geological 3 eQl/ PRINCETON, N. J Division Section Number , I Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/mexicounitedstatOOabbo MEXICO, AND THE UNITED STATES; THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS AND COMMON INTEKESTS. GORHAM D. BY ABBOT, LL. D. WITH PORTRAITS OH STEEL OF JUAREZ AND ROMERO, AND COLORED MAPS. NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM & SON, 661 BROADWAY. 1869. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by G. P. PUTNAM & SON, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New Pork. THE TROW & SMITH BOOK MANUFACTURING CC., 46, 48, 50 Greene St., N. Y. PREFACE. This work originated in an examination, some years since, of the geographical relations of our own, — the middle continent, — to the continents of Europe and Asia ; and, of the prospective in- fluence and effect of the institutions, political, civil, and religious, of our country, upon the progress of civilization and Christianity in the Old World. The events of the last decade, have irresistibly drawn still farther attention to the subject, and especially to the great Isth- mus section between the continents — the key to the future of the hemisphere. It is impossible to understand the real characters, or the real merits of the conflict in Mexico, without considering certain great historic facts and events, which, though remote in their origin, have been potent causes of the great final results. The germs of the difficulty were planted as long ago as the conquest; — indeed, their origin dates back a thousand years. During the last three hundred and fifty years, the development of the original evils, in the governmental policy of Mexico, has made that land almost a Golgotha among the nations. The object of this work is, to present a sketch of the history and progress of events in Mexico, as briefly as possible, in order to show the connection and relations of the past with th e present ’ } together with such a condensed view of the principles and acts of the different parties, as may aid in forming a definite and cor- rect idea of the real living issues of the contest ; and, in indica- ting- the true, international policy, which the mutual interests of Mexico and of the United States require. The work will not be in vain, if it shall contribute, in any IV PREFACE. degree, to correct erroneous impressions, cr misrepresentations in regard to the principles and acts of the liberal, republican patriots of Mexico ; or, to encourage or cheer them in their great work ; or, to show that, like Washington and the Fathers of our Repub lie, they are struggling not for themselves alone, but are fighting ^‘‘Freedom’s Battle” for all mankind, and for posterity ; or, to throw any light upon our great continental questions, which, in other forms, are now marshalling, all over the world, the antag- onistic forces of old despotisms, and of the progressive civilization of the age. The original intention was to include in this volume, the con- secutive history down to the present day, and, in an appendix, certain illustrative historical documents. The limits of the work, and the extent of the materials forbade. It was found impossible to embrace any more of the constitutional history, than the period, from the original project in 'lS2i, down to the final adoption of the present constitution of the Republic in 1359. The continuation involves the history of the Intervention, and of the policy and action of the Great Powers, — England, France, Spain, Austria, and Rome, — during the last ten years, a period which has called forth in Europe, more than sixty publications, volumes and pamphlets, on the subject. The history of this period, political and military, is too im- portant to be slightly or superficially attempted. A full and fair exposition of the present status, resources, and prospects of Mexico, deserves a volume in itself. These will un- doubtedly, sooner or later, be given to the world. GORHAM D. ABBOT. New York, January , 1869. CONTENTS. PART I. THE GREAT QUESTION OP THE AVESTERN HEMISPHERE. CHAPTER I. GENERAL VIEWS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT, OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OF MEXICO. PAGES. The Great “'Western” Question — The Continents of America — The Relations of the Continents — North America: Territorial Characteristics — The United States — The Great Valley — Geograph- ical Relations and Institutions — Mexico : Territorial Extent and Physical Characteristics — The Republic of Mexico — Extent of Territory — The Mexican States — Area of Territory — Physical Characteristics and Conditions — Areas of United States, east of Mississippi — Population in 1860 — Area of Mexican States — Pop- ulation in I860 - 1-0 CHAPTER IL MEXICO UNDER THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION. — HISTORICAL SKETCH. Ancient Mexico prior to 1520 — Early History — TheToltecs, a. d. 700 — The Aztecs a. d. 1200 — Wars of the Dynasties — The Montezumas— The Aztec Indians — Indian Rimes — Population — Personal Appear- ance and Disposition of the Aztecs — Portrait of the Mexicans — Mental Character — Moral Traits — The Ancient Civilization — Agriculture— Evidences of a High Civilization 9-15 CHAPTER III. THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. — GENERAL VIEW. Sketch of the Conquest, 1520 — Character of the Enterprise — The Con- quest and the Conquerors — Character and Objects of Emigrants — Spain and her Victims — Historic Associations — The Great Tragedy of the XVIth Century— The Attempted Repetition in the XIXth. — The European Plot — Its End Forever 15-19 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IY. THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT IN THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. Achievements of the Spanish Monarchy, 1200-1800 — Alfonzo X. the Wise, 125G — His Code of Laws — Spanish Translation of the Bible, 1270 — Pope Alexander VI. 1492 — The Title Deed to North and South America — The Pope to the King — The Spirit of Discovery and Exploration — The Conquest, a Crusade — Pope Alexander VI. — Testimony of Historians PART II. MEXICO UNDER THE DOMINION OF SPAIN — 1520-1808. CHAPTER I. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE VICEROYS. Colonial Policy— Repartimientos — The Council of the Indies — Power and Policy of the Council — Administration of Justice — Social Re- strictions — The System of Fueros — General Colonial Administration — Commercial Restrictions — The Revenue System — The Royal Revenue — The Revenue Bulls — The Ecclesiastical Revenues — Clerical Fueros — Clerical Financiers — Alcabala — Spirit of the Colo- nial Government CHAPTER II. POLITICAL RELATIONS OF SPAIN AND MEXICO. French Intervention in Spain — Alliance of EDgland and Spain — The Constitution of 1812 — The Reactionary Movement — Tyranny of the King — Revolt of the Army — Duplicity of the King— The King, the Royalists, and the Church Party — The Church Militant — The Defeat of Despotism — Intervention of the Holy Alliance — Measures of the Restored King — Vengeance — Effect of the Revolu- tion in the Colonies — Proposed Compromise — Antipathy of Races — Conquest — Subjugation and Outrage — Colonial Government — Loyalty — Rise of Mexican Ideas of Independence — Aspirations after Freedom — The First Cry for Liberty — The Uprising of the Aztecs — The Aztec Volunteers PAGES. , 19-27 27-36 36-43 CONTENTS. Yll CHAPTER III. IDENTITY OF THE POLITICAL PP.INCIPLES OF AMERICAN AND MEXICAN REPUBLI- CANS. Origin of t!ie Great American Ideas— Germs from English Soil — The Outgrowths, American — The Family of Kings and the Family of Man — Despotism in America — The Intolerable Yoke — European Example— Sympathy Misplaced — The Conquest and Early History of Great Britain — Ancestors of Englishmen — Ungenerous Accusa- tions — Civil Wars of England — The First Great English Revolution, 1640 — The great Magna Charta — Constitutional Monarchy — Popu- lar Rights and Liberties — Fruits of False Principles — The Divine Right and Human Rights — Liberty and Law — The Second Great English Revolution, 1688 — The Old Conflict continued — Indomita- ble English Patriots — The American Declaration, 1776 — The Atti- tude of the Signers — The Principles and the Men — Moral Sublimity — Monarchs and the Rights of Man — American Commissioners — “The French People” — The French Revolution, 1789 — The Re- publicans of France— Revolution in Spain in 1802 — Republicans of Spain — Revolution in Mexico, 1812 — Republicans of Mexico.. . 43-57 PART III. THE IlELIGIOUS ELEMENT IN THE MEXICAN QUESTION. CHAPTER I. GENERAL VIEWS. Object of this Work — The Real Issue in Mexico — Limitations of Respon- sibility — The Christian Religion — Errors and Abuses — Christianity utterly Perverted — The Roman Catholic Church in the United States — Character and Influence of the Clergy — Source of its Pros- perity — Roman Catholic Church in Mexico— Fruits of its Mission — True Policy of the Church in Mexico — Spirit of the Volume. . . 57-63 CHAPTER II. ROME AND MEXICO ; OR THE ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPLES AND ASSUMPTIONS OF THE cnuiicn- PARTY ; HISTORICAL SKETCH. Principles of Modern Civilization — The Roman Empire, a. d. 476 — The Ancient Church Party — Ascendency of the Priesthood — Invasion ¥111 CONTENTS. of the Barbarians — Origin of Mexican “Fueros,” a. d. 500 — Ilallam’s Middle Ages — Statement of Mr. Ilallam — Progress of the Claims of the “ Church-Party ” — Origin of the Ecclesiastical System — The Stupendous Scheme — The Office of Pope of Pagan origin — Territorial Jurisdiction — The Spiritual Monarchy — Universal Dominion — The Bishop’s Title and Jurisdiction — The Pope’s abso- lute Supremacy — The Universal Empire — Opinion of Moslieim — Pagan origin of Papal Ceremonies — Waddington’s Church History — The Scheme of Government — The Pope the Sovereign — Tem- poral and Spiritual Power — Historical Development — Hildebrand, a. d. 1073 — The Pope’s Anathema — Ambition of Gregory VII. — Decrees of Gregory VII 63-74 CHAPTER III. DEVELOPMENT AND ILLUSTEATION OF THESE PEINCIPLE8 IN THE HISTOEY OF ENGLAND AND OF FEANCE. Results in Great Britian — Innocent III., a. d. 1198 — Pope Innocent and King John — The Pope’s Interdict, a. d. 1208 — Excommunication of King John — The Pope’s Legates — Intervention in England — League of the Pope and the King of France to Form a Stable Government in England — King John at the Feet of the Pope — Fleet of the King of France — Kingdom of England conveyed to the Pope — The Pope satisfied — Poor King John— The sturdy Barons of old England — Another Anathema — The Magna Charta — The Reign of Innocent III. — Corruptions of Christianity — Causes of Revolutions 7 4-81 CHAPTER IV. THE COUNCIL OF TEENT ; ITS AUTIIOEITY, DECEEES, AND JUKISDICTION IN MEXICO. The Council and its Members — Claim of Authority — Action and its Results — Principles of the Council of Trent — The Pope — Preroga- tives and Powers of the Pope — Preposterous Pretentions — The great Obstacle to Modern Civilization — The Supremacy “of the Church ” — Meaning of Supremacy — The Church and the Patriots 81-87 CHAPTER V. THE AMEEICAN “ CHUEOH-PAliTY ; ” ITS OEGANIZATION, WEALTn AND POWEE. The Vital Elements in the Question — The “Church-Party” — Statistics of the Church — Church Revenue — Tithes and First Fruits — Special CONTENTS. IX Capital — Support of the Curates — Income of Convents — Manage- ment of Property — Aggregate of "Wealth — "Wealth of the Clergy- Church Property — Support of the Church — The Money Power — The Military Power — Military Power of the Church — The System 87-95 CHAPTER VI. CATHEDRALS, CHURCHES A AD CONVENTS. The Temples and the "Worship — Cathedrals — Cathedral of Puebla — The High Altar — Figure of the Virgin — Temple of the Host — Cathedral of Mexico — Site of the Cathedral — The great Altar — Decorations and "Wealth — Churches of Mexico — Church Orna- mentation 95-101 CHAPTER VII. TIIE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES OF TnE OnURCH. Worship and Character — Religious Ceremonies — Aztec and Spanish Idolatry — The Procession of the “ Host ” — Church Services — Images and Decorations — Perversion of Christianity — Self-Torture — Adoration of the Virgin — Street Processions — Sale of Indul- gences — Character of the Church — The Hope of Mexico 101-109 PART IV. PARTIES AND ACTORS IN THE REVOLUTIONS IN MEXICO. CHAPTER I. BENITO JUAREZ. Juarez and his Compatriots — Birth and Early Life of Juarez, 1819-1826 — His Baptism — Parentage — Early Youth — Early Education — Pro- fessional Studies — A Theological Course, 1826 — Study of Law — Affairs in Mexico — Conflict of Ages — The Seminary of Oajaca — The Institute of Oajaca — The Clergy and the Seminary — His Course in the Study, and in the Profession of Law, 1827-8 — Juarez a Student at Law — His Principles and his Career — Treasury Judge and Secretary of State — Revolution of 1846 — Rising Influence of X CONTENTS. Juarez — The Triumvirate — The Congress of December, 1846 — "War •with the United States — Parties in Congress — The Clergy — Santa Anna’s Dictatorship— Revolution in Oajaca 109-121 JUAREZ GOVERNOR OF OAJACA, 1847. Energy of Governor Juarez — Official Acts — Juarez in Private Life, 1852 — Plan of Guadalajara — Juarez a Prisoner — in Exile — Juarez Min- ister of Justice, 1855 — Revolution of Ayutla — The Cabinet — The Patriot Alvarez — The Law of Juarez — Popular Approval — The Law of Justice — Juarez a third time Governor of Oajaca — Popular Vote — Defection of Zuloaga — The Reward of Treachery — Law of Juarez and the Church Party, 1857 — Era in the Life of Juarez — Defection of Comonfort — The Reform Laws — Action of Congress — The Church Property — Religious Freedom — Opposition of the Clergy — Juarez and the People — Juarez at Guanajuato — Betrayal and Seizure of Juarez — Fidelity of Alvarez — Peril of the Prisoners — Landa and Moret — Parrodi and Degollado — Release of Juarez — Parrodi Min- ister of War — Col. Rocha — The Body Guard — Landa and his Force — Magnanimity of Juarez — Osollo — The Midnight Retreat — Juarez at Sayula — Degollado Minister of War — Juarez and the Cabinet — Juarez at Vera Cruz — Success of the “Old Regime” — Heroism of the People — Trials of Juarez 121-138 THE THREE GREAT UNFRIENDLY POWERS. Sympathy of the Three Powers — Energy of Juarez — Laws of Reform — Constitution of 1857 — Foreign Interference — English Mediation — French Mediation — Monarchy for Mexico — Firmness of Juarez — Juarez Inflexible— Juarez to the People — The People to Juarez — A Hew Election — Juarez at the Capital — Position of Affairs — Acts of Congress — Opposition to Juarez — Re-election of Juarez — Juarez for Peace — European Intervention — The Movement for a Monarchy — Failure of the Monarchists 138-147 EUROPEAN DESIGNS AGAINST AMERICA. European Opportunity — The Pretext for Intervention — Juarez and his Cause — Dependence of the Mexicans — Statistics of the War — Heroism of the Mexicans — The Capital Abandoned— Flight of Juarez — Capricious Patriots — Juarez at San Luis — Juarez at Monterey — The Mission of Juarez — Personal Appearance— His Marriage — Domestic Life — Personal Courage — Acts of His Life — History of Mexico — Prospects of Mexico — Trials of the Patriots — Desire for Private Life — The Desire of Mexico 147-167 CONTENTS. SI JUAREZ AND HIS CABINET. Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, Minister of State— Don Jose Maria Yglesias, Minister of the Home Department— Don Ignacio Mejia, Minister of Mar and Marine— Don Ignacio Marescal, Minister of Justice— Don Matias Romero, Minister of the Treasury and Public Credit 167-187 PART Y. THE MEXICAN QUESTION FROM A FRENCH POINT OF VIEW. CHAPTER I. “MEXICO AS IT 13, TOE TRUTH,” &C., BY TIIE ABBE DOMENECH. The Chaplain of the Empire — Mexico from a French point of view — Objects and Principles of the Abbe Domenech — Mexican Charac- ter — French Impartiality — A Country of Contrasts — The Chap- lain’s Tour and Objects — Design and Importance of the Book — The Book, not its Author Judged — Its Scope — General Contents of the Book — Analysis of the Work — Mexican Estimate of the Work — Churches and Convents — Mexico a Monastic State — The Churches — Wealth and Pillage of “ The Church ” — Mexicans not Catholics — Absence of Christian Virtues — Simony and Concubin- age— Some Good Priests — Character of the Priesthood— Frankness and Impartiality — Mexican Aversion to the Priests — Clerical Hab- its — Life among the Priests — Celibacy and Fraternity — Priests’ Wives — Clerical “ Fueros ” — Holy Fathers 187-200 TIIE ABBE A REFORMER. Call for Reform — Character of the Bishops — State of the Church — Deplorable Picture — Faith dead in Mexico — Idolatry — Idolatry and Abomination — Religious Ceremonies — Devotional Dance and Masquerade — No Christian Instruction— Sad Spectacle — Christmas Eve, almost Incredible — Burial of the Dead — Burial of Infants — Speculation in Dead Bodies — Mexican Fair for the Dead— Idea of Death — Marriage Ceremony — Sunday Market — Amulet against Law Suits, &c. — Social and Political Questions — Opposition to the Empire — Bishops and Clergy for the Empire — Policy of Juarez 511 CONTENTS. PAGES Adopted by Maximilian — Law of Juarez — French Pamphlet against the Bishops — Pamphlet Effective — Clergy for Intervention and Monarchy — The Real Partisans for Intervention — The Re- gency Adopted the Policy of Juarez — The only Friends and Sup- port of the Empire — The Church Property — The Interests of the Clergy, the Cause of Civil War — The Numbers, Wealth and Power of the Ecclesiastics — The Clergy, the Bankers of Mexico — Produc- tive and Unproductive Property — Laws of 1859 — Sale of Church Property — Sequestration of Church Property — The Abbe’s Views of the Result — Fealty to the Pope 200-215 CHAPTER II. INTERVENTION ACCORDING TO ABBE DOMENEOH. The Intervention — Mexicans in Europe — The Great Enterprise of the 19th Century — The Emperor’s Crown a Church Crown — The Re- publicans — French View of the Republicans — Loyalty to Mexico, Treason to France — Mexican Ingratitude — Ingratitude of Italy and Mexico to France — Mexican Prowess — The French Mistake — An Assertion — A French Prince for the Throne — An “ arriere pensee ” — Monarchy to' be the Life of Mexico — Mexican Commis- sioners to the British and French Governments — Report of the Commissioners — The Mexican Monarchists — Duty and Destiny of Mexico — Appeal of the Clergy to European Monarchs — Animus of the Appeal, Hatred of Freedom — The Spectre of the Yankees — The Imperial Dynasty Unpopular — Kind Warning against the Yankees — The Armies of Grant and of Scott — The United States — No Common Sympathy in the two Republics — Final Warning to the Mexicans — Final Warning against Americans- -Enterprise of the Century 215-223 CHAPTER III. THE MEXICAN QUESTION AND THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT — TnE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES. Mexico in the Chamber of Deputies — A Mexican Monarchy — Political Equilibrium — Ignorance of Mexico and of the Mexican Question — Opposition in France to the Grand Act — Alleged grounds of Oppo- sition — Monarchy — A Foreign Sovereign — The Southern Con- federacy — Latin America — A French Market — All American Re- publics to be made Monarchies — French View of the United States — United States helpless — American Interests and Opinions CONTENTS. — Tactics of the Government of the United States — The Flourish of the Monroe Doctrine — Policy of the Secretary of State — Mr. Seward’s Address — Reply of M. Drouyn de L’huys — Courtesy of Abbe Domenech — International Comity — Elevated views of M. Lamartine — America the Property of the Human Race — America the Property of Europe — American Piracy — European Interests in the Hew World — Anglo-Saxon Monopoly — The Monroe Doctrine — European Intervent ion in America — European Disinterest edness.223-233 THE QUESTION OF THE OCCIDENT. The Spectre of Americans — The White House and the Press — Ameri- can Parties — The role of American Statesmen — American Diplo- macy— The Secretary and Congress — A Congressional Flank — The Secretary and the Minister — Mr. Seward and M. Drouyn de L’huys’ Diplomacy — The Austrian Correspondence — Mr. Seward’s Point — Relations of the Question to America, to the World, and to France — Mexico and the Dynasty — Resume of the Abbe Domenech’s Views — Summary — Ulterior ends of the Expedition 233-243 PART VI. TRANSITION FROM A MONARCHY TO A REPUBLIC. CHAPTER I. TnE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1810. The Course of Conflict — The Education of War — The Bourbons and the Bonapartes — The Mexican Clergy — The Three Great Parties — Affinities of the Parties — Hidalgo of Dolores — The First Martyr of Mexican Liberty — Union of the Creoles and the Indians — Spanish Atrocities 243-247 CHAPTER II. THE MONARCHICAL PLAN OF IGUALA — 1821. The Cortes and the Colony — The Empire under Iturbide — The Inde- pendence of Mexico — The Plan — The Design of the Plan — The Revolution of Independence — The Universal Cry — The Scheme of the Church Party — The Hew Viceroy — The First Independent XIV CONTENTS. Mexican Congress, 1822 — The Fierce Contest — The New Sensation — Usurpation of the Emperor — The Revolt — A Convention — The Patriots in Council— Aid of the British Flag— The End of Iturbide 247-256 CHAPTER III. THE OONGKESS AND THE CONSTITUTION OF 1824. The Restoration of Congress — The Tie Sundered — The First really National Constitution, 1824 — The First Congress — Essential Ele- ments of the History — Powers of the Clergy 256-259 CHAPTER IV. THE CONSPIRACY ; — THE “ CHUECn PARTY ” WITn PAREDES, TO OVERTHROW THE REPUBLIC, ERECT A MONARCHY, AND INVITE A FOREIGN PRINCE TO THE THRONE, 1845. The Church Party and Paredes — The Church against the People — A Bourbon to he called to the Throne — The Republican Press — Arbitrary Acts of Paredes — Embarrassment of the Revolution- ists — The Clergy refuse Pecuniary Support — The Minister of France and the Archbishop — The Archbishop and Republicanism — Numbers and Strength of the Clergy — Wealth of the Hierar- chy — Revenues — Convents — Decision of the Chapter. Defeat of the Monarchical Scheme of 1846 — Defeat of the Monarch- ists — Popular Cry for a Republic — Protest against a Foreign Mon- archy — A New Congress — The Republic Proclaimed in the Capi- tal — Preamble of the Proclamation — The Proclamation — Mani- festo of the Republican Army 259-271 CHAPTER V. THE RESTORATION OF TnE REPUBLICAN CONGRESS, AND THE RE-ESTABLISnMENT OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION, 1846. The Congress of December, 1846 — Professions of Santa Anna — Don Valentin Gomez Farias — The Protest of the Vicar-General — Power of the Priesthood over the People — Anathemas — Ecclesi- astical Weapons — Popular Effect— Indomitable Firmness of Farias — A Clerical Revolution — Defection of Santa Anna — English View of Santa Anna 271-277 CONTENTS. XV PART VII. THE CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF MEXICO. CHAPTER I. PEOGEESSIVE STEPS TOWAEDS THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EEPUBLIO. PAGES The Three Stages of the Revolution — The First Congress — Action and Reaction — The Plan of Tacubaya 277-279 CHAPTER II. THE EEVOLUTION OF AYUTLA, 1853. The Triumph of the Republicans— The Leaders — The Defeat of “The Church Party ” — Precarious Victory — Policy of the Republicans — “The Juarez Law” for the Administration of Justice — Ap- proval of the Law — Final Adoption of the Constitution 279-283 CHAPTER III. The Constitution of 1857 283-310 part vm. THE MONROE DOCTRINE. Historical Sketch — President Jefferson’s Letter to Mr. Livingston, the American Minister in France, 1802 — Second Letter from the President — Third Letter to Mr. Monroe, Minister Extraordinary, 1803 — President Jefferson to the Governor of Louisiana, 1808 — Ex-President Jefferson to Mr. Short, 1820 — Mr. Jefferson to Presi- dent Monroe, 1823 — President Monroe’s Proclamation of the Doc- trine, 1823 310-320 PART IX. INTEROCEANIC TRANSITS : THEIR POLITICAL HISTORY. — EFFORTS OF SPAIN, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. THE GEEAT QUESTIONS OF THE WESTEEN HEMISPHEEE. National Organic Independence — Individual Liberty and Rights — Re- ligious Freedom — The Great Eastern Question — The Great "West- ern Question — Proposed Routes for Canals and Railroads — De- XVI CONTENTS. cree of the Spanish Cortes, 1814 — English Association, 1825 — Spirit of the English Press, 1846 — Action of the French Government, 1845 — Views and Aims of Napoleon III., 1846 — Canale Napoleone de Nicaragua — The Pope and the Isthmus Canal, 1848 — The Mar- quis de Magny — The Clayton-Buhver Treaty, 1850 — Action ot the French Government — The Convention of Rivas, 1858 — The French Scientific Expedition in Mexico, 1864 320-348 CHAPTER II. THE POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES. — THE AMERICAN-ASIATIC SOCIETY, 1865. Communication of the American-Asiatic Society to the Government of the United States, 1866— Application to Congress — Memorial of the Society to Napoleon III. — Reply to the Memorial by Baron Moustier — Policy of the United States and Mexico .348-368 CHAPTER III. CONCLUSION. The Issues of the Mexican Conflict — Enemies and Difficulties of the Mexicans — The Results of the Mexican Struggles — The Declara- tion of Rights and the Constitution of 1859 — The Future of Mexico — The 'Work to be Done — Its Difficulties — The Foreign Relations of Mexico — The Pope’s Nuncio to Mexico — The Pope’s Encyclical, 1864 — The United States — France, the Ancient Friend of American Republics — Louis XVI., Vergennes, La Fayette — Napoleon I., on the Death of Washington — General Policy of the United States and of Mexico — Mutual Interests of the two Re- publics 368-391 i /Si ihsiffjl fBflhuif , I Wayr ■* |i, ^\ I/..'" "'!■ " . U* t’al.'A kftcMM/Zr ,Uio Grande l'l Hambuitn SALTUlO/ .Ptrnn/ulu i\ C<*albo i to ,/"'" 1 Hlmirai <*• X-nrr„ pv.Fuilijo >Ula. ■eddCaton It jmmbtfua DmUhcd s oii in. i I’.F.ualW AND THE S>ln«V ^1 AND THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS I’ltKPJUIRD or '« It UIJAU . Eug i-Iiau^o Miles English Stilt Miles French I.eiigties. Spanish Miles 00 - rofEquntor 0012 -r do 25 - 1 do IBAIfl ® s 1 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 3? ART I. THE GREAT QUESTION OFTHE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. CHAPTER I. GENERAL VIEWS OF THE WESTERN CONTINENTS, OF THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. “wSq All Europe has been moved for years with the Question.” u e asxern Question,” — Turkey, and the transit for the commerce of Asia, between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. All America should not be less concerned with the “ Western Question,” — Mexico, and the transit of our great Isthmus, for the commerce of the Western Hemi- sphere, between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. English statesmen have called British India, with its vast commercial interests, the ‘jewel pendent’ of Asia. Mexico is the ‘jewel bracelet’ of the New World. To understand this, it is necessary to consider the double con- tinent, North and South, the great connecting Isthmus, and the mutual relations of the three. If there had been no Continent for Columbus to dis- cover, there would have been, from Spain westward to J apan, one vast, unbroken waste of waters, covering more l 2 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. than two hundred degrees of longitude, and an area of some fourteen thousand miles square. The conti- The Continents of America, North and South, rica- connected by their narrow Isthmus, divide this watery waste. “ The United States and Mexico,” inter- posed between Europe aud Asia, — “ The Middle Conti- nent” of all, flanked by the two great oceans, that are destined to bear the great trunk commerce of the nations, stand in them geographical and relative position, as if or- dained by Divine Decree to become the great maritime and commercial powers of the future. ofYhecona - 8 They stand in their relations to the rest of the neuis. habitable globe, and to oceanic communication with the civilized world, much as the narrow projection of Italy into the Mediterranean Sea stood to the domin- ion of the Roman Empire, East and West. Then, the Mediterranean Sea was the centre, and its surroundings constituted the Roman world. Now, “ The middle Con- tinent ” is to be the centre, and its surroundings for the fu- ture development of commerce, civilization and Christian- ity among the nations, are the oceans and the hemispheres. North The Continent of North America contains eight millions of square miles. South America, seven millions. The aggregate, fifteen millions of square miles, is about four times the size of all Europe, and equals about three-tenths of the whole land surface of the globe. The East- ern portals face the rising Sun, stand “ vis a vis ” to Europe, and the golden gates of the West are opening wide towards Asia and Oceanica. This territory covers in the Western hemisphere, the entire historic zone traced in the Eastern, by the course of empire and the progress of civi- lization, from the cradle oi* the race in the “ Mother Conti- nent,” down to the present time. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 3 Territorial Character^ tics. The United States. Unlike other Continents, where three-fifths of the whole surface are covered with inaccessible mountains and high table lands, scarcely habitable for man, in North and South America, three-fifths of the surface con- sists of vallies, prairies and plains of inexhaustible fertil- ity. The area of the basin of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers alone, is estimated at one million three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, — nearly twice the aggregate of all Great Britain, France, Spain and Germany com- bined. The coast line of the Continent is estimated at be- tween forty and fifty thousand miles ; that of Europe, is twenty thousand miles, of Asia, thirty-six thousand. The territory of the United States embraces an area nearly equal to that of all Europe. The great continental outlines of its geography, no less than its unique geographical position, indicate its destiny. The grand di- visions of the land, their respective physical features and capabilities, are now defined and understood. The Eastern section of this territory, — the Atlantic slope, thirteen hundred miles in length, by an average of one hundred and fifty miles in width, — the great Continental incline towards the vast interior, — has been mainly the theatre of the first half century of its settlement and civi- lization. The valley, — a thousand miles square, guarded, as it were, on the East and the West by the ran- ges of the Alleghanies and of the Rocky mountains, our mighty continental bulwarks, shows the progress of enter- prise in the second half century. The Pacific slope, not yet a quarter of a century old, has almost staggered human credulity, by the magic growth of its agriculture, commerce, wealth and cities. Imagi- nation is baffled at any attempt to forecast its future. The Great Valley. 4 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Geographical Relations and its Institutions. This united land, inter-oceanic, in respect to all the conditions of maritime supremacy, inter-con- tinental, in respect to the population, productions, manu- factures and commerce of the world ; with its inexhaust- ible internal resources of every material and product that affords food, clothing, or comfort for man ; with a diversi- fied climate adapted to every race and temperament ; with political, civil, social, moral and religious institutions fa- voring universal education and the protection and security of every man in the enjoyment of his “ inalienable rights,” all foreshadow a development of humanity on these shores, within half a century to come, transcending all the dreams of statesmen or philanthropists. The Government and people of the United States have no reason to envy any other government, or people, or land of the earth ; and least of all, to covet any Na- both’s vineyard. It is not surprising that monarchs and nobles, and the despotisms of the old world, should look with anxious apprehensions at the growth of this great power, at the kindling of this great light, at the influence of the great ideas that underlie our institutions, and are the secret of our prosperity and happiness. But we turn to Mexico. MEXICO. — TERRITORIAL EXTENT AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. The Republic The Republic of Mexico extends from about oi Mexico. j| ie the 30th degree of North Latitude, and embraces in its range, its plains, table lands and mountain ranges, all the climates and productions of the tropics and of the temperate zone. In its extent, resources and capabilities, in varieties of climate and soil ; in its MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 5 known, and in its yet unknown treasures of precious metals and gems ; and in the exuberance of its supply of every article needful for the food, clothing, medicine, comfort, and luxury of man, it has no superior. Extent of Its extreme length is two thousand miles ; its extreme breadth eleven hundred miles. It has a coast line on the Gulf and on the Caribbean Sea of sixteen hundred miles ; and on the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California, of four thousand two hundred miles ; — a larger coast line, it is believed, in proportion to its area, than any other country of equal extent in the world. It joins the United States by a coterminous boundary of eighteen hundred miles. state^ exican The twenty-five States, the Federal District, Territory. and the Territory of the Republic contain an area of 862,460 square miles — an aggregate equal, within a fraction, to all the twenty -five United States east of the Mississippi river. It is a territory ten times larger than all Great Britain, and nearly equal, in extent to all France, Spain, Austria, Lombardy, and the British Isles combined. Physical The area of Mexico is divided by nature into characteris- J tics- three clearly defined and separate regions ; the highlands, or mountain districts ; the table lands, or tem- perate regions ; and the lowlands and basins, having the varied characteristics of the torrid zone. Above them all, peer the volcanic summits, and peaks of perpetual snow. The mountain ranges arrest the moisture wafted by aerial currents from the Atlantic and the Gulf ; the lofty crests congeal it in eternal snows ; the mountain breasts condense it in fertilizing rains ; and the lowlands receive the descending streams that enrich a soil of inexhaustible fertility. 6 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Of this immense region, more than three-fifths enjoy rather a temperate than a torrid climate. The proximity of the oceans, the peculiar conformation of the land, its elevation above the level of the sea, and the sweep of mild, aerial currents from the waters, temper the severities both of cold and heat, and make, for large sections of the terri- tory, one of the most balmy and delightful climates in the world. Physical The peculiar characteristics of this territory, conditions. * n reg p ec j. £ 0 c li ma te and productions, are deter- mined less by latitude, than probably those of any other portion of the globe. Its physical geography and pecu- liar relations to the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, make it altogether a country “ sui generis.” The oceanic and atmospheric currents determined and defined by the continental conditions, and the motion of the earth, and especially by the marked depression at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the great range of the Cordillera of the continents, together with the diversities in the elevation of different districts, give this little range of about fifteen de- grees of latitude, all the varieties of climate, soil, and pro- ductions of the torrid, the temperate and the frigid zones. Its volcanic peaks and mountain regions, its plateaux and lowlands, diversified in countless forms of beauty, magnifi- cence and sublimity, have long been the themes on which travellers and historians have lavished their admiration. The following tables exhibit the areas, and the popula- tion of the Mexican States, and those of the United States, east of the Mississippi river. A slight comparison is sufficiently suggestive of the extent and the importance of the Mexican Republic, and of the inducements of European monarchs to destroy its independence, and erect an Empire for themselves upon its ruins. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 7 TABLE OF THE AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES EAST OF THE MISSIS- SIPPI RIVER, AND THEIR POPULATION IN 1860. SQUARE MILES. POPULATION. Maine 628,000 New Hampshire 326,000 Vermont 315,000 Massachusetts 1,231,000 Rhode Island 175,000 Connecticut 4,700 460,000 New York 3,881,000 New Jersey 672,000 Pennsylvania 2,906,000 Delaware 112,000 Maryland 687,000 Virginia 1,596,000 North Carolina 993,000 South Carolina 703,000 Georgia 1,057,000 Florida 59,000 140,000 Alabama 964,000 Mississippi 791,000 Ohio 2,340,000 Michigan 749,000 Wisconsin 776,000 Illinois 1,712,000 Indiana 1,350,000 Kentucky 1,157,000 Tennessee 1,111,000 841,800 26,832,000 The British Isles France Spain and Portugal Austria 803,000 8 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. TABLE OF THE AREAS OF MEXICAN STATES, WITH THEIR POPULATION, IN 1860. » SUPERFICIAL OR POPULATION STATES. SQUARE MILES. IN 185S. Aguascalientes 88,329 Chiapa 167,472 Chihuahua 164,073 Cohahuila 67,590 Durango 144,331 Guanajuato 11,396 729,103 Guerrero 279,109 Jalisco 48,591 804,058 Mexico 19,539 1,129,629 Michoacan 22,993 554,585 Nueva Leon 16,688 145,779 Oajaca 525,938 Puebla 658,609 Queretaro 1,884 165,155 San Luis Potosi 397,189 Sinaloa 163,714 Sonora 100,228 139,374 Tabasco 12,359 70,628 Tamaulipas 30,344 109,673 Vera Cruz 27,415 349,125 Yucatan 48,869 668,623 Zacatecas 27,768 296,789 TERRITORIES. Lower California 60,662 12,000 Colimn 3,019 62,909 Isla de Carman 7,298 11,807 Sierra Gorda 55,358 Tehuantepec 12,526 82,395 Tlaxcala 90,158 DISTRICT. Federal District 269,534 Total 8,400,236 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 9 CHAPTER II. MEXICO UNDER THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION. — HISTORICAL SKETCH. Ancient Mex- ico, prior to 1520. Whatever may be the speculations in regard to the origin of the inhabitants of Mexico, the char- acter and degree of their civilization are unmistakable. When first discovered, Mexico was more thickly peopled than any other portion of the continent. Cortez found an Empire, cities, palaces, pyramids, like those of Egypt; tem- ples, ruins, hieroglyphical inscriptions, and all the traces of an ancient and idolatrous civilization. Gigantic and magnificent monumental remains told of a former race, and of their achievements in architecture and art. The history of the early inhabitants, of their Early History. . , , origin and races, religion, manners, customs, wars and conquests, is involved in great uncertainty. Humboldt, and many others, have supposed that the ancient Mexican races were of Asiatic origin, and that the migration from Eastern Asia by way of the Pacific Ocean or Behring’s Straits, commenced with the “ Toltec Tribes” about a. d. 700, and was followed by other migrations, and finally by the “ Aztecs,” about a. d. 1200. The physical organiza- tion of the people, the character of their civilization, hiero- glyphic records and Mexican traditions, rather support this opinion. The Toitecs. The “ Toltec Dynasty” is supposed to have last- ed 400 or 500 years, when for some reason un- known, they moved further south to the provinces of Central America, and were succeeded in Mexico by the “Aztecs.” Prior to the Spanish conquest, the Toitecs were the most civilized of all the Mexican races. But when Cortez ar- 10 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. rived, the Aztecs, under Montezuma, occupied the country previously in possession of the “Toltecs.” The Aztecs. The “ Aztec Empire ” comprised only the pres- ent States of Mexico, Queretaro, and a part of Vera Cruz. But it held more or less control over other monarchies and republics around them. The descendants of the Aztecs, now called Mexican Indians , live in the vil- lages and towns of this section. They speak, besides the Spanish, their ancient language, now called “ Mexican.'"' The “ Aztec Dynasty ” is traced for about 300 years, culminating in the Empire of the Montezumas, which fell in 1520, under the Spanish invasion and conquest by Cortez. wars of the The convulsions and wars which marked the progress of the two Djmasties were like those in the early stages of ancient European Empires. Chieftains, tribes, republics and petty kings were waging incessant wars with each other. The waves of conflict swaved to •/ and fro, changing perpetually the territorial limits and the allegiance of smaller tribes in every direction, until, in about 1352, the “Aztec Empire” was consolidated under its first king. The Montezu- In 1436 Montezuma I. came to the throne. In 1502, after two intervening sovereigns, Mon- tezuma II. succeeded. During the reigns of the Montezu- mas, the Aztec Empire attained a pitch of grandeur, to which no society had ever attained in so short a period. It had subsisted only for a hundred and fifty years, and had extended its dominion from the north to the Pacific Ocean on the south, over territories stretching 1,500 miles from east to west, and more than 600 miles from north to south. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 11 THE AZTEC INDIANS. The term “ Indian” was applied to all the ab- original inhabitants of the colonies of Spain, be- cause the islands and lands discovered by Columbus were supposed to belong to the group now known as the East In- dies. By sailing westward, the navigators discovered these lands, which they called the West Indies , and the inhab- itants, “ West Indians.” The “Aztecs,” or Mexican In- dians, and the Month American Indians , are of totally different races and types of humanity. There is no record of any enumeration of the Population. .... , . inhabitants of Mexico prior to the conquest. The estimates and statements of different historians of that period are various and contradictory. The number of vic- tims of war, of massacre and slavery, are rarely reported by oppressors. Many adverse interests have led to a con- cealment of the actual numbers at different times. The number of inhabitants in the large cities, and in some of the provinces, furnish some clew to the aggregate. The City of Mexico is almost universally stated to have had a population of three hundred thousand. The neighboring Republic of Tlascala was reputed to have had 500,000 heads of families. In various contests of Cortez with the forces he encountered, his contemporaries often numbered his adversaries at fifty thousand men. From such data, and from the statements of Las Casas, and the Bishop of Chiapa, it has been supposed that the population of the Empire was not less than thirty millions. THE PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND DISPOSITION OF THE AZTECS. Portrait of the The Abbe Clavi gero, who resided nearly forty years in the provinces of New Spain, and who 12 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. wrote the history of Mexico, of that period, has given the following description of the Aztecs : “ They are of good stature , generally exceeding , in- stead of falling short of the middle size. They are well proportioned in all their limbs. They have good com- plexions ; narrow foreheads ; black eyes ; clean, firm, regular, white teeth ; thick, black, coarse, glossy hair ; thin beards ; and, generally, no hair upon their legs or thighs. Their skin is of an olive color ; there is scarcely a nation upon earth where there are fewer deformed per- sons ; and it would be more difficult to find a single hump-backed, lame, or squint-eyed man among a thousand Mexicans, than among a hundred of any other nation. The unpleasantness of their color, the smallness of their forehead, the thinness of their beard, are so far compen- sated by the regularity and fine proportion of their limbs, that they can neither be called very beautiful nor the con- trary ; but seem to hold a middle place between the ex- tremes. Their appearance neither engages nor disgusts. Among the young women of Mexico, there are many very beautiful and fair , whose beauty is at the same time ren- dered more winning by the sweetness of their manner of speaking, and by the pleasantness, and natural modesty of their whole behavior.” General “ They are very moderate in eating, but tlieir passion jor liquors is carried to great excess. “Their minds are at bottom in every respect like those of the other children of Adam, and endowed with the same powers. The Europeans never did less credit to their own reason, than when they doubted that of the Americans. The state of civilization among the Ameri- cans when they were first known to the Spaniards, was much superior to that of the Spaniards themselves, when MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 13 they were first, known to the Phoenicians, that of the Gauls when they were first known to the Greeks, or that of the Germans and Britons when first known to the Homans. It should have been sufficient to check such an error of man’s mind, if it had not been the interest of the inhuman avarice of some ruffians to encourage it. Their understandings are fitted for every kind of science, as expe- rience has shown. Of the Mexicans who have had oppor- tunities of engaging in the pursuit of learning, which is but a small number, the greater part are always engaged in the public and private works. But we have known some good mathematicians, excellent architects, and learned divines. Many persons allow the Mexicans to possess a great talent for imitation, but deny them the praise of invention ; a vulgar error, which is contradicted by the ancient history of that people.” “ Their minds are affected by the same variety Moral Traits. , “ J of passions as the people of other nations, but not in an equal degree. Mexicans seldom exhibit those transports of anger or frenzies of love, which are so com- mon in other countries. They are slow in their motions, and show a wonderful tenacity and steadiness in those works 'which require time and long-continued attention. “ They are most patient of injury and hardship, and, where they suspect no evil intention, are most grateful for any kindness.” The Ancient The extent of the dominion of Montezuma, Civilization, character and court, and the political and social organization of the government, witnessed the ad- vanced state of civilization in the Empire of the Aztecs. The administration of government, and the organization of industry, for the maintenance of its vast population, was not the work of barbarism. To feed, to clothe, to 14 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. make law, to define and regulate the rights and duties of citizens, and to preserve law and order in society, demand legislative and administrative talent of high order. The progress of agriculture, the varied pro- Agricultnre. I ,... 0 " . 1 ducts of the soil, in cereals and fruits, revealed no ordinary degree of cultivation and taste. Their horti- culture, ornamental and medicinal, gardens of plants, floating gardens, scientific irrigation and canals, indicated the progress of knowledge. The roads and highways of the Aztecs are represented by Humboldt and others as rivalling in their structure, the old Roman roads of Italy. Evidences of The monumental remains of their architecture, ization. in temples, pyramids and palaces ; the progress they had made in arts and manufactures — of threads and cloths, in pottery and metallurgy ; the organization of trade, and systematic provision for its wants, in money, weights, and measures ; their extraordinary astronomical knowledge ; in fine, their whole political, theocratic, mili- tary and social economy, marked the interior life of a highly civilized and cultivated people. The stories related by their conquerors of the bloody rites and cannibalism of the Aztecs, should be taken with some allowance. It has been stated, that at the consecration of the great Temple, under the predecessor of Montezuma II., sixty thousand victims were offered. The historian says, “They ranged the prisoners in two files, each a mile and a half in length, terminating at the Temple, where, as soon as the victims arrived, they were sacrificed.” Such a story carries upon its face its own refutation. The Span- iards must have been severely pressed to justify their own atrocities. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 15 CHAPTER III. THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. — GENERAL VIEW. sketch of the The general history of the conquest is well conquest. k nown< But the halo that surrounded the dis- covery of the new continent, and its possession by Chris- tian powers, blinded the perceptions and blunted the sen- sibilities of Christendom to the monstrous and inhuman atrocities of the Conquerors. Cortez and his followers were men of violence and blood, little better than a horde of pirates and banditti. “ They had committed crimes,” says Michel Chevalier, “ -which, by the laws of all nations, could be expiated only by a gallows for the principal, and the galleys for his followers.” Character of Poor, ambitious, and unprincipled, they sought the Enter- . , ...... , prise. m a desperate adventure the distinction and wealth they could otherwise never attain. The enterprise in boldness and bravery challenged the admiration of the age in -which they lived : — in the perfidy and cruelty with which it was conducted, it deserves and will receive the execration of all coming ages. Herod of Judea and Cortez of Mexico may well divide the honors between them as monsters of human wickedness and crime. The conquest The London Quarterly Review for October, querors. i860, says : “ lhe early history of South America must for ever stand out preeminent in the rec- ords of human wickedness. If the discovery of the New World is the great romance of history, its conquest and settlement form one of its deepest tragedies ; for the sub- jugation of some of the finest regions of the globe by the most advanced and powerful nation of Europe in the 16 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. fifteenth century, unfortunately fell to the lot of men upon whom the multiplying villainies of nature swarmed in unwonted profusion ; and the countries which long formed the trans-atlantic empire of Spain have, from the day in which she first planted her foot in the New World to the present time, never ceased to present the most pain- ful contrast between the benevolent dispositions of Provi- dence for the happiness of His creatures, and the power of man to counteract them . 11 Character Professor John W. Draper, in his work on Emigrants, the “ Civil Policy of America , 11 speaks of this history in the following terms : “ The discovery of America by Columbus completed the wonderful change in Europe, begun by the crusades. The crusading out- rush to the East, was followed by an outrush of adventu- rers to the West. Religious sentiment was superseded by avarice. There was not a people in Europe that did not become involved. As might be expected from her position, Spain was profoundly implicated in all her social ranks. Her men of influence in civil life, in military life, in ecclesiastical life, all emigrated across the ocean. The thirst for gold was too strong for even the pride of family. A paradise of unbounded sensual enjoyment in this life ; riches exceeding whatever the wildest dreams of fanatical alchemists had ever suggested — a realized El Dorado — these were temptations which the hot Spanish blood could not resist. s P ain and her “ What Spain did on this Continent can never be too often related — it ought never to be forgot- ten. She acted with appalling atrocity to those Indians, as though they did not belong, to the human race. Their lands and goods were taken from them by Apostolic authority. Their persons were next seized under the MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 17 text, that ‘ the heathen are given as an inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth as a possession.’ It was one unspeakable outrage : one unutterable ruin, without discrimination of age or sex. They who died not under the lash, in a tropical sun, died in the darkness of the mine. From sequestered sandbanks, where the red flamingo fishes in the gray of the morning — from fever- stricken mangrove thickets, and the gloom of impenetrable forests — from hiding-places in the clefts of the rocks, and the solitude of invisible caves, — from the eternal snows of the Andes, where there was no witness but the all-seeing sun, there went up to God a cry of human despair. By millions upon millions, whole races and nations were remorselessly cut off. The Bishop of Chiapa affirms that more than fifteen millions were exterminated in his time. From Mexico and Peru, a civilization that might have instructed Europe Avas crushed out.” Historic This remarkable territory has been the thea- tre oi some of the most extraordinary events m history. Here flourished for centuries great Empires of antiquity, antedating in their origin and course all else that is knoAvn of the Continent. Their monumental in- scriptions and remains are a fair counterpart to Egyptian and Assyrian ruins. They carry us back far into the re- gions of the unknoAvn past, and indicate a civilization that has passed from the face of the earth : an idolatrous, pagan civilization, whose doom, like that of Egypt, Baby- lon, Assyria, Greece, and the antediluvians, only furnish further illustration of the eternal decree, that the kingdom > and nation that will not serve Jehovah shall perish. The great Tra- Here was enacted one of the darkest, most gedy of the leth century, deadly and demoniacal tragedies in the annals of time. In the name of religion, the deed Avas done. 2 18 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. A simple, gentle, docile race was all but exterminated. It was as if the mountain ranges of the continent were one great altar, and the teeming millions of its valleys, the victims of the sacrifice. The attempted Here, too, in our own times, under our own repetition of the 19th century, eyes, the world has witnessed the performance of a drama in all its acts, to the final “ exeunt omnes,” which has thrilled the world. The stage was our continent ; Europe, Asia, Africa, and all America spectators. The plot was gigantic. Empires, kingdoms, and thrones were concerned. Kings, Queens, and Nobles, courts, cabinets and councils, armies and navies, were actors in the scenes. “The Great Powers,” mighty and, magnanimous, joined to crush again the aspirations of an enfeebled race, struggling at the work of self-culture, self-elevation, self-government and improvement. But more than that, there was a mighty “ arriere pensee ” behind the scenes. The drama was a desperate game, and the end is not yet. It was the game of “ all the Caesars.” It was the “ Old World ” defying the Institutions of the New. And if they had vanquished what they defied, the results in their vast pro- portions would have outstripped all the schemes that Popes, Emperors, or conquerors of past ages ever dreamed of. They Avould have changed the destiny of the new world, and an overwhelming reflex tidal wave of despotism would have rolled back over the nations of the old world. But the drama is played. The game is a failure. The stage and the spectators remain. The actors are changed, and the great question now is, What shall be the future of Mexico? The sequel of this volume, it is hoped, may throw some light upon The European Plot. Its end fo lever. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 19 the subject, and indicate, at least, the line of policy, which the interests of Mexico and of the United States — of the American continents, and the cause of liberty, civil and religious, throughout the world, demand. CHAPTER IY. THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT IN THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. ofthe v sran^h During a period of a little more than three uoo-hjooT* hundred and fifty years, the civilization and Christianity of Spain “ were illustrated to the nations of the old world,” by three great acts in the drama of human history that will never be forgotten : the attempted ex- termination of the Moors ; the persecution and expulsion of the Jews ; and the establishment of the Spanish Inquisi- tion. During the same period, the strange spirit of the rulers and institutions of Spain has been exemplified by equally significant acts in the new world : the conquest of her colonies ; the overthrow of the empires of the Mon- tezumas and the Incas ; the extermination of some fifty millions of the aboriginal inhabitants ; and the establish- ment and administration of her colonial governments. Spain, for the last six centuries of the Christian era, has borne upon her banner and carried round the world, the sacred “Christ-bearing ” symbol of peace on earth and good will to men. How far she has manifested the spirit of the symbol, the facts of history record, and the verdict of mankind will tell. Alfonso X. In the 13th centurv, about two hundred years The Wise. . " " l256 - prior to the discovery of America, Alfonso X. was King of Spain. He was one of the most learned 20 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. men of his age. On account of his own attainments in literature, science and art, his writings in poetry and prose, in history, and jurisprudence, and his encouragement of men of learning, he was surnained “ The Wise.” ms code of His father, Ferdinand III., in order to correct the evils of the local fueros , or privileges which were claimed by various towns and provinces, established a general code of laws for the whole kingdom. His son, Alfonso, carrying out this design, prepared successively two smaller compilations, entitled the “ Mirror of all Rights,” and the “ Royal Charter,” which were subse- quently codified and promulgated in the celebrated body of laws, known as the “ Seven Parts,” from the number of portions into which it was divided. The materials for the work were taken from the Justinian Code, and the ancient laws and local institutions of the kingdom. The holders ol fueros long and obstinately resisted the curtailment of their ancient privileges. But the code was finally estab- lished, and became the basis of Spanish Common Law. It is a treatise on legislation, religion and morals. It ex- plains the mutual duties of a king and his people ; the provisions of the laws and the reasons for their establish- ment. By the admission of Florida and Louisiana into the United States, this code has had its influence upon the legal system of our country. Spanish trans- But the great act of his life and the crowning: lation of the . . . . . . _ , Blue. 1270. glory of Ins reign, was the translation of the Bible into the Spanish language, which he caused to be made, and which introduced a new era in the history of the language and of the country. For more than six centuries Spain has had the Bible. She has repudiated its principles, extinguished its light among her own people, and played such a role among the MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 21 nations, as irresistibly to remind one again of the old Di- vine decree, that “ the nation and kingdom that will not serve” Jehovah “shall perish, — yea, those nations shall be utterly wasted.” rope Aiexan- In 1492, Pope Alexander VI. ascended the der\i. 1492. p a p a j throne. In 1494, he settled the conflicting claims of the kings of Spain, and of Portugal, in respect to the rights of discovery of the Indies, East and West, by a Pontifical decree. The title-deed He divided the undiscovered regions of the to North and . . , . r> t • i south America, earth, by an imaginary line of longitude, running through the Atlantic Ocean, from pole to pole, 370 miles west of the Azores. He gave to the Portuguese, unlimit- ed sway over all the countries they might discover to the East of this line ; and pledged himself to confirm to Fer- dinand and Isabella of Spain, the right to every isle, con- tinent and sea, where they should plant their flag in the Western Hemisphere. Hence, in every picture or engrav- ing of the landing of Columbus, the first act in the scene is the planting of the flag of the Spanish crown. Under such a charter as this, Ferdinand and Isabella, and their successors, held all their vast possessions in America as their own peculiar personal property, under their own absolute, irresponsible control, in all matters whatsoever, temporal and spiritual. Pope Alexander granted to Ferdinand personally all the titles belonging to the church. Julius II., his successor, confirmed these grants, and added all the benefices, digni- ties and offices, claimed by the “ Holy See,” as her share of the spoils of the conquered. The Pope to The “ King of Spain,” therefore, was the su- preme head of church and state in the colonies ; holding by deed direct, from Peter’s successor, the Roman MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 22 • Vicegerent, the fee simple of all the territory, together with the temporal dominion of one half of all the undis- covered regions of the globe, and as his personal possession all the “ right, title and interest ” His Holiness could con- vey, in the souls, bodies and estate of any discovered na- tions. The continent, isles and people, body and soul, labor, fortune, conscience and life, were his. The spirit of The expeditions which Spain sent from her Exploration, shores to plant the standard of her empire in the New World, were imbued with feel ins's of religious fanati- cism, to an intensity it is now hard to conceive. Stim- ulated, besides, with the thirst for gold, they spread devastation wherever they marched, and inflicted on the simple natives tortures and sufferings, differing little, ex- cept in duration, from the pains which the priests, who always accompanied the expeditions, announced as await- ing the wretched victims in another world. These priests also insisted upon the blindest submission in spiritual matters, which, it was not unreasonably expected, would secure civil dependence. Michel Chevalier, in describing the religious element in the expedition of Cortez, for the con- quest of the New World, called it a “Crusade,” — a holy war against the infidels. To make them confess the faith, was an incomparable merit. In such a cause, it was a little matter that they gave unbridled license to their pas- sions, — that they were licentious, covetous, and bathed themselves in blood. “ Ever } 7 sin would be atoned by so good a work.” The spirit of the old Spanish Crusades against the Moors, was a living fire in the camp of Cortez. The au- thority of the Church, and the commands of the Emperor, imposed it as a paramount duty to convert the infidels. The Conquest a Crusade. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 23 Every soldier considered himself an apostle ; — bound to convert, as well as to conquer the heathen. They were to invade and possess their country, to occupy their cities, to take away their treasures, to ravish their daughters, to exterminate the resisting, and by all means, to convert and baptize the rest. Military The military and the missionary work were tion. both inspired by an enlightened zeal for the lands and the gold of the Mexicans, and the saving grace of a holier zeal, for the souls of those they did not destroy. In pursuance of such a mission, these propagandists of the Christian faith, the moment a city was taken, rushed for the treasures of their idol temples, overthrew the altars and images of paganism, appropriated to themselves the consecrated ornaments and vessels of barbaric gold, erected an image of the Virgin in the place of a heathen idol, and commanded the astonished natives to fall down and worship their God, who was mightier than the gods of Tenochtitlan. The poor, defenceless natives were com- pelled to bow down and worship the image of the Virgin, and accept the rites of the Church. The Pagan Missionaries sent over by the kino; did not stay nnd the Cbns- . ^ J tian idol. to acquire the language oi the natives, and to explain to them the truths and doctrines of Christianity, but proceeded at once to administer baptism and the sac- raments, punishing apostates with the tortures prescribed by the Inquisition. Such was their zeal, that a single priest would baptize his thousands between the rising and the setting sun. Baptismal Peter, of Ghent, a Flemish monk, writing Conrersions. p rom j\l ex ico, 1529, said, that he and “another Missionary had converted Two Hundred Thousand Mexi- cans, their ordinary day’s work being from ten to twenty 24 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. thousand souls” A few years after the conquest, the monks reported the number of converts as amounting to FOUR MILLIONS. But such conversions are seldom permanent ; and it was soon discovered that multitudes had consented to ac- cept the rites of the Church on compulsion, or in order to conciliate their conquerors, but with reservations in favor of their own, ancient gods. Paganism and “ The indifference of the Mexicans,” says Dr. chnstiamty. Young, “ in relation to the mysteries of the new religion, was so great, that the priests found it absolutely necessary to permit them to retain a portion of their orig- inal superstition, and to connive at the amalgamation of holy rites with pagan ceremonies, confounding the exalted doctrines of Christianity with the absurd and gloomy fan- cies pertaining to the Aztec mythology.”* Humboldt says, “The introduction of the Rom- ish religion had no other effect upon the Mexi- cans than to substitute new ceremonies and symbols for the rites of a sanguinary worship. Dogma has not suc- ceeded dogma, but only ceremony to ceremony. I have seen them, masked and adorned with tinkling bells, perform savage dances around the altar, while a monk of St. Fran- cis elevated the Host.” The Mission All the great enterprises of conquest and querors. crusade in the age of Cortez, were imbued with a kind of religious enthusiasm. Any act of aggression, inhumanity or barbarism, was sanctioned, if done in the name of religion. Under the banner of “ the Cross,” the zeal of the vilest men could be roused to almost any work of diabolical crime. The cry, “ in hoc signo vinces,” * Compare with the statement respecting the policy of the early Church, A. D. p. — 64. Opinion of Humboldt. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 25 would rally an army of followers to overrun and devas- tate the fairest provinces, to capture, sack, and burn de- fenceless cities, to obliterate a nationality by the sword, the torture and the stake. The age of conquest and discovery was one of singular mixture of pretended love and zeal for God, and actual hatred and murder of men. Every description of wrong and outrage, under the garb of religion, was tolerated. Adultery, incest, murder, perjury, and un- mitigated despotism in kings, popes, and queens, were wink- ed at, if they were only “ Defensores Fidei.” The whole family of the priesthood, Pope, Cardinal, Bishop, and Priest, under the most solemn vows of celibacy, were quite exempt from discipline or censure, however numerous were their sons and daughters. It was no mere fling; of the wits that the priests were all “Fathers,” and the Pope, “ The Holy Father.” Pope Aiexan- Pope Alexander VI., Roderic Borgia, of Va- lencia, Spaiij, had during his cardinalship, four illegitimate children, by his mistress Vanozia. His pontifi- cate has been said to be the blackest page in the history of modern Rome. His public policy and his private life were equally strangers to morality and religion. Histo- rians agree that “ no name in history is stigmatized with greater infamy — his court a school of licentiousness and falsehood, where crime was reduced to a system, and oaths and compacts afforded no obligation or security.” “ The ecclesiastical records of fifteen centu- ries,” says Dr. Waddington, “contain no name so loathsome, no crimes so foul as his. While the voice of every impartial writer is loud in his execration, he is, in one respect, singularly consigned to infamy, since not one of the zealous annalists of the Roman church has breath- ed a whisper in his praise.” Testimony of historians. 26 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. On one occasion, this prodigy of vice gave a splendid entertainment, within the walls of the Vatican, to no less than fifty public prostitutes, at which entertainment, deeds of darkness were done over which decency must throw a veil. And yet this monster of vice was, accord- ing to papal claims, the legitimate successor of the Apos- tles, and the “ Vicar of God,” upon earth, and addressed by the title, “ His Holiness! ” It is less than three centuries since Alexander VI. conveyed to their Catholic majesties of Spain and Portugal our whole continent from the pole to the cape, not except- ing the United States and Mexico. And Catholic powers, it would seem, to this day claim their right of possession under the grant. The character and manners of the Kings, Popes, and Priests of Europe, were transferred to Mexico. There were, undoubtedly, good men in the pale of the church ; — as godly and noble souls as ever contended for truth and righteousness. But the whole spirit and life of the age were characterized by deeds of darkness, shame and death. A cry arose from all Europe for “ Reform,” everywhere, in the Vatican at Rome, in the Palaces of Kings, in mon- asteries and convents, and among the professedly celibate ecclesiastics of every order and name. The “ Roman Church” is as much indebted to the Great Reformation of the 16th century, tor the reform in the lives and manners of its clergy, as Protestantism is, for its purer faith. But the Reform, either in faith or manners, never crossed from Spain to Mexico. PART II. MEXICO UNDER THE DOMINION OF SPAIN. 1520 - 1808 . CHAPTER I. THE GOVERNMENT OP THE VICEROYS. colonial As soon as the Spaniards had plundered the pohcy ' wealth of the empire of the Aztecs, they turned their attention to the government of the colonies they planted. The King granted almost regal and absolute power to the Governors and Viceroys entrusted with the establishment of the first governments. This power was so abused that he was soon obliged to curtail these privi- leges. As early as 1495, the germs of the colonial system of oppression and slavery had fairly taken root. The first seeds were the Letters Patent from the “ crown,” authorizing: the officers of the Repartimi- entos. colony to partition the lands of the Indians among their conquerors. — called repartimientos. The second plant, was the inauguration of the system of tribute. Every Indian, old and young, from the highest cacique down to children of fourteen years of age, was compelled to pay tribute. Children over fourteen, near any of the mines, were obliged to pay, every three months, a little bell full of gold ; all others, a certain amount of cotton. Next came the requisition of service from the Indians, ex- 28 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. acting their labor for the tillage of their lands. Then fol- lowed a regular system, authorizing the Spaniards to take Indians from any place to any other place, to work on compulsory, unrequited labor, without any restriction. In 1503, Ferdinand and Isabella authorized one of the Governors of the colonies “ to compel the Indians to have dealings with the Spaniards — to work for them on such wages as he should think fit ; to work, also, under the guid- ance of their caciques (a kind of compulsory overseer- ship), and that they should go and hear mass, and be in- structed in the faith ; and, finally, that they should do all these things ‘ as free persons , for so they are ! 1 11 The first fruits of these beginnings was the adoption, by this same Governor, of the system called by the mild name of “ encomienda." He distributed the Indians, the men themselves , as a gift to the Spaniards, for considerations unknown, to be veritable slaves. The formula ran, “To you, Don Juan * * *, is given an encomienda of fifty, or one hundred Indians, with such a cacique, and you are to teach them the things of our holy Catholic faith .” There only remained the perpetuation of this title. At first it was only a life estate ; next, it was extended through the son’s life ; then for two lives ; and then unend- ing, irrevocable slavery of parents and their offspring. Las Casas said the poor Indians had four masters : “ the crown,” their own “ caciques,” the u encomienderoC and his “overseer,” “who weighed upon them more than a hundred towers.” Last of all was the system of the “Mita.” By this, four out of every hundred of the Indians were taken and compelled to labor, a certain portion of every week, or month, or year, in the mines for the benefit of their Span- ish masters. The amount of cruelty and suffering, as MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 29 well as of wealth, for “ viceroys ” and the “ crown," as the fruit of this system, is almost incredible. To such an extent was the oppression of the Indians carried, that the Pope finally issued a decree declaring that the Indians were “ really and truly men, and capable of receiving the Christian faith.” In 1511, Ferdinand established a special board for the management and control of all affairs pertaining to the conquered provinces in the New World, but it was not fully organized until the reign of Charles V. in 1524. The council The “ Council of the Indies ” was invested ot the indies. SU p reme jurisdiction over all the possessions of the Spanish crown in the West. The “Council ” con- sisted of a President who was the King, four Secretaries, and twenty-two Counsellors, generally chosen from among those who had been viceroys, or high officers abroad. The Council was empowered, in compliance with the nomination of the Crown, to appoint all the colonial offi- cers of every degree, and to make all laws and regulations for the government of the colonies. Power and This . was a grand political, legislative, and couudi. financial machine. The power of the “ Council 11 was absolute in all matters civil, religious, military, legis- lative, judicial, and executive, subject only to the nominal approval of the Crown. Its decisions, however, were in- variably approved, right or wrong. The whole scheme and policy of law and administration were devised, not to carry out the principles of national and human rights, but to derive the utmost profit to the Spaniards from the lands, the mines, and the labors of the Indians. The vice- roys exercised unlimited power over the lives, property and liberty of the people. They were generally selected from families of high rank and great influence, and wielded 30 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. the delegated and arbitrary authority with a pretension and pomp scarcely equalled by their sovereign. They had their palaces, retinue, and guards of honor, and sought by the ostentatious display of mimic royalty in the provinces, to awe and intimidate the subjugated natives. The will of a Viceroy was Mexican law. It was absolute, individual control over all things temporal and spiritual. Admmistra- The administration of justice was intrusted to turn of justice. ^ WQ « Courts of Royal Audience,” one at the Capital, and the other for the Northern Provinces. The judges and officers of these Courts were appointed by “ the Council of the Indies, 1 ’ or, with their sanction, by the Viceroy. They were required to be native-born Spaniards, and were forbidden by law, on the genuine principle of the code of the Jesuits, to hold lands, to marry in the colonies, or to form any attachments in the land they were sent to govern. The justice they administered was such as conquerors give to captives, and masters give to slaves. Throughout the colonies, every officer, mili- tary, revenue, or municipal, was a European. Native Mexicans were prohibited from holding any office of trust, profit, or honor. All the subordinate offices were sold at Madrid, and were a source of large revenue to the Crown. social re- All intercourse with foreigners was prohibited by the most rigid laws. Passengers and crews of ships were placed under the surveillance *bf a military guard. They were not allowed to carry arms, and became utterly incapable of self-defence. The very laws even by which they were governed, were unknown to any but the Europeans who presided in the Courts, and who strained and perverted them with little regard to the people for whom they had no sympathy, and with supreme regard to MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 31 The system of “ I'ueros.” the exactions for themselves of a bountiful revenue of gold and silver. The very worst features of the feudal system of Eu- rope were transplanted here, in their most despotic and revolting forms. They were intensified and aggra- vated by the vast disparity between the conditions and relations of the Spanish magistrate, and a helpless, de- fenceless Indian. The whole administration of justice was utterly corrupt, venal, and oppressive. There was no equality before these tribunals. The system of fuero-s , or privileges, made endless discriminations in favor of the Spaniard and against the native. There were privileges of corporations, of the professions, of the clergy, regular and secular, monks, canons, inquisitions, colleges, univer- sities ; privileges of the military, of the marine, of those in the revenue service, and of great variety, all working to screen and benefit the European, and oppress the Indian. It was an inextricable labyrinth of corruption, bribery, intrigue, delay, denial of justice, and outrage. General Colo- Under such a system for the enactment of nial adminis- . " Nation. laws, and for their administration, justice had no place or name in Mexico. Of a long succession of one hundred and seventy Viceroys who governed the colonies of Spain, four only were Americans ; and of six hundred and ten Captains- General and Governors, all hut fourteen were natives of old Spain. The civil, criminal, and fiscal administration, indeed the whole political system, was a gigantic monopoly in the hands of foreigners. The natives had no voice, direct or indirect, in legislation, or any func- tion or exercise of government. Law and execution came from Spain. Freedom was crushed with relentless sever- ity. Any attempt to win it was repressed with unheard- 32 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. of cruelties. Taxes, duties, tithes, were ubiquitous bur- dens. Courts of law were mere farces. Prisoners and prisons were only the sport of unscrupulous and irrespon- sible power. commercial The “ Council of the Indies ” interdicted all Restrictions. • . • , , . . , , i commercial intercourse between the colonies and the rest of the world, and with each other. All imports and exports were restricted to Spanish vessels. All sup- plies to come from Spain, and the colonies forbidden to raise or produce any article the mother country could sup- ply. They were forbidden to trade with foreigners or with neighboring states, under any pretext whatever. The penalty was death. One of the grievances of Hidalgo, the first to raise the banner of independence in Mexico, was the destruction of his vineyard and his silkworms by com- mand of the government, under the most unjust and op- pressive law, that the natives must produce nothing that could be brought from Spain. The internal administration of this system was as foul as its conception was infamous. An illus- tration of the systematic plunder of the natives is found in the grand scheme of extortionate taxation. There was The revenue system. THE ROYAL REVENUE. The King had, I. One fifth of all the gold and silver, and his monop- olies, tobacco, salt, and gunpowder. II. The colonial offices, civil and ecclesiastical, were openly sold on his account. III. His “ Stamp act ” and “ Stamped” paper were as odious and productive as those of George III. IV. Every Indian was required to pay a poll-tax. Y. To crown the infamy, he exacted an extensive rev- MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 33 enue from the religious rites and superstitions of the peo- ple. The necessaries and luxuries of life, the sacraments and offices of religion, and the fears and hopes of immor- tality, were made to yield a royal income to the King of Spain. “the revenue ‘bulls.’” As a specimen of these, there was 1. “ Bulls de cruzadct." The possessor of this Bull was absolved from all crimes, except heresy, and could not be suspected even of this deadly sin. He was exempt from many of the rigorous fasts of the Church. Two Bulls at the same price, had double the virtue of one. 2. “ Bulls de defuntos *’ — the Bull for the dead — was a passport for a sinner’s soul from purgatory. The fears and sympathies of the poor and ignorant classes were wrought upon to induce them to buy this ticket of release for them- selves, or their friends, from the pains of purgatory. 3. “ Bulls for eating milk and eggs during Lent.” 4. “ Bulls of composition.” This “ released persons who had stolen goods from the obligation to restore them to the owner, provided the thief had not been moved to commit his crime in consequence of the belief that he might escape from its sin by consequently purchasing the immaculate ‘Bull.’” It had power “to correct the moral offence of false weights and measures, tricks and frauds in trade, the obliquities of principle and conduct, by which swindlers rob honest people of their property ; and, finally, whilst it converted stolen articles into the lawful property of the thief^ it also assured to purchasers the absolute own- ership of whatever they obtained by modes that ought to have brought them to the gallows. The price of these ‘ Bulls ’ depended on the amount of goods stolen, but only 3 34 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. fifty of them could be taken by the same person in a year.” Such are some of the features of the enlightened gov- o o ernment of the Christian King and “Church ” of Spain. But this is not all. There were THE ECCLESIASTICAL REVENUES. The “ Holy Church” held all its prerogatives and ap- pointments directly from the King. Its ultimate, actual influence and power emanated from the sovereign. The erection of cathedrals, parish churches, monasteries, hospi- tals, native chapels, or other religious edifices, without the express license of the monarch, was strictly prohibited. All ecclesiastical revenues went to him. The power and resources of patronage were incalculable. The relig- ious jurisdiction of church interests and tribunals extended to monasteries, priests, donations, legacies for sacred pur- poses, tithes, marriages, and all spiritual concerns. CLEEICAL FUEROS. The fueros of the clergy, and their varied privileges and prerogatives, made Mexico the very el-dorado of ec- clesiastics. As early as 1501, the system of tithes was es- tablished and regulated by law. 1. Every article of primary necessity was subject to tithes. 2. All the artificial and ornamental productions were also titheable. 3. Every object of luxury and comfort was subject to the same tax. Clerical finan- The clergy thus became the royal collecting agents of this .spiritual revenue. The aggran- dizement of the clerical body, and the accumulation of MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 35 their wealth was almost incredible. Churches and con- vents, estates and treasure, diamonds, gold, and silver, swelled the accumulations to an aggregate of not less than one hundred millions of dollars. The monasteries of the Dominicans and Carmelites acquired immense riches in real estate, both in town and country. The religious establish- ments of the monks and nuns in the city of Mexico, were said to be the owners of three-fourtlis of the private houses in the capital, and proportionably, of property in the different states of the Republic. THE ALCABALA. There was an impost called the “ alcabala ,” upon all purchases and sales. “Every species of merchandise, whenever it passed from one owner to another, was subject to a new tax. Merchants, shop-keepers, and small dealers were obliged to report the amount of their purchases and sales, under oath.” The largest transactions and the smallest, from the transfer of an estate to the purchases from the green-grocer, were subject to this tribute. In addition to the alcabala , duties were exacted for the privilege of transit through the country, by which, it has been said, that European articles paid a tax or a duty thirty times before they reached the consumer, spirit of the Is it to be wondered at, that six or eisrht mil- Colonial Gov- . ’ ° emment. lions of Mexicans, crushed under such a despot- ism as this by half a million of foreigners, should at length grow weary of the yoke? No voice in making their laws, no part in executing them, no representation of any kind, the most exorbitant and extortionate taxation, the most unreasonable restrictions upon social intercourse, a tyran- nical interdiction of trade, the utter suppression of impor- tant domestic productions and manufactures, the compulsory 36 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. purchase of Spanish goods, tithes of everything, with the most unjust exemption of the whole governing class, — the Church party and a Spanish aristocracy — from burdens imposed upon the people, and from all accountability to the laws enacted for their victims, together with the long list of Fueros of the clerical, military, and privileged classes, make a fair counterpart to the catalogue of wrongs of Americans recited in our own Declaration of Independ- ence! CHAPTER II. THE POLITICAL RELATIONS OF SPAIN AND MEXICO. French Inter- In 1808, Napoleon I. announced “ that the Spain. House of Bourbon had ceased to reign in Spain,” placed his brother Joseph on the throne, and assembled a junta of 150 delegates, to form a new constitution, which was adopted and sworn to by the King and the Delegates July 6th. Alliance of England took sides with the “old regime,” spam. recognized Ferdinand VII. as King, and sup- ported the “ Spanish people ” in resisting the Napoleonic dynasty. A central junta at Seville guided the Spanish forces. The English armies were under the command of Sir John Moore and Wellington. The French forces were under the inspiration of Napoleon and Marshal Soult. The Peninsular War of the Spanish nation, under the “ Old Bourbon Dynasty,” with England as an ally, against the designs of France, raged with varying fortunes to the combatants until 1812. The constitu- The Spanish Cortes, in the progress of this of 181 2 . con f es ^ w hi c h the elements of the old po- litical and ecclesiastical despotism, French intervention, MEXICO AND TEE UNITED STATES. 37 and liberal, republican principles were strangely blended, had adopted a new constitution, embodying fundamental reforms, known as the Constitution of 1812. The reaction- Ferdinand, on his restoration to the throne by orj movement Napoleon, pursuant to the treaty of 1813, an- nulled all the proceedings of the Cortes ; abrogated the Constitution ; re-established the old despotism, with all its abuses ; revived the Inquisition, and persecuted with re- lentless rigor all who had sought to secure constitutional freedom. All the members of the Cortes who had partici- pated in framing the Constitution, or who had supported it, were arrested, tried by court martial, and sentenced. Not a few were executed. Hundreds of the most illus- trious were imprisoned in dungeons at home, or in Africa. The most fortunate were exiled. Six long years Spain was the scene of a bloody tragedy ; until the perfidious cruelty of the revengeful tyrant roused such universal reprobation, that the army gave the signal of insurrrection. In January 1820, the whole national forces revolted against the despotism, proclaimed anew the Constitution of 1812, compelled Ferdinand on the 9th of March to convoke the Cortes, and swear himself to support the Constitution he had seven years before annulled. A new ministry was formed, the press declared free, the Inquisition abolished, and within a' few weeks a new order of things was acknowledged throughout Spain.* Duplicity of On the 9th of J uly, at the re-opening of the Cortes, Ferdinand renewed his oath to the Con- Tyranny of the king. Bevolt of the army. the king. * Honors, gratuities, and pensions were showered upon the gene- rals and officers of the army, who had so successfully initiated and achieved the revolution in lavor of liberal principles and Constitu- tional freedom. 38 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. stitution, and' ostensibly acted in harmony with the Patriots. But it was soon discovered, that he was secretly intriguing with the enemies of the administration, and encouraging their reactionary plots. The Constitution- alists, or liberals, were struggling to establish the govern- ment on the broad principles of human rights. The ultra- Royalists were plotting for monarchical and absolute power, roylaiu!’ an! The duplicity and perfidy of the King, the party.” rc violation of his oath, and the treachery of his adherents, resulted in conflicts between the opposite parties, and finally in bloody riots and civil war, in the Capital and throughout the country. The liberal party formed a large majority of the nation. The Royalists, unable to compete with the overwhelming numbers in favor of Constitutional government on liberal princi- ples, resorted to the old support of despotism — the eccle- siastical power of “ The Church.” The church They organized a junta styled “the Apos- tolic,” and raised bands of insurgents, under the name and banner of “ The Army of the Faith.” They demanded the restoration of the absolute power of the King, of the Convents, and of feudal institutions. A noted guerilla leader, Merino, a “ Spanish Priest,” at the head of bands of monks and friars, inaugurated a regular ferocious guerilla war, — a perfect type of the policy adopted by the “ Church party ” in Mexico ever since. The defeat of The reactionary movement was a failure, despotism. rpj^ R 0 y a p s | s an d tp e “ Church Party ” were completely defeated. “The Army of the Faith” was totally destroyed. Its officers and soldiers, with the ultra-royalist leaders, fled to France. It was a revolution in the interest of the liberal party. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 39 intervention But here, the “ Holy Alliance ” intervened, alliance. The Congress of Verona ordered an army to march into Spain, and restore Ferdinand to his throne. The Constitutionalists were unable to withstand the combined forces of the allied powers. The Cortes were constrained to declare King Ferdinand re-established. On the 30th of September, 1823, the restored monarch issued a pro- clamation of general amnesty, and guaranteed the en- gagements entered into by the Constitutional Govern- ment. Measures of The next day he revoked the proclamation, ^“g reS 6 and all his acts since March 7, 1820. On the 13th of November, 1823, he made his royal entrance into the city of Madrid, with all the pomp and circum- stance of a resumption of the crown, and with the exult- ing applause of the Royalists and the “ Church Party ” The work of vengeance inaugurated in 1813, was renewed with fearful intensity. Inquisi- torial terrors reigned again, for years, throughout Spain. The noblest victims fell under the sword of the execu- tioner. Ferdinand had no mercy for Constitutionalists. Liberals and Republicans had none for “ The Church.” Effect of the The Revolution in 1808, the abdication of fhe colonies. Charles IV. in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII., and the imposition of Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain by Napoleon I., did not subvert the loyalty of the people of Mexico. The Colonists, amid all the excite- ment of the times, cherished the old traditionary senti- ments of allegiance to their legitimate sovereign. Con- flicting claims of allegiance, perpetual conflicts of jurisdic- tion, and contradictory orders from Spain, added perplex- ity to the agitation in Mexico. Ferdinand VII., Joseph, and the Council of the Indies, had each their partisans, 40 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. and were each struggling to retain or secure the ascend- ency. Proposed compromise, An attempt was made to compromise these difficulties by a kind of provisional colonial government in the hands of a junta, composed of the Viceroy, the Archbishop of Mexico, officers of the army, the nobility, the members of the municipal government, and the principal citizens of the capital. Antipathy of The plan proposed was in favor of the rights of Mexicans, by placing the Creoles of America on a footing of equality with the natives of Spain. But the old hereditary hatred of the foreign, for the native population, entirely defeated the plan. Conquest, sub- The conquest of Mexico Avas begun in the name jugation, and # 0 outrage. 0 f philanthropy and religion. The bloody and merciless Avork of subjugation Avas continued by king, court, nobles, and conquerors, as a grand filibustering scheme of robbery and plunder. The natives were held as the merest vassals, serfs, slaves, having no rights that Spaniards were bound to respect. The Avill of the monarch, and the SA\mrd and chains of his minions, made promiscuous havoc alike of the rights, the property and the lives of the helpless Indians. An inextinguishable hatred Avas the result, colonial During these convulsions and changes of sove- reigns in Sjiam, the colonies Avere compelled to frame some kind of temporary government for themselves. Little instructed in the science of government, and with no knoAvledge or experience of Republican Institutions, they Avere throAvn upon their OAvn resources. They sought to construct some s} 7 stem to secure those rights the con- sciousness of which is AA r rought in the very constitution of the human soul. They Avere not prepared to renounce al- legiance to their legitimate king. The feeling of loyalty MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 41 Loyalty. and sympathy for their sovereign which education almost makes an instinct, and habit makes a law, awakened in his faithful colonial subjects a kind of enthusiasm for the exiled Ferdinand, and a mortal hate for the conqueror of Spain and the successor he had imposed upon the throne, and whom they regarded as the merest parvenu and usurper. It is said there was such a loyal unanimity amono- all classes, that in a few months seven millions of dollars were contributed to aid the loyalists in Spain, who were fighting for their king, nationality and religion. Rise of Mexi- But the course of events hurried the Mexicans independence, to a consideration of their ow r n rights. The king who occupied the throne was not a Spaniard, but a Frenchman. The tie between the ancient crown and the colony was sundered. The memory of ages of renown, and of the ancestral glory of old Spain, fired the hearts of the native Spaniards. The memory of ages of oppression fired the souls of the descendants of the Aztecs. Step by step the idea of resistance to their own, and their ances- tors’ oppressors gained progress and strength. Aspirations At length, in 1810 , a secret plot was formed to after Freedom. over ^} irow the Spanish ascendency in the colony, and to place the prerogatives and power of their absent king in the hands of native Mexicans. The scheme, however, was discovered and defeated. The first cry Here begins the story of Miguel Hidalgo y for Liberty. Q os till a — a name that will be honored as long as Mexico has a name among the nations of the earth. He w r as a native Indian, curate of the village of Dolores, in the province of Guanajuato, — the patriot priest who first raised the standard of “ native rights,” and of “ the inde- pendence of Mexico.” 42 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Thenprising At the cry of this country cure, in 1810, the of the Aztecs^ X n di an s flew to arms, enrolled themselves as soldiers, and took their first, hard, self-taught lessons in military life. Under all the disabilities so long imposed upon their race, it was a stern and bitter discipline. But stirred and sustained by the love of liberty and right, they manifested a courage and intrepidity, an indomita- ble spirit, worthy of any of the lovers and martyrs of liberty, of any age or land. The Aztec If is true, they were as irregular, as undrilled, \ oiuntee’s. an( j as destitute of accoutrements, ammunition and arms, as the extemporized troops that rushed to Lex- ington and Bunker Hill. But they were as true and self- sacrificing. They went to sow their fields and save their harvests, and returned to the drill and the discipline of the camp. Again they scattered to protect and provide for their families, and again returned under the flag. In respect to all the external appointments that give prestige and power to military organization, they were utterly destitute. There was no military chest, no quarter-mas- ter’s department, no commissary stores, nor ordnance sup- plies. In respect to high-souled, liberty-loving patriotism, according to the light they had, where have been their superiors ? They were simple, unsophisticated, undisci- plined volunteers. They equipped themselves, they sup- ported themselves. The very women preceded the columns on the march, fulfilling the triple functions of purveyors, cooks and nurses. Such is the connection between the political elements and the revolutionary movements in Spain and in Mexico. The sequel will show them pervading all the great acts, in the successive changes, revolutions and constitutions, down through 1821, 1859, to the present day. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 43 CHAPTER III. IDENTITY OP THE POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN AND MEXICAN REPUBLICANS. The origin of The fundamental principles involved in the ricau ideas, struggles of the Mexicans for the independence and liberties of their country, are the identical principles for which the fathers of our Republic contended ; — principles proclaimed to the world in our Declaration of the “in- alienable rights of man,” in 1776 ; re-affirmed at Paris by the Republicans of France in 1789 ; repeated by the Patriots of Spain at Madrid, in 1810; re-echoed back to Europe by the proclamation of the Republicans of Mexico in 1821. * The great American ideas of the rights of man, and of human government, have thus described in their circuit, as it respects the dominant powers and nations of both hemispheres, a great circle of the political world. The germs They are substantially the same as those that Bo11 - marked the struggles which preceded and fol- lowed the British Constitution ; convulsed, for generations, the whole fabric of society in wars and revolutions for the overthrow of monarchical and feudal assumptions, and the establishment of the rights of “ the people.” The outgrowths They are the same principles which the pres- ent generation of the United States have receiv- ed from our fathers, at the expense of priceless sacrifices of treasure, blood, and life. They are the corner-stone and the top-stone of the temple of American liberties, — the glory of our heritage in that system for the organization of society, and the establishment of civil, social, and relig- ious institutions, which has developed in less than a cen- 44 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. tury a commonwealth of six ancl thirty states, and of six and thirty millions of people, distinguished for a degree of intelligence, general education, wealth, enterprise, pros- perity, morality, religion and happiness, such as no other nation has ever attained. The family of They are the same principles that marked the Kings and the "l. 1 7 family of Man. struggling way of human rights and libert ies in continental Europe, for more than five hundred years. The old contest between the “family of kings ” and the “ family of man ” is transferred to Mexico. Papal, hie- rarchical, and ecclesiastical domination, losing its hold upon the thrones, the powers, and the nations of Europe, made a dying struggle to lay in Mexico the foundations of another Roman supremacy, and to repeat in the new world the role of the Papacy, of Jesuitism, and of the Inquisition in the old. The intoler- able Yoke. Despotism in The maligned Mexican civil war has been simply the uprising ot an oppressed and persecu- ted “ people,” and their resistance to a despotism, monarchi- cal and ecclesiastical, unparalleled in the history of human wrongs and atrocities. A civil war ! It was the protest and the cry of an oppressed race, and a betrayed nation, struggling for life. It was the last despairing effort of a people, crushed, exhausted, enfeebled, depressed by three centuries of unutterable woes. Three of the mightiest pow- ers of Christendom pounced down upon the feeble State, to extinguish its nationality and divide the spoils. In vain their victims asserted the “ inalienable rights of man.” In vain they invoked the laws of nations against perfidy and extortion. In vain they claimed the liberties and rights which every nation, every race, and every human being have received from their Creator. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 45 European example. Sympathy misplaced And neither England, France, nor Spain, nor old Rome itself, Pagan or Papal, can show a fairer record than the wronged and defenceless Mexicans present, of righteous claims, of intrepid patriotism, of self- sacrifice and suffering in the cause of their country, their government, or of humanity. England, France, and Spain have had each a memorable history. It would almost seem that their statesmen and journalists of the present day had never learned, or had forgotten it. Their origin, their wars, and revolutions, their struggles with King-craft and Priestcraft, with every form of usurpation and tyranny, have only antedated those of Mexico by a few centuries. And every element of opposition and calumny heaped upon Mexico, is found, “ mutatis mutandis,” in their own historians, applied to themselves. THE CONQUEST AND EARLY HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. Ancestors of “ Nothing,” says Macauley, “ in the early exist- Eugiishmen. ence Q rea £ Britain, indicated the greatness which she was destined to attain. Her inhabitants, when first they became known to the Tyrian mariners, were lit- tle superior to the natives of the Sandwich Islands. She was subjugated by the Roman arms. She was the last of the provinces of the Ciesars that was conquered, and the first that was flung away. No magnificent remains of Latian porches and aqueducts are to be found in Britain. * * In Britain, the conquered race became as barbarous as the conquerors.” * * * “From communion ” (with the ancient civilization) ” Britain was cut off. Her shores were, to the polished race which dwelt by the Bosphorus, objects of a mysterious horror, such as that with which the Ionians, 46 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. of the age of Homer, had regarded the straits of Scylla, and the city of the Laestrygonian cannibals.” “ There was one province of our Island, in which, as Procopius had been told, the ground Avas covered with serpents, and the air was such that no man could inhale it and live.” In one of Cicero’s letters, alluding to the origin of the British colony, the old Homan said, “ As for the inhabi- tants, they are ignorant, stupid, have no knowledge of music, and are unfit for the meanest situation in the house- hold of our friend Atticus.” ungenerous Such are the statements. Whether true or false, it may be as much a question of truth as of taste, whether English statesmen, diplomats, authors, editors, military and naval officers, should indulge in their cease- less and opprobrious flings at Mexico and the Mexicans. Time was when Britons were described as “ painted sav- ages.” For four hundred years England was convulsed with a succession of conflicts and wars, with which noth- ing in the last forty years of the Mexican struggle can compare. civil wars of There were wars for the “throne,” for the “ church,” for the “ state ; ” contests for Papal or Begal supremacy ; contests between kings and queens, parliaments and commons ; there were conflicts of races, and all the jealousies and feuds of chieftains and nobles ; there were bloody battle-fields, private frays, and secret assassinations ; the axe of the executioner, fire and faggot, did their work ; there is no alleged barbarity or atrocity in the forty years’ Mexican struggle for human rights, that has not its counterpart, in tenfold degree, during the four hundred years of the wars of England for civil and religious liberty. « MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 47 THE FIRST GREAT ENGLISH REVOLTTION. — 1640. The great Mag- At the commencement of the thirteenth cen- nacharta. tury, the long contest between the Crown and the Barons was settled. The great “ Magna Charta ” of “English Liberties” was extorted from King John, not- Avithstanding the excommunication and anathema of the Pope. “From this,” says Macauley, “commences the history of the English nation.” “ Here was the origin of our freedom, our prosperity, and our glory.” “ Then it was that the English people was formed, and the national character began to exhibit those peculiarities in politics, feelings, and manners, that it has ever since retained.” “ Then first appeared that Constitution, which has ever since, through all changes, preserved its identity ; that ‘ Constitution , 1 of which all the other free constitutions of the world are copies.” “ Then it was that the House of Commons, the archetype of all the representative assem- blies which now meet, either in the old or in the new world, held its first sittings “ that Common Law rose to the dignity of a science,” and became “ the rival of impe- rial jurisprudence ; ” “ that the most ancient colleges, at both the great national seats of learning, were founded.” “ Then appeared the first faint dawn of that noble litera- ture, the most splendid and the most durable of the many glories of England.” constitutional Under this great instrument the English mon- Monarchy. arc hy ? f or a p er i 0( J 0 f f our hundred years, made its way through all the collisions and conflicts between the King, lords, and commons, and all the antagonistic elements in church and state. popular rights The Constitution, supported by statute law, and liberties. -i , , ■. * i r- guarded, to an extent never known before, 48 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. * the rights and liberties of the people. According to law, without the consent of the representatives of the nation, no royal decree could be enforced, no tax imposed, no mili- tary establishment maintained, no arbitrary imprisonment inflicted, nor the legal rights of the humblest subject be violated. Fruits of false Principles. But gradual encroachments upon the rights and liberties of the people, and the persistent in- culcation of false political and religious doctrines, paved the way for another revolution, and a new proclamation of the rights of man. The “ Divine The Papacy and the “ church party 11 taught Right” and 1 . J 1 J ° Human Rights, that “ hereditary monarchy alone, among all the institutions of the kingdom, was divine and inviolable ; that the right of the House of Commons to a share in the legislative power was a right merely human; that the right of the King to the obedience of the people was the ancient ordinance of God; that the ‘Great Charter’ was a statute, that might be repealed by those who made it ; but that the title of the Princes of the Royal blood to the throne, in the order of succession, was of celestial ori- gin^ and could never be invalidated.” ijberty and It was the necessity and the province of the new revolution to reaffirm the fundamental prin- ciples of liberty and law — the grounds, prerogatives, and limitations of royal authority, and the relative duties and obligations of rulers and people. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 49 THE SECOND GREAT HISTORICAL REVOLUTION, 1688. Another Rev- From the beginning of the thirteenth to olution in 00 England. near c } oge 0 f the seventeenth century, Eng- land was the theatre of as much intestine commotion and war, of as much intense hatred and hostility of races ; of as much bitter and rancorous religious hate and persecu- tion ; of as much bloodthirsty and blood-shedding strife between races, tribes, clans, families, parties and individ- uals, kings, queens, nobles, parliaments, prelates and popes, as can be named in the history of any other four hundred years of any other nation in the course of time. If there be any exceptions, they are those of France and Spain. The oid con- And yet, pervading the whole, there has been always conspicuous one noble party oj patriots and martyrs of liberty , who have maintained, from age to age, the determined, persistent struggle for the “ inalien- able ” civil and religious rights of man. O O It is the distinguishing and immortal monu- ment of England’s glory, that the men of her civil wars and revolutions did not succumb to any papal, or regal, or feudal domination, or any foreign intervention whatever ! Freedom the A strange apostasy it must be, if any of the universal birth- 0 A ^ ri sbt- sons of English liberties, who can look with indifference, not to say with hostility and contempt, upon the noble struggles of Mexican patriots to obtain, as their birthright too, that which is the crowning glory of the heri- tage of Englishmen ! Indomitable En- lish Patriots. 50 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. THE GREAT AMERICAN REVOLUTION, 1776. The American The Declaration of American Independence, Declaration in 1 Dm July 4th, 1776, “ m the name and by the author- ity of the good people of the Colonies,” and the Constitu- tion of the United States of America, 1787, under the for- mula, “ We the People,” inaugurated a new era in the history of human governments. These dates mark the beginning of the great transition in the seats of political power. They mark at once the grand epoch, era, and crisis in modern civilization. Philadelphia has the honor of beiug the birthplace of those immortal documents, which herald, almost like the Song of Bethlehem, “ good will ” to the “ brotherhood ” of man. The attitude of It is scarcely possible, at the present day, to the Signeib. a pp rec j a ^ e the moral grandeur of the acts of the Fathers of the Republic. In the face of the mightiest power in Christendom, who held undisputed the Empire of the seas, and whose “ morning drum-beat ” followed the “ circuit of the sun,” the little handful of patriots pro- claimed before the whole world the independence, the unity, the nationality, and the sovereignty of the nation. “ Liee, Fortune, Sacred Honor,” was the fraternal pledge of united, calm, deliberate, sublime self-sacrifice for the political emancipation of their country, and of mankind. The issue joined between despotism and freedom is briefly told in the following clauses : The resolution of John Adams, of Massachusetts, in view of the aggressions of England : “ It is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under said croivn should he totally suppressed.' 1 ' 1 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 51 The resolution of Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia : — “ That these United States are , and of right ought to he, free and independent .” The Declaration : “ We hold these truths to he self-evi- dent , , that all men are created equal ; and are endowed hy their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life , liberty , and the pursuit of happiness . ” The Preamble : “ We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity , provide for the common de- fence, promote the general welfare , and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of Amer- • ff ica. The proclamation of these truths and principles in the great original State Papers of the Republic was a very different thing from their repetition to-day. The nation, in its infancy, in its weakness, in its inexperience, rose against the oppressions of a mighty empire of a thousand years. It had nothing to oppose to this vast overshadowing power but the majesty of truth and right. o The Principles and the Men. The act of the u Signers of the Declaration ” electri- fied the world. It was a sublime spectacle. The response of the nation, and the sequel of the “ War of our Indepen- dence,” were events in the annals of time that will sur- vive, in the memory of man, all the pyramids and pillars of antiquity. Moral suh- It was not merely the little handful of colo- nists rejecting the yoke of the mother country, nor the unequal contest of a feeble, scarcely organized, and dependent people, resisting the power of the empire on which the “ sun never sets,” — it was the grounds of the 52 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. immortal “ Declaration .” It was not now the uprising of a great 'people, hut the resurrection of great principles , that startled the world. Monarchs and The Kino; of England was the mightiest the rights of . ® - -r, ° - , ° Mcn - monarch, and the British empire the strongest military and naval power of the earth. The claims of the “ crown 11 were such as all the monarchies of Europe held as “ Divine. 11 King, Court, and Nobles, in all their power and pride, the accumulations of a thousand years of royal ancestry and feudal privileges and traditions, could scarcely brook the paper defiance of colonial rebels. But the issue was joined, — the great initial issue between the rights of monarchs and the rights of man. mSs?oners Com ’ In 1777-80, three American Commissioners, peopie^ ench Franklin, Adams, and Lee, were sent to Paris, to negotiate for assistance, in money and arms, from the French Government. It seemed that the feeble forces of the States, with neither fleet nor military resources, nor supplies, must be crushed, unless they could secure the aid of some friendly foreign power. The French People manifested a strong sympathy Avith the American cause. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789. The Repubii- In 1789, the Republicans of France, in Na- cans of France. Assembly, took up the principles of American Republicanism and adopted them as their OAvn. One of the first steps of the Assembly Avas to issue a De- claration of the “rights of man. 11 The three great pillars of the French Constitution Avere here hewn out and erected, — “ Liberty, Fraternity, Equality . 1 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 53 In the Declaration of Rights they affirm : 1. The original equality of all mankind. 2. That the ends of social union are, liberty, property, security, and resistance of oppression. 3. That Sovereignty resides in the nation, and that every power emanates from them. 4. That freedom consists in doing every thing that does not injure another. 5. That law is the expression of the general will. 6. That public burdens should be borne by the members of the State in proportion to their fortunes. 7. That the elective franchise should be extended to all. 8. That the exercise of natural rights has no other limit but the interference with the rights of others. This Assembly, of 1,119 members, was composed of two hundred and ninety-one deputies of the clergy, two hundred and seventy of the nobles, five hundred and fifty- eight of the “ tiers etat,” or middle class. Among the principal measures adopted were, 1. The King suspended from his functions. 2. The suppression of all titles of nobility. 3. The abolition of all feudal privileges. 4. Freedom of religion and of the press. 5. The property of the clergy declared to belong to the nation, and placed at the disposition of the treasury. 6. The political division of the kingdom. THE REVOLUTION IN SPAIN, 1812 . Republicans of Spain. In 1812, the Republicans of Spain followed the example of those in France and in the Uni- ted States. The Constitution of the Cortes, and the reso- lutions and decrees of the junta and clubs of Madrid, were in perfect harmony with the principles and declaration of the assembly at Paris. They declared, 54 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 1. The abolition of all exclusive privileges. 2. The investiture in the nation of all seignorial juris- diction. 3. The establishment of entire freedom of the press. 4. The abolition of the Inquisition, and of the order of the Jesuits, and of all emblems and monuments Avhich bore reference to them. 5. The prohibition of all monastic vows. 6. The Institution of National Guards, with their officers appointed by the election of the privates. 7. The preservation of all monastic property, to be dis- posed of for the benefit of the nation. TIIE IIEVOLTJTION IN MEXICO, 1812. Republicans In 1812, the first Mexican “Congress” met of cxico. j n t j ie c -f.y 0 f Qhilpancingo. They adopted the ideas and opinions of the Spanish Cortes, and of the French Assembly, and borrowing the very name of our Congress, and imitating our example, declared the “ In- dependence of Mexico.” Among the first acts of the Congress, were the follow- ing declarations : 1. That the Mexican nation resumed its sovereignty, and exercised it by its representatives. 2. That Slavery was abolished. 3. That all privileges of birth and color were annulled. 4. That torture should no longer be inflicted. 5. That the rights of property should be protected. 6. That foreign commerce should be permitted, under moderate duties. 7. That the Laws should require patriotism and loyalty ; limit alike excesses of opulence and poverty ; tend to increase the wages of the poor, and diminish popular ignorance, vice, and crime. 8. That all gambling should be forbidden, and the manu- facture even of playing cards prohibited. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 55 9. That all debts to Spaniards should be repudiated, on the principle that their property was forfeited and confiscated. 10. That any assistance to the Spaniards, by writing, word, or deed, should be accounted as high treason, as also a refusal to contribute towards the expenses of the war of independence. At the same time the following additional declarations were issued, indicating just the progress that had been made in their ideas of religious, as well as of civil liberty. 11. That the Catholic religion only should be recognized and allowed in the State. 12. That the press should be free for all purposes of science and political economy, but not for the dis- cussion of religious matters ! The course of subsequent events educated the people irresistibly up to the broad and thorough principles of universal civil and religious liberty. It was not the stride of a day. The pathway from bondage to freedom has always been a long and toilsome journey of privation, trial, suffering and death through the wilderness. For the Jew- ish nation, it took forty years ; for England, four hundred. France commenced the bloody agony fourscore years ago, and has not yet reached the promised land. Spain, — but we hardly know yet, whether she has crossed the sea. We have had our own fearful baptism, and Mexico, it is to be hoped, is just emerging from hers. But the great conflict is raging. The whole earth is one vast Egypt. Pharaoh and his hosts are in every land. The cry of the victims of the oppressor has reached unto Heaven. A few pages in a chapter, will disclose the mighty issues which divide the world to-day. The princi- ples promulgated by despotism, are often but the merest 56 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. pretexts to disguise the aim. But the proclamations of freedom have no concealment nor hypocrisy. Contrast the Republican declarations of human rights, with the manifestos of Kings, the Encyclicals and Allocu- tions of Popes, and mark their distinctive principles as -diverse from each other, as light and darkness, as life and death. If the fundamental principles of the Institutions of the United States, are the principles which God has given to mankind, as Heaven's own Charter of human rights, — then the Republicans of Mexico have been joining the holy cause, and the cry of humanity for civil and re- ligious liberty ! Mexico and the United States should stand or fall together, in the assertion before all the world — of the absolute, universal, necessary, indispensable, and eternal equality of the rights of man. PART III. THE RELIGIOUS ELEMENT IN THE MEXICAN QUESTION. CHAPTER I. GENERAL VIEWS. Object of this Work. The real issue in Mexico. The object of this volume is, to present a sim- ple, truthful, impartial statement of facts, and such views, and such only, as the facts themselves suggest and sustain. It will be a difficult task to present the ec- clesiastical and religious aspects of the subject without prej- udice or partiality. The statements will be confined to undeniable historic facts, and held up to view in the light of the XIX. century, and in their relations to the pro- gress of modern civilization. There is no personal party or sinister object to be served. The rights of Mexicans, civil and re- ligious are the same, and rest on the same grounds as the rights of all Americans, and of all mankind. The assertion and defence of these rights, on the part of Mexico, at such costof treasure, blood, and life, have been really a sacrifice for humanity. The Mexican Republican Patriots have made common cause with the friends of freedom all over the world. The offering up of the life-blood of this young, struggling Republic, in the face of the mighty confederacy of its foes, has been a grand and heroic exhibition of self- sacrifice and suffering for the fundamental principles of modern civilization. 58 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Limitations of responsibility. Lest the plain narrative of incontestible facts, and the views and objects of this volume, should be misunderstood and misrepresented, it is here repeated ; that there is no animosity or unfriendliness whatever towards any profess- edly Christian organization, as such. The only enmity, is enmity to error ; the only opposition, opposition to wrong. No living men, or existing institutions among men, can be held responsible for the errors and abuses of past ages. None are accountable for wrongs they did nothing to introduce, have done nothing to per- petuate, and now withhold nothing in their power to re- move. There is a distinction however, wide as the heavens, between the system of eternal truths and principles of the Christian religion revealed from God, and the accretions of error during eighteen hundred years, and the attendant corruptions, perversions, and inventions of men. The Christian The Christian religion was founded on the eter- nal principles of truth and justice, — the everlast- ing foundations of love to God, and love to man. It places every human being on a footing of equality before his Maker and the Divine law, and before his fellow-men and human law. But the renunciation and abandonment of these principles, among all modern governments, have been the source and potent cause of the oppressions, revolutions, and civil wars of Christendom. Errors and It will be a matter of profound regret if any- th in 2; in this volume shall be understood as re- fleeting upon any of the truths or institutions of the Holy Catholic Christian Religion. It is necessary, however, I. To exhibit the errors and abuses which in the pro- gress of ages have crept into a system, Divine in its origin, but, corrupted, encumbered, and desecrated by the super- MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 59 stitions of sinful and erring men, has lost its virgin purity, and is shorn of its life-giving power. Christianity ut- II. To show to what an abyss of degeneracy teriy perverted. an d degradation the system claiming to be, or to represent, the holy and spiritual Christian religion had reached, in Mexico ; and that, whatever was the cause, wherever lay the responsibility, upon monarch, prelate, or priest, the whole ecclesiastical fabric had utterly failed of its mission. It neither instructed nor comforted nor guided the people in the “ way of life.” On the contrary, instead of being a blessing, it was an unmitigated curse. Reformation or destruction had become an absolute and inevitable necessity. T> It is a very remarkable and instructive fact, [;;dhe'uniuT h that in no country in the world does the Roman Catholic branch of the church occupy so com- manding and respected a position as in the United States. Nowhere else are its clergy, regular and secular, so Avell educated, so much esteemed for their culture, their refinement, their generally unexceptionable lives, and ex- emplary usefulness. Character and In no Roman Catholic country are its influence of the . ciergy. churches, institutions, and schools so well ap- pointed, and so well conducted. Nowhere are the funda- mental and essential truths of Christianity so well under- stood, and so intelligently embraced : namely, u Salvation alone through the blood of Christ ; repentance , faith , and a new and a Christian life.'' In vain you look to any other land for a Roman Catholic population so well to do, so generally intelligent and enlightened, so desirous of improvement, so useful and so happy. Neither France, Spain, Austria, Italy, nor Rome itself, can in any respect 60 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. begin to compare witli the United States in these features of the American branch of the Roman Catholic church, source of its The source and support of all these incalcula- prospci ble "blessings and advantages are found in the civil and political institutions of the United States. They are the legitimate fruits of the Constitution and the Gov- ernment. The great American ideas, absolute separation of Church and State, independent church organizations, freedom of opinion, freedom of conscience, freedom of worship, of speech, of education, and of the press, are the foundations of all this prosperity. We turn to the “ Church ” in Mexico. Roman Catholic The testimony of all, natives and foreigners, Church in J m 9 # Mexico. old residents and travellers, intelligent individ- uals of the priesthood and of the laity, of monarchists, conservatives and radical republicans, of Spaniards, Frenchmen, Englishmen and Americans, of Foreign Min- isters and Consuls, of military and naval commanders, of mercantile and scientific men, engineers, and men in all the walks of professional and private life — all concur in rep- resenting the condition of the “ Church ” as deplorable beyond description. It is not necessary to go largely into details in regard to the condition, character, and influence of the metropoli- tan and interior churches ; of the clergy, regular and secular, their social life, standard of morality, general intelligence, education, principles, and influence. They are well known. The fruits of The question forces itself upon the statesmen ts mis ° lon " and philanthropists of Europe and America, have the churches, the religious institutions and the ecclesiastics MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 61 of Mexico been fulfilling tlie mission of the Gospel of God ? They have held by estimate one fourth of the real estate of the country. They have controlled all the offices of honor and power in the land ; administered, directly and indirectly, all the functions of civil government ; directed the whole policy of the nation, civil, political, military and ecclesiastical ; regulated the entire system of education and religious instruction, the observance of all' sacred rites and duties, the Sacraments, marriage, the Sabbath, and all that pertains to human life from the cradle to the grave. Has this “Church” been doing its duty? For three centuries it has had the position, the power, and the wealth for its work. It had no opposition, no formidable system of error or idolatry to encounter ; never, in the whole history of Christian missions, have the heralds of the “ Cross ” had such a field and such an opportunity. No overshadowing superstition, like that of “ Great Diana of the Ephesians," no Greek or Roman mythology, or philosophy that held whole nations spell-bound, as in chains of moral death ; but all Mexico was open, and a docile, gentle race were ready to receive the truths and embrace the blessings of the pure religion of Jesus. Never has there been such a failure. Of all the melancholy contrasts which can be suggested in the history of the “ Church,” there is nothing to compare with that of the first three centuries after the apostleship of Peter and Paul, and the first three centuries of the propagation of the gospel in Mexico. True policy of Can the “Church” party in Mexico, under “TheOhurch” . 1 *' " in Mexico. their responsibility to God, do a more righteous or better thing for themselves and their flocks, and their country, than to introduce and adopt the principles and the system of religious policy in the United States ? and 62 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. do all they can to extend through Central and South America those great ideas of civil and religious freedom which have made the Churches of Christ in the United States, of every name and denomination, with all their faults, still not second in purity, in order, in peace, pros- perity, piety, and usefulness, to any religious organizations that ever existed in the world '? The same principles in Mexico will in time make her clergy and her population intelligent and moral, and her civil and religious institutions prosperous and Christian, like our own. spirit of the This volume, therefore, breathes no spirit of hostility or opposition to the Catholic Church. It opposes only errors, abuses, oppression, and wrong in any body politic, anywhere. It pleads for human rights — the rights of eight millions of native Mexicans, abused, oppressed, down-trodden, crushed under the inexorable iron heel of three centuries. To this end, facts and statements are collected and condensed, which it is hoped will commend themselves as worthy of consideration by statesmen and philanthropists ; promote international sympathy and kindness, and secure tor an injured race and people the protection which the strong owe to the weak ; and save from further calumny and outrage a gentle and docile race, whose faults and vices, whatever they may be, should be visited more upon their oppressors than upon themselves. The Roman Catholic branch of “ The Church ” is the most extensive and powerful organization that ever ex- isted in this world. It numbers some two hundred mil- lions, of almost every language and land. There is only one thing on this earth that is stronger — the Majesty of Eter- nal truth and justice ! And Juaeez and his compatriots MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 63 planted upon this, though reviled, persecuted, and hunted by the civilized, as if they were the savages , have defied the combined power of four of the mightiest monarchies of earth, and with the simple stones of “truth” and “justice” have smitten this mighty, proud Goliath system of the ages. CHAPTER II. ROME AND MEXICO J OR THE ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPLES AND ASSUMP- TIONS OF “THE CHURCH PARTY.” It is impossible to understand the religious element in the “ Mexican Question,” without reverting to certain great historic events, which show how the two vast in- terests, the political and the ecclesiastical, have entered into the contest, from the beginning. These two elements of power and despotism have acted and re-acted upon each other, and influenced every thing else, in all the phases and stages of the struggle. “ It is,” as Macauley says in another case, “ one act in the great eventful drama, extending through ages, which must be very imperfectly understood, unless the plot of the preceding acts be well known.” HISTORICAL SKETCH. Principles of The institutions, political, civil, and religious, zation. and the general type of civilization in modern Europe and America, and especially in France, Great Britain, and the United States, are directly traceable to the Homan Empire. The destruction of that power and polity resulted in the distribution far and wide, among the kingdoms and governments that succeeded, of certain 64 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. The Roman Empire. a. d. 476. came to an end. principles and forms of administration, which have shaped and moulded the constitutions and codes of Christendom from that day to this. In a. d. 476, the Western Roman Empire The hordes of barbarians, — Goths and Vandals, that for half a century had poured down from the north, and successively, under Alaric, Attila, Genseric, and Odoacer, had overrun and ravaged Italy — at length subdued the last vestige of resistance, deposed and banished the last of the Emperors, and sub- verted and swept away the whole political 'power and prowess of the “mistress of the world,” and of the mighty ancient Empire of a thousand years. The throne, the crown, the sceptre, passed to pagan hands. The mitre alone remained, to sway the consciences and super- stitious fears of Roman, Vandal, and Goth. The Ancient The Bishop of Rome, the clergy, and all or- church i arty. q ers an q interests of the “ Church Party” made every possible effort to save their “ ecclesiastical system,” on which their position, wealth, and power depended. They compromised with their barbarian, heathen conquer- ors — the Pagans consenting to take the Christian name, and Bishops and Priests agreeing to adopt, in many re- spects, the pagan ritual, thus confounding the sublime and glorious truths of Christianity with the errors and superstitions of pagan mythology, and degrading and desecrating the pure, simple, spiritual worship of the church of Christ with the pompous rites and ceremonies of heathen idolatry. Ascendency of Availing themselves of the extraordinary as. tkeinebtiiood. cenc [ enc y which priestly power so easily gains over the ignorant and superstitious, the bishops and clergy not only secured the perpetuation of their ecclesiastical MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 65 Invasion of the Barbarians. functions and power , but also great political immunities and concessions, — the germs of conflicts, revolutions, and wars, in all subsequent ages, down to the last struggle in Mexico. Robertson says, “ When the barbarians who overran the Roman Empire first embraced the Christian faith, they found the clergy in possession of considerable power, and they naturally transferred to those new guides the profound submission and reverence which they were accustomed to yield to the priests of that religion which they had just forsaken. They deemed their persons to be equally sacred with their function , and would have considered it as impious to subject them to the profane jurisdiction of the laity. The clergy were not blind to these advantages. They established courts , in which every question relating to their own character , their f unction, their property, was tried and pleaded ; and ob- tained almost total exemption from the authority of civil judges .” * Origin of Mex- Here is the germ of the Ecclesiastical “ fueros,” a.d.ooo. which the clergy have claimed in all lands and ages, and have fought to perpetuate in France, in Spain, and in Mexico. Hallam concurs in substantially the same views, as follows : “ The devotion of the conquer- ing nations, as it was still less enlightened than that of the subjects of the Empire, so was it still more munificent. They left indeed the worship of Hesus and Taranis in their forests ; but they retained the elementary principles of that, and of all barbarous idolatry, a superstitious rev- erence for the priesthood, — a credulity that seemed to invite imposture, and a confidence in the efficacy of gifts to ex- * Robertson’s Charles V. p. 34. Hallam’ s Mid- dle Ages. 66 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. piate offences. Of this temper, it is undeniable that the ministers of religion, influenced probably, not so much by personal covetousness, as by zeal for the interests of their order, took advantage. statement of “ Many of the peculiar and prominent charac- Mr. Haiiam. ^eristics in the faith and discipline of those ages, appear to have been either introduced, or sedulously pro- moted, for the purpose of sordid fraud. To those purposes conspired the veneration for relics , the worship of images , the idolatry of saints and martyrs , the religious inviola- bility of sanctuaries , the consecration of cemeteries , but above all , the doctrine of purgatory, and masses for the re- lief of the dead. A creed thus contrived, operating upon the minds of barbarians, lavish though rapacious, and de- vout though dissolute, naturally caused a torrent of opu- lence to pour in upon the Church.” * Progress of the From these beginnings, the progress and es- claimsof“the . . , church Party.” tabhshment of the power and pretensions of the Bishops and Clergy were rapid and startling, and would shock the whole Christian world at the present day, if the facts were not so familiar, and the consequences so interwoven in the whole fabric of modern institutions of government in Church and State. Origin of the On the ruins of the demolished Roman Em- Ecclesiastical # . . , .. . system. pire another power arose, uniting essentially the 'political and the ecclesiastical elements, which were soon consolidated in a gigantic system of error and superstition, combining the monstrous absurdities of old, exploded my- thologies and idolatrous worship, with the strangest and most incongruous mingling of the fundamental and sublime truths of revelation. * Hallam’s Middle Ages, Chap. 7, p. 261. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 67 The stupen- It was a grand and comprehensive scheme, dous scheme, -y^g^ was ^e one p e ad, one government, one Empire, temporal and spiritual. The Bishop of “ old B-ome,” the “ Mother of dead Empires,” was to be “ head Bishop,” then “ Universal Bishop,” then “Vicar of Christ,” “ Judge in the place of God,” “ subject to no earthly tribu- nal,” “ Vice-gerent of the Most High,” — the temporal and spiritual monarch of all the Earth ! “ His Holiness, the Pope.” * The office of In old Pagan Rome, the office of Supreme origin. Pontiff, from the time of Numa, had always been as much a political as a religious prerogative. Monumen- tal remains in old Rome, to this day, bear inscriptions to Augustus and his successors as “ Imperator et Pontifex Maximus.” They exercised in person the office of Emperor and of High Priest of the Roman Empire. He was to be the Sovereign of' the habitable globe. The O o Territorial jur- owner in fee simple of all the estates of Shem, Ham and Japhet, — absolute monarch of Continent, Island, and Ocean. He was to be the spiritual head of the human race of every continent and island, of every “kindred, tongue, and nation, and people,” through all generations, down the track of ages to the last man. O ’ O The spiritual monarchy. Den’s theology, a standard authority in the Ro- man Catholic Church, says the supreme Pontiff is “ Christ’s vicar upon Earth.” Christ instituted the church, not on the plan of an aristocratic or democratic govern- ment, but on the plan of a monarchical government , yet tempered by that which is best in an aristocracy . When He withdrew his visible presence by his ascension into Heaven, he constituted his “Vicar ” the visible head of the Church. * Gieseler. Yol. 1 , p. 339. 68 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. universal do- “ The Roman Pontiff is called “ Supreme Pon- tiff, ” not only because’ he holds the highest honor and dignity in the church, but principally because he has -supreme and universal authority , power, and juris- diction over all Bishops and the whole church. He receives his potver and jurisdiction immediately f rom Christ , as His Vicar, just as Peter received it. Nor is it any objec- tion that the Pope is elected by cardinals ; for their elec- tion is only an essential requisite, which being supplied, he receives power and jurisdiction immediately from Christ. The Bishop’s The French contended that the Bishops , as title and juris- it. • , diction. we ll as the Pope, receive their power ot jurisdic- tion immediately from Christ ; but it seems that it ought rather to be said, that they receive it immediately from the Roman Pontiff, because the government of the church is monarchical." The Pope’s u The Pope has plenitude of poicer in the absolute su- ; . premacy. Church ; it extends to all who are m the church, and to all things that pertain to the government of the church ; because the Roman Pontiff is the true Vicar of Christ, the head of the whole church, the pastor and teacher ; so that all the faithful, even Bishops and Patriarchs, are obliged to obey the Roman Pontiff ; and he must he obeyed in cdl things ivhich concern the Christian religion , in faith , customs , rites , and ecclesiastical disci- pline. Hence the device falls to the ground, that the Pope is not to be obeyed, except in those things which he enjoins conformably to sacred Scripture." Such was the origin and such the principles that characterized this stupendous scheme of a universal empire, that should rival “ the throne and mon- archy of Heaven." With matchless skill and more than * Den’s Theology, 81-94. The universal empire. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 69 human art, the elements were compounded to meet the prejudices and tastes of the Jew, the Greek, the Roman, and the Pagan. Christianity, instead of fulfilling its mis- sion of enlightening, converting, and sanctifying the na- tives, was itself converted. Paganism was baptized , Chris- tianity Paganized. The great historic facts and truths of Christianity, and its most sublime and solemn doctrines, were blended with the effete fables of old mythologies. The pure, intelli- gent, spiritual worship of primitive Christianity was merged in the superstitious rites and imposing sensual ceremonies of Pagan rituals. It was no longer the “ wor- ship of God, in spirit and in truth, 1 ' but the perfunctory and spectacular displays of heathen temples, smoking altars, burning lights, pictures, images, tinkling bells, sprinkling priests, and singing boys. i This mistaken policy of seeking to conciliate and con- vert the heathen by introducing their idolatrous rites and ceremonies into Christian worship, was sanctioned and en- forced by Boniface III., in his decrees adopting all these pagan observances, and enjoining uniformity of worship throughout the Roman Church. The same policy has been pursued from age to age, in France, in England, in China, and in Mexico. opinion of Mosheim,* in his Ecclesiastical History, says “ The addition of external rites was also designed to remove the opprobrious calumnies which the Jewish and Pagan priests cast upon Christians on account of the simplicity of their worship, esteeming them little better than atheists, because they had no temples , altars , victims , priests , nor anything of that external pomp in which the vular are so prone to place the essence of religion. The * Moskeim’s Ecclesiastical History, vol. 1. p. 197. 70 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. rulers of the Church therefore adopted certain external ceremonies, that they might captivate the senses of the vulgar, and be able to refute the reproaches of their ad- versaries ; thus obscuring the native lustre of the gospel in order to extend its influence, and making- it lose, in point of real excellence, what it gained in point of popular esteem. 1 ’ Pagan origin The rites and institutions by which the Greeks, of Papal cer- J 7 emonies. Romans, and other nations had formerly testified their religious veneration for fictitious deities, were now adopted, Avitli some slight alterations, by Christian Bishops, and employed in the service of the true God. These her- alds of the gospel imagined that the nations Avould receive Christianity with more facility, when they saw the rites and ceremonies to which they tvere accustomed adopted in the church, and the same Avorship paid to Christ and his martyrs as they had formerly offered to their idol deities. Hence, in these times, the religion of the Greeks and Romans differed very little in its external appear- ance from that of the Christians. They both had a most pompous and splendid ritual. Gorgeous robes, mitres, tiaras, Avax tapers, crosiers, processions, lustrations, im- ages, gold and silver vases, and many such circumstances of pageantry, Avere equally to be seen in the heathen tem- ples and the Christian churches.” * Waddington’s Wadding;ton, in his Church History, T attests Church His- ® ' . tory. the same : “ ihe copious transfusion of heathen ceremonies into Christian worship, which had taken place before the end of the fourth century, had to a certain ex- tent paganized (if Ave may so express it) the outivard form and aspect of religion ; and these ceremonies became * Mosheim’s Ecclesiastical History, Cent. iv. Part 2, Chap. 4. f Waddington’s History of the Church, p. 118. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 71 more general and more numerous, and more splendid, in the age which followed. To console the convert for the o loss of his favorite festival, others of a different name, but of similar description, were introduced.” “ It is true, the Church had been deeply corrupted both by that superstition and that philosophy against which she had long contended. She had given a too easy admission to doctrines borrowed from the ancient schools, and to rites borrowed from the ancient temples. Roman policy and Gothic ignorance, Grecian ingenuity and Syrian asceticism had contributed to deprave her.” The scheme of Such, then, was the scheme, more fully dis- Govemment. c j oge( j anc ] p a ^ en ^ £ 0 the world in the progress of subsequent developments, namely : I. One universal Government. The Roman Empire had its limits. The new one was to have none, save only those of the earth and of the race : so comprehensive as to embrace the Roman, the Greek, the Barbarian, and the Jew ; Rome, the centre and the head, embracing the ut- most limits of the empire ; Greece, Asia Minor, and all the known and unknown regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa : so accommodating, in becoming “ all things to all men,” as to meet the prejudices and tastes, and satisfy the customs and traditions of all races, nationalities and tribes ; aiming to blend in one grand body politic the people of the whole habitable globe, of whatever language, government, laws, or religion. So that the worshippers of Jehovah, of Jesus, of Jupiter, Venus, or Apollo might bow at the same altar and worship at the same shrine. The Pope the H- Of this Government there was to be one head ; absolute, universal, infallible, and irre- sponsible. Every functionary, civil and ecclesiastical, bound by solemn oath to believe and to obey in all things 72 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Historical de- velopment. the word and will of his Sovereign — the arbiter of the destiny, temporal and eternal, of every subject. Temporal and III. The two pillars of power by which this stupendous system was to be propagated and sustained, were the sword and superstition — the double arms of political and ecclesiastical authority. A brief sketch of a few events in the progress of history will show the advances of the system, its present attitude of propagandism in face of modern civ- ilization, and its connection with the struggle in Mexico. The supreme and universal Bishop, the Pope, on the banks of the Tiber, claims to-day absolute and divine right, not only over the United States and Mexico, but over the whole continent, from Labrador to Patagonia. His title runs back directly through KingPhocas, a. d. 696, to the great Apostle and first Bishop to the Jews, Peter. In a. d. 1073, a monk of extraordinary char- acter, Hildebrand, was elected Pope, under the title of Gregory VII. The life; the acts and the decrees of this Pontiff indicate the development of this stupendous scheme during the first five hundred years. He aimed to exalt the dominion of ecclesiastical authority, pure and simple, above all organic earthly powers, and above all individual human rights. He sought to make Emperor, King, and Prince a vassal of the Pope. He assumed to release all subjects from their allegiance to their King. On one occasion he anathematized and de- posed King Henry IV., calling on St. Peter and St. Paul to confirm and ratify his act of deposition in these bold words : “Make all men sensible that, as you can bind and loose every thing in Heaven, you can also upon earth take from or give to, every one according to his deserts, Em- Hildebrand. A D. 1073. The Pope’s Anathema. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 73 pires, Kingdoms, Principalities. Let the Kings and Princes of the age then instantly feel your power, that they may not dare to despise the orders of your church. Let your justice be so speedily executed upon Henry, that nobody may doubt that he falls by yoftr means, and not by chance.” He claimed supreme and absolute dominion and authority over the whole domain of Europe, Germany, Italy, France, Spain, Great Britain. Ambition of “ Gregory,” says his biographer Bower, “ was Gregory \ ii. an am pp;ion the world never heard of before, of establishing an uncontrolled tyranny over mankind, of making himself the sole Lord, spiritual and temporal, over the whole earth — the sole disposer of Em- pires, States, and Kingdoms.” * Decrees of Among the decrees of Pope Gregory VII. Gregory VII. , i are these : The Roman Pontiff alone should of right be styled ‘ Universal Bishop . 1 “ The Pope alone can wear Imperial ornaments. “ All princes are to kiss his foot, and pay that mark of distinction to him alone. “ It is lawful for him to depose Emperors. “ His judgment no man may reverse, but he can re- verse all other judgments. “ He is to be judged by no man. “The Roman Church has never erred, nor will she ever err, according to the Scriptures. “ The Pope can absolve subjects from the oath of al- legiance which they have taken to a bad Prince. “ He can depose and restore Bishops without assem- bling a Synod.” * Bower’s Life of Gregory VII. X 74 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Baroneus (cardinal) says : “ Istas hactenus in eccleske catholic® usu receptas fuisse.” In one of his Epistles, Gregory says, “The Episcopal Dignity is of Divine Institution ; the Royal, is the inven- tion of men, and Owes its origin to pride and ambition. Bishops therefore are above Kings, as well as above all other men, and may judge them, as well as other men.” CHAPTER III. DEVELOPMENT AND ILLUSTRATION OF THESE PRINCIPLES IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND OF FRANCE. Innocent III. A. D. 1198. Results in Great Tiie history of Great Britain furnishes one of the most extraordinary and instructive illustra- tions of the extent and power of these pretensions. If it were not ineontestible history, it would be deemed incred- ible throughout Christendom to-day. In a. d. 1198, Innocent III. was elected Pope. A sharp controversy arose, during the reign of Richard Coeur de Lion, in respect to the erection of an Episcopal Palace at Lambeth. The King and the Arch- bishop of Canterbury were engaged in erecting the struc- ture. The Pope disapproved of the proceeding, and sent his bulls to the king and to the archbishop, threatening to sus- pend the one and dethrone the other, if they did not imme- diately desist and demolish the works at Lambeth. The Pope declared, that if the king did not instantly obey, “ he would not endure the least contempt of himself, or of God , whose place he held upon earth ; but would punish, with- out delay, and without respect of persons, every one who presumed to disobey his commands, in order to convince the whole world, that he was determined to act in a Royal Manner.” MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 75 The bulls from the banks of the Tiber were too much for the “ Lion-hearted ” and the Archbishop on the Thames. In less than three months the foundations of Lambeth were razed to the ground! po r e innoce t After the death of King Richard, and the ac- and Kmg John. cesg . on j^j n g J 0 b n , another violent dispute arose between Pope Innocent and the King of England, respecting the election of Stephen Langton, as successor to the Archbishopric of Canterbury. The Pope wished the Primate of all England to be appointed by his sole au- thority , and to be subject to him. King John claimed the honor, dignity, and the rights of his crown and kingdom. The Pope insisted. King John protested. The Pope’s In- In a. d. 1208, the Pope laid all the dominions terdict. A. D. , . ? . ,, 1208. of Kmg J ohn under an “ interdict. Says Mr. Hume, this sentence “was calculated to strike the senses in the highest degree, and to operate with irresistible force on the superstitious minds of the people. The nation was all of a sudden deprived of all exterior exercise of its religion ; the altars were despoiled of their ornaments ; the crosses, the relics, the statues of the saints, were laid oji the ground ; and, as if the air it- self were profaned, and might pollute them by its contact, the priests carefully covered them up, even from their own approach and veneration. The use of bells entirely ceased in all the churches ; the bells themselves were removed from the steeples, and laid upon the ground with the other sacred utensils. Mass was celebrated with closed doors, and none but priests were admitted to that holy institu- tion. The laity partook of no religious rite, except the communion to the dying : the dead were not interred in consecrated ground ; they were thrown into ditches, or buried in common fields, and their obsequies were not at- 76 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. tended with prayers or any hallowed ceremony. Marriage was celebrated in the churchyard, and that every action in life might bear the marks of this dreadful situation, the people were prohibited the use of meat, as in Lent or times of the highest penance, were debarred from all pleasures and entertainments, and were forbidden even to salute each other, or so much as to shave their beards or give any decent attention to their apparel. Every cir- cumstance carried symptoms of the deepest distress, and of the most immediate apprehension of divine vengeance and indignation.” * This seems to have a been a favorite method of the Pope and “ The Church Party,” in all ages, to reduce the refractory to obedience. To crush a recusant sovereign, they will deprive millions upon millions of innocent people of all the rites and privileges and consolations of religion. The bridal, the baptism, and the grave for a whole nation are ostracised from all Christian offices or spiritual bene- diction, because a King disagrees with the Pope ! How often has this been the Papal artifice in Europe ! The reader will observe the “The Church Party” repeated it in Mexico. Excornmunica- After two years, King John was “ excommuni- tion of f j Jolm - cated” and by command of the Pope, the bishops and clergy of all his dominion were required to proclaim in all the churches the awful act. Shortly after this the Pope sent his legates to England, who confronted the King in Parlia- ment, and boldly bade him obey the will of the Pope without reserve, in temporal as well as in spiritual things ; and on the King’s refusal, fulminated the sentence of ex- communication , and with loud and insulting menace ah- Tlie Pope’s Legates. * Hume’s England, p. 110. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 77 Intervention in England. solved all his subjects from their oaths of allegiance , pro- nounced the Sovereign degraded from his royal dignity , and declared that neither he nor any of his posterity should ever reign in England. This was intervention in England ! The Pope ratified all that his legates had done, and with great and imposing solemnity in Rome, repeated himself the priestly sentence of excommunication and de- position of King John , and of excommunication of all who should obey him , or have any connection with him. This was an age of superstition. King and Prince, priest and people, considered the utterances of the Pope as of most awful and appalling import. And King John began to feel the universal tremor creeping over his absolved subjects, and trembled for his crown and for his soul. League of the The Pope, in order to carry home to England Pstabie and England’s King, and to all other kings and S°En™i“ e “ t kingdoms, the terrible lesson he would teach the nations, enlisted King Philip of France to aid him in the execution of his sweeping decrees. He offered Philip the pardon of all his sins, and the Kingdom of England, as his reward, for aiding this Roman Jupiter to discharge his ecclesiastical thunderbolts upon the throne and dominions of one who would not obey him. King John at Poor King John ! excommunicated, depos- the feet of the . , ° . , , . „ , , . p °p e - ed, terrified with the loss ot crown and king- dom, with prospective purgatory and the loss of his soul, because of adhering to his own choice in the election of the Archbishop of Canterbury, bends his royal will and neck, and sues for peace with the Pope. Fleet of the The King of F ranee assembled his legions for Kingofiianee. i n t erven ti on at Rouen, and a fleet of 1700 78 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. transports were in waiting for the invasion of faithless Albion, and the transfer and deliverenceof the whole domin- ion, temporal and spiritual, by the power and authority, supreme, absolute, and immaculate, of the successor of St. Peter, to his faithful son and ally, Philip of France. Behold the result. King John, on his knees, delivered to the legate his humble submission, in the following terms:* $EnKfc. “ I, John, by the grace of God, King of Eng- yeyedtotbe ] anc ] * * * freely grant unto God, and the Holy Apostles, Peter and Paul, and to the Holy Roman Church, our mother, and unto the Loud, Pope Innocent, and to his Catholic successors, the whole kingdom of Eng- land, and the whole kingdom of Ireland, with all the l ights and all the appurtenances of the same, for the remis- sion of our sins and of all our generation , both for the liv- ing and the dead , that from this time forward we may re- ceive and hold them of him , and of the Roman Church , as second after him. We have sworn and do swear unto the said Lord, Pope Innocent, and to his Catholic succes- sors, and to the Roman church, a liege homage, in the presence of Pandulphus. If we can be in the presence of the Lord Pope, we will do the same ; and to this ice oblige our heirs and successors forever"" ! ! The Pope The Pope is appeased, accepts the submission, satisfied. anc [ the title-deed of the kingdom. The disap- pointed Philip is forbidden to proceed against the now penitent son and faithful vassal of the church, and the kingdom now became, by due conveyance, “ sealed with the Kings signet,” an acknowledged part of the real estate of the church. * Matthew Paris, pp. 158, 159. Annal. Monast. Burton, apud rerum Anglican, script, t. 1. p. 165. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 79 Another anathema. Poor King King John, humbled and obsequious, is for- given, released from “ interdict,” and is sustained by his master, whose principles, policy, and pretensions he himself sustains. The sturdy When the sturdy barons of old England de- oid England, manded and obtained the immortal charter of English liberty from the reluctant King, this “Jupiter Tonans ” at Rome issued another volley of ecclesiastical thunderbolts at the loyal patriots of Albion, struggling, like those of Mexico since, for human rights. “We have excommunicated and anathema- tised, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, — in the name of the Apostles, Peter and Paul, and in our own name, — the Barons of England, with their partisans and abettors, for persecut- ing John, the illustrious King of England, who has taken the cross , and is a vassal of the Roman church , and for striving to deprive him of a kingdom that is known to belong to the Roman church.” * But the Magna Charta of 1215 stands, the imperishable monument of Old England’s dec- laration of human rights and liberties. Representation with taxation, the habeas corpus, and trial by jury, v r ere the results of baronial resistance to Papal and regal as- sumptions. The Pope fulminated “ excommunication ” and “ anathema,” under all sacred names. He exhausted all the resources of ecclesiastical artillery. But there v r as no temporal sword at command. The King of France was not ready to undertake a second intervention. The army at Rouen and the fleet of transports for the inva- sion and conquest of England, were measures, under the circumstances not to be repeated. The Magna Charta. * Matthew Paris, p. 192. 80 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. The reign of Innocent III. The sequel will show how this whole history, in its prin- ciples and development, has had its counterpart in the ex- perience of Mexico. It was in the reign of this same Innocent III., about 1212, that the two memorable mendi- cant orders were instituted, the Dominican and Franciscan ; the first of which brought into being that system of un- utterable infamy and atrocity, the Inquisition. The two orders were engaged in the work of extirpat- ing the enemies of the papal supremacy. Their influence and power in spiritual, temporal, and political affairs, for centuries, was almost universal and absolute, both in Church and State. They occupied the most important posi- tions, ecclesiastical and civil, literary and religious, politi- cal and diplomatic, and were the most abject champions of the pretensions and assumed prerogatives of the Roman Pontiffs. Kings, Princes, Bishops, and the whole church, and the whole outside world, whom they denounced as heretics, trembled alike before them. Corruptions of A gigantic, towering system of corrupted, Christianity. p a g an j ze( j Christianity, a system of unutterable ignorance, superstition, and imposture ; of intolerable des- potism, temporal and spiritual ; of organized and syste- matic outrage of the rights of man, has overshadowed the nations. Language can scarcely exaggerate the picture, which even its friends have given, of the abyss of de- generacy, degradation, and wretchedness of this system in Mexico. causes of I n order to understand its operation and el- ite volutions. p ec ^ ^ j s necessar y to trace from its origin this violation of human rights in the corruptions of Christianity, the progress of error and oppression, and the development of both in the history of Mexico. Here MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 81 lies the very core of her revolutionary troubles. The con- flicts, the revolutions, the civil wars during the last forty years have all had resistance to ecclesiastical tyranny at the bottom. The “ Church party ” have again and again rested their pretensions and claims upon the authority of Church “ traditions ” as their “ Common law,” and the “ Decrees of the Council of Trent ” as their “ Statutory Code.” CHAPTER IY. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT ; ITS AUTHORITY, DECREES, AND JURISDICTION IN MEXICO. The Council and its mem- bers. On the 13th of December, 1545, a little more than three centuries ago, one hundred and eighty-seven Italian Bishops, thirty-two Spanish, twenty- six French, and two Germans, in all two hundred and forty-seven, assembled in the city of Trent. The council was convoked by a bull of Pope Paul III., to consider and settle various matters of reform in faith and discipline which were then agitating the Christian world. They were not a constituent, representative, legislative assem- bly, “holding the proxies of the Christian Universe,” but they gravely assumed to legislate not only for the four countries represented, but also for all mankind, in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America territorially, and chronologi- cally for the whole human race throughout all generations down to the end of time ! claim of Their claim was of an imprescriptible, divine authority and right to make “faith” and “law” by a vote of the majority. One hundred and twenty- four ! for a thousand millions of mankind in every language and 6 82 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. in every land, in regions known or unknown, represented or not ! Sixty foreign Bishops, and one hundred and eighty Italians, in the year of grace 1545, promulgated princi- ples, articles of Faith, and a code of Laws as if they were the Edicts of the Almighty, of universal, everlasting obli- gation, binding the countless thousands of millions of all successive generations. In their estimation, the Decrees of Trent superseded the Decalogue, and abrogated the rest of the Bible ! Let us then examine “ That Sovereign Law, that ‘ Trent’s ’ collected will, "Which claims o’er thrones, and hemispheres, and globes, To sit the universal Empress.” Action and us Without going into the history of this Coun- cil, of its members and their character, of the course of its proceedings, its management, and virtual con- trol from Rome, it will be sufficient for the present purpose to name its leading principles and acts, and to state such of its results as have filtered through the structures of government in Church and State during the last three hundred years, everywhere the fruitful source of conflict and trouble, and in Mexico, forming the very crater of convulsion, revolution, and civil war. January 6th, 1564, the Pope’s Bull confirmed the de- crees, and the legislation for the world was done! “ Faith and works,” “rights and interests,” “laws and duties,” for our race were all settled. Principles of The following analysis of the principles of the of Trent. Council and its decrees is in accordance "with the highest Roman Catholic authorities.* * Lectures on the Roman Church, Prof. Quinet, of the College of France. History of the Council of Trent. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 83 THE POPE. I. That Jesus Christ constituted Peter as the supreme head of the twelve Apostles, and his successor and vice- gerent on earth, and that all the other Apostles were sub- ject to him. II. That the Pope of Pome succeeds to all the titles and rights of Peter, who by Christ’s .appointment placed his seat at Rome and there remained until his death, and that all of Peter’s rights have passed regularly down through the line of his successors to Paul III. and Pius IX. III. That the greatness of the Pope’s priesthood began in Melchizedek ; was solemnized in Aaron, and continued in Aaron’s sons ; was made perfect in Christ, and represented in Peter; was exalted in the Pontifical universal jurisdic- tion, and manifested in his successors. IV. That the Pope is immaculate, infallible, and irre- sponsible to any earthly tribunal or power. “ ITe is judge of all, can be judged by none, neither Emperor, Kings, Priests, nor people.” He is free from all laws, so that he cannot incur any sentence of irregularity, suspension, or excommunication, or penalty for any crime. Prerogatives V. The Pope is, by Divine Right, invested and powers . . , . , of the Pope, with all spiritual powers , and is the “sovereign head, supreme judge, and lawgiver in all things relating to religion, whether as to faith, manners, or discipline. The Pope is all in all, and above all, so that God and the Pope, the vicar of God, are but one consistory. Wherefore the Pope hath power to change times, to abrogate laws, to dispense with all things, even the precepts of Christ, in regard to war, marriage, divorce, revenge, swearing, usury, homicide, perjury, and uncleanness.” “The Pope hath all 84 MEXICO AMD THE UNITED STATES. power in earth, purgatory, hell and heaven, to bind, loose, command, permit, elect, confirm, depose, dispense, do and undo. Therefore it is concluded, commanded, declared, and pronounced to stand upon necessity of salvation, for every human creature to he subject to the Roman Pontiff." VI. All temporal power is his The dominion, juris- diction, and government of the whole earth is his by divine right. So that all emperors, kings, princes, and rulers of the earth are his subjects, and must submit to him. VII. “ All the earth is the Pope’s diocese ; ” “ the heathen are constituted, by Divine decree, as his inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth are his possession.” VIII. The Pope is supreme over all ecclesiastical au- thority and councils of the Universal Church. He has absolute power over them ; they have none over him. In- fallibility in the spiritual order, and absolute sovereignty in the temporal, are synonymous and convertible terms. The common sense of mankind must pronounce against such assumptions, as a preposterous absurdity. And if such pretensions are made and maintained in the name of religion, it requires neither boldness nor courage to say, that no matter what the authority — Emperor, King, Pope, Priest, or Council — that maintains them, the masses of mankind throughout Christendom will repudiate them, as an utter caricature and travestie of Christianity. Preposterous Such a tissue of preposterous absurdities never issued before from a human brain, unless as Laboulaye says, “ Tiie earth belongs to the dead, and not to the living ! ” Only an age of ignorance, supersti- tion and bigotry, and a generation despoiled of all in- dependence and manhood by years of despotism and oppression, would have tolerated it. The wonder is, that indignant humanity did not rise in the majesty of truth MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 85 and right, and sweep to destruction the whole fabric and policy, with all its agents and abettors. Apocalyptic pro- phecy declares it will yet be done, not by human, but by Divine indignation and wrath. The great ob- The history of human oppression affords no stacle to mod- . „ „ l em civilization, encouragement that Dopes, Emperors, .bishops, or .Kings will voluntarily yield one iota of their assump- tions and claims. The recent series of Bulls, Encyclicals, Allocutions, and letters missive seem to imply the insane determination to arrest the car of modern civilization by this effete system. Either the rushing car of the nations in the career of progress and human improvement in our times must be driven from the track, or Popery with its pre- tensions must be crushed beneath the wheels. This system of civil and ecclesiastical despotism which ran its course a thousand years in Europe, crossed the ocean to the New World. Here, in the blazing light of the nineteenth century, it has enlisted the aid of three of the mighty powers of Europe to arrest in the Western hemisphere the progress of liberty, civilization, and Chris- tianity. The last phase and the last act of this stupendous system appears in the great highway of the nations — the golden gates of the Atlantic and Pacific ; between North and South America, on the meridian ; on the parallel, be- tween Europe and Asia ; as if, in an ordained position, that the world might be spectators. Here “ The Church Party ” assert the authority, quote the Decrees, and denounce the anathemas of the Council of Trent, to justify and enforce their intolerable system of despotism. The following statement and application of these prin- ciples is from the pen of Mr. Brownson, and is believed^ 86 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. to be the accepted doctrine of “ The Church,” at the pres- ent day. At least, so far as is known, it has never been denied. The suprema- “ Civil government is, properly speaking, only church.” the subordinate department of government. The people are subject to a higher law than that of civil gov- ernment- — to a higher Sovereign than the State. When this higher Sovereign, the heal sovereign, of which the State is but the minister, commands, it is our duty to re- sist the civil ruler , and to overthrow , if need be, the civil government. This higher Sovereign is, as we have seen, the will of God, represented in this Department by 1 The Church.’ It belongs to ‘ The Church,’ then, as the rep- resentative of the highest authority upon earth, to deter- mine when resistance is proper, and to prescribe its form and extent. When this commands, it is our duty to obey.” Meaning of The Pope is, therefore, if the foregoing state- supremacy. men j- s are true, the supreme, absolute, universal Sovereign, invested with all power, temporal and spirit- ual, over the whole earth. The four quarters of the globe are his dominion. His jurisdiction covers all humanity. The souls, bodies, and services of men belong to him. All political and ecclesiastical power inheres in him. All earthly administration must emanate from him. The legislative, judiciary, and executive power, for all na- tions, all ages, all conditions of men, are his prerogative. He enthrones and dethrones. All Emperors, Kings, Bishops, and Priests are, of right, his creation. And all rulers who reject his authority are usurpers. Every office on earth, of honor, power, trust, or emolument, is his gift. Privileges, dispensations, fueros , prohibitions, interdicts, are his. He grants or forbids freedom of opinion, of con- MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 87 science, of speech, and of the press. He decrees all that we must believe. He enjoins all that we must do. He forgives or punishes. Councils are called to execute his will, and promulgate his edicts. Bishops, Priests, and all orders of brotherhood or sisterhood, are of his creation. He says, “By me kings reign, and princes decree justice.” He alone binds and dissolves the marriage tie. All edu- cation must be moulded to his views. Decoration and vestment, food and fast, literature and science, slavery and civilization, are his behests It is for him to bind and loose. Life and death, even, hang upon his breath. The Inquisition and dungeons rise — fire and faggot kindle, at his word. The keys of Heaven, of Purgatory, and of Hell are in his hands, and he opens and closes the gates at his will. The church Such are the claims which “ The Church tnots. Party 11 in Mexico have ever and everywhere asserted and sought to maintain. The Republican Pat- riots of Mexico have denied and resisted them. The totality of the struggle in Mexico has hinged upon the assertion and the denial, the attempted enforcement and resistance, of such claims as these. CHAPTER V. THE MEXICAN “ CHURCH PARTY ; ” ITS ORGANIZATION, WEALTH AND POWER. The vital eie- The power and the policy of the ecclesiastical question. establishment of Mexico, and the character, so- cial position, and influence of “ The Church party,” wield- ing the two-edged sword of the magistrate and the priest, , are vital elements in the Mexican problem. The}' have been the prolific source of all the troubles, revolutions, and struggles of the republic. 88 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. “ The Church Party.” The “ Church party ” is as old as the conquest. It is, in Mexico, the growth of three centuries. Its ramifications enter into all the elements and interests of Mexican society. It has always wielded the sword of the state, and all the enginery of spiritual power. The Briarean arms of the Viceroy and of the Bishop have ruled with a rod of iron. The whole system, organization, and policy are of foreign origin, not created in Mexico, but transplanted there. The germs of the whole structure were planted a milieu neum before Columbus was born. In order to understand Mexico, and her revolutions and wars, it is indispensable to trace the system from its source, down through its dark, despotic career. “statistics of I n 1850, Senor Lerdo de Tejado, First Official The church.- ^ ]y[j n j s ^ er j 0 q e Fomento, published a statisti- cal chart,* containing the following synopsis of the Mexi- can Hierarchy, of the religious houses, their endowments, revenue, salaries, &c. Archbishop of Mexico, 1 Bishops, 11 Prebends, 184 Parishes, 1229 Ecclesiastics : Regular Monks, bound by monastic vows and rules, 1139 Secular Clergy, in parish service, 2084 Convents of Monks, 146 Convents of Nuns, 59 Colleges for propagating the faith, 8 Ecclesiastics inhabiting Convents, 1139 Nuns residing in Convents, 1541 Young girls in Convents, *740 * Grando Sinoptico de la Republica Mexicana en 1850. Por Miguel M. Lerdo y Tejado, approved by the Mexican Society ot Geography and Statistics. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 89 Servants in Convents, 870 Members of Colleges for propagating the Faith, 238 Total, 9389 Conventual Establishments of the “ Regular Orders.” Dominicans, 25 Franciscans, 68 Augustines, 22 Carmelites, 16 Mercedarios, 19 Total, 150 Present estimated number of Ecclesiastics, 7000 church Key- The general revenue destined for the main- tenance of the clergy, and of religious services in the republic, may be divided into four classes. I. That which appertains to the bishops and to the canons, who form the chapter of the Cathedral. II. Those revenues which appertain to particular ecclesiastics and chaplaincies. III. Those of curates and vicars. IY. Those of various communities of religios , of both sexes. Tithes and erst- The first class is principally of tithes and first- fruits, the product of which was very consider- able in times past, when they included a tenth part of all the first fruits which grew upon the soil of the republic, and the firstlings of the cattle. But lately this revenue has much fallen off, since, by the law of the 17th of October, 1833, it is no longer obligatory upon the culti- vators to pay this contribution. Nevertheless, there are still many persons who, for conscientious reasons, or for other cause, continue to pay this tax, so that it produces a very considerable sum. This part of the clergy also 90 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. receive considerable sums, which have been left by devout persons for the performance of certain annual ceremonies, called anniversaries. The collegiate church of our Lady of Guada- Special capital. , 0 , ’’ lupe has, in addition to a monthly lottery which operates upon a capital of $13,000, certain properties and other capitals, of which the government takes no account. Particular ecclesiastics and chaplains are supported on a capital, generally of $3000, established by certain pious persons for that object, besides the alms of the faithful, which are given for a certain number of masses, to be ap- plied to objects of their devotion. The support of curates consists of parochial rights, namely, fees for baptisms, marriages, funerals, responses, and religious celebrations ( f undo ns ), which, in their respective churches, they command the faithful to make ; and finally, by the profits which they derive from the sale of novenas. medals, scapularies, rib- bons ( madedas ), wax, and other objects vvhich the parish- oners employ. The income of convents of monks, besides the alms which they receive for masses, funcions, and funerals, which they celebrate in the convent churches, consists of the rents of great properties, which they have accumulated in the course of ages. Support of the Curates. Income of Convents. The convents of nuns are in like manner supported by the income of great estates, with the exception of two or three convents, which possess no property, and whose in- mates live on charity. Besides the incomes named, which pertain to the personnel of the clergy, there are in the cathedrals and other parochial churches revenues which arise from some properties and foundations, created for attending to certain MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 91 Management of property. clues, called “ fabrica which consist of all those objects necessary for the services of this worship. From the want of publicity which is generally observed in the management of the properties and incomes of the clergy, it is impossible to fix exactly the value of one or the other ; but tliej^ can be calculated approximately by taking for the basis, those data which are within the reach of the public, which are the total value of the production of the annual return (movimiento) of the population for births, marriages, deaths, and finally the devout practices, which are still customary among the greater part of the population. Observing carefully these data, I assume, without the fear of committing a great error, that the total amount whicli the clergy to-day real- ize, in the whole extent of the republic, for rents, proceeds of tithes, parochial rights, alms, religious ceremonies (funcions), and for the sale of divers objects of devotion, is between eight and ten millions of dollars. Some writers have estimated the properties belonging to the clergy at one half of the pro- ductive wealth of the nation ; others at one-third part ; but I cannot give much credit to such writers, as they are only calculations that rest on no certain data. I am sure that the total amount of the property of the clergy, for chaplaincies, foundations, and other pious uses, together with rustic and city properties which belong to the divers religious corporations, amount to an enormous sum, not- withstanding the falling off, that is said to have taken place from the amounts of former years. All property in the district of Mexico [federal district] is estimated at $50,000,000, the half of ivliich pertains to the clergy. Uniting the product of this property to the tithes, parochial rights, etc., I am well as- Aggregate of wealth. Wealth of the Clergy. 92 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. sured that the total of the income of the clergy amounts to from eighteen to twenty millions of dollars. SALARIES OF THE NINE BISHOPS. The Archbishop of Mexico $130,000 Bishop of Pueblo 110,000 “ Valladolid 110,000 “ Guadalajara 90,000 “ Durango 35,000 “ Monterey 30,000 “ Yucatan 20,000 “ Oajaca 18,000 “ Sonora 6,000 Total income of twelve Bishops $539,000 THE CHURCH PROPERTY. In 1850, the estimate of the property of the church was as follows : Real estate, city and country $18,000,000 Churches, houses, convents, curates, dwellings, furniture, jewels, sacred vessels, and other personalities 52,000,000 Floating capital, &c 20,000,000 Total $90,000,000 It is estimated that the aggregate amount drawn from the poor natives, in contributions, royal exactions, and other imposts for the benefit of the clergy, would corre- spond to at least a capital of $115,000,000. The power which the clergy possess in the tvealth of their churches, the extent of their landed property, as lenders and mortgag-ees in Mexico, where there are no banks, is enormous. The money power is next to the spiritual. *Essai Politique, vol. 1, p. 173. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 93 Support of the Church. u Senor Lerdo estimates the amount consumed in the maintenance of the 3,223 ecclesiastics is annually $20,000,000, besides the very large sums expend- ed in the repairs and ornaments of an enormous number of churches, and in gifts at the shrines of the different images, which cannot be appropriated, to the maintenance of the clerg 3 ’. This sum of $20,000,000, if fairly divided among them, would yield an abundant support, though not an extravagant living ; but unfortunately the greatest portion of this immense sum is absorbed by the bishops , while the priests of the villages contrive to exist by the con- tributions they wring out of the peons. At the time of the census, 1793, the twelve bishops had $539,000 ap- propriated to their support, but now their revenues are so mixed up with the revenues of the church, that it is im- possible to say how much these twelve successors of the apostles appropriate to their own support ! ” — Wilson’s “ Mexico,” p. 322. “In place of the Inquisition, which the re- formed Spanish government took away from the Church of Mexico, the church now wields the power of wealth, almost fabulous in amount, which is practically in the hands of a close corporation-sole. The influence of the Archbishop , as the substantial oivner of half the property in the city of Mexico , gives him a power over his tenants unknown under our system of laws. Besides this, a large portion of the church property is in money, and the Arch- bishop is the great loan and trust company of Mexico. Nor is this power by any means an insignificant one. A bankrupt government is overawed by it. Men of intellect are crushed into silence, and no opposition can successfully stand, against the influence of the Church Lord who car- ries in his hand the treasures of heaven, and in his money The money power. 94 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. bags, the material that moves the world. To understand the full force of his power of money, it must be borne in mind that Mexico is a country proverbial for recklessness in all conditions of life ; for extravagant living, and ex- travagant equipages ; a country where a man’s position in society is determined by the state he maintains ; a country, the basis of whose wealth is the mines of precious metal, where princely fortunes are quickly acquired and suddenly lost, and where hired labor has hardly a cash value. In such a country, the power and influence of money has a meaning beyond any idea we can form. Look at a promi- nent man making an ostentatious display of his devotion ; his example is of advantage to the church, and the church may be of advantage to him, for it has an abundance of money at 6 per cent, per annum, while the outside money- lenders charge him 2 per cent, per month. The church too may have a mortgage upon his house overdue ; and woe betide him if he should undertake a crusade against the church. This is a string that the church can pull upon, which is strong enough to overawe government itself.” — Wilson’s “ Mexico, ” p. 323. THE MILITARY POWER. Military power In 1840, the military and naval forces of Mex- of the church. were estimated at 40,000 men. The organi- zation of the army, in divisions and brigades of artillery (mounted and on foot), infantry, cavalry, and engi- neering corps, was eminently adapted to the condition of the country, and the purposes of the government. There were fourteen generals of division, and twenty-six of bri- gade ; all, of course, virtually under the dominant influ- ence and control of the appointing and supporting power. The annual war estimates were eight millions of dollars. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 95 At about the same period the whole military force of the United States did not exceed 10,000 men, at an annual expense of about three millions of dollars. The military arm of the Republic was always wielded by the clergy. “ The church ” and “the army,” though, separate and distinct organizations, were bound together by ties of inseparable interest. Thus the clerical, the monetary, and the military power of the Republic formed one consolidated force, to resist any reforms in the “ Old Regime.” The priesthood, the aristocracy, the monopolists, and military officers, as a whole, acted in concert together. Such is the religious system , the very founda- The System. . v ° J tions of which are laid m despotism of the most absolute and revolting forms ; the fruits of which, for centuries, have been ignorance, superstition, degradation, and vice ; the system which, in this nineteenth century, the two foremost nations in Europe, leading the van of civili- zation — England and France — combined with the “ old Spanish Regime,” in the intervention alliance, to force and fasten in perpetuity upon helpless Mexico ! God “ delivered her that had no helper.” CHAPTER VI. CATHEDRALS, CHURCHES, AND CONVENTS. The temples Nothing more surely indicates the charac- and the wor- # shi p- ter of a priesthood, and the kind of influ- ence they exert upon a people, than the structure and appointments of their sacred temples, and the manner and tendency of their worship and religious observances. This condition of things is strikingly instructive in 96 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Mexico, and shows how utterly perverted are all the truths and institutions of the gospel ; how degenerate and dead the whole economy of grace, for the instruction, enlight- enment, and salvation of men. Cathedrals and churches are converted into Cathedrals. mere bazars, for the exhibition of the accumu- lated wealth of “The Church;” the display of gold and silver ; jewels and gewgaws ; embroidered vestments of silk, satin, and gold ; pampered luxury at the altar, and tattered rags, deplorable ignorance, and squalid wretch- edness in the aisles. They have become mere puppet- shows of meaningless mummeries in an unknown tongue, and marionette performances, to amuse and bewilder the people — not to instruct, to elevate, and to save them. Throughout all Mexico, the cathedrals and churches are adorned with costly and tawdry ornamentations of every description. The interiors are loaded with sculp- tures of fabulous richness, with images, paintings, and gaudy trappings — all designed to overpower the minds and work upon the superstitions of an uninstructed people. The following are descriptions from eye-witnesses. THE CATHEDRAL OF PUEBLA. Cathedral of Puebla. The cathedral of Puebla is in all its details and arrangements the most magnificent in the Republic. Some idea of the extent and wealth of its deco- rations may be derived from a very few statements. The great chandelier suspended from the centre of its vast dome is a mass of gold and silver, weighing tons. When cleaned thoroughly, a few years ago, the cost of its purifi- cation was four thousand dollars ! The High The High Altar, erected by one of the bish- ops, is a colossal monument of marvellous and MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 97 complicated work, and presents the greatest display of Mexican marbles in the Republic. The variety of colors is very great One is of a pure, brilliant white, as trans- parent as alabaster. The rail, and steps, of fine marble, lead to a circular platform, eight or ten feet above the floor, beneath which is the sepulchre of the bishops. It is constructed of the most precious materials, and divided into niches and panels. The whole is surmounted by a dome, relieved by bronze and golden circles, from the centre of which hangs a silver lamp, forever burning in this habitation of the dead. The figure of the Virgin. To the right of the altar is the gem of the building. It is a figure of the Virgin Mary, near the size of life. Dressed in the richest embroi- dered satin, she displays strings of the largest pearls, hanging: from her neck to below her knees. Around her brow is clasped a crown of gold, inlaid with emeralds of marvellous size. Her waist is bound with a zone of diamonds, from the centre of which blaze numbers of enormous brilliants. The Temple “The candelabras surrounding the platform ofthe w. p e f ore £p e a p ai ^ are 0 f silver and gold, and so ponderous that a strong man can neither lift nor move them. Immediately above the altar, and within the columns of the large temple erected there, is a smaller one, the inte- rior of which is opened or concealed by means of machinery. From this the Host, amid a blaze of priceless and innu- merable jewels, is exhibited to the kneeling multitude ! 11 The principal dome is, of course, in the centre of the church. Opposite the front of the altar is the choir, remarkable for the workmanship of the richly carved woodwork of the stalls for the canons and clergy.* * Mayer’s Mexico, p. 24. 7 98 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. The whole is a mine of wealth and splendor. Site of the Cathedral. THE CATHEDRAL OF MEXICO. This edifice was begun in 1573, by order of Philip II., and was finished in 1667. It is of the Doric order, and cost about 2,000,000 of dollars. The principal facade has three entrance doors, and is flanked by two square tow- ers. At the base of one of these is the celebrated Aztec calendar, an enormous granite monolith, which was removed in 1790 from the place where it had been buried. By the side of the cathedral is the Sagrario, another church, the two facades of which are entirely covered with sculptures. The richness, or more properly speaking, the excess, the abuse of ornamentation, appears in this mon- ument as nowhere else. It occupies the site of the great idol temple of Montezuma, and is five hundred feet long by four hundred and twenty wide. Upon entering it, one is apt to recall the wild fictions of the Arabian Nights ; it seems as if the wealth of empires was collected there. The clergy of Mexico do not, for obvious reasons, desire that their wealth should be made known to its full extent. They are, therefore, not disposed to give very full informa- tion upon the subject, or to exhibit the gold and silver vessels, vases, precious stones, and other forms of wealth. Quite enough is exhibited to strike the beholder with wonder. The first object that presents itself on entering the cathedral is the altar, erected on a platform near the centre of the building ; it is made of highly wrought and highly polished silver, and covered with a profusion of crosses and ornaments of pure gold.* On * It is surmounted by a small temple, iu which rests the figure of The Great Altar. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 99 each side of this altar runs a balustrade, enclosing a space about eight feet wide, and eighty or a hundred feet long. The balusters are about four feet high, and four inches thick in the largest part ; the handrail from six to eight inches wide. Upon the top of this handrail, at the dis- tance of six or eight feet apart, are human images, beau- tifully wrought, and about two feet high, used as candela- bras. All of these, the balustrade, handrail, and images, are made of a compound of gold, silver, and copper — more valuable than silver. It is said an offer was once made to take this balustrade, and replace it with another of exactly the same size and workmanship of pure silver, and to give half a million of dollars besides. There is much more of the same balustrade in other parts of the church, pro- bably in all not less than three hundred feet. Decorations As you walk through the building, on either and wealth. g pj e fp ere are different apartments, all filled from the floor to the ceiling with paintings, statues, vases, huge candlesticks, waiters, and a thousand other articles of gold or silver. Such is only the everyday display of articles of least value ; the more costly are stored away in chests and closets. What must it be when all these are brought out, with the immense quantity of precious stones which the church is known to possess ? churches of This is but one of the churches of Mexico. There are between sixty and eighty others, some of them possessing little less Avealth than the cathedral. All the other large cities, such as Puebla, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Durango, San Luis Potosi, have the “ Virgin of Remedies,” who enjoys the exclusive right to three 'petticoats : one embroidered with pearls, another with emeralds, and a third with diamonds, the value of which is credibly stated at not less than three millions of dollars ! 100 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. each a proportionate number of equally gorgeous estab- lishments. It would be the wildest and most random conjecture to attempt an estimate of the amount of the precious metals thus withdrawn from the useful purposes of the currency of the world, and wasted in these barbaric ornaments, as incompatible with good taste, as they are with the humility, which was the most striking feature in the character of the Founder of our religion. CHURCHES. church orna- The statues of saints which decorate the mentation. i i n . . i churches are arrayed in costumes the most grotesque, stupid, and puerile. Why this bad taste, baby- ism, and charlatanry ? “There are innumerable crucifixes, large and small, painted in glaring red, so as to represent the hideous spectacle of a man flayed alive, and wearing starched skirts fringed with laces.” The Spaniards perpetuate their tra- ditions, by robing Christ in crinoline ! “ I have seen,” says one writer, “ upon an altar in Mexico, two female statues too much ‘ decolletes,’ with a very low bodice of white satin and short skirts, exposing the beautiful limbs. They would be taken for opera dan- seuses. They represented Saint Gabriel and Saint Michel. I could mention still more singular facts of this kind, in almost all the churches of Mexico, but what good would it do ? There will no doubt yet come intelligent Bishops who will no longer permit such a travestie of images that Ave ought to venerate.” “The statues of Christ, of angels and saints, are everywhere, in most ridiculous attire.” MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 101 CHAPTER VII. THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES OF THE CHURCH. "Worship and character. The deities, the temples, and the worship of a people unerringly indicate the degree of their intelligence, cultivation, and moral sentiment. The char- acter of the Priesthood who minister at their altars, pre- scribe the ritual, direct and control the whole economy of service, enjoin every duty of a religious life, still more clear- ly show the mental and moral condition of their flocks. “ Like priests like people.” In this respect, priest and people stand upon the same level, with this difference — the responsibility rests with the priesthood. In Mexico, the opportunity and the duty has been theirs, for three hundred years, to educate and elevate the people. They have had the wealth and the power to do it. They have utterly failed to fulfil their mission. Their own deepest condemnation is found in the descrip- tion, by their own friends, of the ignorance, poverty, and degradation of their flocks. The condition to-day of the poor, oppressed, benighted Indian tribes, is a monument and witness of the infidelity and shame of the priest- hood. The Hon. Waddy Thompson, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States, wrote upon this subject as follows :* “ The things which most strike an American od his first arrival in Mexico, are the proces- sions, ceremonies, and mummeries of the Catholic wor- ship. Religious ceremonies. * Recollections of Mexico. Chap. x. By Waddy Thompson. N. Y., 1846. 102 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. “The natural proneness of every ignorant people to re- gard the external symbols aud ceremonies of religion, and an incapacity to appreciate its time spirit and sublime truths, give to the Catholic ritual, with all its pomp and circumstance, its pictures, statues, processions, and impos- ing ceremonial, peculiar power and influence. Aztec and “ But as to any rational idea of true religion, Spanish • . ^ , idolatry. or just conception of its divine Author , the great mass are little more enlightened than were their ancestors in the time of Montezuma. Their religion is very little less an idolatry than that of the grotesque images of stone and clay of which it has taken the place. There is scarcely an hour in the day when the little bells are not heard in the street, announcing that, some priest is on his way to administer the sacrament to some one sick or dying. The priest is seated in a coach drawn by two mules, followed by ten or a dozen friars, with lighted wax candles, chanting as they go. The coach is preceded by a man who rings a small bell, to announce the approach of the Host. Every one who happens to be in the street is expected to uncover himself and kneel. The inmates of all the houses on the street do the same thing. Nothing is more common than to hear them exclaim, whenever they hear the bell, ‘ Dios viene, Dios viene,’ — ‘ God is coming, God is coming ’ — when, whatever they may be doing, they instantly fall on their knees. Until very recently every one was required to kneel, and a very few years since an American shoemaker w r as murdered in his shop, for refusing to do it. But now they are satisfied if you pull off your hat and stop until the Host passes.” The procession “What I have described is the visit of the ot the Host. jj og £ £ 0 some common person. The procession is more or less numerous, and the person in the coach of MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 103 Church services. more or less dignity, from an humble priest to the Arch- bishop of Mexico, according to the dignity and station of the person visited. Sometimes the procession is accom- panied by a large band of music. The visit of the Host to the Senora Santa Anna, in her last illness, was attended by a procession of twenty thousand people, headed by the Archbishop.” “ The pomp and pageantry of the ritual as it now exists in Mexico, is revolting in its disgusting mummeries and impostures, which degrade the Christian religion into an absurd, ridiculous, and venal superstition.” Lempriere says, “ Some kind of religious per- formances may be witnessed in the principal towns and cities almost daily. You enter a church, and invariably encounter a motley crowd. There is a small sprinkling of well-dressed, well-appearing individuals found in these gatherings ; but tilth, disease, deformity, brutishness, and abject heathenism are the prevailing- characteristics of these assemblages and processions. It is impossible for an individual of respectable education and ordinary delicacy of feeling and moral sense, — whether man or woman, — to join a crowd in one of these ; payodci <9 or jos temples called churches, without feeling in- effable disgust. No one will deny that these structures, especially in the largest cities, evince an imposing and noble order of architecture ; and here all that is good, respect- able, and decent ends.” images and “ The prevailing style of the interior fitting up, decorations. - g Q £ tinsel, flash, and tawdry order, inter- spersed with miserable daubs and images, intending to represent Jesus Christ, Saints, Virgins, and Martyrs. The style of raiment borne by these figures varies from a wisp of cloth, such as is worn by the wild Indians, to that of 104 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. full military, fancy ball dress, or Indian costume, — a mix- ture to suit vulgar vitiated tastes, and minister to super- stitious feelings. This is the interior aspect of the Mexican Church at the present day. Fifty years ago there was in one of the churches in the city of Mexico, an image of the most ghastly and horrid appearance, intended to rep- resent the Saviour. Its eyes were worked by wires, and the large bloodshot balls were made to roll in the most frightful manner whenever it was thought necessary to in- spire terror. This hellish contrivance proved too much for the sensibilities of a portion of the worshippers, espe- cially women enciente , and of a nervous temperament. Several cases of insanity occurring under its influence, it was fin all) 7 removed, and now lies, with other rubbish, in an old stone house in the village of Guadalupe, near the capital.” perversion of “ The strange heathen mummery, a species of Christianity, Nagualism, that passes in Mexico under the name of Christianity, may be accounted for in the fact that the adventurous, conquering Spaniards, superstitious, fanatical, and vicious themselves, encountered in Mexico a superstitious, fanatical, but comparatively virtuou-s peo- ple. The Spaniards found the mythological system of the natives all-powerful — paramount, in fact, to everything else, in their social organization. Nevertheless, the fathers of the Catholic Church, with the sword in one hand and the cross in the other, made light work of forcing the masses to undergo the slight formal process considered necessary to release them from what they termed the dark- ness of paganism, and bring them under the benign, puri- fying, and revivifying influences of Christianity. But now nearly three and a half centuries have passed , and it is found that the Christianity introduced into Mexico MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 105 by the Spaniards, has adapted itself to the paganism of the natives, and obliterated their original virtues by engrafting upon them the worst vices of the conquering race ! ” * “ I have seen in the church of San Augustin,” 01 ’ says another, “ one or two hundred people assem- bled at night. The chapel was darkened, and they took off their clothes and lacerated themselves severely with pieces of hard-twisted cord, made like a cat-o’-nine-tails. It was not such a flogging as Sancho gave himself to dis- enchant Dulcinea, but a real bona-fide castigation. Of this I have no doubt, for I picked up one of the disciplines, the instrument used, and it was wet and soaked with blood. I stood at the door as the penitents came out, and recog- nized among them some of the most respectable people in Mexico. No one in his senses can doubt the sincerity of those who will voluntarily inflict such torture upon them- selves.” f Adoration of the Virgin. 11 One Sabbath day,” says a traveller, “ I at- tended the Indian celebration of the appearance of the most blessed Virgin. This was the first time that I had ever seen in a house dedicated to the worship of God, or rather in a temple consecrated to the adoration of the Virgin, fantastic dances performed by Indians under the supervision of priests and bishops. When I found out what the entertainment was, I was heartily vexed that I should be at such a place on the Sabbath day. The danc- ing and singing was bad enough, but the climax was reached when the priest came down from the altar with an array of attendants bearing immense candles, to the side- door, where the procession stopped to witness the discharge, * Lempri&re’s Mexico, 1861-2, p. 103. f Thompson’s Mexico, p. 114. 106 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. at mid-day, of a large amount of fireworks in honor of the most blessed Virgin Mary.” “ It is impossible,” says Brantz Mayer, in his description of the religious exercises of “ Holv Week” in Mexico, “ to trace many of the old customs of the church in a coun- try where the ritual is often made up of so many fantastic notions, except by supposing that the idea of the original founders was to attract the Indians, by as many new devi- ces as they could engraft upon their regular services. * * The ritual is neither civilized nor intellectual. The show is tasteless and barbaric. The altars display a jumble of jewelry, sacred vessels, and utensils of the precious metals, mixed up with glass, through which is reflected the tints of colored water, and the whole overlaid with fruits and flowers. It is a mixture of the church and the apothecary shop.” * street pro- “ The city of Puebla is full of pagodas, full of high officiating Pagans, such as bishops, priests, friars, monks, and Jesuits ; full of pictures and images, outside as well as inside the pagodas. The ceremony of taking off hats in the streets of Puebla is carried on to a ludicrous extent. The people take otf their hats whenever they meet bishop, padre, monk, friar, or Jesuit ; whenever they pass an image, either in paint, plaster, or wax ; and whenever the bell indicates that some particular performance is going on in the pagodas. I made a calculation,” says an eye-witness, “ that a pagan devotee at Puebla, in pass- ing through the streets, takes off his hat to bishop, padre, friar, monk, Jesuit, picture, statue, or bell, on the average of at least once in every two minutes, or thirty times per hour, giving to one whose occupation requires him to be * Mayer’s Mexico, p. 149. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 107 in the streets, say eight hours per day, two hundred and forty opportunities to uncover.” * sale of indui- “ On a day of religious festival (the anniver- gences ' sary of Saint Francisco,) I have seen,” says a traveller, “ stuck up on the door of the church of San Francisco, one of the largest and most magnificent in Mex- ico, a small advertisement of which the following was the substance : “ His Holiness the Pope (and certain bishops which were named) have granted thirty-two thousand three hundred years, ten days, and six hours of indulgence for this mass. “ I do not remember exactly the number of years, days, and hours, but I positively assert that it specified the number of each, and I believe that I have stated them cor- rectly. The manifest object of this minute particularity is, to secure the more effectual belief in the imposture. By thus giving to it the air of a business transaction, a sort of contract is established between the devotee and the Al- mighty, by his authorized agent and vice-gerent on earth, the Pope, — a contract the more binding in its character, because the receipt of the consideration is acknowledged. I tremble at the apparent blasphemy of even describing such things.” character of “The Mexican church, as a church,” says Fempriere, “fills no mission of virtue, no mission of morality, no mission of mercy, no mission of charity. Virtue cannot exist in its pestiferous atmosphere. The code of morality does not come within its practice. It knows no mercy, and no emotion of charity ever nerves the stony heart of that priesthood, which, with an avarice that has no limit, filches the last penny from the diseased * Dunbar’s Mexican Papers. 108 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. and dying beggar ; plunders the widows and orphans of their substance, as Avell as their virtue ; and casts such a horoscope of horrors around the death-bed of the dying millionaire, that the poor superstitious wretch is glad to purchase a chance for the safety of his soul, by making the Church the heir to his treasures.” “ I have no hesitation in saying, that the Priests in Mexico are the lowest order of pretended intellectual be- ings I ever saw ; and the stories of their personal conduct will not bear repeating.” The hope of “ It is only necessary to point to the universal ruin and misery its ride has brought upon the country and the people. What nation on earth, I ask, could live under such a horrible incubus as this ? The Mexican church always has been, and so long as it exists, always will be, the great element of evil in Mexico, and there will be no peace, prosperity, or progress in the coun- try, until this church is overthrown and totally destroyed, root and branch.” PART IV. PARTIES AND ACTORS IN THE REVOLUTIONS IN MEXICO. CHAPTER I. BENITO JUAREZ. Juarez and his We have now reached a point in the history, m which .Benito Juarez appears upon the stage. He has been one of that noble band of Mexican patriots who, in the times in their country that “ tried men's souls,' 1 have stood faithful to the principles of freedom. What- ever may be the final issue of their conflict, posterity will enrol their names among the liberators and benefactors of their country and of mankind. The true character of Juarez cannot be understood or appreciated until the history of Mexico, in this its second war of independence, shall have recorded the principles and acts of his life -and administration. He has been so intimately associated with the principal actors in the scenes of the last forty years, and has been so identified with all the great decisive issues and events, that a sketch of his life is almost indispensable to a correct understand- ing of the conflict, and must introduce to our view his noble compatriots, perhaps not less illustrious, but less known. He seems to have been raised up, like Wash- ington, for the part devolved upon him in the great strug- gle, the life-throes of his country. The condition of Mex- ico, his personal virtues, his persistent devotion to the 110 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. welfare and honor of his countrymen, and his unwavering fidelity to the great ideas and fundamental principles of republicanism, and of the “ inalienable rights ” of man, have fixed all eyes in North and South America, and in Europe, upon him. A better knowledge of his life and character, acts and aims, will draw more closely the bonds of sympathy and friendship that should exist between the Republic of the United States and that of Mexico, and indeed among the whole family of American Republics. The following biographical sketch is substantially a translation of a Spanish work published in 18G6. There has been some re-arrangement of the material and modi- fication of forms of expression, for the sake of brevity and perspicuity in a translation from another language. The facts are a faithful transcript of the original. An account of its origin, and an authentic verification of its correctness and reliability, will appear at the close. BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE OF JUAREZ 1806 - 1819 . Birth and Benito Juarez, a pure descendant of the Zapo- teca native stock, was born in the small village of San Pablo Guelatao, in the state of Oajaca, on the 21st of March, 1806. The following statements respecting his history are “ verified by one who was born in the same State, lived for some years in the same place, pursued his studies for the legal profession in the same school where Juarez was professor ; and was also his fellow traveller from Janu- ary, 1857, to December, 1859 — one who has been an eye- witness of many of the most important incidents in his life, and has full knowledge of the others here recorded, and has had every opportunity to understand and appre- ciate his character, aspirations, and aims.” MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Ill The “ Book of Baptisms ” of the parish church his Baptism. Santo Thomas Ixtlan contains the record of the baptism in due form of law, of Benito Pablo, son of Marcellino Juarez and Brigida Garcia ; together with the names of his paternal ancestors, Pedro Juarez and Justa Lopez ; his maternal ancestors, Pablo Garcia and Maria Garcia ; and his god-mother on the occasion, Francesca Garcia, “ she being duly informed of her obligations and spiritual parentage.” The parents of Benito were in humble life, His Parentage. p 0ssess i n g simple habits and slender means of the peasants and herdsmen of his native village, and were quite unable to educate their son. He lived at home until the death of his father, which occurred at a very early age. He was then taken under the care of an uncle, with whom he remained until twelve years of age, when he could neither read, write, nor speak the Spanish language correctly. Many of the youth in the mountains of Early youth. . J J . Oajaca had been accustomed to hnd their way, in various capacities, to the city of Oajaca, and to engage in offices of domestic service, in return for their support and the privileges of elementary education. Young Be- nito had long been impressed with the superior advantages and prospects thus secured by many of his acquaintances, poorer even than himself; and finally, in 1818, resolved to follow their example. Animated by the spirit and nerved by the energy which has shaped his whole subse- quent life, he decided to leave his uncle and seek an edu- cation in the city. He was received, at first, by a sister residing there ; but soon found a situation, under the care and instruction of Don Joaquin Salaneuva, a gentleman engaged in some ecclesiastical duties, with which he com- 112 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. bined the work of education. With him young Juarez learned to read and to write, and the first rudiments of arithmetic and of Spanish grammar. HIS ACADEMIC EDUCATION 1819-1826. Early educa- tion. The instructions, example, and influence of Senor Salaneuva, during the preliminary educa- tion of his pupil, established him in firm principles of morality and virtue, and have developed a character that has made the name of Juarez, a proverbial synonym for honesty. At this age Senor Salaneuva took care to place him as a day-scholar at the ecclesiastical seminary, the only estab- lishment for higher education in Oajaca. In 1819 he began the study of the Latin language; and in 1822, a course of philosophy, completing both in 1825. The suc- cessive examinations which he passed during this period, gave marked indications of his intelligence and profi- ciency. HIS PROFESSIONAL STUDIES — A THEOLOGICAL COURSE — 1826. Professional studies. The time having arrived for entering upon the study of special science, Senor Salaneuva, su- premely devoted to bis own peculiar views, determined that young Juarez should adopt an ecclesiastical career. He was therefore required, during the year 1826, to apply himself to the study of Theology, with two of his compan- ions, Don Isadora Sanchez and Don Francisco Parra, both of whom were subsequently duly ordained, and be- came curates in the Diocese of Oajaca. Thus the foun- dation of the professional studies of Juarez, and of his mental training in the higher life of a scholar, was laid in the study of Theology at the first seminary of his native State. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 113 His study of Law. Affairs iu Mexico. In order to understand the considerations and influences which led Juarez to change his pro- fession, to enter upon the study of Law, and to give an- other direction to the current of his life, it is necessary to consider the condition and circumstances of Mexico and of Mexican institutions at the time. For more than 350 years, his native land, and his own people, a wronged and injured race, had been bleeding under “ the iron heel,” subject to as absolute and inexor- able a despotism, political, ecclesiastical, and social, as any portion of this world has ever suffered. A score of the best historians of Christendom attest this. The whole con- stitution and fabric of society had been shaped and molded by ten generations of oppressors. The state of all political, civil, and ecclesiasti- cal affairs in Mexico, consolidated by successive administrations since the conquest into a gigantic system of oppression, gave rise, at the date of independence in 1821, to two great parties of totally different principles and interests. The one representing the monarchical, ecclesiastical, aristocratic, and despotic elements, which, though broken off from the mother country and trans- planted in Mexican soil, were no less determined and ex- acting in their assumptions and claims. The other repre- senting the party of “ equal rights for all men,” of univer- sal freedom in the exercise of “ man’s inalienable rights;” the party of human “ progress,” of the “ reform of abuses,” of “ freedom of conscience, of opinion, of speech, of wor- ship, of the press ;” the party, also, of “ universal educa- tion.” The same conflict which for generations had convulsed the States of Europe was repeating itself in the independent colonies of Spain, on a smaller The conflict of ages. 114 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. scale it is true, but intensified to an appalling degree by the very helplessness of one party, and the irresistible and relentless power of the other. The almost incredible igno- rance, superstition, mummeries, and inquisitorial oppres- sion of the dominant party “ fired the Mexican heart.” A band of patriots arose, like the fathers of our Re- public, resolved, under the pledge of “ life, fortune, and sacred honor,” to resist a despotism that had become abso- lutely intolerable, and to assert and maintain the “ ina- lienable rights ” of Mexicans. This conflict entered into all the ramifications of Mexi- can society, but was particularly intense and violent among the more intelligent and cultivated classes. Young Juarez was among the first to take ground, de- fine his position, declare his choice, and begin an inde- pendent career. The seminary The Ecclesiastical Seminary of Oajaca was the right arm of the clerical and monarchical party. M. Ramirez, its director, belonged to an aristo- cratic family, was Prebendary of the cathedral, and from his social position and energy of character was a promi- nent leader. In his hands the seminary was forming the principles of the most select and promising youth of the State, who were preparing for the profession of Law — a profession which then demanded large accessions to meet the business wants of the country, in consequence of its independence. There were only three universities, that of Mexico, of Guadalajara, and of Yucatan, where students could pur- sue this study ; and an effort was made to engraft upon the Ecclesiastical Seminary of Oajaca, a professorship of Law, to accommodate the students of the State. The plan, however, met with such determined opposition from the MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 115 Principal of the seminary, M. Ramirez, that the only re- source was the establishment of private Law Schools, at the houses of eminent members of the profession. The institute In 1826, the Legislature of the State estab- lished the “ Institute of Arts and Sciences of Oajaca.” The clerical party immediately declared war upon it, and the two institutions, the “ Seminary ” and the “ Institute,” soon became respectively, the exponents and defenders of the principles of the two great parties. The Legislature had appointed to the head of the “ Institute,” a Dominician Friar, the Reverend Doctor and Father, Francisco Aparaco, a man of great ability and a warm friend of the rising generation. Notwithstanding his ecclesiastical associations, he was far in advance of his order and the times, in enlightened and liberal views. Sustained by the Government and citizens of influence, he maintained the cause of the Institute in the party contest which ensued between the two literary establish- ments. The ciergy and The clergy, in a body, as a matter of course the seminary. s j c | eg w j(-] 1 t] ie “ Seminary,” and denounced the “ Institute ” as a focus of revolution and heresy. The “ Institute ” sought to win, and did win, the most intelli- gent of the students of the “ Seminary,” by presenting at their public examinations, all the magnificent panorama of modern culture, and emulated the highest attainments of the age in every possible way. The liberal and gener- ous ideas of modern civilization began to penetrate within the walls of the “ Seminary.” Its most distinguished members and alumni began to perceive a more extended and beautiful horizon of professional aims and national aspirations, than the narrow, exclusive, and intolerant policy of the clergy would permit. Students began to 116 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. abandon the Seminary, and were received with open arms within the walls of the Institute. Among the first of these was the intimate friend of Be- nito Juarez, Don Miguel Mendez, a bright and promising youth of pure Indian race, of talent and character excelling all his companions, and whose friendship and early death made a profound impression upon Juarez. A friendship thus formed and broken, and the influence of other com- panions who passed from the Seminary to the Institute, embracing the modern principles of reform, had doubtless much to do with the determination of Juarez to renounce the ecclesiastical, and enter upon a legal and national career. HIS COURSE IN THE STUDY AND IN THE PROFESSION OF LAW — 1827 - 8 . Juarez a stu- Juarez having entered upon the study of law, pursued the various courses with unremitting ap- plication. In 1829 he filled the chair of Natural Philoso- phy in the Institute. - In 1832, having passed the required examination, he received the diploma of Baehelor-in-Law ; and on the 13th of January, 1834. after passing all the prescribed examinations, he received the title of “ Attor- ney of the Courts of the Republic.” The two literary establishments of Oajaca had now become the centres of the controlling political parties of the Nation — the Seminary, that of the ;c old regime ; ” and the Institute, that of the radical, liberal party. His principles It has been said of Benito Juarez, that in en- and his career. , • i • c ’ 1 1 • o l i tenng upon his professional life under such con- ditions, in his native State and country, he began his career by forming a proper estimate of his own abilities, by establishing firm convictions of individual rights and of national policy, and that through all his subsequent MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 117 course he has never swerved from his convictions, nor abandoned the principles of the liberal party. The general elections of 1828 were, in Oajaca, as also throughout the Republic, the most warmly contested of those that have ever been held in the country. Pedraza and Guerrero were the contending candidates for the Pres- idency ; the former, the leader of the moderate party, and the latter, the candidate of the most radical, liberal party. The whole of the Iturbide party, and the conservatives generally united in the support of Pedraza, for although he did not agree with their views, they deemed it neces- sary to triumph over Guerrero. The contest was a terrible one, and in Oajaca, in order to defeat the liberal party, the authorities terminated it by force of arms. The In- stitute took a very active part in this contest, as did also Juarez, one of its alumni. The part he took in this can- vass has been styled his “ political baptism.” Shortly after this, in 1831, Juarez was popularly elected an Alderman of the City Council of Oajaca, and in 1832, a Deputy to the Legislature of the State, which held its sessions in 1833 and 1834. In 183G, he was imprisoned for some months, on sus- picion of complicity with the unsuccessful revolution in- augurated in that year, for the overthrow of the conserva- tive party, which had been in power since 1831. Treasury Judge In 1842, he was appointed Civil Judge in the and Secretary J. J- o of state. Ireasury for three years. In 1845, General Leon, having effected a compromise with the liberal party, which had nearly triumphed in the revolution of Dec. 6th, 1844, appointed J uarez Secretary of State of the State of Oajaca. But the despotic ideas and acts of Leon could not harmon- ize with the liberal principles of Juarez, and he remained in this office but a few months. He was then appointed 118 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. State Attorney for the Superior Court of Justice, a posi- tion which he occupied until the imperious plan of Gene- ral Paredes was inaugurated, at the close of 1845. The Revolution While these events were transpiring in the capital, and in other parts of the country, ano- ther revolution took place, and in August, 1846, was suc- cessful. Oajaca, the native state of Juarez, ever loyal to republicanism, declared, in view of the conspiracy and monarchical scheme inaugurated by Paredes and the Church party, that it was a necessity for the State to re- assume its sovereignty. An assembly of “ notables ” was summoned, entitled the “Legislative Assembly,” which placed the executive power of the state in the hands of a triumvirate, composed of Senors Fernandez , del Campo, Arteaga, and Juarez. Risinginflu- From this time public attention was strongly ence of Juarez, ( jj rec f. ec j £ 0 ^he rising character of Juarez. The first of the triumvirates had belonged successively to all the parties. Juarez had ever shown that strength of char- acter, soundness of judgment, tact in decisions, firmness of political principles, and more than all, honesty above reproach, that the times demanded. It was becoming manifest that he was a man marked out for the service of his people and his country. The administration of the triumvirate was of short duration. The Legislative Assembly the same month, August, 1846, decreed that the State of Oajaca should be governed by the Federal Constitution of 1824. In accordance therewith, an election for Gov- ernor was held, which resulted in favor of Arteaga. Shortly after this, Juarez was elected by the people a Deputy to the General Constituent Congress, to assemble at the capital of the Republic in December, 1846. The Trium- virate. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 119 THE CONGRESS OF DECEMBER, 1846. war with the On the 6th December, 1846, the new, sove- united States ' reign constituent Congress of the nation assem- bled in the Capital. It was both a constituent and a leg- islative body. The first and all-absorbing business was, to procure resources to carry on the war, then pending with the United States. General Santa Anna, the Pres- ident elect of the Republic, was absent in the field, at An- gostura, contending with the forces of the Americans. The citizen, Valentin Gomez Farias, filed the presidential chair. He was one of the earliest, most constant, and time-honored liberal-reformists which the country had known. He brought forward in the Chamber of Depu- ties, as the only means of supplying the indispensable necessities of the nation, the bill for a loan of fourteen millions of dollars, to be raised upon the property of the clergy, and, in the event of the impossibility of the nego- tiation of a loan, then the sale of said property, until the .requisite amount should be obtained. There were three parties in the Congress. 1. That of the “old regime,” the clerical and monarchical interest, a small minority headed by Otero. 2. The radical republican party, with Rejon, Ramirez, and Juarez as their leaders. 3. The moderates, who were well and strongly represented. But they united with the “ old regime,” in contending against the radical party and the new measure sustained by Farias. The monarchists and the moderates fiercely attacked the law. The repub- licans sustained it, as a necessity. After a masterly and brilliant discussion, long to be remembered in the annals of Mexico, the bill passed by a small majority. The power and eloquence with which Rejon, Ramirez, and Parties in Con gress. 120 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. The Clergy. Congress Juarez supported the measure, it has been said, would have attracted universal attention, had not the echoes of their thrilling and patriotic appeals, been silenced by the thunders of foreign guns, reverberating along the shores of both the Gulf and of the Pacific. The clergy and the party of the “ old regime,” having failed in their opposition to the law in caused u pronunciamentos ” against it to be made throughout the land ; and even in the very capital itself one occurred which was named that of the “ Polk party.” These insurrections terminated only upon the return of Santa Anna, who at once compromised with the “ church party,” the same body of men that shortly after- wards received the foreign invaders at Puebla with all the pomp and ceremony of ecclesiastical welcome. Congress, not long after, issued its act for the reform of the Constitution of 1824. General Santa Anna then dissolved the Congress, and prohibited all resources to its members. The revolutionary clergy had seized upon all the public offices in Oajaca as early as February 15th, 1847. Juarez and his friends had received orders to re-establish the lawful authorities there, but through various pretexts these had all been frus- trated. On the 23d of October, 1847, Juarez having arrived in Oajaca, a local revolution took place, and the lawful order of things Avas finally re-established. The first step of the Legislature Avas to accept the resig- nation of Arteaga, which he had tendered in anticipation ; and Juarez, in his stead, Avas appointed Constitutional Governor of the State. He entered upon his administra- tion in November, 1847, and continued until the expira- Santa Anna’s Dictation. Revolution in Oajaca. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 121 tion of the term for which Arteaga had been elected, August 12th, 1849. Juarez was then re-elected Governor for the term of three years, until August 12th, 1852. He then retired from this position, the laws of the State not admitting- a re-election, which he would otherwise doubt- less have received. JUAREZ GOVERNOR OF OAJACA. — 1847. Governor of During these five years of his Governorship, Juarez began to acquire the reputation of a re- markable man, and became known throughout the whole Republic. The State of Oajaca, during the civil commo- tions of the country, had shared the same fate as the rest of the nation. There was no administration of justice ; there were no soldiers ; there was no treasury ; and in the midst of this state of chaos, the confusion was increased by the loss the State had suffered on the 8th of Septem- ber, 1847. The jirave General Leon and his division had been defeated in the battle of Molino del Rey, fought against the Americans on that day. Energy of Gov- Governor Juarez began immediately to retrieve emor Juarez. dusters, and determined, together with his fellow-citizens of Oajaca, to continue the war. He set up a foundry, which in a short time produced a battery and the necessary munitions. About the same time General Santa Anna appeared on the frontiers of the State, and under the pretext that he would continue the war against the United States, demanded that the command should be delivered to him. * He had just abandoned the command of the army which he had so badly directed. He had, in fact, abandoned the * See a correction of this statement in the letter of President Juarez, page 158. 122 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. Presidency. The entire nation had accused him, to say the least, of incapacity, and the State of Oajaca could do no less than to forbid his entrance within its territory. Governor Juarez carried this into execution, and thus gave occasion for that deep, implacable hatred which Santa Anna has harbored towards him ever since. Subsequent- ly to these events, the moderate party brought about a peace with the United States, and Juarez at once applied himself to the interior re-organization of his native State. During the five years of his gubernatorial term, Official acts of Juarez. all the different branches of the government were subject to his watchful attention and care. Every de- partment was either re-organized, or reformed and amelior- ated. By his systematic and energetic measures, the contingent required by the federal government from the State of Oajaca, was always paid with punctuality ; the civil and military disbursements were invariably met ; and the State debt, which for eighteen years had been con- siderably increased, was completely settled and extinguish- ed. On his retirement from the office, he left a balance of fifty thousand dollars in cash in the treasury of the State. By such results of this administration, Governor Juarez acquired a high reputation, and became known throughout the nation ; and Oajaca received the well-merited appel- lation of the model State of the Republic. Retirement of Juarez. JUAREZ IN PRIVATE LIFE. 1852. On his withdrawal from office, in August^ 1852, Juarez resumed the duties of a private cit- izen, with the single honorary employment of Director of the Institute of Sciences. He immediately opened his office, and commenced the practice of law for his support, being then as poor, as modest, and as honored as when, five MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 123 Plan of Gua- dalajara. years before, be bad entered upon the discharge of tbe duties of tbe highest office of tbe State. He was, however, to enjoy this repose but a few months. The revolution, known by the name of the “ Plan of Guadalajara,” was successful in the Capital of the Republic in January, 1853 ; and in Febru- ary following triumphed in Oajaca. General Santa Anna, having been recalled by the revolutionists, arrived at the City of Mexico in the month of April. A few days after, he directed that Juarez should be torn from his domicil. On the 30th of May, 1853, Juarez was at Etta, a town some four leagues from Oajaca, on the road to the City of Mexico. While engaged in the very act of pleading as an advocate, before the Court of that place, he was seized as a prisoner, and without being permitted even to take leave of his family, was hurried to Puebla, and finally from thence sent to be imprisoned at Jalapa. A few months afterwards he was ordered to change his residence, and notified to proceed to Huamantla. He set out at once, and arrived at Puebla. On the following night, while paying a visit at the house of a friend, he was forcibly seized by the son of Santa Anna (Joseph,) thrust into a carriage, and without being permitted to take any baggage or money, or to have any communication "with any one, was driven sixty leagues, and finally set dow r n on the wharf at Vera Cruz. Thence he was transferred to a filthy prison-cell in the castle of San Juan de Uloa. Three or four days afterwards he was shipped on board a British steam-packet. His passage -was not paid, and he was not permitted to procure for himself the indispensable means for an indefinite voyage to some foreign land. He found, however, on board the Juarez a pris- oner. Juarez in exile. 124 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. packet, some friends not unmindful of liis distresses, and some means which, though scant} 7 , were sufficient to enable him to defray his expenses to the city of Havana, and from thence to New Orleans. In this city he was enabled to maintain himself, with such means as his Avife could transmit to him, sacrificing in her devotion, her patrimonial estate. In July, 18o5, he left NeAv Orleans, embarked for the Isthmus, crossed at Panama, and landed at Acapulco. Here he joined Gene- ral Alvarez, a\ t 1io commanded in chief the forces gathered to defend the “ Plan of Ayutla ” as against Santa Anna. In the month of August following the revolution proved a complete success. Santa Anna AA'as overthrown, and escaped to a foreign clime. General Alvarez Avas pro- claimed the President of the Republic on the 4th of Oc- tober, 1855, and immediately appointed Juarez as his Minister of Justice and ecclesiastical affairs. Revolution of Ayutla. JUAREZ MINISTER OF JUSTICE 1855. The revolution of Ayutla had assumed throughout the Republic a character which looked to radical reforms in the government ; because the clergy in this contest had made every possible effort to uphold the detested dictatorship of Santa Anna. The feeling of the entire nation on the subject was deep and stron r^> 1,991 4,057 © ~ o O ■« & > 5 © . o •saSuj co o 1, 102 2, 521 1, 091 CO 05 cT 3, 189 3, 492 14, 920 © E ■siana[ jo aaqumjj 201 741 908 05 T* 1,297 1,816 1,978 O' co ■^r r-^ s >1? — © i fcfi - e d X ~ o o.2 X © o ■saSuj rr t- 260 248 CO 343 471 CO o 3- s = p g -3 Ill'll |i S .s 'O © — * rt o to H •saansopua ptrs siajpi jo aaquin^ O CO 05 176 05 CO co Cl CO co 310 C5 % ©4 o © j2 Si? c © the on. •saScj o 1 231 211 119 309 o •o CO CO C5 Cl Con theci ico State tiona -*-> © e ©£ > o tO © e= £ 8b •saansopna pus sjajpj jo jaquxnjg; Cl CO 100 1 CO CO 221 331 293 1,301 - 'BdSUjJ CO Cl I— o C5 CO o 05 601 216 s © U X © u T B 1°X © o CO CO Cl CO CO 3 CO CO T* © rt t: i^od r 22^3 itz •eajnsopxrj Cl C5 CO o i n iO t— CO 1-4 C5 Cl Q? 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CO CO GO Total . 184 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. AGGREGATE STATEMENT OF WORK. Letters and en- Letters and en- Pages. closures to — Pages. closures from— Department of State of Mexico 6,643 23,791 1,905 4,834 Departm't of State of tlie United States. 1,720 8,948 483 721 Consulates, legations, &c., &c 1,301 1,729 4 379 1,951 Private letters 7,430 14,920 7,403 16,678 Total 17,094 49,388 11,172 24,184 GRAND TOTALS. Letters and enclosures. Number. Pages. 17,094 11,172 49,388 24,184 28,266 73,572 “ This correspondence is contained in 45 large bound volumes, as follows : Correspondence to the State Depart- ment of Mexico, 24 volumes ; from that Department, 5 volumes; to the State Department at Washington, 7 vol- umes ; from the Washington State Department, 2 vol- umes ; to and from different Mexican officials, 3 volumes; and private letters received, 4 volumes. “The year 1860 can be taken as an average of the or- dinary work of the Legation in normal times. During all the time embraced in the preceding statement, Mr. Romero has been at the head of the Mexican legation. He arrived in Washington on the 24th of December, 1859, as Secre- tary of Legation, Jose M. Mata being then the minister. On the 14th of August, 1860, Mr. Mata left New York for Vera Cruz, accrediting Mr. Romero as charge d’af- faires ad interim to the State Department. Mr. Romero presented his letters of credence on the 16th to Mr. Wil- liam Henry Trescott, Assistant Secretary of State, then Acting Secretary. On the 26th of May, 1862, Mr. Ro- mero presented his credentials to the Department of State as charge d’affaires near the government of the United MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 185 Slates, they being signed by General Doblado, minister of foreign affairs of Mexico, on the 3d of April. On the 23d of April, 1863, Mr. Romero notified Mr. Seward that he had received a leave of absence, of which he would avail himself. He took leave of President Lincoln on the 27th ; left Washington on the next day, and New York on the 16tli of May following. “ Mr. Romero returned to New York on the 23d of October, 1863, as envoy extraordinary and minister plen- ipotentiary from Mexico to the United States, and pre- sented his credentials to President Lincoln on the 29th of the same month, having since remained in Washington in that character. “ Out of 2,155 days that Mr. Romero has been in the United States (counting five full years, 139 days in 1860 and 190 in 1863), he has only spent out of Washington, and always on official business, 306 days, as follows : in 1860, 6 ; in 1861, 31 ; in 1862, 36 ; in i863, 29 ; in 1864, 96; in 1865, 89; and in 1866, 19; having passed in Washington 1,849 days. “ While Mr. Romero was acting as charge d’affaires he only had one attache to the legation ; Mr. Mariano Degollado first, and Mr. J. Escobar y Armendariz after- wards. He was at some intervals alone. Since he returned as full minister, he has had two or three assist- ants, Mr. Mariscal having been during all that time the secretary of legation. “ The total number of official interviews which Mr. Romero had with the Secretary of State, the Hon. Wil- liam H. Seward, from the 2d of September, 1861, to the 31st of December, 1866, is 109, as follows : As charge d'affaires (to the 23d of May, 1863), 63 ; as minister (from the 27th of October, 1863), 46 ; and 26 with the President of the United States on official business, as fol- lows : with President Buchanan, 3 ; with President Lin- coln, 15 ; with President Johnson, 8 ; total, 135. “ During the two years and a half that the Republi- can government of Mexico was in the State of Chihua- 186 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. hua, their communication with the Republic and the outer world was entirely cut off, and they depended upon their legation at Washington to hear from the central, southern, and eastern parts of Mexico, from the United States, and Europe. All the mails for the Mexican government, including newspapers for President Juarez and his cabi- net, had to be sent to Mr. Romero, the duties of the lega- tion increasing thereby considerably, as it was necessary to keep an active correspondence with several Mexican generals in the field, and with friends of Mexico in France and other places in Europe and in South Amer- ica. Besides this, and the regular functions of a minis- ter, Mr. Romero has been charged with the purchase of arms and munitions of war, the chartering of steamers to carry to Mexico the war material, the printing of Mexi- can bonds and the negotiation of them in the market, and the making of contracts for several other purposes, the circulation of the official paper of the Mexican govern- ment, &c., &c. “ The appreciation by the United States government of Mr. Romero’s correspondence, is shown by the fact that Congress has often asked the President in a special man ner for Mr. Romero’s letters, and the President has sent, out of 480 letters which Mr. Romero has addressed to the State Department, 371, in the following manner : of 1861,27; 1862,35; 1863,21; 1864,54; 1865,115; 1866, 119. Total number of enclosures sent to Congress and published, 1,204. “The total number of messages on Mexican affairs sent by the President to Congress during the time em- braced in the preceding statement is 2 7, as follows : in 1862, 3 ; in 1863, 4; in 1864, 1 ; in 1865, 3 ; and in 1866, 16. “ EULALIO DEGOLLADO, Jk., “ Private Secretary. “ Washington, February 24, 1867.” PART V. THE MEXICAN QUESTION FROM A FRENCH POINT OF VIEW. CHAPTER I. “ MEXICO AS IT IS,— THE TRUTH,” ETC. BY THE ABBE DOMENECH.* It will facilitate an understanding of our subject, to consider the statements and views of the author of this volume. Although, in the order of time, they will antici- pate events in the narrative, and will make allusions to individuals and incidents that need to be described, still they furnish important incidental confirmation of the de- scriptions thus far given on other authority. The testi- mony from this source, in regard to the character of the “ church,” and of its organization, influence, and policy, will not be cpiestioned. The work shows clearly the part the ecclesiastical power has taken in the revolutions and struggles of Mexico ; and the animus it breathes towards the United States, — the government and the people, — if it reflects the feelings of the French Government and For- eign Powers, is, to say the least, suggestive. The chaplain The “ Abbe Emmanuel Domenech, Senior ot tbe Emi,ue- Director of the press of the Cabinet of H. M. * “ Le Mexique, tel qui’l est, La verite sur son climate, ses habi- tants, et son gouvernement, par Emmanuel Domenech, ancienDirec- teur de la presse du cabinet de S. M. L’Empereur Maximilian, et ex- aumonier du corps expeditionnaire.” 188 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. the Emperor Maximilian, and ex-chaplain of the expedi- tionary corps,” published in Paris, in 1867, a work of 348 pages, entitled “ Mexico as it is, — the truth respecting its climate, its inhabitants, and its government.” Mexico from a This volume professes to give to the people of French point 1 1 -°f vicw - F ranee, and of Europe, a truthful account of the author’s personal observation and knowledge of Mexico and its inhabitants. The first sentence is, “ Since our in- tervention in Mexico, the published accounts in the Euro- pean press, of the political situation of this Empire, are so contradictory, that it is impossible to distinguish the true from the false. The prejudices of some, the party spirit of others, the official or private interests of all, and inade- quate and superficial information, have so distorted the truth that it cannot be seen.” OBJECTS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE ABBE DOMENECII. “ In my double career as a man of letters and a jour- nalist, since 1856, I have so defended the Mexicans, that I shall not be suspected of partiality if, in this work, I speak of them less favorably. The truth must stand before sympathy.” Mexican “ The Mexican of to-day has his faults, which irritate and provoke us, and discourage his best friends. Nevertheless his faults, his vices, if you please, diminish enormously in their characteristic importance, if we compare the types of each class of Mexican society with corresponding classes in our old Europe. We are far from being perfect ourselves. Foreign literature, as well as our own, proves this enough by its exhibition of our faults. If wm see motes in our neighbors’ eyes, there are beams in our own. It is well for us, then, to be more mod- est and more reserved in our criticisms.” MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 189 rrench “ Far from fluttering the Mexicans, their coun- lmpartiahty. and their government, I shall paint them in the most unfavorable colors, in order to show that I have not hesitated to explore and to study the most hideous plagues of tliis poor people. I shall speak of the past, be- cause of its effects upon the present. I shall not pass over any of the complaints, whether just or not, which for two or three years have been made against Mexico. In acting thus, I hope to secure more consideration for my views, stamped always with the seal of a most rigid impartiality.” “I do not design to give a complete picture of the manners and customs of the Mexicans. I shall content myself with citing only those facts which have most im- pressed me, and which justify my conclusions.” “The narrative will contain many apparent con- tradictions. Mexico being so singularly a country of contrasts, it will be difficult to bear constantly in mind the distinction in the classes of society to which my praises or censures relate. I shall confine myself as much as pos- sible to facts, and allow them to speak for themselves.” “ In this way I shall be the better shielded from the attacks of those who do not share my views. Every one will draw such inferences as he pleases from the picture, and form his own opinion of a country, so little known as Mexico.” A country of contrasts. The Chaplain's 4 ‘I left Paris in 1864, for the purpose of tour and ob- . , _ _ , . . . jects. studying, m Mexico, the institutions of the new Empire, of sketching the political portraits of the new men, of comparing the Mexicans of the interior with those of the north and of the frontiers ; and the Indian races with those of the United States.” “ I regret that 1 am not able to correct all the preju- dices, exaggerations, and errors which have been published 190 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. about Mexico, its inhabitants, its riches, beauty, etc., or to give the details of the number of its churches and convents, their architecture and ornamentation.” “ My principle is, that truth injures only him who speaks it : it is often useful to those who hear it. My pen is my capital. I write as much from necessity as from inclination. Whether from conscience or from idleness, I shall not take pains to invent, but write only the truth. No one pays me to disguise or falsify it.” Design and Such are the avowed objects, principles, and importance of . ,7 , the Book. views of the author, flow far Ins work corre- sponds with such an avowal, the sequel will perhaps show. When one in an important and responsible official position, near two Thrones , addresses the Powers and people of Europe in behalf of a great movement , affecting the inter- ests of modern civilization in both hemispheres , for the ex- press purpose of removing false impressions, and forming a correct public opinion throughout Christendom, and professes to have thoroughly investigated the facts, and to understand the whole history and philosophy of the sub- ject, avows the most conscientious and sacred allegiance to truth and impartiality, and is fairly presumed to know more than he tells, the chief significance of the work arises from its “ quasi authority,” its chief importance from the na- ture, extent, and effect of the influence it is intended to exert. The Book, not In this view it is not the author , but the its author, , . judged. book, of which we speax. As much as it is to be regretted that the Abbe were not better informed, and that he had not employed his pen in the service of humanity, in the promotion of the principles of universal justice and freedom, of the equal and inalienable rights of nations and of men, we disavow in the outset all intended personality in respect to the author , and confine ourselves to the ex- MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 19 L animation and exhibition of the statements, views, and teachings of the booh. O What it says of things concerns us little. Its scope. . J . What it says of meiumaprinciple-s — of Mexicans, and races, of their character, condition, and rights; of Americans, of the United States, its government, laws, policy, and public men ; of the plans and purposes of European powers in regard to the Western hemisphere ; of modern civilization, of international intercourse, com- merce, and comity , concerns all mankind. And to this only is our attention directed. GENERAL CONTENTS OF THE BOOK. The volume describes : Analysis of the 1 • The country its geography, physical features, climate, soil, productions, its unrivalled re- sources and capabilities, and its industrial and commercial interests. 2. Its population, its institutions, social, moral, and political condition, the different races and classes, the various political and ecclesiastical parties and interests. 3. The intervention, its origin, causes, and objects ; its measures, and the principal actors in its history ; the Em- pire, Maximilian, his court, cabinet, and policy ; and the causes and consequences of the failure. 4. It omits altogether any account of the connection of the English and Spanish Governments with the enter- prise, and ignores all their co-operation in it. From the French standpoint, it speaks of it as “ our intervention .” 5. It accords to the French Government the honor of this, the grandest enterprise of the century, and the abso- lute and indisputable right to direct and control it. 6. It gives no history of moral or military move- 192 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. ments or events, and but brief and passing allusions to the Belgian, Austrian, and French elements in the cam- paign. 7. It dwells especially upon the character of the Mexi- cans — their political, civil, religious, social, and domestic institutions ; the “ church party,” their interests and poli- cy ; and the troubles and revolutions of the last forty years. 8. It represents the bulk of the population as divided into three classes — the first, the clerical or conservative party; the second, the radical republican reform party; and the third, an intermediate one, the liberal party, vibrating between the other two. 9. It declares that nine-tenths of the entire population adhere to the clerical party, embracing all the intelligent, wealthy, and respectable portion of the community ; that it embodies the only sound principles of government, law, or order, and that its ascendency is essential to the preser- vation of the existence of the nation, and of its prosperity in all that concerns the welfare of society. 10. It declares that the fundamental principle of Monarchy is the only form of government for Mexico, and is the distinctive rallying point of this party ; that it is inwrought in the very constitution of the Mexican mind, underlies all the national traditions, and is supported by an overwhelming majority of the people. 11. That the movement for the establishment of a monarchy, with a foreign Prince upon the t hrone, originated with this party ; was submitted to the Courts and Cabinets of Europe many years since ; that the intervention was the result, and this same party called Maximilian and placed him on the throne. The sixth chapter is devoted to the “ religious condi- tion of Mexico, the clergy, false religion, superstition, reli- MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 193 gious ceremonies, the fair of the dead, and the sale of the ecclesiastical property. - ” The eighth treats of the intervention, the opposition of the Mexicans, the consequences of its failure, and the monarchists. The eleventh discusses the political parties of the country. The twelfth is an exposition of the author’s views of the relations of the Mexican question to the future of Europe, and of France in particular. Entirely in the interest of the intervention and the Empire, it professes to enlighten Europe in respect to the character , the veal issues and interests of the conflict. It exhibits also the author’s views of Mexican and American public sentiment and policy. CONTENTS OF CHAPTER XII. The titles of this chapter are, “ The Mexican Question, little understood in Europe. Summary statement. Ameri- can policy. Tactics of Mr. Seward. The Monroe doctrine, its origin, application, and consequences. Opinions of American writers opposed to the Monroe Doctrine, and to the policy of Mr. Johnson. French opinions of the Mexi- can Question. Embarrassment of the United States on account of this Question. Opinions of Mexicans upon the actual situation. The importance of our expedition to the future of our commerce, and of our influence. Conclusion.'” The whole animus and influence of this vcflume are entirely in character with the assiduous and persistent efforts of the interventionists, by the daily press, pam- phlets, and volumes, to moidd public opinion in France , and in Europe , unfavorably to the character and rights of Mexicans and Americans , and to justify and strengthen 13 194 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. the policy and the acts of that foreign combination, naval, military, political and ecclesiastical ; to overthrow the institutions of this continent ; and to transplant here, in order to perpetuate at home, the European system of civil and religious despotism. The signal failure of the scheme, and the reaction which has already begun to “ plague its inventors,” render it perhaps not less desirable that Americans should understand what the enemies of free institutions have been doing, and who are their real friends abroad. Mexican esti- It is not surprising that a Mexican gentleman, mate of tile . .■*•.. . ° work. high m official position and in the confidence of his countrymen, characterizes the work as u a libel against Mexicans, that shows the disposition of the French (the author a French Abbe) against the Mexican patriots, and their despite in consequence of their failure. It is written in the interests of the bitterest Church partisans.” CHURCHES AND CONVENTS. Mexico a mo- nastic state. “ Mexico,” says the Abbe, “ under Spanish rule, ivas eminently a monastic State. Not only three-fifths of the cities Avere occupied with convents and churches, but there Avere convents, like that of San Francisco at Mexico, and that of Santa Clara at Quere- taro, Avhicli occupied a large part of the city. I do not speak of the fabulous riches of these churches. I think it right that the temples of God should be better adorned than the apartments of a stock-broker. But is it not a lie to God and men, to make a voav of poverty, and then live in the midst of abundance and comfort, as the ecclesiastics of all Spanish America do ? ” “ Much has been said of the splendor of the The Churches. . ........ •! Mexican churches, and ot their immense riches. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 195 But all that, is only a story which demonstrates the pious liberality of the Spaniards, and the rapacious sacrilege of the liberal Mexicans. These last have stolen that which the others had given . 11 wealth and “ In the late revolutions, the Mexicans have church. taken away more than two hundred millions of value, in gold, silver, and precious stones, which the Span- iards had accumulated in their churches since the con- quest ! 11 “ The Cathedral of Mexico possessed a massive silver lamp, so large that three men entered within, to clean it. The liberals have cleaned it out, so thoroughly, that nothing of it is left. It would take a long list to enumerate the objects of historic interest of this kind, which have in like manner disappeared . 11 “ If the country has profited by considerable sums thus produced by the plunder of the churches, it is sad to see a nation obliged to resort to such extremities, to relieve its finances. But as it is only a few individuals who have enriched themselves, by these precious spoils, it is right to condemn such acts of vandalism. To-day there are only the ruins and fragments of the profusion of former splendors.” “ The Mexican loves his dollars, and keeps them. He has taken or destroyed the heritage of the Spaniards ; he has restored nothing, improved nothing, even in a relig- ious point of view. The ‘votive offerings , 1 which even in Europe, have sometimes considerable value, are limited in Mexico to microscopic objects in silver, bought at the maker’s for two or three francs . 11 MEXICANS NOT CATHOLICS. Mexicans not “ Besides, the Mexican is not a Catholic ; he is simply a Christian, because he has been baptized. 19G MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. I speak of the masses, and not of numerous exceptions to be met with, in all classes of society.” “ I say that Mexico is not a Catholic country : “I. Because a majority of the native population are semi-idolators. “ II. Because the majority of the Mexicans carry igno- rance of religion to such a point, that they have no other Avorship than that of form. It is materialism without a doubt. They do not know what it is to worship God in spirit and in truth, according to the Gospel. “ I IT. Because the clergy themselves, in general, have little education, knoAv very little of Theology, and appear to be ignorant of the canonical laws, and of the decrees of the Councils.” Absence of ‘ Charity and humility are the very founda- Christiau vir- . * ^ . , JL tues. tions, the touchstone ot Catholicism. I he Mexi- can professes but little enthusiasm for these virtues, notAvith- standing that, without them, Catholicism becomes a sheer human religion, making Divinity cnly a pretext and motive of action, but stricken with sterility, rejected of God.” simony and “ If the Pope should abolish all Simoniacal liv- mgs, and excommunicate all the priests having concubines, the Mexican clergy Avould be reduced to a very small affair. Nevertheless, there are some worthy men among them, whose conduct as priests is irreproach- able.” “Notwithstanding the bad examples of the fra- ternity, the number of good priests is not so small as has been reported. From Vera Cruz to Mexico, at San Luis Potosi, and at Durango, I have seen those of A\ T hom nothing but good could be said, and Avhose conversation has been instructive to me. Their want of education and Some good priests. MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 197 culture, their merely local ideas, render them little esteemed by those accustomed to the French clergy, whose apostolic walk and conversation edify all the world.” CHARACTER OF THE PRIESTHOOD. Frankness and “On the religious question, I shall use the same impartiality. f ran p negs as j n the political, moral, and mate- rial, which make Mexico a peculiar country, unlike any other. I shall not conceal the evil which is reported, nor that which I know, in order that I may have the right to correct the exaggerations of the malevolent, of the hasty, and of partisan faultfinders. “In all questions, it is not enough to relate the evil and the good, to establish the facts which reveal the actual sit- uation, little understood. It is necessary to show the remedy. I shall show it.” character of “In all Spanish America there are found, the Priesthood. , •» • , . i • , , i i among the priests, the veriest wretches — knaves deserving the gallows — men who make an infamous traffic of religion. Mexico has her share of these wretches. Whose fault is it ? In the past it has been Spanish man- ners — climate. In the present it is the Episcopate. If the bishops had good seminaries, where pupils could receive a sound and serious education ; if the bishops had more energy ; if they were more cautious in the choice of candidates for the priesthood ; if they required others to observe, and observed themselves , more scrupulously, the canonical laws of the church, they would not see the dis- orders of which they are now the first to complain.” “ Notwithstanding the decrees of the Council of Trent, pastoral visits are scarcely known in Mexico. I know they have been difficult and dangerous since the indepen- 198 MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. dence ; but if tlie Episcopate does not give the example of devotion and self-denial, who will give it ? ” Mexican aver- “ The Mexicans have cried out loudly against sion to the _ J