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11 1 S T O li Y 
 
 OK THE 
 
 J{,EVOLUTIONS II EUROPE, 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE SUBVERSION 
 
 OK THR 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST, 
 
 TO THE 
 
 CONGRESS OF VIENNA. 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 FRENCH OF CHRISTOPHER WILLI AIVTkOCH. 
 
 WITH A 
 
 CONTINUATION TO THE YEAR 1815, 
 
 BY M. SCHCELL. 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED BV J. G. COGSWELL. 
 WITH A 
 
 SKETCH OF THE LATE REVOLUTIONS IN FRANCE, 
 BELGIUM, POLAND AND GREECE, 
 
 BY J. BARRETT, M. D. 
 
 Blmbelllslied w^ltliEngi-avlngs, 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 HARTFORD : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY EDWIN HUNT, 
 
 1847. 
 
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 11. 
 
 Pftgo 
 
 Chapter VIII.— Period VII. 
 
 From the Peace of Westphalia to that of Utrecht, A. D. 
 
 1648—1713, M 
 
 Chapter IX.— Period VIII. 
 
 From the Peace of Utrecht to the French Revolution, A. D. 
 
 .713—1789, 57 
 
 Chapter X. — Period IX. 
 
 From the commencement of the French Revolution, to the 
 
 downfall of Buonaparte, A. D. 1789—1815, .... 140 
 
 Chapter XI. 
 
 The Military Predominance of France, under the sway of 
 
 Napoleon Buonaparte, A. D. 1802—1810, 198 
 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 The Decline and Downfall of the Empire of Buonaparte, 
 
 A. D. 1810—1816, 258 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 From the second Restoration of the Bourbons, A. D 1815, 
 
 to the French Revolution in July, 1830, 303 
 
 Revolution in Belgium, A. D. 1830, 328 
 
 Revolution in Poland, A. D. 1830, 329 
 
 Revolution in Greece, A. D. 1821—1827, 341 
 
 War between Russia and Turkey, A. D. 1828 and 1829, . 361 
 England, from A. D. 1816, till the passing of the Reform 
 
 Bill in 1832, 365 
 
 Notes, • . 377 
 
* CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 principally by the two great statesmen, Cardinals Richelieu and 
 Mazarin, who, by drying up the fountains of civil dissensions, 
 and concentrating the reins of authority in the hands of the go- 
 vernment, raised that monarchy to the rank which its position, 
 its population, and its internal resources, had assigned it among 
 the powers of the Continent. 
 
 Mazarin left the kingdom in a flourishing state to Louis XIV., 
 who, aided by the counsels and assistance of the famous Col- 
 bert, became the patron of letters and the fine arts, and finished 
 the work which was begun by his prime minister. Nothing 
 could equal the ardour which inspired that prince for military 
 fame. France would have been prosperous under his reign, 
 and respected even by all Europe, had he kept nothing else in 
 view than the true interests and happiness of his people ; but 
 he was ambitious of that sort of glory which is the scourge of 
 mankind, the glory of heroes and conquerors. Hence there re- 
 sulted a long series of wars, which exhausted the strength and 
 resources of the state, and introduced a new change in its po- 
 litical system. The same States which had formerly made 
 common cause with France against Austria, now combined 
 against the former, to humble that gigantic power which seemed 
 to threaten their liberty and independence. 
 
 [In these alliances the maritime powers voluntarily took part ; 
 and, having less fear than the others of falling under the yoke 
 of a universal monarchy, they joined the Confederates merely 
 for the protection of their commerce — the true source of their 
 influence and their wealth. They undertook the defence of the 
 equilibrium system, because they perceived, that a State which 
 could command the greater part of the continental coasts, might 
 in many ways embarrass their commerce, and perhaps become 
 dangerous to their marine. They soon acquired a very great 
 influence in the affairs of this system, by the subsidies with 
 which from time to time they furnished the States of the Con- 
 tinent. From this period the principal aim of European policy 
 was their finances and their commercial interests, in place ot 
 religion, which had been the grand motive or pretext for the 
 preceding wars. With this new system began those abuses oi 
 commercial privileges and monopolies, prohibitions, imposts, 
 and many other regulations, which acted as restraints on natural 
 liberty, and became the scourge of future generations. It was 
 then that treaties of commerce first appeared, by which every 
 trading nation endeavoured to procure advantages to itself, at 
 the expense of its rivals ; and it was then that the belligerent 
 powers began to lay restraints and interdicts on the commerce 
 of neutral States. 
 
PERIOD VH. A. H. 164S — 1713. 6 
 
 But the political system of Europe experienced other changfes 
 at this period. Standing annies were introduced, and augment- 
 ed to a degree that proved ruinous both to the agriculture of the 
 inhabitants, and the finances of the government, which, by this 
 means, was rendered more and more dependent on those States, 
 whose principal object was commerce. The frequent commu- 
 nication between foreign courts, which the policy of Richelieu 
 had rendered necessary, gave occasion for envoys and resident 
 ministers ; whereas formerly scarcely any other intercourse was 
 known, except by extraordinary embassies.] 
 
 The first war that roused the European powers, was that 
 which Louis XIV. undertook against Spain, to enforce the 
 claims which he advanced, in name of his Queen Maria The- 
 resa, over several provinces of the Spanish Netherlands, espe- 
 cially the dutchies of Brabant and Limburg, the seigniories of 
 Mechlin, the marquisate of Antwerp, Upper Gueldres, the 
 counties of Namur, Hainault and Artois, Cambray and Cam- 
 bresis, which he alleged belonged to him, in virtue of the jus 
 devolutionis, according to the usage of that country. According 
 to that right, the property of goods passed to the children of the 
 first marriage, when their parents contracted another. Maria 
 Theresa, Queen of France, was the daughter, by the first mar- 
 riage of Philip IV. King of Spain; whereas Charles II., his 
 successor in that monarchy, was descended of the second mar- 
 riage. Louis XIV. contended, that from the moment of Philip's 
 second marriage, the property of all the countries, which were 
 affected by the right of devolution, belonged to his Queen ; and 
 that, after the death of her father, that Princess should enjoy 
 the succession. In opposition to these claims of France, the 
 Spaniards alleged, that the right of aevolution, being founded 
 merely on custom, and applicable only to particular successions, 
 could not be opposed to the fundamental laws of Spain, which 
 maintained the indivisibility of that monarchy, and transferred the 
 whole succession to Charles II. without any partition whatever. 
 
 In course of the campaign of 1667, the French made them- 
 selves masters of several cities in the Low Countries, such as 
 Bruges, Furnes, Armentieres, Charleroi, Binch, Ath, Tournay, 
 Douay, Courtray, Oudenarde, and Lille ; and in course of the 
 following winter, they got possession of Franche-Comte. The 
 Pope and several princes having volunteered their good offices 
 for the restoration of peace, they proposed a congress at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle ; but the principal scene of the negotiation was at the 
 Hague, where Louis sent the Count d'Estrades, to treat sepa- 
 rately with the States-General. This negotiation was greatly 
 accelerated by the famous Triple Alliance, concluded at the 
 
 1 * 
 
8 CHAPTER VUL 
 
 Hague 1668, between Great Britain, Sweden, and the States- 
 General. By the terms of this treaty, the Allied Powers re- 
 quired Louis to offer Spain the option, either to leave him in 
 possession of the places which he had conquered, during the 
 campaign of 1667, or to cede to him either the dutchy of Lux- 
 emburg, or Franche-Comte with the cities of Cambray, Douay 
 Aire, St. Omer, and Furnes, with their dependencies. The 
 Spaniards having accepted the former of these alternatives, the 
 draught of a treaty of peace was agreed on, and signed by the 
 ministers of France, England, and the States-General ; and this 
 scheme served as the basis of the treaty, which was concluded 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and Spain (May 2d 1668.) 
 In consideration of the restitutions which she had made to Spain, 
 France retained, in terms of this treaty, the towns of Charleroi, 
 Binch, Ath, Douay, Tournay, Oudenarde, Lille, Armentieres, 
 Courtray, Bergues, and Furnes, with their bailiwicks and de- 
 pendencies. 
 
 This peace was soon followed by a new war, which Louis 
 XIV. undertook against the Republic of the Seven United Pro- 
 vinces. Wishing to be avenged on the Dutch, whom he knew 
 to be the principal authors of the Triple Alliance, and consult- 
 ing only his own propensity for war, he alleged, as a pretext, 
 certain insulting medals which had been struck in Holland, on 
 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Triple Alliance.^ In vain 
 did the States-General offer him every satisfaction ; he persist- 
 ed in his purpose of declaring war ; and the better to succeed in 
 his design, he endeavoured first to dissolve the Triple Alliance. 
 Colbert de Croissy, whom he sent to England, found means to 
 detach Charles II. from the alliance, and to draw him over to 
 side with Louis against the Republic. The same success at- 
 tended the negotiation which he set on foot with the Court of 
 Stockholm. Following the example of England, the Swedes 
 renounced the Triple Alliance, and joined with France. Seve- 
 ral princes of the Empire, such as the Elector of Cologne and 
 the Bishop of Munster, adopted the same line of conduct. The 
 war broke out in 1672 ; and so rapid were the conquests of 
 Louis, that he subdued in one single campaign the provinces of 
 Gueldres, Utrecht, Overyssel, and part of Holland. He would 
 have carried the city of Amsterdam, if the Dutch had not cut 
 their dikes and inundated the country. 
 
 Alarmed at these extraordinary successes, and apprehending 
 the entire subversion of the Republic, the Emperor Leopold I. 
 the King of Spain, the Elector of Brandenburg, and the Impe- 
 rial States, leagued in their favour, and marched to their relief. 
 The Parliament of England obliged Charles II. to make peace 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 7 
 
 'xiih the Republic, by refusing to grant him supplies (1674.) 
 The Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Munster did the 
 aame thing. Louis XIV. then thought proper to abandon his 
 •conquests in Holland ; and directed his principal strength against 
 Spain and the Germanic Stages. He subdued Franche-Comte 
 in the spring of 1674 ; and in course of the same year, the 
 Prince of Conde gained the battle of Senef. In the following 
 winter Turenne attacked the quarters of the Imperialists in 
 Alsace, and chased them from that province, in spite of their 
 superior numbers. That great general was slain at Saspach in 
 Ortenau when he was on the point of fighting the famous battle 
 with Montecuculi (11th Aug. 1674.) Next year Admiral du 
 Quesne gained two naval victories, near the islands of Lipari 
 and Messina, over De Ruyter, who died of the wounds he had 
 received. 
 
 The Swedes, according to the secret articles of their alliance 
 with France, had penetrated, in the month of December 1674, 
 mio the Electorate of Brandenburg, to cause a diversion against 
 the Elector Frederic William, who commanded the Imperial 
 army on the Rhine ; but the Elector surprised them by forced 
 marches at Rathenow, and completely routed their army near 
 Fehrbellin (1675.) The Emperor then declared war against 
 Sweden ; and the Elector, in concert with the princes of Bruns- 
 wick, the Bishop of Munster, and the King of Denmark, strip- 
 ped the Swedes of the greater part of their possessions in the 
 Empire. 
 
 At length, in the years 1678-79, a peace was concluded at 
 INimeguen, under the mediation of England. Louis XIV. con- 
 trived to divide the allies, and to make a separate treaty with 
 the Dutch, by which he restored to them the city of Maestricht, 
 which he had again seized. The example of the Dutch was fol- 
 lowed bv the Spaniards, who in like manner signed a special 
 treaty with France ; in virtue of which, they gave up to her 
 Franche-Comte, with several cities in Flanders and Hainault, 
 such as Valenciennes, Bouchain, Conde, Cambray, Aire, St. 
 Omer, Ypres, Warwick, Warneton, Poperingen, Bailleul, Cas- 
 sel, Bavay, and Maubeuge, with their dependencies. The peace 
 of Munster ( 1648) was renewed by that which was concluded 
 at Nimeguen, between France, the Empire, and the Emperor. 
 France, on renouncing her right to a garrison in Philipsburg, 
 got possession of the city of Friburg in Brisgaw, but refused to 
 restore what she had wrested from the Duke of Lorraine, except 
 on conditions so burdensome, that the Duke would not accept 
 them and preferred to abandon the repossession of his dutchy. 
 As to the peace which France and Sweden had negotiated witK 
 
8 CHAPTER Vlll. 
 
 Denmark and her allies the Princes of the Empire, it was re- 
 newed by different special treaties, concluded in course of the 
 year 1679. 
 
 No sooner was the peace of Nimeguen concluded, than there 
 sprung' up new troubles, known by the name of the Troubles of 
 the Reunions. Louis XIV., whose ambition was without bounds, 
 had instituted a Chamber of Reunion, in the parliament of Metz, 
 for the purpose of examining the nature and extent of the terri- 
 tories ceded to him by the treaties of Westphalia, the Pyrenees, 
 Aix-ia-Chapelle, and Nimeguen. This Chamber, as well as the 
 Parliament of Besan9on, and the Sovereign Council of Alsace, 
 adjudged to the King, by their decree, several towns and seignio- 
 ries, as being fiefs or dependencies of Alsace ; as also the three 
 bishoprics, Franche-Comte, and the territories which had been 
 ceded to him in the Netherlands. 
 
 The King's views were principally directed to Alsace. He 
 had already tendered his claims on this province, shortly after 
 the peace of the Pyrenees, when the matter had been referred 
 to the decision of arbiters chosen by the Emperor himself. The 
 work of arbitration was not far advanced, when it was inter- 
 rupted by the Dutch war, in which the Emperor and the Em- 
 pire were both implicated. The peace of Nimeguen having 
 confirmed the treaty of Munster, he preferred the method of re- 
 union to that of arbitration, for reclaiming his alleged rights. 
 Taking advantage of the general terms in which the cession of 
 Alsace was announced in the seventy-third and seventy-fourth 
 articles of the said treaty, he claimed the absolute sovereignty 
 of the whole province, and obliged the immediate states, inclu- 
 ded in it, to acknowledge his sovereignty, and to do him fealty 
 and homage, notwithstanding the reservations which the eighty- 
 seventh article of the same treaty had stipulated in favour of 
 these very States. M. de Louvois appeared before Strasburg 
 at the head of the French army, and summoned that city to sub- 
 mit to the King. Accordingly, it surrendered by capitulation 
 on the 30th September 1681. These reunions extended also to 
 the Netherlands, where the French seized, among others, the 
 cities of Courtray, Dixmude and Luxemburg. 
 
 Louis XIV., in thus taking upon himself alone the interpre- 
 tation of these treaties of peace, could not but offend the powers 
 interested in maintaining them. A new general league was 
 projected against France, and at the Diet of Ratisbon they de- 
 liberated on the means of setting on foot an Imperial army ; but 
 the want of unanimity among the members of the Germanic bo- 
 d^ the troubles in Hungary, which were immediately succeed- 
 e( f a war with the Porte, and the march of a Turkish army 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 9 
 
 on Vienna, threw them into a state of consternation, and pre- 
 vented the Imperial Diet from adopting any vigorous resolution. 
 Spain, exhausted by protracted wars, and abandoned by Enor- 
 land and Holland, was quite incapacitated from taking arms. 
 Nothing else, therefore, remained for the parties concerned, than 
 to have recourse to negotiation. Conferences were opened at 
 Frankfort, which, after having languished for fifteen months in 
 that city, were transferred to Ratisbon, where a truce of twenty 
 years was signed (15th August 1684) between France and Spain; 
 as also between France, the Emperor and the Empire. By the 
 former of these treaties, Louis retained Luxemburg, Bo vines, 
 and Chimay, with their dependencies ; restoring all the places 
 wnich he had occupied in the Netherlands prior to the 20th Au- 
 gust 1683. As to the treaty between France and the Emperor, 
 the former retained, during the truce, the city of Strasburg, and 
 the fort of Kehl, besides all the places and seigniories which 
 they had taken possession of, since the commencement of the 
 troubles till the 1st of August 1681. In all the places that were 
 surrendered to him, Louis preserved the exercise of his sover- 
 eign rights, leaving to the proprietors or seigniors the entire en- 
 joyment of the fruits and revenues belonging to their territorial 
 rights. 
 
 It was nearly about this same time that Louis XIV. under- 
 took to extirpate Calvinism from France. Incensed against the 
 Protestants by the old chancellor Letellier, and his minister Lou- 
 vois, the chancellor's son, he circumscribed, by repeated declara- 
 tions, the privileges which they enjoyed in virtue of former 
 edicts. The holding of general synods was forbidden ; the two 
 Chambers were suppressed ; and they were all, without excep- 
 tion, debarred from exercising any public function. At last, 
 Louis went so far as to send, immediately after the truce of Ra- 
 tisbon (1684,) dragoons over all France, to endeavour, as was 
 said, to convert the Protestants by gentle compulsion. This 
 measure was next followed by the famous Edict of 1685, which 
 revoked that of Nantes, published in 1598, and that of Nismes 
 in 1629. All exercise of their religion — all assemblies for wor- 
 ship, even in the house, were forbidden to the Protestants, under 
 pain of imprisonment and confiscation of goods. Their churches 
 were ordered to be demolished. Parents were enjoined to have 
 their children baptized by the Catholic clergy, and to bring them 
 up in the religion of the state. The ministers were banished, 
 and the other Protestants were forbidden to depart the country, 
 under pain of the galleys for men, and imprisonment and confis- 
 cation for women. The rigour of these prohibitions, however, 
 did not prevent a vast multitude of the French Protestants from 
 
10 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 removing to foreign countries, and transferring the seat of their 
 industry to Germany, England, and Holland. 
 
 This blindfold zeal for religion, however, did not hinder Louis 
 from vigorously supporting the rights of his crown against the 
 encroachments of the court of Kome. Among the different dis- 
 putes that arose between him and the Popes, that which regard- 
 ed the prerogative of Regale deserves to be particularly remark- 
 ed. The King, by declarations issued in 1673 and 1675, having 
 extended that right to all the archbishoprics and bishoprics within 
 the kingdom, the bishops of Aleth and Pamiers, who pretended 
 to be exempt from it, applied to the Pope, claiming his protection. 
 Innocent XI. interposed, by vehement briefs which he addressed 
 to the King in favour of the bishops. This induced Louis to 
 convoke an assembly of the French clergy, in which, besides 
 the extension of the Regalt, he caused them to draw up the four 
 famous propositions, which are regarded as the basis of the li- 
 berties of the Gallican Church. These propositions were, (1.) 
 That the power of the Pope extends only to things spiritual, and 
 has no concern with temporal matters. (2.) That the authority 
 of the Pope in spiritual affairs is subordinate to a general coun- 
 cil. (3.) That it is even limited by the canons, the customs, 
 and constitution of the kingdom and the Gallican Church. (4.) 
 That in matters of faith the Pope's authority is not infallible. 
 
 The truce which had been concluded for twenty years at Ra- 
 tisbon, continued only four ; at the end of which Louis again 
 took up arms. He pretended to have got information, that the 
 Emperor Leopold only waited till the conclusion of the peace 
 with the Turks, to make war upon him ; and he thence inferred, 
 that prudence required him rather to anticipate his enemy, than 
 allow himself to be circumvented. In proof of this assertion, 
 he cited the treaty concluded at Augsburg in 1686, between the 
 Emperor, the King of Spain, the States-General, Sweden, the 
 Duke of Savoy, and the principal States of the Empire, for the 
 maintenance of the treaties concluded with France. Louis 
 wished moreover to enforce the claims which the Dutchess of 
 Orleans, his sister-in-law, alleged to the succession of the Pala- 
 tinate. That princess was the sister of Charles, the last Elector 
 Palatine, of the family of Simmern, who died in 1685. She 
 did not dispute the fiefs with her brother's successor in the 
 Electorate ; she claimed the freeholds, which comprehended a 
 considerable part of the Palatinate ; while the new Elector, 
 Philip William, of the family of Neuburg, maintained thac, ac- 
 cording to the laws and usages of Germany, the entire succes- 
 sion belonged to him, without any partition whatever. 
 
 Besides these motives which Louis XIV. set forth in a long 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 164S— 1713. 11 
 
 manifesto, there was another which he kept concealed, the ob- 
 ject of which was, to prevent the expedition which the Prince 
 of Orange. Stadtholder of the United Provinces, was preparing 
 to send to England, against James II. his brother-in-law, who 
 had become odious to the whole English nation. It was of great 
 importance for France to maintain, on the throne of Great Bri- 
 tain, a prince whom she protected, and who would always es- 
 pouse her interests ; while it was easy to foresee, that if the 
 Prince of Orange, the declared enemy x)i Louis, and the author 
 of the league of Augsburg, should succeed in uniting the crown 
 of England to the stadtholdership, he would not fail to employ 
 this new influence, and turn the combined force of both states 
 against France. The only method of preventing an event so 
 prejudicial to the true interests of that kingdom would have been 
 doubtless, to equip an expedition, and pitch his camp on the 
 frontiers of Holland. The Court of France knew this well, and 
 yet they contented themselves with sending an army to the 
 Khine, which took possession of Philipsburg, Mayence, and the 
 whole Palatinate, as well as a part of the Electorate of Treves 
 (Sept. and Oct. 1688.) Louvois, the French minister who di- 
 rected these operations, had flattered himself that the Dutch, 
 when they beheld the war breaking out in their vicinity, would 
 not dare to take any part in the troubles of England. In this 
 opinion he was deceived ; the Prince of Orange, supported by the 
 Dutch fleet, effected a landing in England (16th November 1688.) 
 The revolution there was soon completed, by the dethronement 
 of James II. ; and Louis XIV., ending where he should have 
 begun, then declared war against the States-General. This 
 mistaken policy of the French minister became the true source of 
 aU the subsequent reverses that eclipsed the reign of Louis XIV. 
 A powerful league was nov/ formed against France, which 
 was joined successively by the Emperor, the Empire, England, 
 Holland, Spain and Savoy (1689.) Louis XIV., in order to 
 make head against these formidable enemies, recalled his troops 
 from those places which they occupied in the Palatinate, and on 
 the banks of the Rhine ; but in withdrawing them, he ordered 
 a great number of the towns to be burnt to ashes, and laid waste 
 the whole country. By this barbarity, which circumstances by 
 no means called for, he only aggravated the hatred and increased 
 the ardour of his enemies. War was commenced by sea and 
 land ; in Italy, Spain, Ireland, the Low Countries, and on the 
 Rhine. Louis supported it nobly against a great part of Europe, 
 now combined against him. His armies were victorious every 
 where. Marshal Luxembourg signalized himself in the cam- 
 paigns of Flanders, by the victories which he gained over the 
 
12 CHAPTER VUI. 
 
 allies at Fleurus (1st July 1690,) Steinkirk (3d Aug. 1692,) and 
 Landen or Nerwinden (29th July 1693.) In Italy. Marshal Ca- 
 tinat gained the battle of Stafarda (18th Aug. 1690,) and Mar- 
 saglia (4th Oct. 1693) over the Duke of Savoy. The naval 
 glory of France was well supported by the Count de Tourville 
 at the battles of Beachy-head (10th July 1690,) and La Hogue 
 (29th May 1692.) 
 
 However brilliant the success of her arms might be, the pro- 
 digious efforts which the war required could not but exhaust 
 France, and make her anxious for the return of peace. Besides, 
 Jiouis XIV. foresaw the approaching death of Charles II. of 
 Spain ; and it was of importance for him to break the grand 
 alliance as soon as possible ; as one of its articles secured the 
 succession of the Spanish monarchy to the Emperor and his 
 descendants, to the exclusion of the King of France. In this 
 case, he wished, for his own interest, to give every facility for 
 the restoration of peace ; and by the treaty which he concluded 
 separately with the Duke of Savoy, he granted that Prince, be- 
 sides the fortress of Pignerol, and the marriage of his daughter 
 with the Duke of Burgundy, the privilege of royal honours for 
 his ambassadors. This treaty, concluded at Turin (29th Aug. 
 1696,) was a preliminary to the general peace, signed at Rys- 
 wick, between France, Spain, England, and Holland (20th Sept. 
 1697.) Each of the contracting parties consented to make 
 mutual restitutions. France even restored to Spain all the towns 
 and territories which she had occupied in the Low Countries, 
 by means of the reunions ; with the exception of eighty-two 
 places, mentioned in a particular list, as being dependencies of 
 Charlemont, Maubeuge, and other places ceded by the preceding 
 treaties. Peace between France, the Emperor, and the Empire 
 was also signed at Ryswick. The treaties of Westphalia and 
 Nimeguen were there renewed ; and the decrees of the Cham- 
 ber of Reunion at Metz, and of the Sovereign Courts at Besan- 
 9on and Brisach, were rescinded and annulled. Louis XIV. 
 engaged to restore to the Empire all that he had appropriated to 
 himself, by means of the reunions, either before or during the 
 war ; that is to say, all places situated or acquired beyond the 
 bounds of Alsace. The city of Strasburg was ceded to France, 
 by a particular article of the treaty ; but the fortress of Kehl, the 
 cities of Friburg, Brisach, and Philipsburg, were surrendered to 
 the Emperor. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and son of Charles 
 v., was reinstated in his dutchy, without any other reservation 
 than that of Saar-Louis, and the city and prefecture of Longwy. 
 As to the claims of the Dutchess of Orleans on the Palatinate 
 they were submitted to the arbitration of the Emperor and the 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 1648—1713. 13 
 
 King of France ; to be referred to the decision of the Pope, 
 should these two Sovereigns happen to differ in opinion. 
 
 The peace of Ryswick was followed by the war of the Spanish 
 Succession, which embroiled Europe afresh, and occasioned 
 considerable changes in its political state. Charles II. King of 
 Spain, son of Philip IV., and last male descendant of the Spanish 
 branch of the House of Austria, having neither son, nor daughter, 
 nor brother, the Spanish monarchy, according to a fundamental 
 law of the kingdom, which fixed the succession in the cognate 
 line, appeared to belong to Maria Theresa, Queen of France 
 eldest sister of Charles, and to the children of her marriage with 
 Louis XIV. To this title of Maria Theresa, was opposed her 
 express renunciation, inserted in her marriage-contract, and con- 
 firmed by the peace of the Pyrenees ; but the French maintained, 
 that that renunciation was null, and that it could not prejudice 
 the children of the Queen, who held their right, not from their 
 mother, but by the fundamental law of Spain. 
 
 Admitting the validity of the Queen's renunciation, the lineal 
 order fixed the Spanish succession on her younger sister, Mar- 
 garet Theresa, who had married the Emperor Leopold I., and 
 left an only daughter, Maria Antoinette, spouse to the Elector 
 of Bavaria, and mother of Joseph Ferdinand, the Electoral 
 Prince of Bavaria. 
 
 The Emperor, who wished to preserve the Spanish monarchy 
 m his own family, availed himself of the renunciation which he 
 had exacted from his daughter, the Archdutchess Maria Antoi- 
 nette, when she married Maximilian, the Elector of Bavaria, to 
 appear as a candidate himself, and advance the claims of his 
 mother, Maria Anne, daughter of Philip III. King of Spain, and 
 aunt of Charles II. He alleged, that the Spanish succession 
 had been secured to this latter Princess, both by her marriage- 
 contract, and by the testaments of the Kings of Spain ; and as 
 he had two sons, the Archdukes Joseph and Charles, by his 
 marriage with the Princess Palatine of Neuburg, he destined 
 the elder for the Imperial throne and the States of Austria, and 
 the younger for the Spanish monarchy. 
 
 These different claims having excited apprehensions of a ge- 
 neral war, England and Holland, from a desire to prevent it, 
 drew up a treaty of partition, in concert with Louis XIV. (11th 
 Oct. 1698,) in virtue of which the Spanish monarchy was se- 
 cured to Joseph Ferdinand, in case of the death of Charles II. ; 
 while the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tusca- 
 ny, the marquisate of Finale, and the province of Guipuscoa, 
 were reserved to the Dauphin of France. The Archduke 
 Charles, son to the Emperor, was to have the dutchy of Milan. 
 
 '/OL. II ? 
 
M 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Although the King of Spain disapproved of the treaty, so far as 
 it admitted a partition, nevertheless, in his will, he recognised 
 the Prince of Bavaria as his successor in the Spanish monarchy. 
 
 A premature death having frustrated all the high expectations 
 of that prince, the powers who had concluded the first treaty of 
 partition drew up a second, which was signed at London (March 
 13, 1700.) According to this, the Archduke Charles, youngest 
 son of the Emperor Leopold, was destined the presumptive heir 
 to the Spanish monarchy. They awarded to the Dauphin the 
 dutchy of Lorraine, with the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and 
 the province of Guipuscoa ; assigning to the Duke of Lorraine 
 the dutchy of Milan in exchange. Louis XIV. used every effort 
 to have this new treaty of partition approved by the Court of 
 Vienna. He sent thither the Marquis Villars, who, after having 
 been long amused with vague promises, failed entirely in his 
 negotiation ; and the Emperor, whose main object was to con- 
 ciliate the Court of Madrid, lost the only favourable moment 
 which might have fixed the succession of the Spanish monarchy 
 in his family, with the consent of Louis XIV. and the principal 
 Courts of Europe. 
 
 At Madrid, this affair took a turn diametrically opposite to 
 the views and interests of the Court of Vienna. Charles II., 
 following the counsels of his prime minister, Cardinal Porto- 
 carrero, and after having taken the advice of the Pope, and of 
 the most eminent theologians and lawyers in his kingdom, de- 
 termined to make a second will, in which he recognised the 
 rights of Maria Theresa, his eldest sister ; and declared, that as 
 the renunciation of that princess had been made solely to pre- 
 vent the union of Spain with the kingdom of France, that mo- 
 tive ceased on transferring the Spanish monarchy to one of the 
 younger sons of the Dauphin. Accordingly, he nominated Phi- 
 lip of Anjou, the Dauphin's second son, heir to his whole do- 
 minions ; in case of his death, the Duke of Berri, his younger 
 brother ; next, the Archduke Charles ; and lastly, the Duke of 
 Savoy ; expressly forbidding all partition of the monarchy. 
 
 Charles II. having died on the 1st of November following, 
 the Junta, or Council of Regency, which he had appointed by 
 his will, sent to Louis XIV., praying him to accede to the set- 
 tlement of their late King, and give up his grandson to the 
 wishes of the Spanish nation. The same courier had orders to 
 pass on to Vienna, in case of a refusal on his part, and make 
 the same offer to the Archduke. The Court of France then 
 assembled a Grand Council, in which they held a deliberation 
 as to what step it was best to adopt, in an affair which so nearly 
 oncerned the general repose of Europe. The result of this 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 16 
 
 lyouncil was, that they ought to accfde to the will of Charles 
 II., and renounce the advantages which the second treaty of 
 partition held out to France. It was alleged, as the reason of 
 this resolution, that by refusing to accept the will, Louis must 
 either abandon altogether his pretensions to the Spanish mo- 
 aarchy, or undertake an expensive war to obtain by conquest 
 what the treaty of partition assigned him ; without being able, 
 in this latter case, to reckon on the effectual co-operation of the 
 two maritime courts. 
 
 Louis XIV. having therefore resolved to accede to the will, 
 Philip of Anjou was proclaimed King by the Spaniards, and 
 made his solemn entry into Madrid on the 14th of April 1701. 
 Most of the European powers, such as the States of Italy, Swe- 
 den, England, Holland, and the kingdoms of the North, ac- 
 knowledged Philip V. ; the King of Portugal, and the Duke of 
 Savoy even concluded treaties of alliance with him. More- 
 over, the situation of political affairs in Germany, Hungary, and 
 the North was such, that it would have been easy for Louis 
 XIV., with prudent management, to preserve the Spanish crown 
 on the head of his grandson ; but he seemed, as if on purpose, 
 to do every thing to raise all Europe against him. It was al-* 
 leged, that he aimed at the chimerical project of universal mo- 
 narchy, and the union of France with Spain. Instead of trying 
 to do away this supposition, he gave it additional force, by 
 issuing letters-patent in favour of Philip, at the moment when 
 he was departing for Spain, to the effect of preserving his rights 
 to the throne of France. The Dutch dreaded nothing so much 
 as to see the French making encroachments on the Spanish 
 Netherlands, which they regarded as their natural barrier a- 
 gainst France ; the preservation of which appeared to be equally 
 interesting to England. 
 
 It would have been prudent in Louis XIV. to give these ma- 
 ritime powers some security on this point, who, since the eleva- 
 tion of William Prince of Orange to the crown of Great Britain, 
 held as it were in their hands the balance of Europe. W^ithout 
 being swayed by this consideration, he obtained authority from 
 the Council of Madrid, to introduce a French army into the Spa- 
 nish Netherlands ; and on this occasion the Dutch troops, who 
 were quartered in various places of the Netherlands, according 
 vO a stipulation with the late King of Spain, were disarmed. This 
 circumstance became a powerful motive for King William to 
 rouse the States-General against France. He found some diffi- 
 culty, however, in drawing over the British Parliament to his 
 views, as a great majority in that House were averse to mingle 
 m the quarrels of the Continent ; but the death of James II. a' 
 
16 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 tered the minds and inclinations of the English. Louis XIV. 
 having formerly acknowledged the son of that prince as King of 
 Great Britain, the English Parliament had no longer any hesi- 
 tation in joining the Dutch, and the other enemies of France. 
 A new and powerful league was formed against Louis. The 
 Emperor, England, the United Provinces, the Empire, the 
 Kings of Portugal and Prussia, and the Duke of Savoy, all 
 joined it in succession. The allies engaged to restore to Aus- 
 tria, the Spanish Netherlands, the dutchy of Milan, the king- 
 dom of the Tw^o Sicilies, with the ports of Tuscany ; and nevei 
 to permit the union of France with Spain. 
 
 At the commencement of the war, Louis for some time main- 
 tained the glory and superiority of his arms, notwithstanding 
 the vast number of adversaries he had to oppose. It was not 
 until the campaign of 1704 that fortune abandoned him ; when 
 one reverse was only succeeded by another. The Duke of 
 Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated Marshal de Tallard at 
 Hochstett or Blenheim, (Aug. 13,) where he lost thirty thousand 
 men, and was himself carried prisoner to England. This disas- 
 ter was followed by the loss of Bavaria, and all the French pos- 
 sessions beyond the Rhine. The battle which Marlborough 
 gained (May 23, 1706) at Ramillies in Brabant was not less dis- 
 astrous ; it secured to the allies the conquest of the greater 
 part of the Netherlands ; and to increase these misfortunes, 
 Marshal de Marsin lost the famous battle of Turin against 
 Prince Eugene (Sept. 7,) which obliged the French troops to 
 evacuate Italy. The battle which was fought at Oudenarde in 
 Flanders (July 11, 1708) was not so decisive. Both sides 
 fought with equal advantage ; but the duke of Burgundy, who 
 was commander-in-chief of the French army, having quitted 
 the field of battle during the night, contrary to the advice of 
 Vendome, Marlborough made this an occasion for claiming the 
 victory. 
 
 At length the dreadful winter of 1709, and the battle of 
 Malplaquet, which Marlborough gained over Villars (Sept. 11,) 
 reduced France to the greatest distress, and brought Louis un- 
 der the necessity of suing for peace, and even descending to 
 the most humiliating conditions. M. de Torcy, his minister for 
 foreign affairs, w^as despatched to the Hague ; and, among a 
 number of preliminary articles, he agreed to make restitution of 
 all the conquests which the French had made since the peace of 
 Munster. He consented to surrender the city of Strasburg, and 
 henceforth to possess Alsace according to the literal terms of 
 the treaty of Munster ; the throne of Spain was reserved for 
 the archduke ; and Louis consented to abandon the interests of 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 17 
 
 Pliilip. But the allies, rendered haughty by their success, de- 
 manded of the King that he should oblige his grandson volun- 
 tarily to surrender his crown, otherwise they would compel him 
 by force of arms, and that within the short space of two months. 
 The conferences, which had been transferred from the Hague 
 to Gertruydenberg, were consequently broken off, and the war 
 continued. 
 
 In this critical state of things, two unexpected events happened, 
 which changed the face of affairs; and Louis XIV., far from 
 being constrained to submit to the articles of the preliminaries 
 at Gertruydenberg, saw himself even courted by England, and 
 in a condition to dictate the law to several of the powers that 
 were leagued against him. The Emperor Joseph I. died (April 
 11th 1711) without leaving any male offspring. His brother the 
 Archduke Charles, who took the title of King of Spain, now 
 obtained the Imperial dignity, and became heir of all the States 
 belonging to the German branch of the House of Austria. It 
 appeared, therefore, that the system of equilibrium could not 
 possibly admit the same prince to engross likewise the whole 
 Spanish monarchy. This event was coupled with another, rela- 
 tive to the change which had taken place in the ministry and 
 Parliament of Great Britain. The Whigs, who had been the 
 ruling party since the Revolution of 1689, were suddenly sup- 
 planted by the Tories. This overthrow brought the Duke of 
 Marlborough into disgrace, v/ho had long stood at the head of 
 affairs in England, as chief of the Whig faction. Queen Anne, 
 who stood in awe of him, found no other expedient for depriving 
 him of his influence, than to make peace with France. L'Abbe 
 Gualtier, who resided at London in quality of almoner to the 
 ambassador of Charles of Austria, was despatched by her Ma- 
 jesty to France, to make the first overtures of peace to Louis. A 
 secret negotiation was set on foot between the two Courts, the 
 result of which was a preliminary treaty signed at London 
 (October 8th 1711.) 
 
 A congress was opened at Utrecht, with the view of a general 
 pacification. The conferences which took place there, after the 
 month of February 1712, met with long interruptions; both on 
 account of the disinclination of several of the allied powers for 
 peace, and because of the matters to be separately treated be- 
 tween France and England, which retarded the progress of the 
 general negotiation. The battle of Denain, which Marshal Vil- 
 lars gained over the Earl of Albemarle (July 24,) helped to rea- 
 der the allies more tractable. Peace was signed at Utrecht in 
 the month of April 1713, between France and the chief bellige- 
 rent powers. The Emperor alone refused to take part in it, as 
 
 2 ^ 
 
18 CHAPTER Vin. 
 
 he could not resolve to abandon his claims to the Spanish 
 monarchy. 
 
 The grand aim of England in that transaction, was to limit 
 the overwhelming power of France ; for this purpose she took 
 care, in that treaty, to establish as a fundamental and inviolable 
 iaw, the clause which ordained that the kingdoms of France and 
 Spain never should be united. To effect this, it was necessary 
 that Philip of Anjou should formally renounce his right to the 
 crown of France ; while his brother the Duke de Berri, as well 
 as the Duke of Orleans, should do the same in regard to the 
 claims which they might advance to the Spanish monarchy. 
 The deeds of these renunciations, drawn up and signed in 
 France and in Spain, in presence of the English ambassadors, 
 were inserted, in the treaty of Utrecht ; as were also the letters- 
 patent which revoked and annulled those that Louis had given, 
 for preserving the right of the Duke of Anjou to the succession 
 of the French crown. Louis XIV. promised for himself, his 
 heirs and successors, never to attempt either to prevent or elude 
 the effect of these renunciations ; and failing the descendants 
 of Philip, the Spanish succession was secured to the Duke 
 of Savoy, his male descendants, and the other princes of his 
 family, to the exclusion of the French princes. 
 
 Another fundamental clause of the treaty of Utrecht declared, 
 that no province, city, fortress or place, in the Spanish Nether- 
 lands, should ever be ceded, transferred, or granted to the crown 
 of France ; nor to any prince or princess of French extraction, 
 under any title whatever. These provinces, designed to serve 
 as a barrier for the Low Countries against France, were ad- 
 judged to the Emperor and the House of Austria, together with 
 the kingdom of Naples, the ports of Tuscany, and the dutchy of 
 Milan ; and as die Emperor was not a party to the treaty, it was 
 agreed that the Spanish Netherlands should remain as a deposit 
 in the hands of the States-General, until that prince should ar' 
 range with them respecting the barrier-towns. The same stipu- 
 lation was made in regard to that part of the French Nether- 
 lands which Louis had ceded in favour of the Emperor ; such 
 as Menin, Tournay, Furnes, and Furnes-Ambacht, the fortress 
 of Kenock, Ypres, and their dependencies. 
 
 England, in particular, obtained by this treaty various and 
 considerable advantages. Louis XIV. withdrew his protection 
 from the Pretender, and engaged never to give him harbour in 
 France. The succession to the throne of Great Britain, was 
 guaranteed to the House of Hanover. They agreed to raze the 
 fortifications of the port of Dunkirk, which had so much excited 
 the jealousy of England ; while France likewise ceded to hei 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648—1713. 19 
 
 Hudson's Bay, and Straits, the Island of St. Christopher, Nova 
 Scotia, and Newfoundland in America. Spain gave up Gib- 
 rahar and Minorca, both of which had been conquered by the 
 English during the war; they secured to her, besides, for thirty 
 years, the privilege of furnishing negroes for the Spanish Ameri- 
 :an colonies. 
 
 The King of Prussia obtained the Spanish part of Gueldres, 
 with the city of that name, and the district of Kessel, in lieu of 
 the principality of Orange, w^hich was given to France ; though 
 he had claims to it as the heir of William III. King of England. 
 The kingdom of Sicily was adjudged to the Duke of Savoy, to 
 be possessed by him and his male descendants ; and they con- 
 firmed to him the grants which the Emperor had made him, of 
 that part of the dutchy of Milan Avhich had belonged to the Duke 
 of Mantua, as also Alexandria, Valencia, the Lumelline, and the 
 Valley of Sessia. Finally, Sardinia was reserved for the Elec- 
 tor of Bavaria, the ally of France in that war. 
 
 As the Emperor had not acceded to the treaty of Utrecht, the 
 war was continued between him and France. Marshal Villars 
 took Landau and Friburg in Brisgaw ; afterwards a conference 
 took place between hitn and Prince Eugene at Rastadt. New 
 preliminaries were there drawn up ; and a congress was opened 
 at Baden in Switzerland, where a definitive peace was signed 
 (Sept. 7th 1714.) The former treaties, since the peace of West- 
 phalia, were there renew^ed. The Electors of Cologne and Ba- 
 varia, who had been put to the ban of the Empire, and deprived 
 of their estates, were there fully re-established. Sardinia, which 
 had been assigned to the Elector of Bavaria, by the treaty of 
 Utrecht, remained in possession of the Emperor, who likewise 
 recovered Brisach and Friburg in Brisgaw, instead of Landau 
 which had been ceded to France. 
 
 Louis XIV. did not long survive this latter treaty. Never 
 did any sovereign patronize literature and the fine arts like him. 
 Many celebrated academies for the promotion of the arts and 
 sciences owe their origin to his auspices, such as the Academy 
 of Inscriptions, Belles-Lettres, Sciences, Painting, and Archi- 
 tecture. His reign was illustrious for eminent men, and talents 
 of every description, which were honoured and encouraged by 
 him. He even extended his favour to the philosophers and lit- 
 erati of foreign countries. This prince has been reproached for 
 his two great partiality to the Jesuits, his confessors, and for 
 the high importance which he attached to the dispute between 
 the Jansenists and the Molinists, which gave rise to the famous 
 Bull Unigenitas^ ^ approved by the clergy, and published by the 
 King as a law of the state over all France. This illustrious 
 
90 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Prince ended his days after a reign of seventy-two years, fertile 
 in great events ; he transmitted the crown to his great grrand- 
 son, Louis XV., who was only five years of age when he mount- 
 ed the throne (Sept. 1, 1714.) 
 
 In the course of this period, several memorable events hap- 
 pened in Germany. The Emperor, Leopold I., having assem- 
 bled a Diet at Ratisbon, to demand subsidies against the Turks, 
 and to settle certain matters which the preceding Diet had left 
 undecided, the sittings of that assembly were continued to the 
 present time, without ever having been declared permanent by 
 any formal law of the Empire. The peace of Westphalia, had 
 instituted an eighth Electorate for the Palatine branch of Wit- 
 tlesbach ; the Emperor, Leopold I., erected a ninth, in favour of 
 the younger branch of the House of Brunswick. The first Elec- 
 tor of this family, known by the name of Brunswick-Luneburg, 
 or Hanover, was the Duke Ernest Augustus, whom the Em- 
 peror invested in his new dignity, to descend to his heirs-male, 
 on account of his engaging to furnish Austria with supplies in 
 money and troops, for carrying on the war against the Turks. 
 This innovation met with decided opposition in the Empire. 
 Several of the Electors were hostile to it ; and the whole body 
 of Princes declared, that the new Electorate was prejudicial to 
 their dignity, and tended to introduce an Electoral Oligarchy. 
 The Duke of Brunswick- Wolffenbuttel especially protested 
 against the preference which was given to the younger branch 
 of his House over the elder, in spite of family compacts, and the 
 right of primogeniture established in the House of Brunswick. 
 
 A confederacy w^as thus formed against the ninth Electorate. 
 The allied Princes resolved, in an assembly held at Nuremberg, 
 to raise an army, and apply to the powers that had guaranteed 
 the treaty of Westphalia. France espoused the quarrel of these 
 Princes ; she concluded with the King of Denmark, a treaty of 
 alliance and subsidy against the ninth Electorate, and declared, 
 before the Diet of the Empire, that she regarded this innovation 
 as a blow aimed at the treaty of Westphalia. In course of time, 
 however, these animosities were allayed. The Princes recog- 
 nised the ninth Electorate, and the introduction of the new 
 Elector took place in 1708. A decree was passed at the Diet; 
 which annexed a clause to his admission, that the Catholic Elec- 
 tors should have the privilege of a casting vote, in cases where 
 the number of Protestant Electors should happen to equal that 
 of the Catholics. By the same decree, the King of Bohemia, 
 who had formerly never been admitted but at the election of the 
 Emperors, obtained a voice in all the deliberations of the E ripirc* 
 and the Electoral College, on condition of his paying, in ^ime 
 coming, an Electoral quota for the kingdom of Bohemia. 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. lb*48 — 1713. ^i 
 
 The Imperial capitulations assumed a form entirely new, about 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century. A difference had for- 
 merly existed among the members of the Germanic body on this 
 important article of public law. They regarded it as a thing 
 illegal, that the Electors alone should claim the right of drawing 
 up the capitulations ; and they maintained, with much reason, 
 that before these compacts should have the force of a fundamen- 
 tal law of the Empire, it was necessary that they should have 
 the deliberation and consent of the whole Diet. The Princes, 
 there fore,, demanded, that there should be laid before the Diet a 
 scheme of perpetual capitulation, to serve as a rule for the Elec- 
 tors on every new election. That question had already been 
 debated at the Congress of Westphalia, and sent back by it for 
 the decision of the Diet. There it became the subject of long 
 discussion ; and it was not till the interregnum, which followed 
 the death of the Emperor Joseph I., that the principal points of 
 the perpetual capitulation were finally settled. The plan then 
 agreed to was adopted as the basis of the capitulation, which they 
 prescribed to Charles VI. and his successors. Among other 
 articles, a clause was inserted regarding the election of a king of 
 the Romans. This, it was agreed, should never take place, 
 during the Emperor's life, except in a case of urgent necessity ; 
 md that th"; proscription of an elector, prince, or state of the 
 Empire, should never take place, without the consent of the 
 )iet, and observing the formalities enjoined by the new capi- 
 dation. 
 
 Three Electoral families of the Empire were raised to the 
 Dyal dignity ; viz. those of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Bruns- 
 /ick-Luneburg. Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, after hav- 
 n.g made a profession of the Catholic religion, was elected to 
 he throne of Poland ; a dignity which was afterwards conferred, 
 tlso by election, on his son Augustus III. That change of re- 
 igion did not prevent the Electors of Saxony from remaining 
 it the head of the Protestant interest in the Diet of the Em- 
 pire, as they had given them assurance that they would make 
 no innovations in the religion of their country, and that they 
 would appoint a council entirely composed of Protestant mem- 
 bers, for administering the affairs of the Empire. These prin- 
 ces, however, lost part of their influence ; and so far was the 
 crown of Poland, which was purely elective, from augmenting 
 the greatness and real power of their house, that, on the con- 
 trary, it served to exhaust and enfeeble Saxony, by involving it 
 in ruinous wars, which ended in the desolation of that fine 
 country, the alienation of the Electoral domains, and the increase 
 uf the debts and burdens of the state. 
 
22 CHAPTER Vllf. 
 
 If the royal digriity of Poland was prejudicial to the House 
 of Saxony, it was by no means so with that of Prussia, which 
 .he House of Brandenburg acquired soon after. The Elector, 
 John Sigismund, on succeeding to the dutchy of Prussia, had 
 acknowledged himself a vassal and tributary of the crown of 
 Poland. His grandson, Frederic William, took advantage of 
 the turbulent situation in which Poland was placed at the time 
 of the invasion of Charles X. of Sweden, to obtain a grant of 
 the sovereignty of Prussia, by a treaty which he concluded with 
 that Eepublic at Welau (19th September 1657.) Poland, in re- 
 nouncing the territorial rights which she exercised over Ducal 
 Prussia, stipulated for the reversion of these same rights, on the 
 extinction of the male line of the Electoral House of Brandenburg. 
 
 Frederic L, the son and successor of Frederic William, having 
 become sovereign of Ducal Prussia, thought himself authorized 
 to assum^e the royal dignity. The elevation of his cousin-ger- 
 man, the Prince of Oi'ange, to the throne of Britain, and of his 
 next neighbour, the Elector of Saxony, to the sovereignty oi 
 Poland, tempted his ambition, and induced him to enter into a 
 negotiation on the subject with the Court of Vienna. The Em- 
 peror Leopold promised to acknowledg-e him as King of Prussia, 
 on account of a supply of ten thousand men which Frederic pro- 
 mised to furnish him in the war of the Spanish Succession, 
 which was then commencing. To remove all apprehensions on 
 the part of Poland, who might perhaps offer some opposition, 
 the Elector signed a compact, bearing, that the royal dignity oi 
 Prussia should in no way prejudice the rights and possession ol 
 the King and States of Poland over Polish Prussia ; that neither 
 he nor his successors should attempt to found claims on that part 
 of Prussia ; and that the clause in the treaty of Welau, which 
 secured the reversion of the territorial right of Ducal Prussia, 
 on the extinction of the heirs-male of Frederic William, should 
 remain in full force and vigour, never to be infringed by the new 
 King or any of his successors. After these different conventions, 
 the Elector repaired to Koningsberg, where he w^as proclaimed 
 King of Prussia (18th January 1701.) It is worthy of remark, 
 that on the ceremony of his coronation, he put the crown on his 
 own head. 
 
 All the European powers acknowledged the new King, with 
 the exception of France and Spain, with whom he soon engaged 
 in war. The Teutonic Knights, bearing in mind their ancient 
 claims over Prussia, deemed it their duty to support them by a 
 protest, and their example was followed by the Court of Eome. 
 The opinion which the author of the Memoirs of Brandenburg 
 delivers on this event is very remarkable. " Frederic," says he 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 1648 — 1713. S8 
 
 " was flattered with nothing so much, as the externals of royalty, 
 the pomp of ostentation, and a certain whimsical self-conceit, 
 which was pleased with making others feel their inferiority. 
 What at first was the mere offspring of vanity, turned out in the 
 end to be a masterpiece of policy. The royal dignity liberated 
 the House of Brandenburg from that yoke of servitude under 
 which Austria had, till then, held all the Princes of Germany. 
 It was a kind of bait which Frederic held out to all his posterity, 
 and by which he seemed to say, I have acquired for you a title, 
 render yourselves worthy of it; I have laid the foundation of 
 your greatness, yours is the task of completing the structure." 
 In fact Austria, by promoting the House of Brandenburg, seemed 
 to have injured her own greatness. In the very bosom of the 
 Empire, she raised up a new power, which afterwards became 
 her rival, and seized every opportunity of aggrandizement at her 
 expense. 
 
 As for the Electoral House of Brunswick-Luneburg, it suc- 
 ceeded, as we have observed, to the throne of Great Britain, in 
 virtue of a fundamental law of that monarchy, which admitted 
 females to the succession of the crown. Ernest Augustus, the 
 first Elector of the Hanoverian line, had married Sophia, 
 daughter of the Elector Palatine Frederic V., by the Princess 
 Elizabeth of England, daughter of James I., King of Great 
 Britain. An act of the British Parliament in 1701, extended 
 the succession to that Princess, then Electress-Dowager of Han- 
 over, and to her descendants, as being nearest heirs to the throne, 
 according to the order established by former acts of Parliament, i 
 limiting the succession to Princes and Princesses of the Protes- 
 tant line only. The Electress Sophia, by that act, was called to 
 the succession, in case William III., and Anne, the youngest 
 daughter of James II., left no issue ; an event which took place 
 in 1714, on the death of Anne, who had succeeded William in 
 the kingdom of Great Britain. The Electress Sophia was not 
 alive at that time, having died two months before that princess. 
 George, Elector of Hanover, and son of Sophia by Ernest Au- 
 gustus, then ascended the British throne (Aug. 12, 1714,) to the 
 exclusion of all the other descendants of Elizabeth, who, though 
 they had the right of precedence, were excluded by being Catho- 
 lics, in virtue of the Acts of Parliament 1689, 1701, 1705. 
 
 The war of the Spanish Succession had occasioned great 
 changes in Italy. Spain, after having been long the leading 
 power in that country, gave place to Austria, to wham the trea- 
 ties of Utrecht and Baden had adjudged the dutchy of Milan, 
 the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, and the ports of Tuscany. 
 To these she added the dutchy of Mantua, of which the Empe- 
 
S4 CHAPTER VIIT. 
 
 ror Joseph I. had dispossessed Duke Charles IV. of the House 
 of Gonzaga, for having espoused the cause of France in the 
 War of the Succession. The Duke of Mirandola met with a 
 similar fate, as the ally of the French in that war. His dutchy 
 was confiscated by the Emperor, and sold to the Duke of Modena. 
 This new aggrandizement of Austria in Italy excited the jea- 
 lousy of England, lest the princes of that house should take oc- 
 casion to revive their obsolete claims to the royalty of Italy and 
 the Imperial dignity ; and it was this which induced the Court 
 of London to favour the elevation of the Dukes of Savoy, in 
 order to counterbalance the power of Austria in Italy. 
 
 The origin of the House of Savoy is as old as the beginning 
 of the eleventh century, when we find a person named Berthold 
 in possession of Savoy, at that time a province of the kingdom 
 of Burgundy or Aries. The grandson of Berthold married 
 Adelaide de Suza, daughter and heiress of Mainfroi, Marquis 
 of Italy and Lord of Suza. This marriage brought the House 
 of Savoy considerable possessions in Italy, such as the Marqui- 
 sate of Suza, the Dutchy of Turin, Piedmont, and Val d'Aoste 
 Humbert II. Count of Savoy, conquered the province of Taren- 
 tum. Thomas, one of his successors, acquired by marriage the 
 barony of Faucigny. Amadous V. was invested by the Empe- 
 ror Henry VII. in the city and county of Asti. Amadeus VII. 
 received the voluntary submission of the inhabitants of Nice, 
 which he had dismembered from Provence, together with the 
 counties of Tenda and Boglio ; having taken advantage of the 
 intestine dissensions in that country, and the conflict between 
 the factions of Duras and Anjou, who disputed the succession 
 of Naples and the county of Provence. Amadeus VIII. pur- 
 chased from Otho de Villars the county of Geneva, and was 
 created, by the Emperor Sigismund, first Duke of Savoy (Feb. 
 19, 1416.) 
 
 The rivalry which had subsisted between France and Austria 
 since the end of the fifteenth century, placed the House of Savoy 
 in a situation extremely difficult. Involved in the wars which 
 had arisen between these two powers in Italy, it became of ne- 
 cessity more than once the victim of political circumstances. 
 Duke Charles III. having allied himself with Charles V., was 
 deprived of his estates by France ; and his son Philibert, noted 
 for his exploits in the campaigns of Flanders, did not obtain re- 
 stitution of them until the peace of Chateau Cambresis. The 
 Dukes Charles Emanuel II., and Victor Amadeus II., experi- 
 enced similar indignities, in the wars which agitated France 
 and Spain during the seventeeth century, and which were ter- 
 minated by the treaties of the Pyrenees and Turin in the years 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 25 
 
 1659, 1696. In the war of the Spanish Succession, Victor 
 Amadeus II. declared at first for his son-in-law, Philip King of 
 Spain, even taking upon himself the chief command of the 
 French army in Italy ; but afterwards, perceiving the danger of 
 his situation, and seduced by the advantageous offers which the 
 Emperor made him, he thought proper to alter his plan, and 
 joined the grand alliance against France. Savoy and Piedmont 
 again became the theatre of the war between France and Italy. 
 The French having undertaken the siege of Turin, the Duke 
 and Prince Eugene forced their'army in its entrenchments be- 
 fore the place, and obliged them to abandon Italy. The Empe- 
 ror granted the Duke the investiture of the different estates 
 which he had secured to him, on his accession to the grand 
 alliance ; such as Montferrat, the provinces of Alexandria and 
 Valencia, the country between the Tanaro and the Po, the Lu- 
 melline, Val Sessia, and the Vigevanesco ; to be possessed by 
 him and his male descendants, as fiefs holding of the Emperor 
 and the Empire. 
 
 The peace of Utrecht confirmed these possessions to the Duke ; 
 and England, the better to secure the equilibrium of Italy and 
 Europe, granted him, by that treaty, the royal dignity, with the 
 island of Sicily, which she had taken from Spain. That island 
 was ceded to liim under the express clause, that, on the extinc- 
 tion of the male line of Savoy, that kingdom should revert to 
 Spain. By the same treaty they secured to the male descen- 
 dants of that house, the right of succession to the Spanish mon- 
 archy; and that clause was confirmed by a solemn law passed 
 in the Cortes of Spain, and by subsequent treaties concluded be- 
 tween these powers and Europe. The duke v/as crowned King 
 of Sicily at Palermo (Dec. 21, 1713,) by the archbishop of that 
 city ; and the only persons who refused to acknowledge him in 
 that new capacity were the Emperor and the Pope. 
 
 In proportion as France increased, Spain had declined m 
 power, in consequence of the vices of her government, the fee- 
 bleness of her princes, and the want of qualifications in their 
 ministers and favourites. At length, under the reign of Charles 
 II., the weakness of that monarchy was such, that France de 
 spoiled her with impunity, as appears by those cessions she was 
 obliged to make by the treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nimeguen, 
 and Ryswick. Charles II. was the last prince of the Spanish 
 line of the house of Austria. At his death (Nov. 1700,) a long 
 and bloody war ensued about the succession, as we have already 
 related. Two competitors appeared for the crown. Philip of 
 Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., had on his side the will of 
 Charles II., the efforts of his grandfather, and the wishes of the 
 
 VOL. TJ. ^ 
 
26 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Spanish nation. Charles of Austria, younger son of the Empe^ 
 ror Leopold I., was supported by a formidable league, which 
 political considerations and a jealousy of the other powers had 
 raised against France. 
 
 Philip, who had been placed on the throne by the Spaniards, 
 had already resided at Madrid for several years, when the Aus- 
 trian prince, his rival, assisted by the allied fleet, took possession, 
 of Barcelona (Oct. 9, 1705,) where he established his capita\ 
 The incessant defeats which France experienced at 'this period, 
 obliged Philip twice to abando"ii his capital, and seek his safety 
 in flisfht. He owed his restoration for the first time to Marsha' 
 Berwick, and the victory which that general gained over the 
 allies near Almanza, in New Castillo (April 25, 1707.) The 
 ^■'chduke having afterwards advanced as far as Madrid, the 
 Uuke de Vendome undertook to repulse him.- That General, 
 in conjunction wdth Philip V., defeated the allies, who were 
 commanded by General Stahremberg, near Villa Viciosa (Dec, 
 10, 1710.] These two victories contributed to establish Philip 
 on his throne. The death of Joseph I., which happened soon 
 after, and the elevation of his brother, the Archduke Charles, to 
 the Imperial throne and the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, 
 accelerated the conclusion of the peace of Utrecht, by which the 
 Spanish monarchy was preserved to Philip V. and his descen- 
 dants. They deprived him, however, in virtue of that treaty, ot 
 the Netherlands and the Spanish possessions in Italy, such as 
 the Milanois, the ports of Tuscany, and the kingdoms of Naples, 
 Sicily, and Sardinia. 
 
 The conditions which England had exacted at the treaty ot 
 Utrecht, to render effectual the renunciation of Philip V. to the 
 crown of France, as well as that of the French princes to the 
 monarchy of Spain, having made h necessary^ to assemble the 
 Cortes or States-General, Philip took advantage of that circum- 
 stance to change the order of succession which till then had sub- 
 sisted in Spain, and which was known by the name of the Cas- 
 tilian Succession. A law was passed at the Cortes (1713,) by 
 which it was ordained that females should never be admitted to 
 the crown, except in default of the male line of Philip ; that the 
 male heirs should succeed according to the order of primogeni- 
 ture ; that, failing the male line of that prince, the crown shoula 
 fall to the eldest daughter of the last reigning king, and her de- 
 scendants ; and, failing these, to the sister or nearest relation ol 
 the last king ; always keeping in force the right of primogeniture, 
 and the preference of the male heirs in the order of succession. 
 
 France, by the sixtieth article of the treaty of the Pyrenees, 
 havmg renounced the protection of Portugal, the war between 
 
PERIOD vn, A. D. 1648 — 1713. 27 
 
 Spain and this latter power was resumed with new vigour. 
 Alphonso VI., King of Portugal, finding himself abandoned by 
 his allies, resolved to throw himself on the favour of England. 
 The English granted him supplies, in virtue of a treaty which 
 he concluded with them (June 23cl 1661,) and by which ha 
 ceded to them the city of Tangiers in Africa, and the isle of 
 Bombay in India. France, who well knew that it Avas her inte- 
 rest not to abandon Portugal entirely, rendered her likewise all 
 the secret assistance in her power. The Count Schomberg 
 passed over to that kingdom with a good number of officers, and 
 several companies of French troops. The Portuguese, under 
 the command of that General, gained two victories over the 
 Spaniards at Almexial, near Estremos (1663,) and at Montes 
 Claros, or Villa Viciosa (1665,) which re-established their affairs, 
 ■and contributed to secure the independence of Portugal. When 
 the war took place about the Right of Devolutio7i, the Coui t of 
 Lisbon formed a new alliance with France. Spain then learned 
 that it would be more for her interest to abandon her projects of 
 conquering Portugal, and accept the proposals of accommodation 
 ■tendered to her by the mediation of England. 
 
 It happened, in the meantime, that Alphonso VI., a prince of 
 vicious habits, and of a ferocious and brutal temper, was de- 
 throned (Nov. 23d 1667,) and the Infant Don Pedro, his brother, 
 was declared Regent of the kingdom. The Queen of Alphonso, 
 JVIary of Savoy, who had managed the whole intrigue, obtained, 
 from the Court of Rome, a dissolution of her marriage with Al- 
 phonso, and espoused the Regent, her brother-in-law (April 2d 
 1668.) That prince would willingly have fulfilled the engage- 
 ments which his predecessor had contracted with France, but 
 the English Ambassador having drawn over the Cortes of Por 
 tugal to his interests, the Regent was obliged to make peace with 
 iSpain, which was signed at Lisbon, February 13th 1668. The 
 •Spaniards there treated with the Portuguese as a sovereign and 
 independent nation. They agreed to make mutual restitution 
 of all they had taken possession of during the war, with the 
 exception of the city of Ceuta in Africa, which remained in the 
 power of Spain. The subjects of both states obtained the resto- 
 ration of all property alienated or confiscated during the war. 
 That peace was followed by another, which Portugal concluded 
 at the Hague, with the United Provinces of the Netherlands 
 i(July 31st 1669,) who were permitted to retain the conquests 
 they had made from the Portuguese in the East Indies. 
 
 The Court of Lisbon was soon after involved in the war of 
 the Spanish Succession which divided all Europe. Don Pedro 
 U. had at first acknowledged Philip V., and even contracted an 
 
28 CHAPTER vni, 
 
 alliance with him ; hut yielding afterwards to the influence of 
 the British minister, as well as of the Court of Vienna, he joined 
 the Grand Alliance against France.^ The Portuguese made a 
 distinguished figure in that war, chiefly during the campaign of 
 1706, when, with the assistance of the English, they penetrated 
 as far as Madrid, and there proclaimed Charles of Austria. 
 
 The Portuguese, by one of the articles of their treaty of 
 accession to the grand alliance, had been given to expect, that 
 certam important places in Spanish Estremadura and Gallicia 
 would be ceded to them at the general peace. That engage- 
 ment was never fulfilled. The treaty of peace, concluded at 
 Utrecht (6th February 1715,) between Spain and Portugal, had 
 ordered the mutual restitution of all conquests made during the 
 war. The treaty of Lisbon, of 1668, was then renewed, and 
 especially the articles which stipulated for the restitution of all 
 confiscated property. The only point which they yielded to the 
 Portuguese, was that which referred to the colony of St. Sacra- 
 ment, which the Portuguese governor of Eio Janeiro had estab- 
 lished (1680) on the northern bank of the river La Plata, in South 
 America, which was opposed by Spain. By the sixth article of 
 her treaty with Portugal, she renounced all her former claims 
 and pretensions over the above colony. 
 
 A. similar dispute had arisen between France and Portugal, 
 relative to the northern bank of the Amazons river, and the terri- 
 tories about Cape North, in America, which the French main- 
 tained belonged to them, as making part of French Guiana. 
 The Portuguese having constructed there the fort of Macapa, it 
 was taken by the French gove^»^.rr of Cayenne. By the treaty 
 of Utrecht, it was agreed between France and Portugal that 
 both banks of the river Amazons should belong entirely to Por- 
 tugal ; and that France should renounce all right and preten- 
 sions whatever to the territories of Cape North, lying between 
 the rivers Amazons and Japoc, or Vincent Pinson, in South 
 America. 
 
 In England, an interregnum of eleven years followed the death 
 of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Independent 
 party, pissed two Acts of Parliament, one of which abolished 
 the House of Lords, and the other the royal dignity. The 
 kingly office was suppressed, as useless to the nation, oppressive 
 and dangerous to the interests and liberties of the people ; and it 
 was decided, that whoever should speak of the restoration of the 
 Stuarts, should be regarded as a traitor to his country. The king- 
 dom being thus changed into a republic, Cromwell took on himself 
 the chief direction of aflTairs. This ambitious man was not long 
 in monopolizing the sovereign authority (1653.) He abolished 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 164S— 1713. 29 
 
 the Parliament called the Rump, which had conferred on him his 
 power and military commission. He next assembled a new 
 Parliament of the three kingdoms, to the number of one hun- 
 dred and forty-four members ; and he took care to have it com- 
 posed of individuals whom he knew to be devoted to his inte- 
 rests. Accordingly, they resigned the whole authority into his 
 hands. An act, called the Act of Government, conferred on 
 him the supreme authority, under the title of Protector of 
 the three kingdoms ; with the privilege of making war and 
 peace, and assembling every three years a Parliament, which 
 should exercise the legislative power conjunctly with himself. 
 
 Cromwell governed England with a more uncontrolled power 
 than that of her kings had been. In 1651, he passed the fa- 
 mous Navigation Act, which contributed to increase the com- 
 merce of Great Britain, and gave her marine a preponderance 
 over that of all other nations. That extraordinary man raised 
 England in the estimation of foreigners, a-nd made his Protec- 
 torate respected by all Europe. After a war which he had car- 
 ried on against the Dutch, he obliged them, by the treaty of 
 Westminster (1654,) to lower their flag to British vessels, and 
 to abandon the cause of the Stuarts. Entering into alliance 
 with France against Spain, he took from the latter the island 
 of Jamaica (1655) and the port of Dunkirk (1658.) 
 
 After his death, the Generals of the army combined to restore 
 the old Parliament, called the Rump. Richard Cromwell, who 
 succeeded his father, soon resigned the Protectorate (April 22, 
 1659.) Dissensions having arisen between the Parliament and 
 the Generals, Monk, who was governor of Scotland, marched 
 to the assistance of the Parliament ; and after having defeated 
 the Independent Generals, he proceeded to assemble a new Par- 
 liament composed of both Houses. No sooner was this Par- 
 liament assembled, than they decided for the restoration of the 
 Stuarts, in the person of Charles II. (18th May 1660.) 
 
 That Prince made his public entry into London, May 29, 
 1660. His first care was to take vengeance on those who had 
 been chiefly instrumental in the death of his father. He re- 
 scinded all Acts of Parliament passed since the year 1633 ; and 
 re-established Episcopacy both in England and Scotland. In- 
 stigated by his propensity for absolute power, and following the 
 maxims which he had imbibed from his predecessors, he adopt- 
 ed measures which were opposed by the Parliament ; and even 
 went so far as more than once to pronounce their dissolution. 
 His reign, in consequence, was a scene of faction and agitation, 
 which proved the forerunners of a new revolution.'* The ap- 
 pellation of Whigs and Tories, so famous in English history 
 
 3# 
 
30 CHAPTEB Vlil. 
 
 took its rise in his reigfn. "We could almost, however, pardou 
 Charles for his faults and irregularities, in consideration of the 
 benevolence and amiableness of his character. But it was 
 otherwise with James IL, who succeeded his brother on the 
 British throne (16th Feb. 1685.) That Prince alienated the 
 minds of his subjects by his haughty demeanour, and his extra- 
 vagant zeal for the church of Rome, and the Jesuits his confes- 
 sors. Scarcely was he raised to the throne, when he undertook 
 to change the religion of his country, and to govern still more 
 despotically than his brother had done. Encotiraged by Louis 
 XIV., who offered him money and troops, he was the first King 
 of England that had kept on foot an army in time of peace, 
 and caused the legislature to decide, that the King can dispense 
 with the laws. Availing himself of this decision, he dispen-sed 
 with the several statutes issued against the Catholics ; he per- 
 mitted them the public exercise of their religion within the 
 three kingdoms, and gradually gave them a preference in all 
 places of trust. At length, he even solicited the Pope to send 
 a nuncio to reside at his Court ; and on the arrival of Ferdi- 
 nand Dada, to whom Innocent XI. had confided this mission, 
 he gave him a public and solemn entry to Windsor (1687.) 
 Seven bishops, who had refused to publish the declaration re- 
 specting Catholics, were treated as guilty of sedition, and im 
 prisoned by his order in the Tower. 
 
 During these transactions, the Queen, Mary of Modena, hap- 
 pened to be delivered of a Prince (20th June, 1688,) known in 
 history by the name of the Pretender. As her Majesty had 
 had no children for more than six years, it was not difficult to 
 gain credit to a report, that the young Prince was a suppositi- 
 tious child. James II. , by his first marriage with Anne Hyde. 
 daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, had two daughters, both Pro- 
 testants ; and regarded, till then,- as heirs to the crown. Mary, 
 the eldest, was married to "William, Prince of Orange, and Anne, 
 the youngest, to George, younger son of Frederic III., King 
 of Denmark. The English Protestants had flattered themselves 
 that all their wrongs and misfortunes would terminate with the 
 death of James 11. and the accession of the Princess of Orange 
 to the throne. Being disappointed in these expectations by the 
 birth of the Prince of Wales ^ their only plan was to dethrone 
 the King. The Tories even joined with the Whigs in offering 
 the crown to the Prince of Orange. William III., supported by 
 the Dutch fleet, made a descent on England, and landed fifteen 
 thousand men at Torbay (5th November, 1688,) without ex- 
 periencing the smallest resistance on the part of James, who, 
 •^ing himself abandoned by th« military, took the resoluiion 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648—1713. 31 
 
 of withdrawing to France, where he had already sent his Queen 
 and his son, the young Prince of Wales. He afterwards re- 
 turned to Ireland, where he had a strong party ; hut being con- 
 quered by William at the battle of the Boyne (11th July 1690,) 
 he was obliged to return to France, where he ended his days. 
 
 Immediately after the flight of James, the Parliament of Eng- 
 land declared, by an act, that as he had violated the funda- 
 mental law of the constitution, and abandoned the kingdom, the 
 throne was become vacant. They, therefore, unanimously con- 
 ferred the crown on William III., Prince of Orange, and Mary 
 his spouse (Feb. 22, 16S9 ;) intrusting the administration of af- 
 fairs to the Prince alone. In redressing the grievances of the 
 nation, they set new limits to the royal authority. By an Act, 
 called the Declaration of Rights, they decreed, that the King 
 could neither suspend, nor dispense with the laws ; that he 
 could institute no new courts, nor levy money under any pre- 
 tence whatever, nor maintain an army in time of peace, without 
 the consent of Parliament. Episcopacy was abolished in Scot- 
 land (1694,) and the liberty of the press sanctioned. The suc- 
 cession of the crown was regulated by different Acts of Parlia- 
 ment, one of which fixed it in the Protestant line, to the exclu- 
 sion of Catholics. Next after William and Mary and their 
 descendants, was the Princess Anne and her descendants. A 
 subsequent Act conferred the succession on the House of 
 Hanover (1701,) under the following conditions: — That the 
 King or Queen of that family, on their accession to the throne, 
 should be obliged to conform to the High Church, and the laws 
 of 1689 ; that without the consent of Parliament, they should 
 never engage the nation in any war for the defence of their he- 
 reditary dominions, nor go out of the kingdom ; and that they 
 should never appoint foreigners to offices of trust. 
 
 The rivalry between France and England assumed a higher 
 tone under the reign of William III. ; and was increased by the 
 powerful efforts which France was making to improve her ma- 
 rine, and extend her navigation and her commerce. The colo- 
 nies which she founded in America and the Indies, by bringing 
 the two nations more into contact, tended to foment their jea- 
 lousies, and multiply subjects of discord and division between 
 them. From that time England eagerljt seized every occasion 
 for occupying France on the Continent of Europe; and the 
 whole policy of William, as we have seen, had no other aim 
 than to thwart the ambitious views of Louis XIV. If this 
 rivalry excited and prolonged wars which inflicted many cala- 
 mities on the world, it became likewise a powerful stimulus for 
 the contending nations to develope their whole faculties ; to 
 
32 CHAPTER vm. 
 
 make the highest attainments in the sciences, of which they were 
 susceptible ; and to carry arts and civilization to the remotest 
 countries in the world. 
 
 William III. was succeeded by Anne (1702.) It was in ner 
 reign that the grand union between England and Scotland was 
 accomplished, which incorporated them into one kingdom, by 
 means of the same order of succession, and only one Parliament. 
 That Princess had the honour of maintaining the balance oi 
 Europe against France, by the clauses which she got inserted 
 into the treaty of Utrecht. At her death (1st August 1714,) 
 the throne of Great Britain passed to George I., the Elector of 
 Hanover, whose mother, Sophia, derived her right to the British 
 throne from James I., her maternal grandfather. 
 
 The power and political influence of the United Provinces of 
 the Netherlands had increased every day, since Spain acknow- 
 ledged their independence by the treaty of Munster (1648.) 
 Their extensive commerce to all parts of the globe, and theii 
 flourishing marine, attracted the admiration of all Europe. 
 Sovereigns courted their alliance ; and the Hague, the capital 
 of the States-General, became, in course of time, the centre of 
 European politics. That Republic was the rival of England in 
 all her commercial relations ; and she ventured also to dispute 
 with her the empire of the sea, by refusing to lower her flag to 
 British vessels. These disputes gave rise to bloody wars be- 
 tween the two States, in which the famous Dutch Admirals, 
 Tromp and De Ruyter, distinguished themselves by their mari- 
 time exploits. De Ruyter entered the Thames with the Dutch 
 fleet (1667,) advanced to Chatham, burnt the vessels in the roads 
 there, and threw the city of London into great consternation. 
 Nevertheless, by the treaties of Breda (1667) and Westminster 
 (1654,) they agreed that their vessels and fleets should lower 
 their flag when they met either one or more ships carrying the 
 British flag, and that over all the sea, from Cape Finisterre in 
 GaJlicia, to the centre of Statt in Norway; but the States-Gen- 
 eral preserved Surinam, which they had conquered during the 
 war ; and at the treaty of commerce which was signed at Breda, 
 tlie navigation act was modified in their favour, in so far that 
 the produce and merchandise of Germany were to be considered 
 as productions of the ^oil of the Republic. 
 
 It was during these wars that a change took place with regard 
 to the Stadtholdership of the United Provinces. William II., 
 Prince of Orange, had alienated the hearts of his subjects by his 
 attempts against their liberties ; and having, at his death, left 
 his wife, the daughter of Charles I. of England, pregnant of a 
 son (1650,) the States-General took the opportunity of leaving 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648—17 J3. 33 
 
 that ofRce vacant, and taking upon themselves the direction of 
 affairs. The suspicions which the House of Orange had excited 
 in Cromwell by their alliance with the Stuarts, and the resent- 
 ment of John de Witt, Pensionary of Holland, against the Stadt- 
 holder, caused a secret article to be added to the treaty of West- 
 minster, by which the States of Holland and West Friesland 
 engaged never to elect William, the posthumous son of William 
 II., to be Stadtholder ; and never to allow that the office of 
 Captain-General of the Republic should be conferred on him. 
 John de Witt likewise framed a regulation known by the name 
 of the Perpetual Edict, which separated the Stadtholdership 
 from the office of Captain and Admiral-General, and which 
 enacted, that these functions should never be discharged by the 
 same individual. Having failed, however, in his efforts to make 
 the States-General adopt this regulation, which they considered 
 as contrary to the union, John de Witt contented himself with 
 obtaining the approbation of the States of Holland, who even 
 went so far as to sanction the entire suppression of the Stadt- 
 holdership. 
 
 Matters continued in this situation until the time when Louis 
 XIV. invaded Holland. His alarming progress caused a revo- 
 lution in favour of the Prince of Orange. The ruling faction, at 
 the head of which was John de Witt, then lost the good opinion 
 of the people. He was accused of having neglected military 
 affairs, and left the State without defence, and a prey to the en- 
 emy. The first signal of ^evolution was given by the small 
 town of Veere in Zealand. William was there proclaimed 
 Stadtholder (June 1672,) and the example of Veere was soon 
 followed by all the cities of Holland and Zealand. Every where 
 the people compelled the magistrates to confer the Stadtholder- 
 ship on the young Prince. The Perpetual Edict was abolished, 
 and the Stadtholdership confirmed to William III. by the As- 
 sembly of States. They even rendered this dignity, as well as 
 the office of Captain-General, hereditary to all the male and 
 legitimate descendants of the Prince. It was on this occasion 
 that the two brothers, John and Cornelius de Witt, were massa- 
 cred by the people assembled at the Hague. 
 
 After William was raised to the throne of Great Britain, he 
 still retained the Stadtholdership, with the offices of Captain 
 and Admiral-General of the Republic. England and Holland, 
 united under the jurisdiction of the same prince, acted thence- 
 forth in concert to ihwart the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. ; 
 and he felt the effects of their power chiefly in the war of the 
 Spanish Succession, when England and the States-General made 
 extraordinary efforts to maintain the balance of the Continent 
 
34 CHAPTER vin. 
 
 which they thought in danger. It was in consideration of these 
 efforts that they guaranteed to the Dutch, by the tre%ty of the 
 Grand Alliance, as well as by that of Utrecht, a barrier against 
 France, which was more amply defined by the Barrier Treaty, 
 signed at Antwerp (15th November 1715,) under the mediation 
 and guaranty of Great Britain. The provinces and towns of 
 the Netherlands, both those that had been possessed by Charles 
 [I., and those that France had surrendered by the treaty of 
 Utrecht, were transferred to the Emperor and the House of 
 Austria, on condition that they should never be ceded under any 
 title whatever; neither to France, nor to any other prince except 
 the heirs and successors of the House of Austria in Germany. 
 It was agreed that there should always be kept in the Low 
 Countries a body of Austrian troops, from thirty to thirty-five 
 thousand men, of which the Emperor was to furnish three-fifths, 
 and the States-General the remainder. Finally, the States- 
 General were allowed a garrison, entirely composed of their own 
 troops, in the cities and castles of Namur, Tournay, Menin, 
 Furnes, AVarneton, and the fortress of Kenock ; while the Em- 
 peror engaged to contribute a certain sum annually for the main- 
 tenance of these troops. 
 
 Switzerland, since the confirmation of her liberty and inde- 
 pendence by the peace of Westphalia, had constantly adhered 
 to the system of neutrality which she had adopted ; and taken 
 no part in the broils of her neighbours, except by furnishing 
 troops to those powers with whom she was in alliance. The 
 fortunate inability which was the natural consequence of her 
 union, pointed out this line of conduct, and even induced the 
 European States to respect the Helvetic neutrality. 
 
 This profound peace, which S\vitzerland enjoyed by means of 
 that neutrality, was never interrupted, except by occasional do- 
 mestic quarrels, which arose from the difference of their religious 
 opinions. Certain families, from the canton of Schweitz, had 
 fled to Zurich on account of their religious tenets, and had been 
 protected by that republic. This stirred up a war (1656) be- 
 tween the Catholic cantons and the Zurichers, with their allies 
 the Bernese ; but it was soon terminated by the peace of Baden, 
 which renewed the clauses of the treaty of 1531, relative to these 
 very subjects of dispute. Some attempts having afterwards been 
 made against liberty of conscience, in the county of Toggenburg, 
 by the Abbe of St. Gall, a new war broke ont (1712,) between 
 five of the Catholic cantons, and the two Protestant cantons of 
 Zurich and Berne. These latter expelled the Abbe of St. Gall 
 from his estates, and dispossessed the Catholics of the county of 
 Baden, with a considerable part of the free bailiwicks which 
 
PERIOD m. A. D. 1648—1713. 35 
 
 were granted to them by the treaty concluded at Araw. The 
 Abbe then saw himself abandoned by the Catholic cantons ; and 
 it was only in virtue of a treaty, which he concluded with Zu- 
 rich and Berne (1718,) that his successor obtained his restoration 
 
 Sweden, during the greater part of this period, supported the 
 fir^t rank among the powers of the North. The vigour of her 
 government, added to the weakness of her neighbours, and the 
 important advantages which the treaties of Stolbova, Stumsdori, 
 Bromsbro, and Westphalia had procured her, secured this supe- 
 riority ; and gave her the same influence in the North that 
 France held in the South. Christina, the daughter of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, held the reins of government in Sweden about the 
 middle of the seventeenth century ; but to gratify her propensity 
 for the fine arts, she resolved to abdicate the crown (1654.) 
 Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine of Deux-Ponts, her cousin- 
 german, succeeded her, under the title of Charles X. Being 
 nurtured in the midst of arms, and ambitious only of wars and 
 battles, he was anxious to distinguish himself on the throne. 
 John Casimir, King of Poland, having provoked him, by protest- 
 ing against his accession to the crown of Sweden, Charles made 
 this an occasion of breaking the treaty of Stumsdorf, which was 
 still in force, and invaded Poland. Assisted by Frederic Wil- 
 liam, the Elector of Brandenburg, whom he had attached to his 
 interests, he gained a splendid victory over the Poles near War- 
 saw (July 1656.) At that crisis, the fate of Poland would have 
 been decided, if the Czar, Alexis Michaelovitz, who was also at 
 war with the Poles, had chosen to make common cause with 
 her new enemies ; but Alexis thought it more for his advantage 
 to conclude a truce with the Poles, and attack the Swedes in Li- 
 vonia, Ingria, and Carelia. The Emperor Leopold and the King 
 cf Denmark followed the example of the Czar ; and the Elector 
 of Brandenburg, after obtaining the sovereignty of the dutchy of 
 Prussia, by the treaty which he concluded with Poland at We- 
 lau, acceded in like manner to this league, — the object of which 
 was to secure the preservation of Poland, and maintain the equi- 
 librium of the North. 
 
 Attacked by so many and such powerful enemies, the King 
 of Sweden determined to withdraw his troops from Poland, and 
 direct his principal force against Denmark. Having made him- 
 self master of Holstein, Sleswick, and Jutland, he passed the 
 Belts on the ice (January 1658) with his army and artillery, and 
 advanced towards the capital of the kingdom. This bold step 
 intimidated the Danes so much, that they submitted to those ex- 
 ceedingly severe conditions which Charles made them sign at 
 Roschild (February 1658.) Scarcely was this treaty concluded. 
 
36 CHAPTER vm. 
 
 when the King of Sweden broke it anew ; and under different 
 pretexts, laid siege to Copenhagen. His intention was, if he had 
 carried that place, to raze it to the ground, to annihilate the 
 kingdom of Denmark, and fix his residence in the province of 
 Schonen, where he could maintain his dominion over the North 
 and the Baltic. The besieged Danes, however, made a vigor- 
 ous defence, and they were encouraged by the example of Fred- 
 eric III., who superintended in person the whole operations of 
 the siege ; nevertheless, they must certainly have yielded, had 
 not the Dutch, who were alarmed for their commerce in the Bal- 
 tic, sent a fleet to the assistance of Denmark. These republi- 
 cans fought an obstinate naval battle with the Swedes in the 
 Sound (29th October 1658.) The Swedish fleet was repulsed, 
 and the Dutch succeeded in relieving Copenhagen, by throwing 
 in a supply of provisions and ammunition. 
 
 The King of Sweden persisted, nevertheless, in his determi- 
 nation to reduce that capital. He was not even intimidated by 
 the treaties which France, England, and Holland, had conclu- 
 ded at the Hague, for maintaining the equilibrium of the North ; 
 but a premature death, at the age of thirty-eight, put an end to 
 his ambitious projects (23d February 1660.) The regents who 
 governed the kingdom during the minority of his son Charles 
 XL, immediately set on foot negotiations with all the powers 
 that were in league against Sweden. By the peace which they 
 concluded at Copenhagen with Denmark (July 3, 1660,) they 
 surrendered to that crown several of their late conquests ; re- 
 serving to themselves only the provinces of Schonen, Bleckin- 
 gen, Halland, and Bohus. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, the 
 protege of Charles X., was secured by that treaty in the sove- 
 reignty of that part of Sleswick, which had been guaranteed to 
 him by a former treaty concluded at Copenhagen. The war 
 with Poland, and her allies the Elector of Brandenburg and the 
 Emperor, v/as terminated by the peace of Oliva (May 3d 1660.) 
 The King of Poland gave up his pretensions to the crown of 
 Sweden ; while the former ceded to the latter the provinces of 
 Livonia and Esthonia, and the islands belonging to them ; to be 
 possessed on the same terms that had been agreed on at the 
 treaty of Stumsdorf in 1635. The Duke of Courland was re-es- 
 tablished in his dutchy, and the sovereignty of ducal Prussia 
 confirmed to the House of Brandenburg. Peace between Swe- 
 den and Russia was concluded at Kardis in Esthonia ; while 
 the latter power surrendered to Sweden all the places which 
 she had conquered in Livonia. 
 
 Sweden was afterwards drawn into the war against the Dutch 
 by Louis XIV., Avhen she experienced nothing but disasters. 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648—1713. 3? 
 
 She was deprived of all her provinces in the Empire, and only 
 regained possession of them in virtue of the treaties of Zeil, 
 Nimeg-uen, St. Germain-en-Laye, Fountainbleau, and Lunden 
 (1679,) which she concluded successively with the powers in 
 league against France. Immediately after that peace, a revolu- 
 tion happened in the government of Sweden. The abuse which 
 the nobles made of their privileges, the extravagant authority 
 claimed by the senate, and the different methods which the 
 grandees employed for graduall}^ usurping the domains of the 
 crown, had excited the jealousy of the other orders of the state. 
 [t is alleged, that John Baron Gillenstiern, had suggested to 
 Charles XL the idea of taking advantage of this discontent to 
 augment the royal authority, and humble the arrogance of the 
 senate and the nobility. In compliance with his advice, the 
 King assembled the Estates of the kingdom at Stockholm (16S0 ;) 
 and having quartered some regiments of his own guards in the 
 city, he took care to remove such of the nobles as might give 
 the greatest cause of apprehension. An accusation was lodged 
 at the Diet against those ministers who had conducted the ad- 
 ministration during the King's minority. To them were attri- 
 buted the calamities and losses of the state, and for these they 
 were made responsible. The Senate was also implicated. They 
 were charged with abusing their authority ; and it was proposed 
 that the Stales should make investigation, whether the powers 
 which the Senate had assumed were conformable to the laws of 
 the kingdom. The States declared that the King was not bound 
 by any other form of government than that w^hich the constitu- 
 tion prescribed ; that the Senate formed neither a fifth order, nor 
 an intermediate power between the King and the States ; and 
 that it ought to be held simply as a Council, with whom the 
 King might consult and advise. 
 
 A College of Reufiion, so called, was also established at this 
 Diet, for the purpose of making inquiry as to the lands granted, 
 sold, mortgaged, or exchanged by preceding Kings, either in 
 Sweden or Livonia ; with an offer on the part of the crown to 
 reimburse the proprietors for such sums as they had originally 
 paid for them. This proceeding made a considerable auginen- 
 tation to the revenues of the crown ; but a vast number of pro- 
 prietors were completely ruined by it. A subsequent diet went 
 even further than that of 1680. They declared, by statute, that 
 though the King was enjoined to govern his dominions accord- 
 ing to the laws, this did not take from him the power of altering 
 these laws. At length the act of 1693 decreed that the King 
 was absolute master, and sole depository of the sovereign power; 
 vvithout being responsible for his actions to any power on earth; 
 
 VOL. TT. 4 
 
'^ CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 and that he was entitled to govern the kingdom according to his 
 
 will and pleasure. 
 
 It was in virtue of these different enactments and concessions, 
 that the absolute power which had been conferred on Charles 
 XI., was transmitted to the hands of his son Charles XII., who 
 was only fifteen years of age when he succeeded his father 
 (April 1, 1697.) By the abuse which this Prince made of these 
 dangerous prerogatives, he plunged Sweden into an abyss of 
 troubles; and brought her down from that high rank which she 
 had occupied in the political system of Europe, since the reign 
 of Gustavus Adolphus. The youth of Charles appeared to his 
 n 'ighbours to afford them a favourable opportunity for recover- 
 ing what they had lost by the conquests of his predecessors. 
 Augustus II., King of Poland, being desirous to regain Livonia, 
 and listening to the suggestions of a Livonian gentleman, named 
 John Patkul, who had been proscribed in Sweden, he set on foot 
 a negotiation with the courts of Russia and Copenhagen ; the 
 result of which was, a secret and offensive alliance concluded 
 between these three powers against Sweeden (1699.) Peter the 
 Great, who had just conquered Azoff at the mouth of the Don, 
 and equipped his first fleet, was desirous also to open up the coasts 
 of the Baltic, of which his predecessors had been dispossessed by 
 Sweden. War accordingly broke out in the course of the year 
 1700. The King of Poland invaded Livonia ; the Danes fell 
 upon Sleswick, where they attacked the Duke of Holstein-Got- 
 torp, the ally of Sweden ; while the Czar, at the head of an 
 army of eighty thousand men, laid siege to the city of Narva. 
 
 The King of Sweden, attacked by so many enemies at once, 
 directed his first efforts against Denmark, where the danger ap- 
 pear -id most pressing. Assisted b)'' the fleets of England and 
 Holland, who had guaranteed the last peace, he made a descent 
 on the Isle of Zealand, and advanced rapidly towards Copenha- 
 gen. This obliged Frederic IV. to conclude a special peace 
 with him at Travendahl (Aug. 18, 1700,) by which that prince 
 consented to abandon his allies, and restore the Duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp to the same state in which he had been before the war. 
 Next du'ecting his march against the Czar in Esthonia, the young 
 King forced the Russians from their entrenchments before Narva 
 (Nov, 30,) and made prisoners of all the general and principal 
 officers of the Russian army ; among others, Field-Marshal 
 General the Duke de Croi. 
 
 Having thus got clear of the Russians, the Swedish Monarch 
 then attacked King Augustus, who had introduced a Saxon army 
 intoPoland, without being authorized by that Republic. Charles 
 vanquished that prince in the three famous battles of Riga (1701,^ 
 
PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648—1713. 99 
 
 Clissau (1702,) and Pultusk (1703;) and obliged the Poles to 
 depose him, and elect in his place Stanislaus Lecksinski, Pa- 
 latine of Posen, and a protege of his own. Two victories which 
 were gained over the Saxons, and their allies the Russians, the 
 one at Punie (1704,) and the other at Fraustadt (1706,) caused 
 Stanislaus to be acknowledged by the whole Republic of Po- 
 land, and enabled the King of Sweden to transfer the seat of 
 war to Saxony. Having marched through Silesia, without the 
 previous authority of the Court of Vienna, he took Leipzic, 
 and compelled Augustus to sign a treaty of peace at Alt-Ran 
 stadt, by which that Prince renounced his alliance with the 
 Czar, and acknowledged Stanislaus legitimate King of Poland. 
 John Patkul being delivered up to the King of Sweden, ac- 
 cording to an article in that treaty, was broken on the wheel, 
 for having been the principal instigator of the war. 
 
 The prosperity of Charles XIL, had now come to an end 
 From this time he experienced only a series of reverses, which 
 were occasioned as much by his passion for war, as by his in- 
 discretions, and the unconquerable obstinacy of his character. 
 The Russians had taken advantage of his long sojourn in Po- 
 land and Saxony, and conquered the gTeater part of Ingria and 
 Livonia. The Czar had now advanced into Poland, where he 
 had demanded of the Poles to declare an interregnum, and elect 
 a new King. In this state of matters, the King of Sweden left 
 Saxony to march against the Czar ; and compelled him to eva- 
 cuate Poland, and retire on Smolensko. Far from listenino-, 
 however, to the equitable terms of peace which Peter offered 
 him, he persisted in his resolution to march on to Moscow, in 
 the hope of dethroning the Czar, as he had dethroned Augus- 
 tus, The discontent which the innovations of the Czar had ex- 
 cited in Russia, appeared to Charles a favourable opportunity 
 for effecting his object; but on reaching the neighbourhood ol 
 Mohilew, he suddenly changed his purpose, and, instead of di- 
 recting his route towards the capital of Russia, he turned to 
 the right, and penetrated into the interior of the Ukraine, in 
 order to meet Mazeppa, Hetman of the Cossacs, who had offered 
 .0 join him with all his troops. Nothing could have been 
 more imprudent than this determination. By thus marchino 
 into the Ukraine, he separated himself from General Lewen- 
 haupt, who had brought him, according to orders, a powerful re^ 
 mforcenient fromLivonia ; and trusted himself among a fickle and 
 inconstant people, disposed to break faith on every opportunity. 
 
 This inconsiderate step of Charles did not escape the pene- 
 tration of the Czar, who knew well how to profit by it. Putting 
 himself at the head of a chosen body, he intercepted General 
 
W CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Lewenhaupt, and joined him at Desna, two miles from Pro- 
 poisk, in the Palatinate of Mscislaw. The battle which he 
 fought with that general (October 9, 1708,) was most obstinate, 
 and, by the confession of the Czar, the first victory which the 
 Russians had gained over regular troops. The remains of 
 Lewenhaupt's army, having joined the King in the Ukraine, 
 Charles undertook the siege of Pultowa, situated on the banks 
 of the Vorsklaw, at the extremity of that province. It A^^^as 
 near this place, that the famous battle was fought (8th July, 
 1709,) which blasted all the laurels of the King of Sweden. 
 The Czar gained theie a complete victory. Nine thousand 
 Swedes were left on ihe field of battle ; and fourteen thousand, 
 who had retired with General Lewenhaupt, towards Perevo- 
 latschna, between the Vorsklaw and the Nieper, were made pri- 
 soners of war, three days after the action. Charles, accompanied 
 by his ally Mazeppa, saved himself with difficulty at Bender in 
 Turkey. 
 
 This disastrous route revived the courage of the enemies of 
 Sweden. The alliance was renewed between the Czar, Au- 
 gustus II., and FredericIV.jKing of Denm.ark. Stanislaus was 
 abandoned. All Poland again acknowledged Augustus II. 
 The Danes made a descent on Schonen ; and the Czar achieved 
 the conquest of Ingria, Livonia, and Carelia. The States that 
 were leagued against France in the war of the Spanish Suc- 
 cession, wishing to prevent Germany from becoming the theatre 
 of hostilities, concluded a treaty at the Hague (31st March 
 1710,) by which they undertook, under certain conditions, to 
 guarantee the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany, 
 as well as that of Sleswick and Jutland ; but the King of Swe- 
 den having constantly declined acceding to this neutrality, the 
 possessions of the Swedes in Germany were also seized arid 
 conquered in succession. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, the 
 nephew of Charles XII., was involved in his disgrace, and 
 stripped of his estates by the king of Denmark (1714.) 
 
 In the midst of these disasters, the inflexible King of Swe- 
 den persisted in prolonging his sojourn at Bender, making re- 
 peated efforts to rouse the Turks against the Russians. He did 
 not return from Turkey till 1714, when his affairs were already 
 totally ruined. The attempts w^hich he then made, either to 
 renew the war in Poland, or invade the provinces of the Em- 
 pire, excited the jealousy of the neighbouring powers. A for- 
 midable league was raised against him ; besides the Czar, the 
 Kings of Poland, Denmark, Prussia, and England, joined it. 
 Stralsund and Wismar, the only places which Sweden still re- 
 tained in Germany, fell into the hands of the allies ; while the 
 
PERIOD VU. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 41 
 
 Cza^ added to these losses the conquest of Finland and Savolax. 
 In a situation so desperate, Charles, by the advice of his minis- 
 ter, Baron Gortz, set on foot a special and secret negotiation 
 with the Czar, which took place in the isle of Aland, in course 
 of the year 1718. There it was proposed to reinstate Stanis- 
 laus on the throne of Poland ; to restore to Sweden her pos- 
 sessions in the Empire ; and even to assist her in conquering 
 Norway ; by way of compensation for the loss of Ingria, Ca- 
 relia, Livonia, and Esthonia, which she was to cede to the Czar. 
 
 That negotiation was on the point of being finally closed, 
 when it was broken off by the u«nexpected death of Charles 
 XII. That unfortunate prince was slain (December 11th, 1718,) 
 at the siege of Fredericshall in Norway, while visiting the 
 trenches ; being only thirty-seven years of age, and leaving the 
 affairs of his kingdom in a most deplorable state. 
 
 The new regency of Sweden, instead of remaining in friend- 
 ship with the Czar, changed their policy entirely. Baron de 
 Gortz, the friend of the late King, fell a sacrifice to the public 
 displeasure, and a negotiation was opened with the Court of 
 G.Britain. A treaty of peace and alliance was concluded at 
 Stockholm (Nov. 20, 1719,) between Great Britain and Swe- 
 den. George I., on obtaining the cession of the dutchies of 
 Bremen and Verden, as Elector of Hanover, engaged to send a 
 strong squadron to the Baltic, to prevent any further invasion 
 from the Czar, and procure for Sweden more equitable terms of 
 peace on the part of that Prince. The example of Great Bri- 
 tain was soon followed by the other allied powers, who were 
 anxious to accommodate matters with Sweden. By the treaty 
 concluded at Stockholm (21st January, 1720,) the King of 
 Prussia got the town of Stettin, and that part of Pomerania, 
 v/hich lies between the Oder and the Peene. The King of 
 Denmark consented to restore to Sweden the towns of Stral- 
 sund and AVismar, with the isle of Rugen, and the part of Po- 
 merania, which extends from the sea to the river Peene. Swe- 
 den, on ner side, renounced in favour of Denmark, her exemp- 
 tion from the duties of the Sound and the two Belts, which had 
 been guaranteed to her by former treaties. The Czar was the 
 only person who, far from being intimidated by the menaces of 
 England, persisted in his resolution of not maki^ peace with 
 Sweden, except on the conditions which he had dictated to her. 
 The war was, therefore, continued between Russia and Sweden, 
 during the two campaigns of 1720 and 1721. Different parts 
 of the Swedish coast were laid desolate by the Czar, who put 
 all to fire and sword, To stop the progress of these devasta 
 
 tions, the Swedes at length consented to accept the peace which 
 
 /I ^ 
 
42 CHAPTER vin. 
 
 the Czar offered them, which was finally sigTied -at Nystadt 
 (13ih September 1721.) Finland was surrendered to Sweden 
 on condition of her formally ceding to the Czar the provinces of 
 Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Carelia : their limits to be deter- 
 mined according to the regulations of the treaty. 
 
 The ascendency which Sweden had gained in the North since 
 the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, had become so fatal to Den- 
 mark, that she was on the point of being utterly subverted, and 
 effaced from the number of European powers. Nor did she 
 extricate herself from the disastrous wars which she had to sup- 
 port against Charles X., until she had sacrificed some of her 
 best provinces ; such as Schonen, Bieckingen, Halland, and the 
 government of Bohus, which Frederic III. ceded to Sweden by 
 the treaties of Eoschild and Copenhagen. It was at the close of 
 this war that a revolution happened in the government of Denmark. 
 Until that time, it had been completely under the aristocracy of the 
 nobles ; the throne was elective ; and all power v.-as con.centrated 
 in the hands of the senate, and the principal members of the 
 nobility. The royal prerogative was limited to the command of 
 the armv, and the presidency in the Senate. The King was 
 even obliged, by a special capitulation, in all affairs which did 
 not require the concurrence of the Senate, to take the advice of 
 four great officers of the crown, viz. the Grand Master, the 
 Chancellor, the Marshal, and the Admiral; who were considered 
 as so many channels or vehicles of the royal authority. 
 
 The state of exhaustion to which Denmark was reduced at 
 the time she made peace with Sweden, obliged Frederic III. to 
 convoke an assembly of the States-General of the kingdom. 
 These, which were composed of three orders, viz. the nobility, 
 the clerg}', and the burgesses, had never been summoned to- 
 gether in that form since the year 1536. At their mieeting at 
 Copenhagen, the two inferior orders reproached the nobles with 
 having been the cause of all the miseries and disorders of the 
 State, by the exorbitant and tyrannical power which they had 
 usurped ; and what tended still more to increase their animosity 
 against them, was the obstinacy with which they maintained 
 their privileges and exemptions from the public burdens, to the 
 prejudice of the lower orders. One subject of discussion was, 
 to find a tax, the proceeds of which should be applied to the most 
 pressing wants of the State. The nobles proposed a duty on 
 articles of consumption; but under restrictions w^th regard to 
 themselves, that could not but exasperate the lower orders. The 
 latter proposed, in testimony of their discontent, to let out to the 
 highest bidder the fiefs of the crowm, which the nobles held at 
 '^ents extremely moderate. This proposal was highly resented 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 164S— 1713. 43 
 
 by the nobility, who regarded it as a blow aimed at tneir rights 
 and properties ; and they persisted in urging a tax on articles of 
 consumption, such as they had proposed. Certain uns^arded 
 expressions which escaped some of the members of the nobility, 
 gave rise to a tumult of indignation, and suggested to the two 
 leaders of the clerg}^ and the burgesses, viz. the bishop of Zea- 
 land and the burgomaster of Copenhagen, the idea of framing 
 a declaration for the purpose of rendering the crown hereditary, 
 both in the male and female descendants of Frederic III. It 
 was not difficult for them to recommend this project to their 
 respective orders, who flattered themselves that, under a heredi- 
 tary monarchy, they would enjoy that equality which was denied 
 them under an aristocracy of the nobles. The act of this de- 
 claration having been approved and signed by the two orders, 
 was presented in their name to the Senate, who rejected it, on 
 the ground that the States-General then assembled, had no right 
 to deliberate on that proposition ; but the clerg}- and the burges- 
 ses, without being disconcerted, went in a body to the King, 
 carrying with them the Act which offered to make the crown 
 hereditary in his family. The nobles having made a pretence 
 of wishing to quit the city in order to break up the Diet, care was 
 taken to shut the doors. The members of the Senate and the 
 nobility had then no other alternative left than to agree to the 
 resolution of the two inferior orders ; and the offer of the crown 
 was made to the King by the three orders conjunctly (13th October 
 1660.) They then tendered him the capitulation, which was 
 annulled ; and at the same time they liberated him from the oath 
 which he had taken on the day of his coronation. A sort of 
 dictatorship was then conferred on him, to regulate the new con- 
 stitutional charter, according to his good pleasure. All the orders 
 of the State then took a new oath of fealty and homage to him, 
 while the King himself was subjected to no oath whatever. 
 Finally, the three orders separately remitted an Act to the King, 
 declaring the crown hereditary' in all the descendants of Frederic 
 III., both male and female ; conferring on him and his succes- 
 sors an unlimited power; and granting him the privilege of 
 regulating the order both of the regency and the succession to 
 the throne. 
 
 Thus terminated that important revolution, without any dis- 
 order, and without shedding a single drop of blood. It was in 
 virtue of those powers which the States had conferred on him, 
 that the King published what is called the Royal Law, regarded 
 a.s the only fundamental law of Denmark. The King was there 
 declared absolute sovereign, above all human laws, acknowledg- 
 ing no superior but God, and uniting in his own person all the 
 
44 CHAPTER VIU. 
 
 rights and prerogatives of royalty, without any exception whatever 
 He could exercise these prerogatives in virtue of his own author 
 ity ; but he was obliged to respect the Royal Law ; and he could 
 neither touch the Confession of Augsburg, which had been 
 adopted as the national religion, nor authorize any partition of 
 the kingdom, which was declared indivisible; nor change the 
 order of succession as established by the Royal Law. That suc- 
 cession was lineal, according to the right of primogeniture and 
 descent. Females were only admitted, failing all the male issue 
 of Frederic IIL ; and the order in which they were to succeed, 
 was defined with the most scrupulous exactness. The term of 
 majority was fixed at the age of thirteen ; and it was in the 
 power of the reigning monarch to regulate, by his will, the tutor- 
 age and the regency during such minority. 
 
 This constitutional law gave the Danish government a vigour 
 which it never had before ; the effects of which Avere manifested 
 in the war which Christian V. undertook against Sweden 
 (1675,) in consequence of his alliance with Frederic William, 
 Elector of Brandenburg. The Danes had the advantage of the 
 Swedes both by sea and land. Their fleet, under the command 
 of Niels Juel, gained two naval victories over them, the one 
 near the Isle of Oeland, and the other in the bay of Kioge, on 
 the coast of Zealand (1677.) That war was terminated by the 
 peace of Lunden (Oct. 6th 1679,) which restored matters be- 
 tween the two nations, to the same footing on which they had 
 been before the war. The severe check which Sweden re- 
 ceived by the defeat of Charles Xll.. before Pultowa, tended to 
 extricate' Denmark from the painful situation in which she had 
 been placed with respect to that power. The freedom of the 
 Sound, which Sweden had maintained during her prosperity, 
 was taken from her by the treaty of Stockholm, and by the ex- 
 planatory articles of Fredericsburg, concluded between Sweden 
 and Denmark, (14th June 1720.) That kingdom likewise re- 
 tained, in terms of the treaty, the possession of the whole dutchy 
 of Sleswick, with a claim to the part belonging to the duke of 
 Holstein-Gottorp, whom Sweden was obliged to remove from 
 under her protection. 
 
 Poland, at the commencement of this period, presented an 
 afflicting spectacle, under the unfortunate reign of John Casimir, 
 the brother and successor of Uladislaus VII. (1648.) Distracted 
 at once b}'' foreign wars and intestine factions, she seemed every 
 moment on the brink of destruction ; and while the neighbour- 
 ing states were augmenting their forces, and strengthening the 
 hands of their governments, Poland grew gradually weaker and 
 weaker, and at length degenerated into absolute anarchy. The 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 1648—1713. 45 
 
 orig-in of the Liberum Veto of the Poles, which allowed the op- 
 position of a single member to frustrate the deliberations of the 
 •.vhole Diet, belongs to the reign of John Casimir. The first 
 that suspended the Diet, by the interposition of his veto, was 
 Schinski, member for Upita in Lithuania ; his example, though 
 at first disapproved, found imitators ; and this foolish practice, 
 which allowed one to usurp the prerogative of a majority, soon 
 passed into a law, and a maxim of state. 
 
 Towards the end of the reign of Uladislaus VII. a murderous 
 war had arisen in Poland, that of the Cossacs. This warlike 
 people, of Russian origin, as their language and their religion 
 prove, inhabited both banks of the Borysthenes, beyond Kiow ; 
 where they were subdivided into regiments, under the command 
 of a general, called Hetman ; and served as a military frontier 
 for Poland against the Tartars and Turks. Some infringements 
 that had been made on their privileges, added to the efforts which 
 the Poles had made to induce their clerg)^ to separate from the 
 Greek Church, and acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope, ex- 
 asperated the Cossacs, and engendered among them a spirit of 
 revolt (1647.) Assisted by the Turks of the Crimea, they in- 
 vaded Poland, and committed terrible devastations. The Poles 
 succeeded from time to time in pacifying them, and even con- 
 cluded a treaty with them ; but the minds of both parties being 
 exasperated, hostilities always recommenced with every new 
 offence. At length, their Hetman, Chmielniski, being hardly 
 pressed by the Poles, took the resolution of soliciting the protec- 
 tion of Russia, and concluded a treaty with the Czar Alexis 
 Michaelovitz (Jan. 16, 1654,) in virtae of which, Kiow and the 
 other towns of the Ukraine, under the power of the Cossacs, 
 were planted with Russian garrisons. It was on this occasion 
 that the Czar retook the city of Smolensko from the Poles, as 
 well as most of the districts that had been ceded to Poland, by 
 the treaties of Dwilina and Viasma. That prince made also 
 several other conquests from the Poles ; he took possession of 
 Wilna, and several places in Lithuania, at the very time when 
 Charles X. was invading Poland, and threatening that country 
 with entire destruction. The Czar, however, instead of fol. ow- 
 ing up his conquests, judged it more for his interest to conclude 
 a truce with the Poles \|1656,) that he might turn his arms 
 against Sweden. 
 
 The peace of Oliva put an end to the war between Poland and 
 Sweden ; but hostilities were renewed between the Russians 
 and the Poles, which did not terminate till the treaty of Andrus- 
 sov (Jan. 1667.) The Czar restored to the Poles a part of his 
 conquests ; but he retained Smolensko, Novogorod-Sieverskoe, 
 
46 cjaLAFfER vm. 
 
 Tchernigov, Kiow, and all the country of the Cossacs, beyond 
 the Borysthenes or Dnieper. The Cossacs on this side the 
 river were annexed to Poland, and as for those who dwelt near 
 the mouth of the Dnieper, called Zaporogs, it was agreed that 
 they should remain under the common jurisdiction of the two 
 states ; ready to serve against the Turks whenever circumstances 
 might require it. The wars of which we have just spoken, were 
 attended with troubles and dissensions, which reduced Poland 
 to the most deplorable condition during the reign of John Casi- 
 mir. That prince at length, disgusted with a crown which he 
 liad found to be composed of thorns, resolved to abdicate the 
 throne (16th Sept. 1668;) and retiring to France, he there ended 
 his days. 
 
 Michael Wiesnouiski, who succeeded John Casimir, after a 
 stormy interregnum of seven months, had no other merit than 
 that of being descended in a direct line from Coribut, the brother 
 of Jagellon, King of Poland. Jlis reign was a scene of great 
 agitation, and of unbridled anarchy. Four diets were interrupted 
 in less than four years; the war with the Cossacs was renewed; 
 the Turks and the Tartars, the allies of the Cossacs, seized the 
 city of Kaminiec (1672,) the only bulwark of Poland against the 
 Ottomans. Michael, being thrown into a state of alarm, con- 
 cluded a disgraceful peace with the Turks ; he gave up to them 
 Kaminiec and Podolia, with their ancient limits ; and even 
 agreed to pay them an annual tribute of twenty-two thousand 
 ducats. The Ukraine, on this side the Borysthenes, was aban- 
 doned to the Cossacs, who were to be placed under the protection 
 of the Turks. This trealy was not ratified by the Republic of 
 Poland, who preferred to continue the war. John Sobieski, 
 Grand General of the Crown, gained a brilliant victory over the 
 Turks near Choczim (Nov. 11th, 1673.) It took place the next 
 day after the death of Michael, and determined the Poles to con- 
 fer their crown on the victorious General. 
 
 Sobieski did ample justice to the choice of his fellow-citizens. 
 By the peace which he concluded at Zarowno with the Turks 
 (26th Oct. 1676,) he relieved Poland from the tribute lately pro 
 mised, and recovered some parts of the Ukraine ; but the city o*- 
 Kaminiec was left in the power of the Ottomans, with a consid* 
 erable portion of the Ukraine and Podolia. Poland then entered 
 into an alliance with the House of Austria, against the Porte- 
 Sobieski became the deliverer of Vienna ; he signalized himself 
 in the campaigns of 1683 and 1684 ; and if he did not gain any 
 important advantages over the Turks, if he had not even the 
 satisfaction of recovering Kaminiec and Podolia, it must be as- 
 cribed to the incompetence of his means, and to the disunion and 
 
PERIOD VII. A. u. 1648 — 1713. 47 
 
 iridifTerence of the Poles, who refused to make a single sacrifice 
 in the cause. Sobieski was even forced to have recourse to the 
 protection of the Russians against the Turks; and saw himself 
 1 educed to the painful necessity of setting his hand to the defi- 
 nitive peace which was concluded with Russia at Moscow (May 
 (»th, 1686,) by which Poland, in order to obtain the alliance of 
 that power against the Ottomans, consented to give up Smolen- 
 sko, Belaia, Dorogobuz, Tchernigov, Starodub, and Novogorod- 
 Sieverskoe, with their dependencies ; as also the whole territory 
 known by the name of Little Russia, situated on the left bank of 
 the Bnrysthenes, between that river and the frontier Of Putivli, 
 as far as Perevoloczna. The city of Kiow, with its territory as 
 determined by the treaty, was also included in that cession. 
 Finally, the Cossacs, called Zaporogs and Kiidak^ who, accord- 
 ing to the treaty of Andrussov, ought to have been dependencies 
 of these two states, were reserved exclusively to Russia. Sobie- 
 ski shed tears when he was obliged to sign that treaty at Leopold 
 'or Lemberg,) in presence of the Russian ambassadors. 
 
 The war with the Turks did not terminate until the reign of 
 Augustus IL the successor of John Sobieski. The peace of 
 Carlowitz, which that prince concluded with the Porte (1699,) 
 procured for Poland the restitution of Kaminiec, as well as that 
 part of the Ukraine, which the peace of Zarowno had ceded to 
 the Turks. 
 
 Russia became every day more prosperous under the princes 
 of the House of Romanow. She gained a decided superiority 
 over Poland, who had formerly dictated the law to her. Alexis 
 Michaelovitz not only recov^ered from the Poles what they had 
 conquered from Russia during the disturbances occasioned by 
 the two pretenders of the name of Demetrius ; we have already 
 observed, that he dispossessed them ot Kiow, and all that part 
 of the Ukraine, or Little Russia, which lies on the left bank of 
 the Borysthenes. 
 
 Theodore Alexievitz, the son and successor of Alexis Mi- 
 chaelovitz, rendered his reign illustrious by the wisdom of his 
 administration. Guided by the advice of his enlightened mi- 
 nister, Prince Galitzin, he conceived the bold project of abolish- 
 ing the hereditary orders of the nobility, and the prerogatives 
 that were attached to them. These orders were destructive of 
 all subordination in civil as well as in military affairs, and gave 
 rise to a multitude of disputes and litigations, of which a court, 
 named Rozrad, took cognizance. The Czar, in a grand assem- 
 bly which he convoked a^ Moscow (1682,) abolished the here- 
 ditary rank of the nobles. He burnt the deeds and registers 
 by wh'ch they were atv-ested, and obliged every noble family to 
 
48 CHAPTER vm. 
 
 produce the extracts of these registers, which they had in their 
 possession, that they might be committed to the flames. That 
 prince having no children of his own, had destined his youno-er 
 brother Peter Alexievitz to be his successor, to the exclusion of 
 John, his elder brrther, on account of his incapacity. But, on 
 the death of Theodore, both princes were proclaimed at orjce by 
 the military, and the government was intrusted to the Princess 
 Sophia, their elder sister, who assumed the title of Autocratix 
 and Sovereign of all the Russias. Peter, who was the son of 
 the second marriage of the Czar, was at that time only ten 
 years of aJg'e. It was during the administration of the Princess 
 Sophia that the peace of Moscow was concluded (May 6, 1686 ;) 
 one clause of which contained an alliance, offensive and defen- 
 sive, between Russia and Poland against the Porte. 
 
 Peter had no sooner attained the age of seventeen than he 
 seized the reins of government, and deposed his sister Sophia, 
 whom he sent to a convent. Endowed with an extraordinary 
 genius, this Prince became the reformer of his Empire, which, 
 under his reign, assumed an aspect totally new. By the advice 
 of Le Fort, a native of Geneva, who bad entered the Russian 
 service, and whom he had received into his friendship and con- 
 fidence, he turned his attention to every branch of the public 
 administration. The military system was changed, and mo- 
 delled after that of the civilized nations of Europe. He found- 
 ed the maritime power of Russia, improved her finances, en- 
 courao-ed commerce and manufactures, introduced letters and 
 arts into his dominions, and applied himself to reform the lav/s, 
 to polish and refine the manners of the people. 
 
 Peter, being in alliance with Poland, engaged in the war 
 against the Porte, and laid open the Black Sea by his conquest 
 of the city and port of Azoff"; and it was on this occasion that 
 he equipped his first fleet at Woronitz. Azoff remained in his 
 possession, by an article of the peace which was concluded with 
 the Porte at Constantinople (13th July, 1700.) About the same 
 time, Peter abolished the patriarchal dignity, which ranked the 
 head of the Russian Church next to the Czar, and gave him a 
 dangerous influence in the affairs of government. He trans- 
 ferred the authority of the patriarch to a college of fifteen per- 
 sons, called the Most Holy Synod, whose duty it was to take 
 cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs, and in ge^»eral, of all matters 
 which had fallen within the jurisdiction of the patriarch, iro 
 members of this college were obliged to take the oath at t!"'; 
 hands of the Sovereign, and to be appointed by him on the pc • 
 sentation of the Synod. 
 
 Being desirous of seeing and examining in person the iri2:> 
 
PERIOD VII. A. IX 1648 — 1713. 49 
 
 nets and customs of other nations, he undertook two different 
 voyages into forei^i countries, divested of that pomp which is 
 the usual accompaniment of princes. During these travels, he 
 cuhivated the arts and sciences, especially those connected with 
 commerce and navigation ; he engaged men of talents in his 
 services, such as naval officers, engineers, surgeons, artists, and 
 mechanics of all kinds, whom he dispersed over his vast do- 
 minions, to instruct and improve the Russians. During his first 
 voyage to Holland and England, the Strelitzes, the only per- 
 manent troops known in Russia before his time, revolted ; they 
 were first instituted by the Czar, John Basilovitz IV. They 
 fought after the manner of the Janissaries, and enjoyed nearly 
 the same privileges. Peter, v/ith the intention of disbanding 
 these seditious and undisciplined troops, had stationed them on the 
 frontiers of Lithuania ; he had also removed them from being his 
 own body-guard, a service which he entrusted to the regiments 
 raised by himself. This sort of degradation incensed the Stre- 
 lazes, who took the opportunity of the Czar's absence to revolt. 
 They directed their march to the city of Moscow, with the design 
 of deposing the Czar, and replacing Sophia on the throne ; but 
 they were defeated by the Generals Schein and Gordon, who had 
 marched to oppose them. Peter, on his return, caused two 
 thousand of them to be executed, and incorporated the rest among 
 his troops. He afterwards employed foreign officers, either Ger- 
 mans or Swedes, to instruct the Russians in the military art. 
 
 It was chiefly during the war with Sweden that the Russian 
 army was organized according to the European system. The 
 Czar took adv^antage of the check he had sustained before Narva 
 (Nov. 30, 1700,) to accomplish this important change in levying, 
 equipping, and training all his troops after the German manner. 
 He taught the Russians the art of combating and conquering the 
 Swedes ; and while the King of Sweden was bent on the ruin 
 of Augustus II., and made but feeble efforts against the Czar, 
 the latter succeeded in conquering Ingria from the Swedes, and 
 .aid open the navigation of the Baltic. He took the fortress of 
 Noteburg (1702,) which he afterwards called Schlisselburg ; he 
 next made himself master of Nyenschantz, Kopori, and Jamp 
 (now Jamburg) in Ingria. The port of Nyenchantz was entirely 
 razed ; and the Czar laid the foundation of St. Petersburg in 
 one of the neighbouring islands of the Neva (May 27, 1703.) In 
 the middle of winter he constructed the fort of Cronschlot to 
 serve as a defence for the new city, which he intended to make 
 the capital of his Empire, and the principal dep8t for the com- 
 merce and marine of Russia. The fortune of this ne^v :hp' a"i 
 vol.it. 5 
 
50 CHAPTER vnt. 
 
 was decided by the famous battle of Pultowa (July 8, 1709,) 
 which likewise secured the preponderance of Russia in the North. 
 
 Charles XII., who had taken refuge in Turkey, used every 
 effort to instigate the Turks against the Russians ; and he suc- 
 ceeded by dint of intrigue. The Porte declared war against, f.he 
 Czar towards the end of the year 1710 ; the latter opened ihe 
 campaign of 1711 by an expedition which he undertook into 
 Moldavia ; but having rashly penetrated into the interior of that 
 province, he was surrounded by the Grand Vizier near Falczi 
 oil the Pruth. Besieged in his camp by an army vastly supe- 
 rior to his own, and reduced to the last necessity, he found no 
 other means of extricating himself from this critical situation, 
 than by agreeing to a treaty, which he signed in the camp of 
 Falczi (21st July 1711 ;) in virtue of which, he consented to re- 
 store to the Turks the jfortress of AzofF, with its territory and 
 its dependencies. This loss was amply compensated by the im- 
 portant advantages which the peace with Sweden, signed at Ny- 
 stadt (Sept. 10, 1721,) procured the Czar. It was on this occa- 
 sion that the Senate conferred on him the epithet of Ch-eat, the 
 Father of his Country, and Emperor of all the Russias. His 
 inauguration to the Imperial dignity took place, October 22d 
 1721, the xeYy day of the rejoicing that had been appointed for 
 the celebration of the peace. Peter himself put the Imperial 
 crown on his own head. 
 
 That great prince had the vexation to see Alexis Czarowitz 
 his son, and presumptive heir to the Empire, thwarting all his 
 improvements, and caballing in secret with his enemies. Being 
 at length compelled to declare that he had forfeited his right to 
 the throne, he had him condemned to death as a traitor (1718.) 
 In consequence of this tragical event, he published an Ukase, 
 which vested in the reigning prince the privilege of nominating 
 his successor, and even of changing the appointment whenever 
 he might judge it necessary. This arrangement became fatal to 
 Russia ; the want of a fixed and permanent order of succession 
 occasioned troubles and revolutions which frequently distracted 
 the whole Empire. This law, moreover, made no provision in 
 cases where the reigning prince might neglect to settle the suc- 
 cession during his life ; as happened with Peter himself, who 
 died vvdthout making or appointing any successor (Feb. 1725.) 
 Catherine I., his spouse, ascended the throne, which, after a 
 reign of two years, she transmitted to Peter, son of the unfortu- 
 nate Alexis. 
 
 In Hungary, the precautions that had been taken by the States 
 of Presburg to establish civil and religious liberty on a solid ba- 
 sis, 'lid not prevent disturbances from springing up in that king- 
 
PERIOD VU. A. V. 1648 ITlcT. St 
 
 dom. The Court of Vienna, perceiving the necessity of consoli- 
 dating its vast monarchy, whose incoherent parts were suffering 
 from the want of unity, eagerly seized these occasions for ex- 
 tending its power in Hungary, where it was greatly circumscri- 
 bed by the laws and constitution of the country. Hence those 
 perpetud infringements of Avhich the Hungarians had to com- 
 plain ; and those ever-recurring disturbances in which the Otto- 
 man Turks, who shared with Austria the dominion of Hungary, 
 were also frequently implicated. 
 
 Transylvania, as well as a great part of Hungary, was then 
 dependent on the Turks. The Emperor Leopold I. having 
 granted his protection to John Kemeny, Prince of Transylvania, 
 against Michael Abaffi, a protege of the Turks, a war between 
 the two Empires seemed to be inevitable. The Diet of Hunga- 
 ry, which the Emperor had assembled at Presburg on this sub- 
 ject (1662,) was most outrageous. The States, before they 
 would give any opinion as to the war against the Turks, de- 
 manded that their own grievances should be redressed ; and the 
 assembly separated without coming to any conclusion. The 
 Turks took advantage of this dissension, and seized the fortress 
 of Neuheusel, and several other places. The Emperor, incapa- 
 ble of opposing them, and distrustful of the Hungarian malecon- 
 tents, had recourse to foreign aid. This he obtained at the Diet 
 of the Empire ; and Louis XIV. sent him a body of six thou- 
 sand men, under command of the Count de Coligni. An action 
 took place (1664) near St. Gothard, in which the French signal- 
 ized their bravery. The Turks sustained a total defeat ; but 
 Montecuculi, the commander-in-chief of the Imperial army, fail- 
 ed to take advantage of his victory. A truce of twenty years 
 was soon after concluded at Temeswar, in virtue of which the 
 Turks retained Neuheusel, Waradin, and Novigrad. Michael 
 Abaffi, their tributary and protege, was continued in Transyl- 
 vania ; and both parties engaged to withdraw their troops from 
 that province. 
 
 This treaty highly displeased the Hungarians, as it had been 
 concluded without their concurrence. Their complaints against 
 the Court of Vienna became louder than ever. They complain- 
 ed, especially, that the Emperor should entertain German troops 
 in the kingdom ; that he should intrust the principal fortresses 
 to foreigners ; and impose shackles on their religious liberties. 
 The Court of Vienna having paid no regard to these grievances, 
 several of the nobles entered into a league for the preservation 
 of their rights ; but they were accused of holding correspondence 
 with the Turks, and conspiring against the person of the Empe- 
 ror. The Counts Zrini, Nadaschdi, Frangepan, and Tattenbach 
 
§8 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 were condemned as guilty of high treason (1671,) and bad their 
 heads cut off on the scaffold. A vast number of the Protestant 
 clerg-y were either banished or condemned to the galleys, as 
 implicated in the conspiracy; but this severity, far from abating 
 these disturbances, tended rather to augment them. The sup- 
 pression of the dignity of Palatine of Hungary, which took place 
 about the same time, added to the cruelties and extortions of all 
 kinds practised by the German troops, at length raised a general 
 insurrection, vdiich ended in a civil war (1677.) The insur- 
 gents at first chose the Count Francis Wesselini as their leader, 
 who was afterwards replaced by Count Emeric Tekeli. These 
 noblemen were encouraged in their enterprise, and secretly abet- 
 ted by France and the Porte. 
 
 The Emperor then found it necessary to comply ; and, in a 
 Diet which he assembled at Odenburg, he granted redress to 
 most of the grievances of which the Hungarians had to com- 
 plain ; but Count Tekeli having disapproved of the resolutions 
 of this Diet, the civil war was continued, and the Count soon 
 found means to interest the Turks and the prince of Transylva- 
 nia in his quarrel. The Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha, at the 
 head of the Ottoman forces, came and laid siege to Vienna (July 
 14, 16S3.) A Polish army marched to the relief of that place 
 under their King, John Sobieski, who was joined by Charles 
 IV., Duke of Lorraine, General of the Imperial troops; they 
 attacked the Turks in their entrenchments before Vienna, and 
 compelled them to raise the siege (September 12, 1683.) Every 
 thing then succeeded to the Emperor's wish. Besides Poland, 
 the Russians and the Republic of Venice took part in this war 
 in favour of Austria, A succession of splendid victories, gained 
 by the Imperial generals, Charles Duke of Lorraine, Prince 
 Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene, procured for Leopold the 
 conquest of all that part of Hungary, which had continued since 
 the reign of Ferdinand I. in the power of the Ottomans. The 
 fortress of Neuheusel was taken, in consequence of the battle 
 which the Duke of Lorraine gained over the Turks at Strigova 
 (1685.) The same General took by assault the city of Buda, 
 the capital of Hungary, which had been in possession of the 
 Turks since 1541. The memorable victory of Mohacz, gained 
 by the Imperialists (1687,) again reduced Transylvania and 
 Sclavonia under the dominion of Austria. These continued 
 reverses cost the Grand Vizier his life ; he was strangled by 
 order of the Sultan, Mahomet IV., who was himself deposed 
 by his rebellious Janissaries, 
 
 Encouraged by these brilliant victories, the Emperor Leopold 
 assembled the States of Hungary at Presburg. He there de- 
 
PERIOD VII A. D. 1648—1713. 53 
 
 manded, that, in conr.ideration of tne extraordinary efforts he 
 had been obliged to make against the Ottomans, the kingdom 
 should be declared hereditary in his family. The States at 
 first appeared inclined to maintain their own right of election ; 
 but yielding soon to the influence of authority, they agi-eed to 
 make the succession hereditary in favour of the males of the two 
 Austrian branches ; on the extinction of which they were to be 
 restored to their ancient rights. As for the privileges of the 
 States, founded on the decree of King Andrew II., they were 
 renewed at that Diet ; with the exception of that clause in the 
 ihirty-first article of the decree, which authorized the States to 
 oppose, by open force, any prince that should attempt to infringe 
 the rights and liberties of the country. The Jesuits, who were 
 formerly proscribed, were restored, and their authority establish- 
 ed throughout all the provinces of the kingdom. The Protes- 
 tants of both confessions obtained the confirmation of the churches 
 and prerogatives that had been secured to them by the articles 
 of the Diet of Odenburg ; but it was stipulated, that only Catho- 
 lics were entitled to possess property within the kingdoms of 
 Dalmatia, Croatia and Sclavonia. The Archduke Joseph, son 
 of Leopold I., was crowned at this Diet (December 19, 1687,) 
 as the first hereditary King of Hungary. 
 
 The arms of Austria were crowned with new victories durino 
 the continuation of the war against the Turks. Albe-Royale, 
 Belgrade, Semendria, and Gradisca, fell into the hands of the 
 Emperor. The two splendid victories at Nissa and Widdin, 
 which Louis prince of Baden gained (1689,) secured to the Aus 
 trians the conquest of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria. The de- 
 jected courage of the Ottomans was for a time revived by their 
 new Grand Vizier Mustapha Kiupruli, a man of considerable 
 genius. After gaining several advantages over the Imperialists, 
 he took from them Nissa, Widdin, Semendria, and Belgrade ; 
 and likewise reconquered Bulgaria, Servia, and Bosnia. The 
 extraordinary eflforts that the Porte made for the campaign of 
 the following year, inspired them with hopes of better success ; 
 but their expectations were quite disappointed by the unfortu- 
 nate issue of the famous battle of Salankemen, which the Prince 
 of Baden gained over the Turks, (Aug. 19, 1691.) The brave 
 Kiupruli was slain, and his death decided the victory in favour 
 of the Imperialists. The war with France, however, which then 
 occupied the principal forces of Austria, did not permit the Em- 
 peror to reap any advantage from this victory ; he was even 
 obliged, in the following campaigns, to act on the defensive in 
 Hungary; and it was not until the conclusion of peace with 
 France, that he was able to resume the war against the Turkb 
 
 5^ 
 
64 CHAPTER VllL 
 
 with fresh vigour. Prince Eugene, who was then commander- 
 in-chief of the Imperial army, attacked the Suhan Mustaplia 
 .1. in person, near Zenta on the river Teiss (Sept. 11, 1697,) 
 '.vhere he gained a decisive victory. The grand Vizier, seven- 
 \ii(?n Pachas, and two thirds of the Ottoman army, were left 
 dead on the field of battle ; and the gi'and Seignior was com- 
 pelled to fall back in disorder on Belgrade. 
 
 This terrible blow made the Porte exceedingly anxious for 
 jta^c; and he had recourse to the mediation of England and 
 Holland. A negotiation, which proved as tedious as it was in- 
 tricate, was set on foot at Constantinople, and thence transfer- 
 red to Carlowitz, a town of Sclavonia lying between the two 
 camps, one of which was at Peterwaradin, and the other at 
 Belgrade. Peace was there concluded with the Emperor 
 and his allies (Jan. 26, 1699.) The Emperor, by that treaty, 
 retained Hungary, Transylvania and Sclavonia, with the ex- 
 ception of the Banat of Temeswar, which was reserved to the 
 Porle. The rivers Marosch, Teiss, Save, and Unna, were 
 fixed as the limits between the two Empires. The Count Te- 
 keli, who during the whole of this war had constantly espoused 
 the cause of the Porte, was allowed to remain in the Ottoman 
 territory ; with such of the Hungarians and Transylvanians as 
 adhered to him. 
 
 The peace of Carlowitz had secured to the Emperor nearly 
 the whole of Hungary ; but, glorious though it was, it did not 
 restore the internal tranquillity of the kingdom, which very 
 soon experienced fresh troubles. The same complaints that 
 had arisen after the peace of Temeswar, were renewed after 
 that of Carlowitz ; to these were even added several others, oc- 
 ■as^ioned by the introduction of the hereditary succession, at 
 he Diet of 16S7, by the suppression of the clause in the thirty- 
 :irst article of the decree of Andrew II., by the restoration of 
 he Jesuits and the banishment of Tekeli and his adherents. 
 \othing was wanted but a ringleader for the malecontents to 
 lekindle the flames of civil war, and this leader was soon found 
 in the person of the famous Prince Ragoczi, who appeared on 
 i.he scene about the beginning of the eighteenth century, and 
 when the greater part of Europe were involved in the war ol 
 the Spanish Succession. 
 
 Francis Ragoczi was the grandson of George Ragoczi II., 
 who had been prince of Transylvania ; and held a distinguish- 
 ed rank in the States of Hungary, not more by his illustrious 
 hirth than by the great possessions which belonged to his fa- 
 mily. The Court of Vienna, which entertained suspicions of 
 him on account of his near relationship with Tekeli, had kept 
 
PERIOD vn. A. D. 1648 — 1713. ^ 
 
 lilm in a sort of captivity from his earliest infancy ; and he 
 was not set at large, nor restored to the possession of his estates, 
 until 1694, when he married a princess of Hesse-Rheinfels. 
 From that time he resided quietly on his estates, holding his 
 Court at Sarosch, in the district of the same name. Being sus- 
 jpccted of having concerted a conspiracy Vv^ith the malecontents, 
 he was arrested by order of the Court of Vienna (1701.) and 
 carried to Neustadt in Austria, whence he escaped and retired 
 10 Poland, Being condemned as guilty of high treason, and 
 ills estates de(^ared forfeited, he took the resolution of placing 
 iiimself at the head of the rebels, and instigating Hungary 
 against the Emperor. France, who had just joined in the war 
 with Austria, encouraged him in that enterprise, which she 
 regarded as a favourable event for creating a diversion on the 
 part of her enemy. Having arrived in Hungary, Ragoczi pub- 
 lished a manifesto (1703,) in which he detailed the motives of 
 his conduct, and exhorted the Hungarians to join him, for vin- 
 •dicating their ancient liberties which had been oppressed by the 
 House of Austria. He soon attracted a crowd of partisans, and 
 made himself master of a great part of the kingdom. The 
 Transylvanians chose him for their prince (1704 ;) and the States 
 of Hungary, v/h© had united for the re-establishment of their 
 laws and immunities, declared him their chief, with the title of 
 Duke, and a senate of twenty-five persons. Louis XIV. sent 
 his envoy, the Marquis Dessalleurs, to congratulate him on 
 Jiis elevation ; and the Czar, Peter the Great, offered him the 
 throne of Poland (1707,) in opposition to Stanislaus, who was 
 protected by Charles XII. 
 
 The House of Austria being engaged in the Spanish war, 
 was unable for a long time to reduce the Hungarian malecon- 
 tents. The repeated attempts which she had made to come to an 
 accommodation with them having failed, the war was continued 
 till 1711, when the Austrians, who had been victorious, com- 
 pelled Ragoczi to evacuate Hungary, and retire to the frontiers 
 of Poland. A treaty of pacification was then drawn up. The 
 Emperor promised to gi'ant an amnesty, and a general restitu- 
 tion of goods in favour of all those who had been implicated in 
 ihe insurrection. He came under an engagement to preserve 
 inviolable the rights, liberties, and immunities of Hungary, and 
 the principality of Transylvania ; to reserve all civil and mili- 
 tary offices to the Hungarians ; to maintain the laws of the 
 kingdom respecting religion ; and as for their other grievances, 
 whether political or ecclesiastical, he consented to have them 
 discussed in the approaching Diet. These articles were ap- 
 proved and signed by the greater part of the malecontents, who 
 
56 CHAPTER vm. 
 
 then took a new oath of allegiance to the Emperor. Ragoc2r> 
 and his principal adherents were the only persons that remain- 
 ed proscribed and attainted, having refused to accede to these 
 articles. 
 
 The Turkish Empire, once so formidable, had gTadually fallen 
 from the summit of its grandeur ; its resources were exhausted, 
 and its histor}'' marked by nothing but misfortunes. The effe- 
 minacy and incapacity of the Sultans, their contempt for the 
 arts cultivated by the Europeans, and the evils of a govern- 
 ment purely military and despotic, by degrees twidermined its 
 strength, and eclipsed its glory as a conquering and presiding 
 power. We find the Janissaries, a lawless and undisciplined 
 militia, usurping over the sovereigTi and the throne the same 
 rights which the Praetorian guards had arrogated over the an- 
 cient Roman Emperors. 
 
 The last conquest of any importance which the Turks made 
 was that of Candia, which they took from the Republic of Venice. 
 The war which obtained them the possession of that island, 
 lasted for twenty years. It began under the Sultan Ibrahim 
 (1645,) and was continued under his successor, Mahomet IV,. 
 The Venetians defended the island with exemplary courage and 
 intrepidity. They destroyed several of the Turkish fleets ; 
 and, on different occasions, they kept the passage of the Darda- 
 nelles shut against the Ottomans. At length the famous Vizier 
 Achmet Kiupruli undertook the siege of the city of Candia 
 (1667,) at the head of a formidable army. This siege was one 
 of the most sanguinary recorded in history. The Turks lost 
 above a hundred thousand men ; and it was not till after a siege 
 of two ;years and four months that the place surrendered to 
 them by a capitulation (Sept. 5, 1669,) which at the same time 
 regulated the conditions of peace between the Turks and the 
 Venetians. These latter, on surrendering Candia, reserved, iu 
 the islands and islets adjoining, three places, viz. Suda, Spina- 
 loiiga, and Garabusa. They also retained Clissa, and some 
 other places in Dalmatia and Albania, which they had seizec 
 during the war. The reign of Mahomet from that time, pre- 
 sented nothing but a succession of wars, of which that against 
 Hungary was the most fatal to the Ottoman Empire. The 
 Turks were overvv^helmed by the powerful league formed 
 between Austria, Poland, Russia, and the Republic of Venice. 
 They experienced, as we have already noticed, a series of fatal 
 disasters during that war ; and imputing these misfortunes to 
 the effeminacy of their Sultan, they resolved to depose him. 
 Mustapha II., the third in succession from Mahomet IV., ter- 
 minated this destructive war by the peace of Carlovvitz, when 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. S^ 
 
 the Turks lost all their possessions in Hungary, except Temeswar 
 and Belgrade. They gave up to Poland the fortress of Kami- ^ 
 niec, with Podolia, and the part of the Ukraine on this side the 
 Nieper, which had been ceded to them by former treaties. The 
 Venetians, b}? their treaty with the Porte, obtained possession 
 of the Morea, which they had conquered during the war ; in- 
 cluding the islands of St. Maura and Leucadia, as also the for- 
 tresses of Dalmatia, Knin, Sing, Ciciut, Gabella, Castlenuovo, 
 and Risano. Finally, the Porte renounced the tribute which 
 Venice had formerly paid for the isle of Zante ; and the Repub- 
 lic of Ragusa was guaranteed in its independence, with respect 
 to the Venetians. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. P 
 
 PERIOD VIIL 
 
 From the Peace of Utrecht to the French Revolution, a. d 
 
 1713—1789. 
 
 [During the wars of the preceding period, arts and lettei:. 
 iiad made extraordinary progress ; especially in France, where 
 they seemed to have reached the highest degree of perfection 
 to which the limited genius of man can carry them. The age 
 of Louis XIV. revived, and almost equalled those master-pieces 
 which Greece had produced under Pericles, Rome under Au- 
 gustus, and Italy under the patronage of the Medici. This 
 was the classical era of French literature. The grandeur 
 which reigned at the court of that monarch, and the glory which 
 his vast exploits had reflected on the nation, inspired authors 
 with a noble enthusiasm ; the public taste was refined by imi- 
 tating the models of antiquity ; and this preserved the French 
 writers from, those extravagancies which some other nations 
 have mistaken for the standard of genius. Their language, 
 polished by the Academ^y according to fixed rules, the first and 
 most fundamental of which condemns every thing that does 
 £iot tend to unite elegance with perspicuity, became the general 
 medium of communication among the different nations in the 
 civilized world ; and this literary conquest which France made 
 over the minds of other nations, is more glorious, and has 
 proved more advantageous to her, than that universal dominion 
 to which Louis XIV. is said to have aspired. 
 
 In the period on which we are now entering, men of genius 
 and talents, though they did not neglect the Belles-Lettres, 
 <Ievoted them.selves chiefly to those sciences, and that kind af 
 
iS CHAPTEK IX, 
 
 learning, the study of which has been diffused over all classe« 
 of society. Several branches of mathematics and natural philo- 
 sophy, assumed a form entirely new; the knowledge of the 
 ancient classics, which, till then, had been studied chiefly for the 
 formation of taste, became a branch of common education, and 
 gave birth to a variety of profound and useful researches. Geo- 
 metry, astronomy, mechanics, and navigation, were brought to 
 great perfection, by the rivalry among the different scientific 
 academies in Europe. Natural Philosophy discovered many of 
 the laws and phenomena of nature. Chemistry rose from the 
 rank of an obscure art, and put on the garb of an attractive 
 science. Natural History, enriched by the discoveries of learned 
 travellers, was divested of those fables and chimeras which 
 ignorance had attributed to her. History, supported by the 
 auxiliary sciences of Geography and Chronology, became a 
 branch of general philosophy. 
 
 The equilibrium among the different States, disturbed by the am- 
 bition of Louis XIV., had been confirmed by the peace of Utrecht, 
 which lasted during twenty-four years without any great altera 
 tion. Nevertheless, in the political transactions which took place 
 at this time, Rngland enjoyed a preponderance which had been 
 growing gradually since she had ceased to be the theatre of civil 
 discord. The glory which she had acquired by the success of 
 her arms in the Spanish wars, and the important advantages 
 which the treaty of Utrecht had procured her, both in Europe 
 and America, augmented her political power, and gave her an 
 influence in general affairs which she never had enjoyed before. 
 That nation carried their commerce and their marine to an extent 
 which could not fail to alarm the other commercial and maritime 
 states, and make them perceive that, if the care of their own trade 
 and independence made it necessary to maintain a system of 
 equilibrium on the Continent, it was equally important for their 
 prosperity that bounds should be set to the monopolizing power 
 of England. This gave rise at first to a new kind of rivalry be- 
 tween France and England — a rivalry whose effects were more 
 particularly manifested after the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and which occasioned an intimate alliance among the 
 branches of the House of Bourbon. At a later date, and in con- 
 sequence of the principles which the English professed as to the 
 commerce of neutral states, the powers of the North leagued 
 themselves against that universal dominion which they were 
 accused of wishing to usurp over the sea. In the Ninth Period, 
 we shall even see the whole Continent for a short time turned 
 against that nation — the only one that has been able to preserve 
 her commerce and her independence. 
 
PERIOD vin. A. D. 1713 — 1789. €ft 
 
 This preponderance of England is the first change which the 
 poiincal system of Europe experienced in the eighteenth ceumrv 
 The second took place in the North. Till that time, the northern 
 countries of Europe had never, except transiently, had any poli- 
 tical connexions with the South. Russia, separated by the 
 posFessions of Sweden on the coasts of the Baltic, had belongt^d 
 rather to Asia than to our quarter of the world. Poland; fallen 
 from her ancient greatness, had sunk into a state of anarchy and 
 exhaustion. Denmark and Sweden were disputing the command 
 of the Baltic, and had no other influence on the politics of the 
 South than that which Sweden had acquired by the personal 
 qualities of some of her kings. The great war of the North, 
 which broke out at the commencement of the eighteenth century, 
 and the conquests of Peter the Great, vdiich extended the limits 
 of his Empire as far as the Gulf of Finland, and reduced Sweden 
 to a state of debility from which she has not yet recovered, 
 enabled Russia not only to take a distinguished lead in the 
 North, but to become an important member in the system of 
 Europe. 
 
 Meantime, the foundation of the Prussian monarchy gave rise 
 to a new and intermediate power between the North and the 
 South ; but that state remained within the bounds of mediocrity 
 until the middle of the eighteenth century. At that time the 
 genius of Frederic II. alone raised it to a pitch of greatness which 
 enabled it to struggle against the superior force of its neighbours, 
 but without menacing the independence of other states. This 
 growing power of Prussia, however, occasioned a rivalry between 
 it and Austria, which for seventy years had an influence on the 
 politics of Europe. It produced the extraordinary spectacle of 
 an intimate alliance between two ancient rivals, the Houses of 
 Austria and Bourbon ; and, by dividing Germany between two 
 opposite systems, it paved the way for the dissolution of that 
 Empire. Such was the third change which the polity of Europe 
 experienced in course of the eighteenth century. 
 
 The fourth change was less felt than the three others ; its 
 fatal consequences did not develope themselves until the Ninth 
 Period. For the first time within the last three centuries, the 
 sovereigns of Europe ventured to break treaties and to violate 
 engagements, to declare war and undertake conquests, without 
 alleging any other motives than reasons of convenience, and the 
 ambition of aggrandizement. Thus the basis of the equilibrium 
 system, the inviolability of possessions honourably acquired, was 
 sapped, and the downfall of the whole system prepared. The 
 events of the wars for the succession of Austria, furnished the 
 first examples of this contempt for treaties ; they were renewed 
 
60 CHAPTER 12. 
 
 tn an alarming manner on the partition of Poland, and by the 
 attempts which the Emperor Joseph made to seize Bavaria. The 
 act of iniquity committed against Poland was often cited, durmg 
 the period of the French Revolution, to justify all sorts of vio- 
 lence and usurpation ; and it was followed by a long train of 
 calamities. 
 
 Commerce continued, in the eighteenth century, to he one of 
 :he principal objects that occupied the Cabinets of Europe. The 
 mercantile systern was brought to great perfection, and became, 
 with most nations, the basis of their administration. The mari- 
 time powers turned all their attention, and bestowed the greatest 
 care, on their colonies, the number and wealth of which were 
 augmented by new establishments and better regulations. In 
 imitation of Louis XIV., most of the states kept up numerous 
 standing armies ; a practice which they even carried to excess. 
 The influence of England in Continental afiairs was increased ; 
 as she had no occasion to augment her own army in proportion 
 to that of other kingdoms, she was able to furnish them with 
 those supplies which were necessary to carry on their wars. 
 Besides, since the time of Frederic II., or about the year 1740, 
 tactics, and the military art in general, had reached a degree of 
 perfection which seemed scarcely to admit of further improve- 
 ment. Finally, the financial system of several states experienced 
 a revolution, by the invention of public funds for the payment of 
 national debts ; especially that instituted by Mr. Pitt, called the 
 Sinking Fund.] 
 
 The extraordinary efforts which the powers of Europe had 
 made during the last century, for maintaining the equilibrium 
 of the Continent against the ambitious designs of France and 
 Sweden, brought on a long period of tranquillity, which gave 
 these nations an opportunity of encouraging arts, industry and 
 commerce, and thereby repairing the evils which the long and 
 disastrous wars had occasioned. Cabinets were attentive to 
 maintain the stipulations of the treaties of Utrecht and Stock- 
 holm ; and, by means of negotiations, to guard against every 
 hing that might rekindle a new general war. The good under- 
 standing that subsisted between France and Great Britain during 
 me reign of George I. and the beginning of that of George II. — 
 or, in other words, under the administration of Walpole, was the 
 ?ffect of those temporary interests that engrossed the attention 
 of the two Courts — the one being under terror of the Pretender, 
 and the other alarmed at the ambitious projects of Spain. 
 
 The Duke of Orleans, Regent of France during the minority 
 of Louis XV., was anxious to maintain that peace and political 
 order which the late treaties had introduced : iiavinj? it in view 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 61 
 
 (to remedy those disorders in the finance, which Louis XIV. had 
 left in so deplorable a state. ^ The King of Spain, on the other 
 hand, who was desirous of reviving his rights to the crown of 
 France, went into the rash schemes of Cardinal Alberoni,^ his 
 prime minister, purporting to renew the war ; to reconquer those 
 territories which the peace of Ulrecht had dismembered from 
 the Spanish monarchy ; to deprive the Duke of Orleans of the 
 regency, and vest it in the King of Spain ; and to place the Pre- 
 tender, son of James II., on the throne of Great Britain. 
 
 The treaty of Utrecht, although it had tranquillized a great 
 part of Europe, was nevertheless defective, in as far as it had 
 not reconciled the Emperor and the King of Spain, the two prin- 
 cipal claimants to the Spanish succession. The Emperor 
 Charles VI. did not recognise Philip V. in his quality of King 
 of Spain ; and Philip, in his turn, refused to acquiesce in those 
 partitions of the Spanish monarchy, which the treaty of Utrecht 
 had stipulated in favour of the Emperor. To defeat the projects 
 and secret intrigues of the Spanish minister, the Duke of Or- 
 leans thought of courting an alliance with England, as being 
 the power most particularly interested in maintaining the treaty 
 of Utrecht, the fundamental articles of which had been dictated 
 by herself. That alliance, into which the United Provinces also 
 entered, was concluded at the Hague (Jan. 4, 1717.) The arti- 
 cles of the treaty of Utrecht, those especially which related to 
 the succession of the two crowns, were there renewed ; and the 
 Regent, in complaisance to the King of England, agreed to 
 banish the Pretender from France, and to admit British com- 
 missaries into Dunkirk to superintend that port. 
 
 Cardinal Alberoni, without being in the least disconcerted by 
 the Triple Alliance, persisted in his design of recommencing the 
 war. No sooner had he recruited the Spanish forces, and 
 equipped an expedition, than he attacked Sardinia, which he 
 took from the Emperor. This conquest was followed by that 
 of Sicily, which the Spaniards took from the Duke of Savoy 
 (1718.) 
 
 France and England, indignant at the infraction of a treaty 
 which they regarded as their own work, immediately concluded 
 with the Emperor, at London (Aug. 2, 1718,) the famous Quad- 
 ruple Alliance, which contained the plan of a treaty of peace, to 
 be made between the Emperor, the King of Spain, and the Duke 
 of Savoy. The allied powers engaged to obtain the consent of 
 the parties interested in this proposal, and in case of refusal, to 
 compel them by force of arms. The Emperor Avas to renounce 
 his right to the Spanish crown, and to acknowledge Philip V. 
 as the legitimate King of Spain, in consideration of his renoun- 
 
 vm,. 11. ^ 
 
62 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 cing the provinces of Italy and the Netherlands, which the trealj 
 of Utrecht and the quadruple alliance adjudged to the EmperoT. 
 The Duke of Savoy was to cede Sicily to Austria, receivino 
 Sardinia in exchange, which the King of Spain was to give up. 
 The right of reversion to the crown of Spain was transferred 
 from Sicily to Sardinia. That treaty likewise granted to Don 
 Carlos, eldest son of Philip V., by his second marriage, the even- 
 tual reversion and investiture of the dutchies of Parma and Pla- 
 centia, as well as the grand dutchy of Tuscany, on condition oi 
 holding them as fiefs-male of the Emperor and the Empire, aftei 
 the decease of the last male issue of the families of Farnese and 
 Medici, who were then in possession ; and the better to secure 
 this double succession to the Infantej they agreed to introduce a 
 body of six thousand Swiss into the two dutchies, to be quartered 
 in Leghorn, Porto-Ferrajo, Parma, and Placentia. The con- 
 tracting powers undertook to guarantee the payment of these 
 troops. 
 
 The Duke of Savoy did not hesitate to subscribe to the condi- 
 tions of the quadruple alliance ; but it was otherwise with the 
 King of Spain, who persisted in his refusal ; when France and 
 England declared war against him. The French invaded the 
 provinces of Guipuscoa and Catalonia, Avhile the English seized 
 Gallicia and the port of Vigo. These vigorous proceedings 
 shook the resolutions of the King of Spain. He signed the 
 quadruple alliance, and banished the Cardinal Alberoni from his 
 court, the adviser of those measures of which the allies com- 
 plained. The Spanish troops then evacuated Sicily and Sardi- 
 nia, when the Emperor took possession of the former, and Victor 
 Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, of the latter. 
 
 The war to all appearance was at an end ; peace, however, 
 was far from being concluded, and there still remained many 
 difficulties to settle between the Emperor, the King of Spain, 
 and the Duke of Savoy. To accomplish this, and conclude a 
 definitive treaty between these three powers, a Congress was 
 summoned at Cambray, which was to open in 1721, under the 
 mediation of France and England ; but some disputes which 
 arose regarding certain preliminary articles, retarded their meet- 
 ing for several years. Their first and principal object was to 
 effect an exchange of the acts of mutual renunciation between 
 the Emperor and the King of Spain, as stipulated by the treaty 
 of the quadruple alliance. The Emperor, who was reluctant to 
 abandon his claims to the Spanish monarchy, started diffiiculties 
 as to the form of these renunciations. He demanded that Phi- 
 lip's renunciation of the provinces of Italy and the Netherlands, 
 ihould be confirmed by the Spanish Cortes. Philip demanded, 
 
PEiiioD vm. A D. 1713— 17S9. 63 
 
 in his turn, that the renunciation of the Emperor with regard to 
 Spain, should be ratified by the States of the Empire. To get 
 clear of this difficulty, France and England agreed, by a special 
 compact, signed at Paris (Sept. 27, 1721,) that the renunciations 
 of both princes, however defectiv^e the}' might be, should be held 
 valid under the guaranty of the two mediating powers. 
 
 Scarcely was this difficulty settled, when another presented 
 itself, much more embarrassing. This related to the Company 
 of Ostend, which the Emperor had instituted, and to which, by 
 charter signed at Vienna (Dec. 19, 1722,) he had granted, for 
 thirty years, the exclusive privilege of trading to the East and 
 West Indies, and the coasts of Africa. That establishment set 
 the maritime powers at variance with the Emperor ; especially 
 the Dutch, who regarded it as prejudicial to their Indian com- 
 merce. They maintained, that according to the treaty of Mun- 
 ster, confirmed by the twenty-sixth article of the Barrier Treaty 
 (1715,) the trade of the Spaniards with the East Indies was to 
 remain as it was at that time. 
 
 Nothing in these preliminary discussions met with so much 
 opposition as the grant of the eventual reversion and investiture 
 of Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia, which the Emperor had en- 
 gaged, by the Quadruple Alliance, to give to Don Carlos, the 
 infante of Spain. The Duke of Parma, the Pope, and the Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany joined in opposition to it. Anthony, the last 
 Duke of Parma and Placentia, of the House of Farnese, de- 
 manded that the Emperor should never, during his life, exercise 
 over the dutchy of Parma, the territorial rights established by 
 the treaty of the Quadruple Alliance, The Pope also protested 
 loudly against that clause of the treaty which deprived him of 
 the rights of superiority over Parma and Placentia, which his 
 predecessors had enjoyed for several centuries. As for the 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, John Gaston, the last of the Medici, he 
 maintained, that as his dutchy neld of God only, he could never 
 permit that it should be declared a fief of the Empire . nor recog- 
 nise the Infante of Spain as heir of his estates, to the prejudice 
 of his sister's rights, the widow of the Elector Palatine. 
 
 Charles VI, without stopping at these objections, laid the 
 business of these investitures before the Diet of Ratisbon ; and, 
 after having obtained their consent, he caused copies to be made 
 of the letters of reversion and investiture in favour of Don Carlos 
 and his heirs-male. These havin<?- been presented to the Con- 
 gress, the King of Spain refused to receive them ; alleging the 
 protests of the Pope, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany; nor 
 would he agree to them, except on condition of an act of guaranty 
 on the part of the mediating powers. Ail these difficulties being 
 
^4 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 settled, and the preliminaries closed, they at length proceeded 
 with the conferences at Cambray (April 1724,) for the conclu- 
 sion of a definitive peace between the Emperor, the King of 
 Spain, and the Duke of Savoy. Eveiy thing seemed arrived 
 at an amicable termination, when some differences arose between 
 the commissioners of the Emperor and those of the mediating 
 powers, which occasioned new interruptions. 
 
 Meantime, the Duke of Bourbon, who had succeeded the Duke 
 of Orleans in the ministry, sent back to Spain the Infanta Maria, 
 daughter of Philip V., who had been educated at the court of 
 France, as the intended spouse of Louis XV. This event broke 
 up the Congress. Philip V., greatly offended, recalled his 
 ministers from Cambray. Baron Ripperda, ^ whom he had sent 
 as envoy to the Imperial Court put an end to the differences be- 
 tween these two powers, in despite of the mediation of France. 
 In consequence, a special treaty was concluded at Vienna be- 
 tween the Emperor and the King of Spain (April 30, 172o.) 
 This treaty renewed the renunciation of Philip V. to the pro- 
 vinces of Italy and the Netherlands, as well as that of the Em- 
 peror to Spain and the Indies. The eventual investiture of the 
 dutchies o{ Parma and Placentia, and that of the grand dutchy 
 of Tuscany, were also confirmed. The only new clause con- 
 tained in the treaty, was that by which the King of Spain under- 
 took to guarantee the famous Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VL, 
 which secured to the daughter of that prince the succession of 
 all his estates. It was chiefly on this account that Philip V. 
 became reconciled to the Court of Vienna. 
 
 The peace of Vienna was accompanied by a defensive alliance 
 between the Emperor and the King of Spain. Among other 
 clauses, one was that the Emperor should interpose to obtain 
 for the King of Spain the restitution of Gibraltar and the island 
 of Minorca; while Philip, on his side, granted to the shipping 
 of the Emperor and his subjects free entrance into his ports, and 
 all iimnunities and prerogatives which were enjoyed by the 
 nations in the strictest commercial connexions with Spain, 
 These clauses alanned England and Holland; and the intimacy 
 which had been established between the Courts of Vienna and 
 Madrid attracted more particularly the attention of the Duke of 
 Bourbon, who dreaded the resentment of the King of Spain, as 
 he had advised the return of the Infanta. To prevent any such 
 consequences, he set on foot a league with England and Prus- 
 sia, capable of counteracting that of Vienna, which was concluded 
 at Herrenhausen, near Hanover (Sept. 3, 1725,) and is known 
 by the name oi the Alliaiice of Hanover. 
 
 All Europe was divided between these two alliances. Hoi- 
 
PERIOD vni. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 65 
 
 land, Sweden, and Denmark acceded to tne alliance of Hanover. 
 'Catherine I. of Russia, and the principal Catholic States of the 
 Empire joined that of Vienna. The Emperor even succeeded 
 \n detaching the King of Prussia from the alliance of Hanover 
 to join his own. Europe seemed then on the eve of a generai 
 war; the ambassadors to the different courts were recalled. The 
 English sent a numerous and powerful fleet to America, the 
 Mediterranean, and the Baltic ; while the Spaniards commenced 
 hostilities, by laying siege to Gibraltar. The death of the Em- 
 press of Russia (May 17, 1727,) however, caused a change in 
 the disposition of the Northern powers. The Emperor, seeing 
 he could no longer reckon on the assistance of Russia, showed 
 no anxiety to second the efforts of the Spaniards ; but what 
 chiefly contributed to the maintenance of peace was, that neithei 
 France nor England was desirous of war. 
 
 In this situation of affairs, the Pope interposed his mediation 
 and a new preliminary treaty was signed at Paris, which or ' 
 dained that there should be an armistice for seven years ; that 
 the Company of Ostend should be suspended for the same time ; 
 and that a new General Congress should be held at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. 
 
 This congress was first transferred to Cambray, and thence tc 
 Soissons, where it was opened in 1728. Ambassadors from 
 almost all the Courts of Europe appeared there; and they ex- 
 pected, wdth some reason, a happy conclusion of the business ; 
 as most of the difficulties which had embarrassed the Congress 
 of Cambray were settled by the peace of Vienna, and as the only 
 subject for deliberation Avas to settle the succession of Parma and 
 Tuscany. But the Emperor having demanded that the Austrian 
 Pragmatic Sanction should be adopted as the basis of the arrange- 
 ments for establishing the peace of Soissons, that incident be- 
 came the subject of new disputes. Cardinal Fleury, then prime 
 minister of France, having strongly opposed this claim of the 
 Court of Vienna, the Emperor, in his turn, threw obstacles in 
 the way of the negotiation at Soissons. This inclined the Car- 
 dinal to make overtures to the Court of Madrid, with whom he 
 concerted a secret negotiation, in which he also found means to 
 associate England. 
 
 This gave rise to a treaty of peace, union, and offensive al- 
 liance, which was signed at Seville between France, Spain, and 
 England (November 9, 1729.) These powers engaged to gua- 
 rantee the succession of Parma and Tuscany in favour of the 
 Infante Don Carlos ; and to effect this, they resolved to substitute 
 six thousand Spanish troops in the Swiss garrisons, named by 
 he Quadruple Alliance. The Dutch acceded to that treaty, in 
 
 6^ 
 
66 (CHAPTER IX. 
 
 consideration of the engagement which the contracting powers 
 came under to give them entire satisfaction with respect to the 
 Company of Ostend. 
 
 The Emperor, finding the treaty of Seville eonclnded ivith- 
 .:ut his co-operation, was apprehensive of having failed ni his 
 j:«rincipal aim, viz. the adoption of the Austrian Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion. He was indignant that the allies at Seville should pre- 
 tend to lay down the law to him touching the abolition of the 
 Ostend Company, and the introduction of Spanish troops into 
 Italy. Accordingly, being determined not to comply, he imme- 
 diately broke off all relationship with the Court of Spain ; he 
 recalled his ambassador, and took measures to prevent the Spa- 
 nish troops from taking possession of Italy. The last Duke of 
 Parma, Anthony Farnese, being dead (1731,) he took posses- 
 sion of his dutchy by force of arms. 
 
 At length, to terminate all these differences, the King of Eng- 
 land, in concert with the States-General, opened a negotiation 
 with the Emperor ; the result of which was a treaty of alliance, 
 signed at Vienna, between him, England and Holland (March 
 16, 1731.) In virtue of that treaty, the three contracting pow- 
 ers mutually guai'anteed their estates, rights and possessions ; 
 England and Holland, more especially, engaged to guarantee 
 the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction ; and the Emperor, on his 
 side, consented to the introduction of Spanish troops into Italy^ 
 and to the suppression of the Company of Ostend ; he even 
 agreed that the Netherlands should never carry on trade with 
 the Indies, either by the Ostend Company, or any other. 
 
 In consequence of this treaty, which was approved by the 
 States-General, Don Carlos took possession of Parma and Pla- 
 eentia ; and the Grand Duke of Tuscany also recognised him 
 as his successor. Thus terminated these long disputes about 
 the Spanish Succession, after having agitated the greater part 
 of Europe for upwards of thirty years. 
 
 In the midst of these contentions, a war had arisen between 
 the Porte and the Republic of Venice ; in which the Emperor 
 Charles VI. was also implicated. The Turks were desirous of 
 recovering the Morea, which they had been obliged to abandon 
 to the Venetians at the peace of Carlowitz ; but instead of at- 
 tacking that Republic, while the Emperor was engaged with the 
 French war, and unable to render it assistance, they waited till 
 the conclusion of the treaties of Utrecht, Rastadt, and Baden, 
 before they declared hostilities. The pretexts which the Turks 
 made to justify this rupture were extremely frivolous ; but they 
 knew well that the Venetians, who had lived in the most com- 
 plete security since the peace of Carlowitz, had neglected to re- 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. '6^ 
 
 pair the fortifications which had been destroyed in the war, and 
 that it would be easy for them to reconquer them. 
 
 In fact, during the campaign of 1715, the Grand Vizier not 
 only recovered the Morea, he even dispossessed the Venetians 
 of the places which they still retained in the Isle of Candia . 
 and, ai the commencement of the following campaign, they laia 
 steofe to the town of Corfu. Charles VI. thouofht he was bound, 
 us the guarantee of the peace of Carlowitz, to espouse the 
 t'uuse of the Venetians ; he declared war against the Porte, and 
 hj's example was followed by the Pope and the King of Spain, 
 who united their fleets to those of the Republic. The Turks 
 were defeated in several engagements, and obliged to raise the 
 Biege of Corfu, after sacrificing a great many lives. 
 
 The campaigns of 1716 and 1717 in Hungary, were trium- 
 phant for the armies of the Emperor ; Prince Eugene gained a 
 brilliant victory over the Grand Vizier, near Peterwaradin (Au- 
 gust 5tb,) whii:^h enabled him to invest Temeswar, which he 
 carried after a siege of six months, and thus completed the 
 conquest of Hungary. To crown his glory, that great captain 
 next undertook the siege of Belgrade, regarded by the Turks 
 as the principal bulwark of their Empire. The Grand Vizier 
 marched to the relief of the place, at the head of a formidable 
 army. He encamped before Belgrade, and enclosed the Impe- 
 rial army within a semicircle, reaching from the Danube to the 
 Save. Prince Eugene had then no other alternative than to 
 leave his camp, and attack the Turks in their intrenchments. 
 He took his measures which such address, that, in spite of the 
 great superiority of the Turks, he forced them back to their 
 camp, and put them completely to rout (Aug. IG, 1717.) 
 
 This victory was followed by the reduction of Belgrade, and 
 several other places on the Save and the Danube. The Porte 
 began to wish for peace ; and as the Emperor, who had just been 
 attacked in Italy by the Spaniards, was equally desirous to put 
 an end to the war, both parties agreed to accept the mediation 
 of England and Holland. A congress was opened at Passaro- 
 witz, a small town in Servia, near the mouth of the Morau. A 
 peace was there concluded between the three belligerent powers 
 (July 21, 1718,) on the basis of the UH possidetis. The Empe- 
 ror retained Temeswar, Orsova, Belgrade, and the part of Wal- 
 lachia lying on this side of the river Aluta ; as also Servia, ac- 
 cording to the limits determined by the treaty, and both banks 
 of the Save, from the Drino to the Unna. The Venetians lost 
 the Morea, but they retained several places in Herzegovina, 
 Dahnatia, and Albania, which they had conquered during the 
 war. The Porte restored to them the Island of Cerigo in ihp 
 Arciiipelago. 
 
6s CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The success of Charles VI. in this war procured some new 
 advantages to his house, on the part of the States of Hungary. 
 The Diet of 1687, in vesting the hereditary right of that king- 
 acm in the Emperor Leopold I., had restricted that right, solely 
 tA the male descendants of the House of Austria ; and Charles 
 VI., on his accession to the throne, had acknowledged the elec- 
 tive right of the States, in case he should happen to die without 
 leaving any male offspring. This prince, finding afterwards 
 that he had no other children left than the two daughters by his 
 marriage with Elizabeth princess of Brunswick, and being desi- 
 rous of securing to them the succession of Hungary as well as 
 his other estates, assembled a Diet at Presburg (1722,) and there 
 engaged the States of the kingdom to extend the right of suc- 
 cession to females, according to the order which he had estab- 
 lished in the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction, and published some 
 3^ears before. 
 
 A revolution happened in the government of Sweden imme- 
 diately after the death of Charles XII., and before the great war 
 of the North was quite ended. Reduced to a state of great dis- 
 tress by the folly, ambition, and inflexible obstinacy of that prince, 
 Sweden saw her finest provinces occupied by the enemy, her 
 commerce annihilated, her armies and her fleets destroyed. 
 They attributed these disasters chiefly to the absolute power of 
 Charles XII., and the abuse he had made of it. The only reme- 
 dy for so many evils, they conceived, was to abolish a power 
 which had become so pernicious to the State. As Charles had 
 never been married, the throne, according to the hereditary law 
 established in Sweden, passed to the son of the dutchess of Hol- 
 stein-Gottorp, eldest sister of Charles ; but the Senate of Sweden 
 preferred to him the princess Ulrica Eleonora, younger sister of 
 the late king; because of the declaration she had made, renoun- 
 cing all absolute power, and consenting to hold the crown only 
 by the free election of the States of the kingdom. The States, 
 in an assembly held at Stockholm, in the beginning of 1719, de 
 clared the throne vacant, and then proceeded to the election oi 
 the princess. With their act of election, they presented her with 
 a new form of government, and an act known by the name of 
 the Royal Assurance, which imposed new limitations on the 
 royal authorit}^ The princess signed these acts (February 21,) 
 and the States declared that whoever should attempt to restore 
 absolute power, should be considered as a traitor to his country. 
 
 The government was intrusted to the queen conjunctly with 
 tl^e Senate ; while the legislative power was reserved to the 
 Slates, to meet regularly every three years. The queen had 
 the right of proposing bills or ordinances ; but before these 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 6& 
 
 coTild have the force of law, they were to be submitted to the 
 examination of the States, without whose consent war was never 
 to be proclaimed. As for the deliberations of the Senate, it was 
 resolved, that they should be decided by a plurality of suffrages, 
 that the queen should have two votes, and a casting vote be- 
 sides. Thus, the chief power was vested in the hands of the 
 Senate, the members of which resumed their ancient title of 
 Senators of the kingdom, instead of that of Counsellors to the 
 King, which had been bestowed on them at the revolution of 
 1680. Ulrica Eleonora afterwards resigned the crown to her 
 husband prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. The States, in their 
 election of that prince (May 22, 1720,) ordained that the Queen, 
 in case she should survive her husband, should be reinstated in 
 her rights, and resume the crown, without the necessity of a new 
 deliberation of the States. Frederic, by the Royal Assurance, 
 and the form of government which he signed, agreed to certain 
 new modifications of the royal power, especially concerning ap- 
 pointments to places of trust. By these different stipulations, 
 and the changes which took place in consequence, the power of 
 the Swedish kings was gradually reduced to very narrow limits. 
 It was so much the more easy to make encroachments on the 
 royal power, as the King, by a radical defect in the new form 
 of government, had no constitutional means of preserving the 
 little authority that was left him. 
 
 The death of Augustus II. of Poland, occasioned new dis- 
 turbances, which passed from the North to the South of Europe 
 and brought about great changes in Italy. Louis XV. took the 
 opportunity of that event to replace Stanislaus on the throne of 
 Poland, who was his father-in-law, and the former protege of 
 Charles XII. The Primate, and the greater part of the Polish 
 nobility being in the interest of that prince, he was consequently 
 elected (Sept. 12, 1733.) 
 
 Anne Iwanowna, dutchess-dowager of Courland, and niece of 
 Peter the Great, had just ascended the throne of Russia ; having 
 succeeded Peter II. (June 20, 1730,) who was cut off in the 
 flower of his age without leaving any progeny. The grandees, 
 in conferring the crown on Anne, had limited her power by a 
 capitulation which they made her sign at Mittau, but which she 
 cancelled immediately on her arrival at Moscow. That princess, 
 dreading the influence of France in Poland, in case of a war 
 between Russia and the Porte, espoused the interests of Augus- 
 tus III., Elector of Saxony, and son of the late King, whom she 
 wished to place on the Polish throne. Part of the Polish nobility, 
 withdrawing from the field of election, and supported by a Rus- 
 sian army, proclaimed that prince, in opposition to Stanislaus., 
 ihe protege of France. 
 
70 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Russians, reinforced by the Saxon troops, seized Warsa-w 
 and compelled Stanislaus to retire to Dantzic, where he was be- 
 sieged by a Russian army, under command of Field-Marshal 
 Munich, and obliged to seek safety in flight. Louis XV. wish- 
 ing to avenge this injury offered to his father-in-law, and not 
 being in a condition to attack Russia, resolved to declare war 
 against the Emperor ; on the ground that he had marched an 
 army to the frontiers of Poland, for supporting the election of 
 the Saxon prince. 
 
 Spain and Sardinia espoused the cause of Stanislaus, which 
 seemed to them to be the cause of Kings in general ; while the 
 Emperor saw himself abandoned by England and Holland, 
 whose assistance he thought he might claim, in virtue of the 
 guarantee which the treaty of Vienna had stipulated in his fa- 
 vour. But these powers judged it more for their interests to 
 preserve strict neutrality in this war, on the assurance which 
 France had given the States-General, not to make the Austrian 
 Netherlands the theatre of hostilities. The French commenced 
 operations by directing the Count de Belleisle to seize Lorraine, 
 the sovereign of which, Francis Stephen, son of Duke Leopold 
 was to have married Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of the Em- 
 peror Charles VL About the same time. Marshal Berwick 
 passed the Rhine at the head of the French army, and reduced 
 the fortress of Kehl. By thus attacking a fortress of the Em- 
 pire, France gave the Emperor a pretext for engaging the Ger- 
 manic Body in his quarrel. In fact, he declared war against 
 France and her allies ; which induced the French to seize seve- 
 ral places on the Moselle, and to reduce the fortress of Philips- 
 burg, at the siege of which. Marshal Berwick was slain (June 
 12, 1734.) 
 
 The principal scene of the war then lay in Italy ; where the 
 campaigns of 1734 and 1735 were most glorious for the allies. 
 After the two victories which they had gained over the Impe- 
 rialists near Parma (June 29,) and Guastalia (Sept. 17,) they 
 made themselves master of all Austrian Lombardy, with the 
 single exception of Mantua, which they laid under blockade. 
 A Spanish army, commanded by the Duke of Montemar, ac- 
 companied by the Infante Don Carlos, directed their march on 
 Naples, which threw open its gates to the Spaniards. The 
 victory which they gained over the Imperialists at Bitonto 
 (May 25,) decided the fate of the kingdom of Naples. After 
 this conquest, the Infante passed to Sicily. He soon reduced 
 that island, and was crowned King of the Two Sicilies at Pa- 
 'ermo (July 3, 1735.) 
 
 The Emperor, overwhelmed by so many reverses, and unabl** 
 
, PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 7J 
 
 to withstand the powers leagued against him, eagerly solicited 
 asbislance from Russia. The Empress Anne, who saw the war 
 terminated in Poland, and Augustus in quiet possession of the 
 tR"<"one, despatched a body of ten thousand auxiliaries, under 
 ihe command of General Count de Lacy, into Germany, m ihe 
 spring of the year 1735. These troops, the first Russians who 
 had appeared in that country, joined the Imperial army on the 
 Rhine, which was commanded by Prince Eugene. That Gene- 
 ral, however, did not succeed in his design of transferring the 
 seat of war to Lorraine. 
 
 Matters were in this situation, when the maritime powers in- 
 terposed their good offices for restoring peace between the Em- 
 peror and the States leagued against him. Cardinal Fleury, 
 perceiving that their mediation was not agreeable to the Impe- 
 rial Court, took the resolution of concerting a secret negotia- 
 tion with the Emperor, the result of which was a treaty of pre- 
 liminaries; although much deliberation was necessary before 
 coming to the conclusion of a definitive peace. This was at 
 length signed at Vienna, between France, the Emperor, and the 
 Empire, on the 8th of November 1738. The former treaties of 
 Westphalia, Nimeguen, Ryswick, Utrecht, and the Quadruple 
 Alliance, were admitted as the basis of this treaty. Stanislaus 
 renounced the throne of Poland, and retained the title only 
 during his life. They gave him, by way of compensation, the 
 dutchies of Lorraine and Bar, on condition that, at his death, 
 they should revert with full right to France. The single coun- 
 ty of Falkenstein, with its appurtenances and dependencies, 
 was reserved for Francis, Duke of Lorraine. In exchano^e for 
 the dutchy which he abdicated, that prince received the grand 
 dutchy of Tuscany, whose last possessor, John Gaston, of the 
 House of Medici, had just died without leaving any posterity 
 (1737.) The kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of 
 Tuscany, were secured to Don Carlos and his descendants, 
 male and female ; and, in failure of them, to the younger bro- 
 thers of that prince, and their descendants. On his part, Don 
 Carlos ceded to the Emperor the dutchies of Parma and Pla- 
 centia, and even renounced the rights which former treaties had 
 given him over the grand dutchy of Tuscany. They restored 
 to the Emperor all that had been taken from him in the pro- 
 vinces of Milan and Mantua; with the reservation of the dis 
 tricts of Novara and Tortona, which he was obliged to cede to 
 Charles Emanuel III., King of Sardinia, together with San- 
 Fidele, Torre di Forti, Gravedo, and Campo-Maggiore ; as also 
 the territorial superiority of the fiefs commonly called Langhes, 
 to be held entirely as Imperial fiefs. Finally, Fi'ance under- 
 
9^ CHAPTER IX. 
 
 cook, m the most authentic form, to guarantee the Pragmatic 
 Sanction of the Emperor. 
 
 The Kings of Spain and Sardinia were not satisfied with rhe 
 conditions of this treaty. The former wished to preserve the 
 ji;Tand dutchy of Tuscany, with the dutchies of Parma and 
 Placentia ; and the other had expected to obtain a larger portion 
 ^f Lombardy. Thus, these princes long hesitated to admit the 
 articles agreed to between the courts of France and Vienna ; 
 nor did they give their consent until the year 1739. 
 
 While these disputes about the succession of Poland occupied 
 a great part of Europe, a war broke out between the Turks and 
 the Russians, in which Austria was also implicated. The Em- 
 jress Anne of Russia, wishing to recover Azoff, and repair the 
 lOss which Peter the Great had sustained in his unfortunate 
 campaign on the Pruth, took advantage of the war between ti::e 
 Turks and the Persians, to form an alliance with Khouli Khan, 
 the famous conqueror of the East, who had just subverted 
 the ancient dynasty of the Sophis of Persia. The incursions 
 which the Tartars had made at different times into the Russian 
 provinces, without the Porte thinking proper to check them, 
 served as a motive for the Empress to order an expedition 
 against the Turks (1735,) and to declare war against the Porte 
 soon after. It was during the campaign of 1736 that Count 
 Lacy made himself master of Azoff, and that Marshal Munich, 
 after having forced the lines at Perekop, penetrated into the in- 
 terior of the Crnuea ; but having in that expedition lost many 
 of his men by famine and disease, he found it impossible to 
 maintain himself in that peninsula. 
 
 The Emperor offered himself at first as a mediator between 
 the belligerent powers. A conference was opened at Niemerow 
 in Poland, which proved fruitless. The Russians who had jus^ 
 taken Oczakoff, emboldened by their success, were desirous tc 
 continue the war ; while the Emperor, without reflecting on the 
 bad condition of his military strength, and the loss which he 
 had sustained by the death of the celebrated prince Eugene 
 (April 21, 1736,) thought only of sharing the conquest with the 
 Russians. He then laid aside the character of mediator, to 
 act on the defensive against the Turks ; but he had soon rea- 
 son to repent of this measure. The Turks, encouraged by the 
 famous Count de Bonneval, gained considerable advantages 
 over the Austrians ; and in course of the campaigns of 1737 
 and 1738, they dislodged them from Wallachia and Servia, re- 
 took Orsova, and laid siege to the city of Belgrade in 1739. 
 
 The Court of Vienna, in a state of great consternation, had 
 recourse to the mediation of M. de Villeneuve. the French am- 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713— 17S9. T8 
 
 bassador a^. Constantinople, to sue for peace with the Porte ; 
 Count Neipperg, who was sent by the Emperor to the Turkish 
 camp before Belgrade, signed there, with too much precipita- 
 tion, a treat 3^ under very disadvantageous terms for Austria : 
 and the Empress Anne, who had intrusted the French ambas- 
 sador with her full powers, consented also to a peace very un- 
 favourable for Russia, notwithstanding the brilliant victory 
 vvhich Marshal Munich had gained over the Turks in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Choczim (Oct. 28, 1739,) which was followed by 
 the capture of that place, and the conquest of Moldavia by the 
 Russians. 
 
 The Emperor, by that peace, ceded to the Porte, Belgrade, 
 Sabatz, and Orsova, with Austrian Servia and Wallachia. The 
 Danube, the Save, and the Unna, were again settled as the 
 boundary between the two Empires ; and Austria preserved 
 nothino- but the Banat of Temeswar, of all that had been ceded 
 to her by the peace of Passarowitz. The Austrian merchants, 
 however, were granted free passage into and out of the king- 
 doms and provinces of the Ottoman Empire, both by sea and 
 land, in their own vessels, with the flag and letters-patent of the 
 Emperor, on condition of their paying the accustomed dues. 
 
 Russia surrendered all her conquests, and among others 
 Choczim and Moldavia. The boundaries between the two Em- 
 pires were regulated by different special agreements. The for- 
 tress of Azoff was demolished ; and it was stipulated that Russia 
 should not construct any new fortress within thirty versts of that 
 place, on the one side ; nor the Porte within thirty versts, on the 
 side of the Cuban. Russia was even interdicted from having 
 and constructing fleets or other naval stores, either on the Sea 
 of Azoff or the Black Sea. The Zaporog Cossacs continued 
 under the dominion of Russia, which obtained also from the 
 Porte the acknowledgment of the Imperial title. The peace be- 
 tween Russia and the Porte was declared perpetual ; but they 
 limited that between Austria and the Porte to twenty-seven 
 vears. The latter was renewed under the Empress Maria 
 Theresa ; and rendered also perpetual, by an agreement which 
 thot princess concluded with the Porte, May 25, 1747. 
 
 The succession to Charle« VI,. the last male descendant of the 
 House of Hapsburg, who died October 20th 1740, kindled a new 
 general war in Europe. That prince, in the year 1713, had 
 published an order of succession, known by the name of the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, which decreed, that faihng his lineal heirs- 
 male, his own daughters should succeed in preference to those 
 of his brother the Emperor Joseph I. ; and that the succession 
 of his daughters should be regulated according to the order of 
 
74 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 primogeniture, so thai the elder should be preferred to the 
 younger, and that she alone should inherit his whole estates. 
 He took great pains to get this order approved by the differen*. 
 hereditary States of Austria, as well as by the daughters of his 
 brother Joseph I., and by the husbands of these princesses, the 
 Electors of Saxony and Bavaria. He even obtained, by degrees. 
 the sanction of all the principal powers of Europe. But though 
 his external policy had been very active in securing the rights 
 of his eldest daughter Maria Theresa, he neglected those mea- 
 sures to which he ought rather to have directed his attention. 
 The wretched state in which he left his finances and his army, 
 encouraged a number of pretenders, who disputed the succession 
 with that princess. 
 
 Of these claimants, the principal was the Elector of Bavaria, 
 who, as being descended from Anne of Austria, daughter of Fer- 
 dinand I., advanced the claims of the females of the elder line, 
 against those of the younger ; grounded on the contract of mar- 
 riage betw^een that princess and Albert V. Duke of Bavaria, as 
 well as on the will of Ferdinand I. The Elector of Saxony, 
 then King of Poland, although he had approved of the Prag- 
 matic Sanction, claimed the succession, as being husband of the 
 elder of the daughters of Joseph I., and in virtue of a compact be- 
 tween the two brothers, Joseph I. and Charles VI., which provided, 
 that the daughters of Joseph should, under all circumstances, be 
 preferred to those of Charles. 
 
 Philip v.. King of Spain, laid claim to the kingdoms of Bo- 
 hemia and Hungary. He grounded his rights on an agreement 
 (1617) between Philip III. of Spain and Ferdinand of Austria, 
 afterwards the Emperor Ferdinand II. ; according to which 
 these kingdoms were to pass to the descendants of Philip III., 
 failing the male line of Ferdinand. A war had arisen between 
 Spain and England on account of the clandestine traffic which 
 the English carried on in Spanish America, under favour of the 
 contrnct called the Assieiito. Philip V. thought of turning these 
 differences relative to the Austrian succession to his own advan- 
 tage, either for drawing France into an alliance with him against 
 Engfland, or to procure for his son Don Philip a settlement in 
 Italy, at the expense of the daughter of Charles VI. 
 
 Frederic II., Kinsf of Prussia, who had just succeeded his 
 father Frederic William I., judged this a favourable time for 
 turning his attention to the affairs of his own kingdom, and pro- 
 fitting by the troops and treasures which his father had left. 
 With this view, he revived certain claims of his family tc 
 several dutchies and principalities in Silesia, of which his an- 
 cestors, he maintained, had been unjustly deprived by Austria 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 76 
 
 Finally, the King- of Sardinia laid claim to the whole dutchy of 
 Milan ; grounded on the contract of marriage between his an- 
 cestor, Charles Emanuel Duke of Savoy, and the daughter of 
 Philip II. of Spain. The Court of France, wishing to avail 
 herself of these circumstances for humbling Austria, her ancient 
 rival, set on foot a negotiation with the Elector of Bavaria, and 
 engaged to procure him the Imperial crown, with a part of thr 
 territories, of which he had deprived Austria. 
 
 An alliance was concluded between France, Spain, and the 
 Elector of Bavaria, which was joined also by the Kings of Prus- 
 sia, Poland, Sardinia, and the two Sicilies ; and to prevent 
 Russia from affording assistance to Maria Theresa, they pre- 
 vailed on Sweden to declare war against that power. The 
 Court of Vienna having complained of these resolutions of the 
 French Cabinet, which were directly opposed to the conditions 
 of the last treaty of Vienna, Cardinal Fleury, who had been 
 drawn into that war by the intrigues of M. De Belleisle, alleged 
 in his own justification, that the guarantee of the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, which France had undertaken by that treaty, pre- 
 supposed the clause Sine prejudicio tertii ; that is to say, that 
 France never intended, by that guarantee, to prejudice the just 
 claims of the Elector of Bavaria. 
 
 The most active of the enemies of Maria Theresa was the 
 King of Prussia, who entered Silesia in the month of December 
 1740. While he was occupied in making that conquest, the 
 Elector of Bavaria, reinforced by an army of French auxiliaries, 
 took possession of Upper Austria ; but, instead of marching di- 
 rectly upon Vienna, he turned towards Bohemia, with the inten- 
 tion of conquering it. Meantime, the Electoral Diet, which was 
 assembled at Frankfort, conferred the Imperial dignity on that 
 prince, (Jan. 24, 1742,) who took the name of Charles \II. 
 Nothing appeared then to prevent the dismemberment of the 
 Austrian monarchy, according to the plan of the allied powers. 
 The Elector of Bavaria was to have Bohemia, the Tyrol, and 
 the provinces of Upper Austria; the Elector of Saxony was to 
 have Moravia and Upper Silesia ; and the King of Prussia the 
 remainder of Silesia. As for Austrian Lombardy, it was des- 
 tined for Don Philip, the Infante of Spain. Nothing was left to 
 the Queen, except the kingdom of Hungary, with Lower Aus- 
 tria, the Dutchies of Carinthia, Stiria and Carniola, and the 
 Belgic Provinces. In the midst of these imminent dangers, 
 Maria Theresa displayed a courage beyond her age and sex. 
 Aided by the supplies of money which England and Holland 
 furnished her, and by the generous efforts which the Hungarian 
 nation made in her favour, she succeeded in calming the storm 
 
76 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 repuiaing the enemy with vigour, and dissolving the grand 
 league which had been formed against her. 
 
 The King of Prussia, in consequence of the two victories 
 which he gained at Molwitz (April 10, 1741,) and Czaslau (May 
 17, 1742,) had succeeded in conquering Silesia, Moravia, and 
 part of Bohemia. It was of importance for the Queen to get rid 
 of so formidable an enemy. The King of Great Britain having 
 interposed, certain preliminaries were signed at Breslau, which 
 were followed by a definitive peace, concluded at Berlin (July 
 28, 1742.) The Queen, by this treaty, gave up to the King of 
 Prussia Silesia and the Comte of Glatz, excepting the princi- 
 pality of Teschen, and part of the principalities of Trappau, 
 Jagerndorf, and Neisse. The example of Prussia was soon fol- 
 lowed by the King of Poland. This Prince, alarmed at the sud- 
 den increase of the Prussian power, not only acceded to the 
 treaty of Berlin, but even formed an alliance with the Queen 
 against Prussia. 
 
 The King of Sardinia, who dreaded the preponderance of the 
 Bourbons in Italy, likewise abandoned the grand alliance, and 
 attached himself to the Queen's interests, by a compact which 
 was signed at Turin. The French and Spaniards then turned 
 their arms against that Prince ; and while the King of the two 
 Sicilies joined his forces with the Spaniards, an English squad- 
 ron appeared before Naples, threatened to bombard the city, and 
 compelled tlie King to recall his troops from Lombardy, and re- 
 main neutral. This was not the only piece of service which 
 George II. rendered the young Queen. Being one of the 
 powers that guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, he sent to her 
 aid an army composed of English, Hanoverians, and Hessians. 
 This, known by the name of the Pragmatic Army, fought and 
 defeated the French at Dettingen (June 27, 1743.) They were 
 afterwards reinforced by a body of troops which the States- 
 General sent, in fulfilment of the engagement which they had 
 contracted with the Court of Vienna. Lastly, that prince, in order 
 to attach the King of Sardinia more closely to the interests of 
 Austria, set on foot a treaty at Worms, by which the Queen 
 ceded to the King of Sardinia the territory of Pavia, between 
 the Po and the Tesino, part of the dutchy of Placentia, and the 
 district of Anghiera, with the rights which they claimed to the 
 marquisate of Finale. The King, on his part, abandoned all 
 claims to the Milanois ; and engaged to support an army of 
 40,000 men for the service of the Queen, in consideration of the 
 supplies which England promised to pay him. 
 
 This soon changed the aspect of affairs. The Queen recon- 
 quered Austria and Bohemia. She expelled the French from 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 77 
 
 Bavaria, and drove them even beyond the Rhine The Emperor 
 Charles VII. vas obliged to transfer his residence from Munich 
 10 Frankfort on the Maine. France, who had never acted till 
 tnen but as the ally of the Elector of Bavaria, resolved, m con- 
 sequence of these events, formally to declare war against the 
 Queen and the King of Great Britain (March 15, 1744.) The 
 King of the Two Sicilies broke his neutrality, and again joined 
 his troops with the Spanish army, who were acting against the 
 Queen and her ally the King of Sardinia. The war was now 
 carried on with fresh vigour. Louis XV. attacked the Austrian 
 Netherlands in person, and negotiated a treaty of Union, at 
 Frankfort, between the Emperor, and several principal States 
 of the Empire. By this treaty it was stipulated, that the allied 
 princes should unite their forces, and constrain the Queen to 
 acknowledge the Emperor Charles VII., and reinstate him in 
 his hereditary dominions. 
 
 It was in consequence of this treaty, that the King of Prussia 
 again commenced the war, and made an attack on Bohemia. 
 Prince Charles of Lorraine, who had invaded Alsace, at the 
 head of an Austrian army, was obliged to repass the Rhine, and 
 march to the relief of that kingdom. The French penetrated 
 into Germany, and while Louis XV. laid siege to Friburg in 
 Brisgaw, General Seckendorf, who commanded the Imperial 
 army, reconquered Bavaria. Charles VII., who was then re- 
 stored to his estates, returned to Munich. 
 
 During these transactions, an unforeseen event happened, 
 which changed the state of affairs. The Emperor died at the 
 early age of forty-seven (Jan. 20, 1745,) and his son Maximilian 
 Joseph II., used all expedition to make up matters with the 
 Queen. By the special treaty, which he concluded with her at 
 Fuessen (April 22, 1745,) he renounced the claims which his 
 father had made to the succession of Charles VI. He again 
 signed the Pragmatic Sanction, satisfied wdth being maintained 
 in the possession of his patrimonial estates. The French had 
 in vain endeavoured to prevent the election of the Grand Duke 
 of Tuscany to the Imperial throne, who had been associated 
 with his wife, Maria Theresa, in the government of her heredi- 
 tary dominions. That prince, however, was elected at Frank- 
 foit, under the protection of the Austrian and Pragmatic armies. 
 
 An alliance had been concluded at Warsaw between Maria 
 Theresa, Poland, England, and Holland (Jan. 8, 1745.) Au- 
 gustus III. had engaged, as Elector of Saxony, to despatch an 
 army of thirty thousand men to the Queen's assistance, in con- 
 sideration of the subsidies which England and Holland had pro- 
 mised to pay him. That army being joined by the Austrians, 
 
 7^ 
 
78 CHAPTER IX 
 
 had advanced into Silesia, where they sustained a total defea' 
 near Hohenfriedberg (June 4.) The victorious King of Prussia 
 returned to Bohemia, and there defeated the allies a second 
 time, near Sorr, in the Circle of Konigratz (Sept. 30.) He then 
 attacked Saxony, in order to compel the Queen to make peace, 
 by harassmg the Elector her ally. The victory, which he gain- 
 ed over the Saxons at Kesselsdorf (Dec. 15,) made him master 
 of Dresden, and the whole Electorate, which he laid under con- 
 tribution. These victories accelerated the peace between the 
 King of Prussia, the Queen, and the Elector of Saxony, which 
 was siofned at Dresden, under the mediation of Great Britain. 
 The King of Prussia restored to the Elector all his estates, the 
 latter promising to pay him a million of Imperial crowns. The 
 ^ueen gave up Silesia and the Comte of Glatz ; while the King, 
 as the Elector of Brandenburg, acquiesced in the election of 
 Francis I. to the Imperisl throne. The King of England, the 
 Dutch, and the States of the Empire, undertook to guarantee 
 these stipulations. 
 
 The treaties of Fuessen and Presden restored tranquillity to 
 the Empire ; but the war was continued in the Netherlands, 
 Italy, and in the East and West Indies. The French, under 
 the conduct of Marshal Saxe, distinguished themselves in the 
 Netherlands. The victories which they gained over the allie? 
 at Fontenoy (May 11, 1745,) andatRocoux (Oct. 11, 1746,) pro- 
 cured them the conquest of all the Austrian Netherlands, excep* 
 the towns and fortresses of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Gueldres 
 
 Charles Edward, son of the Pretender, encouraged and assist- 
 ed by the Court of France, landed in Scotland in August 1745. 
 Being joined by a number of partisans, v/hom he found in that 
 kingdom, he caused his father to be proclaimed at Perth and 
 Edinburgh, assuming to himself the title of Prince of Wales, 
 and Regent of the three kingdoms. The victory which he gain- 
 ed near Prestonpans over the English troops, rendered him mas- 
 ter of all Scotland. He next invaded England, took Carlisle, 
 and advanced as far as Derby, spreading terror and consternation 
 in London. George II. was obliged to recall the Duke of Cum- 
 berland, with his troops, from the Netherlands. That Prince 
 drove back the Pretender, retook Carlisle, and restored tranquil- 
 lity in Scotland, by defeating the Rebels near Culloden in the 
 Highlands. Charles Edward was then reduced to the necessity 
 of concealing himself among the mountains, until the month of 
 October foHowing, when he found means to transport himself to 
 France. 
 
 The campaign of 1745 in Italy was glorious for the French, 
 and their allies the Spaniards. Tne Republic of Genoa, being 
 
PERIOD viu. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 79 
 
 offeDQeQ at the clause in the treaty of Worms, which took from 
 them the marquisate of Finale, espoused the cause of the two 
 crowns, and facilitated the junction of the French army of the 
 Alps with that of Lombardy. One effect of this junction was 
 tne conquest of Piedmont, as also of Austrian Lombardy, except- 
 ing the cities of Turin and Mantua, which the allies had laid 
 under blockade. 
 
 The fate of the war, however, experienced a .new change in 
 Italy, at the opening of the following campaign. Maria The- 
 resa, disengaged from the war with Prussia, sent considerable 
 reinforcements into Lombardy, which gave her arms a superi- 
 ority over those of the allies. The French and Spaniards were 
 stripped of all their conquests, and sustained a grand defeat at 
 Placentia (June 16, 1746,) which obliged them to beat a retreat. 
 To add to their misfortunes, the new King of Spain, Ferdinand 
 VL, who had just succeeded his father, Philip V., being dis- 
 pleased with the Court of France, and unfavourably inclined 
 towards his brother Don Philip, recalled all his troops from Ita- 
 ly. The French had then no other alternative left than to fol- 
 low the Spaniards in their retreat. Italy was abandoned to the 
 Austrians, and the French troops again returned to Provence. 
 The whole Republic of Genoa, with its capital, fell into the 
 hands of the Austrians. The King of Sardinia took possession of 
 Finale, Savona, and the western part of the Republican terri- 
 ritory. The Austrians, joined by the Piedmontese, made a 
 descent on Provence, and undertook the siege of Antibes. 
 
 An extraordinary event produced a diversion favourable for 
 France, and obliged the Austrians and Piedmontese to repass 
 the Alps. The Genoese being maltreated by the Austrians, 
 who had burdened them with contributions and discretionary 
 exactions, suddenly rose against their new masters. The in- 
 surgents, with Prince Doria at their head, succeeded in expel- 
 ling them from Genoa (Dec. 1746.) General Botta, who com- 
 manded at Genoa, was obliged to abandon his stores and equip- 
 age, that he might the more quickly escape from the territory 
 of the Republic. The siege of Antibes was raised ; the allies 
 repassed the Alps, and blockaded Genoa. But the French hav- 
 ing sent powerful supplies by sea to that city, and at the same 
 time made a vigorous attack on the side of Piedmont, relieved 
 the Genoese, and obliged the enemy to retreat. 
 
 In 1747, the French, who were already masters of the Aus- 
 trian Netherlands, attacked and conquered Dutch Flanders. 
 They blamed the Dutch for having sent constant supplies ^o 
 Maria Theresa, for having invaded the French territory, ruw 
 granted a retreat through their own to -iie enemy's troops, aiei 
 
80 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 the battle of Fontenoy. This invasion spread terror in the 
 province of Zealand, who thus saw themselves deprived of their 
 barrier, and exposed to the inroads of the French. The parti- 
 sans of the Prince of Orange took advantage of that circum- 
 stance to restore the Stadtholdership. This dignity, as well as 
 ihat of Captain and Admiral-General of the Republic, had re- 
 mained vacant since the death of William III. 
 
 William IV., Prince of Nassau-Dietz, though he was testa- 
 mentary heir to that prince, had only obtained the Stadtholder- 
 ship of Friesland, to which was afterwards added that of Gro- 
 nino-en and Gueldres ; but the eiforts which he made to obtain 
 the other offices and dignities of the ancient Princes of Orange, 
 proved ineffectual. The four provinces of Holland, Zealand, 
 Utrecht, and Overyssel, persisted in their free government, and 
 even refused the Prince the office of General of Infantry, which he 
 had requested. France, by attacking Dutch Flanders, contribu- 
 ted to the elevation of William. There was a general feeling in 
 his favour in those provinces which had no Stadtholder ; the peo- 
 ple of the different towns and districts rose in succession, and 
 obliged the magistrates to proclaim William IV. as Stadtholder 
 and Captain-General. This revolution was achieved without 
 disturbance ; and without any obstacle on the part of those who 
 had an interest in opposing it, but who were obliged to yield to 
 the wishes of the people. They even went so far as to declare 
 the Stadtholdership, as well as the offices of Captain and Admi- 
 ral-General, hereditary in all the Prince's descendants, male 
 and female — a circumstance unprecedented since the foundation 
 of the Republic. 
 
 This change which happened in the Stadtholdership did not, 
 however, prevent the French from making new conquests. 
 They had no sooner got possession of Dutch Flanders, than 
 they attacked the town of Maestricht. The Duke of Cumber- 
 land having advanced with the allied army to cover the town, a 
 bloody battle took place near Laveld (July 2, 1747,) which was 
 gained by the French, under the command of Marshal Saxe. 
 The fortress of Bergen-op-Zoom, which was deemed impregna- 
 ble by its situation and the marshes which surrounded it, was 
 carried by assault by Count Lewendal, two months after he had 
 opened his trenches. 
 
 However brilliant the success of the French arms was on the 
 Continent, they failed in almost all their maritime expeditions. 
 The English took from them Louisburg and Cape Breton in 
 America ; and completely destroyed the French marine, which 
 had been much neglected, under the ministry of Cardinal Fleu- 
 ry. All the bellig^erent powers at length felt the necessity of 
 
PERIOD VUI. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 81 
 
 peace ; and there were two events which tended to accelerate 
 it. The Empress of Russia, conformable to the engagements 
 into which she had entered with the Courts of Vienna and 
 London, by the treaties of 1746 and 1747, had despatched 
 Prince Repnin to the Rhine, at the head of 30,000 men. Mar- 
 shal Saxe, at the same time, had laid siege to Maestricht, in 
 presence of the enemy, who were 80,000 strong. The taking 
 of that city would have laid open all Holland to the French, and 
 threatened the Republic with the most disastrous consequences. 
 
 A preliminary treaty was then signed at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 which was followed by a definitive peace (Oct. 18, 1748.) There 
 all former treaties since that of Westphalia were renewed ; a 
 mutual restitution was made on both sides, of all conquests 
 made during the war, both in Europe, and in the East and West 
 Indies ; and in consideration of the important restitutions which 
 France had made on the Continent, they ceded to Don Philip, 
 the son-in-law of Louis XV., and brother of Don Carlos, the 
 dutchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla ; to be possessed 
 by him and his lawful heirs male. The treaty of preliminaries 
 contained two conditions upon which the dutchies of Parma and 
 Guastalla should revert to the Queen, and that of Placenlia to 
 the King of Sardinia ; viz. (1.) Failing the male descendants of 
 Don Philip. (2.) If Don Carlos, King of the Two Sicilies, should 
 be called to the throne of Spain. In this latter case^ it was pre- 
 sumed that the kingdom of the Two Sicilies should pass to Don 
 Philip, the younger brother of that prince ; but they did not 
 seem to recollect that the peace of Vienna (1738) had secured 
 this latter kingdom to Don Carlos, and all his descendants male 
 and female ; and consequently, nothing prevented that prince, 
 should the case so happen, from transferring the Two Sicilies to 
 one of his own younger sons ; supposing even that he were not per- 
 mitted to unite that kingdom with the Spanish monarchy. The 
 plenipotentiaries having perceived this oversight after the con- 
 clusion of the preliminaries, took care to rectify it in the defini- 
 tive treaty, by thus wording the second clause of the reversion, 
 " Should Don Philip, or any of his descendants, be either called 
 to the throne of Spain, or to that of the Two Sicilies.^^ 
 
 The Empress agreed to this change, but the King of Sardinia 
 was not so complaisant. In respect to him, it was necessary to 
 make the definitive treaty entirely conformable to the prelimi- 
 naries. It was this circumstance which prevented the King of 
 the Two Sicilies, from acceding to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 By that treaty the King of Sardinia was confirmed in those dif- 
 ferent possessions in the Milanois which the treaty of Worms 
 had adjudged him. These, however, did not include that part of 
 
S2 • CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Placentia which had just been ceded to Don Philip ; nor the 
 marquisate of Finale, which the Genoese retained. That Re- 
 public, and the Duke of Modena, who had always been the ally 
 of France, were restored to the same state in which they were 
 before the war. Silesia was guaranteed to the King of Prussia 
 by the whole of the contracting powers. As for England, be- 
 sides the guarantee of the British succession in favour of the 
 House of Hanover, she obtained a renewal of the expulsion ol 
 the Pretender from the soil of France ; while this latter power, 
 victorious on the continent, consented to revive the humiliating 
 clause in the treaty of Utrecht, which ordered the demolition of 
 the Port of Dunkirk. The only modification which was made 
 to this clause was, that the fortifications of the place on the 
 land side should be preserved. Lastly, by the sixteenth article 
 of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the contract of the Assiento re- 
 specting the slave trade granted to England by the treaty of 
 Utrecht, was renewed in favour of the English Company of the 
 Assiento, for the four years in which that trade had been inter- 
 rupted during the war. "* 
 
 This peace produced no considerable change gn the political 
 state of Europe ; but by maintaining the King of Prussia in his 
 conquest of Silesia, it raised a rival to Austria in the very centre 
 of the Empire. The unity of the Germanic body was thus 
 broken, and that body divided between the two leading powers, 
 Austria and Prussia. The system of aggrandizement and con- 
 venience which Frederic the Great had put in practice for de- 
 priving Austria of Silesia came afterwards into vogue ; and by 
 gradually undermining the system of equilibrium, which former 
 treaties had introduced, it occasioned new revolutions in Europe. 
 
 The dispute about the Austrian succession, extended its in- 
 fluence to the North, where it kindled a war between Russia and 
 Sweden. The Empress Anne, a little before her death (Oct. 17, 
 1740,) had destined as her successor on the throne of Russia, the 
 young prince Iwan or John, the son of her niece Anne of Meck- 
 lenburg, by Prince Anthony Ulric of Brunswick. The Regency 
 during the minority of Iwan, was conferred on her favourite 
 Biron, whom she had raised to the first offices of the state, and 
 created Duke of Courland. The mother of the young Emperor, 
 indignant at seeing the management of affairs in the hands of a 
 favourite, gained over to her interests Field-Marshal Munich, 
 by whose assistance the Duke of Courland was arrested and 
 banished to Siberia, whilst she herself was proclaimed Grand 
 Dutchess and Regent of the Empire. 
 
 The ministry of this princess were divided in their opinions, 
 on the subject of the war about the Austrian succession. Some 
 
iKRioD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 88 
 
 supported the cause of Prussia, with which Eussia had just re- 
 newed her treaties of alliance ; while others were inclined for 
 Austria, the ancient ally of Russia. This latter party having 
 prevailed, France, in order to prevent Russia from assisting 
 Maria Theresa, thought proper to give her some occupation m 
 the North. It was by no means difficult to raise Sweden 
 against her ; where the faction of the Hats^ then the ruling 
 party, was entirely devoted to the French interest. This fac- 
 tion, which was opposed by that of the Bonnets, or Caps, re- 
 newed the treaty of subsidy with France, and also concluded a 
 treaty of perpetual alliance against Russia (Dec. 22, 1739.) 
 Encouraged by the young nobles, they flattered themselves that 
 the time was come, when Sweden would repair the losses which 
 she had sustained by the foolish expeditions of Charles XII. 
 
 A Diet extraordinary was assembled at Stockholm (Aug. 
 1741,) which declared war against Russia. They alleged, 
 among other motives, the exclusion of the Princess Elizabeth, 
 daughter of Peter the Great, and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 
 from the throne of Russia ; the assassination of Major Sinclair, 
 who had been murdered, as the Swedes affirmed, by the emis- 
 saries of Russia, while bearing despatches from Constantinople 
 lor the Sv/edish Court, and when he was passing through Silesia 
 on his way to Stockholm. This declaration of war had been 
 made, before the Swedes could take those measures which pru- 
 dence should have dictated. They had neither an army fit for 
 action, nor stores prepared in Finland ; and their General, Count 
 Lewenhaupt, had nothing to recommend him but his devotion 
 to the ruling party. Sweden had flattered herself that the Turks 
 would recommence the war with Russia, and that she would 
 thus find resources in the alliance and subsidies of France. The 
 first action, which took place near Wilmanstrand (Sept. 3, 1741) 
 was quite in favour of the Russians ; a great number of Swedes 
 were there either killed or made prisoners, and the town of Wil- 
 manstrand was carried sword in hand. 
 
 Meantime a revolution happened at St. Petersburg, which 
 seemed to have brought about a favourable change for the Swe- 
 dish government. The Princess Elizabeth, supported by the 
 Marquis de la Chetardie, minister of France, and by a company 
 of the guards whom she had drawn over to her interest, seized 
 the Regent Anne, her husband the Prince of Brunswick, and the 
 young Emperor ; all of whom she sent into exile, and caused 
 herself to be proclaimed Empress. The Swedes, who haTi flat- 
 tered themselves with having aided in placing that princess on 
 the throne, immediately entered into negotiations with her ; but 
 as they carried their pretensions too high, the conference was 
 broken off nnd the vynr 'continued 
 
84 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Tbe campaign of 1742, proved also unfortunate for Sweden. 
 I'heir army in Finland, though equal in point of strength to thai 
 of Eussia, durst not keep the field. They abandoned all their 
 best posts one after another, and retired towards Helsingfors. 
 beyond the ri.er Kymen. Shut up in this position, and besieg- 
 ed by sea and land, they were obliged to capitulate. The Swe- 
 dish troops returned home, the Finnish regiments laid down 
 tneir arms, and the whole of Finland surrendered to the Russians. 
 
 The States of Sweden having assembled under these circum- 
 stances, and bemg desirous of an accommodation with Russia, 
 offered the throne of Sweden to Charles Ulric, Duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp, and nephew of the Empress Elizabeth. That prince, 
 however, declined the offer of the Diet. He had just been de- 
 clared Grand Duke, and presumptive heir to the Russian Em- 
 pire, and had embraced the Greek religion. This intelligence 
 astounded the Diet, who then placed on the list of candidates for 
 th*^ throne, the Prince Royal of Denmark, the Duke of Deux- 
 Ponts, and the Bishop of Lubec, uncle to the new Grand Duke 
 of Russia. A considerable party were inclined for the Prince of 
 Denmark ; and they were on the point of renewing the ancient 
 union of the three kingdoms of the North in his favour. To 
 prevent an election so prejudicial to the interests of Prussia, the 
 Empress abated from the rigour of her first propositions, and 
 offered to restore to the Swedes a great part of their conquests, 
 on condition of bestowing their throne on Prince Adolphus Fre- 
 deric, Bishop of Lubec. This condition having been acceded 
 to, Prince Frederic was elected (July 3, 1743 ;) the succession to 
 descend to his male heirs. A definitive peace was then conclu- 
 ded between Russia and Sweden, at Abo in Finland. 
 
 Sweden, by thus renouncing her alliance with the Porte, rati- 
 fied anew all that she had surrendered to Russia by the peace of 
 Nystadt. Moreover, she ceded to that Crown the province of 
 Kymenegard in Finland, with the towns and fortresses of Frie- 
 dricsham and Wilmanstrand ; as also the parish of Pyttis, lying 
 to the east of the Kymen, and the ports, places, and districts, 
 situated at the mouth of that river. The islands lying on the 
 south and west of the Kymen were likewise included in this 
 cession ; as were also the town and fortress of Nyslott, with its 
 territory. All the rest of Finland was restored to Sweden, to- 
 gether with the other conquests which Russia had made during 
 the war. The Swedes were permitted to purchase annually in 
 the Russian Ports of the Baltic, and the GuJf of Finland, grain 
 to the value of 50,000 rubles, without paying any export duty. 
 
 Portugal, about the middle of the eighteenth century, became 
 the scene of various memorable events, which attracted general 
 
Earthquake at Lisbon. Vol. 2, p. 80. 
 
 Engagement of the Russian and Turkish Fleets off Scio, 1770. 
 Vol. 2, p. 104. 
 
pEHioD vm. A. D. 171^—1789. 9l^ 
 
 attention. John V., who had governed that khigdom from 1706 
 till 1750y had fallen into a state of weakness and dotage, and 
 abandoned the reins of government to Don Gaspard, his confes- 
 sor, under who^e administration numerous abuses had crept into 
 the state. Joseph I., the son and successor of John V., on 
 ascending the throne (July 31, 1750,) undertook to reform these 
 abuses. By the advice of his minister, Sebastian De Carvalho, 
 afterwards created Count D'Oeyras, and Marquis De Pombal, 
 he turned his attention to every branch of the administration. 
 He patronized the arts and sciences, encouraged agriculture, 
 nanufactures, and commerce ; regulated the finances ; and used 
 every effort to raise the army and na^'y of Portugal from that 
 state of languor into which they had fallen. These innovations 
 could not be accomplished without exciting discontent in the 
 different orders of the state. The minister increased this by his 
 inflexible severity, and the despotism which he displayed in the 
 exercise of his ministerial functions ; as well as by the antipathy 
 which he showed against the nobility and the ministers of reli- 
 gion. The Companies which he instituted for exclusive com- 
 merce to the Indies, Africa, and China, raised against him the 
 whole body of merchants in the kingdom. He irritated the no- 
 bility by the contempt which he testified towards them, and by 
 annexing to the Crown those immense domains in Africa and 
 America, which the nobles enjoyed by the munificence of former 
 kings. The most powerful and the most dangerous enemies of 
 this minister were the Jesuits, whom he had ventured to attack 
 openly, and had even ordered to be expelled from Portugal. 
 This event, which was attended with remarkable consequences, 
 must be described more fully. 
 
 During the life of John V., a treaty had been signed between 
 the Courts of Madrid and Lisbon (1750,) in virtue of which the 
 Portuguese colony of St. Sacrament and the northern bank of 
 the river La Plata in America, were ceded to Spain, in exchange 
 for a part of Paraguay, lying on the eastern bank of the Uru- 
 guay. This treaty was on the point of being carried into exe- 
 cution ; the commissioners appointed for this purpose had com- 
 menced their labours ; but the inhabitants of the ceded territories 
 opposed the exchange, as did several individuals in both Courts. 
 The Jesuits were suspected of being the authors and instigators 
 of that opposition. In the territories which were to be ceded to 
 Portugal, they had instituted a republic of the natives, which 
 they governed as absolute masters ; and which they were afraid 
 would be subverted, if the exchange in question should take 
 place. They used every means, therefore, to thwart the arrange- 
 ments of the two courts ; and it is alleged they even went so far 
 
 VOL n 8 
 
86 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 as to excite a rebellion among the inhabitants of the countries to 
 be exchanged. The consequence was, a long and expensiv*^ 
 war between the two crowns, which occasioned much bloodshed, 
 and cost Portugal alone nearly twenty millions of cruzados. 
 
 In the midst of these events, there occurred a terrible earth- 
 quake, which, in the twinkling of an eye, demolished the greater 
 part of Lisbon, and destroyed between twenty and thirty thou- 
 sand of its inhabitants (Nov. 1, 1755.) Fire consumed what- 
 trrei had escaped from the earthquake ; while the overflowing 
 of the sea, cold and famine, added to the horrors of these ca- 
 lamities, which extended even over a great part of the kingdom. 
 The Jesuits were reproached for having, at the time of this distres- 
 sing event, announced new disasters, which were to overwhelm 
 Portugal, as a punishment for the sins of which the inhabitants 
 had been guilty. These predictions, added to the commotions 
 which still continued in Brazil, served as a pretext for depriving 
 the Jesuits of their office of Court-confessors, shutting them out 
 from the palace, and even interdicting them from hearing con 
 fessions over the whole kingdom. 
 
 The outrage which was committed against the King's person 
 immediately after, furnished the minister with another pretext 
 against that religious order. The King, when going by night 
 to Belem, ,(Sept. 3, 175S,) was attacked by assassins, who mis- 
 took him for another, and fired several shots at him, by which 
 he was severely wounded. Several of the first nobles in the 
 kingdom were accused, among others the Duke d'Aveiro, the 
 Marquis and Marchioness de TaA'-ora, the Count d'Atougia, &c. 
 as being the ringleaders in this plot against the King's life, who 
 were sentenced to execution accordingly, [but their innocence 
 was afterwards fully established.] 
 
 The Jesuits were also implicated in this affair, and publicly 
 declared accomplices in the King's assassination. They were 
 proscribed as traitors and disturbers of the public peace ; theii 
 goods were confiscated ; and every individual belonging to the 
 order was embarked at once at the several ports of the king 
 dom, without any regard to age or infirmities, and transported 
 to Civita Vecchia within the Pope's dominions. The Portu 
 guese minister, apprehensive that this religious order, if pre- 
 served in the other states of Europe, would find means, sooner 
 or later, to return to Portugal, used every endeavour to have 
 their Society entirely suppressed. He succeeded in this at- 
 tempt by means of the negotiations which he set on foot witl: 
 several of the Catholic courts. In France the Society was 
 dissolved, in virtue of the decrees issued by the parliament 
 (1762.) Paris set the first example of this. Louis XV. declared. 
 
PERIOD vin. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 87 
 
 .hat the Society should no longer exist within the kingdom. 
 The Court of Madrid, where they had two powerful enemies 
 in the ministry, Counts d'Aranda and de Campomanes, com- 
 manded all the Jesuits to depart from the territory and jurisdic- 
 tion of Spain ; and, at the same time, declared their goods con- 
 fiscated. They were likewise expelled from the kingdom of 
 Naples ; and the order was at len2"th entirely suppressed, by a 
 brief of Pope Clement XIV. (July 21, 1773.)5 
 
 The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had by no means restored a 
 good understanding between France and England. A jealous 
 rivalry divided the two nations, Avhich served to nourish and 
 multiply subjects of discord between them. Besides, the ac- 
 tivity of the French in repairing their marine, which had been 
 destroyed in the last war, was viewed with jealousy by Great 
 Britain, then aspiring to the absolute command of the sea, and 
 conscious that France alone was able to counteract her ambi- 
 tious projects. Several matters of dispute, which the peace of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle had left undecided, still subsisted betweeen the 
 two nations, relative to their possessions in America. The prin- 
 cipal of these, regarded the boundaries of Nova Scotia and Cana- 
 da, and the claims to the neutral islands. Nova Scotia had been 
 ceded to England, by the twelfth article of the treaty of Utrecht, 
 according to its ancient limits. These limits the French had 
 circumscribed within the bounds of the peninsula which forms 
 that province ; while the English insisted on extending them to 
 the southern bank of the river St. LaAvrence, of which the ex- 
 clusive navigation belonged to the French. 
 
 The limits of Canada were not better defined than those of 
 Nova Scotia. The French, with the view of opening a com- 
 munication between Canada and Louisiana, had constructed se- 
 veral forts along the river Ohio, on the confines of the English 
 colonies in America. This was opposed by England, who Avas 
 afraid that these establishments would endanger the safety of 
 her colonies, especially that of Virginia. The neutral islands, 
 namely theCaribees, which comprehended St. Lucia, Domini- 
 ca, St. Vincent, and Tobago, still remained in a contested state, 
 according to the ninth article of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 The French, however, alleged certain acts of possession, by 
 which they claimed the property of these islands, as well as of 
 the Caicos and Turkish islands. Commissioners were appoint- 
 ed on both sides to bring these disputes to an amicable termi- 
 nation. A conference was opened at Paris, which began about 
 the end of September 1750, and continued for several years ; 
 but as neither party was disposed to act with sincerity, these 
 conferences ended in nothing. The English, who saw that the 
 
88 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 French only sought to gain time for augmenting their marine 
 hastened the rupture by committing a-cts of hostility in America. 
 
 The first breach of the peace was committed on the banks of 
 the Ohio, where the French, to avenge the murder of one of their 
 officers, seized on Fort Necessity, belonging to the English 
 (July 1754.) The English, on their side, captured two French 
 vessels off the Bank of Newfoundland, which had refused to 
 salute the English flag. They exen attacked all the French 
 merchantmen which they met, and captured about three hun- 
 dred of them. Thus, a long and bloody war was waged for the 
 deserts and uncultivated wilds of America, which extended its 
 ravages over all parts of the globe, involving more especially 
 the countries of Europe. 
 
 England, according to a well known political stratagem, 
 sought to occupy the French arms on the Continent ; in order 
 to prevent the increase of her maritime strength. France, in- 
 stead of avoiding that snare, and confining herself solely to 
 naval operations, committed the mistake of falling in with the 
 views of the British minister. While repelling the hostilities 
 of England by sea, she adopted at the same time measures for 
 invading the Electorate of Hanover. The Court of London, 
 wishing to guard against this danger, began by forming a 
 closer alliance with Russia (Sept. 30, 1755 ;) they demanded of 
 the Empress those supplies which they thought they might 
 claim in virtue of former treaties ; and on the refusal of that 
 princess, who was afraid to disoblige France, and to find her- 
 self attacked by Prussia, they applied to this latter power, with 
 which they concluded a treaty at Westminster (Jan. 16, 1756;) 
 the chief object of which was to prevent foreign troops from 
 entering into the Empire during the war between France and 
 England. To this treaty France opposed the alliance which 
 she had concluded with Austria at Versailles, by which the two 
 powers guaranteed their respective possessions in Europe, and 
 promised each other a mutual supply of twenty-four thousand 
 men in case of attack. The differences then subsisting between 
 France and Great Britain were not reckoned among the Casus 
 Federis. 
 
 [The alliance of 1756 has given rise to different opinions 
 among statesmen ; the greater part have condemned it. Its ob- 
 ject was, on the part of France, to guard herself against all at- 
 tacks on the Continent, that she might direct her whole force 
 against her maritime rival ; but experience proved, that without 
 attaining this object, she was henceforth obliged to take part in 
 all the disputes of the Continent, however foreign they might 
 be to her own policy. It was even contrary to her interests tc 
 
PERIOD vni. A. J). 1713—1789. SO 
 
 have Austria extricated from the embarrassments which the op- 
 position of Prussia had occasioned her. If that project had suc- 
 ceeded, Austria would have become the preponderating power 
 in Germany, to a degree which would have compelled the French 
 to turn their arms against her.] 
 
 While the French were still hesitating as to the part which 
 they ought to take relative to the Electorate of Hanover, the 
 King of Prussia invaded Saxony (Aug. 1756.) On taking this 
 step, he published a manifesto, the object of which was to prove 
 by the despatches of the three Courts of Vienna, Dresden, and 
 Petersburg, that they had concerted a plan among them for at- 
 tacking him ; and that common prudence required him to pre- 
 vent it. He declared at the same time, that his entrance into 
 Saxony had no other aim than that of opening a communication 
 with Bohemia ; and that he v/ould only retain that country as a 
 depot until the conclusion of the peace. This invasion, however, 
 stirred up a powerful league against Prussia (1757.) Besides 
 France and the Empress, it was joined by the Germanic body, 
 Russia and Sweden. France, which had at first restricted her- 
 self to furnishing the Empress with the supplies stipulated by 
 the alliance, agreed, by a subsequent treaty, to despatch an army 
 of more than 100,000 men into Germany, against the King of 
 Prussia, and his ally the King of England; and, moreover, to 
 pay to that Princess an annual subsidy of twelve millions of 
 florins. 
 
 In this war the French arms were attended at first with the 
 most brilliant success. They conquered the island of Minorca, 
 and seized the Electorate of Hesse, and the whole States of 
 Brunswick and Hanover ; but fortune soon turned her back on 
 them, when they experienced nothing but defeats and disasters. ^ 
 The extraordinary efforts which they were making on the Con- 
 tinent naturally tended to relax their maritime operations, and 
 thus afTorded England the means of invading their possessions 
 in other parts of the world. In the years 1757 and 1761, Chan- 
 dernagore, Pondicherry, and Mahe, in the East Indies, fell into 
 the hands of the English ; and in 1758, they seized on all the 
 French settlements on the river Senegal and the coasts of Africa. 
 The Islands of Cape Breton and St. John in America ; the forts 
 and settlements on the Ohio ; Quebec (where General Wolfe 
 fell.) and the whole of Canada, were all conquered in like man- 
 ner, between the years 1756 and 1760. Finally, the Islands of 
 Guadaloupe, Mariagalante, Dominica, Martinique, Grenada, St. 
 Vincent, St. Lucia, and Tobago, were also taken from France. 
 
 The King of Prussia, though overwhelmed by the number of 
 his enemies, and finding no great assistance from his alliance 
 
 8=^ 
 
90 CirAPTER IX. 
 
 with England, nevertheless did not lose courage. He distin- 
 guished himself by the number of victories which he gained 
 over the powers leagued against him, during the campaigns of 
 the Seven Years' War.''' This war was already far advanced, 
 when the Duke de Choiseul, who was then at the head of the 
 French ministry, observing the great superiority of the English 
 by sea, conceived the plan of the famous Family Compact, which 
 he negotiated with the Court of Madrid, and which was conclu- 
 ded at Paris (August 15, 1761.) The object of this treaty was 
 to cement an alliance and a perpetual union among the differ- 
 ent branches of the House of Bourbon, for the purpose of coun- 
 terbalancing the maritime power of England. 
 
 The King of Spain had come under no engagment to join in 
 the war which subsisted between France and England ; but the 
 haughty manner in which the Court of London demanded of 
 him an account of the principles of the Family Compact, gave 
 rise to a declaration of war between these two courts. Spain 
 and France required the King of Portugal to accede to their 
 alliance against England. That prince in vain alleged the 
 treaties which connected him with the English nation, and which 
 would not permit him to take part against them. A declaration, 
 published by the two allied courts, set forth, that the Spanish 
 troops should enter Portugal to secure the ports of that kingdom , 
 and that it should be left at the King's option to receive them as 
 friends or as enemies ; and it was this which laid him under the 
 necessity of declaring himself in favour of England (May 18, 
 1762.) An English fleet, with a supply of troops, was then sent 
 to the relief of Portugal ; while a body of French troops joined 
 the Spanish army which was destined to act against that king- 
 dom. The city of Almeida was the only conquest which the 
 Spaniards made in Portugal. The English, on the contrary, 
 took from the Spaniards the Havana, and a great part of the 
 Island of Cuba in America ; as also Manilla and the Philip 
 pines in the Indian Ocean. The war thus became m)re general, 
 and seemed about to assume a new vigour, when an unforeseen 
 event changed entirely the face of affairs, and disposed the bel- 
 ligerents for peace. 
 
 Elizabeth, Empress of Eussia, died about this time ; and 
 Peter III., nephew to that princess, ascended the throne. Peter, 
 who was a great admirer of the King of Prussia, took an early 
 opportunity of making \ eace with that prince. A suspension of 
 arms was signed between the two crowns, which was followed 
 by a treaty of peace concluded at St. Petersburg (May 5, 1762.) 
 By that treaty, Russia surrendered all the conquests which she 
 had made in Prussia and Pomerania d jring the war. Peter 
 
PERIOD vra. A. D. 1713— 17S9. 91 
 
 renounced the alliances which he had formerly contracted 
 against the King of Prussia ; while he, in his turn, refused to 
 form alliances or engagements contrary to the interests of Rus- 
 sia, or to the hereditary possessions of Peter in Germany. But 
 the new Emperor was not content with testifying this mark of 
 affection for the King of Prussia. He agreed to send a body of 
 troops into Silesia to his assistance. A revolution, however, 
 liappened in Russip^, which occasioned new changes. Peter III, 
 was dethroned (July 9,) after a reign of six months. The Em- 
 press Catherine IL, his widow, on ascending the throne, pre- 
 served the treat\^ of peace with the King of Prussia ; but she 
 •recalled her troops from Silesia, and declared that she would 
 maintain neutrality between the King and the Empress. 
 
 Sweden, who had experienced nothing but defeats in course 
 ■of that war, followed the example of Russia. She agreed to a 
 suspension of arms with the King of Prussia, and soon after con- 
 cluded a treat}'- of peace with him at Hamburg (May 22, 1762.) 
 These tv/o treaties paved the way for a general peace, the pre- 
 liminaries of which were signed at Fountainbleau, between 
 France, England, Spain and Portugal. The definitive peace 
 was concluded at Paris (Feb. 10, 1763.) This treaty was fol- 
 lowed by that of Hubertsburg, which reconciled Prussia with 
 the Empress and the Elector of Saxony. 
 
 By this latter treaty, the Empress surrendered to the King of 
 Prussia the province of Glatz, as also the fortresses of Wesel 
 and Gueldres. The Elector of Saxony again took possession 
 of those States which the King of Prussia had taken from him ; 
 and the treaties of Breslau, Berlin and Dresden, were renewed. 
 Thus, after seven campaigns, as sanguinary as they were ex- 
 pensive, the peace of Hubertsburg restored the affairs of Ger- 
 many to the same state in which they had been before the war. 
 France, by the treaty of Paris, ceded to England Canada and 
 the island of Cape Breton, with the islands and coasts of the Gulf 
 and River of St. Lawrence. The boundaries between the two 
 nations in North America were fixed by a line drawn along the 
 middle of the Mississippi, from its source to its mouth. All on 
 the left or eastern bank of that riv^r was given up to England, 
 except the city of New Orleans, wnich was reserved to France ; 
 as was also the liberty of the fisheries on a part of the coasts of 
 Newfoundland, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The islands of 
 St. Peter and Miquelon were given them as a shelter for their 
 fishermen, but without permission to raise fortifications. The 
 islands of Martinico, Gaudaloupe, Mariagalante, Desirada, and 
 St. Lucia, were surrendered to France ; while Grenada, the 
 Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, were ceded '.c 
 
^J CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Eno^land. The latter power retained her concfuests on the Sen 
 egal, and restored to France the island of Gorea on the coast o' 
 Africa. France was put in possession of the forts and factories 
 which belonged to her in the East Indies, on the coasts of Coro- 
 mandel, Orissa, Malabar, and Bengal, under the restriction ol 
 keeping up no military force in Bengal. 
 
 In Europe, France restored all the conquests she had made 
 in Germany; as also the island of Minorca. England gave up 
 to her Belleisle on the coast of Brittany ; while Dunkirk was 
 kept in the same condition as had been determined by the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. The island of Cuba, with the Ilavana, was 
 restored to the King of Spain, who, on his part, ceded to Eng- 
 land Florida, with Fort Aug-ustine and the Bay of Fensacola. 
 The King of Portugal was restored to the same state in which 
 he had been before the war. The colony of St. Sacrament in 
 America, which the Spaniards had conquered, was given back 
 to him.^ 
 
 The peace of Paris, of which we have just now spoken, was 
 the era of England's greatest prosperity. Her commerce and 
 navigation extended over all parts of the globe, and were sup- 
 ported by a naval force, so much the more imposing, as it wa.* 
 no longer counterbalanced by the maritime power of France, 
 which had been almost annihilated in the preceding war. The 
 immense ten'itories which that peace had secured her, both in 
 Africa and America, opened new channels for her industry , 
 and, what deserves especially to be remarked, is, that she ac- 
 quired at the same time vast and important possessions in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 The Empire of the Great Mogul in India had fallen into decay 
 about the beginning of the eighteenth centur}'-. The viceroys 
 and petty governors of the Empire, called Souhahs and Nabobs 
 had become independent, and usurped the prerogatives of royaltr 
 in the districts under their authority ; while the Mogul Empe- 
 :dr, reduced almost to the single city of Delhi, his capital, pre- 
 served nothing but the shadow of sovereign power, by means of 
 the investitures which he granted to these ambitious princes, 
 and the coinage that was struck in his name. Whenever any 
 differences arose among these princes, they usually had recourse 
 to the European nations, who had settlements in India, and had 
 erected forts with the consent of the Great Mogul, where they 
 kept an armed force for the protection of their commerce. If 
 the French took the part of one nabob, it was sufficient to induce 
 the English to espouse the quarrel of his adversary; and while 
 the two nations were mutually cultivating peace in Europt 
 they were often at the same time making war in India, by fur 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713—1789. 93 
 
 nisliing supplies to their respective allies. Success was tor h. 
 long time equal on both sides ; and it was not until the war of 
 1755, and by the victories and conquests of the famous Lord 
 dive, that England obtained a decid-ed ascendency over the 
 French in that quarter of the world. 
 
 Sourajah Dowlah^the Sovibah of Bengal, instigated, as is sup- 
 posed, by the French, had taken possession of Calcutta (1756,) 
 the principal settlement of the English on the Ganges. His 
 cruel treatment of the English garrison, which he had made 
 prisoners of war, excited the resentment of that nation. To 
 avenge this outrage, Colonel Clive, supported by Admiral Wat- 
 son, retook Calcutta (Jan. 1757 ;) and after having dispossessed 
 the French of Chandernagore, their principal establishment on 
 the Ganges, he vanquished the Soubah in several actions, de- 
 posed him, and put in his place Jaffier Ali Khan, his general 
 and prime minister, who was entirely devoted to England. 
 
 With this era commences the foundation of the British Empire 
 in India. It happened a short tim.e after, that the Mogul Empe- 
 ror, Shah Allum, being driven from his capital by the Patans, 
 an Indian tribe, solicited the protection of the English, who 
 availed themselves of this occasion, as well as of the death of 
 Jaffier Ali, which happened at this time, to get themselves vested 
 by treaty (1765,) and by means of an Imperial charter, in the 
 sovereignty of all Bengal. In virtue of this title, which legiti- 
 mated their power in the eyes of the people, they seized on the 
 public revenues of the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa ; 
 with the reservation of an annual tribute, which they promised 
 to pay to the Mogul Emperor, and certain pensions which they 
 assigned to the Soubahs, whose phantom power they disposed 
 of at their pleasure. The dominion of the English in India, was 
 increased still more by subsequent conquests; the most impor- 
 tant of which was the powerful state of Mysore, which they 
 bitterly overthrew, after a series of wars which they carried on 
 with Hyder Ali, and his successor Tippoo Saib.^ 
 
 [The death of Ferdinand VI., King of Spain, v/as an event of 
 some importance. He was succeeded by his brother Don Carlos, 
 King of the Two Sicilies, and eldest son of Philip V. by his 
 second marriage, who assumed the title of Charles III. Under 
 this prince the philosophy of the eighteenth century penetrated 
 into Spain, where it displayed an energy, and gave rise to con 
 sequences, which had not yet attended it in France. It occa- 
 sioned the downfall of the Jesuits, Avhich was accompanied by 
 deed^ repugnant to justice and humanity. The ministers and 
 counsellors of that monarch, the Counts Arranda, Florida Blanca, 
 iind Campomanes, introduced into the internal administration 
 
94 CILAPTER IX. 
 
 of Spain, especially its finances and tactics, an order and regx?- 
 larity which had been long unknown in that country. Agricul- 
 ture, commerce, and industry were beginning to recover from 
 ^heir langour, when the American war again threw them into 
 a state of fatal depression.] 
 
 Before quitting Naples to take possession of the throne of 
 Spain, Don Carlos, who, as King of the Two Sicilies, had the 
 title of Charles VIL, published a fundamental law, bearing, that 
 agreeably to former treaties which did not admit the union of 
 the Italian States with the Spanish monarchy, he transferred 
 the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to his third son Don Ferdinand ; 
 as his eldest son, Don Philip, was incapable of reigning, and his 
 second, Don Carlos, was destined^or the throne of Spain. He 
 intrusted the administration to a regency, during the nonage af 
 the young prince, whose majority was fixed at the age of seven- 
 teen. By this law he regulated the order of succession which 
 was to take place in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and which 
 w^as the same as that which Philip V. had established in Spain 
 at the Cortes of 1713. After the descendants male and female 
 of his own body, Charles substituted his brothers Don Philip, 
 Duke of Parma, and Don Louis ; adding, that the kingdom of 
 the Two Sicilies should never in any case be united with the 
 Spanish monarchy. This regulation of the new King of Spain 
 accorded perfectly with the terms of the seventh article of the 
 treaty of Vienna (1738,) which secured the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies to that prince and his descendants, male and female ; 
 and failing these, to his younger brothers and their descendants, 
 of both sexes. 
 
 The King of Sardinia continued, however, to enforce his right 
 of reversion to that part of Placentia, which the fourth article of 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had secured to him, in case Don 
 Carlos should remove from the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to 
 the crown of Spain. The Court of France, wishing to retain that 
 possession for Don Philip, and to prevent the tranquillity of Ital} 
 from being disturbed by the pretensions of the King of Sardinia, 
 engaged to procure that prince an equivalent with which he 
 should have reason to be satisfied. This equivalent was settled 
 (June 10, 1763) by a convention concluded at Paris, between 
 France, Spain, and the King of Sardinia. The latter consented 
 to restrict his right of reversion in the two cases specified in the 
 seventh article of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; viz. (1.) Fail- 
 ing the male descendants of Don Philip; (2.) Should that prince, 
 or one of his descendants, be called either to the throne of Spain. 
 or to that of the Two Sicilies ; and should one or other of these 
 two casej happen in the meantime, the crowns of France and 
 
PFRIOD VIU. A. D. 1713—1789. 9i 
 
 Spain engag^ed that the King of Sardinia should enjoy the same 
 amount of annual revenue, which might accrue to him (after 
 aeiucang the expenses of administration,) from that part of Pla- 
 rentia on the Nura, should he ever come into actual possession. 
 Foi this purpose, France undertook, by a special agreement, 
 which was signed at Paris the same day with the preceding, to 
 pay the King of Sardinia, by twelve instalments, the sum of 
 •eight millions two hundred livres ; on condition of reverting to 
 France, should one or other of these alternatives happen. 
 
 The sudden aggrandizement of Russia, since the time of Peter 
 the Great, had changed the political system of the North. That 
 power had raised herself to the first rank. She dictated the law 
 to Poland and Sweden, her ancient rivals ; disposed of the 
 throne of Poland on every change of reign ; and at the same 
 time decided the fate of Courland. That dutchy, which had 
 long been possessed by the family of Kettler who held it as a 
 fief of the crown of Poland, had become vacant on the death of the 
 Duke Ferdinand, the last male descendant of that House. Ann, 
 Empress of Russia, being then only Datchess of Courland, had a 
 favourite, named Ernest John Biron, a man raised by fortune, 
 whose grandfather had been groom to James III., Duke of Cour- 
 land. When that princess mounted the throne of Russ.ia, she 
 raised Biron to the rank of Count, and to the office of Great 
 Chamberlain and Prime Minister. The haughty favourite as- 
 sumed the name and arms of the family of Biron, in France ; 
 and prevailed with the Empress to grant him the dutchy of 
 Courland. At the death of the last Duke, he even succeeded in 
 getting himself elected by the States of that country (1737;) 
 with the aid of a body of Russian troops, which the Empress 
 had sent to Mittau, to support his election. He was invested 
 in the dutchy by the Republic of Poland, to be possessed by him- 
 self and his heirs-male ; but he did not long enjoy this new dig- 
 nity. He was deprived of it on the death of the Empress (1740;; 
 and banished to Siberia by the Grand Dutchess Ann, mother of 
 the young Emperor. This princess caused a new election to 
 be made by the nobility of Courland. The dutchy was then 
 conferred on Louis Ernest, Prince of Brunswick, who was to 
 marry Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. But the young 
 Emperor, Iwan, having been dethroned immediately after, the 
 Prince of Brunswick never obtained possession of the dutchy. 
 The Empress Elizabeth having decla>-ed to the Republic of 
 Poland that the Duke de Biron shoula never be liberated from 
 his exile, Augustus III., King of Poland, declared the dutchy of 
 Courland vacant. He then pre /ailed on the States ct that ooun- 
 wy to elect his own son. Prince Charles, whom he solemnly 
 iivested in the dutchy (17«>9.') 
 
96 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 A new change happened at the death of the Empress Ehza- 
 beth, in 1762. Peter IIL, on his accession to the throne ol Hus- 
 s)a, recalled the Duke de Biron from his exile. The Empress, 
 Catherine 11. , who succeeded her husband that same year, weni 
 even fiirther than this ; she demanded the restoration of dc 
 Biron to the dutchy of Courland, and obliged Prince Charles of 
 Saxony to give it up to him (1769.) The Duke de Biron then 
 resigned the dutchy to his son Peter, who, after a reign of twen-- 
 tj'-five years, surrendered it to the Empress ; the States of 
 Courland and Semigallia made a formal submission to Russia 
 (March 28, 1795.) 
 
 The dethronement of Peter III., which we have just men 
 tioned, was an event very favourable to Denmark, as it relievect 
 that kingdom from a ruinous war with which it was threatened 
 on the part of the Emperor. Peter III. was the head of the 
 House of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denm-ark had deprived of 
 their possessions in Sleswick, by taking advantage of the dis- 
 asters that befell Sweden, which had protected that family 
 against the Danish kings. The Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp ex- 
 claimed against that usurpation ; to which the Court of Denmark 
 had nothing to oppose, except their right of conquest, and the 
 guarantee which the Kings of France and England, as media- 
 tors in the treaty of Stockholm, had given to Denmark with 
 respect to Sleswick. 
 
 Peter III. w^as scarcely seated on the throne of Russia, when 
 he began to concert means for recovering his ancient patrimo- 
 nial domains, and avenging the wrongs which the Dukes of 
 Holstein-Gottorp, his ancestors, had received at the hands of 
 Denmark. Being determined to make war against that power, 
 he attached the King of Prussia to his cause, and marched a 
 Ru-sian army of 60,000 men towards the frontiers of Denmark 
 Six thousand Prussians were to join this army, which was sup- 
 ported by a Russian fleet to be stationed on the coasts of Po- 
 merania. The King of Denmark made every effort to repel the 
 invasion with which he was threatened. He set on foot an army 
 of 70,000 men, the command of which he intrusted to M. de 
 St. Germain, a distinguished French officer. 
 
 The Danish army advanced towards Mecklenburg, and esta- 
 blished their head-quarters in the town of that name, one 
 league from Wismar. The Danish fleet, consisting of twenty 
 sail of the line and el'^^en frigates, appeared at the same time 
 off Rostock. The flames of war were about to kindle in the 
 North, and Peter III. was on the point of joining his army in 
 person at ]\lecklenburg, when he was dethroned, after a shon 
 reign of six months (July 9. 1762. "» The Empress Catherme 
 
Destruction of the Bastile at Paris by the People. 
 Vol. 2, p 145. 
 
 Execution of Louis XVI. of France. Vol, 2, p. I5l. 
 
PERIOD vni. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 97 
 
 II., who succeeded him, did not think fit to espouse the quarrel 
 of her husband. She immediately recalled the Russian army 
 from Mecklenburg; and being desirous of establishing the tran- 
 quillity of the North on a solid basis, and confirming a good un- 
 derstanding between the two principal branches of the House 
 of Holstein, she agreed, by a treaty of alliance Vv^ith the King 
 of Denmark (1765,) to terminate all these differences by a 
 provisional arrangement, which was not to take effect until the 
 majority of the Grand Duke Paul, the son of Peter III. 
 
 This accommodation between the two Courts was signed at 
 Copenhagen (April 22, 1762.) The Empress, in the name of 
 her son, gave up her claim to the ducal part of Sleswick, oc- 
 cupied by the King of Denmark. She ceded, moreover, to 
 that sovereign a portion of Holstein, possessed by the family of 
 Gottorp, in exchange for the counties of Oldenburg and Del- 
 menhorst. It was agieed, that these counties should be erect- 
 ed into dutchies, and that the ancient suffrage of Holstein-Got- 
 torp, at the Imperial Diet, should be transferred to them. This 
 provisional treaty was ratified when the Grand Duke came of 
 age ; and the tranf^ference of the ceded territories took place in 
 1773. At the same time that prince declared, that he designed 
 the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst to form an esta- 
 blishment for a youngei branch of his family, that of Eutin ; 
 to which the contracting powers also secured the bishopric of 
 Lubec, to be held in perpetual possession. The bishop of Lubec, 
 the head of the younger branch of the Gottorp family, was that 
 same year put in possession of the counties of Oldenburg and 
 Delmenhorst ; and the Emperor Joseph II. erected these coun- 
 ties into a dutchy and fief male of the Empire, under the title 
 of the Dutchy of Holstein-Oldenburg. 
 
 Here it will be necessary to advert to the revolutions that took 
 place in the Island of Corsica, which, after a long series of troubles 
 and distractions, passed from the dominion of Genoa to that of 
 France. The oppressions which the Corsicans had suffered 
 under the government of the Genoese, who treated them with 
 extreme rigour, had rendered their yoke odious and insupporta- 
 ble. They rose several times in rebellion against the Republi- 
 cans ; but from the want of union among themselves, they failed 
 in the different attempts which they made for effecting their 
 liberty and independence. 
 
 One of the last insurrections of the Corsicans was that of 
 1729. They chose for their leader Andrew Ceccaldi of a noble 
 family in the Island, and Luigi Giafferi, a man of courage and 
 an enthusiast for lil>erty. The Genoese, after trying in vam to 
 subdue the insurgents, were obliged to have recourse to the pro* 
 
fl6 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 tection of forei^ers. They applied to the Emperor Charles 
 VI., who sent them several detachments of troops under tne 
 command of General \yachtendonk, and Prince Frederic Louis 
 of Wurtemberg. The Corsicans, too feeble to oppose an enemy 
 so superior in strength, were glad to lay down their arms. But 
 the war about the Polish Succession ha\dng obliged the Empe- 
 ror to withdraw his troops, the Islanders raised a new insurrec- 
 tion. A general assembly was then convened, which declared 
 Corsica to be a free and independent republic (1734.) Giafferi 
 was re-elected General, and had for his colleague Hyacinthus 
 Paoli, father to the famous general of that name. Thas the Ge- 
 noese, after lavishing much expense on auxiliary troops, had the 
 mortification to find themselves still in the same condition in 
 which they were, before receiving the Imperial succours. They 
 then took into their pay bodies of Swiss and Grison troops ; and 
 even enlisted outlaws and vagabonds, and placed them in their 
 ranks to oppose the Corsicans. 
 
 It happened, during these transactions, that an adventurer ap- 
 peared in Corsica, the celebrated Theodore Baron TSeuhof. He 
 was descended of a noble family in the county of ]Mark, in West- 
 phalia ; and having procured arms and ammunition at Tunis, 
 he repaired to Corsica (1736,) where he was determined to try 
 his fortune. His engaging manners, added to the prospects 
 wh.'ch he held out of a powerful foreign assistance, induced the 
 Corsicans to confer on him the royal dignity. He was proclaim- 
 ed King of Corsica, and immediately assumed the external 
 badges of royaltj-. He appointed guards and officers of state, 
 coined money in his own name, and created an order of knight- 
 hood, called the Redemptimi. Taking advantage of the enthu- 
 siasm with which he had inspired the Corsicans, he boldly made 
 war on the Genoese, and laid several of their places under 
 blockade. But his money being exhausted, and the people be- 
 ginning to cool in their attachment towards him, he took the 
 determination of applying for assistance to foreigners. He em- 
 barked for Holland, where he found means to engage a society 
 of merchants, by the allurements of a lucrative commerce with 
 Corsica, to furnish him with artiller}', ammunition, and other 
 supplies, with which he returned to the Island. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the Genoese, threatened with 
 losing for ever their sovereignty over Corsica, entered into an 
 association with the Court of Versailles. This Court, fearing 
 thai. England would take advantage of these disturbances to gel 
 possession of the Island, concerted measures with the Court o"" 
 Vienna, for obliging the Corsicans to return to their allegiance 
 to the Genoese. For this purpose, a plan of pacification was 
 
PERIOD vm, A. D. 1713 — 17S9. 99 
 
 4rawn up at Versailles, and Count de Boissieuxwas charged to 
 carry it into execution. This General landed in tlie Island 
 (1738,) at the head of a body of French auxiliaries ; and his ar- 
 rival determined King Theodore to abandon Corsica, and seek 
 his safety in flight. He retired to London, where he was im- 
 prisoned for debt. After a long captivity he was set at liberty, 
 and died in a state of misery (1756.) Boissieux harassed tlie 
 Corsicans exceedingly, but he failed in his efforts to reduce them 
 eo submission. His successor, the 3Jarquis de Maillebois, was 
 more fortunate ; he took his measures with such precision and 
 vigour, that he obliged the Islanders to lay down their arms, and 
 receive the law from the conqueror. Their Generals, Giafferi 
 and Paoli, retired to Naples. 
 
 The war of the Austrian Succession, having obliged the 
 French Court to recall their troops from Corsica, that island be- 
 came the scene of new disturbances. Gafforio and Matra then 
 took upon them the functions of generalship, and the direction 
 of affairs. They had a colleague and coadjutor in the person 
 of Count Rivarola, a native of Corsica, who, with the assistance 
 of some English vessels succeeded in expelling the Genoese 
 from Bastia and San Fiorenzo. The Corsicans might have 
 pushed their advantages much farther, if they could have sub- 
 dued their own feuds and private animosities, and employed 
 themselves solely in promoting the public interest ; but their 
 internal divisions retarded their success, and allowed their ene- 
 mies to recover the places they had conquered. Rivarola and 
 ]\iatra having resigned the command, the sole charge devolved 
 on Ga fforio, who was a man of rare merit and of tried valour. 
 He was beginning to civilize his countrymen, and to give some 
 stability to the government of the island, when he was assassi- 
 nated, as is supposed, by the emissaries of the Genoese (1753.) 
 His death pluno-ed Corsica once more into the state of disorder 
 and anarchy, from which he had laboured to deliver it. 
 
 At length appeared the celebrated Pascal Paoli, whom his 
 aged father had brought from Naples to Corsica. Being elected 
 General-in-chief by his countrymen (1755,) he inspired then 
 with fresh courage ; and \vhile he carried on the war with sue 
 cess against the Genoese, he made efforts to reform abuses in the 
 State, and to encourage agriculture, letters and arts. Nothing 
 was wanting to accomplish this object, and to confirm the liberty 
 and independence of his country, but the expulsion of the Geno- 
 ese from the maritime towns of Bastia, San Fiorenzo, Calvi, Ai- 
 gagliola and Ajaccio ; the only places which still remained in 
 their power. In this he would probably have succeeded, had he 
 not met with new interruptions from France, who had underta- 
 
100 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ken, by the several treaties which she had concluded with ih© 
 Genoese in the years 1752, 1755, 1756 and 1764, to defend their 
 ports and fortifications in that island. 
 
 The original intention of the French, in taking possession of 
 these places, was not to carry on hostilities with Paoli and the 
 native-s, but simply to retain them for a limited time, in discharge 
 of a debt which the French goverament had contracted with the 
 Eef jblic of Genoa. The Genoese had flattered themselves, 
 that if exonerated from the duty of guarding the fortified places, 
 they would be able, with their own forces, to reconquer all tii,, 
 rest of the island ; but it was not long before they found them- 
 selves deceived in their expectations. The Corsicans drove the 
 Genoese from the island of Capraja (1767.) They even took 
 possession of Ajaccio, and some other parts v/hich the French 
 had thought fit to abandon. At the same time the shipping of 
 the Corsicans made incessant incursions on the Genoese, and 
 annoyed their commerce. 
 
 The Senate of Genoa, convinced at last that it was impossible 
 for them to subdue the island, and seeing the time approach 
 when the French troops were to take their departure, took the 
 resolution of surrendering their rights over Corsica to the crown 
 of France, by a treaty which was signed at Versailles (May 15, 
 1768.) The King promised to restore the island of Capraja ta 
 to the Republic. He guaranteed to them all their possessions 
 on terra fir ma ; and engaged to pay them annually for ten 
 years, the sum of 200,000 livres. The Genoese reserved to 
 themselves the right of reclaiming the sovereignty of Corsica^ 
 on reimbursing the King for the expenses of the expediiion he 
 was aboui lo undertake, as v/ell as for the maintenance of his 
 troops. This treaty occasioned strong remonstrances on the part 
 of the Corsicans, who prepared themselves for a vigorous de- 
 fence. The first campaign turned to their advantage. It cost 
 France several thousand men, and about thirty millions of livres. 
 The Duke de Choiseul, far from being discouraged by these dis- 
 asters, transported a strong force into the island. He put the 
 Count de Vaux in the place of the Marquis de Chauvelin, who. 
 by the skilful dispositions which he made, found himself master 
 of all Corsica, in less than two months. The Islanders not hav- 
 ing received from England the supplies which they had request- 
 ed, the prospect of which had kept up their courage, considered 
 it rash and hopeless to make h)nger resistance. The different 
 provinces, in their turn, gave in their submission; and the prin- 
 cipal leaders of the Corsicans dispersed themselves among the 
 neighbouring States. Pascal Paoli took refuge in England. 
 
 The throne of Poland having become vacant by the death of 
 
PERiCDvni, A. D. 1713— 1789. 101 
 
 Augustus III. (Oct. 5, 1763,) the Empress Catherine II. des- 
 tined that crown for Stanislaus Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman, 
 who had gained her favour when he resided at St. Petersburgh 
 as plenipotentiary of Poland. That princess having gained over 
 the Court of Berlin to her interests, sent several detachments of 
 troops into Poland ; and in this manner succeeded in carrying 
 the election of her favourite, w^ho was proclaimed King at the 
 Diet of Warsaw (Sept. 7, 1764.) It was at this diet of election 
 that the Empress formally interceded with the Republic in 
 favour of the Dissiderits (or dissenters) of Poland and Lithuania, 
 with the view of having them reinstated in those civil and ec- 
 clesiastical rights, of which they had been deprived by the in- 
 tolerance of the Catholics. The name of Dissidents was then 
 given in Poland to the Greek non-conformists and to the Pro- 
 testants, both Lutherans and Calvinists. That kingdom, as well 
 as Lithuania, had contained from the earliest ages a vast num- 
 ber of Greeks, who persisted in their schism, in spite of the 
 efforts W'hich were incessantly made by the Polish clergy for 
 bringing them back to the pale of the Romish church. The 
 Protestant doctrines had been introduced into Poland, and had 
 made considerable progress in course of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; more especially under the reign of Sigismund Augustus, 
 The nobles who were attached to that form of worship, had ob- 
 trined, at the Diet of Wilna (1563,) the right of enjoying, along 
 w^ith the Greeks, all the prerogatives of their rank, and of being 
 admitted without distinction, both to the assemblies of the Diet, 
 and the offices and dignities of the Republic. Moreover, their 
 religious and political liberties had been guaranteed in the most 
 solemai manner, not only by treaties of alliance, and the Pacta 
 Conventa of the kings, but also by the laws and constitution of 
 their kingdom. The Catholics having afterwards become the 
 stronger party, their zeal, animated by their clergy and the Jesuits, 
 led them to persecute those whom they regarded as heretics. 
 Thev had in various ways circumscribed their religious liberties, 
 especially at the Diet of 1717 ; and in those of 1733 and 1736, 
 thev went so far as to exclude them from the diets and tribunals, 
 and in general from all places of trust ; only preserving the peace 
 with them according to the ancient laws of the Republic. 
 
 The Dissidents availed themselves of the influence w^hich 
 ihe Empress of Rus.sia had secured in the affairs of Poland, to 
 obtain by her means the redress of their grievances. That prin- 
 cess interposed more especially in favour of the Greeks, accord- 
 in o- to the ninth article of the peace of Moscow between Russia 
 and Poland (1686;) while the Courts of Berlin, Stockholm 
 London, and Copenhagen, as guarantees of the peace of Oliva 
 
 9* 
 
,02 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 urged the second article of that treaty in sirpport of the Fro- 
 tesiant dissenters. Far from yielding to an intercession so 
 powerful, the Diet of Warsavv, instigated by the clergy and the 
 Court of Rome, in the year 1766 confirmied all the former law^^ 
 against the Protestants which the foreign courts had desired to 
 be altered and amended. They merely introduced some few 
 modifications in the law of 1717, relative to the exercise of their 
 vvorship. 
 
 This palliative did not satisfy the Court of St. Petersburg, 
 which persisted in demanding an entire equality of rights iv. 
 favour of those under its protection. The Dissidents had the 
 courage to resnst, and entered into a confederacy at the assem- 
 blies which were held at Sluckz (1767) and Thorn. Such ot 
 the Catholic nobility as were discontented with the government^ 
 allied themselves v/ith the Dissidents, and formed several dis- 
 tinct confederacies, which afterwords combined into a general 
 confederation under Marshal Prince Radzivil. An extraordi- 
 nary Diet was then assembled at Warsaw. Their deliberations, 
 which began October 5, 1767, were very tumultuous. Without 
 being intimidated by the presence af a Russian array, the 
 Bishop of Cracow and his adherents gave way to the full torrent 
 of their zeal, in the discourses which they pronounced before 
 the Diet. The Empress caused them to be arrested and con- 
 ducted into the interior of Russia, whence they were not per- 
 mitted to return till after an exile of several years. They agreed 
 at length, at that Diet, to ap]x>int a committee, composed of the 
 different orders of the Republic, to regulate all matters regard- 
 ing the Dissidents, in concert with the ministers of the protect- 
 ing courts. A separate act was dra\\Ti up (February 24, 1768) 
 in the form of a convention between Russia and Poland, 
 
 By that act, the Dissidents were reinstated in all their former 
 rights. The regulations which had been passed to their pre- 
 judice in the years 1717, 1733, 1736, and 1766, were annulled ; 
 and a superior court, composed equally of both parties, was 
 granted to them, for terminating all disputes which might arise 
 between persons of different religions. This act was confirmed 
 by the treaty of peace and alliance concluded at Warsaw be- 
 tween Russia and Poland (Feb. 24, 1768,) by which these two 
 powers guaranteed to each other the whole of their possessions 
 in Europe. The Empress of Russia guaranteed, more especially, 
 the liberty, constitution, and indivisibility of the Polish Republic, 
 
 The act we have just now mentioned, as well as another 
 which modified what were called the cardinal or fundamental 
 aws of the Republic, having displeased a great majority of the 
 Poles, they used ever}' effort to have these acts recalled. The 
 
PERIOD vui. A. D. 1713—1789 103 
 
 Diet of 1768 was no sooner terminated, than they formed them- 
 selves into a confederacy at Bar in Podolia, for the defence of 
 their religion and liberties. By degrees, these extended to 
 several Palatinates, and were at length combined into a general 
 confederation, under the Marshal Count De Pac. The standards 
 of these confederates bore representations of the Virgin Mary 
 and the Infant Jesus. Like the Crusaders of the middle ages, 
 they wore embroidered crosses on their garments, with the motto 
 Conquer or Die. The Russians despatched troops to disperse 
 the confederates as fast as they combined : but at length, with 
 the assistance of France, and M. De Vergennes, the French 
 Ambassador at the Porte, they succeeded in stirring up the 
 Turks against the Russians. The war between these two Em- 
 pires broke out towards the end of 1768, which proved disas- 
 trous for the Turks, and suppressed also the confederates in 
 Poland. The manifesto of the Grand Siguier against Russia 
 was published October 30th, and his declaration of war Decem- 
 ber 4th, 1768. 
 
 The Empress despatched several armies against the Turks, 
 and attacked them at once from the banks of the Dniester to 
 Mount Caucasus. Prince Alexander Galitzin, who commanded 
 the principal army, was to cover Poland, and penetrate into 
 Moldavia. He passed the Dniester different times, but was al- 
 ways repulsed by the Turks, who were not more fortunate in 
 their attempts to force the passage of that river. On their last 
 attempt (September 1769,) twelve thousand men had succeeded 
 \x\ crossing it, when there happened a sudden flood which broke 
 down the bridge, and cut off the retreat of the Turks. This body 
 was cut to pieces by the Russians, when a panic seized the Ot- 
 toman army, who abandoned their camp and the fortress of 
 Choczim. The Russians took possession of both without cost- 
 ing them a single drop of blood, and soon after penetrated into 
 the interior of Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 
 The campaign of 1770 was most splendid for the Russians. 
 General Romanzow, who succeeded Prince Galitzin in the com- 
 mand of the army of Moldavia, gained two brilliant victories 
 over the Turks near the Pruth (July 18,) and the Kukuli 
 (August 1,) which made him master of the Danube, and the 
 towns of Ismael, Kilia, and Akerman, situated in Bessarabia, 
 near the mouth of that river. Another Russian army, under 
 the command of General Count Panin, attacked the fortress of 
 Bender, defended by a strong Turkish garrison. It was carried 
 by assault (Sept. 26,) and the greater part of the garrison put to 
 the sword. 
 
 The Empress did not confine herself to repulsing the Turks 
 
104 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 on the banks of the Dniester and the Danube, and harassing 
 their commerce in the Black Sea. She formed the bold pro- 
 ject of attacking them at the same time in the islands of the Ar- 
 chipelago, and on the coasts of Greece and the Morea. A Rus- 
 sian fleet, under the command of Alexis Orloff and Admiral 
 Spiritoff', sailed from the Baltic, and passed the Northern Seas 
 and the Straits of Gibraltar, on their way to the Archipelago. 
 Being joined by the squadron of Rear-Admiral Elphinstone, they 
 fought an obstinate battle with the fleet of the Capitan Pacha 
 (JuTy 5, 1770,) between Scio and Anatolia. The ships of the 
 two commanders, Spiritofl" and the Capitan Pacha, having mec 
 in the engagement, one of them caught fire, when both were 
 blown into the air. Darkness separated the combatants ; but the 
 Turks having imprudently retired to the narrow bay of Chisme, 
 the Russians pursued them, and burnt their whole fleet during 
 the night. This disaster threw the city of Constantinople into 
 great consternation ; and the bad state of defence in which the 
 Dardanelles were, gave them reason to fear, that if the Rus- 
 sians had known to take advantage of this panic, it would have 
 been easy for them to have carried the Turkish capital. Rear- 
 Admiral Elphinstone, who commanded one of the Russian squad- 
 rons, had suggested that advice ; but the Russian Admirals 
 did not think proper to follow it. 
 
 The war on the Danube was continued next year, though 
 feebly ; but the second Russian army, under the command of 
 Prince Dolgoruki, succeeded in forcing the lines at Perekop, de- 
 fended by an army of 60,000 Turks and Tartars, commanded 
 by the Khan of the Crimea in person. Dolgoruki, after hav- 
 ing surmounted the formidable barrier, made himself master of 
 the Crimea, as also of the Island of Taman ; and received from 
 the Empress, as the reward of his exploits, the surname of 
 Krimski. An act was signed by certain pretended deputies 
 from the Tartars, by which that nation renounced the dominion 
 of the Ottomans, and put themselves under the protection of 
 Russia (1772.) 
 
 These conquests, however splendid they might be, could not 
 fail to exhaust Russia. Obliged frequently to recruit her ar- 
 mies, which were constantly thinned by battles, fatigues, and 
 diseases, she soon saw the necessity of making peace. The 
 plague, that terrible ally of the Ottomans, passed from the army 
 into the interior of the Empire, and penetrated as far as Mos- 
 cow, where it cut ofl' nearly 100,000 men in the course oi a 
 single year (1771.) What added still more to the embarrass- 
 ments of Catherine II. was, that the Court of Vienna, which, 
 in coniunction with that of Berlin, had undertaken to mediate 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713— 17S9. 105 
 
 between Russia and the Porte, rejected Avith disdain the condi- 
 tions of peace proposed by the Empress. Moreover, they 
 strongly opposed the independence of Moldavia and Wallachia, 
 as well as of the Tartars ; and would not even permit that the 
 Eussians should transfer the seat of war to the right b? niv of 
 the Danube. 
 
 The Court of Vienna went even farther : it threatened to 
 make common cause with the Turks, to compel the Empress to 
 restore all her conquests, and to place matters between the Rus- 
 sians and the Turks on the footing of the treaty of Belgrade. 
 An agreement to this effect was negotiated with the Porte, and 
 signed at Constantinople ( Kily 6, 1771.) This convention, 
 however, was not ratified, the Court of Vienna having changed 
 its mind on account of the famous dismemberment of Poland, 
 concerted between it and the Courts of Berlin and St. Peters- 
 burg. The Empress then consented to restore to the Turks 
 ihe provinces of Moldavia and AVallachia, on the conclusion of 
 the peace ; and the Court of Vienna again engaged to exert its 
 friendly interference in negotiating peace between Russia and 
 the Porte. 
 
 In consequence of these events, the year 1772 was passed 
 entirely in negotiations. A suspension of arms was agreed to 
 between the two belligerent povv'ers. A Congress was opened at 
 Foczani in Moldavia, under the mediation of the Courts of Ber- 
 lin and St. Petersburg. This Congress was followed by another, 
 which was held at Bucharest in Wallachia. Both of these 
 meetings proved ineffectual, the Turks having considered the 
 conditions proposed by Russia as inadmissible ; and what dis- 
 pleased them still more was, the article relative to the indepen- 
 dence of the Tartars in the Crimea. This they rejected as con- 
 trary to the principles of their religion, and as tending to esta- 
 blish a rivalry between the two Caliphs. They succeeded, 
 however, in settling the nature of the religious dependence 
 under which the Khans of the Crimea were to remain with re- 
 gard to the Porte ; but they could not ])0ssibly agree as to the 
 surrender of the ports of Jenikaleh and Kerch ; nor as to the 
 unrestrained liberty of navigation in the Turkish seas, which 
 the Russians demanded. After these conferences had been re- 
 peatedly broken off, hostilities commenced anew (1773.) The 
 Russians twice attempted to establish themselves on the right 
 bank of the Danube, but without being able to accomplish it ; 
 ihey even lost a great number of men in the different actions 
 which they fought with the Turks. 
 
 The last campaign, that of 1774, was at length decisive. 
 Abdul Hammed, w^ho had just succeeded his l^other Mustapha 
 
106 CHAPTER U.. 
 
 III. on tho throne of Constantinople, being eager to raise the 
 glory of the Ottoman arms, made extraordinary preparations 
 for this campaign. His troops, reckoned about 300,000 men, 
 greatly surpassed the Russians in point of number ; but they 
 were not equal in point of discipline and military skill. About 
 the end of June, Marshal Romanzow passed the Danube, 
 without meeting any obstacle from the Ottoman army. That 
 General took advantage of a mistake which the Grand Vizier 
 had committed, in pitching his camp near Schumia at too great 
 a distance from his detachments, and cut otf his communication 
 with these troops, and even with his military stores. The de- 
 feat of 28,000 Turks, who were bringing a convoy of four or 
 five thousand wagons to the army, by General Kamenski, 
 struck terror into the camp of the Grand Vizier, who, seeing his 
 army on the point of disbanding, agreed to treat with Marshal 
 Romanzow on such terms as that general thought fit to prescribe. 
 
 Peace was signed in the Russian camp at Kainargi, four leagues 
 from Silistria. By that treaty, the Tartars of the Crimea, Boud- 
 ziac, and Cuban, were declared entirely independent of the Porte, 
 to be governed henceforth by their own sovereign. Russia ob- 
 tained for her merchant vessels free and unrestrained naviga- 
 tion in all the Turkish seas. She restored to the Turks Bes- 
 *^rabia, Moldavia, and Wallachia ; as well as the islands in the 
 Archipelago which were still in her possession. But she re- 
 served the city and territory of Azoflf", the two Kabartas, the for- 
 tresses of Jenikaleh and Kerch in the Crimea, and the Castle of 
 Kinburn, at the mouth of the Dnieper, opposite Oczakoff, with 
 the neck of land between the Bog and the Dnieper, on which 
 the Empress afterwards built a new city, called Cherson, to serve 
 as an entrepQt for her commerce with the Levant. The foun- 
 dation of this city was laid by General Hannibal (Oct. 19, 
 1778,) on the western bank of the Dnieper, fifteen versts from 
 the confluence of the Ingulelz with that river. 
 
 The House of Austria also reaped advantages from that war, 
 by the occupation of Bukowina, which she obtained from Rus- 
 sia, who had conquered it from the Turks. This part of Mol- 
 davia, comprehending the districts of Suczawa and Czernowitz, 
 was claimed by the Court of Vienna as one of its ancient ter- 
 ritories in Transylvania, which has been usurped by the princes 
 of Moldavia. The Porte, who was indebted to Austria for 
 the restitution of this latter province, had no alternative but to 
 abandon the districts claimed by Austria. Prince Ghikas of 
 Moldavia, having opposed the cession of these provinces, was 
 put to death by order of the Porte ; and Bukowina was confirm- 
 ed to Austria by subsequent conventions (1776, and 1777,) 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 107 
 
 which at the same time regulated the limits between the two 
 States. The peace of Kainargi, though glorious for Russia, 
 proved most calamitous for the Ottoman Porte. By establishing 
 the independence of the Tartars, it lost the Turks one ot 
 their principal bulwarks against Russia ; and they were indig- 
 nant at seeing the Russians established on the Black Sea, and 
 permitted unrestrained navigation in all the Turkish seas. 
 Henceforth they had reason to tremble for the safety of their 
 capital, which might be assailed with impunity, and its supplies 
 intercepted, on the least disturbance that might arise between the 
 two Empires. 
 
 The many disasters which the Turks had experienced in the 
 war we have now mentioned, had a direct influence on the fate 
 of Poland, which ended in the dismemberment of that kingdom. 
 This event, which had been predicted by John Casimir in the 
 seventeenth century, was brought about by the mediation of the 
 Courts of Berlin and Vienna for the restoration of peace between 
 Russia and Turkey. The conditions of that treaty, which were 
 dictated by the Empress Catherine II., having displeased the 
 Court of Vienna, which had moreover displayed hostile inten- 
 tions against Russia, by despatching troops into Hungary, and 
 taking possession of a part of Poland, '\vhich Austria claimed as 
 anciently belonging to Hungary, the Empress took this occasion 
 of observing to Prince Henry of Prussia, who then sojourned at 
 her Court, that if Austria seemed inclined to dismember Poland, 
 the other neighbouring powers were entitled to do the same. 
 This overture was communicated by Prince Henry to his brother 
 the King of Prussia, who resolved to act on this new idea. He 
 foresaw it would be a proper means for indemnifying Russia, 
 contenting Austria, and augmenting his own territories, by 
 establishing a communication between the kingdom of Prussia, 
 and his dutchy of Brandenburg. These considerations induced 
 him to set on foot a negotiation with the courts of Vienna and 
 St. Petersburg. He gave the former to understand, that if war 
 should break out between Austria and Russia, he could not but 
 take part in it as the ally of the latter power ; while he repre- 
 sented to the Empress of Russia, that if she would consent to 
 restore Moldavia and Wallachia to the Turks, and indemnify her- 
 self by a part of Poland, she would avoid a new war, and facili- 
 tate an accommodation with the Porte. In this manner did he 
 succeed, after a long and difficult negotiation, in recommending 
 to the two Imperial courts, a project which was to give Europe 
 the example of a kingdom dismembered on mere reasons of con- 
 venience. A preliminary agreement was drawn up, in which 
 the equality of the respective portions of the three courts was 
 
1€8 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 assumed as the basis of the intended partition. A negotiation 
 was afterwards entered into at St. Petersburg, for regulating the 
 portion to be given to the Court of Vienna; as the Empress and 
 the King of Prussia, had already agreed about the divisions to 
 which they thought they might lay claim. ^"^ 
 
 At length the formal conventions were signed at St. Peters- 
 burg, between the ministers of the three Courts (Aug. 5, 1772.) 
 The boundaries of the territories and districts, which were to 
 fall to the share of liie three powers respectively, were there 
 definitively settled and guaranteed to each other. They agreed 
 to defer taking possession till the month of September following, 
 and to act in concert for obtaining a final arrangement with the 
 Republic of Poland. The Empress engaged by the same treaty 
 to surrender Moldavia and Wallachia to the Turks, in order to 
 expedite the restoration of peace between her and the Porte. In 
 terms of that agreement, the declarations and letters-patent of 
 the three Courts, were presented at Warsaw, in September 
 1772 ; and on taking possession of the territories and districts 
 which had been assigned them, they published memorials for 
 establishing the legitimacy of their right?, over the countries 
 which they claimed. The King of Poland and his ministry, in 
 vain claimed the assistance and protection of the powers that 
 guaranteed the treaties. They had no other alternative left, 
 than to condescend to every thing which the three courts de- 
 manded. A Diet which was summoned at Warsaw, appointed 
 a delegation, taken from the Senate and the Equestrian order, 
 to transact with the plenipotentiaries of the three powers, as to 
 the arrangements of the different treaties by which the provinces 
 already occupied were to be formally ceded to them on the part 
 of the Republic. These arrangements were signed at AVarsaw, 
 September 18, 1773, and afterwards ratified by the Diet of Poland. 
 
 To Austria was assigned, in terms of her treaty with the Re- 
 public, the thirteen towns in the county of Zips, which Sigis- 
 mund, King of Hungary, had mortgaged to Poland in 1412 ; 
 besides nearly the half of the Palatinate of Cracow, part of Sando- 
 mire, Red Russia, the greater part of Belz, Pocutia, and part of 
 Podolia. The towms in the county of Zips were again incor- 
 porated with Hungary, from which they had been dismembered ; 
 and all the rest were erected into a particular State, under the 
 name of the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. One very 
 important advantage in the Austrian division was, the rich salt 
 mines in Wieliczka, and Bochnia, and Sanibor, which furnished 
 salt to the greater part of Poland. ^^ 
 
 Russia obtained for her share, Polish Livonia, the greater 
 part of Witepsk and Polotsk, the whole Palatinate of Mscislaw 
 
PERIOD vni. A. D, 17]8— 1789. 109 
 
 and the two extremities of the Palatinate of Minsk.^^ These 
 the Empress formed into two grand governments, those of Polotsk 
 and Mochiiew. The King of Prussia had the states of Great 
 Poland, situated beyond the Netze, as well as the whole of 
 Polish Prussia, except the cities of Dantzic and Thorn, which 
 were reserved to Poland. ^^ That republic, in virtue of a treaty 
 with the King of Prussia, renounced also her rights of domaine, 
 and the reversion which the treaties of Welau and Bidgost had 
 secured to her with regard to Electoral Prussia, as well as the 
 districts of Lauenburg, Butow, and Draheim. The portion of 
 the King of Prussia was so much the more important in a poli- 
 tical point of view, as it united the kingdom of Prussia with his 
 possessions in Germany ; and, by giving him the command of 
 the Vistula, it made him master of the commerce of Poland ; 
 especially of the corn-trade, so valuable to the rest of Europe. 
 
 The three courts, in thus dismembering Poland, renounced, 
 in the most formal manner, all farther pretensions on the re- 
 public ; and, lastly, to consummate their work, they passed an 
 act at Warsaw, by which they sanctioned the liheruin veto, and 
 the unanimity in their decisions formerly used at the Diet in 
 state matters ; the crown was declared elective, and foreign 
 princes were to be excluded. The prerogative of the King, al- 
 ready very limited, was circumscribed still more by the establish- 
 ment of a permanent council ; and it was statuted, that no one 
 could ever change this constitution, of which the three powers 
 had become the guarantees. 
 
 [This partition of Poland must be regarded as the harbinger of 
 the total overthrow of the political system which for three hun- 
 dred years had prevailed in Europe. After so many alliances 
 had been formed, and so many wars undertaken, to preserve the 
 weaker states against the ambition of the greater, we here find 
 three powers of the first rank combining to dismember a state 
 which had never given them the slightest umbrage. The bar 
 riers between legitimate right and arbitrary power were thus 
 overthrown, and henceforth the destiny of inferior states was no 
 longer secure. The system of political equilibrium became the 
 jest of innovators, and many well disposed men began to regard 
 it as a chimera. Though the chief blame of this transaction 
 must fall on the courts of St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Vienna, 
 those of London and Paris were accomplices to the crime, by 
 allowing this spoliation to be consummated without any mark of 
 their reprobation.] 
 
 In Sweden, the aristocratic system had prevailed since the 
 changes which had been introduced into the form of government 
 hy the revolution of 1720. The chief power resided in the body 
 
 VOL. 7T. 10 
 
1 10 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 of the Senate, and the royal authority was reduced to a mere 
 shadow. The same factions, the Hats and the Bonnets, of which 
 we have spoken above, continued to agitate and distract the state. 
 The Hats were of opinion, that to raise the glory of Sweden, 
 and to recover the provinces of Livonia and Finland, it was ne- 
 cessary to cultivate friendship with France and the Porte, in 
 order to secure their support in case of a rupture with Russia. 
 The Bonnets, on the other hand, maintained that Sweden, ex- 
 hausted by the preceding wars, ought to engage in no under- 
 taking against Russia. In preferring a system of pacification, 
 they had no other object in view than to maintain peace and 
 good understanding with all states, without distinction. These 
 two factions, instigated by foreign gold, acquired a new impor- 
 tance when the war broke out between Russia and the Porte. 
 It was in the Diet of 1769 that the Hats found means to get 
 possession of the government, by depriving the members of the 
 opposite party of their principal employments. There was some 
 reason to believe that France, in consequence of her connexions 
 with the Porte, had used every effort to stir up Sweden against 
 Russia, and that the mission of Vergennes, who passed from 
 Constantinople to Stockholm, had no other object than this. 
 Russia had then to make every exertion to raise the credit and 
 influence of the Bonnets, in order to maintain peace with Swe- 
 den. In these endeavours, she was assisted by the Court of 
 London, who were not only willing to support the interests of 
 Russia, but glad of the opportunity to thwart France in her po- 
 litical career. 
 
 The death of Adolphus Frederic, which happened in the 
 meantime, opened a new field for intrigue in the Diet, which 
 was summoned on account of the accession of his son and suc- 
 cessor Gustavus III. (Feb. 12, 1771.) This young prince at 
 first interposed between the two parties, with a view to conciliate 
 them ; but with so little success, that it rather increased their 
 animosity, until the Bonnets, who were supported by Russia and 
 England, went so far as to resolve on the total expulsion of the 
 Hats, not only from the senate, but from all other places and 
 dignities in the kingdom. Licentiousness then became extreme ; 
 and circumscribed as the royal power already was in the time of 
 Adolphus Frederic, they demanded new restrictions to be imposed 
 on his successor. The treaties that were projected with Russia 
 and England, were evidently the result of the system adopted by 
 that faction who had now seized the reins of government. 
 
 In this state of affairs, the young king saw the necessity of 
 aiiempting some change in the system of administration. His 
 gentleness and eloquence, and his affable and popular manners. 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. Ill 
 
 iiad gained him a number of partisans. He possessed in an 
 eminent degree the art of dissimulation ; and while he was 
 making every arrangement for a revolution, and concerting mea- 
 sures in secret with the French ambassador, he seemed to have 
 nothing so much at heart as to convince the world of his sincere 
 attachment to the established constitution. It is alleged, that he 
 had sent emissaries over the whole kingdom to stir up the people 
 against their governors ; and that he might have some pretext 
 for calling out his troops, he induced Captain Hellichius, the 
 commandant of Christianstadt in Blekingen, to raise the standard 
 of revolt against the states who still continued their sittings at 
 Stockholm. 
 
 That officer, known afterwards by the name of Gustafsckeld, 
 or the Shield of Gzistavus^ published at first a kind of manifesto, 
 in which he reproached the States for their misconduct ; which 
 he showed to have been diametrically opposite to the public in- 
 terest and the laws of the kingdom. Prince Charles, the King's 
 brother, who was at that time at Landscrona in Schonen, being 
 informed of the proceedings of the commandant of Christianstadt, 
 immediately assembled the troops in the provinces, and marched 
 to that place, with the intention, as is said, of stifling the revolt 
 in its birth. The news of this insurrection spread consternation 
 in the capital. The States were suspicious of the King, and took 
 measures to prevent the ambitious designs which they supposed 
 him to entertain. Hellichius was proclaimed a rebel by the 
 Senate, and guilty of high treason. They advised the King not 
 to quit Stockholm, the command of which was intrusted to a 
 senator, the Count of Kalling, with the most ample powers. At 
 length the regiment of Upland, whose officers were devoted to 
 the Senate, were ordered to the capital, with the intention, as is 
 supposed, of arresting the King. That prince then saw that he 
 had no longer time to delay, and that he must finish the execu- 
 tion of the plan which he had proposed. 
 
 On the morning of the 19th of August, the King presented 
 himself to the troops who mounted guard at the palace ; and 
 having assembled the officers, he detailed to them the unfortu- 
 nate state of the kingdom, as being the consequence of those 
 dissensions which had distracted the Diet for more than fourteen 
 months. He pointed out to them the necessity of abolishing that 
 haughty aristocracy who had ruined the state, and to restore the 
 constitution to what it was before the revolution of 1680 ; ex- 
 pressing at the same time his decided aversion for absolute and 
 despotic power. Being assured of the fidelity of the guards, 
 who were eager to take the oath of allegiance to him, he ordered 
 a detachment to surround the Council Chamber where the Se- 
 
112 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 nators were assembled, and put the leaders of the ruling party 
 under arrest. The artillery and other regiments of guards hav- 
 ing also acknowledged his authority, their example was soon 
 followed by all the colleges (or public offices,) both civil and 
 military. The arrest against Hellichius was revoked, and the 
 regiment of Upland received orders to march back. These mea- 
 sures and some others were executed with so much skill and 
 punctuality, that the public tranquillity was never disturbed ; 
 and by five o'clock in the evening of the same day, the revolu- 
 tion seemed to be accomplished without shedding a single drop 
 of blood. Next day, the magistrates of the city took the oath to 
 the King, and the assembly of the States was summoned to meet 
 on the 21st. On that day the King caused the palace to be sur- 
 rounded by troops, and cannons to be pointed into the court op- 
 posite the Chamber of the States. Seated on his throne, and 
 surrounded by his guards, the King opened the assembly by an 
 energetic discourse which he addressed to the members, in which 
 he painted, in lively colours, the deplorable state of the kingdom, 
 and the indispensable necessity of applying some prompt remedy. 
 The new form of government which he had prepared was read 
 by his orders, and adopted without opposition by the whole four 
 orders of the kingdom. The king then drew a psalm-book from 
 his pocket, and taking off his crown, began to sing Te Deum, in 
 which he was joined by the whole assembly. Matters passed 
 in the interior of the provinces with as little tumult and opposi- 
 tion as in the capital and principal cities. The King's brothers 
 received, in his name, the oath of fidelity on the part of the in- 
 habitants and the military. 
 
 In virtue of this new form of government, all the fundamen- 
 tal laws introduced since 1680 were cancelled and abolished. 
 The succession to the throne was restricted to males only. 
 The lineal order, and the right of primogeniture, as settled by 
 the convention of 1743, and by the decree of the Diet of 1750, 
 were confirmed. The King was to govern alone, according to 
 the laws ; and the Senate were to be considered as his counsel- 
 lors. All the senators were to be nominated by the King, and 
 matters were no longer to be decided by a plurality of votes. 
 The senators were simply to give their advice, and the decision 
 belonged to the King. Courts of justice, however, were ex- 
 cepted. The chief command of all the forces in the kingdom, 
 both by sea and land, and the supreme direction of the Exche- 
 quer, were conferred on the King. On the report of the senate, 
 he filled up all the high offices in the state, both military, civil, 
 and ecclesiastical. He alone had the right of pardoning, and 
 of summoning the States, who could nev^ assemble on their 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 113 
 
 own authority, except in a case where the throne became vacant, 
 by the total extinction of the royal family in the male line. The 
 duration of the Diets was fixed for three months, and the King 
 had the privilege of dissolving them at the end of that time. 
 He could make no new laws, nor interpret the old ones, nor im- 
 pose subsidies or assessments, nor declare war, without the ad- 
 Ace and consent of the States. He was allowed, however, to 
 levy an extraordinary tax, in cases where the kingdom might 
 be attacked by sudden invasion ; but on the termination of the 
 war, the States were to be assembled, and the new tax discon- 
 tinued. All negotiations for peace, truces, and alliances, whe- 
 ther offensive or defensive, were reserved to the King, by whom 
 they were to be referred to the Senate. If, in these cases, the 
 unanimous voice of the Senate was opposed to that of the 
 King, it became his duty to acquiesce in their opinion. Every 
 Swedish citizen was to be judged by his natural judge. The 
 King could attaint neither the life, honour, nor fortune of any 
 citizen, otherwise than by the legal forms. All extraordinary 
 commissions or tribunals were to be suppressed, as tending to 
 establish tyranny and despotism. 
 
 The revolution of Stockholm, of which we have just now 
 spoken, had nothing in common with that which happened at Co- 
 penhagen the same year ; and which, without in any way af- 
 fecting the constitution of the kingdom, merely transferred the 
 reins of government from the hands of the reigning Queen to 
 those of the Queen-dowager.^'*- 
 
 In a remote corner of Europe, there existed an association of 
 warriors, of a kind quite peculiar, namely, that of the Zaparog 
 Cossacs ; so called because they dwelt near the cataracts of the 
 Dnieper, where they served as a military frontier, first to the 
 Poles, and afterwards to the Russians. The chief residence of 
 these Cossacs was called Setscha. It contained a considerable 
 mass of houses, scattered and badly constructed, and had a 
 small fort occupied by a Russian garrison. The position of 
 Setscha had not always been the same ; but it was ultimately 
 fixed on the western bank of the Borysthenes, opposite Kame- 
 noi-Saton, an ancient fortress of the Russians, and was called 
 New Setscha. These Cossacs, knowm in Poland by the name 
 of Haydamacs, and formidable by their incursions and their de- 
 vastations, had adopted a republican form of government. Their 
 capital was divided into thirty Kurenes, or quarters. Every 
 Cossac belonged to one of these Kurenes. There he lodged 
 when he stayed at Setscha, and was obliged to conform to its 
 laws. All those who belonged to the same Kurene, formed as it 
 were one and the same family. Like the ancient Spartans^ 
 VOL. II. 10^ 
 
114 CHAPTER Et. 
 
 thev were nourished with the same food, and ate at the same 
 tabfe. The overseer of each separate Kurene was called Ata- 
 maTif and the chief of all the Kurenes Koschewoi- Ataman. All 
 the chie-fs, without distinction, were elected by common consent; 
 the Ataman by his own Kurene, and the Koschewoi by the 
 whole Kurenes united. They were deposed whenever they be- 
 came unpopular. The assemblies of Setscha were either ordi- 
 nary or extraordinary. In that which was regularly held every 
 year on the 1st of January, they made a formal division of the 
 fields, rivers, and lakes, among the Kurenes. They made use 
 of lots in order to avoid disputes ; and they renewed them every 
 year, that a favourable chance might be given to all the Kurenes 
 in succession. At that assembly they elected new chiefs, if ihey 
 happened to be discontented with the old ones. As for the ex- 
 traordinary assemblies, they were held when it was in agitation 
 to undertake a campaign, or to make an excursion ; and gene 
 rally on all occasions when the common interest seemed to re- 
 quire it. They had a judge and some other officers in Setscha. 
 The judge never pronounced sentence except in affairs of little 
 importance. Those which appeared more v/eighty required the 
 intervention of all the chiefs. They would suffer no woman to 
 remain in Setscha. Those who were inclined to marry were 
 obliged to remove elsewhere. To keep up their numbers the 
 Zaparogs received deserters and fugitives from all nations. 
 They were particularly careful to recruit their ranks with young 
 boys, whom they kidnapped in their excursions ; and brought 
 them up according to their customs and manner of living. 
 
 The treaty of Andrussov between Russia and Poland had 
 left these Cossacs under the common protection of those two 
 States. They preferred that of Russia, and were continued 
 under the dominion of that power by the peace of Moscow. 
 Being afterwards implicated in the revolt of Mazeppa, they put 
 themselves under the protection of the Tartars of the Crimea af- 
 ter the battle of Pullowa, and transferred their capital of Setscha 
 to the eastern bank of the Dnieper, nearer its mouth. Being 
 discontented under the Tartai's, who repressed their incursions, 
 and often imposed exactions on Setscha, they took the resolution 
 of putting themselves once more under the dominion of Rus- 
 sia (1733.) The Empress Anne confirmed them in their pri- 
 vileges, and furnished money to assist them in rebuilding their 
 capital on the western bank of the Dnieper. 
 
 As they continued, however, to commit robbery and plunder 
 on the frontiers without intermission, and having neither friends 
 nor allies, Catherine II. resolved to annihilate this fantastic as- 
 sociation. Besides their depredations, the Zaparogs were ac- 
 
FERioD vin. A. D. 1713—1789. lib 
 
 cused of having usurped possession of several countries between 
 the Dnieper and the Bog; as well as of several districts which 
 had at all times belonged to the Cossacs of the Don. What 
 more particularly exasperated the Empress against them, was, 
 that bemg so obstinately attached to their absurd form of go- 
 vernment, they opposed every scheme of reform, the object of 
 which was to make them live in re-jular society, and in the 
 bonds of matrimony ; or to induce them to form themselves into 
 regiments, after the manner of the other Cossacs. They had 
 also refused to send their deputies to Moscow, at the time when 
 Catherine had sent for them from all parts of the Empire, for 
 the formation of a new code of laws ; and there was some rea- 
 son to fear they might attempt to revolt, on account of the 
 changes which the Empress proposed to make in the adminis- 
 tration of the government. These and other considerations in- 
 duced that princess to despatch a body of troops against Setscha 
 (1775.) The Zaparogs, attacked unawares, and inclosed on all 
 hands, saw themselves without the means of making the least 
 resistance. Their capital was destroyed, and their whole tribe 
 dispersed. Those who were not inclined to embrace another 
 kind of life, were sent back to their native towns and their re- 
 spective countries. 
 
 The succession of Bavaria reverted of right to the Elector 
 Palatine, Charles Theodore, as head of the elder branch of Wit- 
 telsbach. That prince had on his side, the Feudal Law of Ger- 
 many, the Golden Bull, the peace of Westphalia, and family 
 compacts frequently renewed between the two branches of that 
 house ; all Europe was persuaded that, should the case so turn 
 out, the rights of the Elector Palatine w^ould be beyond all con- 
 troversy. Meantime, the Elector Maximilian had scarcely 
 closed his eyes, when several pretenders appeared on the field, to 
 dispute the succession as his presumptive heirs. The Emperor 
 Joseph II. claimed all the fiefs of the Empire, which his pre- 
 decessors had conferred on the house of Bavaria, without ex- 
 pressly including the princes of the Palatine branch in these 
 investitures. The Empress, Maria Theresa, besides the fiefs of 
 the Upper Palatinate holding of the crown of Bohemia, demand- 
 ed all the countries and district! of Lower and Upper Bavaria, 
 as well as of the Upper Palatinate, which had been possessed by 
 the Princes of Bavaria-Straubingen, who had become extinct in 
 1425. She also alleged a pretended investiture, which the Em- 
 peror Sigismund had granted, in 1426, to his son-in-law Duke 
 Albert of Austria. The Electress-Dowager of Saxony, sister to 
 the last Elector of Bavaria, thought herself entitled to claim the 
 allodial succession, which she made out to be very extensive. 
 
116 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Lastly, the Dukes of Mecklenburg brought forward an ancietis 
 deed of reversion, which their ancestors had obtained from ths 
 Emperors, over the iandgraviate of Leuchtenberg. 
 
 Before these different claims could be made known, the Aus- 
 trian troops had entered Bavaria, immediately after the death of 
 the late Elector, and taken possession of all the countries and 
 districts claimed by the Emperor and the Empress-Queen. The 
 Elector Palatine, intimidated by the Cabinet of Vienna, ac- 
 knowledged the lawfulness of all the claims of that court, by a 
 convention which was signed at Vienna (Jan. 3, 1778,) but which 
 the Duke of Deux-Ponts, his successor and heir presumptive, 
 refused to ratify. That prince was supported in his opposition 
 by the King of Prussia, who treated the pretensions of Austria 
 as chimerical, and as being incompatible with the security of the 
 constitution of the Germanic body. The King interposed in this 
 affair, as being a guarantee for the peace of Westphalia, and a 
 friend and ally of the parties concerned, who all claimed his pro- 
 tection. He demanded of the Court of Vienna, that they should 
 withdraw their troops from Bavaria, and restore to the Elector 
 the territories of which they had deprived him. A negotiation 
 on this subject was opened between the two courts, and numerous 
 controversial writings were published ; but the proposals of the 
 King of Prussia not proving agreeable to the court of Vienna, 
 the conferences were broken off about the end of June 1778, and 
 both parties began to make preparations for war. 
 
 It was about the beginning of July when the King of Prussia 
 entered Bohemia, through the county of Glatz, and pitched his 
 camp between Jaromitz and Konigratz, opposite that of the Em- 
 peror and Marshal Daun, from which he was only separated by 
 the Elbe. Another army, composed of Prussians and Saxons, 
 and commanded by Prince Henry of Prussia, penetrated into 
 Bohemia through Lusatia ; but they were stopped in their march 
 by Marshal Laudohn, who had taken up a very advantageous 
 position, and defeated all the measures of the Prince of Prussia. 
 At length a third Prussian army marched into Austria and Sile- 
 sia, and occupied the greater part of that province. Europe had 
 never seen armies more numerous and better disciplined, and 
 commanded by such experienced generals, approach each other 
 so nearly without some memorable action taking place. The 
 Emperor and his generals had the good sense to act on the de- 
 fensive ; while the efforts of the King of Prussia, to bring him to 
 a general engagement, proved altogether unavailing. This 
 prince, who had lost a great many men by sickness and deser- 
 tion, was compelled to evacuate Bohemia about the end of Oc- 
 tober, and his example was soon followed by his brother Prince 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713—1789. 117 
 
 Henry. At th«= beginning of this first campaign, the Empress- 
 Queen being desirous of peace, had sent Baron Thugut to the 
 King of Prussia, to offer him new proposals. A conference was 
 agreed to take place at the convent of Brau^iau (Aug. 1778,) 
 which had no better success than the preceding, on account of 
 the belligerous disposition of the Emperor, who was for continu- 
 ing the war. At length the return of peace was brought about 
 by the powerful intervention of the courts of Versailles and St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 France, who was obliged, by the terms of her alliance with 
 Austria, to furnish supplies for the Empress-Queen, could not in 
 the present case reconcile this engagement with the interests of 
 her crown, nor with the obligations which the treaty of West- 
 phalia had imposed upon her, v/ith respect to the Germanic body. 
 Besides, the war which had broken out between her and England, 
 on account of her alliance with the United States of America, 
 made her anxious for the restoration of peace on the Continent, 
 for avoiding every thing which might occasion a diversion of her 
 maritime forces. The Empress of Russia, who thought her 
 glory interested, could not remain a quiet spectator of a struggle 
 which, if prolonged, might set all Europe in a flame. She de- 
 clared to the Court of Vienna, that in consequence of the ties of 
 friendship and alliance which subsisted between her and the 
 Court of Berlin, she would find herself called on to join her 
 troops to those of Prussia, if the war was to be continued. But, 
 before coming to that extremity, she would interpose her good 
 offices, conjointly with France, to bring existing differences to an 
 amicable conclusion. 
 
 The mediation of these two courts having been accepted by 
 the belligerent powers, a congress was summoned at Teschen, in 
 Silesia, which was opened in the month of March 1779. The 
 Empress of Russia, to give the greater weight to her interfer- 
 ence, despatched a body of troops to the frontiers, destined to act 
 as auxiliaries under the King of Prussia, in case the war should 
 happen to be renewed. Prince Repnin, w^ho commanded that 
 body, appeared, at the same time, in the capacity of ambassador- 
 extraordinary at the Congress. France sent, on her part, Baron 
 de Breteuil, her ambassador at the Court of Vienna. All things 
 being already prepared, and the principal difficulties removed, 
 the peace was concluded in less than two months. By this treaty, 
 the convention of the 3d of January, made between the Court 
 of Vienna and the Elector Palatine, w^as annulled. Austria was 
 required to give up all her possessions in Bavaria, except the 
 places and districts situated between the Danube, the Inn, and 
 ihe Salza, which were ceded to her as all she could claim of the 
 
A 18 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 succession of Bavaria, v/hich she had renounced in the most for 
 mal manner. The fiefs of the Empire, which had been confer- 
 red on the House of Bavaria, were secured by that treaty to the 
 Elector Palatine and his whole family ; as well as those situated 
 in the Upper Palatinate, and holding of the Crown of Bohemia. 
 
 The Elector Palatine engaged to pay the Elector of Saxony, 
 for his allodial rights, the sum of six millions of florins, money 
 of the Empire ; while the Empress-Queen gave up to the said 
 prince the rights which the crown of Bohemia had over certain 
 seigniories lying within Saxony, and possessed by the Counts of 
 Schonburg. The Palatine branch of Birkenfeldt, whose right of 
 succession to the Palatine estates had been disputed, on the 
 giound of their being the issue of an unequal marriage, were 
 now declared capable of succeeding to all the estates and pos- 
 sessions of the House of Wittlesbach, as comprehended in the 
 family compacts of that house. 
 
 The existing treaties between the Court of Vienna and the 
 King of Prussia, and also those of Westphalia, Breslau, Berlin, 
 and Dresden, were renewed and confirmed; and a formal ac- 
 knowledgment made to the royal line of Prussia, of their right 
 to unite the margraviates of Baireuth and Anspach, failing the 
 picjsent possessors, to the hereditary succession of the Electorate 
 oi Brandenburg ; which right the House of Austria had called 
 in question during the dispute v/hich we have already mention- 
 ea. As for the House of Mecklenburg, they granted to. it the 
 privilege of the nan appellando, in virtue of which, no one could 
 carry an appeal from the tribunals of that country to the sove- 
 reign courts of the Empire. The two mediating powers under- 
 took to guarantee this treaty. Thus the war for the succession 
 of Bavaria was checked at its commencement. The following 
 peculiarities are worthy of remark, viz. that the Palatine family, 
 who were the party chiefly interested, took no share in it ; while 
 Bavaria, the sole cause of the war, was no way engaged in it , 
 and the Elector Palatine, who had even refused the assistance 
 of the King of Prussia, was, nevertheless, the party chiefly ben- 
 efited by the peace, by means of the protection of that prince. 
 
 The House of Austria having failed, as we have just seen, in 
 her project of conquering Bavaria, tried, in the next place, to 
 get possession of that country by way of exchange for the Ne- 
 therlands. The Elector Palatine appeared willing to meet the 
 views of the Court of Vienna ; but it was not so with the Duke 
 of Deux-Ponts, who haughtily opposed the exchange ; while the 
 King of Prussia, who supported it, was obliged to acknowledge 
 that such an exchange was inadmissible, and in opposition both 
 to former treaties, and to the best interests of the Germanic body 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713—1789. 119 
 
 The Court of Vienna then abandoned this project, at least in 
 appearance ; but the alarm which it had caused throughout the 
 Empire, gave rise to an association, known by the name of the 
 Germanic Confederation. It was concluded at Berlin (July 
 23, 1785,) between the three Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg, 
 and Brunswick-Luneburg ; besides several provinces of the Im- 
 perial State who adhered to it. This association, purely de- 
 fensive, had no other object than the preservation of the Ger- 
 manic System, with the rights and possessions of all its members. 
 
 The Revolution in North America, deserves to be placed 
 among the number of those great events which belong to the 
 general history of Europe. Bes'des the sanguinary war which 
 it kindled between France and England, and in which Spain 
 and Holland were also implicated, it may be regarded as the 
 harbinger of those revolutions which took place soon after in 
 several of the Continental States of Europe. The English 
 colonies in North America were no otherwise connected with 
 the mother country, than by a government purely civil, by a 
 similarity of manners, and by customs, which long usage had 
 rendered sacred. They were divided into provinces, each ot 
 which had its particular constitution more or less analogous to 
 that of England, but imperfectly united with the mother coun 
 try, because the inhabitants of these provinces were not repre- 
 sented in the national Parliament. If they had been so, Great 
 Britain would certainly never have enjoyed that monopoly which 
 she had reserved to herself, agreeably to the colonial system of 
 all modern nations. The exclusive privilege of sending her 
 commodities to the Americans, by fettering their industry, alien- 
 ated their affections from England, and made them naturally de 
 sirous of shaking ofi' her yoke ; and this propensity could not 
 fail to increase, in proportion as these colonies increased in 
 strength, population, and wealth. 
 
 One consideration, however, likely to secure their allegiance, 
 was the protection which England granted them against their 
 powerful neighbours the French in Canada, the Spaniards in 
 Florida, and the Barbarians in the West. The Canadians, es- 
 pecially, proved daring and troublesome neighbours to New Eng- 
 land, which rendered the assistance and protection of the mother 
 country indispensable. The aspect of affairs changed at the 
 time of the peace of Paris (1763.) England, by getting pos- 
 session of Canada and Florida, broke the main tie which at- 
 tached the colonies to her government. Delivered then from 
 the terror of the French, and having no more need of foreign 
 succour to protect them from their attacks, the Americans began 
 to concert measures for extricating themselves from the domin- 
 ion of Britain. 
 
120 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The first disturbances that broke out were occasioned by the 
 attempts which the British Parliament had made to impose 
 taxes on the Americans. The national debt of England having 
 increased considerably during the preceding war, the Parlia- 
 ment thought they had a right to oblige the colonies to furnish 
 their quota for the liquidation of that debt, which had been con- 
 tracted, in part, for the interests of America. The Parliament 
 passed an act, according to which all contracts in the American 
 colonies were to be drawn upon stamped paper ; and the tax on 
 the stamp was regulated according to the different objects of the 
 contract. When this act had passed into a law, and was about 
 to be carried into effect in America, it caused a general insur- 
 rection. The people committed all sorts of excesses and abuses 
 against the King's officers. The Courts of Justice were shut 
 up, and the colonies began to form associations among them- 
 selves. They disputed the right of the British Parliament to 
 impose taxes on them ; alleging that they were not represented 
 there, and that it was the constitutional privilege of every Eng- 
 lishman, not to be taxed except by means of his own represen- 
 tatives. The colonies having thus attacked the sovereignty and 
 legislative power of the Parliament, laid an interdict on all 
 commerce with the mother country, and forbade the purchase 
 of commodities imported from Great Britain. 
 
 The Parliament rescinded the Stamp act. They published, 
 however, a declaratory act which set forth, that the colonies 
 were subordinate to, and dependent on, the Crown and Parlia- 
 ment of Great Britain, in whom resided full power and au- 
 thority to make laws and statutes binding on the colonies, in all 
 possible cases. The provincial assemblies of the colonists were 
 enjoined, by that act, to receive into their towns whatever num- 
 ber of British troops the mother country might think proper to 
 send, and to furnish them with wood and beer. Far from al- 
 laying these disturbances, this new act tended, on the contrary, 
 to exasperate them still more. The Americans considered it as 
 tyrannical, and as having no other design than to destroy the 
 foundation of their liberty, and to establish an absolute and 
 despotic power. 
 
 The British ministry made still farther concessions. They 
 abandoned altogether the idea of a tax to be levied in the in- 
 terior of the country, and limited themselves entirely to taxes 
 or duties on imported goods. The Stamp act was replaced by 
 another (1767,) which imposed certain duties on tea, paper, 
 lead, and paint-colours, &c. &c. exported from England into the 
 colonies. This act was no better received than its predecessor. 
 The Assembly of Massachusetts, which was formed at Boston, 
 
TERioD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 181 
 
 addressed circular letters to all the colonies, exhorting them to 
 act in concert for the support of their rights against the mother 
 country. The resolutions which some of the colonies had al- 
 ready adopted, of prohibiting tho use of commodities manufac- 
 tured in Great Britain, became common to all the colonies ; and 
 the American merchants in general, countermanded the goods 
 which they had ordered from England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 The spirit of revolt thus extending wider and wider, the British 
 government determined to employ troops for the restoration of 
 order and tranquillity in the colonies, and making them respect 
 the sovereignty of Great Britain (1769.) 
 
 Affairs were in this situation when Lord North, who had been 
 placed at the head of the administiation, succeeded in calming 
 the minds of the colonists, by passing an act which abolished 
 the obnoxious taxes, with the single exception of that on tea. 
 The view of the minister in retaining this tax, was not of reap- 
 ing any advantage from it ; but he hoped by this trifling duty 
 to accustom the colonies to support greater taxes. The Ameri- 
 cans were very sensible of this ; however, as they imported very 
 little tea from England, and as the Dutch furnished them with 
 this article by way of contraband, they showed no symptoms of 
 resentment until the year 1773. At that time, the Parliament 
 having given permission to the East India Company to export 
 tea to America, of which they had large supplies in their ware- 
 houses, the Americans, indignant to see this Company made the 
 organ of a law which was odious to them, resolved to oppose the 
 landing of these tea cargoes. Three of the Company's vessels, 
 freighted with this article, having arrived at Boston, and prepa- 
 ring to unload, the inhabitants boarded them during the night 
 of the 21st of December, and threw all the chests into the sea, 
 to the number of 342. In the other provinces, they only sent 
 back the ships loaded with this obnoxious commodity. 
 
 On the news of this outrage, the British Parliament thought 
 it necessary to adopt rigorous measures. Three acts were passed 
 in succession (1774,) the first to lay the port of Boston under in- 
 terdict ; the second to abolish the constitution and democratic 
 government of Massachusetts, and substitute a royal govern- 
 ment; and the third to authorize the colonial governors to trans- 
 port to England the Americans who were accused of rebellion, 
 to be tried at the Court of King's Bench. General Gage was sent 
 to Boston with a body of troops and several vessels to carry these 
 coercive measures into effect. By thus adopting decisive mea- 
 sures, the British Parliament in vain flattered themselves, that 
 they could reduce, by force, a continent so vast, and so remote 
 from the mother country, as that of America. Supposing even 
 
 VOL. 11. 11 
 
,.22 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 that ihey could have succeeded, the spirit and nature of the 
 English government would never have permitted them to main- 
 tain their conquests by force. The colonies^ however, far from 
 being intimida,ted by these acts, warmly espoused the causn of 
 the province which had been singled out for punishmeni. 
 
 A general Congress, composed of the representatives of all the 
 colonies, was opened at Philadelphia (Sept. 5, 1774.) They 
 declared the acts of the British Parliament against Massachu- 
 setts, to be unjust, oppressive, and unconstitutional. They 
 agreed never more to import articles of commerce from Great 
 Britain ; and to present an address to the King, and a petition 
 to the House of Commons, for the redress of those grievances of 
 which the colonies had to complam. This latter step having 
 produced no effect, and the Parliament having still persisted in 
 their rigorous measures, hostilities commenced in the month of 
 April 1775. The American Congress then conferred the com- 
 mand of their army on George Washington, a rich planter in 
 Virginia, who had acquired considerable military reputation by 
 his success in opposing the French in Canada ; and at the same 
 time, to raise the immediate supplies of which the colonies stood 
 in need, the Congress agreed to issue paper money, sufficient to 
 meet the unavoidable expenses of the war. A declaration, pub- 
 lished in the month of July, 1775, explained the reasons which 
 had compelled the Americans to take up arms ; and announced 
 their intention not to separate from Great Britain, nor adopt a 
 system of absolute independence. But as the British Ministry 
 had made extraordinary efforts for the campaign of 1776, and 
 !aken a body of German troops into their pay, the Americans 
 thought proper to break off all alliance with England, that they 
 night have recourse in their turn to the protection of foreigners. 
 
 The independence of the Colonies was therefore formally de- 
 clared by an Act of Congress (July 4, 1776.) They then drew 
 up articles of confederation and perpetual union among the States 
 of America, to the number of thirteen provinces, under the title 
 of the United States of America. In virtue of this union, each 
 of the Slates remained master of its own legislative and inter- 
 nal administration, while the Congress, which was composed of 
 deputies from all the colonies, had the power of regulating all 
 political affairs ; that is to say, every thing concerning war or 
 peace, alliances, money matli^rs, weights and measures, posts, 
 &c. ; as well as the settlement of any differences which might 
 arise between two or more of the confederate States. The first 
 favourable action for the Americans, in their war against Eng- 
 land, was that at Trenton on the Delav/are, (Dec. 25, 1776,) 
 where General Washington surprised a body of Hessians and 
 
PERIOD viu. A D. 1713—1789. 123 
 
 English, and made them prisoners. But the event which in 
 some degree set the seal to the independence of America, was 
 the important check which General Burgoyne met with near 
 Saratoga. Having advanced from Canada to support the opera- 
 tions of General Howe, who was marching on Philadelphia, he 
 was compelled by the American troops under General Gates to 
 lay down his arms, by a capitulation which was signed in the 
 camp at Saratoga (Oct. 16, 1777.) The news of this disaster 
 was no sooner received in Europe, than France, who, during 
 the time that England was occupied with the disturbances in 
 America, had put her marine on a respectable footing, took the 
 resolution of acknowledging the New Republic, and entered into 
 d formal alliance with it. Treaties of friendship, alliance, and 
 commerce, were concluded at Paris between them and the Uni- 
 ted States of America (Feb. 6, 1778.) France demanded as a 
 primary condition, that the United States should not lay down 
 their arms, until England had acknowledged their independence. 
 "The notification which the Court of France made to that of Lon- 
 don of this treaty with the United States, became the signal of 
 war between these two nations. 
 
 This war which France had undertaken against England for 
 the free navigation of the seas, was the first which did not in- 
 volve the continent of Europe, as it was confined entirely to 
 maritime operations. The European powers, far from thwart- 
 ing France in this enterprise, applauded her success ; and while 
 Great Britain depended on her own strength, and had not a sin- 
 gle ally on the Continent, France contrived to interest Spain 
 and Holland in her cause. 
 
 Spain, after having for some time held the rank of a media- 
 ting power, entered into the war in fulfilment of those engage 
 ments which she had contracted, by the Family Compact ; an(V 
 as respected Holland, England had determined to break with 
 her. The British ministry were ofTended at that Republic, which, 
 instead of granting England the supplies that she was entitled 
 to claim in virtue of former treaties, had lent itself an accomplice 
 to the interests of her enemies. The Dutch, on their side, com- 
 plained of the multiplied vexations with which they were inces- 
 santly harassed by the British privateers. They had sought 
 to protect themselves against these, under the shield of that 
 armed neutrality which the Empress of Russia had just negoti- 
 ated for protecting the commerce of neutral States ; and it was 
 in order to prevent their accession to that neutrality, that Eng- 
 land made such haste to declare war against the Republic (Dec. 
 20, 1780.) 
 
 Without entering here into the details of that wax, the prin- 
 
IJW CHAPTER li. 
 
 cipal scene of which was in America, though it extended lo 
 Africa and the Indies, we shall conHne ourselves to a few gen- 
 eral observations. 
 
 When hostii;ties commenced between France and England, 
 the latter had a very great superiority in maritime strength. She 
 had armies at the two extremities of the globe. The number of 
 her vessels was prodigious. Her arsenals were overloaded with 
 stores. Her dock-yards were in the greatest activity ; but after 
 France and Spain had united their naval force, it was no longer 
 possible for Great Britain, obliged as she was to divide her 
 strength, to defend her distant possessions against the numerous 
 attacks of the French and their allies. Not fewer than twenty- 
 one engagements took place between the belligerent powers ; in 
 all of which England, from the experience of her Admirals, and 
 the ability of her naval officers, did not lose a single ship of the 
 line. The first naval action was fought near Ushant (July 27, 
 1778,) between D'Orvilliers and Admiral Keppel. This action, 
 the glory of which was claimed equally by both nations, was a*s 
 indecisive as most of those which followed it. The only decisive 
 actior, properly speaking, was that which Admiral Rodney fought 
 with Count de Grasse (April 12, 1782,) between the islands of 
 Dominica and Saintes. The English Admiral having broken 
 the French line, succeeded in taking five ships of the line, inclu- 
 ding the Admiral's, and had the honour to carry him prisoner 
 to London. 
 
 At the beginning of the war, the English stripped the French 
 of their possessions in the East Indies, such as Pondicherry, 
 Chandernagore, and Mahe. They took from them the islands 
 of St. Peter and Miquelon, as well as that of St. Lucia, and 
 Gorea on the coast of Africa. The French afterwards repaid 
 themselves for these losses, by conquering the islands of Domin- 
 ica, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, St. Christophers, Nevis and 
 Monteserrat. All the forts and establishments of the English 
 on the Senegal in Africa,- as well as Gondelore in the East In- 
 dies, fell into their possession. 
 
 The Spaniards made themselves masters of the fortfi which 
 the English occupied on the Mississippi. They took fort Mo- 
 bile or Conde, in ancient French Louisiana, and subdued the 
 whole of Western Florida, with the town of Pensacola. In 
 Europe they recovered, with the assistance of the French, the 
 island of Minorca, with port Mahon and fort St. Philip ; but the 
 combined forces of the two nations failed in their enterprise 
 against Gibraltar. This place, which was bravely defended by 
 General Elliot, was twice relieved with supplies by the English 
 fleet — first by Admiral Rodney (1780,) and afterwards by Lord 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 12B 
 
 Howe (1782.) The floating batteries invented by M. D'Arqoii, 
 which were directed against the garrison, were destroyed by thn 
 red-hot bullsts which the English commander showered upon 
 them in great profusion. It was chiefly this obstinate determi- 
 nation of the Spaniards to recover the rock of Gibraltar, that for 
 a long time deprived France and Spain of the advantages which 
 ought to have accrued to them from the combination of their 
 naval strength against Great Britain. As for the Dutch, they 
 experienced heavy losses in this war ; their islands of St. Eu- 
 statia, Saba, and St. Martin in the Antilles, were seized by the 
 English, who carried off immense booty. Besides their esta- 
 blishments of Demarara and Essequibo in Guiana, those which 
 the}- had on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, especially Ne- 
 gapatam and Trincomalee, on the coasts of Ceylon, were reduced 
 in succession. The French succeeded, however, in reconquer- 
 ing the Dutch Antilles, and the fortress of Trincomalee. 
 
 In North America, the success of the war was for a long time 
 equally balanced between the English and the Americans. At 
 length Lord Cornwallis, after having conquered the two Caroliuas, 
 advanced into Virginia. He took York Town and Gloucester ; 
 but having penetrated into the interior of that province. Generals 
 Washington, Rochambaud, and La Fayette, turned their forces 
 against him, and were supporred in this attack by a French fleet, 
 which the Count de Grasse had brought to their aid. Lord 
 Cornwallis, surrounded on all sides, and shut up in York Town, 
 was obliged to capitulate (Oct. 19, 1781,) and surrendered him- 
 self and his Avhole army prisoners of war. This event decided 
 the fate of America. The news of it no sooner arrived in 
 England, than a change took place in the British ministry. 
 Lord North and his colleagues resigned, and were replaced 
 by the members of the opposite party. The new ministry 
 attempted to negotiate a special peace, either with the Ameri 
 cans or with the Dutch ; but their efforts having proved unsue 
 cessful, they adopted the alternative of recognising the inde 
 pendence of America, and then entered into a negotiation with 
 France. A conference was opened at Paris, under the media- 
 tion of Joseph II. and the Empress of Russia. It continued from 
 the month of October 1782, till September 1783, when definitive 
 treaties of peace were signed at Paris and Versailles between 
 Great Britain, France, Spain, and the United States of America. 
 The conclusion of the treaty between England and Holland did 
 not take place till the 20th May 1784. 
 
 In virtue of these treaties, the independence of the Thirteen 
 United States of America was acknowledged by England ; and 
 the boundaries of the respective possessions of the two powers 
 
 VOL. TI. 11"^ 
 
126 CHAPTEH IX. 
 
 were regulated over the whole extent of North America. A 
 territory of vast extent was assigned to the United States, who 
 also obtained the right of fishing on ihe banks of Newfoundland, 
 and in all other places where fishing had till then been practised. 
 
 The French fisheries at Newfoundland, were settled in a man- 
 ner more advantageous than by the former treaties. The Islands 
 of St. Peter and Miquelon were ceded with full privileges to 
 France. In the Antilles, France retained St. Lucia and Toba- 
 go, restoring to England Grenada and the Grenadines, St. Vin- 
 cent, Dominica, St. Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat. In 
 Africa, the forts and settlements on the Senegal remained in 
 the possession of France, and the island of Gorea was restored 
 to her. In the East Indies, all the French settlements such as 
 Chandernagore, Fondicherry, and Mahe, were restored, and Eng- 
 land engaged to make some additions to Fondicherry. The 
 clauses in the former treaties relative to Dunkirk were abolished. 
 The island of Minorca in the Mediterranean, and the whole of 
 Florida in America, were ceded to Spain, who restored to Eng- 
 land the islands of Providence and Bahama; and moreover 
 granted the English the liberty of cutting logwood or dyewood 
 in certain places on the Bay of Honduras. Finally, Holland 
 ceded Negapatam to England, and granted to British subjects a 
 free trade in the Indian Seas, where the Dutch had till that time 
 maintained an exclusive commerce and navigation. 
 
 Such is an outline of the treaties of Paris and Versailles, 
 which terminated the American war. France thereby main- 
 tained the balance of maritime power against England, whose 
 vast naval superiority had alarmed all the commercial States of 
 Europe. [It is true that this advantage was of short duration, 
 as the English recovered their superiority, and during the French 
 Revolution, carried it to a pitch which it had never before reach- 
 ed ; besides, their commerce suffered no check by the loss of 
 their extensiv^e colonies. The growing industry of the new Re- 
 public had more need than ever to be supported by all the capi- 
 tal and credit which the merchants could find in the mother 
 country.] France acquired the glory of having contributed, by 
 her efforts, to establish the new Republic of the United States, 
 Avhich,by the vast extent of its territory, the progressive increase 
 of its population, its industry, and its commerce, must exercise, 
 in course of time, a prodigious influence on the destinies of 
 Europe. 
 
 One memorable event, which has some reference to the Amer- 
 ican war, was the confederacy of the Northern powers, under the 
 title of the Armed Neutrality. That war, which was purely 
 maritime, having given an astonishing alacrity to the commerce 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 327 
 
 of the North, hy the demand which the belligerent powers made 
 for wood for ship building and naval stores of all kinds, England, 
 iij order to prevent the French and Spaniards from procuring 
 these commodities in the North, took advantage of her maritime 
 superiority, by seizing, without distinction, all merchant vessels 
 under a neutral flag ; and confiscating all articles found on 
 board, belonging te the subjects of hostiie countries. The Em." 
 press of Russia, wishing to put a stop to these depredations, re- 
 solved to protect by force of arms, the commercial interests of her 
 subjects. By a manifesto which she addressed to France and 
 England (February 1780,) she informed these powers, that it 
 ^vas her intention to maintain free intercourse for ail effects 
 v/hich might belong to the subjects of those nations at war ; ex- 
 cepting only genuine warlike stores, such as powder, balls, and 
 cannon, and in general, whatever might be reputed contraband 
 goods ; in virtue of the 10th and 11th articles of her commercial 
 treaty with Great Britain (1766.) She did not rest satisfied 
 with making this declaration herself. She engaged Sweden 
 and Denmark to publish similar ones ; and entered into a con^- 
 tract with those powers, for the purpose of protecting the navi- 
 gation of their subjects by means ef convoys, and for rendering 
 each other mutual assistance in case of any insult offered to 
 •I'leir merchantmen. The Court of Copenhagen declared more 
 especially (Aug. 10, 1780,) that the Baltic, by its local situation, 
 being a shut sea, no ships of war belonging to the belligerents 
 couk^ be admitted there, or allowed to commit hostilities against 
 any one whomsoeFer. Several of the Continental powers, such 
 as the King of Pru^^sia, the Emperor Joseph II., the Queen of 
 Portugal, and the King of the Two Sicilies, joined the Armed 
 Neutrality, on the principles established in the declaration of 
 the Empress of Russia. France and Spain applauded these 
 measures, and the principles which the Empress had thus sanc- 
 tioned. England dissembled, pretending to refer to treaties, 
 and to wait a more favourable opportunity for explanation. But 
 in order to prevent the Dutch from taking shelter under the 
 armed neutrality, she declared war against that Republic, even 
 before the act of her accession to these treaties had been ratified 
 by the powers of the North. 
 
 New disputes had arisen between the Russians and the Turks 
 after the peace of Kainargi. The haughtiness of the Forte was 
 unwilling to admit the independence of the Tartars, which was 
 sanctioned by that peace. He was indignant to see the Russians 
 parading their flag even under the walls of Constantinople ; and 
 moreover, he tried every stratagem to elude the execution of 
 those articles in the treaty which did not meet with his approba 
 
128 CHAPTER VS. 
 
 tion. Russia, on her part, who regarded the independence of 
 the Crimea as a step towards the execution of her ambitious pro- 
 jects, expelled the Khan Dovvlat Gueray, who was favourably 
 inclined towards the Porte, and put Sahin Gueray in hiS place, 
 who was devoted to the interests of Russia. This latter having 
 been dispossessed by Selim Gueray, with the assistance of the 
 Porte, the Empress marched a body of troops into the Crimea^ 
 under the command of Suwarow (1778,) and restored her pro- 
 tege to the throne by force of arms. 
 
 The Turks made great preparations for war, and a new rup- 
 ture between the two empires was expected, when, by the inter- 
 position of M. de St. Priest, the French ambassador to the Turk- 
 ish Court, the Divan consented to an accommodation which was 
 concluded at Constantinople (March 21, 1779,) under the name 
 of the Explicative Convention. The independence of the Cri- 
 mea, and the sovereignty of Sahin Gueray, were thereby acknow- 
 ledged, and confirmed anew. Russia and the Porte engaged to 
 withdraw their troops from that peninsula, as well as from the 
 island of Taman. The Porte promised especially never to al- 
 lege any pretexts of spiritual alliance, for interfering with the 
 civil or political power of the Khans. The free intercourse be- 
 tween the Black Sea and the White Sea, was secured in the most 
 express manner to all Russian vessels that were of the form, size, 
 and capacity, of the ships of other nations who carried on trade 
 in the ports of Turkey. 
 
 This convention did not restore any permanent good under- 
 standing between the two Empires ; new troubles were not long 
 in springing up again in the Crimea. The Khan Sahin Gueray 
 was once more ex{)elled by the party adhering to the Turks 
 (1782.) A Russian army immediately entered that peninsula^ 
 and restored the fugitive Khan ; while a Russian fleet sailing 
 from the port of AzofT, cut off the malecontents from all commu- 
 nication with Constantinople. Under these circumstances, the 
 Empress Catherine II. thought the moment had arrived for pla- 
 cing the Crimea among the number of her own provinces. She 
 caused her troops to occupy that peninsula, as well as the whole 
 of Cuban ; and expelled the Turks from Taman, of which they 
 had made themselves masters, with the view of opening a com- 
 munication with the Tartars. Finally, she explained, in a man- 
 ifesto, the motives which induced her to unite the Crimea to her 
 Empire, together with the isle of Taman, and the Cuban, and 
 required Sahin Gueray formally to resign the sovereignty which 
 he had enjoyed for so short a time (June 28, 1783.) 
 
 That event was a terrible blow to the Ottoman Porte. The 
 inhabitants of Constantinople loudly demanded war ; but the 
 
ffcaioD vni. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 129 
 
 Divan, who were sensible of their weakness, used every endea- 
 vour to avoid it. The preparations of the Russians both by sea 
 and land, were immense ; and there subsisted a co-operation and 
 a perfect intimacy between the Courts of Vienna and St. Peters- 
 burg. England tried in vain to engage the Turks to take up 
 arms, but they were withheld by France and Austria. Instead 
 of fighting, they Were resolved to negotiate ; and a new treatv 
 was signed at Constantinople (Jan. 8, 1784.) The sovereignty 
 of the Crimea, the island of Taman, and all the part of Cuban 
 which lay on the right bank of the river of that name, and form- 
 ed, as it were, a frontier between the tvv^o Empires, were aban- 
 doned to Russia. The fortress of Oczakoff, to which the Tar- 
 tars of the Crimea had some claims, vv^as ceded to the Porte, 
 with its whole territory. Thus ended the dominion of the Tar- 
 tars in the Crimea, once so terrible to Russia. The Empress 
 formed the whole of that vast country into two new govern- 
 ments, Taurida and the Caucasu-s. 
 
 There had existed for a long time certain disputes between 
 the Dutch and the government of the Austrian Netherlands, as 
 to the execution of the Barrier Treaty (1715,) and that of the 
 Hague (1718.) They had neglected to define precisely the 
 limits of Dutch Flanders, which these treaties had pointed out 
 rather than determined ; and for along time the Imperial Court 
 had ceased to pay the Dutch the subsidies vvhich the Barrier 
 Treaty had stipulated in their favour. That court would not 
 consent to agree to a definitive settlement of these limits, or the 
 payment of the subsidies, until England and Holland should co 
 operate with her in repairing the Barrier towns, whose fortifica- 
 tions had been ruined during the war of the Austrian Succes- 
 sion. She demanded, also, that these powers should unite fox 
 ■concluding a treaty of commerce, and a tariff favourable for the 
 Low Countries, as they had engaged to do by former treaties. 
 At length the Emperor Joseph II. thought he might avail him- 
 self of the war which had arisen between England and Holland, 
 to free the Austrian Netherlands entirely from the claims Avhich 
 the Barrier Treaty had imposed on them. The order for de- 
 molishing all the fortified places in the Netherlands compre- 
 hended the Barrier towns ; and the Dutch were summoned to 
 withdraw their troops from them. These republicarrs, not be- 
 ing able to solicit the protection of England, with which they 
 were at war, found themselves obliged to comply with the sum- 
 mons of the Emperor. Their troops then evacuted all the Bar- 
 rier towns in succession. 
 
 This compliance on the part of the Dutch, encouraged the 
 Emperor to extend his pretensions still farther. Not conteni 
 
130 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 with annulling the treaties of 1715 — 18, he required that the 
 boundaries of Flanders should be re-established on the footing 
 of the contract of 1664, between Spain and the States-General ; 
 and instead of making his new demand a subject of negotiation, 
 he took possession of the forts, as well as of the towns and dis- 
 tricts included ^vithin the limits which had been fixed by this 
 latter agreement. The Dutch having addressed their com- 
 plaints to the Court of Vienna against these violent proceedings^ 
 the Emperor consented to open a conference at Brussels (1784,) 
 for bringing all these disputes to an amicable termination. He 
 declared, at the opening of the meeting, that he would desist from 
 all the claims which he had against the Republic, provided they 
 would grant the Belgic provinces the free passage and naviga- 
 tion of the Scheldt ; with the privilege of direct commerce with 
 India, frorn all the ports in the Netherlands. But while proposing 
 this state of things as the subject of negotiation, he announced, 
 that from that moment he was firmly resolved to consider the 
 Scheldt as free ; and that the least opposition, on the part of the 
 States-General, would be, in his eyes, as the signal of hostili- 
 ties, and a declaration of war. The Dutch, without being in- 
 timidated by these threats, declared the demand of the Emperor 
 to be contrary to their treaties, and subversive of the safety 
 and prosperity of their Republic. Vice- Admiral Reynst was 
 ordered to station himself, with a squadron, at the mouth of the 
 Scheldt, and to prevent all Imperial or Flemish ships from pass- 
 ing. Tv/o merchantmen having attempted to force the passage, 
 the Dutch gave them a broadside, and obliged them to strike. 
 
 The Emperor then regarded the war as declared, and broke 
 off the conference at Brussels ; he had, however, made no pre- 
 parations ; and the Low Countries were entirely divested of their 
 troops, magazines, and warlike stores- The prince had flatter- 
 ed himself, that the Court of France would espouse his quarrel, 
 and that he would obtain from them the supplies stipulated by 
 the treaty of Versailles. But France, who was then negotiating 
 a treaty of alliance with the Republic, easily foresaw, that if she 
 abandoned them at that particular time, they would be obliged 
 to throw themselves into the arms of England. M. de Maille- 
 bois then got orders to pass to Holland, while France set on foot 
 two armie*s of observation, one in Flanders, and the other on the 
 Rhine. The King wrote to the Emperor very pressing letters, 
 wishing him to adopt pacific measures. 
 
 These proceedings and the numerous difficulties which the 
 war of the Netherlands presented to the Emperor, induced him 
 to accept the mediation of the Court of Fjance ; a negotiation 
 on this subject was entered into at Versailles. The Emperor 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 131 
 
 there persisted at first in maintaining the liberty of the Scheldt, 
 but afterwards became less rigid on this point. He was con- 
 tent to enforce his other claims. This negotiation was as tedi- 
 ous as it was intricate. It occupied the French ministry dur- 
 ing the greater part of the year 1785. The Emperor insisted 
 much on the cession of Maestricht, and the territory of Outre- 
 Meuse. From this demand he would not recede, except on the 
 payment of a large sum of money by way of indemnity, and 
 another in reparation of the damage which the inundation of 
 Flanders, ordered by the States-General, had occasioned to his 
 Austrian subjects. By the peace which was signed at Fontain- 
 bleau, the treaty of Munster (1648) was renewed; but nothing 
 was said of the Barrier treaty, nor of that of Vienna (1731.) 
 They agreed on shutting the Scheldt from Saftingen, as far as 
 the sea ; as well as the Canals of Saas, Swin, and other com- 
 munications with the sea in the neighbourhood. The States- 
 General engaged to pay the Emperor, in lieu of his claims on 
 Maestricht and the Outre-Meuse, the sum of 9,500,000 Dutch 
 florins ; and another of 500,000 florins for repairing the damages 
 done by the inundations. That Prince got ample satisfaction 
 on the subject of most of his other claims ; and France under- 
 took to guarantee the treaty. Immediately after it was signed, 
 they renewed the negotiation respecting the treaty of alliance 
 projected between France and the Republic. This treaty was 
 also signed at Fontainbleau (Nov. 10, 1785) two days after the 
 treaty of peace. 
 
 Various intestine disturbances at that time agitated the Repub- 
 lic of the United Provinces. The animosity of the Republican 
 party against the Stadtholder and his partisans, had been re- 
 7ived more keenly than ever, on account of the war in Ame- 
 rica between France and England. The Republicans reproach- 
 ed the Stadtholder for his devotedness to the interests of Eng 
 land, which had made him neglect their marine, and fail in the 
 protection which he owed the Dutch commerce, in his capacity 
 of Admiral-General of the forces of the Republic. The dif- 
 ferent magistrates of the municipal towns, in order to discredit 
 the Stadtholder in the opinion of the public, encouraged peri- 
 odical writers to inveigh against the person of William V. and 
 nis administration. They blamed his counsellors, and especially 
 Louis Duke of Brunswick, who, as governor to the Stadtholder 
 during his minority, had had the principal direction of affairs, 
 and who still continued to aid him with his councils. 
 
 The city of Amsterdam, which had always been distinguish- 
 ed for its opposition to the Stadtholder, was the first that de- 
 manded the removal of the Duke, whom they blamed as the 
 
I3B CHAPTER IX. 
 
 cause of the langnid state of their maritime power. That 
 prince was compelled to resign, (1784,) and even to withdraw 
 from the territories of the Republic. The retirement of the Duke 
 emboldened the opponents of the Stadtholder, who soon went be- 
 yond all bounds. That party, purely aristocratic in its origin, had 
 been afterwards reinforced by a multitude of democrats, who, 
 not contented with humbling the Stadtholder, attacked even 
 the power of the magistrates ; and tried to change the constitu- 
 tion, by rendering the government more popular and democra'".... 
 In the principal towns, associations were formed under the 
 name of Free Bodies, for exercising the citizens in the manage- 
 ment of arms. The party opposed to the Stadtholder took the 
 name of Patriots. They were secretly supported by France, 
 who wished to employ them as an instrument for destroying the 
 influence of England, and attaching the Republic to her own 
 interests. A popular insurrection, which happened at the Hague 
 (1785,) furnished the States of Holland with a pretext for re- 
 moving the Stadtholder from the command of that place, which 
 was intrusted to a Council. This blow, struck at a prerogative 
 which was regarded as inherent in the Stadtholdership, induced 
 the Prince of Orange to quit the Hague, and fix his residence 
 in the province of Gueiders, the States which were most par- 
 ticularly devoted to him. An attack which the prince made 
 against the towns of Elburg and Hattem, for refusing to ex- 
 ecute the orders which he had intimated to them in the name 
 of the States of Gueiders, exasperated the minds of the Dutch. 
 It added to the strength of the Patriotic party, and encouraged 
 the States of Holland to make a renewed atta.ck on the Stad- 
 tholdership ; and even to go so far as to suspend the prmce from 
 the functions of Captain-General of that province. 
 
 The Court of Berlin had taken measures, both with the 
 States-General and the province of Holland, to facilitate an ac- 
 commodation between the two parties. Frederic William II. 
 who succeeded his uncle Frederic the Great, (1786,) sent to the 
 Hague, with this view, the Count de Gortz, his minister of state ; 
 while M. Gerard de Rayneval was ordered to repair thither on 
 the part of France. A negotiation was opened between these 
 two ministers and the principal leaders of the Patriotic party, 
 but without effect. Their animosities rather increased, and the 
 Patriots broke out into every kind of violence. They dismis- 
 sed the magistrates of the chief towns by force, and replaced 
 them by their own adherents ; a step which obliged the aristo- 
 crats to coalesce with the Stadtholder's party, in order to with- 
 stand the fury of the repubHcans. A civil war seemed to all 
 appearance inevitable. In this state of matters, the Princess of 
 
PERIOD vin. A. i>. 1713 — 1789. 133 
 
 Orange took the resolution of repairing in person to the Hague, 
 with the design, as she alleged, of endeavouring to restore 
 peace. She was arrested on her route by a detachment of the 
 republican corps of Gouda (June 2S, 1787,) and conducted to 
 Schoenhoven, whence she was obliged to return to Nimeguen, 
 without being able to accomplish the object of her journey. 
 
 The King of Prussia demanded satisfaction for this outrage 
 offered to his sister. The States of Holland, not feeling dis- 
 posed to give it in the terms which the King demanded, he sent 
 a body of 20,000 men to Holland, under the command of the 
 Duke of Brunswick, who, in the space of a month, made him- 
 self master of the whole country, and even obliged the city of 
 Amsterdam to submit. All the former resolutions which had 
 been taken for limiting the power of the Stadth older, were then 
 annulled, and the prince .was re-established in the plenitude of 
 his rights. 
 
 Althoug'h the subsistence of the alliance between France and 
 the Republic was obviously connected with the cause of the 
 Patriots, the former took no steps to support that party, or to 
 oppose the invasion of the Prussians. France had even the 
 weakness to negotiate with the Court of London, for disarming 
 their respective troops ; declaring, that she entertained no hos- 
 tile intentions relative to what had passed in Holland. The po- 
 litics of the States-General from that time, underwent a com- 
 plete revolution. Renouncing their alliance with France, they 
 embraced that of Prussia and Great Britain. By the treaties 
 which were signed at Berlin and the Hague (April 15, 1788,) 
 these two powers undertook to guarantee the resolutions of 
 1747 and 1748, which made the Stadtholdership hereditary 
 in the House of Orange. France thus shamefully lost the 
 fruits of all the measures which she had taken, and the sums 
 which she had lavished for attaching Holland to her federative 
 system, in opposition to England. 
 
 The troubles which we have just now mentioned were soon 
 followed by others, which the innovations of the Emperor Jo- 
 seph II. had excited in the Austrian Netherlands. The differ- 
 ent edicts which that Prince had published since the first of 
 January 1787, for introducing a new order of administration in 
 the Government, both civil and ecclesiastical, of the Belgic pro- 
 vinces, were regarded by the States of that country as contraxy 
 to the established constitution, and incompatible with the en- 
 gagements contracted by the sovereign on his accession. The 
 o-reat excitement which these innovations caused, induced the 
 Emperor to recall his edicts, and to restore things to their an- 
 cient footing. Nevertheless, as the public mind had been exas- 
 
 VOL. IT. 12 
 
134 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 perated on both sides, disturbances were speedily renewed. Tbe 
 Emperor having demanded a subsidy, which was refused by tlie 
 States of Brabant and Hainault, this circumstance induced him 
 to revoke the amnesty which he had granted ; to suppress the 
 States and Sovereign Council of Brabant ; and to declare, that 
 he no longer considered himself bound by his Inaugural Con- 
 tract. A great number of individuals, and several members of 
 the States, were arrested by his orders. The Archbishop of 
 Mechlin, and the Bishop of Antwerp, were suspected of having 
 fomented these disturbances, and saved themselves by flight. 
 
 Two factions at that time agitated the Belgic Provinces, where 
 they fanned the flame of civil discord. The one, headed by Vonk^ 
 an advocate, and supported by the Dukes of Ursel and Arem- 
 bero-, inclined to the side of Austria. These limited their de- 
 mands to the reformation of abuses, and a better system of re- 
 presentation i^n the States of the Netherlands. The other, under 
 the direction of Vandemoot, and the Pensionary Vaneupen, 
 <vhile adhering to the support of the ancient forms, pretended to 
 vest in the States, that sovereignty and independence of which 
 they wished to deprive the House of Austria. The partisans of 
 Vonk hoped to effect, by their own means, the reforms which 
 they had in view ; while the adherents of Vandernoot founded 
 their hopes on the assistance of foreigners — especially of Prussia, 
 who would not fail, they supposed, to seize this occasion of weak- 
 ening the power of Austria. This latter party had undertaken 
 to open an asylum for the discontented emigrants of Brabant, in 
 the territory of the United Provinces in the neighbourhood of 
 Breda. The two parties acted at first in concert. Vandermersch, 
 a native of Menin in Flanders, and formerly a Colonel in the 
 Austrian service, was proposed by Vonk, and received as Gen- 
 eral by both parties. A body of the insurgents, under the com- 
 mand of Vandermersch, marched to Turnhout in Brabant, and 
 repulsed the Austrians, who had come to attack them under the 
 orders of General Schroeder. This first success gave a stimu- 
 lus to the insurrection, which spread from Brabant over the other 
 Belgic provinces. The Austrians abandoned by degrees all the 
 principal towns and places, and retired to the fortress of Luxem- 
 burg. Vandernoot made his triumphant entry into Brussels. 
 The States of Brabant assembled in that city, and proclaimed 
 their independence (Dec. 29, 1789.) The Emperor Joseph II. 
 was declared to have forfeited the sovereignty, by having viola- 
 ted the engagements which he had come under by his Inaugural 
 Compact. 
 
 The example of Brabant was soon followed by the other pro- 
 vinces. An assembly of Deputies, from all the Belgic provinces 
 
PERIOD VIII, A, D. 1713 — 1789. 135 
 
 V7i.fi forrned at Brussels (Jan. 11, 1790.) They signed an Act, 
 by which these provinces joined in a confederacy, under the titls 
 of the United Belgic States. The rights of sovereignty, in as 
 far as regarded their common defence, were vested in a Con 
 gross, composed of deputies from the different provinces, under 
 the name o^ the Sovereign Cojigress of the Belgic States. Each 
 province preserved its independence, and the exercise of the 
 legislative power. Their union was declared permanent and 
 irrevocable. They meddled neither with religion nor the con- 
 stitution, and they admitted no other representatives than those 
 who had been already nominated. This latter determination 
 highly displeased General Vandermersch, and all those of Vonk's 
 party, who had as much horror for an oligarchy in the States as 
 for the despotism of the Court of Vienna. The party of the 
 States prevailed nevertheless by the influence of Vandernoot, 
 and the instigations of the priests and monks. Vandermersch, 
 and all the zealous partisans of reform, were removed from the 
 management of affairs. The former was even arrested, and 
 General Schonfield put in his place. Ruinous impeachments 
 and imprisonments were the consequences of this triumph of the 
 aristocratic faction. 
 
 These divisions, added to the death of Joseph II., which hap- 
 pened in the meantime, produced a change favourable for the 
 interests of the Court of Vienna. Leopold II., Vs^ho succeeded 
 his brother on the throne of Austria, seemed disposed to termi- 
 nate all these differences ; and the Belgic Congress, seeing they 
 could not reckon on the assistance of foreign powers, were also 
 desirous of coming to an accommodation. The Court of Berlin 
 had refused its protection to the Belgians, and that of London 
 was decidedly opposed to their independence. These two courts, 
 conjunctly with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, inter- 
 posed their mediation for allaying those disturbances. The 
 Emperor Leopold solemnly engaged, under the guarantee of the 
 three mediating powers, to govern the Neth€rlan4s agreeably to 
 the constitution, laws, and privileges which had been in force 
 under the Empress Maria Theresa; never to do any thing to 
 their prejudice ; and to annul whatever had been done to the 
 contrary under the reign of Joseph II. A declaration published 
 by Leopold (Nov. 1790,) enjoined all his Belgic subjects to take 
 anew the oath of allegiance. That Prince granted a general 
 and unconditional pardon to all those who should lay down their 
 arms within a given time. All the provinces in succession ac- 
 knowledged their allegiance. Brussels opened her gates to the 
 Austrian troops (Dec. 2, 1790,) and the patriots Vaneupen and 
 Vandernoot took refnsre in Holland, 
 
jg^ CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The animosity which had for a long time subsisted hetwetn 
 Russia and the Porte, occasioned a new war between these two 
 powers in 1787. The Turks could not endure the humiliating 
 conditions which the late treaties with Russia had imposed on 
 them. The high tone which the Court of St. Petersburg used 
 in their communications with the Porte, wounded the pride of 
 the Ottomans ; and the extraordinary journey of the Empress 
 to Cherson and the Crimea (May 1787,) in which she was ac- 
 companied by the Emperor Joseph II., created alarm even in 
 the city of Constantinople. The inhabitants of that capital 
 thought they could perceive, in that journey, a premeditated de- 
 sign in the Courts of St. Petersburg and Vienna to annihilate 
 the Ottoman Empire, and divide the spoil between them. The 
 Court of London, supported by that of Berlin, dexterously fanned 
 the spark which lay concealed under these ashes. They wish- 
 ed to be avenged on the Court of St. Petersburg for the difficul- 
 ties which she had thrown in the way of renewing their treaty 
 of commerce ; as well as the advantageous conditions which she 
 had granted to France by the commercial treaty concluded with 
 that power. The great activity with which Russia had carried 
 on her commerce in the Black Sea, since she had obtained en- 
 tire liberty by her treaties with the Pone, excited likewise the 
 jealousy of England, who was afraid that the commercial con- 
 nexions which she maintained with that power, through the 
 Black Sea, might thereby be destroyed. The Turks, moreover, 
 had to complain of the Russian Consul in Moldavia, who, as 
 they alleged, sought every means to interrupt the peace and good 
 understanding between the two Empires. They demanded that 
 he should be recalled, and moreover, that the Empress should 
 renounce the protection of Prince Heraclius, and withdraw her 
 troops from Georgia. Finally, they wished that all Russian 
 vessels that passed the Straits should be subjected to an exami- 
 nation, in order to prevent contraband trade. 
 
 These demands were no sooner made, than the Divan, with- 
 out waiting for an answer from the Court of St. Petersburg, 
 determined to proclaim war (Aug. 18, 1787,) by sending the 
 Russian minister, M. de Boulgakoff, to the Castle of the Seven 
 Towers. On the news of this rupture, the Empress despatched 
 a considerable force against the Turks ; her troops extended 
 from Kaminiec in Podolia, to Balta, a Tartar village on the 
 frontiers of Poland, between the Dniester and the Bog. Prince 
 Potemkin, the commander-in-chief of the army, had under him 
 Suwarow, Rcpnin, Kamenskoi, and others. The Emperor Jo- 
 seph II., after having for some time supported the character of 
 mediator between the Turks and Russians, engaged in the wai 
 
PERIOD vm. A. D. 1713—1789. 137 
 
 as the ally of Russia (Feb. 9, 1788.) He attacked the Turks 
 in Moldavia, and on several points of Hungary. Marshal Lau- 
 don undertook the siege of Belgrade-, of which he made himself 
 master (Oct 8, 1789.) It was obvious, however, that the pro- 
 gress of the Austrians did not correspond either to the ability of 
 their generals or the superiority of their arms. 
 
 Another enemy of Russia appeared on the stage. Gustavus 
 HI., King of Sweden, listened to the insinuations of the Cabi- 
 nets of London and Berlin, and made a diversion in favour of 
 the Porte. That prince, after renewing his alliance with the 
 Porte, commenced the war against Russia, at the very instant 
 when the whole of her forces were turned against the Turks. 
 A land army was formed by his orders in Finland, while a 
 Swedish fleet, consisting of twenty ships of the line and ten 
 frigates, advanced on Cronstadt, and threw the city of St. Pe- 
 tersburg into a state of great terror. An engagement between 
 the two fleets took place near the Isle of Hoogland (May 30, 
 17S9.) Both sides fought with equal advantage ; but an un- 
 foreseen ev^ent disconcerted the measures of the Swedish mo- 
 narch. Aiier he had made his dispositions for attacking the 
 city of Fredricksheim in Finland, several officers of his army 
 refused to march, alleging as a reason, that the constitution of 
 the kingdom would not permit them to be accessary to an offen- 
 sive \A'ar, which the Swedish nation had not sanctioned. The 
 example of these officers occasioned the defection of a great 
 part of the troops. The expedition to Finland failed, and the 
 Russians thus gained time to put themselves in a state of defence. 
 
 The Empress, thus attacked by the King of Sweden, claimed 
 the supplies which Denmark owed her, in virtue of the alliance 
 which subsisted between the two States. The Danes fitted out 
 a squadron, and marched a body of auxiliary troops into tne go- 
 vernment of Bohus, which they soon conquered (1788.) From 
 Bohus they marched to West Gothland, and laid siege to Got- 
 tenburg. The King of Sweden hastened in person to the de- 
 fence of that place, one of the most important in his kingdom. 
 It would certainly have fallen, however, but for the powerful 
 intervention of the Cabinets of London and Berlin, who oblig- 
 ed the Court of Copenhagen to conclude the different truces 
 with Sweden (1789,) and to adopt a perfect neutrality, even 
 with the consent of the court of St. Petersburg. 
 
 The war between the Swedes and the Russians was then con- 
 fined to naval operations, the success of which, in the campaigns 
 of 1789 and 1790, was nearly equal on both sides. The defeat 
 which the Swedish fleet sustained in the Gulf of Viburg (July 
 3, 1790,) was compensated by the victory which the King of Swe- 
 
 VOL. n. 12 "^ 
 
138 CHAPTER DC. 
 
 den gained in person (July 9, 10,) at Swenkasund over the 
 Russian fleet, commanded by the Prince of Nassau- Siegen, 
 This action, which cost the Russians many men, and a great 
 number of their ships, tended to accelerate the peace between 
 the two powers. The King of Sweden being deserted by the 
 Courts of London and Berlin, w^ho had drawn him into the w^ar, 
 was terrified lest the Russians should take advantage of the dis- 
 contents that prevailed among the Swedish Nobles, to penetrate 
 into the interior of his kingdom. He willingly accepted the 
 equitable conditions which the Empress of Russia proposed to 
 him. Peace was concluded in the Plain of Werela, near the 
 river Kymen (Aug. 14, 1790,) between the advanced posts of 
 the two camps : and the limits of both States were re-estab- 
 lished on the footing of former treaties. 
 
 As to the events of the war between Russia and the Porte, 
 they were entirely in favour of the former power. A body of 
 Russian troops, in conjunction with the Austrian army, made 
 themselves masters of Choczim (Sept. 1788.) Prince Potem- 
 Kin undertook the siege of the important fortress of Oczakoli' 
 (Dec. 17,) and carried the place by assault, in spite of the cou- 
 rageous defence made by the Turks. The whole garrison was 
 put to the sword, and a great part of the inhabitants met with 
 the same fate. Suwarow and the Prince of Coburg beat the 
 Turks near Focksani in Moldavia (July 21, 1789.) The same 
 General, with the assistance of that Prince, gained a brilliant 
 victory over the Turks near Martinesti, on the banks of the 
 Rymna (Sept. 22,) which gained him the epithet of Rymniski. 
 The taking of the fortress of Bender, was an immediate conse- 
 quence of that victory. Besides the province of OczakofT, the 
 whole of Moldavia and Bessarabia, with Tulcza, Isakzi, Kilia, and 
 [smael, and the fortress of Sudjoukkale, in Turkish Cuban, fell 
 •successively into the hands of the Russians. The taking of 
 [smael by Suwarow, occasioned prodigious slaughter. It cost 
 the lives of 30,000 Ottomans ; without reckonmg the prisoners, 
 who amounted to the number of 10,000. 
 
 These victories stirred up the jealousy of the British minis- 
 try, who fitted out an expedition to make a new diversion in fa- 
 vour of the Porte, and engaged their ally, the King of Prussia, 
 to despatch a body of troops to the frontiers of Silesia and 
 Poland. Not confining himself to these operations, that Prince 
 concluded a formal alliance with the Porte, in which he agreed 
 to declare war against the Austrians, as well as the Russians, in 
 the course of next spring. The Emperor Leopold 11. , yielding 
 to these menaces, and being desirous of restoring peace to his 
 subjects, concluded an agreement at Reichenbach (July 27. 
 
PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 139 
 
 1790,) with the Court of Berlin, hj which he granted an armis- 
 tice, and consented to make a special peace with the Porte on 
 the basis of the status ante helium. This peace was signed 
 at Szistowa, in Bulgaria (Aug. 4, 1791,) under the mediation 
 of Holland and Prussia. The Emperor restored Belgrade, and 
 in general, all that he had taken from the Turks during the 
 war. He agreed to retain Choczim no longer than the conclu- 
 sion of the peace between the Russians and the Turks ; only 
 they promised him a more advantageous frontier on the left 
 bank of the Unna ; and on the side of Wallachia, the river 
 Tzerna was adopted as the boundary betAveen the two Empires. 
 
 The Empress of Russia having resolved not to receive the 
 proposals which the two allied courts offered her, then continued 
 the war alone against the Porte, and her generals signalized 
 themselves by new exploits. At length the British ministry be- 
 ing convinced that this Princess would never yield, thought fit 
 to abandon the terms which, in concert with the Court of Ber- 
 lin, they had demanded, as the basis of the peace to be conclud- 
 ed between Russia and the Porte. Besides, they were desirous 
 of making up matters with Russia, at the time when she de- 
 tached herself from France, by renouncing the engagements 
 which she had contracted with that power by the treaty of com- 
 merce of 1787, with the Court of Berlin. The British minis- 
 try agreed never to assist the Turks, should they persist in re- 
 fusing the equitable conditions of peace which the Empress had 
 offered them. 
 
 A negotiation was opened at Galatz on the Danube. The 
 preliminaries between Russia and the Porte were signed there ; 
 and the definitive peace concluded at Jassy in Moldavia (Jan. 
 9, 1792.) This treaty renewed the stipulations of all former 
 treaties since that of Kainargi. The Dniester was establishea 
 as a perpetual frontier between the two Empires. The Turks 
 ceded to Russia the fortress of Oczakoff, Avith all the country 
 lying between the Bog and the Dniester. The cession of the 
 Crimea, the isle of Taman, and part of the Cuban, lying on the 
 right bank of the river of that name, was confirmed to Russia. 
 The Porte likewise engaged to put a stop to the piracies of the 
 Barbary Corsairs, and even to indemnify the subjects of Russia 
 for their losses, should they not obtain reparation within a lim- 
 ited time. Russia likewise restored all her other conquests ; 
 only stipulating, for certain advantages, in favour of Moldavia 
 and Wallachia. 
 
 It had been agreed between the plenipotentiaries of the two 
 Empires, that the Porte should pay a sum of 12,000,000 of 
 piasters, to indemnify Russia for the expenses of the war. But 
 
40 CHAPTER X. 
 
 immediately after the conclusion of the treaty, the Empress gave 
 intimation that she would renounce this payment in favour of 
 the Porte ; a piece of generosity which excited the admiration 
 of the Ottoman plenipotentiaries. The peace of Jassy gave 
 new energv to the commerce of the Russians on the Black 
 Sea ; and the Empress founded the town and port of Odessa, 
 which is situated on a bay of the Black Sea, between the Bog 
 and the Dniester, about nine leagues distant from Oczakoff. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PERIOD IX. 
 
 From the commencement of the French Revolution to the down- 
 fall of Buonaparte. " a. d. 1789 — 1815. 
 
 The period of the French Revolution, on which we are en- 
 tering, does not comprehend more than twenty-five years ; but 
 that short space contains more lessons of important instruction 
 than the two centuries which preceded it. In course of that 
 time, the condition of Europe was entirely changed. The po- 
 litical system, which it had cost the combined labour of three 
 hundred years to rear, was overturned from its basis, burying 
 kingdoms and whole nations in the ruins. 
 
 It was an era fertile in examples both of virtues and vices. 
 It displayed the extremes of suflering and violence, of meanness 
 and magnanimity. Kingdoms rose and disappeared by turns. 
 New principles in morals and politics flourished for a day, and 
 were quickly superseded by others. Europe was subdued and 
 enslaved, first in the name of liberty and equality, and after- 
 wards to gratify the ambition of a conqueror. At length an 
 end was put to this reign of despotism ; and the nations of the 
 Continent were delivered from a usurpation which they had too 
 long supported with patience. 
 
 The system of political equilibrium invented in the fifteenth 
 century, and established by the treaties of Westphalia and 
 Utrecht, was totally overthrown by France, during the period of 
 which we speak. Two causes accelerated its downfall. The 
 first was the violation of its fundamental principles, by the three 
 powers who dismembered Poland, — an act which made justice 
 and equity yield to convenience, and set an example that might 
 prove dangerous to their own security. The other was the 
 general belief which prevailed in the Cabinets of Europe, that 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 141 
 
 the project of founding an universal monarchy was for evei 
 hopeless and visionary — a persuasion which had lulled them 
 into a state of fatal repose. This project, however, which they 
 thought impracticable, was actually carried into execution ; 
 though it appeared under a new form. The daring individual 
 who conceived the design, gave it the name of the Federative 
 System. By his plan, the different States on the Continent were 
 to preserve an apparent independence, .vhenever this did not 
 thwart his own views ; but their polic} was to be entirely sub- 
 servient to his interest, and to be regulated according to his di 
 rection. In this manner he undertook to conquer the whole 
 world, with the aid of the Federal States, who were obliged to 
 espouse his quarrels, and to make common cause with him 
 against every power that refused to submit voluntarily to his 
 sway, or to that of his family, whom he placed as his vassals op 
 some of the most ancient thrones of Europe. 
 
 To this was added another, which he called the Continental 
 System. Its main object was to exclude Great Britain from all 
 commerce with the other European states. By this means he 
 hoped to deprive her of the command of the sea, of which she 
 was now undisputed mistress ; to annihilate her commerce ; cut 
 off the sources of her wealth ; ruin her marine ; and even to 
 overthrow the constitution, which had so long been the boast and 
 happiness of the English nation. Had it been possible to carry 
 this project into execution, the Continent must necessarily have 
 been impoverished and ruined. 
 
 The twenty-five years of which we are now to give a brief 
 outline, are so crowded with events, that, for the sake of perspi- 
 cuity, it will be necessary to divide them into separate periods. 
 In the history of France, the natural divisions are the five fol- 
 lowing, viz. (1.) From the opening of the States-General, May 
 5, 1789, till the abolition of Monarchy and the Constitutional 
 Government, Aug. 10, 1792. (2.) The Eeign of Terror ; from 
 Aug. 10, 1792, till Oct. 26, 1795, when the Convention ceased 
 to govern France. (3.) The Republican Government; from 
 Oct. 26, 1795 till May 18, 1804, when Buonaparte was declared 
 Emperor. (4.) The Reign of Napoleon Buonaparte ; from May 
 18, 1804, till March 30, 1814, when the Allies entered Paris. 
 (5.) The Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, after an exile of 
 more than twenty years. 
 
 These divisions point out the most remarkable changes that 
 occurred in France during this period. Nevertheless, as we 
 must notice the events which took place in the rest of Europe, a 
 more convenient division will be as follows. (1.) From the 
 commencement of the French Revolution till the Peace of 
 
142 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Amiens, March 27, 1802. (2.) From the Peace of Amiens till 
 the year 1810, when the power of France was at its greatest 
 height. (3.) From the end of the year 1810, till the Treaty of 
 Paris in November 1815, which includes the decline and fall ot 
 the French Empire under Buonaparte, and the restoration of a 
 new political system in Europe. After giving a sketch of the 
 various events which happened in France, we shall shortly ad- 
 vert to the revolution which the different states of Europe un 
 derwent during the same time. The affairs of other parts of 
 the world can only be taken notice of, as they may happen to be 
 connected or interwoven with those of Europe. 
 
 We now return to the first of these periods, commencing with 
 the origin of the French Revolution (May 1789,) and ending 
 with the Peace of Amiens. 
 
 The primary and elementary causes of the Revolution in 
 France must be traced back to the disordered state of her finan- 
 ces, which began under Louis XIV. ; to the general immorality 
 which prevailed under the Regent Orleans ; to the mal-admin- 
 istration of the government in the reign of Louis XV. ; and, 
 finally, to the new doctrines, both religious and political, which 
 had become fashionable after the middle of the eighteenth cen 
 tury. 
 
 It is not to be denied, that there were many abuses in the ex- 
 isting government of France that required to be corrected. The 
 royal prerogative at that time, may be called arbitrary rather 
 than despotic, for the Monarch had, in reality, greater power 
 than he exercised. The persons and properties of the subject 
 w^ere at the disposal of the crown, by means of imposts, confis- 
 cations, letters of exile, &c. ; and this dangerous authority was 
 resisted only by the feeblest barriers. Certain bodies, it is true, 
 possessed means of defence, but these privileges were seldom 
 respected. The noblesse were exempted from contributions to 
 the state, and totally separated from the commons, by the prohi- 
 bition of intermarriages. The clergy were also exempted from 
 taxation, for which they substituted voluntary grants. Besides 
 these oppressive imposts, the internal administration was badly 
 organized. The nation, divided into three orders, which were 
 again subdivided into several classes, was abandoned to all the 
 evils of despotism, and all the miseries of partial representation. 
 The noblesse were divided into courtiers, who lived on the fa- 
 vour of the prince, and who had no common sympathies with 
 the people. They held stations in the army for which they 
 were not qualified, and made a trade of all appointments and 
 offices of trust. The clergy were divided into two classes, one 
 of which was destined for the bishoprics and abbacies with their 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 143 
 
 rich revenues, while the other was destined to poverty and la- 
 bour. The commons scarcely possessed a third part of the 
 soil, for which they were compelled to pay feudal services to the 
 territorial barons, tithes to the priests, and taxes to the King". 
 Tu compensation for so many sacrifices, they enjoyed no rights, 
 had no share in the administration, and were admitted to no pub- 
 lic employments. 
 
 Such was the condition of France when Louis XVI, ascended 
 the throne. This order of things could not continue for ever; 
 but with proper caution and skilful management, many salutary 
 improvements might have been introduced, without plunging 
 the nation into rebellion and anarchy. Louis XVL had just 
 views and amiable dispositions ; but he was without decision of 
 character, and had no perseverance in his measures. His pro- 
 jects for regenerating the State encountered obstacles which he 
 had not foreseen, and which he found it impossible to overcome. 
 He was continually vacillating in the choice of his ministers ; 
 and his reign, up to the assembling of the States-General, was 
 a complication of attempted reforms, which produced no benefi- 
 cial result. Maurepas, Turgot, and Malesherbes, had been succes- 
 sively intrusted with the management of affairs ; but they found 
 it impossible to give satisfaction to any party. Their efforts for 
 retrenchment displeased the courtiers, while the people were dis- 
 contented at the continuation of existing abuses. The exhaust- 
 ed state in which the American war had left the finances of the 
 kingdom, and the unskilfulness of the ministers ; one of whom, 
 the celebrated Necker, could contrive no other method of repair- 
 ing these losses, than by means of forced loans, which augment- 
 ed the national debt, and added to the other embarrassments of 
 the government. The plan of M. de Calonne, another of the 
 ministers, v/as to assemble the Notalles, or respectable and dis- 
 tinguished persons of the kingdom (Feb. 23, 1787,) with the 
 view of obtaining through their means those new imposts which 
 he could not expect to be sanctioned by the Parliament of Paris. 
 But this assembly seemed little disposed to second his designs. 
 They discovered, with astonishment, that within a few years 
 loans had been raised to the amount of one thousand six hun- 
 dred and forty-six millions of francs ; and that there was an an- 
 nual deficit in the revenue of one hundred and forty millions. 
 This discovery was the signal for the retirement of Calonne. 
 
 His successor. Cardinal Brienne, the Archbishop of Toulouse 
 tried in vain to overcome the resistance of the Parliament, who 
 declared, by a solemn protestation (May 3, 178S,) that the right 
 of granting supplies belonged to the States-General alone. Louis 
 XVL, yielding to this expression of the public opinion, promised 
 
144 CHAPTER X. 
 
 to assemble the deputies of the nation. A second meeting of 
 the Notables, held at Versailles (Nov. 6,) deliberated as to the 
 form and constitution of the States-General. M. Necker, who 
 was recalled to the ministry, counselled the King to prefer the 
 advice of the minority, who had espoused the popular side ; and 
 proposed to grant to the Tiers-Etat, or Third Order, a double 
 number of Representatives in the States-General ; which advice 
 was followed. 
 
 The States-General were summoned to meet at Versailles on 
 the 27th of April 1789. The number of deputies was twelve 
 hundred ; six hundred of whom were of the Tiers-Etat, three 
 hundred of the noblesse, and three hundred of the clergy. The 
 King opened the assembly in person (May 5, 1789.) It was 
 accompanied with great solemnity and magnificence. The clergy 
 occupied the first place ; next came the noblesse. The Tiers- 
 Etat followed last. These individuals comprehended the choice 
 of the nation ; but the greater part of them were entirely inex- 
 perienced in state affairs, and not a few of them were imbued 
 with the principles of the new philosophy. The majority pro- 
 posed to regenerate the government according to their own specu- 
 lative notions ; while others secretly entertained the hope of 
 overturning it, to gratify their own antipathies ; or to satiate 
 their avarice and ambition. 
 
 A difference immediately arose on the question, whether they 
 should sit according to their orders. Conciliatory measures 
 having been tried in vain, the deputies of the Tiers-Etat resolved 
 to declare themselves a National Assembly. The King having 
 ordered them to suspend their sittings, they changed their plac? 
 of assembly to a Tennis Court, where, in opposition to the Royal 
 authority, they took an oath never to separate until they hal 
 achieved the regeneration of France. The majority of the 
 clergy, and some of the nobles, joined this tumultuous assembly. 
 Louis XVI., by a Royal Session (June 23,) condemned the con- 
 duct of this meeting ; abrogated its decisions ; and published a 
 declaration containing the basis of a free constitution. But the 
 authority of the King had now ceased to be respected. The 
 National Assembly refused to accept from him as a boon, what 
 they were preparing to seize by force. Alarmed at this opposi- 
 tion, Louis commanded the nobles and the clergy to join the 
 popular party, or Tiers-Etat, as a measure for conciliating the 
 public mind. 
 
 The prime agent in this revolution was Mirabeau, a man of 
 an ambitious and turbulent spirit, who inflamed the Assembly 
 by his violent harangues. A demagogue from interest, and of 
 g-ood abilities, though immoral in his character, he was resolved 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 145 
 
 to build his fortune on the pubhc troubles, and to prevent, by all 
 n'eans in his power, the first symptoms of a return to subordina 
 tion and tranquilHty. The Duke of Orleans supplied money 
 to corrupt the troops, and excite insurrections over all parts of 
 France. 
 
 In the mean time, the King assembled an army at Versailles, 
 under the command of Marshal Broglio ; and banished Necker 
 (July 11,) with whom he had some just reasons to be displeased. 
 This was the signal for a popular commotion. Paris was in a 
 state of the greatest fermentation. The press inflamed the pub- 
 lic mind. The people discussed in the open air those questions 
 which were agitated in the Assembly. A table served the pur- 
 pose of a rostrum ; and every citizen became an orator, who 
 harangued on the dangers of his country, and the necessity of 
 resistance. The mob forced the Bastille (July 14,) seized on the 
 depots of arms, mounted the tri-coloured cockade, which was the 
 distinctive banner of the city of Paris, and became that of the 
 apostles of the revolution. Bailly, the academician, was appoint- 
 ed mayor ; the citizens formed themselves into a National Guards 
 under the command of the Marquis La Fayette. The King, 
 placed in so critical a situation, and surrounded with danger, 
 consented to withdraw the troops collected in the capital and 
 the neighbourhood. He recalled M. Necker, (July 17,) and re- 
 paired to Paris to intimate his good intentions to the Assembly ; 
 declaring, that he identified himself with the nation, and relied 
 on the affection and allegiance of his subjects. 
 
 The National Assembly had usurped the whole legislative 
 power, and undertaken to draw up a new constitution. Their 
 charter commenced with a Declaratioii of the Rights of Man. 
 Such was the ardour of their revolutionary enthusiasm, that they 
 abolished, without discussion, and at one nocturnal sitting, the 
 feudal regime, the rights and privileges of provinces and corpo- 
 rations, the tithes, and the greater part of the seignorial preroga- 
 tives. It was decreed (Aug. 4,) that the legislative power should 
 be exercised by a single chamber ; and that the King could not 
 refuse his sanction to these decrees longer than four years. 
 
 As the Revolution did not proceed with a rapidity equal to the 
 wishes of the Orleans faction, they took care to stir up new insur- 
 rections. The mob of Paris attacked Versailles (Oct. 6,) in- 
 vested the Chateau, committed the most horrible excesses, and 
 conducted the King and his family prisoners to Paris, where 
 they were followed by the National Assembly. These legisla- 
 tors decreed the spoliation of the clergy, by placing their benefices 
 at the disposal of the nation. They ordered the division of 
 France into eighty-three departments ; the sale of the crown- 
 
 VOL. IT. I'S 
 
i46 CHAPTER X. 
 
 iands, and ecclesiastical property ; the proceeds of which to be 
 pledged for the redemption of the paper money, which was or- 
 dered to be issued, under the name oi assi gnats ; the admission 
 of Jews to the rights of citizens; the prohibition of monastic 
 vows ; the right of the National Assembly to declare war, in 
 consequence of a proposition from the King; a secular constitu- 
 tion, which rendered the clergy independent of the head of the 
 church, and gave the people a right to nominate their bishops ; 
 the abolition of the noblesse ; and the establishment of a tribunal 
 at Orleans, for judging crimes of high treason against the nation 
 
 Occupied with these decrees (1790-91,) the National Assem- 
 bly left the King no authority to repress the crimes and excesses 
 which were multiplying every day within the kingdom ; nor did 
 they adopt themselves any measures for putting a stop to them. 
 The King, indeed, according to the plan of their constitution, 
 was, to be the depository and supreme head of the executive 
 power ; but he had been stripped of the means necessary to the 
 effective exercise of any authority whatever. He had neither 
 places to grant, nor favours to bestow. He was left without any 
 control over the inferior parts of the administration, since the 
 men who filled these posts were elected by the people. He was 
 not even allowed the pomp of a throne, or the splendour of a 
 crown. The Assembly seemed to think it a part of their glory 
 to divest their monarch of his most valuable prerogatives. They 
 imagined that a monarchy could subsist when its authority was 
 reduced to a phantom ; that the throne could stand secure amidst 
 the ruin of ranks ; exposed to all the waves of faction, and when 
 every sentiment of respect and aflection was destroyed. Such 
 was the idea of royalty entertained by the French legislators. 
 By abolishing the gradations of society, they sapped the very 
 foundations of that frail and imaginary majesty which they had 
 modelled and fashioned according to their own ideas. Thousands 
 of noble families, finding their lives insecure, resolved to abandon 
 the country. The King himself made an attempt to escape from 
 the captivity in which he was held. He did escape in disguise, 
 but was recognised, and arrested at Varennes by the National 
 Guard (June 25,) reconducted to Paris, and suspended from his 
 functions. Monsieur, the King's brother, was more fortunate. 
 He arrived at Brussels. The Count D'Artois, the younger 
 brother, had quitted France the year before. 
 
 The Orleans party undertook to compel the National Assem- 
 bly to pronounce the deposition of the King. A large assemblage, 
 which had met in the Champs-de-Mars (July 17, 1791,) was dis- 
 persed by an armed force, by order of Bailly, and commanded 
 by La Fayette. The mode-ate party in the National Assembly 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 147 
 
 had gained the ascendancy. The constitutional articles were 
 revised in some points, and digested into a systematic form. 
 The King accepted this new code fS»?pt. 13;) and there was 
 every reason to believe that he was n-solved to carry it into exe- 
 cution. The Constituent Assembly, aff.ei having declared Avig- 
 non and Venaissin annexed to France, separated (Sept. 30,) to 
 make way for a Legislative Assembly. 
 
 The Royal brothers and most of the emigrants, having fixed 
 their residence at Coblentz, published addresses to all the Courts 
 of Europe, to solicit their assistance in restoring the King, and 
 checking the revolutionary torrent which threatened to inundate 
 Germany. The Princes of the Empire, who had possessions in 
 Alsace, found themselves aggrieved^by the decrees of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, in respect to those rights which had been 
 guaranteed to them on the faith of existing treaties. They ac- 
 cordingly claimed the intervention of the Emperor and the 
 Empire. The Electors of Mayence and Treves had permitted 
 the French noblesse to organize bodies of armed troops within 
 their estates. After the arrest of the King at Varennes, the 
 Emperor Leopold had addressed a circular to all his brother 
 Sovereigns, dated from Padua (July 6,) in which he invited them 
 to form an alliance for restoring the King's legitimate author- 
 ity in France. Accordingly, an alliance was concluded at 
 Vienna a few days after between Austria and Prussia,, the object 
 of which was to compel France to maintain her treaties with the 
 neighbouring States. The two monarchs, who met at Pilnitz 
 (Aug. 27,) declared that they would employ the most efficacious 
 means for leaving the King of France at perfect liberty to lay 
 the foundation of monarchical government. But after Louis 
 had accepted the constuution of the Assembly, the Emperor 
 formally announced (Nov. 12,) that the co-operation of the con- 
 tracting powers was in consequence suspended. 
 
 In a moment of unreflecting liberality, the Constituent Assem- 
 bly had formerly declared, that none of its members could be 
 elected for the first Legislative Assembly. This new Assembly, 
 which met Oct. 1, 1791, was composed of men altogether defi- 
 cient in experience, and hurried on by the headlong fanaticism 
 of revolution. It was divided into two parties. On the right 
 hand were those who hoped to preserve monarchy, by maintain- 
 ing the constitution with certain improvements and modifications ; 
 and on the left, those who proposed that they should proceed in 
 their revolutionary career. This latter party, in which the depu- 
 ties of the Girondists had the ascendancy, had conceived two 
 methods for overturning the constitution, viz. 1, to bring the 
 King into disrepute, by obliging him to make use of his suspen- 
 
148 CHAP PER X. 
 
 sive veto against those decrees which appeared most popuiar ; 
 and 2, to involve the nation in war, that they might find employ- 
 ment for the army, who seemed pleased with the new order of 
 things. The party on the right, who formed the majority, had 
 not the courage to oppose the execution of this plan. The As- 
 sembly issued severe decrees against the King's brothers, as 
 well as against the emigrants and the priests, who had taken no 
 share in these levelling projects. They deprived the King of 
 his body-guard, and subjected him to every species of annoyance 
 and humiliation. 
 
 This Assembly, however, was by no means in the enjoyment 
 of entire liberty. It was unde^ the influence of those popular 
 societies, known by the name of Jacobins, so called from their 
 meetmg in a convent in Paris, formerly belonging to that reli- 
 gious order. These societies, who had overspread all France, 
 were affiliated with each other, and all under the control and 
 direction of the parent society in the metropolis. It was there 
 that they prepared those laws which they compelled the National 
 Assembly to pass, and concocted their plots against the Royal 
 authority. They had an immense number of emissaries in 
 every country, who propagated their doctrines, and prepared the 
 way for the triumph of their principles. 
 
 In order to provoke a declaration of war, and thereby get rid 
 of the army, the deputies on the left never ceased to inveigh from 
 the public tribunals against the conduct of foreign powers ; and 
 to represent the King as secretly leagued with them in their de- 
 signs. His most faithful servants had been the object of their 
 calumnies. The ministry resigned their office, and the King re- 
 constructed a cabinet composed of Jacobins (March 17, 1792,) 
 the most conspicuous of whom were Dumouriez, who became 
 Minister for the Foreign department, Clavieres and Duranthon, 
 who were intrusted with the Finance, and Roland, who was 
 promoted to the administration of the Interior. 
 
 The Emperor Leopold, with whom they were on terms of 
 negotiation, demanded redress for the grievances of those princes 
 who had possessions in Alsace. Instead of giving him satisfac- 
 tion, the new French Cabinet induced the King to propose to 
 the Assembly (April 20,) that they could answer his demands 
 in no other way than by a declaration of war. This proposi- 
 tion passed with little deliberation, and was hailed with en- 
 thusiasm. Seven members only had the courage to oppose it. 
 The Assembly continued to issue their revolutionary decrees, 
 which were both repugnant to the conscience of the King, and 
 dangerous to the security of the throne. Louis, who had been 
 recently offended by the dismissal of his guards, declared he 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 149 
 
 could no longer submit to the insolence of these new ministers, 
 three of whom he discarded with indignation. Their accom- 
 plices, the Jacobins, and Pethion the mayor of Paris, then or- 
 ganized an insurrection of the armed populace of the Fauxbourgs 
 or suburbs. The mob then repaired to the Tuileries (June 20,} 
 to force the King to sanction the decrees of the Assembly, and 
 recall the patriot ministers. The King saved his own life, and 
 that of his Queen, by repelling those factions demagogues with 
 firmness and courage. He constantly refused to grant what 
 they demanded of him by violence ; while the National Assem- 
 bly displayed the most shameful pusillanimity. They even car- 
 ried their cowardice so far, as to replace Pethion and Manuel in 
 their functions, whom the King had suspended for having failed 
 to perform their duty. 
 
 Pethion, and those who ruled at their pleasure the Sections 
 of Paris, where no royalist dared to appear, then demanded the 
 dethronement of the King; and in order to compel the Assem- 
 bly to pronounce sentence against him, the conspirators publicly 
 organized a new insurrection. The populace rose in arms, and 
 attacked the Castle of the Tuileries (Aug. 10.) The King re- 
 fused the assistance of those faithful citizens who had flocked 
 round his person. Misled by unwise or perfidious counsels, he 
 repaired with his family to Paris ; and entering the National 
 Assembly, addressed them in these words : " Gentlemen, I am 
 come here to avoid the commission of a great crime. I shall 
 always consider myself and my family in safety when I am 
 among the representatives of the nation." The populace having 
 assailed the Castle, the faithful Swiss Guards defended it with 
 courage, and perished in the performance of their duty. The 
 greater part of those found in the Tuileries were massacred 
 by the rabble. The representatives of the nation, who were, 
 during this time, in a state of the greatest alarm, decreed, in 
 presence of the Sovereign, and on the proposal of Vergniaud, 
 that the King should be suspended, and a National Convention 
 assembled. 
 
 Some days after, Louis, with his Queen, the Dauphin, Ma- 
 dame Royale, and Madame Elizabeth, the King's sister, were 
 imprisoned in the Temple, under a guard of the municipality of 
 Paris, composed of partisans of the Revolution. This munici- 
 pality, and the ministers appointed by the Assembly, exercised 
 a most tyrannical authority. The prisons were crowded with 
 priests and nobles. Danton, the Minister of Justice, and a most 
 violent revolutionist, entered into arrangements with the Com- 
 imme for the massacre of these innocent men. The cruel work 
 of butchery continued for three days without remorse (Sept. 2, 
 
 VOL. II. 13^ 
 
tUO " CHAPTER X. 
 
 3,) and without the Legislative Assembly daring" to interpose. 
 A few days after, the prisoners who had been sent to the Tribu- 
 nal at Orleans, were conducted to Versailles, and put to death 
 by the hands of relentless murderers. At length the Legislative 
 Assembly dissolved, (Sept. 21,) to make way for the National 
 Convention. 
 
 The war had commenced in the month of April 179L Luck- 
 ner, Rochambaud, and La Fayette, commanded the French 
 armies, but their operations were without success. The Aus- 
 trians had merely acted on the defensive. In virtue of an alliance 
 concluded at Berlin (Feb. 7,) between the Emperor and the 
 King of Prussia, an army of fifty thousand Prussians, to which 
 were added six thousand Hessians and a body of emigrants, all 
 under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, and an Austrian 
 army, commanded by Clairfait, entered France by way of the 
 Ardennes. Longwy and Verdun opened their gates to the 
 Prussians (Aug. 13 ;) but their progress was arrested by the 
 manceuvres of Dumouriez, who had succeeded La Fayette in 
 the command of the army ; as well as by sickness and the want 
 of provisions. After cannonading Valmy (Sept. 20,) which was 
 commanded by General Kellerman, the combined army retired 
 vOwards the Rhine, and into the dutchy of Luxemburg. 
 
 The Girondists, reinforced by all the enthusiasts in France, 
 formed the National Assembly (Sept. 21, 1792.) The very day 
 of their meeting, they voted the abolition of royalty, on the pro- 
 position of the comedian Collot D'Herbois, and proclaimed the 
 Republic. Like the Assemblies which had preceded it, this was 
 divided into two parties ; the one composed of the Girondists 
 and their friends, who wished for the restoration of order ; the 
 other called the Mountain, had an interest in continuing the 
 revolution. Political dominion was the object of contest which 
 from the beginning engaged these two parties ; but they assumed 
 the pretext of honest design, to conceal their main purpose from 
 the eyes of the vulgar. The deputies of the Mountainists, as 
 they could not charge their adversaries with the reproach of 
 Royalism, exhibited them to the people as Federalists, a Te])ro3.ch. 
 which was afterwards fatal to the party ; and in order to have a 
 rallying word, Tallien decreed (Sept. 5,) that the Republic was 
 one and indivisible. 
 
 To detail all the laws and acts which the Convention publish- 
 ed during the three years which it oppressed France, would be 
 to unfold a disgusting catalogue of crimes and extravagances ; 
 we must be content with merely adverting to such of its opera- 
 tions as were distinguished by their enormity, or produced any 
 durable effect. One of its first decrees was, to banish all emi- 
 
PERiou IX. A. D. 1789— 1S15. 151 
 
 grants for ever ; and to order those to be put to death who should 
 return to their native country. Soon after, they made a tender 
 of their assistance to all subjects who might be inclined to revolt 
 against their legitimate sovereigns ; and in the countries which 
 were occupied by their own armies, they proclaimed the sover- 
 eignty of the people, and the abolition of the established authori- 
 ties. The moderate party, or, more properly speaking, the less 
 furious party of the Convention, were willing to spare the King'^ 
 life. This, however, was one reason for the Mountainists to 
 put him to death. The Convention accordingly decreed (Dec. 
 3j 1792,) that a trial should be instituted against Louis Capet, 
 as they called him ; and combining, in the most absurd manner, 
 the functions of accusers, judges, and legislators, they assumed 
 the right of pronouncing as to his culpability. Twice they com- 
 pelled him to appear at their bar (Dec. 11, 26,) Avhere de Seze, 
 Malesherbes, and Tronchet undertook his defence. The de- 
 meanour of the King was full of candour and dignity. Of seven 
 hundred and twenty voters, six hundred and eighty-three de- 
 clared him guilty (Jan. 15, 1793.) Thirty-seven refused to vote 
 on different grounds, some of which were honourable ; but the 
 Assembly did not contain a single man who dared positively to 
 pronounce the innocence of their victim. Two only of those who 
 refused to vote, declared they did not think themselves entitled 
 to sit as judges of the King. 
 
 The minority in vain had flattered themselves that they might 
 rescue the King from death, provided they referred the punish- 
 ment to the nation itself. But in this they were disappointed. 
 Of seven hundred and eighteen voters, four hundred and twenty- 
 four objected to the appeal to the people. Two hundred and 
 eighty-three admitted it ; and eleven had voted from interested 
 motives, which could not be sustained. Nothing now remained 
 but to pronounce the punishment to be inflicted on the King. 
 Of seven hundred and twenty-one voters, three hundred and 
 sixty-one were for an unconditional sentence of immediate death, 
 and among these the Duke of Orleans, (Jan. 17.) The partisans 
 of Louis interposed, and appealed from this sentence to the na- 
 tion. In vain did the Girondists support this petition. Of six 
 hundred and ninety voters, three hundred and eighty decided 
 that his execution should take place within twenty-four hours. 
 
 Louis heard his sentence of death with composure and Chris- 
 tian resignation. He had already made his will, a monument 
 at once of his piety and the purity of his heart. He died the 
 death of a martyr (Jan. 21, 1793.) At the moment when the 
 executioner's axe was ready to strike, the Abbe Edgeworth, his 
 confessor, addressed him in these sublime words : — " Son of St. 
 
152 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Louis, ascend to Heaven !" The whole inhabitants of Paris, whu 
 viewed this foul deed with horror, were under arms. A mourn- 
 ful silence reigned in the city. 
 
 All governments agreed in condemning the conduct of the 
 regicides ; but the voice of general detestation did not check the 
 career of the sanguinary faction. The crime with which the 
 Convention had stained themselves presaged the ruin of the 
 Girondists, though they retarded their downfall by a struggle of 
 four months. An insurrection of the sections of Paris (June 2,) 
 organized by Hebert, procureur of the commune, and by the 
 deputies Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, decided the victory. 
 The Girondists were proscribed for the crime of federalism. The 
 victorious party honoured themselves with the title of Sans-cu- 
 lottes, and commenced what has been called the Reign of Ter- 
 ror. The Convention was now nothing more than an assembly 
 of executioners, and a den of brigands. To hoodwink and de- 
 ceive the people, they submitted for their approbation the plan 
 of a constitution, drawn up by Herault de Sechelles (June 24 ;) 
 according to which the Primary Assemblies were to exercise the 
 sovereignt}?", and deliberate on all legislative measures. After 
 the 2d of June, the whole power was in the hands of the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety, which was formed in the Convention. 
 Danton, the chief of the Cordeliers, a popular assembly more 
 extravagant than the Jacobins themselves, had the most influ- 
 ence for a time ; but he was soon supplanted by Robespierre. 
 The Constitution of the 24:th of June had been adopted in the 
 Primary Assemblies ; but Robespierre decreed that it should be 
 suspended (Aug. 28 ;) and that the Republic was in a state of 
 revolution, until its independence was acknowledged. 
 
 Under this title they organized a government, the most tyran- 
 nical and the most sanguinary which history ever recorded. 
 Robespierre was at the head of n. All France swarmed with 
 revolutionary committees. Revolutionary armies were dispers- 
 ed every where, dragging the wealthy and well-affected to pun- 
 ishment. A law with regard to siispected persons changed all 
 the public edifices into prisons, and filled ail the prisons with 
 victims devoted to destruction. To remedy the fail of the as- 
 signats, the Convention fixed an assessment, called the maxi- 
 mum, on all articles of consumption : a measure which reduced 
 the country to a state of famine. The Queen. Maria Antoinette, 
 was accused before this revolutionary tribunal, and brought to 
 the scaffold (Oct. 16.) Many of the Girondist deputies were 
 arrested on the 2d of June, and met with the same fate. The 
 Duke of Orleans, who was become an object of execration to 
 all parties, perished there in his turn (Nov. 7.) Nobody pitied 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 153 
 
 his fate. Over all the provinces of the kingdom the blood of 
 the innocent flowed in torrents. 
 
 The revolutionists did not stop hero. To their political 
 crimes they added acts of impiety. They began by abolishing 
 the Gregorian calendar and the Christian era, and substituted 
 in its place the era of the Eepublic ; to commence on the 22d 
 September 1793. In a short time, Hebert and Chaumette, two 
 chiefs of the commune, got the Convention to decree the abo- 
 lition of the Christian religion (Nov. 10.) The worship of 
 Reason was substituted in its place ; and the church of Notre 
 Dame at Paris was profaned, by being converted into a temple 
 of atheism. Gobel, the Constitutional Bishop of Paris, and se- 
 veral other ecclesiastics, publicly apostatized from their faith. 
 Plunder and sacrilege of all kinds were committed in the Catho- 
 lic churches. 
 
 The departments in the west of France had remained faithful 
 to the King. In Poitou, Maine, Brittany, and Normandy, a 
 civil war arose, known by the name of the Vendean War, which 
 was on the point of overturning the Republic. The Vendean 
 insurgents took the title of the Catholic army, which was com- 
 manded in the name of Louis XVII., (who still remained a pri- 
 soner in the Temple after his father's death,) by a Council which 
 sat at Chatillon. M. d'Elbee w^as Commander-in-chief. He 
 had under him Artus de Bonchamp, the Marquis de Lescure, 
 de Larochejacquelin, Cathelineau, Charette, and Stofflet. This 
 insurrection had broken out on account of a levy of troops which 
 the Republic had ordered. 
 
 The war was carried on with violence and cruelty. Among 
 the most remarkable of its events that happened in the year 
 1793, were the battle of Saumur (June 9,) after which all the 
 towns on the Loire, except Nantes, declared for the King ; the 
 battle of Chatillon, where the Royalists were repeatedly defeated 
 by the army of Mayence, which the Convention had sent against 
 them ; the passage of the Loire (Oct. 17, 19,) by a hundred 
 thousand of the Vendeans, including old men, women and chil- 
 dren, who were eager to approach the coast, where they expect- 
 ed the supplies promised by England to arrive ; the defeat of the 
 army of Mayence at Chateau Gontier ; the taking of Mans by 
 the Republicans, and their victory at Savenay ; the taking of 
 Noirmoutier, where the brave d'Elbee fell into the hands of the 
 enemy (Jan. 2, 1794;) and, in the last place, the defeat of Cha- 
 rette at Machecoult, The troops of the Convention were com- 
 manded in succession by Biron, Oanclaux, Westermann, Kleber, 
 Beysser, I'Echelle, Marceau, and Rossignol. The deputy Car- 
 rier de Nantes covered the whole country with slaughter, and 
 exerted his ingenuity to invent new methods of massacre. 
 
154 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Other insurrections arose in the south of France, after the re- 
 volution of the 2d of June. Bourdeaux, Lyons, Marseilles, and 
 Toulon, declared themselves against the Convention. Bordeaux 
 was speedily subdued (Aug. 25, 1793.) General Carteaux tooL 
 possession of Marseilles, with the assistance of the populace. 
 Toulon proclaimed Louis XVIL (Aug. 29,) and threw them 
 selves under the protection of Admirals Hood and Langara, who 
 were cruising off their coast with the English and Spanish fleets 
 Kellerman had orders to besiege Lyons ; a task which was 
 afterwards intrusted to Doppet. This city surrendered after a 
 vigorous resistance (Oct. 9.) It became the scene of the most 
 atrocious actions. Its finest buildings were entirely ruined and 
 demolished by order of the Convention. Carteaux took Toulon 
 by assault (Dec. 24.) It was during the siege of this place, that 
 a young officer distinguished himself by his courage, and after- 
 wards by his enthusiasm for the Revolution. This youth was 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Ajaccio in Corsica. 
 
 The very same day on which the Convention met, the Duke 
 of Saxe-Teschen at the head of the Austrian army, had com- 
 menced the siege of Lille ; but he was obliged to raise it in about 
 twenty days. The Legislative Assembly had declared war 
 against the King of Sardinia (Sept. 10, 1792.) General Mon- 
 tesquiou took possession of Savoy, and Anselm made himself 
 master of Nice. Some months after, the Convention declared 
 these provinces to be annexed to France. While the allies were 
 retiring from Champagne, Custine took Mayence by a coup de 
 main (Oct. 21,) assisted, as it afterwards appeared, by treachery. 
 Dumouriez, with a superior force, beat the Duke of Saxe-Teschen 
 at Gemappe (Nov. 6,) and soon achieved the conquest of the 
 Belgic provinces. The Convention having declared war against 
 England and the Stadtholder of the Netherlands (Feb. 1, 1793,) 
 as well as against Spain, a powerful coalition was formed against 
 them, of which England and Russia were the prime supporters ; 
 the one by her ammunitions, and the other by the subsidies which 
 she furnished. They were joined by all the Christian Sover- 
 eigns in Europe, with the exception of Denmark. 
 
 Dumouriez undertook the conquest of Holland, and penetra- 
 ted as far as Moerdyk : but he was obliged to abandon his ob- 
 ject in consequence of the defeat of Miranda who had laid siege 
 to Maestricht, by the Austrian army under the command of the 
 Duke of Saxe-Coburg. Dumouriez was himself defeated at 
 Nerwinden (March 18,) after which he retired towards the fron- 
 tier of France. Being determined to put an end to the tyranny 
 ot the Convention, and to re-establish the constitution of 1791, 
 he concluded an armistice with the Austrians, and delivered up 
 
PERIOD IX. A. T). 1789 — 1815. 166 
 
 to them the commissioners which the Convention had sent to 
 deprive him of his office ; but his army having refused to obey 
 him, he escaped to Tournay, where General Clairfait then was. 
 The young Duke of Chartres accompanied him in his flight. 
 
 During the rest of tlie campaign, success was divided between 
 the two parties. The Austrians, who were conquerors at Fa- 
 mars (May 24,) took Conde, Valenciennes, and Quesnoy (July.) 
 The Duke of York, who commanded the English army, was 
 Deat by Houchard at Hondscote (Sept. 8.) Jourdan compelled 
 General Clairfait, by means of the battle of Wattignies, to raise 
 the siege of Maubeuge. On the side of the Pyrenees, the Span- 
 ish generals, Ricardos and Ventura-Caro, gained several advan- 
 tages ; the former having taken Bellegarde, Collioure, and Port 
 Vendre. On the Rhine, the allies had the best of the campaign. 
 After an obstinate siege, Mayence surrendered to the Prussians 
 (July 22,) who beat Moreau at Pirmasens (Sept. 14,) though 
 they failed in the siege of Landau. An army of the allies, 
 80,000 strong, commanded by Wurmser and the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick, forced the lines at Wissemburg (Oct. 13,) and penetrated 
 nearly as far as Strasburg ; but General Pichegru, who had 
 taken the command of the French army, obliged Wurmser to 
 repass the Rhine (Dec. 30.) The Prussians maintained them- 
 selves on the left bank of that river, between Oppenheim and 
 Bergen. 
 
 In France, the revolutionists were divided into three parties. 
 The Committee of Public Safety, at the head of which was 
 Robespierre, supported by the club of Jacobins, governed with 
 an absolute power. Hebert, Chaumette, Anacharsis Clootz, a 
 native of Prussia, and the other members of the Commune of 
 Paris, formed a second party ; more violent than the first, but 
 contemptible from the character of the individuals who composed 
 it. The third, comprehended Danton, Desmoulins, Herault de 
 Sechelles, and others, who stood in awe of Robespierre, and 
 were terrified by the extravagant fury of these bandits. The 
 faction of the Commune was the first that was annihilated by 
 the temporary union of the other two parties (March 24, 1794.) 
 After that, Robespierre found little difficulty in sending Danton 
 and his friends to the scaffold (April o ;) but in a short time some 
 of the members of the Committee of Public Safety, and the re- 
 mains of the Girondist party, conspired against him. In order 
 to please the people, he abolished the worship of Reason (May 
 7,) and caused the Convention to proclaim the existence of a 
 Supreme Being (June 8;) he introduced a new religion, that of 
 Deism, of which he created himself high-priest. 
 
 The power of Robespierre was now in its apogeO; and his 
 
166 CHAPTER X. 
 
 downfall approached. As the revolutionary tribunal was not 
 sufficiently expeditious m despatching those whom he had mark- 
 ed out for destruction, he passed a decree (June 10,) by which 
 an unlimited authority was vested in that tribunal. This open- 
 ed the eyes of his enemies in the Convention ; and, not doubt- 
 ing that they were doomed to death, they conspired the ruin of 
 the tyrant. Tallien and Billaud Varennes were the first that 
 attacked him before the tribunal. Having repeatedly attempted 
 to defend himself, he was prevented by the voice of the Assem- 
 bly, crying, " Down with the tyrant !" At length, repulsed and 
 dispirited, he allowed himself to be arrested. Having found 
 means, however, to escape from the guard, he saved himself in 
 the midst of the Commune, which was composed of those who 
 had adhered to him after the fall of Hebert. Both sides took to 
 arms ; Robespierre and his faction were outlawed, but they 
 showed little courage. Finding themselves undone, they en- 
 deavoured to escape the swords of the enemy, by despatching 
 themselves. Robespierre attempted self-destruction, bat he only 
 broke his jaw-bone with a pistol shot. He was executed, with 
 twenty-one of his accomplices (July 28, 1794.) Eighty-three 
 others met the same fate in course of the two following days ; 
 from that time the reign of terror was at an end, and thousands 
 of innocent persons were liberated from the prisons. His do- 
 minion, however, was not yet discontinued ; and the career of 
 this Convention, from its beginnmg to its dissolution, was mark- 
 ed by a series of cruelties and oppressions. 
 
 The campaign of 1794 was triumphant for the French arms. 
 Pichegru commanded the army of the North, and Jourdan that 
 of the Sambre and the Meuse. The Duke of Coburg had at 
 first the command of the Austiian army; but towards the end 
 of the campaign, he transferred it to Clairfait. The King of 
 Prussia, become disgusted with the war, had threatened to with- 
 draw his grand army from the Rhine, and to leave only his con- 
 tingent as a prince of the Empire, and the 20,000 men which 
 he was bound to furnish Austria, in virtue of the alliance of 
 1792. But England and Holland being engaged, by a conven- 
 tion signed at the Hague, to furnish him with supplies, he pro- 
 mised to retain 62,400 men under arms against France. I'key 
 were under the command of Field-Marshal Mellendorff. The 
 taking of Charleroi by Jourdan, and the battle of Fleurus, which 
 he gained over the Duke of Coburg (June 26,) decided the fate 
 of the Netherlands. After some movements in conjunction with 
 the army of the Upper Rhine, under the command of the Duke 
 of Saxe-Teschen, — movements which had but little success, from 
 the want of agreement among the generals, — Clairfait, at the 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 157 
 
 head of the Austrian army, retired, about the end of the year, on 
 the right bank of the Rhine, followed by Mellendorff, whom the 
 French had never been able to bring into action. 
 
 The army of the Pyrenees, under the command of Dugom- 
 nner, gained a splendid victory at Ceret over General La Union 
 T^April 30,) and retook Bellegarde. The two generals of the 
 army were slain at Monte-Nero, where, after a battle of three 
 days, the Spaniards Avere repulsed by Perignon (Nov. 27.) The 
 French took Figuieres (Feb. 4,) and Roses about two monihs 
 after. The western army of the Pyrenees, under the command 
 of Muller, entered Spain, took Fontarabia and St. Sebastian 
 (Aug. 1, 11,) beat the Spaniards at Pampeluna (Nov. 8,) and 
 spread terror to the very gates of Madrid. After the reduction 
 of Toulon, the English fleet, under Admiral Howe, being invited 
 into Corsica by Paoli, took possession of that island (June 18,) 
 which submitted to Britain as an independent kingdom. The 
 French fleet, under Admiral Villaret Joyeuse, was defeated oflf 
 Ushant by Admiral Howe (June 1.) Most of the French colo- 
 nies had already fallen into the power of the English. 
 
 General Pichegru, favoured by the rigour of winter, and the 
 intrigues of the party opposed to the House of Orange, had 
 made himself master, almost without striking a blow, of the 
 United Provinces of the Netherlands (Jan. 1795,) where the 
 Patriots had re-established the ancient constitution, such as it had 
 been before the year 1788 ; the office of Stadtholder being again 
 abolished, as the Prince of Orange, after being deprived of all 
 his functions, had fled to England. France concluded a treaty 
 with this Republic at the Hague (May 16,) where the indepen- 
 dence of the latter was formally acknowledged. She entered 
 also into an alliance against England ; paid one hundred mil- 
 lions of florins ; and ceded a part of her territory. It was at 
 this time (June 8, 1795,) that the roj^al Infant Louis XVII., only 
 son oi Louis XVI., died in the Temple, in consequence of the 
 bad treatment which he had endured incessantly for nearly 
 three years. His uncle, \vho had assumed the title of Regent 
 about the beginning of 1793, succeeded him in his right to the 
 throne. That Prince, who then resided at Verona, took the 
 title of Louis XVIII. 
 
 After the battles of Mans and Savenay, and th.'> taking of Noir- 
 moutier, the Vendeans had found themselves greatly exhausted 
 But at the time of which we now speak, they formed themselves 
 into bands of insurgents in Brittany and Normandy, under the 
 name of Chouans. After the death of Larochejacquelin, Cha- 
 rette and Sapineau concluded a peace with the Conveiition at 
 Tausnaie (Feb. 17, 1795.) Cormartin, the leader of the Chouans, 
 
 VOL. II. 14 
 
158 CHAPTER X. 
 
 did the same at Mabilais ; but, a few weeks after, the Conven 
 lion caused him to be arrested and shot, with seven other chiefs. 
 This was the signal for a new insurrection. The English go 
 vernment at length resolved to send assistance to the Royalists 
 A body of emigrants and French prisoners of war were landed 
 in the Bay of Quiberon (June 18.) But the whole of the expe* 
 dition was badly managed, and had a most disastrous resalu 
 General Hoche attacked the troops on their debarkation. The 
 greater part might have saved themselves on board the vessels . 
 but the Marquis de Sombreuil, and five hundred and sixty yoanj» 
 men of the best families, were taken and shot by order of Ta^- 
 iien (June 21,) in spite of the opposition of General Hoche, who 
 declared that he had promised to spare their lives. 
 
 In the National Convention, two parties were contending for 
 the superiority ; the Thermidorians or Moderates, and the Ter- 
 rorists. The inhabitants of Paris, reduced to despair by the 
 dearth which the rnaximum had caused, and instigated by the 
 Jacobins, had several times revolted, especially on the days of 
 the 12th Germinal (April 1,) and the 1st Prairial (May 20.) 
 The moderate party, strengthened by the accession of many of 
 the deputies proscribed since the 2d June 1793, gained the vie 
 tory ; and purged the Convention, by banishing or putting to 
 death the most execrable of the Terrorists. They even concili- 
 ated, in some respects, the opinion of the public, by drawing up 
 a new constitution (June 23,) which might appear wise and ju- 
 dicious compared with the maxims which had been disseminated 
 for several years. Its fundamental elements were a Legislative 
 Body, composed of two elective chambers ; one of which was 
 to have the originating of the laws, and the other, composed of 
 men of judgment and experience, was to be invested with a 
 veto. The executive power was to be lodged in the hands of a 
 Council of five persons, clothed with an authority greater than 
 that which the Constitution of 1791 had given to the King. 
 The Convention passed several other laws, which indicated a 
 desire to return to the principles of morality. They also resolved 
 to exchange Madame Royale, the only remains of the family of 
 Louis XVI., for the deputies delivered up by Dumouriez. But 
 they lost again the affections of the people, by their laws of the 
 5th and 13th Fructidor of the year Three, (Aug. 22, & 30, 
 1795.) PremoTiished by the fault which the Constituent As- 
 sembly had committed, in prohibiting its members from entering 
 into the Legislative Body, and wishing, at the same time, to es- 
 cape punishment for the many crimes they had committed, they 
 ord lined that two-thirds of the members then composing the 
 Convention, should, of necessity, become a part of the new Le- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 159 
 
 2:isIation ; and that if the Primary Assemblies did not re-appoint 
 live hundred of the ex-conventional deputies, the newly elected 
 members should themselves complete the quota, by adding- a 
 sufficient number of their ancient colleagues. 
 
 The New Constitution had been submitted for the approba- 
 tion of the people, which they doubted not it would receive, as it 
 was to deliver France from the revolutionary faction. The Con- 
 vention took advantage of this disposition of the people, to com- 
 pel the Sections likewise to accept the two decrees, by declar- 
 ing them an integral part of the Constitution. But this attempt 
 was the occasion of new troubles. The Sections of Paris wished 
 to vote separately on the Constitution, and on the decrees which, 
 in that case, would have been rejected over all France; the 
 moderate party of the Convention, if we can honour them with 
 that name, joined wdth the Terrorists. Perceiving the storm to 
 be gathering, they now sought assistance and support from the 
 troops whose camp was pitched under the walls of Paris. They 
 armed a large body of men, at the head of which was Bona- 
 parte, who gained a sanguinary victory over the Parisians, on 
 the 13th Vendemiaire, in the year Three (October 5th, 1795.) 
 The desire to restore the Bourbons had been the secret motive 
 with the chiefs of the insurrection. 
 
 A new Legislative Body assembled, which might be regarded 
 as a continuation of the Convention; so long at least as the five 
 hundred deputies of the Convention were not excluded, who sat 
 in consequence of the annual renewals of one-third of its mem- 
 bers. The Executive Directory, appointed by the Council of 
 the Ancients from a list presented by the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred, consisted of Lareveillere-Lepeaux, Rewbel, Barras, Le 
 Tourneur, and Carn8t, who had replaced Sieyes, — this member 
 having declined to make one of the Directory — the whole five 
 being Regicides. The forms of Terrorism were mitigated in 
 some respects, but the morals of the administration gained no- 
 thing by the change. The reign of the Directory was an era of 
 corruption and dissoluteness, whose efTects were long felt. An 
 Unbounded avarice seized the nation, and the Directory encour- 
 aged and fed that shameful passion, by lending itself to the 
 most infamous traffic. Men coveted the nobility of riches, 
 rather than that of honour and birth. 
 
 The Directory had to struggle against two inconveniences ; 
 the one was the spirit of rebellion, which induced the Terrorists 
 to form a conspiracy among themselves, — such as that of Druet 
 and Babeuf (M5»y 10, 1796,) and that which is known by the 
 name of the Conspiracy of the Camp at Grenoble (Sept. 9.) 
 The other inconvenience was still more serious, namely, the 
 
160 CHAPTER X. 
 
 embarrassed state of the finances. The quantity of as^ignats 
 thrown into circulation, amounted to 18,933,500,000 francs. To 
 reduce this sum, they decreed a loan of 600,000,000 in specie. 
 This measure proving ineffectual, the assignats were replaced 
 by another sort of paper-money, viz. rescriptions ; and finally by 
 mandates. But both of these were discredited ; the former after 
 being issued, and the latter even before they were put into effec- 
 tive circulation, on the ground that it would be found necessary 
 to withdraw them altogether from circulation. The State thus 
 became bankrupt for thirty-nine thousand millions of francs. It 
 then became necessary to have recourse to a system of regular 
 imposts, which the people had not been accustomed to pay. 
 
 The Executive Directory had succeeded in putting an end to 
 the war in La Vendee. This success was owing to the firmness 
 and moderation of General Hoche. Stofflet was betrayed, and 
 shot at Angers (Feb. 25, 1796.) Charette who had fallen into 
 the hands of the Republicans, met with the same fate at Nantes 
 soon after. His death put an end to the war (March 29.) The 
 Count d'Autichamp, and the other Vendean Generals, signed a 
 treaty of peace with Hoche. George Cadoudal, the leader of 
 the Chouans, fled to England. 
 
 At first, from the accession of a third of the members of the 
 two legislative councils, the moderate party gained the ascend- 
 ancy. On M. Berthelemy's being appointed to the Directory, 
 there arose a schism betvv^een Lareveillere-Lepeaux, Rewbel, and 
 Barras, who were called the Triumvirs, and Carn6t and Ber- 
 thelemy, who were inclined for peace, and for putting an end to 
 the measures of the Revolution. The triumvirate lost the ma- 
 jority in the Council, where Pichegru had put himself at the 
 head of the moderate party, who hoped to restore the monarchy. 
 Royalism, assisted by the liberty of the press which France then 
 enjoyed, had made such progress as frightened the triumvirs. 
 They thought themselves sure of the army, so easy to be sedu- 
 ced when they are allowed to deliberate ; and especially of Bo- 
 naparte. They then performed the exploit, which is known by 
 the name of the Revolution of the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4.) 
 Sixty-five deputies, and the two Directors, Berthelemy and Car- 
 not, were condemned to transportation ; and such of them as 
 were apprehended, were banished to the deserts of Sinamari in 
 Guiana. The last named deputies of the two Councils were 
 expelled ; and the moderate laws, issued three months before, 
 were superseded by revolutionary measures. The authors, ed- 
 itors, and printers of royalist or moderate Journals, were also 
 transported ; the liberty of the press was abolished, and contin- 
 iied so in France from that time till 1814. Merlin, a lawyer o 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 161 
 
 Douay, was appointed to the place of one of the exiled Pirec- 
 tiirs, and the poet Francois, anative of Neuchateau in Lorrain, to 
 that of another. 
 
 Here, it will be proper to take a retrospect of the events of the 
 war. The Grand Duke of Tuscany was the first that set the 
 example of a reconciliation with France, which was signed at 
 Paris, (Feb. 9, 1795.) The King of Prussia, whose finances 
 were exhausted, entered into a negotiation with Berthelemey, 
 the Eepublican ambassador, which was concluded at Basle by 
 Baron Hardenberg, (April 5.) Prussia not only abandoned the 
 coalition ; she even guaranteed the neutrality of the North of 
 Germany, according to a line of demarcation which was fixed 
 by a special convention, (May 17.) The Landgrave of Hesse 
 Cassel likewise made peace at Basle, (Aug. 28th.) 
 
 The retreat of the Prussians on the one hand, and the scar- 
 city which prevailed in France on the other, had retarded the 
 Qpening of the campaign of 1795. Field Marshal Bender hav- 
 mg reduced Luxemburg, after a siege of eight months, and a 
 plentiful harvest having once more restored abundance, the 
 army of the Sambre and Meuse, commanded by Jourdan, and 
 :hat of the Rhine and Moselle, under Pichegru, passed the Rhine. 
 The former, being beat at Hochst by Clairfait, (Oct. 11,) repas- 
 sed that river in disorder ; and Mayence, then under siege, was 
 relieved. Pichegru, who had taken Manheim, (Sept. 22,) re- 
 treated in like manner, and General Wurmser retook that city. 
 An armistice was concluded on the last day of the year. 
 
 In Italy the French were expelled from Piedmont and the 
 States of Genoa, which they had invaded ; but the victory which 
 Scherer gained over de Vins at Lovano (Nov. 23,) was a pre- 
 lude to greater advantages, which they gained in course of next 
 year. 
 
 In Spain, Moncey gained the battle of Ormea, and occupied 
 Bilboa. But the peace which the Chevalier Yriarte signed at 
 Basle, (July 6,) put an end to his conquests. The King of Spain 
 ceded to the Republic his part of the Island of St. Domingo. 
 Lord Bridport defeated the French fleet off L'Orient, (June 23, 
 1795,) which intended to oppose the debarkation of the emi- 
 grants at Quiberon. The coalition, which the retirement of 
 Prussia and Spain had threatened to dissolve, gained fresh 
 strength by several new alliances, such as that of Vienna, be- 
 tween Austria and Great Britain, (May 20,) and the Triple Al- 
 liance of St. Petersburg, (Sept. 28.) 
 
 The campaign of 1796, was glorious for the French arms in 
 Italy. Napoleon Bonaparte was there, at the head of an army 
 destitute of every thing except courage. By a series of vic- 
 VOL II. 14^ 
 
1(52 CHAPTER X. 
 
 tories which he gained at Montenotte, Dego, Millesimo, Cev4, 
 and Mondovi, over the Austrian General Beauiieux, and the 
 Sardinian General Colli, he obliged the King of Sardinia to 
 sign a truce at Cherasco, (April 28,) by which he surrendered 
 up three fortresses. Bonaparte passed the Po at Placentia ; 
 granted a truce on very disadvantageous terms to the Duke of 
 Parma; and forced the passage of the Bridge of Lodi, (May 
 9.) The fate of Lombardy was decided. Cremona and Piz- 
 zighitone opened their gates to the conqueror, (May 14,) who 
 soon made his entry into Milan. The Duke of Modena obtain- 
 ed a suspension of arms. The King of Sardinia agreed to sign 
 a peace at Paris, by which he surrendered Savoy and the dis- 
 trict of Nice. The terror of the French arms was so great, 
 that the King of Naples promised to remain neutral, by a con- 
 vention which he concluded at Brescia (June 5.) The Pope 
 also obtained neutrality, by the armistice of Bologna, (June 28,) 
 but on conditions exceedingly severe. Though the war had 
 ceased in Tuscany, a body of French troops occupied Leghorn, 
 (June 28,) to seize the English merchandise in that port. 
 
 The Court of Vienna was resolved to make every effort to 
 save Mantua, the only place which remained to them in Italy. 
 At the head of 50,000 fresh troops, Wurmser marched from the 
 Tyrol, broke the French lines on the Adige, (July 31,) and com- 
 pelled Bonaparte to raise the siege of Mantua. The latter 
 General encountered the Austrians, and beat them at Castiff- 
 lione ; without however, being able to prevent Wurmser from 
 throwing fresh supplies into Mantua. This place was invested 
 a second time ; and a second time the Austrian army marched 
 to its relief. While Bonaparte was engaged with Davidovitch 
 at Roveredo, (Sept. 4,) and Massena pushing on as far as Trent, 
 Wurmser marched in all haste towards Mantua. Bonaparte 
 suddenly directed his course against him, vanquished him in 
 several battles, and compelled him to throw himself, with the 
 wreck of his army into the fortress (Sept. 15.) After this 
 event, the King of the Two Sicilies, and the Duke of Parma, 
 signed a definitive neace at Paris ; and the Republic of Genoa 
 concluded a treaty, (Oct. 9,) by which it retained at least the 
 appearance of independence. Austria tried a third time to 
 relieve Mantua. Two armies under the command of Alvinzi 
 and Davidovitch marched, the one from Friuli, and the other 
 from the Tyrol. The former was encountered by Bonaparte, 
 who defeated them in a sanguinary action at Arcole, (Nov. 17.) 
 Immediately he directed his march against the other, and beat 
 them at Rivoli, (Nov. 21.) 
 
 While matters were thus passing in Italy, the anay of the 
 
?ERioD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 163 
 
 ^srfibre diiO. Meuse, commanded by Jourdan, had several en- 
 gagements with the Archduke-Charles, brother of the Emperor, 
 on the Sieo- and the Lahn. Moreau, at the head of the army of 
 the Rhine and Moselle, passed the Rhine at Strasburg, and gained 
 several advantages over the army which Wurmser had com- 
 manded at the beginning of the campaign ; he concluded truces 
 with the Duke of Wurtemberg, the Margrave of Baden, and the 
 Circle of Swabia, who supplied him with money and provisions, 
 (July,) and penetrated into Bavaria, the Elector of which was also 
 obliged to submit to very rigorous conditions, (Sept. 7,) to obtain 
 a suspension of arms. Jourdan, on his side, having also passed 
 the Rhine, marched through Franconia, as far as the Upper 
 Palatinate. The Archduke-Charles, who, since the departure of 
 Wurmser for Italy, had been at the head of all the Austrian 
 armies in Germany, retired before so great a superiority of num- 
 bers, and drew near to the quarter whence he expected the ar- 
 rival of reinforcements. He immediately fell on the undis- 
 ciplined army of Jourdan, defeated them at Amberg, (Aug. 24,) 
 and Wurtsburg, (Sept. 3 ;) and put them so completely to the 
 rout, that they were obliged to repass the Rhine (Sept. 19.) This 
 disaster compelled Moreau to make his retreat ; in effecting 
 which, he displayed the talents of a great general. After a 
 number of engagements, in which he was more frequently the 
 conqueror than conquered, he brought back his army to Hunin- 
 gen, (Oct. 26,) where they passed the Rhine. That fortress and 
 Kehl were the only points on the right bank of the Rhine which 
 remained in the possession of the French. 
 
 The Cabinet of London, finding that Spain had declared war 
 against her (Aug. 19,) according to the treaty of St. Ildefonso 
 which allied her strictly with France ; and moreover, seeing 
 Ireland threatened with an invasion, ordered the British troops 
 to evacuate the island of Corsica, (Oct. 21,) of which the French 
 took possession. Lord Malmesbury was sent to Lille to nego- 
 tiate a peace (Oct. 24,) which he was not able to obtain, because 
 the conditions were not agreeable to the three Directors who 
 formed the majority. The attempts which the French made to 
 land in Ireland (Dec. 22,) under Admiral Morard de Galles, and 
 General Hoche, proved unsuccessful. 
 
 In 1797, the Austrians made a fourth attempt to save Man- 
 tua. Alvinzi arrived with 80,000 men ; but after several bloody 
 engagements, this army was dispersed, and old Wurmser was 
 compelled to surrender Mantua by capitulation (Feb. 2.) Bo- 
 naparte, who had broken his truce with the Pope, invaded the 
 Ecclesiastical States ; but being menaced in the rear by a new 
 Austrian army, he again made peace with his Holiness at To- 
 
^6-i CHAPTER X. 
 
 ientino (Feb. 19.) The Pope, besides renouncing Avignon and 
 the Venaissin, ceded also Ferrara, Bologna and Romagna. The 
 new Austrian army in Italy was commanded by the Archduke- 
 Charles ; but not being able to cope with that of Bonaparte in 
 pitched battle, the Archduke retired through the Tyrol and Carin- 
 thia into Stiria, where he was followed by the French General. 
 This precipitate march threw the French army into a situation 
 highly perilous ; since, besides the want of provisions, they were 
 menaced in the rear by an insurrection of the Tyrol, and the 
 arms of the Venetian Republic. Bonaparte then offered peace, 
 which was accepted by the Cabinet of Vienna, and signed at 
 Leoben (April 18, 1797,) the same day that Hoche passed the 
 Rhine at Neuwied ; and two days after Moreau had passed that 
 river at Strasburg. 
 
 The preliminaries at Leoben were honourable for Austria. 
 She renounced, it is true, Belgium and all her possessions in 
 Italy, as far as the Oglio ; but she was indemnified by a con- 
 siderable part of the Venetian territory, as well as by Istria and 
 Dalmatia ; for which the Republic were to receive Bologna, 
 Ferrara and Romagna ; Peschiera and Mantua were to be sur- 
 rendered to the Emperor. France recognised the principle, thai 
 the integrality of the Empire was to be the basis of a pacifica- 
 tion with the Germanic Body. Immediately after the peace ol 
 Leoben, Bonaparte, without having received orders, overturned 
 the Venetian Republic, and caused his troops to occupy that 
 city (May 16.) He united the provinces of Lombardy which 
 Austria had ceded, into a Republic, on the model of that ol 
 France (June 29 ;) and this new State was called the Cisalpine 
 Republic. He obliged the Genoese to change their government, 
 and to constitute themselves into the Ligu7-ia7i Republic (June 6.) 
 
 The negotiations for a definitive peace were long in coming 
 to a conclusion. Bonaparte regretted having promised the 
 restitution of Mantua ; and the three Jacobin members of the 
 Directory, who were displeased with the terms on which the 
 peace with Germany was to be founded, began to intrigue for 
 the cession of the left bank of the Rhine ; and with this view, 
 to protract the conclusion of the peace, until the Revolution of 
 the 18th Fructidor should gain their party the assendancy. The 
 negotiations with Lord Malmesbury w^ere immediately broken 
 off; and Bonaparte threatened to resume hostilities, unless 
 Austria would accept the conditions dictated by the New Di- 
 rectory. Peace was at length concluded at Campo Formio near 
 Udina, (Oct. 17,) by Buonaparte, and Count Louis de Cobenzl. 
 The two parties divided between them, it is said, the whole ter- 
 ritory of the Republic of Venice ; so that the Adige should be 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. i7b'i) — ISlo. 165 
 
 \he frontier on the Continent of Italy, while the Venetian Is- 
 lands, on the coast of Albania and Turkey, should belong to 
 France. Austrian Lombardy, with Peschiera and Maniua, the 
 Modenois, and the Venetian territor}^ to the west of the Adige, 
 and the three Legatines of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna, 
 were to form the Cisalpine Republic. A Congress for a treaty 
 of peace with th€ Empire was to be opened at Rastadt. By 
 certain secret articles, the Emperor consented eventually to the 
 perpetual and complete cession of the left bank of the Rhine ; 
 and stipulated for himself the possession of Salzburg, in case of 
 a partial cession ; and greater advantages, provided the whole 
 left bank of the Rhine were abandoned to France. The States 
 of German}', who might suffer loss by the partial or total cession 
 of the left bank of the Rhine, were to receive indemnification 
 in Germany, as was expressed in the treaty. A compensation 
 was to be allowed to the Prince of Orange ; but this was not 
 to take place in the neighbourhood of the Batavian Republic, 
 nor in that of the Austrian possessions. Prussia was to pre 
 serve her provinces on the left bank of the Rhine ; but she was 
 to claim no new acquisitions in Germany. 
 
 The Directory were not equally satisfied with all the articles 
 of this treaty ; but they durst not disavow the negotiator, who 
 had assisted in accomplishing the Revolution of the ISth Fruc- 
 tidor. The French government were displeased Avith the in- 
 crease of power granted to Austria, and especially with the 
 dismemberment of Bavaria, which Rewbel, who piqued himself 
 on his political abilities, reg'arded with reason as contrary to the 
 interests of France. Moreover, the articles relative to Prussia 
 and the Prince of Orange were in direct opposition to the Con- 
 vention of Berlin, (1794,) which was the basis of the existing 
 •unanimity between Prussia and France. By that Convention 
 the Bishopric of Munster was made over to the King, by way of 
 reimbursement for his possessions beyond the Rhine ; while the 
 House of Orange was to have Wurtzburg and Bamberg. These 
 circumstances obliged the Directory to conceal from the Court of 
 Berlin the secret articles of the treaty of Campo Formio ; and 
 this constraint greatly embarrassed them, by the mistrust which 
 it excited on the part of Prussia. 
 
 General Bonaparte, with Trielhard and Bonnier, members 
 of the Convention, were appointed to negotiate at Rastadt with 
 the deputation of the Empire. Bonaparte made only a short stay 
 (here, to sign a secret convention with Count Louis de Cobenzl, 
 (Dec. 1 ;) according to which Maj^ence was to be restored to the 
 troops of the French Republic, in fulfilment of what had been 
 resolved on at Campo Formio. The object which the Frenck 
 
166 CHAPTER X. 
 
 negotiators proposed, was to obtain the entire cession of the 
 left bank of the Rhine, free from all charges ; and to obtain it 
 without being obliged to purchase it at the price which Bona- 
 parte had promised to Austria. The means for attaining the 
 object were, to secure the consent of the majority of the deputa- 
 tion, and the agreement of Prussia, and then to prevail with 
 the latter to object to the dismemberment of Bavaria — a measure 
 which would compel France to reveal the secret negotiations 
 at Campo Formio. The first proposition on which these min- 
 isters demanded the cession of the whole left bank of the 
 Khine, became the subject of a tedious negotiation, alternately 
 promoted and thwarted by a thousand intrigues. At length 
 the deputation admitted it (March 1798,) but under restrictions 
 which the ministers were determined to reject. The latter then 
 proposed as a second basis, the idemnification of the princes in 
 possession of the left bank of the Rhine ; which was adopted 
 without much difficulty (^March 15.) The third demand re- 
 ferred to the manner of carrying ihe fundamental articles into 
 execution. On this ground the French advanced a multitud-e 
 of pretensions, each more unjust and more ridiculous than the 
 other. 
 
 Until then the negotiations, in all probability, were serious 
 on the part of Austria and France ; as the former, supported by 
 Russia, hoped to obtain the consent of Prussia to the dismem- 
 berment of Bavaria ; while France, on her side, vainly antici- 
 pated a strict alliance with the Cabinet of Berlin, which would 
 nave enabled the Directory to have dictated its own conditions 
 of peace. But, towards the middle of the year, war had be- 
 come inevitable, in consequence of the numerous aggressions 
 which the Executive Directory had committed in different coun- 
 tries. To them war had become necessary to occupy their ar- 
 mies. The continuation of the Congress at Rastadt, therefore, 
 served merely to gain time to prepare for hostilities. If the 
 Court of Vienna had flattered themselves, that the Cisalpine 
 Republic would form an independent State,they were undeceived 
 by the treaty of alliance with France which that Republic was 
 obliged to accept, in spite of the determined refusal of the Coun- 
 cil of Ancients. It was, in reality, a treaty of subjection, by 
 which, among other articles, it was stipulated that there should 
 always be 25,000 French troops in the Cisalpine States, for the 
 support of which they should pay eighteen millions per annum. 
 
 A tumult having happened at Rome, in which one of the 
 French generals was killed, the Directory made this a pretext 
 for invading the Ecclesiastical States. General Berthier pro- 
 claimed the Roman Republic (Feb. 15, 1798;) and Pope Pius 
 
r-F-rvTOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 167 
 
 VL was carried captive to France where he died, (Aug. 29, 1799. 'i 
 
 The Directory, from no just motive, excited a revolution m 
 Switzerland ; and under pretence of being invited by one of the 
 parties, they sent troops into that countrj^ (Jan. 26 ;) overturned 
 *.he existing order of things ; and under the title of the Helvetic 
 Republic^ they established a government entirely subject oii 
 Jiheir authority (April 11.) A piece of imprudence, committea 
 OV" the French ambassador at Vienna, was the cause of a popular 
 commotion there ; in consequence of which he quitted his situf*- 
 tion. This event made a great r^oise. It gave rise to the cor- 
 ferences which took place at Seltz in Alsace (April 13^^) between 
 ihe Ex-Director Francois and Count De Cobenzl ; in which 
 France and Austria tried, for the last time, if it were possible to 
 come to a proper understanding regarding their mutual interests. 
 These conferences had no other effect than to convince the Court 
 of Vienna, that they must turn the current of their politics into 
 a new channel. 
 
 A French fleet, commanded by Admiral Breueix, sailed from 
 Toulon (May 19,) with General Bonaparte and 40,000 men. 
 When they arrived off Malta, Bonaparte got possession of that 
 island by means of a capitulation, signed in name of the order of 
 St. John (June 12,) by some of the knights who had disclaimed 
 all submission to the Grand Master and the Assembly of the 
 States. From Malta the French fleet sailed with a fair wind 
 for Egypt, and Lnded at Alexandria (Jul}^ 2,) to undertake the 
 conquest of that country ; although France was then at peace 
 with the Forte. The English fleet, however, under Admiral 
 Nelson, which had gone in quest of the French, joined them off 
 Alexandria, and defeated them in an action which was fought in 
 the bay of Aboukir (Aug. 1,) and which lasted thirty-six hours. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IV., King of Sardinia, insulted in every 
 kind of way by the French generals, and by his neighbours the 
 Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics, resolved to shelter himselt 
 from these annoyances under the protection of the Directory. 
 He had concluded an alliance, offensive and defensive, with 
 France (April 5, 1797 ;) but the latter having demanded a new 
 pledge of his friendship, he concluded a convention at Milan, by 
 which the French government granted him their protection ; on 
 condition that he would surrender to them the citadel of his capital. 
 
 The events which we have now detailed gave rise to a second 
 coalition against France, which was entered into by Great Britain, 
 Russia, Austria, the Porte, and the Two Sicilies. The two first 
 of these powers promised to support the rest ; Britain furnishing 
 supplies, and Russia auxiliary troops. Before taking up arms, 
 the Cabinet of Vienna attempted to conciliate that of Berlin, 
 
168 CHAPTER X, 
 
 with the view of compelling France to moderate some of her claims 
 Negotiations were accordingly entered into at Berlin, at first be 
 iween the two powers alone, and afterwards under the mediation 
 of the Emperor Paul of Russia. But in order to obtain a mutual 
 «;o-operation, it was necessary to begin by establishing mutual 
 confidence. This was impossible, as each of the Cabinets had its 
 own secret, which it would not communicate to the other. Prus- 
 sia had her own treaty of the 1st of August 1796; and Austria 
 jier secret articles of Campo Formio. The circumstance which 
 determined the Emperor Paul to take a part in the war agajnst 
 France, was the indignation Avhich he felt at the spoliation of 
 the Knights of Malta, whom he had taken under his protection, 
 and afterwards accepted the office of Grand Master of the Orde:^ 
 
 This coalition was formed by treaties of alliance between the 
 several parties respectively. Russia agreed to s^nd an arm}- of 
 60,000 men, under Suwarow, to the Danube, and to furnish Prus- 
 sia with 45,000, to be paid by Great Britain. 
 
 After the revolution of the 18th Fructidor, the Executive Di- 
 rectory of the French Republic had to struggle against the gene- 
 ral discontent, as well as against the disordered state of the 
 finances, and the intrigues of the Jacobins, whose influence the}" 
 had imprudently augmented, hoping, by their means, to annihi- 
 late the party of the opposition. That faction would infallibly 
 have affected a counter-revolution in France, had not the Direc- 
 tory, by a stretch of arbitrary power, annulled the elections of 
 1798. The want of funds, which was always growing worse, 
 had retarded the renewal of the war ; but when it broke out, the 
 Directory adopted a measure which Ave ought not to pass in si- 
 lence, as it has exercised a lasting influence on all the States ol 
 Europe, who were obliged to follow the example. We allude to 
 the law which introduced the military conscription (Sept. 5, 1798,} 
 and which was the work of General Jourdan. 
 
 Tht Coalition was not yet consolidated, and Austria had not 
 yet fin, =5hed her preparations for war, when the King of the Two 
 Sicilies, instigated by a party who wished to urge the Cabinet of 
 Vienna to greater despatch, commenced hostilities, by expelling 
 the French from Rome (Nov. 24.) That enterprise failed of 
 success. The Neapolitan troops, who were commanded by a 
 foreigner, General Baron de Mack, showed neither discipline 
 nor courage. After this first repulse, the King took shelter in 
 Sicily. His capital became a prey to the most frightful anarchy. 
 Mack, to save his life, deserted to the enemy. The Lazzaroni 
 defended Naples against the French army, and it was not till 
 after a battle of three days, that Championnet, who was at their 
 head, succeeded in getting possession of the city : after which ha 
 
Bonaparte crossing the Alps. Vol. 2, p. 174. 
 
 Fall of Kosciuszko. Vol. 2, p. 194. 
 
FERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 16^ 
 
 proclaimed the Parthenopean Rcp7iblic (Jan. 25.) General Jou- 
 bert took possession of Turin ; and when the new campaign 
 opened, the whole of Italy was in the hands of the French. 
 
 The Executive Directory made these hostile preparations of 
 the King of the Two Sicilies a pretext for declaring war against 
 the King of Sardinia (Dec. 6, 179S,) who was in alliance with 
 France. General Joubett having already advanced into Pied- 
 mont, Charles Emanuel I \^. signed an act, drawn up by General 
 Clauzel, by which he renounced the exercise of all power, and 
 commanded his subjects to obey the provisional government 
 which the French were about to establish. He afterwards re- 
 tired into Sardinia, where he protested against the violence which 
 he had experienced. 
 
 The Congress of Rastadt had continued their sittings. On 
 the 6th December 1798, the French plenipotentiaries gave in 
 their ultirrmium on the third proposition relative to the mode of 
 carrying into execution the two fundamental articles agreed to ; 
 with a threat to quit Rastadt unless it was accepted within six 
 days. The majority of the deputation, who were not initiated 
 into the secrets of great cabinets, and who were importuned by 
 a crowd of princes, nobles, and deputies under the influence 
 either of interest or terror, accepted this ultimatum ; against 
 which Austria, Saxony, and Hanover voted. The plenipoten- 
 tiary of the Empire ratified it ; probably because the Court of 
 Vienna, who were on the point of abrogating every thing that 
 had passed at Rastadt, did not think it necessary to enter into 
 any discussion on that subject. This finished the operations of 
 the Congress. From that moment, the French plenipotentiaries 
 did nothing but complain of the march of the Russian troops, 
 who in effect had penetrated into Galicia, and were approaching, 
 the Danube. The deputation, whose distinctii^e character was 
 pusilianimity, confirmed these complaints in presence of the 
 Emperor (Jan. 4, 1799,) who, however, eluded giving any posi- 
 tive answer, until the whole of his measures were organized. 
 A French army, commanded by Jourdan, passed the Rhine, be- 
 tween Strasburg and Basle. The Congi*ess, nevertheless, con- 
 tinued to sit until ^he 7th April, when it was dissolved by Count 
 Metternich, who annulled all its decisions. 
 
 The 28th of April was a day memorable in the annars oi 
 inodern history. Some of the Austrian Hussars, within a quar- 
 ter of a league of Rastadt, assassinated the French ministers 
 /lonnier, Debry, and Roberjot, who were on their return to Paris. 
 rhat deed was not authorized by the Executive Directory, al- 
 tliough it was attributed to them because they had art. ally turned 
 it to their advantage, by exciting the public mind which had 
 
 VOL. II. 15 
 
170 CHAPTER X. 
 
 already declared itself against the war ; neither was it author 
 ized by any cabinet, or commander of the army. Its real au- 
 thor has never been officially made known. 
 
 The French Republic had ah'eady declared war against the 
 Emperor and the Grand Duke of Tuscany (March 12, 1799,) 
 without any apparent motive. But, before this declaration was 
 made, the campaign had already opened in Switzerland, where 
 General Massena had dislodged the Austrians from the country 
 of the Grisons, which they had occupied in consequence of a 
 treaty with the Republicans, concluded at Coire (Oct. 7, 1798.) 
 The Archduke Charles, at the head of the main Austrian army, 
 acquitted himself gloriously. He defeated Jourdan in several 
 pitched battles at Pullendorf and Stockach (March 20, 25,) and 
 compelled the army of the Danube, as it was called, to repass 
 the Rhine. The remains of Jourdan's army were then united 
 to that of Massena. 
 
 In Italy, while General Macdonald, who had succeeded Cham- 
 pionnet in the command, was covering Rome and Naples, Gen- 
 eral Gauthier occupied Florence. Sherer, at the head of the 
 army of Italy, was defeated by Kray at Legnago (March 25,) 
 Roco (30,) and Verona (April 5.) It was at this time that Su- 
 warow arrived in Italy with the Russians, and took the chief 
 command of the combined army. Moreau, who with a noble 
 resignation had taken on himself the interim command of the 
 French army in its present discouraging circumstances, was de- 
 feated at Cassano (April 27,) and retired to Alessandria. It wa^s 
 of great importance for Suwarow to prevent Macdonald, who 
 had arrived at Naples, from joining Moreau. But the two 
 French generals manoeuvred so dexterously, that this junction 
 took place ; although Macdonald had been attacked by Suwa- 
 row near the Trebia (June 17,) where he sustained a considera- 
 ble loss. The whole of Lombardy fell into the hands of the 
 Allies. Mantua likewise capitulated. Joubert, who had been 
 appointed General of the army of Italy, had scarcely arrived 
 when he offered battle to Suwarow near Novi (Aug. 15 ;) but 
 he was slain near the commencement of the action. Moreau, 
 who had continued with the army as a volunteer, could not pre- 
 vent the general rout. Championnet, who succeeded Joubert, 
 was not more fortunate. Coni, the last place in their possession, 
 having been taken (Dec. 3,) the French retired within the Ap- 
 penines. 
 
 The Archduke Charles having marched into Switzerland, 
 Massena took up a strong position on the Aar and the Reuss. 
 The hopes which they had entertained of bringing over Prussia 
 to the coalition having entirely failed, it was agreed between 
 
PERIOD IX, A. D. 1789—1815. 17\ 
 
 Great Britain and Russia (June 29,) that the army of 45,000 
 men which the latter had eventually promised to place at the dis- 
 posal of the King of Prussia if he became a party in the war, 
 should henceforth be employed against France in Switzerland, 
 Accordingly these troops, who were commanded by Prince Kor- 
 sakoff, having arrived on the Limmat, the Archduke joined to 
 them 30,000 Austrians ; while with the rest of his troops he 
 marched towards the Rhine, where a new French army had 
 occupied Heidelberg and Manheim. The Archduke compelled 
 them to repass the river, and took Manheim by assault (Sept. 18.) 
 
 After the battle of Novi, Suwarow quitted Italy with the 
 Russians whose number was now reduced to 24,000 men, to 
 march on the Limmat, and take the command of the allied army 
 in Switzerland. Massena, who was anxious to prevent this 
 junction, attacked Korsakoff, and defeated him near Zurich (Sept. 
 24;) which obliged him to evacuate Switzerland. Suwarow, 
 whose march across the Alps had now become very dangerous, 
 accomplished it nevertheless with boldness and celerity ; and 
 although he had to encounter Lect arbe who wished to intercept 
 him, and afterwards Massena who was in pursuit of him, he 
 crossed the small cantons of the Grisons, and effected a union 
 with the remains of Korsakoff 's army. 
 
 The Roman and Parthenopean Republics had fallen to pieces 
 after the departure of Macdonald. Ancona, where he had left 
 a body of troops, did not surrender until the 29th of November. 
 The combined fleets of the Turks and Russians, about the end 
 of the year 1798, had taken possession of the French islands 
 that had formerly belonged to the Venetians. Corfu held out till 
 the 1st of March 1799. The Archduke Charles having advanced 
 on Switzerland after the defeat of Korsakoff, Lecourbe, who had 
 been called to the command of the army of Alsace, passed the 
 Rhine ; but he was soon after compelled to return to the left 
 bank of that river. 
 
 In virtue of a convention which was concluded at St. Peters- 
 burg (June 22,) the Emperor Paul, in addition to the 105,000 
 men which he had already despatched, engaged to furnish 17,500 
 more. These with 12,000 English, under the command of the 
 Duke of York, attempted to make a descent on Holland, and 
 landed at Helder. This expedition proved a total failure. The 
 Duke of York, after having been worsted in several engage- 
 ments with General Brune, evacuated the country, in conse- 
 quence of a capitulation signed at Alkmaar (Oct. 18, 1799.) 
 These disasters were but feebly compensated by the taking of 
 Surinam (Aug. 16,) the last of the Dutch colonies which fell 
 into the hands of the English. 
 
172 CHAPTER X. 
 
 While these events were transacting in Europe, Bonaparte 
 had subdued the greater part of Egypt ; but he was less suc- 
 cessful in the expedition which he undertook against Syria. 
 Being obliged to raise the siege of Acre (May 19,) after sus- 
 taining considerable losses, he returned to Egypi with the feeble 
 remains of his army. Shortly after (July 15,) a Turkish fleet 
 appeared off Aboukir, and landed a body of troops, who took 
 possession of that fort. Bonaparte directed his march against 
 them, beat them, and almost totally annihilated them (July 25;) 
 but being displeased at the Directory, who had left him without 
 support, and having heard of their disorganization, he resolved 
 to return to Europe. He embarked secretly (Aug. 23,) and 
 landed at Frejus on the coast of Provence (Oct. 9, 1799.) 
 
 At the time of his arrival, France was in a state of the most 
 violent commotion. The Council of Five Hundred was become 
 more and more Jacobinical, in consequence of new elections. 
 Sieyes, Gohier, Roger Ducos, and Moulins, with Barras, Direc- 
 tor of the Ancients, formed the government. The revolutionary 
 measures which were adopted by the Council, seemed a pre- 
 lude to the return of Terror. Such was the law which author- 
 ized the Directory to take hostages among the relations of the 
 emigrants (July 12;) and the loan of a hundred millions, which 
 was decreed (Aug. 6.) 
 
 In the west, the Chouans had organized a new insurrection 
 under the conduct of George Cadoudal and the Counts de Frot- 
 te, D'Autichamp, and de Bourmont. Disturbances had broken 
 out in other provinces ; the government had fallen into contempt ; 
 a general restlessness had taken possession of the public mind. 
 Barras and Sieyes were perfectly conscious that this state of 
 things could not continue. Each of them, separately, had con- 
 trived the plan of a new revolution ; and each of them endeav- 
 oured to make a partisan of General Bonaparte, who had just 
 arrived in Paris, and on whom the hopes of France seemed at 
 that time to depend. The General deceived Barras, and entered 
 into a conspiracy with Sieyes and the more powerful mem- 
 bers of the Council of Ancients. On the ISth Brumaire (Nov. 
 9, 1799,) the Council nominated Bonaparte commandant of the 
 troops ; abolished the Directory ; and ordered the Legislative 
 Assembly to be transferred to St. Cloud. The meeting which 
 took place next day was a scene of great turbulence. Bonaparte 
 ineffectually attempted to defend himself in the Council of Five 
 Hundred, when the firmness of his brother Lucien and the gren- 
 adiers of the guard alone secured his safety. The Council was 
 dissolved, and the constitution of the year Three abolished I'Nov. 
 11.) A provisional government was established, consisting of 
 
PERIOD IX. A, D. 1789—1815. 173 
 
 Sieves, Roger Ducos, and Bonaparte. A legislative commission 
 of twenty-five members were charged to draw up the plan of a 
 new constitution. 
 
 The new constitution was announced on the 22d of Frimaire, 
 of the year Eight (13th Dec. 1799.) The republican»forms were 
 preserved ; and the government, in appearance, was intrusted to 
 a Council of three persons, appointed for ten years, and decorated 
 with the title of Consuls, viz. Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le 
 Brun ; but in reality to the first only, on whom they conferred a 
 power truly monarchical. The other constituted bodies were a 
 Conservative Senate, contrived by Sieyes, to be the guardian of 
 the public liberties ; a Tribunal of one hundred members, whose 
 business it was to discuss such forms of law as the government 
 laid before them ; and a Legislative Body of three hundred 
 members, who gave their vote without any previous debate. 
 Bonaparte seized the reins of government with a firm hand. He 
 abrogated several of the revolutionary laws, amalgamated its 
 difTerent parts into a system, and by degrees organized the most 
 complete despotism. He consolidated his power by quashing 
 the insurrection in the West. By his orders, Generals Brune 
 and Hedouville concluded a peace (Jan. 18, 1800,) first with the 
 Vendeans at Montfaugon, and afterwards with the Chouans. He 
 gave a most striking example of perfidy, by causing the brave 
 Frotte to be shot a few days after. But he conciliated the af- 
 fection of his subjects by the restoration of religion, which he 
 established by means of a Concordat with the Court of Rome, 
 (July 15, 1801.) 
 
 Bonaparte was no sooner placed at the head of the govern- 
 ment, than he proposed to make peace with England, by means 
 of a letter (Dec. 26, 1799,) not written, according to etiquette, by 
 one of his ministers to the Secretary of State for Foreign Af- 
 fairs, but in his own hand, and addressed to King George III., 
 whom he complimented for his patriotic virtues. He stated the 
 necessity for peace ; and trusted, that two nations so enlightened 
 as France and Great Britain, would no longer be actuated by 
 false ideas of glory and greatness. This step, made in so un- 
 usual a form, could not possibly have a successful result, espe- 
 cially as Mr. Pitt was determined to employ all the resources of 
 England to overthrow the revolutionary despotism which the 
 First Consul was endeavouring to establish in France. That 
 great statesman endeavoured, by the treaties of subsidy which 
 we have already mentioned, to repair the loss which the coalition 
 had just suffered by the retirement of Paifl I., who being morti- 
 fied with the bad success of the Russian arms, which he ascribed 
 
 VOL. u. 15 "^ 
 
174 CHAPTER X. 
 
 to the allies themselves, had recalled his troops at the beginning 
 of the year ISOO. 
 
 General Melas, who commanded the Austrians in Italy, open- 
 ed the campaign of 1800 in the most splendid manner. In con- 
 sequence of the victory which he gained over Massena at Voltri 
 (April 10,) the latter was obliged to throw himself into Genoa, 
 where he sustained a siege of six weeks with great courage. 
 Melas made himself master of Nice (May 11,) and Souchet 
 passed the Var on his march to Provence. But, in a short time, 
 Bonaparte, at the head of a new army which collected at Dijon, 
 passed the Alps, and took possession of Milan (June 2 ;) while 
 Melas was not yet aware that his army was in existence. For- 
 tunately for the latter, Massena was obliged to surrender Genoa 
 at that very time, (June 5,) which placed the corps of General 
 Ott at his disposal. He had found it difficult, with his small 
 garrison, to preserve order among the inhabitants, of whom 
 15,000 are said to have perished by famine or disease during 
 the blockade. General Ott was defeated by Berthierat Monte- 
 bello (June 9.) Melas himself engaged General Bonaparte al 
 Marengo (June 14.) Victory was already within his grasp, 
 when the arrival of the brave Desaix with his division, disap- 
 pointed him of the triumph. The defeat had a most discourag- 
 ing effect on General Melas, and cost Austria the whole of 
 Lombardy. A truce which was concluded at Alessandria (June 
 16,) put Bonaparte in possession of that town ; as well as of 
 Tortona, Turin, Placentia, Coni, Genoa, &c. The Austrians 
 retired beyond the Mincio. 
 
 Moreau, at the head of a French army, had passed the Rhine 
 (April 25,) and defeated Kray in several engagements. The 
 Austrians then retired within the Upper Palatinate. Moreau 
 had already made himself master of Munich, when he receiveo 
 the news of the truce at Alessandria. He then concluded an 
 armistice at Parsdorf (July 15.) The Count St. Julien, who 
 had been sent by the Emperor Francis II. to Paris, having" 
 signed the preliminaries of peace without sufficient authority, 
 the Court of Vienna refused to ratify them, as they had engaged 
 not to make peace without the consent of England. Hostilitiea 
 were to recommence in Germany in the month of September ; 
 but the Archduke John, who commanded the Austrian army in 
 Bavaria, having requested that the armistice should be prolonged, 
 General Moreau consented, on condition that Philipsburg, Ulm, 
 and Ingolstadt, should be given up to him. This arrangement 
 was signed at Hohenlinden (Sept. 20,) and France immediately 
 demolished the fortifications of these two places. Hostihties 
 having recommenced about the end of November, General Mo- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 175 
 
 reau defeated the army of the Archduke John, at the memorable 
 battle of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3 ;) after which he marched in all 
 haste on Vienna. Austria being released from her engagements 
 by the Cabinet of London, then declared that she was determined 
 to make peace, whatever might be the resolutions of England; 
 on which a new armistice was concluded at Steyr (Dec. 25.) 
 Braunau and Wurtzburg were delivered up to the French. 
 
 General Brune, who commanded in Italy, renewed the truce 
 of Alessandria by the convention of Castiglione (Sept. 29,) and 
 thus gained time to take possession of Tuscany, which they had 
 forgot to include in the truce. Being reinforced by the army of 
 Macdonald, who had arrived in Lombardy, he passed the Brenta ; 
 after traversing, by a perilous march, the lofty mountain of Splu- 
 gen. In virtue of a new truce, signed at Treviso, the French 
 obtained the recovery of Peschiera, the forts of Verona, Legnago, 
 Fermo, and Ancona. 
 
 Meantime, negotiations for peace had been entered into at 
 Luneville, between Joseph Bonaparte and Count Louis de 
 Cobenzl. The First Consul having refused to ratify the armis- 
 tice of Treviso, because it had left Mantua in the hands of the 
 Austrians, the Imperial plenipotentiary at Luneville signed an 
 additional convention, by which that place was delivered over to 
 the French. Peace between Austria and France was signed a 
 few days after (Feb. 9 ;) and Francis II., at the same time, made 
 stipulations for the Empire. He ceded the Belgic provinces, 
 the county of Falkenstein and Frickthal. In Italy, the frontier 
 line between Austria and the Cisalpine Republic was traced, so 
 that the Adige should separate the two States, and the cities of 
 Verona and Porto Legnago should be divided between them. 
 The other conditions were, that the Grand Duke of Modena 
 should have Brisgau in exchange for his dutchy ; that the Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany should renounce his grand dutchy, and receive 
 a free and competent indemnity in Germany ; that the Empire 
 should give up all the left bank of the Rhine ; that the hereditary 
 princes, who lost their territories in consequence of these ces- 
 sions, should receive compensation from the Empire ; and la.'^V, 
 that the Germanic Body should ratify the peace within the spa^^ 
 of thirty days. By a secret article, Saltzburg, Berchtolsgaden, 
 Passau, the bishopric and city of Augsburg, Kempten, and twelve 
 other immediate abbeys, besides nineteen Imperial cities in 
 Swabia, including Ulni and Augsburg, were secured to the 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Empire showed great anxiety 
 to ratify this peace, Avhich was the precursor of its annihilation 
 
 The English had compelled General Vaubois to surrender the 
 Tsle of Malta. After the flight of Bonaparte from Egypt, Kleber 
 
170 CHAPTER X. 
 
 hud taken the command of the Frencli army, which was then 
 reduced to 12,000 men. A convention was concluded at El 
 Arisch with the Grand Vizier who had arrived from Syria at 
 the head of a formidable army, by which the French General 
 engaged to evacuate the country. The English government 
 having refused to ratify this treaty, unless Kleber would surren- 
 der himself prisoner of war, that General immediately attacked 
 the Grand Vizier, and defeated him at El Hanka (March 20 ;) 
 after which he again subdued Cairo, which had raised the stand- 
 ard of revolt. The English Government were willing to ratify 
 the convention of the 24th January ; but General Menou having 
 succeeded Kleber who had fallen by the dagger of a Turkish 
 fanatic, was determined to maintain himself in Egypt, in spite 
 of an evident impossibility. Sir Ralph Abercromby, the Eng- 
 lish commander, who arrived with a British force, effected his 
 landing at Aboukir (March 8, 1801.) Menou was defeated in 
 the battle of Rahmanieh, near Alexandria (March 21,) which 
 cost General Abercromby his life. But the French soon saw 
 themselves assailed on all hands by the Turks and the English, 
 who had been recalled from the East Indies, and had disem- 
 barked on the shores of the Red Sea. Qeneral Belliard, who 
 had the command at Cairo, concluded a capitulation (June 27,) 
 in virtue of which he was sent back to France with the troops 
 under his orders. Menou found himself obliged to follow his 
 example, and capitulated at Alexandria to General Hutchinson 
 (Aug. 30,) who consented to the safe conveyance of the French 
 troops to their native country. Thus ended an expedition, 
 which, had it proved successful, must have become fatal to the 
 British Empire in India, and given a new direction to the com- 
 merce of the world. 
 
 Various treaties were concluded between the peace of Lune- 
 ville and that of Amiens, which put an entire end to the war. 
 (1.) General Murat, who commanded the army in Italy, having 
 shown some disposition to carry the war into the kingdom of 
 Naples, Ferdinand IV. concluded an armistice at Foligno (Feb. 
 IS,) which he afterwards converted into a treaty of peace at Flo- 
 rence. He gave up the State of Presidii, and his share of the 
 island of Elba and of the principality of Piombino. By a secret 
 article, he agreed that 16,000 French troops should occupy the 
 peninsula of Otranto and part of Abruzzo, until the conclusion 
 of peace with England and the Porte. (2.) Portugal, since the 
 year 1797, had wished to withdraw from the first coaJition, and 
 even concluded a peace with the Executive Directory at Paris 
 (Aug. 10 ;) but the English squadron of Admiral St. Vincent 
 having entered the Tagus, the Queen refused to ratify that 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 177 
 
 treaty. Portugal thus continued at war with France until 1801. 
 The French army, which was already in Spain, having shown 
 some disposition to enter Portugal, peace was concluded at Ma- 
 drid between Lucien Bonaparte and M. Freire (Sept. 29,) the 
 ministers of the two States at the Court of Spain. Portugal 
 shut her ports against the English, and regulated the frontiers 
 of Guiana, so as to prove advantageous to France. (3.) In Rus- 
 sia Bonaparte had succeeded to a certain extent in conciliating 
 the good will of the Emperor Paul. Nevertheless, at the death 
 of that prince (Oct. 8, 1801,) there existed no treaty of peace 
 between Russia and France. A treaty, however, was signed 
 at Paris in the reign of Alexander, by Count Markofif and Tal- 
 leyrand (Oct. 11,) and followed by a very important special con- 
 vention by which, among other things, it was agreed : That the 
 two governments should form a mutual agreement, as to the 
 principles to be followed with respect to indemnifications in 
 Germany ; as well as to determine respecting those in Italy, 
 and to maintain a just equilibrium between the Houses of Aus- 
 tria and Brandeburg : That France should accept the mediation 
 of Prussia, for the pacification with the Porte : That the inte- 
 grality of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies should be maintained, 
 according to the treaty of the 28th March, 1801 ; and that the 
 French troops should evacuate the country as soon as the fate 
 of Egj'pt was decided : That a friendly disposition should be 
 shown to the interests of the King of Sardinia; and that the 
 Elector of Bavaria and the Duke of Wurtemberg should be com- 
 pensated for their losses, by a full indemnity in Germany. (4.) 
 Immediately after General Menon had signed the capitulation 
 of Alexandria, the preliminaries of peace between France and 
 the Porte were concluded at Paris (Oct. 9 ;) but they were not 
 confirmed into a definitive peace, until after the preliminaries 
 were signed at London (June 25, 1802.) The free navigation 
 of the Black Sea was secured to the French flag. 
 
 When Mr. Pitt had quitted the English ministry, France and 
 England came to terms of better accommodation. The first ad- 
 vances were made on the side of the latter power. The preli- 
 minaries were signed at London, between Lord Hawkesbury 
 and M. Otio ; including their respective allies (Oct. 1, 1801.) 
 Of all her conquests. Great Britain was to retain only the Island 
 of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. Malta was 
 to be restored to the Knights of St. John, under the protection 
 of a third power ; and Egypt was to belong to the Porte. The 
 French troops were to abandon the kingdom of Naples, and the 
 English to quit Porto Ferrajo. France was to acknowledge 
 the Republic of the Seven Islands, which w^as composed of Corfu 
 and the si x other islands formerly belonging to the Venetians 
 
178 CHAPTER X. 
 
 For carrying these preliminaries into execution, a Congress 
 was opened at Amiens, where Joseph Bonaparte appeared for 
 France, Lord Cornwallis for England, the Chevalier Azara for 
 Spain, and M. Schimmelpenninck for the Batavian Kepublic. 
 Some unexpected difficulties arose with regard to Malta, as Great 
 Britain had repented of having given it up in the preliminary 
 treaty. They found means, however, to remove these obstacles ; 
 and the peace of Amiens was finally signed after a negotiation 
 of six months (March 27, 1802.) 
 
 We shall only take notice here in what respects these articles 
 differed from the preliminaries. With regard to the stipulation 
 respecting the surrender of Malta to the Knights of St. John, 
 several modifications were added, viz. as to the election of a new 
 Grand Master; the suppression of the French and English 
 Langues^ or class of Knights ; the institution of a Maltese Langue; 
 the time for its evacuation ; and the future appointment of the 
 garrison. Finally, it was said in the treaty, that the indepen- 
 dence of that island and its present arrangement, were placed 
 under the guaranty of France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain, 
 Russia and Prussia. It may be mentioned, that Russia and 
 Prussia declined to undertake that guaranty, unless certain 
 modifications were added. This refusal furnished England with 
 a pretext for refusing to part with that island ; and the war, as 
 we shall soon find, was recommenced rather than give up that 
 important possession. 
 
 One article of the treaty of Amiens having promised the Prince 
 of Orange a compensation for the losses he had sustained in the 
 late Republic of the United Provinces, both in private property 
 and expenses, another convention was signed at Amiens between 
 France and the Batavian States, importing that that compensa- 
 tion should in no case fall to the charge of the latter. 
 
 There is one essential observation which we must make on 
 the peace of Amiens. Contrary to the general practice, the for- 
 mer treaties between France and Great Britain were not renewed 
 by that of Amiens. It is not difficult to perceive the cause of 
 this silence. At the time when the peace of Utrecht was con- 
 cluded. Great Britain had an interest in having the principle ot 
 free commerce for neutral States held sacred ; and she had con- 
 sequently announced it in the treaty of navigation and commerce, 
 which was concluded in 1713. All the following treaties, until 
 that of 1783 inclusive, having renewed the articles of Utrecht, 
 the silence on this subject at Amiens placed Great Britain, in 
 this respect, on the footing of a common right, which, according 
 to the system of the English, would not have been favourable to 
 the principle of a free trade, — a doctrine which it was for their 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9— 1815, 179 
 
 \iiterest to suppress, since they had then the command of the sea. 
 We have now brought down the history of the French Revo- 
 lution, from its commencement to the year 1802, when the 
 French power began to preponderate in Europe. The influ- 
 ence of the Republic was enormously great. The Netherlands 
 and a flourishing portion of Germany, as well as Geneva, Sa- 
 voy, and Piedmont, were incorporated with the territories which 
 had been governed by Louis XVI. The Dutch and the Cisal- 
 pine States, including the Milanois, a considerable part of the 
 Venetian territories, the dutchies of Mantua, Modena and Par- 
 ma, besides some of the Ecclesiastical provinces, had bowed their 
 neck to the yoke of the First Consul. The Swiss, enslaved by 
 the Directory, had not been able to recover their ancient inde- 
 pendence. Tuscany and the Ligurian Republic durst not pre- 
 sume to dispute the will of the conqueror ; while Spain, forget- 
 ful of her ancient dignity, was reduced to a state of subservient 
 and degraded alliance. It will be now necessary, according to 
 the plan of this work, that we take a survey of the more remark- 
 able events which happened in the course of the preceding thir- 
 teen years, in the other States of Europe. 
 
 Portugal had been a co-partner in the first coalition against 
 France, and had furnished a body of 6000 troops to Spain, and 
 some ships of war to England. We have already related how 
 Mary I. was prevented from disengaging herself from the treaty 
 of 1797. The Prince of Brazil, who had assumed the regency 
 (July 15, 1799) in consequence of the infirnl state of his mother's 
 health, took a more decided part in the second coalition, by sign- 
 ing an alliance with Russia (Sept. 28.) This alliance drew him 
 into a war with Spain. The Duke of Alcudia, usually styled 
 the Prince of Peace, seized several cities in Portugal without 
 much difiiculty ; as her army was in as bad condition as her fi- 
 nances. A peace was speedily concluded at Badajos (June 6, 
 1801.) Portugal agreed to shut her ports against English ves- 
 sels ; and ceded to Spain Olivenga, and the places situated on 
 the Guadiana. The engagement respecting English vessels was 
 renewed by the peace of Madrid (Sept. 29,) which reconciled 
 Portugal with France. 
 
 In Spain, Charles IV. had succeeded his father Charles III. 
 (Dec. 13, 1788;) Philip, the eldest son, having been declared 
 incapable of reigning, on account of his deficiency of intellect. 
 That prince, who had no pleasure but in the chase, gave himself 
 up entirely to that amusement. He was the jest of the Queen 
 and her favourites, to whom he abandoned the cares of govern- 
 ment. In 1790 a difference which had arisen with England 
 re^ppcting the right of property to Nootka Sound in North Am.eri- 
 
Death of Prince Poniatowski in passing the Elster. 
 Vol. 2., p.. 273.. 
 
 Polytechnic Scholars joining the people. Vol 2 p. 32.4. 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9— 1815. 181 
 
 isiana to Bonaparte ; and eventually the State of Parma (Octo- 
 ber 1, 1800.) She also surrendered to him five ships of the line, 
 besides a considerable sum of money which she paid him ; and 
 all this on the faith of his promising to procure the Grand Dutchy 
 of Tuscany, with the title of Royalty, to the King's son-in-law, 
 the Infant of Parma. These stipulations were more clearly 
 established by the treaty v/hich Lucien Bonaparte and the Prince 
 of Peace afterwards signed at Madrid (March 21, 1801.) The 
 peace of Amiens cost Spain no other sacrifice than the Island of 
 Trinidad, which she was obliged to abandon to England ; en- 
 tirely on the decision of Bonaparte, who did not even ask the 
 consent of Charles IV". Spain had lost all sort of respect or 
 consideration, both from the universal and contemptible weak- 
 ness of her government, and because she had voluntarily placed 
 herself under dependence to France. 
 
 From the very commencement of this period. Great Britain 
 had been preserved from the influence of the revolutionary prin- 
 ciples, which had a great many partisans in that kingdom, by 
 the firmness of her Prime Minister, William Pitt, and the splen- 
 did eloquence of Edmund Burke, a member of the House of 
 Commons. Pitt consolidated the system of finance, by extend- 
 ing the sinking fund, which he had created in 1786. He gave 
 vigour to the government, by obtaining the suspension of the Ha- 
 belts Corpus Act ; and by means of the Alien Bill (Jan. 4, 1793,) 
 which allowed the magistrate an extensive authority in the sur- 
 veillance of foreigners. The greatest number of malcontents 
 appeared in Ireland, and these consisted chiefly of Catholics ; 
 although an act, passed in 1793, had rendered the Catholics 
 eligible to almost all official employments. That island never- 
 theless was the theatre of several conspiracies, the design ui 
 which was to render it independent. Their leaders acted in 
 unison with the French, who m.ade attempts at difllerent times 
 to eftect a landing in that country. Fifteen thousand troops, ac- 
 companied by eighteen sail of the line, embarked for that pur- 
 pose from Brest harbour in the month of December. But thii- 
 formidable armament had scarcely put \o sea, when they were 
 overtaken by a storm. Eight of these vessels reached the Irish 
 coast, and appeared ofl" Ban tray Bay ; but they were forced from 
 that station by another tempest, when they returned to France 
 with the loss of two ships of the line, some frigates having nar- 
 rowly escaped falling in with two squadrons of the English 
 navy. 
 
 At length, as a remedy for this political mischief, the uaion of 
 Ireland with Great Britain was effected, so that both kingdoms 
 should have one and the same Parliament ; and George III. as- 
 
 voL. n. 16 
 
182 CHAPTER X. 
 
 sumed the title of King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland (July 2, 1800.) 
 
 Great Britain was the moving principle of the two first coali- 
 tions against France, although she fought rather with money 
 than with troops. She succeeded in ruining the marine and 
 the commerce of both France and Spain ; and obtained the com- 
 plete command of the sea. A short time before the death of 
 Paul I., she was involved in a war with the powers of the North. 
 The resentment of that Prince against the Cabinet of London, 
 for refusing to put him in possession of Malta, which the English 
 troops had seized, was the true cause of hostilities ; although a 
 litigated question of public right was made the pretext. The 
 point at issue was, whether the convoy granted to the merchant 
 ships of neutral states by their sovereign, protected them from 
 being searched by those of the belligerent powers, or not. Den- 
 mark, with whom the discussion first arose, maintained the affir- 
 mative, and England the negative ; although it was not till the 
 end of the year 1799 that she maintained this doctrine. At 
 that time there had been some misunderstanding between Ad- 
 miral Keith, the commander of the British forces in the Medi- 
 terranean, and Captain Van Dockum, who was convoying a fleet 
 of Danish merchantmen. In the month of July following, the 
 Danish frigate La Freya, which had attempted to defend her 
 convoy against a search of the English cruisers, was taken and 
 carried into the Downs. 
 
 These acts of violence gave rise to a very warm discussion 
 between the Courts of London and Copenhagen. The formei 
 having sent a fleet to the Sound, commanded by Admiral Dick- 
 son, Denmark was obliged to yield to the tempest, but in a man- 
 ner very honourable. By a convention which was signed at 
 Copenhagen (Aug. 29, 1800,) the decision of (he question was 
 remitted for further discussion. The English Government re- 
 leased the Freya, and the King of Denmark promised to suspend 
 the convoys. 
 
 This accommodation did not meet with the approval of the 
 Emperor Paul. That prince, who entertained lofty ideas, but 
 who yielded too often to his passions, had determined to revive 
 the principles of the Armed Neutrality, according to the treaty 
 of 1780, and to compel England to acknowledge them. He in- 
 vited Denmark and Sweden, in so very peremptory a manner, to 
 join with him for this purpose, that these States could not refuse 
 their consent without coming to an open rupture with him. This 
 agreement with the courts of Copenhagen, Sweden and Berlin 
 was finally settled by the conventions signed at St. Petersburg 
 (Dec. 16, and 18.) As Great Britain could not find a more con- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9— 1815. 183 
 
 venient occasion than that of her maritime preponderance, foi 
 deciding those questions on which she had maintained silence 
 in 1780, war was declared ; and hostilities commenced in cource 
 of a few months. A body of Danish troops occupied Hamburg 
 and Lubec. The Prussians took possession of Bremen and 
 Hanover (April 3.) An English flee*;, consisting of seventeen 
 sail of the line, commanded by Admirals Sir Hyde Parker and 
 Lord Nelson, forced the passage of the Sound without sustain- 
 ing much injury (March 30.) A squadron under Lord Nelson 
 engaged the Danish fleet before Copenhagen (April 3,) which 
 was commanded by Admiral Olfart Fischer. The action was 
 spirited on both sides, and added a new wreath to the fame of 
 Nelson ; and although the Danes were obliged to yield to the 
 superiority of British valour, they acquitted themselves bravely 
 and honourably. Within seven days after, an armistice was 
 concluded. 
 
 Admiral Parker continued his route by the Baltic and arrived 
 before Carlscrona (April 19,) where he was on the eve of com- 
 mencing hostilities against Sweden, when he was apprised of 
 the death of the Emperor Paul. That event dissolved the League 
 of the North, and put an end to the war. By a convention 
 which the Emperor Alexander concluded at St. Petersburg 
 (June 17,) the principles of maritime law which the English had 
 professed were recognised. The other powers of the North ac- 
 ceded to this convention. The Danes evacuated Hamburg and 
 Lubec ; but Prussia continued in possession of Hanover until 
 the conclusion of the peace between France and England. 
 
 With regard to Holland, the twenty years which elapsed be- 
 tween 1795 and 1814 formed an era of calamities and disasters. 
 The Patriots, who comprehended the middle class of the Dutch 
 community, had gained the ascendancy on the entrance of the 
 French army ; one consequence of which was, the abolition of 
 the Stadtholdership. But that party became sensible of their 
 error, when they saw the ruin of their country. The indepen- 
 dence of their Republic was acknowledged by the treaty of the 
 Hague (May 16, 1795,) which, by giving it France for an ally, 
 subjected it in effect to that power ; and reduced it to the con- 
 dition of a province, — the more neglected, as it was not entirely 
 united. The constitution which the Batavian Republic (the 
 title which it assumed) had adopted, vacillated between two op- 
 posite systems, the adherents of which could come to no agree- 
 ment ; — namely, that of a United and that of a Federal republic. 
 While these matters were under debate, the English, who had 
 joined the Stadtholder's party, stripped the Republic of its colo- 
 nies ; destroyed its marine, particularly in the action which Ad 
 
184 CHAPTER X. 
 
 miral Duncan fought with De Winter near Camperdown {Ozi, 
 n, 1797 ;) and annihilated her commerce and her navigation 
 by blockading her coasts, — not excepting even her fisheries. 
 
 The overthrow of the ancient Helvetic Confederacy, is un« 
 doubtedly one of the high crimes with which history has to re- 
 proach the Executive Directory of France. The constitution 
 drawn up by MM. Ochs and La Harpe after the model of that 
 of France, which excluded the federative system, was published 
 by the French party (May 30, 1798,) in spite of the modifica- 
 tions which the more judicious patriots had attempted to intro- 
 duce ; and supported by the French army under General Schau- 
 enburg. To compel the smaller cantons to submit to this yoke, 
 it was necessary to have recourse to fire and sword. The 
 Grisons found means, however, to evade it by receiving an Aus- 
 trian army among them, in virtue of a convention which was 
 concluded at Coire (Oct. 17 ;) and it was not till after the unfor- 
 tunate campaign of 1799, that they were compelled to renounce 
 their independence. France appropriated to herself the Swiss 
 part of the bishopric of Basle, and the cities of Mulhouse and 
 Geneva. The terms of subjection on which the Helvetic Re- 
 public was to stand in future with France, were determined by 
 an alliance, offensive and defensive, concluded at Paris (Aug. 
 19.) Switzerland henceforth renounced that neutrality which 
 for centuries she had regarded as the pledge and safeguard of 
 her liberties. 
 
 The animosity which reigned between the Unionists and the 
 Federalists, caused several revolutions in the government of 
 that Republic. But as these intrigues were carried on, on a 
 small scale, and have left few traces behind, it is unnecessary 
 here to enter into any detail. If the Revolution in Switzerland 
 did not produce a single man remarkable for great talents, or of 
 a commanding character, the religious spirit of the country, the 
 instruction of the people, and the diffusion of knowledge, at 
 least preserved them from those crimes and excesses which 
 stained the Revolutionists in France. 
 
 At the peace of Amiens all Italy, with the exception of a part 
 of the Venetian territory which was united to Austria, had 
 yielded to the dominion of France. The King of the Two Si- 
 cilies alone had still maintained a sort of independence. In 
 no country had the revolutionary principles of the eighteenth 
 century found more abettors among the higher classes than in 
 Piedmont. The King of Sardinia was the first sovereign whose 
 throne was undermined by their influence. Scarcely had Vic- 
 lor Amadeus III., who ascended the throne in 1773, joined the 
 league against France (July 25, 1792,) when the Republicat* 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1/89 — 1815. IbJ 
 
 armies attacked, and made an easy conquest of Savoy and Nice. 
 Great Britain granted him, by the treaty of London (April 25, 
 1793,) subsidies for carrying on the war with vigour. We 
 have related above the disasters whicl .le met with in the war 
 against France. The peace of Paris cost him the sacrifice of 
 two provinces. In vain did his son Charles Emanuel IV. hope 
 to save the remainder of his estates, by becoming an ally of the 
 French Directory at the treaty of Turin, (April 5, 1797.) His 
 political influence was lost ; they knew they could command any 
 thing from that ally. Their first request was the surrender of 
 the city of Turin, by the convention of Milan (June 28, 1798.) 
 The Directory afterwards declared war against that prince with- 
 out any grounds ; and he could not obtain permission to retire 
 to Sardinia, except by signing a kind of abdication (Dec, 9 ;) 
 against which he afterwards protested. Piedmont was thus 
 governed entirely according to the pleasure of France ; and 
 immediately after the peace of Amiens, it was definitively an- 
 nexed to her territories. 
 
 Austrian Lombardy (with the exception of Mantua,) the 
 dutchy of Modena, the three Legatines ceded by Pius VI., and 
 a part of the Venetian territory, formed the Cisalpine Eepublic, 
 which Bonaparte declared independent, by the preliminaries of 
 Leoben (June 29, 1797.) He soon after (Oct. 22,) added to it 
 the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, which he had taken from 
 the Grisons; and at a later period (Sept. 7, 1800,) he added a 
 part of Piedmont, viz. the Novarese, and the country beyond the 
 Sesia. Mantua was likewise annexed to this Eepublic at the 
 peace of Luneville. Its connexions with France had been de- 
 termined by the alliance of 1798, which were more servile than 
 those in which the Batavian Republic, and afterwards that of 
 Switzerland, were placed. In this pretended Republic, France 
 exercised an absolute power; she changed its constitution at 
 pleasure, appointed and deposed its highest functionaries as suit- 
 ed her convenience. The victories of Suwarow put an end for 
 some time to the existence of that State ; but after the battle of 
 Marengo, matters w^ere replaced on their ancient footing. 
 
 The Republic of Genoa, distracted by innovations at home, 
 and threatened from abroad by England and France, hesitated 
 for some time as to the system v/hich they should adopt. But 
 after the French had become masters of the Bocchetta, the 
 Senate consented, by a treaty concluded at Paris (Oct. 9, 1796,) 
 to give them a sum of money, and shut their ports against the 
 English. After the preliminaries of Leoben, this Republic ac- 
 cepted a democratic constitution from the hand of Bonaparte, 
 according to the treaty of Montebello (June 6, 1797.) It paid 
 
 VOL. 11. 16 "^ 
 
186 CHAPTER X. 
 
 large sums of money, and was gratified by the Imperial fiefs 
 which Bonaparte added to its territory. It then took the name 
 of the Ligurian Republic (June 14.) We have ihead}" men- 
 tioned how the Grand Duke of Tuscany was unjustly deprived 
 of his estates, which Bonaparte made ov^er by the treaty of St. 
 Ildefonso to the hereditary Prince of Parma, son-in-law to 
 Charles IV. of Spain. This young prince was proclaimed King 
 of Etruria, (Aug. 2, 1801,) and acknowledged by all the Euro- 
 r)ean powers ; but during his brief reign, he was more a vassal 
 of Bonaparte than an independent sovereign. 
 
 Pius VI. had protested against the spoliation of the Church, 
 which the Constituent Assembly of France had committed, by 
 the union of Avignon and the County of Venaissin to the Re- 
 public, (Nov. 3, 1791 ;) and from that time he was treated as an 
 enemy. The truce of Bologna, (June 23, 1796,) cost him twenty- 
 one millions of francs, and many of the finest specimens of art. 
 He consented that such statues and pictures as might be selected 
 by commissioners appointed for that purpose, should be conveyed 
 to the French capital. Finding it impossible to obtain an equi- 
 table peace, he set on foot an army of 45,000 men, which he 
 placed under the command of General Colli, a native of Austria ; 
 but Bonaparte, notwithstanding, compelled his Holiness to con- 
 clude a peace at Tolentino, (Feb. 19, 1797,) which cost him fif- 
 teen millions more, and the three Legatines of Bologna, Fer- 
 rara, and Romagna. He renounced at the same time Avignon 
 and the County of Venaissin. In consequence of a tumult 
 which took place at Rome, in which the French General Duphot 
 was killed, a French army under General Berthier, entered that 
 city (Feb. 11, 1798,) and proclaimed the Roman Republic; which, 
 as we have noticed, enjoyed but an ephemeral existence. The 
 governrivent was vested in five consuls, thirty-two senators, and 
 seventy-two tribunes, called the Representatives of the people. 
 Pius Vl. was carried captive to France, and died at Valence 
 (Aug. 29, 1799.) The Conclave assembled at Venice, and 
 elected Cardinal Chiaramonte in his place, (March 13, 1800,) 
 who assumed the title of Pius VII., and within a short time 
 after made his public entry into Rome. Bonaparte, then elected 
 First Consul, allowed him to enjoy the rest of his estates in 
 peace. 
 
 Towards the end of 1792, a French fleet, commanded by Ad- 
 miral La Touche, appeared off the port of Naples, and obliged 
 the King to acknowledge that first of all sovereigns, the French 
 Republic. This did not prevent him from entering into the coa- 
 lition, (July 12, 1793,) by a treaty of alliance with England, 
 which was concluded at Naples. After the success of Bona- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 187 
 
 parte in Lombardy, Ferdinand IV. averted the storra which 
 threatened him, by signing first a suspension of arms at Brescia 
 (June 5 1798,) and the peace of Paris a few months after, 
 which he obtained on honourable conditions. We have already 
 mentioned, that he was one of the first sovereigns who entered 
 into the second coalition against France ; and that the precip- 
 itancy with which he then commenced hostilities, proved pre- 
 judicial to the success of the war, as well as disastrous to him- 
 self. He did not regain possession of the kingdom of Naples 
 till after the retreat of Macdonald in 1799 ; and he purchased 
 peace (March 28, 1800) at the expense of receiving into his 
 kingdom 16,000 French troops, who remained there until the 
 conclusion of the treaty between Alexander and Bonaparte. 
 
 The combined fleets of Turkey and Russia had subdued the 
 islands that formerly belonged to the Venetians, viz. Corfu, 
 Zante, Cephalonia, St. Maura, Ithaca, Paxo, and Cerigo. Ac- 
 cording to a convention concluded at Constantinople between 
 Russia and the Porte (March 21, 1800,) these islands were to 
 form an independent State, although subject to the Ottoman Em- 
 pire, under the name of the Republic of the Seven Islands 
 This Republic, was acknowledged in subsequent treaties by 
 France and Great Britain. 
 
 By the peace of Basle, Germany had been divided into two 
 parts ; the North, at the head of which was Prussia ; and the 
 South, where Austria had the predominancy, in consequence ot 
 her armies, and by the favour of the ecclesiastical Princes ; for 
 the secular States abandoned her as often as they could do so with 
 impunity. By a convention which Prussia concluded at Basle 
 with France (May 17, 1795,) the neutrality of the North of 
 Germany was recognised, on conditions which the Princes situ- 
 ated beyond the line of demarcation were anxious to fulfil. 
 Prussia afterwards concluded arrangements with these States 
 for establishing an army of observation. This defection created 
 no small animosity between the Courts of Berlin and Vienna, 
 which the French dexterously turned to their own advantage ; 
 especially during the silting of the Congress at Rastadt. In 
 vain did the Emperor Paul, who had determined to make war 
 against the Republic, attempt to restore harmony between these 
 two leading States. He was equally unsuccessful in his pro- 
 ject of drawing Prussia into the coalition. Although Frederic 
 II. had been deceived by France, who, after having promised 
 him, in a secret convention concluded at Berlin (August 5, 
 1796,) a compensation proportioned to the loss which he had 
 sustained by ceding the left bank of the Rhine, entered into en- 
 gagements directly opposite, by the secret articles in the treaty 
 
189 CHAPTER X. 
 
 of Campo Formio. Nevertheless Frederic William III., who 
 succeeded his father (Nov. 16, 1797,) remained faithful to a 
 neutrality which the state of the Prussian finances appeared to 
 render necessary. 
 
 The revolutionary doctrines which were transplanted into 
 Germany by the French emissaries, had fallen on a soil well 
 prepared, and in which they speedily struck root. By the peace 
 of Luneville, all the provinces situated on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, were incorporated with France ; and the moment was 
 approaching which was to witness the downfall of the German 
 Empire. While the French nation, seized with a strange ma- 
 nia, were overturning law and order from their very founda- 
 tions, and abandoning themselves to excesses which appear 
 almost incredible in a civilized country, in the North another 
 nation, sunk into anarchy and oppressed by their neighbours, 
 were making a noble effort to restore the authority of the laws, 
 and to extricate themselves from the bondage of a foreign yoke. 
 
 The Poles had flattered themselves, that while the forces of 
 Russia were occupied against the Swedes and the Turks, as we 
 have already mentioned, they would be left at liberty to alter 
 their constitution, and give a new vigour to the government of 
 their Republic. An extraordinary Diet was assembled at War- 
 saw (178S,) which formed itself into a Confederation, in order 
 to avoid the inconveniences of the Llherujn Veto, and of the 
 unanimity required in ordinary diets. The Empress of Russia 
 having made some attempts at that Diet to engage the Poles to 
 enter into an alliance against the Porte, she was thwarted in her 
 intentions by the King of Prussia, who, in consequence of his 
 engagements with England, used every effort to instigate the 
 Poles against Russia. He encouraged them, by offering them 
 his alliance, to attempt a reform in their government, which 
 Russia had recently guaranteed. A Committee of Legisla- 
 tion, appointed by the Diet was commissioned to draw up the 
 plan of a constitution, which would give new energy to the Re- 
 public. 
 
 This resolution of the Diet could not but displease the Em- 
 press of Russia, who remonstrated against it as a direct infrac- 
 tion of the articles agreed between her and the Republic in 
 1775. The Poles, who thus foresaw that the changes which 
 they had in view would embroil them with that princess, ought 
 to have considered, in the first place, how to put themselves into 
 a good state of defence. But instead of providing for the melio- 
 ration of their finances, and putting the army of the Republic on 
 a respectable footing, the Diet spent a considerable time in dis- 
 cussing the new plan of the constitution which had been submit 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789— 1S15. 189 
 
 ted to them. The assurance of protection from Prussia, which 
 had been officially ratified to them, rendered the Poles too con- 
 fident ; and the treaty of alliance which the Kino- of Prussia had 
 in effect concluded with the Republic (March 29, 1790,) began 
 to lull them into a profound security. Stanislaus Augustus, 
 after having long hesitated as to the party he ought to espouse, 
 at length voluntarily joined that party in the Diet who wished 
 to extricate Poland from that state of degradation into which she 
 had fallen. The new constitution was accordingly decreed by 
 acclamation (May 3, 1791.) 
 
 However imperfect that constitution might appear, it was in 
 unison with the state of civilization to which Poland had arriv 
 ed. It corrected several of the errors and defects of former laws ; 
 and though truly republican, it was free from those extravagant 
 notions which the French Revolution had brought into fashion. 
 The throne was rendered hereditary in favour of the Electoral 
 House of Saxony ; they abolished the law of unanimity, and the 
 absurdity of the Liberum Veto ; the Diet was declared perma- 
 nent, and the Legislative body divided into two Chambers. One 
 of these Chambers, composed of Deputies whose functions were 
 to continue for two years, was charged with discussing and 
 framing the laws ; and the other, consisting of a Senate in which 
 the King presided, were to sanction them, and to exercise the 
 Veto ; the executive power was intrusted to the King, and a 
 Council of Superintendence consisting of seven members or re- 
 sponsible ministers. The inhabitants of the towns were allow- 
 ed the privilege of electing their own Deputies and Judges, and 
 the burgesses had the way laid open to them for attaining the 
 honours of nobility. The latter were maintained in all the 
 plenitude of their rights and prerogatives ; the peasantry, who 
 had been in a state of servitude, were placed under the imme- 
 diate protection of the laws and the government ; the constitu- 
 tion sanctioned before-hand the compacts which the landed pro- 
 prietors might enter into with their tenantry for meliorating 
 their condition. 
 
 The efforts which the Poles had made to secure their inde 
 pendence, excited the resentment of Russia. The Empress had 
 no sooner made peace with the Porte, than she engaged her par- 
 tisans in Poland to form a confederacy for the purpose of over- 
 turning the innovations of the Diet at Warsaw, and restoring 
 the ancient constitution of the Republic. This confederation, 
 which was signed at Targowica (May 14, 1792,)was headed by 
 the Counts Felix Potochi, Rzewuski, and Branicki. In support 
 of this confederacy, the Empress sent an army into Poland, to 
 wage war against the partisans of the new order of things. The 
 
J 90 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Poles had never till then thought seriously of adopting vigorous 
 measures. The Diet decreed, that an army of the line should 
 immediately take the field ; and that a levy should be made of 
 several corps of light troops. A loan of thirty-three millions of 
 florins passed without the least opposition ; but the Prussian 
 minister having been called upon to give some explanation as to 
 the subsidies which the King his master had promised to the 
 Republic by the treaty of alliance of 1790, he made an evasive 
 answer, which discouraged the whole patriotic party. 
 
 The refusal of the Polish Diet to accede to a mercantile 
 scheme, by which Dantzic and Thorn were to be abandoned to 
 the King of Prussia, had disaffected that monarch towards Po- 
 land. It was not difficult, therefore, for the Empress of Russia 
 to obtain his consent to a dismemberment of that kingdom. 
 The aversion which the sovereigns of Europe entertained for 
 every thing that resembled the French Revolution, with which, 
 however, the events of Poland where the King and the nation 
 were acting in concert had nothing in common except appear- 
 ances, had a powerful effect upon the Court of Berlin ; and 
 proved the cause of their breaking those engagements which 
 they had contracted with that Republic. It was then that the 
 Poles fully comprehended the danger of their situation. Their 
 first ardour cooled, and the whole Diet were thrown into a state 
 of the utmost consternation. 
 
 Abandoned to her own resources, and convulsed by intestine 
 divisions, Poland then saw her utter inability to oppose an ene- 
 my so powerful as the Russians. The campaign of 1792 turned 
 out entirely to the disadvantage of the Patriotic party. After 
 a successful career, the Russians advanced on Warsaw ; when 
 Stanislaus, who was easily intimidated, acceded to the confede- 
 racy of Targowica, by renouncing the constitution of the 3d May, 
 and the acts of the revolutionary Diet of Warsaw. That prince 
 even subscribed (Aug. 25, 1792) to all the conditions which the 
 Empress thought proper to dictate to him. A suspension of 
 arms was agreed to, which stipulated for the reduction of the 
 Polish army. In consequence of the arrangements entered into 
 oetween Russia and Prussia, by the convention of St. Peters- 
 burg (Jan. 23, 1793,) the Prussian troops entered Poland, and 
 spread over the country after the example of the Russians. 
 Proclamations were issued by the Courts of Berlin and St. Pe- 
 tersburg, by which they declared the districts of Poland which 
 their troops had occupied, incorporated with their own domin- 
 ions. The adoption of the constitution of 1791, and the propa- 
 gation of the democratic principles of the French, were the 
 causes ol tnis new dismemberment of Poland. 
 
PFR-O'? IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 191 
 
 Prussia took posse.s.»ion of the larger part of GreatToland, in- 
 cluding the cities of iJantzic and Thorn ; the town of Czensto- 
 chowa in Little Poland was also adjudged to her, with its fron- 
 tier extending to the rivers Pilica, Sterniewka, Jezowka, and 
 Bzura. The left bank of these rivers was assigned to Prussia, 
 and the right reserved to Poland. The portion awarded to the 
 former, contained, one thousand and sixty-one German square 
 miles, and one million two hundred thousand inhabitants. Rus- 
 sia got nearly the half of Lithuania, including the Palatinates of 
 Podolia, Polotsk, and Minsk, a part of the Palatinate of Wilna, 
 with the half of Novogrodek, Brzesc, and Volhynia ; in all, four 
 thousand five hundred and fifty-three German square mile? and 
 containing three millions of inhabitants. 
 
 The Poles were obliged to yield up, by treaties, those pro- 
 vinces which the tv/o powers had seized. The treaty between 
 Poland and Russia was signed at the Diet of Grodno (July 13, 
 1793.) But that with the King of Prussia met with the most 
 decided opposition ; and it was necessary to use threats of com- 
 pulsion before it was consummated. On this occasion, these 
 ^v;o powers reno'.'nced anew the rights and pretensions which 
 •■.hey might stiH b;-v^e against the Republic under any denomina- 
 tion whatsoever. They agreed to acknowledge, and if it should 
 «e required, also *o guarantee the constitution which should be 
 established by \he Diet with the free consent of the Polish nation. 
 
 After these treaties, came a treaty of alliance and union be- 
 tween Russia and Poland (October 16, 1793,) the third article 
 of which gup 'anteed their mutual assistance in case of attack ; 
 the direction of the war was reserved to Russia, as well as the 
 privilege of ? ending her troops into Poland, and forming maga- 
 zines there, vhen she might judge it necessary ; while Poland 
 agreed to e.r ter into no connexion with foreign powers, and to 
 make no cV inge in her constitution, except with the approbation 
 of Russia The portion that was left to the Republic, either 
 m PolanJ 3r Lithuania, contained three thousand eight hundred 
 md thrf / square miles, with somewhat more than three mil- 
 lions cf inhabitants. This State was divided into eighteen 
 Dalat^'r.P/'-es, ten of which were in Poland, and eight in Lithua- 
 nia. To each of these palatinates were assigned two senators, 
 1 palatine, a castellain, and six deputies to sit in the Diet. 
 
 These diflferent treaties, and the grievances of which the 
 Poles had just cause to complain, threw the public mind into a 
 state of agitation, which in the following year broke out into a 
 general insurrection. A secret association was formed at War- 
 saw ; it found numerous partisans in the army, which was to 
 nave been disbanded according to the arrangements with Rus- 
 
192 CHAPTER X 
 
 sia The conspirators chose Thaddeus Kosciuszko for theii 
 chief, in this projected insurrection against Russia. That gen- 
 eral had distinguished himself in the American war under 
 Washington ; he had very recently signalized his bravery in the 
 campaign of 1792 ; and after the unfortunate issue of that war, 
 he had retired into Saxony with a few other patriots, who were 
 ready to exert their energy in the cause of freedom. The in- 
 surgents reckoned with confidence on the assistance of Austria, 
 who had taken no part in the last dismemberment of Poland , 
 they flattered themselves that Turkey and Sweden would not 
 remain mere spectators of the efforts which they were making 
 to regain their liberty and their independence. 
 
 Kosciuszko had wished that they should postpone the execu- 
 tion of their plan, in order to gain more time for preparation ; 
 especially as a suspicion was excited among the Russians. He 
 even retired into Italy, where he remained until one of his ac- 
 complices, who had been ordered, as a propagator of sedition, to 
 banish himself from the Polish territories, informed him that 
 his countrymen wished him to appear among them without de- 
 lay, as a better opportunity might not soon arise. Madalinski, 
 who commanded a brigade of cavalry under the new govern- 
 ment, when summoned to disband them, refused ; and throwing 
 ofl^ the mask, gave the signal for insurrection. He suddenly 
 quitted his station, crossed the Vistula, and after having dis- 
 persed some detachments of Prussians, whom he encountered 
 in his route, he marched directly to Cracow, where he erected 
 the standard of revolt. The inhabitants took arms, expelled 
 the Russian troops who were quartered in that city, and pro- 
 claimed Kosciuszko their General. A sort of dictatorship was 
 conferred upon him (March 24, 1794,) which was to continue so 
 long as their country was in danger. He took an oath of fidel- 
 ity to the nation, and of adherence to the principles stated in 
 the act of insurrection, by which war was declared against the 
 invaders of their rights and liberties. 
 
 The Russians and Prussians immediately despatched their 
 troops to arrest the progress of the insurrection. The defeat oi 
 a body of Russians near Raslavice, by Kosciuszko, inspired the 
 insurgents with new courage. The inhabitants of Warsaw 
 rose in like manner against the Russians, who had a garrison 
 there of 10,000 men, under the command of General Igelstrom. 
 It Avas on the night of the 17th April that the tocsin of revolt 
 was sounded in the capital ; the insurgents seized the arsenal, 
 and distributed arms and ammunition among the people. A 
 brisk cannonade took place between the Russians and the Poles. 
 The combat continued for two successive days, in which severaJ 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9— 1816. 193 
 
 thousands of the Russians perished, while 4500 were made pri- 
 soner?. Igelslrom escaped from the city with about 3000 men. 
 The same insurrection broke out at Wilna, from whence it ex- 
 tended over all Lithuania. Several Polish regiments who had 
 entered into the service of Russia, changed sides, and enlisted 
 under the banners of the insurgents. 
 
 In spite of their first success, it was soon perceived that 
 Poland was deficient in the necessary resources for an enter- 
 prise of such a nature as that in which they were engaged. 
 The great body of the citizens were neither sufficiently numer- 
 ous nor sufficiently wealthy, to serve as a centre for the revolu- 
 tion which they had undertaken ; and the servitude in which 
 the peasantry were kept, was but ill calculated to inspire them 
 with enthusiasm for a cause in which their masters only were 
 to be the gainers. Besides, the patriots were divided in opin- 
 ion ; and the King, although he appeared to approve their ef 
 forts, inspired so much mistrust by his weakness and timidity, 
 that he was even accused of secretly abetting the interests of 
 Russia. Lastly, the nobles who alone ought to have shown 
 courage and energy, were found but little disposed to give any 
 effectual support to the cause of liberty. Every contribution 
 appeared to them an encroachment on their prerogatives ; and 
 they were as much averse to a levy en masse as to the raising 
 of recruits, which deprived them of their tenantry. They were, 
 moreover, afraid of losing those rights and privileges which they 
 exclusively enjoyed. 
 
 Under these considerations, Kosciuszko was convicvird that it 
 was impossible for him to organize an armed force equal to that 
 of the Russians and the Prussians, who Vv'ere acting in concert 
 to defeat the measures of the insurgents. After some inferior 
 operations, an important engagement took place on the confines 
 of the Palatinates of Siradia and Cujavia (June 8, 1794,) where 
 he sustained a defeat ; in consequence of which the King of 
 Prussia made himself master of Cracow. That prince, supported 
 by a body of Russian troops, undertook, in person, the siege of 
 Warsaw. The main forces of the insurgents were assembled 
 under the walls of that city. They amounted to about 22,000 
 combatants, while the enemy had more than 50,000. The siege 
 of Warsaw continued nearly two months, when a general msur 
 rection, which had spread from Great Poland into Western Prus 
 sia, obliged the King to retire, that he might arrest the progress 
 of the insurrection in his own dominions. 
 
 The iov of the insurgents, on account of this incident, was 
 but of short duration. The Court of Vienna, wliirh till then 
 had maintained a strict neutrality, resolved also to despatch an 
 
 VOL. 11 17 
 
194 CHAPTER X. 
 
 army into Poland. This army was divided into two columns. 
 one of which marched on Brzesci, and the other on Dowbno. 
 On the other hand, the Russians under the command of Suw-a- 
 row, advanced into Lithuania, and pursued a body of the insur- 
 gents, who were commanded by Sirakowski. Kosciuszko. who 
 now saw the gTeat superiority of the enemy, made a last effort 
 to prevent the junction of the army of Suwarow with that of 
 Baron de Fersen, the Russian General. Directing his march 
 cOwards the latter, he fought a bloody battle with him near 
 Match?^ntz (Oct. 10, 1794.) The action continued from sunrise 
 till beyona xixl^ day Six thousand of the Polish army perished 
 on the field, and the lest were made prisoners. Kosciuszko was 
 himself dangerously wounded, and fell into the hands of the 
 conqueror. He had endeavoured to escape by the swiftness of 
 his horse, but was overtaken by some of the Cossacs; one of 
 Vv^hom, without knowing him, run him through the back with 
 his lance. Falling senseless from his horse, he was carried to 
 a monastery ; when it was intimated, by one of his officers, that 
 he was the Commander-in-chief. Surgical aid was immediately 
 administered to him, and he was soon after conveyed to St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 This disaster quite dejected the courage of the Poles. Their 
 Generals, Dombrowski and Madalinski, who were carrying on 
 the war in Prussia and Great Poland, abandoned these provinces, 
 and marched with their troops to the relief of Warsaw. Suwa 
 row likewise directed his march towards that capital, and was 
 there joined by a considerable body of Prussians, under Dorfel- 
 den and Fersen, in conjunction with whom he commenced the 
 blockade of that city (Nov. 4.) The Russians, who amounted 
 to 22,000 men, prepared for an attack of the entrenchments of 
 Praga, one of the suburbs of Warsaw. The Poles, who had a 
 body of between eight and ten thousand men, made a courage- 
 ous defence ; but nothing could withstand the ardour and im- 
 petuosity of the Russians, who were burning with rage to avenge 
 the blood of their countrymen who were massacred at Warsaw. 
 
 Three batteries had been erected in the night ; and the two 
 first divisions, though harassed by a vigorous fire in every direc- 
 tion except the rear, bravely surmounted every obstacle. In the 
 'ipace of four hours, they carried the triple entrenchment of Pra- 
 ga by main force. Rushing into the place, they pursued their 
 adversaries through the streets, put the greater part of them to 
 the sword, and drove one thousand into the Vistula. In this 
 scene of action, a regiment of Jews made an obstinate defence, 
 and at length were totally extirpated. Thirteen thousand of the 
 Poles, it IS said, were left dead on the spot; two thousand were 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789— .Si 5 195 
 
 drowned in the Vistula, and between fourteen and fifteen thou 
 sand were made prisoners. The suburb of Praga was pihag-ecl 
 and razed to the foundation. Terror seized the inhabitantg of 
 Warsaw, and they determined to capitulate. Suwarow made 
 his triumphant entry into that capital, and was presented with 
 the keys of the city (Nov. 9.) The Polish trof ps laid &jvri 
 their arms ; the insurrection was quelled; and the greater j)art 
 of those who had distinguished themselves in it, were arrested 
 by the Russians. The King of Poland retired to Grodno ; and 
 the final dismemberment of that country was agreed upon by the 
 three allied powers. 
 
 The Court of Berlin having signified their intention of retain- 
 ing Cracow and the neighbouring country, of which their troops 
 had just taken possession, Austria, who was also desirous of pro- 
 curing that part of Poland, took advantage of the discontent 
 which the conduct of Prussia during the campaign of 1794, and 
 her retreat from the ensuing coalition, had excited in the Em 
 press of Russia, and entered into a separate negotiation with the 
 Court of St. Petersburg. They arranged privately between 
 themselves, as to the shares which were to fall to each. An act, 
 in form of a declaration, was signed at St. Petersburg, between 
 these two courts (Jan. 3, 1795,) purporting, that the Cabinet of 
 Berlin should be invited to accede to the stipulations therein 
 contained ; in consideration of the offer which the two courts 
 made to acquiesce in the reunion of the remainder of Poland 
 with the Prussian monarchy, and the engagement which they 
 entered into to guarantee that acquisition. 
 
 A negotiation was afterwards set on foot with the Court of 
 Berlin, which was protracted to a great length ; as that Court, 
 who were ignorant of the engagement which Catherine had come 
 under to secure Cracow to Austria, had always entertained the 
 hope of being able to retain it themselves. It was only when 
 the act of the 3d January was communicated to them, that they 
 agreed to a special convention with the Court of Vienna, which 
 was signed at St. Petersburg (Oct. 24, 1795.) The city of Cra 
 cow w^as abandoned to Austria, who, on her side, resigned in 
 favour of the King of Prussia a portion of the territory which the 
 declaration of the 3d January preceding had secured to her. It 
 was settled, that the limits of the Palatinate of Cracow should 
 be regulated between these two powers, under ihe mediation of 
 the Court of St. Petersburg. Stanislaus had then no other al- 
 ternative left, than to resign his crown into the hands of the Em- 
 press of Russia. The act of his abdication was dated at Grodno 
 (Nov. 25, 1795.) 
 
 It was by these diffcient conventions, that Russia obtained all 
 
lyb CHAPTER X. 
 
 that remained of Poland and Lithuania, as far as the Niemen 
 and the confines of Brzesci and Novogrodek. She likewise 
 obtained the greater part of Samogitia, with the whole of Cour- 
 land and Semigallia. She had besides, in Little Poland, that 
 part of the territory of Chelm situated on the right bank of the 
 Bug, and the remainder of Volhynia ; in all, containing abou: 
 two thousand square miles, with one million two hundred 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 To Austria were assigned, in addition to the principal part of 
 Cracow, the whole Palatinates of Sendomir and Lublin, with 
 part of the district of Chelm, and the Palatinates of Brzesci, 
 Podolachia, and Masovia, which lay on the left bank of the Bug ; 
 comprising m all, about eight hundred and thirty-four thousand 
 German square miles, with about one million of inhabitants. 
 
 To Prussia, was assigned part of the Palatinates of Masovia 
 and Podolachia, lying on the right bank of the Bug ; in Lithu- 
 ania, she had part of the Palatinate of Troki and of Samogitia 
 which lies on this side of the Niemen, as well as the small dis- 
 trict in Little Poland, making part of the Palatinate of Cracow ; 
 the whole consisting of about one thousand German square 
 miles, with a population of one million. Finally, by a subse- 
 quent convention which was concluded at St. Petersburg (Jan. 
 26, 1797,) the three co-participant Courts arranged among them- 
 selves as to the manner of discharging the debts of the Ki^g 
 and the Republic of Poland. They agreed by this same con- 
 vention to allow the dethroned monarch an annuity of 200,000 
 ducats. 
 
 At the commencement of this period, it was not yet perceived 
 of what importance it was for Russia to get possession of the 
 Crimea; and it was not until the agriculture and industry of 
 that country had begun to prosper under a wise administration, 
 that they began to apprehend it might one day have a powerful 
 influence on the balance of trade. The Empress Catherine, 
 who had been flattered in her youth by the eulogies of the phi- 
 losophers, so as to become a disciple of their new doctrines, 
 was the first to perceive this danger. She then declared her- 
 self a most implacable enemy to the French Revolution, and 
 would gladly have armed all Europe to exterminate the Repub- 
 lic. Nevertheless, she did not take up arms herself, and only 
 joined the first coalition in an indirect manner, and by conclud- 
 ing treaties purely defensive, such as that of Drontningholm 
 with Sweden (Oct. 19, 1791,) and that of St. Petersburg with 
 the King of Hungary and Bohemia (July 12, 1782,) and that 
 which was concluded (Aug. 7,) i^ the same city with Prussia. 
 Nevertheless, when Frederic had retired from the list, she re* 
 
PEKIODIX. A. D. 17cJ9 1815. 197 
 
 solved 10 send into the field the sixty thousand men ivhich Eng- 
 land was to take into pay. The treaty was on the eve of being 
 .signed, when the Empress was suddenly cut off by death 
 (Nov. 17, 1796.) 
 
 Paul, her successor, refused to sanction that treaty. We have 
 alread}" noticed the active hand which that monarch took in the 
 war of 1799 against France ; and we have already mentioned 
 tJie unsuccessful attempt which he made to revive the principles 
 of the armed neutrality. This Emperor, who wanted stead- 
 iness and consistency, published at his coronation (April 5, 1797,) 
 a fundamental law regarding the order of succession to the 
 throne. This law, intended to prevent those revolutions which 
 the unsettled state of the throne had produced in Russia, es- 
 tablished a mixed lineal succession, agreeably to the order of 
 primogeniture ; admitting females only in case of the total 
 extinction of the male descendants of the male line of Paul ; 
 and defining with the most scrupulous exactness, the order in 
 Avhich females and their descendants should succeed to the 
 throne. But being weak and narrow-minded, and incapable of 
 discharging his imperial functions, he entailed upon himself the 
 natred of both the nobility and the people. He met with a 
 violent death, having been murdered by a party of daring con- 
 spirators (March 24, 1801.) 
 
 Alexander, who succeeded his unfortunate father, lost no time 
 in restoring peace to his dominions, by entering into an arrange- 
 ment with Great Britain (June 17,) by which he abandoned the 
 principles of free trade for neutral vessels ; admitting that even 
 a convoy should not protect these from being subjected to a 
 search or visitation, when ordered by the Captain of a vessel 
 belonging to the public navy of a belligerent state. He like- 
 wise concluded peace with France and Spain (Oct. 4, 8.) 
 
 Sweden had extricated herself without loss from the war 
 which Gustavus III. had imprudently commenced. That 
 Prince had succeeded in extending the royal prerogative, and 
 making the Diet adopt the fundamental act of union and secu- 
 rity (March 29, 1792,) vesting in himself the right of making 
 war and peace, which according to the former order of things, 
 he could only exercise with the concurrence of the States. Be- 
 ing: endowed with an ardent and heroic character, he had pro- 
 posed to march at the head of the armies which Louis XVI. 
 had set on foot ; but he fell the victim of a conspiracy formed 
 by the discontented nobles, leaving his son a minor. 
 
 The Regency of the Duke of Sudermania, during the minor- 
 ity of Gustavus IV., was infested by jealousies and intrigues ; 
 while the finances, which were under bad management, fell 
 VOL. IT. 17=^ 
 
198 CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 gradually into a state of disorder. The policy of the Regent 
 was decidedly for the maintenance of peace. The yourg King 
 himself assumed the reins of government (November 1, 1796.) 
 Although he had e itered into the league of the North, formed 
 by Paul I., for the maintenance of the maritime rights of neu- 
 tral States, he acceded shortly after to the opposite system, to 
 which Alexander I. had declared himself favourable. 
 
 Christian VII. had reigned in Denmark since 1766 ; but for 
 the last twenty years, the Prince Royal and Count Bernstorff 
 bad been at the head of his councils. Under their administra- 
 lion, the kingdom nourished in profound peace which had not 
 for an instant been interrupted, except in 1800, by the vexatious 
 treatment which the Danish ships had met with on the part of 
 England. Denmark was the first of the European powers that 
 abolished the African slave trade (May 16, 1796.) 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PERIOD IX. 
 
 The Military Preponderance of France under the sicay of Na 
 poleoii Bonaparte, a. d. 1802 — 1810. 
 
 In the period on which we are now entering, and which com- 
 prehends eight years, we shall find Napoleon Bonaparte devot- 
 ing his unremitting efforts to a threefold project, the object of 
 which was to secure for himself the empire of the world. The 
 first of these was to render the monarchical government heredi- 
 tary in his family, preparatory to the introduction of a universal 
 dominion ; the next was to extend the boundaries of France ; 
 and the last to surround that country, not with a multitude of 
 Republics as the Directory had done, but with a number of 
 petty monarchies, the existence of which should be so amalga- 
 mated with his own dynasty, that they must stand or fall with 
 it. We shall find him keeping these projects incessantly in 
 view, so that every step which he took towards the accomplish- 
 ment of the one, was calculated at the same time to advance the 
 other two. 
 
 Before the end of the year 1801, a council, composed of 450 
 deputies of the Cisalpine Republic, was assembled at Lyons, in 
 order to deliberate as to the changes to be made in the constitu- 
 tion, which was assimilated more and more to the monarchical 
 form. In the mean time, the Presidency of the Republic was 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—- 1810. 199 
 
 conferred on Bonaparte (January 26, 1802,) under the title of 
 the Italian Republic. 
 
 l\otwithstanding the easy triumph which the constitution Q.t 
 the 3'-ear Eight had gained, by dissolving the Legislative Body 
 of France, dissension was not long m breaking out among its 
 members ; and an opposition was formed which, condemned to 
 silence, had no other means of manifesting itself, than by secret- 
 ly thwarting the views of the government. There was, however, 
 another opposition which appeared among the members of the 
 tribunate, and which greatly irritated Bonaparte, by openly at- 
 tacking his projects of legislation. The period had now arrived, 
 wnen one-fifth part of the members of these two bodies were to 
 retire. But the new convention, in settling this partial altera- 
 tion, were divided as to the mode of proceeding; or rather it 
 was the general opinion, that the ex-members should be deter- 
 mined by lot. This temporary vacancy furnished Bonaparte 
 v/ith a pretext for getting rid of all those whose presence had 
 laid him under any sort of restraint. A decree of the Conser- 
 vative Senate, of the 22d Ventose, in the year Ten (March 13, 
 1802,) turned out twenty of the tribunes, and sixty of the le- 
 gislators ; and supplied their places with members taken from 
 the lists formed by the Electoral Colleges of the Departments. 
 Having thus discovered what advantages might accrue to him 
 from an institution which Sieyes had contrived for balancing 
 the authority of the government, from that moment he convert- 
 ed the Senate into an instrument for sanctioning his own mea- 
 sures. 
 
 A notification from the French ambassador in Switzerland 
 announced that the Valais ehould henceforth form an Independ- 
 ent Republic (April 3.) The inhabitants had not requested this 
 favour ; it was granted to them because Bonaparte wished to 
 get possession of the Simplon, preparatory to the union of that 
 country with France. The second decree of the New Consti- 
 tution of the 6th Floreal (April 26,) granted a general amnesty 
 to all emigrants who should return within the space of three 
 months, and take the oath of allegiance. All their property that 
 remained unsold was restored to them, except the forests. About 
 a thousand individuals were excepted from this act of justice, 
 which strengthened the authority of Bonaparte by conciliating 
 the public opinion in his favour. 
 
 Immediately after this, Bonaparte submitted to the Tribunate 
 and the Legislative Body a plan for the institution of a Legion 
 of Honour (May 10.) This Legion was to be composed of fif- 
 teen cohorts of Dignitaries for life. The First Consul was the 
 Chief of the Legion ; each cohort was to be composed of seven 
 
200 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Orand Officers, twenty Commandants, thirty Officers, and three 
 hiundred Legionaries. The object of Bonaparte evidently waa 
 10 establish a new aristocracy. But the minds of ihe Council 
 were so little prepared for this proposition, and so contrary was 
 ii to the republican ideas with which they were still imbued, thai 
 it passed but by a very small majority, and the First Consul 
 liiouglii proper to delay carrying it into execution. 
 
 For some time the First Consul had beennn negotiation with 
 Pope Pius VII. an the affairs of religion. He had adjusted a 
 Concordat with his Holiness, subjecting public worship to the 
 superintendence of ten prelates of the highest rank, and fifty 
 bishops. This famous Concordat was signed at Paris (July 15,^ 
 and ratified at Rome (Aug. 15,) 1801. It was afterwards sub- 
 mitted for the acceptance of the French nation, and adopted by 
 a very great majority. The Sabbath and the four grand festi- 
 vals were restored ; and from this date the government ceased 
 to follow the decennary system. This was the first abandon- 
 ment of the Republican calendar. Bonaparte hoped to attach 
 to himself the sacerdotal party, the order most disposed for pas- 
 sive obedience ; and in this manner to balance the clergy against 
 the Royalists, and the Pope against the interests of the Coali- 
 tion. The Concordat was ratified with great pomp in the church 
 of Notre Dame by the Senate, the Legislative Body, the Tri- 
 bune, and the public functionaries. The First Consul appeared 
 in the ancient court carriage, with all the circumstances and eti- 
 quette of royalty. 
 
 Another law of the Constitution of the 30th of Floreal (May 
 20,) sanctioned the Slave Trade in the colonies restored to 
 France by the treaty of Amiens, and in the French colonies sit- 
 uated beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By this law, however, 
 slavery was not restored in St. Domingo. That colony was un- 
 der the dominion of the Negroes, who, after having massacred 
 the Whites, and committed barbarities which surjxiss even those 
 of the French Revolution, had succeeded in establishing their 
 independence. After the preliminaries signed at London, Bo- 
 naparte had sent an expedition to that Island, having on board 
 40,000 men, commanded by his brother-in-law General Le Clerc. 
 On their arrival at St. Domingo, the French took possession of 
 the town of Cape Francois, which was the seat of government, 
 as well as of several other places. Toussaint L'Ouverture, ori- 
 ginally a slave, and raised to be the Chief of the Blacks, sub- 
 mitted to the French : but General Le Clerc, having afterwards 
 arrested him, had him conveyed to France where he died. This 
 circumstance excited the Blacks to a new revolt under the com- 
 mand of Christophe, the relative and friend of Toussaint : and 
 
«HiuoD IX. A. D. 1S02 — ISIO. 20J 
 
 ^fter a bloody war, France lost this valuable polony, togethei 
 with a numerous army and many commercial advantages. 
 
 After the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, the Tribunate, 
 purged of its Republican members, signified a wish that some 
 pledge of national gratitude should be offered to General Bona- 
 parte. The Conservative Senate then nominated him First 
 Consul for ten years. When this decree of the Senate was an- 
 nounced to him, he could not conceal his chagrin ; and that he 
 might not be compelled to accept a favour which he disdained, 
 he demanded that the decision of the Senate should be submitted 
 for the sanction of the people. The two other Consuls were re- 
 solved to consult the nation (and this was the only occasion in 
 which they ever acted on their own authority,) not as to the de- 
 cree of the Senate, but on the question whether Bonaparte 
 should be elected Consul for life. Out of 3,577,379, of which 
 the primary Assembly was composed, 3,568,885 voted in the 
 affirmative, and only 8,494 in the negative. Agreeable to this 
 expression of the public voice, the Senate proclaimed Bonaparte 
 First Consul for life (August 2, 1802.) 
 
 Two days after, the third decree of the Senate of the 16tb 
 Thermidor, brought the government still nearer the monarchical 
 form, by granting to the First Consul great influence over the 
 Electoral Assemblies, with the power of ratifying treaties, grant 
 ing pardons, nominating senators w^ithout presentation, appoint 
 ing the Presidents of the Electoral Assemblies, adding to th'' 
 number of their members, and even proclaiming his own sue 
 cesser. The Tribunate, which still appeared somew^hat formi 
 dable, was reduced to fifty members. 
 
 Such, in the space of two years, was the progress of arbitrary 
 power. In the course of 1802, the union of three different 
 countries to France was either accomplished, or in a state Oi 
 preparation. The first was that of the Island of Elba, of which 
 the Kings of Naples and Sardinia had resigned their rights ; 
 the second was that of Piedmont, which France had occupied 
 since 9tb December 1798 ; and lastly, on the death of Ferdinand, 
 Duke of Parma, his estates were taken possession of by France, 
 as having devolved to her in virtue of the treaty of Madrid (Mar. 
 21, 1801,) although they were not annexed to that country till 
 1808. These acqaisitions were made, on the political principle 
 avowed by Bonaparte, which allowed every thing to be done 
 that treaties did not expressly forbid. 
 
 The Peace of Campo Formio and Luneville had recognised the 
 right of Switzerland to form a constitution for herself; and Aloyi 
 Reding happening to be in Paris about the end of 1801, had ob- 
 tained the consent of the First Consul for the re-establishraent 
 
202 t'HAPTEK XI. 
 
 of democracy ia the petty cantons. From that time two parties 
 rose who had long been kept down by force ; and Switzerland 
 experienced a series of revolutions, in which the Unionists or 
 aristocratic party, and the Federalists or democratic, alternatelj 
 had the ascendancy. At length a new Constitution, more aris- 
 tocratic in its principles, was submitted for the approbation of the 
 people. It was accepted by 72,4-53 citizens, and rejected by 
 92,423; but as 167,172 individuals, who had a right to vote,, 
 had disdained to exercise that privilege, the Helvetic -Senate 
 thought proper to reckon all the absentees among the acceptors ; 
 and the new constitution was introduced (July 3,) as having 
 been sanctioned by a majority of the people. Banaparte had 
 given the Swiss to understand, that he relied on their willing- 
 ness to be united to France ; but, as the Helvetic government 
 made a pretence of nat comprehending that invitation, he with- 
 drew his troops from Switzerland (July 20.) This was the sig- 
 nal for a civil war. The democratic cantons, who were assem- 
 bled at Schweitz, restored the ancient confederation, to which 
 most of the old cantons acceded. The central government,, 
 having no other support than the new cantons, and seeing them- 
 selves attacked even in their own territories, importuned the 
 assistance of the First Consul. A French army, under the com- 
 mand of Ney, entered Switzerland, and re-established the gov- 
 ernment which was recommended by the First Consul. Bona- 
 parte constituted himself an arbiter between the two parties, and 
 summoned a Helvetic Council at Paris (Feb. 19, 1803,) and 
 proclaimed the constitution of Switzerland, known by the name 
 of the Act of Mediatio7i. Switzerland thus became a federative 
 Republic, composed of nineteen sovereign cantons. The con- 
 stitution of each was more or less democratic; but the equality 
 of the citizens formed the basis of them all. Once a year, a 
 Diet was to assemble in one of the six principal cities in Swit- 
 zerland in rotation. In these the Landammmi, or chief magis- 
 trate of the district, was to preside, The first Landamman, M. 
 Louis d'AfTry, was nominated by Bonaparte. 
 
 Bonaparte played a conspicuous part in the negotiations for 
 indemnifying those princes who had lost a part or the whole of 
 their possessions, by the cession of the left bank of the Rhine. 
 He, in concert with the Emperor Alexander, was the principal 
 arbiter in this important affair. 
 
 Without here entering into the details of these negotiations, 
 we shall merely observe, that the main obstacle which had im- 
 peded the negotiations of Ratisbon being removed by the treaties 
 which France concluded on this occasion, the deputation came 
 to a final conclusion, known by the name of the Recess (or Re- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 205 
 
 s-olutions) of the Deputation (Feb. 25, 1803,) by which the ar 
 ?:angomerit regarding indemnities and territorial exchanges was 
 brought to a determination. 
 
 The war between France and Great Britain was renewed 3n 
 1503 Public opinion in England had declared agamsn, the, 
 peace of Amiens, which was by no means favourable to her, 
 considering the sacrifices which she had made. The British 
 mmistry repented having agreed to the surrender of Malta and 
 the Cape of Good Hope. They delayed the restoration of Malta 
 under pretext that the guarantees had not been granted without 
 restriction. The arbitrary and violent acts which Bonaparte 
 had committed since the peace ; and above all, the annexation 
 o\ Piedmont to France, furnished a second motive for net evacu- 
 ating an island so important from its position. After a very 
 spirited negotiation, Great Britain offered to restore Malta to 
 its own inhabitants, and to acknowledge it as an independent 
 State ; only for the term of ten years, however, and on condition 
 that the King of Naples would cede Lampedosa. The French 
 troops were to evacuate the Batavian and Swiss Republics. On 
 these terms England would recognise the Italian and Ligurian 
 Republics, and the King of Etruria. His Majesty of Sardinia 
 was to receive an adequate territorial provision in Italy. The 
 first Consul having rejected this ultimatum, war was declared 
 (May 18, 1803,) and all the English who were travelling or re- 
 siding in France, arrested and detained as hostages. 
 
 Charles IV. King of Spain, by the treaty of St. Ildefonso, had 
 ceded Louisiana to France. When this news arrived in Amer- 
 ica, it spread consternation in the Republic of the United States. 
 President Jefferson felt great reluctance in consenting to oppose, 
 by a military force, the entry of the French into a country which 
 would give them the command of the Mississippi. To prevent 
 this, and from other motives, he directed the American minister 
 in Paris to enter into a negotiation with the French government 
 for the purchase of Louisiana, which was effected at Paris (Sept. 
 30, 1803.) 
 
 A French army, which was assembled in the Batavian Re- 
 public under the command of General Mortier, was despatched 
 immediately after the declaration of war, to occupy the Electo- 
 rate of Hanover, the patrimonial dominions of the King of Great 
 Britain. The Government of that country concluded a capitu- 
 lation at Suhlingen (June 3,) in virtue of which^^ie native troops 
 retired beyond the Elbe, while the French army^^ere to o.cupy 
 the country and its fortresses, and be maintaine^'by the nih-Q.^'i- 
 tants. They likewise took possession of Cuxhaven and Retzc-^ 
 !. ;.:!, bolonging to the city of Hamburg. The German Empire 
 
204 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 T«-hich had the mortification of seeing its interests re^la.ed by 
 two foreign powers, did not even protest against this violation oi 
 >ts leriitcry. Bonaparte, deceived in his expectation of rendering 
 the Cahinet of London compliant, annulled the capitulation of 
 Suhlingen, and ordered Mortier to attack Count Walmoden, who 
 commanded the Hanoverian army. The latter, however, laid 
 acwn their arms, in consequence of a convention which was 
 signed at Artlenberg (July 5.) After these proceedings, the 
 moutk«i of the Elbe and Weser were immediately blockaded by 
 an English squadron, which prevented tlie invaders from bene- 
 fiting by the navigation of those rivers. 
 
 England had generously offered to acknowledge the neutrality 
 of Holland, provided she could get the French troops to evacu- 
 ate her territory. This measure, however proved disastrous in 
 its result for the Republic. Bonaparte laid them under obliga- 
 tion to maintain a body of 34,000 men, both French and Bata- 
 vians ; and to furnish five ships of war and five frigates, with a 
 number of transports and sloops of war, for conveying to Eng- 
 land 61,000 men and 4000 horses. After the conclusion of peace 
 with the Emperor of Russia (Oct. 8, 1801,) Bonaparte had 
 withdrawn his troops from the kingdom of Naples ; but, by a 
 forced interpretation of the treaty of Florence, he pretended that 
 he had a right to send them back whenever he should happen 
 to be at war with England. Ferdinand IV. was obliged to suc- 
 cumb ; and in consequence of an arrangement with General St. 
 Cyr (June 25, 1803,) the French again took possession of 
 Abruzzi. 
 
 The loss of Trinidad, and the selling of Louisiana to the 
 United States of America, had created no small coolness between 
 the Court of Madrid and Bonaparte. Already had he brought 
 an army near to Bayonne, which, under the command of Gen- 
 eral Augereau, threatened Spain. She, however, succeeded in 
 evading the storm. As it was of much importance for her to 
 avoid war with England, and on the other hand, as Bonaparte 
 had more need of money than of ships, especially considering 
 the nature of the attack which he meditated upon England, it 
 was agreed by a secret treaty signed at IMadrid (Oct. 30,) that 
 Charles IV. should substitute money, instead of the succours 
 which the nature of his former engagement bound him to fur- 
 nish. The amount of this subsidy is not officially known. The 
 hopes which this Monarch had entertained of escaping from the 
 war were sadly disappointed. He was dragged into it towards 
 the end of the following year. 
 
 Portugal likewise purchased her neutrality, by a convention 
 which was signed between General Lannes, Bonaparte's minis 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802 — 181C. 20d 
 
 ter at Lisbon, and Don Manuel Pinto ; the contents of which 
 are not known with certainty. 
 
 From the breaking- of the peace of Amiens to the second war 
 with Austria, Bonaparte had employed himself about a project 
 for effecting- a landing in England, for which he had made im 
 mense preparations. All the ship-carpenters throughout France 
 •were put in requisition for the equipment of a flotilla intended 
 to convey the armies of the Republic to the English shores. A 
 multitudinous army, called the Army of Eiigland, was assem- 
 bk^d on the coasts, extensive camps were formed, and convoys 
 prepared for protecting the transportation of these invaders. In 
 England, under the ministry of Mr. Pitt, vigorous measures of 
 defence were adopted, by setting on foot a regular army of 
 180,000 men. The English Admirals frequently harassed the 
 French shipping, and bombarded the towns situated upon the 
 coasts. But from this there did not happen any result of im- 
 portance. 
 
 St. Lucia, St. Peter, Miquelon, and Tobago, as also the 
 Dutch colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, fell into 
 the hands of the English in the beginning of the year 1803. 
 General Rochambeau, who had succeeded Le Clerc, concluded 
 a capitulation at St. Domingo, with Dessalines the B'ack Chief, 
 for the evacuation of Cape Frangois ; but as the English Ad- 
 miral Duckworth blockaded it by sea, he was obliged to sur- 
 render with his whole army, which was transported to Eng- 
 land. Dessalines, thus relieved from the French, proclaimed 
 the independence of St. Domingo, or the island of Hayti, of 
 which he assumed the government, under the title of Governor- 
 General, for life. 
 
 Meantime, the plan of Bonaparte for disengaging himsel 
 from those political restraints which fettered his ambition, was 
 growing to maturity. Three parties divided France — the Roy- 
 alists, the Systematic Republicans, and the Jacobins. Of the 
 two first, the one had always entertained hopes that Bonaparte 
 would recall the Bourbons ; and the other, that the moment was 
 approaching when true liberty would take the place of despotism. 
 General Moreau was regarded as the head of this party, if his 
 character had at all made him a proper person to play an active 
 game in public affairs. Bonaparte, who desired neither King 
 nor Republic, was convinced that he could only arrive at his pur- 
 pose by attaching to himself the Jacobin party. In order to in- 
 spire them with confidence, he felt that it was necessary to give 
 them a pledge ; this was, to be continually at variance with the 
 other two parties, which they equally detested. 
 
 Bonaparte resolved to ruin Moreau, whom he mistrusted 
 
 VOL. II 18 
 
?06 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PichegTu, Georges, Cadoudal, and other Royalist Chiefs, se- 
 cretly entered France, believing that the time was now come 
 for re-establishing royalty, and that Moreau would place him- 
 self at the head of the enterprise. Pichegrii twice saw his old 
 friend Moreau, who refused to take any part in a plot against 
 the Government ; but he was reluctant to betray this excellent 
 man, whom Bonaparte hated, and who had been excepted by 
 name from the general amnesty. His silence was sufficient to 
 entangle him in a pretended conspiracy, with which the tribu- 
 nals resounded. 
 
 Pichegru kept himself secreted in Paris for some days, but 
 through the treachery of a friend he was at length discovered 
 arrested, and committed to prison, where he was found dead, on 
 the morning of April 7th., a black handkerchief being twisted 
 around his neck, and tightened by the twisting of a stick. No 
 proof appeared against Moreau of taking any part in the con- 
 spiracy ; but his own confession, that he had seen Pichegru 
 twice, was deemed sufficient by his judges to justify his con- 
 demnation, for a high, although not capital crime ; he was sen- 
 tenced to two years imprisonment, which, by the intercession of 
 his friends was commuted for the same period of exile. This 
 distinguished General made choice of America, as his place of 
 exile. 
 
 At this time another occurrence took place, which must ever 
 form the darkest chapter in the history of Bonaparte — the arrest, 
 condemnation, and execution of the Duke d'Enghien. This 
 prince was living in retirement in the castle of Ettenheim, in 
 the Dutchy of Baden, a neutral territory. On the evening of 
 the 14th of March, a troop of French soldiers passed the fron- 
 tier, surrounded the castle, and seized the prince, and all his at- 
 tendants. He was immediately conveyed to Strasburgh, and 
 from thence after a confinement of three days to Paris, where he 
 was kept for a few hours in the Temple, and then removed to 
 fhe neighbouring castle of Vincennes. On the night of the 
 20th he was charged by a military court, of which General Hul- 
 lin was president, with having fought against France, being in 
 the pay of England, plotting against the internal and external 
 safety of the Republic, and having conspired against the life of 
 the chief Consul. The court pronounced him guilty ; the de- 
 cision was immediately despatched to Bonaparte, and the sen- 
 'ence " condemned to deg'^^h," which was written on the back of 
 it. carried into execution xt six o'clock the following morning. 
 The charges alleged against him were unsupported by any 
 evidence ; but he persevered in declaring, that he would ever 
 eustam the rights of his family, and that as a Condc, he could 
 'Jever enter France, but with arms in his hand. 
 
i-ERioD IX. A, D. 1802—1810. 207 
 
 This last act paved the way for Bonaparte to ascend the 
 V.hrone. France had scarcely recovered from the stupor in which 
 she had been plunged by the judicial murder of a Bourbon, 
 when the Conservative Senate, who had perceived that the best 
 way to please Bonaparte was not to wait till he should make his 
 wishes known to them, presented an address, inviting him to 
 complete the institutions necessary for tranquillizing the State 
 (March 27.) At this signal of flattery, many of the Orders of 
 the State were eager to express their desire that the power 
 which was vested in Bonaparte, should be conferred on him by 
 a hereditary title. One month was allowed to elapse, for pre- 
 paring the public mind for the result. It was then that the First 
 Consul, in replying to the address of the Senate, desired these 
 Orders to explain themselves more clearl3^ The Tribunate 
 took the merit of anticipating this explanation, by voting the re- 
 establishment of hereditary monarchy in favour of Bonaparte 
 and his family (April 30.) The Senate, not wishing to be be- 
 hind in complaisance, acceded to the desire ; and a decree o^ 
 fhat Body declared Bonaparte Emperor of the French (Mar 
 18;) conferring on him the Imperial dignity, to be hereditary 
 in himself, and his lawful or adopted sons, to the exclusion of 
 his daughters ; and failing the males, to his brothers Joseph and 
 Louis, and their male descen-dants. 
 
 The same decree of the Senate made several important 
 changes in the constitution, with the view of rendering it per- 
 fectly monarchical. Bonaparte accepted the dignity which 
 had been conferred on him. He only asked, that the nation 
 should be consulted upon the question of hereditary right. 
 Wishing to legalize this attempt in the eyes of the people ; he 
 invited the sovereign Pontiff to Paris to crown him. This ce- 
 remony took place in the Church of Notre-Dame (Dec. 2, 1804 ;) 
 and contrary to the general custom, Bonaparte put the crown 
 on his own head, after which he placed it upon that of his 
 spouse. Some weeks afterwards, in opening the Session ol 
 the Legislative Body, he solemnly declared, that, as he was satis- 
 fied with his grandeur, he would make no more additions to 
 the Empire. 
 
 The base transaction of ^Ist March was followed up by an 
 exchange of v^ery violent letters, between the Russian ambassador 
 at Paris, and the minister of Bonaparte. In addition to the indig- 
 nation which that event had excited in Alexander, and which 
 the prevailing tone of the notes of the French minister were not 
 calculated to diminish ; there was a dissatisfaction, on account 
 of the non-execution of many of the conditions agreed to m the 
 tieaty of 10th October 1801, Alexander demanded, that th 
 
208 CHAPTER XL 
 
 French trov»ps should be withdrawn fi-crn the kingdom of Napies , 
 that Bonaparte should concert with him as to the principles upon 
 which the affairs of Italy were to be regulated ; that without de- 
 lay he should indemnify the King of Sardinia, and evacuate 
 Hanover (July 27, 1804.) To these, Bonaparte only replied by 
 recriminations, when the two Courts recalled their respective 
 ambassadors. The Emperor had not waited for this opportunity 
 to employ means for setting bounds to the ambition of Bona- 
 parte. By the declarations interchanged betwixt the Courts of 
 St. Petersburg and Berlin (May 3, and 24,) it was agreed, that 
 they should not allow the French troops in Germany to go be- 
 yond the frontier of Hanover ; and that should this happen, each 
 of these two Courts should employ 40,000 men to repel such an 
 attempt. The Prussian declaration added, moreover, that there 
 should be no dispute as to the countries situated to the west of 
 the Weser. Not content with having thus provided for the se- 
 curity of the North of Germany, the Emperor Alexander imme- 
 diately concerted measures with Austria, with the view of 
 opposing a barrier to the usurpations of France. Declarations, 
 in the shape of a convention, were exchanged between these two 
 Courts before the end of the year ; and they agreed to set on foot 
 an army of 350,000 men. 
 
 The maritime war, like that of 1803, was limited to threats^ 
 and immense preparations on the part of Bonaparte, and on the 
 part of Sir Sidney Smith, to attempt preventing the union of 
 the French fleet, or for burning their shipping in their own ports. 
 The English took possession of the Dutch colony of Surinam 
 (May 4;) and towards the end of the year commenced hostilities 
 against Spain. 
 
 The first six months of the year 1805 were marked by new ag- 
 grandizements on the part of Bonaparte in Italy. 1. A decree of 
 the Estates of the Italian Republic assembled at Paris (Mar. 18,) 
 proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte King of Italy ; and it was stipu- 
 lated that he should remit that crown to one of his legitimate or 
 adopted sons, so soon as the foreign troops should have evacuated 
 the kingdom of Naples (where there were no foreigners except 
 the French troops,) the Seven I^ands and Malta; and that 
 henceforth the crowns of France and Italy should never be united 
 in the same person. Bonaparte repaired to Milan (May 26,) 
 where he was crowned with the iron crown of the Emperors of 
 Germany, who were kings of Italy. Eugene Beauharnais, the 
 son of the Empress Josephine, was appointed his viceroy. 2. He 
 conferred the principality of Piombino, under the title of a here- 
 ditary fief of the French empire, on Eliza Bacciochi his sister, 
 and her male descendants (May 25.) This completed the spolia- 
 
^ PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 209 
 
 liLvn ot the House of Buoncompagni, to whom that title and es« 
 tide belonged, together with the greater part of the Isie of Elba. 
 *S. The Senate and people of the Ligurian Republic demanded 
 voluntarily, as is said, to be united to the French Empire. Their 
 request was agreed to (June 5;) and the territory of that Repub- 
 lic was divided into three departments. 4. The Republic of 
 Lucca demanded from Bonaparte a new constitution, and a prince 
 of his family. By a constitutional statute (June 23,) that Repub- 
 tic was erected into a principality, under the protection of France ; 
 and conferred as a hereditary right on Felix Bacciochi, and his 
 wife Ehza Bonaparte. 6. The States of Parma seemed destined 
 to be given up by way of compensation to the King of Sardinia? 
 together with the territory of Genoa ; but Bonaparte, finding 
 himself involved with the Emperor Alexander, caused them to 
 be organized according to the system of France. 
 
 It was impossible for the sovereigns of Europe not to unite 
 against a conqueror who seemed to apply to politics that maxim" 
 of the civil law, which makes every thing allowable that the 
 laws do not forbid. We have already seen that Russia and 
 Austria had concerted measures for setting bounds to these usur- 
 pations. But it was William Pitt, who was restored to the 
 British ministry in the month of May 1804, that conceived the 
 plan of the third coalition. Disdaining the petty resources which 
 the preceding ministrj^ had employed for harassing France, he 
 conceived the idea of a grand European League, for the pur- 
 pose of rescuing from the dominion of Bonaparte the countries 
 which France had subdued since 1792, and for reducing that 
 kingdom within its ancient limits. With regard to the territories 
 which were to be taken from France, he proposed arrangements, 
 by means of which they might form a barrier against her future 
 projects of aggrandizement ; and finally, to introduce into Europe 
 a general system of public right. In fact, the plan of Mr. Pitt, 
 which was communicated to the Russian government (June 19, 
 1S05,) was the same as that which, ten years afterwards, was 
 executed by the Grand Alliance. If this plan failed in 1805, it 
 was only because they calculated on the participation of Prussia, 
 as an indispensable condition; which they did not give up when 
 that power had declared her resolution to preserve her neutrality. 
 
 By the treaty of April 11th, between Russia and Great Britain, 
 it was agreed that the Emperor Alexander should make another 
 attempt for arranging matters with Bonaparte, so as to prevent 
 the war. M. de Novosilzoff, one of the Russian ministers, was 
 sent to Paris. On his arrival at Berlin, he received the pass- 
 ports which the cabinet of Prussia had procured for him at t'a,iiv ; 
 but at the same time, he received an order from St. Pettr^bcxiS 
 
 VOL. II ^8^ 
 
310 CHAPTER XL 
 
 not to continue his journey. The annexation of the Liguri?m 
 Kepublic to France, at the moment when they were making con- 
 ciliatory overtures to Bonaparte, appeared too serious an outrage 
 for the Emperor to prosecute farther negotiations. War was 
 consequently resolved on. 
 
 The preparations for the invasion of England had been ear- 
 ned on for some time vvith extraordinary vigour. Every thing 
 seemed to announce, that Bonaparte meant to attempt that peril- 
 cuss enterprise. Part of his troops had already embarked ( Aug- 
 27,) when all of a sudden the camp at Boulogne was broken upf, 
 and the army directed to move towards the Rhine, which it pass- 
 ed within a month after. Austria had set on foot three armies. 
 The Archduke Charles commanded that of Italy, where it was 
 expected a decisive blow was to be struck ; the second army, 
 under the command of the Archduke John, was stationed in the 
 Tyrol, to maintain a communication with the third army on the 
 Inn, which was commanded nominally by the Archduke Fer- 
 dinand the Emperor's cousin, but in reality by General Mack, 
 The first Russian army under the command of General Kutusofl" 
 had arrived in Gallicia, and was continuing its march in al" 
 haste. It was followed by another under Michelson. The Rus 
 sian troops in Dalmatia were to attempt a landing in Italy. 
 
 The army of Mack passed the Inn (Sept. 8.) They had 
 reckoned on the co-operation of the Elector of Bavaria ; but that 
 prince, who was always distrustful of Austria, abandoned the 
 cause of the allies, and retired with his troops into Franconia. 
 The Electors of Wurtemberg and Baden were desirous of con- 
 cluding treaties of alliance with Bonaparte, after he had passed 
 the Rhine ; these treaties were signed at Ludwigsburg and Et- 
 tingen (Oct. 4, and 10.) The plan of Bonaparte was to cut off 
 the army of Mack who had entered into Swabia, from that of 
 Kutusoff which was marching through Austria. In this he suc- 
 ceeded, by presuming to violate the Prussian territory. Mar- 
 mont who had come by way of Mayence, and Bernadotte who 
 had conducted the army into Franconia, where they were joined 
 by the Bavarians, traversed the country of Anspach, and came 
 thus on the rear of the Austrian army (Oct. 6.) From that date 
 scarcely a day passed without a battle favourable to Uie French. 
 Several divisions of the Austrians were obliged to lay down 
 their arms. Mack, who had thrown himself into Ulm, lost all 
 resolution, and signed a capitulation (Oct. 17,) by which he pro 
 mised to surrender if assistance did not arrive within eight days. 
 He did not, however, wait for this delay. By a second capitulation 
 two days after, he surrendered on the spot with 25,000 men. 
 
 The army of Mack was totally destroyed, except 6000 caval- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 211 
 
 ry, with which the Archduke Ferdinand had opened himself u 
 Daseage through Franconia ; and 20.000 others with which Kien- 
 raayer had retired to Braunau, where he was met by the van- 
 guard of KutusofF. These two generals continued their retrp.ai 
 The Rassian army repassed the Danube near Grein (Nov. 9,: 
 arRl directed their march towards the Morau. A few days afte-} 
 [Hov. 33,) Vienna, the capital of Austria, fell into the hands oi 
 the French. They passed the Danube near that city, and par- 
 si7ed the Russians. In the meantime General Buxhowden v^-ith 
 ihe second Russian army, having joined KutusofF at Olmutz, on 
 the same day that the Emperor Alexander arrived in the camp, 
 they conceived themselves strong enough to encounter the ene- 
 my, and immediately discontinued their retreat. The battle of 
 Austerlitz, which Bonaparte fought (Dec. 2,) with the combi- 
 ned army of the Austrians and Russians, decided the campaign 
 in his favour. 
 
 Meantime Bonaparte found himself in a position which might 
 become dangerous. When the Archduke Charles had perceived 
 that the French had concentrated their forces on the Danube, he 
 sent supplies to General Mack, and commenced his retreat from 
 Italy, that he might be nearer the centre of hostilities. This 
 retreat he could not effect, except by hazarding several engage- 
 ments with Massena, who continued the pursuit. When near 
 Cilley he formed a junction with the Archduke John, who had 
 retreated from the Tyrol (Nov. 27.) The united armies of these 
 two princes amounted to 80,000 men, with whom they marched 
 towards Vienna; while the Hungarians rose en inasse to defend 
 their sovereign. The next day after the battle of Austerlitz, the 
 Russian army received a reinforcement of 12,000 men. An 
 army composed of Prussians, Saxons, and Hessians were on the 
 point of penetrating into Franconia ; and some corps of Prus- 
 sians, Russians, Swedes, Hanoverians, and English, had joined 
 a second army in the north of Germany, ready to invade Bel- 
 gium. Moreover, the English and the Russians were preparnig 
 to effect a landing in the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 It was in this critical moment that the Cabinet of Vienna 
 signed an armistice at Austerlitz, by which they engaged to send 
 back the Russian army, and to quell the insurrection in Hun- 
 gary. Within twenty days after, peace was signed at Presburg 
 between Austria and France (Dec. 26.) The former acknow- 
 ledged all the claims of Bonaparte, and ceded to him, to form a 
 part of the kingdom of Italy, the ancient states of Venice, witli 
 Dalmatia and Albania ; and to his allies, the Elector of Baden 
 and the new Kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, the Tyrol and 
 all her hereditary possessions in Swabia. 
 
'2l2 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The violation of the Prussian territory in Francos ia, had ex 
 cited the most lively indignation at Berlin. The King resolved, 
 sword in hand, to avenge this outrage against his royal dignity. 
 The Prussian troops occupied Hanover, which the French had 
 lUST evacuated ; and that country was restored to its legitimate 
 sL'-^ereign. A body of Russians, for whom they had til] then 
 vainly demanded a passage through Silesia, obtained permission 
 to iraverbe that province to join the army of Kutusoff. The 
 Emperor Alexander had himself arrived at Berlin (Oci. 25,) as 
 well as the Archduke Anthonv, Grand-Master of the Teutonic 
 Knights. A convention was concluded at Potsdam (Nov. 3,) 
 between Alexander and Frederic III. of Prussia. This latter 
 prince joined the coalition, with the reservation of a preliminary 
 attempt to obtain the assent of Bonaparte to conditions extremely 
 equitable. In case these were rejected, Frederic promised to 
 take the field v/ith 180,000 men, who in fact, were put in a con- 
 dition to march at the earliest notice. Count Haugwitz, who 
 had been sent to Vienna as the bearer of overtures of peace to 
 Bonaparte, accompanied v/ith an energetic declaration, took it 
 into his head that it would be prejudicial to the interests of Prus- 
 sia were he to press the object of his commission; he resolved, 
 therefore, to wait the course of events. After the truce of Aus- 
 terlitz, he took it upon him to change the system of his govern- 
 ment. Without having any sort of authority, he concluded an 
 alliance with Bonaparte at Vienna (Dec. 15,) for the guarantee 
 of their respective states, and for those of Bavaria and the Porte. 
 Prussia was to cede the principality of Anspach to Bavaria ; 
 that of Neufchatel to France ; and that of Cleves to a prince of 
 the Empire, whom Bonaparte might name. In return Prussia 
 was to get possession of the Electorate of Hanover. 
 
 When Count Haugwitz arrived at Berlin with the treaty, 
 Frederic at first was inclined to reject it ; but the minister having 
 represented to him the danger to which this would expose him 
 in the present state of affairs, the King rc''ictantly consented to 
 ratif)' the treaty ; provided a clause was aa ' id, that the occupa- 
 tion of the provinces mutually ceded should only be announced 
 as provisional, until the King of England should give his assent, 
 by a future treaty, to the cession of Hanover. It was in this 
 manner that Prussia, in effect, got possession of that Electorate 
 (Jan. 27, 1806.) Meantime, Count Haugwitz, who had repaired 
 to Paris, found it impossible to obtain the acceptance of Bona- 
 parte to the ratification of the treaty so modified. He then 
 signed a second convention (Feb. 15,) by which Prussia enga- 
 ged to declare the occupation of Hanover definitive ; and to shut 
 the rivers in the North of Germany against the English. The 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802 -1810. 213 
 
 King of Prussia, who had already disbanded his amiy,. found 
 himself in a situation that obliged him to ratify that arrangement. 
 
 Bonaparte had made prodigious efforts to revive the French 
 marine. The fleet at Kochefort, commanded by Admiral Mis- 
 siessi, had taken the opportunity of sailing from that port (Jan. 
 11, 1805.) They had set out with the intention of levying con- 
 tributions in the Little Antilles, belonging to the English ; and 
 after throwing in supplies to General Ferrand who still kept 
 possession of St. Domingo, they had returned without accident 
 to Rochefort. The fleet at Toulon, consisting of fourteen ves- 
 sels of the line, comnTanded by Admiral Villeneuve, and hav- 
 ing on board troops under the command of General Lauriston, 
 probably destined for Ireland, had repaired to Cadiz (April 9,) 
 where they were joined by the Spanish fleet under Admiral 
 Gravina. Next day the two combined fleets sailed from that 
 port, but afterwards separated. That under Villeneuve had 
 proceeded to Martinico ; but being apprised of the arrival of 
 Lord Nelson at Barbadoes. Villeneuve again joined the Span- 
 ish Admiral, when the fleet returned to Europe. An engage 
 ment took place near Cape Finisterre (July 22,) which was 
 honourable to Sir Robert Calder, the English Admiral, who 
 captured two ships of the line. Being soon after considerably 
 reinforced, and amounting to thirty-five ships of the line, they 
 set sail for Cadiz, where a partial blockade was maintained for 
 some time by Calder and Collingwood. But Nelson, who had 
 been invested with the command of the English fleet, induced 
 the enemy, by means of a pretended retreat, to leave their sta- 
 tion. An engagement took place off Cape Trafalgar (Oct. 21,) 
 which cost the English Admiral his life, but which ruined the 
 combined fleet. Villeneuve was made prisoner, and Gravina 
 fled towards Cadiz with ten ships. This glorious victory se- 
 cured to England the command of the sea. 
 
 When Bonaparte had made preparations for marching against 
 Austria, he resolved to reinforce his army in Italy by the troops 
 vvhich occupied a part of the kingdom of Naples. To ingrati- 
 ate himself withkFerdinand IV., he concluded a treaty with that 
 prince 'Sept. 21,) by which the latter, on obtaining the evacua- 
 tion 01 his own states, promised to remain neutral. He did not 
 depend, however, on that monarch's fulfilling his promise. It 
 was a part of the plan of the allies, that the Russian and Eng- 
 lish armies should land in the kingdom of Naples ; the one by 
 the way of Corfu, and the other from Malta. The plan was 
 carried into execution, and the foreign troops were received as 
 friends. A decree of Napoleon, dated from Schoenbrun (Dec. 
 27,) had declared that the dynasty of the Bourbons had ceased 
 
214. CHAPTER XI. 
 
 to reign at Naples. After the battle of Austerlitz, the Russians 
 and English abandoned Italy ; and Ferdinand IV. found him- 
 self without defence, exposed to a French army, who were ap- 
 proaching his capital. He embarked for Sicily, when the French 
 entered Naples (Jan. 1806,) and Joseph Bonaparte, the brother 
 of Napoleon, was created King of the Two Sicilies (March 30,) 
 although his sway never extended farther than the kingdom of 
 Naples. 
 
 Those are probably in a mistake, who imagine they find in 
 the conduct of Bonaparte, the gradual development of a great 
 plan, conceived before-hand ; and springing from his head, so 
 to speak, like the fabled Minerva from the brain of Jupiter. 
 The circumstances in which he was placed, the success of his 
 arms, and the weakness of foreign Cabinets, suggested to him 
 one idea after another. It was when he was on his march 
 against the Russians, that he received the news of the battle of 
 Trafalgar, which had completely destroyed the labour of three 
 years, and annihilated his hopes of reducing England by plant- 
 ing his standard on her soil. His imagination then conceived 
 the plan of opposing one combination of strength to another, 
 and surrounding France with a number of states, independent 
 in appearance, but subject to the direction of the head of the 
 Empire. 
 
 After the peace of Presburg, he had repaired to Munich, 
 where he adopted his stepson, Eugeue Beauharnais, and de- 
 clared him his successor in the kingdom of Italy. In announ- 
 cing this elevation to the Senate, (Jan. 12, 1806,) he declared 
 that he reserved to himself the right of determining the common 
 tie which was to unite all the States composing the Federative 
 System of the Freiich Empire. This was the first time that 
 this system was spoken of. In a short time after, he declared, 
 that the whole peninsula of Italy made part of the Grand Em- 
 pire. Finally, a constitutional statute of the Imperial family, 
 which he published at that time (March 30,) may be regarded 
 as the fundamental law of the Federative System he had lately 
 announced. That statute granted to the Emperor of the French 
 an absolute supremacy over all the sovereigns of his family ; and 
 he no doubt had great hopes, that the time would arrive when 
 no others would be found in any of the adjacent states. 
 
 In annexing the Venetian provinces to the kingdom of Italy, 
 Bonaparte detached from them Massa-Carrara and Carfagnana, 
 which he bestowed on the Prince of Lucca. At the same time, 
 he created within these provinces twelve dutchies, as hereditary 
 fiefs of the Empire, and three within the states of Parma ; all 
 of which he disposed of in favour of his generals and ministers. 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789— 18L5. 215 
 
 The dutchy of Cleves, ceded by Prussia, as well as that of 
 Berg which had been ceded to him by the King- of Bavaria, 
 were conferred, together with the hereditary dignity of Admiral 
 of France, on his brother-in-law Joachim Murat (March 30.) 
 Alexander Berthier was created Prince of Neufchatel (June 5.) 
 At a later period, he granted the dutchy of Benevento to M. 
 Talleyrand Perigord, under the title of Sovereign Principality ; 
 and the principality of Pontecorvo to Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, 
 the brother-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. He took these two ter- 
 ritories from the States of the Church, under the pretext that 
 their sovereignty was an object of litigation between the Courts 
 of Rome and Naples ; an allegation which was not true. 
 
 The continuation of the History of Bonaparte presents us 
 with a series of new usurpations and aggressions. Towards 
 the end of January, the French troops entered into the free city 
 of Frankfort, where they levied four millions, to punish the in- 
 habitants for their connexion with the English. Bonaparte Avas 
 living at that time in the most perfect peace with the German 
 Empire to which that city belonged, and which could not protect 
 it. By the treaty of Presburg, the Bocca di Cattaro, in Dalma- 
 tia, was to be restored to the French ; but the Russians, whose 
 fleet was cruising off these coasts, immediately took possession 
 of that place (Feb. 4,) at the moment when the Austrians were 
 about to surrender it to the French. Bonaparte made this a 
 pretext for refusing to give up to the Court of Vienna the for- 
 tress of Braunau, which he was to evacuate according to the 
 stipulations of that same treaty, and for leaving a part of his 
 army in Germany. He did more ; he ordered General Lauris- 
 ton, who commanded the French army in Dalmatia, to occupy 
 Ragusa (May 27,) a Republic placed under the protection of the 
 Porte, with whom there subsisted a treaty of peace. It was not, 
 however, until the 13th August 1807, that Ragusa was formally 
 united to the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 The Elector of Baden and the Princes of Nassau were oblig- 
 ed to make cessions to France. The former surrendered Kehl, 
 ind the latter Cassel and Kostheim, opposite Mayence. Wesel, 
 a fortress in the dutchy of Cleves was likewise occupied by the 
 French troops. All these were so many violations of the peace 
 of Luneville, and ihe treaty of Vienna in 1805. 
 
 In order to promote this federative system, the States-General 
 of the Batavian Republic received a hint to petition Bonaparte 
 for a King. A treaty was in consequence concluded at Paris 
 (March 24,) by which Louis, the brother of Napoleon, was cre- 
 ated Hereditary and Constitutional King of Holland ; the title 
 to descend to his male issue. That young man accepted with 
 
2l6 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 reluctance a crown which he had never coveted, and which ho 
 v/ore with much dignity. 
 
 William Pitt, whom history would have been proud to call the 
 Great Pitt, had she not already given that title to his father, had 
 died about the beginning of the year (Jan. 23.) Charles Fox, 
 his former antagonist, succeeded him in the ministry. He im- 
 mediately entered into negotiations for peace between France 
 and England. This commission, on the part of the latter, was 
 intrusted first to Lord Yarmouth and afterwards to Lord Lau- 
 derdale. After the death of Fox (Sept. 13,) the negotiations 
 ended without having produced any change in the relations be- 
 tween France and England ; nevertheless they deserve to be 
 placed among the important events of that year, as they were 
 the immediate cause of the war with Prussia, as we shall have 
 occasion to mention. 
 
 The Emperor Alexander likewise made an attempt for a re- 
 conciliation with Bonaparte. He sent M. D'Oubril to Paris, 
 who, after a negotiation of ten days, concluded a treaty with 
 General Clarke, the French plenipotentiary, (July 20, 1806,) by 
 which it was agreed that the Russian troops should evacuate 
 the Bocca di Cattaro, and the French troops quit Ragusa ; that 
 the independence of the Republic of the Seven Islands should be 
 acknowledged, as well as the independence and integrity of the 
 Porte ; that in three months the French troops should evacuate 
 Germany; that the two parties should use their joint influence 
 to procure a cessation of the war between Prussia and Sweden ; 
 that Bonaparte should accept the mediation of Russia, in nego- 
 tiating a maritime peace. A secret article secured to Ferdi- 
 nand IV. the Balearic Isles, in compensation for the kingdom of 
 Naples. It thus appeared that the King of Sardinia was the 
 greatest sufferer. The Emperor Alexander refused to ratify 
 this treaty, whether it was that he considered the terms not alto- 
 gether honourable, or that he was displeased with the conclu- 
 sion of the Confederation of the Rhine, which took place at this 
 time. 
 
 The Confederation of the Rhine was undoubtedly the most 
 important consequence of the peace of Presburg. That event 
 which entirely changed the state of Germany, and placed so 
 large a portion of that Empire under obedience to Bonaparte, 
 was prepared by the article of the peace which recognised the 
 sovereignty of the Kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and the 
 Elector of Baden ; as well as by several other irregular transac- 
 tions which took place after that time. Such was the conduct 
 of the Elector Arch-Chancellor, in arrogating to himself the 
 right of appointing his own successor ; and nominating Cardinal 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 217 
 
 Fesch as such; who was Bonaparte's nncle. The Confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine was concluded at Paris (July 12, 1S06,) be- 
 tween Bonaparte and sixteen of the German princes, including 
 the Duke of Cleves, who separated from the Germanic Em- 
 pire, and formed a particular union among themselves, under 
 the protection of Bonaparte. 
 
 The declarations which the minister of France and those of 
 the Confederated Estates, remitted on the same day to the Diet 
 of Ratisbon, intimated to that assembly, that the German Em- 
 pire had ceased to exist. The Chief of the Germanic body, who 
 had been kept ignorant of all these measures, then published a 
 spirited declaration (Aug. 6,) by which he resigned a crown 
 which could only appear valuable in his eyes so long as he was 
 able to fulfil the duties, and exercise the prerogatives which 
 were attached to it. 
 
 This transaction, v*^hich put an end to the German Empire, 
 had been kept a secret from Prussia. Bonaparte, in announcing 
 to Frederic William the result which it had produced, invited 
 him to form a similar confederation in the North of Germany ; 
 but at the same time, he negotiated privately with the Electors 
 of Hesse and Saxony, to prevent them from entering into that 
 union ; and declared, that he could never permit the cities of 
 Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubec, to become parties to it. In his 
 negotiations with England, he proposed to make over these ci- 
 ties to Ferdinand IV. King of the Two Sicilies. He carried 
 nis stratagems even farther. He several times offered to the 
 English plenipotentiaries- the same Electorate of Hanover which, 
 a few months before, he had almost compelled Prussia to claim 
 as her own ; and he offered to the Elector of Hesse the princi- 
 pality of Fulda, which had been granted to the House of Orange, 
 then in strict alliance with that of Brandeburg. All these un- 
 derhand manoeuvres opened the eyes of the Cabinet of Berlin, 
 which immediately resolved to declare war. Unfortunately for 
 Prussia, she commenced hostilities without waiting the arrival 
 of the supplies which Russia owed her, in virtue of the alliance 
 between the two States by the treaty of Peterhoff (July 28, 
 1800;) and she had to take the field against an active enemy, 
 whose warlike troops were already in the heart of Germany. 
 
 General Knobelsdorff, whom the King of Prussia had sent to 
 Paris, o-ave in the demands which were to be considered as his 
 ultimatum : — Bonaparte treated his propositions as extravagant 
 and insulting, and accordingly commenced hostilities. The 
 campaign was decided by the battle of Jena, or rather by two 
 battles which were fought on the same day (Oct. 14, 1806.) 
 Bonaparte in person gained the one near Jena over Prince Ho- 
 
 voL. n. '•' 
 
218 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 henlohe ; Marshal Davoust gained the other near Auerstadt 
 over the Dake of Brunswick, Commander-in-chief of the Prus- 
 sian army. The rout was complete. For a short time the 
 troops retired without confusion. The approach of the enemy's 
 cavahy, however, extinguished all remains of order, and the 
 most precipitate dispersion of the vanquished army ensued. 
 About 20,000 were killed and wounded in the battle and pur- 
 suit ; and the prisoners formed at least an equal number. The 
 scattered remains of the troops who united after the action, were 
 either defeated or obliged to surrender as prisoners of war. The 
 King, with the wreck of his army, marched back to Prussia. 
 Berlin, his capital, fell into the hands of the conqueror. The 
 carelessness, the unskilfulness, or the treachery of their com- 
 anders, and the want of means of defence, were the causes 
 A^hy several fortresses, and whole battalions of troops, surren- 
 dered after a slight resistance. There were some who were 
 even obliged to capitulate in spite of their bravery. At Erfurt, 
 Field-Marsh-'^.l Mellendorff capitulated with 14,000 men (Oct. 
 16.) Spandau fell on the same day that the enemy entered into 
 Berlin (Oct. 25.) Prince Hohenlohe, after a brav^e defence, ca- 
 pitulated at Prentzlau (Oct. 29,) with a corps originally consist- 
 ing of 16,000 infantry, and sixteen regiments of cavalry. Stettin 
 and Custrin opened their gates after a slight resistance (Nov. 1.) 
 At Lubec, 21,000 men, with General Blucher, laid down their 
 arms (Nov. 7.) Magdeburg capitulated next day with 22,000 
 men. 
 
 Immediately after the battle of Jena, Bonaparte took posses- 
 sion of the principality of Fulda. He also sent a message to the 
 old Duke of Brunswick, that none of his family should ever reign 
 after him. That prince died of the wounds he had received at 
 Auerstadt ; and his lifeless body was not permitted to be deposi- 
 ted among the ashes of his ancestors. The Elector of Hesse, 
 who had remained neutral, Avas declared an enemy to France, 
 and his territories seized. Bonaparte, in return, granted neu- 
 trality to the Elector of Saxony, whose troops had fought against 
 him at Jena. 
 
 The King of Prussia had tried to allay the storm which threat- 
 ened his monarchy. The Marqui<s de Lucchesini and General 
 Zastrow entered into a negotiation with Marshal Duroc at Char- 
 lottenburg (Oct. 30.) Bonaparte refused to ratify the prelimi- 
 naries Avhich were signed there, because the idea had occurred 
 to him in' the meantime of exciting the Poles to insurrection. 
 An armistice was then signed (Nov. 16,) on conditions extremely 
 rigorous, by which Breslau, Glogau, Colberg, Graudentz and 
 Dantzic, were delivered up to the French. Frederic, who had 
 
rii iLioD IX. A. 1). 1SU2— ISIO. 219 
 
 resolved to throw himself on Russia, whose forces were ap})roach~ 
 ing in all haste, rejected that armistice. From Berlin Bona- 
 parte repaired to Posnania, where he concluded a treaty with 
 the Elector of Saxony (Dec. 11.) That prince then assumed 
 the title of King-, joined the Confederation of the Rhine, and got 
 possession of the Circle of Cotbus, belonging to Prussia. By a 
 treaty signed at the same place (Dec. 15,) the Dukes of Sax- 
 ony, of the race of Ernest, were likewise received into the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine. 
 
 A Russian army of 90,000 men had arrived in Prussia in the 
 month of November. Frederic William, on his side, formed a 
 new army of 40,000 men. Several actions took place without 
 any decisive result; but after the battle of Pultusk (Dec. 26,) 
 where the victory was claimed both by the French and Rus- 
 sians, each party retired to winter quarters. 
 
 During Bonaparte's stay at Berlin, he conceived the idea of 
 the Continental System ; or at least reduced its elements into 
 shape. The purport of this system was to ruin the commerce, 
 and by consequence, the prosperity of England, by excluding 
 from the Continent of Europe the importation not only of her 
 own manufactures, but the productions of her colonies ; the use 
 of which had become, through long habit, one of the necessaries 
 of life to all the nations of Europe ; and for which, moreover, 
 no substitute could be found in home manufactures. This chi- 
 merical scheme, and the Federative System, which we have 
 already mentioned, were the two scourges which Bonaparte in- 
 flicted on the Continent of Europe. The abuse, it was alleged, 
 which the English made of their superiority by sea, had provo- 
 ked Bonaparte to this measure. The right of blockade, that is, 
 the right of a belligerent power to station a force before a hostile 
 port sufficient to prevent any neutral vessel from entering, is 
 founded in principle. But England pretended, that if a port 
 were declared to be under blockade, it must be considered as 
 actually blockaded ; and accordingly, she had declared all the 
 ports between Brest and the Elbe under blockade (May 16.) 
 An order issued by Bonaparte, known by the name of the De- 
 cree of Berlin, declared the whole British Islands in a state of 
 blockade, by way of reprisals (Nov. 21.) He commanded all 
 British subjects to be arrested, who might be found in the coun- 
 tries occupied by his troops, or those of his allies. He ordered 
 their property, and every article of British or colonial produce 
 on the Continent to be confiscated ; and excluded from his ports 
 all vessels which should come directly from Britain, or any of 
 its dependencies. The development of this system we shall 
 notice afterwards. 
 
220 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The repose of the armies did not continue longer than a month. 
 General Bennigsen, who had the chief command of the Russians 
 and Prussians, undertook to relieve the cities of Graudentz 
 Dantzic, and Colberg. After a number of petty engagements, 
 which claim no particular notice, thp campaign was terminated 
 by the battle of Eylau in Prussia (i eb. 8, 1807.) Bonaparte, 
 or rather Davoust, was successful against the left wing and the 
 centre of the allies ; but Lestocq, the Prussian General, having 
 .arrived on the field of battle, near the right wing of the Prus- 
 sians which had never been engaged, marched instantly to sup- 
 port the left wing which was giving way, and snatched the vic- 
 tory from the hands of Davoust. Bennigsen, who was in want 
 of ammunition, retired towards Koningsberg, leaving Bonaparte 
 on the field of battle, which was covered with 30,000 of the 
 French slain, and 12,000 wounded. The Russians had lost 
 17,000 men. After this carnage, Bonaparte announced that he 
 had defeated the Russians, and retired behind the Passarge. 
 Hostilities were then suspended for some months. 
 
 In the month of February, negotiations for peace were re- 
 newed. Bonaparte, who w^as at Osterode, sent General Bertrand 
 to the King of Prussia at Memel, to try to detach him from 
 Russia. When the King had declined this proposal, some de- 
 liberation took place as to the terms of an armistice ; but the 
 Emperor Alexander, who had also arrived at Memel, saw that 
 this was only a manoeuvre of Bonaparte, who merely wished 
 to gain time to repair his losses. The negotiations, accordingly, 
 were broken ofT. Baron Hardenberg, who had been placed by 
 the King of Prussia at the helm of foreign affairs, then resumed 
 the project of Mr. Pitt, which had failed in 1805, because Count 
 Haugwitz, the former minister, had dissuaded Frederic William 
 from entering into the alliance. The basis of a new coalition 
 was laid by the convention of Bartenstein, between Russia and 
 Prussia (April 21,) in which Austria, Great Britain, Sweden 
 and Denmark, were invited to join. The same day a conven- 
 tion with the King of Sweden was likewise signed at Barten- 
 stein, in consequence of which Prussia promised to send a body 
 of troops into Pomerania. Austria was disposed to enter into 
 this project, but before coming to a decision, she tried the 
 scheme of mediation ; and in the month of March, new pro- 
 posals for peace were made, which proved unsuccessful. Sup- 
 plies were promised to Prussia by a convention signed at Lon- 
 don (June 27,) but which a change of circumstances prevented 
 from being ratified. 
 
 While the armies continued in a kin-d of inaction, Marshal 
 Lefebvre pressed the siege of Dantzic. After several attempts 
 
 i 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802— 18ia. 221 
 
 lo blockade the place, General Kalkreuth obtained a capitulation 
 on very honourable terms (May 24.) Neisse, Kozel and Glatz, 
 likewise capitulated in course of the following month. These two 
 latter places were not to be restored by the French. Hostilities 
 recommenced in the month of June. Skirmishes were daily 
 taking place, until the battle of Friedland decided the campaign 
 (June 14.) General Bennigsen defeated the divisions of Lan- 
 nes and Mortier, w^hen the Russians, thinking the battle was 
 gained as they no longer saw the enemy, slackened their exer- 
 tions ; but towards the evening Bonaparte arrived on the field 
 of battle with guides, and the corps of Marshals Ney and Vic- 
 tor ; and taking advantage of the confusion which appeared in 
 the Russian army, he put them completely to the rout. In 
 consequence of this defeat, Koningsberg opened her gates to the 
 conqueror. The Russian and Prussian armies passed the Nie 
 men (June 18 ;) and next day Bonaparte entered Tilsit. 
 
 Meantime the Cabinet of Vienna, with whom negotiations 
 were still carrying on to obtain their accession to the convention 
 of Bartenstein, had sent General Stutterheim to the head-quar- 
 ters of the two monarchs, with powder to sign a defensive al- 
 liance ; but the war had then recommenced with new vigour. 
 There was a party in both Cabinets, and even among the allied 
 Generals, who wished to prevent this alliance ; and this party 
 succeeded in their designs. A Russian General appeared at 
 Tilsit on the part of Bennigsen to negotiate an armistice, which 
 was concluded on the spot (June 21,) without including the 
 Prussian army. Four days after, an interview took place be- 
 tween Alexander and Napoleon, on the invitation of the latter, 
 who wished to exert all his address to seduce the Northern Au 
 tocrat from the alliance into W'hich he had entered. This me- 
 morable interview took place on a raft in the middle of the river 
 Niemen. Each prince, accompanied by five generals and cour- 
 tiers, reached the raft from the opposite bank at the same mo- 
 ment, and embraced each other with all the appearance of per- 
 fect cordiality. They conversed for two hours in a pavilion, 
 and the ambitious ruler of France displayed in such glowing 
 colours the joys of arbitrary power and unlimited dominion, and 
 held out such an attractive prospect of the advantages which he 
 might derive from a union of councils and co-operation, that 
 Alexander listened with pleasure to his new adviser, and was 
 ready to rush into anew alliance. On the same day. Field 
 Marshal Kalkreuth signed an armistice on the part of Prussia. 
 The next day he had a second interview, at which the King 
 of Prussia assisted, who, when he objected to some parts of the 
 proposed treaty, was insulted with a hint of his not being enti- 
 
 VOL. II. 19=^ 
 
222 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 tied 10 tht honour of consultation, as he had been so completely 
 conquered. It was on this occasion that Bonaparte demanded 
 that the Emperor Alexander should dismiss his minister Baron 
 Budberg, and the king- of Prussia Baron Hardenberg. The Prince 
 Kourakin, and Count de Goltz were substituted in their place. 
 
 The treaty with Russia was first signed (July 7.) The Em- 
 peror Alexander obtained from Bonaparte the spoliation of his 
 former ally, or according to the form which was given to it in 
 that transaction, That the King of Prussia should recover one 
 half of his estates. The provinces which Prussia had obtained 
 by the second and third division of Poland were ceded to the 
 King of Saxony, under the title of the Dutchy of Warsaw, 
 with the exception of the fortress of Graudentz, which remained 
 in the possession of Prussia, and the city of Dantzic, which was 
 to regain its independence, with the exception of the department 
 of Bialystock which was annexed to the Russian Empire. Alex- 
 ander acknowledged the Kings created by Bonaparte, including 
 the King of Westphalia. He likewise acknowledged the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine, and ceded to Bonaparte the Seignory of 
 Jever, which he inherited from his mother. He promised to 
 withdraw his troops from Moldavia and Wallachia ; and to make 
 common cause with Bonaparte against England, should the lat- 
 ter refuse to make peace by submitting to the principles of frte 
 commerce by sea. It appears, moreover, by certain secret arti- 
 cles, that Alexander promised to surrender to Bonaparte the 
 Bocca di Cattaro, and the isles of the Ionian Republic ; which 
 took place in the month of August following. The peace which 
 was signed between Russia and Bonaparte two days after (July 
 9,) included nearly the same stipulations. 
 
 A special convention was required for executing the articles 
 of the treaty, which related to the evacuation of the States of the 
 King of Prussia. This was negotiated and signed at Konings- 
 berg (July 12,) with unpardonable precipitancy, by Field-Marshal 
 Kalkreuth, who forgot to insert certain stipulations so essential 
 and so obvious, that it must have appeared to him superfluous 
 to mention them. Bonaparte took advantage of these omissions 
 to ruin the provinces which were left in possession of Prussia. 
 It may be justly said, that the convention of Koningsberg did 
 nearly as much mischief to Prussia as the peace of Tilsit itself. 
 It occasioned the necessity of signing a, series of subsequent con- 
 ventions, by each of which Prussia had to submit to some new 
 sacrifice. Some of the more important of these we shall after- 
 wards have occasion to mention. 
 
 The King of Sweden, who was attacked in Pomerania by 
 Marshal Mortier, had concluded an armistice at Schlatkorv' 
 
PEEioD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 223 
 
 (April 18.) Gustavus Adolphus IV. projected an attack on Mar- 
 shal Brune, while a body of 10,000 Prussians were to make a 
 descent for blockading Colberg. To carry this project into exe- 
 cution, he was so eager to declare against the armistice, that, on 
 the signature of the peace of Tilsit, he found himself alone under 
 arms, and exposing his troops to great danger. This unseason- 
 able zeal obliged him to evacuate Stralsund and the whole of 
 Pomerania (Sept. 7.) 
 
 In erecting the Dutchy of Warsaw, Bonaparte had given it a 
 constitution modelled after that of France, without paying atten- 
 tion to the difference of manners, customs, and localities of the 
 inhabitants. The King of Saxony was put in possession of that 
 State ; but the new dutchy was nothing else than a province ©f 
 the French Empire. The city of Dantzic was again plunged 
 into a state of the most abject dependence ; and until the yeai 
 1814, it remained under the orders of a Governor-general ap 
 pointed by the French. The throne of Westphalia was destined 
 by Bonaparte for his younger brother Jerome. That monarchy 
 was composed of the greater part of those provinces ceded by 
 the King of Prussia ; of nearly all the estates of the Elector ol 
 Hesse and the Duke of Brunswick ; of a district belonging to the 
 Electorate of Hanover ; of the principality of Corvey, and the 
 county of Rittberg — containing in all about two millions of in- 
 habitants. Only a small part of this kingdom was situated in 
 Westphalia ; and it is not known by what chance the name of 
 that country was selected for the new monarchy. Deputies from 
 that kingdom were summoned to Paris, where they received 
 from the hands of Bonaparte a constitutional charter (Nov. 15,) 
 in the construction of which they had never once been consulted. 
 As to the other districts which Bonaparte had taken possession 
 of in Germany, or of which he had deprived their rightful sove- 
 reigns, viz. the Electorate of Hanover, the principalities of Erfurt, 
 Fulda, Baireuth, and Munster, with the counties of Catzeneln- 
 bogen and Hanau, they were governed entirely to his own inter- 
 est, and disposed of at his convenience. 
 
 While the armies of Bonaparte were occupied in Prussia, 
 Spain formed the resolution of shaking off the yoke which the 
 Emperor of France had imposed upon her. Charles IV. soli- 
 cited privately the mediation of the Emperor Alexander, to bring 
 about a peace with England. By a proclamation of October 
 30th 1806, a levy of 40,000 men was ordered for the defence of 
 the country, without mentioning against what enemy. This 
 imprudent step, which they had not courage to prosecute, ruined 
 Spain. At the commencement of 1807, a French army was as- 
 sembled in the vicinity of Bayonne. A trap was laid for Charles 
 
224 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 IV. ; and he had the misfortune to fall into it. According^ to a 
 convention signed at Fountainbleau (Oct. 27,) between his pleni- 
 potentiary and that of Bonaparte, for the partition of Portugal, 
 that kingdom was to be divided into three lots. The most north- 
 erly part was destined for the King of Etruria, (who was to sur- 
 render up Tuscany to Bonaparte,) and to be called the kingdom 
 of Northern Lusitania. The southern part, comprising Axgaives, 
 was to form a principality for Don Manuel Godoy. The pro- 
 vinces in the middle part were to be disposed of at the general 
 peace, when the King of Spain was to assume the title of Em- 
 peror of the two Americas. 
 
 Immediately after the signing of this treaty, Bonaparte an- 
 nounced to the Queen-Dowager of Etruria, who was Regent for 
 her son Louis II., that the kingdom no longer belonged to him; 
 and that a new destiny awaited him in Spain. In course of a 
 few days, the French troops occupied Tuscany. Maria Louisa 
 resigned the government, and retired to Madrid. All this took 
 place after Bonaparte had obtained orders that the 15,000 Span 
 iards, who were in Etruria, should be sent to the islands of 
 Denmark. 
 
 A decree of the French Senate, of August 18th 1807, though 
 not published till a month after, suppressed the Tribunate, and 
 introduced other changes, intended to extinguish all traces of the 
 Republic. By a treaty signed at Fountainbleau, Bonaparte made 
 over to his brother Louis, the principality of East Friesland and 
 the territory of Jever, in lieu of the city and port of Flushing. 
 
 In terms of the treaty of the 27th October, 30,000 French 
 troops, under the command of Junot, crossed the Pyrenees in 
 two divisions ; and took possession of Pampeluna, St. Sebastians, 
 Figueras, and Barcelona. The two divisions united again at 
 Salamanca, and being reinforced by 13,000 Spaniards, they 
 marched upon Lisbon ; while 40,000 others assembled at Bay- 
 onne, under the pretence of supporting their companions if it 
 were necessary. The Prince Regent of Portugal embarked with 
 all his treasures (Nov. 29,). and departed for Brazil. The whole 
 of Portugal was taken possession of; and General Junot pro- 
 claimed that the Hou^e of Braganza had ceased to reign in Eu- 
 rope ; but the French never executed their scheme of partition. 
 
 We have already observed, what progress the Federative 
 system of the French Empire had made in 1807, by the founda- 
 tion of the kingdom of Westphalia and the dutchy of Warsaw, 
 and by the occupation of Portugal ; and we shall next advert to 
 the measures adopted during the same year by Bonaparte, for 
 consolidating the Continental system, and by Great Britain for 
 counteracting its effects. An order was issued by the British 
 
liRioD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 226 
 
 Cabinet (Jan. 7,) declaring that no neutral vesse. would be per- 
 mitted to trade with any port belonging to France or her allies, 
 or occupied by their troops, or under their dependence. A de- 
 cree, published at Warsaw (Jan. 25,) ordered the confiscation 
 of all English merchandise in the Hanseatic towns, which had 
 been occupied by the order of Bonaparte. An order of the Brit- 
 ish Cabinet (March 11,) again prescribed a rigorous blockade of 
 the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems. A declara- 
 tion was made by Bonaparte (Oct. 14,) in presence of the foreign 
 ambassadors at Fountainbleau, purporting that he would permit 
 no connexion, either commercial or diplomatic, between the 
 Continental powers and England. An order of the British 
 Cabinet (Nov. 11,) declared, that all the ports and places in 
 France, and the countries in alliance with them, or any other 
 country at war with England, as well as all other ports and 
 places in Europe where the British flag was excluded, though 
 not actually at war with Great Britain ; and all other ports and 
 places of the colonies belonging to her enemies, should hence 
 forth be subjected to the same restrictions as if they were really 
 under blockade ; and, consequently, that the vessels destined 
 for these ports should be subjected to examination by the British 
 cruisers ; and required to stop at a British station, and pay a 
 duty proportioned to the value of the cargo. Another order of 
 the British Cabinet (Nov. 25,) modified the preceding declara- 
 tion in favour of neutral vessels, which should come to discharge 
 either English merchandise or Colonial produce in the British 
 ports. A decree of the 17th December, called the decree of 
 Milan, because it was issued at that place, declared, that all 
 ships which should be searched by a British vessel, or pay any 
 tax whatever at the requisition of the English Government, 
 should be denationalized, and regarded as English property ; and 
 having thus forfeited their original and national rights, they 
 might be lawfully captured wherever found. The same decree 
 declared the British Isles to be in a state of blockade both by sea 
 arid land. 
 
 Having thus established the Continental system, Bonaparte 
 used every endeavour to make all the Continental Powers ac- 
 cede to it. Prussia and Russia adhered to it, after the peace of 
 Tilsit. Denmark soon entered into this French system.. Spain 
 acceded to it (Jan. 8,) Austria (Feb. 18, 1808,) and Sweden 
 {Ja.if. 6, 1810 ;) so that, for some years, the Continent of Eu- 
 rope had no other medium of communication with England than 
 by way of Constantinople. There was one prince in Christen- 
 dom, who refused his accession to the Continental system, and 
 that was Pius VII. This sovereign Pontiff declared, that an 
 
226 CHAPTER 3C1. 
 
 alliance which prohibited all intercourse with a nation from 
 whom they had suffered no grievance, was contrary to religion. 
 In order to punish his Holiness for this resistance, General Miol- 
 lis had orders to occupy Rome (Feb. 2, 1808.) This was the 
 commencement of a series of aggressions and attacks, by which 
 Bonaparte vainly hoped to bend that great personage. To 
 gratify his resentment, he stripped the States of the Church, by 
 a decree issued at St. Cloud (April 2,) of the provinces of Urbino, 
 Ancona, Macerata and Camerino, which were annexed to the 
 kingdom of Italy. 
 
 In order to add lustre to his crown, and to attach his servants 
 to him by the ties of interest, Bonaparte resolved, not to re- 
 store the noblesse — though there was no reason known why he 
 should not — but to create titles of nobility which should pas? 
 ]n hereditary succession to their descendants. These title? 
 were those of Princes, Dukes, Counts, Barons, and Chevalier.^ 
 or Knights. They were constituted by an Imperial statute 
 which he transmitted to the Senate ; for the decrees of the Se 
 nate were seldom used, except in declaring the union of territo 
 lies, or ordering levies of conscripts. 
 
 The spoliation of the Church appeared but a trivial violence 
 compared with that masterpiece of intrigue and cunning bj 
 which the House of Bourbon was deprived of the throne ot 
 Spain. The second French army formed at Bayonne, passed 
 ihe Pyrenees about the beginning of the year, under the com 
 mand of Joachim Murat, and advanced slowly as if it only 
 waited an order to seize the capital. A popular insurrection 
 broke out at Madrid, directed against Godoy, the Prince oJ 
 Peace ; and Charles IV., who, from the commencement of hi? 
 reign, had been disgusted with state affairs, abdicated the crown 
 in favour of his son, the Prince of Asturias (March 19, 1808,) 
 who assumed the title of Ferdinand VII. The intrigues of the 
 Queen-mother, who was unwilling to quit the throne, and the 
 plots concerted by Murat, soon embroiled the Royal family in 
 disputes. The French troops entered Madrid (Mar. 23.) Ta- 
 king advantage of the inexperience of the young monarch, they 
 inveigled him into an interview with Bonaparte at Bayonne, 
 where Charles IV. and his Queen, allured by promises of fa- 
 vour and friendship, likewise presented themselves. This weak 
 prince there retracted his abdication, and ceded his dominions 
 over to Bonaparte by a formal treaty (May 5.) By threatening 
 Ferdinand VII. with death, they extorted from him a similar de- 
 claration (May 10.) Charles IV. his Queen, and the Prince of 
 Peace were conveyed to Compeigne, and afterwards to Mar- 
 seilles. 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802- 1810. 227 
 
 Ferdinand VII. and his brothers were imprisoned in the cas- 
 tle of Valencay. Bonaparte conferred the throne of Spain on 
 his brother Joseph (June 6,) who was then King of Naples. A 
 Spanish Junta, assembled at Bayonne, received a constitution 
 i'rom the hands of Napoleon. On obtaifting the crown of Spain, 
 Joseph made over the kingdom of Naples to his brother, who in 
 his turn resigned it to Murat, by a treaty concluded at Bayonne. 
 Murat then gave up the dutchies of Cleves and Berg. 
 
 Bonaparte found himself deceived as to the character of the 
 Spanish nation, when he supposed they would tolerate this out- 
 rage with impunity. A tumult of the inhabitants of Madrid 
 was quelled by Murat, who ordered his troops to fire upon the 
 crowd (May 2,) when upwards of 1000 people lost their lives. 
 Towards the end of the same month, a general insurrection 
 broke out in all those parts of Spain not occupied by the enemy. 
 This was a great annoyance to Bonaparte during the rest of his 
 reign, and prevented him from subduing that peninsula. It 
 served as an example and encouragement to other nations to 
 shake off his yoke. The Portuguese rose, in imitation of their 
 neighbours. The English sent supplies to both nations ; and 
 it was beyond the Pyrenees that Bonaparte experienced those 
 first disasters which were the harbingers of his downfall. 
 
 One event, more remarkable for the pomp with which it was 
 accompanied, than for the consequences which it produced, 
 was the interview which took place at Erfurt (Sept. 27,) be- 
 tween the Emperor Alexander and Bonaparte. What negotia- 
 tions might have been agitated there, are not known with cer- 
 tainty ; but publicity has been given to the measures concerted 
 in common between Bonaparte and Alexander for making over- 
 tures of peace to England, although they must have foreseen 
 that the attempt would prove fruitless. From that time an in- 
 timate friendship subsisted for two years between the Courts of 
 Russia and France. 
 
 The inconsiderate haste with which Field-Marshal Kalkreuth 
 had concluded the convention of Koningsberg, and the defects 
 or omissions of that act, furnished the agents of Bonaparte with 
 numerous pretexts for oppressing the Prussian States by per- 
 petual aggressions ; and for continuing not only to occupy the 
 country, but to impose taxes for the service of France, without 
 deducting their amount from the usual contribution which that 
 kingdom had to pay. To extricate themselves from so harassing 
 a situation. Prince William, the King's brother, who had been 
 sent to Paris to negotiate for the evacuation of Prussia, signed 
 a convention there (Sept. 8,) by which the King engaged to 
 pay, at stated terms, the sum of 140 000,000 francs. The Em 
 
229 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 peror Alexander, during the interview of Erfurt, gol this sum 
 reduced to one hundred and twenty millions. In consequence 
 ot this, a new convention was signed at Berlin (Nov. 3,) ac- 
 cording to which, Stettin, Custrin, and Glogau, were to remain 
 in the hands of the French, as security for payment of the sti- 
 pulated sum ; the rest of the Prussian states were evacuated. 
 
 Austria was on the point of entering into the fourth coalition, 
 when the peace of Tilsit was concluded. From that moment 
 the Cabinet of Vienna resolved to prepare for war by slow and 
 successive operations, which might appear to be meiely mea- 
 sures of precaution ; more especially by organizing her armies 
 on better principles, and training all the citizens to arms, by the 
 institution of a militia called Landwehr, that they might be in 
 condition to act on the spur of the moment. The Archduke 
 Charles, who was appointed Generalissimo, superintended all 
 .hese preparations, and succeeded in reviving the courage of the 
 nation. Although these armaments could not escape the notice 
 of the French agents, and although in the course of the year 
 1808, and especially in the beginning of the year 1S09, they 
 had several times asked for explanations on this subject, never- 
 theless. Count Stadion who was at the head of the department 
 for foreign affairs, and Count Metternich the Austrian minister 
 at Paris, dissembled so well, that Bonaparte never dreamt of 
 war till it was on the very point of breaking out. The time 
 chosen for this was when the French armies were occupied in 
 Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Reasons — or it may be rather said pretexts — were not want- 
 ing to Austria ; for undoubtedly her true motive was, to raise 
 herself from that state of abasement into which she had sunk'. 
 Violations innumerable of the peace of Presburg, the organiz- 
 ing of the Confederation of the Rhine, the compelling her to 
 accede to the Continental System, and the spoliation of the 
 Bourbons in Spain, were causes more than sufficient to justify 
 her having recourse to arms. The war which Austria under- 
 took in 1809, has been called the war of the fifth coalition. It 
 is true that Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, and the King of 
 Sicily, were her allies ; but, with the exception of the descent 
 which the English made on Zealand, she had to support alone 
 \he whole burden of the war. On opening the campaign, she 
 made an appeal to the German nation, which was answered by 
 the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, by a declara- 
 tion of war. 
 
 The Austrians had divided their forces into three armies ; 
 two hundred and twenty thousand men, under the Archduke 
 Charles, were destined to act in Germany ; the Archduke Fer* 
 
PERIOD IX. A. P. 1802—1810. 239 
 
 dinand of Este, with thirty-six thousand men, was to penetrate 
 through the dutchy of Warsaw into Prussia, where he expected 
 to be joined by the troops of that country. The Archduke 
 John, with eighty thousand men, was to enter Italy. The 
 campaign was opened, on the part of the Austrians, by the in- 
 vasion of Bavaria (April 10, 1809.) Bonaparte at first beat the 
 Archduke Louis and General Hiller, who commanded two divi- 
 sions, at Abensberg (April 20,) and thus cut them off from the 
 grand army under the Archduke Charles. The latter was him- 
 self defeated at Eckmuhl and Ratisbon, three days after, and 
 effected his retreat along the left bank of the Danube- Bona • 
 parte then pursued Hiller, who was defeated at Ebersberg (May 
 3,) and retired to Krems, on the left bank of the Danube. Vi- 
 enna in consequence was left defenceless, and surrendered by 
 capitulation (May 13.) It was there that Bonaparte passed the 
 Danube, and fought with the Archduke at EberdsorfF, Aspern 
 and Essling, two most sanguinary engagements (May 21 — 22,) 
 in which the French lost 30,000 men. He then retired to the 
 Isle of Lobau, where his army, cut off from provisions and 
 supplies, passed forty-eight hours in great distress, until they 
 had succeeded in reconstructing the bridges which the floods of 
 the Danube had carried away. In Italy the Archduke John 
 had defeated Eugene Beauharnais, who commanded the French 
 army, at Sa^ile ; but being informed of the defeat at Ratisbon, 
 he commenced his retreat, and was defeated near the Piave 
 (May 8,) after which he retired on the Raab, where he was 
 again defeated (June 14.) Beauharnais then joined the army 
 of Napoleon. The Archduke Ferdinand took possession of 
 Warsaw, and marched as far as Thorn, where he took from the 
 Prussians one hundred pieces of cannon. But an insurrection 
 which happened in the rear of his army, obliged him to retreat, 
 when the Polish troops took possession of Cracow (July 14.) 
 
 About the beginning of July, Bonaparte passed over to the 
 left bank of the Rhine. The battle of Enzersdorff, where Ber- 
 nadotte and the Saxons distinguished themselves, was bloody, 
 but not decisive : next day (July 6,) the Archduke Charles was 
 defeated at Wagram, and retreated in good order into Moravia. 
 An armistice was then concluded near Znaym (July 12,) on 
 conditions very oppressive for Austria. But the negotiations 
 for peace were long protracted ; as both parties were waiting the 
 result of an expedition which the English had made to Zealand; 
 and as Austria hoped that Prussia, and perhaps even Russia, 
 would declare in her favour. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Tyrol ; who were very much attached 
 to the House of Austria, from whom they had been separated at 
 
 VOL. II. 20 
 
230 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 the peace of Presburg, had taken up arms unjder the conduct o! 
 an innkeeper, named Hoffer. By the armistice of Znaym. Aus- 
 tria was compelled to abandon this brave people, whom the Ba- 
 varians and the French together had great difficulty in reducing 
 to submission. 
 
 We cannot pass in silence the bold expedition made by the 
 Duke of Brunswick, the son and heir of him who had command- 
 ed at Jena. At the head of a body of volunteers which he had 
 formed in Bohemia, he had entered Saxony when the armistice 
 was concluded. Not being disposed to accede to it, he traversed 
 the dutchy of Brunswick and the whole of Lower Saxony ; beat 
 the Westphalian General Rewbel, who had attempted to stop 
 his march ; and reached the mouth of the Elbe in safety, where 
 he found transports which took him and his army on board, and 
 conveyed them to England. 
 
 An English fleet, commanded by Sir Richard Strachan, with 
 thirty-eight thousand troops, under the command of the Earl of 
 Chatham, the brother of Mr. Pitt, was despatched to Zealand, 
 with the intent of destroying the shipping, dockyards, and arse- 
 nals at Antwerp and Flushing, and for occupying the Island of 
 Walcheren. They landed in that Island (July 30,) of which 
 they took possession, and made themselves masters of Flushing, 
 after a siege of fifteen days. But Lord Chatham found it im- 
 possible to execute his commission with regard to Antwerp, on 
 account of the activity of Marshal Bernadotte, who had formed 
 there an army of 35,000 men. The whole expedition was badly 
 conducted, and in about four months Lord Chatham returned to 
 England. The English destroyed the fortifications of Flushing, 
 which they were unable to retain. 
 
 Russia, as the ally of France, likewise took part in this war. 
 A body of troops, commanded by Prince Galitzin, had entered 
 into Galicia ; but it was merely a display, by which Alexander 
 meant to fulfil an engagement that he had contracted with re- 
 luctance. The peace between Austria and France was signed 
 at Schoenbrunn (Oct. 14, 1809,) which regulated the territorial 
 cessions made by the former to Bonaparte, the King of Saxony 
 and the Emperor of Russia. The very day on which the peace 
 was signed, Bonaparte united the territories which had been 
 ceded to him directly into a single State, under the name of the 
 Tllyrian Provinces^ which he governed on his own separate ac- 
 •iount, without annexing them to France. 
 
 A decree of the Senate, of the 2d March 1809, erected the 
 g'overnment general of the Tuscan departments into a grand 
 Jignity of the Empire, to be conferred on a Princess of the Im- 
 perial blood, under the title of Grand Dutchess. This lady w^s 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 231 
 
 iVTadam Eliza Bacciochi, Princess of Lucca and Piombino, who 
 was next day decorated with the Arch-ducal title. On the same 
 day, Napoleon ceded the Grand Dutchy of Berg to his nephew, 
 the son of the King of Holland ; taking the government on him- 
 self during the minority of that child. 
 
 No outrage had been able to overcome the perseverance of 
 Pius VII. Bonaparte published a decree at Schoenbrunn (May 
 17,) by which the States of the Pope were annexed to the French 
 Empire, and the city of Rome declared a free Imperial city 
 The union of the States did take place ; but Rome had no ap- 
 pearance of a free city. When the decree was put in execution 
 (June 11,) the Pope published a Bull of excommunication against 
 Bonaparte and his adherents, counsellors, and coadjutors. From 
 that moment the venerable captive was more closely imprisoned. 
 On the night of the 5th of July, he was forcibly removed from 
 Rome by order of Napoleon, and transferred to Grenoble, and 
 thence to Savona, where he was detained three years under 
 rigorous supervision. 
 
 The year 1809 proved disastrous for the French arms by sea. 
 The captain of an English vessel, and Marques, a Portuguese 
 colonel, took possession of the Island of Cayenne and French 
 Guiana (Jan. 12.) Lieutenant-General Beckwith and Rear-Ad- 
 miral Cochrane took Martinico by capitulation (Feb. 12.) Ad- 
 miral Gambier and Lord Cochrane destroyed a French fleet, 
 commanded by the Vice-Admirals Villaumez and L'Allemand 
 (April 11,) in Basque Roads, by means of Congreve rockets. 
 The French fort of Senegal fell into the hands of the English in 
 the month of June following. General Carmichael, and a body 
 of Spaniards who had arrived from Portorico, expelled the French 
 from St. Domingo (July 7.) Admiral Collingwood and General 
 Oswald took possession of the Ionian Islands (Oct. 8.) 
 
 Bonaparte had now arrived at the summit of his grandeur, 
 but Providence had denied him a family by his wife Josephine 
 Tascher de la Pagerie. With the consent of both parties, a de- 
 cree of the Senate pronounced the dissolution of that marriage 
 (Dec. 16 ;) which the ecclesiastical court of Paris confirmed. 
 Another decree of the Senate (Feb. 17, 1810,) conferred on the 
 eldest son of the French Emperor the title of King of Rome ; 
 ind ordained, that the Emperor of the French should be crowned 
 a second time at Rome within the ten first years of his reign. 
 Bonaparte soon after (April 1,) espoused the Arch-dutchess Ma- 
 ria Louisa, eldest daughter of the Emperor of Austria. 
 
 By a treaty of peace concluded at Paris, between Bonaparte 
 and Charles XIII. of Sweden, this latter prince regained posses- 
 sion of Swedish Pomerania on condition of acceding to the Con 
 
^^ CHAPTER XI. 
 
 tinental system, though under certain modifi(.'ations. Had Charles 
 executed this engagement, his kingdom would have been ruined 
 beyond resource. The part of the Hanoverian States belonging 
 to the King of England which Bonaparte had still reserved in 
 his own possession, was ceded by a treaty concluded at Paris 
 (Jan. 14,) to his brother Jerome, to be incorporated with the 
 kingdom of Westphalia. Besides the dutchy of Lauenberg, 
 Bonaparte reserved to himself a landed revenue of four millions 
 five hundred and fifty-nine thousand francs, for bestowing in 
 legacies and endowments. 
 
 Louis Bonaparte had reluctantly accepted the crown of Hol- 
 land ; but from the moment he had placed it on his head, he de- 
 voted himself to the interests of the country ; and resisted, as 
 far as prudence would allow, the arbitrary orders of his brother, 
 when he judged them prejudicial to the welfare of Holland. 
 This gave rise to frequent broils, accompanied sometimes with 
 threats. Bonaparte reproached the Dutch Government, more 
 especially for not earnestly and rigorously enforcing the Con- 
 tinental system, so pernicious to their commerce. At the be- 
 ginning of the year ISIO, things had come to such a state, that 
 it was expected Napoleon would cancel the kingdom of Holland 
 from the list of European States. To avert this calamity, Louis 
 signed a treaty at Paris (March 16,) by which a body of 12,000 
 Dutch and 6000 French were to be stationed at the mouths ot 
 all the rivers, to protect the French revenue-officers who were 
 superintending the execution of Bonaparte's orders. Louis 
 ceded to him Dutch Brabant, Zealand, and a part of Gueldres. 
 of which the Waal was henceforth tc form the frontier. In vain 
 did that excellent man hope, by so n'eat a sacrifice, to repur- 
 chase the independence of his kingdoi.'?. Under pretext of cer- 
 tain insults which the French agents had received at the hands 
 of this exasperated people, Bonaparte sent a French army to 
 occupy the whole country. Then Louis resigned a crown 
 which he could no longer wear with honour ; he abdicated in 
 favour of his son (July 3.) But Napoleon, indignant at a mea- 
 sure on which he had not been consulted, annexed the kingdom 
 of Holland to the French Empire, by a decree dated at Ram- 
 bouillet (July 9.) 
 
 Some months afterwards, the Republic of Valais, which, since 
 the year 1802, had formed an independent State, was united to 
 the French Empire by a decree of Bonaparte (Nov. 12.) Bat 
 the most important of his usurpations in 1810, and that which 
 was instrumental in working his downfall, wus the union of the 
 Hanseatic countries situated on the coasts of the North Sea, viz. 
 certain districts of Westphal and the Grand Dutchy of Berg 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 233 
 
 »iorue possessions of the princes of Salm-Salm, and Sa.'m-KyT- 
 burg', part of the dutchy of Oldenburg, the free cities of Bremen 
 a'->d Hamburg, as well as the city of Lubec and the dutchy of 
 Lnuenburg. By a decree of the Senate (Dec. 13,) these places 
 nere declared united to France ; the necessity of which Bona- 
 ^iitie had stated in a message addressed to these pliant and sub- 
 iiiissive bodies. 
 
 France still retained possession of Guadaloupe, the Isle ol 
 Bourbon, and the Mauritius. The year 1810, in which the 
 greatness of Bonaparte in Europe reached its summit, deprived 
 him of these possessions. General Beckwith and Admiral 
 Cochrane, attacked and seized Guadaloupe. An expedition 
 sent by Lord Minto, the English Governor-General in India 
 and a thousand men from the Cape, reduced the Isle of Bour- 
 bon (July 7,) and that of the Mauritius some months after. 
 
 It will now be necessary to point out some of the modifica- 
 tions which the Continental system underwent. The English 
 had shown some disposition to put an end to that unnatural state 
 of commerce which preceding measures had established. They 
 first modified the Orders of 1807 regarding America ; so that 
 the Americans were permitted, under certain conditions, to carry 
 on trade in all ports subject to French influence, which were 
 not actually under blockade ; and the law of blockade was even 
 restricted to the ports of Holland and France, and those of the 
 northern part of Italy, between Pesaro and Orbitello. The 
 clause in the decree of 11th November, relative to the payment 
 of a compulsory duty in England, was abolished. 
 
 A new era in the Continental system began with a decree ol 
 Bonaparte (Aug. 7,) known by the name of The Decree or Tariff 
 of Trianon. A second, by way of supplement, was issued 
 from St. Cloud (Sept. 12.) Making a distinction between the 
 trade and the produce of the colonies ; and availing himself ol 
 the universal custom which had rendered the latter among the 
 necessaries of life, he resolved to take advantage of this cir- 
 cumstance to replenish his treasury, by permitting their impor- 
 tation on paying an ad valorem duty of 50 per cent. A third 
 decree, signed at Fontainbleau, ordered all English merchandise, 
 found in France or her dependencies, to be seized and burnt. 
 At that time, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, were 
 covered with bonfires, which destroyed the property of native 
 merchants, and opened a new prospect for English manufactures 
 one day to replace the articles that were thus wantonly consumed. 
 We shall now give a short outline of the most remarkable 
 events that took place in the rest of Europe, during this period 
 of French preponderance. 
 
 VOL. II. 20 ^ 
 
234 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 For more than six years Portugal, by means of the pecuniary 
 sacrifices which she had made to the French crown, haJ main- 
 tamed her neutrality between France and England. But as she 
 had betrayed her predilection for England during the Prussian 
 war, her ruin was determined on ; and as she could no longer 
 conceal from herself the danger of her position, the Prince Ee- 
 g-ent entered into a strict alliance with Great Britain, by a con- 
 vention signed at London (Oct. 22, 1807.) General Junot had 
 laken possession of the country after the Royal family had em- 
 barked for Brazil ; and solemnly declared, that the House of 
 Braganza had ceased to reign in Europe (Feb. 1, 1808.) Fol- 
 lowing the example of the Spaniards, the Portuguese soon shook 
 off the yoke of the oppressor. The city of Oporto gave the first 
 signal of insurrection (June 6;) an English army, commanded 
 by Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed in Mondego Bay (July 31,) and 
 defeated Junot at Vimeiro (Aug. 21.) The French General, 
 whose army was reduced to a most distressing state, obtained 
 from General Dalrymple, who had taken the command of the 
 English troops, a capitulation on very honourable terms, which 
 was concluded at Cintra (Aug. 30.) Junot, and his troops, were 
 conveyed to France in English vessels. 
 
 The Russian Admiral Siniawin was not so fortunate. He 
 was then lying in the Tagus with a fleet of nine ships of the 
 line, and a frigate, which had been employed in the war against 
 the Turks in the Archipelago, and found himself under the ne- 
 cessity of surrendering his fleet to Sir Charles Cotton the Eng- 
 lish Admiral (Sept. 3,) which was not to be restored to the Em- 
 peror until the conclusion of a pacific treaty between Russia and 
 Great Britain. The convention of Cintra, of which the true 
 circumstances are not well known, excited so great a discontent 
 in England, that Sir Heu Dalrymple and Sir Arthur Wellesley 
 were called home, that an investigation might be made into this 
 unpopular measure. 
 
 During their absence, and after the affair of Corunna, Soult 
 received orders to attempt the conquest of Portugal, where there 
 were not more than 8000 English troops, under the command of 
 General Craddock, and an army of the natives. At the head of 
 23,000 men he marched towards Chaves, and took possession of 
 that place (March 7,) which is one of the frontier fortresses of 
 ihe kingdom. But on his arrival at Oporto he encountered the 
 Portuguese army, who for three days disputed with him the 
 possession of the place. , Here he remamed a full month before 
 he durst proceed on his march. Meantime General Wellesley 
 had landed at Lisbon with a new English army. He manoBU- 
 vred so well that by the end of May, Soult was obliged to retire 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 235 
 
 into Galicia, with the loss of his artillery and baggage. Next 
 yeai the French sent a third expedition to Portugal, but as this 
 belongs more properly to the war in Spain, we shall take ofca- 
 5>icn to notice it afterwards. After the retreat of Soult, the Por- 
 tuguese acted a considerable part in the liberation of Europe, 
 Oeneral Wellesley, who was intrusted with very extensive 
 powers, organized their army, and augmented it to 49,000 men, 
 wi;h the assistance of 600,OOOZ. Sterling, which England fur 
 nished for that purpose. 
 
 The connexion between Great Britain and Portugal, became 
 stiU more intimate by the treaty of alliance which was conclu- 
 ded at Rio Janeiro (Feb. 19, 1811.) George III. there promised 
 never to recognise any King of Portugal but the heir and legiti- 
 mate representative of the House of Braganza. The Regent 
 granted Britain the right of building ships of war in Brazil, and 
 of supplying themselves with timber for the purpose from the 
 forests of that country ; and by abrogating certain former stipu- 
 lations, he agreed to receive into his ports as many British ves- 
 sels as chose to enter. The Regent likewise promised to co- 
 operate with England for the abolition of the Slave Trade ; and 
 this is the first example of a stipulation of the kind. Together 
 v\^ith this treaty there was also concluded a treaty of commerce, 
 Towards the end of 1810 Portugal became the theatre of war, 
 as we shall observe when we come to speak of Spain. 
 
 Charles IV. King of Spain, had flattered himself that by sub- 
 mitting to the payment of subsidies to France, according to the 
 treaty of October 30, 1803, he would be exempted from the ne- 
 cessity of taking part in the war which had broken out between 
 Bonaparte and England ; and it was on the faith of this that 
 the latter power had commenced hostilities. Four Spanish 
 ships returning to Europe, loaded with treasures and valuable 
 merchandise from South America, were seized off Cape St. 
 Mary (Oct. 5, 1804,) by an English squadron. After that act 
 of hostility, which, but for the negotiation that had preceded it, 
 might have been regarded as a violation of the law of nations, 
 Charles IV. declared war against England (Dec. 12 ;) and the 
 following year he had the mortification to see his marine totally 
 destroyed by the battle of Trafalgar, which Admiral Nelson 
 gained over the combined fleets of Gravina and Villeneuve. 
 
 In 1806 the English made an attempt to get possession of the 
 Spanish colony of Buenos Ayres. The expedition sailed from 
 St. Helena under the command of Admiral Sir Home Popham. 
 The troops were commanded by General Beresford. Buenos 
 Ayres capitulated on the 2d July ; there the Enghsh found nu* 
 merous treasures which were transported to Europe ; but &n 
 
236 CHAPTER XT. 
 
 'nsurrection of the inhabitants, headed by a Spaniard name(J 
 Pi^eridon, and Liners a native of France, obliged General Beres- 
 ^ord to surrender himself and his troops prisoners of war (Augf. 
 12. \ Admiral Popham took possession of Maldonado (Oct. ^iJ,} 
 where he remained in expectation of the supplies which he ex- 
 necTed to come from England. General Auchmuty landed ai 
 Maldonado in the beginning of the following year, and took ihe 
 town of Monte Video by assault (Feb. 2.) New reinforcements 
 having arrived from England, General Whitelocke again attaok- 
 ed Buenos Ayres, and penetrated into the town (July 5 ;) but 
 Liniers, at the head of the Spaniards, made so able a defence^ 
 that the English General signed a capitulation,, by which he ob- 
 tained the restitution of all British prisoners ; and the English 
 promised to evacuate Monte Video within the space of two 
 months. 
 
 Charles IV. and his minister, during the war with Prussin, 
 had shown a desire to shake off the yoke of Bonaparte. By 
 signing at Fontainbleau the partition of Portugal, they opened 
 a way for the French armies into Spain, who took possession of 
 St. Sebastian, Pampeluna, Figueras,. and Barcelona ; and were 
 even masters of Madrid while one part of the Spanish army 
 were occupied in Portugal, and the other in Denmark, The con- 
 sequences of these imprudences were, the overturning of Spain^ 
 and the dethronement of the House of Bourbon, as we have 
 noticed above. 
 
 When the Spaniards rose in rebellion against the royal intru- 
 der, they formed themselves into Juntas, or directorial commit- 
 tees, in every province. That of Seville, which was composed 
 of enterprising men, took the lead in the insurrection, declared 
 war against Bonaparte in the name of Ferdinand VII., and con- 
 cluded an armistice with England. Their authority was not 
 acknowledged by the Provincial Juntas, each of which had set 
 on foot an army of their own. All these armies engaged the 
 French troops wherever they met them, and were veiy often 
 vanquished. The insurrection did not come to a head till after 
 the battle of Baylen (July 20, 180S,) where 14,000 French 
 troops, under Generals Dupont and Vidal, laid down their arms. 
 Castanos, to whom this success was owing, was then appointed 
 Generalissimo ; and the Junta organized a Regency, at the head 
 of which they placed the old Cardinal de Bourbon. There were 
 two other events which greatly encouraged the Spaniards ; the 
 one was the expulsion of Le Febvre from Saragossa by General 
 Palafox, and the other the arrival of the Marquis de la Romana 
 at Corunna with 7000 men, who had been conveyed to the is- 
 land of Funen for invading Sweden, but had embarked, m spite 
 of the French, to come to the assistance of their country 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. ii^ 
 
 Joseph. Bonaparte having abandoned Madrid and retired to 
 
 Burg-OS (Aug. 1,) a Central Junta was established at Aranjuez. 
 This Junta raised three armies : that of the North, under Blake 
 «nd Romana ; that of the Centre, under Castanos ; and that of 
 Arragon, under Palafox. Immediately after the interview al 
 Erfurt, Bonaparte placed himself at the head of his army, which 
 had been increased to 180,000 men ; and after gaining several 
 ■advantages over the enemy, he sent back his brother Joseph to 
 Madrid. Meantime, two divisions of the English arm}'- having 
 arrived, the one from Lisbon, and the other from Corunna, they 
 formed a junction in the province of Leon, under the command 
 of Sir John Moore. Bonaparte marched against th«m, but they 
 thought it prudent to retire. Having arrived at Astorga, he re- 
 ■ceived intelligence of the preparations of the Austrians, when 
 he set out for Paris, leaving the command of the army to Soult, 
 who obliged the English to embark at Corunna, after a severe 
 •engagement in which Sir John Moore lost his life. A treaty of 
 peace and alliance was signed at London between England and 
 the Supreme Junta, acting in the name of Ferdinand VII. (Jan. 
 14, 1809.) England sent into Portugal a new army, under the 
 "ommand of Sir A. Wellesky. The second siege of Saragossa, 
 which was undertaken first by Junot, and continued by Lannes, 
 fv^as one of the most extraordinar}'- events in modern war. The 
 •garrison, commanded by Palafox, and th^ inhabitants of the place 
 vho were completely devoted to him, performed prodigies of 
 falour. When the French took the city (Feb. 21,) it presented 
 nothing but a mass of ruins. It was calculated that above 100,000 
 •nen perished in that siege. 
 
 Marshal Victor defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28,) and 
 Sachet defeated General Blake at Belchite (June 16 :) but Soult, 
 who had penetrated into Portugal, was repulsed by Wellesley^ 
 who fought the bloody battle of Talavera with Marshals Jourdan. 
 and Victor, which turned to the disadvantage of the French. 
 The misconduct of the army of Cuesta, which had been con- 
 joined with that of Wellesley in this battle, determined the latter 
 henceforth to carry on a defensive war with the English and 
 Portuguese alone ; and to leave to the Spaniards the care of 
 occupying the French, by harassing their troops incessantly, 
 destroying their convoj^s and magazines, and surprising their 
 entrenchments. The battle of Ocana (Nov. 19,) which Cuesta 
 fought with General Mortier and lost, was the last pitched bat- 
 tle which the Spaniards fought. From that time they confined 
 themselves to a Guerilla warfare, by which they did infinite 
 damage to the enemy. 
 
 In 1809, the Central Junta retired to Seville. Towards the 
 
238 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 end of the year, they were replaced by an Executive Directory 
 of nine members ; and next year these were superseded in their 
 turn by a Regency of five members, which was established at 
 Cadiz. An assembly of the Cortes was summoned to meet 
 there, the members of which were nominated, not by the clergy, 
 the nobility, and the cities, which composed the legitimate States 
 of Spain, but by the great body of the inhabitants. That assem- 
 bly, who could do no more for the defence of their country, em- 
 ployed themselves in establishing a democratic constitution in 
 Spain, destroying by degrees all the institutions^ of the monarchy. 
 
 Soult, who was commander-in-chief of tho army of the South, 
 conquered the whole of Andalusia in 1810, with the exception 
 of Cadiz, which Victor had in vain attempted to besiege. The 
 principal efforts of the French were then turned towards Portu- 
 gal ; and on this occasion Massena was ordered to undertake 
 the reduction of that country, at the head of 70,000 men. Junot 
 laid siege to Ciudad Rodrigo, which sun-endered after a vigorous 
 defence (July 10.) Almeida was likewise obliged to capitulate 
 a few weeks after (August 27.) These conquests were made, 
 without any apparent wish on the part of the English commander, 
 recently created Lord Wellington, to prevent them. He had 
 then begun to carry into execution the plan of defensive warfare 
 which he had conceived after the battle of Talavera. In the 
 spring he was stationed on the Coa, and began to retreat after 
 the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo ; nor did he stop till he had reached 
 Torres Vedras. Four months were employed in effecting this 
 slow retrograde march, Massena followed him every step, suf- 
 fering from continual fatigue and daily skirmishes ; and strug- 
 gling against famine, as the English army had destroyed every 
 thing that lay in their way. Towards the end of October, Lord 
 Wellington took up an impregnable position, where for four 
 months the French General found all his manoeuvres unsuccess- 
 ful Lord Wellington took advantage of this interval to secure 
 considerable reinforcements which arrived from Lisbon. He was 
 thus prepared to fall upon his adversary, when the impossibility 
 of subsisting longer in an exhausted country should at length 
 compel him to retreat. 
 
 When giving a summary of the history of France, we spoke 
 of the renewal of hostilities between Bonaparte and Great Britain 
 in 1803, as well as of the part which the latter took in the Con- 
 tinental wars of 1805, 1807, and 1809. The eflforts which she 
 had made to support these expenses, added a frightful increase 
 to her national debt ; but the constantly increasing progress of 
 her commerce furnished her with the means of meeting this 
 enormous expenditure. In vain had Bonaoarte expected to ruin 
 
TERior IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 9.19 
 
 ^e mdustry of England by the Continental system. In the 
 Fiench, Spanish, and Dutch colonies which she conquered, she 
 fo\ind new channels to supply the place of those which were 
 shut against her on the Continent of Europe. The Empire of 
 ^he sea still remained in the possession of the British ; and. in 
 1807, they annihilated the marine of Denmark, the only king- 
 dom which then retained any maritime power. But of this cir- 
 cumstance we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 The year 1806 is remarkable for the abolition of the slave 
 trade in the English colonies. Since 1785, the Blacks had found 
 zealous advocates in the British Parliament, amongst whom Fox, 
 Wilberforce, and Pitt, were the most distinguished. But the 
 British Government, too sagacious to enter precipitately into a 
 measure which might endanger the fortune of the planters, and 
 even the tranquillity of the colonies, wished first to consult ex- 
 perience on the subject, and to leave the proprietors time to pre- 
 pare themselves for a different order of things. For twenty 
 years they had refused to adopt the bill which Mr. Wilberforce 
 regularly laid before the Parliament, to demand restrictive laws 
 against the trade. It was not until Mr, Fox and Lord Grenville 
 entered into the ministry, that this question occupied their serious 
 deliberations. An Act of Parliament, ratified by the King (May 
 16, 1806,) forbade the exportation of slaves from the English 
 colonies, and conveying them into foreign colonies. A Bill of 
 the 6th February 1807, which was ratified by the King on the 
 17th March following, enacted, that the slave trade should ac- 
 tually cease from the date of May 1st ensuing ; providing, how- 
 ever, that vessels already departed rn the trade should be allowed 
 to import slaves into the West Indies until the 1st January 1808 
 
 Of all the countries which were brought under the yoke of 
 Napoleon, the most unfortunate without dispute was Holland. 
 Her commerce, the only resource of her numerous inhabitants, 
 was annihilated by the Continental system ; her finances were 
 in such a state of disorder, that, in spite of all their economy, 
 the annual deficit was regularly about twenty millions of flo- 
 rins : her inhabitants were harassed as much by the soldiers of 
 Bonaparte as by his revenue officers ; and as if r^ature, in con- 
 cert with political oppression, had conspired her ruin, her soil 
 was laid waste, and her industry destroyed by periodical inun 
 dations, fires, and other calamities. Such is the picture which 
 that wretched country presented up to the moment when Bona- 
 parte extinguished the feeble remains of independence which it 
 enjoyed. After various alterations, that Republic obtained a 
 constitution similar to that which had existed in France since 
 1804. M. Schimmelpennink was placed at the head of the go 
 
§40 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 vemment (April 1805,) under the title of Grand Pensionary, 
 and vested with such powers as the last Stadtholders had neve? 
 exercised, even after the revolution of 1788. We have already 
 observed how this power, together with the Royal title, were 
 rendered hereditary in favour of Louis Bonaparte ; and how 
 the Dutch monarchy vanished at the fiat of Napoleon. 
 
 Switzerland, with the exception of some partial commotions 
 which are scarcely worthy of remark, had remained tranquil 
 under the system of government which Bonaparte had pre- 
 scribed in the act of mediation (Feb. 19, 1803.) The Conti- 
 nental System, and the prohibition laid on the greater part oi 
 Swiss commodities in France, paralyzed their industry and 
 their commer(;e ; and caused many of the inhabitants to emi 
 grate, who for the most part directed their course towards North 
 America. A treaty which General Ney ha<l signed at Friburg 
 (Sept. 27,) regulated the connections between France and the 
 Helvetic Confederation, in a manner more advantageous for that 
 country than in the time of the Directory. Bonaparte was sa- 
 tisfied with a defensive alliance ; but the Swiss agreed to im- 
 port from the mines of France their stock of salt, which they 
 had till then been in the habit of receiving partly from Bavaria 
 This stock amounted to two hundred thousand quintals per an 
 num ; and the revenue which France derived from furnishing 
 this article, was sufficient to support more than 20,000 troops. 
 At the same time a military capitulation wa?- signed, by which 
 Bonaparte took into his service sixteen thousand Swiss volun- 
 teers. It must appear astonishing, that in this nation of war- 
 riors, a sufficient number could not be found to make up the 
 complement of 16,000 men. The incomplete state of the Swiss 
 regiments was a subject of perpetual complaint with Bonaparte. 
 
 The number of the Italian States had been perpetually di- 
 minishing ; and about the time of which we now speak, that 
 peninsula was entirely subjected to the influence of Bonaparte, 
 and divided nominally between France, Naples, and the kingdom 
 of Italy ; excepting the small Republic of St. Marino, which 
 preserved its independence in the midst of the general convulsion. 
 The Italian Republic, which since the year 1805 had borne the 
 title of the kingdom of Italy, was oppressed by the enormous 
 load of contributions which were exacted for the support of the 
 French troops, as well as by payments for the civil list of the 
 Ki*\g and his viceroy. That country submitted with great im- 
 patience to the law of the military conscription, which was con- 
 trary to the feelings and customs of the inhabitants. It obtained 
 considerable aggrandizements after the peace of Presburg by 
 die union of the Venetian provinces in 1807, and by that of thf 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802 1810. 24i 
 
 four provinces of the Ecclesiastical States ; but these accessions 
 made no addition to its happiness. Eugene Beauharnais, dig- 
 nified with the title of Prince of Venice, was proclaimed heir 
 to the throne of Italy, failing the male descendants of Bonaparte. 
 
 The kingdom of Naples was overthrown about the beginning 
 of 1806. Ferdinand IV., had retired to Sicily, and Joseph Bo- 
 naparte was put in his place ; but he had occupied that unstable 
 throne only two years, when he exchanged it for another still 
 more insecure. But before surrendering the kingdom of Naples 
 to Joachim Murat who was appointed his successor (June 28, 
 1S08,) he wished to immortalize his nam by giving a new con- 
 stitution to that kingdom, which was guaranteed by Bonaparte. 
 The attempts which Murat made to conquer Sicily proved 
 abortive. 
 
 Germany had experienced two complete revolutions in course 
 of the nine years of which we have given a short summary 
 The constitution of the Germanic Empire was changed in se- 
 veral essential respects by the Resolutions of the Deputation of 
 Katisbon. Of all the ecclesiastical princes that belonged to the 
 Germanic body, one only was retained, viz. the Elector, Arch- 
 Chancellor, who took the place of the ancient Elector of May- 
 ence ; the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, was secu- 
 larized. The territories of the rest, as well as the revenues of 
 all ecclesiastical endowments, mediate or immediate, were em- 
 ployed either to indemnify the hereditary princes who had lost 
 the whole or a part of their estates on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 or to aggrandize those whom the policy of Bonaparte chose 
 to favour. In place of the two Ecclesiastical Electors who 
 were suppressed, four lay Electors were appointed, one of whom 
 only was a Catholic, that of Saltzburg, who had formerly been 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and three were Protestants, those 
 of Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 The House of Orange obtained the bishopric of Fulda and 
 other territories ; Brisgau and Ortenau were ceded to the Duke of 
 Modena, who left them at his death to his son-in-law the Arch- 
 duke Ferdinand. The relation between the two religions was 
 still more unequal in the College of Princes, where the Pro- 
 testants had acquired so great a superiority that the head of the 
 Empire refused to ratify that article of the Resolutions. The 
 free cities were reduced to six, viz. Augsburg, Lubec, Nurem- 
 berg,. Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg. The immediate nobi- 
 lity were retained ; but those of them who were entitled to 
 indemnity were disappointed, as nothing remained to be distri- 
 buted. In place of the existing duties payable on the Rhine, 
 a rate of navigation was established, the proceeds of which 
 
 VOL. II. 21 
 
•249 CHAPTER XI 
 
 were to be divided between France and Germany ; a part of tJif* 
 endowment of the Arch-Chancellor was founded on that revenue- 
 
 The execution of the Resolutions of the Deputation, gave rise 
 to several conventions among the States of the Empire, as well 
 as to a great variety of claims. So many difficulties had arisen 
 on this occasion, especially from the refusal of the Emperor to 
 sanction the Resolution, without certain modifications, that the 
 Empire was abolished before ibis new fundamental law could 
 be carried into practice in all its bearings. The peace of Pres- 
 burg had created two new Kings in the centre of Germany, 
 namely, the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, who had as- 
 sumed that dignity. These two princes, with the Elector of 
 Baden, were declared sovereigns, and obtained territorial addi- 
 tions at the expense of Austria, the Knights of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem, and the city of Augsburg. The King of Bavaria annex- 
 ed that free city to his Estates. The Elector of Saltzburg ex- 
 changed all that the Resolutions of the Imperial Deputation had 
 given him for the principality of Wurtzburg which was taken 
 from the King of Bavaria, to which the Electoral title was 
 transferred. The Grand Mastership of the Teutonic Knights 
 was secularized in favour of a prince of the House of Austria. 
 The heir of the Duke of Modena lost Brisgau, and Ortenau, 
 which fell to the Elector of Baden. 
 
 The annihilation of the German Empire, the germ of which 
 is to be found in that treaty, was effected by the Confederation 
 of the Rhine, which the Kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, the 
 Arch-Chancellor, the Elector of Baden, the Dukes of Cleves and 
 Berg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Princes of Hohen- 
 zollern, Salm, Isemburg, Lichtenstein and Aremberg, and Count 
 Leyen, concluded with Bonaparte (July 6, 1806,) who was 
 named Protector of the League, as they announced in their de- 
 clarations to the Diet. The act by which the Emperor Francis 
 II. abdicated the crown of Germany (Aug. 6,) completed the dis- 
 solution of the Germanic body. The princes who had joined 
 that confederation usurped the sovereignty, instead of the mere 
 superiority which they had formerly enjoyed under the authori- 
 ty of the Empire. By overthrowing the barriers which the laws 
 and institutions of the country, the most ancient customs, and 
 conventions, had opposed to the encroachments of absolute 
 power, they set a fatal example of trampling under foot the well 
 acquired rights of their people. They carried their injustice 
 still farther. They usurped dominion over the princes, pro- 
 vinces, and cities, their associates and coequals, who were un 
 fortunately placed in their neighbourhood ; and who had not 
 been apprized in time that they might repair to Paris, in order 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 24? 
 
 to co-operate in that transaction, or counteract iW intriguey by 
 which it was accomplished. 
 
 The Elector Arch-Chancellor then assumed the dignity of 
 Prince Primate ; the Elector of Baden, the Dukes of Berg and 
 "Cleves, and the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt took the title of 
 Grand Dukes ; to which the act of the 12th July attached the 
 prerogatives of the royal dignity. The head of the house of 
 Nassau took the dignity of Duke, and Count Leyen that of 
 Prince. A federal Diet, divided into two chambers, was to de- 
 liberate on the general interests of the union ; but that assembly 
 never met. Of the six free cities which the Deputation had 
 preserved, the King of Bavaria had Augsburg adjudged to him 
 by the peace of Presburg ; he afterwards obtained Nuremberg 
 by an act of the Confederation. Frankfort fell to the share of 
 the Prince Primate ; so that there remained only three of the 
 Hanseatic towns. 
 
 Several other princes entered successively into the Confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine ; but none of these accessions were voluntary. 
 They all took place in consequence of the war with Prussia, 
 which broke out in October 1806. These princes, taken accord- 
 ing to the order of accession, were the following : — The Elector 
 ■of Wurtzburg, the old Elector of Saltzburg, who took the grand 
 'ducal title, the King of Saxony, the Dukes of Saxony^ the Houses 
 of Anhalt and Schwartzburg, the Prince of Waldeck, the Houses 
 of Lippe and Reuss, the King of Westphalia, the House of 
 Mecklenburg, and the Duke of Oldenburg. Thus all Germany, 
 with a fev/ exceptions, entered in succession into that Confede- 
 ration. 
 
 Several other changes occurred in the Rhenish Confedera- 
 tion, especially after the peace of Schoenbrunn. The grand 
 dutchy of Berg received considerable accessions. The kingdom 
 -of Westphalia was augmented in 1810, by the union of the States 
 of the King of England in Germany, with the exception of the 
 dutchy of Lunenburg, as has been already mentioned. Within 
 a short time after he had disposed of the territory of Hanover, 
 Bonaparte formed the grand dutchy of Frankfort, by adding the 
 district of Fulda, and the greater part of the county of Hanau, 
 10 the possessions of the Prince Primate ; with the deduction of 
 the principality of Ratisbon, on condition that after the death of 
 the Prince Primate, who had assumed the title of the Grand 
 Duke of Frankfort, these territories should pass to Eugene Beau- 
 harnais and his male descendants ; and failing these, they should 
 revert to the Crown of France. The Grand Duke ceded to 
 Napoleon the principality of Ratisbon, and his moiety of the 
 4iavigation-dues on the Rhino. 
 
244 CHAPTER XT. 
 
 The Factor of Bavaria had lost by the peace of Luneville 
 that pare J the Palatinate situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 with the dutchy of Deux-ponts. The Deputation of 1803 de- 
 prived him of the rest of the Palatinate ; but that act amply 
 compensated him, by making over to him the bishoprics of 
 Bamberg, Wurtzburg, Freisingen, Passau, and Augsburg, with 
 several abbeys and free citie?. By the peace of Presbnrg, Bo- 
 naparte took Wurtzburg from him ; but he gave him in lieu of 
 it a considerable part of the spoils of Austria, especially the 
 county of Tyrol, which contained more than 700,000 inhabitants. 
 To recompense that monarch for the zeal which he had displayed 
 1809, Bonaparte put him in possession of the principalities of 
 Baireuth and Ratisbon, the dutchy of Saltzburg, with Berch- 
 tolsgaden, and the part of Lower Austria which the Emperor 
 had renounced by the peace of Schcenbrunn. In return, the 
 King of Bavaria ceded back a part of the Tyrol, containing about 
 305,000 souls, which was annexed either to the kingdom of 
 Italy or the Illyrian provinces. 
 
 By the peace of Luneville, the Austrian monarchy had lost, 
 in point of extent and population ; but she had gained an addi- 
 tion of six millions of francs to her revenue. The government 
 had to struggle incessantly against the ruinous state of the ex- 
 chequer, and the over-circulation of paper money. Neither loans 
 nor economy could recover them. The embarrassed state of his 
 finances was still more increased by the disastrous war of 1805. 
 The peace of Presburg cost the Emperor the States that formerly 
 belonged to the Venetians, the Tyrol, and all the possessions of 
 his House in Swabia. He acquired nothing by that treaty, ex- 
 cept the dutchy of Saltzburg and Berchtolsgaden. His losses 
 amounted to more than a thousand German square miles of ter- 
 ritory, and nearly three millions of subjects. The following 
 year (Aug. 6, 1806,) he voluntarily laid aside the Imperial crown 
 of Germany, adopting instead, the hereditary Imperial crown of 
 Austria, with the name of Francis I. Besides Saltsburg and 
 Berchtolsgaden, the ci-devant Grand Duke of Tuscany lost also 
 Passau and Eichstett ; but he obtained the principality of Wurtz- 
 burg. The Archduke Ferdinand was deprived of Brisgau and 
 Ortenau. 
 
 At the commencement of the year 1807, Austria had made 
 warlike preparations which indicated that, but for the precipi- 
 tancy with which the peace of Tilsit had been concluded, she 
 would have made a powerful diversion on the rear of the French 
 army. It was not till the convention of Fontainbleau that she 
 obtained the restitution of Braunau, which had remained in the 
 possession of the French, and which she purchased by new ter- 
 
FERTOD IX, A. D. 1802 — 1810. 245 
 
 ntorial losses on the side of Italy ; from that moment the Arch- 
 duke Charles made great exertions for re-organizing the army, 
 introducing a new order and a better discipline, forming bodies 
 of militia, and repairing fortresses. He continued to inspire the 
 nation with an enthusiasm which it had never before displayed. 
 Many wealthy individuals made large pecuniary sacrifices for 
 the service of their country. 
 
 The peace of Schoenbrunn, v/hich terminated the war of 1809, 
 brought Austria down to the rank of the third Continental 
 power. That mon-archy comprehended a surface of 9471 Ger- 
 man square miles, and a population of twenty-one millions ; but 
 her commerce was annihilated by the loss of Trieste and Fiume, 
 which separated her from the sea. The immense quantity of 
 paper money in the ceded provinces, flowed back into the interior 
 of the kingdom, and reduced the currency of these bills to one- 
 iifth of their nominal value. 
 
 Prussia, b}" the Resolutions of the Deputation of 1803, gained 
 426,000 subjects, and more than four millions of francs to her 
 revenue ; and the provinces which she acquired, established, to 
 a certain extent, the continuity of her Westphalian possessions 
 with the centre of the kingdom. A convention with the Elector 
 of Bavaria respecting an exchange of territory, made consider- 
 able additions to tlie Principalities in Franconia. The King, 
 from that time, occupied himself in applying the remedy of a 
 wise administration to repair the calamities which wars and 
 lovies had inflicted on the country. In vain had they tried every 
 means of persuasion to make him join the third coalition ; and 
 it was only the violation of his territory by the French troops, 
 that at last prevailed with him to take that step. We have al- 
 ready spoken of the convention at Potsdam, by which he engage 
 ed eventually to become a party to that confederacy, and of the 
 attempt which he made to restore peace by means of negotiation. 
 We have already mentioned how he became involuntarily, and 
 by the turn which his minister gave to the affair with which he 
 was intrusted, the ally of him whom he wished to engage in 
 war. Prussia obtained, by the treaty of Vienna, the precarious 
 possession of the Electorate of Hanover, in lieu of which she 
 ceded Anspach, Cleves, and Neufchatel The superficial extent 
 of the whole monarchy amounted then to 5746 German square 
 miles, v/ith a population of 10,658,000 souls. 
 
 The occupation of Hanover dragged Prussia into a war with 
 England ; and the course pursued towards her by Bonaparte 
 soon compelled her to declare war against France. He had 
 offered the Electorate of Hanover to the King of England, t^ni 
 opposed Prussia in the project of associating Saxony, He-f^, 
 
 VOL. II. -^J 
 
246 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 and the Hanseatic towns, in the confederation which Frederic 
 wished to oppose to that of the Rhine. The convention of Vienna 
 thus became the occasion of inflicting new calamities on Prussia, 
 Frederic William renounced the territory of Hanover, by the 
 peace which he concluded with George III. at Memel (Jan. 28, 
 1807 ;) but the treaty of Tilsit cost the former the half of his 
 German estates, viz. an extent of 2657 Gennan square miles, 
 and a population of 4,670,000 souls. This sacrifice was not 
 sufficient to appease the resentment of Bonaparte. By misin- 
 terpreting the equivocal terms of the convention of Koningsberg, 
 he restored to the King only a part of his provinces on the east 
 of the Vistula, which were desolated by the war, and reduced 
 almost to a desert. After sixteen months of peace, he could not 
 obtain repossession of his other provinces, until he engaged la 
 pay 120,000,000 of francs, to leave three fortresses in the hands 
 of Bonaparte by way of pledge, and to promise never to keep 
 more than 40,000 men in the field. 
 
 Prussia was in a state of the greatest destitution, at the time 
 when Frederic William turned his attention to the administra- 
 tion of the country. The army had devoured the substance of 
 the inhabitants ; the population had suffered a great diminution : 
 while sickness and a complication of miseries, were continually 
 cutting them off in considerable numbers. The King submitted 
 to many privations, to fulfil the obligations he had contracted 
 towards France, and thereby to obtain the final evacuation of the 
 kingdom, as well as to relieve those provinces which had suf- 
 fered more severely than others by the sojourn of the French 
 army. He did every thing in his power to revive agriculture 
 and industry among his subjects, and restore the resources of 
 the army ; and thus prepare the way for recovering the rank 
 which the Prussian monarchy had formerly held. 
 
 Independently of the hardships which Bonaparte inflicted on 
 Prussia, by protracting the stay of his army, and by the contri- 
 butions which he imposed on her, this country was made the vic- 
 tim of a rapacity which is, perhaps, unprecedented in history. 
 By a convention which the King of Saxony, as Duke of War- 
 saw, concluded with Bonaparte (May 10, 1808,) while occupied 
 at Bayonne in overturning the Spanish monarchy, the latter 
 ceded to him, for a sum of twenty millions of francs, not only 
 the pecuniary claims of the King of Prussia over his Polish 
 subjects, (for these he had abandoned by the peace of Tilsit,) 
 but also those of certain public establishments in Prussia, such 
 as the Bank, the Society for Maritime Commerce, the Endow- 
 ment for Widows, Hospitals, Pious Foundations, Universities 
 and Schools ; and what may seem incredible, those of private 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 247 
 
 individuals in Prussia over Polish subjects. The pecuniary 
 claims were so much the more considerable, as the capitalists of 
 the ancient provinces, since the introduction of the system of 
 mortgage into Prussia, had advanced large sums to Polish pro- 
 prietors for the improvement of their patrimonies. The sums 
 thus taken from those who had furnished them, and transferred 
 to the King of Saxony, were estimated at first at forty-three 
 millions and a half of francs, and four millions of interest ; but 
 the financial authorities of the dutchy of Warsaw, discovered 
 that they amounted to sixty-eight millions. In vain did Fre- 
 deric William ofl^er to repurchase this pretended right of the 
 King of Saxony, by reimbursing the twenty millions of francs 
 which the latter had been obliged, it w^as said, to give to Bona- 
 parte. The Revolution of 1814 rectified this piece of injustice, 
 as it did many others. 
 
 During this period the north of Europe was agitated by three 
 ^different wars, that of England against Denmark, which occa- 
 sioned a rupture between the Cabinets of St. Petersburg and 
 London ; that of Russia against Sweden, in which Denmark 
 was involved ; and lastly, the war between Russia and the 
 Porte, in which England took an active part. 
 
 The expedition of the English against the Isle of Zealand in 
 1S07, was an event which was censured at the time with great 
 severity ; and which cannot be justified, since it is the nature 
 of all preventive war to destroy the very arguments and evi- 
 dences of its necessity. Nevertheless, if on the one hand, we 
 consider what was requisite to support the interests of Bona- 
 parte after the peace of Tilsit, or more properly speaking, to 
 carry into execution the system he had organized ; and if on 
 ihe other, we examine into his conduct a short time after, to- 
 wards Spain and Portugal, we shall find England not wholly 
 without excuse. The peace of Tilsit had excluded British com- 
 merce from all the southern ports of the Baltic, and she na- 
 turally Avished that Sweden, and especially Denmark, who had 
 a communication with the Continent by way of Jutland, should 
 open their ports to her. Several appearances indicated that it 
 was the intention of Bonaparte to seize Denmark also after the 
 peace of Tilsit ; and the British minister declared that he was 
 in possession of proofs of a plan to that effect. 
 
 The British Government accordingly fitted out an expedition 
 for the purpose of preventing his designs, with an activity and 
 a celerity such as they had never displayed in sending aid to 
 their allies; and that diflference in their conduct tended not a 
 little to create an unfavourable opinion as to the enterprise 
 vhich they undertook against Denmark in 1807. An English 
 
248 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 fleet, having an army on board, to which a Hanoverian legion 
 of 7000 men then in the Isle of Rugen, was afterwards added, 
 sailed from England about the endof July or beginning of August. 
 It was divided into two squadrons, one of which, under Commo- 
 dore Keats, took up their station in the Great Belt, which till then 
 had been thought inaccessible to ships of war, and thus cut oft 
 the Isle of Zealand from the main land, where the Prince Royal 
 with the Danish army then was. The second division, under 
 the command of Admiral Gambler, with troops on board com- 
 manded by Lord Cathcart, arrived oft' Copenhagen. Mr. Jack- 
 son was sent to Kiel to demand from the Prince Royal the 
 surrender of the Danish fleet, which they alleged it was the in- 
 tention of Bonaparte to seize. 
 
 After a fruitless negotiation, Copenhagen, after being invested 
 by the army of Lord Cathcart on the land side, was bombarded 
 for three days (Sept. 2, 3, 4,) and a great part of the city de- 
 stroyed. At length General Peymann, the Commander-in-chief 
 of the Danish forces, demanded an armistice to treat for a ca- 
 pitulation. Sir Arthur Wellesley, the same officer who soon 
 after so distinguished himself in Portugal, signed that capitula- 
 tion on the part of Great Britain. The citadel was given up 
 to the English. The Danes surrendered their fleet, with all 
 the naval stores in their arsenals and dock-yards. The Eng- 
 lish stipulated for a delay of six weeks to prepare for departure, 
 after which they promised to surrender the citadel, and evacuate 
 the Isle of Zealand. 
 
 In this manner the Danish marine, consisting of eighteen 
 ships of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five sloops 
 of war, fell into the hands of the English. During the six 
 weeks stipulated for, the Court of London offered Denmark the 
 alternative either of returning to a state of neutrality, or of form- 
 ing an alliance with England. The Prince Regent having re- 
 fused both of these, England declared war against him (Nov. 
 4 ;) but she did not violate the capitulation of Copenhagen, as 
 the evacuation of that city and the island of Zealand took place 
 at the term specified. This event added Denmark to the French 
 system. Her minister concluded a treaty of alliance at Fon- 
 tainbleau, the tenor of which has not been made public ; but if 
 we may judge by the events which followed, it was agreed that 
 the Danish islands should be occupied by French troops des- 
 tined to act against Sweden. In the month of March 1808, 
 32,000 French, Dutch, and Spanish troops (the last brought 
 from the kingdom of Etruria,) under the command of Marshal 
 Bernadotte, arrived in Zealand, Funen, and the other islands of 
 the Baltic ; but the defection of the Spanish troops, and the 
 
i-ERioD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 249 
 
 war ^vith Austria, prevented the projected invasion of Sweden 
 The English took possession of the colonies of L/eiamark, and 
 ru.ned the commerce of her subjects. Frederic VI., who had 
 succeeded his father Chustian VII, , (March 13, 1808,) after 
 having been at the head of the government as regent since 1784, 
 strictly executed the Continental system ; especially after the 
 commencement of the year 1810, when the two Counts Bern- 
 storff had retired from the ministry. He even went so far as to 
 arrest all the English subjects found in Denmark. 
 
 The expedition of the English against Copenhagen, induced 
 the Emperor Alexander to declare war against them (Nov. 7.) 
 That monarch entered decidedly into the Continental system, 
 and demanded of the King of Sweden, that agreeably to the 
 conventions as to the armed neutrality of the North, he should 
 enforce the principle by which the Baltic was declared a shut 
 sea. The King of Sweden replied, that the principles establish- 
 ed by the conventions of 1780 and 1800 had been abandoned by 
 that of June 17, 1801 ; that circumstances were entirely changed 
 since Denmark, on whose co-operations he had formerly reck- 
 oned, had lost her fleet ; and since, independently of the Sound, 
 the English had effected another entrance into the Baltic, through 
 the Great Belt ; these objections, however, did not prevent him 
 from mcurring a ruinous war. 
 
 A Russian army entered Finland (Feb. 21, 1808.) General 
 Baxhowden, who had the command, announced to the inhabi- 
 tants of that province that the Emperor Alexander had thought 
 it necessary to occupy that country, in order to have a pledge 
 that the King of Sweden would accept the proposals of peace 
 whfch France had made to him. Although the Swedish troops 
 in Finland were but few in number, and defended it bravely, 
 they were compelled to yield to the superior force of the Rus- 
 sians, and to retire into East Bothnia. Sueaborg, the bulwark 
 of Finland, and deemed impregnable, surrendered (April 6,) 
 after a siege of a few days by Vice-Admiral Kronstadt. A mani- 
 festo of the Emperor Alexander (March 28,) had already decla- 
 red the grand dutchy of Finland to be incorporated with his Em- 
 pire. This unexpected attack excited the most lively indignation 
 in Gustavus IV., who so far forgot himself, as to cause M. d'Alo- 
 peus, the Russian minister at his court, to be arrested. Den- 
 mark having also declared war against him (Feb. 29,) a Swedish 
 army of 20,000 men, under the command of Gen. Arm field, un- 
 dertook the conquest of Norway. But this expedition was repuls- 
 ed with loss ; and the Danes even made incursions into Sweden. 
 
 Field-Marshal Count Klinspor being placed at the head of the 
 Sv/edish army, then at Uleaburg. began to act on the offensive 
 
250 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 in the north of Finland ; while a second army, under the com 
 mand of General Vegesack, disembarked at Abo (June S. The 
 war was carried on with variable success, but with equal bra- 
 very on both sides. At the end of the campaign, the Russians 
 were again masters of Finland. A body of 10,000 English 
 troops, commanded by the same General Moore who, a few 
 months after, fell at Corunna in Spain, had arrived in the roads 
 at Gottenburg (May 17 ;) but as the Swedish King could not 
 come to an agreement as to the employment of these auxiliaries, 
 nor even as to the command, he refused to permit the troops to 
 disembark. He even ordered General Moore, who had repaired 
 to Stockholm, to be arrested. But having soon found means to 
 escape, Moore returned to England with his troops. Mr. Thom- 
 son, the British envoy, who had remonstrated against this arbi- 
 trary conduct of the King, was recalled. 
 
 Admiral Chanikoff, with a Russian fleet of twenty-four ships 
 of war, made an attempt to burn the Swedish fleet, commanded 
 by Admiral Nauckhoff, in Virgin Bay (Aug. 18 ;) but the ar- 
 rival of an English fleet under Sir James Saumarez in Baltic 
 Port where Nauckhofl' was, with a reinforcement of some Eng- 
 dsh ships under the command of Admiral Hood, kept them in 
 olockade for nearly two months. In Finland an armistice had 
 been concluded, (Sept. ISOS,) on the footing of the Uti Posside- 
 tis; but the Emperor Alexander refused to ratify it. Another 
 was then concluded at Olkioki (Nov. 19,) by which the Swedish 
 army engaged to evacuate Uleaburg, and to retire behind the 
 Kemi. Towards the end of the year, the English Cabinet ad- 
 vised the King of Sweden to make peace, which he obstinately 
 refused, and even demanded additional supplies to continue the 
 war with vigoui The British Cabinet having declined to grant 
 them unconditionally, Gustavus was on the point of coming to 
 an open rupture with that Court. But his indignation having 
 abated, he agreed, soon after, to conclude a new convention at 
 Stockholm (March 1, 1809,) when Great Britain engaged to pay 
 in advance 300,000Z. sterling by quarterly instalments. 
 
 Meantime a revolution was fermenting in Sweden, which was 
 to change the aspect of affairs. The haughtiness and obstinacy 
 of the King, had created him many enemies. The people were 
 oppressed in a most extraordinary manner by burdens and im- 
 posts, which Gustavus increased arbitrarily, and without regard 
 to constitutional forms. The severity with which he punished 
 the troops, not only when they had committed faults, but even 
 when they vv^ere unsuccessful, had alienated the minds of the 
 soldiers from him, and especially the guards. A conspiracy 
 was formed, at the head of which was Lieutenant-Colonel Adler- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 251 
 
 sparre, and Colonel Skioldebrand, and which was joined by the 
 army of the West, or of Norway, and the troops that were sta- 
 tioned in the Islands of Aland. Adlersparre and the army of 
 the West marched on Stockholm. They had arrived at Orebro, 
 v/hen Field-Marshal Klinspor, who had been disgraced, advised 
 the King to avert the storm by changing his conduct. On his 
 refusal, General Adlercreutz arrested him in the name of the 
 people (March 13.) The Duke of Sudermania, the King's un- 
 cle, was proclaimed Regent. Gustavus was conveyed to Drott- 
 ningholm, and thence to Gripsholm, where he signed a deed of 
 abdication, which he afterwards declared on various occasions to 
 have been voluntary. The revolution was terminated without 
 commotion and without bloodshed. 
 
 The Regent immediately assembled the Diet at Stockholm. 
 Not content with accepting the abdication of Gustavus, such as 
 he had given it, they excluded all his descendants from the 
 throne of Sweden. They offered the crown to the Regent, who 
 declared his willingness to accept it when they had revised the 
 constitution. This revision, by which the royal authority was 
 limited without reducing it to a state of humiliation and depen- 
 dence, having been adopted by the Diet, the Duke of Suderma- 
 nia was proclaimed King (June 5, 1809,) under the title of 
 Charles XIII. according to the common but erroneous method 
 of reckoning the Kings of Sweden. As the new monarch had 
 no family, they elected as his successor to the throne. Prince 
 Christian Augustus of Holstein-Augustenburg, who commanded 
 the Danish army in Norway, and who had procured the esteem 
 even of his enemies. Gustavus and his family were permitted 
 to leave the kingdom ; and towards the end of the year a new 
 fundamental law was published, regulating the order of succes- 
 sion to the throne. 
 
 At Stockholm the people flattered themselves that the de- 
 thronement of Gustavus would speedily bring peace to Sweden ; 
 bnt it was not so. Alexander I. refused to treat with a govern- 
 ment so insecure as a regency, and hostilities accordingly con- 
 tinued. General Knorring who had passed the Gulf of Bothnia 
 on the ice with 25,000 Russians, took possession of the Islands 
 of Aland (March 17,) when the Swedish troops stationed there 
 retired to the continent of Sweden. Knorring granted the 
 Swedes a cessation of hostilities, to allow them time to make 
 overtures of peace. Apprized of this arrangement, Count Bar- 
 clay de Tolly, who had crossed the Gulf with another body of 
 Russians on the side of Vasa, and taken possession of Umea, 
 evacuated West Bothnia, and returned to Finland. A third 
 body of Russians, under the command of Schouvaloff, penetrated 
 
352 CHAPTER 11' 
 
 nito West Bothnia by the route of Tornea. and compelled the 
 Swedish army of the North, which was commanded by Gripen- 
 berg, to lay down their arms at Seiwis (Wlarch 25.) This san- 
 guinary affair occurred entirely through ignorance ; because in 
 that country, lying under the 66th degree of north latitude, they 
 were not aw^are of the armistice granted by Knorring. On the 
 expiration of the truce, hostilities recommenced in the month of 
 May, and the Russians took possession of the part of West 
 Bothnia lying to the north of Umea. 
 
 The peace between Russia and Sweden w^as signed at Fre- 
 dericsham (Sept. 17.) The latter power adhered to the Con- 
 tinental system, reserving to herself the importation of salt and 
 such colonial produce as she could not do without. She sur- 
 rendered Finland with the w^hole of East Bothnia, and a part of 
 West Bothnia lying to the eastward of the river Tornea. The 
 cession of these provinces which formed the granary of Sweden, 
 and contained a population of 900,000 souls, was an irreparable 
 loss to that kingdom, which had only 2,344,000 inhabitants left. 
 The peace of Fredericsham was speedily followed by that of 
 Jonkoping with Denmark (Dec. 10,) and that at Paris wdth France 
 (Jan. 6, 1810.) By the first, every thing was re-established on 
 us ancient footing between these two States. But by the peace 
 of Paris, Sweden renounced the importation of colonial produce, 
 and only reserved the privilege of importing salt as an article 
 of absolute necessity. It was on this condition alone that she 
 could obtain repossession of Pomerania. 
 
 The Prince Royal of Sweden having died suddenly, a Diet 
 assembled at Orebro, and elected John Baptiste Julius Berna- 
 dotte. Prince of Ponte Corvo, his successor to the throne (May 
 28.) The election was unanimous ; but out of more than one 
 thousand of the nobility who had a right to appear at the Diet, 
 only one hundred and forty were present. Bernadotte accepted 
 an offer so honourable. On his arrival at Elsiiiore, he professed, 
 as his ancestors had done before him in France, his adherence 
 to the Confession of Augsburg, which was then the established 
 religion in Sweden. King Charles XIII. having adopted him 
 as his son, he was proclaimed at Stockholm (Nov. 5,) eventual 
 successor to the throne, under the name of Charles John. 
 Twelve days afterwards, Sweden declared war against Great 
 Britain. 
 
 In Russia, the Emperor Alexander, since his accession to the 
 throne, had occupied himself incessantly in improving every 
 oranch of the administration. The restrictive regulations which 
 had been published under the last reign were abrogated; by 
 gradual eoncessions, the peasantry were prepared for a liberty 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 253 
 
 which they had not yet enjoyed. The number of universities, 
 and what is still more essential to civilization, the number of 
 schools was augmented. The senate, the ministry, and the 
 civil authorities were reorganized, and new improvements 
 adopted, tending to abolish arbitrary power, to accelerate the 
 despatch of business, and to promote the distribution of fair 
 and impartial justice to all classes of society. Canals were 
 dug, new avenues were opened for industry, and commerce 
 flourished, especially the trade of the Black Sea. The only 
 point in which the Government failed, was in its attempts to re- 
 store the finances ; but the four wars of the preceding seven 
 years in which Russia had been engaged, rendered these at- 
 tempts unavailing. 
 
 We have already related the origin, events, and termination 
 of two of these wars, viz. that of 1806, w^hich ended with the 
 peace of Tilsit, and procured Russia the province of Bialystock ; 
 and that of Sweden, which annexed the province of Finland to 
 that Empire. The war against England continued after the 
 peace of Fredericsham, but without furnishing any events of 
 great importance. The two other wars were those against Per- 
 sia and the Porte. At the begii ning of his reign, Alexander 
 had annexed Georgia to his Empire, which had till then been 
 the prey of continual disturbances. This accession drew him 
 into a war with Persia, which did not terminate till 1813. The 
 principal events of that war were the defeat of the Persians at 
 Elschmiazin, by Prince ZizianofT (June 20, 1804;) the conquest 
 of the province of Shirvan by the same Prince (Jan. 1806 ;) 
 the taking of Derbent by the Russians (July 3 ;) and the defeat 
 of the Persians by Paulucci, at Alkolwalaki, (Sept. 1, 1810.) 
 
 Before speaking of the war between Russia and the Porte, it 
 will be necessary to take a brief retrospect of the Ottoman Em- 
 pire. The condition of that Empire, badly organized and worse 
 governed, was such, that every thing then presaged its ap- 
 proaching dissolution ; or in other words, the expulsion of the 
 Turks from Europe. Every where the authority of the Grand 
 Seignor was disregarded. Paswan Oglou, the Pacha of Wid- 
 din, was in open revolt. Ali Pacha of Janina was obedient 
 only when it suited his convenience. The Servians had taken 
 up arms under their leader Czerni George, and threatened to 
 possess themselves of Sabacz and Belgrade. Djezzar, the 
 Pacha of Syria, without declaring himself an enemy to the 
 Porte, enjoyed an absolute independence. The sect of the Wa- 
 habites was in possession of Arabia. Egypt was distracted by 
 civil wars. Sehm III., who had reigned there since 1789, con- 
 vinced that the Porte could never re-establish its authority ey- 
 
 voL. II. 22 
 
254 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 cept by better organizing the army, had endeavoured to model 
 it on the European system. This attempt afterwards cost him 
 his throne. 
 
 Such was the situation of the Ottoman Empire, when Bona 
 parte, in order to prevent Alexander from sending supplies to 
 Prussia, resolved to embroil him in a quarrel with the Porte. 
 General Sebastiani, the French Envoy at Constantinople, con- 
 trived to obtain so great an infinence over the minds of the 
 Divan, that for some time it was entirely under his direction. 
 Subjects of dissension were not wanting between Russia and 
 the Porte ; and these were of such a nature, as to furnish each 
 party with plausible reasons for complaining of the infraction oi 
 treaties. The French minister was not slow to fan the spark of 
 discord. He even induced the Divan to refuse to renew their 
 treaty of alliance with England, which was then on the point of 
 expiring. The Emperor Alexander, foreseeing that there would 
 be no redress to his complaints, gave orders to General Michel- 
 son to enter Moldavia and Wallachia. The Porte then declared 
 war against Russia (Dec. 30;) but deviating for the first time 
 from a barbarous custom, he allowed M. d'ltalinski, the Russian 
 minister, to depart unmolested. 
 
 A few days after, Mr. Arbuthnot, the English minister, quit- 
 ted Constantinople, after having repeatedly demanded the re- 
 newal of the alliance, and the expulsion of M. Sebastiani. 
 Within a few weeks an English fleet of nine ships of the line, 
 three frigates, and several fire-ships, commanded by Vice-Admi- 
 ral Duckworth, forced the passage of the Dardanelles, and ap- 
 peared before Constantinople. Duckworth demanded of the 
 Divan, that the forts of the Dardanelles and the Turkish fleet 
 should be surrendered to him ; that the Porte should cede Mol- 
 davia and Wallachia to Russia, and break off alliance with Bo- 
 naparte. But instead of profiting by the sudden panic which 
 his appearance had created, he allowed the Turks time to put 
 themselves in a posture of defence. Encouraged and instructed 
 by Sebastiani, they made their preparations with such energy 
 and success, that in the course of eight days the English Vice- 
 admiral found that he could do nothing better than weigh an- 
 chor and repass the Dardanelles. On his arrival at Malta, he 
 took on board 5000 troops, under the command of General Era- 
 ser, and conveyed them to Egypt. The English took posses- 
 sion of Alexandria (Mar. 20;) but in the course of six months, 
 they found themselves obliged to surrender that city by capitu- 
 lation to the Governor of Egypt. 
 
 The campaign of 1807 was not productive of any very deci- 
 sive result, as General Michelson had received orders to detach 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 255 
 
 80,000 men to oppose the French in Poland. Czerni George, 
 the leader of the revolted Servians, took Belgrade, Sabacz, and 
 Nissa, penetrated into Bulgaria, where he was reinforced by some 
 Russian troops, and gained divers signal advantages. General 
 Michelson himself v/as victorious near Guirdesov (March 17,) 
 without, however, being able to get possession of that place. The 
 war was conducted with more success on the frontiers of the two 
 Empires in Asia. The Seraskier of Erzerum was entirely de- 
 feated by General Gudovitch (June 18;) and that victory was 
 an event so much the more fortunate, as it prevented the Persians 
 from making a bold diversion in favour of the Turks. The most 
 important event in the campaign was the naval battle of Lemnos, 
 where the Russian fleet, under the command of Vice-admiral 
 Siniawin, defeated the Capitan Pacha, who had sailed from the 
 Dardanelles after the retreat of Duckworth. 
 
 When the Ottoman navy sustained this defeat, Selim III. had 
 ceased to reign. That prince had rendered himself odious to 
 the troops, by the introduction of the European discipline and 
 dress, known by the name of Nizami gedid, and by his connexion 
 with the French Emperor. One circumstance, regarded as a fun- 
 damental law, and according to which a Sultan who had reigned 
 seven years without having any children was regarded as un- 
 worthy of the thron-e, served as a pretext for the military to have 
 him deposed. Selim, finding it impossible to quell or allay the 
 revolt, abdicated voluntarily (May 29,) and placed his cousin, 
 Mustapha IV., on the throne. In the amnesty which that prince 
 published, he recognised the right of the Janissaries to withdraw 
 their allegiance from the Grand Seignor who should depart from 
 the established customs, and that of appointing his successor. 
 
 The Emperor Alexander had promised, by the peace of Tilsit, 
 to evacuate Moldavia and Wallachia, on condition, however, that 
 the Turks should not occupy these two provinces till after the 
 conclusion of a definitive peace. The French General Guille- 
 minot was sent to the Turkish camp to negotiate an armistice 
 on these terms, which in efTect was signed at Slobozia (Aug. 24.) 
 The evacuation of the two provinces stipulated by that arrange- 
 ment never took place, as the Emperor of Russia refused to ratify 
 the treaty, as it contained certain articles w^hich he judged in- 
 compatible with his dignity ; so that matters remained on their 
 former footing. That circumstance was one of the pretexts 
 which Bonaparte alleged for continuing to occupy Prussia. 
 
 In the midst of these political quibblings, the time arrived 
 when a new system of things took place. The Cabinets of St. 
 Petersburg and Paris were making mutual advances ; and it is 
 probable that the fate of the Porte, and especially of tlie pro- 
 
256 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 vinces beyond the Danube, was one of the subjects which were 
 discussed during the interview at Erfurt. France lost her inftu- 
 ence at Constantinople, when they saw her enter into an alliance 
 with Russia ; and from that time England directed the politics 
 of the Divan. 
 
 Mustapha IV. had in the mean time been hurled from the 
 throne. Mustapha, styled Bairactar or the Staiidardbearer, 
 the Pacha of Rudschuk, a man of extraordinary courage, and 
 one of the most zealous abettors of the changes introduced by 
 Selim, which he regarded as the sole means of preserving the 
 State, had marched with 35,000 men to Constantinople, with 
 the view of reforming or seizing the government, and announced 
 to Mustapha IV. (July 28, 1808,) that he must resign, and make 
 way for the ancient and legitimate Sultan. Mustapha thought 
 to save his crown by putting Selim to death ; but Bairactar 
 proclaimed Mahmoud, the younger brother of Mustapha, who 
 was then shut up in the Seraglio. Bairactar, invested with abso- 
 lute power, re-established the corps of the Seiinens, or disciplined 
 troops on the footing of the Europeans, and took vigorous mea- 
 sures for putting the Empire in a condition to resist the Russians. 
 These patriotic efforts cost him his life. After the departure of 
 a part of the Seimens for the army, the Janissaries and the in- 
 habitants of Constantinople revolted. At the head of a body of 
 newly organized troops, Mustapha defended himself with cou- 
 rage ; but seeing the moment approach when he must yield to 
 the superior number of his assailants, he put to death the old 
 Sultan and his mother, whose intrigues had instigated the insur- 
 rection. He retired to a fortress or strong place, where he had 
 deposited a quantity of gunpowder. The Janissaries having 
 pursued him thither, he set fire to the magazine, and blew him- 
 self and his persecutors into the air. The young Sultan Mahmoud 
 had the courage to declare that he would retain the European 
 discipline and dress ; but after being attacked in his place, and 
 learning that the city was filled with carnage and conflagration, 
 he yielded to necessity, and restored the privileges of the Janis- 
 saries. It is probable they would not have spared his life, but for 
 the circumstance that he was the last scion of the race of Osman. 
 
 The ministers of the Divan, whom General Sebastiani had 
 gained over to the interests of France, finding themselves entirely 
 discarded by the last revolution, Mr. Adair, the new English 
 minister at Constantinople, concluded a treaty of peace (Jan. 5, 
 1809,) by which the Porte confirmed to England the commercial 
 advantages which the treaty of 1675 had granted them, ^s well 
 as the navigation of the Black Sea, which Mr. Sp<=ncei Smith 
 had obtained (August 3, 1799.) 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 257 
 
 Immediately after the return of the Emperor Alexander from 
 Erfurt, an order was given to open negotiations with the Turks. 
 The conference took place at Jassy ; but it was immediately 
 broken off, after the Russian plenipotentiaries had demanded, as 
 preliminary conditions, the cession of Moldavia and Wallachia, 
 and the expulsion of the British minister from Constantinople. 
 Hostilities then recommenced. The Russians were commanded 
 by Prince Prosoroffski, and after his death, by Prince Bagration. 
 Having passed the Danube, they took possession of Ismael, and 
 fought abloody battle at Tartaritza,near Silistria (Sept. 26,) which 
 compelled them to raise the siege of that place. The Grand 
 Vizier, without taking advantage of his good fortune, retired to 
 winter-quarters. 
 
 The campaign of 1810 was more decisive. General Kamen- 
 skoi, the second of that name, had taken the chief command of 
 the Russian army ; his brother of the same name, and General 
 Markoff, opened it by the taking of Bazardjik (June 4;) the cap- 
 ture of Silistria (June 11,) by the Commander-in-chief and Count 
 Langeron, opened the way to Shumla, where the Grand Vizier, 
 Yussuff Pacha, occupied a strong position ; while General Sa- 
 banieff defeated a body of Turkish troops near Rasgard (June 
 14,) the remains of which were obliged to surrender. The Grand 
 Vizier then demanded an armistice for negotiating a peace. The 
 reply was, that it would be concluded immediately on his recog- 
 nising the Danube as the limit of the two Empires, and promising 
 to pay a sum of twenty millions of piastres ; the Russians re- 
 maining in possession of Bessarabia until it was paid. The 
 Grand Vizier, at the instigation of the British minister, rejected 
 these conditions. Yussuff Pacha still occupied his camp near 
 Shumla, the rear of which was protected by the Hemus. Ka- 
 menskoi the elder, attacked him in his entrenchments, but was 
 repulsed with loss (June 23 ;) he left his brother at Kargali Dere 
 (about five leagues from Shumla) at the head of a corps of ob- 
 servation, while he attempted himself to take Rudschukby main 
 force, but was again repulsed. The younger brother then found 
 himself obliged, by the approach of a superior force, to abandon 
 his position at Kargali Dere (Aug. 15.) Yussuff being deter- 
 mined to save Rudschuk, detached Mouhtar Pacha with a body 
 of 40,000 troops, who took up a formidable position at the place 
 where the Jantra runs into the Danube. Kamenskoi leaving to 
 Count Langeron the care of the siege of Rudschuk, and ordering 
 Sass to invest Guirdesov, which is situated on the other side of 
 the Danube opposite Rudschuk, immediately directed his march 
 against Mouhtar, and attacked him in his entrenchments at 
 Batine. After a terrible carnage, the Russians took possession 
 
 VOL. H, 22* 
 
258 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 of the Turkish camp by main force (Sept. 7,) tvhen ^^ouhtar 
 escaped with a small detachment. Within a few da} s after, 
 Count St. Priest took Sczistov, with the whole Turkish fleet. 
 Rudschuk and Guirdesov surrendered on the same day (Sept. 
 27,) and Nicopoli and Widdin in a short time after ; so that by 
 the end of the campaign the Russians were masters of the whole 
 ri-ght bank of the Danube. The Grand Vizier had co^itinued 
 all this time in his strong camp at Shumla. The Servians, as- 
 sisted by a body of Russians, had taken possession of the last 
 fortresses in their country which the Turks had still maintained, 
 such as Cladova, Oreava, and Praova. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PERIOD IX. 
 
 . The decline and downfall of the Empire of Bonaparte. — a. b 
 
 1810—1815. 
 
 The power of Napoleon had now attained its greatest height. 
 Tiie birth of a son, an event, which happened March 20, 1811, 
 might have given stability to this power, had he known how to 
 set bounds to his ambition. The heir to the Imperial throne 
 received the title of King of Rome, a dignity which had been 
 decreed in anticipation. 
 
 The differences that had arisen between Bonaparte and the 
 Head of the Church, became this year a subject of public dis- 
 cussion. The will of a despot whom no power could resist, was 
 made to recoil more than once before the inflexible firmness of 
 an old man, disarmed and in captivity. Ever since Bonaparte 
 had deprived the Church of her patrimony, and had been laid 
 under the ban of excommunication, Pius VII., faithful to his 
 principles, had refused confirmation to every bishop nominated 
 by a man who was excluded from the Catholic communion 
 Bonaparte thought it might be possible to dispense with the 
 confirmation of the Pope. With this view, he assembled a na- 
 tional council at Paris (June 17, 1811,) composed of French and 
 Italian bishops, and in Vv^hich Cardinal Fesch, the Archbishop 
 of Lyons, presided. He soon found, however, that despotic au- 
 thority was of little avail against religious opinions. The pre- 
 lates, on whose compliance he had calculated with too much 
 confidence, declared that the Council had no power to grant that 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 259 
 
 confirmation which was refused by the Pope ; but the arrest of 
 three of the most refractory prelates, who were imprisoned at 
 Vincennes (July 12,) having given rise to a negotiation, the rest 
 adopted a modified scheme which the government had commu- 
 nicated to them ; on condition, however, that it should be sub- 
 mitted for the approbation of the Pope. But. his Holiness, who 
 had still remained at Savona, refused to treat with the Council, 
 which he declared null and void, as having been convened with- 
 out his authority. The project of Bonaparte thus completely 
 failed ; the Council was dismissed ; and twenty of the Sees of 
 France and Italy were left without bishops. 
 
 Before proceeding to detail the grand events which overturned 
 the dominion of Bonaparte, it will be necessary to advert to what 
 took place in Spain and Portugal in 1811 and 1812. Sickness, 
 and the want of provisions, had at length compelled Massena to 
 effect his retreat (March 1,) during which he sustained con- 
 siderable loss by the pursuit of Lord Wellington. Thus, for 
 the third time, was Portugal released from the invasion of the 
 French army. It would be impossible, within the narrow limits 
 to which we are here confined, to detail the various marches and 
 counter-marches of the Generals, or the operations in which they 
 were engaged. We can only point out the principal actions in 
 a detached and cursory manner. 
 
 Marshal Soult retook Badajos (March 10,) while Lord Wel- 
 lington still retained his position at Torres Vedras, which he had 
 quitted with reluctance to go in pursuit of Massena. As the 
 possession of that place was of importance for the English, Lord 
 Wellington determined to besiege it ; but Marshal Marmont 
 who had replaced Massena in the command of the army of the 
 North, and Marshal Soult Avho had formed a junction with him, 
 obliged him to discontinue the siege. He retired to Portugal, 
 where he remained on the defensive during the rest of the cam- 
 paign. The advantages of the campaign of 1811 belonged to 
 General Suchet. After a destructive siege, he took Tortosa by 
 capitulation (Jan. 1,) and Tarragona by main force (June 28.) 
 He made himself master of Monteserrat in the same manner. 
 (Aug. 19.) By a signal victory which he gained over General 
 Blake (Oct. 25,) at Murviedro, the ancient Saguntum, he pre- 
 pared the way for the conquest of Valencia, which surrendered 
 by capitulation (Jan. 9, 1812.) 
 
 At the commencement of 1812, the French forces in Spain 
 amounted to 150,000 men. The allies consisted of 52,000 Eng- 
 lish troops, 24,000 Portuguese, and 100,000 Spaniards, mcluding 
 20,000 guerillas. Lord Wellington reduced Ciudad Rodrigo 
 (Jan. 19,) and then retired once more mto Portugal, where he 
 
260 CHAPTER xn. 
 
 kept on the defensive for nearly five months. He then attacked 
 Salamanca, took that city (June 28,) and defeated Marmont in 
 the famous battle of Areopiles, near Salamanca (July 21,) where 
 Clausel saved the French army from a complete rout. Joseph 
 Bonaparte quitted Madrid. Soult gave orders to raise the siege 
 of Cadiz, which had continued for two years. He evacuated 
 Andalusia, and joined King Joseph in Murcia. Wellington, 
 now master of Burgos, was desirous to get possession also Oi 
 the citadel of that place, the acquisition of which was necessary 
 for his safety. But Souham, who had succeeded Marmont, and 
 Soult having approached on both sides to save the town, the 
 British General retired again into Portugal, and Joseph Bona- 
 parte returned to Madrid (Nov. 1.) 
 
 At this time the North of Europe had been the theatre of 
 great events. For some time, the friendship between the Courts 
 of St. Petersburg and St. Cloud had been growing cool. The 
 last usurpations of Bonaparte, during the course of 1810, brought 
 about a complete rupture. The extension of the French Empire 
 towards the Baltic, was becoming a subject of suspicion and 
 anxiety to Alexander. The manner in which Bonaparte had 
 taken possession of the dutch}^ of Oldenburg, the patrimony of 
 his family, was an outrage against his person. The first symp- 
 tom of discontent which he exhibited, was by abandoning the 
 Continental system, although indirectly, by an Ukase (Dec. 13, 
 1810,) which permitted the importation of colonial produce, 
 while it interdicted that of France, wine only excepted. Under 
 pretext of organizing a force for the maintenance of these regu- 
 lations, he raised an army of 90,000 men. A rupture with Bo- 
 naparte appeared then unavoidable. 
 
 In Sweden also there arose new subjects of quarrel. Bona- 
 parte complained, that in that country the Continental system had 
 not been put in execution with sufficient rigour. He demanded, 
 that Charles XIII. should put two thousand sailors into his pay; 
 that he should introduce the Tariff of Trianon, and admit French 
 revenue-officers at Gottenburg. In short, Sweden, Denmark, 
 and the dutchy of Warsaw, were to form a confederation, under 
 the protection of France. Daring these discussions, Marshal 
 Davoust, who commanded in the north of Germany, took pos- 
 session of Swedish Pomerania and the Isle of Rugen (Jan. 27, 
 1812.) Bonaparte ofiered, however, to surrender that province 
 to Sweden, and to compel Alexander to restore Finland to her, 
 if Charles XIII. would agree to furnish 30,000 troops against 
 Russia. 
 
 Sweden, on the contrary, was on terms of conciliation with 
 that power, By an alliance, which was signed at St. Petersburg 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 261 
 
 (April 5,) Alexander promised to procure her Norway. A body 
 of between twenty-five and thirty thousand Swedes, and be- 
 tween fifteen and twenty thousand Russians, were then to make a 
 diversion against France on the coasts of Germany. This 
 arrangement was afterwards changed ; in a conference which 
 the Emperor had at Abo (Aug. 30,) the latter consented that the 
 Russian troops, destined to act in Norw^ay, should be transported 
 to Riga for the defence of Russia; and that they should not, till 
 a later period, undertake the conquest of Norway. Charles XIII. 
 was also reconciled to England, while he had always pretended 
 to be ignorant of the declaration of war of November 17, 1810. 
 A treaty of peace was signed at Orebro (July 12,) where they 
 agreed, though in general terms, on a defensive alliance. 
 
 Bonaparte, seeing the moment approach when a rupture with 
 Russia would take place, hesitated for some time as to the part 
 he should take with regard to Prussia, in the very centre of 
 which he still possessed three fortresses. He determined at last 
 to preserve that State, and to make an ally of it, on which the 
 principal burden of the war should fall. Four conventions were 
 concluded at Paris, on the same day (Feb. 24,) between these 
 two powers. By the principal treaty, an alliance purely defen- 
 sive was established ; but according to certain secret articles, 
 that alliance was declared oflfensive; on such terms, however, 
 that Prussia was not to furnish any contingent beyond the Py- 
 renees in Italy, or against the Turks. By the first convention, 
 which was likewise to be kept secret, the alliance was expressly 
 directed against Russia ; and the King of Prussia promised to 
 furnish a body of 20,000 auxiliary troop3. Glogau, Stettin, and 
 Gastrin, were to be still occupied by the French. The two other 
 conventions related to the sumis still due by Prussia, and the sup- 
 plies which she had to furnish. 
 
 A few days after, there was also signed at Paris a defensive 
 alliance against Russia, between Austria and France. The recip- 
 rocal supplies to be furnished by each, was 30,000 men ; and the 
 Court of Vienna was given to hope, that she might again be re- 
 stored to the possession of the Illyrian Provinces. From that mo- 
 ment, Bonaparte began to make the most active preparations. By 
 a decree of the Senate, the whole m.ale population of France, be- 
 tween the ages of twenty and sixty years, was divided into three 
 Bans, or bodies summoned by proclamation ; the first of these 
 contained 100,000 men, to be placed at the disposal of the govern- 
 ment. The princes of the confederation were to furnish their con- 
 tingent as follows : — Bavaria 30,000 troops, Westphalia and 
 Saxony each 20,000, Wurtemberg 14,000, and the kingdom of 
 Italy 40,000. Negotiations were at that time in progress between 
 
262 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Bonaparte and Alexander, apparently with a view of adjusting 
 their mutual complaints. But matters had recently taken a 
 turn, which left little reason to hope that they would come to 
 any satisfactory result. These conferences were continued at 
 Dresden where Bonaparte had gone, and where he met the Em- 
 peror and Empress of Austria, the King of Prussia, and a great 
 number of the princes of the Rhenish Confederation. This 
 was the last moment of Bonaparte's greatness. He waited the 
 return of Count Narbonne, whom he had sent to Wilna with 
 his last proposals to the Emperor Alexander. Immediately af- 
 ter the arrival of the Count, war v/as declared (June 12, 1812.) 
 
 The army of Bonaparte amounted to 587,000 men, of which 
 73,000 were cavalry. It was separated into three grand divi- 
 sions ; the main army was composed of the divisions of Da- 
 voust, Oudinot, and Ney. It contained also the troops of Wur- 
 temberg, at the head of whom was the Prince Royal. The 
 second army, commanded by Eugene Beauharnais, consisted of 
 the divisions of Junot and St. Cyr ; the Bavarians, under the 
 command of Deroy and Wrede, made a part of it. The third 
 army, commanded by Jerome Bonaparte, consisted of the Poles, 
 under Prince Poniatowski, the Saxons, under Regnier, and the 
 Westphalians under Vandamme. The Austrian auxiharies, at 
 the head of whom was Prince Schwartzenberg, formed the ex- 
 treme right wing. The corps of Marshal Macdonald and the 
 Prussians, were placed on the extreme left. To oppose this 
 immense mass, Alexander had only 260,000 men, divided into 
 two armies, which were called the first and second armies of 
 the West. The former, under the command of Count Barclay 
 de Tolly, extended as far as Grodno, and communicated on the 
 north side with Count d'Essen, Governor of Riga ; and on the 
 south, with the second army of the West, at the head of which 
 was Prince Bagration. But independently of these forces, 
 there were bodies of reserve, and armies of observation, formed 
 with all expedition, and ultimately joined with the main armies. 
 
 Of the great number of battles fought during this memorable 
 campaign, we must content ourselves with selecting the more 
 important ; without entering into a detail of the various move- 
 ments of either party. The inferiority of numbers which Alex- 
 ander had to oppose to Bonaparte, seemed to render a defensive 
 plan advisable, according to which, by destroying all the means 
 of subsistence in the districts which they abandoned, they might 
 allure the enemy into countries desolated and destitute of every 
 resource. Bonaparte allowed himself to be duped by feint re- 
 treats ; his scheme was to place himself between the two Rus- 
 sian armies, and after having destroyed both, to penetrate into 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 263 
 
 the interior of the Empire, where he reckoned on finding im- 
 mense riches, and to dictate the terms of peace, as he had twice 
 done at Vienna. 
 
 The passage of the Niemen, by the French army, was the 
 commencement of hostilities (June 22 ;) the Russians immedi- 
 ately began their system of retreat. Bonaparie, at first, suc- 
 ceeded in penetrating between the two armies ; but after several 
 battles fought by Prince Bagration, more especially th-at at 
 Mohiloff (July 23,) the two armies effected a junction at Smo- 
 lensko. Jerome Bonaparte and Vandamme, to whom B.onaparte 
 attributed that check, were ordered to quit the French army, 
 while he himself advanced as far as Witepsk. 
 
 Bonaparte engaged Barclay de Tolly, and fought a bloody 
 battle with him at Smolensko (Aug. 17.) He took possession 
 of that city by force, after it had been set on fire by the inhabit- 
 ants. He found no provisions in it, and scarcely a shelter to 
 cover his sick and wounded. On the news of the progress 
 which the French were making, a general enthusiasm seized 
 the Russian nation. Alexander had encouraged and excited 
 this patriotic spirit by repairing to Moscow. The nobles armed 
 their peasantry, and prepared to fight with desperation to the 
 last. The two armies of the West were combined into one, 
 of which Prince KutusofT took the command. He engaged 
 Bonaparte, and fought the famous battle of Moskwa, about 
 twenty-five leagues from Moscow (Sept. 7.) Although 65,000 
 men, including Russians, French, and allies, were left dead on 
 the field of battle, that action was by no means decisive ; but 
 Kutusoff, w^hose army was reduced to 70,000 men, while Bona- 
 parte, out of 150,000, had still 120,000 left, resolved to continue 
 his retreat, and to leave Moscow at the mercy of the enemy. 
 The French entered that place seven days after the battle (Sept. 
 14.) They found that ancient capital entirely abandoned, but 
 still containing immense wealth which the inhabitants had not 
 been able to carry with them. Within two days, a conflagra- 
 tion which broke out in five hundred places at once, reduced 
 that immense city to a heap of ashes. The precautions of the 
 incendiaries had been so well taken, that all the efforts of the 
 French to arrest the progress of the flames proved ineffectual; 
 and out of "9158 houses, they could only save 2041. Thus 
 perished irrevocably the means of subsistence, which had for a 
 moment revived the courage of the invaders. 
 
 In a short time famine began to make its appearance in the 
 army of Bonaparte. Dissembling the real state of his affairs, 
 he twice offered peace. Alexander refused to treat at a time 
 when the war was only on the eve of commencing ; and told 
 
2W CHAPTER XII. 
 
 the Russian general-s, that he was still resolved to continue his 
 retreat, which commenced accordingly on the 15th October. 
 Marshal Mortier, who commanded the rear-guard, had orders to 
 set lire to the Kremlin, the palace of the ancient Czars of Rus- 
 sia. Bonaparte directed his march towards Smolensko, through 
 a country reduced to an entire desert. He was incessantly 
 harassed by the Russians, whose troops, marching at a conve- 
 nient distance, attacked both his flanks. On arriving at Smo- 
 lensko (Nov. 9,) after having lost 40,000 men, the army was 
 assailed by the rigours of winter, which added to their other 
 misfortunes. KutusofT having advanced before them, and tak- 
 ing post at Krasnoi, they were obliged to force a passage with 
 the loss of 13,000 men, and 70 pieces of cannon. Two days 
 after, 11,000 men of Ney's division, laid down their arms ; 
 35,000 men, and twenty-five cannons without horses, were all 
 that remained to the conqueror of Moscow. 
 
 This exhausted and dispirited army had 50 leagues to march, 
 before they could reach the Beresina, where other dangers 
 awaited them. The passage of that river was occupied by the 
 army of Tchichagoff, amounting to 50,000 men, who had arrived 
 from Moldavia. Another Russian army, under Count Witgen- 
 stein, was marching from the north to join the former ; but 
 Marshal Victor's body of reserve, which had arrived from Prus- 
 sia, intercepted them for a while, without having been able to 
 prevent their final junction. Victor, Oudinot, and Dombrowski, 
 brought a reinforcement to Bonaparte of 35,000 men, exhaust- 
 ed with cold and famine. The passage of the Beresina was 
 forced with admirable bravery (Nov. 27-28 ;) but it cost France 
 or the allies, the lives or the liberty of more than 30,000 men. 
 
 At this point, the main body of the Russians ceased to pursue 
 the unfortunate wreck of Bonaparte's army ; nevertheless, as 
 far as Wilna, they were continually harassed by the Cossacs. 
 There was besides a frightful deficiency of provisions and 
 clothing, so that upwards of 25,000 men fell a sacrifice to these 
 privations in their route to Wilna. This was the first city oi 
 town that fell in their way ; all the others had been completely 
 destroyed; the miserable remnant who reached that place (Dec. 
 9,) were at length supplied with provisions ; but the Cossacs 
 did not leave them long in the enjoyment of repose. On the 
 following day they were obliged to commence their retreat to 
 Kowno, from which they directed their march towards the Vis- 
 tula. Independently of the corps of Macdonald, who had the 
 Prussians under his command, and of the auxiliary body of 
 Austrians and Saxons, none of which took any part in that 
 route, only 18,800 French and Italians, and about 23,000 Poles 
 and Germans, found their way back from Russia. 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 265 
 
 Bonaparte himself had taken his departure privately on the 
 5th December, leaving the command of the army to Murat. 
 Wiih such despatch had he consulted his safety, that on the ISth 
 of the same month he arrived at Paris. 
 
 Prince Schwartzenberg, being joined by General Reynier who 
 commanded the Saxons, had fought several engagements with 
 the army of Tchichagoff, none of which had proved decisive ; 
 and after the affair of the Beresina he had retired towards War- 
 saw and Pultusk. Several most sanguinary engagements, 
 although not more decisive than the former, had taken place 
 between Count Witgenstein and the left wing of the French 
 army ; especially towards the commencement of the campaign, 
 when Marshals Oudinot and St. Cyr had joined Macdonald. 
 On these occasions, the Prussians had rendered very important 
 services ; but the moment Geperal Yorke, who commanded 
 these auxiliaries, had been informed of the retreat of Bonaparte, 
 he thought himself authorized, not from any political motives 
 which he would never have avowed, but from the destitute con- 
 dition in which he had been left, to conclude a capitulation with 
 the Russians, by which he withdrew his whole forces from the 
 French army (Dec. 29.) 
 
 That event was of little importance in itself, although it pro- 
 duced a very great sensation in Prussia, and served as a pretext 
 for Bonaparte to demand new levies, without being obliged to 
 acknowledge the whole extent of the losses he had sustained. 
 One of his ministers, Regnault d'Angely, spoke of the event, in 
 his official report, as the Glorious Retreat of Moscow ! More- 
 over, a decree of the Senate, issued at the commencement of the 
 following year (Jan. 11,) placed a new conscription of 350,000 
 men at the disposal of the government. In order to raise the 
 necessary funds for this new armament, Bonaparte seized the 
 revenues of all the communes in France ; their properties were 
 sold to promote his schemes ; and he promised to make them 
 ample reimbursements, by assigning to them annuities on the 
 civil list. 
 
 Nothing annoyed Bonaparte so much as the incessant resis- 
 tance and opposition of Pope Pius VII. In the hope of gaining 
 a more easy victory, by bringing that respectable old man nearer 
 his person, he had ordered him to be conveyed to the Palace of 
 Fontainbleau, about the middle of the year 1812. After his re- 
 turn from Moscow, he repaired thither himself, and succeeded 
 in extorting the Pope's consent to a new Concordat ; on condi- 
 tion, however, that the stipulations should be kept secret, until 
 they were examined by a Consistory of Cardinals. But Bona- 
 parte took an early opportunity of publishing this new Concor- 
 
 voL. 11. 2.S 
 
266 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 dal, as a fundamental law of the State — a circumstance which 
 induced Pius VII. to disavow it, and to declare it null and of 
 none effect. 
 
 Meantime, a new and formidable league was preparing against 
 Bonaparte. After the campaign of 1812, the King of Prussia 
 had demanded, agreeably to the convention of February 24th, 
 that Bonaparte should reimburse him for the ninety-three mil- 
 lions which he had advanced in furnishing supplies to tl^e French 
 army, beyond the sum which he owed as his contingent for the 
 war. The refusal of Bonaparte to pay that debt, served as a 
 pretext for Frederic William to shake off an alliance so contrary 
 to the true interests of his kingdom. An appeal which he made 
 to the nation excited a general enthusiasm ; and as every thing 
 had been for fiv^e years preparing in secret, in the twinkling of 
 an eye the Prussian army, which had been reduced to 42,000 
 men, was raised to 128,000. *This defection of Prussia fur- 
 nished Bonaparte with a plea for demanding new levies. A de- 
 cree of the Senate (April 3, 1813,) ordered him 180,000 addi- 
 tional troops. 
 
 The treaty which was signed at Kalisch and Breslau (Feb. 
 27, 28,) laid the foundation of an intimate alliance between Rus- 
 sia and the King of Prussia. Alexander promised to furnish 
 150,000 men, and Prussia 80,000, exclusive of the troops in 
 garrisons and fortresses. Alexander moreover engaged never 
 to lay down arms until Prussia should be restored to her statis- 
 tical, financial, and geographical position, conformably to the 
 state of that monarchy, such as it had been before the war of 
 1806. Within a few days after, these two monarchs had an 
 interview at Breslau, where a more intimate friendship was con 
 tracted, which subsisted between them for a long time. 
 
 Prince Kutusoff issued a proclamation, dated from Kalisch 
 (March 23, 1813,) which announced to the Germans that the 
 Confederation of the Rhine must henceforth be regarded as dis- 
 solved. The House of Mecklenburg, without waiting for that 
 annunciation, had already set the first example of abandoning 
 that league. The allies had flattered themselves that the King 
 of Saxony would make common cause with them; but that 
 monarch declared that he would remain faithful to his system. 
 This perseverance of a respectable Prince whose country abound- 
 ed with resources, did much injury to the common cause. At 
 a later date, it cost the King of Saxony the half of his estates, 
 without taking into account the dutchy of Warsaw, which could 
 never be regarded but as a precarious possession. 
 
 The King of Sweden had engaged with Alexander to make 
 a diversion on the rear of Bonaparte ; on condition that he would 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 267 
 
 secure him the possession of Norway, or at least the province 
 of that kino-dom called the Bishopric of Drontheim. Great Bri- 
 tain was desirous that that arrangement should be made with 
 the consent of the King of Denmark, who was offered a com- 
 pensation on the side of Holstein, as well as the whole of Swe- 
 dish Pomerania. Frederic VI. having given an absolute refu- 
 sal, a treaty between Great Britain and Sweden was concluded 
 at Stockholm (March 3, 1813,) by which the latter engaged to 
 employ a body of 30,000 troops on the Continent in active ser- 
 vice against France. It was agreed that this army should act 
 in concert with the Russian troops placed, in consequence of 
 other arrangements, under the command of the Prince Royal of 
 Sweden. Great Britain promised to employ every necessary 
 means for procuring Sweden the possession of Norway, without 
 having recourse to force ; unless the King of Denmark should 
 refuse to accede to the alliance of the North. She promised to 
 furnish supplies to Sweden, and ceded to her the island of 
 Guadaloupe. After this alliance with England, Sweden entered 
 likewise into a league offensive and defensive with Prussia, by 
 a treaty which was signed at Stockholm (April 22.) Frederic 
 William promised to despatch 27,000 troops to join the army 
 which the Prince Royal commanded in Germany. 
 
 Murat, to whom Bonaparte had intrusted the command of the 
 few troops which he had brought back from Moscow, abandoned 
 his commission, and retired to Naples. Eugene Beauhamais 
 then assumed the command, and arrived with 16,000 men on the 
 Elbe (March 10;) but after being joined by the French troops 
 from Pomerania, the Bavarians, the Saxons, and a corps Vvhich 
 General Grenier had formed, his army by the end of the 
 month amounted to 87,000 men ; extending along the left bank 
 of the river from Dresden to Hamburg. In a short time, the 
 whole disposable force of Bonaparte in Germany were again 
 augmented to 308,000 men. 
 
 The Prussian army consisted of 128,000 troops, including 
 garrisons and bodies of reserve; but the three battalions of 
 Blucher, Yorke, and Bulow, who had taken the field, did not 
 amount to more than 51,000 combatants. The main army of 
 the Russians, which, since the death of Kutusoff, had been com- 
 manded by Count Witgenstein, amounted to 38,000 men ; al- 
 though the whole of the Russian forces on the Vistula and the 
 Oder, and between the Oder and the Elbe, amounted to 166,000 
 men. The first action, v.^hich took place in Germany, was the 
 battle of Luneburg (April 2,) where the Russian General Doren- 
 berg obliged General Morand's division, on their route from 
 Pomerania, to lay down their arms. 
 
268 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 On the 5th of April, Bonaparte took the command of his an y 
 ."n person ; and on the 2d of May with 115,000 men, he engage i*. 
 169,000 Prussians and Kiissians, under the command of W it- 
 genstein. The advantage in that action was on the side of the 
 French. The loss on both sides was equal. The Prussians 
 took 1000 prisoners, with 10 pieces of cannon, without them- 
 selves losing one. The scene of this battle, so glorious for the 
 Prussians, was in the neighbourhood of Gross-Gerschen. to 
 which Bonaparte gave the name of Lutzen, in commemoration 
 of the famous Gustavus Adolphus. In his bulletins he repre- 
 sented that battle, which was by no means decisive, as a com- 
 plete victory, because the allies did not renew the combat, and 
 next day commenced their retreat to the right bank of the Rhine, 
 to advance nearer to their reinforcements. 
 
 They took up a position at Bautzen. Their numbers there 
 amounted to 96,000 men, who engaged 148,000 French, under 
 the command of Bonaparte (May 21, 1813.) The Allies had 
 determined not to expose themselves to a defeat, but to terminate 
 every battle the moment they saw it could not turn to their ad- 
 vantage. Within five days after that engagement, to which the 
 French gave the name of the battle of Wurtchen, Blucher gain- 
 ed a decided advantage at Haynau ov^er the division of General 
 Maison, and captured the Avhole of their artillery. An armis- 
 tice was then concluded between the two parties at Poischwitz. 
 
 This measure was at the request of Bonaparte, as it was 
 necessary for him to await the arrival of his reinforcements , 
 especially since he found himself menaced on the North by an 
 invasion of the Swedes. It is probable he would not have taken 
 this step had he penetrated the views of Austria ; but Count 
 Metternich had dexterously contrived to conceal these from him, 
 in the several interviews which he had with him at Dresden, so 
 that the sagacity of that great commander was completely at 
 fault. The Allies had no wish for an armistice, which could 
 only make them lose time, as their armaments were in a state 
 of readiness ; but they consented to it at the request of Austria, 
 who had need of some delay to complete her preparations, 
 although she was at first actuated by a different motive. She 
 had still hopes to avoid the war, by inducing Bonaparte to accept 
 those moderate conditions of peace to which the Allies had given 
 their consent by the treaty of June 27, of which we shall have 
 occasion to speak immediately. At the time when the armistice 
 was signed, Count Metternich, who had apprized Bonaparte of 
 these conditions, had already certain information that the two 
 monarchs were not deceived in predicting that they would be 
 refused. All hopes of peace had now vanished ; but there still 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 269 
 
 remained another motive, which made the Court of Vienna 
 anxious for further delay. 
 
 By a convention signed at Dresden (June 30,) Bonaparte ac- 
 cepted the mediation of Austria for a peace, either general or 
 Continental ; and the armistice, which was to expire on the 20th 
 July, was prolonged to the 10th of August. At the request of 
 Francis I., a sort of congress was opened at Prague. Bonaparte 
 had no wish for peace, as he never supposed that Austria would 
 declare against him. The Allies had no wish for it, as they 
 knew well the disposition of that power ; while Austria, the only 
 Cabinet which had pacific views, had given up all hope of ever 
 bringing Bonaparte to any reasonable terms of accommodation. 
 Such were the auspices under which the Congress of Prague 
 was opened. They were discussing the form in which the ne- 
 gotiations were to proceed, when the 10th of August arrived. 
 The ministers of Russia and Prussia then declared that the 
 term of the armistice had expired, and consequently that their 
 diplomatic powers were at an end. 
 
 Within two da3^s after, Austria declared war against Bona- 
 parte ; and the three monarchs who met at Prague, resolved to 
 accompany the main army, which was under the command of 
 Prince Schwartzenberg, during the whole campaign. 
 
 It will not be improper here to give a summary of the treaties 
 which constituted the sixth coalition, and procured the accession 
 of Austria so decisive for the cause of the allies. (1.) The 
 treaty of Reichenbach (June 14,) between Great Britain and 
 Prussia. The former bound herself to pay to the other, within 
 the six months, 666,666Z. sterling, for the maintenance of 80,000 
 troops ; and came under the same engagement with regard to 
 the augmentation of Prussia, that Russia had entered into by 
 the treaty of Kalisch. The King of Prussia promised to cede 
 to the Electorate of Hanover a certain portion of territory, inclu- 
 ding the principality of Hildesheim, and containing a population 
 of between 3 and 400,000 souls. (2.) The treaty of Reichen- 
 bach between Great Britain and Russia (June 15,) by which the 
 former promised to pay to the other, before the expiration of the 
 year, 1,333,334Z. sterling, for the maintenance of 160,000 men. 
 (3.) The treaty of Reichenbach, between Austria, Prussia, and 
 Russia (June 27 ;) the first engaged to declare war against Bo- 
 naparte, if at the conclusion of the armistice he had not accepted 
 the conditions of peace which they offered him. The following 
 are the proposals to which we have already alluded. Austria 
 on her own behalf, demanded only the restitution of the Illyrian 
 provinces, and the territory which she had ceded to the dutchy 
 of Warsaw. Such were the pledges of her sincere desire for 
 VOL. II. 23=^ 
 
270 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 restoring peace to Europe. Prussia was content to obtain the 
 restitution of her part of the same dutchy, and that of Dantzic, 
 and the evacuation of the fortresses occupied by the French ; 
 thus abandoning all her possessions on the left bank of the Elbe. 
 Moreover, they allowed the kingdom of Westphalia still to re- 
 main, and they deprived Bonaparte only of his last usurpations 
 in the north of Germany. By another article of the treaty, it 
 was stipulated, that if these conditions were rejected, and war 
 once begun, they should never make peace but on condition that 
 Austria and Prussia were to be again placed on the footing in 
 which they had been in 1805 ; that the Confederation of the 
 Rhine should be dissolved ; the independence of Holland and 
 Italy secured : and the House of Bourbon restored to the throne 
 of Spain. (4.) The treaty of Peterswaldau between Great Bri- 
 tain and Russia (July 6.) by which the former undertook to sup- 
 port a German legion of 10,000 men for the service of Russia, 
 (5.) A definitive alliance signed at Toplitz (Sept. 9,) between 
 Austria, Prussia, and Russia, by which these powers were to 
 assist each other with 60,000 men. It was agreed to reconstruct 
 the Austrian monarchy upon the plan approaching as near as 
 possible to that of 1805; to dissolve the Confederation of the 
 Rhine and the kingdom of Westphalia ; and to restore the House 
 of Brunswick-Luneburg. (6.) The treaty of alliance signed at 
 Toplitz between Austria and Great Britain. 
 
 Bonaparte, on his side, likewise acquired an ally at this im- 
 portant crisis. The Danes had already entered into Hamburg 
 with the French, when Marshal Davoust compelled General 
 Tettenborn to evacuate that city, (May 30,) which he had got 
 possession of in the month of March. An English fleet having 
 appeared off Copenhagen (May 31,) and demanded the cession 
 of Norway in favour of Sweden, the King of Denmark conclu- 
 ded a treaty with Bonaparte at Copenhagen, by which the former 
 engaged to declare war against Sweden, Russia and Prussia, 
 and the latter against Sweden. Immediately after, an army of 
 12,000 Danes, under the command of Frederic Prince of Hesse 
 was joined to that of Davoust. 
 
 The plan of the campaign for the allies had been settled in 
 the conference held at Trachenberg by the Emperor of Russia, 
 the King of Prussia, the Prince Royal of Sweden, and the pleni- 
 potentiaries of Austria and Great Britain. The forces of the 
 Coalition amounted to 264,000 Austrians, 249,000 Russians. 
 277,000 Prussians, and 24,000 Swedes; but not more than 
 700,000 men were engaged in the cam.paign ; of which 192,000 
 were occupied with the sieges of Dantzic, Zamoscz, Glogau, Cus- 
 trin, and Stettin. These 700,000 men were divided as follows 
 
3?ERI0D IX. A. D. 1810 — 1815. 271 
 
 The Army of Bohemia, composed of Austrians, Russians, and 
 Prussians, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg, 
 amounted to 237,700 men, with 698 pieces of cannon. 
 
 The Army of the North, composed of Prussians, Russians, 
 and Swedes, under the command of the Prince Royal of Swe- 
 den, amounting to 154,000 men, with 387 pieces of cannon. 
 
 The Army of Silesia, composed of Prussians and Russians, 
 under the command of Blucher, 95,000 strong, with 356 pieces 
 of cannon. 
 
 The Austrian Army of Bavaria, commanded by Prince Reuss, 
 containing 42,700 men, with 42 pieces of cannon. 
 
 The Austi'ian Army in Italy, under Hiller, 50,000 strong, 
 with 120 pieces of cannon. 
 
 The Austrian Army of Reserve, stationed between Vienna 
 and Presburg, under the command of Duke Ferdinand of Wur- 
 temberg, 60,000 strong. 
 
 The Russian Ai^my of Reserve in Poland, under the command 
 of Bennigsen, 57,000 strong, with 198 pieces of cannon. 
 
 To these forces Bonaparte opposed an army of 462,000 men, 
 including 80,000 who occupied thirteen fortresses ; besides the 
 army of Bavaria, which watched the movements of the Prince of 
 Reuss, and 40,000 men which Eugene Beauharnais had in Italy. 
 
 Hostilities recommenced immediately after the termination of 
 the armistice ; Silesia, Saxony, and sometimes the frontiers, be- 
 came the theatre of war. The Prince Royal of Sweden 
 covered Berlin, which was threatened by Marshal Oudinot. 
 The battle of Gross-Beeren (Aug. 23,) which was gained by 
 ihe Prussian General Bulow, saved the capital. In Silesia, 
 Blucher, pressed hard b}^ Bonaparte, had retired as far as Jauer ; 
 but the latter having intelligence of the march of the allies on 
 Dresden, retraced his steps with a part of his army, while Blucher 
 attacked Marshal Macdonald at the river Katsbach, and gained 
 a signal victory (Aug. 26,) in which he took 10,000 prisoners, 
 and 103 pieces of cannon. General Puthod, who commanded a 
 detachment of ^00 men, was obliged to surrender at Plagwitz 
 to Count Langeron (Aug. 29.) The army of Bohemia attacked 
 Dresden a few hours after Bonaparte had arrived with his rein- 
 forcements. The battle was bloody, and lasted two days (Aug. 
 26, 27.) Thirteen thousand Austrians being cut off on the left 
 wing, were obliged to lay do\^m their arms ; the allies retired in 
 good order, leaving 6000 men killed and wounded on the field 
 of battle, and 26 pieces of cannon in the hands of the French, who 
 had lost 18,000 men by that victory. General Moreau, who had 
 come on the invitation of the Prince Royal of Sweden to take 
 a part in the struggle against Napoleon, was mortally wounded. 
 
272 CHAPTER Xli. 
 
 Before the battle, Vandamme had been detached with 30,00t/ 
 men to cut off the retreat of the allies. He encountered Count 
 Ostermann Tolstoy, who was at the head of 8000 Austrians, and 
 repulsed him as far as the valley of Calm. The King- of Prus- 
 sia, who was at Toplitz, apprized the Russian general, that un- 
 less he made haste to arrest the march of Vandamme, the latter 
 would succeed in cutting off the Emperor Alexander from hia 
 army. The Russians fought the whole day (Aug. 29,) with the 
 most heroic determination ; Count Ostermann having had his 
 left arm carried off by a shot, the command was taken by 
 Marshal Milloradowich. At length they were reinforced by 
 several Austrian and Russian armies, which the King of Prussia 
 had sent to their assistance, and which enabled them to main- 
 tain their position. During the night, Barclay de Tolly had 
 arrived with new reinforcements, and next day (Aug. 30,) the 
 famous battle of Culm was fought, which was decided by the 
 arrrival of General Kleist on the heights of Noilendorf, lying 
 behind the position of Vandamme. The latter finding himself 
 thus intercepted, a part of his cavalry forced their passage, by 
 cutting their way through a regiment of recruits. Vandamme 
 then surrendered himself prisoner, with 10,000 men and 81 
 pieces of cannon. 
 
 The grand object of Bonaparte was to get possession of Ber- 
 lin. Ney, at the head of 80,000 men, was charged with the ex- 
 ecution of this enterprise. But he sustained a complete rout 
 at Denewitz (Sept. 6,) by the Prince Royal of Sweden ; and 
 another by BulowandTauenzieo. The French there lost 20,000 
 prisoners, with 80 pieces of cannon, and all their baggage. 
 The plan of the allies to withdraw Bonaparte from Dresden, and 
 allure him into the plains of Saxony, w^here they could unite 
 all their forces against him, succeeded entirely to their wish. 
 He quitted Dresden (Oct. 7,) at the head of 125,000 men, with 
 the hope of defeating the enemy in separate armies. But the 
 latter had mancEUvred so skilfully, that the armies of Bohemia, 
 the North, Silesia, and the Russian army of reserve, were 
 ready to effect a junction on a given signal. The plains of 
 Leipsic decided the fate of Bonaparte. His army there amount- 
 ed to 171,000 combatants. The allies would have had 301,000, 
 namely, 78,000 Austrians, 69,500 Prussians, 136,000 Russians, 
 and 18,000 Swedes, if they had been able to form a union at 
 the commencement of the battle. 
 
 Several different engagements had preceded this great battle. 
 On the 16th October, the army of Bohemia alone fought three 
 several actions at Wachau, Connewitz, and Lindenau. None 
 of these were prod active of any decisive result; but Blueher 
 
rfiaioDix. A. D. iSlO — 1S15. 273 
 
 had encoiintered Marshal Marmont on the same day, and de- 
 feated him at Mockern. On the following day, there were some 
 engagements, but without any decisive result ; they were fought 
 by the three armies of Sweden, Blucher, and Bennigsen, who 
 were on their march to the field of battle at Leipsic. Bona- 
 parte then began to be aware of the danger of his position. 
 For the first time he foresaw the possibility of a defeat, and 
 sent General Bertrand to Weissenfels to secure the bridge over 
 the Saai. On the 18th, at day-break, he made proposals of an 
 armistice and peace, through the Austrian General Meerfeld, 
 who had fallen into his hands ; but both the one and the other 
 were disregarded. This was the first day of the battle of Leip- 
 sic ; the French army resisted with great heroism, and it was 
 not till after the arrival of Blucher and the army of Sweden, 
 that they were compelled to abandon part of their position, and 
 TO retire to the very gates of Leipsic. Several bodies of Saxons 
 and Wurtembergers passed over on that day to the ranks of the 
 allies. During the night, the French army effected their retreat 
 by Leipsic to Weissenfels. Macdonald and Poniatowski had 
 orders to defend the city. It was attacked by the allies next 
 day. The French made a \'igorous resistance. At ten o'clock 
 in the morning, Bonaparte escaped among the fugitives, the 
 cannon, and the equipage which encumbered the gate of Altran- 
 stadt. The Elster, which runs by the city, had only one bridge, 
 which they caused to be blown up as soon as Bonaparte had 
 passed. Thus Macdonald and Poniatowski found themselves 
 fairly enclosed with their divisions. The latter was drowned 
 in attempting to swim across the Elster. Macdonald was made 
 prisoner, as well as the King of Saxony, who had remained at 
 Leipsic. Bonaparte, on these two days, lost in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners, 70,000 men, and 300 pieces of cannon. The 
 allies purchased that victory by the death of 50,000 of their 
 troops. 
 
 Bonaparte directed his flight with all haste towards Mayence, 
 closely pursued by the Cossacs, who made a great many pri- 
 soners, besides a rich booty in cannon and baggage. When he 
 arrived at Hanau, he found his passage intercepted by an enemy 
 which he did not expect. Since the month of August, a nego- 
 tiation had been set on foot with the King of Bavaria, for in- 
 ducing him to abandon the cause of Bonaparte. To this mea- 
 sure he at length agreed, by a convention, which was signed at 
 Ried (Oct. 8,) which secured to Bavaria the possession of ab- 
 solute and independent sovereignty, and complete indemnity for 
 ihe restitutions which she was, in that case, to make to Austria. 
 
 Immediately after the signing the convention at Hied^ the 
 
274 CHAPTER XI i. 
 
 Bavarian General Wrede, at the head of a body of between 
 45,000 and 50,000 Austrians and Bavarians, began their march 
 by Neuburg, Anspach, and Wurtsburg ; and after taking this 
 latter city, they proceeded to Hanau, of which he took possession 
 (Oct. 24,) with 36,000 or 40,000 men. He encountered the 
 French, who in their retreat had arrived at Gelnhausn ; there a 
 battle took place, which lasted for several successive days. Bo- 
 naparte lost 25,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; bat 
 with the 35,000 that were left, he forced a passage, and retired 
 to the left bank of the Rhine. Marshal St. Cyr, whom Bonaparte 
 had left at Dresden, was obliged to capitulate w^ith 27,000 men. 
 Dantzic surrendered with 20,000 men, and Torgau with 10,000. 
 
 In the month of May, Eugene Beauharnais had taken the 
 command of the army of Italy, which occupied the Illyrian pro- 
 vinces. But he was obliged to return beyond the Adige, before 
 General Hiller, who, having made himself master of the Tyrol- 
 was threatening to cut off his retreat. This campaign neverthe- 
 less did honour to the French general. 
 
 After the battle of Leipsic, the Prince Royal of Sweden 
 marched against Davoust and the Danes, the former of whom 
 was blocked up in Hamburg, and the Danes had retired into 
 Sleswick. An armistice was granted them, from which howevei 
 Gluckstadt and Fredericsort were excepted, as they had capitu- 
 lated during the cessation of hostilities. Frederic VI. concluded 
 a peace at Kiel in all haste (Jan. 14, 1S14;) and Denmark en- 
 tered into the alliance against Bonaparte. We shall have occasion 
 to speak afterwards of the mutual cessions that Avere made by 
 this treaty. On the same day Denmark signed a peace with 
 Great Britain. She promised to furnish 10,000 men to take the 
 field against Bonaparte, and Great Britain engaged to pay them 
 33,333Z. per month. Peace was at the same time established be- 
 tween Denmark and Russia, by the treaty of Hanover (Feb. 8;) 
 and between Denmark and Prussia by that of Berlin (Aug. 25.) 
 
 Meantime Bonaparte had recalled Marshal Soult from Spain 
 with a part of his troops. Lord Wellington, the Generalissimo 
 of the Spanish armies, defeated Jourdan at Vittoria (June 21, 
 1813,) where 15,000 French were left on the field of battle, and 
 3000 made prisoners. Jourdan lost the whole of his artillery. 
 Joseph Bonaparte then abandoned the throne of Spain for ever. 
 The activity of Marshal Suchet defeated an expedition by sea, 
 undertaken by Sir John Murray against Tarragona. Lord Wel- 
 lington took St. Sebastian and Pampeluna (Aug. 31,) and com- 
 pelled the French army to pass the Bidassoa, and to retire on 
 Bayonne. Soult again took the command, and by means o^ 
 reinforcements increased the army to 40^000 men* 
 
PERIOD IX. A. T). 1810—1815. S75 
 
 In Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine and the kingdom 
 of Westphalia had both been dissolved. The Electors of Han- 
 over and Hesse, the Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg, were 
 restored to the possession of their patrimonies, and joined the 
 alliance. The King of Wurtemberg, and the Elector of Baden, 
 made their peace with the Allies, by means of special treaties. 
 All the princes of the Rhenish Confederation entered into the 
 Grand League, except the King of Saxony, the Grand Duke of 
 Frankfort, and the princes of Isemburg and Leyen, who were 
 excluded from it, and their territories treated as conquered 
 provinces. 
 
 On his return to Paris, Bonaparte announced his inteniion of 
 continuing the war, and caused the Senate to grant him a new 
 conscription of 300,000 men. Nevertheless he appeared willing 
 to bring to a conclusion the negotiations which the Allies on the 
 Continent had set on foot. According to the terms agreed on at 
 Toplitz, the Rhine was to form the frontier of France, and the 
 kingdom of Holland was to be given to a brother of Bonaparte ; 
 but the movements of Napoleon, and the warlike preparations 
 which he had ordered, gave England an opportunity of changing 
 the sentiments of these monarchs ; and they determined to adopt 
 the scheme which Mr. Pitt had contrived in 1805. 
 
 The decree of the Senate, of November 18, 1813, completed 
 the immense number of 1,260,000 men ; all of whom, indepen- 
 dently of the existing army, had been sacrificed to the restless 
 ambition of Bonaparte. The forces with which the Allies in- 
 vaded France, were divided into three armies. 
 
 The Army of Bohemia, commanded by Prince Schwartzenberg, 
 and composed of 261,000 men, Austrians, Russians, Prussians, 
 and Germans, was destined to enter France by way of Switzer- 
 land, 
 
 The Army of Silesia, under the command of Blucher, consist- 
 ing of 137,000 men, Prussians, Russians, and Germans, were to 
 pass the Rhine near Mayence. 
 
 The Army of the North, composed of 174,000 Prussians, Rus- 
 sians, Germans, Swedes, Dutch and English, were to occupy 
 Holland and the Netherlands. They were to be commanded by 
 the Prince Royal of Sweden, and, in his absence, by the Duke 
 of Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 Independently of these three armies, the Allies had an army 
 of reserve of 235,000 men, and the Austrians had an army of 
 80,000 men in Italy. About the end of December 1813, and 
 the beginning of the year 1814, the two first armies entered 
 France. We can only advert to the principal events of that 
 short campaign. After some actions of minor importance 
 
276 CHAPIER 
 
 Blucher attacked Bonaparte at Rothiere with a superior force, 
 and in spite of the vigorous resistance which he met with, he 
 gained a complete victory (Feb. 1.) Thirteen days afterwards, 
 Bonaparte returned him the compliment at Etoges or Vauchamp. 
 Being enclosed by Grouchy, Blucher had to cut his way at the 
 point of the bayonet, and lost 6000 men. 
 
 The Allies, after having received various checks, combined 
 their two armies at Troyes (Feb. 21 ;) but Prince Schwartzen- 
 'T, not wishing to give battle in that position, began to retreat, 
 Bl'uc-Cler then separated from him to continue on the defensive ; 
 after being reinforced, however, by the divisions of Bulow and 
 Winzingerode, which had arrived from Belgium ; their junction 
 took place at Soissons (March 3.) Blucher took up a position 
 behind the Aisne. Bonaparte having passed that river, defeated 
 two bodies of Russians under Woronzoff and Saken at Craoiie 
 (March 7,) and attacked Blucher at Laon (March 10.) He was 
 there totally defeated ; and that victory induced Schwartzenberg 
 to abandon the defensive, and march on Paris. He engaged 
 Bonaparte at Arcis-sur-Aube, where the battle, although bloody, 
 was not decisive. They were in expectation of seeing the en- 
 gagement renewed next day, when Bonaparte suddenly resoh^ed 
 to march to St. Dizier, to cut off the allies from their communi- 
 cation with the Rhine, as well as to draw reinforcements from 
 the garrisons of Lorraine and Alsace, and thus transfer the the- 
 atre of war to Germany. 
 
 But before bringing the sketch of this campaign to a close, 
 it will be necessary to take notice of the Congress of Chatillon, 
 which was opened on the 5th February, and v/hich was a con- 
 tinuation of the negotiations that had taken place towards the 
 close of the year 1813. The allies consented to allow Bona- 
 parte to retain the crown of France, but the limits of that king- 
 dom to be reduced to what they had been in 1792. Bonaparte 
 at first seemed willing to treat on these terms, but his real ob- 
 ject was to gain time. Whenever his troops had gained any 
 advantage he immediately heightened his tone ; and in the 
 course of six weeks the aUies broke off the conference. Durinir 
 the sitting of the Congress of Chatillon, Austria, Great Britain, 
 Prussia and Russia, signed the famous Quadruple Alliance at 
 Chaumont (March 1,) which became the basis of the new politi- 
 cal system of Europe. Each of the allies engaged to maintain 
 an army of 150,000 men constantly in the field against the com- 
 mon enemy. Great Britain promised to furnish to the three 
 other powers a subsidy of 5,000,000Z. sterling foi the year 1814; 
 in such a way, however, that she was only to pay them propor- 
 tionallY ^^^^^ the end of the month in which the peace should 
 
Battle of Waterloo; contest of the 42(1 Regiment for the French 
 Eagles. Vol. 2, p, 2S7. 
 
 Battle of Waterloo. Vol, 2, p. 287. 
 
PEETOD ;X. A. D. 1810 1815. 277 
 
 be concluded, adding to these two months for the return of the 
 Austrian and Prussian troops, and four for those of the Russians. 
 The main object of this alliance was the re-establishment of an 
 equilibrium of power, based upon the following arrangements : — - 
 German^ to be composed of Sovereign Princes united by a fed- 
 eral bond : The Confederation of Switzerland to be restored to 
 its ancient limits and its former independence : Italy to be divi- 
 ded into Independent States, lying between the Austrian pos- 
 sessions in that peninsula and France : Holland to be a free 
 and independent State, under the sovereignty of the Prince of 
 Orange, with an increase of territory. 
 
 Blucher had made himself master of Chalons and Chateau 
 Thierry, when the allies learned, by an intercepted letter, what 
 were the plans of Bonaparte. In order to persuade him that 
 they had taken the alarm at his march, and were resolved to 
 follow him, they sent Count Winzingerode after him at the head 
 of a body of 8000 cavalrj^ which he might easily mistake for 
 the vanguard of the allies. By this manoeuvre he was deceived, 
 and continued his route eastwards while the allies directed their 
 march on Paris. Schwartzenberg attacked and beat the two 
 divisions of Marmont and Mortier, at Sonde St. Croix (March 
 25,) while the army of Silesia compelled Puthod and Amey to 
 surrender near Lafere Champenoise. This double encounter 
 cost the French 5000 killed, 10,000 prisoners, and 80 pieces of 
 cannon. Marmont and Mortier retreated to Paris, but they 
 were defeated at Montmartre and Belleville (March 30.) The 
 heights, which on that side overlook Paris, were taken by the 
 allies, who purchased that victory by the loss of 9000 men. A 
 capitulation for Paris was signed the same night. 
 
 The entrance of the allies into the capital of France took 
 place next day. The Emperor Alexander immediately declared 
 in his own name, and in that of his allies, that they could treat 
 no more with Napoleon, or with any of his family. He invited 
 the Senate to establish a provisional government, — a measure 
 which was necessary, as the Count D'Artois, who was appoint- 
 ed the King's Lieutenant-General, had not yet arrived. He 
 likewise invited that body to prepare a constitution, that is to 
 say, to submit their counsel and advice to the King, as to the 
 modifications to be made in the government ; for the French 
 constitution which is based on the Salic law has been in exis- 
 tence for centuries. The Emperor Alexander made that propo- 
 sal to the Senate, as being the only order of the State then in 
 existence ; but that monarch did not know that the Senate was 
 the last authority to which the public opinion would have granted 
 any influence, as to the settlement of the condition of France 
 
 vor,. 1T. 24 
 
278 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The General Council of the Department of the Seine, and the 
 Municipal Council of Paris, demanded the return of Louis 
 XVIIL, their legitimate sovereign (April 1.) In pronouncing 
 the deposition of Bonaparte next day, the Senate exercised a 
 right which did not belong to them. As that body owed its 
 existence to Napoleon, its functions should have ceased, with his. 
 
 On the seventh day of his march the Emperor of the French 
 discovered his error. He then returned in all haste towards 
 Fontainbleau. After several unsuccessful attempts, either to 
 regain his power or to transmit it to his son, he was obliged to 
 sign his abdication (April 10.) Next day Austria, Prussia, and 
 Russia, drevi'' up a convention with his delegates Ney, Macdon- 
 ald, and Caulincourt, by which, at the suggestion of the Empe- 
 ror of Russia, they secured him the possession of the Island of 
 Elba, with full sovereignty ; and the States of Parma for his 
 wife and son. Great Britain acceded to that arrangement, to 
 which the King of France 3^et remained a stranger. Bonaparte 
 soon after embarked at St. Rapheau, to repair to his place of 
 exile. 
 
 The narrow space to which we must confine our observations, 
 obliges us to pass in silence over the military events which took 
 place in Holland and Belgium, and on the side of Lyons. But 
 we must say a word or two on the war in the Pyrenees and in 
 Italy. Anticipating the resolutions of the Allied Sovereigns, 
 Lord Wellington, with whom the Duke D'Angouleme then was, 
 invited the French, by a proclamation dated January 27th, to 
 replace Louis on the throne. Within a month after, he defeated 
 the army of Soult at Orthes (Feb. 27,) and compelled that Gen- 
 eral to retire to Tarbes. To satisfy the wishes of the inhabi- 
 tants of Bourdeaux, Marshal Beresford conducted the Duke 
 D'Angouleme to that place, Avhich was the first city in France 
 that proclaimed Louis XVIIL (March 13.) The allies had 
 already entered Paris, and Bonaparte had abdicated his crown, 
 when Lord Wellington, who was ignorant of these events, fought 
 his last battle with Soult at Toulouse (April 10.) In that san- 
 guinary but fruitless engagement, the French were totally de- 
 feated. 
 
 In Italy, an event not a little extraordinary had happened. 
 Murat had turned his back on his benef\ictor, who had raised 
 nim from the dust to encircle his brow with a diadem. From 
 the commencement of the year 1813, he had endeavoured to 
 have his title acknowledged by the House of Austria. After 
 the battle of Leipsic, he abandoned the Continental system, from 
 a wish to please England, and throw open the ports of his king- 
 dom to all sorts of merchandise. He entered into a negotiation 
 
PERIOD IX, A, D. ]Si€^— 1815. 279 
 
 with the Courts both of London and Vienna, with a view to be 
 admitted into the grand alliance ; at the same time, he set on 
 foot an army of 34,000 men, who entered Rom^. and directed 
 •their march towards Ancona. Austria concluded an alliance 
 with him (Jan. 11, 1814,) which guaranteed to him the posses- 
 sion of the kingdom of Naples, with the reservation of an in- 
 demnity for the King of Sicily. Immediately after, Murat an- 
 nounced the change in his political conduct. He blockaded the 
 citadel of Ancona, took possession of Florence, where his sister- 
 in-law, the Grand Dutchess, escaped to save her life, and pushed 
 on as far as Modena. Lord Bentinck, who commanded the 
 British forces in Sicily, then concluded an armistice with Murat. 
 Eugene Beauharnais, v/ho had supposed that the Neapolitan 
 army would come to his succour, was at length undeceived, and 
 obliged to retreat on the Mincio ; but he fought a battle with 
 Field-Marshal Bellegarde who com.manded the Austrians in the 
 room of Hiller (Feb. 8,) which cost the latter the loss of 8,500 
 men. in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Fouche, who was at 
 Lucca as Commissary-general of Bonaparte, concluded a con- 
 vention with the Neapolitans, in virtue of which Tuscany was 
 restored to them. The Viceroy, seeing himself pressed on the 
 one hand by the Austrians, and on the other by the Neapolitans ; 
 and having received intelligence of the entrance of the allies 
 into Paris, negotiated an armistice, which was signed at Schia- 
 rino Rizzino (April 16.) A fev^ days after, his friends made an 
 attempt to have him proclaimed King of Italy by the people of 
 Milan. But the hatred which the Italians had for the French 
 prevailed over their attachment to the Viceroy, who wisely adopt- 
 ed the resolution of surrendering all the places in the kingdom 
 of Italy to the Austrian troops, and retired with his feim.ily to 
 Germany. 
 
 The Senate of France had, with all expedition, completed and 
 published a pretended constitution (April 6,) in which two things 
 €spncially shocked the opinion of the public, viz. the care which 
 the authors of that production had taken to secure the continu- 
 ance of their own authority with the revenues thereto attached, 
 and the violation of the first principle of monarchy of which they 
 had been guilty, by arrogating to themselves the right of con- 
 fer'-ing ihe crown of France on him to whom it belonged by 
 bir^.h-right, and who, far from renouncing it, had taken care to 
 secure his risfhts by formal protestations. Within six days after, 
 th° Count D'Artois, the King's Lieutenant-general, arrived in 
 Pvris, and concluded a convention with the allies (April 23,) as 
 a Qrelude to a general peace. They engaged to evacuate the 
 f Yritory of France ; and they settled the terms on which the 
 
Ji'SO CHAPTER XII. 
 
 places possessed by the French troops not within their own 
 territories, were to be delivered up. The King of France had 
 landed at Calais (April 25,) and was slowly approaching his 
 capital. A declaration, which he published at St. Ouen (May 
 2,) annulled the constitution of the Senate, and promised the 
 nation a charter, the principles of which were announced in that 
 same declaration. Next day Louis XVIII. made his solemn 
 entry into Paris. 
 
 The first care of Louis was to conclude peace ^Yith the Allies, 
 A military convention was signed (May 28,) regulating differ- 
 ent points regarding the maintenance and march of the troops, 
 hospitals, magazines, &c. ; and immediately treaties of peace 
 were concluded with the four grand powers (May 30,) to which 
 the others acceded. France was to return to her ancient limits 
 of January 1, 1792, with an augmentation of territory on the 
 north side. She likewise retained Avignon and the County of 
 Venaissin. Louis XVIII. adhered to the principles of the al- 
 liance of Chaumont, as to the political system to be established 
 in Europe. England retained Malta, but gave up the French 
 colonies, with the exception of Tobago, St. Lucia, and the Isle 
 of France, with their dependencies. Guiana, which had been 
 taken from Portugal, was restored. Certain secret article? 
 pointed out the manner in which the Allied Powers were to dis 
 ])ose of the territories surrendered by France ; and annulled the 
 endowments and donations made by Bonaparte in these territo- 
 ries. Certain special articles were added with regard to Prus- 
 sia, which annulled the peace of Tilsit, and all its consequences. 
 
 In the month of June, the Emperor Alexander, the King of 
 Prussia, and Prince Metternich, repaired to London, where they 
 concluded a new quadruple alliance, by which the contracting 
 powers engaged to keep on foot an army of 75,000 men each, 
 until the restoration of order in Europe. The sovereigns 
 agreed also, during their stay in London, that Belgium should 
 be united to HoUand, with Avhich it was to form one and the 
 same State. 
 
 Immediately after the conclusion of the peace, Louis XVIIL 
 published the charter or Constitution which he proposed to the 
 nation. This was not a constitution in the sense which had 
 been attached to that word since the year 1789 ; that is to say, a 
 body of laws or regulations, fully and finally settling the prero- 
 gative of the King, and the powers of the different authorities, 
 as well as the rights and privileges of the citizens. It was a 
 declaration by which the King, in conformity with the principles 
 which had prevailed for a century, modified the Royal power 
 ia certain respects, and promised never to exercise it in future 
 
PERIOD IX, A. D. 1810—1815. 5^81 
 
 *xt'-ept according to the established forms. Thus the Royal 
 authority, which Louis XVIIL derived from his ancestors, and 
 which was founded on the ancient order of succession, remained 
 inviolate and entire in all its branches. 
 
 The peace of Paris gave rise to a multitude of treaties be- 
 tween the different powers of Europe. Of these we can only 
 notice a small number, which we shall do when we come to 
 speak of the history of these countries. Meantime, we must 
 confine our remarks to general affairs, and more particularly to 
 those in which France is concerned. 
 
 An article in the treaty of Paris, of May 30th, had stipulated 
 that within the space of two months, the plenipotentiaries of all 
 the powers who had taken part in the late events, France in- 
 rluded, should meet in a general Congi'ess at Vienna, to concert 
 the necessary arrangements for completing the conditions and 
 regulations of the treaty. The reconstruction of Germany into 
 a body politic ; the replacing of Prussia and Austria on a foot- 
 ing analogous to the power which they had enjoyed in 1806 
 and 1805 ; the fate of Poland ; the establishment of an inde- 
 pendent state between France and Germany ; the neutrality of 
 Switzerland ; the organization of Italy, which had been com- 
 pletely subverted by Bonaparte ; the regulating of the indem- 
 nities which might be claimed by the different States who had 
 taken a part in the war ; and the settling of the territorial ex- 
 changes to which these claims might give rise, were the im- 
 portant objects about which the plenipotentiaries were neces- 
 sarily to be employed. To these England added one subject 
 which might appear foreign to the business of that Congress, 
 viz. the question as to the abolition of Negro Slavery ; ano- 
 ther arose from the most unexpected event of Napoleon's return, 
 which compelled the sovereigns of Europe again to take arms, 
 and to conquer France a second time. 
 
 Owing to different causes, the opening of the Congress did 
 not take place till towards the end of the year. We may men- 
 tion, with regard to the form of the Congress, that although it 
 was composed of the plenipotentairies of all the allies, great and 
 .small, they never held any general Session. The affairs of 
 Germany were kept distinct from those of the rest of Europe ; 
 theCon2:ress,consisting of the plenipotentiaries of the five great 
 powers, namely, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and 
 Russia ; and the other of the plenipotentiaries of these and 
 the remaining powers ; Spain, Portugal, and Sweden, being 
 added to the first five. The questions relating to Germany, 
 were discussed at first by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hsi/cver, 
 ai'd Wurtemberg ; although, afterwards, all the sovereigi."*. -il 
 
 VOL. II. ?^ ^ 
 
282 V CHAPTEK xri. 
 
 Germany were called into these tleliberatians. There were 
 certain affairs which were prepared and discussed by s^)ecia} 
 eommissions. 
 
 The subject which occasioned the greatest difficirhy, and 
 which was even on the point of disturbing the unanimity of the 
 Cabinets, was the reconstruction of the Prussian monarchy. 
 Prussia was to be restored to all that she had possessed in 1805, 
 except the principalities of Franconia, which were in the pos- 
 session of Bavaria ', the district of Biaiystock which was an- 
 nexed to Russia ; and the grand dutchy of Posnania, which 
 Alexander had declared his intention of comprehending in the 
 kingdom of Poland which he proposed to restore. Frederic 
 William promised to cede to Hanover a territory inhabited by 
 between three and four hundred thousand souls. For these 
 losses he claimed an indemnity ; and as Saxony w^as the onjy 
 kingdom which could offer him compensation, Grea^ Britain^ 
 Russia, and Austria, had consented to an acquisit'j^n which 
 seemed to be justified by the conduct of the King of Saxony, 
 who in 1807 had shared the spoils of Prussia, and in 1813 had 
 made common cause with Bonaparte. 
 
 The EmperoT Alexander thus put Prussia in possession of 
 Saxony, which her troops had till then occupied. The man- 
 ner, however, in which public opinion in England and in Eu- 
 rope generally had expressed itself against the designs of Prus- 
 sia, and the insinuations of the French minister at Viennaj 
 induced Austria and the Cabinet of London to oppose the exe- 
 cution of this plan, not only by interesting themselves for the 
 preservation of Saxony, but by disputing the claims advanced 
 by Prussia, and refusing to allow the dutchy of Warsaw to fall 
 entirely into the hands of Russia. The Emperor Alexander, 
 who concurred entirely with Prussia, supported it with all his 
 efforts. Being apprized, however, that Austria, France, and 
 Great Britain had just concluded an alliance or agreement which 
 appeared to have some reference to the fate of Saxony, anc! 
 wishing to remove every ground of misundeistanding, he offerea 
 to augment the portion of Prussia on the side of Poland, and 
 Advised her to be content with the moiety of Saxony which was 
 offered her, and to accept the provinces beyond the Rhine, which 
 were also destined for her. 
 
 The five powers having come to an agreement on these points 
 (Feb. 12,) the king of Saxony was invited to come to the neigh- 
 bourhood of Vienna. Ever since the battle of Leipsic, that 
 Prince had remained in a kind of captivity at Fredericsfeldt near 
 Berlin. He accepted the invitation and repaired to Vienna, but 
 he refused to consent to the cessions which they demanded of 
 
VERiOD IX. A. D. 1810 1815. L'&3 
 
 I'lim. His refusal induced the five great powers to go to greater 
 excess ; 'hey ordained that, until the King should have come to 
 a determination, Prussia should remain in possession of the 
 whole of Saxony. Frederic Augustus was obliged to yield to 
 the course of events, and ratified a treaty whicJi was signed at 
 Vienna (May 18.) That part of his kingdom which was ceded 
 to Prussia was named the Dutchy of Saxony. 
 
 The organization of Germany into a Confederacy, to be com- 
 posed of sovereign States, was, next to the settlement of Prussia, 
 the object which occasioned the greatest embarrassment. But 
 as France and Russia took no direct part in it, and as for that 
 reason it can scarcely be said to belong to the class of general 
 affairs, we shall not now speak of it. The same must be done 
 •AHth regard to all the negotiations concerning Switzerland and 
 Italy, of which we shall speak elsewhere. 
 
 Great Britain had introduced the question as to Negro Sla- 
 very, of which, in the name of humanity and religion, she de- 
 manded the entire abolition, by a decree of all Europe. Den- 
 mark had prohibited that traffic long before England. Neither 
 Austria, Russia, Prussia, nor Sweden, had any motive for 
 favouring it ; but it was not the case with Portugal, Spain, and 
 France, who referred, with reason, to the example of England 
 herself, for resisting the introduction of any sudden change 
 which would be pernicious to the state of their colonies, and 
 might ruin the fortune of their subjects. These powers readily 
 agreed to combine with England for the abolition of the trade; 
 but they wished that it should be left to each of them to fix the 
 term on which they could do so to the most advantage. This 
 question was made the subject of discussion in the conferences 
 between the eight powers at Vienna. Lord Castlereagh de- 
 manded, in the name of the British government, that all the 
 powers should announce their support of the general principle 
 of the abolition of the slave trade, and their wish to carry that 
 measure into effect with the shortest possible delay. This pro- 
 position was unanimously adopted ; but the other proposal which 
 he made, to inquire into the possibility of an immediate aboli- 
 tion, or at least, into the period when each of the powers might 
 be able to fix its ultimate abolition ; and a third by which he 
 v/ished to obtain an immediate partial abolition of that traffic, met 
 with the most decided resistance on the part of the three States 
 who had foreign colonies. As the four other powers had no 
 right to interfere in the internal legislation of these States, the 
 Declaration which the Congress published (Feb. 8,) proclaimed 
 the principle recognised by them all, viz. that the determination 
 of the period when the trade was to cease generally should be 
 left to the negotiations of the contracting powers. 
 
284 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Europe was in the enjoyment of apparent tranquillity, when 
 Bonaparte quitted Elba, landed with a thousand adventurers on 
 the shores of France (March 1,) invited his former friends to join 
 him, and deceiving the inhabitants by pretending to be supported 
 by Austria, marched towards Paris, which he entered within 
 twenty days after his landing. The King and the Royal Family 
 were again obliged to retire to Lille. When Louis arrived in 
 that city, he signed an order for disbanding the army ; but the 
 greater part of the troops had already sworn allegiance to Napo- 
 leon. Finding himself insecure at Lille, the King retired to 
 Ghent (March 30.) Bonaparte published a new constitution 
 (April 22,) under the title of The Additional Act to the Consti- 
 tution of the Empire. One of the articles which it contained, 
 pronounced the perpetual banishment of the Bourbons. In order 
 to flatter the partisans of the sovereign people, this act was sub- 
 mitted for their acceptance, and Bonaparte summoned an assem- 
 bly of extraordinary deputies, to meet in the Champ de Mai. He 
 likewise summoned a Chamber of the Representatives, or Legis- 
 lative Body. The meeting of the Champ de Mai was held ; and 
 two days after, a Chamber of Peers, created by Bonaparte, and 
 a Chamber of the Representatives of the Nation, opened their 
 sessions. 
 
 So soon as the news of the landing of Bonaparte in France 
 was received at Vienna, the eight contracting powers published 
 a declaration, importing, that as Bonaparte had thus broken the 
 convention which had placed him in the Island of Elba, he had 
 destroyed the only legal title on which his existence depended^ 
 and had thus forfeited all relations, civil and social. The allied 
 sovereigns refused to receive the letters by which he announced 
 to .them that he had again taken possession of the throne of 
 France. Being of opinion, that the time was come for executing 
 the engagements they had contracted at Chaumont, the four 
 powers who were parlies to that treaty, renewed their engage- 
 ments by new treaties of alliance (March 25.) They promised 
 to combine all their forces for maintaining the treaty of Paris of 
 May 30th 1814, and to set on foot, each of them, an army of 
 180,000 men. By an additional convention. Great Britain un- 
 dertook to pay to the three others, subsidies to the amount of 
 5,000,000/. Sterling per annum. All the princes of the Germanic 
 Confederation. — Portugal, Sardinia, the Netherlands, Switzer- 
 land, and Denmark, acceded to this alliance ; and Great Bri- 
 tain granted subsidies to them all, proportioned to the forces 
 which they might send into the field. Of all the powers having 
 plenipotentiaries at Vienna, Spain and Sweden only declined 
 enterinof into this alliance. The King of Spain refused his ^c- 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 285 
 
 cession, as being contrary to his dignity ; he would have had no 
 objections to have become a principal party, and he co-operated 
 as such in the war. Sweden was too much occupied with the 
 conquest of Norway to take any part in the deliverance of France. 
 
 There was still another monarch who had not joined the alli- 
 ance of Vienna, and that was Murat. The King of France had 
 refused to acknowledge him as King of Naples, and Lord Cas- 
 tlereagh had declared at Vienna, that Great Britain could not 
 treat with Murat, as he had not fulfilled his engagements ; and, 
 therefore, that it depended on the Congress to decide as to the 
 fate of the kingdom of Naples. These declarations induced 
 Murat to take arms ; nevertheless, he continued to dissemble, 
 until he learned that Bonaparte had arrived at Lyons. Then 
 it was that he threw off the mask. He marched at the head of 
 his army towards the Po, and issued a proclamation (March 30,) 
 by which he proclaimed liberty to all the inhabitants of Italy. 
 The Austrian army in that peninsula, immediately put them- 
 selves in motion to oppose him. Being defeated at Tolentino by 
 General Bianchi (May 2,) he retreated first to Naples, and after 
 a short stay there, he took refuge in France. The government 
 of Ferdinand IV. was again restored. 
 
 Meantime, as the partisans of Bonaparte, and the revolution- 
 ists every where, were at great pains to propagate and cherish 
 doubts as to the determination of the allied sovereigns to follow 
 up the act of the 13th March, which had been adopted at a 
 time when it was hoped that France would have no more need 
 of foreign aid ; the allied sovereigns deemed it necessary to 
 make known the expression of their principles by a solemn act ; 
 to which they gave the form of a proces-verhal, or edict, signed 
 by the plenipotentiaries of the eight powers. The publication 
 of that act was equivalent to a declaration of war against Bona- 
 parte. It opened the eyes of those credulous followers who had 
 till then believed that Austria and Russia were on friendly 
 terms with him. 
 
 All the negotiations of the Congress of Vienna being termi- 
 nated by the signing of the Act of the Germanic Confederation, 
 which took place on June 8th, the plenipotentiaries of the eight 
 contracting powers next day signed the Act of Congress^ which 
 was a recapitulation or abstract of all their preceding regula- 
 tions, either by particular treaties or by declarations and edicts, 
 (or protocols, as they are sometimes called at Vienna,) relative 
 to Poland, the territorial arrangements in Germany, the Ger- 
 manic Confederation, the kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzer- 
 land, Italy, Portugal, the navigation of rivers, the rank of dip- 
 lomatic agents, and the form of accessions and ratifications of 
 
2S6 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 the act itself. Thus did this august assembly terminate its 
 labours. 
 
 An army of 1,365,000 men were preparing to invade France, 
 but the struggle against Bonaparte was decided by about 
 200,000 ; and not more than 500,000 foreigners set foot on the 
 soil of France. The allies had formed four armies, viz. 
 
 The Army of the 'Netherlands, commanded by Lord Welling- 
 ton, consisting of 71,000 English, Hanoverians, and Bruns- 
 wickers, with the troops of the Netherlands and Nassau. 
 
 The Army of the Loiver Rhine, consisting of 140,000 Prus- 
 sians, under the command of Blucher. 
 
 The Army of the Upper PJmie, commanded by Schwartzen- 
 berg, and consisting of 130,000 Austrian, and 124,000 German 
 troops. 
 
 The Arviy of the Middle Rhine, 168,000 strong, under the 
 command of Barclay de Tolly. They were to be stationed be- 
 tween the two preceding armies, but they were unable to arrive 
 in lime at the scene of action, and the campaign was decided 
 by the first two armies alone. 
 
 The forces of Bonaparte amounted to 213,000 men, exclusive 
 of 147,000 of the national guard to be employed in garrison. 
 He had divided them into eight armies. That of the north, 
 which he commanded himself, consisted of 108,000 men. 
 
 Bonaparte opened the campaign on the 15lh June, by de- 
 taching a second corps across the Sambre, to attack the Prussian 
 General Zieten, who was obliged to yield to the superior 
 strength of the enemy, and retire towards Fleurus. Next day 
 the Duke of Brunswick, who had left Brussels at the head of 
 12,000 men to support the Prussians, was killed at Quatre Bras ; 
 Marshal Ney, who commanded the French, sustained a consi- 
 derable loss ; on the same day Marshal Blucher was defeated 
 at Ligny, but he retired in the greatest order to Brie. Bona- 
 parte from that moment resolved to attack Wellington, who 
 gave him battle at Waterloo, or Mont St. Jean. The combat 
 was continued, with various success, from morning till four 
 o'clock, when the Prussians, consisting of General Bulow's di- 
 vision, and commanded by Blucher in person, approached the 
 field of battle, and fell suddenly on the right wing of the French, 
 while Bonaparte supposed that the whole Prussian army was 
 engaged with Grouchy, whom he had sent against them with a 
 detachment of 40,000 men. On the first appearance of the 
 Prussians, Bonaparte supposed that it was General Grouchy, 
 who after having defeated the Prussians, was marching to the 
 support of his right wing. The fact is, that General Thiel- 
 mans, having been attacked by Grouchy near Wavre, Blucher 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810— ISM 287 
 
 had sent nim word to defend himself the best way he could, 
 and did not allow himself to be diverted from his original plan 
 of falling upon the right wing of Bonaparte. When Bonaparte 
 at length discovered his error, he lost all resolution. His army- 
 were panic-struck, and fled in all directions. He was himself 
 nearly taken prisoner, having escaped with great difficulty. 
 The Germans have given this battle the name of Belle Alliance, 
 from the house where Blucher and Wellington met after the 
 action. Of 120,000 French, 60,000 were either taken or killed 
 in the two days of the 16th and 18th June 1815 ; 64,000 Eng- 
 lish, and 50,000 Prussians were engaged in the battle. The 
 English lost 14,000 men on the 18th, and the Prussians 33,000 
 in the two engagements of the 16th and 18th. 
 
 Bonaparte made his escape to Paris, but the Chamber of 
 Representatives, composed of the partisans of the Revolution of 
 1789, and of Republicans who had no wish to promote the in- 
 terest of Bonaparte, except as an instrument for the execution 
 of their own plans, determined to take advantage of the con- 
 tempt into which he had fallen to get rid of his presence. They 
 required him to abdicate, which he did June 22d, in favour of 
 his son. The Chambers appointed a government commission, 
 at the head of which they placed Fouche, who sent deputies to 
 Heidelberg, where the head-quarters of the Allied Sovereigns 
 then were, with a commission to treat with them on the basis 
 of the national independence, and the inviolability of the soil 
 of France. But as there was no mention made in the proposi- 
 tions about the restoration of the King, the allies refused to 
 treat until Bonaparte should first be delivered up to them. 
 
 Bonaparte had demanded of Wellington and Blucher, pass- 
 ports for quitting France ; and on being refused, the govern- 
 ment commission conveyed him to Rochefort, where he was to 
 embark on board a frigate and go to America. But Captain 
 Maitland, who was cruising off that port with an English ves- 
 sel, prevented him from leaving the place unless he would sur- 
 render to the English, on which condition he promised to 
 guarantee his life. The danger becoming every day more 
 pressing, he at length saw himself compelled to submit. The 
 Bellerophon, with Bonaparte on board, arrived in Torbay (July 
 24,) but the English government would not permit the General 
 to set foot on land. By a convention signed by the allies at 
 Paris (Aug. 2,) England took upon herself the charge of keep- 
 ing guard over him at St. Helena. He was accordingly trans- 
 ported to that island, where he remained till his death, which 
 happened May 5th, 1821. 
 
 After the battle of the 18th June, Wellington and Blucher 
 
288 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 marched immediately to Paris, as did also the army of Schwart* 
 
 zenberg by way of Nancy. Davoust had joined the fugitives : 
 and as Grouchy had had the good fortune to save his division, they 
 were enabled to form a new army of 60,000 men, which made 
 some attempts to defend Paris. Several engagements took place 
 at Sevres and Issy ; after which Marshal Davoust announced to 
 the two Field-Marshals that Paris was on the point of surren- 
 dering. A capitulation was signed at St. Cloud (July 3,) and 
 the French army retired behind the Loire. 
 
 The allies occupied Paris on the 7th July, and Louis XVIII 
 entered on the following day. Within two days after, the Allied 
 Sovereigns arrived. A decree of 24th July declared twenty- 
 nine individuals, named in 1814, unworthy of their country, 
 as having sat in the Chamber of Bonaparte, and sworn the ban- 
 ishment of the Bourbons. Nineteen persons accused of having 
 betrayed the King before the 23d March, were remitted to the 
 tribunals ; thirty-eight other individuals were ordered to quit 
 Paris. These latter were in general relapsed regicides, that is, 
 persons who, after having obtained pardon in 1814, had, in 1815. 
 signed the banishment of the Bourbons ; for the King never 
 broke his word of honour given to the primary regicides, to 
 leave them to the remonstrances of their own conscience. Some 
 months after (Jan. 12, 1816,) the decree of July 24th was 
 changed into a law ; with this modification, that the relapsed 
 regicides were to be exiled from the soil of France. Of the in- 
 dividuals arraigned before the tribunals, two only were executed, 
 Marshal Ney and Colonel Labedoyere ; a third (Lavalette,) was 
 saved by the courage of his wife. The clemency of the King 
 threw a veil over all other crimes. 
 
 The army of the Loire submitted to the King ; but the war 
 continued, nevertheless, for some time on the frontiers of France, 
 as it was a part of the plan of the allies to occupy all the for- 
 tresses ; and the greater part of the commandants refused to re- 
 ceive them. The allies were at length convinced, that in order 
 to secure the tranquillity of France, it was necessary to take 
 more vigorous measures than they had done in 1814 ; but it 
 was not until the month of September that their plan was suf- 
 ficiently matured to enable them to open negotiations with France. 
 They had many difficulties to encounter ; and the treaty be- 
 tween France and the Allies was not signed until the 20th No- 
 vember. According to that treaty, France made several terri- 
 torial cessions to the Netherlands, Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, 
 Switzerland, and the King of Sardinia. 
 
 It was agreed, that France should pay to the allies a pecuni- 
 ary indemnity of seven hundred millions of francs ; that 1/50,000 
 
Street fighting before the Church of St. Roch, July 28th, 1S30. 
 
 Place du Chatelet, July 28, 1830. Vol. 2, p. 318. 
 
I PERIOD IX. A. D. ISiO — 1815. 2S9 
 
 of the allied troops should occupy certain places in France for 
 6ve years ; and that they should be paid and maintained by 
 France. By an additional article, they engaged reciprocally to 
 concert measures for obtaining the entire and final abolition of 
 the slave trade. 
 
 The same day, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, 
 concluded an alliance for the following purposes: — (1.) The 
 maintenance of the treaties and conventions which had just been 
 concluded: And, (2.) The perpetual exclusion of Napoleon Bo- 
 naparte and his family from the sovereignty of France ; the 
 maintenance of tranquillity in that country ; and the suppression 
 of revolutionary principles, so that they might never again dis- 
 tract France, or threaten the repose of Europe. For this two- 
 fold object, the allies agreed to furnish their contingents as de- 
 termined by the alliance of Chaumont ; finally, they agreed to 
 have another personal conference in the course of the year 1818. 
 
 Prior to this quadruple alliance which, by securing the main- 
 tenance of the Bourbon dynasty on the throne of France, forms 
 one of the bases of the new political system of Europe, the Em- 
 perors of Austria and Russia, and the King of Prussia, signed 
 at Paris (Sept. 26,) an Act, known by the name of the Holy 
 Alliance^ which forms the second basis of the same system. The 
 real object of this alliance was doubtless a mutual guarantee 
 against any encroachments which might be made on their sov- 
 ereign power ; to disguise this, it set forth their firm determina- 
 tion to take no other rule for their conduct than the precepts of 
 the Christian religion. They promised to continue in the in- 
 dissoluble bonds of brotherly union, and to be ready on all occa- 
 sions, and in all places, to succour and assist each other — to 
 consider themselves but as members of the same Christian na- 
 tion, and as delegated by Providence to govern three branches 
 of the same family ; and finally, to receive into the same alliance 
 all other powers w^ho were willing to profess the same principles 
 which had dictated that act. All the Christian powers in Eu- 
 rope acceded to the treaties and conventions of the 20th Novem- 
 ber 1815, except Sweden, who had taken no share in tlie war. 
 They all entered into the Holy Alliance, except the King of 
 Great Britain, who, while he fully sanctioned the principles set 
 forth in that Act, was prevented from signing it, because, accord- 
 ing to the constitutional custom of England, the Sovereign signs 
 nothing without the countersigning of a responsible minister. 
 
 Here it will be necessary briefly to point out the more impor 
 tant events which happened since 1811 in the other European 
 States, and the changes which were produced by the Congress 
 of Vienna. 
 
 VOL. II. '^5 
 
290 CHAPTER xir. 
 
 Portugal seemed destined to be nothing- more in future than 
 a dependency of Brazil, in a political pomt of view, as she al' 
 ready was o^ England with respect to agriculture, industry, and 
 commerce. The latter power attached so great an importance 
 to the abolition of the slave trade, that by a treaty signed during 
 the conf'^.rences at Vienna, she had purchased the effective co- 
 operation of Portugal in this measure, by giving up all the ad- 
 vantages which she had reserved to herself by the treaty of Rio 
 Janeiro of February 19th 1810, which she consented to annul; 
 nevertheless, Portugal only prohibited her subjects conditionally 
 from carrying on the slave trade in that part of Africa lying to 
 the north of the Equator. 
 
 In Spain, the Extraordinary Cortes then assembled at Cadiz, 
 after having published a decree, January 1, 1811, importing that 
 they could make no treaty with France until the King enjoyed 
 full liberty, and that he could not be regarded as at liberty until 
 he had taken the constitutional oath, finished the work which 
 they alleged had been intrusted to their hands. Their constitu- 
 tion, which was founded on the principle of the sovereignty of 
 the people, intrusted the legislative power to a popular assembly, 
 and the execution of the laws to a functionary with limited au- 
 thority, decorated with the title of a King, was published on the 
 18th of March 1812. In violation of historic truth, it was an- 
 nounced to the world as the genuine ancient constitution of Spain. 
 The Cortes terminated their session on the 20th September 
 1813. The new or ordinary Cortes, convened in the constitu- 
 tional form at the rate of one deputy for every 70,000 inhabitants, 
 without distinction of fortune or estate, transferred their sitting 
 to Madrid towards the end of the year. It was this extraordi- 
 nary meeting of the Cortes that concluded a treaty of friendship 
 and alliance (July 28, 1813) with the Emperor of Russia at 
 Weliki-Louki, where he had then his head-quarters. Alexan- 
 uu *here acknowledged the Cortes and their constitution. That 
 acknowledgment was extremely simple. Alexander could no< 
 treat except with the government then established. That gov- 
 ernment acted in the name of Ferdinand VII., and their acts 
 were to be regarded as legitimate so long as that prince had not 
 disavowed them. The Emperor of Russia had neither the will 
 nor the power to lend his sanction to an order of things which 
 had not the approbation of a King, in the full enjoyment of lib- 
 erty It was in this same sense that the King of Prussia enter- 
 ed into an alliance with the Spanish government, by a treaty 
 which was signed at Basle (Jan. 20, 1814.) 
 
 After returning from the campaign of 1813, Bonaparte con- 
 sidering Spain as lost, resolved to set Ferdinand VII. at liberty ; 
 
PERIOD 13C. A. D. 1810 — 1815. 291 
 
 but in the hope of turning that tardy act of justice to his advan- 
 tage by making that prince his friend, he represented Spain as 
 overrun with Jacobinism, which was labouring to overturn the 
 throne, and to substitute a republic in its place ; and he accused 
 England as having favoured that project. Ferdinand VII. de- 
 manded that a deputation of the Regency should be admitted to 
 a personal interview with him, who might inform him as to the 
 real state of matters. Bonaparte, who executed with despatch 
 whatever he had once resolved, found this mode of proceeding 
 too slow. He empowered M. de la Foret, whom he had sent to 
 Valencay to conclude a treaty with his captive, by which the 
 latter was acknowledged King of Spain ; and promised, on his 
 part, to cause the English troops to evacuate the whole of that 
 kingdom. 
 
 Ferdinand VII. sent his minister, the Duke of San Carlos, to 
 Madrid, for the ostensible purpose of communicating that treaty 
 to the Regency, but in reality to take cognizance of the state of 
 affairs. The Regency refused to acknowledge the treaty of 
 Valencay, because the King was not at liberty. Bonaparte being 
 apprized of this difficulty, immediately released Ferdinand (Mar. 
 7, 1814.) He set out on his return to his dominions, but per- 
 formed his journey slowly, that he might have leisure to obtain 
 personal information, as to the spirit which reigned among the 
 Spaniards. He was soon convinced, that the people, attached 
 to their religion, and to the family of their lawful prince, were 
 very indifferent about the constitution of the Cortes, and that 
 that assembly enjoyed very little influence or authority. Sixty 
 members of the Cortes had even protested against an Act which, 
 by degrading the Royal Dignity, was preparing the way for es- 
 tablishing a democracy. On his arrival at Valencia, Ferdinand 
 abrogated ihe constitution of 1812, and directed his course to- 
 wards Madrid, which he entered on the 17th May. The people 
 every where expressed their attachment to a prince, whose ar- 
 rival they hailed as the return of justice and order ; though it 
 is foreign to our purpose to narrate why that hope has not been 
 realized. 
 
 Great Britain was the power which acted the most conspicuous 
 part during the era of which we have given the preceding his- 
 torical sketch. The fortitude and perseverance with which she 
 had prosecuted her system of policy, after the breaking of the 
 peace of Amiens, was crowned with the most complete success ; 
 and the plan conceived by Mr. Pitt, but which that great states- 
 man had despaired ever to see carried into execution, became 
 the corner-stone of the future policy of Europe. Great Britain 
 was the mainspring of the alliance, which in 1813 undertook the 
 
5(02 CHAPTER XH. 
 
 deliverance of Europe. She made the most extraordinary eflfarts 
 in raising armies, and granting supplies for maintaining the 
 troops of the Continental nations. 
 
 A mental calamity, with which George III. had been afflicted 
 towards the end of the year 1810, obliged the Parliament to 
 establish a regency. That important charge belonged of right 
 to the presumptive heir to the crown ; but as the ministry were 
 apprehensive that the Prince of Wales might in some respects 
 change the system of the existing Government, the Parliament 
 passed an Act (Dec. 31,) which restricted the authority of the 
 Regent to one year. The Prince Regent submitted to these 
 modifications. He exercised the regency at first with a limited 
 power ; but, after the year 1812, when the prospects of his Ma- 
 jesty's recovery were considerably diminished, he continued to 
 exercise the Royal authority until his father's death, which hap- 
 pened January 29, 1820, when the Prince then assumed the 
 title of George IV. The Regent found the kingdom at war with 
 Russia and Sweden ; but it was only in appearance, and without 
 effective hostilities. Lord Castlereagh, who, since the year 
 1812, had been at the head of foreign affairs, listened with eager- 
 ness to the first advances which these two powers made towards 
 a mutual accommodation. Peace was signed at Orebro (July 
 12,) first with Sweden, and a few days after with Russia. The 
 former, in indirect terms, abandoned the principles of the armed 
 neutrality of the North. We shall have occasion hereafter to 
 revert to the stipulations of the treaty signed with Russia. 
 
 She was now assailed by a new enemy. A misunderstand- 
 ing had existed for years, between Great Britain and the United 
 States of America, in consequence of the various restrictions 
 she had imposed upon the commerce of Neutrals, the humilia- 
 ting conditions to which she wished to subject it, and the im- 
 pressment of seamen. The Government of the United States 
 had sought by various retaliatory measures, to operate upon her 
 interests and induce her to abandon her system of arbitrary do- 
 minion over the great highway of nations. From 1806 to 1812 
 the pacific disposition of the American Government was mani- 
 fested by the several expedients of Non-Importation^ Embargo, 
 and Non- Inter course^ to which they had resorted, to prevent an 
 open rupture, but as none of these resulted in an acknowledg- 
 ment of her rights on the part of Great Britain, an appeal was 
 made at last to the Ultima ratio Regum. On the 18th of June, 
 1812, an Act of Congress was passed, declaring War against 
 Great Britain ; the reasons for this measure, as stated in the 
 President's manifesto, were " The impressment of American 
 seamen by the British, the blockade of her enemies' ports sup 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 293 
 
 ported by no adequate force, in consequence of which the Ame- 
 rican commerce had been plundered in every sea, and the 
 British Orders in Council." 
 
 The remoteness of the two contending nations from each 
 other, rendered it impossible for them to bring together great 
 armies to meet in a general conflict. On the one side, the Ca- 
 nadas were attacked by the Americans in many points with 
 various success, and on the other, the cities and settlements 
 along the coast of the Atlantic, were subjected to constant an- 
 noyance and depredation from the British maritime forces. In 
 acts of hostility of this kind, and in naval combats, the war 
 was continued for nearly three years, during which abundant 
 proofs were given that the veteran forces of Great Britain could 
 claim no other superiority, than that of experience, either in 
 officers or soldiers, to her enemy. Many of the land, and all 
 the sea battles were fought with great skill and bravery, and 
 gallantry by the Americans. The last important occurrence of 
 the war, was the battle of New Orleans, where the American 
 forces, under the command of their heroic leader General Jack- 
 son, gained a brilliant victory. 
 
 The situation of Europe was now so entirely changed, that 
 che grievances of which America had complained, and for the 
 redress of which she had fought, must naturally cease, and as 
 neither party deemed it expedient to continue the war for ab- 
 stract rights, a peace was settled at Ghent, between the pleni- 
 potentiaries of the two nations, Dec. 24th, 1814, which restored 
 friendship and amity, without settling any of the great points in 
 dispute which had induced a resort to arms. 
 
 The financial system of Great Britain underwent an essen- 
 tial alteration, by the adoption of a plan presented by Mr. Van- 
 sittart. Chancellor of the Exchequer, introducing certain modi- 
 fications relative to the accumulation of the sinking fund. The 
 expenditure of the government in 1815, amounted to 77,337,475^. 
 sterling, of which Ireland cost 8,651,335^. sterling. The inter- 
 est of the national debt amounted t# 36,607, 128Z. sterling, of 
 which 13,182,510Z. were applied to the sinking fund. Great 
 Britain paid to the States of the Continent, in 1813, 11,400,000Z. 
 sterling, under the name of subsidies ; 24,107 ships, and 
 105,030 seamen, were employed in commerce. In 1814, these 
 numbers were augmented one- seventh more. At this latter pe- 
 riod, their navy consisted of 1044 ships of war, 100,000 sailors, 
 and 32,600 marines ; the land forces amounted to 302,490 men, 
 including 63,000 militia. 
 
 Holland, and the other powers which had anciently formed 
 the Republic of the United Provinces, after having been for 
 
 VOL. n. 25 "^ 
 
284 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 two years united to France, resumed once more their national 
 mdependence. After the battle of Leipsic, when the corps ot 
 Generals Bulow and Winzingerofle approached that country, 
 ihe partisans of the Prince of Orange at the Hague, with M. de 
 Hogendorps at their head, mounted the ancient cockade, estab- 
 lished a provisional government (Nov. 17, 1813,) and invited the 
 heir of the last Stadtholder to return and place himself at the head 
 of the government. The French troops, finding themselves too 
 weak to defend the country at once against the allies and 
 against the inhabitants, quietly took their departure. The 
 Prince of Orange having arrived at Amsterdam (Dec. 1,) was 
 proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the Low Countries ; but he ac- 
 cepted that dignity, on the condition that his power should be 
 limited by a constitution ; a plan of which he caused to be 
 drawn up, which was adopted and sworn to in an assembly of 
 the Representatives. 
 
 During the sojourn of the allied sovereigns in England, it 
 was agreed, that in order to oppose a barrier to France on the 
 side of the North, Holland and Belgium should be united under 
 the same government. A treaty, concluded at the same time 
 'in London (Aug. 13, 1814,) restored to the Dutch all their an- 
 cient colonies, with the exception of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 Essequibo, Berbice, and Demarara. According to the regula- 
 tions of the treaty of Vienna, the bishopric of Liege, and the 
 dutchy of Luxemburg were ceded to the sovereign prince, on 
 condition that he should make a part of the Germanic Con- 
 federation. It was at this time that he received the title of King 
 of the Netherlands. By the second treaty of Paris, this new 
 kingdom obtained a slight increase of territory, and a sum of 
 sixty millions of francs, for constructing a line of fortresses. 
 The superficial extent of that kingdom, with the dutchy of Lux- 
 emburg, amounted to 1164 German square miles, with a popu- 
 lation of 5,460,000 souls ; besides the population of its colonies, 
 amounting to 1,726,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Switzerland vainly flattai-ed herself, when the allies approach- 
 ed the Rhine, about the end of 1813, that they would grant 
 her the privilege of neutrality. The allied troops had to tra- 
 verse the territory of the Confederacy, in order to enter France. 
 The public opinion then declared itself, by annulling the Act 
 of Mediation which united Switzerland to France ; but this 
 opinion was not unanimous as to the future constitution of the 
 country. Of the thirteen ancient cantons, eight concluded a 
 Confederation, on the principle which granted an equality of 
 rights to every component part of the union ; and to this the 
 new cantons gave in their adherence. Berne, Friburg, and 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1815. 296 
 
 Underwalden, refused to take a part in it. The Grisons re- 
 established their ancient fomi of government. The interven- 
 tion of foreign powers quashed the civil war with which that 
 country was threatened ; and, after many difficulties, a new Con- 
 federation of the nineteen cantons was signed at Zurich (Sept- 
 8, 1814.) There still remained, however, several litigated 
 points to be decided, which were settled by the Congress of Vi- 
 enna, who declared that the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland 
 should be acknowledged by all the other powers ; and that the 
 Valais, the territory of Geneva, and the principality of Neuf- 
 chatel, should make a part of the Confederation, as three addi- 
 tional cantons. The Swiss States having acceded to this de- 
 claration (May 27, 1815,) it was renewed, confirmed, and 
 sanctioned by the Allied Powers, in a second declaration signed 
 at Paris (Nov. 20.) 
 
 In consequence of a convention concluded at Turin with 
 Prince Borghese, Governor-General of the French provinces 
 beyond the Alps, Field-Marshal Bellegarde had taken posses- 
 sion of Piedmont in the name of the King of Sardinia. Soon 
 after, Victor Emanuel took the reins of government into his 
 own hands. By the first peace of Paris, he recovered Nice, 
 and about two-thirds of Savoy. A secret article of that treaty 
 secured him the possession of the State of Genoa, which was 
 confirmed by the treaty of Vienna ; but he ceded to the canton 
 of Geneva, certain districts in Savoy. The second peace of 
 Paris restored him that part of the province which had been 
 given to France in 1814. The Sardinian monarchy thus com- 
 prehended an extent of 1277 German square miles, with 3,700,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The convention of Fontainbleau had disposed of the dutchies 
 of Placentia, Parma and Guastalla, in favour of the Archdutchess 
 Maria Louisa, and her son Napoleon. This disposition w^as 
 keenly opposed at Vienna by the House of Bourbon, who es- 
 poused the interest of the young King of Etruria, the lawful 
 heir to these estates. Nevertheless the Congress of Vienna ad- 
 judged the States of Parma to the Archdutchess, without making 
 mention of her son, or deciding the question as to their rever- 
 sion ; a point which was not determined till the treaty of Paris 
 of June 10, 1817, between Austria and Spain. After the death 
 of the Archdutchess, the States of Parma are to pass to the 
 Queen-Dowager of Etruria and her son. They contain about 
 102 German square miles, and 380,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The Archduke Francis, the heir of Hercules III., the last 
 Duke of Modena of the House of Este, was restored to the 
 dutchy of Modena and its appurtenances, about the beginning 
 
296 CHAPTER xn. 
 
 of 1814. The whole comprehends a surface of 96 German 
 square miles, with 388,000 inhabitants. 
 
 According to an article of the treaty of Vienna, Lucca, un- 
 der the title of a dutchy,. was given up, not to the young King 
 of Etruria, the lawful heir of the States of Parma, but to his 
 mother, and her descendants in the male line. Besides, the 
 Emperor and the Grand Duke of Tuscany were bound to pay 
 her a supplementary annuity of 500,000 francs until the death 
 of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa, when the Dutchess of Lucca, 
 or her heirs, are to have the States of Parma ; and the dutchy 
 of Lucca is to devolve to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, on con- 
 dition of ceding to the Duke of Modena certain districts con- 
 tiguous to his estates. The dutchy of Lucca is the most popu- 
 lous country in Europe. It contains about 137,500 inhabitants 
 within 19i German square miles. 
 
 The grand dutchy of Tuscany, which Murat's troops had oc- 
 cupied about the beginning of the year 1814, was restored to 
 its lawful sovereign, the Archduke Ferdinand IIL (May 1,) 
 who then gave up the Principality of Wurtzburg to the King of 
 Bavaria. By the treaty of Vienna, that prince obtained the 
 State of Presidi, part of the island of Elba, and the Imperial 
 fiefs included in these States ; containing 395 German square 
 miles, with a population of 1,178,000 souls. The property of 
 Piombino was restored to the family of Buoncompagni, whom 
 Bonaparte had dispossessed. The Grand Duke is to succeed 
 to the dutchy of Lucca ; but he must then give up his territo- 
 ries in Bohemia to his brother the Emperor, which are very 
 considerable, and destined for the young Duke of Reichstadt, 
 son of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa. 
 
 Bonaparte having found it impossible to overcome the per- 
 severance of Pius VII., had set him at liberty about the begin- 
 ning of the year 1814. The Sovereign Pontiff returned to his 
 Estates amidst the general acclamations of the people, and re- 
 stored every thing to the footing in which they had been before 
 the usurpation of the French. Nobody was molested on the score 
 of his political conduct. The Order of the Jesuits, suppressed inr 
 1772, was restored by a Bull, as a necessary barrier to oppose 
 the doctrines of the Revolution. The Congress of Vienna re- 
 stored to the Sovereign Pontiff the Marches and Legatines, 
 with the exception of a portion of territory situated to the north 
 of the Po, which was annexed to the kingdom of Venetian 
 Lombardy. The Ecclesiastical States at present contain a sur- 
 face of 714 German square miles, and a population of 2,424,150. 
 
 The extravagant conduct of Murat, promoted the restoration 
 of the Bourbons to the throne of Naples. This was effected 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1815. 297 
 
 by the expedition which Austria had despatched in 1815 against 
 Murat, in consequence of the alliance offensive and defensive 
 which that Court had concluded at Vienna with Ferdinand IV. 
 (April 29, 1815,) who made his entry into Naples on the 17th 
 June. A short time after, Murat, at the head of a small band 
 of adventurers, thought of imitating the example of his brother- 
 in-law. He landed at Pizzo, in Calabria (Oct. 9,) where he 
 hoped to be welcomed by his former adherents ; but the peasantry 
 combined against him ; he was arrested, tried by a court-martial, 
 and shot (Oct. 10.) The kingdom of the Two Sicilies has an ex- 
 tent of 2,034 German square miles, and 6,600,000 inhabitants. 
 
 After Ferdinand IV. had retired into Sicily, that Island was 
 put under the protection of the English, who had there an army 
 of 15,000 men, with a considerable fleet. General Lord Ben- 
 tinck, who commanded the English troops, used all his influence 
 to introduce the British constitution into that island. The Queen, 
 who was at the head of the opposite party, was obliged to leave 
 her family. From that moment the English remained masters 
 of Palermo. But after the first peace of Paris, Ferdinand IV. 
 resumed the reins of government; and before embarking for 
 Naples, he annulled the constitution of 1812. 
 
 Corfu, the only one of the Ionian islands which was not yet 
 in the power of the English, was given up to them by the Con- 
 vention of Paris (April 23, 1814.) The fate of these islands was 
 decided by a treaty concluded at the same place between Aus- 
 tria and Great Britain, Prussia and Russia. They were com- 
 bined into a free and independent State (Nov. 5,) under the 
 name of the United States of the Ionian Islands, and placed 
 under the immediate and exclusive protection of Great Britain. 
 
 By the events of the years 1813 and 1814, the House of Aus- 
 tria gained possession of all that belonged to her in Italy, either 
 before or in consequence of the peace of Campo Formio. A 
 small portion of Ferrara to the north of the Po was ceded to her, 
 as were the Valteline, Bormio, Chiavenna, and the ancient re- 
 public of Ragusa. The Emperor constituted all these posses- 
 sions into a separate and particular State, under the title of the 
 Kingdom of Venetian Lombardy. Independently of these, Aus- 
 tria recovered the Illyrian provinces, of which she also formed a 
 distinct kingdom. By a treaty signed at Vienna with Russia, 
 she likewise gained possession of the part of eastern Galicia 
 which she had ceded to Alexander in 1809, and the exclusive 
 property of Wieliczka, which was then divided between her and 
 the dutchy of Warsaw. The Austrian monarchy, in its present 
 state, contains a surface of 12,000 German square miles, and a 
 population of twenty-nine millions. 
 
298 CHAPTER XU. 
 
 It was a more difficult matter to reorganize the monarchy t . 
 Prussia. We have mentioned the negotiations, in consequence 
 of which she acquired about a half of the kingdom of Saxony. 
 The Congress of Vienna restored to her not only a part of an- 
 cient Prussia, now called the Grand Dutchy of Posnania, and 
 all the other possessions which she had lost by the convention 
 of Vienna, (Dec. 15, 1805,) and the peace of Tilsit (with the ex- 
 ception of Bialystock, Anspach, Baireuth, Westfriesland, and 
 Hildesheim,) but also a considerable territory on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, the Grand Dutchy of Berg, the Dutchy of Westpha 
 lia, Swedish Pomerania, and the sovereignty of several other 
 principalities and counties. These territorial arrangements 
 were not concluded till 1819. The Prussian monarchy contains 
 a surface of 4882 German square miles, and a population of 
 nearly 11 millions. 
 
 The sovereign princes and free cities of Germany were uni- 
 ted by an Act signed at Vienna, under the name of the Germanic 
 Confederation. All the members of the Confederacy enjoy 
 full sovereignty, and all take part in. the deliberations of the 
 Diet in matters relating to the general interests of the Union. 
 The thirty-nine members, however, in ordinary cases, have only 
 seventeen votes ; eleven of the States have each a vote, while 
 six collective votes belong to the other twenty-eight. Never- 
 theless, in constitutional questions, the thirty-nine members have 
 in all seventy votes ; each State having at least one, and several 
 of them two, three, and four votes. The members have the 
 right of concluding every kind of alliance, provided these are 
 not directed against the safety of the Union or of its constituent 
 members. The equality of civil and religious rights was secured 
 to all who professed the Christian religion. 
 
 Various States, forming the Germanic Confederation, under- 
 went certain changes in their territorial possessions ; but the 
 negotiations by which they were definitively settled did not take 
 place till 1819. The kingdom of Bavaria received indemnity 
 for the various restitutions which had been made to the Court 
 of Vienna. Its superficial extent amounts to 1505 square miles, 
 and 3,300,000 inhabitants. The grand dutchy of Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt obtained considerable augmentations on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, and has a surface of 214 German square miles, and 
 six hundred thousand inhabitants. The Grand Duke of Olden- 
 burg, the Duke of Saxe Cobourg, the Landgrave of Hesse- 
 Homberg, and the House of Orange-Nassau, obtained territorial 
 indemnities on the Rhine. The Elector of Hesse-Cassel obtained 
 the g^and dutchy of Fulda ; his dominions consisted of 200 Ger- 
 man square miles, and 540,000 inhabitants. The King of 
 
PERIOD IX. A. D. 15510—1815. 299 
 
 Hanover lost Lauenburg, and obtained Hildesheim and West- 
 fresland. That kingdom contains 700 German square miles, 
 and one million three hundred thousand inhabitants. The grand 
 dutchy of Saxc-Weimar, with its additional districts, contains 66 
 German square miles, and one hundred and ninety-three thou- 
 sand inhabitants. 
 
 Such is the composition of the German Confederation, an 
 association which was formed, as we have mentioned, by the 
 act of June 8th 1815. In 1820, it was declared a fundamental 
 law of the Union. 
 
 As Russia and Austria were not likely to come to an agree- 
 ment, as to the possession of the city of Cracow, the former de- 
 manding it as an appurtenance of the ci-divant dutchy of Warsaw, 
 while the latter claimed it as having been deprived of it by the 
 peace of Schoenbrun ; it was agreed by the treaty of Vienna 
 (May 13, 1815,) that that city, with the territory which had been 
 assigned it, should form an independent and neutral Republic, 
 under the protection of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Besides 
 the city of Cracow, a district containing eight or nine thousand 
 inhabitants was dismembered from the dutchy of Warsaw, which 
 was conferred on Prussia, under the title of the Grand Dutchy 
 of Posnania. The remainder was united to the Empire of Rus- 
 sia as a distinct State, under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, 
 having its own constitution and a separate administration. That 
 State contained 2215 German square miles, with a population 
 of two millions and a half. 
 
 We have already observed, by what fatal mischance Denmark 
 had been dragged into the war of Napoleon against the allies. 
 The treaty of peace at Kiel, (Jan. 14, 1814,) deprived her of 
 Norway, in lieu of which she obtained the paltry compensation 
 of Swedish Pomerania ; and even that acquisition proved nuga- 
 tory. According to arrangements agreed on at Vienna with 
 Prussia, the King of Denmark accepted the dutchy of Lauen- 
 burg instead of Pomerania, which was abandoned to Prussia. 
 The Danish monarchy thus lost one-third of its subjects, and 
 was reduced to an extent, including Iceland, of 2420 German 
 square miles, and 1,700,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The Norwegians, who cherished a national hatred against the 
 Swedes, refused to submit to their destiny. They chose for their 
 King Prince Christian Frederic, who was their Governor-Gene- 
 ral and heir to the throne of Denmark (May 17, 1814,) and they 
 published a representative constitution at Eidswold. The King, 
 and the Prince Royal of Sweden, marched at the head of an 
 army to reduce them to submission. After some hostile manoeu- 
 vres, the Prince of Denmark resigned the sovereignty, by a con- 
 
300 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 vention which was si^ed at Moss (Aug. 16.) The Nat'OBtd 
 Assembly convened at Christiana (Oct. 20,) decreed the union 
 oi Norway to the crown of Sweden, as an independent kingdom, 
 \iiider one monarchy, and with a representative constitution. 
 They adopted the order of succession as established in Sweden 
 in 1809. Charles XIII. was proclaimed King of Norway (Nov, 
 4 ;} and the relations between Sweden and Norway were sealed, 
 by an act signed between the two kingdoms (July 31, 1815.) By 
 the treaty of Vienna, Sweden ceded to Prussia her part of Po- 
 merania, and thus was separated from Germany, of which she 
 had been a constituent member since the time of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus. The Swedish monarchy contains an extent of 16,150 
 German square miles, with 3,330,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Russia acted so conspicuous a part during the period of which 
 we have spoken, that we can scarcely mention any event of 
 general interest in which she was not concerned. She was at 
 war with Great Britain, Turkey, and Persia, when Bonaparte 
 commenced hostilities against her in 1811. The Russians acted 
 on the defensive against the Turks ; Prince Kutusoff, who had 
 the command, having been obliged to send five divisions of his 
 army into Poland, caused Silistria to be demolished, preserving 
 only Rudschuk on the right bank of the Danube. The indolent 
 Jusuff Pacha, who had never stirred from his camp at Schumla 
 was replaced by Achmet Aga, an active and enterprising Gene- 
 ral, who sent for a reinforcement of 35,000 men, mostly composed 
 of excellent cavalry, and supported by a formidable artillery 
 served by French officers. Achmet marched against Kutusoff 
 and their first encounter took place two leagues from Rudschuk 
 (July 4.) Eight thousand Russians, who were opposed to the 
 vanguard of the Ottomans, under the command of Ali Pacha, 
 were driven back to their entrenchments. Two days after the 
 Grand Vizier attacked the Russian entrenchments and dislodged 
 the troops, who threw themselves into Rudschuk. It was chiefly 
 the infantry of the Russians who suffered in that battle, owing 
 to the superiority of the Turkish cavalry, who would have cut 
 them to pieces, but for a bold manoeuvre of Count Langeron, 
 who sallied from Rudschuk, at the head of the garrison, and pro- 
 tected the fugitives. The Grand Vizier advanced under the 
 very cannon of the fortress. He attempted three times in one 
 day to carry it by force, but was repulsed each time (July 9.) 
 During the following night the Russians quitted Rudschuk and 
 passed the Danube. But the Turks having got intelligence, 
 entered the town, and prevented them from carrying off all tlieir 
 artillery and ammunition. 
 
 The army of Kutusoff, weakened by disease was unable to 
 
pehtod IX. A. D. ISIO— 1S15. HOI 
 
 Drevent the Grand Vizier from taking- possession of tlie islands 
 of the Danube, where they constructed bridges, by means of 
 which they made frequent incursions into Wallachia, A body 
 of lr>,000 troops, comm.anded by Ismael Bey, took up the same 
 post on the right bank, so that the Grand Vizier passed the river 
 at the head of the main body of the forces (Aug, 3.) But the 
 face of affairs soon changed. General Ouwaroff havinsr brouoht 
 a remforcement of 50,000 men to Kutusoff, the latter detached 
 IMarkoff, with a considerable body, who passed to the right bank 
 of the Danube, marched in all haste against the Turkish reserve 
 before Rudschuk, seized their camp, and thus cut off the retreat 
 of the Grand Vizier. The latter found means to enter Rudscliuk 
 in a small bark, leaving his army in Wallachia, under the f-oni- 
 mand of Seraskier Tchaban-Oglou, who was blockaded at Slo- 
 bosia by Kutusoff, and after being reduced to 25,000 men, they 
 were obliged to capitulate and lay down their arms (Dec. 8.) 
 
 The Grand Vizier then demanded a suspension of arms, 
 which was signed at Guirdesov. Negotiations were opened ai 
 Bucharest, but the Turks refused for a long time to make the 
 smallest cession of territory. At length the mediation of Eng- 
 land, Sweden, and Russia, overcame the obstinacy of the Divan, 
 and peace was signed (May 28, 1812.) The Porte ceded to 
 Russia about one-third of Moldavia, as far as the Pruth, the for- 
 tresses of Choczin and Bender, and the whole of Bessarabia, 
 with Ismael and Kilia ; an amnesty was granted to the Servians. 
 
 Although England had appeared at Bucharest as a mediating 
 power, nevertheless her treaty of peace with Russia was not de- 
 finitively signed, although actual hostilities had long ceased be- 
 tween the two powers. The treaty was at length concluded at 
 Orebro (July 18,) the stipulations of which are not all known. 
 The peace with Persia was signed in the Russian camp, near 
 the river Seiwa, under the mediation of England, and confirmed 
 the following year at Teflis (Sept, 15, 1814.) Persia ceded to 
 Russia Daghistan, Shirvan, Derbent, and in general the whole 
 western coast of the Caspian Sea, renounced her pretensions on 
 Georgia, Imirete, Guriel, and Mingrelia, and recognised the ex- 
 clusive right of Russia to the navigation of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 At the Congress of Vienna the Emperor of Russia had ob- 
 tained the kingdom of Poland, as we have already noticed. In- 
 dependently of that acquisition, the Russian Empire had an 
 extent of 345,000 German square miles, 80,000 of which are in 
 Europe, the population of vdiich amounts to thirty-eight mil- 
 lions. The population of the vv^hole Empire is estimated at forty- 
 six millions. 
 
 A concurrence of fortunate circumstances has saved the Otto- 
 
 voL. If. 26 
 
yj3 CHAPTER Xtl. 
 
 man Empire from tKat ruin with which it has more than once 
 been threatened, and for which the total dissohition of social 
 order in the provinces has a long time prepared the way. If u 
 «iiill survives these evils, its preservation is perhaps to be ascn 
 bed to that Hoi}' Alliance which has sometimes been the objeci 
 of terror to the Porte, he having been persuaded that thai Chris- 
 tian League was directed against Mahometanism. It is this 
 suspicion, the offspring of ignorance and weakness, which ai n 
 recent date had nearly precipitated him into imprudent mea 
 sures. If the wisdom of his powerful neighbour had known, m 
 these circumstances, to unite his own glory with the maintenance 
 of pul)lic tranquillity, of which Europe stands so much in need, 
 the Porte, enlightened as to his true interest by Austria, Great 
 Britain, and his other allies, will feel that he cannot prolong his 
 own existence, except by substituting the reign of justice, and 
 the principles of humanity, to despotism and cruehy. 
 
A. U, 1S15— 1830.— FRANCE. 3U3 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 From, the Second Restoration of the Bourbons, A, D, 1815, to 
 the Revolution in Poland, A. D. 1830. 
 
 France had undergone a complete chan:^e since the Revolu- 
 tion, which the Bourbons, on their return could not understand. 
 Their unfitness to reign over this people, was immediately per- 
 ceived, and gave rise to a prevalent saying, that " the Bourbons, 
 in their misfortunes, had learned nothing, and had forgotten 
 nothing." 
 
 The open acknowledgment, made by Louis XVIII., that he 
 owed his throne to the Prince Regent of England, was a dis- 
 honor, and a source of deep mortification, to the pride of France ; 
 and the country was farther humiliated, by the presence of the 
 Allied troops, occupying two-thirds of its territory to enforce 
 tranquillity. 
 
 By the treaty of Paris,* concluded November 20th, 1815, be- 
 tween Louis XVIII. and the three Allied powers, France was to 
 pay 700 million francs, give up seventeen citadels for a pe- 
 riod of three to five years, and support one himdred and fifly 
 thousand foreign troops, within her territories ; besides satisfy- 
 ing all public and private claims, to the countries belonging to 
 the Allied sovereigns, and restoring the productions in the arts, 
 and the treasures of literature, with which as spoils, Napoleon 
 had enriched the capital. This last requisition was enforced, 
 while the Allied troops were in possession of Paris. 
 
 Richlieu, the new minister, signed this treaty in Septemiber, 
 1815, which occasioned great dissatisfaction to the Fre.nch na- 
 tion. The King opened the new chamber, November, 4, 1810, 
 with a speech which disclosed the unfavorable condition of 
 France. 
 
 February 5, 1817. The liberals and independents obtained 
 the law of election ; and, on March 6, 1818, the recruiting law ; 
 but were not successful in their attacks on the laws of excep- 
 tion, which prevented the complete operation of the charter. 
 The machinations of the ultras, led to troubles in Grenoble, in 
 
 * See pages 288 ^d 289, vol. u. 
 
304 CliAl'TEK Xiil. 
 
 1816, and in Lyons 1817. July, 1818, their intrigues were 
 discovered, which were nothing less than to engage the Allies 
 to assist them in abolishing the charter. The ministry then 
 incHned towards the liberals, and national party. A loan of 24 
 millions was required to eiFect the evacuation of the Allied troops 
 stationed in France, in the autumn of 1818, which was deter- 
 mined upon by the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, October 9, 
 1818 ; and for the payment of foreign claims for the expenses 
 of the warj and claims of individuals. Here wad a successful 
 exhibition of French diplomacy : in these settlements, in the 
 matter of liquidations, the payment of the debt acknowledged by 
 the treaty of 1815, reduced from 1600 to 1390 millions was 
 postponed till tlie year 1818 — when, in payment of these 1390 
 millions, a rent of 16,040,000 francs, equivalent to a capital of 
 275 million francs, was accepted. This was about a seventh 
 part of the lawful claim ; and a rent of three millions was grant- 
 ed, in a separate article, to satisfy the claims of British subjects. 
 The remaininsr 280 millions were farther reduced at Aix-la-Cha- 
 
 O 
 
 pelle, to 265 million francs. 
 
 November 12. France was admitted into the Quadruple alii 
 ance of the great European powers. The prime minister. Rich- 
 lieu, declared himself against the existing mode of election, and 
 ajrainst the operation of the constitutional system, which led to 
 a division in the ministry, v/hen in December, Decazes was vic- 
 torious over the ultras, in the law of election, and liberal princi- 
 ples. A new ministry uas named by Louis XVIII. the third 
 since 1815. The Marquis Dessoles was made president of the 
 ministerial council, which was overthrown, Nov. 19, 1819 ; Des- 
 soles, St. Cyr and Louis, the defenders of the charter, resigned. 
 Decazes now became prime minister. In the controversy res- 
 pecting the construction of the charter and the censorship of the 
 press, Benjamin Constant, Comte, and Dunoyer, were writers 
 for the liberals ; Chateaubriand, Bonald, and Fievee for the 
 ultras. 
 
 The session from 1819 to 1820, v/as one of continued conflict 
 of the most violent kind; the influence of the royalists succeed- 
 ed in excluding Gregoire from the chamber : Decazes, presi- 
 dent of the ministry, attempted to follow a moderate course, by 
 several judicious bills. In the midst of these agitations, Febru- 
 ary 13, 1820, the Duke of Berry was assassinated. A new law 
 of election, and two of exception were lost, and Decazes resign- 
 ed. A fifth ministry, with Richlieu as ))resident was formed, 
 Feb. 20, 1820. The royalists gradually increased their powei 
 and influence, mainly indebted after 1822, to the talents of 
 Villele. 
 
A. D. 1815 — 1830.— FRAiSCE. 305 
 
 Attempts were made for continuing restrictions of the press, 
 till the close of the session of 1826, and to impose further re?- 
 irictions, wiiich met with decided opposition, and ended in the 
 resia^nation of the ministry, December 17, 1821, when a sixth 
 Ministry was formed in which ultra-royalism was triumphant. 
 The censorship of the press ceased February 5, 1822. 
 
 A conspiracy in favor of young Napoleon, was discovered in 
 1821, and the following year several revolts were projected in 
 ditlerent garrisons. Villele, minister of finance, displayed 
 great adroitness in the management of affairs, and was appoint- 
 ed president of the ministry, having great influence over j)ubhG 
 opinion. I'he ultras were dissatisfied with his moderation ; he 
 is represented to liave perfectly seen that France could no longer 
 be governed by an absolute monarchy. The most important 
 events of tiie session of 1822, were relative to the new tariff, 
 and the foreign policy in regard to Greece and Spain. The 
 liberal party were defeated on the great question, whether 
 France should by force suppress democratic principles in Spain 
 On the 28th January, 1823, the King announced in the opening 
 of the session, the march of an army of 100,000 French troops 
 for Spain. This expedition evinced the determination of the 
 fanatic party, to put down liberal principles, and restore Ferdi- 
 nand to despotic pov/er. In this attempt, tliey were but too suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 A Loan of 100 millions was required for the extraordinary 
 expenses of 1823. The Spanish campaign of six months 
 tended to strengthen legitimacy, and cost France 207,827,000 
 francs. 
 
 In 1824, the estimate of expenditure amounted to 900 mil- 
 lions. This was owing to the payment by government of the 
 clergy, nov/ become dependent upon the state. The greatest 
 efforts were now made by the ecclesiastics, to regain for the 
 church its former si^lendor, in spite of the feelings and habits of 
 the people. They wielded their immense power, in the most 
 arbitrary and bigoted manner ; but with all their zeal, were un- 
 able to check the diffusion of knowledge — and so far from re- 
 tarding the march of liberty, they hastened the ovcrthrov/ of 
 despotism and bigotry, and eventually brought on their own 
 downfall. 
 
 Louis XVIII, died September 16, and wns succeeded by his 
 brother, Charles X. We have now hastily sketched the events 
 during the reign of Louis XVIIL, enough to show the temper of 
 the French people, and the obnoxious measures which tended 
 to bring about a new revolution in France. 
 
 Charles X. commenced his reign by a declaration of his mten- 
 
 voL. II. 26* 
 
3'Ju CiiArTLix XIIJ. 
 
 tions of coiilirming the charter. He appointed as a member of 
 the ministerial council, the Duke d'Angouleme, and suppressed 
 the censorship of the journals, Sept. 29. Appointed tlie Count 
 de Clermont-Tonnere, minister of war. Villele gained the con- 
 fidence of the King, by his prudent measures, while Chateau- 
 bi'iand proved, in the Journal des Debats, (his paper,) a power- 
 ful and eloquent opponent. In the session of lb25, Villele was 
 triumphant : a bill granting 1,000,000,000 francs in rents, as an 
 indemnification to the emigrants, proved a source of great dis- 
 satisl'action to the nation, v/hich became opposed to the course 
 now pursued. The civil list of the King was established at 
 25.000,000 francs, annually, for life, and that of the royal fami- 
 ly at 7,000,000. On the 29th May, the splendid coronation of 
 Charles X. took place at Rheims, at which time he took the 
 oath to govern according to the charier. In the session of 1826, 
 thirty-one new peers were created to strengthen the ministry. 
 
 In August, 1824, General Lafayette landed in New York, 
 upon an invitation of James Monroe, President of the United 
 States, and was received with the warmest expressions of grati- 
 tude, a nation could bestow ; and passed through the twenty- 
 four states of the union, with more than the splendor of a tri- 
 umphal procession, rie sailed hence, in the Brandywine, a 
 United States ship, September 7, 1825, and arrived at Havre, 
 where every demonstration of attach. ment and respect was shown 
 him. The following particulars respecting the •' Nation's Guest," 
 on his return to France, in 1825, cannot fail to be interesting, 
 ft shows that the affectionate and enthusiastic welcome of hin^ 
 by his countrymen, on his return to France, and portrays the 
 sullen hatred of the Bourbons to every thing that partook of 
 liberty. At Rouen, the " Guest of the American people," the 
 veteran defender of liberty in the two hemispheres, was honor- 
 ed with a public dinner, accompanied by his family and friends. 
 In the evening, a great concourse O'f citizens, among whom 
 were many females, repaired to the house of M. Cabanon, where 
 Lafayette appeared on the bnlcony, and the greatest tranquillity 
 reigned. Notwithstanding the crowd, a serenade, given to the 
 General, wiis heard with perfect silence. At this juncture there 
 arrived, fi^m two opposite directions, a detachnient of the guard 
 royal, and a detachment of gendarmes. The former conduct- 
 ed itself with moderation ; the latter proceeded to disperse the 
 peaceable citizens, wliose meeting had occasioned no distur- 
 i^cUice, and made a charge upon the populace, treating them as 
 rioters ; when many were thrown down and murdered ; and the 
 whole assembly was put to flight, by the sabres and bayonets of 
 the gendarmes; and by them many were arrested. Tojustif)r 
 
A. B. 1815 1830. FRANCE. 30*7 
 
 this proceeding, the Prefect at Rouen issued, in a public journal, 
 ■a note, in which lie said, " That the citizens groaned to see the 
 tranquilhty menaced by the presence of a man whose sad celeb- 
 rity connects itself with the most disastrous period of the Revo- 
 lution !" 
 
 On the return of Lafayette to La Grange, the villagers united 
 in a public festival on the occasion ; and addresses were pre- 
 sented although the government took every opportunity to pre- 
 vent any demonstration of respect being shown to him. Not 
 less than 6,060 persons assembled on this joyous occasion, to 
 commemorate the return of him, whom they designated the 
 *' American Nation's (iuest." 
 
 The Jesuits commenced prosecutions against two of the libe- 
 ral papers. This led to much hostility between the liberals and 
 the royalists ; and soon after, a law against the Jesuits was at- 
 tempted to be passed, and the liberty of the press was carried, 
 April 27, 1827, The national guards of Paris, 45,000 in num. 
 her, were disbanded, a. measure highly obnoxious to the people. 
 This was followed by a rigorous censorship of the press, (June 
 "24, 1827,) which tended still more to irritate the state of public 
 feeling against the ministry. The papers of the opposition fre- 
 quently appeared with w^iole columns blank. 
 
 A war commenced this year Avith Algiers, said to have arisen 
 from a controversy respecting a debt for corn, purchased for the 
 French government in 1739. The ministry dissolved the cham- 
 ber which had still three vears to run. In the new chamber, a 
 majority was gained by the liberals ; out of 8,000 votes in Paris, 
 only 1114 were on the ministerial side; the same decided result 
 took place in the different departments. This occasioned great 
 joy in Paris, and led to some disastei^s : about fifty persons were 
 killed by the gendarmes. By an ordinance of November 5, 
 1827, seventy-six new peers were created. Of these scarcely 
 any, Soult excepted, were entitled by services, to the honor. 
 Three others were added, Jan. 4, 1828 — these were Villele, 
 Peyronnet, and Ooi^biere. 
 
 On opening the session, February 5, 1828, Charles X. con- 
 gratulated the nation on the occasion of the victory of Navari- 
 no. In 1828, the French troops returned from Spain ,* and in 
 August, (shortly afterwards,) an expedition was fitted out for 
 the delivery of Greece from Turkish thraldom. The command 
 of the expedition was given to General Maison. The number 
 of troops amounted to 14,000. (^See Revolution in Greece.) 
 
 The ap}>Gintments announced, August 9, 1829, were the foK 
 lowing : Prince Jules de Polignac, minister of foreign affaJJti 
 M. Courvoisier, keeper of the seals, and minister of juitic*. 
 
308 CHAFTEK Xlli. 
 
 Count Bourmont, minister of war; Admiral Rigny, minister of 
 marine ; Count de la Bourdonnaye, minister of the interior ; 
 Baron de Montbel, minister of ecclesiastical affairs and public 
 instruction ; Count Chabrol de Crousol, minister of finance. 
 Admiral Rigny declined the offered port folio, which was given 
 to M. d'Haussez, Prefect of the Gironde. This was an ultra- 
 royalist ministry. Bourmont had been a soldier under Napo- 
 leon, declared for Louis XVIII. — again took office under Napo- 
 leon, and deserted him at the battle of Waterloo, fled to the 
 Bourbons at Ghent, was elevated to the peerage, and entrusted 
 with the command of the army of occupation in Spain, after the 
 return of the Duke d'Angouleme. 
 
 Prince Polignac was one of the old royalists, and was early 
 attached to Charles X. He, with his brothers Armand, was 
 implicated in Pichegru's conspiracy, and received the pardon 
 of Napoleon. Since 1823, he had been ambassador at the British 
 court, and his elevation was said to have been through Eng- 
 lish influence, more especially that of the Duke o^ Wellington. 
 He professed a great fondness for England ; but however this 
 may be, certain it is, he was no favorite with the French peo- 
 ple. The minister of the interior, La Bourdonnaye, had distin- 
 guished himself for his violence, and active measures for the ul- 
 tras. No sooner was the ministry formed, than La Bourdonnaye 
 was disposed to dissolve the chamber, as Villele had done to 
 secure a majority ; trusting for success, to the activity of tlie 
 royalists, and the aid of the clerg3^ When this hazardous 
 proposition was rejected. La Bourdonnaye resigned, and Polig- 
 nac was made president of the ministerial council. Baron Mont- 
 bel was transferred to the department of the interior, and Count 
 G. de Rainville was made minister of ecclesiastical affairs. An 
 ordinance to this effect was issued on the 17th November, 182^. 
 Such was the organization of the ministry at the end of that 
 year. 
 
 The efforts of the Bourbons to build up aristocracy and abso- 
 lute monarchy, had failed — their measures having had an oppo- 
 site effect ; and the poverty of the nobles having impaired their 
 former influence, they now followed instead of leading the nation. 
 The French were now too much enlightened to suffer them- 
 selves to be deprived of their privileges. The country was, at 
 this time, in a state of prosperity. The struggle that followed, 
 was for the protection of their liberties, and not the result of 
 suffering and want. This noble regard for the cause of free- 
 dom, gave new glory to France, and to liberty, a fresh impulse 
 throughout the world. 
 
 1830, March 2. The speech froni_the throne announced that 
 
A. L, l'61.0 l^W. FRAKCE. SUli 
 
 war nad been commenced willi Algiers, and ended with these 
 words : " Peers of France, deputies of the departments, I do 
 not douht your co-operation in the good 1 desire to do. You 
 will repel, with contempt, the perfidious insinuations which ma- 
 levolence is busy in propagating. If guilty intrigues should 
 throw any obstacles in the way of my government, which I can- 
 not and will not anticipate, I should find force to overcome them, 
 in my resolution to preserve the public peace ; in the confidence 
 I have in the French nation, and in the love which they have 
 always evinced for their kings." 
 
 As soon as this speech was made public, the funds fell, and 
 the ministers had a decided majority opposed to thein in the 
 chamber of deputies. Royer-Collard was re-elected president. 
 On the 18th, a deputation of tlie chamber presented an answer 
 to the King's speech. This address respectfully but frankly 
 informed him, " That a concurr€ince did not exist between the 
 views of the governmetit, and the wishes of the nation ; that the 
 administration was actuated by a distrust of the nation ; and thaJ 
 the nation, on the other hand, was agitated with apprehensions, 
 which would become fatal to its prosperity and re}X)se." "Sire, 
 (continued the address,) France does nof wish for anarchy, any 
 more than you wish for despotism." This was a firm and pru- 
 dent warning here given to the King ; who, in reply expressed 
 his regret, that the concurrence which he had a light to expect 
 from the deputies, did not exist. He declared his resolutions 
 were fixed, and that the ministers would make known his inten- 
 tions. The answer of the peers to the King's speech, on the 
 10th, was a mere echo of the same. Chateaubriand made a bold 
 attack on the ministers. Both chambera were convoked for 
 the 19th, when they were declared to be prorogued to the 1st 
 of September of the same year — a measure that was immediately 
 productive of great public excitement throughout France. Roy- 
 alists and Jesuits blindly exulted in this measure ; v/hile the 
 liberal journals increased their activity, and boldly predicted 
 the course of events that speedily followed. Prince Polignac 
 and the ministry were contemned for their imbecility. In Paris, 
 a society furnished the printing of journals, where they were 
 destitute through the efforts of the government ; and in Brittany 
 an association was formed, determined to refuse the payment of 
 taxes, not regularly granted by the chamber of deputies. 
 
 But it is now time to turn to the war with Algiers, a city that 
 had long been the seat of the most extensive piracy. The main 
 object, however, of the ministr}^ in prosecuting this war, was 
 evidently popularity. Knowing the inordinate fondness of the 
 faaxion for unlitar^' giory, it was anticipated that the subjugation 
 
;^10 CH AFTER XIII. 
 
 of Algiers would establish Charles X. and his ministry in the 
 affections of the people, and secure a favorable majority in the 
 chamber. In this hope they were disappointed ; for though the 
 success of the army was announced during the election, it did 
 not silence the opposition : a strong majority being elected. 
 
 The army, commanded by Count Bourmont, consisting of 
 37,577 infantry, and 4,000 horse, embarked on the 10th of May, 
 at Toulon. The fleet consisted of 97 vessels, of which eleven 
 were ships of the line, and 24 frigates. On the 14th of June, 
 the army began to disembark at Sidi Ferrajh, on the African 
 coast ; and on the 5th of the following month, Algiers surren- 
 dered. This event was made known in Paris on the 9th of July, 
 by a telegraphic despatch. The treasure found in Algiers 
 amounted to 90,000,000* of francs in money, and 10,000,000 f 
 in gold and silver bullion and plate ; besides about 25,000,000:^ 
 not in the inventory, stated subsequently in the Journal du 
 Commerce, to be 43,000,000 francs. 
 
 Having given very briefly the successful issue of the French 
 arms, over barbarism in Africa, we now return to our narrative 
 of the events in France. 
 
 The success attendant on the French arms in Africa, occa- 
 sioned gxpat exultation in France ; but it did not divert the pub- 
 lic from struggling for their liberty, against a detested ministry. 
 
 The chamber was dissolved on the 17th of May, by a royal 
 ordinance, and new elections ordered ; and the two chambers 
 convoked for August 3d. 
 
 The elections for the new chamber took place in June and 
 July. The opposition displayed great activity and talents, in 
 this momentous struggle ; and it was soon seen, by men of intel- 
 ligence, that a change of ministry would be the result. Tney, 
 however, were determined not to yield, and had the infatuation, 
 rather to violate the charter, and expose France to civil war, 
 than to retire. The King appears to have been blinded bv a 
 bigoted priesthood, and the ministers utterly regardless of the 
 sacred rights of the people, expressed by their representatives. 
 In the new chamber 270 were liberals, 145 lor ministers, and 
 15 undecided. In consequence of this result, the ministry made 
 a report to the King, July 26, on the dangers of a free press. 
 In the chamber of deputies, convoked March 2d, there were 
 221 members hostile to government, on which account the King 
 had prorogued both chambers, and had appointed the 2:M of June, 
 and third of July, for the election of new members, to assemble 
 on the third of August. The elections were not all finished, tdi 
 the 19th of July ; before which time, it was sufficiently appa- 
 
 * $16,655,000. t $1,874,100. ± $8,058,630 
 
a. D. 1830. FRANCE. 311 
 
 rent, how the electrons would terminate. When the list was 
 completed, the opposition, was found to have increased from 221, 
 trv 270. It will now be seen, hovv affairs stood in France between 
 ilio crown and the people : the ministry represented the former, 
 and the chamber of deputies the latter. The ministers wha<5*i 
 auty it was to have withdrawn, resolved upon the mad project 
 of setting the voice of the nation, and the constitutional chartei 
 at defiance ; in other words, of annulling the late elections. This 
 plan seems to have been arranged about the middle of July. It 
 was subsequently stated on the trial of ministers, that these 
 measures were concerted between the 10th and 15th of that 
 month. M. Montbel in a pamphlet which he has published, says 
 the ordinances were presented to the King, in a council held on 
 the 21st. They were signed at the next council held on Sunda^ 
 the 25th, the day previous to their public appearance. 
 
 The report made to the King, signed by seven ministers and 
 published at the same time with the ordinances, was intended 
 to justify themselves for the course they had resolved upon. In 
 this flimsy document they called for the suspension of the press, 
 remarking, " At all epochs, the periodical press has only been, 
 and from its nature must ever be, an instrument of disorder and 
 sedition." 
 
 By the first ordinance, the liberty of the press was suspended. 
 By the second ordinance the chamber of deputies was dissolved. 
 And a third ordinance abrogated the existing law of election 
 itself, reducing the number of members from 480 to 258, and 
 sweeping off three-fourths of the former constituency, abolishing 
 the ballot and nearly extinguishing the representative system. 
 In defiance of these ordinances, the conductors of all the liberal 
 journals determined to publish their papers. 
 
 The only papers allowed by government to appear were the 
 Moniteur Universal, Quotidienne, Gazette de France, and Dra- 
 peau blanc. The seizure of the liberal journals on the morning 
 of the 27th July, was the commencement of the revolutionary 
 drama. These ordinances were nothing less than a determi- 
 nation on the part of the crown to deprive the nation of its 
 liberty, and to establish despotism. The audacious attempt 
 however failed. Had the French ministry succeeded in silencing 
 the press, and bringing the representation to a state of subser- 
 viency, they might for a time perhaps have succeeded in their 
 mad projects. Nothing shows more strikingly the rashness and 
 entire want of discernment of the ministry, at the time of which 
 we are speaking, than the issuing of ordinances so obnoxious, 
 without even anticipating resistance of any kind, much less a 
 re>olution. 
 
312 CHAPTER XIII, 
 
 It was on Sunday, the 25th of July, the fatal ordinances were 
 aigiied by Charles the Tenth and his ministers, and at 11 P. M. 
 M. Sauvo, principal editor of the Moniteur, received from 
 Ctiantelauze, and Montbel, at the house of the former, the 
 manuscript for publication on the following morning. As 
 Sauvo glanced over the contents, Montbel remarked, he seemed 
 agitated ; his reply was, " God save the King, God save 
 France." M. Montbel and Chantelauze answered, " we hope 
 he will." At an early hour on Monday nnorning the 26th, the 
 obnoxious ordinances appeared in the Moniteur, and Bulletin 
 des Lois. The prefect of the Seine was astounded at seeing 
 them, about 5 o'clock, not having apprehended any thing of 
 the kind, nor does Marshal Marmont, appear to have had any 
 ^knowledge of these measures : the first intimation he received 
 of the fatal ordinance was by Komierowski, one of his aids, 
 while he was breakfasting at St. Cloud. He exclaimed that it 
 was not possible the report could be true. At half past seven, 
 he set out for Paris, not having seen a newspaper till his arrival 
 in the city. He then went to the Institute where he met his 
 friend M. Arago — " Well," said he to him, " you perceive that 
 things are proceeding as I had foreseen ; the fools have driven 
 matters to extremities. You have only to mourn in your capa- 
 city of a citizen and a good Frenchman ; but how much greater 
 cause have I to lament, who as a soldier shall perhaps be obliged 
 to throw away my life for acts which I abhor, and for people 
 who seem for a long time to have studied only how to overwhelm 
 me with disgust." 
 
 The ordinances spread but slowly in Paris, among the pub- 
 lic : this however was owing to the Moniteur being principally 
 read by those connected with government. For several hours 
 no unusual excitement was manifested. That class who first 
 felt its effects were the journalists. It has been stated, that at 
 this period thirty thousand, persons were engaged in printing 
 in Paris. The effect of the ordinances was to throw them out 
 of employment. The conductors of journals represented to 
 their workmen, that they had no longer any employment for 
 them, they must go and ask it at their good King. The jour- 
 nalists, on this emergency, displayed great courage : seeing the 
 ordinances would be ruinous to their business, and destroy their 
 rights, they fearlessly set them at defiance, by publishing second 
 editions of their papers, the same aflernoon, in order to make 
 them more generally known. At five o'clock, the prefect of 
 police, Mangin, issued injunctions to the printing offices, to 
 stop any further publications, except in conformity to the new 
 law ; and caused a printed proclamation to be circulated and 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, MONDAY, JULY 26, 1830. 31S 
 
 pasted on the walls with the penalties to the keepers of reading 
 rooms, &;c. 
 
 The journalists assembled and drew up in great haste an 
 address to their countrymen ; this was signed and published. 
 /t was a noble display of courage and patriotism : they stated, 
 *' as they were first called on to obey, so they ought to give the 
 first example of resistance to authority, now that it had stripped 
 itself of the character of law. This day, the government has 
 violated all law, we are set free from obedience ;" and declared 
 their determination to publish their journals, regardless of the 
 ordinances. " We will do our endeavors, that for one day 
 more, at least, they may be circulated over all France. It be- 
 longs not to us to point out its duties to the chamber, which has 
 been illegally dissolved. But we may supplicate it in the name 
 of France, to take its stand on its manifest rights, and resist, as 
 far as it shall have the power, the violation of the laws. Its 
 rights are equally certain, with those on which we ourselves 
 rest. The charter (article 50,) says the King may dissolve the 
 chamber of deputies, but for that power to be exercised, the 
 chamber must have met and been constituted — nay, must surely 
 have done something to warrant its dissolution. Before the 
 chamber has met and been constituted, there is no chamber to 
 dissolve. There are only elections to annul : now no passage 
 in the charter gives the King the right of doing this. The ordi- 
 nances which have this day appeared, do only in fact annul the 
 elections, and are therefore illegal ; as doing that which the 
 charter does not authorize. 
 
 " We assume the attitude of resistance in so far as we are 
 ourselves concerned ; it belongs to France to consider to what 
 extent she will adopt the same course." This address was signed 
 with the names of forty-four of the journalists. 
 
 In the mean time, the agitation had already begun in the 
 streets ; the crowd assembled at the Palais Royal, to hear the 
 papers and news discussed, was continually increasing, till their 
 increased numbers, and violence of language, alarmed the 
 authorities, who sent a party of gendarmes to watch over them. 
 By 3 o'clock in the afternoon, the crowd spread from the square 
 of the palace, to the adjoining streets. They then began to 
 assail the gendarmes, who kept their stations, making as yet no 
 attempt to drive the people back. 
 
 About 8 o'clock, there was a great addition to the crowd 
 about the Palais from the pruiting and manufacturing establish- 
 ments. Their masters, in dismissing their hands, after their 
 day's work, had notified them they should have no further em- 
 ployment for them. Here then was a great addition of niea 
 
 VOL. u. 27 
 
314 -CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 under high excitement, determined upon resistance, which was 
 now spoken of openly. 
 
 The fearless began to harangue the people, drawn together 
 by sympathy, and each speech was received with loud cries of 
 bravo, clapping of hands, and cries of " down with the minis* 
 ters" — " The charter forever." The shops were now closed, 
 and a sudden alarm spread through the throng. 
 
 The police and gendarmes advanced upon the crowd in the 
 Palais, and succeeded for a moment in clearing it, without 
 inflicting any wounds. The mob proceeded to the hotel of 
 Prince Polignac, on the Boulevard des Capuchins, who was 
 at this time at St. Cloud. On learning this fact, many went otn 
 purpose to intercept him ; but mistaking his carriage, he was 
 enabled to return without injury, under the escort of two gen- 
 darmes. The windows of his hotel were broken, and his 
 carriage assailed with stones. As he entered the court, the 
 mob threatened to return with reinforcements to set fire to his 
 hotel. During the night, the lamps in several of the streets 
 were demolished, and the lights extinguished, and the windows 
 of some public buildings broken. All these acts sufficiently 
 indicated the preparation for the morrow. This day the King 
 had passed in the amusements of the chase at Rambouillet, and 
 did not return till late to St. Cloud. 
 
 The whole effective military force stationed at Paris, the Sun- 
 day previous to the publication of the ordinances, was 11,550 
 men, 8 cannon, and 4 howitzers ; 1850 men of this number, 
 includes the guards and gendarmes daily stationed at the posts 
 in the Capital, St. Cloud, and other places near. These were 
 all seized and disarmed in detail. The disposable force, there- 
 fore, did not at most exceed 9,700 men, and of this number, but 
 three regiments of guards, two of cavalry, and a few artillery, 
 4,200, were all that could be depended upon. There were 
 besides, 1000 cavalry, and 300 infantry, belonging to St. Cloud, 
 Versailles, and St. Germain, but these were never engaged. A 
 staff officer of the guards, who was engaged during the conflict, 
 stated if suitable precautions had been taken a fortnight previous, 
 that it would have been easy to have assembled from thirty to 
 forty thousand men, with fifty cannon, in Paris. 
 
 On the morning of the 27th (Tuesday) several of the jour- 
 nals were printed and distributed, so determined were the jour- 
 nalists to discharge their duty to the public. The Constiiutionel 
 was prevented from the distribution o-f its papers by the police 
 having stationed a sentinel at the door of the office. The 
 NaiionaJ, the Temps, and the Figaro, were printed at an eariy 
 hour and thrown from the windows among the people, an^ 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, TUESDAY, JULY 27, 1830. ol5 
 
 rapidly dispersed through the city. These papers contained 
 ihe ordinances, and the noble protests of the journalists. The 
 •authorities commenced their operations against the printing 
 offices that had set the ordinances at defiance, and part of their 
 printing presses were taken away, so as to render them useless. 
 The National distributed to the crowd 7,0G0 copies in less than 
 an hour. Thus far the journalists had manfully discharged 
 their duty. This day a considerable number of the newly 
 elected members of the chamber cf deputi-es assembled at 2 
 P. M. at the house of M. Casimir Perrier ; when a protest was 
 drawn up and signed. 
 
 The King this morning appointed Marshal Marmont, com- 
 mander m chief of the forces in Paris. He immediately esta- 
 blished his head quarters at the Tuileries. At half past four, 
 an order was issued at the barracks for several regiments to 
 march to different stations. One battalion of guards, and two 
 pieces of artillery, were stationed on the Boulevard des Capu- 
 chins, in front of Polignac's hotel, the interior of which was 
 protected with soldiers of the 5th regiment of the line. A 
 squadron of lancers protected this part of the Boulevard. 
 Several battalions of the line occupied the portion of the Boule- 
 vards from the porte St. Martin towards the place de la Bastile, 
 and also the place Vendome. Three battalions of the guard 
 were placed in the Carrousel, and the place of the Palais Royal : 
 and two battalions q^ the guards, with two camion, were sta- 
 tioned in the place Louis XV. 
 
 While these dispositions of the troops were making, the streets 
 ^were filled with the multitude, as yet unarmed : they now began 
 to supply themselves with arms from the shops of gunsmiths ; 
 and were soon in actual conflict with the military. 
 
 The battalions of the regiments of the line, stationed in front 
 of the Palais Royal, were received by the crowd with cries of, 
 ■*' the line forever, the line does not fire, the line is on our side." 
 Both men and officers, were averse to firing upon the people. 
 But the guards considered themselves obliged to remain faithful 
 to the government. The mob had already begun in several 
 instances to attack the soldiers with stones, and every kind of 
 missile : these they carried to the upper stories, and roofs of 
 houses, and hurled them on the soldiers beneath. They now 
 began to barricade the streets, and thus sheltered, they were 
 enabled to oppose the patroles. 
 
 This night the remaining lamps were demolished, a judicious 
 precaution and not proceeding from mere wantonness ; as it 
 enabled them to erect barricades during the night, and rendered 
 their operations more secure from the vigilance of the niili- 
 
8lt> CRa^TEK XIII. 
 
 tary. Marshal Marmont had written to the King, informing 
 him that pubhc tranquilHty was restored, and therefore made 
 no preparations during the night, nor sent dispatclies for more 
 troops. He did not even guard the great depots of arms and 
 ammunition. 
 
 During the night, the greatest activity prevailed on the part 
 of the people. The inhabitants were enrolled into bands, and 
 arrangements made for supplying them with muskets, ammu- 
 nition, &c. The telegraphs had been rendered useless in the 
 night ; — this was an effectual means of preventing signals for 
 further succors. Bands of men supplied themselves freely from 
 the gunsmiths shops, and the arms used at the different theatres, 
 and in fact, every kind of offensive weapon was seized and 
 pressed into service. 
 
 Wednesday, 2Sth.—At an early hour, the throng assembled 
 in the streets, and directed their march upon the Hotel de Ville, 
 soon filling the square in front of that building. This morning 
 the national guard appeared in their uniform, among the throng. 
 Measures were soon taken to organize this favorite corps ; a 
 commission was nominated to proceed to Gen. Lafayette, and 
 receive his orders. He did not however assume the command 
 of the guards, till the morning of the 29th. The re-organiza- 
 tion of the national guard went on promptly during the day ; 
 the number that appeared was considerable, mostly in uniform^ 
 and with them appeared the famous Tri-colored flag, so dear to 
 the hearts of all Frenchmen. By nine o'clock it waved on 
 the pinnacles of Notre Dame, and at eleven, it surmounted the 
 central tower of the Hotel de Ville, which was taken possession 
 of by the populace, and who immediately stationed themselves 
 at the windows with fire-arms. The tocsin had been ringing 
 from the bells of Notre Dame, and the church of St. Gervais, with 
 all other means that could be devised, to give the greatest pub- 
 lic excitement ; and to fill the populace with courage, vehement 
 speeches were made, and placards, with imprecations against 
 the ministry, were stuck up in all the public thoroughfares. 
 
 At eight o'clock this morning, the dilTerent regiments left the 
 barracks, and at nine took their stations at the following places : 
 six battalions of French guards, about 1320 men, with three 
 squadrons of lancers, of 100 men each, and 8 guns, were drawn 
 ap in the place du Carrousel. 500 cuirassiers were quartered 
 in the barracks, near the Bastile, and were in communication 
 with the 5th, 50th, and 53d regiments of the line, who occupied 
 ne^irly the whole extent of the northern Boulevards and place 
 Vendome. — The 15th light infantry, were ordered to the place 
 de Greve, Pantheon, and Palais de Justice. The place de Greve 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, WEDNESDAY, JULY 28, 1830. 317 
 
 liad, from an. early hour, been filled with the armed populace ; 
 a detachment of soldiers no sooner arrived there, than, accord, 
 ing to the testimony of Lieut. St. Germain, seven or eight hun- 
 dred persons, most of whom bore fire-arms, rushed upon them, 
 with a loud outcry, and fired a volley, by which two men were 
 killed, and most of the detachment wounded, with the officer in 
 ■command. The soldiers then fired, and several of the people 
 fell. They immediately retreated, pui'sued by the crowd. At 
 the place de Chatelet, which Was also filled with people, a body 
 of soldiers were drawn up in the order of battle : here the har- 
 rassed detachment of Lieut. St. Germain, found a reinforcement 
 m a platoon of grenadiers, a few shots froin whom drove back the 
 assailants. A hoavy fire was now commenced upon the batta- 
 lion, from the Pont au Change, from the adjoining quay, and 
 from all the windows near. Many of the soldiers were wound- 
 ed, and forced to retire to the other side of the river, and got 
 to the Tuileries at three-quarters past 10, where some addi- 
 tional troops had arrived from St. Dennis, Vincennes, and Ver- 
 sailles. 
 
 It does not appear, that iMarshal Marmont had formed any 
 regular or eifective plan of proceeding : the troops were marched 
 and countermarched, about the streets and quays, assailed by 
 every kind of missile, thrown from windows and the tops of 
 houses : the time was lost, when any thing effective could be 
 accomplished. The warfare had now became general, and 
 ihe events are so confusedly related, that it is difficult to give 
 to them a systematic arrangement. We shall therefore endea- 
 vor to describe the most prominent facts, as related by the 
 different writers at this memorable epoch. Wherever the mil- 
 itary took their stand, the increasing crowds that surrounded 
 them, emd the constant accession of arms, rendered the situatwwti 
 of the soldiers extremely galling ; barricades were also thrown 
 up on every side, which rendered their situation still more di«- 
 heartening. 
 
 A column consisting of a battahon of guards, half a squadron 
 of lancers, with two pieces of cannon, was sent to occupy the 
 Hotel de Ville. Their force was joined by one of the battalions 
 of the 15th regiment ; this column then crossed the bridge, Pont 
 Neuf, and advanced along the Quai de I'Horloge, djc, and pre- 
 pared to recross the river to march upon the Hotel de Vi'lle, by 
 the Pont Notre Dame, a few hundred paces west of the Greve. 
 The people now advanced in great force, and tolerable order, 
 with drums beating, on the opposite end of the bridge, to oppose 
 their passage. The two cannon were now planted on the centra 
 of the bridge ; a field officer of the guards here advanced and 
 
318 CHAPTEK xiri. 
 
 warned the people af their danger, by pointing to the guns, and 
 assured them they were marching to certain destruction. Tina 
 had the effect of causing the people to withdraw ; but while so 
 doing, some shots were fired, and an adjutant killed. The can- 
 non fired one shot each, and the column passed over and occu- 
 pied the Quays de Greves and Pelletier on the north side of the 
 river. In the mean time, a smaller force attempted to pass the 
 new suspension bridge, directly opposite the Greve, where they 
 were received with a galling fire, from the house-tops, windows, 
 and quays along the Seine. The res^t of the column coming up 
 to their assistance, the place was taken. Tlie guards had no 
 ?ooner taken their position, than they learned with deep conster- 
 <iation that a battalion of the 15th light infantry stationed along 
 ♦.he quays had revolted. The general in command of the guards 
 was soon apprised of this, by the falling of his men. The Quai 
 de Citi was filled with sharp shooters of the insurgents, who pro- 
 tected by the presence of the 15th regiment, kept up a continued 
 fire upon the guards in the place. 
 
 By this time the 50th regiment, stationed in the morning at 
 the Boulevards, and afterwards marched to the place de Greve, 
 determined to lay down their arms : they wished to return to 
 their barracks, but finding these were already in possession of 
 the people, they joined 40 cuirassiers, then departing from the 
 Bastile, for the Hotel de Ville. The latter had many difficulties 
 to encounter, marching through back streets, and at length 
 reached the Hotel, but the 50th regiment took no part in the 
 fighting, by which the cuirassiers made their way. On their 
 arrival at the Hotel de Ville, the officer commanding the rririrds 
 was apprised that he could not depend on receiving the reiiitorce- 
 ment from the Bastile, as he fully expected ; and what rendered 
 his situation more trying, his cartridges were now about spent r 
 Two detachments were sent in quest of ammunition, but did not 
 return. A message succeeded in gaining the Tuileries; this 
 was by a party of cuirassiers ; 200 Swiss were sent to the place 
 de Greve ; when they arrived there, the guards 220 strong, had 
 been engaged five hours, and had forty men hors de combat, 
 (about 5 o'clock,) and had gained an entrance, with a part of 
 their forces, into the Hotel de Ville. The populace having now 
 returned, the cavalry arid artillery sheltered themselves in the 
 stable yards from the severe fire, directed against them, from 
 the opposite bank of the river. The 50th regiment was also 
 protected in the inner court of the Hotel. 
 
 The hardest fighting yet, had been at the entry of Rue du 
 Mouton, a street that opens into the place de Greve, from the 
 north. When the troops had established themselves in the place 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, WEDNESDAY, JULY 28, 1830. 319 
 
 de Greve, a severe fire was kept up against them from both 
 angles of the street, and from behind a barricade there thrown 
 up, but which was soon taken and retaken, on the arrival of 
 the Swiss, during a movement ill executed ; its loss led to the 
 severest conflict of the day, from the determination of the sol- 
 diers to regain this post, in which they finally succeeded, and 
 drove the popular forces away. The troops at length were 
 withdrawn into the Hotel de Ville, except a detachment of light 
 infantry, that held the barricade in the Rue du Mouton. The 
 sharp-shooters of the guards, kept up a destructive fire from 
 the windows of the Hotel, having now received a supply of 
 cartridges from the regiments of the line, which refused to fire 
 upon the people. 
 
 After the Hotel was taken possession of by the troops,* they 
 kept it during the day's fight. 
 
 Wednesday was the usual day on which the King held a 
 council ; but the state of affairs in Paris, prevented the routine 
 of business, and the ministers for safety, had taken up their 
 quarters at the Tuileries. 
 
 The celebrated M. Arago, of the Academy of Sciences, who 
 was on terms of great intimacy with Marmont, sought an inter- 
 view : for this purpose, he exposed himself, in company with 
 his son, to all risks, to gain the palace of the Tuileries. It 
 was 2 o'clock, P. M. when he arrived, where he was ushered 
 into the presence of Marmont, in a saloon looking towards the 
 Carrousel. He found him with many officers, and other per- 
 sons not m uniform. M. Arago, taking the Marshal aside, in 
 a conversation insisted on the rights of resistance on the part 
 of the people — that the ordinances should be immediately with- 
 drawn — and the dismissal of the ministers, &c. During this 
 discussion, an aid-de-camp brought intelligence that General 
 Quinsenas could no longer maintain his position, which put an 
 end to this interview. Immediately after, the arrival of several 
 members of the chamber of deputies was announced ; and 
 these were introduced to the presence of the Marshal. These 
 deputies were M. M. Lafitte, Casimir Perrier, General Gerard, 
 Lobau, and Mauguin. They represented the dangers which 
 threatened the throne ; the convulsed and frightful state of the 
 Capital; and demanded that the ministers should be dismissed, 
 and the ordinances withdrawn, as the only means to stop the 
 effusion of blood. The Marshal communicated the substance 
 
 * There appears to be some discrepancy in the statements of different 
 writers about the taking and holding the Hotel ; but the fact, as stated 
 above, is established by the narration of the stafF-ofRcer and others, given 
 during the trial of the ministers 
 
320 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 of this message to the ministers. The reply of M. Polignac 
 was, It was useless for him to see them. They immediately 
 withdrew. Lafitte, the chief speaker, said, the question could 
 only be decided by the chance of arms ; and henceforward, the 
 deputies determined to exert themselves in the revolutionary 
 cause — seeing there was no hope of an accommodation. 
 
 In the conflict maintained this day, in the place de Greve, 
 the populace displayed the utmost perseverance, and the most 
 unshrinking courage. The rapidity and excellent judgment of 
 their movements, the readiness to seize on every advantage to 
 annoy the enemy, shows, they must have had leaders possessed 
 of much practical military knowledge. Nor did they shrink 
 from the sanguinary contest, where any thing could be gained 
 by the sacrifice of life. It should be borne in mind, that this 
 struggle was also carried on, under a most oppressive heat, 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer ransring at 95°. 
 
 Tiie iron suspension-bridge was the theatre of many daring 
 feats of valor ; and has since been called, in commemoration, 
 the bridge of Arcole, (le Pont rf' Arcole.) 
 
 The wounded, during the day, were carried in carts and lit- 
 ters, to the hospitals ; and the dead to the Morgue, amidst the 
 most respectful silence of the crowd. 
 
 The royal troops, though they were in possession of the 
 Hotel de Ville, without any hopes of receiving further reinforce- 
 ments, were now exceedingly anxious to quit it. They accord- 
 ingly effected a retreat, during the stillness of the night, to the 
 Tuileries. Of wounded men, they had between 50 and 60 — 
 though another statement makes the number much higher, 
 these they carried with them. The people had generally lefl 
 the streets and windows, during the night. The troops at 
 length reached the Tuileries, without any obstruction except 
 a barricade they had to take down, to get their cannon along : 
 this made some noise, and occasioned some shots to be fired 
 about them. 
 
 In the Boulevard St. Denis, a great crowd had assembled at 
 an early hour, and among these was seen the uniform of the 
 national guard. This crowd was not generally armed with 
 muskets. About 8 o'clock, a detachment of cuirassiers made 
 a charge upon the crowd, at full gallop. They were then en- 
 gaged in tearing up the j>avement, and carrying the stones to 
 the top of the Port St. Denis. They stood firm, and with long 
 poles threw the cuirassiers from their saddles at the first encoun- 
 ter, and seized their arms, suffering none to escape. With these 
 new equipments, the offensive was now assumed by them. At 
 9, a guard of 20 soldiers of the line surrendered their arms ; 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, WEDNESDAY, JULY 28, 1830. 'S'Zx 
 
 the guard-house was demolished, and of the materials, a barri- 
 cade was constructed across the Boulevard. A furious encoun- 
 ter took place with the guards, at the gate, where stones were 
 hurled, and a brisk fire kept up. 
 
 The people now commenced erecting barricades on a great 
 scale, along the Boulevard, at the suggestion of Ambrose Meno- 
 ret, a carpenter : for this purpose, the fine trees, planted by 
 Louis the Grand, were levelled by the axe. It was done with 
 expedition and great science, under the direction of Menoret, 
 who supplied them with tools from his shop. This was a most 
 fortunate idea. These barriers were so numerous, as to be 
 insurmountable, and cut off all communication with the troops. 
 This line of barricades extended from the Rue du Temple, in the 
 east, to the Rue de Richelieu, west. An eminent architect, Mr. 
 Crecy, had a large quantity of timber, scaffold poles, pick-axes, 
 crow-bars, &c. carried away ; all these were afterwards returned 
 with scrupulous exactness. 
 
 From a subsequent report, it appears that during the revo- 
 lutionary struggle, 4055 barricades were thrown up, consisting 
 of trees felled, carriages of every description overturned, and 
 the pavements taken up. The number of paving stones torn 
 up, for this purpose, were 3,125,000. The expense of paving 
 the streets again, was 250,000 francs. Paris is paved with 
 large square stones. The gutters are in the middle of the streets, 
 and they flowed with blood during these sanguinary conflicts. 
 
 The immense importance of these numerous barricades, 
 thrown up with such unparalleled rapidity, will be best illus- 
 trated by the following details. A strong column arrived at the 
 Bastile, and began to fire upon the people ; these discharges 
 were kept up without intermission, and returned by the people, 
 who were forced to retire ; and were pursued by the troops, as 
 far as the Rue de Reuilly, which meets the Rue du Faubourg, 
 St. Antoine. Here the troops were again assailed with a sharp 
 fire, and had several barricades to overcome. The column 
 remained in the Rue Faubourg St. Antoine, till half past three, 
 and when about to retire, were again assailed with firing, and 
 missiles from the houses. On the return of this body of troops 
 to the Bastile, the commander, M. St. Chamans, found he could 
 not return by the northern Boulevards,* from the numerous bar- 
 
 * The total number of streets in Paris, exclusive of Culsde Sac, are 1142, 
 mostly narrow. The 18 Boulevards are broad streets, planted on both 
 sides with trees, and forming beautiful promenades. Those outside of the 
 walls are called the exterior Boulevards. The interior Boulevards are 
 divided into the old, or northern, and the new, or southern, and are of great 
 length, with many streets running into them. — Enc. Am. Vol. IX. p 524. 
 a work from which we have derived many important facts 
 
822 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ricades, that had risen as if by magic. The attempt to force a 
 passage to the Hotel de Ville, by the Rue St. Antoine, also 
 failed, from the same cause ; while the troops were exposed to 
 a heavy fire from all the windows, and their ammunition was 
 now exhausted. Under all these dangers, M, St. Chamans 
 returned as well as he could, with his column, over the bridge 
 of Austerlitz, and by a circuitous way to the Tuileries, by the 
 southern Boulevards. The column arrived at the place Louis 
 XV. between 10 and 11 at night. After this, no more troops 
 were seen in the place de la Bastile or neighborhood. 
 
 The 28th closed with the retirement of the royal forces fron 
 every position in which they had attempted to establish them, 
 selves during the day. During the night, the citizens did not 
 cease from their exertions, but availed themselves of this respite, 
 to complete the erection of barricades, in every part of the 
 city. In this great work, all ranks of citizens, the aged and 
 the young, were alike ardently employed. These barriers were 
 erected at about forty or fifty paces asunder, breast high, ^nd 
 four or five feet in thickness, the work was carried on by torch 
 light, the lamps having been broken. The dreadful tocsin con- 
 tinued ringing during the night. In the vicmity of the Louvre, 
 and the Tuileries, a patrol of guards, continued to walk during 
 the niglit, and fired upon all who came within reach of their 
 muskets. 
 
 Thursday, 29th, the drums beat the reveille, and the hurrying 
 crowds £is they assembled, cried, " To arms, to arms !^^ Several 
 distinguished military characters, were this day to act as lead- 
 ers. Among them were Generals Gerard and Dubourg. The 
 entire failure of the plans of Marmont had induced him to adopt 
 this day a different mode of warfare. Instead of marching his 
 troops through the streets to no purpose, he had sent for further 
 reinforcements, and now intended to concentrate all his strength 
 in the Tuileries, and keep up a communication with St. Cloud, 
 The following places were in possession of the royal troops, this 
 morning : the Tuileries, Carrousel and Garden, the Louvre, the 
 Bank, and Palais Royal, place Vendome, the Champs Elysees, 
 Rue St. Honore, and several streets. 
 
 There was an addition to the royal forces of 6,700 men, that 
 had arrived since yesterday, so that the total number of the 
 guards amounted to 11 battalions of infantry, and 13 squadrons 
 of cavalry, in all 4,300 men. The eight battalions of the line, 
 amounting to 2,400, were of no service to the royat cause — 
 one battahon of guards occupied the military school. It will 
 be seen that the military were this day to be put on the defen- 
 sive ; It remained therefore with the popular forces, to make the 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, THURSDAY, JULY 29, 1830. 323 
 
 attack, who were this day strengthened by the students of the 
 celebrated Polytechnic school, about 60 of whom scaled the 
 walls, and headed the civic columns by whom they were hailed 
 (vith the greatest enthusiasm. 
 
 The bands from the Faubourgs had poured into the Rue St. 
 Honore, by its eastern extremity, and a fiece and murderous 
 warfare was carried on, and here, the Polytechnic scholars led 
 the citizens to the charge. The battle began to rage fiercely 
 at several points near Rue St. Honore. 
 
 But before any important engagement had occurred, to 
 decide the fate of the day, the defection of troops occupying 
 important stations, led to important results. About half past 
 eleven, the troops of the line, at the place Vendome, and the 
 Palais Bourbon, negotiated with the leaders of the populace, 
 when new barriers rose in all directions round these stations. 
 The 5th and 53d regiments of the line, stationed in the place 
 Vendome, fraternized with the people : this ceremony was per- 
 formed by taking off their bayonets, and shouldering their 
 muskets, with the butts in the air. Marshal Marmont was 
 immediately apprized of the defection of the troojjs, and sent 
 a battalion of Swiss guards from the Louvre, to supply their 
 posts. By some strange oversight, the battalion was withdrawn, 
 that defended the whole position, the Colonnade and gallery 
 of the Louvre. The populace soon found their way into the 
 garden, called L'Enfant, in front of the Louvre, and there meet- 
 ing with no obstacles, entered the lower windows, and glass 
 doors, and took immediate possession of the interior of this noble 
 pile. 
 
 From the windows of the inner court the Parisians fired upon 
 the battalion beneath, and soon every window in the great gal- 
 lery of paintings was filled, whence they fired on the troops in 
 the place du Carrousel, and soon drove the Swiss guards away 
 in great disorder. There were also two squadrons of lancers in 
 the inclosure of the Tuileries, exposed to the fury of the popu- 
 lace. The Swiss rushed to the Triumphal Arch, and getting 
 through it with great irregularity, threw themselves among the 
 lancers. The egress from this railed space w^as blocked up by 
 the latter, but through it the troops escaped as soon as possible. 
 It is said, two platoons of firm soldiers might have driven the 
 popular forces away, who were not numerous at this time. It 
 was at this spot (the Triumphal Arch) that Marshal Marmont 
 had established his head quarters ; and so unexpected was the 
 attack that he retreated precipitately, leaving behind him 120,000 
 francs (5,000?.) in bags. His retreat was by the Rue de Revoli, 
 and thence round into the garden of the Tuileries. From the 
 
; H CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 "bx rnce, two cannon shot were fired on the Parisians. The 
 ^w.ss formed again, but only to retire immediately, by order of 
 Khe Marshal, upon St. Cloud. Thus terminated the capture of 
 Ihe Louvre and the Tuileries. 
 
 In this attack on the Louvre, the strongest column was com' 
 manded by General Gerard ; while the pupils of the Polytechnic 
 school served under him, advancing at the head of their respec- 
 tive companies. It was one of these youths that led the attack 
 on one of its gates and drove it in, when the forces rushed im. 
 petuously on the guards. Many interesting facts are related, 
 showing the courage and noble bearing of these youths, whose 
 services were so conspicuous during the revolution. It was 
 about 1 o'clock when the Tuileries were captured. In the 
 famous gallery of the Louvre, the splendid coronation picture 
 of Charles X. with another painting, was instantly destroyed. 
 The rest of this precious collection of paintings was left un- 
 touched. This fact reflects the highest honor on the Parisian 
 multitude. No sooner was the palace of the Tuileries in pos- 
 session of the populace, than every thing relating to the Bour- 
 bons met with immediate destruction. A splendid painting of 
 the Duke of Ragusa, (Marmont,) was torn into a thousand 
 pieces, and every bust and painting of the royal family destroyed 
 with the exception of a bust of Louis XVIII., to whom Francs 
 was indebted for the charter. Upon the whole, the populace, 
 even to the poorest of the working classes, displayed a remark 
 able degree of forbearance from pillage when in possession of 
 the riches of the royal palace. 
 
 The Swiss barracks, in the Rue Babylone, had been taken 
 possession of before the capture of the Tuileries. Finding this 
 piace defended with great obstinacy, it was set on fire with 
 straw and turpentine. Major Dufay, the commander of these 
 quarters, was killed ; when the flames and smoke forced the 
 soldiers to make a desperate sortie, when great numbers fell. 
 Major Dufay was an officer of great distinction, and had served 
 under Napoleon in his celebrated campaigns. 
 
 The archbishop's palace, in the He de la Cite, was assailed 
 under the command of several Polytechnic scholars. Findmg 
 there, unexpectedly, ammunition and newly sharpened poinards, 
 the multitude were so exasperated that the work of destruction 
 immediately commenced. Costly articles of furniture and books 
 in gorgeous bindings were torn to pieces, scattered, and thrown 
 from the windows into the river. 
 
 A sanguinary combat was kept up in Rue St. Honore with 
 the Swiss, after the Louvre and Tuileries were taken. This 
 mcensed thj pv^^^ple greatly — the soldiers almost to a man pe- 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, THURSDAY, JULY 29, 1830. 325 
 
 fvshed — the carnage there was horrible, about nine hundred 
 dead bodies being found. About half past 3, P. M. the last of 
 th<i military posts in the city of Paris surrendered. 
 
 The royal troops retreated towards St. Cloud, not without 
 meeting with obstructions on the way, and being somewhat 
 harassed. The bridge at Neuilly had been blocked up with 
 heavy carts and wagons at the suggestion of Lafayette ; and 
 the people still continued to fire upon the exhausted and dispirited 
 soldiers. Thus ended the three days' hard conflict, in which 
 the citizens of Paris had fought and bled, and at last achieved 
 a glorious victory. 
 
 The number of citizens killed and wounded in these three 
 days' fight, has been variously stated. From the report of the 
 committee of national rewards, appointed to investigate the 
 claims of the wounded and of the relatives of the slain, it ap- 
 pears that the number of killed and those who died from wounds, 
 was 788 ; and of wounded about 4,500. 
 
 On the 31st of July, the deputies published a proclamation, 
 declaring that they had invited the Duke of Orleans to become 
 Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. At noon on the same day, 
 Louis Phillippe d 'Orleans issued a proclamation declaring that 
 he hastened to Paris, wearing the " glorious colors" of France, 
 to accept the invitation of the assembled deputies — to become 
 Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. A proclamation of the 
 same date appointed provisional commissaries for the different 
 departments of government : these were, M. Dupont de I'Eure, 
 for the department of justice ; Baron Louis, of finance ; General 
 Gerard, of war ; de Rigny, of marine ; M. Bignon, of foreign 
 affairs ; M. Guizot, of public instruction ; M. Casimir Perrier, 
 of the interior and public works. 
 
 The same day, (31st,) Charles X. and his household fled from 
 St. Cloud to Rambouillet. Three commissioners were sent to 
 treat with him : these were, Messrs. De Schonen, Marshal 
 Maison, and O'Dillon Barrett. The national guard advanced 
 towards Rambouillet, which brought about a speedy delivery 
 bf the crown jewels from Charles X. and hastened his depar- 
 ture. August 2d, the abdication of Charles X. and the Dau- 
 phin, Louis Antoine, was put into the hands of the Duke of 
 Orleans ; and a letter from Charles, appointing the Duke regent, 
 and ordering him to proclaim the Duke of Bordeaux King, with 
 the title of Henry V. 
 
 The chamber of deputies met on the 3d of August. On the 
 
 6th, the throne of France was declared vacant by the chamber 
 
 of deputies (de jure et de facto.) On the 7th, some changes 
 
 in the charter were adopted, when by vote, the Duke of Orleans 
 
 VOL. II. 28 
 
326 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 was invited to become King of the French, on condition of 
 his accepting the changes made in the constitution. The votes 
 were 219 in favor, 33 against : the whole number of deputies 
 is 430. 
 
 On the 8th, the chamber in a body went to the Duke of Or- 
 leans and offered him the crown, which he accepted ; and or 
 the 9th, Louis PhiUippe took the oath to support thenewchartpr. 
 In these measures, a majority of the chamber of peers present, 
 concurred. On the 12th of August, the Moniteur announced 
 the names of the new ministry, from the moderate hberal party, 
 as follows : Count de Mole, foreign affairs ; General Gerard, 
 war ; Baron Louis, finance ; Guizot, interior ; Gen. Sebastiani, 
 marine ; Dupont de I'Eure, keeper of the seals and minister of 
 justice ; Duke de Broglie, president of the ministry. Lafitte 
 and Casimir Perrier were also appointed ministers of state, 
 without any special departments. 
 
 Charles X. was permitted to retreat unmolested from France. 
 He, with his household, took passage in two American ships for 
 England, where he was received merely as a private individual, 
 and took up his residence at Holy rood- House, Edinburgh, where 
 he had formerly resided during the sway of Napoleon. 
 
 Many changes were made in the officers of the French 
 government, in accordance with the spirit of the times and for 
 the better establishment of harmony in the government. Out 
 of 86 prefects, 76 were removed ; and of sub-prefects, 196 out 
 of 277. In the army, 65 general officers out of 75 were 
 changed, 65 colonels removed, and almost all the governors of 
 fortresses. 74 procureurers were dismissed. Special missions 
 were sent to the ditferent courts of Europe, which were well 
 received by all of them except Russia. The greatest activity 
 was exerted in the army to put it on a footing to meet any inva- 
 sion, and the organization of the national guard was provided 
 for. Of the late ministry, Polignac, Chantelauze, and Guernon 
 de Ranville, underwent a trial and were declared guilty of trea- 
 son and sentenced to imprisonment for life, with the penalty of 
 civil death to Polignac. He and his colleagues were transferred 
 to the prison at Ham. 
 
 Nov. 3d, the ministry was changed, and Lafitte advanced to 
 the presidency of the council and minister of finance. March 
 the 14th, Casimir Perrier succeeded him in office. On the ISth 
 of October, 1831, a bill passed the chamber of deputies for 
 abolishing the hereditary rights of the French peerage : to 
 ensure its passage in the chamber of peers, Louis Phillippe 
 created thirty-six new peers. 
 
REVOLrTION IN BELGIUM. 327 
 
 Revolution in Belgium^ 
 
 The Belgians soon followed the example of the French, in 
 the career of revolution, by rising and expelling a king that 
 had been forced upon them against their wishes. The congress 
 of Vienna, it will be recollected, in 1814 and 1815, severed the 
 Netherlands from France, with which it had been incorporated 
 since 1795, and constituted it with the United Provinces, into 
 one political body, under William, Prince of Orange, having the 
 title of King of the Netherlands. This was done with a view 
 of giving to Germany greater security against the pov/er of 
 France. The consent of the Southern Netherlands was never 
 asked or given ; it was disposed of by the great powers as a 
 conqLicred province or district. William attempted to unite two 
 million of Dutch Calvinists, engaged principally in commerce, 
 with four millions of Belgian Catholics, employed in agriculture 
 and manufactures — whose interests, language, and manners, were 
 widely opposed to the Dutch, and whose language was disagree- 
 able to the Belgians, who have much the habits and feelings of 
 Frenchmen, and who are also greatly influenced by a priesthood 
 decidedly hostile to all innovations, more especially when coming 
 from the Dutch ; so that the attempt to blend these discordant 
 feelings and conflicting interests entirely failed. And the policy 
 of William's government was by no means calculated to con- 
 ciliate the proud and rich Belgians, whom he treated more as 
 vassals than subjects. The Belgians had many just causes of 
 complaint against the arbitrary measures of William's govern- 
 ment ; they were burdened with heavy taxes, and the education 
 of their children was taken out of the hands of the natives. 
 This state of dissatisfaction led to several demands contained in 
 an address for this purpose ; the grievances ennumerated were 
 fifteen. They demanded an equitable division of public offices 
 between the two countries, liberty of language, instruction, and 
 the press, and the responsibility of ministers. After various 
 struggles, an insurrection at Brussels broke out in August, 1830, 
 and the Belgians made a formal declaration of their indepen- 
 dence on the 4th October, 1830. 
 
 The representatives of the European powers, viz : Austria, 
 France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, assembled at Lon- 
 don, and there agreed to a protocol in favor of an armistice, 
 and directed that hostilities should cease between the Dutch and 
 Belgians. The acknowledgment of the independence of Bci- 
 gium was announced December 27th, 1830, to the national con 
 
328 CHAPTER XIIl. 
 
 gress at Brussels, the Belgians having decided upon a constitu 
 tional monarchy February 3d, 1831 — the Duke of Nemours, 
 the second son of Louis Phillippe, king of France, was elected 
 to fill the throne. On the 17th, the King of France declined 
 the proffered throne on behalf of his son. February 24th, M 
 Sulet de Chokier was elected regent of Belgium. January 4th, 
 the Belgium congress elected Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg 
 for their king, by a vote of 152 to 34, which was sanctioned by 
 the five great powers. The new king made his entrance into 
 Brussels July 21st, and took the oath to support the constitution. 
 September 8th, Leopold, king of Belgium, opened his first par- 
 liament. November 1st, the chamber of representatives of 
 Belgium agreed to the terms of settlement between Belgium 
 and Holland, prescribed by the London conference, and on the 
 8d, the senate agreed to the same by a vote of 35 to 8. 
 
 Revolution in Poland, 
 
 The spirit of Poland has never been crushed. The sword 
 of SuvarofF and the snows of Siberia had diminished the num- 
 ber of her brave sons, but they who clung to the soil of their 
 country and they who devoted their lives to the service of for- 
 eigners alike breathed vengeance on their oppressors and ardent 
 aspirations for the restoration of Poland. They expected much 
 from Napoleon — they spent their best blood in his service, and 
 spent it in vain. Napoleon rejected the opportunity of creating 
 a barrier nation, a camp of devoted soldiers, which would for- 
 ever have secured his empire on its weakest side. Still the 
 Poles did not despair. The moderation of Alexander made 
 their servitude more endurable ; but no sooner had Nicholas 
 ascended the throne of Russia, and sanctioned the barbarities 
 of his brutal brother, Constantine, than the old spirit revived, 
 if indeed that spirit had ever slept. The successful example 
 of France, followed by Belgium and Brunswick, roused them to 
 action and inspired them with the liveliest hopes. The day of 
 vengeance and liberation seemed to have arrived. France well 
 knew that Poland alone stood between her and the already ad- 
 vancing legions of Russia, and her emissaries offered every 
 encouragement to the patriot Poles. Lashed to fury by her own 
 wrongs, listening to the voice of hope, and encouraged by pro- 
 mises of support, Poland stood in the gap, encountered the first 
 onset, and bore up against it manfully and well. But every 
 
EEVOLUTION IN POLAND. 829 
 
 victory weakened her strength — the delusive hope of assistance 
 vanished, and Poland has sunk in iron-bound despair. How 
 will France, saved perhaps by the sacrifice of Poland, answei 
 to man and to God for her ingratitude and perfidy ! 
 
 It was on the 29th of November, 1830, that the insurrection 
 at Warsaw burst forth. Secret societies had existed in that 
 city since 1818, for the express purpose of securing the liberty 
 and nationality of Poland. It was a noble design of her patri- 
 ots to unite again under one government those portions of their 
 unhappy country which had been torn assunder and despoiled 
 by the rapacity of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 
 
 As early as 1821, Russia had commenced a system of pro- 
 scription against these secret societies ; and in 1825, a conspi- 
 racy was kindled into flame at Petersburg, which it was thought 
 could be traced to Warsaw. The societies had members 
 throughout Poland and Lithuania, Podolia and Volhynia, and 
 even the old provinces of the Ukraine, which it might be sup 
 posed had long since lost all recollections of Polish glory. 
 These associations were formed during the reign of the Empe- 
 ror Alexander, to whom some of the patriots had vainly looked 
 for a better state of things. After the death of Alexander, his 
 successor, Nicholas, was crowned King of Poland at Warsaw, 
 May, 1829. 
 
 The diet assembled in 1830, and in spite of all the endeavors 
 of the Emperor, many patriots were elected. Nicholas opened 
 this assembly in person, but failed to overawe the liberals from 
 impeaching ministers for violating the charter. This liberal diet 
 was closed June 28th.* Such freedom of discussion could not 
 be endured by a despotic monarch, whose unvarying aim has 
 been to tread out every spark of liberty in the northern parts 
 of Europe. The Arch-Duke Constantine was made viceroy 
 of Poland, and by his monstrous atrocities became universally 
 detested by the brave and generous Poles. 
 
 The ardent hopes and wishes of the Polish patriots at length 
 burst forth into flame. At 7 in the evening, the hour agreed 
 upon, fifl;een intrepid youths sallied forth determined to seize 
 on Constantine, whose residence was about two miles from 
 Warsaw. They rushed into the palace of the Belvider, where 
 the usual guard consists of sixty men, first wounding the director 
 of poHce, who fled. They next killed General Gendre, a Rus- 
 
 * The constitution of Poland, issued by Alexander, Emperor of Russia, 
 m 1815, contained many important provisions. The diet, composed of two 
 houses, was to be assembled once every two years ; yet in violation of this 
 provision, none was convoked from 1820 to 1825, and only one under the 
 Emperor Nicholas. 
 
 VOL. ir. 28* 
 
830 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 sian infamous for his crimes. The struggle alarmed Constan- 
 line, who instantly rose from his bed and escaped undressed by 
 a secret door, that was closed after him by his valet just as they 
 were on the point of reaching him, and had supposed themselves 
 secure of their victim. Constantine instantly fled to his guards. 
 Thus disappointed, this band retired to their companions in 
 arms, who awaited, at the bridge of Sobieski, the result of this 
 movement. In returning to the city they had to pass the bar- 
 racks where the guards, though already mounted, were unable 
 to attack them on account of a precautionary measure of 
 Constantine in surrounding the barracks with a deep and wide 
 ditch, passed only by narrow bridges. The guards fired upon 
 the insurgents ; but the latter were so advantageously situ 
 ated, and returned the fire so well, that they killed three hun 
 dred of the guards, and retreated with the loss of only one ot 
 their number. 
 
 By this time the streets of Warsaw were filled, some houses 
 had been set on fire, and the cry resounded " To arms, to arms, 
 Poland is up, God for our country !" The inhabitants rushed 
 to arms. The state prisoners were liberated ; the students ol 
 the university and the school of engineers joined the insurrec- 
 tion ; the arsenal was forced, and in an hour and a half from 
 the first cry of liberty, 40,000 men were in arms. Soon the 
 fourth Polish regiment joined the populace, and presently the 
 rest of the Polish soldiers. When Constantine heard of this, 
 he fell back with two Polish regiments of guards, and was per- 
 mitted to retire by the magnanimous Poles unmolested to the 
 frontier. Chlopicki was appointed general in chief, and four 
 days afterwards declared dictator by the provisional govern- 
 ment. Although a soldier of undisputed bravery, he has been 
 blamed for suffering the grand duke to escape when he might 
 have captured him, and for losing time in trying to negotiate 
 with the Emperor Nicholas. 
 
 The diet that assembled in twenty days after the breaking 
 out of the revolt, confirmed Chlopicki dictator ; but on his refus- 
 ing assent to the manifesto of January 9tli, 1831, in which the 
 wrongs of Poland were so feelingly portrayed, he was deposed. 
 Instantly a supreme national council was formed, and Prince 
 Adam Czartoryski appointed president, when a spirited procla- 
 mation was issued, informing the Polish soldiers that Chlopicki 
 had resigned the glorious task of conducting them to combat. 
 
 It was unfortunate for the cause of Poland that Chlopicki was 
 made dictator. He issued an order, " that whoever should cross 
 the frontiers of the kingdom, and attempt to raise the old pro- 
 vinces, should be punished with death." Such an order might 
 
REVOLUTION IN POLAND. 331 
 
 have been issued in respect to Prussian and Austrian Poland ; 
 but not to those provinces that had risen to shake off the Rus- 
 sian yoke, and Lithuania, where the revolt had begun, and where 
 thousands impatiently waited the signal from old Poland, to rise- 
 and join the struggle for liberty. This order of Chlopicki was 
 regarded by the patriots, not only as a severe check to the enthu- 
 siasm of those provinces waiting to rise on the signal being given, 
 but as almost traitorous to their cause. That time was lost in 
 fruitless negotiation that should have been devoted to kindling, 
 far and wide, the spirit of revolt ; and in the most active prepa- 
 ration to meet the vast resources of Russia, which had refused 
 all terms but absolute submission ; and the preparations in the 
 army were strangely neglected. These proceedings at length 
 caused so much dissatisfaction against Chlopicki, as to lead to 
 his dismission. 
 
 After two months delay the inevitable conflict began ; when 
 the Poles marched into the field, " with half the force which 
 under an energetic administration it would have wielded." 
 They ought to have been ready to have commenced offensive 
 operations with their enemy at a distance, instead of waiting 
 for him on their own soil, exposed to his insults and outrages. 
 Russia had now brought into the field against Poland 200,000 
 men, while Poland had but about 50,000 equipped for the fight 
 — a fearful disparity in numbers. Through the influence of 
 the aristocracy, the command of the army was given to Prince 
 Radzvil. 
 
 The Russian invading army rendezvoused, on the 20th of 
 January, at various points of the westera frontier of the empire. 
 It was composed, according to the report of Field Marshal 
 Diebitsch, of 105 battalions of infantry, 135 squadrons of cav- 
 alry, with 396 pieces of artillery, and 11 regiments of Cos- 
 sacks. The army crossed the Polish frontiers on the 5th of 
 February. The advance of the Polish army was at Biala, the 
 right near the high road to Warsaw, the left at Lomeza on the 
 Narew. On the advance of the Russians, the Polish corps 
 fell back, the right on Warsaw, and the lefl on Modlin and Pul- 
 tusk. On the 18th of February, the Russian head-quarters were 
 established at Minsk, ten miles from Warsaw, and their advance 
 pushed to Melisna, within five miles of that city. The Russian 
 left rested on the Vistula above Warsaw, and the right on the 
 Bug near its junction with the Narew, its centre protected with 
 woods and artillery. 
 
 On the 18th, the Polish army of 50,000 men had its right on 
 Grokow, with Praga in the rear, and the lefl thrown back oppo- 
 site the right wing of the enemy. 
 
b32 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The reconnoissances of the 19th and 20th, were resisted by 
 the Poles and led to a severe battle. According to the Russian 
 •account, the heat of the battle was during the early part of the 
 day confined to the left, Count Pahlen's advanced guard, which 
 was attacked as soon as it had cleared the defile near Grokow, 
 and compelled to retreat two miles. The advanced guard, 
 under General Rosen, was attacked at the same time, advancing 
 from Okanief. On the arrival of Diebitsch, he sent a reinforce- 
 ment under General Toll, with several battalions and 20 cannon, 
 to the relief of Count Pahlen. A furious charge was now made 
 by the Russians, with Diebitsch in person, which changed the 
 fortune of the day, and at 4 o'clock the Russian wings united, 
 when the Poles were driven from the field of battle. For three 
 days after this action the Russians made no onward movement, 
 but asked an armistice for the burial of the dead, which was 
 granted. 
 
 Early on the 25th, the Russians having received a reinforce- 
 ment of 25,000 men, felt prepared for action. They drew 
 forth their whole army in front of the forest, and commenced 
 an attack on the Polish left wing, near Jublonna. General 
 Uminski received this attack with great bravery, and repulsed 
 the enemy, taking six cannon, which he spiked, and drove the 
 Russians to the forest. He then attacked the Russian centre 
 with dreauful slaughter, and drove them from their position. 
 Diebitsch had calculated, with the great strength of his left 
 wing, to crush the Polish right, situated near Grokow, under 
 the command of Chlopicki and Skrzynecki. The Russians 
 made six tremendous charges, and were as often repulsed with 
 great loss ; a seventh charge made against a new regiment, 
 put it in disorder, and caused it partially lo retreat. Two 
 regiments of cuirassiers were then sent against the faltering 
 regiments : the latter being aided with the Polish lancers, rallied, 
 rushed on the regiments of cuirassiers, and cut them to pieces, 
 of which only forty escaped, twenty prisoners only being taken, 
 mostly officers, and among them the commander of one of these 
 regiments. This affair decided the day, when the Russians were 
 obliged to withdraw from the field of battle into their strong 
 holds in the forest of Milosna. This battle was fought with 
 great fury. General Chlopicki, who was in the centre, had two 
 horses killed under him, and was wounded. Forty thousand 
 Poles here withstood the shock of one hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand of their enemy ; and at the close of the battle, nearly 
 15,000 Russians lay weltering on the plain, and several thousand 
 prisoners were taken. 
 
 After the battle, Prince Pvadzvil gave up the command of the 
 
REVOLUTION IN POLAND. 333 
 
 army ; when Skrzynecki, who had displayed extraordinary 
 bravery and skill, was chosen commander in chief. But this 
 step led to the rankling enmity of Krukowiecki, the second in 
 command to Chlopicki, who thenceforward meditated revenge, 
 plotted, and afterwards proved a traitor to his country. 
 
 The first step of Skrzynecki was to attempt to negotiate with 
 Diebitsch. When he found his advances repelled, he prepared 
 for the unequal struggle. 
 
 The ice in the Vistula had now broken up, and the swamps 
 were filled from the melting of the snow, and the roads were 
 almost impassable for artillery and cavalry. Skrzynecki now 
 determined to act on the off*ensive. On learning that Diebitsch 
 had divided his forces, he led the Polish army of 25,000 men 
 to Praga, and on the 31st, favored by the darkness of the night, 
 approached the Russian camp, and fell upon the advanced 
 guard of General Geismar, at Wawar, consisting of 8,000 men, 
 intrenched in a very strong position, which force he nearly 
 destroyed, capturing 4,000 prisoners, and taking a number of 
 cannon. General Uminski had previously been despatched 
 towards Ostrolenka, to keep in check the corps of General 
 Sacken and the guards who were advancing there. While the 
 Polish advanced guard was engaged in combat at Wawar, 
 General Rybinski, with his division, attacked the enemy's right, 
 and carried it by the point of the bayonet ; destroyed one entire 
 regiment, and forced another to lay down their arms. The 
 combat lasted two hours. Colonel Romarino's brigade here also 
 distinguished itself. Skrzynecki next fell upon the corps of 
 General Rosen, posted at Dembe Wielski with 20,000 men, who 
 were unable to withstand the impetuous attack of the Poles. 
 The Russians fled by way of Minsk, and made several efforts 
 to sustain their positions as they received reinforcements, but 
 were unable to sustain them. It was at 5 o'clock, P. M. when 
 they arrived at Dembe Wielski, a position strongly fortified, and 
 the resistance was obstinate. But the force of the artillery from 
 the centre, and the vigor of the assault, completely routed the 
 Russians, who fled with precipitation. 
 
 By this masterly movement of the Polish commander in chief, 
 20,000 Russians were throw^n hors-de-combat, and many superior 
 officers were captured during this day, so glorious to the Polish 
 arms, besides taking two standards, fifteen wagons filled with 
 ammunition, some thousand muskets, and fifteen pieces of can- 
 non This victory occasioned but small loss to the Poles, owing 
 to the rapidity and surprise with which their movements were 
 executed. The regiment of scythemen (leucheurs) having 
 demanded arms, the muskets left on the field of battle were 
 
334 CHAPTER XJH 
 
 assigned them. The combat lasted till 10 at night. The army 
 had then been actively engaged, fighting and marching, twenty 
 hours. 
 
 On the 9th, the Polish army gained a considerable victory, 
 taking several cannon, and from 3,000 to 4,000 prisoners ; 
 among them were 300 officers of different ranks. The head- 
 quarters on the 10th were at Seidlec ; and on the same day, 
 at that place, Marshal Diebitsch succeeded in uniting all his 
 forces. From this time the Polish cause appears to have de- 
 clined. 
 
 General Dwernecki with a valiant corps entered Volhynia, 
 surrounded by Russian corps under Generals De Witt, Keuts, 
 and Rudiger. Dwernecki passed the Bug on the 10th, and on 
 the 11th routed some Russian forces, took a number of prison- 
 ers, some transports, and baggage. The left wing of the Rus- 
 sian army, stationed at Kock, upon Veprez and Rudjew, fell 
 back, and Marshal Diebitsch, baffled in his attempts, retired 
 with the army across the river Bug, alarmed for his safety. 
 Insurrections spread in his rear, in the provinces of Lithuania 
 and Volhynia. A violent insurrection broke out at Wilna on 
 the 28th of March. 
 
 General Chrzanowski, with 8,000 men, cut his way through 
 the Russians, and penetrated as far as the fortress of Zamosc. 
 The greatest enthusiasm now spread through the Polish province 
 of Samogitia. This expedition of Chrzanowski, by forcing his 
 way through the enemy's detachments, was one of great daring. 
 In three days he defeated the Russians three times, and took 
 800 prisoners. These movements in Volhynia occasioned 
 great uneasiness to the Russians, and obliged them to change 
 their plan — that of attempting Warsaw in front by Praga. On 
 the last days of April, Diebitsch retired with the Russian army 
 beyond the river Bug. . The barbaritieii of the Russians during 
 this warfare against the patriots in Lithuania, were of the most 
 revolting kind. 
 
 April 26th, General Dwernecki surrendered his force, con- 
 sisting of 4,000 men and 17 pieces of cannon, to the Austrians. 
 He had been pursued by a superior force, and was under the 
 necessity of passing into the Austrian dominions. Diebitsch, 
 with the principal Russian army, retreated in the direction of the 
 Bug and Narew, to gain the Prussian frontier, to relieve the suf- 
 f(^ring state of the army. At Thorn there was a great supply of 
 provisions, ammunition, &;c., waiting his approach. 
 
 The Polish government issued a manifesto against Prussia 
 for her shameful violation of the principle of non-interference. 
 This conduct of Prussia destroyed all the advantages gained by 
 
REVOLUTlOiS' IN TOLANi). 335 
 
 Polish valor. The Prussians furnished supplies of every kind, 
 and constructed bridges over the Vistula for the passage of the 
 Russian army. In many instances when the Russian troops 
 were forced by the Polish soldiers into the Prussian dominions, 
 they were suffered to return with their arms, while the Poles in 
 all similar cases were retained prisoners. 
 
 The conduct too "of Austria was most outrageous. While the 
 brave Dwernecki, the " cannon provider," was withstanding a 
 greatly superior force on the Austrian frontier, the Russians 
 passed over neutral ground to outflank him. He was followed in 
 liis retreat by the Russians who were allowed to retire, while 
 tlie brave, patriotic, and devoted champions of Poland were 
 obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war to the Austrian 
 forces stationed on the frontier. 
 
 While a Polish corps was at Minsk, Skryznecki united all his 
 corps on the left, crossed the Bug, and forced his way to Ostro- 
 lenka, a flank movement of 80 miles, and defeated the Russian 
 guards at Tychosin. He then sent forward 300 Polish officers 
 to Lithuania, there to organize the patriot forces. 
 
 The sanguinary battle of Ostrolenka was fought on the 26th 
 May, in which 20,000 Poles were opposed to 60,000 Russians. 
 This battle was fought with an inveteracy unexampled — quarter 
 was out of the question. The Poles having succeeded in pass- 
 ing to the right bank of the Narew, they attempted to destroy 
 tlie bridge. This they were unable to effect, as the Russians 
 were protected T^y a numerous artillery placed on the opposite 
 bank. Several regiments of Poles, under a most galling fire, 
 attempted to arrest the progress of the Russians. The combat 
 was for a long time one of slaughter ; they fought man to man, 
 and thousands were killed by being thrown into the dyke which 
 passes along the marshy shore of the Narew. The battle did 
 not end till 12 o'clock at night, when the exhausted Russians 
 retrograded as far as the bridge, and the PoHsh army commenced 
 a retrograde movement unmolested, and fell back on Praga. 
 The loss of the Poles in this battle has been stated at 4,000 men. 
 The Russians suffered very severely and had three generals 
 killed. The Russian guards are said to have displayed great 
 bravery in the action. It was the object of Diebitsch to cut off" 
 the retreat of the Poles. The second Polish corps under Genera] 
 Lubienski displayed great gallantry on the 25th : it forced its 
 way, at the point of the bayonet in a retreat from Chirchnowiec, 
 through 40,000 Russians. 
 
 It was subsequently ascertained that a correspondence had 
 been kept up by traitors and Russian agents in Warsaw, through 
 whose means Diebitsch was informed of the plans of the Polish 
 
33«3 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 commander m chief, and led to the disastrous battle of Ostro-' 
 lenka. On the same day that the battle of Ostrolenka was 
 <buglit, General Chlapowski gained a victory over the Russiaas 
 av Mariampol, commanded by General Sacken. 
 
 The Russian commander in chief, Diebitsch, died suddenly ai. 
 Klechewo, June 19th, at that time the head-quarters of the Ru.!»- 
 sian army. He had been superseded a short time previous to 
 his death by Paskewitch, who had greatly distinguished himself 
 in the war against the Persians. Shortly afterwards, the Arch 
 Duke Constantine died very suddenly. 
 
 The Russian arms under Diebitsch in the campaign against 
 enfeebled and distracted Turkey, acquired a fictitious celebrity ; 
 but Russia has been entirely shorn of this fame by a handful of 
 Polish patriots. Had it not been for this untoward war againsi 
 Poland, Diebitsch's name might have descended to posterity as a 
 renowned warrior. Poor Diebitsch became the laughing stock 
 of all Europe ; and the boasted prowess of Russia has since been 
 viewed in a very different aspect. Russia, in the height of her 
 pride and in the full confidence of her strength, was about to 
 march her legions upon France ; when the breaking out of the 
 Polish revolution afforded her sufficient employment nearei 
 home. If Poland, at the commencement of the revolution, had 
 succeeded in estabhshing an energetic government, and possessed 
 a leader fully competent to direct her valiant soldiers, the over- 
 Dearing power and haughty pride of Russia might have been 
 humbled to the dust. 
 
 General Gielgud was sent with a force of 8,000 men into 
 Samogitia, a district of Lithuania, and was for a time success- 
 ful ; but was defeated in an attack on Wilna, and forced to 
 retreat. On the 13th of July, the remains of the corps of Giel- 
 gud and Chlapowski, reduced to 2,500 men, passed over into the 
 Prussian territory, when General Gielgud was shot by a Polish 
 officer. 
 
 General Dembinski had entered Lithuania at Olitta, about 
 55 miles west of Wilna, with corps to aid the insurgents. The 
 failure of Gielgud before Wilna obliged him to retreat — he forced 
 his way through the Russians, and arrived safely in Warsaw. 
 This retreat was a masterly display of generalship. 
 
 June 29th, a conspiracy was this day timely discovered in 
 Warsaw, which was to set the Russian prisoners, thirteen thou- 
 sand in number, at liberty. Several disaffected officers attempted 
 to bring about a counter-revolution to favor the Russians. It 
 was to be accomplished as follows : the prisoners having been 
 allowed to go at large, they were to be supplied with arms ; and 
 on a signal being given the powder mill was to be blown up, 
 
Stormi ig of Warsaw. Vol. 2, p. 340.- 
 
 Fall of Missolonghi. Vol. 2, p. 354. 
 
REVOLUTION IN POLAND. 337 
 
 when a general attack was to be made on the citizens and 
 national guard. General Janowski, one of the traitors, to save 
 himself, made the discovery of this horrid conspiracy just in 
 time to save Warsaw. 
 
 On the 14th July, General Chrzanski was attacked by Gene- 
 ral Rudiger's corps, on this side of Minsk, five miles from War- 
 saw ; when the Russians were defeated and forced to retreat, 
 having 3,000 men killed, 900 prisoners taken, and 1000 muskets. 
 On the 12th, the main army of Paske witch was encamped be- 
 tween Sisno and Kikal, and on the same day a great part of it 
 passed the Vistula between Warsaw and the Prussian frontier, 
 having received from Thorn a great number of barges and 
 materials for bridges. The Prussians, to facilitate the passing 
 of the Russians, had constructed a bridge over the Vistula at 
 Drewenca. 
 
 On the 13th of August, General Skryznecki resigned the 
 command of the army to General Dembinski, compelled, by the 
 force of circumstances, to do so, in order that faction might 
 have no further pretext to injure his country. His letter of 
 resignation on this occasion, is full of generous devotion to the 
 cause of his country. The patriotic club, irritated with the 
 measures of government and dissatisfied at not seeing General 
 Janowski condemned, determined to take violent measures. To 
 these acts they were instigated by the base Krukowiecki. On 
 the 15th August, at 8 A. M. the club formally demanded that 
 Skryznecki should be ordered to Warsaw. They then pro- 
 ceeded to the castle, that was protected by 200 of the national 
 guard, who made scarcely any resistance. On the same day, 
 the patriotic club demanded the death of Janowski ; and on 
 the 16th, the state prisoners concerned in the conspiracy for 
 a counter-revolution, were murdered in their rooms by the 
 clubists. Thirty-five persons were thus put to death without 
 ceremony ; among them were Generals Janowski, Bulkowski, 
 Plurtig, Salacki, and Benthouski, the Russian chamberlain, Fus- 
 tiane, &c. 
 
 During the night, General Krukowiecki was appomted 
 governor of the city. He sent for a reinforcement, and his 
 first measures were to put a stop to these horrors. August 
 17th, the government was dissolved, and Krukowiecki was 
 placed at the head of the new government, with very extended 
 powers. He caused the arrest of the president and ten of the 
 club, and appointed General Prondzynski to the chief command 
 m the army. 
 
 From the time that Krukowiecki came into power, he took 
 measures to deliver Warsaw to the Russians, and made e"C",y 
 
 VOL. II. 29 
 
338 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 attempt to induce the diet to demand an amnesty, and sent the 
 main part of the Pohsh army to the right side of the Vistula, 
 when the thunder of the Russian artillery was breaking over the 
 devoted city. The proposals of Krukowiecki were repelled by 
 the diet with indignation, who declared to the suspicious deputies, 
 *' rather will we die here in our places than stain the honor of 
 our country." The traitor was deposed at midnight and a new 
 governor of the city named, which gave new vigor to the faint- 
 ins; defenders of Warsaw. 
 
 On the 6th of September, at daybreak, the Russian army of 
 100,000 men and 300 pieces of cannon, advanced to storm War- 
 saw, which was defended with great heroism. On the 8th, aftei 
 two days hard fighting, it surrendered to Field Marshal Paske- 
 witch. The Russians had 20,000 slain in storming Warsaw. 
 The Poles lost about half that number in its defence. 
 
 The government and the most distinguished citizens retii'ed 
 with the main body of the army, under the new commander in 
 chief, Rybinski, upon Modlin and Plozk. The army, however, 
 kept in three divisions instead of uniting, which could thus offer 
 but a feeble resistance to the Russian forces. As a last resource, 
 the Poles crossed the frontiers into the Austrian and Prussian 
 dominions. Upwards of 1500 of the most distinguished leaders 
 of the Polish revolution were arrested and imprisoned at War- 
 saw ; and to complete the measures of oppression and vengeance, 
 the Russian troops fired upon the prisoners confined in one of 
 the wings of the prison, under the pretence of a revolt among 
 the prisoners, though it was known that three-fourths of these 
 were imprisoned for political offences. 
 
 Of twenty-two Polish generals that became, in a manner, pri 
 soners under the amnesty, the greater part were sent to distant 
 parts of the Russian empire, and but four returned to Poland. 
 The soldiers were marched by thousands to Siberian exile, linked 
 together by the wrists to bars of iron. The nobles were treated 
 in the same ignominious manner, with their heads shaved, and 
 consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia ; and the chil- 
 dren were torn from their mothers, and carried off to glut the 
 vengeance of the Autocrat of all the Russias. 
 
 Numbers of the patriots that escaped after the fall of Warsaw, 
 when the army passed the frontiers, have gone into voluntary 
 exile, and are now mourning over the calamities of their country, 
 the loss of their homes, their wives, and their children. 
 
 The Prussian government treated the Polish refugees that fled 
 into her territory with horrible brutality, in order to force these 
 now miserable and heart-broken outcasts into the iron fangs of 
 Russian despotism. 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION. 339 
 
 The recital of the barbarous deeds perpetrated by insatiate 
 and faithless Russia on completing the subjugation of Poland, 
 cannot fail to fill with sorrow the breast of every friend to hu- 
 manity : and it sickens the heart to think, that these wretched 
 and trodden-down Poles are now perhaps for ever beyond the 
 reach of all human aid. The French government, during the 
 Polish struggle, a period of intense interest to the fervent and 
 sympathizing Frenchmen, showed the blackest ingratitude and 
 perfidy towards the chivalrous Poles. It was in vain that the 
 good Lafayette lifted up his imploring voice in their behalf to 
 the citizen King. It would seem, indeed, as if the nationality 
 of Poland was now for ever blasted ; and the survivors of this 
 once noble race of warriors and patriots were destined, by seve- 
 ral of the arbitrary governments of Europe, to be hunted down 
 like beasts of prey. 
 
 Russia is at present erecting a citadel at Warsaw, intended 
 to overawe the Poles for the future. The cost of the building, 
 20,000,000 florins, is to be extorted from the oppressed citizens 
 of Warsaw. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Greek Revolution. War hetween Russia and Turkey. England, 
 from A. D. 1816, to the passing of the Reform Bill, A.D. 1832. 
 
 Among the extraordinary events of the 19th century, there is 
 none that occasioned more thrilling interest at the time, than the 
 protracted and fearful struggle made by the modern Greeks to 
 gain their independence. 
 
 The classic soil of Athens and Sparta, Thebes and Corinth, 
 for the last four centuries had been profaned by Turkish despot- 
 ism. It was the same soil that, 2500 years ago, was the seat 
 of learning and the abode of free institutions. It was the land 
 of Homer and Demosthenes, Solon and Pericles, that, after the 
 slumber of ages, was awakened to new life. 
 
 The struggle, of which we are about to give a faint and rapid 
 sketch, is the one made by the modern Greeks to achieve their 
 country's independence, and elevate Greece to an equal rank 
 with civilized nations. And though this people had been so long 
 under the most debasing slavery, they nevertheless displayed, 
 during this momentous struggle, numerous deeds of valor worthy 
 their renowned ancestors. 
 
 Before entering on this eventful revolution, which began in 
 the Morea, March 23, 1821, it will be necessary, in order fully 
 to understand its origin, to state, that some years before th 
 
340 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 commencement of hostilities the patriots of Greece founded, in 
 1814, an association called the Hetaria. There was a society- 
 established at Vienna the same year, of which Count Capo 
 d'Istrias was one of the first members ; but it did not publicly 
 avow any political designs. The head-quarters of this society 
 were at St. Petersburg, whither many of the most distinguished 
 Greeks repaired under the pretext of having commercial busi- 
 ness to transact. 
 
 The Greeks it appears had, at different times, been called 
 upon by Russia to shake off the Turkish yoke, namely, in the 
 years 1769, 1786, and 1806 ; and a society, avowedly for the 
 liberation of Greece, was formed in Paris in 1809. It was found 
 that the beginning made in 1814, was too early to insure suc- 
 cess. A people who had long been kept in an abject state of 
 slavery, neeHed first a due preparation and a general diffusion 
 of knowledge ; and the plans for such a weighty undertaking 
 required to be well matured. 
 
 The intercourse kept up with France, was of great conse- 
 quence in forwarding the cause of liberty in Greece ; and the 
 revival of literature and the spread of science, brought with it 
 an ardent desire for their country's freedom. This was further 
 promoted by giving them the works of Goldsmith, Franklin's 
 Poor Richard, Fenelon, and Montesquieu, which were translated 
 into modern Greek at Athens, Saloniki, Smyrna, &c. ; and 
 schools were established, that were subsequently swept away 
 by the war. 
 
 The Hetaria, or society of friends, kept up an active corres- 
 pondence with the Greeks in different parts of Europe, who 
 hastened to join it ; while some men of the highest standing 
 visited St. Petersburg to further their designs, and even looked 
 to Russia for aid. When this hope was found to be fallacious, 
 the Greeks resolved to begin themselves. The first movement 
 was made by Czerni George, in 1817, an exiled chief of Servia, 
 who was suddenly to appear in Servia, his native province, 
 while Galati, and other Grecian chiefs, were to raise the stan 
 dard in the south of Greece, and the Morea. Czerni George, 
 the Servian, was treacherously betrayed and murdered on hia 
 way by Milosh, a relative and former friend, and his head 
 sent to Constantinople. Count Galati retired to Bucharest, and 
 there shortly afterwards died. The next attempt was arranged 
 for 1825. 
 
 In the mean time some chiefs, burning with desire for the 
 glorious cause of freedom, began the revolution. These were 
 M. Suzzo, hospodar of Moldavia, one of the Hetarists ; Alexan- 
 der Ypsilanti, a major general in the Russian army, and Pnnce 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION. 34 J 
 
 Catacuzene. Ypsilanti was to begin hostilities beyond the 
 Danube, while all Greece was to be summoned with a procla- 
 mation ; and to render their measures more certain, an explosion 
 was to take place at Constantinople. 
 
 Ypsilanti began before Moldavia was prepared to co-operate. 
 His proclamation was energetic, and called on all Greece to 
 shake off the Turkish yoke. It roused the Moldavians, and 
 Ypsilanti took possession of Bucharest, the capital of Walachia. 
 containing 80,000 inhabitants. But Russia disclaimed all parti- 
 cipation in a manifesto which she published. Suzzo gave up 
 the command in Moldavia, and the plot at Constantinople was 
 frustrated. A chieftain who joined Ypsilanti, was suspected of 
 treachery. He was arrested and beheaded. This was Vladi- 
 miresco ; and the price of his correspondence with the Porte 
 was, that he was to be made hospodar. 
 
 Ypsilanti was now forced to retire from Bucharest before 
 10,000 men, who entered the city without firing a shot. The 
 Hetarists who fell into the hands of the Turks were impaled 
 alive, and numbers of children hung up by their feet along the 
 roads. The monasteries were entered, and the inmates butch- 
 ered. Prince Ypsilanti retreated to Tergovist, followed by the 
 Turks. A battle was fought at the monastery of Dragachan, 
 on the morning of June 17th. The Turkish infantry charged 
 with loud shouts, but were repulsed with the bayonet. A second 
 charge was repelled with equal firmness. At this juncture, the 
 cowardice and treason of Caravia, an officer of cavalry, 
 changed the fate of the patriot army. He turned round and 
 fled, and immediately the whole army was in confusion. Gior- 
 gaki, with his corps, displayed great firmness during the route. 
 The sacred band of about 400 or 500 young Greeks stood firm, 
 while the rest fled and crossed the Oltau ; these sustained the 
 shock of 1500 Turkish cavalry. They sold their lives nobly, 
 determined to fall rather than yield. The disparity in numbers 
 was too great for success, when about 400 fell. Such an exam- 
 ple of patriotism had a most salutary effect on the Greeks. The 
 army of Prince Ypsilanti being annihilated, he repaired to 
 Trieste, intending to rejoin his countrymen in the Morea. The 
 Austrian government seized him, and imprisoned him at the 
 castle of Montgatz, in Hungary. 
 
 When the intelligence of the insurrection in Moldavia reached 
 Constantinople, the Sultan issued immediate orders to disarm all 
 the Greeks in the empire, and a war of extermination at the 
 capital commenced. The Greek patriarch, Gregorius, was mur- 
 dered on the 22d April, the day of the greatest festival of the 
 Greek church, and his body dragged by Jews through the streets 
 
 VOL. II. 29* 
 
842 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 of Constantinople. Several other ecclesiastics shared the same 
 fate, and a number of Greek churches were destroyed, which 
 exasperated the Greeks to a degree of desperation, who saw 
 that nothing short of extermination awaited them. The priests 
 in the islands of the Morea, from the atrocious acts at Constan- 
 tinople, saw themselves doomed to certain destruction. They 
 therefore exerted themselves strenuously, to inspire the people 
 to resistance and vengeance. 
 
 By the 1st of April, the excitement became general. The 
 mhabitants of Patras were disaffected by the exorbitant levies 
 of the Turks. Mutual distrust began between Greeks and 
 Turks — each prepared for the worst. Hostilities were first 
 opened by the inhabitants of Suda, a large village near Cala- 
 vrita, in the northern part of Arcadia. At Patras, the Greeks 
 refused to give up their arms, when the Turks fired with cannon 
 upon the place from the fortress, and soon took possession of it. 
 Germanos, archbishop of Patras, assembled an army of 4,000 
 peasants, and took the city from the Turks. The scene that 
 followed ended in the destruction of three hundred houses and 
 pillage. 
 
 In the islands of Hydra, Spezzia, and Ipsara, the greatest 
 activity was displayed in fitting out ships of war, the united force 
 of which was eight}^ or ninety vessels of 10 or 12 guns each ; 
 and fifly or sixty smaller vessels were supplied by other islands. 
 Tlie flag hoisted by the Greeks, consisted of eight blue and 
 white horizontal stripes. The superior activity of the Greek 
 navy was soon shown. 
 
 The first Turkish fleet left the Dardanelles on the 19th of 
 May, and was followed by the Greek fire-ships. On the 8th of 
 June, they burned a ship of the line, ashore near Tenedos — 
 compelling the Turkish fleet to put back to the Dardanelles. 
 
 The Ipsariots landed on the coast of Asia Minor, and took 
 possession of Cydinia, which was soon after retaken by the 
 Turks, and the inhabitants murdered and driven away to the 
 number of 35,000. It must be kept in mind during this strug- 
 gle, that the islanders displayed higher traits of patriotism and 
 valor than the Moreots ; in whicli the women took part in this 
 struggle for liberty. The Turks next disarmed Candia, and 
 executed the archbishop and several clergymen. The peasants 
 in the mountains and suburbs of Candia would not give up their 
 arms : they united and succeeded in driving the Turks back into 
 the towns, though they were thousands strong. 
 
 In the month of November, the island of Cyprus was disarmed, 
 and nearly all the inhabitants of Larnica murdered. The pea- 
 santry for uniting in their defence, had, in the month of August, 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION^ 343 
 
 1822, their villages, sixty-two in number, burned. In the mean 
 time the great Turkish fleet supplied their garrisons in the Mo- 
 rea with arms, ammunition, &c. 
 
 The cause of Greece received a new impulse by the arrival 
 of Demetrius Ypsilanti, and Prince Alexander Cantacuzene. 
 After some difficulty, Ypsilanti was appointed commander in 
 chief, July 24, 1821, of the Peloponnesus, the Archipelago, and 
 all the liberated pi^ovinces. There was at this time dissensions 
 amongst the Greek leaders. Tripolizza, the chief fortress of the 
 Turks, was besieged by Demetrius Ypsilanti, and 8,000 Turks 
 perished. It was in this fortress the Greeks obtained their first 
 heavy cannon ; and it became the seat of government till it W£i* 
 transferr'^d to Argos. In Thessaly, Ulysses with several other 
 leaders or capitani, defeated near Thermopylae, a Turkish army 
 which had advanced from Macedonia. Prince Mavrocordato 
 received the chief command of the Albanian forces ; when the 
 government began to acquire some form, after much difficulty 
 and dissention. Prince Mavrocordato succeeded, Jan. 13, (Jan. 
 1,) 1822, in establishing an approximation to a federative con- 
 stitution at Epidaurus, until the second national assembly in 
 Astro, March 14, 1823. At this convention more than 60 depu- 
 ties attended. 
 
 The western part of Greece, Arcania, ^tolia, and Epirus, 
 sent 30 deputies to Missilonghi, who, under the presidency of 
 Alexander Mavrocordato, formed a government consisting of ten 
 members. 
 
 The eastern part of the main land sent 33 deputies to Salona, 
 under the presidency of Theodore Negris, forming the Areopa- 
 gus of 14 members, November 16 ; and the Morea, or Pelopon- 
 nesus, with the islands of Hydra, Ipsara, Spezzia, &c. sent to 
 Argos 60 deputies, who assembled, December 1st, under the 
 presidency of Prince Demetrius, and established the Peloponne- 
 sian Gerousia of 20 members. 
 
 These three governments, Missilonghi, Salona, and Argos, 
 were to prepare a permanent constitution. With this view, 67 
 deputies from all the Greek provinces, formed the first national 
 assembly in Epidaurus, Jan. 10, 1822, under the presidency of 
 Mavrocordato ; and on the 13th, proclaimed the constitution, 
 (which was provisionary) and on the 27th, the congress of Epi- 
 daurus issued a manifesto, in which they pronounced the union 
 of the Greeks, under an independent federative government. 
 The central government was fixed at Corinth, and some time 
 after at Argos. 
 
 We are obliged to pass over many of the movements, til 
 the arrival of the great Turkish fleet, April 11, when 15,00C 
 
344 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 barbarian Asiatic troops were landed at Scio : and soon this 
 delightful and flourishing island was changed into a scene of 
 fire and blood. Down to May 25th, the Turks, according io 
 •'heir own lists, sold into slavery, 41,000 Sciots, mostly v/omea 
 and children. 
 
 'Che Capudan Pacha was next prepared to desolate Ipsara. 
 "Aine, and Samos ; but the Ipsariots, with 70 small vessels an J 
 ftre-ships, hovered round the Turkish fleet, and in the night. 
 time, rowed among their ships, while yet they lay in the road 
 of Scio, and attached fire-ships to the Capndan Pacha's vessel, 
 which blew up with 2,286 men ; and the Pacha himself, mor< 
 tally wounded, was carried ashore, where he died. Another 
 ship of the line narrowly escaped. These daring acts of the 
 Ipsariots stupified the Turks ; from which, when they had reco- 
 vered, they destroyed the last traces of cultivation. 
 
 The savage fury of the Turks about this time may be judged 
 by the fact, that they bought the wretched Sciots at Constanti- 
 nople, merely for the pleasure of putting them to death. The 
 Pacha of Saloniki, (Abbolubut,) boasted that he had destroyed 
 1500 women and children in one day. 150 villages and 5,006 
 Christians experienced the fate of Scio. While all these horrora 
 were taking place, Mavrocordato, president of the executive 
 council, was organizing the government, which met with resist- 
 ance from the avariciousness of Coloctroni and others. 
 
 It had now become important to cover Missilonghi, the strong 
 hold of western Hellas, from the weakened state of the army. 
 Mavrocordato, with 300 men, and Marco Botzaris, with 22 Suli- 
 ots, on the 5th of November, threw themselves into Missilonghi ; 
 while 11,000 Turks advanced against it. Another force of 
 25,000 under Khurshid, principally cavalry, passed Thermopylse, 
 and as they advanced through Livadia, laid every thing waste, 
 and occupied Corinth. In attempting the passes of Larissa, 
 Khurshid was repelled three times by Ulysses. Khurshid died 
 Nov. 26. Most of this cavalry perished for its rashness in the 
 defiles of the Morea ; and the remainder formed a junction with 
 5000 men, of Jussaf Pacha's army, and sent reinforcements to 
 Napoli di Romania. The Greek fleet kept the great Turkish 
 fleet from affording relief to this place. Ulysses, Coloctroni, 
 and Ypsilanti, now prosecuted their operations with great zeal, 
 and drove the Turkish forces out of the Morea. Niketas fell 
 upon them in the defiles of Tretes, and only 2,000 escaped to 
 the Isthmus of Corinth, where Ypsilanti fell upon and destroyed 
 them. More than 20,000 Turkish soldiers perished in less than 
 four weeks. In Greece, there were yet some thousand Turks, 
 
GBEEK REVOLUTION, 345 
 
 ihfiX held the Isthmus and the Acrocorinthus, that were soon 
 after dispersed and destroyed. 
 
 The Turkish fleet left the Gulf of Lepaoto, where it IwA failed 
 against Missilonghi. It was unable to break the line of 57 Greek 
 ships blockading Romania, and at last came to anchor off Tene- 
 dos. Nov. 10, a small number of Ipsariots carried fire-ships 
 among the fleet, and fired the ships of the admiial and the capi- 
 tan Bey. The latter was blown up with 1800 men. Three 
 frigates were wrecked on the coast of Asia, and a vessel of 36 
 guns captured. Of 35 vessels, 18 only returned much injured 
 to the Dardanelles. The 17 Ipsariots who had done these 
 exploits, arrived in safety at Ipsara, and Kanaris and ?vlniauly 
 were rewarded, by the Euphori, with naval crowns. Again the 
 Greeks were masters of the sea : it enabled them to blockade 
 the Turkish forts, which was acknowledged by Great Britain-. 
 The change of ministry in England was most fortunate for 
 Greece. ¥/ith Canning as premier, and Maitland lord commis- 
 sioner of the Ionian Isles, they had less hostility directed against 
 them. Omar Vrione was repulsed by Mavrocordato and Bot- 
 zaris, before Missilenghi, where he lost his cannon. Napoli di 
 Romania was taken from the Turks Dec. 12, (new style.) 
 
 A proclamation to the European powers was issued April 15, 
 1822, which the Holy Alliance considered incompatible with 
 their views on legitimacy, though disposed to be lenient towards 
 tht! suflerino; state of Greece. The dissensions amonf? the Greek 
 leaders, had an unfavorable influence on their cause with the 
 European cabinets. Coloctroni meditated a division of the Morea 
 into hereditary principalities. 
 
 The central government called a second national assembly at 
 Astro, Jan. 1823, which averted a civil war ; while the judicious 
 measures of Mavrocordato tended to bring about concord. When 
 the national assembly opened, March 14, at Astro, it consisted 
 of 100 members. Mavromichalis was elected president ; Theo- 
 dore Negris, secretary ; and the perfidious and avaricious Coloc- 
 Ironi submitted to the assembly. 
 
 Condurioti was chosen president of the legislative, and Petro 
 I\favromichalis, Bey of Maina, of the executive council. Both 
 legislative bodies resolved to raise a.bout 50,000,000 piasters, to 
 levy and equip 50,000 men, and 100 large men of war. The 
 French military code was adopted. This assembly proclaimed 
 the new constitution of Astro, April 23d, 1823. Several changes 
 took place in the ministry. Mavrocordato was made president, 
 and Coloctroni, vice president. 
 
 This year the Sultan had determined upon exterminating tbo 
 suffering Greeks, Mavrocordato was placed at the head <^ 
 
346 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 the army, and Orlaiidi, a Hydriot, organized the navy, now 
 consisting of 403 sail, with cannon. The largest ship carried 2b 
 guns, and Miaulis was admiral ; M. Tumbasis of Hydra, George 
 Demitracci, of Spezzia, and Nicholas Apostoles, of Ipsara, 
 vice admirals. The financial department met with much dif- 
 ficulty. In March, the fleet had gained a victory over the 
 Egyptian flotilla, destined for the invasion of Candia, though it 
 was unsuccessful in its attempt to prevent the landing of Turk- 
 ish troops. 
 
 M. Botzaris, the Suliot, now commanded the forces in western, 
 and Ulysses in eastern Greece. The battles fought during this 
 year, were not less fierce and sanguinary than those in 1822. 
 M. Botzaris surprised the Turkish camp at Carpinissi, at mid- 
 night, with 500 Suliots, and penetrated to the tent of the Pacha 
 of Delvino ; but in the me^nent of victory received a mortal 
 wound. The victory, however, was completed by his brother 
 Constantino. The noble Botzaris as he expired, exclaimed — 
 " How sweet it is to die for one's country." The defeat of the 
 Turks was complete, all their baggage and artillery being taken, 
 and the Pacha made prisoner. 
 
 The members of government wen, at Argos, in November, 
 1823. About this time the campaign was finished, though a 
 partizan warfare continued in Thessaly and Epirus. Societies 
 in England aided the Greek cause by means of loans, and by 
 supplies of arms. 
 
 The illustrious poet, Lord Byron, took a deep interest in the 
 struggle made by the Greeks to throw off the Mohammedan 
 yoke. His zeal led him to offer his personal and pecuniary aid 
 in their cause. He embarked August, 1823, with five or six 
 English friends, in an English vessel he had purposely hired, 
 and arrived in Greece at the beginning of the third campaign, 
 where he was received with marked distinction. On his arrival 
 at Cephalonia, where he first established himself, he addressed 
 a letter to the Greek government, and was induced by the infor- 
 mation he received, to advance 12,000/. for the relief of Missi- 
 longhi, where he afterwards, with Col. Stanhope, took an active 
 part in organizing the artillery. Byron himself established 
 printing offices and schools in Missilonghi. He also took 500 
 Suliots into his pay ; but found them very refractory and unwil- 
 Mng to march with him as he designed upon Lepanto. This preyed 
 greatly upon his spirits, and he soon after became dangerously 
 ill, and died at Missilonghi, April 19, 1824. His death was 
 solemnized by a general mourning of twenty-one days. 
 
 The Turks began the campaign of 1824 with much more vigor 
 than it had previously been carried on. Peace being concluded 
 
GREEK HEVOLUTlON. 347 
 
 witli Persia, July 28th, 1823, and a rebellious Pacha of St. Jean 
 d'Acre, having yielded voluntary submission to the Porte, it was 
 enabled to send forces from Asia, and those that had been sta- 
 tioned in Moldavia and Walachia now evacuated. 
 
 The preceding campaign nad taught the Turks, that the de- 
 struction of the Greek navy was their only means of succeeding 
 in subduing Greece. The Capudan Pacha, Khosru, sailed from 
 Mitylene, July 3d, with two ships of the line, eight frigates, four 
 corvettes, forty brigs, and smaller vessels to the amount of 200. 
 Among the latter were a number of neutral transport ships, 
 belonging to the Russians, Austrians, and others, hired by the 
 Capudan Pacha, that sailed from the Dardanelles, April 28th, 
 The Russians were now on the most friendly terms with the 
 Grand Seignior, and aided the Turks with transport ships. 
 There were besides, Austrian, Italian, and Spanish vessels, en- 
 gaged against the liberties of Greece. 
 
 To oppose the armament of the Capudan Pacha, the Ipsa- 
 riots had 2,500 men, the entire male population, and a corps of 
 Albanians and fugitive Sciots, about 1,500 in number, divided 
 into four companies. Their forces were provided with batte- 
 ries, ammunition, &c. The Turks landed silently in the night, 
 in spite of the vigilance of the islanders, and advanced in three 
 columns. One advanced upon the town, and two proceeded to 
 the batteries, taking them in the rear, when the most horrible 
 butchery was perpetrated. Five hundred Albanians shut 
 themselves up in fort St. Nicholas, which defended the town. 
 Wretched and afflicted mothers first flung their children from 
 high precipices, and then cast themselves into the sea. The 
 Albanians in the fort barricaded the gates, and killed half of the 
 first assailants. 
 
 The Turks concentrated their forces to reduce the fort, and 
 during the night made a dreadful assault upon the Christians, 
 who in defence performed prodigies of valor ; but unable longer 
 to withstand the overwhelming force of the barbarians, they 
 threw open the gates, suffered 2,000 men to rush into the fort, 
 till it was entirely filled, and on a concerted signal, in an 
 instant all were blown up, and buried amidst its ruins. This 
 took place on the. fourth of July. By the disasters of Ipsara. 
 4,000 Christians perished, besides the total destruction of all 
 property ; with 100 vessels of different sizes, belonging to the 
 islanders. 
 
 Admiral Miaulis, with the Greek fleet, arrived before Ipsara, 
 on the 8th of July, when the Turks immediately put to sea, and 
 numbers were captured. The Greeks, on landing at Ipsara, 
 found nothing but ruins and heaps of putrid corpses ; but the 
 
348 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 dreadful stench obliged them to retire from this scene of horrof 
 The atrocities perpetrated at Ipsara by the barbarians, at ones 
 roused up all the energies of Greece with dire revenge. 
 
 The next attempt of the Capudan Pacha, was upon Samos. 
 Kanaris, the brave Ipsariot, with a jfire-ship destroyed a 40 gun 
 frigate under sail ; and several transports shared a similar fate, 
 besides a Tunisian brig of war, and a large Tripolitan corvette. 
 On the 21st, another fleet of transports destined for Samos, 
 were dispersed and partly destroyed. The following day, the 
 Turkish fleet attempted to make the passage from Cape Tro- 
 gilium to the opposite shore ; but the appearance of two or 
 three fire-ships caused such terror in the Ottoman fleet, as to 
 drive it in disgrace on the Asiatic coast. Some time after, 
 a junction took place between the Egyptian vessels and 
 those of the Capudan Pacha, intending to return to Samos. 
 The skill and boldness of the Greeks destroyed a number of 
 these with their fire-ships, and thus astounded the Turks with 
 their deeds of valor, who were glad to effect a retreat to the 
 Dardanelles. 
 
 In November, the Egyptians sustained severe damage frooi 
 their enemy on the northern coast of Candia. The forces of 
 the Greeks successfully repelled their barbarian invaders by 
 land, so that the campaign of 1824 was glorious for Greece, and 
 its prospects more cheering than had appeared at any time pre- 
 vious. This gladdening prospect continued up to the beginning 
 of February. 
 
 The government of Greece now began to assume harmony and 
 strength, and commerce revived. Their army was attempted to 
 be organized after the European tactics ; justice was regularly 
 idministered, and freedom of the press allowed. In Missilonghi 
 four newspapers were issued twice a week. In the midst of these 
 cheering prospects for Greece, an Egyptian fleet which hod been 
 delayed some months, sailed on the 19th July, from Alexandria, 
 consisting of nine frigates, four corvettes, forty brigs and gal- 
 Hots, with 18,000 troops in 240 transports. This armament, 
 under Ibrahim Pacha, was designed to subdue and desolate the 
 Morea. The Egyptian and Turkish fleets united in the gulf 
 of Bodroun, Sept. 4th, where a naval action ensued. Kanaris 
 blew up a 44 gun Egyptian frigate and a brig. The fleets tnen 
 separated ; the Turkish fleet returned to Constantinople, and 
 Ibrahim's fleet to the gulf of Bodroun. Soon after, Miaulis 
 attacked it oflT Candia, and destroyed a frigate, 10 small vessels, 
 and 15 transports ; when he retired to Rhodes, further weak- 
 ened by the plague on board his ships, and frustrated in his 
 plans of conquering the Morea. 
 
Massacre of the Greeks. Vol. 2, p. 3-3G. 
 
 Battle of Navarino. Vol. 2, p. 350. 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION, 849 
 
 Notwithstanding the critical situation in which Greece was 
 now placed by the power of Kgypt being exerted against her, 
 we find the peninsula in the most distracted state by the dissen- 
 sions and broils of the capatani. In October, the election for the 
 third term commenced. The executive council at Napoli di 
 Romania, consisted oi^ 63 membei's. The president, Mavrocor- 
 dato, resigned, and Panuzzo Notaras was chosen his successor. 
 Coloctroni was disappointed in his ambitious views. Some other 
 disaffected chiefs raised the standard at Tripolizza, under the 
 command of Panos Coloctroni. Troops were sent thither, by 
 the command of Condurioti, and after several battles, the rebels 
 were defeated and dispersed, and Panos Coloctroni killed. About 
 this time the famous Amazon Bobolina, a follower of Coloctroni, 
 was assassinated. Ulysses entered into a secret treaty with the 
 Turks, but was defeated and captured. In attempting to escape 
 from a tower lie received a fall, and died in consequence thereof. 
 Coloctroni, the father, finding himself deserted, surrendered him- 
 self up in December, 1824. Several other leaders of this rebel- 
 lion fled, and the rest were seized. 
 
 The government now exerted itself to carry into effect the 
 provisions of tlie law, and keep up discipline in the army. The 
 annual revenue the Porte received, from the Peloponnesus alone, 
 amounted to 35,000,000 Turkish piastres. 
 
 In the campaign of 1825, Ibrahim Pacha landed his troops in 
 the Morea ,• and Missilonghi was besieged by Redschid Pacha, 
 aided by the fleet of the Capudan Pacha. This calamitous event 
 was owing to the treachery and dissensions of the Greek chiefs, 
 which permitted Ibrahim to land between Coron and MordoR, 
 February 22, 1825, an army of 4,500 men ; and the next 
 month his force was augmented to 12,000, drilled with French 
 officers, after the European tactics. He had besides, an excel- 
 lent body of cavalry. Ibrahim besieged Navarino, which soon 
 fell into his power. He next pressed on to Tripolizza. Old 
 Coloctroni was pardoned by the government, which received 
 his assurances of fidelity ; and in May, 1825, the command of 
 the Peloponnesus was entrusted to him. A third siege of Mis- 
 silonghi was commenced April 22d. The Pacha's fleet lost 
 several ships in an engagement with the Greek admiral, Sac- 
 couri, near Cape d'Oro. Calamata and Tripolizza were taken 
 oy Ibrahim, who went on destroying every thing till he reached 
 .\rgos. He then received a severe check from Coloctrom'a 
 ^lrmy, which caused him to fall back to Tripolizza. When 
 iorahim found that the Greeks would not obey him or submit 
 to his authority, he put the men to death, carried the women 
 
 voT„ II. 30 
 
350 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 and children slaves to Egypt, and desolated every place witbtfl 
 his reach. 
 
 Missilonghi, defended by Noto Botzaris, the first among the 
 brave, was now closely besieged by the Turks, having before 
 it 35,000 land forces, and 4,000 by sea. After a severe contest 
 of several days they were totally defeated, August 2d, 1825. 
 The Turks lost 9,000 men. During this siege the brave and 
 active Miaulis arrived with his fleet, and burned several of the 
 enemy's ships, and forced the rest to retire. The siege of Mis- 
 silonghi was raised October 2d, 1825, four months and a half 
 from its commencement. 
 
 In tho4Jiean time, Ibrahim was carrying terror with his arms, 
 and desolating the Morea more widely ; and the government 
 was in great danger, having entirely lost the confidence of the 
 auxiliary societies in England, whose loans had been improperly 
 laid out. At last the Greeks sent deputies to England, resolved 
 to throw themselves on the protection of Great Britain. Before 
 the arrival of their deputies, the English government had issued 
 (Sept. 30,) a declaration of neutrality. But the alliance of the 
 powers of Europe prevented the interference of any single power 
 in behalf of Greece. 
 
 Sir Stratford Canning, the English ambassador to Constant!, 
 nople, set out in January, 1826, and on his way had a long inter- 
 view at Hydra with Mavrocordato, and other Greek statesmen, 
 with a view to inform himself respecting the state of Greece. 
 He then proceeded to Constantinople, where he arrived the last 
 of February. About the same time, (March,) the affairs of 
 Greece were discussed at St. Petersburg, by Lord Strongford, 
 the British resident minister there, and who had formerly been 
 minister to Constantinople, and the Duke of Wellington, envoy 
 extraordinary, who had been sent thither by Canning. A hope 
 now began to be cherished, that the independence of Greece 
 would be acknowledged by the Christian powers of Europe. 
 
 The Pacha fully bent on reducing Missilonghi, had landed 
 more troops in the Morea, in order to carry on a winter cam- 
 paign. The affairs of Greece were, at this time, in the most 
 gloomy state, having scarcely 6,000 men under arms to with- 
 stand this rapacious foe ; while the money furnished by the 
 friends of Greece for the equipment of the army, was squandered 
 by the capitani. The French, at this time, were busy intriguing 
 against the English agents, to the great injury of Greece. In 
 the midst of all these disasters, the Greeks succeeded, Novem- 
 ber 24th, in throwing into Missilonghi, besieged for the fourth 
 time, a supply of ammunition and provisions for this garrison, 
 which had so gallantly repulsed an attack, both by sea and land. 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION. 351 
 
 A body of troops sent by Ibrahim against Corinth, was destroyed 
 6y Niketas. 
 
 In December, the Greeks fitted out another naval equipment 
 at Hydra, for the safety of Missilonghi ; where MiauHs, January 
 6th, put to fliglit the Capudan Pacha's fleet ; which some time 
 after returned, when another attempt made to throw supphes into 
 the place, failed. On the 28th, Missilonghi was summoned to 
 surrender, which was bravely set at defiance. The fleets had 
 an engagement in the gulf oi^ Patra^, when Canaris destroyed 
 with his fire-ships, a frigate and several smaller vessels. Ibra- 
 him, dissatisfied with the Capudan Pacha, caused his dismission. 
 The success of the battle enabled the Greeks to furnish Mis- 
 silonghi with some farther supplies ; but they failed in attempt- 
 ing it again, Feb. 12th, then blockaded by the Turco- Egyptian 
 fleet. 
 
 The siege of Missilonghi was carried on with vigor by Ibra- 
 him Pacha alone, who had before it 25,000 men, and of these, 
 9,000 were regular troops. He had before it forty-eight cannon, 
 that had been sold him by the French ; and he was aided by 
 Pierre Boyer, a general, (a Bonapartist,) notorious for his cru- 
 elties in Egypt, Spain, and St. Domingo. The frequent over- 
 tures made by Ibrahim to the garrison to surrender, during its 
 bombardment, were rejected. The assault continued from Feb. 
 28, till March 2d, when it was attacked by sea and land, with 
 a loss to the besiegers of 4,000 men. The valor of the garri- 
 son had sustained it for a fifth time, though it was nearly desti- 
 tute of provisions. In a short time, the sufferings of the garrison 
 became extreme, and the surrounding country was devastated 
 by the barbarian forces. Their sufferings and heroic defence 
 gained for Greece, many ardent and active friends in Europe ; 
 and funds were immediately raised for the heroic sufferers. Mr. 
 Eynard, of Geneva, made them a liberal donation, in addition 
 to 50,000 francs he had before given ; and it was on his repre- 
 sentation respecting the Greeks, that the committee of Paris 
 voted 60,000', and that of Amsterdam 30,000. With these 
 means supplies were sent, and the Greeks were successful in 
 throwing some of them into the place, in the face of great dif- 
 ficulties. From April 15th, Ibrahim directed all his attention 
 to prevent supplies being sent from Zante in small boats. The 
 situation of the besieged had now become truly deplorable. On 
 the 17th and 18th thev beo;an to die of hunger : the four follow- 
 ing days, their horrors hourly increased. Mines were now pre- 
 pared in various parts of the city to blov/ it up, as they were 
 determined not to surrender. 
 
 On the 21st and 22d, the Greek fleet under Miaulis, made an 
 
353 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 attempt to relieve the sufferers that proved unavaifiiig. H'& 
 ships were too snriall to contend with the overwhelming fleet of 
 Ibrahim, consisting of 6 ships of the line, 8 or 10 frigates, and 
 90 vessels of different sizes. Missilonghi, at length reduced to a 
 heap of ruins, fell April 22d, 1826. At midnight, about 2,000 
 men, accompanied by women and children, rushed out on the 
 batteries of the enemy ; 500 Greeks fell on the spot, while the 
 rest, amounting to 1,800, under Noto Botzaris and Kitzos Isa- 
 vellas, reached Salona, and afterwards fought at Athens. Those 
 that remained in the city, about 1,000 in number, mostly women 
 and children, with old men, blew the;«;elves up by the mines 
 that had been purposely prepared. At daybreak, the barbari- 
 ans entered the city. Thus fell Missilonghi, which had so long 
 been the strong hold of western Greece. The plain between 
 M issilonghi and the mountains was covered with the dead bodies 
 of the Suliots, who bad been its most valiant defenders. Many 
 escaped to the mountains. More than 3,000 pair of ears were 
 cut off the dead, and sent as a precious trophy to Constantinople ; 
 dnd above 5,000 women and children were made slaves. 
 
 The annals of history can furnish but few instances of sfccb 
 ardor, firmness, and perseverance, as was exhibited by the 
 Greeks, during this memorable siege. Mr. Meyer, a Swiss 
 editor, in a letter he wrote a short time before the fall of this 
 place, says — " A Cew days more, and these brave men will be 
 angelic spirits, who will accuse before God, the indifference of 
 Christendom for a cause which is that of religion. We are 
 drawing near our final hour ; history will render us justice ; 
 posterity will weep over our misfortunes. May the relation 
 of the siege of Missilonghi, which I have written, survive me. 
 I have made several copies of it." Lord Byron, who died at 
 Missilonghi in April, had resided in that place since the begin- 
 ning of January, of the same year. 
 
 Missilonghi was fortified in 1823, under the superintendance 
 of English officers ; and partly at the expense of a patriotic Eng- 
 lishman, whose name, (Murry,) deserves to be handed down to 
 posterity. It had been made the strongest hold in Greece. 
 
 Ibrahim was now in possession of Modon, Coron, Navarino, 
 and Patras ; and had already removed three pachas. It only 
 remained for him to gain possession of NapoK di Romania, to 
 be master of the islands of the Archipelago. This fact at once 
 opened the eyes of the European powers, who now looked with 
 distrust on Ibrahim. 
 
 Great exertions by societies in France, Germany, Switzer- 
 land, and England, were made in behalf of the suffering Greeks, 
 and many new societies were formed, when a change of mea- 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION. 353 
 
 sures in the English ministry had a most decided influence on 
 their destiny. By order of Canning, the Duke of Wellington, 
 at St. Petersburg, had signed the protocol for the interference of 
 the three great powers in behalf of Greece. It was the wish 
 of Canning to adjust the difiiculties between Greece and Turkey, 
 witiiout any reference to Russia ; but death, at this period, sealed 
 his noble designs. 
 
 While these measures were slowly advancing among the 
 diplomatic corps, Ibrahim was deso-lating the Morea ; and the 
 struggling Greeks, a prey to every kind of horror, were dying 
 of hunger. 
 
 June 17th, 1827, Athens capitulated to Redschid Pacha. Lord 
 Cochrane now arrived witli steam vessels from England, to aid 
 the Greeks ; and General Church had the command of the land 
 forces. New dissensions arose at Napoli di Romania, and Pal- 
 mades began to cannonade the city to force the payment of 
 arrears. The executive fled to ^gina. In this state of des- 
 peration, the Greeks looked to Russia, and chose Count Capo 
 d'Istria as their president, who entered on his office January 
 22d, 1828. 
 
 In the mean time, a treaty for the settlement of Greece was 
 signed July 6th, 1827, at London, by the plenipotentiaries of 
 England, France, and Russia. This treaty was communicated 
 to the ambassadors of the three powers residing at Constantino- 
 ple ; and on the 16th August, their joint note was sent to the 
 Pveis Effendi. The Porte refused to admit the interference of 
 the three powers, and further attempts to induce the Porte to 
 listen to the mediation of the allied powers, proved unavailing. 
 The Greek government proclaimed an armistice on the 25th, in 
 conformity with the treaty of London. 
 
 September 9th, the Turco-Egyptian fleet arrived at Navarino ; 
 and on the 13th, a British squadron under Admiral Codrington, 
 reached this bay. By the 22d, the French squadron, commanded 
 by Admiral Rigny, and that of Russia, under Count Heyden, 
 united. The admirals had an interview with Ibrahim Pacha on 
 the 25th, and informed him of their determination to estabfish 
 an armistice de facto, between Greece and Turkey, On the 
 following day, Ibrahim attempted to sail from Navarino, but was 
 prevented. When he found he would not be suffered to remove 
 his fleet, he commenced the work of destruction by burning 
 houses, destroying vineyards, and the most wanton massacre of 
 women and children. In consequence of these atrocious deeds 
 the combined fleet entered the port of Navarino, to compel Ibra. 
 him to desist from these brutal outrages. 
 
 October 20th, the combined fleet passed the batteries, and bj 
 OL. u. 30* 
 
S54 CHAPTER xnr. 
 
 2 P. M. were ready for acticHi. The Turco-Egyptian fleet wasf 
 drawn up in the form of a crescent ; their large ships presented 
 a broadside, and between these small vessels intervened. The 
 Allied squadron was led by the Asia, the ship of Admiral Cod- 
 rington, and was followed by the Genoa and Albion, and an- 
 chored alongside a ship of the line, bearing the flag of Capitana 
 Bey, and a large double-banked frigate ; while Moharem Bey, 
 the commander of the Egyptian fleet, was on the other side of 
 the Asia. The Turks brought on the action, by kilting two 
 Englishmen ; and it soon became general, raging furiously for 
 four hours. It ended in the destruction of the Moorish fleet, 
 that, a short time before, had consisted of 3 ships of the line, 
 84 guns each ; a razee ; 16 frigates ; 27 large corvettes, front 
 
 18 to 24 guns ; and the same number of brigs, with 6 fire-shipsr 
 Of this armament there remained afloat, after the action, but 20 
 corvettes and brigs ; and these were abandoned. 
 
 The intelligence of the destruction of the Moorish fleet at 
 Navarino, was received with the liveliest joy by all the friends 
 of Greece, both in Europe and America. This arose from the 
 conviction that this blow had decided the freedom of the Greeks^ 
 who, during six years of extreme suffering, had been a prey to 
 the most dreadful horrors. 
 
 There was now an involuntary suspension of hostilities. 
 Soon afterwards, the Greek pirates began to infest the seas, 
 which caused the admirals of the united squadron, to send a 
 warm remonstrance to the legislative council of the Greeks. 
 After some punishments had been inflicted upon the offenders, 
 safety was restored in those seas ; but not until the British had 
 destroyed the head-quarters of the pirates in Candia, February 
 28th, 1828. 
 
 The Porte was exasperated, in the highest degree, with the 
 annihilation of its fleet at Navarino; and forthwith seized and 
 detained all the vessels of the Franks at Constantinople, where 
 they were kept from November 2d, till November 19 ; and 
 even stopped all communication with the ministers of the Allied 
 powers, till indemnification should be made for the destruction 
 of the fleet. The Sultan, in the height of his rage, prepared 
 for war, and used all the means in his power to inflame the pas- 
 sions of the Moslems. In December, the ministers of the three 
 powers lefl; Constantinople, when the Porte adopted conciliatory 
 measures. In the mean time, all the Moslems from the age of 
 
 19 to 50, had been called to arms. On the 30th, the Sultan 
 Mahmoud heard that Persian Armenia had fallen into the power 
 of Russia, where Paske witch had achieved a series of splendid 
 victories. 
 
GREEX REVOLUTION. 355 
 
 By this time, Capo d'Istria, the president of Greece, had 
 appointed the able Tricoupi his secretary of state ; and had 
 estabhshed a high national council, called Panhellenion. Feb. 
 4th, at Napoli di Romania, he also established a bank, and re-or- 
 ganized the military. France and Russia each lent 6,000,000 
 francs to aid the new state. 
 
 In consequence of the death of Canning and a change of the 
 English ministry, the battle of Navarino was called an untoward 
 event. The Porte continued to reject every proposal for settle- 
 ment with Greece, and during this time, Ibrahim was carrying 
 away the Greeks into slavery. A war broke out, March, 1828, 
 between Russia and Turkey, so that the Porte had, with this 
 power alone, quite business enough to attend to. 
 
 The French cabinet, in concert with England, now sent an 
 army to the Morea, under the command of General Maison, 
 which arrived August 29th, in the bay of Coron, near Petalidi ; 
 and Admiral Codrington concluded a treaty with the viceroy of 
 Egypt, Aug. 6th, for the evacuation of the Morea by Ibrahim 
 Pacha, and for the liberation of the Greek prisoners, while those 
 who had been carried away, were to be freed or ransomed. 
 
 October 4th, Ibrahim sailed from Navarino with 21,000 men, 
 for Alexandria, with the wreck of his fleet, leaving 2,500 in the 
 Messinian fortresses. 
 
 The French took undisputed possession of Navarino, and 
 attacked and took the fortresses in Messina, so that Navarino, 
 Modon, and Coron, were soon in their possession. Patras, with 
 3,000 men, capitulated October 5th, and the flags of the three 
 Allied powers, with the national flag of Greece, waved undis- 
 puted over these cities. Admiral Rigny conveyed the Turks to 
 Smyrna. 
 
 To defend the Morea from any new attacks of the Turks, 
 a manifesto was issued by the ministers of the three powers, 
 Nov. 16, 1828, declaring — " That they should place the Morea 
 and the Cyclades under their protection, till the time when a 
 definitive arrangement should decide the fate of the provinces, 
 which the Allies had taken possession of; and that they should 
 consider the entrance of any military force into this country, as 
 an attack upon themselves." A French agent carried this note 
 to Constantinophj, to which an immediate answer from the Porte 
 was required. But during this time, the Greeks continued active 
 hostilities. Demetrius Ypsilanti, having under him Coloctroni 
 and several leaders, and 5,000 men, marched into Livadia, and 
 defeated the Turks, Nov. 2d, at Lomotico, and Dec. 3d, took 
 Salona ; then in succession, Lepanto, Livadia, and Vonizza. 
 The Greeks commenced fitting out a great number of privateers 
 
35tJ CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 In consequence of these measures, the Sultan banished 25,000 
 persons, Greeks and Armenians, not born there, from the city 
 of Constantinople ; and the Sultan still declined to recall his 
 barbarous edict of extermination. 
 
 Through the energetic measures of Capo d'Istria, Greece began 
 to recover herself after a long period of distraction. He divided 
 the states of Greece into 13 departments, seven of these formed 
 the Peloponnesus, with 280,000 inhabitants, and 8,543 square 
 miles ; the eighth, the Northern Sporades, 6,200 inhabitants, 
 106 square miles ; the ninth, the Eastern Sporades, 58,800 
 inhabitants, 318 square miles ; the tenth, the Western Sporades, 
 with 40,000 inhabitants, 169 square miles ; the eleventh, twelfth, 
 and thirteenth, the Cyclades, (north, central, and south,) 91,500 
 inhabitants, 1176 square miles. Total mhabitants, 476,500; 
 square miles, 10,312. 
 
 The Brititsh plenipotentiary presented his credentials to the 
 president of Greece, Nov. 19, 1828 ; and Colonel Fabier, after 
 his return from France, took upon him the organization of the 
 Greek army. On the delivery, at Constantinople, of the protocol 
 of the three powers, in January, 1829, a verbal answer was 
 given by the Reis Effendi, that the Porte wished for peace. In 
 July, Sir Robert Gordon, the British ambassador, and Count 
 Guillimont, from France, arrived at Constantinople. The suc- 
 cesses of Dicbitsch, who had crossed the Balkan mountains, and 
 was on his way towards Constantinople, compelled the Turkish 
 plenipotentiaries to sign a treaty, which recognized formally, in 
 the sixth article, the treaty of July 6, 1827. Peace between 
 Russia and the Porte was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14, 1829, 
 and was ratified by the latter, six days afterwards. 
 
 Having brought down the affairs of Greece to the cessation 
 of hostilities, it only remains to add a {ew particulars respecting 
 the death of Capo d'Istria. This individual became exceedmgly 
 unpopular with the Greeks, from his supposed attachment to 
 Russian interests, and the jealousy and impatience of restraint 
 of the Greek chiefs. In the spring of 1831, the islands and 
 province of Maina were in open resistance to the government. 
 Miaulis, Mavrocordato, and Condurioti, demanded a convoca- 
 tion of the national assembly, the liberty of the press, and that 
 certain state prisoners should be liberated. The insurgents took 
 possession of Poros, and the Greek fleet lying in the harbor. In 
 August, the troops of the president attacked the town, while the 
 Russian fleet was standing in to attack the Greek fleet in the 
 harbor. Admiral Miaulis then blew up his ships, rather than 
 suffer them to fall into the hands of the Russians. The city of 
 Poros, deserted by its inhabitants, was reduced to ashes. In the 
 
GREEK REVOLUTION. 357 
 
 n^an time, the Mainots were actively engaged by land against 
 the government. 
 
 The Russian fleet now appeared in the gulf of Coron ; when 
 Miaulis, who had been co-operating with the Mainots with a 
 small squadron, destroyed it for the same reasons he had done 
 with the ships at Poros. 
 
 October 9th, 1831, as the president was going to attend ser- 
 vice at the church, he was assassinated by two men, who had 
 repaired purposely to Napoli di Romania. One fired a pistol at 
 the head of Capo d'Istria, and the other stabbed him with a 
 Turkish dagger, when he fell dead on the spot. These persons 
 were George the son, and Constantino the brother of Mavromi- 
 chalis, who had been imprisoned since January. Constantino 
 was immediately killed by the guards of the president, and 
 George was detained in custody. 
 
 In 1832, the three powers obtained from the Grand Seignior 
 a much more advantageous northern boundary line for Greece, 
 than had been granted in 1830. The line is to run from the 
 gulf of Volo, in the ^Egian Sea, along a range of mountains, 
 to the gulf of Arta, in the Adriatic. By this arrangement, 
 Acarnania and vEtolia, chiefly inhabited by Greeks, are included 
 in the kingdom of Greece — an acquisition of great importance, 
 as it adds nearly 100,000, inhabitants, and almost 3,000 square 
 miles to the new state. Besides the frontier line is more strongly 
 marked, and will be easier of defence. 
 
 Tliis accession to Greece was obtained from the Grand 
 Seignior for 50,000,000 of Turkish piasters ; which are to be 
 deducted from the sum he had undertaken to pay to Russia. 
 
 The present population of Greece is estimated at from 635,000 
 to 900,000 souls. Its territory, including Acarnania, ^tolia, 
 and the islands, is about 18,000 square miles, equal to about two- 
 fifths of the state of New York, and about equal to it in popula- 
 tion. The Morea, or Peloponnesus, comprises 7,227 square 
 miles, and nearly equivalent in extent to the state of Massachu- 
 setts. The same treaty which fixed the boundary line, raised 
 Otho, a Bavarian youth of seventeen years of age, to the throne 
 of Greece ; who carried with him 3,500 Bavarian soldiers, when, 
 as stipulated, the French troops were to be withdrawn. 
 
 In the maintenance and aid of the new government, England, 
 France, and Russia, have provided, and become responsi"ble for, 
 a loan of $3,750,000 ; and have further agreed to furnish, at 
 two instalments, an equal amount, should it be required for the 
 good of the country. This loan is to be refanded in due time, 
 and the payment of the interest is provided for. 
 
 King Otho, the new monarch of Greece, arrived at Napoli 
 
358 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 di Romania, Feb. 6, 1 B33. There were, at this time, in the 
 port of Napoli di Ronjania, several ships of war belonging to 
 England, France, and Russia. On the following day. King 
 Otho issued a proclamation, declaring his good intentions and 
 well wishes for his adopted country, and engaging to protect the 
 religion of the Greeks. 
 
 War between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Hostilities between Russia and Turkey commenced at a most 
 fortunate period for the safety of Greece. The Porte breathing 
 vengeance, and intent on exterminating the entire Greek popu- 
 lation, would listen to no terms of accommodation offered by the 
 Allied powers. 
 
 The battle of Navarino had, for the present, paralyzed the 
 operations of Ibrahim Pacha ; and after such a signal chastise- 
 ment of the infidels by the Allied powers, they could not honor- 
 ably withdraw tlieir future protection to the Greeks, who had so 
 long been left to contend alone against their cruel oppressors 
 and murderers. 
 
 The Porte was led to consider that Russia secretly favored 
 the Greek cause, and therefore took possession of Moldavia and 
 Walachia, and put restrictions upon its maritime commerce. 
 This was an open violation of the peace of Bucharest, on which, 
 after an exchange of notes, the Russian minister left Constan- 
 tinople ; but through the exertions of the ministers of Austria 
 and England, and the desire of the Emperor Alexander to pre- 
 serve peace, the commencement of hostilities was avoided. Still 
 the Porte refused to give any satisfaction to the Russian court 
 Things remained in this state till the Emperor Nicholas issued 
 hi^ ultimatum, May 14, 1826, when the Porte granted all the 
 demands of the court of Russia, and promised that Moldavia 
 and Walachia (where the Porte had derived, in three years, a 
 revenue of 37,000,000 of piasters, to aid the prosecution of the 
 war against Greece,) should be restored. October 6, 1826, at 
 Ackerman, the Russian ultimatum was accepted. The Porte 
 also surrendered all the fortresses in Asia to Russia. This 
 treaty was executed in 1827. 
 
 The Sultan Mahmoud had now nis hands full of other business. 
 Having determined to reform his army, he began by exterminat- 
 ing the corps of Janisaries, which he effected after a bloody 
 battle, in June, 1826 ; when he formed his army on the Euro- 
 
WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND T RKEY. Sfi'^ 
 
 pean system. The Sultan himself wore the European dress, ard 
 prohibited, throughout his empire, the calling of Christians, 
 •' dogs." This new system of reform led to a violent insurrec- 
 tion, and the loss of 6,000 houses in Constantinople. 
 
 In June, 1827, the Porte refused the intervention of Russia, 
 France, and England, for the settlement of Greece ; and seemed 
 to bid defiance to the powers of Europe, by attempting to rally 
 together all his subjects for war. 
 
 Russia declared war against Turkey, April 26, 1828. In that 
 document the emperor declared, that he would not lay down his 
 arms till he had obtained the following results, namely : the 
 payment of all the expenses of the war ; the acknowledgment 
 of past treaties ; inviolable liberty of the commerce of the Black 
 Sea ; the free navigation of the Bosphorus ; and lastly, the 
 fulfilment of the convention of July 6th, for the pacification of 
 Greece. 
 
 The campaign opened May 7th, 1828, by the Russian army 
 of 115,000 men passing the Pruth, under Count Wittgenstein, 
 commander in chief. On the 19th, the Emperor's staff arrived 
 before Brailow, of which Diebitsch was chief. June 15th, in 
 attempting to carry this place by storm, the Russians lost 640 
 men killed, two major generals, and 1340 men wounded. June 
 20, Brailow surrendered to the Russians, on condition of the 
 garrison being . permitted to retire to Silistria. Two hundred 
 and seventy-three cannon, besides a great quantity of balls and 
 ammunition, were taken. Up to July 2d, the Russians had taken 
 seven fortresses — Brailow, Matschin, Toultscha, Hirsova, Kus- 
 tendji, Keuzgon, and Managalia. Toultscha was defended by 
 91 cannon, and 2,000 men. 
 
 August 7th, the Russian flotilla before Varna, attacked that 
 of the Turks, and captured 14 vessels. On the 20th August, 
 the Grand Vizier left Constantinople for the army. September 
 20th, the Seraskier of Widdin was defeated by General Geismar, 
 with great loss, and compelled to retreat. About the same time, 
 a Russian manifesto issued at St. Petersburg, ordered a new levy 
 of four men out of every 500 of the population. Varna was 
 carried by assault after a siege of two months, October 11th. 
 Its garrison originally amounting to 22,000 men, was reduced 
 to 6,000. This was the most important fortress of the Turks ; 
 and gave the Russians the command of the western coast of the 
 Black Sea. On the 15th October, the blockade of the Darda- 
 nelles was announced officially by Admiral Heyden. In July, 
 the Turks retired into the strongly fortified mountain position of 
 Shumla, where they had more than 40,000 men, under the com- 
 mand of Hussein Pacha. 
 
S60 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The principal Russian force, 45,000 men, under Field Marshal 
 Wittgenstein, with the Emperor, approached Shumla, while Uie 
 operations were going on before Varna. The Grand Vizier cau- 
 tiously avoided giving battle to the Russians before Shumla. 
 After the fall of Varna, the Russian army fell back from Shumla, 
 October 15. Silistria was besieged in September, and raised 
 November 10th. The heavy artillery of the Russians was 
 abandoned. While these operations were going forward, Gene- 
 ral Paskewitch, after signal success in Persia, was advancing 
 through Asiatic Turkey with a victorious army, and had gained 
 a series of brilliant victories. By the 21st of September, the 
 whole pachalic of Bajasid, as far as the banks of the Euphrates, 
 was conquered. The approach of winter put an end to this 
 campaign, in which the Russians lost many men by disease and 
 want of supplies. The loss of horses was great. The results 
 of the campaigns in Europe and Asia, were, two Turkish prin- 
 cipalities taken, three pachalics, fourteen fortresses, and three 
 castles. Notwithstanding these losses of the Turks, the Porte 
 refused the terms of accommodation offered, before and during 
 this campaign, by the Emperor Nicholas, through the British 
 ambassador, Lord Heytesbury, viz. indemnification for the ex- 
 pense of the war, and security against future injuries and viola- 
 tions of treaties. 
 
 The Sultan prepared for a new campaign. General Diebitsch 
 was appointed commander in chief of the Russian forces, Feb. 
 21, 1829. The siege of Silistria was renewed on the opening 
 of the campaign, under the direction of Diebitsch, May 17th. 
 The Turkish army, commanded by the Grand Vizier, attacked 
 the Russians posted near the village of Eski Arnaoutlar, at 
 three in the morning. The battle lasted till 8 in the evening, 
 when the Turks retired with the loss of 2,000 killed. On the 
 17th of June, a great battle was fought at Koulevtcha, near 
 Shumla — the Turks commanded by the Grand Vizier, and 
 the Russians by Diebitsch. The battle was fought with great 
 obstinacy ; when European tactics prevailed over Turkish 
 courage. The Turks lost 5,900 killed, a great number of pri- 
 soners, 43 pieces of cannon, 6 standards, all their ammunition 
 wagons, baggage, &c. 
 
 June 30th, Silistria surrendered to the Russians. The garri- 
 son consisted of 8,000 men, and the armed inhabitants that wer.e 
 made prisoners of war ; 220 pieces of cannon, 80 stand of colors, 
 and 2 three-tailed pachas, were also taken, besides the whole of 
 the Turkish flotilla. 
 
 Immediately after the surrender of the fortress of Silistria, 
 Diebitsch commenced preparations to pass the river Kamtchick 
 
WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY. 361 
 
 and the Balkan mountains. On the 17th of July, the camp 
 before Shumla was left, and by the 22d, Diebitsch had attained 
 the summit of the Balkan. In descending these mountains, 
 the Russians encountered a Turkish force of about 7,000 men, 
 under the Seraskier Abduhl Rahman, and defeated him, takmg 
 4U0 prisoners, 12 cannon, and 7 standards. On the 23d, Mesem- 
 bria was captured, with 20 standards, 15 cannon, and 2,000 pri- 
 soners ; and on the same day Achioli was captured, containing 
 l4 pieces of cannon, ammunition, &c. 
 
 When the Russian army reached the shores of the Black Sea, 
 it was able to co-operate with the fleet under Admiral Greig. 
 On the 24th of June, Bourgas was taken, with ten pieces of 
 cannon, and abundance of military stores. On the 25th, Aidos 
 was captured, with the whole Turkish camp, 600 tents, 500 
 barrels of gunpowder, 4 standards, &c. 
 
 August 19th, the Russians approached Adrianople, and the 
 next day took unresisted possession of the place, where nego- 
 ciations commenced. Sept. 14, a treaty of peace was signed. 
 Russia agreed to the restoration of Moldavia and Walachia, and 
 all the towns occupied by them in Bulgaria and Rumelia. Mol- 
 davia was to have an independent administration and free trade ; 
 and the Russians freedom of commerce throughout the Ottoman 
 empire, agreeably to former treaties ; and free commerce and 
 navigation of the Black Sea, to all nations at peace with Tur- 
 key. The Porte stipulated to pay as an indemnification to 
 Russia, 1,500,000 ducats of Holland, for the losses of Russian 
 subjects : and a further sum, as should be agreed upon, as an 
 indemnity for the expenses incurred in the war. And the Porte 
 acceded to the terms of Russia, Great Britain, and France, for 
 the settlement of the affairs in Greece. 
 
 The indemnity for the expenses of the war, was arranged in 
 u subsequent act, to be paid in instalments. On the first pay- 
 ment, the Russian troops were to retire from Adrianople ; on the 
 second, to repass the Balkan ; and on the third, to repass the 
 Danube ; and on the fourth payment to evacuate the Turkish 
 territory. So far, the Emperor Nicholas fulfilled his declara- 
 tion and pledges to the Allies, on the commencement of the war 
 — after having gained the objects for which it was undertaken. 
 In this campaign, it has been stated, that the Russians lost 
 200,000 men and 20,000 horses. 
 
 It was stated in the papers at the time, that the Russian forces, 
 at the commencement of the present campaign, amounted to 
 541,731 regular troops, and 146,601 irregulars, making a total 
 of 688,332. 
 
 VOL. II. 31 
 
362 CHAPTER XIV, 
 
 England, from A, D. 1816, to the passing of the Reform Bill, 
 
 A. D, 1832. 
 
 The course of policy pursued by the British cabinet, mainly 
 brought about the restoration of Louis XVIII. to the throne of 
 France. Its accompHshment loaded England with an enor- 
 mous debt, as much in opposition to the wishes of the majority 
 of Englishmen, as the restoration of the Bourbons was con- 
 trary to the desire of the French nation. Smce that event, 
 the French have expelled the Bourbons ; and the people of 
 England have succeeded, after an arduous struggle, in the 
 overthrow of toryism, or more properly speaking, of military 
 despotism. 
 
 The glaring corruptions in the representation, and the abuses 
 which existed in the " rotten-borough system," had long ago 
 been clearly shown, by writers of great political knowledge ; 
 and many of England's best and purest patriots had labored to 
 correct the abuses which existed in their representation. The 
 liberal journalists exerted themselves incessantly to effect this 
 object, and it was repeatedly urged in parliament with great force 
 of eloquence. 
 
 The accession of William IV. who soon became the most 
 popular monarch that had reigned in England, proved favorable 
 to the cause of hberty. After the overthrow of the Duke of 
 Wellington and his cabinet, William called a whig ministry, with 
 Earl Grey at its head ; and this eminent statesman, with his 
 colleague, Brougham, carried through the long and ardently 
 desired reform, which, eradicating the " rotten boroughs," pro- 
 vided for the free and equal representation of the people of Eng 
 land in parliament. 
 
 The measures of the English government having a n5os"v 
 important bearing on the general policy of Europe, it will be 
 requisite here to take a hasty glance at the public measures of 
 British statesmen, more especially of those who have so essen- 
 tially aided the new and more -enlarged line of policy, in accord- 
 ance with the spirit of the age, and opposed to the " slavish and 
 despotic monarchies of Europe." 
 
 In the 1820, George III. died, January 29th, at the age of 
 82, after a reign of three-score years, the longest in the Biitish 
 annals ; when (^eorge IV. who had been regent since February 
 .3, 1811, succeeded to the throne of Great Britain. Earl L-ver- 
 pool was nominated by the prince regent, first lord of the 
 treasury, Jan. 9, 1812, and continued in office till 1827, His 
 
ENGLAND. 363 
 
 prudence and moderation at home, were strikingly contrasted 
 with the course pursued by Castlereagh, minister of the foreign 
 department. This latter minister destroyed himself by sui- 
 cide, August 12, 1822. On his interment in V/estminster 
 Abbey, popular indignation against his memory was strongly 
 exhibited. And that this was not without reason, will appear 
 by a reference to his many unfeeling and tyrannical measures, 
 and his violations of the constitution. We are here constrained 
 to offer a passing remark, on the public character of this minis- 
 ter, whose true reputation is not generally known m this coun- 
 try. Castlereagh was hated for his tyranny ; he was the dupe 
 of courts, and the betrayer of the people. The part he took 
 in the congress of Vienna, in parcelling out and trafficking 
 away the rights of weaker states, to build up a military despot- 
 ism throughout Europe, loaded him with the execrations of all 
 those people whom he had so basely sold. His death was con- 
 sidered in England as a happy event for the cause of liberty, 
 which his measures had for so many years crushed. It will be 
 seen, that the foreign policy of England underwent a complete 
 change after his death. 
 
 In 1816, the income tax was taken off from personal estate, 
 capital, and colonial possession. This was but shifting the bur- 
 den of taxation from landholders to the working classes, those 
 great consumers of the necessaries of life ; who were now 
 reduced to the greatest state of suffering. England for a time, 
 surmounted all these difficulties, and even greatly increased her 
 foreign trade. This t ept the manufacturing districts quiet, as 
 long as they were well employed. 
 
 In the month of Aagust, 1816, a British squadron of five sail 
 of the line and five frigates, under the command of Lord Ex- 
 mouth, bombarded Algiers, and destroyed the Algerine shipping, 
 batteries, and magazines : when the Dey agreed to the total 
 abolition of Christian slavery, and the release of all Christian 
 captives in his dominions. A few months after this defeat the 
 Dey was strangled, when piracy again flourished, till the French 
 afterwards conquered this piratical city. 
 
 The distresses in England led the populace to offer public 
 insult, and assail the prince regent, in 1817, on his return tVom 
 parliament to Carlton House. February 3, a royal message 
 and accompanying documents were commimicated to parlia- 
 ment, giving information of the existence of societies, combi- 
 nations, &c. in the metropolis, and throughout the kingdom, 
 dangerous to the constitution ; and that insurrections had been 
 planned. In consequence of this information, which was greatly 
 exaggerated, the ministry took a high-handed course. Lord 
 
364 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Sidmouth introduced a bill into the house of lords, for the sus- 
 pension of the habeas corpus act, which passed into a law ; and 
 Castlereagh was successful in carrying one to suppress debating 
 societies, and unlawful organizations ; and a third bill was 
 passed, for punishing, with severity, all attempts to corrupt the 
 army and navy. 
 
 Sir F. Burdett, May 20th, again brought forward the ques- 
 tion of parliamentary reform, in which he was aided by Sir 
 Samuel Romilly. It was, however, lost, the votes being 265 
 against 77. 
 
 1818. One of the first measures, after the opening of par- 
 liament, was the restoration of the liberties of the people, by 
 the repeal of the habeas corpus suspension act, accompanied 
 by a bill of indemnity to screen the ministers for such a high- 
 handed act. Sir Samuel Romilly declared, on the second 
 reading of the indemnity bill, " that it annihilated the rights 
 of individuals, and took all legal remedies from those who had 
 suffered by an irresponsible and unconstitutional exercise of 
 authority." 
 
 In August, 1819, there was a meeting at Manchester, to dis- 
 cuss the question of parliamentary reform. It should here be 
 stated that spies, in the employment of government, had gone 
 about the country, inflaming the minds of the people ; and these 
 same wretches, when detected, were shielded behind the power 
 of the ministry. This meeting at Manchester was of a peace- 
 able character, and was estimated at 50,000 souls, including 
 the wives and children of the petitioners. There was no ap- 
 pearance or intention of riot, nor were there any arms among 
 them. Mr. Hunt was the chairman, and during his speech, 
 the assembly was charged by the military, and many lives were 
 sacrificed in a most inhuman manner. This nefarious trans- 
 action roused the indignation of the British populace. The 
 distresses about this time, in the manufacturing districts, were 
 heavily felt. The national debt, by a continuance of twenty- 
 three years' war, had increased to about 900,000,000 pounds. 
 Strong measures were taken to prevent public discussions. 
 Ireland, at this time, presented nothing but a scene of conflict 
 and misery. 
 
 Earl Grey, in the house of lords, moved for an inquiry into 
 the conduct of the Manchester magistrates, but was defeated ; 
 and a similar attempt was made in the house of commons, and 
 this also was voted down. The subject was renewed before 
 the recess of parliament ; but these false guardians of pubhc 
 liberty refused to inquire into this most flagrant outrage on the 
 rights of tlie people : instead of which, the ministei-s intro- 
 
ENGLAND. 365 
 
 duced several bills that became laws, to be continued five 
 years. These have gone by the designation of the six acts. 
 They were : 1st, a bill to take away the right of traversing, 
 in cases of misdemeanors. 2d, for punishing any person found 
 guilty, on a second conviction of libel, by fine, imprisonment, 
 or banishment for life. 3d, for preventing seditious meetings. 
 4th. to prevent private military trainings. 5th, the application 
 of the severe stamp system to pamphlets under two sheets, and 
 a more rigorous punishment of libels and seditious writings. 
 6th, a bill giving magistrates the power of entering houses by 
 night, or by day, for the purpose of seizing arms believed to be 
 collected for unlawful purposes. 
 
 1820. The death of George III. this year, produced no dif- 
 ference in the public measures ; although the aspect of England 
 was quite changed by the great increase of trade, and the dimi- 
 nution of taxes, and by better harvests. The renewal of specie 
 payments, and the increasing value of paper currency, was 
 highly favorable to manufactures. The country was now reco- 
 vering from the heavy burden of war, in which she had so long 
 been engaged. 
 
 A daring conspiracy to assassinate ministers, called the Cato 
 street conspiracy, was detected, for which Thistle wood and four 
 of his companions paid the forfeit of their lives, and four others 
 concerned were transported for life to Botany Bay. 
 
 July 19, 1821. The splendid coronation of George IV. took 
 place at Westminster Abbey. 
 
 On the death of the Marquis of Londonderry, better known 
 as Lord Castlereagh, Mr. Canning was called to the cabinet, as 
 secretary of foreign affairs, Sept.^ 16th, 1822. One of the first 
 measures of Canning, was to check the fanatic influence of the 
 French in Spain. In 1823, England allowed her subjects to aid 
 the Greeks, and even acknowledged their right of blockade. 
 With the republics of South Am.erica, she formed treaties of 
 alliance ; and in 1825, formally acknowledged the independence 
 of the South American states. 
 
 In the years 1825 and 1826, the commercial difficulties were 
 great, occasioned by the speculation in foreign loans, and in 
 the most costly undertakings, which led to bankruptcies, and 
 gave an unusual shock to men of business. " Bankruptcies 
 spread like a vast fog over England, America, France, and 
 Germany, at the same moment. But the vigor of England is 
 incalculable."* Seventy-five banks broke in the same number 
 of days ; and 255 joint-stock companies, that, a week before, 
 
 * Croly*s Life of George IV. 
 VOL. II. 31* 
 
366 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 were in high credit, guad ready for vast undertakings, were in 
 the Gazette. And yet after such sweeping desolation, m an- 
 other year confidence was re-established, commerce revived, 
 and pubHc business went forward with renewed activity and 
 confidence. 
 
 The numerous failures of banks, threatened the laboring 
 classes with ruin, from the derangement of the currency. To 
 remedy this alarming state of things, government immediately 
 ordered the coinage of sovereigns with all possible despatch. 
 These were struck off at the rate of 100,000 a day, and sup- 
 plied to the country. Such was the activity of the mint on this 
 occasion, that for one week, 150,000 sovereigns per day were 
 coined. The bank of England issued temporarily, two pound 
 notes. Thus the distress of the country was in a great measure 
 relieved. 
 
 In 1826, April 4th, England united with the court of St. Peters- 
 burg to compel the Porte to cease hostilities with the Greeks. 
 Mr. Canning was appointed prime minister April 12th, 1827, 
 and died in the month of August of the same year. His policy 
 was crowned by the recognition of the South American states, 
 the maintenance of the independence of Portugal, and the treaty 
 signed at London, July 6th, for the settlement of the war in 
 Greece, which treaty led to the battle of Navarino.* 
 
 Lord Goderich succeeded as first lord of the treasury. He 
 retired from office January 8th, when the Duke of Wellington 
 was made premier, although the duke had declared in parliament, 
 the year before, his entire unfitness for high civil office. In April, 
 a Catholic relief bill was passed. 
 
 George IV. King of Great Britain, died June 26th, 1830, and 
 was succeeded by his second brother, the Duke of Clarence, 
 under the title of William IV. The administration of the Duke 
 of Wellington was overthrown, November 16th, and a few days 
 after, a new ministry was formed, with Earl Grey at its head, 
 and Brougham lord chancellor. 
 
 The Duke of Wellington's overthrow was ascribed to his 
 resistance of retrenchment, and his apprehension of popular 
 riots, and opposition to parliamentary reform. The political 
 obstinacy of the Duke arose out of his ignorance and contempt 
 of the people, and a blind confidence in his own supremacy and 
 power, and a thorough aisregard of public opinion, while 
 
 * Mr. Brougham said of Mr. Canning, in the British house of commons, 
 Fanuary 29th, 1828, " That great man fell a premature sacrifice to his 
 struggles for the establishment of a noble system of policy ; and it was 
 to be hoped, that the efforts he made, crowned as they were with success, 
 might be followed up." 
 
ENGLAND. 367 
 
 t 
 
 events at home and abroad perplexed him. The continental 
 monarchs of the Holy Alliance had looked to the tory ministry, 
 with Wellington at its head, for security and protection. What 
 must have been the sensation in the courts of those countries, 
 when intelHgence was received of the Duke's overthrow and 
 resignation ? 
 
 The whig ministry, with Earl Grey at its head, was pledged 
 to support the reform bill.* This ministry took upon them a 
 great task — an arduous responsibility. That gross abuses 
 abounded in the British government, no one could deny ; and 
 reform was demanded by the united voice of the nation. Mr. 
 Brougham was pledged to parliamentary reform, the reduction 
 of expenses and sinecures, and against negro slavery. 
 
 The ministerial plan of reform, by Earl Grey and his cabinet, 
 was brought forward by Lord John Russell, on the 1st of March ; 
 and after a debate of seven days, leave was given to bring in 
 three bills for reforming the representation of England, Scotland, 
 and Ireland. The bill was carried, after a debate of two days, 
 to a second reading, March 22d, by a vote of 302 to 301 ; but 
 was lost on the third reading, the vote being 291 for the minis- 
 try, 299 against it. 
 
 The King dissolved the parliament in person, on the 22d of 
 A.pril. In the speech delivered on that occasion, William said, 
 " I have been induced to resort to this measure for the purpose 
 of ascertaining the sense of my people," &c. 
 
 The new parliament, of which a large number was pledged 
 to support reform, assembled June 14th, 1831, and was opened 
 by the King, who recommended the question of a reform in 
 the representation, to their earliest and most attentive considera- 
 tion. On the 24th, the reform bill was again brought forward 
 by Lord John Russell, in the house of commons, and passed its 
 second reading July 6th, by a vote of 367 to 235, and to a third 
 reading Sept. 22d, by a vote of 349 to 236. The bill was car- 
 ried up to the house of lords, and on October 8th, rejected by a 
 vote of 199 to 158. Parliament was prorogued on the 20th of 
 the same month. 
 
 The rejection of the reform bill in the house of lords, on the 
 8th, led to strong manifestations of popular fury against the 
 nobility, especially those who had voted against the bill. At 
 Nottingham and Derby, as well as other parts of the kingdom^ 
 riots commenced soon as intelligence of the defeat of the bill 
 
 * In 1797, Lord Grey made a motion for reform. Its failure caused that 
 great statesman, Fox, to withdraw from parliament, which was by some 
 i\idged to be a dereliction of duty. 
 
368 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 \ 
 
 was received. On the 29th, 30th, and 31st, dreadful riots tuuk 
 place at Bristol — many of the public buildings and an immense 
 amount of property were destroyed ; ninety persons were k'lled 
 and wounded at that time ; afterwards five were executed, and 
 many were sentenced to transportation. The total damage 
 done, during this riot at Bristol, was estimated at 300,000 pounds 
 sterling. 
 
 Parliament was opened again, December 6th, by the King ; 
 and on the 12th, Lord John Russell, (a third time,) introduced 
 a new bill for reform, very similar to the former, and declared 
 to be "equally efficient." It was read the second time, on the 
 18th, by a vote of 324 to 162. On March 23d, it was brought 
 up for a third reading, and passed by a vote of 355 to 239. 
 The bill passed to a second reading, in the house of lords, April 
 13th, by a vote of 184 to 175. An amendment to defeat the 
 bill was introduced by Lord Lyndhurst, which passed May 8th, 
 by a vote of 151 to 116 ; and on May 12th it was lost by a 
 majority of 40. Earl Grey advised the King to create a sufii- 
 cient number of new peers to secure the success of the bill, ten- 
 dering his resignation as the alternative, which was accepted. 
 On the resignation of ministers, great public excitement followed. 
 The political unions, organized throughout the country, deter, 
 mined to refuse the payment of taxes, and demanded that the 
 ministers should be reinstated. Earl Grey had stated, that he 
 would stand or fall by this bill ; and that nothing less efficient 
 should be supported by him. 
 
 The excitement was so great in Birmingham, that 100,000 
 persons assembled suddenly and spontaneously, and forwarded 
 an immediate express to London. There was a firm determina- 
 tion to have the reform bill carried, or pay no taxes ; and this 
 determination was echoed from every part of the kingdom. 
 There was no riot ; the people had risen in their collective 
 strength, to assert their just rights. Bursts of indignant feel- 
 ings were directed against the bishops and nobility. The 
 Duke of Wellington failed in his attempts to form a ministry ; 
 when Earl Grey and his colleagues were reinstated in office 
 May 18th, with the assurance from the King, of having a suffi- 
 cient number of peers created, to secure the passing of the bill. 
 When the lords were apprized of this fact, they resolved to let 
 it pass. 
 
 June 14th, the bill passed a third reading, by a vole of 106 
 to 22, and the royal assent was given by commission, on the 17th 
 of the same month. It is worthy of remark, that not one of the 
 bishops was present on the final passage of the bill. In answer- 
 ing the forelx)dings and objections made to it by the lords, Eaii 
 
ENGLAND. ' 369 
 
 Grey said — *' That the peace, power, and prosperity of England 
 would all be increased by the reform." 
 
 By it, 22 new boroughs, in England, are to send two new 
 members each ; 19 new boroughs, one each ; 62 new members 
 are added to the English county members ; three to the county 
 members, and two to the borough members of Wales ; five to 
 the Scotch members ; and five to the Irish members. By this 
 reform bill, 56 of the old boroughs, called rotten or decayed 
 boroughs, have been wholly disfranchised ; and 30 boroughs, 
 that before sent two members each, are to send but one. The 
 united borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis, which before 
 sent four members, is to send but two. 
 
 County members under the reform act. — Formerly, each county 
 sent two members, except Yorkshire, which returned four — 
 total ^2. The counties in Wales, one each — total 12. By the 
 reform act, the number of the county members of England is 
 raised to 144; those of Wales to 15. And 26 English counties 
 are divided, and return four members each ; 7 counties three 
 each ; the ridings of Yorkshire, two each ; and the six remain- 
 ing counties, two each ; and the Isle of Wight, one. Of the 12 
 Welch counties, three send two members each ; the remaining 
 nine, one each. 
 
 The reform act also extends to the right of voting, in the elec 
 tion of members for cities and boroughs, to every male person 
 of full age, not subject to any legal incapacity, who occupies, as 
 owner or tenant, any house, warehouse, shop or building, of not 
 less than ten pounds yearly value : provided such person pays 
 assessed taxes and poor rates. And in the election of county 
 members, the elective franchise extends to every male person 
 who shall be in actual occupation of a freehold for life, or of 
 lands or tenements of copyhold, of the clear yearly value of not 
 less than ten pounds. In England, a county member of parlia- 
 ment must possess real property to the amount of 600 pounds 
 per annum ,• and a borough member, 300 pounds. But in Scot- 
 land, no such qualification is requisite. 
 
 Lord John Russell, in his speech on introducing the first 
 reform bill, (March 1, 1831,) made the following statement 
 respecting the number of voters that would be added by that bill : 
 number added in towns and boroughs in England already sending 
 members, 110,000 ; electors of towns in England sending mem- 
 bers for the first time, 50,000 ; electors in London, who will 
 obtain the right of voting, 95,000 ; increase of electors in Scot- 
 land, 60,000 ; in Ireland, perhaps 40,000 ; increase in the coun- 
 ties of England, 100,000. " It is my opinion, therefore," said 
 Lord Russell, " that the whole measure will add to the constitu- 
 
370 CHAPTER xn'. 
 
 ency of the commons house of parUament, about half a million 
 of persons, and these all connected with the property of the 
 country, having a valuable stake amongst us, and deeply mte- 
 rested in our institutions." 
 
 A sufficient number of booths are to be prepared, so that not 
 more than 600 electors are to poll at one compartment. The 
 polling to continue, if required, for two successive days only ; 
 for seven hours on the first day, and for eight hours on the 
 second : but the poll is not on any account, to be kept open later 
 than 4 o'clock, on the second day. 
 
 July 13. The Scotch reform bill passed to a third reading in 
 the English house of lords ; and on the 30th of the same month, 
 the Irish reform bill passed in the English house of*" lords. 
 August 13th, the Irish tythe composition bill was read a third 
 time and passed, in the English house of lords. On the 16th of 
 August, the parliament of England was prorogued to the 16th 
 of October. 
 
 The successful issue of a reform in parliament has been 
 achieved mainly through the perseverance, wisdom, and stern 
 consistency of Henry Brougham, who was, for many years, the 
 leader of the opposition in the house of commons, — a firm and 
 decided enemy to the measures of the aristocrats and leagued 
 despots. For more than twenty years, he has fostered and 
 guided the spirit of reform ; and we may here, with great pro- 
 priety, mention some of his labors in this great cause. 
 
 In 1811, he introduced a bill into the British parliament, 
 declariwg all dealing in slaves, by British subjects, a felony, 
 and punishable as such. This bill became a law, and by it was 
 first recognized the principle, that the traffickers in human flesh 
 are pirates, and ought to be treated as such. And the subject 
 of slavery, as it exists in the British West Indies, has been re- 
 peatedly brought by him before the nation. 
 
 In 1816, he commenced his publie efforts in favor of popular 
 education. He then introduced into parliament, a motion for 
 the appointment of a committee to inquire into the state of edu- 
 cation amons: the lower orders. This motion was carried, and 
 an education committee of forty members, with Mr. Brougham 
 at their head, was appointed. The labors of this committee, or 
 rather of its indefatigable chairman, were immense ; and for 
 three j'-ears they continued to spread facts before the British peo- 
 ple. The exposition of corruptions in the management of trust 
 funds for grammar schools, was no small part of their labor. 
 
 In 1819, he moved for instituting a committee of inquiry into 
 the condition of charitable endowments, to complete the work 
 which the education committee had begun — a measure which 
 
ENGLAND. 371 
 
 the ministers were unable successfully to withstand, and which, 
 notwithstanding their continued opposition, produced important 
 results. 
 
 In 1820, he thought the time had arrived, in which to b>-ing 
 forward the grand measure which he had at first contemplated. 
 He accordingly came out with a bill to extend the blessings ot 
 education to the poor, by the estabhshment of common schools^ 
 But in this he did not accomplish his benevolent designs. He 
 published his " Practical Observations on Popular Education," 
 and to his sole suggestion, " the Society for the Diffusion of Use- 
 ful Knowledge," whose publications are now scattered far and 
 wide, owed its origin. 
 
 His next labor, greater than all the twelve labors of Hercules 
 himself, was directed to a reform of the English common law, 
 and cleansing the courts of justice of the rubbish which a bar- 
 barous age had left behind, and time had rendered intolerable. 
 His efforts here, as elsewhere, were powerful and irresistible. 
 In 1828, he introduced his celebrated motion, that an address be 
 presented to his majesty, praying that he would issue a comis- 
 sion for inquiring into the defects occasioned by time or other- 
 wise, in the laws of this realm, and into the measures necessary 
 for removing the same. Upon this motion, his speech, delivered 
 in the house of commons February 28, 1828, comprises, in the 
 printed report, 139 pages. He lays open the whole existing 
 condition of the common law in a masterly manner, equalled 
 only by the wisdom displayed in the remedies proposed. The 
 motion was carried, after an amendment agreed to by him 
 for the sake of conciliation, had limited its operations to the 
 courts of justice, and the law of real property. The commis- 
 sioners appointed, reported in 1829, and their reports were ela- 
 borate and valuable, and have already been in some measure 
 acted upon. 
 
 As lord chancellor of Great Britain, Brougham's labors have 
 been eminent. He has greatly expedited the administration of 
 justice in his court, and cleared the docket of cases which had, 
 for a great length of time, been accumulating. 
 
 Thus it appears how much England, as well as the whole 
 civilized world, owes to the labors of this one individual in the 
 cause of freedom and of man. He has directed his exertions 
 TO the right quarter. To education he looked, as the founda. 
 tion upon which the liberties of a nation rest. He has well said, 
 that " he feared not any unconstitutional attack on the liberties 
 of the people of England, from the Duke of Wellington. There 
 was another person abroad, more powerful than the Duke — the 
 
372 CHAPTEH XIV. 
 
 scnoolmasler was abroad."* And in conclusion, it is gratifying 
 to think that Brougham still lives, and that his exertions in favoi 
 of liberty will cease only with his life. 
 
 From a list of the members of the new parliament, it appears 
 there were 514 reformers, and 144 conservatives — thus giving 
 to the ministry a majority of 370. 
 
 This list of the members, given in the broad pages of the 
 London Times, must have been a gladdening and a heart-cheer 
 ing sight to the reformers, and to the great body of the English 
 nation, whose hopes had so long been blasted by a profligate 
 ministry, aided by the most brilliant and seducing powers of elo- 
 quence. The oratory of Burke and Pitt had so fascinated and 
 bewildered many understandings, both at home and abroad, as 
 to prevent them from judging aright on the justice and feasibility 
 of a measure that had so long been urged by many of England's 
 wisest patriots. 
 
 * In a speech delivered in the British house of commons, Jan. 29, 1828. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— Introduction. 
 
 Diplomatics ought not to be confounded with diplomacy^ which means 
 a knowledge of the interests of different states, and the policy of foreign 
 courts, &c., by means of ambassadors, envoys, consuls, &lc. 
 The first that undertook to teach this science in a university, was the 
 celebrated Corning, a professor at Helmstadt. His programme or pro- 
 spectus was published in 1660. Godfrey Aghenwall, a professor at 
 Gottingen, 1748, is regarded as the inventor of the name. 
 Before this time Pope Leo X. had paid some attention to the reforma- 
 tion of the calendar. A letter which he wrote on the subject to Henry 
 VIII. of England, may be seen in Rymer's Fcedera, vol vi. p. 119. 
 From the year 1793 to the end of 1805, the French, by a decree of the 
 national convention of the 5th of October, adopted a method of com- 
 puting by what they called the republican year. It began at midnight 
 of the autumnal equinox, viz. the 21st or 22d of September. It was 
 divided into twelve months of thirty days each, followed by five or six 
 supplementary days. This innovation, however, ceased on the 31st of 
 December, 1805. 
 
 It is to this circumstance that the term ^ra owes its origin. It is not 
 a classical word, but was first used by the Spaniards ; and is merely 
 the initials or first letters of Anno Erat Reganante Augusto. T. 
 This calculation, however, was incorrect, inasmuch as nineteen exact 
 solar revolutions amount only to 6939 days, 14 hours, 26', 15" ; while 
 235 true lunations, contained in the cycle of 19 years, only give 6939 
 days, 16 hours, 31', 45". The lunar cycle consequently exceeded the 
 19 solar revolutions by 2 hours, 5', 30". This error was corrected at 
 the reformation of the calendar, by Gregory XIII. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER II.— Period I. 
 
 The name of Alemanni, erroneously applied afterwards to all the Ger- 
 man nations, was originally restricted to a particular tribe, which we 
 here designate by the name of the Alemanns, to distinguish them from 
 the modern Germans (Allemands.) 
 
 The Guttones of Pliny, the Gothones or Gotones of Tacitus, and the 
 Gythones of Ptolemy, whom these authors place in the northern part 
 of ancient Germany, near the Vistula, were most probably one and the 
 same nation with the Goths ; and ought not to be confounded with the 
 Get(B, a people of ancient Dacia. 
 
 We find a Gothic bishop, named Theophilus, among the bishops who 
 signed the acts of the first Council of Nice. Ulfilas, a Gothic bishop 
 towards the middle of the fourth century, translated the Bible into the 
 VOL. II. 32 
 
874 NOTEb. 
 
 language of his nation, making use of the Greek and Roman churac 
 ters. His Four Gospels, preserved in the Codex Argenieus, in the 
 librar^' at Upsal, is the most ancient specimen we liave of the German 
 language, of which tlie Gothic is one of the principal dialects. Vide 
 Fragments of Uljilas, published by M. Zahn. 1805. 
 
 4 The identity of the Franks with these German tribes, may be shown 
 from a passage of St. Jerome, as well as by the Table Peutingerievne. 
 ou Theodosienve, so called, because it is supposed to have been drawn 
 up under the Emperor Theodosius, about the beginning of the fifth 
 century ; though M. Mannert, in his Treatise De Tab. Peuting, oitate, 
 has proved that it is as old as the third century ; and that the copy 
 preserved in the library at Vienna, and published by M. de Scheyl, is 
 but an incorrect copy, which he attributes to a monk of the thirteenth 
 century. From this Table, it appears that, in the third century, the 
 name Francia was given to that part of Germany which is situate in 
 the Lower Rhine in Westphalia ; and that the Bructeri, the Chauci, 
 Chamavi, Cherusci, Ampsivarii, &c. were the same as the Franks. 
 The names of Salians and Ripuarians, evidently taken from the situa- 
 tion of some of these tribes on the Rhine, the Yssel, or Saal, appear to 
 have been given them by the Romans, and were afterwards retained 
 by them. 
 
 5 Ammianus Marcellinus, Lib. 31 c. 2. Jornandes De Eebus Geticis, 
 cap. 35. This latter historian gives the following portrait of Attila, 
 King of the Huns. " His stature was short, his chest broad, his head 
 rather large, his eyes small, his beard thin, his hair grey, his nose flat, 
 his complexion dark and hideous, bearing evidence of his origin. He 
 was a man of much cunning, who fought by stratagem before he en- 
 gaged in battles." 
 
 6 We may judge of the extent of the kingdom of the Burgundians by 
 the signatures of twenty.five bishops, who were present at the Council 
 of Epao, held by Sigismond, King of Burgundy, in 517. These bish- 
 ops were the following : Besancon, Langres, Autun, Chalons, Lyon, 
 Valence, Orange, Vaison, Carpentras, Cavaillon, Sisteron, Apt. Gap, 
 Die, St. Paul-trois-Chetaux, Viviers, Vienne, Embrun, Grenoble, Ge- 
 neva, Tarantaise, Avenche, Windische, Martigny in the Bas-Valais, 
 Taurentum in Provence. Vide Labbei, Acta Concil. vol. iv. p. 1573, 
 1581. 
 
 7 Many kings and chiefs of different nations marched under his command 
 Jornandes (cap. 38.) observes — " As for the rest, a rabble of kings, if 
 they may be so called, and leaders of divers nations ; they waited like 
 satellites the orders of Attila ; and if he gave but a wink or a nod, 
 every one attended with fear and trembling, and executed his com- 
 mands without a murmur. Attila alone, like a king of kings, had the 
 supreme charge and authority over them all." 
 
 8 The Salian Franks are distinct from the Ripuarian, who formed a sepa- 
 rate kingdom, the capital of which was Cologne. There were also, 
 about the end of the fifth century, particular kings of the Franks at 
 Terouane, Mams, and Cambray, all of whom were subdued bv Clovisv 
 shortly before his death in 511. 
 
 9 Clovis took from th.e Alemanns a part of their territories, of which he 
 formed a distinct province, known afterwards by the name of France 
 on the Rhine. They retained, however, under their hereditary chiefs, 
 Alsace, with the districts situated beyond the Rhine, and bounded on 
 the north by the Oos, the Entz, the Necker, the Muhr, the Wernit* 
 and the Jagst. Vide Schoepflin, Alsatia Tllnst. vol. i. p. 630 
 
NOTES. 375 
 
 10 The Visigoths then retained no other possessions in Gaul than Septi- 
 mania, or Languedoc. Their territories between the Rhone, the Alps, 
 and the Mediterranean, passed to the Ostrogoths, as the reward for ser- 
 vices which the latter had rendered them in their wars with the Franks. 
 
 11 Scheidingen, on the left bank of the Unstrut, about three leagues from 
 Naumburg on the Saal, is supposed to have been the residence of the 
 ancient kings of Thuringia. Venantius Fortunatus, the friend of queen 
 Radegonde, a princess of Thuringia, gives a poetical description of it 
 in his elegy De Excidis Thuringise. 
 
 12 Belisarius was recalled from Italy by the Emperor Justinian, in 549. 
 He afterwards incurred the displeasure of the court of Constantinople ; 
 but what modern writers have asserted, that he was blind, and reduced 
 to beg his bread, is destitute of foundation. Mascow, Geshichte der 
 Teutschen. 
 
 13 Agathias, lib. 1. p. 17, asserts, that the Goths abandoned the nation of 
 the Alemanns to the Franks, in order to interest the laiter in their cause 
 against the Greeks. The same was the case with that part of Gaul, 
 situate between the Alps, the Rhone, and the Mediterranean, which 
 pertained to the Ostrogoths, and which they ceded to the Franks, on 
 condition that they would never furnish supplies to the Greeks. 
 
 14 The name of the Bavarians does not occur in history before the middle 
 of the sixth century, when Jomandes, De Reh. Geticis, and Venantius 
 Fortunatus. in his poems, speak of them for the first time. Mannert, 
 Geschichte Bajoariens, p. 108, reckons the Bavarians an association of 
 several German tribes ; the Heruls, Rugians, Turcilingians, and Scy- 
 rians, all orig'nally emigrating from the shores of the Baltic. The new 
 settlements which they formed in Upper Germany, comprehended that 
 part of ancient Rhetia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, which lies between 
 the Danube, the Lech, and the Noce in Pannonia, and the Tyrol. 
 They were governed by kings or chiefs, who, from the year 595, were 
 dependants on the Frankish crown. 
 
 15 Clovis left the Alemanns, after their defeat, a considerable part of their 
 territories under hereditary chiefs, who acknowledged the superiority 
 of the Frankish kings. Such of the Alemanns as Theodoric King of 
 Italy then received into a i)art of Rhetia and Noricum, continued de- 
 pendants on the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, till the decay of that mo- 
 narchy, near the middle of the sixth century, when they became subject 
 to th- dominion of the Franks. 
 
 16. Tacitus De Moribus German., cap. 2. It was the prerogative of free- 
 men to have the honor of bearing arms. Even bishops and ecclesias- 
 tics, when admitted into the national assemblies, and to the rights and 
 privileges of freemen, never failed to claim this military dignity ; and 
 occupied, like others, their ranks in the army. 
 
 17 We find among the German nations, from the remotest times, the dis- 
 tinction into nobles, freemen, and serfs ; a distinction which they stilV 
 preserved, in their new settlements in the Roman empire. 
 
 18 Called Ordeals. Besides the trial hy single, combal, there v/ere others 
 by hot iron, boiling or cold water, the cross, ^c. Vide Ducange Gloss. 
 
 16 The Goths, Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, were already Christians, when 
 they settled within the bounds of the Western Empire. They follow, 
 ed the doctrines of Arius, which they had imbibed in the east ; and, 
 which the Suevi of Galicia abandoned for the orthodox creed under 
 their King Cariaric, about 551 ; and the Visigoths of Spain, under their 
 King Recarede, in 589. The Lombards of Italy were, at first, Arians, 
 but became Catholics, under their King Agilulphus, in 602. The Van. 
 
876 NOTES. 
 
 dais and Ostrogoths, on the contrary, having persisted in Arianism ; 
 this perseverance may be numbered among the causes that hastened 
 the destruction of their monarchy, both in Italy and Africa. As to the 
 Burgundians they did no; embrace Christianity till after their establish- 
 ment in Gaul. Their example was soon followed by the Franks, who 
 likewise protected the dissemination of the orthodox faith among the 
 German nations, settled in their dominions beyond the Rhine. The 
 Christian religion was introduced, about the end of the sixth century, 
 among the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, by some Benedictine monks, 
 whom Pope Gregory I. had sent there. Ethelbert, King of Kent, was 
 the first of the Anglo-Saxon kings that embraced Christianity, by the 
 persuasion, it is said, of his queen. Bertha, daughter of Charibert I. 
 King of Paris. 
 
 20 The possessions of the Ostrogoths in Gaul, lying between the Rhine, 
 the Alps, and the Mediterranean, were ceded to the Franks about 536. 
 
 SI Eginhard, VHa Carol. Mag., cap. 11. It seems then an error in history, 
 to designate these princes as a race of kings, who had all degenerated 
 into a state of imbecility or idiocy. (Of this opinion was the Abbe 
 Vertot, who endeavors to rescue these monarchs from this generally 
 received imputation. Vide Memoir de I'Academie, vol. iv. T.) 
 
 ^2 This same St. Boniface, in 744, indiiced the archbishops of France to 
 receive, after his example, the pallium from Pope Zacharias, acknow. 
 lodging the jurisdiction and supremacy of the Roman See. This ac 
 knowlodgment of the Romish supremacy, had already taken place in 
 England, in GOl and 627, when the archbishops of Canterbury and 
 York, received the pontificial pallium. Vide Bede. List. Eccles. 
 
 23 It is alleged that state politics had no small share in favoring this zeal. 
 Not only did the emperors reckon, by abolishing images, to weaken 
 the excessive power of the monks who domineered over the Byzantine 
 court; but they regarded also the destruction of this heretical worship, 
 as the only means of arresting the persecutions which the Mahometans 
 then exercised against the Christians in the east, whom they treated as 
 idolaters, on account of their veneration for images. 
 
 24 The name Exarchate was then given to the province of Ravenna, be- 
 cause it, as well as the Pentapolis, was immediately subject to the ex. 
 arch as governor-general ; while the other parts of Grecian Italy were 
 governed by delegates, who ruled in the name and authority of the 
 exarch. 
 
 25 It was during his sojourn at Chiersi that Pope Stephen II. gave the de- 
 cisions that we find in Sirmondi, Concil, Gall. vol. II. 16. Anastasius 
 (in Muratori, vol. III. p. 168, 186) mentions Chiersi as the place of this 
 donation, which he also says was signed by Pepin and his two sons. 
 This prospective grant is even attested by the letter which Stephen II. 
 addressed to Pepin and his sons, immediately on his return to Rome, 
 exhorting them to fulfil their engagements without delay. 
 
 2^ The Pope, in his letters to Pepin, calls this donation an augmentation 
 of the Romish dominion ; an extension of the Romish territory, &c. 
 Cenni, vol. I. p. 85, 124. Besides the city and duchy of Rome, Anas, 
 tasius mentions various former grants of territories to the Romish 
 Cliurch. The same author informs us, that the original of Pepin's do- 
 nation existed in his time in the archives of the Romish See, and he 
 has recorded the places gifted to the church. 
 
 27 Different interpretations have been given to the word Saracens, which 
 the Greeks, and after them the Latins, have applied to the Arabs. Some 
 explain it by robbers or brigands, and others by Orientals, or natives 
 
NOTES, 377 
 
 of the east. Casiri. Bibl. Arab. Hist. vol. II. p. 19. Some pretend to 
 derive this appellation from the Arabic word Sarrag, or its plural Sar- 
 ■'ogiv, which means, men on horseback, or cavaliers. 
 Ui: We may judge of the ferocity of the Arabs at this time, from a passage 
 \)f Rasis, an Arabic author, in Casiri, (Bibl. Arab. Hist. vol. ii, p. 322.) 
 Muza, in a fit of jealousy, had caused Tarec to be bastinadoed at Tole- 
 do, and yet continued to employ him as a general. The caliph, to avenge 
 Tarec, caused Muza to be bastinadoed in his turn, when he came to 
 Damascus to lay at his royal feet the spoils of all Spain. His son, whom 
 he had left governor of Spain, was killed by order of the caliph. Such 
 was the fate of the Arabic conquerors of Spain. 
 
 29 The Abbassides took their name from Abbas, the paternal uncle of 
 Mahomet, of whom they were descended. The Ommiades were de 
 scended from Ommiah, a more distant relation of the prophet. 
 
 30 Don Pel^o, the king whom the Spaniards regard as the founder of thii< 
 new state, is a personage no less equivocal than the Pharamond of the 
 Franks. Isidorus Pagensis, a Spanish author of that time, published 
 by Sandoval in his collection in 1C34, knew nothing of him. He extols, 
 on the contrary, the exploits of Theodemir, whom the Visigoths, ac- 
 cording to the Arabic authors quoted by Casiri, had chosen as their 
 king after the unfortunate death of Roderic. The chronicle of Alphonso 
 III., and that of Albayda, which are commonly cited in favor of Don 
 Pelago, are both as late as the beginning of the tenth century, and 
 relate things so marvellous of this pretended founder of the kingdom 
 of Leon, that it is impossible to give credit to them. 
 
 31 This dynasty, after the year 827, effected the conquest of the greater 
 part of Sicily from the Greeks ; but they were deprived of it, in 940, 
 by the Fatimites, who v»ere succeeded in the following century by the 
 Zerides in Africa, (Vide Period IV. under Spam.) 
 
 32 The celebrated Gerbert, born in Auvergne, and afterwards Pope Sil- 
 vester II., was among the first that repaired to Spain, about the middle 
 of the tenth century, to study mathematics under the Arabs. Numbers 
 afterwards imitated his example. 
 
 32 There is preserved in the library of the Escurial in Spain, 1851 Arabic 
 MSS. which escaped the conflagration of 1671, and which have been 
 amply described by Casiri in his Bibl. Arab. Hisp. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER III Period II. 
 
 1 The immense intrenchments or fortifications of the Avars, called Rhin- 
 gos by the Franks, were destroyed by Charlemagne, to the number of 
 nine. A part of Pannonia and the tenitory of the Avars he left in pos- 
 session of the native chiefs, and the Slavian princes, who acknow- 
 ledged themselves his vassals and tributaries. The Slavi, the Moravi- 
 ans, and Bulgarians, seem to have then seized on a part of the territo- 
 ries of the Avars lying beyond the Danube and the Theyss. It was 
 on account of this war, that Charlemagne established the Eastern 
 March (Austria) against the Avars, and that he conceived also the pro- 
 ject of joining the Danube and the Rhine, by a canal drawn from the 
 river Altmuhl to Rednitz. 
 
 2 Charles took the oath in the Teutonic language, Louis in the Romance 
 language ; the forms of which have been preserved by the Abbe Nith- 
 ard, a cousin of these princes. We may observe, that this is the most 
 ancient monument of the Romance language ; out of which has sprung 
 the modern French. 
 
 VOL. II. 32* 
 
378 NOTES 
 
 3 This treaty, which has been preserved by the author of the Annals of 
 St. Berlin, mentions all the countries and principal places assigned tu 
 each of the brothers. It forms a valuable document in the geography 
 of the middle ages. 
 
 4 As an example of this, it is said that a nobleman of Suabia, named Eti- 
 chon, brother to the Empress Judith, quarrelled with his own son, and 
 refused to see him, because, in his estimation, he had debased himselt 
 by receiving as fiefs, from Louis the Gentle, a certain number of his 
 own lands, situated in Upper Bavaria. 
 
 5 The Danes and the Swedes dispute with each other the honor of these 
 pretended heroes, who signalized themselves in the Norman piracies. 
 It is without doubt, that all the tribes of ancient Scandinavia, in their 
 turn, took part in these expeditions. According to the Monk of St. 
 Gall, it was not till about the end of the war of Charlemagne with the 
 Avars, i. e. 796, that the Normans began to infest the jjoasts of the 
 Frankish empire. In order to stop their incursions, Charles construct 
 ed a fleet, and stationed in the harbors and mouths of rivers, troops and 
 guard-ships ; precautions which were neglected by his successors. 
 
 6 The beautiful palaces which Charles had constructed at Nimeguen and 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, were burnt to the ground by the Normans in 881-2. 
 At the same time, they plundered Liege, Maestricht, Tongres, Cologne, 
 Bonn, Zulpich, Nuys, and Treves. 
 
 7 Nester, a monk of Kiovia, and the first annalist of Russia, about the 
 end of the eleventh century, says the Russians, whom he calls also 
 Waregues, came from Scandinavia, or the country of the Normans. 
 He assures us, that it was from them that the state of Novogorod took 
 the name of Russia. The author of the annals of St. Bertin, the first 
 that mentions the 1 'ans (lihos) a. d. 839, assigns Sweden as their 
 original country, i jrand also, bishop of Cremona, in the court of 
 Constantinople by Otho the Great, attests, in his history, that the 
 Greeks gave the name o*' Eussians to the people, who in the west are 
 called Normans. The Finns, Laplanders, and Estonians, at this day, 
 call the Swedes, Boots, Routzi, or Rootslane. It is likely that from 
 them, being nearest neighbors of the Swedes, this name passed to the 
 Slavonian tribes. Hence it would seem, tnat it is in Sweden that we 
 must look for Russia, prior to the times of Ruric ; in the same way. 
 as ancient France is to be found in Westphalia and Hesse, before the 
 days of Clodion, and the founding of the new monarchy of the Franks 
 in Gaul. 
 
 8 The Orkney Isles, the Hebrides, the Shetlands, and the Isles of Man, 
 passed, in course of time, from the dominion of the Norwegians to 
 that of the Scottish kings, while the Faroe Isles remained constantly 
 annexed to the kingdom of Norway. 
 
 9 Olaus IL, King of Norway, had rendered the Icelanders tributaries, but 
 they soon renewed their independence ; and it was not till the time of 
 Habo V. and Magnus VII., in 1261 and 1264, that they submitted to the 
 dominion of Norway, when the republican government of the island 
 was suppressed. Iceland, when a republic, furnished the annalists of 
 the north. The most distinguished of these is Snorre Sturleson, 
 who wrote a history of the kings of Norway about the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century. This celebrated man died in 1241. 
 
 10 The Chazars, a Turkish tribe, ruled, at the time we now speak, over 
 the northern part of the Crimea ; as also the vast regions lying to the 
 north of the Euxine and Caspian seas. The Onogurs or CJgurs, sup- 
 posed to be the same as Hungarians, were subject to them. These 
 
NOTES, 379 
 
 Cfeazars having embraced Christianity in the ninth century, aaopted a 
 won of syncretism, which admitted all sorts indifferently. Hence the 
 name of Chazars or Ketzers has been given, by the Germar divines4 to 
 every species of heretics. Their power vanished about the beginuing 
 of the eleventh century. 
 
 , I The Patzinacites or Kanglians, also a Turkish and wandermg tribe- 
 originally inhabited the borders of the Jaik and the Volga, between these 
 two rivers. Expelled from these countries by the Uzes or Cumans, 
 who combined with the Chazars against them, they attacked the Hunga- 
 rians, whom they stript of their possessions, lying between the Tanais. 
 the Dnieper, and the Dniester, (a. d. 884.) 
 
 t2 The Moravians were the first of the Slavian tribes that embraced Chris- 
 tianity. The Greek Emperor Michael, at their own request, sent them, 
 in 863, Cyril and Methodius, two learned Greeks of Thessalonica, who 
 invented the Slavonian alphabet, and translated into their language the 
 sacred books, which the Russians still use. 
 
 13 The Patzinacites possessed all the countries situated between the Aluta, 
 the Dnieper, and the Donez, which near its source, separated them 
 from the Chazars. They gradually disappeared from history about the 
 end of the eleventh century, when they were dispossessed or subdued 
 by the Cumans. 
 
 14 Historians have commonly ascribed to this prince the division of Eng. 
 land into counries, hundreds, and tithes, as also the institution of juries. 
 
 15 From the occupation of Greenland and Finland by the Normans, we 
 may infer that North America was known to them several centuries 
 before it was discovered by the English. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER IV.— Period HL 
 
 1 The Hungarians having made a new invasion upon Otho the Great, 
 advanced as far as Augsburg, to which they laid siege ; but Otho, in a 
 battle which he fought with them in the vicinity of that city, (955,) 
 routed them with such slaughter that they never dared to return. 
 
 2 On this oath, which was taken in 963, the emperors of Germany founded 
 the title by which they claimed the right to confirm, or to nominate 
 and depose the popes. Lawyers generally allege the famous decree 
 of Leo VHL, published 964, as establishing the rights of the emperors 
 over Rome and the popes. But the authenticity of this decree has 
 been attacked by the ablest critics, and defended by others. It would 
 appear that there is no necessity for this to justify these rights. Otho, 
 after having conquered Italy and received the submission of the Romans 
 and the Pope, could easily claim for himself and his successors the 
 same rights of superiority which the Greek and Frank emperors had 
 enjoyed before him. 
 
 3 He was the duke of Lower Lorrain, and had obtained that dukedom 
 from Otho II. in 977. He transmitted it to his son Otho, who was the 
 last prince of the Carlovingian line, and died in 1006, 
 
 4 The principalities of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua, were governed 
 by Lombard princes, who held of the German emperors. The duke- 
 doms of Naples, Gaeta, Amalfi, and part of Apulia and Calabria, were 
 dependent on the eastern emperors ; while the Arabs, masters of the 
 greater part of Sicily possessed also Bari and Tarento in Apulia. 
 
 5 From this treaty is derived the right o^ vassalage, which the popes have 
 exercised till the present time, over the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 6 The first invasion of the Normeuis in Sicily was in 1060. Palermo, th« 
 
880 NOTESi. 
 
 capital, fell under their power in 1072, and in lOSO they conquered fbs 
 whore island. 
 
 7 The first seeds of Christianity were planted in Denmark and Sweden'. 
 by St. Ansgar, whom Louis the Gentle created, in 834, first arciibishop 
 of Hamburg, and metropolitan of the North. But the progress oJ 
 Christianity was extremely slow in those semi-barbarous countries-- 
 The first annalist of the North was an Icelander named Are Froae. 
 who flourished about the beginning of the 11th century. The moe"! 
 eminent historian of Denmark, was a monk named Swend Aagesoa. 
 who digested, about 1187, an abridgement of the history of that king- 
 dom. He was followed by Saxo the grammarian, whose history of 
 Denmark, written in beautiful Latin, is full of fables in the times preced- 
 ing the 12th century. Norway had for its first annalist a monk named 
 Theodoric, who wrote about 11 GO. As to Sweden, it has no national 
 historian anterior to the Chronicles in Verse, the first anonymous editor 
 of which lived in the tim-e of King Magnus Smeck, aboait the middle 
 of the 14th century. 
 
 8 Olaus sent, in 996 and 1000, missionaries int» Iceland, who succeeded 
 in making the whole country adopt Christianity. An Icelandic fugitive, 
 named Eric le Roux, discovered Greenland, and formed the first settle- 
 ments there, about the year, 982. His son, Lief, embraced Christianity 
 during his sojourn in Norway. With the aid of some ecclesiastic-s 
 whom King Olaus gave him, he returned in 1000 to Greenland, and 
 there converted his father and his fellow-countrymen. The knowledge 
 of the first Norwegian colonies of Greenland, was lost about the begin- 
 ning of the fifteenth century. The southern and western districts oi 
 it were again discovered about 1576 ; but it was not till 1721 that the 
 Danes formed new settlements there. 
 
 9 The Polabes inhabited the duchy of Lauenhurg, the principality of Rat- 
 zenburg, and the province of Schwerin. The Wagrians were settled 
 beyond the Bille in the Wagria, in the principality of Eutin, and a part 
 of Holstein. 
 
 . Henry, Duke ai Saxony, Conrad, Duke of Zahringen, and Albert, 
 Margrave of the North, headed an army of these crusaders against the 
 Slavi in 1147. 
 
 11 The right of hereditary succession in the eldest son of every ducal 
 family, was not introduced into Bohemia till 1055, This was the ancient 
 usage in Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Russia, and Hungary. 
 
 12 Na writer of this nation is known anterior to the thirteenth century. 
 The most ancient is Vincent Kadlubeck. bishop of Cracow, who died 
 1223. He wrote Historia Polonia, first published in 1612. 
 
 13 This crown, singularly revered in Hungary, contains Greek ornaments 
 and inscriptions, which give us to understand that it was manufactured 
 at Constantinople. There is a probability that it was furnished by the 
 Empress Theophania, mother of Otho III., to Pope Sylvester II., whom 
 she had lately raised to the pontificate. 
 
 14 The Greeks upbraided the Latins with fasting on Saturdays — permission 
 to eat cheese, butter, and milk, during the first week of lent — the cell- 
 bacy of their priests — the repetition of the unction, of baptism in confir- 
 mation — the corrupting of the confession of faith — the use of unleavened 
 bread in the eucharist — permission to eat the blood of animals strangled 
 — and the prohibition against the priests wearing their beards. 
 
 15 The difference of rank and pre-eminence of these two patriarchs, be- 
 came one of the principal subjects of dispute between the two churches. 
 There was a warm debate as to the title of Ecumenical Patriarch, ar 
 
NOTES. 381 
 
 universal bishop, which the patriarchs of Constantinople had assumed 
 since the time of the patriarch John I{. in 618. The Roman pontiffs, 
 Pelagius IL and Gregory I., haughtily condemned that title as proud 
 and extravagant. They even went so far as to interdict all commimion 
 with the patriarchs of Constantinople ; and Gregory L, wishing to give 
 these patriarchs an example of Christian humility, in opposition to this 
 lofty title of Universal Bishop, adopted that of Servant of the servants 
 of God. 
 
 16 The Bulgarians, newly converted to Christianity by Greek and Latin 
 missionaries, had priests and bishops of both churches ; and each pon- 
 tiff claimed the sole jurisdiction over that province. This affair having 
 been referred by the Bulgarians themselves to the judgment of the 
 Greek Emperor, he decided in favor of the See of Constantinople. In 
 conse<fhence of this decision, the Latin bishops and priests were expelled 
 from Bulgaria, and replaced by the Greeks in 670. 
 
 n This terrible fire, reckoned among their state secrets, was exploded 
 from tubes of copper, or thrown with cross-bows and machines for the 
 purpose. Fire-ships were likewise filled with them, which they des- 
 patched among the enemies' ships to burn them. These could not be 
 extinguished by water, or any ether way than by the help of vinegar or 
 sand. 
 
 IS The name of Tartar, in the sense in which it is commonly taken, ap 
 pears to be of a Chinese origin. The Chinese pronounce it Tha-tha , 
 and designate, by this name, all the nations that dwell north of the 
 great wall. 
 
 19 The first that employed this military guard was the Caliph Montassem, 
 who succeed-ed to the caliphate in 833 or 218 of the Hegira. 
 
 20 Sultan or Soltkan, is a common name in the Chaldean and Arabic laia- 
 guages, to designate a sovereign, ruler, king, or master. 
 
 21 Syria was conquered by the Seljukides, betw-een 1074 and 1085. They 
 -were masters of Palestine since 1075, which they had conquered from 
 
 the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt. 
 
 22 The most powerful of these Emirs dared not assume the title of Sultan, 
 but were content v.ith that of Atabek^ which signifies iu the Turkish 
 language, Father of the prince^ 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER V.— Period IV. 
 
 1 He was the first of the Roman Pontiffs that assumed the title of Pope, 
 (Papa,) to the exclusion of the other bishops and prelates who had for- 
 merly made use of that denomination. 
 
 S Pope Urban II., one of the immediate successors of Gregory VII., went 
 so far as to recommend to all secular princes, that they should make 
 slaves of such of the priest's wives as lived with their husbands after 
 they had received holy orders. In Denmark and Sweden, the celi. 
 bacy of the clergy was not introduced till near the middle of the IStii 
 century. 
 
 3 Pope Nicholas I. and Adrian II., in the 9th century, and John IV. and 
 Gregory V., about the end of the 10th, appealed to the False Decretals 
 in their disputes with the kings of France, on the subject of supremacy 
 and legislative power over the whole church. 
 
 4 This house which succeeded the Salic dynasty, occupied the throne of 
 the empire Irom 1138 to 1254. 
 
 5 Gregory VII. in 1080, contirmed the election of the Anti-Emperor Ro- 
 dolph. Innocent III., claimed the right to arbitrate in the disputes 
 
3^2 NOTES. 
 
 between Philip of Swabia and Otho of Brunswick (Il£?8,) on tlic subject 
 of their election. The contested election of Richard de Cornwall and 
 Alphortso of Castille to the throne of Spain., was submitted to the juds- 
 inent of the Pope. 
 
 6 The Popes derived their claims to these estates, from a donation of 
 them, which the Countess had made in 1077, to Pope Gregory VIL» 
 and which she renewed in 1102 to Pascal IL 
 
 7 The Order of St. Anthony was founded about 1095 ; and that of Ghar- 
 treux was founded in 1080 — 86, by Bruno of Cologne • and that of 
 Grandmont, by Stephen de Thiers, a native of Auvergne. 
 
 8 The Arabs took possession of Palestine under the Caliph Omar, a. d. 
 657. It fell into the hands of the Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt, a. d. 968 
 
 9-10 There is an amusing description of the crusaders in the^^ Chronicle 
 of Conradus Urspergensis, and the sensation which their first appear- 
 ance made in Germany. 
 
 11 One of these first divisions was conducted by Peter the Hermit in 
 person. A contemporary author gives the following description of 
 that ghostly general. " His appearance was rude in the extreme, of 
 a short stature but of a most fervid zeal. His face was meagre, hi» 
 feet bare, and his dress o-f the meanest and the most squalid sort. Oi> 
 his journey, and wherever he went, he used neither horse, mare, 
 nor mule ; but only a vehicle drawn by asses." Peter intrusted a part 
 of his army to a French gentleman named Walter the Pennyless, wha 
 marched before him. A numerous body commanded by a German 
 priest followed him. Nearly the whole of them perished to the amount 
 of 200,000 men. 
 
 12 The republic of Venice having refused, in spite of the thundering 
 bulls launched against them, to surrender up the city of Ferrara, Pope 
 Clemont IV. published a crusade against them 1309, and thus compelled 
 them to sue for peace. 
 
 13 There were properly no armorial bearings befare the 12th century. We 
 do not meet with the Fleurs-de-lis on the crown or the robe of the French 
 kings, until the time of Louis VII., a. d. 1164. 
 
 14 The crusades were the means of spreading leprosy in Europe, as also 
 the plague, which in 1347 and the follov/ing years made dreadful havoc. 
 From Italy it spread over all Europe, and occasioned a violent perse, 
 cution against the Jews^. 
 
 15 For these, see the accounts of Spain, Italy, Portugal. 
 
 16 This is the common opinion as to the origin of the Hanseatic League, 
 although Sartorius disputes it. The word Hanse, in Low German, 
 means any association or corporation. We find this word used, for the 
 first time, in a letter which Edward II. of England wrote in 1315, to 
 the King of France, in favor of the Germanic merchants. 
 
 17 The parliament of 1342 is generally cited as the first in which we find 
 the division into two houses, 
 
 18 Hence the names of Pfaghlhurger and Ussburger, i. e. burgess withnj 
 the precincts, and without the city. 
 
 19 It should be observed, however, that the Roman Law, and especially 
 the Theodosian Code, still remained in Italy to a certain extent, ever* 
 in the midst of the darkness that covered Europe prior to the 12th 
 century. 
 
 20 In the Truce of God, challenges or duels we?fi prohibited on Thurs- 
 days, Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays, under pain of excommunica- 
 tion. They were also forbidden between Septuagessima Sunday aad 
 Easter Week, and between Advent Simday and Epiphany. 
 
NOTES. 38& 
 
 il Hugolmus, a famous lawyer, iinder Frederic I. is generally regarded 
 as the first that digested the Two Books of Fiefs, at the end of the 
 Corpus Juris. 
 
 22 Several other universities were founded in the following century : — 
 •such as that of Prague, in 1347 ; Vienna, in 1365 ; Heidelburg, in 1386; 
 
 Cologne, in 1389 ; Erfurt, in 1389, &,c. 
 
 23 This Confederation of the Rhine was originally concluded between the 
 c'ties of Mayence, Cologne, Worms, Spire, Strasburg, and Berlin, for 
 the protection of their commerce on the Rhinp,. 
 
 24 Those grand officers were seven in number, although formerly other 
 princes were admitted to these elections, 
 
 25 There appears some reason to doubt this statement of Dandolo, tho 
 historian of Venice. 
 
 20 After the downfall of the Roman empire in he 5th century, Corsica 
 was conquered in turn by the Vandals, Gre( ks, Franks, and Arabs. 
 The latter settled there in the 9th century, a ad were expelled in the 
 11th. Sardinia experienced nearly the same revolution as Corsica. It 
 fell successively into the hands of the Vandals, Greeks, Arabs, Geno- 
 ese, and Pistms. Pope Boniface VIII. vested the King of Arragon in 
 Sardinia in 1297, as his vassal and tributary, who expelled the Pisans 
 in 1324—26. 
 
 27 The famous Castilian hero Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, surnamed the 
 Cid, had already seized the kingdom of Valencia, about the end of the 
 11th century; but the Arabs took possession of it after his death 1099, 
 
 28 De Guignes fixes the entire destruction of the Almohades in the year 
 1296. 
 
 29 After the defeat of the Mahometans, Alfonso having assembled the 
 bishops, declared on his oath that Jesus Christ appeared to him on the 
 evening before the battle, promised him certain victory, and ordered 
 him to be proclaimed king of the field of battle, and to take for his 
 arms the five wounds inflicted on his body, and the thirty pieces of silver 
 for which he was sold to the Jews. 
 
 30 The first six of these were the ancient lay peers of the crown. They 
 were established in the reigns oi Louis VII. and IX., as well as six 
 ecclesiasiical peers, 
 
 31 The states of Germany, m order to preserve the feudal system, passed 
 a law, which forbade the princes to leave the grand fiefs of the empire 
 vacant more than a year. 
 
 32 By the definitive peace concluded at Paris, in 1259, between Louis IX., 
 and Henry III., Normandy, Lorraine, Mame Anjou, and Poitou, were 
 ceded to France, who then surrendered to England Limousin, Peri- 
 gord, Quercy, &c., on condition of doing fealty and homage to the 
 kings of France, and to be held under the title of the Dube of Aqui- 
 taine iuid peer of France. 
 
 33 The first origin of the inquisition may be dated from a commission of 
 inquisitors in 1212, which Innocent III. established at Toulouce against 
 the Albigenses. Gregory IX. intrusted the inquisition to the Domini, 
 cans, who erected it into an ordinary tribunal, before which they cited 
 not only those suspected of heresy, but all who were accused of sor- 
 cery, magic, witchcraft, Judaism, &c. 
 
 34 Dominico, sub-prior of the church of Osma in Spain, conjointly v?ith 
 Diego d'Azebez, the bishop of that church, imdertook, in 1206, the mission 
 against the heretics in Languedoc. Innocent VIII. in 1208, established 
 a perpetual commission of preachers for that country, of which Dominico 
 was declared chief. Hence the origin of the order of Preaching Friari?. 
 
S84 NOTES. 
 
 85 The Irish were converted to Christianity in the 5th century. St. Patrick, 
 was their first apostle ; he founded the archbishopric of Armagh in 472. 
 The supremacy of the Pope was not acknowledged in that island till the 
 council of Drogheda, 1152, when the Pope's pallium, and the celibacv 
 of the priests, were introduced. 
 
 36 In Denmark, the throne was elective in the reigning family. It was 
 equally so in Norway, where, by a strange custom, natural sons were 
 admitted to the crown, and allowed the privilege of attesting their 
 descent from the royal tine by the ordeal of fire. 
 
 37 The power of the clergy in the North was considerably increased by 
 the introduction of Metropolitans. The archbishopric of Lunden was 
 erected in 1152, and that of Upsal in 1163. 
 
 38 The introduction of tithes met with great opposition in all the North ; 
 nor were they generally received till near the end of the 13th century. 
 Canute IV, was put to death in Denmark, principally for having attempt- 
 ed to introduce tithes. 
 
 39 Except Sigurd I., King of Norway, who undertook a crusade to ihe 
 Holy Land, 1107, at the head of an army of 10,000 men, and a fleet 
 of 60 sail. 
 
 40 Tacitus, and the writers of the middle ages, before the 10th century, 
 seem to have included the Prussians, and the people inhabiting the 
 coasts of the Baltic eastward of the Vistula, under the name of Esiho- 
 nians. 
 
 41 It is alleged this city took its name from Ottokar II., King of Bohe- 
 mia, who headed an army of crusaders, and encouraged the building 
 of it. 
 
 42 In the Mogul language, Zin or Tgin, signifies Great, and Kis, very : 
 so that the word means Most Great IC m or Emperor. According to 
 others who quote the constant tradition of the Moguls, this new name 
 was taken from the cry of an extraordinary and divine bird, which sat 
 on the tree during the assembly in question, and uttered the word 
 Tschingkis. This name was adopted as a special and favorable augury 
 from heaven, and applied to the new conqueror. 
 
 43 The Igours were dependent on this latter empire, a Turkish people to 
 the north-west of China. It is alleged that they cultivated the arts and 
 sciences ; and communicated letters and the alphabet to the other 
 Turkish and Mogul tribes. 
 
 44 the former of these events took place in 1279, and the latter in 1243. 
 The Caliphs of Bagdad were annihilated by the Moguls, under the reign 
 of Mangou Khan, a. d. 1258. 
 
 45 It is related that the Emperor Frederic II., when summoned by the 
 Great Khan to submit, and offered an office of high trust at his court, 
 replied to his singular message by way of pleasantry, that he knew 
 enough of fowling to qualify him for grand falconer. 
 
 46 The dynasty of the Moguls in Persia ended in 1410 ; that of the Zagatai 
 fell into the hands of the usurpers in the 14th century. This dynasty 
 produced the famous Timour. 
 
 47 Baton Khan was in the habit of ascending the Wolga, with his whole 
 tribe, from January till August, when he began to descend that river 
 in his way to the south. 
 
 48 Horde, in the Chinese or Tartar language, means a tent or dwelling, 
 place. 
 
 49 These tribes dwelt to the north of the Caspian Sea, between the Jaik, 
 the Wolga, and the Tanais. 
 
 50 Tb3 Moguls of Kipzac, who ruled over Russia, are known rather by 
 
NOTES. 385 
 
 the name of Tartars than Moguls, as they adopted by degrees, the Ian. 
 guage and manners of the Tartars among whom they lived. 
 
 51 An author who wrote in the twelfth century, remarks, that the Hun- 
 garians still lived in tents, in summer and autumn ; the few bouses in 
 ihat kingdom were built of wood or of stone ; that the grandees, when 
 they went to court, brought their seats or chairs with them ; and that 
 the same thing was practised by those who wentio visit their neigh, 
 bors in winter. 
 
 52 The invasion of Dalmatia became a source of troubles and wars be- 
 tween the kings of Hungary and the republic of Vienna ; and it was 
 not till the fifteenth century that the Venetians succeeded in getting 
 possession of the maritime towns of Dalmatia. 
 
 53 The Cumans established one of their colonies in a part of ancient 
 Dacia, now Moldavia and Wallachia, which took from them the name 
 of Cumania. 
 
 54 Baldwin was succeeded by his brother Henry ; and he by his brother- 
 in-law, Pierre de Courtenay, grandson of Louis VI. of France. That 
 prince left two sons, Robert and Baldwin, who both reigned at Con- 
 stantinople, and were the last of the Latin emperors. 
 
 55 They took the name of Baharites, which in Arabic signifies maritimes 
 or dwellers near the sea. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER VL— Period V. 
 
 1 This jubilee, which, according to the bull of Boniface VHL, was to 
 be celebrated only once in a hundred years, was reduced to fifty by 
 Clement VL, to thirty by Urban VL, and twenty-five by Paul H., and 
 Sextus IV. ,A 
 
 2 Martin V., Nicholas V., and Calixtus H., gave to the Portuguese all the 
 territories which they might discover, from the Canaries to the Indies. 
 Adrian IV., who adjudged Ireland to Henry II. in 1155, had claimed 
 that all islands in which Christianitv was introduced, should belong to 
 St. Peter. 
 
 i The kings of France maintained the exeroise of that right in spite of 
 the efforts which the court of Rome made to deprive them of it. 
 
 4 The King even sent to Italy the Chevalier William Nogart with a body 
 of troops, who surprised the Pope at Anagni, made him prisoner, and 
 pillaged his treasures, as well as those of the cardinals in his suit. 
 
 5 If we can believe an Arabic author from Mecca, of the thirteenth cen. 
 tury, paper, of cotton most probably, was invented at Mecca by one 
 Joseph Amru, about the year 706. According to others, the Arabs 
 found an excellent paper manufactory at Samarcand, when they con. 
 quered that country in 704. The invention of paper among the Chinese 
 is very ancient. 
 
 6 M. de Mechel mentions three pictures in the gallery of Vienna, one 
 of the year 1297, and the other two of 1357, as having been painted in 
 oil colors on wood. 
 
 7 The first cards were painted and designed, which rendered them verj' 
 dear. Great variety of cards are found among different nations. Piquet 
 became the national game of the French, taroc of the Italians ; the 
 Spaniards invented ombre and quadrille, and the Germans lansquenet. 
 
 3 One of the oldest of these folios is that found in the library of Buxheim, 
 near Meningen. It represents the image of St. Christopher illumed, 
 with a legend, dated 1423. Printing, by blocks of wood, was practised 
 m Cluna since the ven*- 950 
 
 VOL. II, 'VA 
 
386 NOTES. 
 
 9 Gutenberg, who still kept his art a secret, on the death of Drizhen, 
 sent diflerent persons into his house, and charged them to unscrew the 
 press, and take it to pieces, that no one might discover how or in what 
 he was employed. 
 
 10 Schoeflin dates the uavention of the font about the year 1452. The 
 honor of it is commonly ascribed to Peter Schceffer, the companion of 
 Faust. 
 
 11 In a deed made by Gutenburg and his brother in 1459, he took a for- 
 mal engagement to give to the library of the convent of St. Claire, a; 
 Mayence, the books which he had already printed, or might print ; 
 which proves that Gutenburg had printed books long before 1459. ana 
 that he still intended to print. 
 
 12 According to Casiri, there can be no doubt as to the existence of can 
 non among the Moors in the years 1342 — 44. The first undoubted 
 proof of the employment of cannon in France, is of the year 1345. 
 The Genoese, it is alleged, employed mines for the first time at the 
 siege of Seranessa, against the Florentines, in 1487 ; and the Spaniards 
 against the French at the siege of the castle of Oeuf, in 1503. 
 
 13 The first cannons were constructed of wood, iron, or lead. Gustavus 
 Adolphus used cannons made of leather. They could not support near 
 the quantity of powder of those in modem times. 
 
 14 Guiot de Provins, who wrote a satirical poem called the Bible, about 
 the end of the 12th century, speaks most distinctly of the mariner's 
 compass, which was used in his time in navigation. 
 
 15 The herring fisheries on the coast of Scania, in the 14th and 15th cen. 
 turies, proved a mine of wealth for the Hanseatic trade ; so much the 
 more gainful, as all Europe then observed lent. 
 
 16 William Tell is commonly regarded as the first founder of the Swiss 
 liberty, 
 
 17 The Grand Duke Michael Joroslawitz was executed by the Horde in 
 1318. Demetrius Michaelovitz met with the same fate in 1326. — 
 The Russian princes, on going to an audience with the Khan, were 
 obliged to walk between two fires to purify themselves and the presents 
 which they brought. They were even compelled to do reverence to 
 an image which was placed at the entrance of the Khan's tent. 
 
 18 The first mention which the annals of Nestor make of the Livonians, 
 and their wars with the Russians, is about the year 1040. 
 
 19 Various contracts were made before that sale was accomplished. The 
 first was in 1341, and the price was 13,000 marks of silver. In 1346, 
 the Margrave Louis sold his rights over Esthonia to the Teutonic Order 
 for 6000 marks. 
 
 20 Livonia did not belong exclusively to the Teutonic Order at this time. 
 The archbishop of Riga was independent, and master of the city where 
 he resided. 
 
 21 Before Uladislaus, there were only some of the sovereigns of Poland 
 invested with the royal dignity ; and the tradition which carries back 
 the uninterrupted succession of the Polish kings to Bolislaus, in the 
 year 1000, is contrary to the evidence of history. 
 
 22 The conversion of the Lithuanians to Christianity was resolved on in a 
 general assembly of the nation held in 1387. It consisted simply of 
 the ceremony of baptism. The Polish priests who were employed on 
 this mission, being ignorant of the Lithuanian language. King Jagellon 
 became himself a preacher. One custom which he practised, succeeded 
 better than all the force of reasoning or argument. The Lithuanians, 
 lill thpii. ligri used only clothes of skins or 'inen The Kingr caused 
 
NOTES. HBl 
 
 woollen dresses, of which he had ordered a large quantity to be imported 
 from Poland, to be distributed to all those who were baptized. Thou 
 sands of the Lithuanians then flocked to the administration of that rita 
 The Samogitians embraced Christianity about the 13th century. 
 
 23 The Wallachians, as their language proves, are a mixture of the descend- 
 ants of the Roman colonies of ancient Dacia, with the Slavians ana 
 Goths. They adhered to the Greek church in the ninth century. 
 
 24 Philip Callimacus, the historian of Uladislaus, was descended of an 
 illustrious family in Tuscany, and one of those fine geniuses which 
 Italy produced in the fifteenth century. Being persecuted at Rome, he 
 retired to Poland to Gasimir IV., who intrusted him with the education 
 of his children, and made him his secretary. 
 
 25 The conquest of Indostan by Timour is fixed to the years 1398, 1399. 
 His dearest trophies were huge towers, formed of the heads which he 
 had cut from his enemies. He raised 120 of these after the taking of 
 Bagdad in 1401. 
 
 26 In the short space of six or seven hours, the Turks had cleared the 
 city entirely of all its inhabitants. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER VII.— Period VI. 
 
 1 Las Casas is generally reproactied for having advised the employing of 
 African slaves in the Antilles, instead of the natives, while he was 
 zealously supporting the liberty of the Americans ; and that it was by 
 his advice that Charles V., in 1517, authorised the Belgian merchants 
 to import 14,000 Africans into these islands, which gave rise to the treaty 
 on the slave trade. 
 
 2 The kings of Portugal had already obtained similar commissions for 
 their discoveries in the east, from Pope Nicholas V., Calixtus III., and 
 Sextus IV. 
 
 3 The Philippine Isles, discovered by Magellan in 1521, were occupied 
 by the Spaniards in 1564. After several fruitless attempts to find a 
 north-east or north-west passage, the English doubled the Cape of Good 
 Hope before the end of the 16th century. 
 
 4 Magellan, in his voyage, discovered anew route to India by the straits, 
 to which he gave his namp. The Moluccas and the Philippines were 
 then visited by him. He was killed in the Isle of Matan, one of the 
 Philip.nnes, April 27, 1521. 
 
 5 Henry IV. conceived the project, and concerted with Elizabeth of 
 England, for securing the equilibrium and the peace of the continent, 
 by humbling Austia. 
 
 6 The assassin was calkd Balthazar Gerardi. He is said to have bought 
 the pistols, with which he committed the deed, with the money which 
 the prince had given him a few days before. 
 
 7 The first alliance of the Swiss with France was in 1453. It was 
 renewed in 1474 and 1480, In virtue of this latter treaty, the Swiss 
 engaged to furnish for that prince a body of 6000 auxiliaries, the first 
 regular Sa'Iss troops that had been received into the service of France, 
 with consent of the confederation. 
 
 8 That war was terminated in 1603, a little before the death of Elizabeth. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII.— Period VII 
 
 1 The first of these medals represented the United Provinces under the 
 figure of a woman trampling Discord, with an inscription a little hauglity, 
 
BOS' NOTES. 
 
 but by no means outrageous for France. The other medal was more 
 piquant ; it offered the crown of France to M. Van Beuningen, the 
 ambassador of Holland, under the figure of Joshua, who commanded 
 the sun to stand still. 
 
 2 This bull, the source of many theological disputes, was issued in 1713, 
 in which Clement XI. condemned a hundred and one propositions, 
 extracted from the New Testament, as false, and infected with the 
 errors of Jansenism. 
 
 3 In 1713. In this same year was concluded the famous treaty of Meth- 
 ven, by which Portugal engaged to receive English woollen cloths, on 
 condition that England would admit the wines of Portugal at one-third 
 less duty than those of France. 
 
 4 The national liberty gained under Charles II. by the famous Habeas 
 Corpus Act, passed in 1679. 
 
 NOTES TO CHAPTER IX.— Period VIII. 
 
 1 Among the means which the regent employed for clearing off the 
 debts of the state, which amounted to three millions, one was the 
 famous scheme of Law, a Scotchman, and the establishment of a 
 bank, v/hich completely failed after having great success, and ruined a 
 number of families. 
 
 2 Alberoni, a man of vast and enterprising genius, was at first only a 
 simple priest in a village near Parma. He insinuated himself into the 
 favor of the Duke of Vendome, when he commanded the French army 
 in Italy. The Duke took him to Spain, and recommended him to the 
 Princess des Ursius who was then all powerful at the court of Philip V. 
 There he was elevated to the rank of cardinal and prime minister. 
 
 3 This famous adventurer was descended of a noble family in the pro- 
 vince of Groningen. In 1715, he was appointed ambassador for Hoi- 
 land at the court of Madrid. There he insinuated himself into favor 
 with Philip v., who sent him, in 1724, to the court of Vienna, to treat 
 with the Emperor Charles V. On his return, he was raised to the 
 rank of duke and prime minister of Spain. Being disgraced for his 
 imprudences, he was imprisoned in the Castle of Segovia, whence he 
 made his escape in 1728, and after wandering over several countries, 
 he passed to Morocco, where it is alleged he became a Mahometan, as 
 he turned Catholic at Madrid. Being obliged to quit that new retreat 
 he repaired to Tetuan, where he died. 
 
 4 The trade which the E"nglish carried on in Spanish America, in virtue 
 of the Assienio, having given opppotunities for contraband, it was agreed 
 by a subsequent convention, signed at Madrid in 1750, between these 
 two courts, that England should entirely renounce that contract in con- 
 sideration of a sum of .£100,000 sterling, which Spain promised to pay 
 the English company engaged in that trade. 
 
 5 On the death of Joseph I. in 1777, and the accession of his daughter 
 Mary, the grandees of Portugal avenged themselves for the indignities 
 which the Marquis de Pombal had subjected them to. 
 
 6 The principal actions which took place between the French and the 
 Hanoverians, with their allies, were those of Hastenbeck in 1757 ; 
 Crevelt, 1758 ; Bergen and Minden, 1759 ; Clostercamp, 1760 ; Villing- 
 hausen, 1761 ; Grebenstein, 1762. 
 
 7 The battles fought by the King of Prussia in that war were the follow- 
 ing : that of Lowositz in 1756 ; Prague, Kolin, Jagerndoff, Rosbach, 
 Breslau and Iiissa, 1757 ; Zorndorff and i?ocAA:ircAew, 1758; Zullichau 
 
NOTES. 389 
 
 and Kunnersdorff, or Frankfort on the Oder, 1759 ; Liegnitz and Tor- 
 gau, 1760 ; Fryburg, 1762. The King gained them ail except those 
 marked in italics. 
 
 8 New differences having arisen between Spain and Portugal in Brazil, 
 which occasioned hostilities, a treaty of peace, concluded March 24, 
 1778, put an end to these differences, and finally regulated the limits 
 between the two nations in America. 
 
 9 This prince perished at the siege of Seringapatam, his capital, which 
 the English took in 1799. 
 
 10 It appears by the overtures which the Empress of Russia made to the 
 Kmg of Poland in 1771, 1775, that she was averse to the partition of 
 Poland, which, in effect, appeared to be in opposition to the true inte. 
 rests of Russia. 
 
 11 The Austrian division ivas estimated at about 1300 German square 
 miles, with 700,000 inhabitants. 
 
 12 These countries were estimated at 4157 square miles, with 3,050,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 13 The portion of the King of Prussia comprised 1061 square miles, with 
 1,150,000 inhabitants. It contained 262 cities, and 8274 villages. 
 
 H It was in this revolution that Counts Struensee and Brandt were exe- 
 cuted — the former being prime minister of Sweden. For the lives of 
 these two persons, see Converts from Infidelity, Vol. II., by the trans- 
 lator of this work. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 1 The first act of the Confederation 's dated Oct. 4. 1776. It then com. 
 prehended only eleven states. South Carolina and Maryland were not 
 included till 1781. 
 
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