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 OUTLINES OF CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 ... .•' 
 
 FOR THE USE OF THE SENIOR ('LA8S 
 IN THK TFi:oi,0(Ur',\J. S|:MINARY IX PRINCETON. 
 
 JAMES C. MOFFAT, 
 
 HEl.KKA I'llDrKSSOU OF rHl lU'H IIISTOUY. 
 
 ^ro»* A, J). 164H to 1870. 
 
 PRINCETON: 
 
 CHAKI.ES S. ROBIXSON, PRINTEK. 
 1876. 
 
tihxavy of €he Cheolo0icai ^tminavy 
 
 PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY 
 
 Prom the library of 
 Benjamin Breckinriage Warfield 
 
 BR 149 .M623 1876 
 Moffat, James Clement, 18111 
 1890. I 
 
 Outlines of church history 
 
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 UltiL 3 A 
 
 #' 
 
■ilff 
 
OUTLINES OF CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 FOR THE USE OF THE SENIOR CLASS 
 IN THE TIIEOJ.OaiCAL SEMINARY IN PRINCETON. 
 
 "> 
 
 JAMES C. MOFFAT, 
 
 HKl.KNA FROKESSOK DF (.'HIRCII HISTORY. 
 
 From A, D. 1648 to 1870. 
 
 PRINCETON: 
 
 CHARLES S. ROBINSON, PRINTER. 
 
 1876. 
 
OUTLINES OF CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 REFORMATIOX IX ENGLAND. 
 
 Reformation began in England, with the dawn of 
 Eng-Hsh literature, under Wyclif and his illustrious 
 compeers. Aid nevei' afterward, tliougli fiercelj- assailed 
 hy persecution, and for a long time retarded by the civil 
 wars, and the policy of the royal house of Lancaster, was 
 it entirely suppressed. In the last years of the four- 
 teenth century, the reforming party, to which the name 
 Lollard was applied, had become quite numerous. It 
 was estimated by men of that time at about one-fourth 
 of the nation. After Wyclif's "death, in 1384, the most 
 zealous preacher of that persuasion was William Swin- 
 derb}', an itinerant minister, who was attended by great 
 numbers, wherever lie preached. 
 
 The reign of Richard II. held persecution under 
 restraint; but when, in 1399, that monarch was deposed, 
 Henry I.V., to secure support tor his usurpation, extended 
 every favor to the priesthood. And Parliament, January 
 21, 1401, passed a law that persons convicted of heresy 
 should be burned to death, Thomas Arundel, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, with great zeal, carried the law 
 into execution. The first martyr under it, William CSaw- 
 tray, (or Sautre,) a parish priest in the city of London, 
 suffered in the very year of its enactment. Arundel 
 died in 1414, and was succeded b}' Henry Chicheley, who 
 carried forward the persecution with still greater severity. 
 In the following year, he obtained a law enacting that 
 the chancellor, the judges and other magistrates, on 
 admission to ofiice, should make oath to do every thing 
 in their power to extirpate the Lollards. Chicheley was 
 primate until 1443. Persecution relaxed during the civil 
 wars, from 1452 to 1485, when all the energies of the 
 ruling parties were absorbed in the strife with each other. 
 
After the accession of Henry YII. (1485,) and union 
 of the houses of York and Lancaster, it was revived, and 
 continued in tlie succeeding reiiin. Wolsey, as an agent 
 of persecution, under Henry VIII., witldield its severer 
 infliction ; Init when, in 1529, Sir Thomas More became 
 chanceUor, the fires of Smithfield were rekindled and 
 their horrors repeated in the provinces. The Reforma- 
 tion spirit was overawed, but not extinguished. In Lon- 
 don it still found expression in the Association of 
 "Christian Brothers," founded in 1525, and in various 
 ways over the kingdom, especially in the sale of new 
 translations of the Scriptures. 
 
 When, in the early part of the sixteenth century, the 
 voice of reform, on the continent, began to assume a 
 distinctand uncompromising tone, niultitudesin England 
 were i:)repared to join in it. Henry YIII. endeavored to 
 repress the growing conviction. In 1521 lie published a 
 treatise in defence of the seven sacraments, in opposition 
 to Luther. The work was highly approved of by the 
 Pope, who rewarded Henry with the title " Defender of 
 the faith." His zeal for the extirpation of heresy was 
 further provoked by the reply of Luther, which evinced 
 moi-e controversial fervor than deference to the roj^al 
 rank of his adversary. On the other hand, an event in 
 the king's own household led to a rupture of his papal 
 allegiance. He had from twelve years of age been 
 married to his i)rotlier's widow, Catherine of Arragon, 
 maternal aunt of the emperor Charles Y. The contract 
 was formed by his father, under a special dispensation 
 from Pope Julius II., but with its validity the young 
 prince was never satisfied. As early as 1527, he made 
 application to Pope Clement YII. to have it declared 
 null. The pope delayed. In 1530 at the suggestion of 
 Thomas Cranmer, the king consulted the learned men 
 in the great universities of Europe. N'ine foreign uni- 
 versities together with Oxford and Cambridge, many 
 divines in all parts of Europe and the Convocation of 
 English clergy decided that his view of the case was in 
 accordance with Scripture an,d the doctrine of the Catho- 
 lic church. Accordingly, the king considering his niar- 
 riaire with his brother's widow null, was on the 25th of 
 
January 1533, married to Anne Boleyn. The Pope gave 
 judgment agains^t liim, and endeavored to enforce liis 
 censure. Tlie king asserted the correctness of his own 
 conduct, as sustained by higlier authority than that of 
 the pope, appealed to the next general council, and 
 forthwith took measures to exclude papal interference 
 from his dominions. 
 
 In 1534 by the oath of supremacy, Henry was himself 
 recognized as head of the English Church. Still, it was no 
 part of his design to follow the example of the conti- 
 nental reformers. He had debarred the papal autliority 
 fi-oni England; but was not disposed to tolerate any 
 change in religion. Both Protestants and Papalists suf- 
 fered at liis hands. A great number of monastic houses 
 were suppressed, and their estates transferred to tlie 
 Crown. But the national hierarchy was retained, with 
 the Romish forms of worship, and the Romish doctrine. 
 In 1539 an act was passed for " abolisliing diversity of 
 (jpinion in religion "; and a list of six articles, compre- 
 hending the strong points of Romanism, was published, 
 which all Englishmen were to be compelled to accept. 
 ]S'othing but the real protestantism widely diffused 
 among his clergy and people rendei-ed the measures of 
 Henry VIH. a reformation. Providentially, Cranmer, 
 archbishop of Canterbury from 1533, was an earnest 
 reformer, and, at the same time, retained the king's 
 favor. 
 
 The most valuable gain for the cause of reformation 
 secured iu that reign was made in publishing the Scrip- '7"" 
 tures. A translation of the New Testament directly [9^'-'' 
 from the Greek into the English by William Tyndale ^tj'^ ^^ ^£2£ 
 was printed iu Flanders in 1526, and the Old Testament Ar,^'fJdiu<!^U. 
 translated from the Hebrew, by the same hand, was 'j^ Q.-Xl Ml 
 printed with at it Hamburg 1532. " Three years later, Tvn- *v'^'''^ u^i 
 dale suffered death for iieresy. In 1535, Miles Cover- ^^^^^/l^j^ 
 dale published at Zurich that edition of the whole Bible ?- *'^'* , r 
 which was the first allowed in England by royal author- ' <* i fin 
 
 ity. Iu 1536 an injunction was issued to the clergy to ttW 
 
 provide a " copy of the Bil»le iu Latin and one in Eng- (ri^'.. t<M<>u^ 
 lish and lay them in the choir of every parish church in /t,r^ )ru4u 
 the realm, for every man, who chose, to read therein, \^^^*rrJ~*^ w 
 
 Cud K^ur ^ ^"^-'^ /^.^^j^-^^l "^• 
 
and directino; that nono sliould be discouraged from read- 
 ing, but rather exhorted so to do." 
 
 '^ Anotlier edition of the English Bible was printed on 
 the Continent in 1537, bearing the name of Thomas 
 Matthew, but consisting of Tyndale's New Testament, 
 and the Old Testameat of Tyndale and' Coverdale, 
 Archbishop Cranmer, wlio took an active part in pro- 
 promoting scriptural knowledge^ among the peoi:)le, 
 moved in Convocation to present a petition to the king 
 for permission to prepare a new translation. Queen 
 Anne Boleyn used her influence with the king, and the 
 / - /,^^i/^i^^ permission was granted. Cranmer immediately assigned 
 ■f ' ' I .1 the work of correcting existing translations to different 
 
 ,)K 
 
 cholars, each one a separate part, requesting them to 
 
 rf| fUw,^ * -^ execute their respective tasks, and return them to him 
 
 /jj,4 *//~<A'l'>M[ri)y a give;; time. The new version was brought out in 
 
 \lL ^^^^' with a i)reface b}' Cranmer, and is commonly called 
 
 *^ '^9^' Cranmer's great Bible. In the same year, anothertr.ns- 
 
 ^^'In/ ^..lation was made by Eichard Taverner, and published in 
 
 London. Next year two editions of the English Bible 
 
 *.oc i^'^ ^ ^^' were issued, with a preface by Cranmer. 
 
 (,"~?^vi-^^''k ^ The Komish party used every effort to obstruct the 
 
 / progress thus made, and so far prevailed witli Parliament 
 
 as to obtain tlie passing of an act forl)idding tlie use of 
 
 • Tyndale's version, and allowing the others under severe 
 
 resti'ictions. Notwithstanding, tlie translations were 
 
 bought and read with avidity by many persons of all 
 
 ranks; and especially in connection with the revived 
 
 study of the original languages, thej' had a material 
 
 influence in the universities, '• long before tlie obstacles 
 
 to an authorized translation were overcome." 
 
 A kindred work for the reformation was done, soon 
 afterwards, in a metrical version of the Psalms. Thomas 
 Sternhold, moved with disgust at the licentious songs of 
 the day, like Alarot, in France, prepared several of the 
 Psalms to take their place. He versified forty-one. 
 John Hopkins added fifty-eight, and the rest of the work 
 was completed by various hands. They were introduced 
 into the service of the church gradually. 
 
 Henry VHI. died Jan. 28, 1547. The heir of the 
 crown, Edward V"I., was a minor, educated in the Pro- 
 
testant religion. In Iiis brief reio-ii, from 1547 to 1553, 
 was the best part of the English refonnation etfected.' 
 The system of doctrine adopte'd was that of the Reformed 
 eluirches on the continent. A similar change in chnrch 
 government was contemplated, and had Edvvard VI. seen 
 a longer life it would probably have l.eeii made. But 
 his death, was followed by the furious Romanist reaction 
 under Mary ; and the policy of Elizabeth was to accept 
 the Reformation and restrain it to the stage at which 
 Edward left it. By that means the movement was 
 greatly retarded and divided within itself. In its history 
 there are seven distinct periods, of which three arose 
 out of that internal division. 
 
 1. The first opens with Wycliff and his coadjutors, 
 in_the latter part of the fourteenth century, from' about 
 1370; and may be counted as doing the preparatory 
 work until 1534. 
 
 2. The second, from 1534 to 1547, during which the 
 English churcli was separate from Rome, but not 
 reformed, a large number, if not tlie majority of both 
 clergy and people hokling reformed views, without being 
 free to profess them. ^ 
 
 3. The third is the brief, but momentous reio-u of 
 Edward VI,, from 1547 to 1553. 
 
 4. The fourth is that of the Catholic reaction, in the 
 reigji of Alary, from 1553 to 1558, 
 
 5. The fifth was a protracted conflict between the 
 party which aimed at the simple church government and 
 worshi}) set up by the Reformed on the continent, and 
 that which sustained Elizabeth's half-way policy, con- 
 tinued through all the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. and 
 Charles I, from 1559 to 1642. 
 
 6. The sixth from 1642 until 1660, was the triumph 
 of the Puritan party. And 
 
 7. The seventh was that of thePrelatic reaction, from 
 1660 until 1088 in the end of which a compromise was 
 established, consisting of government supi)ort to the 
 stronger party and toleration to the weaker, the nearest 
 approach to religious freedom, which England has yet 
 reached. 
 
 Catholic England was ecclesiastically divided into the 
 two province.s of Canterbury and York ; the provinces, 
 
I' 
 
 into tiioeeses, and these into parislies, and otiier cures of 
 vjirioiis denonunati(Mis, eacli diocese was governed by a 
 bishop, the archbishops of York and Canterbnrj- stood 
 at the head of their respecti\'e provinces, Canterbury 
 was the primate of the kingdom ; and the supremac^^ 
 over all rested in the liands of the Pope. It was the 
 last of these iiutiiorities alone which was changed by the 
 schism of Henry VIII 
 
 Bishops were empowered to call councils of their 
 res[)ective dioceses, and archbishops, of their provinces. 
 From early time the kings adopted the practice of 
 requiring the archbishops to convoke their clergy in 
 meetings connected with P.irliainent, for the purpO'je of 
 voting the taxes to be paid by the clergy, and the exercise 
 of other tempoi-al functions. Tliese were called convo- 
 cations, of which there was one for either province; that 
 of Canterbury being the superioi', as under the [u-esi- 
 dency of the Primate. Having also the right of exercis- 
 </^ . ing spiritual functions, convocations gradually usurped 
 the place of purely ecclesiastical synods, and became the 
 ij'Y<-c?v '^^^sole provincial synods of England, meeting at the same 
 tit.^a^o\ time with Parliament. Neither was this altered l)y the 
 Reformation. 
 
 Under Edward VI., Convocation and Parliament 
 
 i/'C^^ /v^ co-operated in reform of <loctrine and worship. Early 
 
 / il^lA'^ ^" ^'^'^'■'- ''^^i©"? curates were instructed to take down from 
 
 ^/ ^^li their churches such images as had been made objects of 
 
 *^ / V worship. And the keejdng of an English Bible in some 
 
 ^ j^tHa ft^Cf. J convenient i)art of the church for the people to read was 
 
 ^^^ reinforced and the restrictions repealed. All persons in 
 
 the lower ranks of the clergy were ordered to possess the 
 
 New Testament, in both Latin and English, with the 
 
 paraphrase of Erasmus, upon which they were to be 
 
 examined by the bishops, in their visitations and synods. 
 
 They were also ordered to read portions of it before their 
 
 congregations, on Sundays, and other holy days. 
 
 Books were also [lublished by Archbishop Cranmer 
 
 for religious instruction. A catechism for general use, 
 
 and twelve Homilies for aid of the clergy were drawn 
 
 !-(u<jt'^]^ by him, or under his direction. 
 
 / '"'t _ ^ general visitation of the kingdom, by commission- 
 
 / . / ''' ' '^^'^ appointed by the cro.wn, was instituted, for the pur-^,.,— 
 
[)Ose (if inquiring into doctrine and condnct of tlie clergy, *<-<-'^ ^ T^r 
 and of furnisliing instructions for \vorshi[» and tlni regu- (^lU^^l^ (Jla-^^ 
 lation of the parishes. ^ ^ Ou^C-Oni^J ^, 
 
 Parliatnent, assembled Nov. 4, 1547, began by repeal- Jt-(t^^kuS^L 
 ing all statutes against heretics, including the odious 7"^-"^ 
 
 " six articles." It \'\ as now enacted that the Mass should 
 •rive place to the Communion, and that the sacrament 
 should be administered to all communicants under both 
 kinds. The remaining monastic houses were suppressed, 
 and their revenues put into the king's hands, to be 
 expended in erecting grammar schools, in further aug- 
 menting the universities, and in making better provision 
 for the i)Oor. ^ 
 
 Commissioners appointed to draw up a book of Coni- f^i/^ 
 mon Prayer assembled at Windsor, May 9th, iteT^The 
 new liturgy was presented to the Convocation w'nich met 
 in November, and, having been agreed to by that body, 
 was l)rouglit into Parliament, where a law was passed, 
 Jan. 21st, 1549, that from Whitsunday, June 10th, 1549, 
 " all divine offices should be [terformed according to it." 
 
 In 1551, a committee was api)ointed to reform the 
 system of ecclesiastical laws, under which the Arch- 
 bishop was requested to prepare a book of articles, for 
 " preserving and maintaining peace and unity of doe- 
 trine in the church." The articles of religion were 
 accordingly ))ublished in 1553, having received the 
 approval of Convocation, and the royal assent. They 
 were forty-two in number. A sliortcr catechism, con- 
 taining the "sum of christian learning," was issued in 
 Latin and English, the same year together with the 
 articles. The body of ecclesiastical laws was completed, 
 but not soon enough to receive the king's sanction. 
 
 A revised edition of the Prayer Book was authorized 
 by the Parliament of 1552, which also declared the mar- 
 riage of the clergy to be legal. 
 
 Alterations were made in the ecclesiastical vestments, 
 which some proposed to reject altogether. 
 
 These changes' were not made without opposition. 
 Bishops Gardiner of Winchester, and Bonner of London 
 resisted with most obstinacy. The latter submitted 
 under protest, and the former was retained in prison. In 
 
8 
 
 some parts of the comiti-y the Koniaiiist population 
 expressed their discontent hy rising in rebellion, wliicli 
 had to ho put <lovvn by authority, or by arms. In 
 Devonsliire tlie insurgents demanded " tliat the six 
 tirticles should be restored, that the Mass should be said 
 in Latin, that the host should be elevated and adored, 
 that the Scicrament should be given in only one kind, 
 that images should be set up in churches, that souls in 
 Purgatory should be prayed for, that the Bible should 
 be called in and prohibited, and that the new service book 
 should be laid aside, and the old religion restored." The 
 weight of tlie religious opposition may however be over- 
 estimated. Because it was everywhere connected with 
 resistance to the land usurpation of tlie country nobles 
 and gentry: and certain unwise measures of the King's 
 council in matters of state and finance became compli- 
 cated with and prejudiced tlie cause of the Reformation. 
 In addition to all that was done by the Parliament 
 and Convocation of England, it was designed by Cran- 
 mer to have a s^nod called of theologians representing 
 all the churches of the Reformati(m, with a view lo mutual 
 su[»[)ort and luirmony of doctrine. He corresponded on 
 the subject with both Lutherans and Reformed. But ere 
 the plan could be matured, the whole work of reforma- 
 tion was suspended in England by the death of the king, 
 on the 6th of July, 1553/ 
 ^^/ "^ J 1^. The next heir "to the throne was King Edward's oldest 
 7i lltVH^ufK '^gigte,, Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, who liad 
 j^ Cctc^ <i-^<r*tcbeen educated in strict adherence to the Church of Rome. 
 iv ^-/Viv O^**'''? ^^^'^ attempt of the Earl of Northumberland to set up a 
 f ^' /_/ rival candidate, in the person of Lady Jane Grev, failed 
 ^^ H^ and involved the principal persons concerned with it m 
 
 /^{ (cM.4jt^ ruin. 
 
 f ' / Mary's religion gave much anxiety to the reformers: 
 
 "^ / iIa^^^^ ^'*^ majority of the nation were not yet fully pre- 
 
 !_ K^ ^y '^i^'-'pared to coincide with them. The people of England, 
 
 ^^fi-tc^ttt^!'^^ that time consisted of three parties; first that which 
 
 * ' advocated the right of the Pope to full ecclesiastical 
 
 dominion, with all that it implied — a party which was 
 
 very small ; second, a moderate reforming party, which 
 
 rejected the Papacy, dependency upon Rome, and the 
 
monastic orders but preferred the old forms of worship, 
 of belief, and the national priesthood; it also included 
 a large number of that class of property-holders who had 
 shared in the contiscated lands of the monasteries; and 
 the third was that of the thoroughgoinp: reformers. The 
 second was more numerous than both the other two, and 
 was that which hailed the accession of Mary with rejoic- 
 ing, in the hope that she would restore the state of things 
 as it stood in the latter years of her father. It was also 
 the party, which when disappointed by her restoration 
 of the Papal supremacy, persecution, and attempts to 
 restore the monasteries, ultimately revolted against her, 
 and gave their support to the protestants. 
 
 Mary at first evinced no disposition to cruelty, and 
 the persecuting laws had been rejjealed, but her purpose 
 to sustain the extreme papal party appeared in her depos- . ^_ 
 
 ing the reforming bishops, and putting strong Roman- '^//' ^ 
 ists in their room. Gardiner was made bishop of Win- wV^/ /c 
 Chester and chancellor of the kingdom, and Bonner, uSUaT. o^rx^^ ^^ 
 Bishop of London. Ridley, Coverdale and Hooper ^a^ V-/^u^(^^ 
 were sent to prison, where Cranmer soon after followed ^^^v^^^^y^^JyTo^ 
 them. Many others were ti-eated in the same manner, ^I ' 
 
 and a proclamation was issued, August 18, 1553, by 6 
 which all preachers were silenced except tliose wlio should 
 receive license from the Queen, by whom the whole 
 autliority on that matter was transferred to Gardiner. 
 Those who refused to comply were sent to prison. 
 Many, foreseeing the fate which awaited them, fled to 
 tlie continent. And so precipitately was the change 
 effected, that when Parliament met, Oct. 5, 1558, three 
 months after the death of King Edward, oul}' two prot- 
 estant bishops appeared in their places. The Queen 
 communicated to the Pope her recognition of his supre- 
 macy, and her kinsman, Cardinal Pole, was appointed 
 legate to reconcile the kingdom to the Roman see. But 
 80 little were the English people yet prepared for such a 
 step, that it was thought prudent to defer it for more 
 than a year. 
 
 In order to fortify the Romish interest both in Eng- 
 land and on the continent, as well as to serve the ambi- 
 tion of the Emperor Charles V., marriage was by him 
 negotiated between his son Philip and the Queen of 
 
10 
 
 Eiifijland. It was solemnized on the 25tli of Jnlj, 
 1554. Philip resided in England about fourteen months, 
 after which lie went into the Netherlands, to be present 
 at his father's abdication, and to receive the crown of 
 Spain and lier dependencies at his hands. 
 
 On the arrival of Cardinal Pole Nov. 24, 1554, the 
 kingdom was formally reconciled to the Pope; and 
 regular measures were taken to enforce his authority. 
 Tlie leader in that progress was the Queen, but lier oracle 
 and instigator was Cardinal Pole, and the prime agent 
 in procuring the action of Parliament in their favor was 
 Bishop Gardiner. The laws of Edward's reign touching 
 religion, and the ecclesiastical acts of Henry VIII. were 
 repealed, and by the beginning of January, 1555, the 
 legal powers of persecution for religion's sake were fully 
 re-established. That end was not attained without warm 
 and protracted debate and the opposition of a strong 
 minority, and on two points ccmipliance with tlie court 
 was persistently withheld. Those were the alteration of 
 Henry's will touching the royal succession, whereby 
 Elizabeth would have been cut off, ar.d the restitution 
 of the abbey lands. 
 
 The severest penalties for iieresy were again inflicted. In 
 February 1555, John Rogers, ))rel)endary of St. Paul's was 
 burned at the stake, in Smitlitield, for receiving thesacra- 
 ment according to the liturgy of Edward VI. Five days 
 after. Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, was committed to 
 the flames in the city of Gloucester. Then followed in 
 rapid succession victim after victim, among whom were 
 Ridley, formerly Bishop of London, Latimer, Bishop of 
 Worcester, Ferrars Bishop of St. Davids and others, the 
 most conspicuous in the church, with many of humbler 
 rank. These executions took place chiefly at Smithfield 
 in London, but also at Oxford, Canterbury and else- 
 where. Cranmerwas retained in prison until March 21, 
 1556, when he was burned at Oxford. On the next day. 
 Cardinal Pole was made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Gardiner had died on the 12th of November preceding. 
 From the execution of Rogers, Feb. 4, 1555, until the 
 last victims at Canterbury Nov. 10, 1558, not less than 
 two hundred and seventy persons perished in the flames. 
 
11 
 
 And adding those who died of imprisonment, torture and 
 other injnvies, the nornber reached almost four luindred, 
 wlio, ii; the short time of about three years and a half, 
 suffered for religion's sake. Bad management of 
 the government in ' other respects, and failure of 
 the national arms abroad increased the general dis- 
 content. Several insurrections had been attempted, 
 and a more general movement seemed on tlie point of 
 breaking out, as appeared froni tlie tlireatening temper 
 of the House of Commons wliich met Nov. 5, 1558. 
 Mary's death a few days afterwards, Nov. 17, allayed the 
 ferment, and put an end to Papal denomination in Eng- 
 land. Sixteen hours later, Cardinal Pole, the chief 
 instigator of the persecution, died also. The last vic- 
 tims of the stake had suffered at Canterbury only seven 
 days before. 
 
 The accession of Elizabeth, daughter of Queen Anne 
 Boleyn, filled the hearts of Protestants and anti-papal 
 Catliolics with joy. She was of a naturally superior 
 intellect, well educated, and now five and twenty years 
 of age. Po]»e Paul IV. took offence at her assumption 
 of roj'alty without his consent. Elizabeth took no steps 
 to procure it. Her first royal act was to order the release 
 of all persons imprisoned for religion's sake, while she 
 also restrained the impetuosity of too hasty reformers. 
 All preaching was suspended until the meeting of parlia- 
 ment. Only the church service and reading the scrip- 
 tures were allowed. No alterations were to be made 
 except by an act of the nation. The policy of Elizabeth, 
 from the beginning, was to restrain the Reformation to 
 the stage at which it had arrived when Edward died; at 
 that stage to constitute it the Church of England, and to 
 hold catholics in check, while admitting them to entire 
 equality of rights in both church and state. It was not 
 yet presumed that any save extreme Papalists would be 
 dissenters. Her right to the crown she rested upon her 
 fathei's will. All the Bishops she received graciously 
 except Bonner of London, whose brutality had made him 
 disreputably conspicuous in the persecution. For her 
 council she selected from both Protestants and national 
 Catholics. The former alone were retained permanently. 
 Among them were Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord 
 
12 
 
 Burleigh, secretary of state, and Nicholas Bacon, keeper 
 of the great seal. The panalists withdrew, or were 
 removed. By Cecil the present safety and quiet of the 
 realm were secured hy the wisest and most expeditions 
 measures. 
 
 The Queen was crowned on the 15th of Januar}^ 1559. 
 Parliament met ten days after. The royal supremacy 
 was restored, and papal dominion excluded from the 
 kingdom. Supremacy was explained, as not giving 
 power to conduct divine service in the church, but simply 
 '' under God the sovereignty and rule over all manner 
 of persons within the realm of England both ecclesiasti- 
 cal and temporal, so as no foreign power should have 
 superiority- over them ;" and ai)peal should not be carried 
 from any English cou,rt to that of Rome. MatthcAv 
 
 , * , ; „,.Parker, an advanced Protestant, was made Archbishop of 
 
 U ?JA ( ^ bishops was revived; also those passed in the reign of 
 
 ''■^ V-^*'/ • /Canterbury. The law of Henry VIII. for the election of 
 
 Edward VI. for the reformation of religion. The monastic 
 houses founded, or restored by Mary were suppressed, 
 and their property annexed to the crow!i. Most of the 
 monks returned to secular life, but the nuns withdrew to 
 catholic countries. 
 
 The Queen was empowered to appoint a commission 
 consisting of either churchmen or laymen for the settle- 
 ,^j,,^^f4^^^r^t*', <'/ rnent of ecclesiastical causes. From that, called the 
 f»l^. *■ \ High Commission Court, there was to be no appeal. 
 Heresy was to be adjudged by the plain and express 
 ^* ^^' words of Scripture, of the first four general Councils, and 
 
 as might thereafter be determined by Parliament and 
 Convocation. By the act of uniformity all church ser- 
 vice was to be conducted according to the second Liturgy 
 of Edward VI., with a few alterations then introduced, 
 the alterations being mostly backward to the re-adoption 
 of what had been rejected as Romish, in forms of worship 
 and sacerdotal habits. 
 
 Convocation, Avhich met at the same time with Parlia- 
 ment, and was still predominantly Catholic, drew up and 
 presented to the Lord Keeper six articles designed to 
 ■> . maintain the state of things as constituted in the reign of 
 Mary. A conference was appointed between the Reformed 
 
13 
 
 and Catholic divines, eight on each side. It issued in 
 only a conviction that the two were irreconcilable. 
 When the session of Parliament liad closed, the oath of 
 supremacy was tendered to all the bishops, and refused 
 by all except the bishop of Llandaff. The parish clergy 
 were of a different mind, and with but few exceptions 
 joined the Reformation. Of 9,400 beneficed clergymen 
 under Mary's reign only 192 refused the oath of suprem- 
 acy, and of these only 80 were rectors of churches. The 
 rest were bishops , deans, archdeacons, and other digni- 
 taries. No severity was imposed upon any of tliem, 
 except three, Bonner of London with his partners in 
 cruelty. White bishop of Winchester, and AVatson of 
 Lincoln. Bonner was imprisoned for life, the other two 
 imprisoned for a time, tlien released, a pension was 
 assigned them, upon which they withdrew from the 
 country. JSText convocation was protestant. 
 
 A church visitation, like that of Edward VI., was 
 appointed. The instructions on this occasion were 
 specially addressed to the order of public worship and 
 the style of church music, enjoining " that it be simple 
 and plain.-' 
 
 Much desire was expressed on the part of a great 
 number to do awa\" with the clerical vestments, and in 
 the universities tliey were actually abandoned by many. 
 
 Archbishop Parker found some diiRculty in filing 
 the vacant sees, from the fact that the most competent 
 clergy had arrived at views of Reformation too far 
 advanced for the Anglican church. Such was really the 
 state of his own, and he had accepted episcopal office 
 only in compliance witli the royal command. 
 
 A short profession of faith was drawn up consisting 
 of eleven articles setting forth clearl}" the peculiai- attitude c 
 
 of the Anglican Church. Also a new translation of /y^^^ - ^-^''^^ 
 Bible, made by certain English and Scottish refugees in ^ f vj^^j,^^, 
 ^Jji'Geneva, was printed in 1562. Doctrinal controversy d^^ /^,-vtv^*^ 
 ^f between Catholic and Protestants was determined in itsy^-^^^^-^t^''''*'^ 
 / character chiefly by that carried on between Bishop ffVtV ■'^^ •' 
 
 Jewel, and John Harding one of the Romish theologians ' . '' , 
 ^y- Lou vain. 
 
 "^ Convocation of 1563 assembled specially for the settle- 
 ment of doctrine and discipline. The basis adopted was 
 
14 
 
 that of the Forty-two Articles — of these four were now 
 
 omitted, and some of the rest altered with a bearing to 
 
 ji more complete reform. The first book of Homilies 
 
 had been reprinted in 1560; the second which had also 
 
 been prepared in whole, or in part, before tlie death of 
 
 Edward, was now printed for the first time (1563). 
 
 Some years afterwards, the Articles of Religion were 
 
 .yJ^A again revised, another article, the XXIXth, added, 
 
 ^f ^ ^. making in all Thirty-nine, and thus were ratified by con- 
 
 . .,. ■< ''» '-^^ '■' ■ vocation. May 11, 1571. A defence of the English church 
 
 '■J((x^^\fi f ' vvas prepared by Bishop Jewel. Being designed for 
 
 theologians generally it was written in Latin, and with 
 
 the sanction of Convocation was published in 1563. 
 
 Already the Puritan element was strong in the Eng- 
 lish Church. When the subject of rites and ceremonies 
 came to be ti-eated by tlie same Convocation, several 
 papers were introduced proposing a more thorough 
 change. Many of the members were disposed to go 
 the length of excluding all sacerdotal vestments, organs, 
 saint's days, la^- baptism, and the obligation of kneeling 
 at the Eucharist. To those who thus advocated a more 
 complete reformation the name Puritan was in course 
 of time generally applied. 
 
 A new revision of the Bible vvas brouglit out in 
 1568. It is called " The Bishop's Bible," as having been 
 prepared chietiy by the English Bishops under tlie super- 
 vision of Archbisiiop Parker. For forty years it held the 
 place of authority in the public service of tlie English 
 Church, while the Genevan Bible was used in Scotland 
 and generally -by the Puritans of England in private. 
 
 So far, all varieties of opinion, from Romanist to 
 Puritan, were comprehended within the pale of the one 
 National Ciiurch. But the extremes were soon to drop 
 off, and tlie forcible means employed to retain theui 
 accelerated the separation. The breach was first made 
 with the more advanced Puritans. In church service 
 many catholic forms were still enforced, the hierarchy 
 was unaltered except in as faras disconnected with Rome, 
 and some of the Romish vestments were still canonical. 
 In all these respects, a number of the clerg_y desired and 
 expected a further reform. Many had, of their own 
 
 /) / 
 
15 
 
 freedom disused tlie vestments, when the hiw was passed 
 which enforced the wearing of them. A matter of 
 previously little moment now involved a question of 
 christian pi-inciple. In January 1565, certain canons 
 were issued by the ecclesiastical commissioners for the 
 purpose of enforcing uniformity of "doctrine and preach- 
 ing, administration of prayer and sacraments, certain 
 orders in ecclesiastical polity, outward apparel of per- 
 sons ecclesiastical, and promises to be made by persons 
 entering upon anj- ecclesiastical otKce." '^ 
 
 By one of those canons all licenses to j)reach granted 
 before March 1, 1564, wore declared void, and those who 
 were thought qualified for the ofKce of preaching were 
 to be admitted again by a new license, and ihat was not 
 granted except under a promise of conformity to the 
 (iresses and ceremonies. Many <if the best ministers 
 were thereby turned out oH their phices, and many con- 
 gregations left destitute. Among the displaced was 
 Miles Coverdale. For a time he continued to preach in 
 private liouses. His exam])le was fohowed by several 
 other ministers, whose services were attended by con- 
 . siderable numbers ot their respective congregations. 
 ^^ After the lapse of a few months, seeing no hope from the 
 ,>> leniency of the government, they resolved to break off 
 entirely their connection with the national establishment, 
 
 
 ^and organize themselves as congregations on a Presb}'- ^..^ 
 ^ terian model. This took place in 1566. Government '[ 
 V^ attempted to crush the disr^enters. Tliey continued to '^ ,- , u-t-^^ 
 ^ncrease notwithstanding, and four years later, Nov. 20, vui^^^A-^H^^ ^ 
 5fl572, at Wandsworth, in tlie neighborhood of London, y^ y^Sj/jL. 
 &^ organized their congregations into a presbytery. i/-#^j Zy^ ,, 
 
 In the end of the year 1568, a Catholic insurrection ^>*i.'<-»-<^-ii^ ' 
 occurred with the view of putting Mary of Scotland on 
 the throne of England. The papal excommunication of 
 Elizabeth followed soon after, 1569. A more strongly 
 mai'ked distinction between Catholic and Protestant was 
 the eftect, and Catholics could no longer attend the ser- 
 vices of a church whicli recognized an excommunicated 
 liead. That act of the Pope made his adherents thence- 
 forward dissenters in England. In the same year, a 
 Romish College for Englishmen and for operation upon 
 
England was established at Doiiay, in the ISTetherlands, 
 under [jatronage of Philip II. of Spain. 
 
 Instead of niaking the Queen more indulgent to her 
 loyal protestant suVyects, these events urged her to 
 greater stringency in carrying out the law of uniformity. 
 1^ ^ur/vCVw-At that very date, Bridvvell and other prisons were full of 
 IdET^CjguX^ Puritans." All her subjects were ordered to attend service 
 " [ • ^ and commune in the established church. In Parliament 
 QC>iM.Uoic*.'^l Iq-ji^ hx\ eflbrt was made by the commons for relief of 
 c*c'^ ^"-^^y^' the Puritans, but was suppressed by interference of royal 
 ' " ^ A* ^'^ authority. By far the greater number of the Puritans 
 . " Li^^ were still in connection with the established church, and 
 I'Z' seeking its further reformation. About 1569 they were 
 . 041 ^^-^^ ^ strengthened by the accession of the Rev. Thomas Cart- 
 ~^ rt^'ift'.- Wright, Professor of Divinity in the University of Cam- 
 . bridge, who with great learning and eloquence unfolded 
 
 C'^' in his lectures the errors of the established church, and 
 
 advocated their removal. When challenged for non-con- 
 formity, he oflered to hold a public disputation on the 
 points in question. That was declined. But he was 
 forbidden to continue his lectures, and soon after, con- 
 trary to the advice of the Secretary of State, deprived of 
 his lellowship by the authorities of the university and 
 expelled. 
 
 The Puritan party in the church objected to the 
 
 y tft^r hierarchy and certain evils connected with it; to 
 
 , , r i i the law which confined public worship to prescribed 
 
 ♦<«Jl. Vvt/i^W |-^j,^g . ^Q various observances retained from Rom- 
 
 » C^<< ''^^'^ "^ish practice but without sanction from Scripture, 
 
 /J 'J^ \ and to the use of clerical vestments. They held that 
 
 ^^^ 7 . ^J^Scripture is the only standard of religion, and that every 
 
 KjTi^Uf ^K''«'/'man has a right to read and judge of it for himself. 
 
 ^H i fi S(jLoS( Archbishop Parker died May 17, 1576. He was suc- 
 
 A/. , - ^ ceeded by Grindal, who insisting upon carrying the 
 
 ■" , 1^^ improvement and efficiency of his clergy beyond the 
 
 ihjJti^^f^^l r measure assigned by the Queen, was in 1577 suspended 
 
 .-.,f ^ ^ from office. The primacy remained virtually vacant 
 
 '' ' ' , until his death in 1583. Whitgift was then put into it, 
 
 f y<'^'«'''-ancl holding firmly to the Queen's policy of uniformity, 
 
 H^4u.^~t^ ^^'' retained it through all the rest of her reign. 
 
 (/ CU4* <> r«> Notwithstanding the severity with which they were 
 
 / tfuJ^ 'f^ Vi treated, the Puritans continued to increase in numbers. 
 
17 
 
 and every effort to draw the reins of uniformity tigliter 
 upon the church drove more of them out of it. Many 
 of the established ministers took refuge in association's 
 for mutual improvementwhich were called " Prophecy- 
 ings of the clergy," They soon proved, like other 
 opportunities of free exftression in England, in those 
 days, seminaries of Puritan views. The Archbishop 
 received instructions from the Queen to sujtpress them. 
 
 Among the exiles from the established church was 
 Robert Brown, a preacher of some popular power, who 
 collected a congregation on principles of his own. It 
 was broken up, and he with several of his friends and ^ 
 followers went to Holland, where at Middleburg in Zeal- yQ^ ,' ^"C/ 
 and, they formed the first congregation of Independents, '.^ / ,\? — /j 
 called in the first instance Brownists, In 1589 Brown ^^ v*^y ' 
 returned to England and accepted a rectorship in the ^-^- '^:t21^ 
 establishment. j^^'-i'Xi^ k^ 
 
 Shortly before the death of Elizabetli, another separate j^ ^ sMJ- 
 congregation was formed under better auspices, and ,p J v J^ 
 which soon afterward found a wiser leader in John ^^^'^ (7 
 Robinson. Persecution in England constrained them also f-'v-cc^uvO- f 
 to seek refuge in Holland. Their number increased, and cCw^^ cvcsot/vu 
 under the prudent advice uf Mr. Robinson their church ^^^l^y^au) /60 
 polity was gradually formed towards that type which has /- l • V> 
 
 since been called congregational. Residence in a country 7^^!^^, . 
 where they wero cut off' from the |)eople by the barrier 6U^w>-a^^ •^^' 
 of a foreign language, together with other objections, led Co >r 'S-irtPc 
 them in a few years "Jo seek for some abode more favor- PuLiCCU^eu*. 
 able to future prosperity and spiritual freedom. That //^^f<, e.<j»/<.c 
 project issued in 1620 in the celebrated emigration of the priSitt. 'StA^ 
 Puritan Pilgrims to America. IZ-i—^-^^^ 
 
 In England, the Puritans were still, for the most part/V j^y — . \9^ 
 members of the established church, and differed con- Ck^^ jr"''- 
 siderably in opinion, but all looking more or less to the j ?^*i > f*^^ 
 model of the Reformed churciies on the continent. aL'(^«-<.V V^ 
 
 In the early part of her reign, Elizabeth was lenient f^ *\A'tcJA 
 to Catholics; but after they had stirred up discontent C^*^*" . v/At.,^ 
 and rebellion in the kingdom, and the Pope had issued V ^^^"-^^ 
 excommunication against her, and plots had been formed 
 against her life, severity to them on her part became self- 
 defence. 
 
18 
 
 Amidst a long continued turmoil of conflicting inter- 
 ests political, militarj', religions and personal, in whieli 
 the safety of England was secured mainly by a judicious 
 balancing of the jealousies of Prance and Spain, the 
 church of England i-eceived the characteristic features of 
 its worship and polity. Its doctrine had been deter- 
 mined, as far as reformed, in the reign of Edward. Its 
 peculiarities among protestants are its Royal Supremacy, 
 its episcopal order of ministers, its recognition of the 
 church's legislative power in spiritual things, the enforc- 
 ing of Sacerdotal vestments, and its peculiar liturgy. 
 
 "The death of Elizid)eth occurred on the 24th of 
 March 1603, and with it the dynasty of the house of 
 Tudor. The nearest heir to tlie throne of England was 
 the King of Scots, only child of the unfortunate Mary 
 Stuart. 
 
 REFORMATIO!^ IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 The history of the Reformation in Scotland consists 
 of four distinct periods ; first, the preliminary period 
 until the martyrdom of Patrick Hamilton in 1528 ; 
 second from 1528 until the meeting of the first Assemblv 
 of the Reformed Church of Scotland Dec. 20, 1560"; 
 thirdly from that event to the date of the National Cove- 
 nant 1638, and fourth from 1638 to the adoption of the 
 works of the Westminister Assembly in 1647. Subse- 
 quent endurance of oppression, and deliverance from 
 it were changes not i)roperly to be counted as belonging 
 to the Reformation from Romanism. 
 
 1. What Staupitz was in Saxony, Wyttenbach in 
 Switzerland, and John Wessel in Holland, such in Scot- 
 land was John Major, Professor of Philosophy and 
 Theology in St. Andrews. Major was born in 1469, 
 studied at Oxford, Cambridge and Paris, and having 
 held the professorship now mentioned, and subsequently 
 the oflice of Provost of the University of St. Andrews, 
 died in 15J0. Among other things he taught that the 
 authority of princes was derived from the people and 
 that a general council is superior to a Pope; he denied 
 the temporal supremacy of the Pope, and that Papal 
 excommunication had any force; he censured the vices 
 
19 
 
 of the hierarchy and of the Papal Court, and advised tlie 
 reduction of monasteries. 
 
 It was at St. Andrews, while John Major was in his 
 hest days, that George Buchanan, Patrick Hamilton, 
 Henry i3alnavis and John Knox were fellow students, in 
 the years 1524, 1525 and 1526, at the same time that Sir 
 David Lindsay, only a few 3ears their senior, was resid- 
 ing upon his hereditary estates, in the neighborhood. 
 Lindsay was a layman, and a courtier, but together with 
 his fashionable accomplishments unrted earnest moral 
 and religious purpose, and employed his popularity as a 
 poet with great effect in the exposure of prevailing error 
 and iniquity, and promoting Scriptural knowledge. He 
 was born in 1490, and died in 1557. 
 
 Balnavis was also a layman, who in a career of emi- /'^um^ /cTOi.' : 
 nent legal and political success, aided much in the pro- o^ h Ot^rj- tTK. 
 gress of the Reformation. QrOi<^''^^J^ 
 
 The most important service rendered to the cause by ^t-'*^* » ^""'^ 
 Buchanan was in the iield of education, and literature, ^^'^^j^<=*i^'"^-C^^ 
 and most of all, perhaps, as tutor of the regent Murray ^^' W^^i-S^ 
 and of King James. (>5tj^ X^7^., < iirC / %J''^v,^\^^ 
 
 Patrick Hamilton was a youth of noole birth, ^wJaose ^sVtr K 
 education, conducted at St. Andrews, was further prose- /^ ' 'rf) • • *. 
 cuted at Wittenberg and Marburg. He was the first to '^ ^Z- \jt!''*~^ 
 preach Protestant doctrine in Scotland. Arrested by '^f\^J~^'\ 
 Beaton., Archbishop of St. Andrews, he was tried for , ^ a >r- 
 heresy and burned at the stake, Feb. 28, 1528, when he Yi'^^^cTS^v 
 
 had reached only the twenty-fourth year of his age. That 
 
 iboT^ |5~^-" 
 
 startling event gave publicity to the cause. Knowledge ^^^ 
 of the truth spread tast. the hierarchy in their alarm V^^'-'T 77 ^^^Sj 
 became more cruel ; between 1530 and 1540, many pious ^^^^'^^ ^ 
 
 people were i)ut to death or driven into exile. The effect ^~j.nJ^^ 
 was the contrary of that intended, stim.ulating inquiry, ^ y i^ 
 and creating hatred of the persecutors. l'^^,'^'^ -vC^ 
 
 John Knox, to whom the Scottish Reformation owes ^ 
 more than to any other, was born in 1505. He entered 
 the University of St. Andrews in 1524 at the same time 
 with Buchanan, under the same instructors, and in the 
 same college of St. Salvador. Both early excelled in the 
 scholastic learning of the course, and early became dis- 
 satisfied with it, and " overleaped the boundaries pre- 
 
\L(Mr''. :'^ 
 
 20 
 
 scribed for them by their more timid guides." For some 
 years after he became master of arts, Knox continued 
 "to teach pliilosophy in the University. In 1530, or 
 shortly before, he was ordtuned priest, but did not preach, 
 preferring to remain in his office of teacliing. Mean- 
 while ,his studies led him to the early fathers, among 
 whom he was particularly attracted by Jerome and 
 Augustine, and by them was led to the Holy Scriptures 
 in the original tongues ; but not until 1542 does it appear 
 that he professed himself on the side of the Reforma- 
 tion, He then left St. Andrews, and retired to the south- 
 ern part of the kingdom, where he found protection, 
 with two wealthy gentlemem who employed him to 
 educate their children. In 1^%Q he attached himself to 
 the preaching of George Wishart, who had just returned 
 from England and the continent richly laden with learn- 
 ing, and with the doctrines of the Reformation, and pos- 
 sessed of fervent piety, a most persuasive eloquence, and 
 unflinching courage in the cause of truth. In 1546, 
 jL, Wishart was arrested at the instance of Cardinal Beaton, 
 tried for heresy, and condemned to the flames. The 
 sentence was executed on the following day, Mai-ch 1, 1546. 
 Retribution also followed fast. The Cardinal was beyond 
 the reach of law. Certain i)ersons, too rashly following 
 the dictates of natural revenge, seized the castle of St. 
 Andrews, where he resided, and put him to death, Ma^eh 
 29, 1546. 
 
 Persecution was now quickened in its turn. Knox 
 with several others sought protection with the conspira- 
 tors in the castle of St. Andrews, in April, 1547. It was 
 while there that, at the call of the garrison and residents 
 and urged by the reformed preacher John Rough, he tirst 
 felt constrained to undertake the ministry of the gospel, 
 when he was over forty years of age. By French forces 
 the castle was reduced, July 31, the beseiged were carried 
 to France, and held as prisoners in various places. Knox 
 with others was sent to the galleys, and there treated with 
 all the indignities oft'ered to heretics. He was liberated 
 in 1549, and immediately repaired to England, where he 
 was employed in the reformation under Edward VI., and 
 assigned to preach at Berwick. At the accession of Mary 
 
21 
 
 of England lie retnrned to the continent, and remained 
 several years, enjoying the friendshij) of Calvin and other 
 reformers, and aiding in that translation of the Bible 
 called the Genevan. In 1555 he appeared in Scotland, 
 hnt left it next year. His final i-etiirn was in May, 1559. 
 It was followed immediately by the events which over- 
 threw the Roman Catholic, and established the Reformed 
 Church in Scotland. 
 
 It was not among the liigher clergy of Scotland that 
 the Reformation found its supporters, but among scholars, 
 and the laity generally, both nobles and commoners. In 
 England the narrative begins with the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury and tlie ecclesiastics highest in place about 
 him ; in Scotland it begins with youth in the university, 
 and is continued in the lives of scholars, and of a few , 
 priests who felt called to preach the gospel. 
 
 The doctrine of Patrick Hamilton was Lutheran, but 
 as soon as the Reformed creed was introduced, it met 
 with universal favor among the Protestants of Scotland. 
 
 Oil the Rcmiish side, the principal champion was the 
 Primate, James Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrews, upon 
 whose death in 1539, the same eminence was assumed b}' 
 his nephew, David Beaton, who, also Archbishop of St. 
 Andrews, and raised to the rank of a Cardinal, was, for 
 the burning of George Wishart and other acts of cruelty, 
 put to death in 1546. 
 
 King James IV. of Scotland, in 1503, married Mar- 
 garet daughter of Henry VII. of England. Ten years H ft,^,,^^ vm 
 afterwards, he was slain at Flodden, when his son, James fkicv '^>*''^^ 
 v., was only two yeai-s old. Thus was the government, ^N^ttwU-'fTv-^ , 
 at the opening of the Reformation in the hands of a cu^cw^>V.^ 
 regency. In the year in which Patrick Hamilton suf- C/viJt^ ttr>.,tu-t, 
 fered, the young king, at the age of 17, escaped from (^ 0.; ^ -.'•i "^^^ 
 restraint and assumed the reins himself. He had little 
 favor for the hierarchy, but never was in condition to _ , 
 
 resist it, and was sometimes constrained to the execution J^^l^o^-u-J^ I 
 of its judgments. In 1538, he married Mary of Guise, (j_jj^^^ ^)'fxo^<^ 
 daughter of the Duke of Loraine, head of the extreme j^c.i«e;jr tc«^^x«^' 
 Catholic party in France. James V. died in 1542. His ^^ |cL{r>^'-H' 
 daughter Mary, heir of the throne, was only a week old. i^i^.rX '^tHU^ 
 James Hamilton, earl of Arran, and kinsman of Patrick "' 
 
Hamilton was made reireut. An act of Parliament tliat 
 same year made it lawful for all to read tlie Scriptures in 
 their native tongue. But in a short time the Regent 
 ahjured his reformation principles. At the end of twelves 
 years he resigned, and Mary of Guise, the Queen Mother, 
 assumed the regency. 
 
 Queen Mary, at the age of six years, was taken to 
 France to be educated among her mother's kindred. At 
 sixteen she was married to Francis, heir of the throne of 
 France, to which he succeeded next year, (1559). (3n 
 the ground of Mary's descent from Henry VII., the 
 \Cl V It! y^^^^^S King and Queen of France and Scotland assumed 
 -dV.A^Cwb'^' also the royal title of England, and were sustained by 
 the Catholics. 
 
 The Queen Regent of Scotland died June lOth, 1560. 
 Her daughter now Queen of France remained with her 
 husband in that count: y.i About six months later, Dec. 
 4, 1560, Francis 11. died, and the union of the crowns 
 of France and Scotland came to an end. Mary did not 
 arrive in Scotland until the 19th of August next. In 
 the interval, Parliament, August 24, 1560, had abolished 
 the Papal jurisdiction in Scotland, and left the Reformed 
 Church free to determine upon its own constitution and 
 confession of doctrine. The first Assembly' of the 
 Reformed Church of Scotland met, accordingly, on the 
 20th of December, that year. 
 CO /j.J-<,'/ ^Isrgy who joined tlie Reformation were few. In 
 - xp the lirst Assembly among forty-one members, only six 
 )uetc^ i^/v^'^^'-'wera ministers, and they were half of all in the king- 
 ^. /^t^.^f^QA ^^^' Oiie of the most urgent duties of the Assembly 
 *"' V ^*77 ^"^^^ ^^ make provision for worship and religious instruc- 
 ptiS^^^c. /Ji^tion in the parishes. Temporary offices had to be added 
 to those of a permanent nature. Of the latter class their 
 Book of Discipline recognized the Minister, or Pastor, 
 the Teacher, and the Ruling Elder, and the Deacon. To 
 these, for the time then being, were added superinten- 
 dents, and leaders. The former were not appointed for 
 all the kingdom, but only where need required, to travel 
 each through the district assigned him, preaching and 
 supervising the churches and schools, and inspecting the 
 conduct of the parish ministers who joined them. Read- 
 
 fZf^tZK 
 
23 
 
 ers were laymen of piety and gDocl common education, 
 who were directed simply to read the Scriptures to the 
 people, in places where preachino^ could not be yet pro- 
 vided. As tliey approved themselves capable, they were 
 encouraged to offer remarks upon what they read, and 
 were then called exhorters. If they continued to improve, 
 they mio;ht be admitted to the ministry. Parliament 
 sanctioned the refo[ined doctrines, offices and worshi[), 
 but refused assent to the system of discipline. 
 
 The second Assembly met in Edinbur2:h, May 27, 
 1561. Queen Mary did not arrive in Scotland until 
 August of that year. She came with the purpose to undo 
 all that had been etiected by the Reformation. It was 
 not however a clergy, nor politicians, whom she had to 
 encounter, but the multitude of the best, and best edu- 
 cated of her people. A highly accomplished woman, of 
 unscrupulous artifice, her reign utterl}- failed in its great 
 aim, as it was also most utdiappy for herself, from its 
 inherent perversity and folly. General Assemblies were 
 held regularly twice a year throughout her reign, and 
 continued the improvement of discipline and authority. 
 
 During all that reign, as well as the preceding two 
 years, and the succeeding four, the church of Scotland 
 was indebted chiefly to the wisdom, energy and integrity 
 of John Knox. 
 
 In the reign of Mary the revenues, which had belonged 
 to the Romish establishment, were divided by Parliament 
 into three equal parts, two of which were given to sup- 
 port the ejected Romish clergy, as long as they lived, while 
 one-third was to be divided equally between the Queen 
 and the Protestant clergy. 
 
 Mary's misgovernment and [jersonal follies gave 
 occasion to an organized resistance, which she encoun- 
 tered in arms only to be defeated. She fled to England 
 and tO(^k refuge with her cousin Elizabeth, who held her 
 a prisoner all the rest of her days. The kingdom, in the 
 minority oi' her son, was governed by regents ; first by 
 her haif-brother, the earl of Murray, a pupil of Buchanan, 
 and.one of the best of the reformed nobility, about two 
 years and a half from her abdication in 1567 ; then by 
 the Earl of Lennox, paternal grandfather of the young 
 
king, from Janpary, 1570 until Septenil)er, 1571, then b}- 
 the^Earl of Mar until October, 1572, followed by Doug- 
 las, Earl of Morton, until March. 1^8, when the king, 
 though only twelve years of age assumed the government 
 himself. Thus, the Scottish monarchy, in tlie time of 
 the Reformation, was feeble and of little influence in the 
 course of religious affairs, and that little of no benefit. 
 
 As the retired Popish Bishops jjassed away, it became 
 necessary more permanently to disi)0se of their revenues. 
 Certain of the nobility, with the Earl of Morton at their 
 head, Vv^ished to appropriate most of the amount to their 
 own use. A plan was devised whereby upon the death 
 of a Catholic bishof), some submissive hireling should 
 be put into his place to keep up the form of the office, 
 draw the revenue of the see, and pay over the princii)al 
 part of it to the nobleman, his patron, who should pro- 
 tect him in the enjoyment of the remainder. The method, 
 which was called by the country people Talchan, suc- 
 ceeded only as long as enforced by the Earl of Morton. 
 The last words of John Knox to the General Assembly 
 were levelled against it. That great leader of the Scot- 
 tish Reformation died on the 24th of November, 1572. 
 
 In Julj^ 1574, Andrew Melville returned from the 
 continent, and forthwith connected himself with the 
 party which condemned the new style of bishops, and 
 labored consistentl}' to have every trace of diottesan 
 episcopacy removed from the church. By the Assembly 
 of June 1578 action was taken against Prelac}' in any 
 shape, and it was enacted that no new bishops should be 
 made. By the Assembly of 1580, Pi'elacy wascondemnd as 
 unscriptural, and those wlio held such "pretended office " 
 were charged to demit it immediately. By the Assem- 
 bly of April, 1581, a more regular distribution was made 
 of the church into Parishes and Presbyteries. The six 
 hundred churches were classified in fifty Presbyteries, 
 and the Presbyteries into seventeen Diocies : and the 
 ^^a'tjiuU "Book of Policie," or of disciple was revised and sanc- 
 tioned. Also a confession of faith was issued b}' the 
 Assembly, subscribed by the king and published by royal 
 Proclamation. 
 
 Attempts on the part of the government to constrain 
 the church into compliance with its policy agitated the 
 
25 
 
 country for a few years, in which tlie meetings of Assem- 
 bly were suspended from Oct., 1583 until May, 1586. 
 
 In 1589, the king went abroad, to be married to tlte 
 daughter of the King of Denmark. Upon his return he 
 manifested the most exalted devotion to the Reformed 
 Church of Scotland ; and in the same spirit continued 
 two or three years. In 1592, Parliament ratified the con- 
 stitution of the Presbyterian Church as the national 
 establishment, and appointed General Assemblies to be 
 held once everj' ^-ear, or oftener, if occasion should 
 require. 
 
 But King James could not surrender his ])urpose of 
 turning the church into an instrument for etiecting his 
 own plans of government. He began by attempts to 
 create an aristocratic ambition among the ministers, and 
 in 1598 ventured to propose a superior ecclesiastical rank, 
 by giving some of them a place in Parliament, with the 
 title of bishop. Although the Assembly opposed the 
 measure, persons were found to accept the distinction. 
 Parliament sustained the King. A controversy arose 
 between him and the Assembly, in the course of which 
 he. was Sustained by succeeding to the throne of England. 
 He used his augmented power to suppress the constitu- 
 tion of the Church of Scotland, The same course was 
 pursued by his successor. From 1603 until 1638 there was 
 not one free meeting of Assemblj-; and those who 
 deferided the cause were subjected to punishment, Mel- 
 ville was committed to the tower of London, and libe- 
 rated only to be driven into exile. The ministry of the 
 church was to be constituted a prelatical hierarchy for 
 political purposes, to subserve a despotic system of king- 
 craft, and doctrines not conformable to that system were 
 to be blotted out. 
 
 THE CHURCHES OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND UNDER THE 
 UNION OF THE CROWNS. 
 
 James VI. of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth on 
 the throne of England on the 24th of March, 
 1603, and was crowned at Westminister, July 25th of 
 that year. As respects the churches, he abandoned the 
 Presbyterian, and threw himself entirely into the interest 
 
26 
 
 of the Anglican Episcopal, thereby disappointing also 
 both Puritans and Catholics. With the increased wealth 
 and places of office and emolnment, now at his disposal, 
 he secured the compliance of some of the most powerful 
 nobility who had formerly opposed his measures, and 
 some others, who received nothing, were equally com- 
 pliant from expectation, Scotland was thus, for two 
 successive reigns, held under oppression of a nonresi- 
 dent monarch, the former secure from their number, and 
 the latter by absence, and supported by the resources of 
 the stronger country. The king also stretching his roynl 
 authority beyond the bounds of previous example, erected 
 a court of High Commission for Scotland similar to that 
 which had been constituted for England, in the reign of 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 The Anglican church was still dix'ided into the two 
 parties of Prelatic and Puritan, the latter favoring more 
 or less a Presbyterian form of chui'ch government, and 
 the former, the divine right of kings, and the duty of 
 implicit obedience on the part of their subjects. The 
 Prelatists accordingly enjoyed the full favor of King 
 James; and to their principles all other parties were to 
 be compelled to conform. His purpose in respct to the 
 Puritans was coarsely but plainly declared at a conference 
 which he held at Hampton Court, Jan. 14, 1604. 
 
 The bitter disappoinment of the Catholics found 
 expression in the formation of a plot which certainly could 
 not have met the approbation of anything like a majority 
 of their number. In the second year after James' arrival 
 in England, 1605, Parliament was to meet on the 5th of 
 Nov., the King would be present to open the session, and 
 would be accompanied, as was expected, by the Prince of 
 Wales. At that juncture it was designed to blow up the 
 Parliament House with gunpowder, many barrels of 
 which were secretly deposited in the cellars beneath. The 
 [»lot was discovered in time to be defeated. 
 
 Although suffering much oppression, the Puritans 
 withheld from disloyalty, and the greater part of them 
 remained in the established church. Their cause was 
 sustained by the new translation of the Bible, a work 
 sanctioned by the king, but certainly not with a view to 
 
27 
 
 that end. A new impulse to Biblical studies was created 
 by the particular method in which that work was con- 
 ducted, being distributed in the hands of a great number 
 of learned men, at the principal seats of learning, w^iile 
 appeals were published to all the learned throughout the 
 kingdom to aid in it, by contributing any suggestions ^ 
 which occurred to them. The plan was proposed by Dr. -^ (xct)ruA4 i^^O 
 Reynolds, in the conference at Hampton Court, in 1604, 5u,,>vl-^C. \^^'- 
 and the new translation was published b^' Robert Barker, "^ 
 London in 1611. It was followed by a group of tlie 
 greatest divines that the English Church has ever seen. 
 Hitherto Puritans and Prelalists had not differed much 
 on essential doctrine ; but that little was gradually 
 increasing. Within the reign of James, Arminianisni, 
 introduced from Holland, found most favor among 
 the Prelansts, while the Puritans adhered severely to ■ . , 
 
 Calvinism. fk Ul^^f'y^0 
 
 The tyranny of James, and especially his interference (l^ixu^J'T^^''^'*^ 
 with religious freedom, alienated multitudes of his peo- jilt-^T^xi^C ^ 
 pie ; and when he died in 1625, his dominions were in an hf^iy^ VB^\ 
 agitated and dissatisfied condition. ■ . , • f /C, 
 
 Charles I. pursued the same policy, but with less ^ ^Cm^(^ ^ I 
 
 caution. Laboring to crush nonconformity, he provoked //c/f^<^^'-- 
 into open resistance both the Puritans, now a powerful a -yv;^ /iC^^ 
 party in the Anglican Church, and the people of Scot- r>/ -7- 
 land. Under the advice of Laud, Bishop of London, and, ^^'^^<^- 
 from 1683, Archbishop of Canterbury, the position of the 
 Prelatic party was carried back towards Romanism and 
 into Arminian doctrine. In opposition to the strictness 
 with which the Puritans kept the Lord's day, a book .. r 
 
 was issued under authority' of roj-al proclamation, in ^^^r/c ^/^^li'h- 
 which ministers of the gospel were enjoined to exhort ' ' 
 
 their parishioners to enjoy themselves on that day in 
 dancing, archery, and various other amusements. The 
 narrowest censorship was exercised over the press, and 
 even over the private expression of opinion, with penal- 
 ties painful and degrading. In the service of such a 
 despotism, the Court of High Commission became justly 
 odious as an instrument of cruelty and injustice. With 
 the royalist part}' the doctrine of divine right of kings 
 and implicit obedience on the part of subjects reached 
 
 ^i^.l fyf^ ^-7^^-^- -^ ^ 
 
28 
 
 the last degree of audacity. Dr. Roger Manwaring in a 
 sernion preached in 1623, defended the ground that "the 
 King is not bound to observe the hiws of the realm con- 
 cerning the subject's rights and liberties; but his royal 
 word and command, in imposing loans and taxes without 
 consent of Parliament, doth oblige the subject's con- 
 science upon pain of eternal damnation." Charles was 
 pleased with the sermon. It was printed. Parliament 
 
 € condemned it, and ordered its author to prison, declaring 
 
 ' ^' him disabled from holding any office in the church or 
 state. When Parliament was dissolved, the king released 
 him, and promoted him to a benefice of great value. 
 Through a religious controversy, the nation was divided 
 on great questions of politics and finance, affecting the 
 most important constitutional rights of Parliament ; and 
 the heads of the opposing parties were the King and the 
 representatives of the people. The King acted upon his 
 principles, and ruled without a Parliament for eleven 
 years. 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND UNDER CHARLES I. 
 
 In Scotland, every means of crushing out the national 
 Reformed Church, and substituting the Prelacy, designed 
 by James, were carried forward by his successor. Pres- 
 byterians who accepted the King's Parliamentary honors 
 ^ were appointed to Episcopal sees, and an archbishop was 
 /^^— /,j^/7l^gonce more in St. Andrews ; but so far with moderation 
 , ' .-/ ^ in respect to the insignia or badges of office, and the 
 itittci-'v- -/t^ 'forms of worship. Application to the King presenting 
 the real sentiments of the Scottish people was made in 
 vain. He followed only the advice of men of his own 
 party. Meanwhile a remarkable religious revival per- 
 vaded Scotland, and continued several years. 
 
 In 1634, the Kingvisited his native country to obtain 
 the crown, and hold a Scottish Parliament. By those 
 about him he was persuaded that all was now ready for 
 carrying out completely the change in the ecclesiastical 
 establisliment. A book of canons was accordingly drawn 
 up according to the views of Laud, and revised by him. 
 With the royal sanction it was printed in Aberdeen, 
 1635. ISText year a liturgy was framed on the model of 
 
 
 
29 
 
 tbe English Praj-er Book, and revised bj Laud, and 
 without regard to the wishes of the people, a proclama- 
 tion, issued in Dee. 1636, called upon all faithful subjects 
 to ccnform to it. July 23, 1637 was appointed for begin- 
 ning the new service in the new sacerdotal vestments by f / 
 the new ecclesiastical dignitaries in full array. The OLH"^ *"" i n/; 
 attempt was met by a resistance so extensive and pro- ^./. ; .^ ,,. 
 nounced that the government shrunk from further prose- " ■ 
 cution of their scheme for the time. Military force was 
 lacking to the King, and the terms on which he stood 
 with his English subjects were such that the means for 
 suppressing resistance in Scotland were not easily to be 
 obtained. He sent a commissioner to take such mea- 
 sures as might be necessary to allay the excitement. 
 
 Meanwhile, the people of Scotland virtually governed 
 themselves, and leaders were found prepared for the 
 exigency. Alexander Henderson, a minister, and John-^^j^ 7/uv-'^ 
 ston of VVarriston, an eminent lawyer, and others organ- 
 ized committees for conducting the public business of 
 the occasion with regularity f^ As a bond of national 
 union civil and religious they drew up a covenant, con- 
 sisting of the acts of Parliament ratifying the constitu- 
 of the Reformed Church of Scotland, and binding then , , / 
 
 signers to its maintenance and defence. It was first read j/i/^ Xct^^-^ 
 and signed in a vast assembl}' in and around the Grey ' 
 friars Church, Edinburgli, Feb. 28, 1688, and afterwards 
 over the country, north and south. It was hailed with 
 joyful welcome wherever it appeared ; but, of course, not 
 by all persons. Those who had submitted to the royal 
 plan of government, and of religion, either disapproved 
 of it, or were indifferent. The sraallness of their num- 
 ber is demonstrated by the consistent current of events. 
 The covenant was national, and recognized Christ as 
 head of the church, but obligated also " to the defence 
 of our dread sovereign the King's Majesty, his person 
 and authority, in the defence and preservation of the 
 foresaid true religion, liberties, and laws of the king- 
 dom." 
 
 A general assembly met at Glasgow in ITovember of 
 that year. Alexander Henderson was moderator. The 
 order of the Reformed Church of Scotland was restored, 
 
30 
 
 Prelacy was abolislied ; and the Kirk Sessions, Presb}-- 
 tei'ies, Synods, and General Assemblies restored to the 
 full enjoyment of their constitutional privileges and 
 powers. 
 
 Charles entered Scotland witli an army. The Cove- 
 nanters prepared to defend themselves. A treaty was 
 signed in camp in which the King promised that a free 
 Assembly should be called forthwith, and a Parliament 
 convened to determine finally all the ecclesiastical and 
 civil aflairs of Scotland. The Assembly met. It renewed 
 the Covenant, which was signed by the King's Commis- 
 sioner; and confirmed the act of the Assenibly of Glas- 
 gow, in declaring Prelacy unlawful in that church. Par- 
 liament coincided with the Assembly; and the royal 
 commissioner dissatisfied, prorogued it, and hastened to 
 liis master. 
 
 The King now determined to crush the covenanters. 
 An English Parliament was called to provide the means. 
 . Parliament insisted upon a redress of English grievances 
 first. The King dismissed them, and proceeded by means 
 of loans and arbitrary exactions, with some voluntary 
 contributions of friends, to raise an army, which he 
 equipped to the number of 21,000 men. Again he 
 marched towards Scotland. The Covenanters met and 
 defeated him at Newburn. Constrained by the difficul- 
 ties he had himself evoked, the disaffection of his people 
 and the necessities of his exchequer, and dreading to 
 meet the representatives of the English people, he pro- 
 posed to a convention of the nobles to vote him supplies. 
 But they, although ready, many of them, to contribute 
 of their own means, could not" put their hands to the 
 public revenue. Reduced to the last necessity, he called 
 another English Parliament, which met on the third of 
 November, 1640. 
 
 REFORMATION IN IRELAND. 
 
 When Henry Vrn. broke off" his relations with Rome, 
 he had to establish his supremacy not only in England, 
 already largely anti-papal, but also in strongly "papal 
 Ireland. The means employed were not well calculated 
 to convert errorists, or to conciliate good will They com- 
 
 f (/Quit, a (trv. ^ /^f^ Ou.^ >Uo^uh^ ^/f^' ^ 
 
31 
 
 menced by the consecration of an anti-papal archbisliop 
 of Dublin, in March, 1535, and a demand that the roj'-al 
 supremacy should be acknwledged by the authorities civil 
 and ecclesiastical. It was vigorously resisted by the 
 Romanists, and the Archbishop of Armagh, Primate of 
 Ireland, was leader of the opposition. In a Parliament, 
 called next year, the royalist party proved strong enough 
 to secure a vote, and declared all who maintained tlie 
 Papal supremacy guilty of high treason. Some of the 
 religious houses were immediately " dissolved, and their 
 revenues vested in tlie crown " Counter instructions 
 were received from Rome, and disobedience of the royal 
 (jommand instigated from the highest quarter. Instead 
 of carrying scriptural instruction to the Irish people, 
 and adapting it to their capacity, the English Church 
 went into Ireland with new orders of lords bishops and 
 archbishops, thrust into the place of those already exist- 
 ing, with royal authority to enforce itself, and to inflict 
 the penalties of noncompliance. Instead of learning the 
 language of the people, to reach their understandings, 
 it ordered the preaching to be done in English, and for- 
 bad its promotion to all who could not comply with that 
 rule. Irishmen, without instruction in the doctrines of 
 the reformation, saw the property of the church wherein 
 the}' had been born, seized and turned to the use of one, 
 to which they were strangers, and which appeared among 
 them as the heretical faith of conquerors, whom they 
 hated. The cause of Reformation in Ireland was 
 seriously prejudiced, by interference of government, from 
 the beginning, and made little progress, except by immi- 
 gration from England. In the reign of Elizabeth, the 
 Anglican church was set up as the establishment of Ire- 
 land, but continued exotic. The whole island was coii- 
 quered, but very far from being reduced to order. Most 
 of it lay in a lamentable state of poverty, desolation and 
 barbarism. The English settlements on the eastern coast 
 were continually harrassed by attacks from the natives. 
 In the province of Ulster the disorder and desolation 
 reached the greatest extreme. There Shan O'jSTeill, in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, aimed at establishing himself as 
 king of Ireland, by plundering and laying waste the ter- 
 
32 
 
 ritory of neighborino; chiefs. His career was stopped by 
 assassination. Early in the reign of James, a cons})iracy 
 to expel 1 the English was formed chiefly by the northern 
 nobles, who applied to France and Spain for aid. It was 
 discovered before the lime appointed for its execution. 
 l^iXl- •= Zc'< Its leaders, the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, fled and 
 left their vast estates at the mercy of the king. A second 
 attempt resulted in a similar way, and the death of its 
 chief, O'Dogherty, threw his estates also into the hands 
 of the government. The O'Neill, the largest land owner 
 in both counties of Down and Antrim, saved about one- 
 third of his estates, by yielding the rest to persons who 
 *N interceded for him with the king. Thus a large extent 
 -. l</v^'"^i^of territory, almost desolated by 'reciprocal plunder of 
 10 V'X'^'^'Ats former lords, was annexed to the possessions of the 
 crown. 
 
 With this begins a new period in the history of the 
 Protestant church in Ireland. The king rescdved to 
 settle his waste lands in Ulster with loyal men from Eng- 
 land and Scotland. Colonization commenced in and 
 about the year 1610, and progressed rapidly. English 
 Episcopalians and non-conforniists and Scottish Presby- 
 terians lived together harmoniously, under the same 
 church regulations, drawn up for them by Archbishop 
 Usher, which presented also a liberal side '^to Catholics. 
 That state of tranquility continued until the commence- 
 ment of interference by Archbishop Laud. Charles 
 I. having obtained a large amount of money fronj 
 Ireland, on the promise of certain favors called Graces, 
 to both Catholics and Presbyterians, failed to keep his 
 royal promise. To quell the discontent, thereby created, 
 he sent Sir Thomas Wentworth, as his deputy, who 
 arrived in 1683. Wentworth with much ability and 
 unrelenting severity carried out the purposes of his mas- 
 ter, exalting " the royal prerogative on the ruin of the 
 rights and liberties of the people," and was rewarded 
 with a place among the Peerage, as Earl of Stratford. 
 The state of the Irish church was also commended to his 
 special care by Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, whose 
 purpose was to force Ireland as well as England and 
 Scotland into one ecclesiastical formula, consistently with 
 
33 
 
 the views of the king. Of tlie spiritual despotism then 
 instituted, Strafford mfde himself the efficient agent. 
 His administration repressed resistance, during its own 
 time ; but sowed the seeds of a terrible retribution. 
 
 When Charles I,, having aroused the spirit of his 
 Scottish subjects, was constrained to convoke an English 
 Parliament, the state of Ireland more alarming than that 
 of Scotland, was found to call for immediate attention. 
 Strafford was then in England, having brought over 
 reinforcements for the royal army, in war with the Cove- 
 nanters. He would have returned to his vice-royalty ; 
 but the king needed his counsel and retained him. Par- 
 liament took up his case, immediately after securing the 
 permanence of its own existence. lie was impeached 
 by the Commons before the House of Lords; and after 
 trial on charge of high treason, was attainted, and sen- 
 tenced to death. He was beheaded. May 12, 1641. His 
 deputy in office died soon after, and the government of 
 Ireland was put into the hands of two Lords Justices 
 under authority of Parliament. Efforts were made to 
 redress the grievances of all parties, and the king was 
 constrained to confirm his own royal graces, which he 
 had previously offered, and withheld. But the Catholic 
 Irish, brooding over wrongs of earlier times, and exaspera- 
 ted by late acts of regal })ertid3',and administrative injus- 
 tice, had already plotted a rebellion, which was now pushed 
 forward, by the force of various motives, all centering 
 in the one purpose, to exterminate the Protestant popu- 
 lation and government. Tlie plot failed in Dublin ; but 
 took effect with terrible cruelty and indescribable scenes 
 of slaughter in the province of Ulster. It broke out in 
 October, 1641. And in less than six months the Prot- 
 estant churches of that part of the kingdom were com- 
 pletely extinguished. 
 
 In the course of next Summer, (1642), the forces of 
 rebellion were defeated by an army brought from Scot- 
 land. The soldiers of that army, being Presbyterians, 
 in accordance with their own wishes were constituted a 
 church, the elders being elected and ordained from their 
 officers. After that example, w^hen the Presbyterian 
 ministers began to return from Scotland, to which they 
 
34 
 
 had fled, and the Scottish settlers once more to occupy 
 their homes, their churches were organized, not on the 
 phan of compromise with Episcopacy, but as [)nrely 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 From that date events occurred which, for several 
 years, united the cause of the churches in Ireland with 
 those of England and Scotland, interesting all alike in 
 certain great political and military movements, and ren- 
 dering o\ie narrative, in the main, common to all three. 
 
 THE LONG PARLIAMENT. 
 
 The new Parliament, which Charles I. under con- 
 straint of irresistible necessity had called, met at West 
 minister on the third of November, 1640. It consisted 
 of men who were members of the Established Churcli, 
 and well affected towards the government, zealaus for 
 reformed doctrine and worship, and t'ov the cc^nstitutional 
 rights of Englishmen. As a legislative body,itw^as per- 
 haps never surpassed in wisdom, gravity, patriotism and 
 christian information. Other Parliaments, in the course 
 of that reign, had been called, and failing to comply with 
 the king's demands, had been summarily dismissed ; 
 that which now met resolved to continue its sessions until 
 redress of national grievances should be secured ; and to 
 that subject insisted upon turning attentioii, before the 
 q'uestion of subsidies could be entertained. On the same 
 day on vtdiich the act of attainder was passed against 
 Strafford, " The king gave his assent to a law whereby 
 he bound himself not to adjourn, prorogue, or dissolve 
 the existing Parliament without its own consent." That 
 Parliament recognized the cause of the Scots, and of the 
 Irish as identical with their own. 
 
 In the beginning, so obvious and glaring were the 
 evils demanding attention, that little division of opinion 
 was evoked. Oidy at the opening of the second term, 
 in the latter part of 1641, did the existence of two par- 
 ties, conservative and reformatory, make its appearance, 
 a distinction, which exists in British politics to this hour. 
 
 Matters of church and state were so intimately united, 
 and usurpations upon both so numerous and flagrant, 
 that one of the earjist acts of the Long Parliament 
 
35 
 
 was necessarily to appoint a committee of religion. The 
 Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission were 
 abolished, and the principal advisors of the king were 
 impeached on charge of treason. Finch, the Lord 
 Keeper, and Windbank, the Secretary of State, fled to 
 the Continent, Stratford was tried, attainted and executed, 
 Land, the Primate, was consigned to prison. His trial, 
 July, 1644, was followed by attainder in November of 
 tliat year, and liis execution in January following. 
 
 In Feb., 1642 the spiritual Lords were excluded from 
 their place in Parliament, and from secular offices. The 
 Lords temporal continued to cooperate with the Com- 
 mons. 
 
 The king becoming impressed with a conviction that 
 Parliament intended to hedge him round with restric- 
 tions thought it prudent to come to peace with his Scot- 
 tisii subjects. During the recess of Parliament in 
 the autumn of 1641, he visited Scotland, and consented 
 to give up his plans for tlie church, and even sanctioned 
 an act declaring Episcopacy contrary to the word of God. 
 
 Petitions were presented to Parliament by the people 
 and clergy of London, and by the Puritan clergy in gen- 
 oral, praying for removal of the grievances of the church. 
 In Seiitember, 1642, an act was passed, when^by after 
 the fifth of ISTovember next year, the Episcopal ceased to 
 be the established church of England. 
 
 THE ASSEMBLY AT WESTMINSTER. 
 
 In view of that change, an Assembly of 121 of the/ tr^ ^ c/^/^^i 
 most learned divines of the kingdom, with thirty lay Ua.LZA. ^_£f_f^' 
 assessors — being ten lords and twenty commoners — war^iiLe. (Xf^u^*^ 
 called to meet a^ Westminster, to advise with Parliament y^^j^^^ cCnn^*^r^ 
 on matters concerning the church. The Assembly met ^^ tA.^t-u-X 
 on the first of July, 1643, and continued in fully^/ j~~tu 
 
 operation until February, 1649, a period of five 'u.W^^x*>><- *^*i 
 years, six months and twenty-two days, and com- Qrc^<J(. c*ru.^ > 
 prehending eleven hundred and sixty-three ses- (pl<i^^ /TuTii^ 
 sions. A part of it held together, as a committee eyf~r^^^^~C^U^^ 
 for examination, ordination and induction of minis- 'y 
 ters, until March 25, 1652. when Parliament being dis- 
 missed, the remnant of the Assembly also dispersed, 
 without any fornjal act of dissolution. 
 
Ill that Assenil)ly there were men of Presbj'terian 
 views, Prehitists, Tndependeiits, and a few Erastians. 
 Presbyterianisra was soon found to be the doctrine of 
 the mnjority, and that was enhirged b\' four clerical 
 commissioners from the Church of Scotland, and nine 
 laymen, only three or four of wliom, however, 
 attended. The Ei)iscopal Divines withdrew before 
 the bringing in of tiie Covenant from Scotland ; 
 and at the end of four years, the Independents 
 and Erastians, wlio were still fewer, and differed from 
 the majority on church government, also withdrew. 
 Presbyterianism prevailed also in Parliament, but there 
 liad a weightier opposition from the side of the Inde- 
 pendents, wlio were subsequently strengthened by the 
 overmastering inde[)endent element of the Pai-lianient- 
 ary army^ 
 
 The Scottish General Assembly, which met on the 
 2nd of August, 1643, Avas attended ]»y commissioners 
 sent by the English Parlianient, some of whom were 
 civilians, to transact l)usiness with the Scottish convention, 
 and some were ministers, \o confer with the Assembly. 
 One result of tliose conferences was the celebrated bond of 
 union in the cause of religion, between the two countries, 
 called "The Solemn League and Covenant."' Sanctioned 
 b}' the Assembly in Scotland, August 17, it was carried 
 to London, and on the 25th of September signed by tlie 
 English Assend)ly and Parliament. Next year, (1644) it 
 was signed by the Protestants of Ireland. 
 
 Of the works of the Westminster Assembly the first 
 to be undertaken was the revisal of the thirty-nine 
 Articles. But, after advancing as far as the fifteenth, 
 that was abandoned, and an entirely new confession 
 undertaken. For that purpose, a committee was appoint- 
 ed in May, 1645, who prssented the work complete in 
 November, 1646. After being thoroughly discussed and 
 amended by the Assembly, it received their sanction in 
 ^. May, 1647. It was then carefully revised, article by 
 ,./t£i,L ^ *'^ article, by the Houses of Lords and Commons, and pub- 
 t^-///^^xi»^/-lished in June, 1648. A Directory for Worship was also 
 ' ' prepared, and a Form of Church government; and, for 
 
 purposes of instruction, two Catechisms, a larger and a 
 
shorter, the former intended as the basis of doctrinal 
 exposition from the pulpit, and the latter as a popular 
 mauLial. The Shorter Catechism was presented to Par- 
 liament in November, 1647, and the Larger, in April 
 following. 
 
 These works were put forth simply as " the humble 
 advice of the Assembly of Divines, by authorit}' of Par- 
 liament, sitting of Westminster." As such they were 
 offered to all who might freely accept them. iSTo eccle- 
 siastical authority pretended to impose them on the world. 
 And no anathemas were pronounced against those who 
 might reject them. But they were soon accepted, in 
 whole or in part, by such ecclesiastial bodies as conferred 
 upon them the greatest weight of that kind. 
 
 ' A metrical version of the Psalms was also approved 
 by the same venerable l>o']y. It was prepared by Francis 
 Rous, a member of the Long Parliament, and also a lay 
 member of the Assembly. Proposed by the House of 
 Commons to the consideration of the Divines, November 
 20, 1643, it was bv them, after much discusaion and many 
 amendments, returned to Parliament, November 14, S^. p^"*^ ^ 
 1645, with the opinion that might be " useful and PI'o^-^^/a-j-^^,^!^,,^, 
 table to the church," " if permitted to be publicly sung." / 
 It was accordingly authorized by a vote of both Houses. HL^x/v^^ ^^ 
 The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, rvfo-Ct-i/yiA"^ 
 which met at Edinburgh, August 4, 1647, accepted the '^ 
 Westminster Confession, with the Catechisms, as doc- 
 
 !jt £^OLlv^ 
 
 (AjL,*~^Uv(Af — ' 
 
 trinal symbols of the church which it represented, and jyryl^ "^Z r^* 
 ' took into consideration the metrical "paraphrase" of ^^f ^t/inl^ 
 jS'J^ithe Psalms " brought from England." For that latter ff -y 
 
 '^ purpose a committee was appointed to examine the new C^'/t^Avt/-*^^ 
 version and compare it with those of Zachary Boyd, of 
 Sir William Mure of Rowallan, and others. It was 
 finally "authorized for Scotland by the General Assem- 
 bly and the Commission of Estates in the beginning of 
 the year 1650." 
 
 The Scottish Assembly of 1647 also approved the 
 Directory for Public Worship, and the Form of Church 
 Government, which had been framed, indeed, upon the 
 model of their own. 
 
 The works of the Westminster Assembly were also 
 accepted by the Presbyterians in Ireland; and, with the 
 
 
38 
 
 exception of the Form of Oliiireh Government, by the 
 colonists in New Engltind, at the Synod of Cambridge, 
 1648. In England, the Confession and Catechisms 
 became the doctrinal standards of the Puritans, Congre- 
 gational and Baptist, as well as Presbyterian. 
 
 Meanwhile the religious harmony of the majority of 
 his people was working the overthrow of the despotic 
 king. Encouraged by the high Prelatists, the passive 
 submission party, and some of the nobility, he main- 
 tained for a time an angry controversy with Parliament, 
 and as he could not dissolve it, attempted to defeat its 
 action by invasion of its privileges. The sherift's of 
 London with the train-bands prepared to protect the 
 Parliament, whereupon the king withdrew from the city. 
 Both parties began to collect military- stores, and raise 
 forces. Open war was commenced August 23, 1642, by 
 the raising of the royal standard at Nottingham. At 
 the head of the Parliamentary army was the Earl of 
 Essex. For nearly two years the advantage was chiefly 
 on the side of the king. But skilful officers grew u)) in 
 the Parliamentary army, Sir William Waller, the Fair- 
 faxes, Cromwell and others. The victories became more 
 equally divided, and a well trained Covenanter army, 
 under command of General Leslie, gradually made its, 
 way from Scotland, and joined tliat of the Parliament 
 on the plains of Marston Moor, in Yorksliire. It was 
 on the eve of a battle, in which tlie best leaders on each 
 side were at the head of their respe'ctive troops. One 
 part of the Parliamentary army under Fairfax and Gen. 
 Leslie was defeated by Prince Rupert; but the other 
 under David Leslie and Oliver Cromwell, not only beat 
 back its immediate opponents, under tlie Marquis of 
 Newcastle, but afterwards encountered Prince Rupert 
 and turned his victory into most disastrous defeat. From 
 the loss at Marston Moor, July 2, 1644, the royalist 
 cause never entirely recovered ; and finally on the 14th 
 of June next, lost every thing in the final battle of 
 Naseby. Though the war was protracted for a few 
 months longer, it was purely a losing game on the roya- 
 list side. 
 
 In April. 1646, the king went privately and in dis- 
 guise to the Scottish camp, where lie was respeetfully 
 
39 
 
 entertained, and resided until the end of January, 1647. 
 But the Scottish army in England was an auxiliary force 
 to that of the Long Parliament, and when the war was 
 closed and the soldiers had received their pay, had only 
 to march home to Scotland, and could not take the king 
 with them, otherwise than by adopting his cause, which 
 they hid come into England to defeat; or by carrying 
 him oft" as their own prisoner, which they had no right 
 to do. Upon returning home, they accordingly left the 
 king in the hands of his English subjects. Were they 
 to presume that he would be treated with less courtesy 
 by Englishmen than by themselves ? And yet they cer- 
 tainly would have taken him with them in triumph to 
 Edinburgh, even at the risk of a war with the Long Parlia- 
 ment, had he but jiledged them the freedom of their 
 religion. For subsequently, when he did, though in 
 secret, enter iiit(» an engagement with the Scottish Com- 
 missioners, to that effect, a new army was raised and 
 sent into England to unite with the royalists in restoring 
 him. The movement was weakened by a well founded 
 distrust in his voya] word. At Preston, in Lancashire, 
 August 17, 1G48, the army was encountered by Crom- 
 vvcll, who, after defeating it, pursued his march to Edin- 
 burgh, and reestablished friendly relations with the Com- 
 mittee of Estates, renewing and signiiig the Covenant 
 with them. 
 
 When the English army returned to London, the con- 
 troversy between the king and Parliament had reached 
 a crisis. A majority in Parliament had resolved in 
 favor of measures looking towards restoring the 
 king. A detachment of soldiers, under Col. Pride, 
 interposed, next morning, who arrested a sufficient num- 
 ber of the members to throw the majority on the othep 
 side. LTpon a reconsideration of the question, it was 
 subsequently resolved to bring the king to trial for mur- 
 der, tyranny and treason to the constitutional rights of 
 the nation. A tribunal was created for the purpose. He 
 was found guilty, and sentenced to death. His execution 
 followed, on the 80th of January, 1649. 
 
 In the progress of the conflict, the Lidependents had 
 increased in numbers and power, chiefly through their 
 
40 
 
 l)redoriiinauc'e in the army, but their control of Parlia- 
 ment was secured bj violence. Tlie\- were in favor of a 
 republic, but held to no one general system of gov- 
 ernment. After the King's death, they ruled the country 
 through the remnant ot the House of Commons, and 
 under the name of a commonwealtli. The House of 
 Lords was abolished. Cromwell, at the head of the 
 army, put down all opposition in Ireland and Scotland, 
 as well as in England. Presbyterians were monarchists. 
 They had wished to restore the King, with limitations of 
 his power, and now looked to his son as their lawful 
 monarch. In Scotland, Charles II. was openly recog- 
 nized and crowned, but defeated and driven from the 
 country by Cr'omwell in the decisive battles of Dunbar 
 and Worcester. 
 
 In the course of three years, the government got 
 involved in great embarrassment, the finances were 
 deranged, and the pay of the soldiers fell far in arrears. 
 No sign appeared of remedy from Parliament. Crom- 
 well dismissed the inefficient assemblage, and issued a 
 call for a new election. By a council of officers, 
 with the Lord Mayor ant! Aldermen of Lt)n(l()n 
 and some other public functionaries, Cromwell 
 was a[)pointed to supreme authority, under the name 
 of Protector. Through the character and force of his 
 own mind, his rule was equally strong and liberal, but 
 was unavoidably absolute, and could not satisfy the 
 nation. All parties were permitted to practice their 
 religion peacefully, on condition of giving their assent 
 to the Engagement, an instrument obligating loj^alty to 
 the existing authorities. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church had been established in 
 England by act of Parliament, and although set up in 
 fact in only a few places, was, during the commonwealth, 
 the model contemplated in all measures of the general 
 government. Purity of doctrine and life, especiall}' on 
 the part of its ministers, was insisted on, but otherwise 
 great freedom was enjoyed. Cromwell allowed no per- 
 secution for religion's sake. His liberal toleration was 
 one of the bitterest charges against hira, in his own time. 
 Not the less did he take measures to give effect to the 
 
• 41 
 
 established church, and to purify it from incompetent, 
 or otherwise improper ministers. 
 
 The first step to that end was taken on the 20th of 
 March, 1654, in the appointment of' a commission for 
 the trial of public preachers. It consisted of nine lay- 
 men and twenty-nine clergymen, selected from the Pres- 
 byterians, Independents and Baptists, with special 
 view^ to their prudence, sagacity, and sound christian 
 experience. By those '• Triers," as the}' were called, 
 " any person pretending to hold a church living, or levy 
 tithes or clergy dues in England," was first to be tried 
 and approved, as to his religious knowledge, moral char- 
 acter and ability to teach. 
 
 A second step, taken in the following August, con- 
 sisted in appointing local commissioners, of both clergy 
 and laymen, from fifteen to thirty in each county in Eng- 
 land, whose duty it was " to inquire into scandalous, 
 ignorant, insufiicient, and otherwise deleterious minis- 
 ters af the gospel, and to be a tribunal for judging and 
 ejecting them. Persons thus ejected, if married, were to 
 be allowed a small pension." 
 
 Still further, to distribute the force of government 
 over the country, and secure the regular working of 
 minor appointments in both church and state, the Pro- 
 tector, in 1655, divided England into ten districts, plac- 
 ing in each, with the title of Major General, a man most 
 carefully chosen, of real wisdom, fearing God and of 
 unimpeachable integrity. These officers were invested 
 with a universal superintendence civil, military, and 
 ecclesiastical. They were to take care that the taxes 
 were collected, to inquire after the private assemblies of 
 suspected persons, and such as frequented taverns and 
 gaming houses, and after scandalous and unlearned 
 ministers and schoolmasters,'and to aid the commission 
 in ejecting them. And they were ordered to enlist a 
 body of reserves, at half-pay, who might be called 
 together upon any sudden emergency. There was 
 no appeal from the Major General, except to the Protec- 
 tor himself. This part of the government was only tem- 
 porary, and when apparently no longer needed, was with- 
 drawn. The commission of Triers continued to sit at 
 
 Y - 
 
42 ■ 
 
 Whitehall until after the Protector's death. In 1659 it 
 was discontinued. 
 
 In Scotland there was almost perfect agreement in 
 sustaining the i^ational Presbyterian Church, and little 
 difference oti the subject of loyalty to the absent Charles 
 II. Submission to the existing rule was deemed the 
 necessity of an interim. But what at one time had been 
 a bond of union to Scotsmen, now proved to be a cause 
 of dissention. The national Covenant was turned into 
 a religious test, and subscription made indispensable to 
 the holding of any place in the service of the country. 
 During the war with Cromwell, Parliament passed cer- 
 tain resolutions repeating that law. Against those reso- 
 lutions the stricter party protested. And the quarrel 
 between Resolutioners and Protestors marred the peace 
 of the church and involved it in civil broils. The Gen- 
 eral Assembly, which met in July, 1652, was so agitated 
 by these causes that it broke up, and its acts were never 
 recorded. It did not meet again during the Protecto- 
 rate. But Synods and Presbyteries continued to meet 
 as formerly. As in England, so in Scotland means were 
 taken by Cromwell to promote the interests of true 
 religion. Mr. Patrick Gillespie, and some others of the 
 stricter party received a commission empowering them 
 to settle the affairs of the church, and secure its purity. 
 A quiet, but pervasive revival of religion filled up the 
 rest of the Protectorate in Scotland. 
 
 Soon after the death of the king, a commission 
 was appointed to set in order the churches of Wales. 
 The spiritual destitution of the Principality was great. 
 And as it was difficult to find a sufficient number of pious 
 and learned ministers able to preach in the Welsh lan- 
 guage, itinerant preachers, six for each county, were 
 appointed to supply the deficiency, until the number 
 equal to the parishes could be filled up. 
 
 Ireland was virtually divided by geographical limits 
 among the great religious parties, the Presbyterians being 
 chiefly residents of Ulster, the Episcopalians of Leinster, 
 and the Catholics of all the rest. Episcopacy had been 
 the established religion from the Reformation. It 
 ceased to be such under the action of the Long Parlia- 
 
43 
 
 meut, in January, l(j43. The terrors of the Catholic 
 rebellion constrained Protestants of every name to make 
 common cause. Cromwell, with terrific severity, com- 
 pelled the Catholics to submission, confined them to one 
 part of the island, and filled the land taken from them 
 with a more orderly and industrious population. In the 
 prosperity which succeeded, the church participated. 
 Under the lieutenancy of Major General Fleetwood, and 
 still more of Henry Cromwell, the long harassed country 
 enjoyed an interval of wise and benign government. 
 
 In New England, th-e colonists were allowed to 
 establish Congregationalism, as the religious S3^stem of 
 their choice. A scheme was also projected for carrying 
 the gospel to the jSTorth American Indians, which the 
 death of the Protector prevented from going into opera- 
 tion. 
 
 It was the purpose of Cromwell to constitute the 
 British Church the centre of a confederation of all the 
 Protestant churches of Europe. His plan, according to 
 Bishop Burnet, was matured, and contemplated common 
 defence against Rome, propagation of the gospel, and 
 the employment of secretaries to " hold correspondence 
 everywhere, to acquaint themselves with the state of reli- 
 gion all over the world, that so all good designs for the wel- 
 fare of the whole, and of the several parts, might by 
 their means be protected and encouraged." Though this 
 also was defeated by his death, his administration [lut the 
 British isles into such a leading relation to the Protestant 
 world as they did not again assume until the reign of 
 William III. In this, as in many other respects, the 
 Revolution was the true successor of the Commonwealth, 
 less earnest ai.d daring, but more cautious, expedient, 
 and successful. 
 
 Cromwell died on the anniversary of his great vic- 
 tories of Dunbar and of Worcester, September 3, 1658. 
 His son Richard was put up as his successor, a man with- 
 out either capacity or ambition to rule, and who was soon 
 set aside. The officers of the army demanded the re- 
 assembling of the Long Parliament. " Of the one 
 hundred and sixty members, who hwd continued to sit 
 after the King's death, about ninety returned to their 
 
44 
 
 seats, and resumed the administration of affairs." They 
 remembered too well their expulsion by arms seven years 
 before, and returned to their old quarrel, and especially 
 demanded the dismissal of Generals Fleetwood and Lam- 
 bert. The army drove them again from their seats, and 
 under their favorite officers marched northward to meet 
 General Monk, who was understood to be advancing from 
 Scotland. 
 
 Monk, who thus fell into the place of power in the 
 army, and who had carefully taken all the necessary pre- 
 cautions to secure it, continued his march, and entered 
 London without opposition. With many protestations 
 of respect, he called the remaining members of the old 
 Parliament once more, and on this occasion, the survivors 
 of those who had been excluded by Col. Pride resumed 
 their phices. Their action was legally to dissolve their 
 own organization, after having resolved on the election 
 of a new House of Commons. 
 
 The Convention Parliament proved to be predomi- 
 nantly Presbyterian, took the Solemn League and Cove- 
 nant, and proceeded to draw up terms on which the king 
 might be restored. Meanwhile General Monk had taken 
 the matter into his own hand, and by secret correspondence 
 with Charles had prepared the way for his return. All 
 exaction of terms was thereby rendered impossible. 
 " The Declaration of Breda, which promised a general 
 pardon, religious toleration, and satisfaction to the 
 army," was all the limitation of his power with which 
 the son of Charles L, in May, 1660, returned to his fath- 
 er's throne. And simultaneously the old constitution 
 was restored by vote of the Convention. The vote was 
 unnecessary; for with the monarch, returned all the old 
 monarchical machinery. 
 
 THE BRITISH CHURCHES IN THE RESTORATION. 
 
 Presbyterians, in possession of power, expected to 
 retain their place in the restored establishment, under the 
 king, and were prepared to yield something to their 
 Episcopalian partners, in order to secure that end. A 
 moderate Episcopacy, on Usher's plan, would have suited 
 the views of most of them. 
 
45 
 
 In this respect the English Presbyterians differed 
 from those of Scotland. The latter had by their history 
 been taught to regard Episcopacy as an enemy, and con- 
 sistently opposed and repelled its approaches in every 
 shape ; the former, having grown up side by side with it, 
 in the same establishment, would have been content to 
 remain there, had its claims and exactions been mode- 
 rated to tolerate them. And it cannot be denied that 
 Presbyterians, when in power, although intolerant of 
 other sects extended a large liberality to Episcopalians, 
 who practiced their religion quietly, and without offence 
 to the government. A large number of Episcopalians, 
 were actually in the ministry under the Presbyterian 
 rule, when the restoration occurred. It was therefore 
 not unreasonable of them to expect such measure as they 
 had meted. Episcopac}' was, in their eyes, a brother- 
 hood, with whom they were to live together in unity. 
 The Church of England was their common home, which 
 they agreed to love. Leading Episcopalians knew that 
 fact well, and counted upon it as a power for enforcing 
 upon them conformity with their own views. 
 
 About the middle of June, 1660, a few of the Presby- 
 terians applied to the king to obtain a conference between 
 them and the Bishops, with the view of entering into a 
 compromise which should be satisfactory to both. The 
 royal consent was given, and the meeting took place. 
 But no compromise could be effected. The old laws for 
 uniformity of worship were put in force. Upon further 
 application to the king, he ordered a Declaration to be 
 drawn up, with a view to relieve the agrieved, which, 
 after another conference had discussed it, was issued 
 Oct. 25, 1660. It failed of attaining its purpose. 
 
 Meanwhile a new Parliament had met. It soon 
 evinced a spirit of bitter hostility to everything Puritan. 
 In addition to the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, 
 another was now enacted, to be taken by all persons in 
 all places of magistracy in the kingdom. By that oath 
 the candidate abjured the Solemn League and Covenant, 
 declared that he believed it unlawful, upon any pretense, 
 to take up arms against the king, and was laid under 
 obligation to take the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, 
 
46 
 
 according to the Episcopal rite, within one year after his 
 election. Commissioners were appointed" to visit the • 
 several corporations of England, and turn out all who 
 were found in the least degree distasteful to the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 It was in 1661 that the final conference was held, on> 
 this subject, between some leaders of the Puritans and 
 Prelatists, in the chapel of the Bishop of London, in 
 what is called the Savoy. They were authorized to 
 review the Book of Common Prayer, to advise and con- 
 sult together, and to make such alterations in it as might 
 seem to them desirable, and " expedient for giving satis- 
 faction to tender consciences, and the restori'ng and con- 
 tinuance of peace and unity in the churches under his 
 majesty's government." Their sessions were allowed to 
 continue four months from March 25th, and at the close 
 the King was to be presented with the results, for his 
 final decision. Twenty-one delegates were aupointed on 
 each side. Their first^meeting took place on'the 15th of 
 April. 
 
 Nothing was accomplished to the end for which the 
 conference was called. The Prayer Book was revised 
 by the Puritan divines, but all the changes proposed 
 were rejected by the other party. Subsequently, a few 
 changes were made by the Prelates themselves, and the 
 whole liturgy then brought to the state in which it now 
 stands, was subscribed by both' houses of convocation of 
 
 , both provinces, Dec. 20, 1661, and established by act of 
 
 \7?ulu ^/-^P^^'liament, in March following. In these acts not the 
 
 •T ^&X ^^^^'^^^^^^ regard was had to the Presbyterians. The 
 
 ^*''/sl / r ^^^''^3'®!' Book was to be enforced as the only form of 
 
 / /Oi^ «^ u^^^f'worship tolerated in England. Each minister was required 
 
 ^W^^^^^ ^'»" ^ declaration that he truly believed and approved 
 
 /?y i&C ^^^ ^1^'^*^ ^'^s contained in it. And Episcopal ordination 
 
 - ^-^^*^' ' was made indispensable to any place in the ministry of 
 
 the English Church. This act of uniformity went into 
 
 operation as law on St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 
 
 1662, when not less than two thousand ministers chose to 
 
 quit their livings rather than subscribe to its conditions ; 
 
 and these were additional to those extruded before the 
 
 act was passed. 
 
 
 u^/- 
 
 ^ /2.. 
 
47 
 
 The restored king was a man of no religion, of no 
 earnest moral purpose ; the profligacy of his life was a 
 free unscrupulous abandonment. Public offices were, in 
 general, filled with men of his own stamp, whose supreme 
 law was the royal will, and who slirunk from no injustice 
 to give it eflect, without troubling him about details. 
 Especially were persons who lived godly lives exposed 
 to suffering and contempt. The example of a profligate 
 court was followed with abundant docility by the fashion- 
 able public. Literature became a pander to depravity ; 
 and theology suffered from the contact. The rich and 
 profound treatises of the preceding generation gave 
 place, in course of time, to teachings of a shallower 
 school. 
 
 To the Presbyterians of England the changes made 
 at the restoration, and the subsequent progress of events 
 were most disastrous. Turned out of the established 
 church, they were not permitted to form the organization 
 proper to themselves, and were thereby broken into 
 separate congregations. Under the common name of 
 non-conformists, they suffered great oppression, until 
 relieved, in some degree, by the revolution. Their 
 strength and organization they never recovered. In 
 course of time, from lack of common government, their 
 churches fell into error, aiid lost also their orthodox 
 faith. 
 
 In England, Episcopacy had a strong hold upon a 
 large body of the people, including a wealthy aristocratic 
 class, and the men who chiefly controled the revenues of 
 the church, as well as in the prescriptive position of a 
 former occupancy. In Scotland the case was very differ- 
 ent. There it had never obtained a place, to any degree, 
 in the hearts of the people. And yet in that kingdom 
 it was the purpose of the general government to plant 
 it. At first it had not even a plea for intrusion, save the 
 advantage which was contemplated in constraining all 
 the people of the British isles into one religion. An 
 agent for the purpose was found in a Presbyterian min- 
 ister, who sent from Scotland to London in the interest 
 of the Scottish church, proved traitor to the cause. 
 James Sharp, together with three others received Episco- 
 
48 
 
 pal consecration in London, and returned to plant Angli- 
 canism in Scotland. With that beginning, bishops were 
 arbitrarily set over the kingdom, and archbishops in St, 
 Andrews and Glasgow, with Sharp as the Primate. The 
 ministers of the parishes, who submitted to the intrusive 
 system, might retain their places under a new title : but 
 those who declined to conform were extruded, and their 
 places filled with more compliant subjects. The parish- 
 oners, in general, preferred to follow their pastors. Gov- 
 ernment found that, having imposed a new clergy upon 
 the people, they had also to compel! the people to attend 
 their ministrations, and measures were taken accordingly. 
 
 The new privy council, instituted to manage the 
 affairs of Scotland, sustained the prelates in all their 
 measures. Fines were imposed upon all persons who 
 did not attend the church of their own parish, or who 
 attended the preaching of the ejected ministers anywhere. 
 And inasmuch as multitudes preferred to pay the fines 
 and enjoy such preaching as was felt to be profitable, the 
 fines were increased, and military were sent to exact 
 them. These acts were followed by another to enforce 
 the signing of a declaration condemning the covenant, 
 without which no person was to be eligible to anj' place 
 of trust. 
 
 In 1664, the Court of High Con^mission was restored 
 and endowed by the king with most extensive authoi-ity. 
 It was empowered to punish all deposed ministers, who 
 presumed to preach, all attenders of conventicles, and 
 all who wrote, spoke, preached or printed against 
 Prelacy, and in general to do and execute what they 
 should find necessary and convenient for his Majesty's 
 service in the premises. It consisted of thirty-five lay- 
 men and nine prelates, five constituted a quorum, one of 
 whom must be a prelate, and all might be, and prelates 
 alone had professional interest in carrying out its objects. 
 In that court, thenceforward, resided the chief authority 
 of persecution. Archbishop Sharp was the head of it. 
 A real inquisition, it obtained intelligence of every sin- 
 cere and consistent Presbyterian throughout the land, 
 oppressed at will, and passed sentence, if deemed expedi- 
 ent, upon mere accusation, without trial, or even hearing 
 of the accused. 
 
49 
 
 One of the bishops tlms intruded, was Robert Leigh- 
 ton, a man of eminent pietj' and learning. Soon per- 
 ceiving the unchristian nature of the measures under 
 which they were acting, he sought to resign his office. 
 Urgently persuaded, he withdrew his resignation, and was 
 appointed archbishop of Glasgow. But finally, in 1670, 
 with much distress of mind, under the feeling that he 
 and his colleagues were fighting against God, he abso- 
 lutely resigned, and withdrew to England. 
 
 An evidence also that the King was himself beginning 
 to doubt the expediency of the bloody work going on 
 among his northern subjects, appeared in the indulgence 
 which was issued from Whitehall in June 1669. It 
 authorized the council " to appoint so many of the outed 
 ministers as have lived peaceably and orderly in the 
 places where they have resided, to return and preach and 
 exercise other functions of their ministry in the parish 
 churches where they formerly resided and served, pro- 
 vided they be vacant." Some of the ministers accepted U-X ^- " 
 of the deceitful favor. Others justly regarded it as only 
 a means of beguiling into compliance with the intrusive 
 system. Such indulgences were repeed ; but in 
 the same spirit, and without diminishing tlie severities 
 upon those who could not be bribed to desert the cause 
 of their church and the constitution of their country. 
 
 A quarter of a century of awful suffering wasted the 
 most worthy population of Scotland — that very class of 
 the people, which, if ruled with a moderate degree of 
 wisdom, would have been the most profitable to the 
 national wealth. Some were ruined by fines, some were 
 imprisoned, some banished, some were driven into exile, 
 some were sent into the colonies and sold for slaves, and 
 many were put to torture, and ignominious deaths. In 
 the midst of such cruel and prolonged oppression, the 
 people refrained from rebellion, and only in one instance 
 were any of them provoked into a fatal act of jiolence, and » % :"\ i 
 
 that in the assassination of Archbishop Sharp. The rising X J ' Hmaj- 
 at Pentland was only an assemblage of countrymen for their 
 common protection against the bands of soldiers, who were 
 plundering the country. And that which commenced 
 at Drumclog was a worshipping congregation driven to 
 
f'' "^ 50 
 
 '; • . 
 
 self-defence by an attack of military. The persecution 
 became more reckless of even the forms of law, as it 
 went on, and finally, troops of cavalry, under such lead- 
 ers as Bruce of Earlshall and John Graham of Claver- 
 house, traversed the country plundering and shooting 
 men and women whom the}' suspected of the proscribed 
 faith, wherever they met them. The death of Charles in 
 1685, wrought no relief for the Covenanters of Scotland. 
 The indulgences of his successor were not for them. 
 Some of the most notorious acts of atrocity were perpe- 
 trated in the reign of James II. 
 
 The cries of non-conforming England, and of cove- 
 nanting Scotland, raised day and night to heaven, seemed 
 long to have been raised in vain. James II. took a step 
 which brought down the retribution upon himself and 
 his dynasty, and with it the relief of his i)eople. VVitli 
 the intention of building up Catholicism, he applied the 
 force of authority to Anglican Prelacy. On the first 
 attempt coercion, the bishops raised such a remonstrance 
 as to arouse the indignation of their party against the 
 king. For the moment, they threw themselves on the 
 side of those whom they had been oppressing for eight 
 and twenty years. The protestant heir of the crown was 
 invited to England. James fled to France. And before 
 they were fully aware, the Prelates had helped to seat a 
 Presbyterian on the throne. 
 
 Some of the bishops in England, and all of them in 
 Scotland, when they perceived the result, were con- 
 founded and indignant, and refused to acknowledge the 
 new king. But it was too late for regret. The last of 
 . _^ . the Stuart kings had gone, never to return. The last 
 
 a AjUt^f>C_ — victim of their oppression in Scotland, was executed on 
 the 17th of February, 1688. The Revolution was secured. 
 And the long apparently hopeless struggle of the Cove- 
 nanters was victorious at last. They wore restored to 
 their place as the established church of Scotland. 
 
 CHURCHES IN THE BRITISH ISLKS DURING THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 James II. was an earnest Catholic, in which faith also 
 his brother Charles died. After two years of oppressive 
 government, continuing the policy of his predecessor, 
 
51 
 
 James obtaiiied from an "obsequious bench of judges 
 the decision that he had power to dispense with the penal 
 laws in particular cases," and thought that the way was 
 prepared for reinstating his co-religionists in authority, 
 and began to take measures accordingly. His first step 
 was to relieve them from legal disabilities ; but to extend 
 such a favor to them, and not to" other dissenters would 
 unite against him all denominations of Protestants. In 
 1687, he issued, in rapid succession, three indulgences, 
 first permitting nioderate Presbyterians to meet for wor- 
 ship, but still withholding toleration from those who had 
 no place of worship but the fields ; and secondly, remov- 
 ing all laws against Catholics, and making them eligible 
 to all ofiices of trust and honor in the land. This appeared 
 on the 12th of February. In the succeeding two of 
 March 31 and June 28, the favors of the first were pro- 
 fessedly extended, but with the same exception, and all 
 by the "sovereign authority, prerogative royal, and abso- 
 lute power " of the crown. 
 
 Anglican Prelates could not fail to see the purpose of 
 the King's policy. Finally, on the fourth of May, 1688, an 
 order of council was issued commanding the ministers of 
 the established church to read from their pulpits a declara- 
 tion of liberty of conscience, which had been published' 
 a few days before. Some of them refused to compl}', on 
 the ground that the declaration was illegal. Seven of 
 the bishops, with the Primate at their head, presented a 
 petition to the king containing their reasons for what 
 they had done. The king sent them to the tower of Lon- 
 don ; and thereby aroused the whole Ejjiseopal body to the 
 greatest excitement, under which they rushed into revolt 
 against their own doctrine of passive obedience. Roy- 
 alty had violated the privilege of the English Church. 
 
 In June, 1688, the seven bishops were tried on charge 
 of publishing a " seditious, false and malicious libel." 
 Great was the excitement among the people; and when 
 the bishops were acquitted, the king was virtually- 
 defeated on the ground of his whole policy. On the 
 next day, June 80th, certain noblemen subscribed in 
 cipher an address to the Prince of Orange, inviting him 
 to come over, and put himself at the head of a nation 
 
52 
 
 impatient to welcome him. More formal proposals fol- 
 lowed. William arrived on the fifth of November : and 
 on the night of the twenty-second of December, James 
 stole secretly away. 
 
 William's right to the throne was through his wife, 
 Mary, the eldest daughter of James L^. He was himself 
 third in succession. But the source of his power lay in 
 the choice of the people whom he ruled, and his own 
 prudence and liberality, whereby he recognized consti- 
 tutional limitations. 
 
 During the twenty-eight years, which thus closed, 
 according to the most competent authority, more than 
 eighteen thousand persons had suffered for the Presby- 
 terian cause, in Scotland, by imprisonment, exile, slavery 
 and death ; besides the desohition spread over the countr}' 
 by fines, assessments, and the lawless plunder of soldiery, 
 by which whole districts were almost turned into a 
 wilderness. 
 
 Towards the end of 1688, it was rumored, that the 
 deposed king was raising the Catholic Irish for invasion 
 of Scotland. The Privy Council accordingly issued a 
 proclamation requiring all Protestaiit subjects to arm, 
 and put themselves in a state of self defence. After that 
 act of December 24, 1688, the Scottish Privy Council, 
 so long the engine of persecution, came to an end, by 
 natural dissolution. The rumor of invasion proved 
 unfounded. But being organized and left to themselves 
 the troops took occasion to remove some of the Prelatic 
 curates, who had been forced upon them. It was much 
 to their credit in the circumstances, that they injured 
 neither life nor personal property. 
 
 By authority of King William, a convention, freely 
 representing all classes of Protestants in Scotland, met 
 in Edinburgh, March 14, 1689. The revolution was 
 recognized, and William and Mary were proclaimed on 
 the eleventh of April. Parliament assembled June 5th, 
 and recognizing the work of the Convention, passed an 
 act " abolishing Prelacy, and all superiority of any office 
 in the church in this kingdom above Presbyters." 
 
 Meanwhile Graham of Claverhouse, recently made 
 Viscount Dundee by King James, was marching with an 
 
58 
 
 army southwards from the central Highlands. He was 
 encountered, July 7, 1689, hy General Maekay, at the 
 pass of Killieerankie, where he was slain, his troops dis- 
 persed, and the insurrection he had raised hrought to a 
 sudden termination. 
 
 ISText year, 1690, various acts were passed by Parlia- 
 ment restoring, the constitution of the church on the 
 foundation of the acts of 1592, and declaring that the 
 church government be " in the hands of, and exercised 
 by those Presbyterian ministers, who were outed since 
 the tirst of Januar3', 1661, and such ministers and elders 
 onl}- as they have admitted and received, or shall here- 
 after admit and receive." In accordance with these and 
 other acts of similar import, the General Assembly 
 resumed its meetings, October 16, 1690, which have not 
 been interrupted since that day. 
 
 Through the latter part of the civil wars, the Presby- 
 terians of Ireland, like those of England and Scotland, 
 defended the cause of the king against the Parliament. 
 When Cromwell was proclaimed Protector, they with- 
 drew opposition to what was to be then regarded as the 
 government of the country. After his death, they took 
 the part of the restoration. By that time, they had in 
 Ulster, about seventy settled ministers, with eighty con- 
 gregations, and a population of one hundred thousand. 
 As elsewhere, Prelacy was now imposed upon them. 
 Two archbishops for Armagh and Dublin, and ten 
 bishops were consecrated in Dublin, January 27, 1661. 
 Armagh, to which belongs the Primac}^ was conferred 
 upon Dr. Bramhall, and in tilling the Bishoprics that of 
 Down and Connor was assigned to Jeremy Taylor. 
 
 Meetings of Prestytery v:ere now prohibited, and lob^^ 
 Bishop Taylor commenced the work of oppression by 
 calling upon the Presbyterian ministers to submit to his ^/ - • 
 
 rule, and when they declined, by ejecting them from their (jf-C^Cti.c<^<^^^ 
 churches, which most of them had built up with their 0- '- 
 own evangelical labors. Ministers thus ejected were for- 
 bidden, under heavy penalties, to preach, exhort, or 
 administer the sacraments anywhere. In the Irish Par- 
 liament Presbyterians found few friends. The Prelatic 
 establishment was sustained, to the great hardship of 
 
54 
 
 botli Catholic and Protestant dissenters. After the death 
 of Bishop Taylor the severity was, to some degree, relaxed 
 in Ulster, but the condition of the Presbyterian church 
 there remained very precarious and fluctuating, and 
 depended upon the temper of men in power. In 1684 
 under their deplorable oppression, most of the ministers 
 of Deri'y and Donegal, thought of removing to America. 
 The death of the king in February following induced 
 most of them to remain, in hopes of better times. The}- 
 were disappointed. James had his favors for dissenters, 
 but they were for the Catholics. In 1688, the Protest- 
 ants received information that the Catholics intended to 
 rise in arms and murder tliera. The inhabitants of Lon- 
 donderry, Enniskillen and Coh'aine shut themselves up 
 within the walls of their respective cities. The open 
 country was laid waste, and its people destroyed. 
 
 When James lied from England, he trusted that the 
 Popish party in Ireland would be strong enough to sus- 
 tain a reaction to restore him. He landed at Kinsale, 
 March 12, 1689, to put himself at the head of the insur- 
 rection. His lieutenant, Tyrconnel, had alreadj' reduced 
 all Ulster, except Londonderi'v, which was strongh- 
 besieged. In August, the Duke Schomberg arrived, and 
 restored tranquility to Ulster. And in June of the next 
 year, (1690,) William landed and took command of his 
 own ami}-. The campaign and battle of the Boyne fol- 
 lowed, which, although it did not end the war, decided 
 its issue. James returned to France, and the govern- 
 ment of the new king, with its more liberal principles, 
 was set up in Ireland. Henceforward, the working of 
 the revised constitution of the English government 
 gradually prevailed over, though it did not soon bring to 
 an end, that oppression in which the establishment had 
 indulged so long. ^ 
 
 In the history of the Reformation, all parties, in the 
 first instance, were under the delusion that the church, 
 in order to be true, must be one, in form of government, 
 in worship and definition of doctrine. -'^-Tliey had no idea 
 of the church as separate from the state. •^■Non-confor- 
 mity with tlie church established by law was accordingly 
 viewed in the light of a civil oflence, if not treason to the 
 
55 
 
 state, and deserving of the severest punishment. "And 
 in every country, the party which took the highest 
 ground on the subject of church unity was the "rnost 
 intolerant and persecutingv^-The church which suffered 
 most — the martyr church of modern times — was' the 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 The Englisli constitution was now revised and im- 
 proved. On the subject of religion, the policy of 
 enforcing uniformity was abandoned. An established 
 church was to be retained, but without compulsion to 
 attend upon its worship. Prelacy was recognized as 
 entitled to the ecclesiastical property of the nation, in 
 England and Ireland, and Presb^-tery in Scotland ; but, 
 in both cases, with toleration to dissenters. In New 
 England, Congregationalism was allowed to retain the 
 footing which it had already secured for itself. Certain 
 points of government, which had long been in dispute, 
 were now reconsidered and definitely settled. ^- The 
 ki)ig's prerogatives were defined and limited, and his 
 support provided for by a regular salary.-^ Constraint 
 was put upon him to execute the duties of his office 
 through responsible agents, and his authority was to be 
 excluded from the arguments of Parliament. >-^, Entire 
 control of the public re\-enue, both in raising and expend- 
 ing it, was secured to the representatives of tlie com. 
 mons. ^Parliaments were made regular and triennial. 
 5^The Lords temporal and spiritual were to represent their 
 own order in the common interest, but excluded from all 
 voice in imposing taxes or expending revenue. o^Judges 
 were no longer to hold office under the royal will, but 
 for life, or good behavior. 7As respects religion, people 
 were not to suffer penalties for non-attendance at the 
 established church. While one denomination was to be 
 supported by law, and Catholics remained under civil 
 disabilities, all attempts to enforce uniformity were 
 abandoned. 1^' And censorsliip of the press was suffered 
 to expire without renewal. 
 
57 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 PERIOD IV. SECTION III. 1648 TO 1790. 
 
 The middle of the seventeenth century presents one 
 of those great junctures in history, by which the pro- 
 gress of the church is divided into periods of different 
 characteristics. By the year 1648, Protestant nations 
 had successful!}' asserted their independence, defined 
 their ecclesiastical position, and adopted their authorita- 
 tive symbols. Rome, in reactionary contiict, had aban- 
 doned the ground of ancient orthodoxy, her defence of 
 semipelagianism,in opposition to Jansen, having crowned 
 the work of Trent. Oriental christiaiis of the so-called 
 Orthodox Catholic Cliurch, although greatly diminished 
 in number, and oppressed under Mohammedan rule, 
 Russia alone sustaining the dignity of an independent 
 Patriarchate, also produced, about the same time, that 
 confession whereby their doctrinal standing was finally 
 declared. 
 
 Recent attempts made by Rome to bring the Eastern 
 Church under her dominion had proved as fruitless as ail 
 preceding efibrts of that kind. The gulf between the 
 Greek and Roman Catholic churches remained as consti- 
 tuted in the eleventh century. The issue of the thirty 
 years war had demonstrated that to hold Romanist and 
 Protestant under one ecclesiastical jurisdiction was not 
 practicable. More distinctly than ever, had it been 
 determined that the current of Church History, as far as 
 those parties were concerned, was to flow in separate 
 channels. By the Peace of Westphalia, the war in Ger- 
 many between Protestants and Romanists was settled 
 on the principle of a balance of power, the separate 
 existence of Holland, as a protestant nation, was recog- 
 nized, and the Reformation in the Scandinavian king- 
 doms assumed as authoritative, Sweden being one 
 of the high contracting parties. The Papal protest was 
 without eftect. 
 
 The treaty of Westphalia also determined funda- 
 mental political maxims for all Europe, to which even 
 
58 
 
 parties then apparently unconcerned in it, or reluctating 
 against it, were, in course of time, constrained to con- 
 form. Against the old ambition of universal empire, 
 and of a universal church, systematic opposition was 
 organized. JSTo longer was either Pope or Emperor to 
 be sustained in the ambition of supremacy. 
 
 Not all at once could the treaty go into eifect. 
 Where Jesuits were strong little regard was had for its 
 conditions. In Bohemia, Silesia and Hungary the Prot- 
 estant churches were subjected to many unjust restric- 
 tions. 
 
 In France the Edict of Nantes was still in force, but 
 ill complied with on the part of the government, then in 
 the hands of Cardinal Mazarine, as regent during the 
 minority of Louis XIV. The Jansenist controversy was 
 beginning to inlist attention beyond the bounds of France 
 and the Netherlands ; but the principal doctrines, brought 
 thereby into discussion, were already sufficiently defined. 
 Elsewhere, in all Romish countries, Jesuits were the rul- 
 ing spirits, and had succeeded in reaching the last extrem- 
 ity of the anti-reform reaction. 
 
 In Holland and Geneva, the Reformed Churches had 
 reached the full day of prosperity. In England, the 
 Puritans had defeated the king, and were about to set 
 up the Commonwealth, in the intereat of a progressive 
 reformation. The Assembly of Divines at Westminster 
 had completed its work, and the last lingering delegates 
 remained only to execute, in a few cases, what had been 
 already enacted. Their Confession, Catechisms, Form of 
 government, and Directory for public worship, had been 
 accepted in Scotland, in the Presbyterian Church of Ire- 
 land, and, in all but the Form of government, in New 
 England ; and thereby the definitive statement of 
 Reformed doctrine was settled for the English speaking 
 people, outside of the Anglican establishment. A simila*!* 
 service had been, at an earlier day, executed for the 
 Reformed Churches on the continent, and as a whole, by 
 the Synod of Dort ; and by the Thirty-nine Articles for 
 the Anglican Church. Lutheran doctrines remained as 
 determined by its two great founders, and as harmonized 
 in the Form of Concord. In the Greek Church, the 
 
59 
 
 Orthodox Confession had received the sanction of the" ' l^ V-^ • 
 councils of Kieif and of Jassy. And eqnally conclusive 
 for the Romish Church had been the work of the council 
 of Trent. 
 
 Alike in the Greek, Roman and Protestant connec- 
 tions, the middle of the seventeenth century, and espe- 
 ciall}^ the year 1648, formed a momentous crisis in the 
 history of doctrine. All the most authoritative confes- 
 sions were published by that time. The union of church 
 and state remained in force, but their relations were now 
 different in different countries. And although oppression 
 was ofien exercised by the stronger party, yet the right 
 of each nation to follow the confession of its choice had 
 been distinctly vindicated. 
 
 RELATIVE POSITIONS OF THE THREE GREAT BRANCHES OF 
 THE CHURCH. 
 
 The position taken by the Greek Catholic Church 
 is that of strict conformity to the ancient, main- 
 tained by unvarying hereditary practice, without 
 change or alteration, or addition of any essential 
 particular, since the last true ecumenical council .. f l fc 
 when the bishops of both east and west met freely and-6«J, Uj^r^ ^^^ 
 on equal terms. The Greek presents itself as the Cz^jt-n^J^'-'Jii^ 
 unchanged Orthodox Catholic Church of antiquity — the (^ Ul, ^Uf^Cs. 
 only true church. Rome cannot deny that alterations r>^ ^V*?] 
 have taken place within her communion, but claims, not- *^/ J/J- 
 withstanding, to be the only true church, out of which 
 there is no salvation, and to have within herself an 
 infallible guide to all truth, over and above the Scrip- 
 tures, and a process of apostolical and spiritual develop- 
 ment, whereby all the changes she may introduce become 
 as binning as revelation. The Xestorian and Monophy- 
 site churches, although deeply corrupted, adhere to their 
 ancient characteristic doctrines ; the Nestorian to the 
 separation of the two natures in Christ, and the Mono- 
 physites, to the one nature, merging the human in the 
 divine. 
 
 The Protestant churches hold that the only true 
 christian doctrine is to be found in the christian Scrip- 
 tures. They respect the practice of immediately post- 
 
60 
 
 apostolic christians, the doctrinal decisions of classical 
 councils and the writings of the classical fathers, but 
 accept them only in as far as they are found to be con- 
 formable with Scripture, which is their sole standard of 
 faith and practice. 
 
 All three, Greek, Roman, and Protestant, within 
 their own respective bounds, contain minor divisions, 
 and dissenting sects. But the Protestant alone, although 
 not very consistently, recognizes that fact, and accepts it 
 as a legitimate condition of the church. The other two 
 deny the right of dissent, war against it, and seek to 
 extinguish it; and yet are constrained, under various 
 plfeas and disguises, to indulge or submit to it. 
 
 In adhering to an absolute conservatism, the Greek 
 Church has produced little for the historian to record ; 
 the aggressive spirit of Rome presents more, and more 
 that is interesting; but it is under the freedom and 
 intense activity of the Protestant communities that the 
 richest historical treasures have been accumulated. 
 
 THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES. 
 
 Since the council of Chalcedon, 451, Oriental Christi- 
 anity has been divided into three great branches, as 
 Greek, or Orthodox Catholic, and the so-called heretical 
 JSlestorian and Monophysite communions. The jurisdic- 
 tion of these sections is not everywhere geographically 
 distinct; but, in the main, the Orthodox occupies the 
 eastern countries of Europe and the extreme west of 
 Asia; the Monophysites the next adjoining portions of 
 Asia together with Egypt and Ethiopia; and the Nesto- 
 rians, the further east. In western Asia, however, and 
 Egypt, they interramify with each other, having, in many 
 cases, their churches side by side. And Patriarchs of 
 both Orthodox and Monophysite persuasion, in some 
 countries, exercise their jurisdiction over the same dis- 
 trict, but in relation to separate pastoral charges. 
 
 NESTORIANS. 
 
 Of the twenty-five metropolitan sees of which the 
 Nestorian Church, at one time, consisted, with its mis- 
 sians in central Asia, India and China, only fragments 
 
61 
 
 now remain. The most importunt is a population of 
 about 150,000, who live on the great plain ofOroomiah, 
 in the northwest of Persia, and among the adjoining 
 mountains of Kurdistan. There are also communities 
 of them in the southwest of India, where they have 
 sometimes been called Syrian, or St. Thomas Christians. 
 In both places. Missionaries Roman Catholic and Prot- 
 tant have recently labored among them with some suc- 
 cess, until they are now still further diminished and 
 divided. In the sixteenth century, the Romanists, by 
 force of Portuguese arms, constrained a number of those 
 who lived on the Malabar coast of India to submit to the 
 Pope, and accept changes in their worship and govern- 
 ment accordingly. Those who lived further in land, 
 under the protection of native princes, retained their own 
 ancient faith. In the beginning of the present century, 
 they were brought to the notice of the British public by 
 the Rev. Claudius Buchanan who visited them in 1806. 
 A nnssion of the English Church was soon established 
 at Travancore. Its object at first was simply to revive 
 education and true scriptural knowledge among the 
 clergy, and for many years it proceeded with encourag- 
 ing "success. But between 1832 and 1836, that method 
 was abandoned, and by a decision of the metropolitan 
 bishop of the English Church in India, all recognition of 
 the Syrian christians, as a church, was Avithheld, and con- 
 verts from them were to be received as members of the 
 church of England. 
 
 The remnant of that ancient people, still residing on 
 the borders of Persia and Turkey were visited in the 
 seventeenth century by Romish missionaries, who suc- 
 ceeded in converting to Papal allegiance the ntore south- 
 ern portion of them, called Chaldean christians. The 
 inhabitants of the mountains and of the plain of Oroo- 
 miah retained their Nestorian creed and church order. 
 Little was known about them by western protestaiits 
 until 1830. when they were visited by Smith andDwight, 
 of tiie American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
 Missions. A mission was in a few years planted on the 
 plain of Oroomiah. It was not designed to attempt any 
 change in the Nestorian order, form of worship or 
 
62 
 
 ancient creed ; but to labor for a revival of true practical 
 piety by the promotion of education, scriptural knowl- 
 edge and evangelical influences, to purify and awaken 
 the old christian cliurch of that denomination. Subse- 
 quently however there has grown up among the ]N"estor- 
 ians, a new church of Presbyterian character, according 
 to the convictions of the missionaries laboring there. 
 
 MONOPHYSISES. 
 
 Of the Monophysites there are still three grand divis- 
 ions, the heads of which are Egypt, Syria, aiTd Armenia, 
 constituting a belt of nations extending from the south- 
 ern foot of the Caucasus to the southern border of 
 Ethiopia. For Il^ubia and Abyssinia acknowledge the 
 supremacy of the monophysite Patriarch of Egypt, who 
 makes his residence at Cairo. 
 
 The Copts are the descendants of the ancient Egypt- 
 ian population, who profess Monophysite Christianity, 
 Their number is given variously. The Rev. H. H. Fair- 
 all in a letter from Cairo, 1871, estimates them at two 
 hundred thousand. Their church is very corrupt, and 
 has long ago abandoned the duty of instruction. The 
 people are ignorant, and yet are said to be of superior 
 intelligence to the Fellahs, their countrymen, who have 
 adopted Mohammedanism, and who number about two 
 millions. 
 
 The second Patriarchate of that connection is gov- 
 erned by the Monophysite Patriarch of Antioch, who 
 resides in Diarbekir, at Amida, or sometimes at the 
 monastery of St. Ananias, near Mardin, and whose rule 
 extends also over his coreligionists in Mesopotamia, and 
 the adjoining desert. His power is shared by the Maph- 
 rian of Mosul, who formerly vicar of the Patriarch over 
 the churches beyond the Tigris, is still sometimes called 
 Primate of the East, but is now only nominally superior 
 to a metropolitan. 
 
 The third division of the Monophysites is constituted 
 by the peculiar views of the Armenians. Chief of their 
 connection is a Patriarch Catholicns, whose reaidence is 
 at Etchmiadzin. Two other patriarchs, of more limited 
 jurisdiction, reside respectively at Cis, in Cilicia, and at 
 
68 
 
 Aghtaniar in lake Van. Thev have also prelates digni- 
 fied by the title of Patriarch, who protect the interests 
 of their church, as concerned in its members scattered 
 tlirongh the Catholic diocesses of Constantinople and 
 Jerusalem, besides vicariates and archbishoprics in Per- 
 sia, and Russia. 
 
 In point of intelligence, the Armenians are superior 
 to others of their communion, neither is their church so 
 corrupt. Theologically Monophysites differ from the 
 Greek Catholic Church in little save the dogma touch- 
 ing the oneness of the nature in Christ. But they have 
 not adopted the practices introduced into the Catholic 
 Church subsequently to the second general council of 
 Constantinople, (554). On the other hand, they retain some 
 elements of Judaism, as the observation of the Sabbath 
 in addition to the Lord's da}-. They abstain from eating 
 things stran<j;'led and from blood ; and in Egypt and 
 Abyssinia, they observe circumcision. The Copts, when 
 they baptize a child, first immerse the lower part of the 
 body, then up to the middle, then entirely. The sacra- 
 ment of the Lord's supper is administered to infants by 
 simply applying the consecrated elements to their lips. 
 
 As among the Nestorians, so among the Monophy- 
 sites, there are converts to the Latin church, and organi- 
 zations under Pomish authority, the fruit of Romish mis- 
 sions. The Latin Patriarchate of Antioch, commenced 
 in the time of the crusades, is still continued, and con- 
 stitutes its seat of authority in Aleppo. Jesuit mission- 
 aries, in the 16th and 17th centuries, among the Abys- 
 sinians failed. More recently, Protestant effort in that 
 quarter, has met with little more encouragement. Among 
 the Armenians. Protestant missionaries from England, 
 from the United States and from the European continent, 
 are laboring with much success. 
 
 The Maronites, a remnant of the ancient Monothelite- 
 party, have since the time of the crusades, (1182), been 
 divided, the larger number having submitted to the juris- 
 diction of Rome, They are tolerated in the observance 
 of certain practices peculiar to themselves, and allowed 
 to retain their own Patriarch and ecclesiastical order. A 
 colleofe at Rome, established on their behalf, has been 
 
64 
 
 distiiiguisbed by the Assemani, and other ilhistrious 
 ecclesiastical scholars, to whose writings we are chiefl}' 
 indebted fov information touching the Eastern cliurches. 
 The Patriarch, who lives in the monastery of St. Mary, 
 at Karnobin, not far from Tripoli, takes, in common with 
 the Orthodox Catholic, the Monophysite and Romish 
 patriarchs, the title of Antioch; but the people, over 
 whom his authority extends, are to be found principally 
 in Mount Lebanon, and cities of the neighborhood. He 
 is elected by his own communion, but receives the pallium 
 and confirmation in office from the Pope, A small num- 
 ber of them still reject the connection with Rome, and 
 adhere to their ancient ecclesiastical independence, and 
 peculiar doctrine of the one will in Christ. 
 
 Of all parts of the Eastern church the most divided 
 by tlie presence of conflicting parties are the sees of 
 Antioch and Jerusalem. 
 
 The several languages retained in the liturgies, and 
 other offices of the Oriental churclies, are such, in all 
 cases, as are not now spoken by the people. Among the 
 Greeks, and their immediate connection, it is the ancient 
 Greek; among the Georgians, the old Georgian; in 
 Russia, Moldavia, Wallaciiia, Servia, Bosina, Montene- 
 gro, Slavonia proper, Dalmatia and Bulgaria, although 
 various dialects are spoken, it is the Old Sclavonic which 
 alone is used in Church service. Monophysites retain, 
 In Egypt, the Coptic; in the Patriarchate of Antioch, 
 the old Syriac ; although the common idiom, in both 
 cases, is the Arabic ; in Ethiopia, tiie old Ethiopic, while 
 it is the Amharic which is spoken ; and in Armenia, the 
 old Armenian. The Nestorians of Kurdistan adhere to 
 the ancient Syriac, A modern dialect of the same is 
 their vernacular. And the St. Thomas christians of Mala- 
 bar, although some of them have exchanged their Nes- 
 torian creed for the Monophysite, and some, for Roman- 
 ism, still retain in their worship and religious books, the 
 old Syriac tongue. The Maronities also read their pray- 
 ers in Syriac, which they do not understand. In this 
 view we also perceive the predorninence of the Slavic race 
 among the Christians of the East. Of their sixty-six 
 millions, or thereby, at least fifty-eight millions accept 
 
65 
 
 tlie old Sclavonic as the languao-e of their devotions. In 
 ever}' instance, it is the old language, in which the 
 scriptures and liturgies were first established among the 
 people, which is held as sacred ; the idea of sanctity hav- 
 ing attached to it as it became obsolete, and obscure to the 
 common understanding. Such is Hebrew to the Jew, 
 Latin to the Romanist, old Arabic to the Mohammedan, 
 Sanscrit to the Hindu, Zend to the Parsee, and the learned 
 system of the Mandarins to the Chinese. Protestant 
 cliristians alone, and those who follow their example, 
 emplo}' the vernacular entirely in the service of the 
 ^anctuarj', preferring an intelligent worship to a blind 
 adoration. 
 
 THE GREEK CATHOLIC. 
 
 In the Orthodox, or Greek Catholic church, althougli 
 Constantinople still enjoys the honor of precedence, the 
 most important diocese is that of Russia. In addition 
 to these, there are still the Patriarchates of Alexandria, 
 of Antioch, and of Jerusalem, although only skeletons 
 of their ancient substance, and the three independent 
 metropolitans of Cyprus, of Austria and of Montenegro, 
 together with the archbishop of Moutot Sinai, and the 
 church of independent Greece, which is governed by a 
 Synod. The metropolitan of Montenegro, and the arch- 
 bishop of Mount Sinai are merely titular, having no sub- 
 ordinate bishops. The metropolitan of Cyprus presides 
 over three suflragans, and of Austria, over ten. Of the 
 Patriarchs the Constantinopolitan is at the head of one 
 hundred and thirty-five metropolitans, archbishops and 
 bishops, The Patriarch of Jerusalem presides over 
 twelve. Those of Alexandria and of Antioch are held 
 to be chiefs respectively of four and of sixteen prelates, 
 who all rank as metropolitans. 
 
 The population, over which those authorities extend, 
 may be estimated at somewhat more than sixtj^-six mil- 
 lions, of which at least fffty millions belong to Russia, 
 and of the rest by far the larger part to the See of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 The Greek church admits the rank of the Pope as a 
 Patriarch, arrd his primacy in the West of Europe, as 
 
66 
 
 holding the only E[:)iscopal sec founded by apostles in 
 that quartei-; but condemns his assumption of headship 
 and of universal authority as unwarranted. It also holds 
 that he, and western Christendom in g-enerai, have long 
 been guilty of lieresy, and schism, in corrupting the 
 standards, and separating from the communion of the 
 only Orthodox Catholic cljurch. According to that view, 
 the other four Patriarchs are as truly the heads respec- 
 tively of the jurisdiction sassigned to them by ancient 
 councils. The higher distinction admitted to Rome and 
 to Constantinople is referred the fact that those cities 
 were the capitals of the empire. Apostolic foundation 
 is not accepted as a reason for any special distinction. 
 Because Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria are on the 
 same footing, in that respect. The apostolical connec- 
 tion of Constantinople is recognized as dae to Ileraclea, 
 of which diocese Byzantium was originally a part. And 
 in the true, and higher sense, all the- churches were 
 founded by the apostles. The equal independence of all 
 the Patriarchs is constantly maintained, and the rank of 
 ecumenical is not alhnved to 'any, except in that sense in 
 which it is proper to all, although Constantinople is 
 is superior in honor. The number of Orthodox Patri- 
 archates was, in the seventeenth century, still, as deter- 
 mined by ancient councils, five, Russia having been 
 admitted to the place left vacant by the schism of RoTue. 
 Church government of the whole Greek Catholic 
 connection is synodal. Its highest authority is the 
 Synod of Patriarchs. The monarchical system of Rome 
 is condemned as unscriptural, the power of the keys hav- 
 ing been committed not to Peter alone, but to all the 
 apostles. While the union of church and state is de- 
 fended, they are each held to be sovereign within their 
 own sphere, the state being under duty to protect the 
 church, while the church sustains the order and authority 
 of the State. In Mohammedan countries, these relations 
 have long been in a condition of great derangement. 
 They are most consistently observed in Russia, and inde- 
 pendent Greece ; where the churches are now governed 
 by Synods. 
 
67 
 
 Each Patriarcli is elected bv the church, over which 
 he is to preside; that is by the synod of the diocese, and 
 approved by the chief magistrate of the state. In 
 Mohammedan countries, the hitter condition is subject to 
 great abuse, not unfrequently involving simony, and. on 
 the part of the civil ruler, extreme oppression. 
 
 Unity, in the Greek church, consists in recognition of 
 the same doctrines, and canons of ancient councils, the 
 common synodal authority, and the same ibrms of wor- 
 ship and ceremonies. Since the defection of Rome, 
 synods have not been regarded as general, but as authori- 
 tative simply for the jurisdiction of the prelates assem- 
 bled in them. 
 
 In the middle of the seventeenth century, Mohamme- 
 danism prevailed in the countries which had belonged 
 to the ancient jurisdiction of the oriental churches, ai]d 
 christians, only a sprinkling, where once they constituted 
 the mass of the population, were barely tolerated under 
 great oppression. A more recent conquest yielded the 2- e-^-^L-*'--'*^ 7 ^ 
 Greek churcli a freedom and a power, which it enjoyed \,^-f^j^^^^ - 
 no where else. To that quarter its subsequent history ,.,. ^ -^Tc** 
 chiefly belongs. From Russia have proceeded all the 
 progressive movements of modern Greek Catholicism, /'^t--^^*^ 
 and by Russia have the rights of Greek Christians, in 
 general, been defended against both Mohammedan and 
 Romanist. Every step, which has gone to put the Greek 
 church into relations with the modern world, has issued 
 from that quarter. 
 
 From the introduction of Christianity into Russia, in 
 992, until 1587, the church in that country was governed 
 by a Metropolitan appointed from Constantinople. At 
 first the ecclesiastical capital was Kieff. But after that 
 city, in 1240, was captured by the Monguls, the seat of 
 authority' was removed more than once, until, in 1328, it 
 was planted at Moscow, hy the illustrious Metropolitan 
 St. Peter. Before the Mongul invasion, Russia, although 
 a large country, was but a small and unimportant power, 
 lying chiefly towards the southwest of her present terri- 
 tory-. By that invasion the greater part of her people 
 were reduced to bondage, and the fragment of dominion 
 which remained, was limited to the North. The lona; 
 
68 
 
 continuer] wars, whereby the invaders were gradually 
 expelled, fortified Russian character, intensified its 
 nationality, and, over against the Mohammedanism of 
 the Tartars, caused the profession of Christianity to 
 become the badge of loj-alty, and the battle cry of libera- 
 tion. As the Moorish occupation of Spain made Spain- 
 ards the fiercest champions of Roman Catholicism, so the 
 Tartar occupation of Russia was one important means 
 whereby the great modern defenders of Greek Catholic- 
 ism were educated for their work. The subsequent 
 extension of their dominion, and its intimate relations 
 with the East, while holding a place among the great 
 powers of the West, have put them into position to wield 
 a stupendous intiuence for good, or evil, upon other 
 branches of their ecclesiastical connection. 
 
 The Monguls were finally expelled in 1481, twenty- 
 eight years after the fall of Constantinople. Russians, 
 now independent, felt reluctant to accept their ecclesiasti- 
 cal chief from the subject of an enemy of their religion. 
 And in order to avoid embarrassment and indignity the 
 method was adopted of having the Metropolitan of Mos- 
 cow appointed by a Synod of bishops within his own 
 province, whereby he was assigned the anomalous posi- 
 tion of recognizing, as his superior, the Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, without being either appointed or con- 
 firmed in office by him. That irregularity, though tole- 
 rated for more than one hundred and thirty years, from 
 what seemed to be the necessity of the case, was matter 
 of much regret to the ecclesiastics concerned. And as 
 Russia increased in national importance, it became the 
 more desirable that the church within her bounds should 
 take up some regular independent ground. The step 
 which followed proceeded at once from suggestion of the 
 Czar, and of the highest dignitaries of the church, and 
 was facilitated by the ideaof substituting Russia as anew^ 
 Patriarchate, to fill the place left vacant by the schism 
 of Rome. In 1587, by agreement of the Patriarchs of 
 Constantinople and of Antioch, the Metropolitan of Mos- 
 cow was elevated to the rank of Patriarch, on equal foot- 
 ing with themselves, and Russia constituted an indepen- 
 dent diocese of the Greek Catholic Church, The act was 
 
69 
 
 performed iu a Synod of all the Russian bishops, at Mos- 
 cow, under authority of the Czar Theodore, and sanc- 
 tioned by the presence and consent of Jeremiah 11. , 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 
 The next fifty years beheld some revival of activity 
 in that quarter of the long dormant Oriental Church. 
 The new Patriarchate became a leader in the work of 
 drawing up those confessions and books of doctrinal 
 instruction, which the changed condition of tiie world 
 demanded. Moscow had already become the holy city 
 of Russia; it was now the seat of the Czar and of the 
 Patriarch, soon to be distinguished by great events in the 
 history ot the church and nation, and by the reputation 
 of some of tlieir most illustrious men. There are four 
 great historical personages, to whom the modern Russian 
 Church isespecially indebted, namely Philaret, Peter 
 Mogilas, Nikon, and the Czar Peter. By t'nose names 
 are the principal stages in its history marked. 
 
 Russia has at several periods had to defend herself 
 against the overbearing aggression of Romanism. Most 
 dangerous was the attempt made from that quarter in the 
 end of the 16th and early years of the 17th centuries. 
 Taking advantage of the reign of the good, but feeble 
 Theodore, and the deranged state of the imperial succes- 
 sion, which followed his death, Romish priests, from the 
 side of Poland, associated themselves with insurrection, 
 corrupted the dissatisfied, and conspired with otherwise 
 designing persons, to bring about a union with Rome. 
 Under management especially of the Jesuit Possevin, 
 that process was clandestinely introduced into the south- 
 west of Russia. Upon the death of Theodore, 1598, it 
 received support from the arms of Poland. A pretender 
 to the throne accepted the union, and was carried to the 
 Kremlin of Moscow by force. He was soon slain. But 
 the Poles held their ground, added to their troops, took 
 possession of Moscow, and set up the Romish forms of 
 worship in its holiest places. It was then that the monks 
 of the Troitza Lavra (Monastery of the Trinity) made 
 that illustrious defence of their stronghold, and raised 
 that voice of appeal to the patriotism of their country- 
 men, whereby they rolled back the tide of invasion from 
 their borders. 
 
70 
 
 Theodore Konianotf, nearest heir to the throne, on 
 the termination of the lineal descent of Ruric, had been 
 compelled by the nsurper to go into a monaster^', and 
 was then a monk under the name of Philaret. His son 
 Michael was confined in another religious house. Upon 
 the close of the fierce and bloody conflict, the priests, who 
 had fairly earned a right to have their wishes consulted, 
 aftectionately turned their eyes to the son of their noble 
 brother Philaret. The nobles could present no other 
 candidate for the crown with so good a claim. Accord- 
 ingly, Michael Romanoff commenced the new imperial 
 dynasty, on the basis of defence of the Orthodox Catho- 
 lic Church, and opposition to Uniates and Romanists. 
 He ascended the throne in 1613. His father w^as liberated 
 from captivity to become Patriarch of Russia. That 
 ecclesiastical dignity was thereby greatly enhanced and 
 the privileges of the office extended, to a degree not pre- 
 viously yielded in the Greek Church. 
 
 Long protracted disorders continued to harass the 
 southwestern part of the country through uniate plots, 
 and usurpations sustained by Romish authorities fron:i 
 Poland, which in those days incurred a debt of violence 
 and aggression, subsequently well repaid. 
 
 Within the same period, the wildernesses of Siberia 
 were first occupied by Russian arms. The church- fol- 
 lowed in the footsteps of conquest. In 1623, Philaret 
 established the archbishopric of Tobolsk and Siberia, as 
 a means of organizing missionary effort, and of reforming 
 the morals of the Cassacks, who although the pioneers 
 of nominal Christianity, were as lawless as the heathen 
 they subdued. Philaret died in 1631. His successors, 
 Joasaph and Joseph, 1631 to 1653, did little worth men- 
 tioning ; but during their reigns, important steps were 
 taken in promoting education, and expounding the doc- 
 trines of the Greek church. It was in the year 1632 that 
 Peter Mogilas, the most learned Russian ecclesiastic of 
 his day, was elevated to the metropolitan see of Kieff". 
 His efforts for education were commenced in his monast- 
 ery, where he founded a school, and from which he per- 
 suaded several of his most promising scholars to go to 
 
71 
 
 obtained from the King of Poland, under wl^jose domin- 
 ion his province then hij. the " restoration of many con- 
 verts, churches, and properties, which had been taken 
 away from the Orthodox, together v;ith freedom to 
 establish seminaries and schools and printing presses," 
 and other privileges for the Russian Church. His con- 
 vent school he enlarged into a college, amtexing to it a 
 preparatory school and erecting buildings for^the accom- 
 modation of poor students at his own expense. He also 
 collected a library, and set up a printing press, from 
 which he issued editions of the Greek Fathers and books 
 of the service of the church, to counteract tlie eftbrts of 
 Romanists, which were especially active in that quarter. 
 His Trebnik, or office Book, became the model for per- 
 formance of the Orthodox service. And, if nottiie most 
 important, at least the most celebrated act of his life was 
 the "Orthodox Confession," written by himself, or under 
 his direction. A council of bishops was called in Kieff 
 to revise it. iVfter passing through their corrections, it 
 was translated into Modern Greek, and sent to Parthe- 
 nius, Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1643, a Synod, 
 convoked at Jassy. condemned the doctrines of Calvin, 
 and at the instance of Parthenius, revised and approved 
 the Orthodox Confession, which was then sent to the 
 otlier Oriental Patriarchs, wlio gave it their confirma- 
 tion, and returned it with letters of ajiproval to Kietf. 
 
 Peter Mogilas died in 1647. His work was per- 
 formed, in the first instance, for the Greek church of 
 Little Russia, then under the rule of Poland; but in it 
 he had also a view to the wider dominion of the Czar, if 
 not to the whole Oriental communion, to which an 
 important part of it necessarily extended. Formally by 
 its proper authorities the whole Greek Catholic Church 
 accepted the confession ; but only in Russia was it pro- 
 ductive of any vital action, or did it lead to any further 
 efforts for popular instruction. 
 
 In '1645, the Czar Michael died, and was succeeded 
 on the throne by his son Alexis, whose ambition it was 
 to be the Justinian of his nation. His reign commenced 
 with reform of the laws. A commission was appointed, 
 with Prince N'iketa Odoefsky, the most illustrious lawyer 
 
of Russia, at its head, to make a collection of tlie canons 
 of the ancient Fathers, and laws of the Greek emperors, 
 to correct the,statnte book of the Czar John, and to add 
 thereto the Ukases of later Czars, and to harmonize all 
 into one code for the whole empire. By the end of the 
 year, the worknvas complete, and received the blessing 
 of the Patriarch and was signed by the clergy, the boy- 
 ars, and people of all ranks. As in the labors -of 
 Philaret, the church had intei-twined lier jurisdiction 
 with that of tlie state; so, in this revision of the laws, 
 the state extended lier authority to embrace the church. 
 Thereby, a mors intimate connection was established 
 between the two than in any other diocese of the Oriental 
 Catholic communion. 
 
 In the fourth year of his reign, 1649, Alexis was tirst 
 made acquainted with the merits of the monk Nikon, 
 who had come to the capital to plead the wants of his 
 fraternity. Such a man could not be allowed to return 
 to seclusion. He was retained at Moscow, and presented 
 with the Novospasky monastery, where reposed the bones 
 of the Czar> ancestors. He was admitted to the coun- 
 cils, and the intimate friendship of his monarch ; and foi' 
 many years the policy of the nation was swayed by his 
 advice. In 1653, he was was raised to the place of Patri- 
 arch, which he retained six years. Throngli the suppojt 
 of Alexis, and his own transcendent abilities, Nikon, in 
 that brief term of office, carried the Russian Primacy to 
 the highest pitch of authority, and instituted reforms of 
 long persistent abuses, which as reforms would have been 
 better understood, and of longer duration, had not the 
 jealousy and misrepresentation of enemies interposed. 
 Means were secured of withdrawing from him the favor 
 of the Czar. Too hastily, in a fit of indignation' he 
 resigned his office, and therebj' stripped himself of the 
 power necessary to give his improvements effect. That 
 one false step his enemies took care he should never have 
 the opportunity of retracing. To the end of his days, 
 he was confined in a monastery. 
 
 The most useful work which Nikon effected was the 
 correction of the church books, which, in the long course 
 of centuries, when they were copied by hand, had become 
 
corrupted by the ignorance and oversight of copyists. 
 Many of those corrnptions had been retained in the 
 printed editions, and errors of the press had increased 
 the evil, and some had been introduced by heretical 
 design. In the face of much opposition, he proceeded 
 with correction of his new editions, by the old Sclavonic 
 and Greek manuscripts. From various quarters collec- 
 tions were made of the most ancient manuscripts of the 
 sacred books. One messenger, sent to Mount Athos, 
 collected as many as .live hundred Greek books, among 
 which was a coi)y of the Gospels, written 1050 years 
 before. The eastern Patriarchs added 200 more similar 
 manuscripts. Upon introducing his corrected books into 
 the churches he encountered opposition from the multi- 
 tude who took his restoration of the ancient for novelty. 
 
 I^ikon also put restraint upon the evil practices of 
 the clergy, especially the prevalent one of intemperance, 
 and upon errors in church service, and went so far as to 
 remove from sight all such pictures as he thought were 
 objects of undue veneration. He did much to promote 
 education, had Greek' and Latin introduced into the 
 schools, improved the style of church music, and pro- 
 cured the means for publishing the Sclavonic translation 
 of the Bible in its purity. He was also the first to break 
 through and take steps to do away with the oriental 
 seclusion of women, which had hitherto prevailed. And 
 he revived by precept, and in his own ministrations, the 
 practice of preaching, which had in the Greek Church 
 been utterly neglected, for centuries. 
 
 During his administration large addition was made to 
 the jurisdiction of the Russian Patriarchate by annexa- 
 tion of the Cossacks of the Ukraine. Steps were taken 
 by him also towards the transfer of the metropolitan sec 
 of Kieflf from the connection with Constantinople, to 
 that of Moscow, which was effected, though not in his 
 day. 
 
 The deposition of ZsTikon occurred in 1667, his death 
 in 1681. His successors in the Primacy originated noth- 
 ing of importance. Upon the death of the Czar Theo- 
 dore, next year, the country was plunged into a state of 
 disorder and agitation. The young Prince Peter, a boy 
 
74 
 
 of ten years of age, was procl-aim^d iti preference to John, 
 his elder brother, on the ground that the hitter was 
 incapacitated by imbecility. Peter continued to pursue 
 his studies with uncommon zeal and success under direc- 
 tion of the Patriarch Joachim, by whose aid he also 
 defeated the ambition of his sister Sophia, and the muti- 
 nous Streltzi, or imperial guards. When he was still 
 only 18 years of age, his friend and guardian Joachim 
 died. Peter thus early thrown upon his own judgment, 
 began his reign 'by making himself acquainted with the 
 resources, and wants of his country, fully purposed to 
 develop the one and supply the other, by every means 
 which he possessed, or could command, whether at home, 
 or from abroad. His reforms were more thorough than 
 those of Nikon, and sustained by a weight of authority 
 which the enterprising ecclesiastic never possessed. The 
 Patriarch Adrian was old and feeble. But the Czar 
 found cordial support from other eminent churchmen, 
 especially from Stephen Yavorsky, preacher in KiefF. 
 
 After the capture of Azoff' had given weight to his 
 reputation, and the death of his brother John in 1696, 
 had left him sole Czar, Peter determined to enlarge his 
 intellectual stores by foreign travel. In the suite of an 
 embassy, in which his preceptor appeared as the princi- 
 pal, he visited Holland, France, England and Germany, 
 studying carefully the elements of their culture and pros- 
 perity. From Vienna he was called home by another 
 mutiny of the Streltzi. His career of reform opened in 
 the effective punishment of that refractory militia. Some 
 of them he condemned to death, the rest he dispersed in 
 far distant places, utterly extinguishing their organiza- 
 tion. He proceeded to carry out his purpose to bring 
 the manners and customs, government and life of Russia 
 as near as possible into conformity with those of the west 
 of Europe. That sweeping reform which stooped to pre- 
 scribe the cut of their dress for his people, could not 
 overlook the state of the church. Many things were 
 held too sacred to be touched, but others, at variance 
 with ancient practice, or Greek principle, coidd be 
 altered, or removed without serious opposition, and some, 
 which had crept in from the western church, were the 
 most obnoxious, and could be the most easily exposed. 
 
75 
 
 When Peter came to the throne he found that ab^^o- 
 lute as was his power, in theory, it was actually 
 divided with the clergy. By the steps of a process 
 already indicated, the Patriarchate, had almost for- 
 saken its Byzantine ground and approximated to the 
 papal. Nothing stood more in the way of the imperial 
 reformer. Upon the death of Adrian, who protested 
 against every innovation to the last, when the bishops 
 assembled to elect a successor, the Czar appeared among 
 them, and dismissed them with the statement that such 
 action was not necessary at that time. iStephen Yavorsky 
 was appointed guardian of the church, with provisional 
 oversight of its affaii-s. The Patriarchal court was closed, 
 and all its business transferred to the civil courts, except 
 purely ecclesiastical matters, which were subjected to a 
 monastery court, now constituted with powers defined 
 expressly for that purpose. At the same time all 
 attempts to interfere with the orthodox doctrine, or 
 established practice of the church were severely repressed, 
 whether made from the side of the Roman or the Prot- 
 tant. 
 
 Twenty years did Peter keep the supreme government 
 of the church in susper.se, until a generation had grown 
 up without the inner allegiance to an ecclesiastical sov- 
 ereign. At the end of that time, he suggested that only 
 a synodal administration was capable of answering the 
 wants of the church. He did not immediately press that 
 view. But it was consistent with the plan of supreme 
 government in the Greek Church. Finally it was sub- 
 mitted to a council called in St. Petersburg, in the begin- 
 ning of the year 1721, and after discussion, accepted. 
 The new constitution was approved by the highest in the 
 land, both lay and ecclesiastical. Subsequently it re- 
 ceived the sanction of the Patriarchs of the East, as 
 communicated in a letter from Constantinople dated 
 September 23, 1723. Ever since, the Church of Russia 
 has been presided over by the Holy Governing Synod, 
 which occupies the place of a Patriarch. 
 
 The Russian empire is divided into dioceses, called 
 eparchies, which in extent and number are nearly the 
 same with the civil divisions into sixty-four provinces. 
 
76 
 
 In these there are four hundred and eighty-three cathe- 
 drals and twenty- six thousand five hundred and ninety- 
 eight churches, many of which are magnificent buildings. 
 
 Russian clergy are of two classes, distinguished by 
 the names white and black, the former being the secular, 
 or parish priests, and the latter the regulars, or moid<s. 
 From the monasteries are all the higher dignitaries of 
 the church elected. To the white belong the humbler 
 ranks of presbj'ters, super-deacons, deacons and sub- 
 deacons. The superior clergy, that is, the metropolitans, 
 archbishops and bishops, called in common, Archires, 
 are almost all equally authoritative within their respect- 
 ive sees. Next to them in rank stand the heads of the 
 monasteries, and the black clergy under their rule ; and 
 on an humbler level are the white, or secular clergy, to 
 whom no promotion to the higher ranks lies open. 
 
 The Greek Church, like the Eoman and Protestant, 
 entered upon the second half of the seventeenth century 
 with her doctrinal symbols fully matured. She does not, 
 however, make the letter of modern confession obligatory 
 upon the consciences of her people. The Creed, that is, 
 the Nicene Creed as revised and enlarged at Constanti- 
 nople and confirmed at Chalcedon, is her only doctrinal 
 test. That symbol is retained in its purity, without the 
 Latin interpolation touching the procession of the Holy 
 Spirit. No oath or subscription to the Confession or 
 Articles of Bethlehem is required of the clergy. Security 
 against error is sought by maintaining a profound rever- 
 ence for the ancient traditional teaching of the church ; 
 and in opposing to gainsayers, in case of necessity, the 
 terrors of excommunication. The modern confessions 
 are esteemed only as concisely expressing the meaning 
 of the ancient authorities, in relation to the views of the 
 modern world. Catechisms and other books for minis- 
 terial and popular instruction have also been produced 
 in Russia, within recent times. 
 
 The ritual is, in the main, the same as that which 
 existed before the schism of Rome. In the number of 
 sacraments {{JLoar^rna] alone does the Greek Church 
 admit that she has followed the example of the Latin ; 
 but not in their characteristics and manner of administer- 
 
ing them. Baptism they administer by iinraersioii, or 
 by trine affusion in the name ol" the Holy Trinity, and 
 grant it to infants, whom they also admit to confirmation 
 and the Eucharist. Holy unction with oil they apply, 
 not in vievv of death, but as the first means of healing- to 
 the sick. The Eucharist is administered by mingling the 
 bread with the wine, and giving it to the communi'cant 
 in a spoon, as the very body "and blood of the Lord 
 united. Secular clergy are admitted to the sacrament of 
 marriage, but only once. If a priest's wife dies, he is 
 expected to go into a monastery; if he marries a second 
 time, he renounces the ministry. In confirmation, they 
 anoint with oil, and believe "that in it the candidate 
 " receives a grace of spiritual growth and strength." In 
 Penitence, they teach that " he, who confesses his sins, 
 is, on the outward declaration of the priest, inwardly 
 loosed from his sins by Jesus Christ himself" And in 
 Orders, that "the Holy Ghost, by the laying on of the 
 bishop's hands, ordains them, that be rightly chosen, to 
 minister sacraments, and to feed the flock of Christ." 
 
 Pictures are used in their churches, and worshipped 
 with that degre^e of worship defined and sanctioned by 
 the Second Council of Nice, if the worshipper knows 
 anything about the distinction, or is capable of making 
 it. 
 
 The service of the Greek church is burdened with 
 liturgical forms, with manifold repetitions, and readings 
 tediously prolonged. 
 
 I^owhere else is the official character of ecclesiastics 
 more distinctly separated from that of the individual. 
 The effect has not been favorable to spiritual religion or 
 morality. Formal connection with the church, and com- 
 pliance with its observances are held to constitute a full 
 title to the favor of God. Accordingly nothing can be 
 changed, to accommodate any plan of union with either 
 Romanist or Protestant. 
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, FROM 1648 TO 1774. 
 
 The Latin Church in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century was deeply agitated by a controversy within her 
 own bounds, involving a conflict between her ancient 
 
 ^V 
 
78 
 
 standards and her ablest defenders. A book published, 
 ^^ , ixr. r^ - ^" ^588, by Louis Molina, a Spanish Jesuit, and Professor 
 of Theology at Ebora, on the "Concord of Grace and 
 Freewill," was received with favor by the order to wliich 
 its author belonged. Its Pelagianisin was encountorcMl 
 by the Dominicans and a controversy arose on that point. 
 Pope Clement YITI. convoked,'1597, a council of divines, 
 called the Congregatio de AaxilUs, to examine the subject, 
 and reconcile the two powerful orders by ado[»ting forms 
 of statement satisfactory to both. At the end of ten years 
 and after censuring some propositions of Molina as Pela- 
 gian or Semi-Pelagian, they dispersed, without announc- 
 ing the result of their deliberations. The Pope, Paul V., 
 promised togivehis decision at a convenientseason, which 
 never arrived. Pelagianism was neither condemned, nor 
 expressly accepted by the Catholic Church ; and the con- 
 troversy, though forbidden, could not be stayed. At the 
 end of about forty years, it was quickened to greater 
 activity, and took a more definite form, in relation to the 
 writings of Cornelius Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, and of 
 Jean du Vergier de Plauranne, Abbot of St. Cyran. 
 Jansen, who had spent his life in the study of Augustine, 
 deft, at his death, a large work under the name of 
 Augustinus, devoted to the restoration of tlic theology of 
 the great Latin Father of that name. The work was 
 published in 1640, in three folio volumes. DeHauranne 
 produced a work of similar extent and purpose on the 
 system of Catholic discipline, which he called Fetrus 
 Aurelius. It was " approved by the assembly of the 
 French clergy in 1642," and printed at their expense. 
 Both those learned works sustained Augustinianism as 
 the true doctrine of the Catholic Church. 
 
 The Jesuits assailed the Augustmus^-dnd, in 1642 pro- 
 cured its prohibition by the Pope. Its author had died 
 in 1638, and Hauraune w^as now in prison and near bis 
 end ; but other champions of the cause arose, among 
 whom the most eminent were Antony Arnauld, a learned 
 doctor of the Sorbonne, Le Maistre de Sacy, Nicole, Til- 
 lemont and Pascal. 
 
 At Port Royal, eighteen miles from Paris, stood a con- 
 vent founded in the thirteenth centurv. In 1625 the nuns 
 
were removed to another house in the suburbs of Paris. 
 Their new residence was called Port-Royal de Paris, and 
 that which they had left, Port-Royal des Champs. When 
 the latter was abandoned by the nuns, it was occupied by 
 certain orentlemen, who sought a retreat from the world 
 in order to devote their lives, to christian studies, works 
 of benevolence, and devotion. They were known as the 
 rechises of Port-Royal. Thither retired Arnauld, 
 Nicole, Le Maistre and oti;ers, the greatest defenders of 
 Jansejiism, and advocates of Augustinian theolog}-. And 
 Port-Royal iti the country became the citadel of the 
 Jansenists in their protracted warfare withthe Jesuits. 
 
 In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the 
 much relaxed discipline of Port-Royal had been reformed 
 by the young abbess, Angelica Arnauld. A revival of 
 piety had followed in the nunnery, and extended to other 
 monasteries. About the same tinie a few pious clergy- 
 men, among whom St. Cyran stood eminent, had begun 
 to work a similar influence upon many persons among 
 the populace of Paris, northern France and the Nether- 
 lands. The Petriis Aureluis and Augustiniis were theologi- 
 cal effects of tliat revival. They now stood as fortresses 
 in its defence, against Jesuit attack. And the subjects 
 of the religious revival constituted the public which sus- 
 tained the Janseuist Theologians. 
 
 On the first of July, 1649, Nicolas Cornet, Syndic of 
 the Faculty of Theology, laid before the Sorbonne seven 
 heretical propositions, subsequently reduced to five, 
 which he affirmed to be contained in the Augustinus. 
 From that date, the debate assumed proportions to alarm 
 and agitate the whole Romish Church. 
 
 The five propositions were condemned as heretical by 
 a constitution of Innocent X.. issued May 31, 1653. It 
 was denied by the Jansenists that those propositions were 
 to be found in the Augustinus, in the sense thus con- 
 demned. The Pope asserted that he condemned them 
 as being " of Jansen, and in the sense of Jansen." 
 
 For maintaining what the Pope had thus condemned, 
 Antony Arnauld was censured by the Sorbonne, and 
 deprived of his doctorate. " In the course of two years, 
 more than sixtv doctors of the Sorbonne w^ere ejected 
 
80 
 
 from that boclj', for refusing to set their names to tliat 
 act, which they considered one of the grossest injustice." 
 
 It was during that trial of Arnauld that the first of 
 the Provincial Letters appeared. " Blaise Pascal was at 
 this time in the thirty-fourth year of his age, and inti- 
 mately connected, not only with Arnauld, but with 
 Nicole, Lemaistre, Lemaistre de Sacy, and the rest of 
 the recluses at Port-Royal des CMiamps." "He was the 
 first to arouse public attention and excite public horror, 
 by dragging out from the enormous and countless vol- 
 umes of the casuists the depths of iniquity" which the 
 Jesuits recognized and allowed. '• The fury which those 
 letters excited in the Universities is scarcely to be 
 described. The writer was beyond their reach, but their 
 vengeance might be wreaked on Port-Royal." 
 
 A portion of the nuns had returned to the country 
 convent under the Abbess Angelica in 1648, and the 
 recluses had " retired to a place called Les Granges, in 
 the immediate neighborhood." They were all alike held 
 by their enemies to be guilty of Augustinian doctrine; 
 whereas Molinism was the professed creed of the Jesuits. 
 
 Pope Alexander VII. maintained the ground taken 
 by his predecessor, in the controversy, by a brief issued 
 in 1656. The Church of France accpted the brief, and 
 framed a formula accordingly, which was to be " signed 
 by all candidates for ecclesiastical preferment." Thus, in 
 1657, the Gallican Church with the Papacy was enlisted 
 on the side of the Jesuits, against the Jansenists, although 
 " the promulgation of the formula was deferred till 
 1661." All who refused to sign the Formulary were 
 subjected to persecution. "The Bastille was crouded 
 with Jansenists ;" seventy-five persons were carried from 
 Port-Royal. Angelica Arnauld died August 6th, 1661, 
 and her sister Agnes, succeeding as Abbess, adhered to 
 the same doctrine. Port-Royal at Paris was put into 
 possession of parties who signed the Formulary. 
 
 Upon the succession of Clement IX. to the Papal 
 chair, in 1667 a reconciliation was effected by the " con- 
 cordat which is known as the Pacification of Clement 
 IX," granted Jan. 19, 1669. " The recluses of Port- 
 Royal had now liberty to return to their favorite retreat; 
 
81 
 
 and there tliey occupied themselves with those works 
 which have rendered their names immortal.'* The next 
 twenty-live years were the most productive period of 
 their history. 
 
 The controversy re-opened in 1696, in reference to the 
 Moral Reflections on the New Testament by Paschasius 
 Quesnel, which had recently appeared ; and on the whole 
 breadth of dispute in 1703, by the action of Clement XL, 
 in issuing a Bull " renewing all the doctrines of the For- 
 mulary, and making no account whatever of the Pacifi- 
 cation of Clement IX. The General Assembly of the 
 French clergy received the Bull," and the Pope, thus sus- 
 tained, issued on July 13, 1708 his condemnation of the 
 Moral Reflecti(Mis, " as infected with Jansenian heresy." 
 
 It was now the purpose of its opponents to utterly 
 destroy Jansenism. Port-Royal in the country had been 
 the residence of a number of the most learned and gifted 
 of that persuasion. A Papal Bull ordered tlie suppres- 
 sion of the convent. In 1709 the residents were dispersed 
 and consigned to separate prisons. Everything belong- 
 ing to it, worth removal, was transferred to Port-Royal 
 at Paris. The buildings were then demolished, 1710, 
 and subsequently, 1712, the dead bodies were turned out 
 of their graves and thrown into a pit in one indiscrimi- 
 nate mass. Thus fell Port-Royal, a serious disaster to 
 Jansenistsin France, and a corresponding triumph to their 
 Jesuit foes. The spirit of Port-Royal however did not 
 die. It still lives, in the writings and influence of its 
 illustrious men and women. 
 
 Other blows continued to be inflicted upon Jansenism 
 through Papal agency, which was in those times gener- 
 ally controlled by the Jesuits. On September 8, 1713, 
 appeared the famous constitution Unigenitus, in which one 
 hundred and one propositions extracted from the writ- 
 ings of Quesnel were condemned. That act was soon 
 found to be extreme. Only twelve of the propositions 
 could be proved heretical. In some of them the error 
 was on the side of the men who condemned them, in 
 others, a meaning was imputed which Jansenism did not 
 justify, and Clement himself thought twelve of the rest 
 not worthy of censure. The Constitution, notwithstand- 
 
82 
 
 iiig, condemned the whole one hundred and one in the 
 lump. It was accordingly disapproved of as unjust, by 
 many persons, who had no predelictions for Jansenism ; 
 and for years France was distracted by the disputes 
 between those who opposed, and those who defended it. 
 The latter ultimately prevailed, and in 1730, the Consti- 
 tution Unigemtus became a law of France. 
 
 Another severe blow fell upon Jansenism from a dif- 
 ferent quarter. In 1727, Francis Paris, a deacon of holy 
 life, and of some reputation among the opposers of the 
 Umgeniius, was buried in the Cemetery of St. Medard. 
 " It soon began to be reported that miracles were per- 
 formed at his tomb." Multitudes of people resorted 
 thither. They became excited with expectation and the 
 recital of the wonders which many believed they had seen. 
 Some fell into convulsions, foamed at the mouth, tore 
 their hair and their clothes, groaned, sobbed, or were 
 struck down, as they thought, by an invisible power. 
 The fanaticism became alarming; and the king ordered 
 the cemetery to be closed. But the evil was not stayed ; 
 convulsionists appeared all over the country, and pro- 
 ceeded to the wildest extremes. And more than once 
 the spectacle was presented of a person submitting to be 
 crucified. This was as late as 1758. By the connection 
 of these extravagances with its name, was Jansenism 
 more injured than by all the attacks of its outside ene- 
 mies. The subsequent history of the party in France 
 has not been insignificant, but comparatively obscure. 
 It might be called the low church Catholic, and retains 
 its own distinctive marks. In Holland, with the Bishop 
 of Utrecht as leader, it has maintained a more consisteiit 
 life. On the basis of opposition to the Unigeniius, it became 
 separated from Rome, and so stands to the present day. 
 
 QUIETISM. 
 
 Mysticism, which had increased in the course of the fif- 
 teenth century, found in the sixteenth, its most congenial 
 element in the evangelical part of the Reformation. 
 Still there were some of those devotional spirits who 
 adhered to the Catholic Church, who loved its forms of 
 
 1f^ 
 
 -Oh 
 
83 
 
 worship, and venerated its traditions, and in the midst, 
 sometimes, of much obloquy, and suspicion of protest- 
 antism, pursued their pious meditations. In the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century, that class was honorably 
 represented by Francis de Sales, nominally Bishop of 
 Geneva, and author of" Philothea," a favorite devotional 
 book with pious Catholics ; and in the succeeding 
 generatio:i by John Scheffler a German, first a 
 Protestant and afterwards a Catholic Priest, who added 
 "several sweet and devout hymns" to both communions. 
 The persuasion assumed consistency and form, in con- 
 nection with a book called the Spiritual Guide by 
 Michael de Molinos, a Spanish priest, born at Saragossa 
 in 1627. The book was, in 1687, condemned by the Inqui- 
 sition. Molinos was himself imprisoned in a monastery, 
 where he died in 1696. The doctrines of his book were 
 accepted elsewhere, among Protestants, as well as in the 
 Catholic world, especially in Fi-ance, where they formed 
 a party including the illustrious names of Fenelon and 
 Madame Guyon. They recommended as the true way of 
 life that the " soul should seek to become affectionately 
 one with God, by quiet prayer, and a complete annihila- 
 tion of its own independent existence," to the extent of 
 having no concern for its own salvation, provided God 
 is glorified. 
 
 From their opponents they received the old heretical 
 name of Quietists. Their doctrine was one of those 
 varieties of mysticism, which have appeared, from time 
 to time, in various periods of the Christian Church, 
 Occasionally a true type of Christian piety; and yet in 
 the case of most people who adopt it, involving the 
 serious error of ignoring a christian's duty to the world, 
 and sinking into spiritual selfishness. But that certainly 
 was not chargeable upon its two great leaders in France, 
 The writings of Fenelon are known wherever the French 
 language extends. And Madame Guyon "travelled many 
 years with her confessor, La Combe, who shared her 
 views, through France and Switzerland ; and by means 
 of numerous writings, and oral instruction, kindled a like 
 burning love to God in the hearts of countless disciples, 
 
84 
 
 male and female." In the Romish Church, at the end of 
 the seventeenth century, the pious lives of the Quietists 
 stood out the more distinctly before observation, in con- 
 trast with the hollow formality prevailing around them, 
 and the godlessness of fashionable society. The con- 
 demnation which fell upon Molinos followed the Quietists 
 in France. For the instigator of it was the Jesuit La 
 ChaisJe, confessor of Louis XIV. Fenelon read the papal 
 censure of his doctrines from the pulpit, in 1699, sub- 
 mitted, and admonished his people to submit to superior 
 authority. 
 
 Jansenism and Quietism, no doubt erred on some 
 points, but they were earnest, and godly attempts for a 
 revival of vital truth and piety. They were both sub- 
 jected to persecution by the iniiaence of the Jesuits with 
 the inquisition, with the pajtacy and the King of France. 
 
 THE REIGN OF JESUITISM. 
 
 To support, defend and propaLjate the Romish religion 
 as they found it, the society of Loyola had, from its insti- 
 tution, continued with a zeal, assiduity and craft, which 
 as a mere intellectual exploit cannot be contemplated 
 without admiration. Combined as one man, intelligent, 
 perfectly trained, and a sufficient number of pious men 
 among them to give the credit of sanctity to the whole, 
 the system which bound them together was intolerant, 
 unscrupulous of means, and unrelentrng. They made 
 war upon every shape and movement of reform, and yet 
 to obtain a real addition to their force, or reach a desired 
 end, were ready to indulge their converts, to any degree 
 short of open scandal, in vice or superstition. Mere vice, 
 if covert, was venial ; it was heresy, according to their 
 standard, which was deadly sin. To guide the education 
 of the young, and the consciences of powerful penitents 
 in the confessional, and to wield the policy of nations, 
 through sacerdotal influence over the minds of rulers, 
 and cooperating mysteriously with one another, from 
 country to country to that end, were the favorite methods 
 of the society. Their most bitter opposition was, of 
 course, directed against Protestants ; but their ceaseless 
 intermeddling created greater dislike to them among 
 
85 
 
 Catholics. To the Papacy in its war with the various 
 forces of Reform, they had proved an invaluable ally. 
 Their order was the very machinery needed to sustain it 
 when papal practices, which no argumentation could 
 defend, were still fresh in the minds of men. The papacy 
 was the keystone of a government whjch could not safely 
 be removed at once; and yet to retain it in force, some- 
 thing else than sound reason was needed. The Jesuits 
 brouglit that something else, in blind devotion to its 
 interests, consummate organization, the subtlest craft, 
 and a moral theology adapted to the circumstances. 
 They aspired to put themselves at the head of the Catho- 
 lic ])eople, and thereby to secure the unlimited supremacy 
 of the Romish Church over all states. Extraordinary 
 success attended upon their elibrts, from the tirst. It 
 culminated in the generalship of Claudius Aquaviva, 
 (1581 to 1615) and of Mutius Vitelleschi (1615 to 1645), 
 and although seriously impaired in the Jansenian con- 
 troversy, it was in the first instance morally rather 
 than materially. In the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury they controlled the politics of Italy, had established 
 their influence at the court of the emperor, and made 
 Vienna, Ingoldstadt and Cologne centres of operation, 
 Treves, Maj-ence, Spires, Aschatfenburg and Wurtzburg 
 were seats of their colleges, and Munich was the "Rome 
 of Germany." Bohemia they had completely subjugated. 
 Bavaria and Baden were brought under their rule, the 
 protestant population being compelled to become Catho- 
 lic, or go into exile. Although restrained in France by 
 the policy of Henry lY., they established themselves in 
 Lyons, and even in Paris succeeded in securing an increas- 
 ing party among the members of the Sorbonne, and in 
 the time of Louis XIV., obtained unrestricted freedom 
 of action and royal cooperation. In Spain opposed by 
 the Dominicans, they succeeded at last in obtaining a foot- 
 hold at Alcala and Salamanca, from which the}- gradually 
 extended their movements to the head of government. 
 In Portugal they were received readily, furnished con- 
 fessors for the royal family, and dictated the policy of 
 the nation. Similarly favored from the iirst in Belgium, 
 they had their colleges in Courtray, Ypern, Bruges, Ant- 
 
werp, and Brussels, and thence made their way among 
 the protestants of the United iSTetherlands. And their 
 colleges were estahlished at Douay and Rome "for the 
 benefit of England." To the north, Poland was their 
 stronghold, whence invasion was carried into Sweden and 
 Russia, in iieither of which was it permanently success- 
 ful, and from both did it provoke retaliation. Having 
 insinuated themselves into places of influence at different 
 Catholic courts, they artfully wielded tlie minds of prin- 
 ces and statesmen to the execution of their designs. 
 
 They also maintained their missionaries among the 
 heathen, with the intention of buildirig up their order in 
 every nation under heaven. The sincere piety of man}- 
 of their humbler brethren it would be the height of 
 ancharitableness to deny, and their plans fill the mind 
 with a sense of grandeur, yet no unprejudiced reader of 
 their history can hesitate to say that the motives of the 
 ruling spirits were profoundly secular — the latter was the 
 element of their system which in process of time increas- 
 ed, while the other diminished. Some of their foreign 
 missionaries were self-denying, godly men ; others were 
 in full sympathy with the ambition of their order. Many 
 of the latter combined to keep before the world a succes- 
 sion of such glowing reports of missionary success, of 
 such numbers of converts, of such scenes of christian 
 purity and harmony, and of such triumphs of the Catho- 
 lic Church among the heathen, as long adorned and 
 upheld Jesuit repute at Rome and throughout western 
 Europe. Japan, China, and India were the scenes of 
 their most boasted triumphs. And if contemplated 
 merely in themselves, the vast attainments, the versatile 
 talents, and long endurance of some of their Indian and 
 Chinese missionaries — such men as Ricci, Adam Schall, 
 and De Nobili — were really wonderful. 
 
 But reports from more humble minded and truthful 
 men, in course of time got before the European public, 
 other orders also sent their missionaries to those coun- 
 tries ; and complaints increased that the Jesuit converts 
 were only nominal, that the essentials of Christianity 
 were being surrendered for the sake of inducing multi- 
 tudes to assume the name of it, and practice a fev/ Catho- 
 
'f'^ 87 
 
 lie forms, which were also so adapted to the heathen as 
 to make the practice easy. Closer investi^^ation con- 
 firmed the reports. The matter was becoming a public 
 scandal. Orders were sent from Rome, by the hand of 
 the papal legate Tonrnon to put a stop to it. Tonrnon 
 left Europe in 1702, conveyed his message to the Jesuit 
 mission in India, and arrived in China in 1704. The 
 result M'as unfortunate to .himself. At the imperial court 
 the missionaries were in favor. Tournon was driven 
 away by the emperor, and imprisoned at Macao, where 
 he died in 1710. Controversy arose between the mis- 
 sionaries and the authorities at home, greatly prolonged 
 b}- the intervening distance, and tJie slow methods of 
 travel in those days. It did not come to an end until 
 1742, when Benedict XIV. entirely prohibited the accom- 
 modation to heathen rites which was the subject of dis- 
 pute. The missions forthwith lost their eclat and dwind- 
 led away. Yet the field was not entirely abandoned. 
 To this day there are remnants of that Jesuit work in 
 China, in a community where the name christian is 
 applied to a combination of Catholic and heathen observ- 
 ances. 
 
 Jesuit missions in Abyssinia enjoyed a similarly ^ / x. 
 
 splended success, which was extinguished in their expul- c'j^^^^^^' **^ '' __ 
 sion from tiie country by an uprising of the native mono- ^^-tt^ ^Mu-*^ 
 physite population, whoin 1632, restored theirown church. 
 In America their work progressed more quietly, being left, 
 except in Paraguay and California, to its own natural 
 results. In every direction those results have proved to 
 be little better than heathenisrji among the ignorant, and 
 the provocative of infidelity to the intelligent. Perhaps 
 the least corrupted by their principle of accommodation 
 were the missions to the North American Indians, though 
 the fruit reaped was certainly small. 
 
 The Jansenian controversy, especially the Provincial 
 Letters- of Pascal, had damaged by exposing the moral 
 character of Jesuitism. The public and Papal condem- 
 nation of their missionary practices also condemned all 
 concerned in them of falsehood and charlatanism. Mean- 
 while their intermeddling in financial and state affairs 
 had become offensive to the governments of Europe, and , 
 
in some cases, intolerable. The Roman Catholic Church 
 divided into two great parties between those who cen- 
 sured and those who defended the Jesuits. Papal elec- 
 tions were determined by it, to one side or the other. 
 
 But the progress of public opinion was adverse to the 
 order. In 1759 all its members resident in Portugal and 
 its dependencies were banished. In 1764 the}^ were 
 expelled from France ; in 1766, from Spain and Sicily; 
 and finally, by the act of Clement XIV., in 1773, the 
 order was abolished. The Bull, Dominus ac Redemptpr, 
 was issued on the 21st of July, 1773, and took effect on 
 the 16th of August next. Clement died the following 
 year. 
 
 THE PAPACl. 
 
 The civil power of the Papacy, notwithstanding the 
 force of the re-action, was now greatly impaired in both 
 degree and extent of authority. Not only had some 
 nations separated themselves hopelessly, but those who 
 remained in connection with it, no longer paid it the 
 reverence of former times, and obedience, on the part of 
 the great monarchs, was no longer to be inforced. Great 
 powers and privileges were still admitted to be resident in 
 Rome, which France, Spain, and the Empire equally dis- 
 regarded when it suited their purpose ; and Papal weak- 
 ness rendered it necessary to submit to much, which all 
 Catholic states would regard as just ground of complaint. 
 In the wars of the Spanish and Polish successions, the 
 troops of Catholic powers in ditferent directions entered 
 the Pope's dominions, and plundered his subjects. 
 
 It was in the fourth year of Innocent X. that the 
 treaty of Westphalia was concluded, against which he 
 protested in vain. It was he also who authoritatively 
 condemned the five propositions ascribed to Jansen. He 
 died in 1655. His successor, Alexander VII., became 
 involved, by Jesuit influence, in the Janenist controversy, 
 while he suifered a deep humiliation in a dispute with 
 Louis XIV., on account of an insult to the French 
 Ambassador at Rome. " Alexander refusing the satis- 
 faction required, the king not only made himself master 
 of Avignon, but marched an army into Italy," and com- 
 
 ai 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^1 
 
89 
 
 pelled the pope to sign a peace to ]iis disgrace and loss 
 of territory. Clement IX., who succeeded him, on the 
 30th of June, 1667, effected a suspension of the contro- 
 versy between the Jansenists and Jesuits, accomtnodated 
 a long existing dispute with Portugal, by confirming the 
 bishops of King Pedro's nomination, and the " mildness 
 of his government towards the subjects of the ecclesiasti- 
 cal state" procured much honor for his brief pontificate. 
 He died in December, 1668. The next Pope, Clement 
 X., filled the chair six years, without any event of dis- 
 tinction in history. Innocent XL, began his reign Dec. 
 10, 1676, with the purpose to restore the papal suprem- 
 acy in temporal things. The attempt in the case of 
 France led to controversj- in which the clergy and peo- 
 ple defended the cause of their king. Louis XIV., 
 called a council of the French clergy which, under the 
 leadership of Bosuet, bishop of Meaux, defined more 
 sharply than ever before the privileges of the Galilean 
 Church. The king persecuted his own protestant sub- 
 jects, and enforced Catholicism ; but refused submission 
 to the Pope. He added unnecessary indignity, main- 
 tained his minister at Rome by force of arras in con- 
 tempt of the papal regulations, and even disposed of 
 ecclesiastical benefices, within the bounds of France, by 
 his own will. Innocent, though far from a feeble pontiff, 
 proved unable to maintain his now impracticable claims. 
 His action touching the revocation of the edict of Xantes 
 was rather one of compliance with the Jesuits, than a 
 matter of great interest to himself, at that juncture, and 
 though it damaged the cause of the haughty monarch, 
 damaged that of the Papacy still more. 
 
 Alexander VIII. was elected on the sixth of October, 
 1690, seven v/eeks after the death of Innocent. A begin- 
 ning was made in reconciling the difficulty with France, 
 but before peace was concluded the pope died, on the 
 first of February, 1691. The election of a successor was 
 lengthened out until the twelfth of July, and resulted in 
 the choice of Innocent XII., who concluded the peace 
 with France. He also prudently avoided a quarrel with 
 the Emperor, while enforcing his authority upon " the 
 vassals in the ecclesiastical states;" and no pope was 
 
90 
 
 ever more fortnniite in having his censure of heresy com- 
 plied with than he, in the submission of the Quietist 
 Fenelon. He died Sept. 27, 1700. 
 
 Clement XI. was elected on thethird of November 
 next, and reigned twenty-one years. One of his first 
 transactions was to oppose the erection of Prussia into 
 a kingdom," to which the party concerned paid no regard. 
 Still more was the feebleness of the papacy in temporal 
 things exhibited in the war of the Spanish succession. 
 Professing to stand neutral, Clement was accused by 
 both parties of befriending their enemies. The Frencli 
 extorted from him the recognition of Philip V., as king 
 of Spain. The Austrians afterwards entered and plun- 
 dered his territories, and constrained him to annul that 
 recognition, and substitute the name of their candidate, 
 the Archduke Charles. If he offended the Jesuits by his 
 censure of their missions in China and India, they were 
 still too strong to be broken by it, and he gave them 
 ample satisfaction in the blow inflicted on the jansenists. 
 
 Upon the death of Clement XL, in 1721, Innocent 
 XIII. succeeded, and reigned three years without per- 
 forming any act to detain attention upon him. 
 
 Controversy on the subject of the Jesuit missions in 
 which the opposition was led by the Dominicans, was now 
 agitating the Catholic Church. Benedict XIII. was 
 raised to the pontificate in the interest of the Dominican 
 party, himself a Dominican monk. His reign was 
 marked b}^ an unusually pacific attitude towards the 
 Greek and Protestant Churclies, with a view to reconcile 
 them with the Roman. But he left a greater reputation 
 for virtue and learning," than for the wisdom or pros- 
 perity of his administration. 
 
 Clement XII., who succeeded in 1730, spent the ten 
 years of his reign in fruitless attempts to repress the 
 growth of religious liberty, and to revive the reality of 
 pai)al prerogatives, whicih the civil powers could no longer 
 allow. In these eflforts he embroiled himself success- 
 ively with the courts of France, Austria and Spain, and 
 consumed much of his time in contentions from which 
 it was impossible that he could emerge with credit. 
 
91 
 
 In 1740 Benedict XIV. succeeded to the chair thus 
 diminished in real power, and by a coarse of moderation 
 procured for it more respect than the most exorbitant 
 claims of his predecessors could compell. He endeavored 
 to establish a wise econom_y in the administration of his 
 estates; and acquired, by his tolerant and unassuming 
 spirit, the esteem of all Europe. "When his territories 
 were invaded, his utmost efforts were laid out to repair 
 the damage thereby inflicted upon thepeople, which also 
 the common sentime'it of Europe condemned. Of the 
 conclusive effect with which he rebuked the Jesuit pro- 
 ceedings in India and China mention has already been 
 made. 
 
 Clement XIII., elected in 1758, in the interest of the 
 Jesuits, used every effort to avert the effects of that 
 unpopularity which had settled down upon them. His 
 efforts were fruitless to that end, but exposed to immin- 
 ent hazard the authority of his own office. It was within 
 his pontificate that the Jesuits were expelled from Portu- 
 gal, France and Spain. The anti-Jesuit paity elected his 
 successor, who took the papal name of Clement XIV. 
 For the interests of the Pa|)acy, in that crisis, no better 
 choice could have been made. Jesuits for two hundred 
 years had put themselves forward as its defenders, and 
 its reputation was largely associated with theirs. It had 
 never submitted to recognize indebtedness to their sup- 
 port, and had occasionally reproved their practices; but 
 hr.d it persisted in tolerating them, lying, as they now 
 were, under the general reprobation of good men, it 
 could not have escaped serious diminution of respect. 
 And yet, for the head of the Papacy to array himself 
 against his own janizaries was a daring act. But to that 
 act Clement XIV. was found equal. He was elected in 
 1769, abolished the Jesuit order in 1773, and died in 1774. 
 
 Upon the whole, the course of Papal history, from 
 1648 to 1774, was that of an irregular fluctuating decline. 
 The admitted talents and virtues of one or two popes 
 could only retard the downward progress. And the 
 declining secular power dragged with it that which more 
 properly belonged to ecclesiastical relations. Equally 
 w ise and bold as was the act of Clement XIV., whereby 
 
92 
 
 he severed his office from the Jesuits, it came too late to 
 avert all the calamities so nearly ripened. 
 
 STATK OF RELIGION AND INTELLIGENCE IN THE ROMISH 
 CHURCH. 
 
 Through the war made in the Catholic Church upon 
 every attempt to revive a purer doctrine or more spiritual 
 life, practical piety was confined within exceedingly nar- 
 row bounds, and became more and more rare. " The 
 effect was to establisli i'ormalism in full authority, under 
 cover of which infidelity prevailed, and prevailed most 
 where intelligence was greatest. In a ritual service, not 
 designed for instruction, and in which the peoph^ are 
 only lookers on, reason finds littie to take hold of, and 
 soon wearies and drops the theme altogether. If religion 
 is authoritatively confined to such set observances, it will 
 soon become drained of all real interest. And if even in 
 that condition its external observance is deemed suffi- 
 cient for salvation, it will stand in the way of heart 
 piety. These ends were actually reached in Catholic 
 Europe in the latter half of the eighteenth century — 
 worldliness under the cover of profession of faith, and 
 utter unbelief on the partof the more intelligent. Piety 
 in order to be warm, earnest and healthy must have a 
 degree of freedom. Every christian does not learn Christ 
 in precisely the same way and through the same light. 
 The evil which resulted was greatest in France, where 
 intelligence was commonest, and intellect most active. 
 
 In France also the philosophy of Locke was accepted, 
 and carried out, with a logical abandon, truly French, to 
 conclusions, from which its English author would have 
 shrunk in horror, and which were turned as weapons against 
 all religion in the spirit of afrivolous and scoft'ing ridicule. 
 
 From the time of Charlemagne the Galilean Church 
 has been recognized as laying claim to a certain degree 
 of freedom from Papal rule. The great points of Galli- 
 canism, as set forth by Bosuet, and a national assembly 
 of French clergy under Louis XIV., are four, 1, that 
 Kings are independent of the pope, in secular matters, 
 
 2, that episcopal jurisdiction is immediately from Christ, 
 
 3, that a general Council is a higher authority than the 
 
93 
 
 Pope, and 4, that the Pope is not infallible, except with 
 the concurrence of the church. All that was directly 
 opposed to Jesuitism, and the latter success of that order 
 in France had operated to hold Galilean principles in 
 abeyance. 
 
 Ag'aiUjthe Jesuits, putting themselves forward as the 
 defenders of religion, had systematically joined interests 
 with the nobility and the court. And as the merciless 
 oppression exercised by the latter became increasingly 
 weighty, popular detestation fell upon all alike. To men 
 capable of comprehending the order and nature of the 
 causes at work, it became impossible to respect what was 
 [)Ut before them for Christianity, and tomeiiwho looked no 
 further disbelief was inevitable. There can be no doubt 
 that piety in that church, at that time, existed chiefly 
 aniong the ignorant, and was protected by their ignorance. 
 A tremendous calamity was certainly before a nation, 
 when so large a [tortion of it lay in that condition. 
 
 And \'et there was no lack of organization for such 
 piety as was recognized and allowable. The regular ser- 
 vice, though not so cumbrous as that of the Greek 
 Church, was very copious. And if attendance upon all 
 that did not suffice a troubled conscience, there were 
 various monastic orders into one or other of which, if a 
 penitent felt moved thereto), he would find little difficulty 
 in obtaining admittance. With the view of meeting the 
 utmost of such demands, the more recerrtly constituted 
 orders were the most severe, .Such was the revived /-lcM-^«-*/7 
 order of La Trappe, and such that of the Redemptorists,^, . ,^ 
 and the " Sodality of the devotion of the heart of Jesus." <*:^<-f^>''**" 
 Orders were also instituted for the purpose of educating 
 youth in consistency with the doctrines and practices of 
 the Catholic Church. To that the Redemptorists gave 
 much of their attention, and it was the sole object of the 
 order of La Salle — Fratres ignoraMioe. The new orders 
 had all a view to the confining of piety to prescribed 
 channels, and the severer exaction of compliance with 
 the ordinances of the Catholic Church. 
 
 The intellectual activity of the time found some hon- 
 orable representatives among the Catholics, especially of 
 France. The Benedictines'of the Congregation of St. 
 
i)4 
 
 Maur continued tlieir learned labors, which, in a liistori- 
 cal point of view, are of great value. Others employed 
 themselves in editing works of the ancient Fathers, and 
 other relics of Ciiristian antiquity. Many of the 
 Jesuits were men of great learning, and ability, and 
 some, of unquestionable piety. It was the time of the 
 Theologians Bona and Noris, and the antiquarian Mura- 
 tori of Italy, and of the historians Mabillon and Du Pin, 
 of France, and the illustrious writers of Port Royal have 
 already been mentioned. 
 
 It was also within the same period that the best 
 preachers of the Galilean Church flourished, at the head 
 of whom stand, the great names of Boui'daloue, Bosuet, 
 Flechier, and Massillon. And among Romish Biblical 
 scholars appeared Simon, Calmet, and Houbigant. The 
 Catholic literature of Spain was comparatively scanty, 
 and the best intellectual activity of German}- was given 
 to the cause Protestantism. 
 
 POLITICAL CHANGES AFFECTING THE CHURCH. 
 
 The form of government prevailing in that [leriod was 
 absolute monarchy, and the principal powers were France 
 and Spain, the former in its prime and the latter declin- 
 ing. Next were England, the Empire and Sweden. 
 France and Spain were Romish; England and Sweden 
 Protestant. The imperial dynasty was Romish, but Ger- 
 many was divided. The smaller Protestant states, 
 Western Switzerland and Holland, adde-l to the weight 
 of northern Germany and Sweden, formed, on the con 
 tinent. an interest opposed, but not in itself of equal 
 strength to the great Romish powers when combined. 
 England w^as, during all the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century, with exception of a few years under Cromwell, 
 wholly occupied with her own interna] affairs; and did 
 not again become a great European power, until so con- 
 stituted by the policy of William III. From that date, 
 she gradually assumed the position of a leader on the 
 Protestant side, bringing thereb}' the two parties more 
 nearly to an equal balance. The prime point of inter- 
 national policy w^as to maintain an equality, or balance 
 among the great powers. 
 
95 
 
 Charles II. of Spain died in the last year of the seven- 
 teenth century, without an heir. In him ended the 
 Spanish branch of the house of Hapsburg. A contest 
 ensued for the succession, between the Austrian Hayjsburo^ 
 and an allied branch of the Bourbons, a grandson of 
 Louis XIV., Philip of Anjou. France with her allies 
 defended the claim of Philip, while Austria with her 
 allies, including England, Holhind, Savoy and Portugal, 
 maintained that of the archduke Charles. The war 
 closed with putting Philip on the throne ; but with great 
 limitations, and the loss of all the Italian states — Lom- 
 bardy, Milan, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily — which had 
 belonged to Spain. 
 
 In that war, distinguished by the exploits of Mai 1- 
 borough and Prince Eugene, and lasting from 1701 to 
 1713, the Duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus, though he 
 first joined France, soon changed, and fought on the side 
 of Austria. His reward was the enlargement of his nar- 
 row dominions, at the expense of the allies of France in 
 northern Italy, and the annexation of Sicily, taken from 
 Spain. With that extent of territory, he was honored 
 with the title of king. Austria received the rest of the 
 Spanish states in Italy. Four years afterwards, Victor 
 Amadeus accepted Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. Thus 
 Austria came into possession of the two neighboring 
 states of Sicily and Naples, and Victor Amadeus became 
 king of Sardinia, a title which his successors retained 
 until Victor Emanuel became king of Italy. 
 
 Again, during the occupation of the great powers with 
 the wVir of the Polish succession, 1733 and 1734, Don 
 Carlos, a son of the Bourbon King of Spain, and duke of 
 Parma and Placentia in right of his mother, led a Span- 
 ish force into Naples, and took possession of both it and 
 Sicily. Under arrangements of the succeeding peace, 
 he was allowed to retain his conquest, on condition of 
 surrendering Parma and Placentia to Austria. 
 
 Thus the Dukes of Savoy became Kings, a Bourbon 
 was placed on the throne of Spain, another on that of 
 Naples and Sicily, while the house of Austria held the 
 best of Northern Italy. 
 
96 
 
 In the North, the little s^tate of Prussia, made a king- 
 dom in 1701, was gradnallj enlarging her bounds, to 
 which important additions were made, with a still greater 
 addition of military strength, in the reigi; of Frederick 
 II., who came to the throne in 1740. 
 
 Russia, champion of the Greek Church, also continued 
 her course of territorial enlargement, especially to the 
 east and south. 
 
 Poland, lying between Russia, Prussia and Austria, 
 was distracted by internal dissentions. Russian arms 
 were now in condition to retaliate invasion, in the inter- 
 est of Greek Catholics. Austria had an interest in pro- 
 tecting Roman Catholics, and Prussia, Protestants, A 
 treaty was concluded, in 1773, by those three powers, 
 for the dismemberment of Poland, the greater part of 
 which they divided among themselves, and occupied their 
 respective portions by force of arms. 
 
 The Venetians, who had longlield dominion in South- 
 ern Greece, were finally expelled from that country in 
 1718, when it came entirely into the hands of the Turks, 
 and Venice ceased to be a power of any importance. 
 Her superiority in trade was lost before. 
 
 All the great political and military changes tended 
 relatively to diminish the Romish states, and build up 
 the Protestant, and, to some degree, the Greek. A new 
 and strong kingdom was added to the Protestant con- 
 nection. The number of Romish Kingdoms remained 
 the same. If Poland was absorbed, Sardinia was set up. 
 And Sardinia has proved a liberal power. Romish 
 Poland was not. 
 
 To sum up briefly, the secular changes of the time 
 most favorable to progress of religious liberty were 
 
 1. The Peace of Westphalia, 1648. 
 
 2. The English Commonwealth, 1849—1660. 
 
 3. The hnglish Revolution, 1688—89—90. 
 
 4. The war of the Spanish succession — which reduced 
 the power of both France and Spain, the greatest, and 
 most relentless champions of religious intolerance — 1701 
 —1713—14. 
 
 5. The erection of Prussia into a kingdom — 1701. 
 
 6. The Union of England and Scotland, 1707. 
 
97 
 
 7. The tirst steps of the Dukes of Savoy towards 
 royalty and a liberal policy— the elevation of "that royal 
 dynasty destined to set the example of free relio;ion 
 among Romanists, to unite Italy, and extinguish the'tem- ^^^ 
 
 poral power of the Papacy. •^lls^'^ 
 
 THE SPIRIT OF RECENT RELIGIOUS PROGRESS. 
 
 Ancient civilization leaned to art; the modern gives 
 prominence to science; and the only culture proper to 
 the middle ages was shaped by sacerdotal constraint. In 
 another light, the activit}^ of the human mind was shown 
 in ancient times chiefly by constructiveness, in the mid- 
 dle ages, by credulity, and in tlie modern is determined 
 by criticism. At all times of any note in human history 
 there are two moral forces in operation — the conserva- 
 tive, and the progressive. In modern church history 
 these are each subdivided. The two progressive forces are 
 Evangelism and Rationalism ; the two conservative, are 
 literal Orthodoxy and Ritualism. Each side has its ex- 
 tremes. Rationalism is followed by Infidelity, and hon- 
 est Ritualism, by Superstition. There is a perfuiictorj^ 
 ritualism which is only a screen for unbelief. 
 
 Thus stand the great religious forces of modern times ; 
 on one hand, Conservatism, with the mass of truth on 
 her side, content with not losing ground; and Ritualism 
 with a strong tendency to go backward into Jewish, if 
 not heathen observances; on the otlier, Evangelism and 
 Rationalism, both hopeful of still better things ro come, 
 and laboring to bring them about; but the latter seeking 
 to advance by means of human reason, and the former, 
 in the power of the Holy Spirit. They are directly 
 opposed to each other, as to principle of action, but are 
 on the same side in relation to Conservatism. Against 
 everything wliich cannot give a satisfactory account of 
 itself they alike make war. And yet there is a point at 
 which they separate. When it comes to the question of 
 surrendering some doctrine of tlie Gospel to the demands 
 of a philosophy. Evangelism seeks a more congenial 
 position with Conservatism. On the other side Ritual- 
 ism sometimes seeks the alliance of Rationalism, in seek- 
 ing an explanation of the forms it employs. By Ritual- 
 
98 
 
 ism I do not mean merely the usino- of rites in worship ; 
 for all christians use some rites; but the faith of those 
 who repose their hope of salvation upon the observance 
 of rites. 
 
 Evangelization is the central force by which the king- 
 dom of Christ is carried forward. It has been supported 
 by a series of revivals, occurring at intervals of time and 
 place, increasing in frequency with the onward progress 
 of the church, and giving greater spirituality to chi"istiaii 
 profession. The rationalist is the human sirle of modern 
 historical progress. 
 
 Christian Rationalism seeks to interpret Scripture and 
 defend it in accordance with, and on the level of h uman 
 reason and may be entirely consistent with Gospel truth, 
 and helpful in its exposition. It errs when it excludes 
 everything above the level of liuman reason. Skepti- 
 cism doubts about accepting Scripture as true, and Infi- 
 delity rejects it entirely. 
 
 The objection to Rationalism does not He in its being 
 reasonable, but in the nature of the fruits which arc 
 expected from the action of reason. Reason cannot get 
 out of its material more than its auiterial contains. Man and 
 all the rest of the natural universe are contained in the 
 decrees of God; but God's decrees are not all contained 
 in the natural universe. A man, by reasoning from what 
 he finds in the universe, may come to true conclusions 
 about what he has found, but can never rise into the 
 region of those divine decrees, wliich are not contained 
 in the natural universe. But i-evelation of God's plan 
 of saving sinful men, and of his disposition towards men. 
 is not contained in the natural universe, and cannot 
 therefore be deduced from it. Nor can it be determined 
 from the natural universe wliat the plan of salvation 
 ought to be. Revelation is a sei:)arate product of the 
 creative mind, additional to the natural universe, and 
 must be learned, as we learn the facts of the universe, 
 by intuition and faith in its own proper facts, before we 
 are in condition to deal with it rationally. The unchris- 
 tian rationalist lacks in breadth of generalization, because 
 his induction is not sufHciently comprehensive, lie takes 
 into view only the natural, and of course gets only the 
 
99 
 
 natural in liis coiiclnsioii. Ilis relio-ions oversisj^ht leads 
 to philosophical error, ami thence to false doctrine. 
 
 Kitnalisni opposes Evangelism from the other side, 
 and on the still lower ground that compliance with the 
 ordinances of the church is true union with the church, 
 and thereby secures salvation. It is opposed to Rational- 
 ism, on the ground that there is a supernatural agency in 
 the ordinances. Unable to encounter the rationalist on 
 liis ground, it assumes the attitude of unquestionable 
 authority. Accordingly, within the bosom of a ritualist 
 church, Rationalism is usually di-iven into silent, if not 
 outspoken, infidelity. 
 
 In the succeeding part of our narrative, these are the 
 forces whose action we shall chiefly have to record. And 
 we shall find them all, in all branches of the church, in 
 constant conflict, and most active where the church is 
 most active. 
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCHES, FROM THE PEACE OF WEST- 
 PHALIA TO THE EVE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 I. LUTIIERANISM. 
 
 As in France we have found the greatest mental 
 activity of Romanism, during this period, so in Germany 
 sliall we find the principal arena of Lutheranism. That 
 branch of the church has, from the age of the Reforma- 
 tion, held sway in i^orthern Germany and the Scandina- 
 vian countries ; but has never made much way beyond 
 those bounds except by colonizing. A part of the popu- 
 lation of Hungary and on the lower Danube, and a few 
 churches in France and elsewhere are of that connection ; 
 but whoever wor.ld follow the history of Lutheranism 
 must look to its changes in Germany. 
 
 During the sixteenth century the members of that 
 communion were very strict in exacting conformity with 
 tlieir standard books ; but in the course of the seven- 
 teenth, and espeeiall}' after the middle of it, a degree of 
 iaxitj- began to prevail. The Thirty years war, though 
 waged in the cause of religion, was prejudicial to the 
 higher religious interests, and in its close, the Lutheran 
 Church, having won the* battle of her own independence, 
 settled down to take her rest. Amid the reliofious cold- 
 
100 
 
 iiess, which succeeded — the sluggishness of a formal and 
 
 finished theology, and the deep and vvidel}- prevailing 
 
 godlessness in general society, a few persons united 
 
 themselves in an effort to bring their own minds more 
 
 immediately into contact with the Scriptures. Their 
 
 %, ' A ' /r.nieetings were commenced in 1670, at the instance, and 
 
 ^t^t-**/^*^ under the direction of Philip Jacob Spener, a zealous 
 
 ^ /'AmJL cf ''^"^^ devoted pastor at Frankfort on the Main. In 1686 
 
 f / he carried the same efforts to Dresden, where he was 
 
 api,)oiuted court preacher, and in 1691, to Berlin. Thus 
 
 arose the Pietist revival. 
 
 In 1695, the Wittenberg divines charged Spener with 
 heresy, and denounced two hundred and sixty-four errors, 
 which they professed to have found in his writings. He 
 and his friends defended themselves. And so arose the 
 Pietist controversy. Spener died in 1705 ; but the 
 reviviil went on, in the hands of others, among whom the 
 most conspicuous was A. H. Francke. A large party 
 A sustained the cause, and, in 1^4H, the Universiiy of Halle 
 /6 "7 / ' was founded in its interest. 
 
 — " It was whilst Jansenism was laboring to revive ortho- 
 
 doxy in the Roman Catholic Church, and tlie Quietists 
 were earnestly seeking " a closer walk with God," that 
 the Pietist revival arose, apparently in a similar spirit, 
 but in more favorable circumstances, of healthier and 
 fuller growth, and productive of more abundant fruit. 
 Halle became the centre of its operations — more than its 
 Port-Royal. In addition to the University, Francke there 
 established an Orphan school, which soon became a great 
 educational institute, and before his death, in 1727, num- 
 bered over twenty-two hundred pupils. Fellow laborers 
 in the university with Francke were Breithaupt, Lange, 
 Anton and Wolf; and, as inspectors of the school, suc- 
 cessively the Banmgartens, father and son. For forty 
 years from the beginning of its University, Halle contin- 
 ued to be a fountain of healthy christian activity. And 
 yet within the same time the seeds were planted thereof 
 another growth, mimely, the most vigorous element of 
 that style of rationalism which soon extended lo all Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Christian Wolf commenced his illustrious philosophi- 
 /" ,, calj?areer in 1703, and became professor in Halle in 1707. 
 
101 
 
 Desirous of secnrino- the utmost clearuess and certainty 
 in the conception and presentation of truth, he adopted 
 a severe mathematical method, and in treating^ of religion, 
 laid down as first principles, certain conditions, which he 
 held must characterize a revelation. Some of his disci- 
 plea carried those apriorl assumptions to a greater length 
 than he, and undertook to prove the absolnte necessity 
 of a revelation, and " vicarious satisfaction for mankind," 
 and the truth of separate doctrines revealed in the Bible. 
 Thus hunuin reason began to " assume the position of a 
 judge rather than an interpreter of Scripture." 
 
 Rejected at first by the Pietists, this philosophy, in 
 course of time, met witli acceptance from many of them. 
 It synipatliized with their opinion that the regenerated 
 heart is to Judge of the spiritual meaning of Scripture by 
 its own feelings, and led it astray, thereby ultimately 
 creating a separation fi-om the Pietist movement. The 
 fiersuasion grew up, and widely prevailed that the reason 
 of man is al)le to discover what is true in divine things, 
 that it has a test for the teaching of revelation in its own 
 <i priori determinations. an<i the feelings of the pious 
 heart. The exercise of such criticism could not be 
 limited to men si)iritually prepared to appreciate divine 
 truth. 
 
 About the same time, a third element was introduced, 
 which although adverse to the spirit of Pietism, in its 
 liumble and implicit faith, combined witli, and hastened 
 the development of the error taking root in it. The 
 influx of the doctrines of Deism from England had, both 
 directly and indirectly, great effect upon German opinion. 
 On one point the earlier deists coincided with the Pietists 
 and the Wolflan jihilosophy, namely in addressing their 
 criticism to the substance of Scripture. Their attack 
 upon its evidences came in later, and its substance was 
 always their principal aim. 
 
 At the point of time when these elements had united 
 in giving birth to a new style of thinking about revela- 
 tion, an" improved science of Hermeneutics appeared, 
 which that new style of thinking fortiiwith applied, or 
 perverted, to its purpose. That" method may be dated 
 from the publication of the Institutes of interpretation by 
 
102 
 
 Eniesti, in 1761. Its rules for deterniining the nieaiHiii»: 
 words of and phrases were soon turned as an instrument 
 to the discussion of tlie whole substance of Scripture. 
 The method underwent some modification as applied by 
 Michaelis to the Hebrew Scriptures, and in the hands of 
 Sender, who introduced the principle of accommodation, 
 and thereby opened a wide door for novelty. 
 
 All the agencies thus combined were initiated by 
 men of earnest well meaning purpose, if not all men of 
 real piety, and yet the result proved to be one of the 
 coldest varieties of christian rationalisu). Its philos(^phi- 
 cal element was still furtlier deteriorated whenitaccepted, 
 in a way consistent with itself, the sensationalism of 
 Locke. That style of thinking which grew up. in the 
 seventeenth century and first years of the eighteenth, in 
 the philosophical succession through DesCartes, Leibnitz 
 and Wolf received a new ingredient from connection 
 with Englisl) philosophy, an ingredient which tended to 
 confine it to the limits of the outer senses, and results of 
 their experience. 
 
 To begin thinking from a point beyond wliich thought 
 cannot go, to tliink clearly in sequence, and to reach 
 thereby reliable conclusidus in religion, morals, and exist- 
 ence generally, was the exalted purpose of those great 
 raen,^ In religion, as in everything else, there was no 
 starting point, no basis of authority, save the axioms 
 which were assumed as the foundation of all thinking. 
 Experience was assumed as furnishing the material, and 
 reason as the capacity and arbiter of truth. The stay and 
 direction of Scrii:)ture was, if not [>rofessedly,yet virtually, 
 and of necessity, set aside, or admitted only in as far as 
 consist?ent with the philosophic system. 
 
 Clearness was held to be the measure of truth. 
 " Truth," said Leibnitz," is that which dues not contra- 
 dict itself, and for which a sutficient reason can be ad- 
 duced." The former principle proves that a given pro- 
 position is possible, the latter that it expresses a reality. 
 
 Reason was accepted as the natural sense of truth, 
 and clearness the criterion of truth. After the introduc- 
 tion of Locke's ideas, commonsense took the place of 
 reason, or reason came to be used in the meaning of 
 
103 
 
 coniinonsense ; and experience was content with a lower 
 and narrower position than Locke had designed for it. 
 
 Thus, the popular philosophy which succeeded Wolfs, 
 and reigned alone, from the middle to the end of the 
 eighteenth century, stood upon the narrow platform of 
 sense experience, and accepted conimonsense as the cri- 
 terion of all truth,. Employed in the exposition of Scrip- 
 ture and of the doctrines of Christianity, it constituted, 
 with the other elements already mentioned, the German 
 Rationalism of the eighteenth century ; and in the ser- 
 vice of unbelief it was the logical power of the infidel. 
 At the same time it was the philosopliy of all classes alike, 
 believers and unbelievers. By believers it was deemed 
 as orthodox as the Gospel, and all tlefences of Scripture 
 were constructed in accordance with it, and by its means. 
 Whatever might be a man's spiritual experience, he felt 
 bound, when philosophizing, to reduce all higher things 
 to a few common elements, and claimed no recognition 
 for an original existence of that inner power, which pos- 
 sesses tlie descernment of spiritual things — the intuition 
 belonging to that faith whicli is the gift of God. In 
 general, it was a style of thinking better adapted to pro- 
 duce the polish and attractiveness of popular literature, 
 tlian to investigation of fundamental principles. 
 
 Its method of criticism may be briefly stated thus. 
 In order to get at the truth in any case, reject.as incredi- 
 ble whatever lies beyond the capacity of commonsense, 
 or reduce it to identity with something else which is 
 within that capacity. In Christianity, of course, you will 
 have to exclude, or explain aAvay all revelations, all mira- 
 cles, and all prophecy, and accept only the natural facts. 
 And if the natural facts recorded do not admit of such 
 handling as to explain away the supernatural, you must 
 betake yourself to some plausible hypothesis, which shall 
 reduce the whole to the measure of common sense and 
 common experience. 
 
 Philosophers and theologians stood on the same phil- 
 osophic ground with the deists ; and the education of the 
 young was conducted on the assumption that it was the 
 only pliilosophy consistent with christian profession. 
 Ministers of the" gospel thought it the most eftective way 
 
104 
 
 of interpreting' and (lefeiidiug tScripture ; and deists fear- 
 lessly applied it to refute all revelation, and to show that 
 no testimony is competent to sustain it. The weakness 
 of the very party in the church, which opposed the low 
 rationalism of the day, consisted in standing upon the 
 same philosophic ground. 
 
 Through the cooperation of those agencies upon the 
 popular mind, but still more upon the educated, through 
 the literature growing up in their spirit, and the fashion- 
 able style of preaching, rationalism reached its full devel- 
 opment ere the last quarter of the eighteenth century 
 began, and of everything in religion above what man 
 can do for himself threatened to be utterly subversive. 
 
 The spirit of rationalism was far from new, but a new 
 form of it was thus developed, according to which minis- 
 ters of the christian church were no longer witnesses for 
 Christ, but philosophers to demonstrate a coinmonsense 
 theology, and to enforce it by so explaining Scripture as 
 to exclude everything above the measure of common ex- 
 perience. 
 
 Although a principle wrapt up in the bosom of 
 Pietism, when brought into cooperation with agencies 
 of error, conspired to the production of pernicious results, 
 its effect, as a whole upon the church was for good. 
 Many who adhered tenaciously to the formal orthodoxy 
 of their standards, were roused to greater diligence and 
 zeal in the study of Scripture; some as symi)athizing 
 with the spirit of the Pietists, and some as strenuous 
 champions of orthodoxy against all innovations, and 
 against all separation from the establishment. Some 
 accepted the philosophy of Wolf, yet retained their ortho- 
 dox doctrine and consistent christian life, and labored to 
 defend the harmony of faith with their philosophy. 
 Others took the symbols of their church simply as tliey 
 stood, as objects of iiistory : their doctrines were not to 
 be subjected to the test of any man's feelings, or to the 
 tribunal of any man's understanding, but simply received 
 or rejected as they stood. Thus were Lutheran theolo- 
 gians divided. 
 
 Halle itself, after the death of its tirst set of professors, 
 began to divide also into two parties, one of which passed 
 
105 
 
 over to rationalism, while the other went to an opposite 
 extreme of unscientifie mysticism. For a time the latter 
 prevailed; but subsequently, towards the end of the 
 century, and far into the next the University came almost 
 entirely under the control of rationalists. 
 
 But, even when, at its centre, Pietism had become 
 degenerate, the benign influence exerted l)y it was still 
 alive, in connection with other kindred movements. It 
 molded some of the finest products of German literature, 
 and quickened pastoral labor in niany a quarter where 
 its presence was not recognized. Its gentle and kindly 
 liberality obtained admission for it with a few German 
 Catholics. In this direction, however, the histor}- of 
 religion becomes personal, and without organization. 
 
 A more important outgrowth of Pietism was that 
 which gave and received support from union with the 
 remnant of the Bohemian Brethren. 
 
 The Moravians. 
 
 In the Thirty years war, the calamities which fell 
 upon the Bohemian protestants were largely shared by 
 the Moravians, who were counted with them. Great 
 numbers suffered death. Their churches were destroyed. 
 " Their schools were closed, and their Bibles, and other 
 I'eligious books burned beneath the gallows." For a 
 long time their community barely survived in a -state of 
 deep depression. At the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century, Bohemia and Moravia were completely under 
 the papal yoke. In that depth of its calamities the rem- 
 nant of those sufl:ering churches had provided for it the 
 friend, wiio established it upon a peaceful and secure 
 foundation. 
 
 One of the pupils of the Orphan House, at Halle, 
 Louis Count Zinzindorf, becoming acquainted with the 
 doctrines and sufferings of that much persecuted people, 
 offered a remnant of their community a settlement and 
 protection on his estates at Berthelsdorf, in upper Lusa- 
 tia. They gladly accepted the offer, and collected in such 
 number as "to make a little village. Their first settle- 
 ment at the place called Herruhut was made in 1722, and 
 in 1727, they accepted the terms proposed to them by 
 
106 
 
 County Ziiizindorf, and were organized, as tlid renewed 
 church of tlie United Brethren, in accordance with his 
 views, as a missionary cliurch. In 1735 the Count himself 
 became their bishop ordained by a Moravian bishop at 
 Berlin. Banished from Saxony, with a few companions, 
 he visited most nations of Xorthern Kurope, with a view 
 to the remnants of their own communion, now widely 
 dispersed. In 1741, he visited America, and set on foot 
 •the Moravian system of missions to tlie Indians, and 
 founded the schools of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Litiz, 
 in Pennsylvania, and Salem, in North Carolina. In 
 1748, he tinally obtaii.ed from the ecclesiastical council 
 of Electoral Saxony the recognition of his congregations 
 as connected with the churclies professing tlie Augsburg 
 Confession. By the influence of Archbishop Potter, the 
 British Parliament, in 1749, enacted tliat the church of 
 the United Brethern was to be respected as a Protestant 
 Episcopal churcli. Some of them were already residents 
 of England and formed a congregation in London. With 
 some serious mistakes at first, which were subsequently 
 corrected, or softened down, that little body of christians 
 had already entered upon their eftbrts for conversion of 
 the world. In 1732, their missionaries went to Green- 
 land ; in 1734, to Lapland ; in 1736, to the negroes in 
 Georgia; in the same 3'ear, to the Hottentots; in 1737, 
 to the coast of Guinea ; in 1739, to the negroes in South 
 Carolina; also in that year, to Algiers ; in 1740, to Cey- 
 lon, to the Jews at Am8ter(Uim, and to the Gypsies, and 
 from the time of Zinzindorf's visit to America, several 
 missions were established among the Indians. 
 
 Thus, although the theology of Pietisjn was divided, 
 and underwent some change, its originally benign im- 
 pulses extended far in various directions. In 1815 the 
 University of Wittenl)erg was removed and added to that 
 of Halle, which has recently been greatly revived. 
 
 The Wolpenbuttel Fragments.. 
 
 On the side of rationalism, an important event occur- 
 red in the year 1774. The first number of a series of 
 articles was published by Lessing, as the work of an 
 unknown author, found in the Library of Wolfenbiittel. 
 
^ 107 
 
 The rest appeared at different times, from 1774 to 1778, 
 as separated fragments ; and were subsequently found to 
 have been written bj Prof. Reimarus, of Hamburg, wbo 
 had died in 1768. 
 
 The Wolfenbiittel Fragments argued in defence of 
 rationalism, snd against the possibiiity of a revelation, 
 which sliould possess sufficient evidence to render it 
 worthy of universal confidence, and endeavored to explain, 
 away all tliat was out of the ordinary course of nature in 
 the life of Jesus. They were the matured fruit of a style 
 of thinking, which for more than a whole generation had 
 been growing up by the developnient and union of vari- 
 ous agencies. The philosophy which admitted only 
 common experience, and tested all by the decisions of 
 mere commonsense, and accejtted as true that alone 
 which coincided clearl}' with their measure, was of course 
 as incapable of grasping revelation, as a man's hand is 
 incapable of grasping a sunbeam. 
 
 Great opposition was made to the Fragments. But 
 their opponents were furnished with no eflicient weapon. 
 For they all used the same method, and admitted the 
 same pliilosopliic principles. Christians then, as always, 
 knew, in some degree, the existence of a spiritual expe- 
 rience within tliem, which had not arisen there in the 
 ordinary course of nature, and which was as real to them 
 as the information of the senses; but it was not within 
 the range of tlieir philosoph}-. Every advantage in debate 
 was therefore on the side of the unbeliever: and the 
 believer rested upon what his philosophy took no cogniz- 
 ance of. The fragments are important as serving to 
 mark an epoch of rationalist progress. 
 
 tSWEDEXBORGIANISM. 
 
 In the history of the Lutheran Churches in the Scan- 
 dinavian countries, the most remarkable event was the 
 rise of Sweden borgianism, which had no peculiai- relation 
 to the Lutheran doctrine, inasmuch as it claimed to be a 
 new revelation, setting the whole of the foregoing in a 
 new light. 
 
 Emmanuel von Swedenborg was a Swedish gentle- 
 man of great learning and science, who, from 1743, when 
 
108 
 
 he was fifty-fonr years of age separated himself from all 
 secolhir pursuits, inchiditig high official position uiidor 
 the government of Sweden, to devote himself to religious 
 studies. He removed to London, where he wrote most 
 of his mystic works, and died in 1772 at an advanced 
 age. 
 
 Sweden borg professed that iji the year 1743, his eyes 
 had been opened to see into the spiritual world, and that 
 he had received the gift of understanding tlie language 
 of angels, which he retained to the end of his days ; that 
 he had enjoj-ed revelations directly from the Lord, and 
 had several times been admitted into heaven. In Scrip- 
 ture he distinguished two meanings, the natural and the 
 spiritual, the latter, inclosed in the former, and corres- 
 ponding to the state of things in heaven. A number of 
 Scripture books he rejected as not inspired. Other 
 things upon earth have also their correspondencies in 
 heaven, which, relieved from earthly grossness, are in 
 form and relatively to their surroundings the same as 
 those upon eartii. He taught that there is only one life, 
 which is God, and all the Divine Trinity was contained 
 in Christ. He rejected the doctrine of original sin, held 
 rnan to be free, but exposed to the influences of good and 
 evil spirits, and indebted to God for all the good that 
 belongs to him. According to his doctrine, justification 
 is not by faith alone. The man^ who has charity — fears 
 God, and works righteousness — " what ever his religious 
 sentiments may be, will be saved." Each true believer 
 contains the church in himself. The outer church is a 
 society composed oi" persons in each of whom the church 
 is, and its name under his revelations, is the church of 
 the New Jerusalem. The last judgment is already over. 
 It occurred in the year 1757. And the New Jerusalem, 
 predicted in the Apocalypse, has descended in the form 
 of the New Church. 
 
 The visions of Swedenborg took efiect upon certain 
 minds as a relief, in the opposite extreme, from prevail- 
 ing rationalism, and was the more acceptable that certain 
 threads of rationalism were interwoven with it. Of late 
 years it has undergone revision, but with what amount 
 of alteration perhaps none but its adherents correctly 
 know. 
 
10!) 
 
 II. The Reformed Churches. 
 
 Of the Reformed Church a great many divisions 
 might be made, and in some lights vvouhl seem to be 
 necessary to a complete treatment of the subject. Closer 
 inspection discovers that real grounds of difference are 
 much fewer than they seem. The broadest and most 
 obvious is that which exists in reference to government, 
 between the Prelatic and Anti-Prelatic. On that scale 
 they may be classified as follows : 
 
 I. Prtda'tic. 
 
 1. The Reformed Anoiican C-hurdi. 
 
 2. The Irish Episcopal Church. 
 
 3. The Episcopal Church in Scotland. 
 
 4. The Episcopal Churches of the British Colonies. 
 
 5. And the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United 
 States ; retaining the Diocesan Episcopacy, without the 
 archiepisco{)al rank and the Primacy. 
 
 II. Anti-Prelatic. 
 
 a.) On the plan of government by Presbyters, and 
 organic union of churches. 
 
 1. The national established Church of Holland. 
 
 2. The established Churches of [)'rotestant Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 3. The Reformed Church of Erance. 
 
 4. The German Reformed Churches, in as far as not 
 united with the Lutheran. 
 
 5. The Reformed Church of Hungary, associated with 
 the Lutheran, in the same country. 
 
 6. Tlie established Church of Scotland, with all its 
 branches, in England and the British Colonies. Also its 
 dissenters, the Free Chnrcli of Scotland, the United 
 Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and the Reformed 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 7. The Presbyterian Churches in Ireland. 
 
 8. The Presbyterian Churches in America, including 
 the descendants of various European nationalities. 
 
 b.) On the plan of government by Presbyters, but 
 without organization in Presbyteries. 
 
 1. Independents. 
 
 2. Baptists, who in government are independents. 
 
 3. Congregationalists. 
 
110 
 
 4. Methodists, except one bniucl) in the United States, 
 and its colonies or missions. 
 
 III. On the phin of combining some elements of the 
 Episcoi)al and Presbyterian systems. 
 
 1. The Methodist Episcopal Church of America. 
 
 2. The Moravians and Waldenses begin their history 
 prior to the Reformation, but are to be classed witli the 
 Reformed Churches on this scale. 
 
 In respect to doctrine, the Reformed cliurches take 
 their stand upon the ancient Catholic Ortliodoxy, of the 
 Nicene Creed, and the theolog-y of Augustine, wliich 
 they have further described and expounded. The varia- 
 tions from tliat standard have been chiefly in the direc- 
 tion of Arminian, Pelagian, or Unitarian doctrine. But 
 their dismembered condition is due much more to the 
 violent persecutions to which, in some countries they 
 wei"e long subjected, and from the efl:ects of which they 
 have not yet entirely recovered. 
 
 Protestantism in Hungary. 
 
 While the Protestants of Bohemia and Moravia were, 
 in the issue of the Thirty years war, aknost entirely 
 crushed, those of Hungary proved too numerous and 
 strong for Jesuitical success. Through the skill and 
 noble firmness of their leader Prince Bethlen, the worst 
 effects of that war were averted, and subsequeiUly, under 
 the Transylvanian Rakotzy, in 1645, they secured the 
 recognition of their religious rights by the treaty of Linz. 
 It could not however be completely carried into effect. 
 When the war closed, the Catholic clergy and the Jesuits, 
 Vv'hose power was then reaching its prime, combined with 
 the King and the army to exterminate the Protestants. 
 That severity continued from the accession of Leopold, 
 in 1657, until his death, in 1705, kept in check to some 
 degree, and for a short time, by the Prince Palatine 
 Venelenyi Hadad. The reign of Joseph I. was more 
 lenient. His early death was a serious loss to the Pro- 
 testants. They however obtained a renewed admissioti 
 of rights soon after, in the peace of Szathmar, May 10, 
 1711, which v^'as put in force when Charles VI. came to 
 the throne, 1712 ; but not without much interruption by 
 
Ill 
 
 the Jesuits and Romish Bishops. Maria Theresa, from 
 1741, sustained the Jesuits, and [)ersecution was renewed, 
 and continued through all her sole reign. When her 
 son Joseph II. hegan to assist in the government, oppres- 
 sion had some limit put upon it. Soon afterward the 
 Jesuit order was abolished, a great relief to Hungary. 
 The reforms made by Joseph II. after his mother's death, 
 though from the brevity of his reign, lacking time to 
 mature, were a great blessing to Hungary, and to the 
 wliole empire. But they were far in advance of the age : 
 and when he died, in 17*90, his brother Leopold II, who 
 succeeded him on' the throne for two years, alone appre- 
 ciated, and labored to maintain them. Leopold II, died 
 1792, while the iirst scenes of the great revolution were 
 being acted in France. The next heir of tlie empire 
 Francis II. allowed the old ecclesiastical despotism, as 
 far as was practic.ible, to creep back into its place. 
 Through all liis reign, the complaints again_st it lie an- 
 swered with promises, which he never made an effort to 
 keep, until it became impossible for liim, had he wished 
 it. 
 
 Church of Geneva. 
 
 Orthodoxy was still, in the seventeenth century, 
 taught in the schools, and preached in the churches of 
 Geneva. Francis Turretiu died in 1687. It seemed as 
 if he had built u[) defences of the truth which could never 
 be broken down. Dependence upon ins work more than 
 upon the direct lessons of Scripture may have had some- 
 thing to do with the subsequently diminished effect of 
 that work. His gifted son, J. Alfons Turretiu, silently 
 drifted in the direction of a unitarian theology. And 
 after his death, 1737, tlie progress was rapid, Arian and 
 Socinian doctrines had before the end of the century 
 " usurped tlie pulpits of Calvin and Beza." It was a 
 change effected by the working of the same popular ptiil- 
 osophy, which was bringing about similar changes else- 
 where. 
 
 Moreover, some of the leaders of French Deism were 
 connected with Geneva, or its vicinity, and helped for- 
 ward the causes working to that end. Such were Rou- 
 
112 
 
 seau and Voltaire, to wlioiii may be added the English- 
 man Gibbon, who spent the best part of his days on the 
 shores of the lake of Geneva. The ministers of that 
 canton, it is true, condemned the godlessness of Rousean ; 
 and thereby' provoked his scathing criticism of them- 
 selves; but they were not in condition to encounter him 
 on the solid ground of Scripture faith and doctrine. The 
 two great French deists died in the same 3^ear, 1778, and 
 the Englishman in 1794. 
 
 Reformed Church of France. 
 
 The Edict of Nantes, in which Henry IV. granted 
 toleration to protestants in France, was revoked in 1685. 
 h was at an enormous sacrifice of the national industry 
 that Louis XIV. granted that favor to Jesuit policy. 
 When he found his skilled artisans leaving the country 
 by hundreds and thousands lie applied violence to retain 
 them, waylaying them by detachments of military. Not- 
 withstanding at least half a million of his most valuable 
 subjects, whom he had outlawed, found their way into 
 Holland, Switzerland, England, -America, and other 
 countries. Those who remained in France were subjected 
 to every annoyance conceivable, with the view of harass- 
 ing them into Romanism. Their sufferings excited and 
 disordered the minds of many. Fanatics arose among 
 them, known in England as the French prophets. In 
 Languedoc they organized resistance, and under the 
 name of Camisards, successfully defended themselves 
 with arms for twenty years. In 1704, they laid down 
 their arms, upon receiving fair promises, and their leader 
 John Cavalier, and some of the rest entered the King's 
 service. Cavalier afterwards removed to England. What- 
 ever his expectations of relief to his followers, they were 
 not realized. Persecution went on.' Protestants were 
 harassed with military execution, many of thetu were put 
 to death, and their churches were seized or destroyed. 
 And yet, after all, some two millions remained attached 
 to the Reformed Church. Wherever their exiles took 
 refuge, they proved to be a valuable addition to the in- 
 dustry and moral character of the population. 
 
 The injury to France appeared in various ways. The 
 morals of the people degenerated ; their intellectual free- 
 
113 
 
 dom declined ; tlie national superiority in manufactures 
 came to an end; and the guilty King's success in arms 
 began to waver, until after repeated defeats, lie was con- 
 straijied to beg for peace, and escaped the most humilia- 
 ting terms only by a party in tlie council of Ids enenues. 
 
 Louis XV, succeeded his grandfather, in 1715, and 
 retained the throne sixty years, during the whole of 
 which time the Huguenots were out of the protection of 
 law. Their church was in the desert. By the royal 
 declaration of 1729, the penalty for preaching the gospel 
 was death, and for affording comfort or shelter to the 
 preachers, imprisonment, or the galleys. 
 
 In the end of the comparatively lenient administra- 
 tion of Fleury, 1744, the Reformed of France made a 
 heroic attempt to collect their energies, and held their 
 lirst national synod. The activity of persecution was 
 forthwith renewed, and continued, with greater or less vio- 
 lence, all the rest of the reign of Louis XV. 
 
 The more humane character of Louis XVI, who suc- 
 ceeded in 1774, a!id the more liberal sentiments begin- 
 ning to prevail in Society had an eifect favorable to light- 
 ening the weight of oppression. But it was not until 
 Louis XVI. had been on the throne twelve years that 
 any action was taken to remove the disabilities of pro- 
 testants. Li 1787, an Edict, which met with great oppo- 
 sition in the French Pai-liament, was got out, granting 
 them permission to meet for public worship, and the 
 right to hold firoperty and to bequeath it. But for that 
 they were indebted, not to any relaxation of Romish in- 
 tolerance, or to royal favor, but to the rising tide 
 of rationalism, which soon afterwards broke the complex 
 tyranny, and scattered its distinctions to the waves. 
 
 The Reformed Church of Holland. 
 
 In the history of the Reformed Church of Holland 
 there are four successive periods distinctly marked ; first 
 from the Reformation to the national Synod of Dort 
 (Dordrecht) 1618-19 ; second, from 1618 until the intro- 
 duction of Xeology, about 1775 ; third, from that latter 
 date, through the decline of Orthodoxy and disorganiza- 
 tion brought about by revolution, until the reconstruc- 
 
114 
 
 tioii of Clitircli order in 1816 ; and foiii-th, from 1816 until 
 the present time. 
 
 By action of the General Svnod of Dort, Calvinism 
 was strongly maintained in the Dutch Reformed Church, 
 in opi^osition to Arminianism, which was (^lelined off as 
 heresy. The Remonstrants, as tiie Arminian party were 
 called, from the i-cmonstrance presented hy them to the 
 States-General of Holland in 1610, thons^h greatly in 
 the minority, did not cease to he an important religious 
 sect, and in course of time were morally strengtliened hy 
 adherents to their doctrines elsewhere. 
 
 The five heads of doctrine of theSynod of Dortthence- 
 forward continued to be the theological standards of the 
 Church of Holland. They treat of Divine predestination, 
 of the death of Christ, in its sufficiency to save sinners, 
 of the depravity of human nature, of its regeneration and 
 redenjption b\- sovereign grace, and of the perseverance 
 of the saints. 
 
 From the general'Synod of 1618-19, until 1816, the 
 Synods which followed were onl}- provincial. Most of 
 the intervening time, each provinc^e had its own church 
 government. They were all similarl}- organized, and 
 kept up their connection by deputies whom the provin- 
 cial syn()ds sent to one another. 
 
 The period from 1618 to 1775 was one of very active 
 theological discussions; and deep into the heart of them, 
 at an early stage, entei-ed the Cartesian philosophy. Es- 
 sentially skeptical, it was condemned by the States-Gen- 
 eral in 1656, but could not by such action be excluded 
 from individual thinking. Baruch^'Spinoza, a Jew of 
 Portuguese parentage, born at Amsterdam in 1632 (d 
 1677), created also some sensation by his system of pan- 
 theism, but wrought less harm in Holland than in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 The ablest adversary of Descartes was Voetius, Prof, 
 of theology at Utrecht (d 1677). the advocate of an elab- 
 orate scholasticism, inti'oduced by Maccopius prof, of 
 Theo. at Franeker (d 1644) which went to make 'the 
 whole subject of religion a branch of philosophy, on the 
 basis of the Calvinistic system. 
 
 That however created a reaction from the side of 
 those who dreaded its effects in a hard formulizing of 
 
 ^. 
 
 Y^f 7/ ^^ '^^''^ 
 
b^f ''-> 
 
 115 
 
 everything, alike in science and re'ligious lite. .John 
 Oocceius, prof, at Franeker and Leyden (d. 1669) labored 
 to bring theology back to the Scriptures, and instituted 
 what has been called the Federal Theology, from the 
 fundamental ideas which it presented ot a '• two fold cov- 
 enant of God with man." Christ was its central idea. 
 It dwelt largely upon the tyi»es which foreshadowed him 
 and the prophecies of his coming. The sj'stem is con- 
 tained in the works of Cocceius called '■'■ Siunyna doctrinae 
 de Focdere et Testnmento Dei,'" and " Samma Theolor/icae ex 
 Scripturis repelita," and inspires his voluminous commen- ^ . ' 
 
 taries. Tt was further developed by his followers, Bur- 'TCrJit 
 
 mann, Heidanus and Witsius. Thus the main current 
 of debate for a hundred years, was determined by the 
 systems of Voetius and Cocceius, Political parties 
 sought their aid, the supporters of the Prince of Orange 
 taking sides with the Voetians ; and the liberal Repub- 
 licans wnth the C(>c(;eians. Arnoi g the Arminians the 
 most gifted and learned, in the first half of the 17th cen 
 tury, was Hugo Grotius (d. 1645), who amid Ins many 
 political and legal labors, found Hme to write with much 
 effect in defence of the christian religion. 
 
 The 17th century and first half of the 18th constituted 
 to Holland her most illustrious period of theological 
 authors and classical scholars. Her universities were 
 
 then in their prime. With their strict standards of r, j 
 Orthodoxy and liberal toleration, the United Provinces ^ '^'-^ ' 
 
 became a safe assylum for religious refugees from perse- r. '</ uL 
 
 cution in other lands. -^ 
 
 The debates arising out of the Cartesian philosophy, 
 as well as for aiid against its influence in theology, grad- 
 ually died out, in the course of the 18th century, as the 
 Newtonian system took its plac6 in the Dutch Univer- 
 sities. 
 
 In tlie line of freetliinking, Peter Bayle, a French 
 Protestant, who took refuge in Holland, where he had 
 been appointed to a professorship at Rotterdam, pub- 
 lished wliile there several works on religion, morals and 
 general literature, which attained great celebrity, espec- 
 ially his Dictionary historical and critical, wliich appeared 
 in 1697. It was constructed on a plan admitting of the 
 
116 
 
 utmost freedom in the choice and treatment of" topics — 
 an alphabetical arrangement unpledged to completeness 
 in any department, with notes appended at will. Great 
 was the inHuence of the book npon both historical criti- 
 cism and popular thinking. Thougli not an ojjponent 
 of Christianity, Bayle was unsettled in his views of truth, 
 and applied himself to the exhibition of difficulties, col- 
 lecting materials for others of more decided purjiose to 
 use. He died in 1706 under the charge of heresy. 
 
 In the midst of many adversaries, and in the exercise 
 of a liberal toleration, the Church of Holland, thi'ough 
 the greater part of the 18th century, saw lier Reformed 
 Orthodoxy well maintained. But a change crept in. 
 What was 'called the " New Light," as advanced by Kle- 
 man, 1774, in his work on the connection between Grace 
 and Duty, and by Hammelsfeld and other writers, near 
 the same date, is to be regarded as the incipient mani- 
 festation of that error, which for a time almost submerged 
 the ortliodoxy of Dort. Although Kleman retracted his 
 error, and others submitted to restraint in the use of 
 words of heretical meaning, yet the influx of Deism from 
 England, and of Atheism from France, proved stronger 
 than tlie barriers erected against them. And in the effect 
 of rationalism from Germany, of the Kantian, as well as 
 ■»^i/u<A^c-'4,^ ^ eommonsense type, in accordance with which most of 
 the ministers learned to think; even where no positive 
 error was advanced, the Orthodox faith began to l)e 
 preached in a cold and lifeless manner. 
 
 It was a melancholy view which the continent of 
 Europe presented to the Christian at the opening of the 
 last quarter of the eighteenth century. 
 
117 
 
 TllK RATIONALIST REVOLUTION. 
 
 We have arrived at the verge of a grant juiK'tiire in 
 the lii-tory of Christendom, a point upon which numy 
 potent and far spreading causes liave converged their 
 effects. 
 
 Monarchy liad h)st much in the thirty yeai's and suc- 
 ceeding wars, and was no h)nger able, as in tlie sixteenth 
 century, to withstand an onset of the educated pui)Iic. 
 Great Britain was ah-eady a constitutional monai'chy, 
 governed by the national representatives. And yet it 
 was in one of the colonies of Great Britain tliat tiie peo- 
 ple in defence of that vei-y i)rinciple, commenced success- 
 fully tlie cai'eer of revolution. In Prussia, at the court 
 of Frederick II., lu^d l)een set up the lieadquarters of 
 a godless philosophy which, derived from France, and 
 in tlic style of French thinking, was corrupting, by Gal- 
 licizing the literature as well as the religion nnd moral 
 force of Germany. Fi-ance had just seen tlie death of her 
 gi'eatest deistical wi-iters ; but theii" works were in the full 
 tide of popularity, and tlieir main force was directed 
 against despotism and irrational faith — tlie oppressive 
 bondage of life and conscience which had. been and still 
 was carried to the last extreme in France. 
 
 The German empire, at that juncture, was governed 
 by a wiser licad and a better heart. But the broad and 
 thorougii reforms of the emperor Joseph II. were too far 
 in advance of the time, to be duly appi-eciated even by 
 the people whose real interests tiiey promoted, and his 
 reign, with that of his brother, did not last h)ng enough 
 to give practical demonstration of their benefits. Simi- 
 lar tendencies were manifesting themselves elsewhere; 
 but more generally among the people, and especially the 
 educated classes. Trie resistance of Rome proved inef- 
 fectuah Her arm was paralyzed, and lier weapons fell 
 short. She had been the hereditary and close ally of a 
 despotism which in France was no longer to be 
 tolerated. Public opinion had reached a precipice. 
 All existing authorities, ecclesiastical and civil, were 
 coming under the charge of imposture. They 
 had been united in extorting, by deceit and violence, the 
 
118 
 
 ed ill utter inability to surrender more. To the religious, 
 moral and political crisis was added, as really a fruit of 
 the same causes in the government of France, a complete 
 financial failure. 
 
 As a last resort of the government to procure money, 
 a meeting of selected notables was called in 1788, by 
 whom an assembly of the States-General was advised. 
 That assembly, which met in May of next year, was, in 
 the main, representative of the mind of France. The 
 force of opinion which had been forming for two or three 
 generations soon appeared. The leading minds proved 
 to be pupils of Rousseau, accepting the doctrines of the 
 Contrat Social. Self-constituted the National Assembly, 
 June 16, it gave place, Sept. 21, to the National Conven- 
 tion, constituted in the same spirit. Reason was en- 
 throned, and everything was rejected that militated 
 against the populai- theory. The movement became 
 bolder as it proceeded. In the course of three years the 
 monarchy was demolished, the king, first reduced to 
 helplessness, then kept prisoner, was finally led to the 
 scaffold. A republic was proclaimed. The churches 
 were plundered, their silver plate sent to the mint to be 
 coined, their religious services were interrupted. Priests 
 were to be found among the officers of the revolutionary 
 government. Those who refused to submit, or were 
 suspected to be dangerous, if they failed to escape 
 into exile, were condemned to death. Another 
 stage was reacbed, the doctrinaires and philosophers 
 were outrun by the popular passions which they had 
 aroused. The leadei's of the mob grasped the power. 
 Philosophers themselves became the suspected. A reign 
 of terror ensued. None could feel safe. It was impos- 
 sible to see, from day to day, what new turn the move- 
 ment might take. The Archbishop of Paris abandoned 
 his profession and joined the revolution. The churches 
 from which Gospel Christianity had been so long ban- 
 ished by its professed ministers, were given up to the 
 wantonness of the mob, and to mummeries under the name 
 of reason. Instead of church festivals, came days con- 
 secrated to genius, to labor, to perfection and othei* 
 abstractions. 
 
119 
 
 A symptom of reaction appeared in a national festival 
 in honor of the Supreme Being, celebrated on the 8th of 
 July, 1794, and in which Robesjiierre officiated as a 
 priest. After five years of a government by reason, peo- 
 ple began to long for tranquility, ready almost to accept 
 the direction of any strong rule which could secure it. 
 But consequences had been incurred which were not yet 
 exhausted. Armies were employed to enforce French 
 freedom upon the nations. The Directory which sent 
 them out was soon overwhelmed by the most successful 
 of their generals, who rapidly rose from one degree of 
 power to another, until he had gathered all the reins of 
 govei-ument into his dwn hands. France became his 
 treasure house, and iier armies his weapons with which 
 to scourge the nations, and build up an empire to his 
 own glory. In the wars successively of the republic, the 
 directory, the consulate, and the empire, the penalty fell 
 upOTi the whole of Europe The political systems of Ger- 
 many were dissolved, as well as those of the Romanic 
 States to the south. The constitutional forms of both 
 the Kornish and Lutheran churches were shaken at the 
 centre of their dominions. Tlie heaviest blows fell where 
 historical justice demanded, upon tiie head of the Papacy 
 and its champions, the houses of Bourbon and of Ilaps- 
 burg, and, on the side of the uncliristian rationalists, 
 upon thecourt of Berlin, and the revolutionists of France 
 themselves. Prussia was for a time erased from the list 
 of kingdoms, the Old German Empire was extinguished, 
 the donation of Pepin and Charlemagne to the Papacy 
 was revoked, and the Pope, who protested, was seized 
 by order of Napoleon, and consigned to prison. 
 
 In the early years of that revolution, the enthusiasm 
 which tired the armies of France was that of the propa- 
 agan(hi of reason. Napoleon, in the course of time, ex- 
 tinguished it, by putting himself in the place of reason. 
 That the political movement was the outgrowth of the 
 doctrines of Rouseau was declared by the National 
 Assembly in the public honors paid to that illustrious 
 author. The actuating principle, though the growth of 
 many causes, was one. It was the thorough conviction 
 that the world was livino: in falsehood and sufferino- for 
 
120 
 
 it, and that the popuhir philosophy was riglit, and that 
 its establishment over the world would abolisli the worst 
 evils ot" hnnian life. 
 
 Against such a powerful motive the other Komisli 
 nations, and the Protestant on the Continent were feeble ; 
 for the very reason that they entertained no doctrine 
 adequate to resist it. The same way of thinking leav- 
 ened deeply their own ranks. The soldiers of Germany 
 and Italy fought in defence of their countries, it is true, 
 but also of institutions in the justice of which they did 
 not believe, and the oppressiveness of which they hated. 
 The French fought on the side of their cordial convic- 
 tions, and tirmly believed themselves the liberators of 
 tlie world. When French armies lost that impulse in 
 seeing a des[tot appi'opriate all to himself, their victories 
 began to lack in brilliancy; and when still further, they 
 they came into contiict with a people, wlio were never 
 much impressed by their principles, and, asa whole, were 
 as tenacious of the opposite, as in the case partly of Eng- 
 land, and entirely of J^ussia, the issue of war was reversed. 
 Never was anything in [iractice more truly logical than 
 the French Revolution. The world beheld with horror 
 its inhuman crueltie>, and desecration of every thing 
 holy; but it was only the reduction to practice of doc- 
 trines which had been taught under sanction of the 
 church, or which the church had encountered with only 
 authority and penalties. Systematic suppression of gos- 
 [>el truth, in the liomish connection, had wrought effects 
 kindred to tiiose of a worldlimindedness in the Protest- 
 ant, and the populai' {)hilosophy had, to a great extent, 
 undermined the foundations of christian faith in both. 
 
 Like the Englisli commonwealth, the French Revo- 
 lution ended in what seemed to be utter failure, and yet 
 was not failure. The immediate purposes of the actors 
 did not, succeed, but changes were effected, and jtiMuci- 
 ples were planted to germinate and l>ear good fruit in 
 years to come. 
 
 The reign of rationalism was not all for evil. It 
 swept away certain superstitions, which the world is well 
 rid of, and put an end to certain traditionary beliefs, 
 which had nothing but tradition to recommend them, 
 
121 
 
 and practices which were a boii(hige to society. Goveni- 
 ments were not all forthwith reconstructed as constitu- 
 tional, but the working of ideas, tJien establishe<l in the 
 minds of men, has ever since been in that direction. It 
 would not be possible now to govern any European 
 nation as France was governed in the reign of Louis 
 XV., while the power of the Romish hierarchy was so 
 broken that its former breadth and intensity of oppres- 
 sion have not since been united. 
 
 A New PniLof^opnY. 
 
 While that practical revolution was going on, which 
 had its centre in France, another was passing over the 
 philosophy and religious views of Germany. It was a 
 better method of thought that the thinking world needed. 
 And a new, if not a better, at that time arose. 
 
 Emmanuel Kant was born in 1724, at Konigsberg in 
 Prussia. He entered the university of that city in 1740, 
 and as student, tutor and professor, spent his life in con- 
 nection with it. In 1770 he was elected to the ordinary 
 professorship of Logic and Metaphysics, which he held 
 until 1794, when he resigned owing to the inlirmities of 
 age. He died in 1804. His great work, the Critique of 
 the Pure Reason, was publislied in 1781, his Critique of 
 the Practical Reason, in 1788, his Critique of the J'udg- 
 ment, in 1790, and in 1793, his Religion within the 
 bounds of the Pure Reason. Other publications from 
 his pen appeared within the same time, and until 1798. 
 
 The Philosophy of Kant. was transcendental in rela- 
 tion to the popular philosophy of that day, using tran- 
 scendental as applied to the a priori, or necessary cogni- 
 tions, which transcend the sphere of the knowledge 
 acquired by experience; but it was discriminately a 
 critical philosophy, a criticism of the very foundations 
 upon which its predecessor stood, and took for settled. 
 Its criticism was of the mental' faculties with a view to 
 ascertain invariable and necessary principles, to define 
 their usage, and to form an estimate of them, " with 
 reference to their formal character." Making the mind 
 the centre of its system it sought to prepare the way by 
 means of self-knowledge for a better state of philosophi- 
 
122 
 
 eal science. But the forms of thought to wliich univer- 
 sality and necessity beh)ng are subjective, and the work 
 of Kant was merely a critical treatment of the phenonsena 
 of Consciousness. It opened no avenue to a knowledge 
 of objective being. 
 
 While the new j)hilosophy was slowly making its 
 way among leading thfnkers, and its progress, for many 
 years was very slow, the |)Opnlar rationalists carried the 
 api)lication of their principles to the hist extreme. One 
 of the most thorougli going of the class was Pan Ins a 
 professor at Heidelberg, who published a life of Jesus, a 
 commentary on the New Testament, and other works. 
 Extracts from his criticism of Scripture are sometimes 
 given as si)ecimens of i-ational exegesis, striking enough 
 to secure attention, but belonging rather to the extreme 
 than to the average. He died as hite as 1851, at tlie age 
 of ninety. 
 
 Kant was a chi'istian : but his practical faith had no 
 root in his philoso])hy, in which the objective stands 
 unknown and unknowable, and the inner consciousness 
 is the only thing absolutely necessary and stable. His 
 treatment of Christianity went to merge it in a moral 
 system. God and the facts of revelation, belonging to the 
 objective, the human reason can never immediately know 
 them. A grtiat gulf was left between the cognizing 
 subject and all outer things. 
 
 Solution of that difficulty became the starting point 
 for several subsequent philosophies. Fichte. a professor 
 at Jena, and finally at Berlin, believed that he had found 
 the solution in the intuition of the Ego. Intelligent 
 being he designated \\\(i Ego : and all objective existence, 
 as the 7ion Ego. By an act of faith the former grasps and 
 absorbs the latter into itself. In the adoption of that 
 principle, the transcendental philosophy was essentially 
 changed throughout. Thinking shaped every thing else. 
 And alike God and the Universe were what the mind 
 conceived them to be. God was the moral order of the 
 universe, not existence but action ; the universal ego in 
 its activity and without limit. 
 
 The Fichtean philosophy, or as it was called philoso- 
 phy of faith or science of knowing, had a more immedi- 
 
123 
 
 ate popularity than the critical, but left no such solid 
 work behind it, except in the extraordinary quickening 
 of intellectual activity which it occasioned. A large class 
 of literary men accepted its doctrines, as opening-'a wider 
 range to the imagination. 
 
 Among the followers of Fichte the greatest eminence 
 was attained by Shelling and Hegel. The former, while 
 yet a youth, startled the philosophical world by a theory 
 of even greater boldness than that of his master. " To 
 be," said this new philosophy, " is to know." It derived 
 all knowledge, not from the partial principle of the Er/o, 
 but from the absolute — the identity ot subject and object, 
 or, of knowing and being. God is the absolute, which 
 represents itself as divided into the spheres of mind and 
 nature, just as in the magnet we perceive the difference 
 of the positive and negative poles, and can realize him- 
 self onl\- in the existence of the universe, and especiallv 
 of iiuman nature. This was the central pom.t of the 
 philosophy of identity. It presented the outline, which 
 Hegel afterward's described more firmly and tilled up in 
 liis own way. 
 
 Hegel's system was variously called the philosophy 
 of reason, of the absolute, or, of the ideal. It conceived 
 of the absolute as the concrete unity of nature and mind. 
 This unity Hegel called the Idea. It is not oiily the 
 absolute content of all thinking, but also the substance 
 of all being. And the field of the Hegelian philosophy 
 is mapped out by the science of the idea in and for itself, 
 the science of tlie idea representing itself externally, and 
 the science of its return within itself, as Logic, Natural 
 Philosophy and Mental Philosophy respectively. And 
 the divisions and subdivisions of these are ramified out 
 to a treatment of all known or conceivable existence. 
 Religion comes under the Third head, and is defined as the 
 true in the form of mental representation. Christianity, as 
 the religion inwhich the unity of the divine and human is 
 presented, contains the ultimate point of all truth. But 
 the lower form alone of the idea is possessed in the seve- 
 ral facts of christian history and dogma. 
 
 It was under the hand of Hegel that the transcen- 
 dental philosophy reached its completeness. After his 
 
124 
 
 death his followers divided into several sects, and that 
 particular style of thiidvino; gradually lost its power, 
 
 Hegel's work was done chiefly from 1817, when he 
 coniinenced the journal for scientific criticism; until 1831, 
 wiien he died. Shelling's philosophical career was com- 
 menced in his 21st year, when he was a student at Jena, and 
 continued until 1812, when he was thirty-seven. From 
 that date until 1841 he published nothing on philosophy. 
 In 1841 he was appointed to the chair of philosophy in 
 Berlin ; but did not equal in power or attractiveness 
 himself in his early days. If he gained less glory as 
 a philosoplier, he left the impression that he had become 
 a truer christian. He soou-withdrew again to his retire- 
 ment, and died at Ragatz in Switzerland, August 
 20, 1854. 
 
 FoUovvei's of those great teachers, and holders to their 
 systems, though dissenting from some of their doctrines, 
 luive been numerous, andsoine of hardly inferior renown. 
 And out of this new plnlosophy, and especially that of 
 Hegel, arose the later style of rationalism, more profound, 
 more imaginative, of vastly wider range and abler gras[) 
 than its predecessor, but equally productive of error. 
 Other elements have also entered into it from one side 
 and another, going more or less to modify the philosoph 
 ical. Pietism, Moravianism, strict Lutheranism, or 
 Calvinism not orJy continued to assert themselves sepa- 
 rately, but have also had tlieir share in shaping the 
 speculative views of later rationalists. 
 
 In tJie division, which followed the deatli of Hegel, 
 the pantheistic branch of his philosophy grafted itself on 
 the university of Tlihingen, whicli had formerly been 
 pietist; and there produced its fruits in the writings of 
 Strauss, Zeller and Christian Banr, while others, like 
 Daub, Marheincke and Dorner, took the opposite course 
 towards a more scriptural doctrine. The extremes may 
 be represented by Strauss, Bruno Banr, and Feurbach, on 
 the one hand, and Dorner, on tlie other, while Christian 
 Baur occupied a middle ground. 
 
 Of the transcendental philosophy, in all its stages, as 
 now a thing of the past, we may say that, after all, its 
 extravagances, its arloitrary speculations, and cloudland 
 
125 
 
 theories, whicli have disappeared, or are destined to dis- 
 appear, it has accomplished sorr.e solid work. It ithas 
 determined attention to important truths, which the 
 previous philoso[)hy had overlooked; to the truth that / 
 
 nature is not a dead mechanism, hut operated hv a spiritual fff^T'^'-^'^Jjui 
 power, hetween which and the soul of man there is nji^jr-j-^ . v 
 sympathy, mysterious, but real and active; that the pastoA^^^'^ ^^^f 
 is not dead, that, althouffh irretiievable, it can never ^;^ c^^i i^ju 
 die, that it helono^s to the eternal organism of the niii-^'7/^2^/j2^ /'- 
 verse; that the church is not a mere incidental society w^/, ^-icJL&b { 
 but an organic body, actuated l)y a common spiritual life * — ^-^^^J^^ 
 distinguishing it from the world.; that its doctrines are 'y^^ , ctJ ' 
 the laws, or expressions of that life, and that worship is l^^iK^ MJsX 
 the solemn act of acknowledging the higher i-elations of ^,^ /^^^Xciu. 
 the soul. It constrained attention to the fact that there Juj^^^lc^ ^/ /^ 
 is in man a capacit}' to apprehend God and spiritual ^ /i» <■ 
 
 as well as material things — things above the reach of the '^' "^"^ "' '^ 
 senses, and a capacity whereby to accept a spiritual 
 ex[>erience. And a style of thinking was introduced in 
 accordance with which the niysteries of faith, and of the 
 life in God could be spoken of without exposure to ridi- 
 cule. Whatever mistakes the transcendentalists made, 
 and some of their mistakes were stupendous, they did not 
 overlook the supersensuous. Although they had no place 
 for the supernatural, they opened so wide a world beyond 
 that of common life that men could again speak freely 
 of the realities unseen, of the dealings of God with the 
 soul, of the union of God and man, and of a life which 
 the outer senses never knew, having its roots not in 
 tliesn, but in God. In short, although not christian, 
 it opened an intelligent world in which christian discus- 
 sion could move freely, and spiritual life have recogni- 
 tion. Welded together with error fatal to itself, it proved 
 an implement effective to the accomplishment of work 
 much needed to be done in its time. 
 
 Another path out of the cold illuminism of the 18th 
 century, as well as out of tlie mere subjectivism of the 
 transcendentalists, was constituted in the writings of 
 Jacobi, who, without constructing a system of his own, 
 exposed with a clear and lofty criticism the errors of 
 others, and w^herein they might be amended. Frederick 
 
/ 126 
 
 Henry Jacobi (1743-1819) found the essential elements 
 of Christianity in the belief in a personal God, in moral 
 freedom, and the eternity of human peronality. "Con- 
 ceived thus in its parity, and based on the immediate 
 witness of the personal consciousness, there is for him 
 nothing' greater than Christianity." He also held that, 
 in addition to the outer senses, whereby we know the 
 outer world, we are possessed of an inner sense, by which 
 we have direct knowledge of supernatural truth. The 
 system of Spinoza he admired for its consistency, but 
 rejected it as in " conflict with the imperative wants of 
 the human spirit." He also opposed the pantheism of 
 the transcendentalists, and recognized a personal God, 
 whom we can think of, not as /, but as Thoii^ and to 
 whom we can pray, as God at once above us and com- 
 municating himself to us. 
 
 But the radical revoUition in German theology was 
 the work of Schleiermacher, who although still a rational- 
 ist, advanced a principle, which undermined the omiU- 
 potence of human reason. Frederick Ernst Daniel 
 Schleiermacher was the son of a Reformed clergyman, 
 and born at Breslau, in 1768. His education he received 
 in the schools of the Moravian Brethren, and afterwards 
 pursued the theological course at Halle. Prom 1796 to 
 1802 he was preacher for the hospital in Berlin, from 
 1804 to 1806 prof, at Halle, and from 1809 minister of a 
 church in Berlin, and from 1810 until his death prof, ot 
 theology in the University there. He died in 1834. 
 
 The cornerstone of Schleiermacher's theological teach- 
 ing was the doctrine of a religious feeling. He addressed 
 rationalists on their own principles, and yet defended 
 religion, as occupying a position which their weapons 
 could not reach. They had begun to reject religion 
 because it did not conform to the measurements of reason, 
 he urged that such was the case because religion belonged 
 to a power of the human mind, which their philosophy 
 had overlooked. Although influenced by the pantheism 
 of Spinoza, he distinguished between God and the uni- 
 verse, and dift'ered from the transcendentalists in teaching 
 that the mental act of apprehension depends upon tha 
 action of our senses, through vv^hich not merely ideas of 
 
127 
 
 thinfi^s, but " their being is taken up into our conscious- 
 ness." The Universe is the totality ofall existing things. 
 The unity of it is Deity. It is united in all itsparts by 
 a reciprocity of influences, and accordingly every part 
 is both active and passive. " With hunnin activity is 
 connected the feeling of freedom, and with passibility, 
 that of dependence. Towards the Infinite, as the unity 
 of the Universe, man has a feeling of absolute depend- 
 ence. In this feeling religion has it root. Religious 
 ideas and dogmas are forms of the manifestation of the 
 religious feeling, and as such are specifically distinguished 
 from scientific speculation, wliich aims to reproduce in 
 subjective consciousness the world of ol)jective reality." 
 He insisted accordingly upon the supremacy of the reli- 
 gious feeling an all questions of Theology. 
 
 In the early part of the i)resent century, the theolog- 
 ians of Germany were still divided in such a way that 
 tliey might approximately be classed as rationalists, 
 supernaturalists, and mediates. Among leaders of the 
 first were Paul us of Heidelberg, Gesenius of Halle, 
 Bahr of Weimar, and Bretschneider of Gotha ; of the 
 second were Reinhardt of Wittenberg, and Knapp of 
 Ha'le, while De Wette of Basil might be named as repre- 
 senting the third. Bat hjgh above all those distinctions 
 rose the work of Schleiermacher, creating in itself an 
 epoch in German Theology. With him cooperated 
 x^eander, prof, of Church History in Berlin, from 1812 
 to his death in 1850, in a more close Pietist spirit, but 
 with a wider influence, from the vast popularity of his 
 lectures and writings. 
 
 Schleiermacher's theology of feeling, expressed by 
 jSTeander as theology of the heart, was a clear step out of 
 the old vulgar rationalism, and into a philosophical posi- 
 tion, ditterent from that of the transcendentalists, and so 
 lofty and comprehensive, that it inlisted the zealous atten- 
 tion of the best class of thinkers among the young, some 
 of whom were to reach a more positive evangelical faith 
 than their teacher. 
 
 Another important element in the church history of 
 Germany arose in the court of Berlin. In the earlier 
 part of his reign, Frederick III. was disposed to follow 
 
128 
 
 the example of Frederic II. But tlie linmiliution to 
 which he was subjected in the war with Napoleon, had 
 a benign effect upon his religious character. He came 
 out of it with a more matured christian character. His 
 favorite enterprises, undertaken before tlie war of libera- 
 tion, was the establishment of a university on a greatly 
 enlarged scale, and the union of Lutheran and Reformed 
 churches within his dominions. The University of Ber- 
 lin went into operation in 1810. To unite the two 
 churches occasioned more controversy', and was effected 
 only after the efforts of many years. Many theologians 
 were exposed to it. Occasion was taken of the ter-cen- 
 tenary birthday of the Reformation to promote the cause 
 of union; but a stand was also tiien taken Ity Harnis, 
 archdeacon of Kiel, in favor of close Lutheranism, in his 
 ninety-live theses, in imitation of Luther. It was not 
 the king's purpose to constrain either side as to doctrine 
 or observance, but to comprehend botli within one organ- 
 ization, as the church of Prussia, and requiring of them 
 to worship together, and to useUhe same service pre- 
 pared for them, in common, under the king's supervision 
 and with his aid. At first, tha service failed to give sat- 
 isfaction. An improved edition was issued in 1829, 
 which received the authority of law. 
 
 Rationalism still prevails among the educated in 
 Germany ; but evangelical doctrine has gained ground of 
 late years. The school of thought, which commenced 
 with Schleiermacher, has led the way into a more simple 
 and Scriptural faith, and includes some of the greatest 
 theologians now living, or who have recently died. Such 
 are Tholuck of Halle, Nitzsch, Twesten and Dorner of 
 Berlin, Lange of Bonn, Kurtz of Dorpat, Herzog of 
 Erlangen, and UUmann and Biihr of Carlsruhe ; and the 
 head and representative of strict orthodoxy, from 18.27 
 until his death in 18^^ professor Hengstenberg, of Ber- 
 lin, the well known editor of the Evangelical Church 
 Gazette. 
 
 The christian public of Germany, which under the 
 conflicting speculations of their teachers, bad long been 
 indifferent to the whole subject of religion, towards the 
 end of the first quarter of the present century, gave signs 
 
129 
 
 of an internal movement of a more vital Christianity. It 
 was connected with the awakenino^ of a real interest in 
 the salvation of the heathen, which had gradnally ex- 
 tended to the Lutlieran clinrch from Aniflican and Mora- 
 vian sources. That spirit had existed in Denmark hefore, 
 but was now, for the first time, enjoyed by tiie Lutherans 
 of Germany. The revival appeared at first in a very 
 humble way, in the form of little pi'ayer meetinn^s. 
 obscure and thinl}^ attended, but conducted by men of 
 such earnest piety as John Gosner, and the Baron Yon 
 Kottwitz, who is said to have been the principal aojent in 
 tlie conversion of Tholuck. Their work gradually vin- 
 dicated for itself a wider field, and gave such fruits as 
 are to be found in the foreign missions, and most strik- 
 ing of all, the recent inner missions now planted in seve- 
 ral places in Germany. Meanwhile the universities of 
 Halle, of Ivonigsberg, oi' Tiibingen, and otliers have par- 
 taken in a revival of Scriptural doctrine, and are at pres- 
 ent distinguished by the presence of men equally eminent 
 for learning and piet}'. 
 
 LATER ROMANISM. 
 
 I. The Papacy. 
 
 By the campaign of 1796, Italy fell into the hands of 
 France. Rome was occupied by French troops,- and the 
 Papal fifovernment overthrown in 1798. Pius VI., carried ^ (juu-f^ 
 captive into France, djed^ iext year. After an interval pZj^ TfAt^v^ 
 of more than six months, a successor was ejected, "^who ^ (ZfSrV^ 
 took the name Pius VII. Napoleon, wdien first consul, 
 determined to reestablish the Catholic church, and 
 entered into a concordat with the pope, restoring him to 
 a limited ecclesiastical authority. He also obtained the 
 sanction of the Pope to his assumption of im[terial rank. 
 Pius VII. was afterwards seized by French troops, and 
 detained in custody, first in Savoy, and afterwards at 
 Fontainebleau, with the titles of his office, but without 
 any real jurisdiction over his estates. Upon the fall of 
 Napoleon, in 1814, he was restored to Rome, wdiich he 
 entered on the 21st of March. 
 
 With that date the papacy opened a new stage of 
 existence. All parties wlio had suffered from French 
 
 X. 
 
130 
 
 /c^/^. 
 
 
 '//tsC / 
 
 
 aggression had a common sympathy with one another, 
 in which the ])ope had a hirge share. Upon, such a tide 
 of sentiment Romanism rose to a position higher than it 
 had occupied in general esteem for half a century. One 
 of the first acts of the reestahlislied pope was to take 
 measures for the revival of the Jesuit Order, which was 
 ettected on the 7th of August next. Then followed the 
 Inquisition, and other apparatus and adjuncts of the 
 Papal government. Resistance was made in hotli Spain 
 ,and Italy, but was suppressed by mjliiaryjbrcef Pius 
 VII. proved a bitter enemy of all that was called improve- 
 ment. His estates were put under the government of 
 ^^ ecclesiastics ; laymen were to be trusted as little as pos- 
 ^ . . ^ible, and the greatest caution exercised in allowing any 
 
 -^, tuy^^^ ^ of them to have access to the Scriptures. PiusVlt. 
 
 P^:j i «^f*"died in August, 1823. Under the next pope, Leo XII., 
 reaction proceeded with increasing zeal. And the in- 
 creasing liberality of Protestants yielded privileges which 
 had long been denied. In 1829, the Catholics of the 
 British isles, were relieved of the last of the disabilities, 
 which the conflicts of bygone ages had laid upon them. 
 In that year Leo XIL died, and his successor, Pius 
 VIIL, survived him only a few months Gregory XVI. •> 
 elected in 1830, occupied the Papal throne sixteen years- 
 In the course of that time it was felt that the reaction 
 had been urged beyond its natural capacity, and that the 
 current of [)opular sentiment could not endure what the 
 extreme papal party were still disposed to press. Conse- 
 quently, upon the death of Gregory, the Cardinals made 
 a concession to the more liberal spirit of the age, or 
 rather, to the stronger party among their people, in elect- 
 ing one who had some reputation for sympathy with it, 
 Cardinal John Mary Mastai Perretti, who took the mime 
 Pius IX. 
 
 A fe\y unimportant improvements, made in the be- 
 ginning of liis pontificate, gave the impression that Pius 
 IX. was about to reform the papacy. His progress in 
 that direction necessarily stopped short of public expec- 
 tation. Rome became dissatisfied. In the war then 
 waged between Sardinia and Austria, Rome sympathized 
 with the former, the Pope with the latter. Insurrection 
 
131 
 
 was fomented. The papal prime minister, DeRossi, was 
 slain. And Pins IX. himself lied in disguise to Mola de 
 Gaeta, within the protection of Naples. " 
 
 Meanwhile, the French revolution of 1848 had been 
 effected, and the Prince President, to secure catholic 
 votes in France, sent troops to reduce the Roman Repub- 
 lic and restore the Pope. Pius IX. has, since that day, 
 been kept on his throne by the helji of bayonets. When 
 those of ISTapoleon were withdrawn, those of Victor 
 Emmanuel had to step in. 
 
 Under the reign of Pius IX. the principal ecclesiasti- 
 cal facts have been the absolute dependence of the 
 Pope upon foreign protection against the dissatisfaction 
 of his own subjects; the restoration of the Romish hier- 
 arch}' in England, and its extension into the United 
 States, the establishment of religious toleration in Italy, 
 the promulgation of the dogma declaring the Virgin 
 Mary to have been born without taint of original sin, the 
 Vatican council, and its resolution rendering it binding 
 upon every catholic to believe that the Pope is infallible 
 when, in discharge of his office as Pastor and teacher of 
 christians, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals 
 to be held by the whole church. Immediately after the 
 passing of that act of infalibility, the French invaded 
 Prussia, the French troops had to be withdrav^^i from 
 Rome, and the temporal power of the Pope fell, and the 
 protection of his person and ecclesiastical office was as- 
 sumed by the King of Italy in accordance with an over- 
 whelming vote of the Papal subjects, (1870.) 
 
 II. Anti-Papalism. 
 
 The Infallibility dogma has given rise to a dissent in 
 the Catholic church, which, although not of much weight 
 in numbers, nor in ecclesiastical rank, takes its stand 
 upon ground, which that whole communion will in course 
 of time be constrained to take. Its own just freedom 
 and the loyalty of its members to the civil governments 
 under which they live, would seem now to demand that 
 the Catholic church should abandon the papacy. That 
 office has long ago ceased to be a benefit to the church 
 over which it rules, and now utterly misrepresents tiie 
 attitude of Catholics towards their respective countries. 
 
132 
 
 A party of French Catholics, soon al'ter the revolution 
 of 1830, were disposed to bi'ing about a greater conformity 
 in their religion to the freedom of the gospel, and the 
 spirit of the age. It was represetited chiefly by the emi- 
 nent ecclesiastic and author Lamenais, Count Montalem- 
 'a' bert, and the eloquent, th(mgh somewhat eccentric 
 
 ;-^ preacher, Lacordaire, who established a journal called 
 
 L'avenir, devoted to the interest of Catholicism and free- 
 dom. They advocated separation of church and state, 
 each to be independent of the other ; and that the church 
 ^ should be poor, and receive neither support nor control 
 
 ^ from the civil government. An encyclical letter of 
 
 y Gregory XVI. arrested their discussions and brouglu 
 
 ^ L'avenir to a premature end. But opinions equally un- 
 
 palatable to Rome have been not only agitated, but acted 
 s^ on witliin the catholic communion, of later date. 
 
 ]r Large numbers on the continent of Europe have 
 
 ^ recently abandoned Roman Catholicism, and if they have 
 
 not joined some Protestant church, remain in a state of 
 ' Sd skepticism or of unbelief. In 1848 freedom of religion 
 
 "^ began to be adopted in the kingdom of Sardinia, a free- 
 
 g dom which has sustained itself by evincing its benefits. 
 
 >A It is now extended to all Italy and Sicily, and has enter- 
 
 ^ ed even the walls of Rome. A similar progress has been 
 
 r-^ vindicated in Southwestern Germany and Austria ; but 
 
 2 has encountered a check in both France and Spain. The 
 
 ^ apparent growth of Papalism in England and tlie United 
 
 =^ States is delusive. Those who put confidence in its 
 
 ^ present appearances will, in case of any practical test 
 
 occurring, find themselves deceived. 
 
 In ojtposition to the extreme papalism of the Vatican 
 council, a party under the leadership of Prof. Bollinger 
 of Munich, and calling themselves " Old Catholics," has 
 been organized on the ground of rejecting the infallibility 
 of the pope. 
 
 III. The Papal Government. 
 
 1. The present Pope, Pius IX. 
 
 2. The college of Cardinals, when full, consists of six 
 cardinal Bishops, fifty cardinal priests and fourteen Cardi- 
 nal deacons. 
 
8. Xext to the college of Cardinals stand the conr/rr- 
 gationcs, or conmuttees of different departments of gov- 
 ernment : as that of the Inquisition and that of the Pro- 
 [)aganda. 
 
 4. subordinate to the government at Rome are the 
 metropolitans, or archbishops, presiding over provinces 
 of tlie ecclesiastical empire, and 
 
 5. under them, tlie bishops of dioceses, wlio in turn 
 rule over all the priests and inferior secular clergy of 
 their respective districts. 
 
 6. Another ramification of ecclesiasticism from Rome 
 is that of tlie monastic system, the so-called regular 
 clergy, in tlieir various orders, and under their respective 
 generals, and other officers. A sreat branch of the 
 monastic system is constituted of such establishments for 
 women, each nunnery being governed by its abbess, or 
 superior, subject to the general government. 
 
 BRITISH CHURCHES SINCE 1688. 
 
 I. Church of i:xglam». 
 
 At the revolution in 1688, eiglit English bishops, with 
 Sancroft, archbishoi> of Canterbury at their head, and 
 about four hujidred other clergy, who lield to the divine 
 right of Kings, although some of them had censured the 
 de^ipotism of King. lames, still believed that they ought to 
 submit, and could not allow that tlie nation had any right 
 to transfer tiie crown to another. They refused the 
 oatli of allegiance to the new king. Although they could 
 not remain in the establishment, on that condition, they 
 were tolerated in the exercise of their clerical functions, 
 as dissenters, among those who agreed with tliem in 
 opinion, or preferred their ministrations. The small 
 body which in Scotland adhered to Episcopacy took the 
 same political^ground. Under the name of Non-jurers, 
 the sect continued to exist until after the hopeless defeat 
 of tlie Jacobites, about the middle of the IStli century. 
 The death of Charles Edward, in 1788, removed the last 
 foot of ground on which the fjiction stood. 
 
 Fruits of the Restoration remained in the church at 
 the Revolution in a parochial clergy ill educated, worldli- 
 minded, and int(derant, who opposed every step of im- 
 
iLrlU^ 
 
 134 
 
 provement. Witb numerous exceptions, the higher 
 clergy were commendably, disposed to reform abuses, and 
 to bring, if possible, the national establishment into har- 
 mony with the universal Protestant convictions of Eng- 
 land. Witli that view a royal commission revised the 
 Liturgy. But their labor was rendered fruitless by oppo- 
 sition of the lower house of convocation. 
 
 At that date, and for more than a generation later, 
 piety was at a very low ebb in the national church, which 
 was largely actuated by political partyism. Those who 
 defended the utmost claims of the Prelacy, and confined 
 all religion to the channel of prescribed routine, were 
 called the High Church party, and sympathized, in the 
 main, with the Tory party in the state. Those who 
 attached greater weight to personal piety, and less to 
 ordinances and prelatical authority went under the name 
 of Low Church ; and corresponded to the Whig part_y in 
 politics. Later in the century those names contracted a 
 more purely religious meaning from their relations to 
 the great revival. 
 
 Such a state of the ministry was the proper soil for 
 skepticism to grow in. And the particular form which 
 it assumed in England at that time was deism, which 
 had sprung up as a style of religious thought in the fore- 
 going century. Its progress, cliecked by tlie christian 
 zeal of the Commonwealth, and the utter profligacy of 
 the Restoration, quickened into a new activity, under 
 the decent but hollow profession wliicli followed the 
 Revolution. The earl}- part and middle of the 18th cen- 
 tury constituted, in England, its flourishing period. Its 
 history consists of successive stages of controversy. 
 
 1. First it appeared, in the hands of Lord Herbert of 
 Cherbury, as a heresy growing out of the Biblicah dis- 
 cussions of the first quarter of the 17th century, and in 
 a reverential spirit. 
 
 2. The reverential spirit disappeared in Ilobbes, and 
 his successors. The earliest deists made their attack 
 upon the substance of Scripture. And their opponents, 
 Baxter, Locke, Whitby, Halyburton, and others, labored 
 to show the reasonableness of the christian religion, and 
 that it is necessary to man's happiness. They were also 
 
135 
 
 led to define the principles of natural religion, to which 
 Bishop Cumberland's treatise " De Legibiis Naturae'' was 
 addressed, 
 
 3. As the controversy advanced, it turned into dis- 
 cussion of the canon, and historical trutli of certain pas- 
 sages of Scripture history. 
 
 4. After the first quarter of tiie 18th century, the 
 main stream of controversy followed the channel of testi- 
 mony, and expended itself in criticism of the witnesses 
 to the facts of Scriptui'e separately. 
 
 5. iS^o longer content with replying to attack, the 
 christian ai)()logists, towards the middle of that century, 
 began to construct works of permanent and and inde- 
 pendent value. Butler's Analogy of Natural and Re- 
 vealed Religion appeared in 1736. Further on, began to 
 appear such works of independent criticism as West's 
 treatise on the Resurrection of Christ (1747), Littleton's 
 Conversion and Aj)ostleship of Paul, and Newton on 
 Prophecy. Towards the close of the century, Paley 
 published his view of the w^hole subject of the christian 
 evidences, and a few years later, his treatise on Natural 
 Theology. 
 
 The controversy resulted in the production of works 
 on the necessity of revelation to the spiritual well 
 being of man : 
 
 2. Second, of scattered defences of the external evi- 
 dences, at particular [loints of attack : 
 
 3. Third, independent treatment of single events in 
 Scripture history, gradually, as the series advanced, 
 taking in a wider range, and ultimately rising to the 
 height and breadth of the whole field of the external evi- 
 dences of Christianity : 
 
 4. Fourth, treatises on the internal evidences — first, 
 internal as respects Scripture ; and second, internal as 
 respects the Christian's experience, and character: and 
 
 d. Fifth, the radical starting points of a new and bet- 
 ter philosophy, or style of thinking, among christians, 
 which recognized tlic separate existence of an inner ex- 
 perience of Spiritual life. 
 
 6. Sixth, as the Deists made their attack from the 
 side of Natural Theology, so Christian apologists were 
 
136 
 
 led to define the field and docti-ines of Natural^Theology, 
 and trace the analogy between it and the Revealed. 
 And the end was 
 
 7. Seventh, the four-fold result of a complete sys- 
 tem of Christian Evidences; a complete treatment of 
 Natural Theology, a masterly summing up of the great 
 points of their Analogy, and an introduction to the 
 defence of Cliirstianity on its inner merits. 
 
 TiiK Great Revival, 
 
 A general reform of nn^rals commenced in the early 
 years of the 18th century. It appeared first in the serial 
 essays published by Sir. Richard Steele, Addison and 
 others in the Tatler (1709-10) Si-ectator, (1710-13) Guar- 
 dian, (1713) and their successors. For exposure of social 
 follies, and the example of a popular literature free from 
 all stain of moral impurity, the England of that day owed 
 those writers an inestimable debt. The Society for 
 promoting Christian Knowledge was instituted in 1698 ; 
 and that forpropagatingthegospel in foreign parts in 1701. 
 But the most powerful effect in reviving an interest 
 in religion proceeded from a little society of students in 
 the University of Oxford, of which John and Charles 
 Wesley were the principal movers. It was formed about 
 1729 and continued to be merely a college society for 
 six or seven years. In 1735 it was joined by George 
 Whitefield. Much benefit was received from connection 
 with the iMoravian Societies in London and elsewhere. 
 In 1735 the Wesleys visited America; but not until 
 1738, did the society disperse over the British Isles and 
 to America preaching the gospel. In that year White- 
 field made his first visit to America. In his work as an 
 evangelist he traveled over the British Isles, awakening 
 every where an intense interest in religion. He visited 
 America seven times, giving his aid to the revival then 
 going forward in the colonies : and died at Newbury port, 
 Sept. 30, 1770. John Wesley, although an evangelist 
 also, marked his career especially by organizing societies 
 for religious improvement; but retaining them all m 
 connection with the established church of England. Be- 
 O^fi 9^ fore his death in '^1791, societies were formed in most 
 
 ■ y 
 
 Jl^iu.r^ . Ct^n^ 5^ <^i^ ^i^'' 
 
137 
 
 places of importance in England, and some in Ireland 
 and the United States. Four ye-'irs later they adopted !^ ^' 
 measures constituting themselves a separate church, and 
 severed their connection with the establishment. Their 
 brethren in America had assumed that attitude in 1784. 
 The latter formed the Methodist Episcopal Church ; the 
 former, the Wesleyan Methodist, Both were character- 
 ized by an Arminian Theology. The Calvinistic Metho- 
 dists failed to organize a complete association of their 
 congregations. Most nearly approaching to it was that 
 formed by the zeal and eminent ability of Lady Hunting- 
 ton, and that which still maintains itself as that of the 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. Lady Huntington's con- 
 nection proved of most benelit as promoting evangelical 
 religion among the clergy and members of the Establish- 
 ed church. Within more recent time the Great Metho- 
 dist bodies have been broken by various divisions. 
 
 Although rejected by the Anglican church, the Meth- 
 odist revival was not without an extensive collateral 
 influence upon many of both its clergy and membership. 
 Such persons were classed with the low Church ; but in 
 course of time it was found necessary to distinguish them 
 further by another name, as Evangelical. 
 
 About the same time with the rise of Methodism, 
 another divergence from the English Church took place 
 in another direction. Socinians were few in England in 
 the early part of the 18th century. But from the middle 
 to the encl of it their numbers encreased, and their doc- 
 trines were advocated by writers of considerable ability ; 
 and before the century closed Sociuian places of worship 
 were opened, and a sect formed under the title of Unita- 
 rian. Their principal advocate was Dr. Priestly, who in 
 1794 removed to the United States, and took up his resi- 
 dence at jSTorthumberland in Pennsylvania, where he 
 died in 1804. 
 
 Since the opening of the present century, the English 
 Church, notwithstanding her internal dissentions, has 
 greatly extended her evangelical enterprise both at home 
 and in missions among the colonies ; and various socie- 
 ties have been organized both by her members, and in 
 cooperation with'dissenters for the wider publication of 
 Scriptural knowledge. 
 
 k<^ 
 
lly mfCHti 
 
 138 
 
 In the progress of liberal opinions about 1832 and 
 
 1833, many churchmen became alarmed for the safety ot 
 
 the establishment. A few members of the University of 
 
 gj Oxford, with a view to counteract the existing tendenc}- 
 
 KiiU', of the public mind, undertook a series of publications 
 
 / •, ,. ^(1 V f' ,', called " Tracts for the times," which continued to appear 
 
 from 1833, until 1841, to the number of Ninety. Deep 
 
 division of opinion was tu-eated by them, especially by 
 
 ji , the Romish tendency evinced in some (if them. In the 
 
 ; J-'i *■ large'No. 90 so strongly was that apparent that the fur- 
 
 ^1^, ther publication of the series was stopped. Mr. Newman, 
 
 the author of that tract, afterwards, with one or two 
 
 others associated witli him in the enterprize, went over 
 
 to Romanism, Dr. Pusey was silenced, but at the end 
 
 of two years, restored to his place in the English church. 
 
 In the same general direction, another party has arisen 
 
 more recently, whose peculiarity it is to engraft upon tlie 
 
 liturgy of their church many of the rites and ceremonies 
 
 of the Roman Catholic. 
 
 Since the death of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, to whom 
 they look with special reverence, another section lias 
 grown up distinguished as the " Broad Church." Their 
 aim is to occupy a liberal attitude within the establish- 
 ment, with a kindly spirit towards christians of other 
 denominations. 
 
 Presbyterian Church in Scotland since the Revolu- 
 tion OF 1688. 
 
 The General Assembly of the Established Church of 
 Scotland, as constituted at the Revolution, consisted of 
 three elements; first, the old ministers who had been 
 ejected by the intrusion of Prelacy, now numberinir only 
 sixty; second, the ministers of the Cameronian party, only 
 three in number; and third, those who had submitted 
 to Prelacy, more numerous than the other two. The 
 Acts of Parliament under which thev reconstituted were 
 those of the year 1592. The Covenant of 1638 was not 
 renewed. Offense was thereby given to some of the 
 Cameronians, who refused to go into the establishment 
 on that condition. They subsecpiently obtained a min- 
 
139 
 
 ister, a Mr. M'Millaii, and took the denoniiiiation of 
 Refortned Presbyterians, 
 
 For tlie first twenty-five years, or tliereby, from the 
 Revolution, the Church of Scotland, notwithstandi no- 
 some incongruous elements, presented a nob'e example 
 of zeal and consistent effort in her spiritual work. But 
 in course of time rationalism, active elsewhere in that 
 century, invaded her bounds, and led to division and 
 secession. 
 
 In 1707 the two kingdoms of England and Scotland 
 were united : and as preliminary thereto an act of Par- 
 liament had been passed, called the " Security Act," 
 guarding against any infringement' of the rights of the 
 Church of Scotland by that political change. 
 
 In 1712, an act of Parliament granted legal toleration, 
 to Episcopal dissenters in Scotland, who wished to use 
 the English liturgy, and released them from the jurisdic- 
 tion of the church of Scotland. 
 
 In the same parliament an act was passed restoring 
 patronage in Scottish parishes, a false step which subse- 
 quently led to many troubles. 
 
 The first secession arose out of the defence of ortho- 
 doxy, against the increasing rationalism of the General 
 Assembly, In 1732 Ebenezer Erskine, was censured for 
 preaching against certain prevailing errors. Against 
 that act he protested, and was joined by three other 
 ministers. They were all deposed, and threw them- 
 selves upon the support of those who agreed with them 
 in their congregations : and thereby created the first 
 Associate Presbytery. 
 
 The second secession, in 1761, grew out of difficulties 
 connected with patronage. Leaving the establishment 
 to be relieved of the burden of patronage, the seceders 
 took the name of the " Relief Presbytery." 
 
 These secessions were not heresies ; but made in 
 defence of sound orthodoxy and relief from secular inter- 
 ference : and proved of great benefit to the I*resb3^terian 
 cause, resisting consistently all approaclies of rationalism, 
 which in the latter part of the 18th century deeply cor- 
 rupted the established church. 
 
 Scotland was divided civilly as well as ecclesiastically 
 into 919 parishes, each one of which, under the civil 
 
140 
 
 government furtiiahes a church and a stated salary for 
 a minister. In the first book of discipline it was declared 
 that it appertained to the people, and " to every several 
 congregation" to elect their ministers. And that princi- 
 ple, although long and often defeated, was still maintain- 
 ed as a constitutional right, and recognized in the R,e.v- 
 olution. But patronage restored by act of the United 
 Parliament in 1712, was later in the century defended 
 by the General Assembly. 
 
 In itH! lowest period of rationalism, the Church of 
 Scotland was never without some evangelical laborers. 
 Dr. Thomas Hardy and Dr. John Erskine in the latter 
 part of the 18th century struggled against much opposi- 
 tion ; but made the beginning of what afterwards became 
 a blessed revival of religion among the ministers. It 
 appeared first in an attempt to interest the General 
 Assembly in sending the Gospel to the heathen, unsuc- 
 cessful, but awakening inquiry and discussion. The 
 small evangelical party increased in number. Towards 
 the close of the French war, it received valuable acces- 
 sions in Dr. Andrew Thomson, who began his career of 
 eminent usefulness at Edinburgh in 1810; in the publica- 
 tions of Dr. M'Crie, which began with his Life of Knox 
 in 1811; and the removal of Thon^as Chalmers from a 
 little country charge to the city of Glasgow in 1815, to 
 whom should be added Andrew Synnngton as preacher 
 and professor of Theology in the Reformed Presbyterian 
 Church at Paisley. The various agencies of pastoral 
 duty as well as of preaching, and of home and foreign 
 missions were quickened to more active life. Eight 
 years later the same zeal in christian work was carried 
 to the University of St. Andrews by the election of Dr. 
 Chalmers to the professorship of philosophy. 
 
 In 1824 Dr. Inglis, leader of the Moderate party, 
 brought the subject of foreign missions before the Assem- 
 bly. A committee was appointed (1825) to consider the 
 matter. A favorable report was accepted, and measures 
 taken accordingly : and in 1829, Alexander Dufi^', first 
 missionary of the Established church of Scotland, went 
 out to India. 
 
141 
 
 As the revival progressed among the ministers and 
 congregations, the burden and obstructions of patronage 
 were felt to be oppressive and in many cases to spiritual 
 detriment. Its abu.-es in some quarters were complained 
 of before the Assembly, which t-^ok steps to protect the 
 people against the process of imposing ministers upon 
 them by force. But thereby a conflict was incurred with 
 the civil courts, which sustained the patrons. The mat- 
 ter was carried to Parliament. But nothing was done 
 for relief of the difKculty. In this conflict of authorities, 
 the civil power very easily remained the victor. As 
 long as the church received her pay through the liands 
 of the state, it was resolved that she should submit to 
 the conditions imposed by the state. 
 
 After an earnest and patient struggle of about ten 
 years, a large number of the ministers agreed to submit. 
 Others, and those the furthest advanced in the revival 
 movement, felt that such a submission would put them 
 in worse condition than before, and preferred the alter- 
 native of surrendering the emoluments of the establish- 
 ment. They accordingly, in 1843, left it, to the number 
 of 474 ministers, and a corresponding number of parish- 
 oners. By the previous ettbrts and large organizing 
 power of Chalmers and others, the ground had been well 
 prepared for them, their government and maintenance 
 provided for, and they forthwith took their position as 
 the Free Church of Scotland. It has proved an active 
 evangelical church, almost rivaling the establishment in 
 numbers, while the establishment has subsequently 
 greatly increased in the power of an evangelical spirit. 
 And that fi-eedom from patronage, which could not be 
 obtained thirty years ago, has been recently granted by 
 act of Parliament. (1874.) 
 
 There are now four Presbyterian Churches in Scot- 
 land, namely. The Established Church, the Free Church, 
 the United Presbyterian Church, consisting of the United 
 Associated and Relief Churches, and the Reformed Pres- 
 byterian Church. All four have their branches in the 
 colonies and in the United States, and their missions 
 amono- the heathen. 
 
 :^v,. /^^^/ ^y 
 
 
142 
 
 Presbyterian Church in Ireland after the Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Kino; William landed at Carrickfers^ns on the 14th 
 of June, and the battle of the Boyne was fonght on the 
 first of July 1690. James, hopelessly defeated, hurried 
 frojTi the country never to return. The loyalty of Pres- 
 byterians William recognized by issuing an order to the 
 (collector of customs at Belfast for the regular pa3'ment 
 of twelve hundred pounds annually to the Presbyterian 
 ministers of Ulster ; the beginning of tlie Regiam Donam, 
 or Royal Bounty, which enlarged from time to time, was 
 continued until 1870. 
 
 The succeeding history, from the first meeting of 
 Synod after the Revolution 1690 consists of three sec- 
 tions, the first extending to 1719, the tirst appearance of 
 Rationalism, undei- sanction of the Belfast society ; the 
 Second, from 1719 until about 1808 was the period of 
 conflict with that internal foe, and the third is that of the 
 revived predominance of orthodoxy. 
 
 By the new oath of allegiance Presbyterians were put 
 under no civil disabilities; but the attempt to obtain 
 from the Irish Parliament toleration for their religion 
 failed. In 1704 a civil disability was gratuitously created 
 by the established church party, in the sacramental test, 
 whereby " all persons holding any office, civil or military, 
 or receiving any pay or salary from the crown," were to 
 take the sacrament in the established Church, within 
 three months after any such appointment; an offence 
 which was not repealed until after the end of seventy- 
 five years. But tliough encountering many obstacles the 
 Presbyterian Chui'ch in Ulster continued to increase in 
 numbers and to contend against the error making pro- 
 gress within itself. In 1742 a congregation connected with 
 the Associate Synod of Scotland was planted in Irelahd ; 
 and a few years later, one (^f Reformed I'resbyterians, 
 both of whom sustained the cause of Ortliodoxy, when 
 it was declining in the synod of Ulster. 
 
 From 1770 the supporters of the VVe^tminister Con- 
 fession were the minorit\' in the synod, and the years 
 intervening until 1793 showed a great increase of error, 
 among the ministers, while the teaching of the Shorter 
 
ta>w-«^'"'V. v^-j/-^ uA*cfl 
 
 143 
 
 v^t^l 
 
 Catechism was never abandoned by the Pi-esbyterian 
 families. 
 
 Within the Last decade of the 18th century the new- 
 spirit of missions began to awaken interest, and in 1798 
 an eva\igelical association was formed in Ulster forborne 
 nussion enterprise, and consisted of members from the 
 Associate church, the Synod of Ulster and from the 
 Establishment. Kindred efforts succeeded, improvement 
 of ministerial education, common education, supplying 
 Bibles on easy terms to the poor, which led to the forma- 
 tion of a branch Bible Society, iind by the year 1808 the 
 cliange amounted to a real ministerial revival of sound 
 doctrine. The corresponding movement in Scotland also 
 made itself felt in Ulster, and vacant congregations be- 
 gan to be supplied by young evangelical ministers, where 
 unitarians had preceded. One of those young men, 
 Henry Cook, became a most active and efficient leader 
 in the revival. At the Synod of 1828, a vote on all the 
 points of the unitarian controversy gave a large majority 
 for the Orthodox. N'ext year the Unitarians withdrew, 
 and formed what is called the Remonstrant Synod of 
 Ulster. This step prepared the way for urnon of the 
 Ulster and Associate Synods, which was effected on the 
 tenth of July 1840, constituting thereby the " General 
 Assembly of the Presbyterian church in Ireland." At 
 the same time missionaries were set apart for India. In 
 the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843, the 
 sympathies of the Irish Presbyterians went with the Free 
 Church. 
 
 The disestablishment of the Episcopal Church in 
 Ireland " necessarily led to the abolition of state grants 
 to any religious body.'^ Accordingly since that date the 
 Reglam Doniun has been withheld. All denominations 
 in Ireland are now on the same civil footing. 
 
 Revival among the Reformed Churches on the Con- 
 tinent OF Europe, 
 
 After the close of the wars of Napoleon, and when 
 the more serious impediments to travel were removed 
 an English mechanic, Richard Wilcox, visited Geneva. 
 He was a pious Calvinistic Methodist, and residing for a 
 
 ii'lC 
 
144 
 
 few months in that city, by his conversation he kindled 
 up in the minds of several ]>ersons earnest inquiry after 
 a truer christian life. The Consistory determined to ex- 
 tinguish it, by constraining into banishment those by 
 whom it was entertained. Wilcox left the place in Jan- 
 uary 1817. But another, and more powerful laborer 
 arrived almost at the same time. 
 
 Robert Haldane had left Scotland on a tour of reli- 
 gious instruction. After visiting Paris and Montauban, 
 he arrived at Geneva in the b''^ginning of 1817. His sole 
 object being to promote the study of Scripture truth, he 
 began by conversing with any whom he found disposed 
 to consider the subject. At tirst discouraged in the min- 
 isters whom he encountered, he after a short time became 
 acquainted with one of tlie theological students, who 
 took an interest in his conversation. The young man 
 called upon him at his lodgings, bringing another student. 
 They repeated their visit, and others came v^'ith them. 
 At his visitors encreased, Mr. Haldane ajjpointed certain 
 hours in the week for them to come to his room, when 
 he gave regular lectures on the Epistle to the Romans, 
 expounding to them its doctrine of salvation through 
 faith in a Redeemer. Twenty-five attended. Most of 
 them became in a few years the instruments of God in 
 an earnest revival of religion in the church of Geneva 
 wliich extended itself to the Reformed churches far 
 abroad. Among them were Frederick Monod, Merle 
 d'Aubigne, and S. L. Gaussen ; and Mr. Malan who, 
 already a pastor, attended Mr. Plaldane privately. 
 
 After Mr. Haldane left Geneva, the work was con- 
 tinued by those whom he had instructed, with some 
 assistance from abroad. Constrained to leave the estab- 
 lished church, they with thechurcli members who joined 
 them, formed a new church organization, as the Evangel- 
 ical Society of Geneva, with their own School and Theo- 
 logical Seminary. In the latter the first professors were 
 Gaussen, Galland and Merle d'Aubigne. Since that 
 revival Geneva has once more become a centre of evan- 
 gelical influences to the continent of Europe. Still, 
 rationalism retains its hold upon the established church 
 and its theolog-ical School. 
 
145 
 
 A similai- evangelical intluence is operatino; in the 
 other protestant cantons of Switzerland. It is conducted 
 by tiie cooperation of ministers and laj-nien in an organi- 
 zation called the Evangelical Union. Yet there is also 
 there a rationalist party, which presents itself as an op- 
 position. Of the twenty-two Cantons, twelve are pro- 
 testant, ten being catholic, or chiefly- catholic. In the 
 Protestant cantons the established church is the Reform- 
 ed. 
 
 In the French Revolution, Protestantism, like Catho- 
 licism, was equally free and despised by those at the 
 head of tiie government. Protestants were liberated 
 from oppression but enjoyed no recognition. In 1802 
 Napoleon, then first consul, granted them lawful tolera- 
 tion, and a code of discipline founded on their own acrs 
 of synod; but with the condition that he should have 
 jurisdiction over them in all things. He also, in 1810, 
 i-eopened their college at Montauban which had been 
 suppressed in 1629. 
 
 The Restoration, in 1814, guaranteed to Catholicism 
 the authority of the established religion, and to the other 
 confessions protection and toleration, After leaving 
 Geneva, Mr. Haldane resided some time at Montauban, 
 and labored not without effect for the revival of orthodox 
 doctrine. But no sooner was the Bourbon dynasty fully 
 re-established, than persecution of Protestants was re- 
 newed in the South of France (1815-16.) At the remon- 
 strance of England, Prussia and Russia, it was stopped, 
 but the perpetrators went unpunished. Since then the 
 Protestants of France have suffered many restrictions, 
 but upon the whole, have enjoyed the ordinary privileges 
 of French subjects. 
 
 After the Revolution of 1848, the Reformed Church,^ 
 in a council held at Paris, divided on the question of 
 disregarding creeds in the matter of their organization. 
 Frederick Monod and count Gasparin, in defence of their 
 doctrinal standards, protested against the laxity of the 
 majority, and withdrew. Thirty congregations went 
 with them, and formed (1849) a new organization, known 
 as the Union of Evangelical churches of France. 
 
 In the course of so long a period of persecution and 
 merciless oppression the Reformed Church of France 
 
146 
 
 was greatly reduced in uuniber. But since iier recoo:ni- 
 tion by Napoleon I. she has continued steadily to make 
 progress by the addition of new congi-egations, and her 
 evangelical societies labor, as far a^ permitted, to diffuse 
 scriptural information tliroughont the land. 
 
 Similar has been the state of the Reformed Churcli 
 in Belgium, since the revolution whereby a protestant 
 king was set on the throne of that country. 
 
 With the fall of the Republic of the IJnited Nether- 
 lands, before the advance of French arms, also fell the 
 constitution of the clmrch. In 1806 a Kinsfdom of Hol- 
 land was formed, with Louis Bonaparte as King. It did 
 not last long; and, four years later, was incorporated 
 with the French empire. When, in 1814, the Nether- 
 lands were liberated from that yoke, it was found that 
 everything of church organization had perished except 
 the classes. The state assumed the regulation of the 
 church. In 1816, a general government of the Reformed 
 Church was established, in which the congregations, 
 classes, and provincial synods regained a large part of 
 their former rights, and a national synod was constituted 
 the head of the whole. 
 
 So deeply had rationalism entered into the teaching 
 of the church that when the attempt was made to return 
 to the standards of Orthodoxy, it met with great, and in 
 some respects, invincible opposition. The spirit of revi- 
 val however made progress, and though it failed to carry 
 a majority in the church, by the year 1832 it became 
 strong enough to constitute an important evangelical 
 power. Among the leaders in it stood the poet 
 Bilderdijk and his pupils DaCosta, and Capadose, 
 with the statesman VanPrinsterer. In 1839 a portion 
 of that party obtained the royal permission to form sepa- 
 rate congregations. This dissenting church of the Neth- 
 erlands stands on the foundation of the theology of Dort, 
 and seeks after an earnest practical religion. 
 
 The government of the established Dutch Church is 
 the most complete, and perhaps complex, of the Reform- 
 ed connection. The universities are divided in their 
 theological viev^s. Utrecht is credited witli conservatism 
 of the old standards; Groeningen is held to be the head- 
 
147 
 
 quarters of unitariaiiisni ; while Lejden seeks to com- 
 bine Reformed Orthodoxy with the freedom of science. 
 Among the people of Holland mucli zeal and enterprise 
 is evinced in carrying forward the evangelical work of 
 the cluircli. 
 
 Under the Austrian rule, the reforms of Joseph 11. 
 and Lepold II. failed of effecting all that was intended 
 in them. Francis I. who succeeded, indulged catholics 
 in their aggressions upon Protestant rights, and involved 
 in wars with France, could give little attention to the 
 grievances of his subjects. After those wars liad closed, 
 in 1817, a deputation from both Lutlieran and Reformed 
 churches of Ilnngary waited U[)on him. They received 
 fair promises, but little was (bine. Again they applied 
 in 1822; and again were put oft" with promises, Francis 
 died, in 1835, without having fultilled them. Prince 
 Metternich still continued at the head of authority. A 
 royal resolution appeared in 1843 declaring that all the 
 difterent confessions should have equal rights and privi- 
 leges. And yet the Hungarian insurrection, which 
 took place soon afterwards, was provoked by an edict of 
 Gen. Haynau threatening the extinction of the Protest- 
 ant churches of Hungary. The insurrection became a 
 war which issued in the defeat of the Hungarians, and 
 expatriation of their leaders, at tlie head of whom was 
 Louis Kossuth. 
 
 More recently, the increased strength of the Protest- 
 ant churches of Hungary has enabled them to take a 
 njore independent and energetic stand, wdiereby the 
 Austrian government has been constrained to pay more 
 respect to their wishes. To the same eftect was the 
 Prussian war of 1866, whereby Austria was expelled 
 from western Germany, and it became exceedingly expe- 
 dient for her to propitiate all classes of her eastern sub- 
 jects. The loss also of all the Italian states now confines 
 the Austrian empire to the north of the Alps, and the 
 lands of the Hungarian crown constitute too large a pro- 
 portion of tlie whole to be risked for the interest of an 
 ecclesiastical chief in a foreign land, who has lost all 
 power to enforce his authority in temporal things. 
 
 Surrounded by Roman Catholics, by Greek Catholics, 
 by Jews and Turks, the Reformed and Lutheran churches 
 
148 
 
 in Ilmigary have felt the expediency of mutual support 
 and cooperation. In number, the Reformed are still the 
 o;reatest, amounting in Hungary and the lands of the 
 Hungarian crown to 2,031,000, the Lutherans to 1,113,- 
 000. As their symbolical books, the Reformed retain 
 the second Helvetic confession and the Heideibercr Cate- 
 chism ; while the Lutherans adhere to the Augsburg 
 Confession. But in their constitution and administra- 
 tion they agree. Each is composed of four superintend- 
 encies, or Synodical authorities ; and each superintend- 
 ency contains several seniorates, or presbyteries ; each 
 seniorate, a number of congregations, and each congre- 
 gation is governed by its own pastor and [)residunts. 
 
 PLANTING OF THE AMERICAN CHURCHES. 
 
 The peace of Westphalia asserted religious freedom 
 for nations, but did not venture to liberate tlie individual 
 conscience. Notwithstanding the efforts of many good 
 and great men among them, it was difficult for nations 
 having their home by the Mediterranean sea to emanci- 
 pate themselves from opinions and authorities incorpo- 
 rated with their history, and enforced, if not to a great 
 degree created by their geograpical relations. The limits 
 of thought were greatly extended when commerce betook 
 herself to the paths of the ocean. Upon tlie new conti- 
 nent of North America, for the first time, was Protestant 
 principle consistently carried into practice. The south- 
 ern continent. Central America, Mexico and most of the 
 West India islands, were claimed by Spain and Portugal, 
 as the gift of the pope ; and on all those coasts the faith 
 of Rome was planted, and enforced with its utmost 
 severity. On the eastern side of North America, as far 
 as now held by the United States, that system was never 
 established. Discovered by protestant mariners, that 
 tract of country was, from the first, set apart for the 
 abode of religions freedom. It was during the op[»res- 
 sive reign of the Stuart dynasty in England, and, as res- 
 pects the continent of Europe, from the formation of the 
 two antagonist leagues which led to the Thirty years 
 war, until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, tliat the 
 
149 
 
 earliest and most inipDrlant settlements on that coast 
 were made. 
 
 Though numerous and somewhat heterogeneous in 
 character, a certain spontaneous order operated in them 
 which presents the l)asis of a classitication. The history 
 is that of live different groups' of colonies. Virginia, 
 New York, and Massachusetts were the earliest, planted 
 in 1607, 1613 and 1620 respectively. The first by Epis- 
 copalians, the second by Dutch Reformed and the ttiird 
 by Congregationalists. 
 
 Soon afterwards, the country north of Virginia was 
 settled by the Catliolic eoloriy of Baltimore, under the 
 Protestant limitations of the English government. 
 
 The lands lying between the Hudson and the head 
 of the Chesapeake bay, first occupied by Dutch, Danes 
 and Swedes, were, together with the Dutch colonies on 
 the Hudson, conquered by the hnglish, whereby all the 
 three original settlements were united in one belt of 
 territory. 
 
 A fourth group had its beginning at Port Royal in 
 South Carolina, in 1670, from which proceeded the 
 founders of Charleston in 1680, and subsequently of other 
 places in the soutli. In religion, these colonists were 
 mingled Presbyterians and Episcopalians. 
 
 The fifth group was tliat of the Quaker settlements 
 in Pennsj'lvania and adjoining parts of New .fersey, con- 
 stituted by William Penn in 1682. 
 
 France had taken possession of the coast further 
 north, and there introduced the missionaries of her es- 
 tablished faith. 
 
 Accordingly, as respects religion, the catholics had 
 appropriated all the explored parts of America, north, 
 soutb and middle, except the line of coast settlements 
 jiow specified. In these the type of doctrine 
 which prevailed was that of the Reformed Church. 
 Lutherans were very few. In 1662 Episcopacy was es- 
 tablished in Virginia, and in 1703 extended over the 
 Caroliuas. It was also established in New York ; while 
 Congregationalism was established by the colonists in 
 New England, and the Society of Friends maintained 
 freedom of religion within their own bounds. 
 
150 
 
 Presbyterianism came into this eountrj by various 
 ways, but chiefly by two, jis connected witli the Coni^re- 
 gational settlements, and by emigration from Scotland 
 and Ireland. Tiiey were strengthened by Dutch settlers 
 and Huguenot refugees. Without support of govern- 
 ment, and in some instan'ces in face of its opposition, tlie 
 Presbyterian churches, from the latter years of tjie 17th 
 century, quietly but rapidly increased in number, esjie- 
 cially in the middle states, with a tendency to centralize 
 on the Delaware towards Philadelphia. Its first Presby- 
 tery was organized in that city as early as 1706. 
 
 The great revival which spread \)ver the country 
 about the middle of last century b'-ought together, anil 
 fused into one the scattered evangelical eleinents. Its 
 greatest effects were manifested in the Congregational 
 and Presbyterian churches. The Presbyterian "church, 
 vyhich had previously been feeble and scattered, emerging 
 from chaos and oppression, beheld itself, in the result of 
 the revival, a numerous and fully organized brotherhood, 
 with its own colleges for the education of ministers, and 
 general intellectual culture. 
 
 The same revival introduced two other actors. The 
 Moravians appeared as Missionaries, and only planted 
 stations and schools, with a missionary object in view. 
 A few Methodists of tlie Wesleyan connection came to 
 America between 1760 and 1770. Their first conference 
 met in Philadelphia in 1778. In the ettects of the Rev- 
 olutionary war, they felt the necessity of an ecclesiastical 
 position by themselves ; and obtained from John Wesley 
 two ministeis, with authority as superintendents, to se"t 
 in order the government of their churches. These super- 
 intendents they accepted as bishops, and organized them- 
 selves as a Methodist Episcopal church. 
 
 Baptists came to this country first among the Puritans 
 of New England. Expelled from Massachusetts, thev 
 formed, on their own principles, the province of Rhode 
 Island. Subsequent immigration enlarged their num- 
 bers, and new societies were planted in various parts of 
 the country. In colonial times they were comparatively 
 few. But a great increase took place in their' numbers 
 from about the beginning of the present century. 
 
151 
 
 National independence o|)ened the way to entire 
 religious freedom. In a short time government support 
 and restrictions alike were withdrawn, and all denomi- 
 nations put upon an equal footing before the law. 
 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in the ITmted States, 
 
 Anglican Episcopacy although established in New 
 York, Virginia and the Carolinas, before the Revolution, 
 was sustained only as a missionary branch of the church 
 in England. During tlie Revolutionary war many of its 
 ministers returned to the motlier country, and the sup- 
 port of the Propagation society was witlidrawn. At tlie 
 close of the war, in 1784, Dr. Seabury, from Connecticut, 
 went over to England to ol)tain Episcopal ordination. 
 It could not be granted then ; but he obtained it from 
 the Episcopal churcli in Scotland. Subsequently the 
 obstacle on the side of English bishops was removed, and 
 in 1787 three bishops weie ordained for America, by the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Dr. Provost was made 
 bishop for New York, Dr. White for Pennsylvania, and 
 Dr. Griffith for Virginia. Since that date the Episcopal 
 Church in the United States has been organically sepa- 
 rate from that of England. It is possessed also of some 
 features proper to itself, and has consistently adopted a 
 separate name, as the Protestant Episcopal Church. It 
 recognizes the three ranks of the ministry, bishop, pres- 
 byter and deacon, but rejects the higher prelacy, and its 
 highest authority is a s\'nod, admitting of a lay repre- 
 sentation. The doctrines professed are identical with 
 those of the Church of England and the liturgy differs 
 oidy in as far as the outward relations of the church are 
 different. 
 
 The ConCxRegational Churches. 
 It was in New England that Congregationalism first 
 assumed its own proper form. The pilgrims who arrived 
 from Holland, from the instructions of John Robinson, 
 landed at Plymouth in Massachusetts. Although sopn 
 joined by others directly from England, the councils of 
 Mr. Robinson prevailed in the new settlement. And 
 now free to worship God according to their understand- 
 
152 
 
 ing of liis lioly Word, the colonists proceeded to study 
 their Bibles on the subject, and came with sjreat unani- 
 mity to the adoption of that ecclesiastical l)olity which 
 has been distinctive!}' named congreo-ationalisra. 
 
 It recognizes the Scriptures as alone containing the 
 religion of protestants, and no other ecclesiastical author- 
 ity but that of a congregation with its elders and deacons ; 
 which accepts directly from the Lord all the powers be- 
 longing to a church of Christ. No other church officers 
 are admitted than elders and deacons, and they are 
 elected b}' the congregation over which they minister. 
 At the same time, a commoii fellowship of elders, or 
 ministei'S, is observed among those who hold to the same 
 system of doctrine, in consistency witli which the pastors 
 of certain districts form themselves into associations, or 
 consociations, for m\itual advice and aid in their work. 
 The advice of the association is generally respected ; but 
 is of no governmental authority. Consociation is a some- 
 what closer bond. 
 
 The history of the congi-egational churches may be 
 comprehended under five heads. 
 
 1. From the huiding of the Pilgrims 1620 to the 
 meeting of the Cambridge synod in 1648, at which the 
 Westminster Confession and Catechisms were accepted. 
 Within that interval they constituted the substantial 
 elemetits of their church order, and founded Harvard 
 College (1638). 
 
 2. From 1648 to 1708, the formation of the Saybrook 
 platform, on the principle of consociation, within which 
 time, namely in 1701, the Saybrook College, afterwards 
 Yale College, was founded. 
 
 3. From 1708 to the tirst appearance of Unitarianism 
 in 1756, within which period appeared tlie great revival 
 under the preaching of Edwards, Whiteiield and others. 
 
 4. From 1756 to 1805 was an interval of great theologi- 
 cal conflict, between evangelism on the one side, and 
 rationalism on the other, until the election of a unitarian 
 to the chair of Theology in Harvard College. 
 
 5. From 1805 to the present time, including the ma- 
 turity of New England rationalism, and the persevering 
 resistance on the part of the orthodox. Unitarianism 
 
158 
 
 found its principal supportei's in and about Boston, and 
 determined the relig-ious character of Ilnrvard college. 
 Another divergence from orthodoxy, hut in the direction 
 of Semipe'agianism, arose in New Haven about 1828, 
 whicli influenced the religious views of Yale ('olleo;e, 
 and prevailed to some extent among the Presbyterian 
 churches of the north. 
 
 The Orthodox congregational churches far outnum- 
 ber the Unitarian, and have, of late years, evinced more 
 vitality, more religious enterprise, and more zeal for the 
 proper objects of religion. 
 
 Presbyterian Church in the United States. 
 
 The history of the Presbyterian Church in America 
 consists of four distinctly marked periods, us tiiat of set- 
 tlement, until the formation of the first American Pres- 
 bytery in 1705 or 6 ; second, that which intervened until 
 the first General Assembly in 1789, third, that of the 
 united Church under the Gen. Assembly, until the divi- 
 sion in 1838, and fourth, that of the divided church, from 
 1838 to the re-union in 1870. 
 
 During the first of those periods, separate congrega- 
 tions were formed at distant places along the Atlantic 
 coast, Irom South Carolina to New England, some com- 
 ing in with the Congregationalists, and some directly 
 from Presbyterian churcdies in Europe. The Dutch upon 
 the Hudson and Delaware would have been a more im- 
 portant element in Presbyterian history but for the Dutch 
 language, which disconnected those who spoke it from 
 the people rapidl}" becoming masters of the country. 
 
 The Purican immigrations into New England con- 
 tained a Presbyterian element, which in the movements 
 from New England southward gradually took its own 
 proper form of governmenf. Such were the first English 
 speaking Presbyterian churches in Long Island, and East 
 Jersey. 
 
 Progress of Presbyterianism from the south was 
 greath' sustained by arrival of successive colonies from 
 Scotland and the north of Ireland, landing in Virginia 
 and Maryland. As victims of oppression in their own 
 countries they came without any connection with the 
 
154 
 
 cliurclies at home. Entirely free to form their own 
 chnrcli order, they followed the model of that wiiich 
 they had left, without being under any allegiance to it, 
 or in any way fettered by it. Most active in the work of 
 organizing the churches was Francis Makemie of Mary- 
 hmd, who arrived from Ireland in 1682. jSText to him 
 was Jedediah Andrews from Boston, minister of the tirst 
 Pi-e^hyterian cliurcli in Philadelphia, which was organ- 
 ized about 1608. 
 
 The Dutch retained tlieir ecclesiastical connection 
 with Holland, and the Presbyterians of South Carolina 
 with Scotland. 
 
 It was in Philadelphia, and in Mr. Andrews' church 
 that the tirst American Presbytery met, in the year 1705 
 or 1706. Most of the ministers who constituted it were 
 from Scotland, but some also from N^ew England and the 
 north of Ireland. Thenceforward the increase of con- 
 gregations was more rapid : and ten years later, 1716, it 
 was found expedient to d vide the presbytery into three, 
 annex a fourth, and constitute a Synod. In about twelve 
 years from that date the synod almost doubled its num- 
 bers. In New York and East Jersey a large proportion 
 of the church came out of New England. Elsewhere in 
 New Jeresy, from the settlement in Monmouth and in 
 all places further south, the additions to Presbyterian 
 churches were chiefly by emigration from Scotland and 
 Ireland. 
 
 Both classes of churches held to the same standards 
 of doctrine. And in 1729, by act of Synod, the West- 
 minster Confession was formally adopted, and its accept- 
 ance made obligatory upon all candidates for admission 
 to the Presbyteries. 
 
 On the subject of education for the ministry acojitro- 
 versy arose, in which one side argued the necessity of a 
 thorough mental culture, and the other side, the greater 
 importance of spiritual preparation by religious experi- 
 ence. At the head of the former stood Robert Cross of 
 Jamaica, Long Island. William Tennant by the practi- 
 cal enterprise of his Log college sustained the latter, and 
 sent out from his classes its ablest defenders. Then came 
 the o^reat revival, o-ivin£r additional strength to the same 
 
155 
 
 side, which was chietiy sustained by the Presbytery of 
 New Brunswick, and commonly called the New Side. 
 Between these two parties rose a third, or niediatiniy 
 par /, in which Dickinson of Elizabeth, Pemberton of 
 New York, and Burr of Newark were tlie leadino; men. 
 In the year 1741 the New Side separated from the synod, 
 and were followed in 1745 by tlie mediate party. 
 
 The party of the Old S'ide in 1744, established an 
 academy at Newark in Delaware, and another in Phihi- 
 delphia. On the other hand, after the death of William 
 Tennant and the close of the Log college, in 1746, the 
 New Side, or more especially, the mediating party pro- 
 cured from the Provincial government a cliarter for a 
 regular and better furnished college, to be planted within 
 their own bounds. The new institution was put under 
 the presidential care of Mr. Dickinson at Elizabeth. A 
 new charter was obtained in 1748, when after Mr. Dick- 
 inson's death, it was removed to Newark, and put in 
 charge of the Rev, Aaron Burr. In 1757 it was removed 
 to Princeton, where a large and substantial building had 
 been put up for the accommodation of the teachers and 
 students. 
 
 In 1758 the two branches of the Presbyterian church, 
 after seventeen years alienation, succeeded in eftecting a 
 cordial and complete reiinion. 
 
 The Revolutionary war interfered with the operations 
 of the church.es ; and the college at Princeton was for a 
 time suspended. Prosperity returned with the return of 
 peace. In three years after the close of the war, the in- 
 crease of the Presbyterian church led to the adoption of 
 measures for a redistribution of the presbyteries into 
 differeiit synods, with a General Assembly. The plan 
 was satisfactorily carried into eifect in 1788, and the first 
 General Assembly met next year. The succeeding 
 fifty years was a period of active prosperity and expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Towards the end of that time, a plan of union between 
 Presbyterians and Congregationalists in the western 
 settlements, which had been in operation since 1801, 
 began to create dissention, chiefly from the popularity, 
 in those settlement, of certain doctrines from Connecti- 
 
156 
 
 cut. By the General Assembl}'^ of 1837 an act was passed 
 exscinding all presbyteries composed of presbyterians and 
 congregationalists. With that act a lai-ge number were 
 dissatisfied, and came to the Assembly of 1838, prepared 
 for division, which was carried through, and the church 
 rent into two sections. That which sympathized with 
 the exscinded presbyteries was called New School, 
 and the other Old School. Litigation decided the inheri- 
 tance of property in favoi" of the latter. Both sections 
 continued their evangelical activity, and increase in 
 number. 
 
 As the causes, out of which that division grew, grad- 
 ually diminished in importance, and the feelings, attend- 
 ant upon it, passed away, men on both sides began to 
 perceive that the differences between them were no 
 longer such as to justify continued division After care- 
 ful preliminary consultations, conducted with caution and 
 regularity, but with readiness, on the 10th of November, 
 1869, the two assemblies of the Old and New Schools 
 met at Pittsburgh, and succeeded in effecting an entire 
 and harmonious reiinion of the churches represented by 
 them. Tiiose of the southern states, for causes of their 
 own, preferred to stand apart, and retain their separate 
 organization. 
 
 There are other Presbyterian churciies in the United 
 States which trace their descent to Scotland, Ireland, 
 Holland, Germany and France. An Associate church 
 was planted in Pennsylvania (in 1754) which had grown 
 into a presbytery before the Revolution. Some congre- 
 gations of Reformed Presbyterians, were also planted in 
 the country about the same time (1752). In 1782 a union 
 was efiected between the Associate and the Reformed 
 Presbyterian churches, which took the name of Associate 
 Reformed. But some on both sides declined it, whereby 
 three different organizations were constituted. The As- 
 sociate Reformed, which was strongest, in 1858 united 
 with the outstanding Associate church, forming what is 
 now called the United Presbyterian Church of North 
 America. Still the union did not contain the whole of 
 both parties. 
 
 The principal section separated from the Presbyterian 
 church of the United States, on important doctrinal 
 
157 
 
 grounds was that which arose out of a revival in Ken- 
 tucky and adjoining regions westward, and designated 
 as the CumberUmd Presbytery. By licensing uneducated 
 niinistors to meet the den)ands of the new congregations, 
 that Presbytery fell under censure of the General Assem- 
 bly. In 1810, it was formed anew, on a separate footing, 
 rejecting the doctrines of i^redestination and limited 
 atonement. It has since become very numerous, in the 
 West, and still bears tlie popular name of Cumberland 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 It was unfavorable to the Dutch Reformed Church 
 in this conntrv, in provincial times, that it had no eccle- 
 siastical authority in itself, existing merely as a depend- 
 ency of the church of HoUand. Nor was that remedied 
 until 1771, when John H. Livingstone, who had gone 
 from America to pursue his studies at a Dutch Univer- 
 sity, brought with him, on his return, a proposal from 
 the classis of Amsterdam, v;hich was laid before a meet- 
 ing of the Dutch ministers in 'New York, and resulted, 
 in 1771, in the separate organization of the Dutch 
 Reformed Church in America. A college for the educa- 
 tion of young men for the ministry had, also through 
 the efforts of Mr. Livingstone, been commenced in the 
 previous year at New Brunswick. It was first called 
 Queen's College ; afterwards, Rutgers. The use of the 
 Dutch language in the pulpit was gradually abandoned, 
 and has been very little used for the last half-century. 
 The doctrinal symbols of that church are, as in Holland, 
 the Confession and Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg 
 Catechism. 
 
 Baptist Churches. 
 
 The Baptist churches of the United States came origi- 
 nally out of the English puritan connection. Much perse- 
 cated,?under provincial government, they have met with 
 more favor, and increased greatly since the establishment 
 of the United States Constitution. In as far as pertains to 
 church government, they are independents ; and, with 
 exception of their peculiar view of the Sacrament of 
 Baptism and its corollaries, they accept the orthodox 
 standards of the other Reformed Churches. 
 
158 
 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 Romanism was, until lately, a very small element in 
 the religious history of the United States. Within the 
 last half century, since the great immigrations of Catho- 
 lic Irish and Germans hegan, it has vastly increased ; 
 but still to only a small extent by conversion from native 
 American families. It is now more determinately than 
 ever a foreign religion, by virtue of the new dogma of 
 Papal infallibility, binding its people by the most solemn 
 of all obligations, to a foreign prince, whose claims de- 
 mand implicit obedience alike in spiritual and temporal 
 things. 
 
 Upon the whole the prevalent religion of the United 
 States is that of the Reformed Churches. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Finally, as respects the differences among christians, 
 the grand question, at the present day, is that of the 
 church, in what it consists, and what is essential to its 
 integrity. The various forms of government adopted by 
 the Protestant churches, in comparison with Latin and 
 Oriental systems, have led to a more thorough discussion 
 of this subject, than ever occurred in earlier times. As 
 the great theme of controversy in the ancient Greek 
 church was Theology proper, or the doctrine of God ; 
 that of the ancient Latin Church, Anthropology, or of 
 man in his natural and covenant relations to God, and 
 that of the Reformation, Soteriology, or the doctrine of 
 Salvation through a Redeemer ; so in our day it is Eccle- 
 siology, or the true doctrine of the church. 
 
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