to sleep," but also in those of Christian vigilance and of moral sleep (1 Thess. v. 6), and still further in those of life and death. (Ibid. v. 10). § 37. SPECIAL NATURE OF THE LANGUAGES OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. The interpreter of the Holy Scriptures is required, in the prosecution of his work, to translate them from two different languages, one of which belongs to the Semitic family, and the other to the Indo-European. This fact increases the difficulties of his task. The Hebrew va- ries, according to epochs and localities. The book of Job has a tinge of Arabic. Ezra iv. 8-vi. 18 ; vii. 12-26 ; Jerem. x. 11; and Daniel ii. 4-vii. 28, are written in Chaldee. An Aramean element* characterizes the lan- * The Aramean, one of the three grand divisions of the Se- mitic languages, comprises two principal subdivisions ; viz., the Syriac, or West Aramean, and the Chaldee, or East Aramean. Grammatical Hermeneutics. jj guage of some of the later prophets. Moreover, the He- brew has special difficulties, in the occurrence of a large number of words technically called anaB, \ey6j.i£va, i. e., words which are found only once. The Greek of the New Testament consists of different elements, of which we will speak hereafter. It has its idioms ; and under a Greek phrase is often concealed a Hebrew turn of thought. Thus the interpreter may be led into error, either by forgetting to take account of these idioms, or by exaggerating their importance. The syntax of the New Testament is often neglected or mis- applied by the inaccuracy, literary inexperience, or emo- tion of the authors, who were inspired men, but idiGOTai tgj Xoyco (2 Cor. xi. 6). In short, both sacred books are the work of authors different in position and individuality, from which results the necessity of making a special study of the language and thought of each of them. There are many circumstances which combine in increasing still further the difficulties, and consequently the importance, of Grammatical Hermeneutics. It is not with dictionaries, formulas, and confessions of faith alone that the interpreter can accomplish his work. He will be successful only with the moral and intellectual quali- fications that we have mentioned in Psychological Her- meneutics. To these he must unite the employment of the best methods and all the scientific and philosophical precautions at his command. II.— RESOURCES AND DUTIES. §38. CONSIDERED GENERALLY. Although the difficulties attending the task of inter- pretation are great, they arc not insurmountable. There are potent and numerous resources at the command of /S Biblical Hermeneutics. the interpreter, for determining the mind of the Spirit. The difficulties themselves become assistants to judicious and active critics by imposing duties upon them. The obstacles in the path of the interpreter cause him to re- double his efforts, collect every possible help, distrust his individual ability, and husband his energies. More particularly, we observe that Grammatical Her- meneutics furnishes resources and imposes duties, derived from the following sources : (a). From the text itself. (b). From the context. (c). From the parallel texts. (d). From materials foreign to the text. For the moment we must confine our attention to Grammatical Hermeneutics. However, it should be borne in mind that, even for the simple determination of the sense of words, Historical and Scriptural Hermeneu- tics are far from being without utility, as we shall see in the sequel. In developing the subject of Hermeneutics, we are obliged to divide it into successive departments. But in reality, the different elements entering into the inter- preter's task mutually act and react and even interpene trate. Resources Derived from the Text. 79 SECTION FIRST. RESOURCES DERIVED FROM THE TEXT. § 39. EMPLOYMENT OF THE ORIGINAL TEXTS. It seems superfluous to affirm that the divine who has undertaken to interpret the Bible, ought to consult habitually the original texts. Nevertheless this practice is neglected by many theologians, even by those who possess sufficient erudition and abundant leisure. Frequently this neglect is simply a matter of indo- lence. A large class of thinkers regard the authorized versions of the Scriptures as sufficient. It is a mistake. Even the most accurate of the different translations present the truth in a veiled condition. They can sim- ply approximate, more or less closely, the precision and clearness of the original. Every version leads, sooner or later, into error. The man who reads the original text with attention, with the requisite knowledge and dispo- sition, discovers very frequently some new point of view, some unforeseen intention, some profound and suggest- ive allusion, some new and precious element in the thought of the sacred author. This method, moreover, has, in common with all the pro- founder studies, the immense advantage of giving to the theologian great vividness and freshness of thought, united to the assurance of having successfully accom- plished his task. It stimulates the thought, adds pleas- ure to the intellect, gives veritable delight to the heart, and strengthens faith. All these advantages are more or less denied to the indolent investigator who contents 8o Biblical Hermeneutics. himself with the ideas sometimes confused, and the beauties always impaired, of the best translations. In others this negligence is the result of an excessive confidence in a certain justly-esteemed version. But in addition to depriving themselves of the above-mentioned advantages, interpreters of this stamp are exposed to many grievous errors. They are in danger of the mis- takes that the most perfect versions present on almost every page, and it is difficult for them to avoid the error of accepting and pressing the significance of the individ- ual words, which can rarely reproduce the original with entire accuracy. Let us notice a few familiar examples. The German theologians have supported the institu- tion of patronage upon the Mosaic usages, in despite of the documents and facts ; doing so simply because Luther translated "lfaja (Esther ii. 7), which signifies "a foster parent," by Vormund, " a guardian." A preacher of mature years delivered a discourse upon Ps. xxxix. 5, according to the version of Osterwald, " Thou hast reduced my days to the measure of four fingers," and thought it his duty to explain to his auditory why the psalmist spoke only of four fingers of the hand, say- ing nothing of the fifth. If he had been conversant with the original, he would have discovered that it was a question not of four different fingers, but of a measure in length (nStO "the palm"), equal to four widths of a finger. The sermon was ridiculous, no doubt, and the preacher devoid of good sense. But the judgment and genius of Saint Augustine have not prevented him from making many mistakes of this character, because he made but little use of the original texts. The distinction has been made, in the study of the text, between that of the words, that of the construc- tions, and that of the discourse. The several parts of Resources Derived from the Text. 81 this division can not be clearly distinguished, and have the disadvantage of being involved, here and there, in some confusion. Still we will employ this method of division, modifying it as occasion may require. Thus some order will be given to this subject, which has need of arrangement, being in its nature quite vague and minute. A.— STUDY OF THE WORDS. §40. ORDINARY RESOURCES OF PHILOLOGY. 1. Grammatical Science. — This requires no explana- tion and has no need of development. Let us remark only that an efficient philologist will not be hampered by general rules, but will be competent to derive light from the form of the words and from their intimate nat- ure. The special character of the Greek and Hebrew will afford him much aid. In these languages certain terminations of the adjective distinguish its significance; certain modifications of the substantive vary its mean- ing. In Hebrew, the vowels or affixes which modify the root so as to make it a substantive, attach to it a nature often very different from the participle or infinitive from which it is derived, and exert an influence upon the con- crete or abstract character of the idea which it expresses. These resources, and many others of the same nature, should be used sparingly and wisely, but ought not to be entirely neglected. 2. Etymology. — The study of etymology is an attract- ive resource, sometimes leading to reliable results, but frequently to extravagance. The philologist employing it arrives, or pretends to arrive by the pleasing analysis of etymology, at an unforeseen sense, the discovery of which is its own reward. But this discovery is fre- quently merely an illusion. It may be affirmed even 82 Biblical Hermcnczdics. that etymological analysis never gives entire certainty. This results necessarily both from the multiplicity of the possible relations between the primitive and the derived senses and from the extravagances of usage. The ety- mology of v7raKovo) would lead equally to the Greek sense " to obey," and to the English sense " to under- stand." The derivation of 7rpo0;/re/a would lead one to translate it by " declaration," or " interpretation," rather than by " prophecy"; and in fact it has these two senses in the Scriptures. The undeniable etymology of "extermination" gives the idea of "banishment," which, in fact, is the true significance of extermination. In having recourse to etymology the interpreter ought, therefore, to hedge himself in with precautions, and par- ticularly to impose upon himself the following three rules : (a). Mistrust far-fetched and strained etymologies. An example of relying upon these is found in the case of Augustine, who derived from the Greek ndffxeiv, " to suffer," the word "Passover," which comes from a. He- brew word, nt)3> signifying " a passing over." (b). Have recourse to etymology only in default of other resources, or in order to aid these latter in verify- ing their results. (c). Demand of etymology only the primitive sense, and do not deduce that of the derivatives from it, with- out at least a complete and rigid examination. 3. Employment of Cognate Languages. — The study of classic Greek in relation to the New Testament, and of the different Aramaic and Arabian dialects for the Old Testament, will render important service to the inter- preter. It will place in his memory a mass of significa- tions, constructions, phrases, variations, exceptions, and idioms, which will be of great service to him if he can avoid the abuse of them. But let him never make a Resources Derived from the Text. 83 parade of his knowledge ; let him not seek for the inge- nious, the brilliant, and the fresh in preference to the true. 4. Special Study of the Variations of Sense. — What we have already said (§ 36) of these variations and the em- barrassments they cause to the interpreter, proves suffi- ciently the special study they require. We will return hereafter to the subject both in Grammatical and in Historical Hermeneuties. §41. STUDY OF THE SPECIAL LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. The language of the New Testament is not the Classi- cal Greek. This had its various dialects, of which four have been distinguished. The oldest of these was the Aeolic, which prevailed in Thessaly, Boeotia, Lesbos, and the north-western coasts of Asia Minor. The Doric, which, proceeding from Doris, spread over the greater part of the Peloponnesus, over Italy and Sicily. The Ionic, which was originally spoken in Attica, but was carried thence by colonists to the coasts of Asia Minor. The Attic, which was used in Attica after the emigration of these colonists. This dialect soon excelled all the others in refinement, holding, as it did, a middle place between the harsh roughness of the Doric and the softness of the Ionic. After the Macedonian conquest, when Greece was de- prived of its liberty, and its different States were united under one government, the amalgamation of these dia- lects, which had previously begun, was completed. In this mixture of dialects that of Macedonia obtained a place, from its being spoken by the people who had ac- quired the sovereignty. From the amalgamation of these various elements arose the KOivrj diaXextoi, or 84 Biblical Hermeneutics. E\Xi]VL7a'j, i. c, the Common Dialect, or the Hellenic. This dialect is substantially Attic, for the chief characteristics of that dialect remained, notwithstanding the various modifications introduced. The uoiv?) diaXeuToi is the usual standard of grammars and lexicons, departures from it being specified under the names of particular dialects. This Hellenic Dialect is the language of the LXX, of nearly all the Apocryphal writings, of the Jewish writers contemporary with the Apostles, and of the New Testa- ment. The special and minute study of it, therefore, is a matter of great importance to the interpreter of that portion of the Sacred Volume. Some philologists have attempted to dispute this idea of the Greek text, and have claimed that the Apostles employed the purity of the classical language. This is a question of facts and words that we may now regard as decided. The view we have adopted does not deny the correctness or elegance of many passages. But the authors of the New Testament, although differing greatly the one from the other, in regard to the purity of their style, are all more or less subjected to the influences we have just been indicating. It is always impossible to interpret them accurately, if we refuse to take account of these variations. We find in the New Testament a mass of words with meanings foreign to the classical sense; substantives, adjectives, and adverbs irregularly terminated, verbs and names modified in their conjuga- tion or their numbers. We have seen that the New Testament is Greek, or what has been denominated by grammarians the noivrj dictXexToS, or EX\t]viKTj. But it has other elements, espec- ially two, which have been called the Hebrew and the Christian. 1. The Hebrew. The Old Testament was the ac- Resources Derived fro?n the Text. 85 knowledged code of faith in the infancy of the Hellenis- tic writers, the pledge and glory of their nationality, and almost the only nourishment of their intellectual life. Its language, although somewhat modified by time, was the mother tongue of most of them. It was most natural for the idioms of their native tongue to leave noticeable impressions upon their writings, and partic- ularly upon the New Testament. Hence we find in this latter a large number of constructions, thoroughly He- braic, of Greek words employed in an acceptation peculiar to the Hebrew, and of Hebrew words written in Greek letters. The following words are examples of the last- mentioned peculiarity of the New Testament language : d\ii]v, dppafioov, (.uxfifxcovai, ffarav, (Sand. 2. The Christian. The more perfect revelation of God's will, as given in the New Testament, necessitated a more perfect usage of language. The thought and affections of men were to be drawn into new channels, hence it was necessary for language to follow wherever thought and affection led. Thus resulted the creating of new words, or, more frequently, the giving of new significations to the words then in usage. This power- ful influence made itself felt throughout the New Testa- ment and modified, still more, the language of the Greek Fathers. A catalogue of the principal words thus im- pregnated with Christian thought is subjoined : Ai'oov ovto?, fxeXXoov 7 - fiaffiXeia rov Qeov, rov ovpavov j SiKaiovffSau, Shiaio6vvr\ ; 6o£a, 8o£,a- 8,£G%ai; S,co7], Savaro?, 8,001'] aioovioG ; xaXalv, uXrfffi?- xaraXXaffffeiv ? - jiAtjpovopeiv, nXi]povo}.i'ux • xoffjuo?; Xo'yo? • Xvrpov, XvTpouffSai ; pvffrijpiov • vopoS, e'pya vojuov ; 7rapaH\t]ToS ; Tt£ipao~)x6s ; 7tiffri? 7 - rtXypcopcx, rtXi]povG$aij 7tvsvpa, GdpB,^ 7ipocpi]Tr]S, 7tpocpi]rtvBiv ; GHOToZy (poo? ; GTOixeia ; rhiva, viol rov &eov ? - vioi rov dvBpoo7rov ; X> X^P lff M a y XP'^^i ipvx iKO? ' 86 Biblical Hermeneutics. The domination of the Romans had likewise intro- duced a number of Latin words into the Greek of the Jews, many of which occur in the New Testament, as doadpiov, dip'dptov, nevTOvpMv, tcijvoog, Kodpavrrjc; , Xeyeuv, fiiliov, ndiceXXov, oindpiog, oTceKovMrup, and many others. § 42. RULES AND SUGGESTIONS. It is easily understood that it is very important for the interpreter to take cognizance of these different ele- ments in the biblical languages. He resembles a blind man walking near a succession of quicksands, unless he possesses a clear insight into these peculiarities, and a thorough knowledge of their nature to serve him as a compass. It is hazardous, and even fatal, to walk at a venture. The following principles, at once practical and general, should be remembered by the interpreter : 1. The strictly classical interpretations and analogies are to be used with great caution. The interpreter of the New Testament can derive benefit from the profound study of the Greek of Plutarch, Diodorus, Theophrastus, and Lucian ; but there is little help to be derived from the more ancient or Attic authors. An acquaintance with their writings certainly will not be useless, and we have already recommended this ; but the interpreter should not consult them habitually, nor in preference to the later writers and the authors of the New Testament. He would thus expose himself to the danger of being deceived by false analogies, or allured by that kind of seduction which the classics exercise upon all good philologists. 2. The Old Testament,, its spirit and its language, ought always to be present to the thought of the inter- preter. In it he will find the greatest number of real Resources Derived from the Text. 87 analogies and of useful reconciliations. In it also there are many sources of danger, to which we shall revert hereafter. 3. There should be, above all, a desire in the Christian heart to determine the true and profound sense of the Christian words. Grammatical Hermeneutics is confess- edly insufficient for this task. All the portions of the interpreter's labor, that we have mentioned, ought to tend unitedly to this object. But in order to accom- plish this labor the interpreter must well know how to determine the sense of the important words of the New Testament, which is- not a purely philological task. This can not be accomplished satisfactorily with dictionaries, and by studying Josephus, the Septuagint, or Euripides and Pindar. This is at once an evangelical and philosoph- ical work — a work, in many respects, of religious affection and experience, but which ought to result principally from constant meditation upon the New Testament. 4. The theologian, finally, should acquire the habit of deriving benefit from the recent philological works, which throw light upon the language of the New Testa- ment. The grammars of Winer and Buttmann are valua- ble, and almost the only complete repertories of its forms and anomalies. The lexicons of Schleusner, Wahl, Bretschneider, Robinson, and Grimm are reliable guides to the interpreter in determining the sense of words. Grammatical commentaries, like those of Meyer and Elli- cott, should be consulted with reference to the philolog- ical interpretation. § 43. DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGE AMONG THE SACRED AUTHORS. Great importance should be attached, in the act of interpreting, to the fact that there is a diversity of lan- guage among the biblical writers. A profound knowl- 88 Biblical Hermeneutics. edge of grammar and of words is the fundamental ele- ment in the art of interpreting. Hence, when the prin- ciples of this grammar and the sense of these words come to be modified by individual pens and different modes of thought, it is very necessary to detect and take account of these varying influences. There are several causes of this diversity in the usage of language among the sacred authors. i. In respect of the Old Testament, the epoch and the place of writing exert a varying tendency. The epoch of Moses, that of David and Solomon, that of the later prophets, and that of the Chaldean or Chaldaizing writers, are distinguished each from the others by the words, the style, and even the grammar. We can not enter into these details, as they belong more properly to the Histoiy of the Hebrew language. 2. The diversity of matters treated, and of the kinds of work, exerts a varying influence upon the language. The different kinds of writings (historical, oratorical, didactic, prophetical, practical, etc.) cause the employ- ment of different styles. We shall occupy ourselves with these when developing Historical Hermeneutics. 3. The diversities of the points of view taken by the authors, and of the tendencies of their writings, modify the language employed. We shall treat of these in Scriptural Hermeneutics. 4. The different individualities cause the preference of certain words, the attaching of certain senses to them, and the employment of certain favorite forms and images. Thus are introduced many profound and almost unper- ceived differences in the language of different writers. These opposite individualities should be made, by the interpreter, the subject of profound study. To under- stand the importance of this investigation in respect of the Old Testament, it is but necessary to compare, both Resources Derived from the Text. 89 for the thought and for the form in which the thought is clothed, Isaiah with Amos, Ezekiel with Micah, Dan- iel with Ezra, David with Solomon, Moses with Job. But it is in the New Testament that this fact assumes the greatest importance and demands the most careful attention of the interpreter. St. Paul, St. John, and St. James form, in this respect, three striking individualities, the confounding of which it is necessary to guard against. There are, for example, certain words which appertain more especially to the individuality of each. John: dyaTrav; dX/fieia ; dvTixptorog ; e'pxEo'haiEig tov Koa^ov • SdvaTog ,- £co?) ,• Aoyoc j Aoyoc Trjg £u>?/c ,• [lovoysvqg vtog etc. Paul : a7Tohvi]OKEiVTivi$ dnoKaraXXdoaetv^ ypd\i\ia opposed to nvevfiaj dinatovodaij ixvi.v\ia dovAEiag j [iEOiTrjg • \woTi]piov t the numerous usages of vo\iog, etc. James: dupociT/jg and Troi7]T7Jg • 6iaKpivo) ; 6iaKpivo[iEvog • 7TEtpaajj,6g ■ vb\iog (3aotAifc6g ■ oofyiaj vTro[j,ev(0 and VTro^ov?), etc. It may be observed, moreover, that St. John and St. Paul often express identical ideas by different terms. Thus in St. John : Trapa/cA^roc , \ieveiv ev tgj Qe&, yevv^ijvai dvoj^ev, corresponding to ■nvEvp.a dyiov, rticva tov Oeov and Kaivj] Kxioig of St. Paul. 5. Finally, there are sometimes purely linguistic hab- its which modify the language of the different authors, Thus St. John never employs the optative. St. Paul places dpa " therefore " at the beginning of the phrase, thus contributing to its being confused with dpa, inter- rogative. 9 is literally : " Every one living shall not be justified before Thee," but ought to be translated : " No one living shall be justified before Thee." The New Testament, on the other hand, has trans- ported a great number of these Hebrew idioms into Greek. The Hebraisms are so frequent in the New Testament, they occupy so important a place there, they modify the sense so noticeably, that the interpreter ought to place great importance upon understanding them correctly. We have already indicated some Hebrew words which are met with in the New Testament. But the Hebraisms, properly so called, are much more common and consist in expressions, the etymology, the sense, or the con- struction of which are borrowed from the Hebrew. Thus, for etymology, we might mention fxanpoSvpda, ptaxpoSv/ueiv (-pi^tt, d^SSS ?TifcO '> ocptov qjayelv, in the sense of taking a meal ; fiinaioovvy, in the sense of be- neficence ; evXoyia, in that of liberality. As to con- structions, we will indicate the same idioms as in the Hebrew. The hendiadys is frequently met with. An example is found in James iii. 14: /u) xaraxavxocoBs xal //-FvdeffSe, "do not glory in lying"; literally, "do not glory, do not lie." A hendiadys, still more Hebraic, is found in Luke xxi. 15; S&jffco v/xfv ffTo/ia xal ffoqjiav. "I will give you mouth and wisdom," for "a mouth full of wisdom." The universal negatives, also, are fre 92 Biblical Hermeneutics. quently disconnected in the New Testament as in He- brew. An example is found in John iii. 15 : i'va 7taZ 6 ttkttsvgov .... //// a7toA?/Tai 7 which should be trans- lated : " In order that no one believing may perish," and not, " in order that every one believing may not perish." Besides the Hebraisms of this nature, so prominent that no one can overlook them, there are others which exert an influence only upon a shade of expression and thought. The interpreter ought therefore to be atten- tive to these subtle and often unnoticed relations. He ought to be so well acquainted with the Hebrew that they can not escape his notice. On the other hand, he ought to possess the rare faculty of using without abus- ing this kind of interpretation. To a critic, with little judgment and experience, partial, and unguarded, the search for Hebraisms may become a mania which twists or mutilates the thought of Revelation. § 46. ANOMALIES. In this paragraph we will pass by the Old Testament in silence. The study of the anomalies of the biblical languages might be applied to it, but in no great meas- ure and without much utility. It is in the New Testa- ment that this study is important and useful. Almost all the New Testament authors were unlettered men, or at least unacquainted with style and grammar. Hence they have not always been able to avoid ambiguities of expression. This may result from an unexpected change of subject, as in Mark ix. 20 : oar av'rov .... xal 7za6Gov, where the first participle is connected with Jesus Christ, and the second with the demoniac. Or it may arise from a pronoun being too far removed from its subject, as in Acts iv. 7 ; avrov? is in relation with an- Resources Derived from the Text. 93 other avtovs occurring five verses above. Or it may arise from the changing of a direct into an indirect dis- course, or inversely, as in John xiii. 29 : dyopaaov cbv Sometimes a substantive is united with an attribute or a verb to which it ought not strictly to be applied, as when Nicodemus said to the Pharisees, John vii. 51 : Mt/ o rojuo? ?//»(GJv npivei tov av$pco7tov y eav jutj auov6r] .... xal yvcp ri itoiei. Another example occurs when Paul rejoices that there has been opened to him a great door xal evepy/j? (1 Cor. xvi. 9). Sometimes a verb is united incorrectly with several nouns, either when the sense may be improper in one of the cases, as I Cor. iii. 2 : yaXa v/uaS in or 16 a uaX oxf fip&>j.ia ; or when it results in a contrary sense, as 1 Tim. iv. 3 : ugjXvovtgdv yafXEiv, (X7r£X£ffBai fipoojuaTGOv. Very frequently an author adopts, in the close of a sentence, a construction different from that with which he set out. These inaccuracies, which are called anaco- lutha, are of frequent occurrence in the New Testament. We have an example in Luke xiv. 5 : rivoi vids ?} povi .... neanrai Hal ovk evdeao? ava.67ta.6tiy etc. § 47. EXCEPTIONS OF FORM. We shall collect in this paragraph several variations of the New Testament writers from the classic Greek, due to the vivacity of the thought. 1. Several instances of want of grammatical agreement occur in the New Testament. These are generally due to a mental substitution by the author of something which is not expressed. An example is found in 2 Cor. v. 19: Ho6j.iov Kara\Xa66oov savrcp, p.if Xoyi8,6p.£vo? avro\. Here there is a want of agreement as to num- ber between uo6j.iov, which is used collectively, and 94 Biblical Hermeneutks. avToI?. Another instance occurs in Col. ii. 19 : ov xparGov ti)v ja(pa\i/v, eg ov. Here there is a want of agreement as to gender between xecpaXrjv and ov. The explanation of this is that Paul employs the real gender in using ov instead of the grammatical gender, which would be feminine to agree with uecpakijv. 2. The anacolutha are most frequently due to the vivacity of sentiment. This is evident, for example, in Gal. ii. 6 : amo tgov douovvroov .... ejuoi yap 61 SohovvteS. This is particularly prominent in some of the cases where the recital passes from the indirect to the direct discourse. Thus, in Luke v. 14 : 7tapt'ryyeikev avrcp [iijdevi ei7tsiv. aXXa a7te\$Gov deigov aeavrov. A similar example is found in Acts i. 4. In these two passages the historian began to recount what Jesus said, and, as if carried away by the vivacity of the recital, finished by reproducing His very words. In Mark xi. 32 : eav .... ei'rtoopisv eB, dvSpGDTCGQv ; €cpo/3ovvTO tov Xaov, the same cause produces an effect directly the reverse, by passing from the direct to the indirect discourse. Instead of re- producing the words probably long and embarrassed, by which the priests, scribes, and elders exposed their danger, the evangelist comes rapidly to the fact. He lays bare the trepidation which concealed itself beneath the phrases, and concludes the matter in three words : " They feared the people." 3. Inversions are almost always the result, and the sign of the movement of the thought. An example is found in Rom. v. 6: en xpiffTog, ovroov rffxwv affBevcov, vnep aGe,'jGjv a7t€^ave. This arrangement of the three words ovroov i)).icjv dffSevcov permits the writer to ex- press his emotion and his personal gratitude for Christ who came to seek and to save "sinners without strength." Resources Derived from the Text. 95 When St. James says (iv. 17): sidori ovv xaXov noislv xal pi) noiovvTi, dfiapria oivtgq sffriv, who can fail to understand the intention and the effect of this inversion ? Great weight is thus added to the sentence of condemnation by being thus thrown back to the very end of the phrase, after the statement of the sin. The interpreter should attach great importance to these inversions, since they betray the hidden sentiment of the author. Much care and attention should be ex- pended upon their discovery. A superficial examiner will easily overlook them, since they belong to an elastic language wherein the order of words is not logically de- termined. 4. Little need be said in respect of the diverse species of Ellipses, which are very common in a language so popular and animated as that of the biblical writers. These ellipses result always from the rapidity of the movement, the force or vivacity of the idea, and the in- stinctive need of sacrificing superfluous words. " Meats for the belly," says Paul (1 Cor. vi. 13), "and the belly for meats." The verb is omitted as unnecessary, and the phrase is thus more vivid and direct. And when he says, in his second epistle to the same church (v. 13), sirs yap s^larypsv Beep, sits aoocppovovpsv, vp.iv, no one can fail to perceive the emotion concealed in this rapid and nervous ellipsis. 5. Let us, finally, notice the paranomasias. This word is used to designate the resemblances of analogous words as to the sound, and not as to the sense. Such words are often chosen and placed in such a manner as to attract attention and surprise by the contrast between them. Europeans employ the paronomasia (play upon words) only in witty and light literature ; but to the Orientals it is a resource of poetry, an arm of eloquence, an index of the profundity of thought and the superior- g6 Biblical Hermcneutics. ity of the intelligence, an efficient means of surprising the mind or of arousing the imagination. Paranomasias are frequently met with in the Old Tes- tament, especially in the Prophets. Look, for example, at the first chapter of Micah. They are also encoun- tered in the New Testament, although here they are less common and much less striking. They ought, how- ever, so much the more to fix the attention of the inter- preter. The resemblance of the sound in a parallel case has caused more than once the employment of an inex- act or uncommon word. There is a case in Rom. i. 31 : atavvirovS, dffvvBeTouS, affropyov?, affnovdov?. Two remarkable paranomasias issued from the mouth of our Saviour upon solemn occasions. One occurs in His reply to Peter, Matt. xvi. 18 : (£av\a TTpdaao)v. It is thus found to signify the one who lives in a religious and Christian manner, and not the one who merely accepts the truth. The parallelism of the He- brew poets constantly renders this service to interpreta- tion. Another example is found in Matt, xxiii. 9, "Call 108 Biblical Hermeneutics. no man your father upon the earth." The preceding and succeeding verses show that he spoke not of the fathers according to the flesh, but of the habit of giving this honorary title to the doctors of the law. The two noticeable propositions in Phil. ii. 12, 13 : " Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling," and : " It is God which worketh in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure," have given rise to many false interpretations. They would even appear contra- dictory if they were separated. But united as they are, and being made reciprocally the context, they are mutu- ally limited, explained, and built into one important truth. The same is true of watching and prayer in the discourses of our Saviour. Often the principle or the consequence of an obscure proposition is found in the context, and thus the doubtful passage is elucidated. Thus in 1 John iv. 1 : the apostle recommends to " try the spirits " to see if they come from God, which might surprise us ; but the latter part of this verse gives us the motive, the two following verses the means, and we dis- cover that he speaks of false prophets. 2. Phrases which are obscure because of those modifi- cations of sense which do not change, or which but slightly change, the construction and words. In a great number of cases the context is the only means of ascertaining whether the phrase is ironical or positive, interrogative or affirmative, imperative or indic- ative, figurative or simple, relative or absolute. The twenty-second chapter of 1 Kings places, in the presence of two kings, the true and false prophets in a manner as dramatic as it is interesting and instructive. The flat- tering promise made by the prophet of the Most High (verse 15) seems to contradict the entire passage; but the 16th verse shows us that it was ironical, since the King of Israel himself understood it thus. Is epevvare. Resotirces Derived from the Context. 109 in John v. 39, an imperative or an indicative ? Does Jesus say to the Jews : " Ye search the Scriptures," or does He command them so to do ? This last sense is much more probable, since in the verses preceding and succeeding our Saviour reproaches His auditors for their evil intentions and unbelief. In James ii. 4, the words ov dieKpihrjTE ev iavrolg have the air of a negation : " Ye do not make a difference among yourselves." The con- text, however, proves that they are interrogative, and that they affirm instead of deny. " Do ye not make a difference, etc. ? " The writer goes on to give the proof of the fact that his readers made " differences " among themselves, and the latter part of the verse confirms the reproach by an analogous and parallel reproach. Those words in Titus i. 15 : " To the pure all things are pure," appear at first sight to be in contradiction to Christian morality, and have given rise to many absurd interpretations. The 14th verse is sufficient to show that this proposition refers only to human ordinances. In Luke xxi. 15, Jesus promised to inspire with fullness of wisdom. To whom did He promise? The context shows that He addressed himself only to His disciples, and that His promise had reference entirely to the per- secutions which menaced them. This 15th verse is placed in the center of a long passage (verses 6-36), where the near sufferings of believers are announced, and in connection with three verses where the theme is of the persecuting tribunals and of the conduct to be observed before them. The context similarly proves the relative character of the analogous promise in John xvit 13. 1 1 o Biblical Herme?ieutics. § 55. FAULTS OF INTERPRETERS WITH REFERENCE TO THE CONTEXT. In the employment of the context as a means of inter- pretation, two errors have been committed, the one through negligence, and the other through exaggeration. 1. Negligence. — The context, the natural and logical resource of the interpreter, has neither been sufficiently- appreciated nor employed. This help, although being of great use, possesses no especial attraction to certain minds, since it does not conduct to brilliant and un- looked-for results. Other resources, such as the paral- lels, the etymology, and the archaeology, are very fre- quently preferred, as affording scope for ingenuity. 2. Exaggeration. — Sometimes, on the other hand, too much importance has been given to the context. Gen- erally the dogmatical school has fallen into the error of negligence, while exaggeration is predicable of the ra- tionalistic school. The influence of the context in re- vealing the true sense is evidently proportionate to the harmony of ideas throughout the whole passage. The extent of this harmony, however, changes according to the nature of the writings, and frequently according to the character of the authors. The context is neither so connected nor so extended in a poetical, historical, or sententious, as in a didactic or oratorical passage. What context, other than the parallelism, is there from the tenth to the twenty-ninth chapter of Proverbs? The One-hundred-and-nineteenth Psalm, being purely alpha- betical, presents as little context. It would therefore be absurd to proceed in the interpretation of this Psalm, as in that of the Fiftieth Psalm, which forms a complete whole, carefully elaborated and closely united. In the Prophets context is often evident and important, but of no great extent. The specialties, the variations, the Resources Derived from the Context. 1 1 1 sudden transitions peculiar to the prophetical writings, render the employment of the context much less useful there than elsewhere. This is where the rationalistic interpreters have erred, when they have contested, in particular, the Messianic sense of the prophetical writings, and their predictive sense in general. Reasoning as they have been accus- tomed to do in the didactic works, they have denied the Messianic sense, even the evident oracles, because the preceding verses were engaged with other subjects. This is a pure petitio principii. They have denied the proph- ecy because they did not discover in it the characteristics which they preconceived to be necessary to .a prophecy. § 56. DUTY OF THE INTERPRETER IN REFERENCE TO THE CONTEXT. The interpreter who wishes to explain a word or phrase by the aid of the context, should first of all de- termine the limits of that context. He should endeavor to comprehend the full sense and the general bond of union of the passage, seeking not the brilliant and inge- nious interpretation, but the correct sense and the natu- ral connection. This done, he will still be cautious, remembering that he may have arrived only at a probability of truth. In order to verify his conclusions he should repeat his labor, weighing each word, comparing the several de- tails, taking account of the preference given by the au- thor to each expression and each figure, until a complete harmony has been established between the different ele- ments of the context and the context itself, between the context and the text, between the lesser parts and the whole. The conclusions thus attained should be further verified by an appeal to the other resources of Herme- neutics. 112 Biblical Hermeneutics. SECTION THIRD. RESOURCES DERIVED FROM PARALLEL TEXTS. §57. DISTINCTIONS. The employment of this means of interpretation has given rise to great confusion and many misconceptions. A few distinctions will be necessary to warn the inter- preter against falling into these errors. In order to explain an obscure passage, it has been judged convenient to compare the parallel — i. c, resem- bling, analogous, or symmetrical — passages. This resource is at once natural, seductive, and of easy usage ; and often of great advantage. There are two very different tasks for this resource to perform, which should not be confounded. The com- parison of parallels has a two-fold object, (a) to explain an obscure or unknown word, (p) to determine the cor- rect interpretation of a vague or contested idea. In the first case the other uses of the same word should be sought ; in the second instance, the other expressions of the same idea. In the first case a parallel of words is obtained, but in the second a parallel of ideas. These are distinct resources which differ in object, method, and rules. The confounding of these two instruments ex- poses the interpreter to obvious errors, which have not always been avoided. The parallels of words pertain to Grammatical Hermeneutics. The parallels of ideas be- long to Scriptural Hermeneutics, and should be investi- gated there. In order to make this distinction better understood Resources Derived from Parallel Texts. 11 we will adduce an example which combines in one word the two kinds of parallels. This may be found in the word ovpavol which, in the plural number, is frequently found in the New Testament. In order to ascertain the literal sense of this word and to explain its plural usage, appeal must be. made to the parallelism of words. Ref- erence may be first made to the Hebrew Qi^tU, an ^ thus the conclusion is reached that the plural usage of ovpavoi is a Hebraism. Referring next to Eph. iv. 10, where the ascension of Jesus is described, vrrepdvo) irdvruv t&v ovpav&v we find that the plural designates merely the heaven of nature. But in order to determine the Christian idea to be. at- tached to this word, appeal must be made to the paral- lels of ideas. In Matt. xix. 24, and elsewhere, we find (iaoi/teia r&v ovpavdv made synonymous with fiamleia rov Geov, and we often see these two modes of expression substituted the one for the other. In Matt. xiii. 43, we have another expression, as the context clearly shows, of the same idea: fiaoiXela tov irarpbq. From the com- parison of these different passages the conclusion is clearly drawn that ovpavoi, at the same time that it indi- cates the heaven of nature, expresses by the association of ideas, the abode of the redeemed after death. This idea is further confirmed by Col. i. 5, where is mentioned the hope which is reserved for us ev rolg ovpavo:g, and by a great number of other parallel passages. If any one should confound these two orders of par- allels, employ them indifferently, or cease to take due ac- count of the diversity of their nature and object, he would arrive at very grave misconceptions. By mistak- ing the parallelism of words for that of ideas, he would conclude that Jesus has gone above the abode of the re- deemed and the throne of God. On the other hand, by mistaking the parallelism of ideas for that of words, he 1 14 Biblical Hermeneutics. would be convinced that ovpavol is a name of God. The mistake in this case is little to be feared, since it would be so apparent ; but when the error is less noticeable there is great danger of being deceived. In reference to the parallels of words, there is still an- other distinction as to nature and method, which gives rise to a special division of some importance. (a). The parallels of words, properly so called, consists, as we have seen, of different passages wherein the same word occurs. Thus a series of contexts is obtained to the same word, and by a comparison of these its true meaning may be ascertained. {&). There are, also, certain parallels of words which are really parallels of phrases. These consist of different passages containing the same phrase, or at least the same recital ; but with this important difference, that the word which is obscure in one passage is displaced in the other by a synonym which explains it. To these two categories let us briefly attend. § 58. PARALLELS OF WORDS. I. Properly so called. The manner of using the real parallels of words has already been indicated. The dif- ferent passages in which the obscure word occurs are compared, giving prominence to the most important, and valuing highly those which are most related to the spec- ial object in hand. From this discriminating compari- son the unknown sense is derived. When the passages, thus compared, are closely connected by being written in the same epoch, or by authors of analogous modes of thought, or by occurring in books of the same general nature, the local sense of the word will be determined. When, on the contrary, the passages are dissociated in the same respects, the general sense only can be obtained with certainty. Resources Derived from Parallel Texts. 115 Sometimes the contexts of the passages thus compared do not give the same sense to the obscure word. This has been exemplified in the analysis made above of the idea of Trlorig. But in such a case the object is only bet- ter attained ; for not only is the literal meaning of the word determined, but the student has also discovered its different modifications and biblical applications. The intimate connection between the employment of the context and that of the parallels is evident. The collating of parallel texts is really the collection of as many contexts, since each text should be studied with reference to its companion texts. 2. Parallels, improperly so called, or parallels of phra- ses. These will be best explained by a few examples. In the enumeration of the chief officers of David's court (2 Sam. viii. 18) it is said that his sons were Qi5!"i3, which signifies "priests." The employment of this word in speaking of the princes of Judah seems anoma- lous, or rather in complete contradiction to the whole life of David as well as to the Law. It is a historic im- possibility. Referring to I Chron. xviii. 17, we find the same recital, the same enumeration, and the same phrase; excepting that 'n* | 5iz}^l "chiefs," is substituted for the obscure word mentioned above. We are authorized, therefore, to conclude that the author of the Chronicles recognized in 0"orb a variable and general sense, from which the signification of " chiefs " or " princes " may be derived, as well as that of "priests." In Mark xi. 8 it is recorded that the multitude cast off onfiddag, when Jesus was riding triumphantly to Jerusalem, and strewed the route along which He was to pass. This word is an a-a^ Any., — i.e., found in no other passage of the New Testament. By a reference, however, to Matt. xxi. 8, 1 1 6 Biblical Hermeneutics. an explanation is found, for here the word itXddovg " branches " is substituted for it in the same phrase. Great care should be exercised in the use of parallel phrases, since it is not always certain that, in spite of the close resemblance between two related phrases, the thought of the two writers is identical. Resources Foreign to the Text. 117 SECTION FOURTH. RESOURCES FOREIGN TO THE TEXT. §59. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. THERE are many subsidiary helps, such as books and special treatises, which are of great value to the interpre- ter. However, as these pertain rather to theological Methodology they should not be dwelt upon minutely here. Our subject embraces the principles of interpre- tation, but not the process of exegesis. Still, a few prac- tical suggestions will be in place, in reference to the philological resources which penetrate somewhat into the science of interpretation. These may be classified in two principal categories : 1. Those which are occupied with the languages of the Sacred Books, such as the grammars and lexicons. We have already referred to the works of this character which treat especially of the language of the New Testa- ment. A constant reference to these instruments is necessary in every profound study of the Bible. 2. Those which are occupied not with the languages in general, but with the special sense of a given word or phrase. Examples of these may be found in the ver- sions and paraphrases of, and the commentaries upon, the Holy Scriptures. The use of these instruments should become more general among the theologians of our country. The possession of a well-selected library is a duty in their position and profession, as much so as that of the anvil to the smith, or the spade to the laborer. In this we 1 1 8 Biblical Hermenentics, would do well to learn from the German students, who, however straitened in circumstances, do not imagine that they can succeed without a well-filled and well-used library. A clergyman in German lands, who possesses no books, who does not read the religious publications of the day, falls irretrievably in the consideration of his flock and of the outside world. The same must be the case with theologians of all lands. Never were force of thought and independent meditation so much needed as at the present day. Communion with the master minds on biblical subjects is a great incentive to individual thought. §60. A CHOICE TO BE MADE. This choice is important, for the instruments, particu- larly of the second category, are innumerable, and it is essential to study only the best productions. All have their special tendencies, their peculiar qualities, and their individual faults. There are many which are dangerous and deluding guides to the student. The evident neces- sity of the choice renders necessary certain suggestions of practical value. 1. It is proper to consult at once the opposite tenden- cies, and the different schools. It is of advantage to compare the literal and the free versions ; the erudite, the logical, and aesthetic commentaries; the rationalists and the supernaturalists ; the able exegetes and the pious paraphrasts ; the philological' and theological inter- preters. If one has the good fortune to find an instru- ment which combines the different tendencies as well as the opposite methods, and conciliates them with just criticism and true faith — it is priceless, but it is rare. From a purely philological point of view, the lexicons of Gesenius render this service to the Hebrew. 2. In each of those tendencies and schools it is neces- Resources Foi'eign to the Text. T19 sary to study the works of the greatest ability and in- sight. There is not time to peruse all, and when one is penetrating an unknown country he has need of sure guides. It is necessary to leave to scholars and to the great libraries mediocre books, works of no special merit, eccentric productions, and authors who aspire more to astonish than to enlighten. All these avail merely to mislead the beginner, to distract his studies, and to ex- haust his precious time without fruit. 3. The interpreter should prefer, other things being equal, the special treatises, and, above all, the mono- graphs, which are always more complete and more pro- found than general works, because they have absorbed more interest and more time. Even mediocre men sometimes produce remarkable monographs. Exegetical theology already possesses special treatises upon the more important portions of the Bible. Much diversity may be found frequently in the differ- ent portions of the same work. One chapter may com- pare unfavorably with another, as to logic, ardor, and finish. Scope for judicious selection is therefore furnish- ed within the pages of a single volume. 4. Finally, the student should limit himself to a small number of books, at least at the beginning. He who grasps too much in his arms binds the bundle but poorly. The library of students ought to resemble the house of Socrates — small, but full of true friends. §6l. USE TO BE MADE. In order to make a good use of the resources which the interpreter has placed in his library, he should first of all know them well, and then employ them wisely. 1. The preliminary labor of studying them carefully is necessary in order to be aided by their merits, and to 120 Biblical Hermeneutics. avoid their faults. In the works of great extent (as the commentaries upon a prominent portion of the Bible) it is particularly necessary to distinguish between the parts that have been carefully prepared and those that have been neglected. It may be further suggested that an examination of some important portions of a work will be sufficient to reveal the character of the whole. The method and the principles of a commentary may be ascertained by the study of its treatment of certain obscure and contested passages. The preface reveals to experienced observers the spirit of an author and his religious tendency. It has often been observed that rationalistic theologians, in their prefaces, seem uniformly preoccupied with literary success, and the supernaturalists with the interests of the faith. Thus it is that ordinarily the reader may be as- sured of their principles even before reading anything of the remainder. This first provisional criterion rarely deceives as to the direction and character of the writer. 2. The wise employment of the hermeneutical instru- ments in one's possession is the next step, and seems to demand the union of three elements : (a). It is necessary to employ them in such a manner as to utilize the special advantages of each instrument, and not to be tainted by its faults. (b). The interpreter should use them so as to make his own thought independent and his investigation critical, rather than to obtain in detail the results all prepared. In order to accomplish this, special attention should be given to each author's methods, principles, and judg- ment, rather than to the particular solutions given as examples. (c). The student should bear in mind that the object of reading is to stimulate and enlighten his own intelli- gence, so that his further investigations may be reliable. Resources Foreign to the Text. 121 His object should be to understand the Bible, and not the commentaries. The passage or text should be studied first in the Bible and then in the commentary ; and thus the spontaneous sagacity of each man's mind will be preserved. Such are the principal topics to be noticed under Grammatical Hermeneutics. The resources mentioned are fundamental ; for the words of the text are the ob- ject of interpretation ; and the knowledge of the lan- guage is the necessary means. However, all the elements of successful interpretation are not yet obtained. PART THIRD. HISTORICAL HERMENEUTICS.— Introduction. § 62. DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS. The name of Historical Hermeneutics is given to the whole of the resources derived from the study of the historical circumstances which have exerted an influ- ence upon the production of the work and upon the in- dividuality of the author. It will be granted that the writers of the different bib- lical books preserve their individual style of expression and modes of thought. It is perfectly evident, more- over, that the object of a book, the persons to whom it is addressed, the time and place wherein it was com- posed, and the circumstances which determined the choice of these persons, should exert much influence upon the choice of ideas, upon the sense attached to the particular words, and upon the relative character of the truth imparted. It can not be seriously denied that the education of an author, his profession, his times, and his nationality would influence his language, expressions, illustrations, and manner of conceiving and imparting truth. The same word does not correspond exactly and in all cases to the same idea or collection of ideas in Moses and Solomon, in Matthew and John, or in John and James. There is an intellectual sphere peculiar to each author, which is still further modified according to circum- stances. It is impossible to interpret wisely and completely (122) Historical Hermcneiitics. 123 without having investigated this sphere with attention and study as thoroughly as one mind is capable of tread- ing on the domain ruled by another. The task in this Third Part, therefore, consists in investigating the nat- ure of the circumstances which modify the individuality of the sacred authors. The investigation will proceed from the center outward, beginning with that which is personal to the author, and ending with that which we shall find of a more general character in the writings. Four different orders of circumstances are to be stud- ied in as many sections : 1. Circumstances personal to the author. 2. Social circumstances in which he was placed. 3. The philological habits that this position imposed upon him. 4. Circumstances foreign to the author, but which have determined the production of his writings. 124 Biblical Hermeneutics. SECTION FIRST. PERSONAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE AUTHOR. § 63. EDUCATION AND PROFESSION. The circumstances which surround the child are al- ways of much importance in his gradual development, and are recognizable in the character of the man. Whether they inspire or debilitate him, they leave an impress upon his ideas, trains of thought, and modes of expression. Augustine and Schleiermacher can not be adequately understood without taking into account the holy mother of the former and the Moravian education of the latter. The influence of the same causes is dis- cernible in the inspired authors. No one can fail to dis- cover in Paul the man reared in the school of the Phari- sees and trained at the feet of Gamaliel. The Psalms, which are the work of David, are often recognizable by the tender admiration of nature with which the youth- ful shepherd was filled when he kept his father's flocks on the plains of Bethlehem. A man's profession is simply a continued education, completing or modifying the first and exerting a power- ful influence upon the man, his manners, and his lan- guage. It is sufficient to name the mariner, the soldier, the merchant, the laborer, the clergyman, and the law- yer, in order to call to mind as many different types of men, each having his habitual tone, his familiar expres- sions, his peculiar images, his favorite point of viewing every subject — in a word, his special nature. The stu- dent should expect, therefore, to find something resem- Personal Circumstances of the Author. 125 blingr this in the Bible, and be able to derive therefrom some facility in understanding the sacred authors. No interpreter worthy of the name can fail to remark the rustic images of the shepherd Amos or the sacerdotal coloring of the last chapters of Ezekiel. David — suc- cessively shepherd, captain, and king — has sown his Psalms with images borrowed from nature and from bat- tles. His son Solomon betrays in his Proverbs the re- fined and spiritual observation of the crowned philoso- pher, who, living in a more peaceful and more advanced civilization, looks upon society from a serene height. No intelligent observer can fail to detect the profes- sional scribe in the recitals and compilations of Ezra, and in the book of Nehemiah, the patriot magistrate and skilled administrator. § 64. DEGREE OF INSTRUCTION AND OF NATURAL INTELLIGENCE. Notwithstanding the infallibility of wisdom assured by the Holy Spirit to the sacred authors, their natural traits assert their influence on their writings. Some had a more extensive share of knowledge, others an experi- ence more varied ; some possessed faculties of greater vigor, others powers of wider generalization — and these diversities could not fail to exert an influence on the form in which divine truth is conveyed. The degree of the intellectual development of each author is therefore an important fact for the interpreter, who will con- stantly have occasion to notice its effects. Moses — reared by scholars in a palace and " learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians " — was a chosen instrument to give to the Hebrews the legislation which should gov- ern them. The knowledge of Egyptian arts, laws, and morals is betrayed in many of his passages, in spite of 126 Biblical Hermeneutics. the salutary transformation that the divine thought caused them to undergo. Among the New Testament writers, Luke allows his literary habits to appear in his prologue and dedication. The discourse of Paul to the Athenians supposes some knowledge of the wisdom and books of the Greeks at the same time that they reveal the impress of an elevated imagination and a generaliz- ing mind. It would be impossible to suppose that this discourse issued from the lips of Peter. The natural qualities of James' mind were profundity and medita- tion. They all have their favorite language and figures, which do not permit them to be confounded with classi- cal authors or professional philologists. The interpreter must be able to avail himself of these peculiarities in the natural thought of the sacred au- thors. He should expect a logical and regular method in the epistles of Paul. He should demand of James only an underlying connection of ideas, and of Peter only the animated utterances of an impulsive soul. § 65. MORAL CHARACTER. The heart as well as the mind of man is reflected in his writings. A profound study of, and close sympathy with, the moral character of an author are therefore nec- essary to every successful interpreter. In order to at- tain this sympathy, it is necessary to become conversant with the history of each author's experience and affec- tions. Unfortunately for the interpreters of the Bible, the history left us in regard to the sacred authors is very meagre. Only slight hints are possessed by us in reference to Ezekiel, Isaiah, Matthew, and even John. This deficiency in historical knowledge of the sacred authors must and may be supplied, in some measure at least, by the writings themselves. Studied with atten Personal Circumstances of the Author. 127 tion, and with reference to the investigation desired, they enable us to discover the moral as well as the in- tellectual characteristics of the men imperfectly known from history. No attentive reader of Isaiah and of John can arise from the perusal of their writings with- out a definite idea of their emotional character. It is not an argumentum in circulo to appeal to a book in order to discover the intellectual and moral character- istics of an author, and then to explain the book by these characteristics. For in the one case we appeal to the writing as a whole, and in the other case we apply the general notions thus obtained to the elucidation of the details of the work. This subject is therefore one ramification of the study and value of the context. The key to the book of Deuteronomy is found in the patriotic ardor of Moses, in the consciousness of his mission, and in his constant solicitude as to its issue. This is the explanation of this strange and magnificent book — a book of contrasts and patriotic emotions, of the last farewell of a loving, anxious, and forgiving father to his ungrateful and fickle sons. No one can fail to dis- cover the moral character of David in his Psalms of lamentation, which always begin with the groanings of a grief without hope and end with the transports of a filial confidence. Emptied of pride by suffering, the poet- king turns himself to the Lord, and the remembrance of His many kindnesses, the belief in His constant presence and tender forgiveness, gradually transform the bitter- ness of his soul into resignation, love, and holy joy. A merely philological interpretation of Paul's writings can never reveal the true force and beauty of his emo- tional, vigorous, and yet logical compositions. It is par- ticularly true of his epistles, as of all the sacred books, that an understanding of the moral character of the author is an important means of their interpretation. 128 Biblical Hermeneutics. SECTION SECOND. SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE AUTHOR. THESE comprehend all the social surroundings of, and influences exerted upon, the author, which are not pecul- iar to him as a man, but participated in by his contem- poraries also. Those which most readily influence a writer will be indicated. Then we will examine succes- sively the effects which these circumstances produce, the means to be employed, and the precautions to be ob- served, in order to appreciate their influence aright. I. NATURE OF THE SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES. %66. GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCUMSTANCES. The geography of a country often exerts an indirect influence upon language. Habits of a peculiar nature are formed by the climatic circumstances, and habits modify the thought of a writer, and hence his language. The interpreter, therefore, ought to be able to recognize and take account of the impression left by the geograph- ical circumstances upon the sacred writings. A knowledge of the geography of Palestine is particu- larly necessary in the interpretation of the Old Testa- ment. Allusions to Lebanon, to Carmel, to the coun- tries of Gilead and B; shan, to the Jordan, to the Dead Sea, and to the neighboring peoples and enemies of the Hebrews are constantly met with. No one, moreover, would imagine himself capable of comprehending the life of Christ without having some idea of the respective Social Circumstances of the Author. 129 positions of Galilee, Samaria, Judea, and Perea. These things are evident ; but often the geographical traces left on the language are less prominent and almost un- perceived. In this case one must be able to discern these traces, else the idea that they conceal will be lost. §67. NATURAL AND ORDINARY CIRCUMSTANCES. The general aspect of the country, the vegetation, cli- mate, domesticated or savage animals, the rustic usages and pleasures have still more influence upon the thought, and hence upon the expressions employed to transmit it. They act a grand part in the development of the imagination, in the poetry of language, in the admiration of nature. And in proportion as the writers are from a rural condition and of simple habits will this influence be marked and these traces be profound. The inter- preter, in order to appreciate the beauty of the Old Testament poetry, must employ this key to its treasures. The same means of interpretation is necessary in study- ing the New Testament, which, although being less poetical, reflects something of the nature and climate of Palestine, especially in its more familiar parts. When Christ compares the kingdom of God to a grain of mustard seed (Matt. xiii. 31) ; when He points to the lilies of the fields, which, in spite of their glory, bloom to be cast into the oven (Matt. vi. 28-30) ; when He appeals to the atmospheric signs known to the Pharisees (Matt. xvi. 2, 3), He links His thoughts to the natural circumstances familiar to all. The force of these com- parisons lies in the fact that they were perfectly under- stood by those to whom they were addressed. There- fore the interpreter, in order to appreciate this force, must become as familiar, as were the Jews, with these circumstances. 6* 130 Biblical Hermcncittics. When the apostles speak simply and naturally of their navigation, of their fishing, and the dangers incurred upon the sea of Tiberius ; when they measure with the eye the distance of the bark from the shore, as they throw the nets to the right or the left side, and as they count their fish (John xxi. 3—1 1), we have other natural circumstances to be known, other impressions and habits^ created by these circumstances, to be studied. There is a second nature to be analyzed in order that these cir- cumstances may be taken due account of in the inter- pretation. At this point the natural and personal cir- cumstances interpenetrate. The usages and customs of the country exert the same kind of influence upon the sacred writings. It is neces- sary to understand these in order to appreciate such statements as the following: John the Baptist fed upon locusts and was clothed with camel's hair. John the Apostle is designated as the disciple who at table re- clined upon the bosom of Jesus, and the Saviour is rep- resented as riding in triumph to Jerusalem on a humble beast of burden. These customs should be studied by the interpreter, since they are foreign to us at this day and yet necessary to interpretation. § 68. POLITICAL POSITION. The political condition of a people leaves profound traces upon their national writings, causing them, at least, to assume a popular and social character. The New Testament will present the needed proof of this statement. The political circumstances of Palestine, at the time that it was written, are of great importance to the correct understanding of this book. Perhaps it is not too much to say that no other department of bibli- cal archaeology is so fruitful of results. If this were the Social Circumstances of the Author. 131 place, much might be said of the opposite elements that the Roman conquest introduced, of the contentions which resulted in the administration of this era, of the peculiar position which, in this respect, was occupied by the contemporaries of the disciples. The opposition of Jewish usages to Roman laws is very frequently observ- able in the Gospels and in the Acts of the Apostles. The power was at this time exercised partly by the Roman procurators, partly by the dynasty of the Herods. This singular dynasty was always placed a little in the shade and upon the second plane in the gospel history, and belonged to a family which was numerous, cruel, vainglorious, and dissolute ; Jewish by faith, foreign by race, and Roman by manners. The obligatory Roman imposts were collected at the same time with the volun- tary Jewish taxes. The Roman law and the Jewish law were both admitted or at least tolerated ; and in His dis- courses Christ makes allusion sometimes to the one and sometimes to the other. In the legal processes against the Saviour or against His disciples, we find always a striking contrast, and a fixed opposition between the political toleration of the Romans and the fanatical in- tolerance of the Jews. These oppositions arc all due to the political state of Palestine. Hence is found in the Gospels a great number of facts, discourses, and debates which are veritable enigmas to interpreters, who ignore this political condition of affairs. Two examples will be sufficient to show the utility of this means of inter- pretation : 1. The Saviour's aversion to being too soon recognized as the Messiah, and His continual commands of silen e in reference to His life and miracles, are a problem which has often embarrassed interpreters. This is indeed an inexplicable problem if one forgets the seditious spirit of the Jews and their irritation under the Roman domin- 132 Biblical Hcrmcneutics. ion. Impatient to throw off this foreign yoke, and be- lieving themselves assured of victory under the leader- ship of the expected Messiah, they would have hastened, had not Jesus taken this precaution, to begin a revolution in His name. They would thus have compromised the character of Christ, whose kingdom is not of this world, and who did not wish to have His death tainted with the least appearance of sedition. 2. The contempt and hatred into which the Jewish custom-house officers had fallen, and the very name of tax-gatherer being used as synonymous with whatever is odious and contemptible, are to be explained only by the system of taxation adopted by the conquerors. The customs were farmed out to the highest bidder, as they were in France in the era of the Contractors. The in- ferior collectors ground down their fellow-countrymen with more rigor than foreign collectors would have dared to exercise. The native tax-gatherers, by their cupidity, aided the Roman oppression and were hence doomed to national, religious, and political hatred. §69. RELIGIOUS CIRCUMSTANCES. Nothing exerts such an influence on the language of a people as its national belief. It may be compared to a mould, in which the thoughts and images, the modes of poetical and prose expression, receive their form and character. In the interpretation of the Bible it is necessary to take account both of this general influence of national belief upon language and of the personal religious senti- ments of the authors. Moreover, attention must be given to all the different forms of worship surrounding the sacred writers, as well as to that form recognized by the Government. Here is where much difficulty orig- Social Circumstances of the A?ithor. 133 inates. Time destroys these different sects and obscures their theories, removes idolatry with its strange and cruel rites ; and thus many things are rendered unintel- ligible to us which were perfectly clear to the first readers of the Word. The Bible abounds in allusions to the idolatrous ceremonials, religious aberrations, and secta- rian doctrines contemporary with the authors. These acted their part in the intellectual and moral sphere of the apostles' times, and have left their impress upon the Bible language. But a few centuries later, all this had disappeared, new usages of language had been formed under the influence of other beliefs, and the learned could scarcely comprehend what was once intelligible to the ignorant. This state of affairs imposes serious duties upon the interpreter. He should study all the religious facts which have left their impress upon the language of the Script- ures. He should investigate, not only the influence of the true belief, but also the idolatrous practices which, by their connection or contrast with the true faith, have modified in some degree the language, history, and legis- lation of the Old Testament. In order to comprehend the mission of Moses it is necessary to place it in con- trast with Egyptian superstition, from which he was to wean the Hebrews ; as also with the infamous idolatries of the Canaanites and the other peoples with whom they were brought in contact. The interpreter should study, moreover, the numerous traces left in the New Testa- ment by the doctrines of the Pharisees, Sadducccs, and even the Essencs, an important faction of the time, al- though not mentioned in the Scriptures. Examination must also be made of the Platonic and Cabalistic theo- ries and their relations to Gnosticism ; for they exerted an influence upon the languages of St. John and of St. Paul. However, this means of interpretation should not 134 Biblical Hermeneutics. be used extravagantly, any more than it should be ignored entirely. It should be confined within the limits of common-sense and just criticism. Some scholars have erred in being too proud of their knowledge of these opposing theories, and have endeavored to apply this hermeneutical resource too universally. Others, at the same time, being hostile to the doctrine of inspira- tion, have transformed it into a weapon for the over- throw of Christianity. To rationalists of this class, St. John appears a Gnostic ; St. Paul only a Pharisee found- ing a new sect ; and the Saviour himself only a Rabbin more independent and more consistent than his contem- poraries. In the whole field of Historical Hermeneutics there is perhaps no series of ideas and facts so impor- tant, so useful to interpretation, and yet so easy to be abused and misapplied, as the social circumstances and (under these) the religious circumstances. § 70. EFFECTS PRODUCED UPON THE WRITERS, AND TRACES LEFT IN THE SACRED WRITINGS, BY THESE SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES. Under this heading we exhibit a succinct statement of the modifications produced by these circumstances, although the examples already given may seem sufficient : (a). The social circumstances gave rise to institutions, with which the interpreter ought to be acquainted, inas- much as they modified forms of expression. Compare what is said above, of the influence of political circum- stances upon the civil position of the contemporaries of Christ. (b). The social circumstances are the source of many images, allusions, and figures scattered through the poetical, oratorical, and even didactic portions of the Word. These figurative references are appropriate and Social Circumstances of the Author. 135 expressive when they are understood, but vague, or ab- solutely lost, or even a source of error, when their origin, nature, and object are ignored. Two examples will con- firm this assertion in a striking manner. Some one asked Jesus if He would pay the tribute (Matt. xvii. 24-27), and He paid it, at the same time observing that ordi- narily kings do not exact tribute of their children. This passage is unintelligible, and the lesson it contains entirely lost to him who is ignorant of the special character of the didrachma. This was a voluntary and religious tax paid by the Jews for the expenses of their worship. From this circumstance may be understood the request, and not demand, of the collectors and the true force of our Saviour's reasoning, which contains a positive declaration of His divine nature. In I Cor. ix. 24-27, Paul addresses to his readers an earnest exhorta- tion to perseverance, renunciation, and effort. He makes allusion constantly, and more or less clearly, to the ath- letic games of Greece, which were certainly familiar to the Corinthians. The lesser details, as indeed the whole of the passage, gain much beauty by being observed from the stand-point of the race-ground and the arena. (c). The religious circumstances were the occasion of many direct or indirect polemics against idolatrous or dangerous theories. These polemics are necessarily much less clear to us than to those to whom they were origi- nally addressed. In order to comprehend that which was clear to the first readers of the Bible, we must know what they knew — the errors that the writers had in view. It is sufficient to recall the attacks made by the prophets upon idolatry, the references in the Sermon on the Mount to the dangerous teaching of the Scribes and Pharisees, and the indirect argument contained in the epistle to the Colossians against the Essenes of Asia Minor. (d). The change of the social circumstances often alters 136 Biblical Hermeneuties. the signification of the words that they have created. Reference can be made, for example, to the present use of the words Priest, Deacon, and Bishop, as compared with the literal sense of 7rpea[3vrepog, did,Kovoq ; and znionoTrog. § 71. MEANS TO BE EMPLOYED BY THE INTERPRETER. It will be understood that the task of the interpreter, so far as it relates to the social circumstances of the writers, is burdensome and difficult. There are three elements of success, three means of accomplishing this task, to which we desire to direct attention : 1. The study of Biblical Archaeology. The necessity of this study is demonstrated by universal experience. Oriental usages, the manners of the patriarchs, the Mosaic legislation, sacred geography, and Egyptian antiquities, are essential elements in interpretation, and therefore should be studied with care. 2. A philosophical method and critical talent are also essential in order to make use of this study with discern- ment. Tact and judgment can not be acquired, it is true ; but those who understand the importance of the study can, at least, hold themselves under judicious re- straint. All can take account of the times and the local- ities in which a writing was composed. Every one has sufficient tact, if he would use it, not to imagine tljat the manners of the patriarchs are sufficiently explained by a Greek custom, a passage in the Old Testament by a verse in Virgil, or the discourses of our Saviour by the fantastic dreams of the Talmud. Every one has sufficient judg- ment to seek in the East for the solution of the enigmas of the East, and not to commit the anachronism of put- ting the sacred authors in correspondence with posterior sources, or sources without relation to their own nation. 3. The assiduous, complete, and continued reading of Social Circumstances of the Author. 137 the Bible is very essential. This reading, as it is neces- sary to the theologian in explaining all the ideas of the Bible, is especially useful in order to appreciate social circumstances and their influence. It is an internal in- vestigation, which, by way of analysis, enables one to recognize and authenticate social circumstances and to judge of the truthfulness of the explanations given. It furnishes to the interpreter all the facts and a knowledge of all the details favorable or unfavorable to each expla- nation. This constant communion with the sacred vol- ume is also the most effectual preservative against those imaginary hypotheses which are directly opposed to archaeology, hermeneutics, and faith. 138 Biblical Hermenentics. SECTION THIRD. PHILOLOGICAL HABITS OF THE AUTHORS. § 72. GENERALLY CONSIDERED. Among the historical circumstances which influence the authors to be interpreted, should be placed promi- nently the philological habits of the authors themselves. It will be understood that the use, either exact or inex- act, of the language of a writer, must exert an influence upon the rules by which his writings are to be inter- preted. These habits pertain strictly to Historical Hermeneu- tics, not only because they are facts, but also because they have their causes and explanations in history. These philological circumstances, so far as they pertain to the sacred authors, may be summed up in two general facts, as important as they are incontestable : * 1. The language of the sacred writers is wanting in precision. 2. It moreover abounds in figures. A. LANGUAGE WANTING IN PRECISION. § 73. A PRIORI : AUTHORS AND LANGUAGE. Looking at the position, the nationality, the circum- stances of the sacred authors from an a priori stand- point, we ought not to demand of them an exact and precise language. Ancient authors generally use a lan- guage less precise and possess a method less rigorous than modern writers. But in addition to this the sacred writers were : Philological Habits of the Authors. 139 (a). Orientals. From this results almost necessarily that their language is highly colored rather than exact, more fervent than rigorous and formulated. (b). Jews, who were not a speculative people, addicted to philosophical research. (e). Uneducated men. The majority of the sacred writers were men of the people. This fact should cause us to expect a language more vivid and animated than exact and methodical. St. Paul, the most cultivated of the New Testament authors, said of himself that he was i6ia>T7]g tu koyo) (2 Cor. xi. 6). Thus, from an a priori investigation we might expect an energetic and animated, rather than a scholarly, lan- guage, in the Bible. § 74. STYLE OF THE BIBLE. I. We shall first make a few detailed observations in regard to the style of the Scriptures : (a). In the greater part of the sacred books, at least in those of the New Testament, we find no trace of labored style, no effort in the direction of artistic writing. Par- ticularly in the doctrinal writings — those of Matthew, John, Paul, Peter, and James — there is nothing of this kind. Paul, the most remarkable of these, expresses himself in a style which does not conform to the rhetori- cal method of the schools. His writings betray in each line the struggle which existed between the grandeur of his ideas, the ardor of his sentiments, and his inability to express them in words of sufficient clearness and force. To transform these phrases into exact formulas and complete transmissions of thought, would be to ig- nore the nature of his style. (b). The Scriptures appear to be designed generally to operate upon the imagination and the heart rather than the intellect. The poetical and oratorical styles are 140 Biblical Hermeneutics. often encountered, particularly in the most important books. The authors give frequent evidence of emotion and labor to move their readers. In these circumstances there is much which is necessary to mankind, but which excludes the possibility of precise and philosophical lan- guage. (V). The abstract and dogmatic ideas are often ex- pressed in the Bible by figures. This gives both beauty and the possibility of obscurity to the style of the sacred volume. An example of this is found in the Old Testament in the manner in which the attributes of God are expressed. His Omnipotence and Omnipresence often strike the im- agination of the Hebrews, and are ordinarily expressed with the aid of anthropomorphism by attributing hands and eyes to God for these attributes. Even in reference to His Justice and Goodness, God is represented as repent- ing, being angry and appeased. We are accustomed to em- ploy the same mode of speech, referring to the patience, protection, and severity of God, which ideas are certainly anthropomorphic. There is no precise word in Hebrew to express eternity, either posterior or anterior. In de- fault of a better mode of expression, the writers employ certain substantives and particles of a restricted sense, which can indicate the idea but vaguely. Thus Qb")2> T " hidden time " ; &!&> " what is before," " olden time " ; "1$, " a passing, progress in space, also duration in time " ; f!S, " time as passing," derived from a root signifying to pass away, have all been employed. The ideas of the Bible, which are essentially doctrinal, those which per- tain to the Gospel and relate to salvation, are, in default of words sufficiently precise, expressed in figurative terms as