txbxaxy of Che theological ^eminarp PRINCETON ■ NEW JERSEY PRESENTED BY The Author 777' v - 2-" A BRIEF RETROSPECT OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. PART FIRST; IN TWO VOLUMES: CONTAINING A SKETCH OF THE REVOLUTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS IN SCIENCE, ARTS, AND LITERATURE, DURING THAT PERIOD. BY SAMUEL MILLER, A. M. ONE OF THE MINISTERS OF THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES IN THE CITY OF NEW-YORK, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MASSACHUSETTS. VOL. II. PUBLISHED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS. NEW-YORK: PRINTED BY T. AND J. SWORDS, NO. 160 PEARL-STREET. 1803. District of New-York, ss. Be IT REMEMBERED, That on the seventh day of December, in the twenty-eighth year of the Inde- pendence of the United States of America, Samuel Miller, of the said District, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit : " A Brief Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century. Part first ; in two Volumes : containing a Sketch of the Revolutions and Im- provements in Science, Arts, and Literature, during that period. By Samuel Miller, A.M. one of the Ministers of the United Presbyterian Churches in the City of New- York, Member of the American Philosophical Society, and Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Massachusetts." IN CONFORMITY to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, "An Act for the Encourage- ment of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors or Proprietors of such Copies, during the times therein mentioned." EDWARD DUNSCOMB, Clerk of the District of JYeiv-York. CONTENTS SECOND VOLUME. Page. CHAPTER Xn. Philosophy op the Human Mind 1 CHAPTER XIII. Classic Literature 35 CHAPTER XIV. Oriental Literature 54 Section 1. Hebrew Literature 55 Section 2. Arabic Literature 69 Section 3. Persian Literature 72 Section 4. Hindoo Literature 75 Section 5. Chinese Literature 83 CHAPTER XV. Modern Languages 91 Section 1. English Language 95 Section 2. Frencfj/f.anguage 108 Section 3. German Language 110 Section 4. Swedish Language 114 Section 5. Russian Language 115 CHAPTER XVI. Philosophy of Language 122 CHAPTER XVII . History 129 CHAPTER XVIII. Biography 149 CHAPTER XIX. Romances and Novels 155 CHAPTER XX. Poetry. 180 Section 1. Epic Poetry 185 Section 2. Didactic Poetry 190 Section 3. Moral and Devotional Poetry 193 Section 4. Satirical Poetry 195 Section 5. Descriptive Poetry 201 Section 6. Pastoral Poetry 203 Section 7. Lyric Poetry 205 Section 8. Elegiac Poetry 207 Section 9. Drama 209 CHAPTER XXI. Literary Journals 234 vi CONTENTS. Page. CHAPTER XXII. Political Journals 247 CHAPTER XXIII. Literary and Scientific Asso- ciations 256 CHAPTER XXIV. Encyclopedias, &c. 264 CHAPTER XXV. Education 270 CHAPTER XXVI. Nations lately becomeLiterary 302 Section 1. Russia 303 Section 2. Germany 314 Section 3. United States of America 330 Recapitulation 410 Additional Notes 443 BRIEF RETROSPECT OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. PART FIRST. CHAPTER XII. PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN MIND. IF the physical sciences have received great im- provements during the century under considera- tion, it is feared the same cannot, with truth, be said respecting the science of the human mind, and the auxiliary branches of philosophy. In this wide field, new experiments and discoveries, in the proper sense of the words, can have no place;, and there are serious grounds of suspicion, that many modern systems of high claims, and imposing as- pect, are, by no means, substantial additions to the sum of knowledge. There is no doubt, in- deed, that we have happily gotten rid of much pedantry and jargon, which once obtained cur- rency among the learned. We have thrown off* the stiff, uncouth, and disgusting habiliments which vol. nt b 2 Philosophy of the Human Mind. formerly enveloped the systems of the schoolmen. But, in many cases, there is reason to believe, that one jargon has been discarded only to adopt another equally exceptionable. Various old dresses have been laid aside, to make way for others more fashion- able, indeed, but no less fantastic and odious. This character, however, though it belongs to many modern metaphysical writers, by no means applies to all. The last age has, doubtless, produced some writers, to whom we are indebted for substantial improvements, and real progress in the interest- ing field of inquiry under consideration. Even some of those, who taught doctrines, in general, delusive, yet have shed new light, and contri- buted to clear the way for those who should come after them. By many running to and fro , though they frequently deviated into the paths of error* knowledge has been, on the whole, increased. It has been peculiarly happy for this branch of philosophy, that, in modern times, the prin- ciples and power of language have been more studied, and better understood, than in any pre- ceding century. One* great cause of the dark- ness and perplexity which so long hung over many of the doctrines of mind, was the loose and inac- curate manner in which the terms employed to ex- plain the phenomena were used. This evil, though not entirely, has been, in some measure, corrected. The use and abuse of terms have received a more enlightened attention than in former times. The art of definition has become more precise, intelli- gible, and popular. The senseless prating about occult qualities ', and the perpetual use of unmean- ing words, have gradually become less fashionable, A habit of more precisely distinguishing between cause and effect, between those things which may be investigated and those which are beyond the reach of the human mind, and between those Philosophy of the Human Mind, 3 truths which are self-evident and such as require demonstration, has been introduced, and is still gaining ground. And although the sceptical ten- dency of the age has retarded the progress of this department of philosophy in these various respects, yet we have reason to rejoice that so much progress, through defiles of error, has been made as to render the last age one of the most distinguished periods in the annals of the human mind. It is, however, a curious fact, that while a much more simple and intelligible philosophy of mindhas, in the course of the last age, taken the place of former perplexed and abstruse systems, yet the study of metaphysics, through the whole of that age, has been almost uniformly declining in popularity. That taste for light and superficial reading which so remarkably characterizes modern times, cannot endure the accurate, the profound, and the patient thinking, so indispensably necessary for pursuing investigations into the laws, powers, and progress of our intellectual faculties. Hence the word metaphysics is seldom pronounced but with con- tempt, as signifying something useless, unintelli- gible, or absurd. But the profundity and diffi- culty of the subject do not form the only reason of that general neglect, and want of popularity attending studies of this kind, at a period when they might be expected to command more esteem and attention. The dreams, and mystical non- sense of the schoolmen, which scarcely began to be rejected till the time of Descartes, and which were not generally thrown aside till after the la- bours of Mr. Locke, led a large number, even of the literary and ingenious, to decry pursuits of this nature, and to imbibe strong prejudices against them. These prejudices have descended through successive generations, and are yet far from having lost their iniluence. But if wz/^/ be our better part $ 4 Philosophy of the Human Mind. if its powers and activity be all important, as every one must acknowledge them to be; and if some cor- rect understanding of these powers be intimately connected with our improvement, comfort, and use- fulness; then to despise metaphysics is to despise one of the noblest objects of human inquiry, and to display a most unworthy ignorance of the com- parative worth of those studies which invite our at- tention. It was before remarked, that at the opening of the century, Mr. Locke had laid his Essay on Human Understanding before the world. The publication of this great work forms an era in the history of metaphysical science. The author was the first who gave, in the English language, an example of writing on such abstract subjects, with simplicity and perspicuity; and there is, perhaps, no work, in any language, " better adapted to teach men to think with precision, and to inspire them with that candour and love of truth which is the genuine spirit of philosophy. " Though Des Cartes had done much, before the time of Mr. Locke/ to correct the errors which abounded in the ancient systems of metaphysics; and though some of the leading opinions of that great French philosopher were adopted by the il- lustrious Briton, yet the latter was, in many re- spects, an original, and a reformer in science. His investigations concerning the origin and formation a Des Cartes was the first metaphysician who drew a plain and intel- ligible line of distinction between the intellectual and material world, or be- tween spirit and body. The importance and utility of this distinction are obvious. He was the i4rst who showed that the analogical mode of rea» soning, concerning the powers of the mind, from the properties of body, is totally erroneous; and that accurate reflection on the operations of our own mind, is the only way to gain a just knowledge of them. It was his philosophy which threw the phantasms, the sensible species, the substantial forms, &.c. of the old systems into disgrace, and introduced a more simple, perspicuous and rational method of investigating metaphysical truth. Philosophy of the Human Mind. 5 of ideas, concerning the use and abuse of terms, and concerning the extent and limits of our intel- lectual powers, are well known by those conver- sant with the philosophy of mind, to display many new doctrines, and to place their author among the most profound thinkers. Mr. Locke differed from Des Cartes with respect to the origin of our ideas. The latter thought some of them were in- nate ; the former maintained that there are no in- nate ideas, and that they are all derived from two sources, sensation and reflection. Des Cartes sup- posed that the essence of mind consists in thought, and that of matter in extension ; while Locke be- lieved that the real essence of both is beyond the reach of human knowledge. The British philoso- pher explained more distinctly than any one had done before him, the operations of the mind in clasping the various objects of thought, and re- ducing them to genera and species. He was the first who distinguished in substances what he calls the nominal essence, or that generic character, and specific difference, which may be expressed by a definition, from the real essence, or internal con- stitution, which he supposed could not be known; and who, by means of this distinction, pointed out the way of bringing to an issue those subtle dis- putes, particularly the controversy between the Nominalists and Realists, which had puzzled the schoolmen for ages. He showed, more satisfacto- rily than preceding inquirers, how we form abstract and general notions, and the use and necessity of them in reasoning. He first expressed the dis- tinction between primary and secondary qualities, though the ideas implied in this distinction seem to have been in some measure understood by Des Cartes. And, finally, Mr. Locke had much merit peculiar to himself, in exhibiting the ambiguity of words, and by this means solving many difficult 6 Philosophy of the Human Mind. questions which had tortured the wits of former metaphysicians.6 From the date of this great man's work, the old Ontology and Logic have declined. The philosophy of mind has assumed a more simple, popular, and intelligible aspect. And although it has been since made to appear probable, that some of the doc- trines which he taught are erroneous, especially the theory of perception, which he adopted from his predecessors; yet that he contributed more than any other individual of modern times to develope the nature and operations of the human mind, and to introduce a more rational and correct mode of philosophising on this subject than had before pre- vailed, seems to be generally admitted. Not long before Mr. Locke published his cele- brated Essay, Father Malebranche, a learned and acute metaphysician of France, in a work en- titled Recherche de la Verite, or Inquiry after Truth, published a doctrine which soon led to sin- gular consequences. He laid it down as a prin- ciple, which, indeed, had then been admitted by all preceding^ philosophers, that we do not per- ceive external objects immediately, but by means of images, or ideas of them present to the mind, In order to account for the production of these ideas in the mind, he maintained that the soul of man is united with a being possessed of all perfec- tion, who has in himself the ideas of every created being; and therefore that we see all things in God. Malebranche was sensible that this system left no evidence of the existence of a material world; for if the mind sees all things in God; or if the Divine ideas alone are perceived by us, we cannot be certain that the various forms of matter around us exist, since the ideas in the Eternal Mind were b See Essay on the Human Understandings passim; and Reid's Essays on. •the Intellectual Powers of 'Man , vol, i. Essay %. chap. is. Philosophy of the Hitman Mind. f the same before any creature was made. This consequence he candidly acknowledged, and main- tained that the only evidence we have of the ex- istence of a material world, is derived from Reve- lation, which assures us that God created the heavens and the earth, and that the Word ivas made flesh. This doctrine was vigorously and in- geniously opposed by its author's countryman and cotemporary, Anthony Arnauld, Doctor of the Sorbonne. But though the latter succeeded in showing the weakness and fallacy of the reason- ings which he attacked, he was not equally success- ful in establishing a consistent and satisfactory theory of his own. The system of Malebranche, however, notwithstanding its visionary character, was warmly espoused by Mr. Norris, an English divine, who, in 1701, published a large and la- borious work, designed to explain, support, and extend it. He went beyond the French philoso- pher, on the subject of the material world; for al- though he maintained the probability of its exist- ence, he denied our having any evidence abso- lutely decisive that this is the fact. In 1710 a doctrine still more singular and dar- ing was announced by George Berkeley, a phi- losopher of Ireland, and afterwards Bishop of Cloyne. This gentleman, equally distinguished for the penetration and comprehensiveness of his mind, the extent of his learning, and the eminence of his virtues, denied the existence of a material world; contending that what are usually called sensible objects without us, are only ideas in the mind; that th#re is nothing in the universe but spirits, and ideas, or images subsisting in, and perceived by them. He differed from Mr. Locke in several other respects besides this: He discarded reflec- tion as a source of ideas; he divided the objects of human knowledge into two kinds^ ideas ana n4* 8 Philosophy of the Human Mind. tions. The first, according to him, are presented to us by our five senses; they have no existence when they are not perceived, and exist only in the minds of those who perceive them. The second kind of objects he supposed to comprehend spirits, their acts, and the relations and habitudes of things : of these, he contended, we have notions but not ideas, But of all the opinions taught by this great and good man, none have rendered him mope fa- mous, than his denial that those prototypes of our ideas, usually called material objects, have any real existence; and contending that all the varied beauties of creation which we behold, are nothing more than fancies or images impressed on the mind for wise purposes, by the omnipotent Creator/ Although, as was before observed, Father Male- branche shrunk from this bold conclusion of Berkeley, yet he was aware that his reasonings Jed to it: and, indeed, his wrork may be said to contain a large portion of the arguments afterwards adopted by the acute and learned Bishop, in their full force. But to Berkeley is due the honour of having first openly espoused this doctrine, so contradictory to all our feelings and senses; of de- fending it upon a more formal and extensive plan than any of his predecessors; and of giving new and ingenious views of the subject/ About three years after the Bishop's first public cation on this subject, Arthur Collier, an Eng- lish clergyman, in his book, called Clams Univer- salis-y or a New Inquiry after Truth, endeavoured 9 See Principles cf Human Knowledge. Dublin, 1710. d M. Dutens, who is anxious to find among the ancients every inven- tion and doctrine to which the moderns lay claim, quotes the following passage, in which something like the Berhhian doctrine is plainly alluded to. rivslai Toivoy, n.oC\' uvlovj low ovjwv xgClw^tov 0 a.v§?w7To$' tcccvIoc yoc^ \x> ovh zfUv. Sext. Empiric. Pyrrhon. Hypotypos. lib. i. sect. 219. See Re- •htrshts sur V Origins de Dccovvertes, &c. torn. i. $%. Philosophy oj the Human Mind. 9 to demonstrate the non-existence and impossibility of an external world. The arguments which he adduced in support of his cause are the same in substance with those used by Dr. Berkeley, though the author says nothing of the work of that celebrated metaphysician, and does not ap- pear to have seen it. There was only one step more which was left for the most daring metaphysical revolutionists to take, viz. to deny the existence of a spiritual as well as of a material world. This step was at length ventured upon by Mr. Hume/ a sceptical metaphysician of Great-Britain, whose acuteness and ingenuity are well known. Adopting Mr. Locke's, and Bishop Berkeley's opinion, that alL the immediate objects of human knowledge are ideas in the mind, he traced the consequences of this principle to their utmost extent, and con- tended that there is neither matter nor mind in the universe ! That what we call body is only an assemblage of sensations; and what we call mind only an assemblage of thoughts, passions, and emo- tions, without any subject. On the opposition in which the doctrines of the Irish Ecclesiastic and the Scottish historian stand to the common sense, and all the spontaneous and the deepest impressions of mankind, it is needless to remark. Their authors were sensible of this, and it is probable did not, in moments of sober reflection, believe their own speculations. Certain it is, they both acknow- e The universal scepticism to which the sophistry of Mr. Hume leads, or rather which it directly embraces, cannot, with propriety, be considered here. Nor is it necessary. The extravagance and the mischievous ten- dency, especially of some of his opinions, seem, at present, to be acknowledg- ed by all, excepting the desperate few, who are ready calmly to resign all principle, and all belief. The character of his philosophy, " falsely so called," has been exposed with great beauty of rhetoric, by Dr. BeattiEj, in his Essay on Truth ; and, with great force of reasoning, by Dr. Reid, in his Inquiry into the Hitman Mi"d> and his Essays on the Intellectual and 4ctive Power's of Man. VOL. II. C 10 Philosophy of the Human Mind. ledged that the adoption of the principles which they maintained ought not to affect the practice of men, who must ever act as if they were known to be false: an argument, one would imagine, it- self, of strong presumptive force, against all their plausible reasonings. But however the doctrines inculcated by these subtle disputants might have opposed their own feelings, or shocked the minds of others, it is certain they contributed much to promote that speculative philosophy, the tendency of which is to strike at the root of all knowledge, and all belief. On observing the sceptical conclusions which Berkeley and Hume had drawn from the old theory of perception, as it had been taught, in sub- stance, by all writers, from Pythagoras down to their time, some philosophers of Great-Britain were led, about the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury, to call this theory in question. If it were as- sumed as true that we perceive, not external ob- jects themselves, but only the ideas in our minds,, they saw no method of avoiding the consequences which had been so daringly admitted. They, therefore, denied the grand doctrine on which the whole superstructure they wished to oppose wTas built j and endeavoured to show, that, as the premises were gratuitously assumed and false, so the conclusions deduced from them were absurd and impossible. This controversy, doubtless, de- serves to be considered among the most memorable of the age 5 and if the principles and reasonings of certain modern metaphysicians of North-Britain, to the publication of which this controversy has given rise, be regarded as just, they certainly form the most important accession which the philosophy of mind has received since the time of Mr. Locke. At the head of these British philosophers stands Dr. Reid, who first, in his Inquiry into the Human Philosophy of the Human Mind. 1 1 Mind on the Principles of Common Sense, and af- terwards in his Essays on the Intellechtal and Active Powers of Man, gave a display, and attempted a refutation of the sceptical philosophy, which no one who suitably estimates the importance of the subject, can peruse without profound respect for the'author and the deepest interest in hisrea'scnings.^ He totally rejected the ideal system, or theory of perception, as taught by his predecessors, and maintained, that the mind perceives not merely the ideas or images of external objects, but the ex- ternal objects themselves; that when these are presented to our senses, they produce certain im- pressions ; that these impressions are followed by correspondent sensations; and these sensations by a perception of the existence and qualities of the objects about which the mind is employed. He contended that all the steps of this process are equally incomprehensible; that we can assign no other reason for these facts taking place, but that such is the constitution of our nature; and that when sensible objects are presented to us, we be- come persuaded that they exist, and that they pos- sess the qualities which we witness, not by a train of reasoning, by formal reflection, or by associ- ation of ideas 5 but by a direct and necessary con- nection between the presence of such objects and our consequent perceptions. In short, the great and distinguishing peculiarity of this class of meta- physicians is, that they appeal from the delusive principles and shocking conclusions of their op- ponents, to the Common Sense of mankind, as a tri- bunal paramount to all the subtleties of philosophy. The same principle they apply to memory, and other powers of the mind. It is obvious, from this view of Dr. Reid's la- bours, that, although he has taken much pains to overturn the old ideal system, he has not ventured "5 2 Philosophy of the Human Mind. to substitute any theory of his own in its place. Indeed it would have been inconsistent with his leading doctrine to have attempted this. His aim rather was, to give a simple and precise statement of facts, divested of all theoretical expressions; to show how long philosophers have imposed on themselves by principles gratuitously assumed, and by words without meaning; and to convince them, that " with respect to the process of nature in perception, they are no less ignorant than the vul- gar." Nor let any slight thk^as a mere negative and unimportant discovery, ft it be founded in truth, " few positive discoveries in the whole his- tory of science can be mentioned, which have a juster claim to high reputation, than that which has detected, so clearly and unanswerably, the fallacy of an hypothesis, which has descended to us from the earliest ages of philosophy, and which, in modern times, has not only served to Berke- ley and Hume, as the basis of their sceptical sys- tems, but was adopted as an indisputable truth by Locke, by Clarke, and by Newton. "f It ought in justice to be stated, that Dr. Reil>, however great his merit for illustrating and de- fending the doctrine of Common Sense, as taught in his metaphysical writings, was by no means the first who resorted to this method of opposing the. sceptical philosophy of the age. Father Buffief, a learned and ingenious Jesuit, of France, early in the century, espoused a, doctrine substantially the / Elements of the Pliloscphy of Mind ', by DlJGALD STEWART, F. R. S. E. &c. p. 94, 4to. 1792. In adopting, from Professor Stewart, this high praise of Dr. Reid, and his writings on the human mind, I would by no means be understood to express unqualified approbation of his philosophy. To me his Essays m the Active Pczuers of Man have always appeared much inferior to those on the Intellectual Pavers. Indeed, in the former there are several doctrines which I must consider as entirely erroneous. But cf thus guarding and qualifying one's approbation there is no end. Speaking of Dr. Re id's workb in general, they are certainly among the most instructive and valuable metaphyseal writings of the age. Philosophy of the Human Mind. 1 3 same, raid announced it in his " First Truths" as the only ground that could be taken in order to combat successfully Des Cartes, Malebranche, and Locke. It must be owned, indeed, that Bufh fier does not always speak of this faculty or power in man in precisely the same terms with Dr. Reid and his followers, nor can their different ac- counts of the subject be in every case fully re- conciled; yet there is doubtless such a similarity between the ideas of the learned Jesuit and those of the celebrated British Divine, that the merit of ity can hardly be yielded to the latter. To originali Dr. Reid, however, and some contemporary phi- losophers, the honour undoubtedly belongs, of having more fully explained the grand principle upon which their system turns; of having ex- tended its application; and of having deduced its consequences in a more explicit and systematic manner/ Since the publication of Dr. Reid's philosophy, it has been espoused and defended by several dis- g See First Truths, &c. translated from the French of Pere Buffier by an anonymous hand, 8vo. London, 1780. The translator of this work, in a long prefatory discourse, endeavours to fasten the charges of Plagia- rism, Concealment, and Ingratitude on Drs. Reid, Beattie, and Oswald, with a degree of zeal, acrimony, and contemptuous sneer, by no means honourable to himself. He represents them as indebted to Buffier for the substance of all they have written. Whoever this violent assailant is, he certainly does them injustice. To exculpate those gentlemen wholly from the charge of Plagiarism would not, perhaps, be easy ; but to push the charge so far as he does, and especially to treat their general character and merits as he permits himself to do, cannot fail to disgust every candid reader. After all that he has advanced concerning Pere Buffier, the impartial inquirer will find such a degree of originality in the works of the celebrated Scottish metaphysicians, especially those of Dr. Reid, as ought to secure to them a high and lasting reputation. The late Dr. Wituerspoon, President of the College of New- Jersey, whose vigour and originality of mind are generally known, once informed ^ friend, that the first publication in Great-Britain in which Reid's lead- ing doctrine was suggested, and in a degree developed, was an Essay written hy himself, and published in a Scottish magazine, some years before Dr. Reid wrote on the subject. Those who are acquainted with the talents of the illustrious President, and who know how remote his disposition was from that vanity and arrogance which prompt men to make false preten- sions, will probably, without hesitation, accredit bis claim. 14 Philosophy of the Human Mind. tinguished metaphysicians, especially in Great- Britain. Among the most able of these is Dr. Dugald Stewart, Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. It was before re- marked, that Dr. Reid, after demolishing the doctrines of his predecessors, and laying the foun- dation of a new system, forbore to undertake the erection of an improved superstructure on this ba- sis. Professor Stewart, though far from having, in his own estimation, completed such a super- structure, is yet considered as having done some- thing towards it, and as having rendered substan- tial service to the philosophy of mind. He has carried some of his doctrines to a greater length than they were carried by his great predecessor, and in some important particulars he dissents from that able pneumatologist/ The principles of Dr. Reid have also been adopted, and perspicuously displayed by Dr. Beattie, in his Essay on Truth, and other publi- cations; by Dr. Oswald, in his Appeal to Com- mon Sense in Behalf of Religion ; by Lord Kaims, in his Sketches of the History of Man; by Dr. A. Ferguson, in his Principles of Moral and Political Science; and by some other respectable writers. A system of pneumatology, partly belonging to the eighteenth century, from the noise which it made, and the speculations which it excited dur- ing that period, is that of the celebrated Leibnitz, a philosopher of Germany,2' who was mentioned b It is not easy, in this place, to point out the particulars in which Dr. Stewart differs from Dr. Reid. The reader will receive satisfactory information on this subject by looking into those chapters in Stewart's Elements of the Philosophy of the Mind, which treat of Conception, Abstraction, and Association. i In chronological strictness, the system of Leibnitz ought to have been noticed before those of Berkeley, Hume, and Reid; but as the latter stood in close connection with the doctrines of Malebranche, and as it did not appear expedient to interrupt the course of narration respect- ing them, it has been judged proper to introduce a brief account of the doc- Philosophy of the Human Mind. 1 5 in a former chapter. This system appears to have been formed by its author, with a view, on the one hand, to amend the theory of Des Cartes, and on the other to oppose the doctrines of Newton. Leibnitz conceived the whole universe, minds as well as bodies, to be made up of monads, that is, simple substances, each of which is, by the Cre- ator, in the beginning of its existence, endowed with certain active and perceptive powers. A monad, therefore, is an active substance, simple, without parts or figure, which has within itself the power to produce all the changes it undergoes, from the beginning of its existence to eternity. The changes, according to him, which the monad undergoes, of whatever kind, though they may seem to us the effects of causes operating from with- out, yet are only the gradual and successive evo- lutions of its own internal powers, which would have produced all the same changes and motions, although there had been no other being in the universe. He taught that every human soul is a monad, joined to an organized body, which or- ganized body consists of an infinite number of monads, each having some degree of active and perceptive power in itself; but that the whole machine of the body has a relation to that monad which we call the soul, which is, as it were, the center of the whole. He further supposed that there are different orders of monads, some higher, and others lower. To the higher orders he gave the name of dominant, and to this class belongs the human soul. Those which make up the or- ganized bodies of men, animals, plants, &c. he trlnes of the illustrious German in this place. Leibnitz died in the year ijid. He was considered one of the greatest men of the period in which he lived. In vigour and comprehensiveness of mind he was eminently dis- tinguished ; in the variety and versatility of his talents he had few equals ; and in the extent of his acquirements he was almost unrivalled. 16 Philosophy of the Human Mind. contended were of a lower order, and subservient to the dominant monads. But every monad, of whatever order, he represented as a complete sub- stance in itself, having no parts, and indestructi- ble by any power less than Divine, which there is no reason to believe will ever be exerted in the annihilation of any being which it has created. Finally, he maintained that monads of a lower order may, by a regular evolution of their powers, rise to an higher order; that they may be succes- sively joined to organized bodies, of various forms, and different degrees of perception ; but that they can never die, nor cease to be, in some degree, active and percipient. This philosopher distinguished between percep- tion and apperception. The former he supposed common to all monads. The latter, implying con- sciousness, reflection, and a capacity to compre- hend abstract truths, he believed to be peculiar to the higher orders, such as the soul of man. He conceived that our bodies and minds are united in such a manner that neither has any physical in- fluence on the other, each performing all its ope- rations by its own internal powers; yet the opera- tions of one corresponding exactly with those of the other, by a pre-established harmony. Ac- cording to this system, all our perceptions of ex- ternal objects would be the same, though those ob- jects had never existed, or though they should, by Divine power, be annihilated. We do not per- ceive external things because they exist, but be- cause the soul was originally so constituted as to produce in itself all its successive changes and per- ceptions independently of external objects. Every operation of the soul is the necessary consequence of that state of it which preceded the operation; and that state the necessary consequence of the state immediately preceding it, and so backwards, Philosophy of the Human Mind. 17 till we come to its first constitution, which pro- duces successively, and by necessary consequence, every successive state throughout the whole course of its existence/ . This system, for many years after its publica- tion, excited uncommon attention, and obtained great currency, especially in the native country of the author. It was early espoused by Carolus Wolfius, a celebrated philosopher also of Ger- many, a most voluminous commentator on the writings of his master, and a zealous defender of his doctrines. On the foundation of these doc- trines he formed a new system of cosmology and pneumatology, digested and demonstrated in a mathematical method. The principles of Leib- nitz had also some advocates, either in whole or in part, in other parts of the continent of Europe, and in Great-Britain, for a considerable time. But, at the close of the eighteenth century, their reputa- tion had much diminished, and they were adopted by comparatively few, in any part of the philoso- phical world. Among the great theorists in pneumatology which belong to this period, Dr. Hartley, a ce- lebrated English physician, also holds a conspi- cuous place/ The two grand principles on which his whole system rests, are those of Vibration and Association. Newton had taught that the rays of j Reid's Intellectual Powers of Mar., Essay ii. k Dr. David Hartley was born in Yorkshire, August 30, 1705, and died at Bath, August 28, I7J7-. His great work, the Observations on Man, was published in 1749. He was educated with a view to the clerical pro- fession, in the Church of England; but feeling some scruples about sub- scribing to the thirty-nine articles, he relinquished that design, and devoted himself to the study and practice of medicine, in which he was eminent. While he departed from the public standards of his church in several im- portant particulars, he was much distinguished for the force of his mind, the extent of his learning, the amiableness and benevolence of his dispo- sition, and the purity of his moral character. He was a firm believer in Revelation, and wrote, though not with orthodoxy, yet with great scrioui- ness and ability in its defence. VOL. II, D 1$ Philosophy of the Human Mind. light, falling upon the bottom of the eye, excite vibrations in the retina, and that these vibrations being propagated along the optic nerves into the brain, produce the sensation of seeing. Dr. Hart- ley adopted this hypothesis, and applied it, with ingenious additions and modifications of his own, to the other senses. Mr. Locke had thrown new light on the doctrine of association, and shown its great influence and importance in the operations of the human mind. Dr. Hartley also adopted the leading ideas of this great metaphysician on this subject, and by uniting them with the Newtonian opinions, formed a system on which the praise of great ingenuity and plausibility has been be- stowed. He taught, that the white medullary substance of the brain, spinal marrow, and the nerves pro- ceeding from them, form the immediate instrument of sensation and motion; that whatever changes are produced in this substance, corresponding changes take place in our ideas; that external ob- jects impressed upon the nerves occasion, first in the nerves on which they are impressed, and then in the brain, vibrations of the small and infinitesi- mal medullary particles, which vibration excites a sensation in the percipient principle, which re- mains as long as 4he vibration lasts, that is, as long as the object continues to affect the organs of sense. That the medullary substance having once vibrated in a particular manner, does not return entirely to its natural state, but continues disposed to vibrate in that manner rather than any other, which ten- dency of the brain to the renewal of the vibration is the cause of the retention of the idea in the ab- sence of the archetype. That whatever renews the vibration, renews also the perception; but the renewed vibration being less vigorous than the original one, is called a miniature vibration, or vi* 'Philosophy of the Hainan Mind. 19 irathiTtcle, and the renewed perception correspond- ing with it is called an idea. That vibrations may be revived not only by the repetition of external impressions, but by their association with each other; and that, of vibrations which have been associated together a sufficient number of times, either synchronously, or in succession, if one be excited, it will excite the miniatures of all the rest. This is supposed to furnish a solution to all the phe- nomena of the association of ideas. According to this theory, the nerves are divided into two classes, sensory and motory ; the former being the immediate instruments of sensation, the latter of motion. Both originate in the medullary substance of the brain, and their vibrations influ- ence and modify each other. In short, every sen- sation, idea, muscular motion, affection, and in- ternal feeling whatever, is supposed, by Dr. Hart- ley, to correspond with some vibratory state of the medullary substance, so that the one may be regarded as the exDonent of the other/ Though this system contains many ideas, which bear a near relation to the theories of Des Cartes, Ma£ebranche, and Leibnitz f and though its two fundamental principles are derived from the works of Newton and Locke, yet the author has a considerable claim to the character of originality. His doctrines, combined as they are, and formed into a fair structure, belong to himself, and cer- tainly present some new and useful truth. It seems to be the opinion of many that he ought to be classed with the materialists of the age, and it is not easy to assign him any other place. This, in- deed, is contrary to his own express declarations. He was apprehensive lest the doctrine of corporeal / Ooservttions on Man, vol. i. See also Belsham's Elements of the Phi' ttsophy of Mind, &c. 8vo. l8oi. "m Observations en Man, vol. i. p. 1 10 and ill, Edit. Lond. I79*« 20 Pliilosophy of the Human Mind. vibrations, which forms so prominent a feature of his work, should be deemed favourable to materi- alism. " He was therefore anxious to declare, and to have it understood, that he was no materi- alist."" Notwithstanding this declaration, how- ever, it is difficult to reconcile his doctrines with the immateriality of the soul. Good judges have pronounced that if these doctrines be pursued to their natural consequences, they must terminate in absolute Spinozism. Accordingly it is well known, that some of the most distinguished ma- terialists of the age not only profess to admire Dr. Hartley's work, but also adopt his reasonings, and acknowledge him as their great master. Another metaphysical system, which deserves to, be mentioned among the curiosities of the age, is that adopted and published by Lord Monboddo, a celebrated and voluminous writer of North-Britain. This system is, in fact, little more than a revival of what his Lordship considers the Aristotelian philo- sophy, or the doctrine of Universale, with the ad- dition of some crude and absurd visions of his own, which have been little studied, and still less respect- ed by those who are competent to judge. n The following passage is extracted from the Life of Dr. Hartlet, published with the last edicion of his work. " There was but one point in which he appeared anxious to prevent any misapprehension of his principles : that point respected the immateriality of the soul. He was apprehensive lest the doctrine of corporeal vibrations, being instrumental to sensation, should be deemed unfavourable to the opinion of the immateriality of the soul. He was therefore anxious to de- clare, and to have it understood, that he was not a materialist. He has not presumed to declare any sentiment respecting the nature of the soul, but the negative one, that it cannot be material according to any idea or definition that we can form of matter. He has given the following defini- tion of matter, viz. * That it is a mere passive thing, of whose very es- sence it is to be endued with a vis inertia ; for this vis inertia presents itself immediately in all our observations and experiments upon it, and is inse- parable from it, even in idea.' The materiality therefore of the sensitive soul is precluded, by the definition of matter being incapable of sensation. If there be any other element capable of sensation, the soul may consist of that element ; but that is a new supposition, still leaving the original ques- tion concluded in the negative, by the fundamental definition of matter," Philosophy of the Human Mind. 2 1 Lord Monboddo analyzes sensible objects into matter and form, and teaches, like most of the disciples of the Stagirite, the eternity of both. He insists that there are in man four distinct minds, viz. the elemental, the vegetable, the animal, and the intellectual ; that of these, the intellectual only is immortal; that the soul is not created for any particular body, but transmigrates from one to another ; that there are different grades of minds'; those which occupy earths and stones, and those which reside in plants and the inferior animals up to man ; that gravitation is nothing more than the activity of a soul residing in, and animating masses of earth ; and that it is more honourable to the Deity to consider him as operating in all the departments of nature, by the instrumentality of inferior minds, than to represent him as acting on matter immedi- ately. Whether the souls of men transmigrate to the bodies of brutes he is doubtful; but that the souls of vegetables and inferior animals each trans- migrate from one to another of their own species, and perhaps from a lower to a higher, and vice versa, he thinks there is abundant reason to be- lieve. So far as Lord Monboddo agrees with the Aris- totelian philosophy, he talks with a semblance of reason, and may be read with patience. But the extraordinary consequences which he draws from this ancient system of pneumatology, the capricious use which he makes of it, and his visionary and fan- tastic additions to it, render his work as singular a mass of good sense and absurdity, erudition and n-. diculous credulity, as any age ever produced.0 Mr, o See Ancient Metaphysics, 5 vols. 4to. From the singular opinions which abound in this learned and extensive work, the following selection is offered to the reader as a specimen. That the Ourang Gutang is a man not civilized; that men originally wore tails, and went upon all fours ; but that the one dropt off, and they rose from the other to an erect posture by the progress of civilization ; d.at the natural state of man is to live without f§ Philosophy of the Human Mind, James Harris, in his Hermes, and in his Philoso* pkical Arrangements, strove, with equal zeal, nearly about the same time, to revive the philosophy of Aristotle, but without so strangely distorting its features, or encumbering it with such heterogene- ous and whimsical additions. Among the new metaphysical theorists of the age, it would be improper to pass in silence the ce- lebrated Immaxuel Kant, Professor at Koenings- berg, in Prussia. This gentleman, about the year 1781, first published a system of metaphysics and moral philosophy, which has been ever since gain- ing ground among the literati of Germany, a:":-0, is now much in vogue in that country. Professor Kant, we are told, was led to the train of think- ing, which ripened in his mind into the system which bears his name, by the perusal of Hume's essay on the idea of necessary connection; and of Priestley's reply to Retd, Beat tie, and Oswald/ But from whatever source his ideas are derived, he has formed them into a fabric, which is extolled by his adherents as one ot the most sublime efforts of human genius, and as ranking among the most important improvements ever made in science. If we may believe the extravagant panegyrics of these enthusiastic disciples, he has more successfully ex- plored the darkest recesses of the human mind than any individual amongst all his illustrious pre- nd his writings contain adevelopement of precisely those truths after which mankind have been seeking for centuries in vain. o ::on, cloathing, fire, or language ; that his best and only proper food is raw vegetables; that there hav. .:s of two and three, and in some ::.- ol ;lght and nine times the height cf ordinary men in these cegeni.- '.ere are now hot . and whole I who have but one leg ; that in Ethiopia there are men who have their eyes in their nd others v. fa '.y one eye, and that in their forehead!! ! fcc f & ? :. by J. C. Abelung: translated, with additions, by A.E. M. WiLuci:, M, D. Load. Svo. 1798. Philosophy of the Human Mind. 23 " Still, however, when inquiry is made, among the followers of this singular man, respecting the general drift of his system, they answer chiefly in negations. It ib not atheism ; for he affirms that practical reason is entitled to infer the existence of a Supreme Intelligence. It is not theism ; for he denies that theoretical reason can demonstrate the existence of an infinite intelligent Being. It is not materialism; for he maintains that time and space are only forms of our perception, and not the at- tributes of extrinsic existences. It is not idealism ; for he maintains that noumena are independent of phenomena; that things perceptible are prior to perception. It is not libertinism; for he allows the will to be determined by regular laws. It is not fatalism; for he defines this to be a system in ch the' connection of purposes in the world is considered as accidental. It is not dogmatism; for he favours every possible doubt. It is not scepticism; for he affects to demonstrate what he teaches. Such are the indefinite evasions of this school."7 The disciples of this celebrated pro- fessor assure us that their system is so profound and extensive, that the acutest understanding cannot tolerably comprehend it by less than a twelve- month's study; and that to become a thorough master of its subtle and recondite principles, re- quires the unwearied labour of many years. After such a declaration, it would be presumptuous for one but slightly acquainted with the subject to attempt an exhibition even of the outlines of this plan. But not to omit all notice of so celebrated a system, it may be proper to state the following doctrines, as among the elementary principle* which it contains. f Monthly Jtojro of Londos, vol. xxviii. N. S. p. 61. 1707* 24 Philosophy of the Human Mind. Professor Kant teaches that all men have a certain innate faculty, consisting in the capacity of the soul to receive immediate representations of objects; that the representations which this sensi- tive faculty affords us are perceptions; that all our perceptions have a two-fold form, space and time; that this faculty ought to be called theoretical rea+ son, or speculative understanding ; and that it is of so limited a nature that it cannot perceive any thing beyond the two forms already mentioned, one of which belongs to the perception of our internal, and the other to that of our external senses. He maintains, that the objects which we perceive in space exist not externally, but only internally; they are mere phenomena, but cannot be said to be only ideal, nor to have no objective reality; because they depend on established laws, and real principles. When, therefore, they are said to exists no more is meant than that they are perceived in space, or in the form of external organization. He believes, that as the nature and form of our per- ceptions are determined by the nature of our sensi- ble faculty, so the form of our thoughts, or the manner in which we judge concerning phenomena^ or arrange our perceptions, is determined by the nature of our theoretical reason; and as that wrhich, wmen knowledge is obtained by means of the senses, gives a form to the matter perceived, is called a pure perception ; so that by which we de- termine the connection of our observations, and form a judgment concerning them, is called a pure notion, or category. Those pure notions which are discoverable by an analysis of the judgment, may be reduced to notions of quantity, quality, rela- tion and modification. These categories, consi- dered abstractedly, are not deduced from our per- ceptions and experience, but exist in the mind prior to these latter, and experience is the result of Philosophy of the Human Mind. 25 their combination with our perceptions; but it is only in connection with our perceptions that these pure notions can be the source of knowledge; for, in themselves, they are mere forms, without any independent existence. They serve to direct us in the use of our observations ; but they cannot extend our knowledge beyond the limits of perception and experience. " " There are, according to Professor Kant, two kinds of propositions, concerning which our minds may be employed, analytical and synthetical. The former are those in which we only explain or illustrate that of which we have already some idea; whereas, in the latter, we increase our knowledge, by adding something new to our former idea of the subject. Thus, when we say all matter is ex- tended, we form an analytical proposition; and when we say, all bodies have a certain zceight, that is a synthetical proposition. " Without experience, we cannot form any syn- thetical proposition concerning the objects or matter of our knowledge ; but, as the forms of our knowledge are independent of and prior to our ex- perience, we may, with respect to the pure notions already mentioned, conceive synthetical proposi- tions, or acquire pure science; and indeed it is only when we have pure perceptions and pure no- tions for our objects, that we can arrive at univer- sal and necessary certainty; as is the case in pure mathematics and philosophy, in which we con- sider truth, abstracted from matter, with respect only to the forms or laws of knowledge and volition, " Beside theoretical reason, M. Kant ascribes to man another faculty, which he calls practical reason, endued with power sufficient to impel and direct the will. He asserts that, if this faculty were not granted, it w^ould follow that practical laws would not be universal moral precepts^ but vol. ji. E 26 Philosophy of the Human Mind. only particular maxims, which individuals might prescribe to themselves as the rule; of their conduct. To these universal moral laws, practical reason commands our implicit obedience, without any regard to our inclinations or views of advantage. These are indeed sometimes at variance with the dictates of duty, but, in order to diminish their in- fluence as obstacles to virtue, our practical reason must determine us firmly to believe the existence of the Deity, and of a future state in which our happiness will be proportioned to our internal worth. This is what our philosopher calls rational faith, as it is independent of all knowledge of its object ; for the principles of religion can be neither demonstrated nor disproved by theoretical reason, but are mere postulates of practical reason; and the only theology that is really founded on our understanding, is moral theology, which depends on moral principles. "r The complaint that all this is obscure and scarcely intelligible, will probably be made by every reader. An English philosopher tells us, that it would re- quire more than ordinary industry and ingenuity to make a just translation, or a satisfactory ab- stract of the system in question, in our language; that for this purpose a new nomenclature, more difficult than that of the Linnsean Botany, must be invented. This circumstance itself affords strong presumption against the rationality and truth of the Kantian philosophy, Locke and Newton found little difficulty in making themselves under- stood. Every man of plain good sense, who is used to inquiries of that nature, readily compre- hends their systems, in as little time as it requires to peruse their volumes. Even Berkeley and r The above brief account of the Kantian system of Pnevmatotogy Is cx» traded from a British Literary Journal. Philosophy of the Human Mind. 27 Hume, with all their delusive subtleties, found means to render themselves easily intelligible. Is there not reason, then, to suspect, either that the system of Professor Kant is made up of hetero- geneous, inconsistent and incomprehensible mate- rials; or that, in order to disguise the old and well known philosophy of certain English and French writers, and to impose it on the world as a new system, he has done little more than present it un- der a new technical vocabulary of his own? Or, which is, perhaps, not the most improbable sup- position, that, being sensible of the tendency of his philosophy to undermine all religion and morals, as hitherto taught and prized in the world, he has studied to envelope in an enigmatic language, a system which he wishes to be understood by the in- itiated alone; a system which has been pronounced " an attempt to teach the sceptical philosophy of Hume in the disgusting dialect of scholasticism?!* At any rate, notwithstanding all the unwearied pains which some of the disciples of this famous Prussian have taken, to rescue him from the im- putation of being one of the sceptical philosophers of the age, the most impartial judges will pro- bably assign him a place among those metaphysical empirics of modern times, whose theoretical jar- gon, instead of being calculated to advance sci- ence, or to forward human improvement, has rather a tendency to delude, to bewilder, and to shed a baneful influence on the true interests of man. The system of Kant has found numerous friends and commentators, particularly in Germany, who contend, that it sets limits, on the one hand, to the scepticism of Hume; while, on the other, it re- futes and overturns materialism, fatalism, and athe- ism, as well as fanaticism and infidelity. Among those who have distinguished themselves as the friends and advocates of this system, Reinhold, 28 Philosophy of the Hitman Mind. Schulze, Schmid, Jacob, "Will, Reimarus, and Adelung, hold a distinguished place. On the contrary, among its opponents, we find the names of Herder, Plattner, Selle, and many others. The controversy to which the Critical Philosophy has given rise, as it has produced a multitude of voluminous publications, so it will long be ranked among the most curious and interesting of the age. In the latter half of the century under consider- ation, a new doctrine concerning the human mind was announced, which is entitled to some notice in this place. This doctrine, it is believed, was first adopted and advanced by M. Helvetius, a celebrated French writer/ He was followed by M. Condorcet/ and some others, also of France; by means of whose writings it obtained consider- able currency among the literati of that country, and was afterwards embraced and defended, with •much plausibility, by Mr. Godwin,'1' and others, of Great-Britain/ The advocates of this doctrine maintain the Per- fectibility of Man. With regard to the nature of the human mind they appear, in general, to em- brace the system of materialism.1" They suppose that the thinking principle of man is the result of corporeal organization; that the difference in minds results from the difference of this organization, and inore especially from the subsequent circumstances 3 A Treatise en Man, his Intellectual Faculties, and his Education. Trans- lated by Hooper, a vols. 8vo. 1777. t Outlines of an Historical Vieiv of the Progress of the Human Mind. 8 VO. *19S- V Inquiry concerning Political Justice, second Edit. 2 Vols. 8vo. I796. w It is not meant to be asserted that all these writers agree with respect to the details of their several systems ; but that they concur in asserting the om- nipotence of education, and the perfectibility of man. iv Some of those who profess a belief in the perfectibility of man appear to be in doubt with respect both to the immateriality and immortality of the soul. They are so busied about the improvement of man in this world, that they have little time, and less inclination to bestow a thought on his destiny and prospects in that which is to come, Philosophy of the Human Mind. 29 and education of the individual; that by means of the diffusion of knowledge, and the adoption of better principles and modes of education, the im- provement of man in intellect, in virtue, and in bappiness, will go on to an illimitable extent; that, at length, mind shall become " omnipotent over matter," perfect enjoyment assume the place of present suffering, and human life, instead of being bounded by a few years, be protracted to immor- tality, or at least to an indefinite duration. This system is unsupported by any facts; it is contrary to all the experience of mankind;" it is opposed to every principle of human nature, and it is scarcely necessary to add, to the plainest dic- tates of Revelation . That man may, and probably will, make great improvements hereafter, in sci- ence and art, is readily admitted. That we can- not presume to assign the bounds of this improve- ment, is also admitted. But that there will be absolutely, no bounds to it, or, which is the same thing as to the argument, that it will go on be- yond all assignable or conceivable limits, is to sup- pose the constitution of man essentially changed, his present wants, habits, and mode of subsistence totally superseded, and a nature conferred upon him wholly different from that which his Creator gave him. But as the doctrines held by the advo- cates of human perfectibility become still more im- portant when considered with respect to their moral and political application, the further consi- deration of their extravagance, weakness, and in- consistency, and the injurious consequences arising x It is somewhat curious that many of those who adopt the opinion con- cerning man which is here opposed, believe, at the same time, that this world has existed from eternity. If, amidst eternal revolutions, and eter- nal progress, mankind have not yet risen above the grade at which we now behold them, there seems little encouragement to hope for any thing like what they anticipate in future. 30 Philosophy of the Human Mind. from their adoption, will be attended to in a sub- sequent part of this sketch/ During the last age, several detached parts of the philosophy of mind have been illustrated in a manner greatly superior to the attempts at expla- nation made in former periods. Perhaps there is no subject to which this remark more forcibly ap- plies than to the great question of Liberty and Ne- cessity, which, through so many successive ages, has served to puzzle the acutest metaphysicians. Never, probably, was any point more largely, ably, and profoundly discussed. The writings of Leib- nitz, Collins, Hume, Hartley, Priestley, and Belsham, on the side of moral necessity; and of Clarke, Butler, Reid, Beattie, De Luc, Gre- gory, and Horsley, in favour of liberty, are well known, and form very important materials in the metaphysical history of the age. But the greatest work which the century produced on this subject, and certainly among the ablest ever written on any department of philosophy, is that by the ce- lebrated American Divine, Mr. Jonathan Ed- wards, for some time President of the College of New-Jersey. This gentleman wrote on the side of moral necessity, or against the self-determining power of the will; and investigated the subject with a degree of originality, acuteness, depth, pre- cision, and force of argument, which the accurate reader cannot contemplate but with astonishment. It will not be said that he has brought to an issue a controversy, which will probably last as long as men exist on earth; but that he has thrown much new light on the subject will be questioned by none ; and that he has approached as near to a de- y Some further remarks on this delusive system will also be found under the head of Education, in the present volume. But in the third division of the work, in which it is proposed to take a view of che moral principles and establishments of the eighteenth century, a more particular consideration of it will be attempted. Philosophy of the Human Mind. 3 1 monstratlon, that the doctrine of moral necessity (as explained and guarded by him) is the only scrip- tural and philosophical doctrine on this subject, as the nature of such inquiries admits, is certainly the opinion of some of the best judges in every part of the literary world/ The extremes to which the system of the venerable President has been carried by several subsequent writers, and the con- sequences deduced from it, were far from being- recognized by him; and with respect to some of them, they are, beyond all doubt, illegitimately drawn. It is worthy of remark, that our great country- man, Mr. Edwards, appears to have been the first Calvlnlst who avowed his belief so fully and tho- roughly in the doctrine of moral necessity as his book indicates. Though all Calvinistic writers be- fore his time were characterized by a firm ad- herence to the doctrine of Predestination; yet they seem, for the most part, to have adopted a kind of middle course between his creed and that of the Arminian contingency. The penetrating and comprehensive mind of Edwards went fur- ther; demonstrated that this middle ground was untenable, and presented a more clear and satis- factory view of the doctrines of free grace, when contemplated through the medium of his main doc- trine, than had ever before been given/ That class of philosophers who taught that the soul was material, were, until the eighteenth cen- tury, generally ranked among infidels, and in most z Soon after the publication of President Edwards's celebrated work on the Will, he received the thanks of several Professors of the Universities of Holland, and of other gentlemen of distinction, in various parts of Eu- rope, for having, in their opinion, thrown more light on the subject than all preceding writers. This publication has long been considered and quoted as a standard work on the side of this question which it is designed to de- fend. a Sec his Inquiry into the Freedom of the Willy &c. passim. 32 Philosophy of the Hitman Mind. instances, really deserved this character. Hence a materialist has been commonly considered as a de- nomination tantamount to a charge of atheism itself, or at least of criminal indifference to religion. The Christian world, accustomed to connect this tenet with such heresies as those of Spinoza, Hobbes, Collins, and others, of a similar character, natu- rally concluded, that a belief in immaterialism necessarily flowed from a belief in Christianity. The last age is distinguished by the adoption of this anti-christian error, by some who profess to embrace the Christian faith. Among these the most conspicuous and active is Dr. Priestley/ who maintains that " man does not consist of two substances essentially different from each other; but that the conscious and thinking principle, or what we generally term the soul, is merely a pro- perty resulting from a peculiar organical structure of the brain." On this principle he attempts to show that the idea of the natural immortality of the soul is wholly fallacious; that the properties of sensation and thought, and of course all the dis- tinguishing characteristics of the thinking part of our nature, must be extinguished by the dissolu- tion of the organized mass in which they exist; and therefore that the only reason which men have to expect a state of consciousness or enjoyment hereafter, is derived from the scripture doctrine of the resurrection. In former parts of this work the services of Dr. Priestley in the physical sci- ences have been mentioned with high respect, and with frequently repeated tributes of applause. It is to be regretted that so much of what he has written on the philosophy of mind, and almost the whole of his writings on the subject of theology, should be so radically erroneous, and so subversive b Disquisitions concerning Matter and Spiriti and Correspondents betviewi Price £nd Priestley. Philosophy of the Human Mind. 33 of all the interests of evangelical truth and prac- tical piety. The controversy respecting the immateriality of the soul between Dr. Clarke and Mr. Collins, and many years afterwards between Dr. Price and Dr. Priestley, forms a very important part of the metaphysical history of the period in which they lived; and probably furnishes some of the most luminous views of this interesting controversy that were ever presented to the world. Some of the immaterialists of this age, such as Dr. Clarke, Dr. Price, and others, maintained, that the mind has one property, viz. extension, in common with matter, and, consequently, that it occupies space, and has a proper locality, or, as the schoolmen ex- press it, ubiety ; while others, such as Dr. Watts, perhaps more consistently and philosophically sup- posed, that mind has no common property with matter; that it is inextended, does not occupy space, and has no proper locality.17 The celebrated dispute between the Nominalists and Realists, which perplexed the schoolmen for so many ages/ and which all their acuteness was not able to terminate, was carried on with great warmth, under different names, and with some c See Correspondence between Price and Priestley; and aho/Ekmcnts of the Philosophy of Mind, by T. BEL3HAM. d The Realists followed the doctrine of Aristotle with respect to uni- versal ideas. They taught that previous to, and independent on matter, there were no universal ideas or essentes ; but that the ideas or exemplars, which the Platonists supposed to have existed in the Divine mind, and to* have been the models of all created beings, had been eternally impressed upon matter, and were coeval with, and inherent in, their objects. On the other hand, the Nominalists, who embraced the doctrine of Zeno and the Stoics, insisted, in opposition both to the Aristotelians and Platonists, that these pretended universals had neither fortn nor essence, and were no more than mere terms, or nominal representations of their particular objects. The doctrine of Aristotle chiefly prevailed until the eleventh century, when Rose eli nus embraced the Stoical system, and founded the sect of the Nominalists, whose opinions were propagated with great success by Abelard. These two sects frequently disputed and divided into inferior parties among themselves. VOL. II. F 34 Philosophy of the Human Mind. new modifications, through the whole of the last century. And though still far from being con- cluded, yet probably there was never so much light thrown on the question in any preceding pe- riod. Of those who maintained the doctrine of the Realists, it is believed that Mr. Harris, Dr. Price, and Lord Monboddo Were among the most eminent ; while the system of the Nominalists was espoused and defended, with great ingenuity, by Bishop Berkeley, Mr. Hume, Dr. CAMPBELL,Pro- fessor Stewart, and many others. Mr. Locke* Dr. Reid, and a few more under the name of Con- ceptualists, adopted a kind of middle course be- tween these far-famed disputants. Besides the writers on the general philosophy of mind, or on particular parts of this science, whose names have been mentioned in the foregoing pages, a number of others are entitled to notice in the metaphysical history of the last age, as having ei- ther written professedly on the subject, or inter- woven much matter relating to the philosophy of mind in the discussion of theological, moral, and literary subjects. Among these Bishop But- ler, Dr. Hutcheson, Mr. Grove, Dr. Camp- bell, Dr. A. Smith, Mr. Tucker/ and Mr. Al- lison, of Great-Britain; Beausobre, Condillac, and many more, of France; Lossius, Tetens, Fe- der, Kruger, and Mendlesshom, of Germany; Crouzaz, LeClerc, Bonnet, and several others, of Geneva; and a much longer list which might i See The Light of Nature Pursued, by Edward Search, Esq. 7 vols. 8vo. 1768, 1778. The real author of this work was Abraham Tucker, Esquire. It contains much new, curious and highly interesting dicussioti on metaphysical and moral subjects. Of Mr. Tucker, Dr. Paley, in the preface to his Moral and Political Philosophy, speaks in the following terms : " I have found in this writer more original thinking and observation upon the several subjects that he has taken in hand, than in any other, not to say, than in all others put together. His talent for illustration is unri- valled. But his thoughts are diffused through a long, various, and irregu- lar work." « Classic Literature. 35 be selected from different parts of Europe, are en- titled to respectful distinction/ Indeed, the con- nection is so close between the philosophy of mind and moral science, that every systematic writer on the latter subject has, in a greater or less degree, treated of the former. This will more fully appear, when we come, in a future division of the present work, to take a view of the various moral systems which have obtained currency, or excited atten- tion in the last age. CHAPTER XIII. CLASSIC LITERATURE. AT the revival of learning in the fifteenth cen- tury, Classic Literature, or the study of the best ancient writers of Greece and Rome, was an ob- ject of primary and enthusiastic attention among the literati of Europe. The remains of those writers were sought with avidity, and studied with persevering diligence. Criticisms and com- mentaries upon them abounded. To gain posses- sion of a classic manuscript; to remove an ob- scurity in an ancient text; or to propose a new reading, was then considered among the most honourable and useful of all literary achievements. At that time he who could lay ciaim to the cha- racter of an adept in the Greek and Latin tongues was, of course, a great and learned man; while, / With the writings of the greater part of the metaphysicians above mentioned, which belong to the continent of Europe, especially those ef Germany, the author knows little but by report ; it will not, therefore, bo expected that he should deliver any formal statements or opinions concern^ ing their doctrines. 36 Classic Literature. witjiout this, however solid, extensive and valu- able his knowledge of other subjects, no one could be rescued from the charge of barbarous and con- temptible ignorance. In a word, instead of con- sidering classic literature as a means of obtaining more important knowledge, the directors of pub- lic taste, at that period, unwisely erected it into an ultimate end, and taught their followers to con- sider it as the most worthy object of pursuit, to all who were ambitious of becoming learned. This was an improper extreme. The more judi- cious had just cause to lament that such a dispro- portionate share of regard was bestowed on lan- guage, to the neglect of studies more important and immediately practical. This error began to be corrected about the beginning of the seventeenth century. At this period, brilliant discoveries in natural philosophy began to arrest the attention of the learned world, and the physical sciences in general became more objects of regard. But this decline of classic li- terature was gradual. One error was not imme- diately exchanged for its opposite. The Latin language was now generally employed as a me- dium of publication in science; and although it had come to be generally considered in its proper light, as a means rather than an end; yet both this and the Greek were generally and deeply studied by all who had a taste for letters, or aspired to dis- tinction in knowledge. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the study of the ancient languages was still esteemed an essential part of liberal education. It was then the habit of the learned not only to write and speak the Latin tongue with the greatest facility; but they also still employed it as a medium for con- veying the result of their philosophical labours throughout the literary world ; and most of those Classic Literature. 37 who laid claim to the character of scholars, had an extensive and accurate acquaintance with Gre- cian literature. In both these respects the eigh- teenth century produced a singular revolution. The Latin language has in a great measure ceased to be that familiar medium ot conversation and of writing, among the learned, that it once was; and the Greek, though nominally retained, as a branch of study in modern seminaries of learning, has be- come almost unknown even to the liberally edu- cated. A belief is daily becoming more prevalent and popular that the time bestowed on the acqui- sition of these languages, if not entirely wasted, might at least be more usefully employed. This belief, of course, has had considerable influence on modern plans of education. And although in a few of the ancient European seats of learning, some portion of the former zeal for classic litera- ture still remains; yet even in these a considerable decline from their wonted eminence is plainly vi- sible; and in by far the larger number the decline is great, humiliating, and evidently on the in- crease. The vernacular tongue, it is believed, first be- gan to be employed in works of science, to the re- jection of the Latin, in Italy. From that country the practice made its way into France, and soon became general. Great-Britain was the next, in order, to adopt this innovation, which was ad- mitted last of all into Germany and Holland. At the present day the number of books published in any other than the living languages is extremely small. In America the decline of classic literature is es- pecially remarkable and prevalent. Many of our colleges require in their students but a superficial acquaintance with the Latin language; and with respect to the Greek, are contented with a smat- 38 Classic Literature. tering which scarcely deserves the name of know- ledge. And although in others, laudable exer- tions have been, and continue to be made, for retaining to some profitable extent this part of education, yet the popular prejudice against it is strong and growing; and there is too much reason to fear that this prejudice will, at no great distance of time, completely triumph/ The causes of this revolution are various. Since the commencement of the eighteenth century, the physical sciences have been gradually extending their bounds, demanding more attention, and ac- quiring greater ascendency. As the objects of study multiplied, a less degree of leisure was left for any particular pursuit. The splendour of seve- ral new branches of philosophy, as they success sively rose into view, attracted the studious, and gave a new turn to fashion. Hence those who employed themselves in the illustration of the clas- sics, in the settlement of various readings, or in mak- ing themselves masters of those venerable remains of antiquity, soon sunk in popular esteem. It be- came fashionable to represent them as persons void of taste; as is word catchers, that lived on sylla- bles;" as far below the votaries of science in dig- nity. This ridicule sensibly diminished the public respect for classic literature, and still continues to operate with undiminished force, g While a great fondness prevails in the United States for giving young men a College education, and obtaining for them the usual academic honour qf a diploma, there is also a prevailing disposition, not only among the youth themselves, but also among parents and guardians, to give them as small a portion of classic, and especially of Greek literature, as possible. Against this latter language, it seems, particular hostility is denounced, And in some of our colleges it requires the exertion of all the authority vested in the immediate instructors, and the governors, to prevent popular ignorance and prejudice from expelling the study of Greek from their plans of education. This is a circumstance which threatens much evil to the in- terests of literature in our country ; and unless the trustees and other ofr ficers, to whom the direction of our seminaries of learning is entrusted, combine to oppose the plausible but delusive literary heresy, another genen jration will witness the most unhappy effects arising from its prevalence. Classic Literature, 39 Another cause which has doubtless contributed to produce the effect in question is, the incon- ceivable enlargement of the sphere of enterprise and activity which the past age exhibited. New objects of profit and pleasure have arisen, and en- gaged the public mind) new fields of labour and adventure have been thrown open ; and, of course, in calculating an education for active life, the re- finements of ancient literature began to receive a smaller share of regard. To which may be added, that the increased intercourse of mankind, on the one hand, by bringing several living languages more into use, necessarily diverted a share of at- tention from the ancient; and, on the other, by rendering the study of various modern tongues more easy and useful, took away one important argument in favour of a learned language as a me- dium of general intercourse. It must be admitted, that this manifest decline of classic literature has been attended with some advantages. In consequence of discarding dead languages, as the ordinary medium of philosophi- cal publications, such writings have become more accessible and popular; the student has more time left for becoming acquainted with his vernacular tongue; the attention of the learned is more di- rected to moral and physical sciences; the youth destined for active life is no longer condemned to waste his days by devoting them to objects which are, to him at least, of subordinate importance. In a word, the gradual disuse of what are called learned languages, may be regarded as an im- portant branch of the system of those who con- sider the general diffusion of knowledge as a de- sirable object; and who wish to make every part of it as popular as possible. There are few things more directly calculated to break down the " wall of partition" between the literary and the other 40 Classic Literature. classes of citizens, and to render liberal informa- tion the common portion of all ranks in the com- munity, than making living languages the only means of intercourse, and removing the necessity of acquiring any other. But if some advantages have attended the de- cline of classic literature; if it have produced a greater diffusion of knowledge, and favoured the progress of the arts and sciences, there is, per- haps, reason to doubt whether it has not pro- duced more and greater evils. It has rendered the intercourse between learned men more difficult, for want of a common medium. It has produced a necessity to consume more time in the acqui- sition of various modern languages. And, what is of no less consequence, it has caused some of the best and most precious works of antiquity to be little known at the present day, and of conse- quence to be, in a great measure, lost to the world. It has been asserted, by the ablest philologists, that the knowledge of the Greek and Roman writers has a most important influence in pro- moting literary taste. Those writers display ex- cellences with respect to the structure and polish of language, which, it seems to be generally agreed, are unrivalled in the annals of composition. To study these excellences has a natural tendency to render the mind familiar with the philosophy of grammar, and to inspire it wTith a taste for the re- finements of eloquence. It has a tendency to form in the student a capacity to discern, and a solici- tude to attain the purity, the precision, and the graces of speech. Perhaps it may be questioned whether a man can possibly understand any one modern language, in its various inflections, beauties, and shades of meaning, without having some ac- quaintance with those ancient tongues. Certain it is, that almost the whole of that invaluable mass Classic Literature. 4% hf instruction on this subject, to be derived from etymological inquiries, depends on such an ac- quaintance, and must be commensurate with its extent. Hence it is supposed, by some of the most judicious literary historians, that the high es- timate set on classical literature, and the enthusi- astic attention paid to it, until within a few years past, may be considered among the principal causes of that rapid improvement in several Eu- ropean languages, which distinguishes the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries. By diligently studying the ancient models of composition, and habitually referring to them as standards, the lite- rati of those days were enabled to transfuse their beauties into the living languages; to give the latter a large portion of the copiousness, regularity, and numerous excellences of the former; and to convert them from that miserably defective and barbarous state in which they were found, to a de- gree of richness and refinement bordering on rival- ship with their admired patterns. If these facts and reasonings be admitted, it would seem to follow, that the same course of studies which contributed so much to raise modem languages to their present refined and improved state, must also be considered as useful, if not in- dispensably necessary to the preservation and sup- port of those excellences which they have attained. The tendency of living languages to fluctuate and change is universally known. The intercourse of different nations; the ignorance, presumption, and affectation of authors; the gradual introduction of provincial barbarisms, and many other causes, are frequently found to debase the purity, and, in no small degree, to affect the regularity of modern tongues. Of the mischief which has been often done, in these respects, even by a single popular writer, the annals of literature" furnish numerous vol. ii, a 42 Classic Literature. instances. It is true, to possess a language absou lutc\)\fixed, is neither possible nor desirable. New discoveries in science, new refinements in art, and the continual progress made in various departments of human knowledge, call for new words and phrases, and necessarily give rise to many corres- ponding changes, some of which are invaluable improvements in speech. But if left unrestrained, these innovations will be wantonly and injuriously multiplied. Every unfledged sciolist will assume the office of a reformer. Additions and alterations will no longer be made conformably to the analogy of the stock on which they are grafted; and lan- guage will speedily degenerate into a corrupt, ca- pricious, and unintelligible jargon. Against this degeneracy, perhaps, no barrier is more effectual than the study of the ancient classics, and con- tinually referring to them as the best standards of literary taste which mankind possess. The most illustrious models of English style have, un- doubtedly, been produced by those who were in- timately acquainted with those classics. Scarcely an instance can be found of an author who was ig- norant of them, and who, at the same time, at- tained any high degree of excellence as a writer in his own language. And if ever the time should come when the polished tongues of antiquity shall cease to be studied in our seminaries of learning, it requires no spirit of prophecy to predict, that our vernacular language will gradually lose the pu- rity and regularity of its proper idioms; become loaded with anomalies and meretricious ornaments; and no longer exhibit that philosophic uniformity, and systematic beauty, which are so desirable and useful. It is believed that the style of some very popular writers, within the last thirty years, fur- nishes a very instructive comment on the foregoing ideas, and affords abundant evidence of their truth. Classic Literature. 4$ But this subject may with propriety be consi- dered as a matter of still more serious concern . To discourage the study of ancient languages, is to discourage one important means of supporting and defending Revelation. With what boldness would every heresiarch assail the foundation and the pu- rity of our faith, if its teachers were generally ig- norant of the original records of truth ! With what confidence would unbelievers triumph, and with what manifest advantages would they be armed, were the friends of religion unable to appeal to the primitive oracles of inspiration, and to the primitive witnesses of their authenticity! To re- commend the dismission of classic literature, there- fore, from plans of education, is not only to de- clare war against taste and sound learning, but also to betray the interests of evangelical truth, and put a new weapon into the hands of its enemies. No wise man, indeed, would think of enjoining the acquisition of the dead languages upon every youth who seeks a liberal education. To impose such a task upon those who have no view to any of the professions denominated learned, or whose circumstances in life leave little leisure from the toil of active pursuits, would be to make a very improper use of one of the most important portions of life. But that the acquisition is abundantly worthy the labour of making it, to those who have the time and the means necessary for the pur- pose ; that some knowledge on this subject has a tendency to meliorate the whole literary charac- ter, even if it be afterwards forgotten ; and that the prevailing and increasing disposition to neglect this department of study ought to be regretted as among the fashionable follies of the age, would seem to follow necessarily from the foregoing re- marks. 44 Classic Literature, But notwithstanding the declining state of clas- sic literature during the eighteenth century, this period was distinguished by a few events and cha- racters which attracted considerable attention, and which are worthy of being noticed in the pre- sent sketch. The labours of learned men, during the age un- der consideration, to facilitate the acquisition of the Latin language, have been numerous and use- ful. Dictionaries, Grammars •, and other similar works have been executed on new and improved plans, with great diligence, perseverance and suc- cess. A number of scientific publications have been made in this language, in various parts of Europe, in the course of the century, which will long remain monuments of the learning and taste of the age. A few publications of this description have been made in Great- Britain; but by far the greater number on the continent of Europe. Well executed and useful helps for acquiring the Greek language have also been multiplied during the eighteenth century, and have contributed to the de- gree of cultivation which it received. Before the commencement of the eighteenth century, it is believed, the Latin language was always taught by means of grammars written in the same language. In other words, a plan of instruction was adopted which presupposed the knowledge of that which was meant to be acquired. This absurd custom subjected youth to unnecessary labour, and burdened their memories with words to them altogether unmeaning. In the course of the century a considerable improvement in this respect rook place. Grammars and Dictionaries in the popular language became more common. And what is worthy of remark, in this century, a Lexicon for enabling those who understand no other language than English, to acquire the know- Classic Literature. 45 ledge of Greek, was for the first time presented to the public by the celebrated Mr. Parkhurst, of Great-Britain, whose learned and useful labours for promoting the study of the ancient languages, and especially of those in which the sacred volume was originally written, are well known. In Greek literature the learned men of Holland, for a considerable part of the century, bore the palm from the contending world. Among these, Shul- tens, Hemsterhuis, Ruhnkenius, Valckenaer, Lennep, and Scheid, will long be remembered with respect by the friends of learning. The first named of these great scholars, the immortal Al- bert Shultens, early in the century, investigated, with singular erudition and aciueness, the deriva- tion and structure of several languages, and particu- larly the Greek. He wTas followed by his coun- tryman, the celebrated Tiberius Hemsterhuis/ who undertook to derive the whole Greek lan- guage, various and copious as it is, from a few short primitives, on a plan entirely new. His doc- trines were further pursued and illustrated by his disciples, Ludovic Caspar Valckenaer/ and John Daniel Lennep/ who offered to the world many refined and curious speculations on the sub- ject. To these succeeded Everard Scheid/ a disciple of the same school, who wrote largely and learnedly on the proposed system of derivation, but differed materially from his preceptor and his fellow pupils. Besides the services rendered to Greek literature by the great critics above men- h Hemsterhuis did not himself, it is believed, publish his doctrine respecting the derivation of the Greek language. This was done by his disciples. i Vide Ludovici CASPARI Valckenaerii Observaiioncs, quibus via munitur ad Origines Grtzcas Invcstigandas, et Lex'uorum defectus resarsciendos. j Vide Joann. Daniel. Lennep De Analogia Lingua Graca, she Rw fionum Analogicarum Lingua Graces Expositio. i Vide Et'jsr.oljgjcujn; and Animadversiones ad Analogiam Lingua Graca, 46 Classic Literature. tioned, the Ellipses Greece of Lambertus Bos; the Doctvina Particularum of Henry Hoogeveen;' and the ingenious speculations of Lord Monboddo, in his Origin and Progress of Language,"1 have all contributed to unfold more clearly than before the etymology, the genius, the beauties, and the va- rious excellences of this ancient tongue. But the services of these eminent critics have not been all stated. While they pursued further .than their predecessors, the analysis of the Greek language, they purified the Grammar from many absurdities and errors; they interpreted and amend- ed many passages in ancient authors; and contri- buted in various ways to facilitate and recom- mend the study of those authors. And even if all their speculations respecting the analysis of the language, and especially concerning the origin and meaning of the particles, should be judged to be wholly unfounded, which probably few will suppose to be the case, they will doubtless be pronounced to have thrown much light on the subjects which they discussed. But a satisfactory view of their ingenious and useful labours can only be obtained by the careful perusal of their numerous publica- tions. It might have been expected, in an age in which the intercourse of men was so much extended as in the last, and in which so many rich repositories of ancient manuscripts were for the first time opened / Doctrina Particularum Lingua Graca, Auciore et Editor e Henrtco Hoogeveen. 2 Tom. 4to. This is a large, ingenious, and learned work, on the origin and meaning of the Grtek Particles. Lord Monboddo speaks of it in terms of great respect and approbation. See his Origin and Progress of Language. m L.ord iViO-sBODDO derives the whole Greek language from combina- tions in duads, of the w wich the other five vowels, cc, e, <, o, v ; the w being always last : so that aw, sw, iw, cw, vu>, are the radical sounds, from which the whole language is derived. It is very remarKable, that the British phiklogisc adop ed almost precisely the iame doctrine on this sub- ject whicli had been before taught, though without his Knowledge, by Hemstekhuis, and his followers, of the Ley den school. Classic Literature, 47 to the inspection of the intelligent and the curious, thnt many remains of ancient genius, before un- known, would have been brought to light. Few acquisitions, however, of this kind have been made by the republic of letters. The industry and zeal of former times, in this pursuit, seem to have left little to be gained by modern exertions. The small additions which have been made during the last age, to the classic treasures before possessed by the world, may perhaps deserve some brief notice. It had been long known that a composition bearing the title of an Hymn to Ceres, and ascribed to Homer, existed in the second century; but learned men considered it as irretrievably lost. In the eighteenth century this composition was brought to light; and what is remarkable, it was found in one of the rudest and most unclassical countries of Europe. About the year 1775 Christian Fre- deric Matthjei, a learned German, having been invited to settle at Moscow, in Russia, obtained ac- cess, soon after taking up his residence there, to a number of Greek manuscripts, deposited in the library of the Holy Synod in that city. Among these manuscripts he found the Hymn to Ceres above mentioned, almost entire, which he sent to his friend D. Ruhnkenius, of Leyden, who, in 1780, committed it for the first time to the press, accompanied with learned annotations." It is, in- deed, far from being certain that this Hymn, not- withstanding all its celebrity, is really the produc- tion of the immortal Grecian bard to whom it is ascribed.0 The learned editor himself expresses n This Hymn was elegantly translated into English verse, and accom- panied with learned notes, by Richard Hole, LL. B. 8vo. 1781. o It is generally known that of the other Hymns ascribed to Homer, suspicions have been entertained that the greater part, if net all, are spurious. See on this subject Davidis Ruhnkenii Episiola Critica in Homerida- rum Hymnos et Hesiodum, ad xirimi clarissimum JLvdov. Casp. Val.c- ksnarium, 8vo. Lug. Bat. 1749. fil Classic Literature. much doubt with respect to this point. The com- position, though exquisitely beautiful, is said by good judges to want some of the more striking characteristics of Homer, and, in particular, to be deficient in that energy and spirit for which he is so remarkable/ Nearly contemporaneous with the above men- tioned discovery in Moscow, w^as another made in Venice, byM. Villoison, a learned Frenchman* who, among many valuable manuscripts which he examined in the Library of St. Mark in that city, found a very curious copy of the Iliad, made in the tenth century, and enriched with the notes and scholia, hitherto unpublished, of sixty of the most eminent critics of ancient times. Besides the notes and scholia, the manuscript was found to con-* tain various readings, equally numerous and im- portant, drawn from the ancient editions of Ho- mer, given by Chios, Cyprus, Crete, Marseilles, Sinope, and Argos; editions before known only by name, and by some citations of Eustathius. This manuscript also exhibits various readings drawn from many other editions; so that it may be emphatically called the Homerus Variorum of all antiquity, and more especially the Homer of the famous school of Alexandria. M. Vil- loison has since committed this copy of the first Epic poem to the press, and thereby made an in- estimable present to the lovers of Greek literature. To this chapter belongs also some notice of an event which the classical scholar regards with no small interest. Nearly thirty years ago the Presi- dent De Brosses, a distinguished philologist of France, finding, in the course of his researches, some remains ot an History of the Roman Republic, p Vide Opnxov Tju-voc £i$ Ari[xYir^av : vel Komeri Hymnus ad Cererem3 nunc pri mum editus a Davids Rvhnkenio. Lug. Bat. 8vo. 1780. Classic Literature. 49 by Sallust, which had been supposed to be en- tirely lost, undertook the arduous task of restoring it. After taking immense pains to collect all the quotations which had been made from this precious relic, by the ancient grammarians and others, he found himself in possession of more than seven hun- dred fragments, which he laid together with so much skill and patience, as to produce a connected work, by no means unworthy of the celebrated Ro- man whose name it bears. This work was trans- lated into French, and published in 1777, at Dijon, in three volumes quarto, under the following title: Hisloire cle la Republique Romaine dans les conrs du v'u. Siecle, par Salluste, &c. It will be rea- dily supposed, that a production of one of the greatest historians of antiquity* recovered in a manner so extraordinary, excited much of the at- tention of learned men, not only in France, but also throughout the literary world. Among the numerous monuments of ancient ge- nius, both in literature and the arts, which were dug out of the ruins of Herculaneum, in the course of the last age, there were many hundred manu- scripts, which excited high expectations among the learned. Of these nearly eighteen hundred manuscripts, chiefly Greek, have been long de- posited in the Museum at Portici, belonging to the King of Naples. But so much trouble and ex- pense have attended all the attempts hitherto made to unrol and decypher them, that the anticipations of the curious have been hitherto but little gratified . It is hoped, however, that better success may at- tend future exertions in this ample field of literary- labour.7 g In 1802 it was announced to the public, by a letter from Italy, that a manuscript of some importance had been, a short time before, found in the Museum at Portici. It seems the Prince of Wales lately requested of the Court of Naples to authorise Mr. Haiter, one of his librarians, to examine the manuscripts in that museum, which were dug from Hercuia- VOL. II. H So Classic Literature. Many correct and magnificent editions of classic authors have been given to the public, by learned men, and literary institutions, in the course of the last age. These editions not only present speci- mens of great typographical elegance; but many of them are also enriched with various readings, faithfully collected from numerous manuscripts and printed copies; and with learned annotations, of great value to the student. To give a complete list of these editions in the present brief sketch is impossible. A few only of the most remarkable can be noticed, and these in a very transient manner. Of the Greek classics, the works of Homer were edited, during this period, with great splendour, by Wolfius and Clarke; Herodotus, by Grono- vius and Wesseling; Thucydides, by Duker; Xenophon and Poly 'bias, by Ernestus; Longinus, by Toup; Demosthenes, by Reiske; Hesiod, by Krebsius, Bodtni, and Loesner; Pindar, by Heyne; Euripides, by Musgrave; Sophocles, by Capperonier; Aristophanes, by Kuster ; Lucian> by Reitzius, Hemsterhuis, and Gesner; Plu- tarch, by Reiske; Theocritus, by Reiske and Wharton; Epictetus, by Upton; Anacreon, by Matt aire; JEschylus, by Pauw and Porson; Diodorus Siculus, by Wesseling ; Dion Cassius, by Fabricius and Reimarus; Lysias, by Taylor; Isocrates, by Battie and Auger; and Callima- chus, by Bentley and Ernestus. Of the Latin classics the following editions, made, during the period under review, are worthy neum, that their contents might he ascertained. The authority was granted. JVlr. Haiter entered on the task with great zeal and intelligence ; and soon discovered a work of Epicurus, entitled, Of the Nature of Things, which was known only from the mention made of it by some writers of antiquity, and which appears to have served as the basis for the poem of Lucretius, on the same subject. At the date of the account a copy of this manuscript was preparing for the press. Classic Literature. 5 1 of particular notice : Virgil, by Burmann, Heyne, and Wakefield; Horace, by Baxter, Gesner, and Zeunius; Cicero, by Verbergius, Olivet, and Lallemand; Livy, by Mattaire, Drak- enborch, Ruddiman, and Homer ; Tacitus, by Gronovius, Ernestus, Brotier, Grierson' and Homer; Sallust, by Homer; 2uintilian, by Bit r. mann, Rollin, Gesner, and Homer; Lucretius, by Havercamp and Wakefield; Ovid, by Bur- mann; Lucan, by Burmann, Bentley, and Cum- berland; Per sius, by Casaubon and Homer; Terence, by Bentley ; Justin, by Gronovius; Ccesars Commentaries, by Clarke; Phcedrus and Petronius Arbiter, by Burman; Pliny, senior, by Brotier; Pliny, junior, by Longalius ; Tibullus, Catullus, and Propertius, by Vulpius; Suetonius, by Pitiscus, Burmann, and Oudenorp; Eutro- pius, by Havercamp; Claudian, by Gesner ; Florus, by Duker and Fischer ; 2aintus Curtius, by Snakenburg; Aldus Gellius, by Gronovius; and Silius Italicus, by Drakenborch. From the above very imperfect list it appears that classic literature has been cultivated, during the last century, with most zeal and success in Germany and Holland; Great-Britain is, per- haps, entitled to the next place; and afterwards, in succession, come France and other countries on the continent of Europe. Greek literature in France was at a low ebb during the greater part of the period of this retrospect, and is still but little cultivated in that country. But the eighteenth century is especially distin- guished by the number and value of the Transla- r Mrs. Grierson, an Irish lady, who was "possessed of singular eru- dition, and had an elegance of taste, and solidity of judgment, which justly rendered her one of the most wonderful as well as amiable of her sex. Her Tacitus is one of the best edited books ever delivered to the world." See Harwood's Vievi of the Classics, 52 Classic Literature. tions of classic authors which it produced. The Greeks were almost, if not entirely strangers to this kind of literary labour. The Romans had a few translations, but they were little esteemed, and gained their authors but small consideration in the republic of letters. A number of performances of this kind were produced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; but in the eighteenth they more than ever abounded, and attained a degree of excellence altogether without example. A few of the most valuable of these may be mentioned, without attempting to furnish a complete list. The following translations of Greek classics into the English language, during the late century, de- serve particular notice. The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, by Pope' and Cowper; Herodotus, by Lyttlebury,Beloe, and Lampriere; Thucydides and Xenophon, by Smith; parts of the works of Aristotle, by Twining, Pye, Ellis, and Gillies; Lacian, by Franklin and Carr; Demosthenes, by Leland; Epictetus, by Carter;' Plutarch, by Langhorne; Longbms, by Smith; Polybius, by Hampton; Isocrates, by Gillies; Is ex ingenti codicum copia, a B. Kennicotto et JoHAN. Bern. De Ros3i, &c. ediderunt J. C. Doederlein, et J. H. Meissner, 8vo. Leips. 1793. VOL. II, K (i6 Oriental Literature. Library} and his numerous detached treatises, may be said to have formed a new epoch in Hebrew literature in Germany. Another work of great importance, which deserves to be mentioned, and which certainly contributed to keep alive and ex- tend the zeal for this branch of literature which had been before excited, was a periodical publi- cation, entitled the Universal Library of Biblical Literature, printed at Leipsic, from the year 1777 to 1786, in eighteen volumes. This publication was conducted by Professor Eichhorn, of Jena, and is full of masterly criticism, and most valuable information for the orientalist.7 To these may be added the Oriental LAbrary of Professor Hirt; the Apparatus Criticus of the learned Bengel; the great Hebrew Lexicon of Calmet, a stupendous monument of erudition ; and the various publica- tions of Drs. Hunt, Sharpe, Lowth, and many others, in Great-Britain, and on the continent of Europe/ The study of the Hebrew language in America has long been at a low ebb. At the close of the seventeeth century much knowledge of this lan- guage appears to have existed among those vene- rable Divines who planted and ministered to the churches in New-England. Indeed, at that period p This is a periodical publication, begun in 1771, and concluded irt I783, and consists of 23 volumes, besides the general index. It was re- newed in 1786, under the title of Neue Orientaliscbe Bibliotbck, and con- tinued for a number of years, in which time there were at least 8 volumes more published. q In this rich treasure of oriental learning are found valuable treatises not only from the pen of the immediate conductor, but also many from Professor Bruns, Professor Tychsen, and others, whose names are a sufficient pledge for the display of great erudition and talents in oriental literature. r For a more particular notice of several publications since those of Dr. Lowth, more particularly by Drs. Newcome, Blaney, Wintle, Hodg- son, and a long catalogue of Hebrew translators and critics, the reader is referred to the fourth part of this work, under the head of Biblical Literal turt. Oriental Literature. 67 this kind of knowledge was possessed by very few in any other part of our country. Accordingly the colleges of Harvard, in Massachusetts, and of Yale, in Connecticut, it is believed, are the only semi- naries of learning in the United States in which the Hebrew language has been, for any consider- able portion of time, regularly taught; and at the present period they are the only American semina- ries in which there are regular oriental instructors.' A few of those destined for the clerical profession in our country, make themselves acquainted, to a small extent, with this language, so inestimably im- portant to every biblical critic; but the acquisitions of such are generally made by their own unassisted industry, or by means of private tuition/ In 1779 the office of instruction in the Hebrew language was added to a professorship, then held in the University of Pennsylvania, by the Rev, j If the author does not mistake, the Hebrew language has been taught in Harvard College for nearly a century, and during the greater part of that time by a professor regularly appointed for the purpose. In Yale Col- lege, there has been, for many years, more or less attention devoted to Hebrew literature; but it was not until the autumn of 1802 that a profes- sor for this branch of instruction was appointed. The gentleman selected to fill this office is the Rev. Ebenezer G. Marsh, who has the character of an excellent Hebrew scholar. t About the year 1760 the Rev. J. G. Kajls, a German clergyman, who had an uncommon stock of Hebrew learning, came to America. An- ticipating the want of Hebrew types in this country, he brought with hira a large edition of a voluminous Hebrew grammar, which he had composed, and some time before published; and many copies of a dictionary, also his own production, together with many other books of a similar kind. He expected, by the sale of these works, and by the encouragement which he should meet with as an instructor of this language, to gain an ample sup- port. But he soon found that Hebrew literature was not a very saleable article in America; and that all his zeal was not sufficient to inspire even his clerical brethren with a general taste for its cultivation. Being present at a meeting of the clergy, when some candidates for the gospel ministry were examined, and finding that ignorance of this language was not con- sidered as a disqualification for the sacred office, he rose and made a speech, filled with reproaches, in which he denounced his brethren as " a generation of vipers" and left them with disgust. When the members of the same ecclesiastical body afterwards heard of his being in distress, and made a liberal collection for his relief, he received it with this sarcastic remark, " I am Elijah ; the ravens must feed me." 68 Oriental Literature. Dr. Kunze; but few availed themselves of the op- portunity thus afforded for gaining a knowledge of this ancient tongue; and the professorship was continued only for a short time. In 1784 Pro- fessor Kunze removed to the city of New-York, and was soon appointed to a station in Columbia College, similar to that which he had held in the University of Pennsylvania." This professorship had a slender support afforded to it, by an annual allowance from the legislature of New- York, for five years; but at the end of this time, the allow- ance being withdrawn, the department of oriental instruction was discontinued. This is one among the several instances of disreputable literary retro- cession, by which the United States were distin- guished at the close of the eighteenth century. Some small publications for promoting Hebrew literature were made in America during the cen- tury under review. Among these a Hebrew Grammar, by Judah Monis, many years ago a teacher of this language in the University of Cam- bridge, in Massachusetts; a grammar, by Stephen Sewall, also some time since an Hebrew in- structor in the same institution; and a work of a si- milar nature by Dr. Johnson, formerly President of King's College, in the city of New-York, may be reckoned the most considerable." They are v Professor Kunze, soon after receiving this appointment in Columbia College, entered on the duties of his office with an enlightened and ardent zeal. That he might be more extensively useful, he took the earliest op- portunity of sending to Europe for a number of curious and voluminous works, in oriental literature ; and resolved by this means not only to fur- nish himself with the best publications for teaching the Hebrew language in the most profitable manner, but also for initiating his pupils into the knowledge of the Arabic and Syriac dialects, for which he was abundantly qualified. But all his exertions were rendered abortive by the unreasonable and misplaced economy of our Legislators, who have not infrequently acted as if they considered the interests of literature among the most unimpor- tant objects of their attention. « Professor Kunze also composed a Hebrew grammar on an improved plan, for the use of his pupils, which he designs to publish as seon as a yrospect of sufficient encouragement appears. Oriental Literature. 69 only mentioned in this place as evidences that there has been some taste for Hebrew literature in Ame- rica; and especially that a few individuals have displayed some zeal for its promotion, which only required public patronage to have been more suc- cessful. ARABIC LITERATURE. Though something was said in the preceding section of the Hebrew language having been more successfully studied in modern times, on account of the increased knowledge of Arabic literature; yet the subject is worthy of more particular notice. Scarcely any oriental language was so well un- derstood in Europe, at the close of the seventeenth century, as the Arabic. The excellent publica- tions of Erpenius and Golius, of Holland, for facilitating and recommending this branch of east- ern literature, had been then laid before the world, and were of so superior a character, that, by means of these helps, Sir William Jones assures us, we may understand the learned Arabic better than the deepest scholar at Constantinople, or at Mecca.™ The Bibliotheque Orientate of M. D'Her- belot, a very learned and entertaining work, may also be mentioned among those aids which had been furnished in the preceding century, for the attainment of the same object. Since that time further light has been thrown on the literature of Arabia, by the observations of several travellers, and by the labours of various learned men. Early in the century Adrian Reland, of Hol- land, and John Hudson, and Mr. Le Roque,* of iv See Sir William Jones's Works, vol. i. p. 39. x Translation of Abulfeda's Arabia. I2mo. Lond. 1718. And also his Account of Arabian Custom and Manners, ixmo. Lond. 1 732. 70 Oriental Literature. Great-Britain, laboured much, and with very ho- nourable success, to illustrate the literature and science of Arabia. They were followed by Al- bert Schultens/ of Holland, and George Cos- tard,2 an English divine, who were certainly among the most accomplished Arabic scholars of the age, and whose various publications contri- buted to extend this species of knowledge. The latter, in particular, distinguished himself by his illustrations of Arabian astronomy; and has been pronounced, by a good judge, to be one of the most profound oriental astronomers ever born out of Asia. In Arabic literature, also, the labours of the Michaelises, Reiske, Bode, and Storr, of Germany; of Professor White and Sir William Jones, of Great-Britain; and of M. Renaudot, the Abbe Marigny, and M. DeSacy, of France, deserve to be mentioned with high encomium. To the above may be added the information commu- nicated by several travellers, among whom Nie- buhr, of Denmark, holds a distinguished place. As in the seventeenth century the learned men of Holland were the great sources of information in Arabic literature, and had done more than those of any other country in Europe, to advance its cul- tivation ; so in the eighteenth it is believed that Great-Britain and Germany successfully vied with that country in the production of eminent Arabic scholars. Still, however, Holland held a high place with respect to this branch of oriental literature. The names of Reland and Schultens alone do ^i Monumrnta Aniiquissim* Histories Arabum. ScHULTENS signalized him- self by maintaining, in opposition to Gousset and Driessen, that, in order to gain a perfect knowledge of the Hebrew, it was necessary to join with it not only Chaldeac and Syriac, but also, and more particularly, the Arabic. z See his Letters on the Rise and Progress of Astronomy among the Ana I Svo. 1746. And also his General History of Astronomy ^ induJirg that oftbt Arabians. 4 to. 1 7 77. Oriental Literature. 71 o-reat honour to their nation, and may stand in the place of an host of minor orientalists. In the eighteenth century, the Koran, or sacred book of the Mahometans," was, for the first time, translated into English, from the original Arabic. In the seventeenth century that work was first translated into the French language, by M. Du Ryer, Consul of the French nation in Egypt, but in a very imperfect manner. Soon afterwards a translation from this version, with all its inaccura- cies and imperfections, was made into English, by Alexander Ross, who knew but little of the French language, and nothing of the Arabic; and w7ho, of course, as might have been expected, added a great mass of mistakes to those of Du Ryer. But in the century under consideration, this ancient record of the Mahometan faith was ably translated into English, from the original Arabic, by Mr. George Sale, an English gentle- man, profoundly versed in the literature of Arabia, and who accompanied his work with instructive and highly interesting annotations. The appear- ance of this version may be considered as forming an epoch in the progress of the sacred literature of Arabia, among the learned of Europe. The trans- lations of some other important works, both prose a " The book which the Mahometans call the Koran, or Alcoran, Is ■composed of several papers and discourses of Mahomet, which were dis- covered and collected after his death, and is by no means that same Lazo "whose excellence Mahomet vaunted so highly. That some parts of the true Koran may be copied in the modern one, is indeed very possible ; but that the Koran, or Laiv, given by Mahomet to the Arabians, is entirety distinct from the modern Alcoran, is manifest from this, that in the latter Mahomet appeals to and extols the former, and therefore they must be two different compositions. May it not be conjectured that the true Ko- ran was an Arabic Poem, which Mahomet recited to his followers, witJt- out giving it to them in writing, ordering them only to commit it to their memories? Sueh were the laws of the Druids in Gaul, and such also those of the Indians, which the Brahmins receive by oral tradition, and get hf heart." Mosasm's £altt, Hist. vol. ii. p. Ij8. 72 Oriental Literature. and poetical, from the Arabic, in the course of the last fifty years, may also be mentioned as favour- able to the same object. PERSIAN LITERATURE. The Persian language was also an object of con- siderable attention, and the knowledge of Persian literature made some progress in Europe during the last age. It was before remarked that the la- bours of Dr. Hyde, towards the close of the se- venteenth century, contributed much to the pro- motion of this object. This gentleman, from va- rious Persian and Arabian writings, from the rela- tions of travellers, together with numerous letters from persons in the east, compiled his celebrated work on the Ancient Persians, which has been ever since regarded as a standard work in this branch of literature. Since that time much has been accomplished in the same field of inquiry. An attempt will be made to select a few out of the numerous facts and names which might be mentioned under this head. About the middle of the century M. Anquetil du Perron, of France, made a voyage to the East, for the purpose of recovering the writings of Zo- roaster, or Zaratusht, the celebrated ancient philosopher, who is said to have reformed, or founded, the religion of the Magi. After spend- ing a number of years in Persia and India, and applying himself to Persian literature with great zeal, he returned to his own country in 1761, and not long afterwards published a work under the title of Zend-Avesta, a work ascribed to Zoroas- ter, and said to contain his pretended revelations. Though it seems to be generally agreed that this Oriental Literaiure. 7S work is spurious/ and that it was compiled long posterior to the time in which Zoroaster lived; yet it is, on several accounts, an interesting pub- lication, and a rich source of instruction to the student of Persian literature/ About the time in which M. Anquetil pub- lished this work, the study of the Persian language began to receive much attention, and to become fashionable among some of the literati of Great- Britain. Warren Hastings, under whose au- spices, when afterwards Governor of India, ori- ental literature was cultivated with so much zeal, became, early in life, fond of this language, and ex- erted himself to diffuse a knowledge of it in his own country. Sir William Jones, also, while yet a youth, discovered much of that enthusiastic attach- ment to eastern learning, in which he afterwards made such astonishing progress/ In 1773 he pub- b Sir William Jones, on the appearance of this work, immediately decided that it was spurious. See his Lettre a M. A du P dan* taquelle est comprls V Examen, de sa traduction des livres attribues a ZoROASTRE. 1771. c Zend-Avesta, Owvrage de ZoROASTRE, Iffc. 3 tom. 4tO. 1771. d Sir Willi am Jones was one of the brightest ornaments of the eighteenth century, and in some respects one of the most wonderful men that ever existed. He died in 1 794, after having lived a little mo*e than 47 years. In this short period he had acquired an extent of learning, and a variety and elegance of accomplishments, which seldom fall to the lot of an indi- vidual. There were few sciences in which he had not made considera- ble proficiency, and in most his knowledge was profound. His capacity for the acquisition of languages has probably never been excelled. In Greek and Roman literature his early proficiency was the subject of admiratioa and applause ; and knowledge of whatever nature once obtained by him was ever afterwards progressive. The more elegant dialects of modem Europe, the French, the Spanish, and the Italian, he spoke and wrote witf» the greatest fluency and precision ; and the German and Portuguese were familiar to him. At an early period of life his application to oriental li- terature commenced ; he studied the Hebrew with ease and success, and many of the most learned Asiatics have the candour to avow that his knowledge of Arabic and Persian was as accurate and extensive as their own. He was also conversant in the Turkish idioms, and even the Chinese had attracted his notice so far as to induce him to learn the radical cha- racters of that language, with a view perhaps to further improvements. It was to be expected, after his arrival in India, that he would eagerly em- brace the opportunity of making himself master of the Sanscrit ; and the VOL. ill I, 74 Oriental Literature. lished his History of Nadir Shah, and the year foh lowing his Persian Grammar; both of which works hold an important place among the events in oriental literature with which the age is mark- ed. The version of the former from the original Persian into French, he undertook and accom- plished from a regard to the literary reputation of his country, that it might not be carried out of England with the reflection that no person had been found in the British dominions capable of translating it. The same accomplished Briton af- terwards made several important publications, con- nected with Persian literature, and shed much ad- ditional light on this department of eastern learn- ing. To Mr. Francis Gladwin, also of Great- Britain, one of the most unwearied labourers in oriental literature which the eighteenth century produced, the public is much indebted for the aid which he rendered to students of the Persian lan- guage. Besides several important translations, most enlightened professors of the doctrines of Brahmah confessed, with pride, delight, and astonishment, that his knowledge of their sacred dia- lect was most critically correct and profound. To a proficiency in the languages of Greece, Rome, and Asia, he added a knowledge of the phi- losophy of those countries, and of every thing curious or valuable that had been taught in them. The doctrines of the Academy, the Lyceum, or the Porch, were not more familiar to him than the tenets of the Vedas, the mysticisms of the Sufis, or the Religion of the Ancient Persians ; and whilst, with a kindred genius, he perused with rapture the compositions of the most renowned poets of Greece, Rome, and Asia, he could turn with equal delight and knowledge to the sublime inquiries or mathematical calculations of Barrow and Newton. Besides all these acquisitions the theory of music was familiar to him ; he had made himself acquainted with the modern interesting discoveries in chemistry, and his last and favourite pur- suit was the study of botany, in which he made great progress, and had his life been spared, would probably have been a reformer and discoverer. His poetic productions discover a vigorous imagination and an elegant taste. His learning and talents as a lawyer were still more eminent. His abili- ties and integrity as a magistrate and a judge were universally applauded; and, to crown all, the purity of his life, and the fervour of his piety, as a christian, shed a lustre upon every other accomplishment. See a Discourse delivered before the Asiatic Society in May, 1 794, by Sir John Shore, now Lord Teignmoutb, prefixed to the frst volume of Sir William Jones's Works. Oriental Literature. 75 which alone intitle him to distinction, he published a grammar intitled the Persian Moonshee; and also a Compendious Vocabulary, English and Persian. These were presented to the public about the year 1780, and have received great and just praise. Besides the above mentioned gentlemen, who were eminently distinguished as promoters of Per- sian literature, some others deserve to be respect- fully noticed, as having contributed to the same object. Among these, Mr. Richardson, by his Specimens of Persian Poetry, and other publica- tions; Major Davy, by his Institutes of Timour ; Major Ouseley, by his Oriental Collections ; and M. Mirkhond, by his Hist or ia P riorum Regum Persarum, have rendered important aid to the students of oriental learning. To these may be added the valuable information given respecting the arts, sciences, and literature of Persia, by Ta- vernier, Franklin, Niebuhr, and various other intelligent travellers in that country. HINDOO LITERATURE. In this branch of oriental literature the eigh- teenth century presents a degree of progress highly interesting and honourable. Though it is now more than three centuries since Europeans first na- vigated to India; and though the inhabitants of that and the adjacent countries merit the attention of the curious more, perhaps, than any other peo- ple on the globe; yet it is but a few years since any suitable inquiries were instituted, and any sa- tisfactory information obtained, respecting the li- terature and science of that important portion of the Asiatic continent. Early in the century, the Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, enriched with communications from 16 Oriental Literature. missionaries in India, were published, and en- gaged much of the attention of the literary world. After these, M. Renaudot/ of France, and Theoph. S. Bayer/ a learned German, each communicated to the public some important in- formation concerning the literature and sciences of Hindostan; insomuch that, notwithstanding the great improvements in oriental knowledge since their time, they are still quoted frequently and with high respect. To these great oriental- ists, after an interval of many years, succeeded Mr. HoiAVELi/ and Mr. Dow/ of Great-Britain, who spent some time in the East, and who pro- fessed to give the public much new and curious information concerning the religion and sacred li- terature of the Hindoos. The publications of these gentlemen, however, are by no means consistent with each other, or with themselves -, and although they contain, especially the works of Mr. Hol- well, some useful and instructive matter, they are far from being considered unexceptionable authori- ties, by later and better informed writers. Mr. Warren Hastings, soon after receiving the appointment of Governor of Bengal, formed the design of procuring a complete code of the laws and customs of the Hindoos. With a view to the accomplishment of this design, he invited, about the year 1773, a number cf Brahmans, who were learned in the Sanscrit language, from Be- nares, and other parts of the country, to convene in Calcutta. They complied with the invitation, and after making large collections from the most t Atuiennes Relations des Indcs, et de la Chine, &c. 1718* f Elementa Liter at. Brahmanica, Vfc. 1 732. g See his work on the Fasts, Festivals, and Metempsychosis of the Hindoo;^ 1 vols. 8vc. 1/66, and also his Interesting Historical Events, a vols. 8vo I766. b Translation and signifies the art of pronouncing vcl-L 104 • Modem Languages. quiries, he found Orthoepy in a most chaotic con- dition. In his Principles of the English Language, he did much towards reducing the chaos to order, and laid down the principles of a just and regular pronunciation. But by treating the subject in a way not calculated to be popular; and by endea- vouring to make an extravagant and ill-judged re- form in the orthography of the language, he lost that portion of credit with the public, to which his merit entitled him; and his labours were less use- ful than they ought to have been. After Mr. El- phinstone, Dr. Kenrick appeared as a teacher and reformer in pronunciation; and his Rhetorical Dictionary may be regarded as a very respectable and useful contribution for this purpose. Next to him came Mr. Sheridan, who carried his im- provements on this subject still further; and in his Dictionary, gave to the public a standard of pro- nunciation much superior to any thing that had been offered by his predecessors. He was suc- ceeded by Mr Nares, who, in his Elements of Orthoepy, treated the subject in a new and inge- nious manner, and introduced yet greater im- provements. The last distinguished writer on this branch of English Grammar, is Mr. Walker.6 This gentleman, in his Critical and Pronouncing Dictionary, seems to have united the different ex- cellences of those who went before him; to have avoided many of their mistakes; to have supplied a large portion of their defects; and, on the whole, to have furnished the republic of English literature with the best standard of pronunciation which the language affords.' k Since the publication of Walker's work, a pronouncing dictionary has been presented to the public by Mr. Jones, also of Great-Britain. It is believed that the best judges consider this work as containing little if any real improvement on that of Walker. / See preface to Walker's Critical and Pronouncing Dictionary. Modem Languages. 105 Notwithstanding the splendid excellences of composition displayed in the writings of Addison, Pope, and Swift, all the treatises on English Grammar in use when they wrote were crude and unsatisfactory. The principles of the Greek and Latin tongues were transferred to the English, and grammatical works formed accordingly. On this plan every writer upon English grammar had pro- ceeded anterior to the time of Dr. Lowth. The number and value of his improvements are Gene- rally known to grammarians. Since his time the labours of Priestley, Sheridan, Ash, Tooke, Pickburn, Walker, Webster, Murray, and others, have produced additional light and im- provement in the grammar of our language* The best English grammar now extant is that by the last named writer, Mr. Lindley Murray, who, by this publication, and by several others con- nected with it, and designed as auxiliaries to its principal purpose, has become entitled to the gra- titude of every friend to English literature, and to true virtue/'' At the beginning of the century in question, there was no Dictionary of the English language which deserved the name. Not long afterwards there appeared one superior to all that had gone before k, by Mr. Bailey. This work, though possessing considerable merit, especially in the •etymological department, was still defective in so many respects, that it was by no means a safe or m Mr. Lindley Murray is a native of Pennsylvania, but resided during the early part of his life chiefly in the city of New-York. Having removed to Great-Britain, for the benefit of his health, he has employed his leisure, tor a number of years, in improving the grammar of his native tongue, and in making such other publications as have a tendency to form the minds of youth to a love of literature and of virtue. The excellence of all his hterary labours, and the charitable appropriation of the product of his works, to which he has long rigidly adhered, have secured for him a station in the public esteem too high to render eulogiuw necessary in thj* VOL. II, P 106 Modem Languages. adequate guide. Bailey was succeeded by seve- ral others of inferior note, who laboured as English lexicographers, but they did little worthy of being recorded. In this state of things, Dr. Samuel Johnson, a distinguished philologist of Great- Britain, undertook to compile a grand national dictionary, a task to which learned academies had generally been considered alone equal. His plan of the work was laid before the public in 1747, and in 1755 this wonderful production of the labour of an individual issued from the press. It must be acknowledged, that the Dictionary of the English Language, notwithstanding ali its splendid merits, is an imperfect work. Its illus- trious compiler was, in a great measure, ignorant of the philosophy of language, which at that period was little understood by the most profound gram- marians. His etymological investigations are too often superficial and unsatisfactory; and his nume- rous omissions of words unquestionably belonging to the language," indicate either carelessness or haste in the execution of his task. Added to these faults, his style of definition has been criticised as " loose and pedantic;'* he has been accused of a needless and improper subdivision of meanings; and his frequent indulgence of a taste for " neo- teric importation from the Latin," is considered, by many, as a departure from his own principles, by means of which the purity of our tongue has suffered injurious mixtures and adulterations. Still, however, viewing the work of Johnson as the production of one man; recollecting how small a portion of his life it employed; considering its im- mense superiority to every thing of a similar kind n Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary , has collected about 48,000 words. The Reverend H. Croft asserts that he has made a list of 11,000 more, which he proposes to introduce into a new work. Scs Wendssorn'-s ' View of Mngland) &c. Modern Languages. 107 which had gone before it; and taking into the ac- count also, that it was written " with little assist- ance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness, and in sorrow," it must be regarded as a won- derful monument of philological taste, erudition, and labour. The English dictionaries which have been given to the public since that of Dr. Johnson, are nu- merous. They have, in general, however, con- tented themselves with servilely copying that great lexicographer, and have made few important ad- ditions to his labours. To this general character Dr. Ash is an exception : considering his dictionary as a collection of all kinds of words, scientific, technical, obsolete, colloquial, decent, or other- wise, it is doubtless the most complete extant; and so far as the mere number of words is an excellence, his work must be pronounced much superior to that of Johnson. It may fairly be questioned, how- ever, whether such an indiscriminate admission of words as Dr. Ash has thought proper to adopt, be not more injurious than useful. The dictionaries of Kenrick, Sheridan, Walker, with a com- parative view of their respective merits, were be- fore noticed. But as these were designed rather to promote English Orthoepy than the general in- terests of our language, the further consideration of them will not be attempted in this place. It is worthy of remark, that the eighteenth century has produced a great extension of the knowledge and use of the English language. Within the last forty or fifty years this language has been gradually becoming more known among the learned of other countries, and its best models of composition more studied. Mr. Pope is said 108 Modern Languages. to have lamented that his writings were not likely to be much read, excepting by the inhabitants of one small Island. Had he lived till the present day he would have seen better prospects opening to his literary ambition. To say nothing of the immense continent of North- America, where the productions of that great Poet will probably long be perused by many millions; and to place also out of the account, the extensive foreign dependences of Great-Britain, where English literature is likely, in time, to flourish; it is an undoubted fact, that the language in which he wrote is incomparably more read and spoken on the continent of Europe, since his day, than ever before. FRENCH LANGUAGE. The French language, during the last century, received modifications and improvements in a con- siderable degree similar to those which have already been noticed as belonging to the English. It was before remarked that this language was some time before the English in the progress of improvement. The reign of Louis XIV. has been commonly called the golden age of French literature, and the period of perfection in French style. It is probable that this opinion is rather better founded than that which assigns the reign of Queen Anne as furnish- ing the highest grade of refinement in English composition. The publication of the famous Die- tionnaire de V Academic Francaise, a great and splendid work in its day, formed an important a?ra in the history of the French language. The grand object of the Association which compiled this Dic- tionary, and presented it to the world, was to im- prove and fix their language; and there can be no Modern Languages. 1 09 doubt that the publication was, in a considerable tier" - servient to these purposes. But to expect a living language to be absolutely .onarv, is to expect that which borders on the region of i impossibility. Accordingly, since the completion of the great national dictionary just mentioned, the French language has gained large accessions of words and phrases, and has received various kinds of melioration. The work of the Academy has long been superseded by the private and better Dictionary of M. Richelet, which has been honoured with high and general praise. But even this latter is far from embracing the numerous additional words with which learned philologists of that country have endowed their language. The large work of M. Court de Gebelin, on language, published a few years ago, contains an extensive and learned investigation of French Ety- mology, which has thrown new light on the struc- ture and genius of that language. Indeed, within the last thirty years of the century under consider- ation, several writers of high reputation, but of whom the author has too little knowledge to speak distinctly, have undertaken, with considerable success, to exhibit the beauties and defects of their native tongue, and to point out the means for its further refinement. The list of those writers who contributed, in the course of the last century, to enrich and polish the French language, is too large to be given at length, even if the information requisite for this purpose were possessed . Out of the great number, Fontenelle, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Buffon, deserve to be selected, as standing in the first rank. Since the date of their writings it may be doubted whether the language has gained any real i\ ele- ments. If an air of metaphysical a Infraction, and antithetic point, be more prevalent among 1 10 Modern Languages. some late popular writers of that country than formerly, it is believed no substantial improvements have been made in the vigour, the polish, the pre- cision, and the chaste ornaments of French style. At the commencement of the eighteenth cen-~ tury, it is probable that there was no living lan- guage so generally understood, and so correctly spoken, among the learned of all civilized countries, as the French. It was then spoken as the most polite medium of intercourse at several of the courts of Europe, and the acquisition of it consi- dered as an important part of liberal education. Since that time the knowledge and use of this lan- guage have greatly extended. It has, in fact, al- most become, what the Latin once was, an uni- versal language. Perhaps it may be asserted that a larger portion of mankind, at the present day, understand and speak this language, than were ever before known to be acquainted with a living tongue.0 GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German Language, in the course of this century, has been greatly enriched and refined. Until the middle of the century it remained in a rude and unpolished state. Such of the learned o Some remarks on modern improvements in the Spanish language, would naturally follow this section, if the author were sufficiently acquainted with the nature and amount of these improvements to make even general remarks on them. It may not be improper, however, to mention, that the Royal Spanish Academy of Madrid, founded in 1713, was instituted for the express purpose of cultivating and improving the national language. With this view, after spending many years in the requisite preliminary in- vestigations; after devoting much attention to the selection of such words and phrases as were used by the best writers, and noting those which were either low, corrupt or obsolete, that learned Society published, in I783, the Diccionario de la Lengua Castellana ; a work, which, though defec- tive in etymological inquiries, and in several other respects, is yet by far the best extant. Modern Languages. Ill men of that country as had then devoted them- selves to philology, chiefly studied the ancient lan- guages, to the neglect of their own. Most of their scientific publications then made were in Latin. Since that time more has been done to promote the interests of German literature, and especially to cultivate the German language, than had been done for several centuries before. One of the first steps in this course of cultivation was the publication of the Messiah, by Klopstock. "When that celebrated poem made its appearance, the many new combinations of words, and the va- rious licences of language with which it abounded, excited much complaint among the countrymen of the author; but these innovations soon became fa- miliar, gradually gained admirers, and at no great distance of time were generally adopted, by the best German writers. Klopstock was particularly successful in improving the versification of his na- tive language. He introduced a new style of poe- try into his country; and has been generally fol- lowed as one of the best authorities in polite lite- rature. This celebrated poet has also done much to improve the orthography of his language. He first suggested, and by his own example enforced, the propriety and necessity of reform in this de- partment of the German tongue. His proposals, indeed, were not adopted in their full extent; but they led others to direct their attention towards this object; and to him therefore is due a large share of the credit arising from the improvements which have since taken place/ Next to the radical reform introduced by Klop- stock, the writings of many others of the literati of that country have had a considerable influence in promoting the same object, Among these the /> Monthly Magazine, Londos, vol. V. p. %Zo% 112 Modern Languages. poems of Haller; the Idylls, and Death of Abel \ of Gessner ; the fables and moral writings of Gel- lert; the numerous and diversified productions of Wieland; and the various works of Lessing, Her- der, Goethe, Schiller, Voss, and many others, have all contributed a share, to render a language once but little esteemed in Europe, one of the most copious, energetic, and rich of modern tongues. But among late German writers no individual is entitled to more honourable mention than J. C. Adelung, a celebrated philologist of that country. His labours in studying and improving his native language have been extensive, persevering, and successful to a degree almost without precedent. He has produced works, in this department of li- terature, with which the productions of learned academies, and royal societies, can scarcely be brought into competition. His Grammar of the German Language1 is an elaborate and systematic work, unquestionably superior to all preceding works of a similar kind, and has contributed much towards forming and regulating the language of which it treats. But his greatest work is a Com- plete Dictionary of the High German Language* In the composition of this extraordinary work he spent the greatest part of thirty years, and it is pronounced, by good judges, to come nearer to the idea of a perfect dictionary than any other ef- fort of human diligence hitherto published. It contains a larger number of words than any other extant ; the definitions are singularly lucid and satis- factory ; every word is scientifically arranged, with respect to its literal and metaphorical signification; the etymologies of words are pursued with an acute- ness and a skill which render them highly instruc- q In two volumes large octavo. r It consists of five volumes large quarto. Modern Languages. US tive; and the author displays an acquaintance with the history of his language, and the peculiar merits of its best authors, which eminently qualified him for the task which he undertook to execute. This grammar and dictionary, we are told, have been useful, beyond any other publications, in correcting the orthography, in exploring the ety- mology, and in regulating the syntax of the Ger- man language. The incessant efforts of Adelung have also served to animate and guide the exertions of his countrymen in pursuit of the same object. Since he wrote, philological inquiries have acquired an ascendency and a prevalence in that empire Which they never before possessed. Grammars, dictionaries, and critical essays, have unusually abounded. Questions for elucidating and improv- ing the language have been published by acade- mies and literary associations in every part of the country, and have occupied much of the attention of learned men. And, finally, their popular writers, especially their poets and dramatists, are continu- ally adding to the stores of the language, new words, and combinations of terms, which, though in some cases they have been considered as inju- rious innovations, have yet contributed not a little to the mass of improvement. This language, as well as the two preceding, has been much more studied towards the close of the eighteenth century than ever before. So many in- teresting works in literature and science have been published in Germany, particularly within the last thirty years, that the acquisition of the language seems now to be regarded by the literati of Europe as nearly of equal importance with that of the French or English, which have, heretofore, en- gaged such pre-eminent attention. VOL. II. 114 SWEDISH LANGUAGE. The Swedish Language, in the course of a few years past, has also undergone great improvements. Previous to the middle of the century, it had been much neglected, and, like its kindred dialects, the German and the Danish, was but little esteemed in Europe. About that time John Ihre, Pro- fessor of Belles Lettres in the University of Upsal, was commissioned, by Queen Ulrica Eleonora, to translate into Swedish The Ladies' Library, by Sir Richard Steele. In obeying this com- mand, he was naturally led not only to study his native language, but also to compare it with the more polished tongue from which the translation was to be made. The result of these inquiries was an attempt to place the language of his coun- try on a more respectable footing than it had be- fore held. With this view he published his Glos- surium S'ueo-Gothiatm, which displays great eru- dition, the talents of a master in criticism, and un- common sagacity in detecting both the faults and the beauties which he wished to make known. In this work the author exhibits, with great skill, the analogy and etymology of the Swedish language; and may be regarded as standing with the highest in rank among its distinguished cultivators and reformers. Since the time of Mr. Ihre other wTriters have employed their talents on the same subject. These writers have established rules of construction, cor- rected the orthography, discarded foreign phrases and corrupt modes of expression, and by producing works in a correct, elegant, and refined style, have done much to improve their native tongue. Among these, Dahlix, Botin, Gyllenborg, Creutze, Modern Languages. % 115 Klewberg, Leopold, and Lidner, are perhaps entitled to the most honourable mention, and fur- nish examples of Swedish style according to its latest and best improvements.. In 1786 a literary association, under the name of the Swedish Aca- demy, was established at Stockholm. The prin- cipal object of this institution is to cultivate the language of that country; with which view it is said to be preparing for publication a national Grammar and Dictionary. s RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. The Russian Language, during the period under review, has also been much and successfully cul- tivated. This language, which is a dialect of the Sclavonian, was, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, in a wretchedly irregular and neglected condition, very few compositions of dignified cha- racter having then appeared in it. Since that time it has employed much of the attention of learned men ; grammars and dictionaries have been formed, with many successive improvements; nu- merous translations from other languages have con- tributed greatly to enrich and polish it; the Rus- sian academy has long been diligently engaged in its cultivation; and writers of taste have done much to confer upon it regularity and ornament. Previous to the year 1707 the alphabet of this lan- guage consisted of thirty-nine letters. In that year it was newly modified, and reduced to thirty. These are chierly made up of Greek and Roman letters, together with some characters, to express sounds, which are peculiar to theSclavonian tongue. Though the language of Russia is still imperfecta i Sec A General View of Szvedert, by M. Catte.\u. 116 Modern Languages. it is said, by those who have studied it, to be re- markably rich, harmonious, and energetic, and well fitted for every species of composition/ Among the improvers of Russian style, in the last century, the first place is due to Theophanes Prokopovitch, Archbishop of Novogorod, a gen-, tleman of learning and taste, who, during the reign of Peter the Great, laboured much to pro- mote, among his countrymen, a fondness for polite literature, and especially to encourage the study of their native tongue. He was followed by Lo- monozof, a distinguished poet and historian. He, as well as Theophanes, was a Russian by birth, and is stiled the " great refiner'* of the language of his country. Next to him stands Sumorokof, a distinguished dramatist, who displayed many beau- ties of composition, which were before unknown in the Russian language; and contributed greatly to the diffusion of a taste for poetry, and a zeal for philological and other polite acquirements. To these may be added the name of Kheraskof, the author of the first Epic Poem in his native language, a work greatly admired by his countrymen, and the appearance of which may be considered as forming an era in the history of their poetry, and, generally, in the progress of their literary cha- racter." In order to spread a taste for literature among her subjects, Catharine II. in 1768, appointed a committee to order and superintend translations of the classics, and the best modern authors, into the Russian tongue; and made a liberal allowance for defraying the expense of the undertaking. In consequence of this order, a considerable number of the most esteemed Greek and Roman writers, * Coxe's Travels into Russia, &c. vol. ii. chap. viii. and also Tooke's JTleiu of the Russian Empirt. v Coxe's Travels into Hussia. B. v. c, viii. Modern Languages . 117 and some of the first class in the English, French, and German languages, became naturalized in her empire." Those who have any acquaintance with philology will readily perceive, that the attempt to transfer the contents of these rich, refined, and regular languages into one less cultivated, must always issue in communicating more or less of the excellences possessed by the former to the latter. Besides the numerous and important improve- ments in the more cultivated languages, for which the eighteenth century is distinguished, we may also mention, as a peculiarity of the age, equally worthy of remark, the extensive knowledge which has been acquired, by learned philologists, within a few years past, of many other living languages, even some of the most barbarous and unpolished. The amount of information communicated by modern voyagers and travellers on subjects of this nature, is great and valuable. Among these Strahlenberg, Sonnerat, Marsden, Thun- berg, Forster, and many others, are entitled to honourable distinction. The idea of tracing the origin and history of na- tions through the medium of inquiries into their respective languages, if not first conceived, was cer- tainly first reduced to practice, to any considerable extent, in the century under review. It is believed that the first considerable specimen of an inquiry of this nature was given by Air. Jacob Bryant, of Great-Britain, a gentleman whose profound erudition, critical sagacity, and unwearied labour, are anions the signal honours of the a«e.w Neariv u Coxe's Travels into Russia. iv It is impossible for any friend te virtue and sound learning to pro- nounce the name of this veteran in literature without veneration. In hi* Observations and Inquiries relating to -various farts of Ancient History , and ir. 118 Modern Languages \ t> ~ "o ■ about the same time appeared the celebrated and voluminous work of M. Court de Gebelin, be- fore mentioned, in which, with great learning, but with perhaps less judgment, he has investigated the history of nations through the same medium/ Large and curious collections of languages re- markably abounded in the eighteenth century. Among these the collection of J.Lorenzo Her v as, a native of Spain, but residing at Rome, deserves respectful notice. This learned man, in his great work, entitled Idea del U?iiverso, gave a general synopsis of all known languages, their affinities, differences, &c. of which the best judges have spoken in terms of high praise. Of later date, the Philosophical and Critical Estimate of Fourteen Ancient and Modern European Languages, by D. Jeniscii, of Germany, is also a valuable acquisi- tion to the student of philology, But the most extensive collection of modern languages which the last age produced, was that formed, toward the close of it, by the learned aca- demicians of St. Petersburgh, in Russia. The Empress Catharine II. conceived the vast design of compiling an i( Universal and Comparative Vo- cabulary of all Languages," and ordered such a work to be undertaken. Accordingly M. Pallas, a distinguished member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, assisted by a number of other learned men, engaged in the arduous task, and laid the first part of the work before the public in 1786, and another portion of it three years afterwards. his New System, or Analysis cf Ancient Mythology, he has displayed an ex- tent, and a minuteness of information truly Avonderful , perhaps unequalled by any other individual living ; and a degree of critical acumen, and philo- sophic soberness of inquiry, joined with a love of truth, and especially of Evangelic truth, which entitle him to the lasting gratitude both of the phi- losopher and the christian. x Mondt Ptimitif analyse et Compart, avec It Monde Moderne. 9 tom, <4to. Modern Languages. 119 This Comparative Vocabulary* may justly be ranked among the wonders of the century. Soe- cimens of so great a number of languages were certainly never before brought together by human diligence. And the work, while it reflects great honour on the illustrious editor, and his learned coadjutors, and on the public spirit of their em- ployer and patron, the Empress, furnishes most instructive documents, not only towards the for- mation of an enlightened theory of language, but also for investigating the history of man. The Celtic or Gaelic language was the object of much inquiry, by a number of learned men of the last century. Grammars and dictionaries of its different dialects were formed, and new lio-Jit thrown on the structure and probable history of the language. In these inquiries Pelloutier, Bul- let, Jones, Mallet, and Shaw were much and honourably distinguished. The Gothic, in several of its most important dialects, was also diligently and successfully investigated, during the last age, byWACHTER, Schilter, Ihre, Lye, and several other learned philologists. Much valuable information was obtained, dur- ing the same period, concerning the languages of the aboriginal nations residing on the American continent. For collecting this information, and communicating it to the public, we are indebted to Charlevoix, Carver, Adair, Long, Clavigero, Reverend Mr. Zeisberger/ Reverend Dr. Ed- y Ltnguarum totius Orlis Vocabularia Comparatha ; Augustiss'ima cura col- beta. Lectionis Prima, Linguas Europe et Asie complex*, pars prior. Pe- tropol. 1786. 4to. et Pars Secunda. Fetropol. 1 7 89. 4to. z Mr, Zejsbkrger was a respectable missionary, sent by the United Brethren to preach the gospel among the Indians. His work referred to IS an Essay of a Delaivare-Indian, and English Spelling-Book, printed at Phi- ladelphia in 1776. Besides this gentleman, several other persons, belong- ing to the same religious communion, have contributed much to the eluci- dation of Indian languages. Among these, Mr. Pvrljeus, many vears 120 Modem Languages. wards/ and many other gentlemen of observa- tion and diligence. Mr. Jefferson, the Presi- dent of the United States, has also made much in- quiry into the languages of the American Indians* and devoted considerable attention to the collec- tion of specimens. But there is certainly no indi- vidual to whom we are under so many obligations for investigating these languages, and presenting rich vocabularies to the public, as Professor Bar- ton, of Philadelphia, whose name we have had occasion to mention so frequently, and with so much respect, in several of the preceding chapters of this work. This gentleman has made large col- lections of Indian languages,6 which he has, with great learning and ingenuity, compared with each other, and with some of the languages of the eastern continent. By these investigations he has, not only in his own opinion, but also in the judgment of many of his best informed readers, satisfactorily proved, that there is but one radical language among the Indians on the American Continent; and that the nations of America and those of Asia have ago a missionary to some of the American tribes, and Mr. Heckewelder, who at this time holds an important station in a western mission, deserve to be mentioned with particular distinction, and with many acknowledge ments, for their unwearied and intelligent inquiries on this subject. a Jonathan Edwards, D. D. late President of Union College, at Schenectady; the excellent Son of a still more illustrious Father, whose name was mentioned in a former chapter. Besides the great learning and talents displayed by this gentleman on various theological subjects, which will be noticed in their proper place, he published Observations on the Lan- guage of the Muhhekanceiv Indians, &c. New-Haven, 1 788, in which, with a number of ingenious remarks on the structure and genius of the lan- guage, he gave some curious specimens of its vocabulary. b See Ne iv V'uivs of the Origin of the Tribes and Nations of America, 8 V0» 1798, second edition. c The following passage from Dr. Barton's work is thought worthy of being inserted at length : " The inference from these facts and observations is obvious and interest- ing: that hitherto we have not discovered more than one radical lan- guage in the two Americas ; or, in other words, that hitherto we have not discovered in America any two, or more, languages between which Modern Languages. 121 The enemies of Revelation, half a century ago, laid great stress, not only on the diversity of com- plexion andjigure, but also on the variety of lan- guages among men, as arguments for discrediting the sacred history. Both these arguments, by later investigations, have been clearly refuted. Indeed, modern inquiries into the languages of different nations, instead of giving countenance to the re- jection of the sacred volume, have rather served to illustrate and confirm its historical records; for they have resulted, if not in complete proof, at least in establishing the highest probability, that all languages bear an affinity to each other; that they may all be traced to a common stock; and that we have reason to conclude, independently of the Mosaic history, that the human race sprang from a single pair. we are incapable of detecting affinities (and those often very striking) ei« ther in America, or in the old world. Nothing is more common than for Indian traders, interpreters, or other persons, to assert, that such and such languages bear no relation to each other ; because, it seems, that the per- sons speaking them cannot always understand one another. When these very languages, however, are compared, their relations, or affinities, are found out. It is by such comparisons that I have ascertained, that the language of the Delaware* is the language of such a great number of tribes in America. It is by such comparisons, that future inquirers may discover, that in all the vast countries of America there is but one language : such inquiries, perhaps, will even prove, or render it highly probable, that all the languages of the earth bear some affinity to each other. I have already discovered some striking affinities between the language of the Yolofs (one of the blackest nations of Africa) and certain American tribes. What a field for investigation does this last mentioned circumstance open ! Whilst philosophers are busied in investigating the influence of climate and food, and other physical agents, in varying the figure and complexion of man- kind, they should not neglect inquiries into the resemblances of all lan- guages. Hie farther we push our researches of this kind, the more we discover the proofs, if not of the absolute derivation of all mankind from His tort). 135 lory of England, written in the French language, was first published at the Hague, in 1727, and soon afterwards translated into English by Tin- dal. Though Rapin was by no means master of an agreeable style 5 and though his zeal to be as full and accurate as possible, led him to protract his work to a tedious length; yet he is entitled to the honour of having compiled one of the most com- plete, impartial, and satisfactory histories extant. He was one of the last historians of any conspicuity who loaded the text of his work with speeches and state-papers. In 1758 another History of England was pub- lished by Dr. Smollet. This production is scarcely equal to the talents of the writer, being compiled in great haste, and rather with a view to profit than fame, and with scarcely any attention to ori- ginal sources of information. Still with regard to style, it was a considerable step in the course of improvement, and exhibited excellences in this respect superior to any preceding English historian. Dr. Smollet was followed by his countryman Mr. Hume, who made trial of his distinguished powers in the same field, and* with splendid success. He far excelled all his predecessors in beauty and ex- cellence of historical style, and at once raised the character of his country, in this branch of literature, to a very high rank. His work, indeed, is charged with glaring partiality; and that spirit of hostility to religion which he was known to possess too frequently appears, whenever, in the course of his narrative, a pretext for this purpose was presented. It must even, further be allowed, that, with re- spect to style, in which his great excellence lies, he 5s not without considerable faults. But in the choice and arrangement of his materials, and es- pecially in native ease, spirit, and force of lan- guage, he has no equal among modern historians, 136 History. and has certainly furnished a specimen of history which will bear a very honourable comparison with the illustrious models of Greece and Rome. Soon after Mr. Hume's publication, his coun- tryman and contemporary, Dr. Robertson, gave to the public his History of Scotland, which was followed by the History of Charles V. and the History of America. This gentleman unquestion- ably deserves a place among the greatest historians of the age, if he do not occupy the very first station. Though his narrative is not equal to Mr. Hume's in ease and spirit, yet he exceeds him in uniform purity, dignity, and elegance of diction. In these respects Dr. Robertson may be pronounced to srand at the head of all modern historians, and perhaps to have no superior of any age. In enumerating the first class of English histori- cal writers, Mr. Gibbon comes next in order. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire forms an interesting article in the catalogue of modern historical works. The insidious and ma- lignant zeal to discredit religion so often manifested in this work, is well known. And the artificial struc- ture, the circuitous obscurity, and the meretricious ornaments of the style are no less generally acknow- ledged. Notwithstanding, therefore, all the learn- ing, and other splendid accomplishments of this celebrated historian, he is far from having furnished a model that can be safely imitated, or conferred any real improvement on this department of Eng- lish literature. Nor is his work less hostile to all the interests of decorum and virtue, than to the best rules of taste and criticism.*' i) Those who would see a faithful exhibition of the partiality, the want of regard to truth, and the shameful obscenity which abound in Mr. Gib- bon's celebrated work, especially in the fourth, fifth and sixth volumes of the quarto edition, will do well to consult the very able review of this part of the work, by Mr. Wh it a ker, first published in a British literary journal, and since reprinted in a separate volume. 8vo. 1791. History. 137 Though the three last mentioned writers are ge- nerally represented as holding the first rank amongst English historians, there are some other names, worthy of honourable distinction, belonging to the period of this retrospect. Lord Lyttleton's His- tory of Henry II. has long and deservedly sus- tained a very high character. Dr. Goldsmith's Histories of Rome and England are written in the agreeable style of that popular author. The His- tory of England, by Mrs. Mac aula y, is a very respectable specimen of female talents, and holds a conspicuous place in the list of English histori- cal compositions. Besides these the histories of Dr. Henry, Professor Stuart, Dr. Watson, Mr. Mitford, Dr. Gilltes, Dr. Coote, Mr. Ferguson, Dr. Russell, Mr. Andrews, Mr. Belsham, and several others, have received much praise. To designate the comparative and pecu- liar merits of each of these would lead to a discus- sion altogether beyond the limits of this chapter. It is sufficient to say that, with different views, and various grades and kinds of talents, they have all presented the public with works which do them honour, and which occupy an important space in the annals of English literature. But it was not only in Great-Britain that histo- rians of an highly respectable character arose in the course of the last age. Most of the countries of Europe, and especially those distinguished by the cultivation of letters, may boast of a number who hold an elevated rank in the same department of literature. The historians of France, during this period, were numerous and distinguished. Early in the cen- tury M. Rollin, by his Ancient History™ estab- iv The respect every where paid by M. Rollin, in the course of his history, to the government and providence of God, and to Revelation, deserves particular notice, and is one of the numerous cjtaracterutics •£ VOL. II. T 138 History. lished his character as an interesting and instruc- tive writer, and has been more generally perused' and praised than most other historians of the age. He was followed by M. Vertot, who, in several historical works, displayed considerable talents, especially in gracefulness of manner, and in the happy art of rendering his narrative entertaining. Next in order occur the numerous and extensive historical works of M. Voltaire. There can be no question that this writer, in style, in comprehension of mind, in the philosophical cast of his inquiries, and especially in his reflections, exceeded all the former historians which his country had produced. But it requires only a slight acquaintance with his works to perceive that he is partial, uncandid, grossly defective in authenticity, and disposed, upon every pretext, to depart from probability, truth, and decorum, for the purpose of reviling the religion of Christ/ The Abbe Millot succeeded Voltaire, and in his Elements of General Hist o?y, an elegant and popular work, raised a monument to the honour of himself and his country. The Abbe Raynal, in the History of the East and West Indies, presented the public with a produc- tion, which, though not generally respected as authentic, drew much of the attention of the lite- rary world/ To these it would be unpardonable this great work, which recommend it to the general perusal and regard o£ those who love truth, virtue and piety. k The degree of credit due to M. Voltaire, as a recorder of facts, will appear in the perusal of a work entitled the Letters of certain Jeivst &.c. written by the Abbe Goenne, Professor of Rhetoric in the University of Paris, and published about the year 1 7 70. In this work the author is enabled, by his profound erudition, his vigorous and penetrating mind, and his talents for mild, but most efficient satire, to place the historian of Ferney in a point of light by no means honourable either- to the accuracy of h*s learning, or to his love of truth. v The Abbe Raynal's work is said, by Mr. Bryan Edwards, to have no more title to the character of authentic history than Robinson Crusoe. This is, probably, an extravagant mode of expressing what is no doubt true, that the Abbe is often chargeable with taking his state- ments from imagination rather than from authentic records. History. 1 39 not to add the justly celebrated History of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, by Mademoiselle Keralio/ which has been pronounced by good judges to be an impartial and elegant production. Several other respectable historians appeared in France, towards the close of the century, who would deserve to be mentioned in connection with the foregoing names, did our plan admit of entering into further par- ticulars. In Germany no historical work deserving of high praise, with respect to arrangement, struc- ture and style, had appeared prior to the middle of the century under consideration. Since that time the successive works of Schmidt, Muller, Haberlin, Heinrich, Schiller, Wagner, Gal- letti, Bcchholz, Beck, Meiners, Backzo, and several others, have raised the character of their country with respect to this species of compo- sition. Of these it is believed that Schiller, in ease, spirit and interest of narrative, and in cor- rectness and elegance of style, stands at the head of the list of German historians. In Sweden, Benzelius and Wilde, soon after the commencement of the century, first undertook to present the history of their country in a con- nected and agreeable form. They were succeeded by Dahlin, who pursued the same course with more taste and success. About the same time ap- peared the work of Botin, which is much distin- guished for the excellence both of its matter and style. Besides these, a still larger performance of Lagerbring deserves a respectful notice among the improved specimens of history which that country produced during the period of this retro- spect. To the above names may be added those of Celsius and Hallenberg, who have also been = History of the Reign of Elizabeth Queen of England, 4 vols. 3vo. I'/Sj, 140 History. considerably praised, in their own country, for se- veral historical compositions.* The historians of the rest of Europe, during this period, though numerous, were few of them ex- tensively known, or higly esteemed. The History of Denmark, by M. P. F. Scjhm, is said to be a work indicating considerable erudition and talents The History of Mexico, by Glavigero, and the History of the New World, by Munoz, as they supplied, in some degree, important desiderata in the republic of letters, may be regarded as among the most interesting of the numerous volumes which might be recounted, did our limits admit of such details. v On the whole, it is believed that Great-Britain produced the best models of historical composition of which the eighteenth century can boast. Though some of the French historians, and particularly M. Voltaire, seem to have led the way in forming the present improved taste in this species of writing; yet there can be no doubt but that their British suc- cessors went far beyond them, and produced his- tories which, in the choice and arrangement of facts, in dignity, purity, and elegance of style, and in general authenticity, display an assemblage of excellences which were never before equalled in any age or country. Next to these the historians of France and Germany justly claim superior rank. The other countries of Europe stand in an order, with respect to degrees of excellence, which it is neither easy nor necessary to adjust. Though America has not yet produced histo- rians who can vie with the first class of British models, yet she has given birth to a number quite proportioned to her literary age and standing, and some which will do her lasting honour. These all « Catteau's View of Sweden, chap, xxiii. 8vo; Lond. 1790. History. 141 belong to the eighteenth century. The first his- torical work published by a native American, was the History of Virginia, by the Reverend Wil- liam Stith, President of William and Mary Col- lege. This gentleman was learned, collected his materials with a singularly minute care, and, it is said, may be relied on, as exceedingly faithful and accurate; but his manner is inelegant, and unin- teresting. Stith was followed by Mr. Beverly, who wrote the history of the same Province, up to the year 1700. If his predecessor were too mi- nute and tedious, Beverly ran into the opposite extreme, and failed of being so instructive or pleasing as he might otherwise have been, from his excessive brevity. The next American who displayed his talents in this department of literary labour was Cadwal- lader Golden, Esquire, Lieutenant-Governor of the Province of New- York, who was before mentioned as a respectable physician, botanist, and astronomer. His History of the Five Nations of Indians is another monument of his talents and diligence. In 1756 William Smith, Esquire^ published his History of the Province of New-York, a work which, though executed at an early period of the life of the author, and in great haste, yet affords a large and very valuable amount of in- struction to the student of American history. In 1765 Mr. Samuel Smith published a History of New-Jersey, which appears to be a judicious and faithful compilation. A few years afterwards Go- vernor Hutchinson presented to the public his History of Massachusetts, which holds a respecta- ble rank among the historical productions of this country. He was followed by Dr. David Ram- say, of South-Carolina, who, in his History of the American Revolution, and his History of the Revolution in South-Carolina, has done honour to 142 History. his fidelity, diligence, and literary taste. In 1792 the Reverend Dr. Jeremy Belknap completed his History of New-Hampshire, a. work which will long be considered as an honourable testimonial of the industry and judgment of the author.6 Two years afterwards Dr. Samuel Williams gave to the public his History of Vermont, which indicates an ingenious and philosophical mind, and contains much useful information. . The next American history is that of the District of Maine, by James Sullivan, Esquire, which affords a considerable portion of interesting instruction to the student of American history. In 1797 appeared the Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Connecticut, by the Reverend Dr. Benjamin Trumbull, a perform- ance which, for the fulness of the information which it exhibits, and the minute accuracy and fi- delity manifested in every part of the narrative, deserves high praise/ In the same year was published a History of Pennsylvania, by Mr. Robert Proud, which, though not distinguished by much taste in the selection and arrangement of its materials, nor by the correctness or elegance of its style, is yet entitled to credit as a faithful compilation of facts, especially as it presents a concise view of the society of Friends, and a very satisfactory account of the settlement and progress of that denomination of Christians in Pennsylvania. The last important work of this kind given to the b Dr. Belknap will long be respectfully remembered by the friends of literature in Massachusetts, and in the United States. Besides presenting the public with works which must be considered among the best specimens of history and biography which our country has produced, there were few men in America more learned, of more solid and useful talents, or more devoted to the establishment and support of literary and scientific institu- tions. He who shall attempt hereafter to give a view of the progress of literature in New-England, and especially in Massachusetts, must assign a conspicuous place to the character and labours of Dr. Belknap. c This gentleman is now engaged in compiling a History of the United States, on which he has bestowed much time and labour, and of which those who know his fidelity and accuracy, entertain high expectations. History. 143 American public is a Continuation of the History of Massachusetts, by George R. Minot, Esquire, of that State, a work of considerable merit, and which it is hoped the ingenious author will be in- duced soon to complete/ A new plan of history was introduced, a few years ago, by the Reverend Dr. Henry, of Edin- burgh, in his History of Great-Britain," in which the civil, military, naval, commercial, constitu- tional, and scientific departments of his work are severally placed in distinct chapters, and while their mutual influence is stated, may each be read separate from the rest, through the whole period embraced by the historian. In this plan he was followed, with some improvements, by Mr. James P. Andrews, whose premature death the lite- rary world has much reason to regret; and to whom it is hoped some successor wTill appear as competent to tread in his steps as he was in those of Dr. Henry. The mode of writing history in the form of Letters is, in a great measure, if not entirely, pe- culiar to the century under consideration. This form of historical composition, it is believed, was first introduced into the English language by Lord Lyttleton, and was afterwards adopted by Dr. Goldsmith, Dr. Russell, and others. That it presents some advantages, chiefly on the score of that ease and familiarity admissible in the epis- d Since the above was written, this gentleman, to the regret of all who knew him, has been removed by death. His learning and talents, com- bined with a degree of modesty, urbanity, and dignity of character truly- rare, endeared him to a large and respectable circle of friends, and rendered him one of the ornaments of his native State. Seldom has the memory of any man been more highly respected, or more fondly cherished by his ac- quaintance, than that of George Richards Minot. e Some years before the appearance of Dr. Henry's work, Dr. Mo- SHEIM had adopted a plan somewhat similar in his Ecclesiastical History. Dr. Henry is entitled to the honour of having introduced this plan into civil history, and of having conferred upon it several important improve- ments. 144 History. tolary style, is obvious; but whether it be consist- ent with the proper structure, continued narrative, and true dignity of history, may certainly be ques- tioned. ' A new species of historical composition to which the age under review has given rise, is that which is commonly called Statistical History. The word Statistics, as the name of a peculiar kind of inquiry, was first introduced into the English language by Sir John Sincl air . He derived it from the German writers, who have long employed the term to sig- nify those topics of inquiry which interest the statist, ox statesman. That is a proper Statistical history of any country which exhibits every thing relating thereto, which the riders of the State are concerned to examine and know. Those who have given histories of this kind in Germany are numerous. The first and most conspicuous Sta- tistical historian in the annals of English litera- ture is Sir John Sinclair, who has collected, in this form, an amount of information concerning North-Britain, which does much honour not only to the individuals who furnished the information, but also to the industry and public spirit of the editor/ The execution of a plan of Universal History, to any considerable and useful extent, was first ac- complished in the eighteenth century. It is certain that English literature can boast of no respectable production of this kind before the commencement of the period in question. Since that time works of this nature have been compiled in various parts of Europe, and some of them are entitled to high praise, with respect both to their fulness and their judicious structure. f Proposals have been published for the compilation of statistical histories of several of the American States, and smaller districts of our country. Among the most important and promising of these are the proposals made by the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, to publish a statistical history of that State. From the talents and learning included in that body high expectations are formed concerning their projected work. History. 145 The last age was also very productive of another class of historians, in a great measure peculiar to it. These are the persons who have undertaken to deduce the progress, and exhibit the condition of Counties, Cities, and other particular Districts. Among those who have distinguished themselves, by works of this kind, in the Englfsh language, are Mr. Grose, Mr. PoLWHELE,,Dr. Aiken, Mr. Pen- nant, and many others, whose industry and judg- ment, in bringing together so large a mass of do- cuments relating to the several objects which they undertook to describe, deserve the highest praise. There is another species of historical composi- tion, in some measure peculiar to the age under review, of which several meritorious specimens have been given. It consists in an exhibition of ancient events, literature, and manners, under the denomination "of Travels, and in the fictitious style of Romance. In this class of writings the Athenian Letters, printed in Great-Britain, in 1740, are entitled to the first place. This work consists of the imaginary correspondence of a set of Greek gentlemen, the cotemporaries of Socrates, 'Peri- cles, and Plato; but was in reality the actual cor- respondence of a society of ingenious and learned gentlemen in the University of Cambridge, who, under fictitious characters, communicated to each other the result of their researches into ancient his- tory, and, through this medium, laid before the public an entertaining and instructive work/ g When this correspondence had continued for a considerable time, and the number of letters had become so large as to render the transcribing- of them for the use of the association too troublesome, it was agreed to print twelve copies, which was accordingly done, in the year 1740; but the work was not then published. In 1 78 1, another small edition of one hun- dred copies was printed ; but the work could not yet be said to be pub- lished, as the circulation of it was confined to a few individuals. It was not until 1798 that it was, strictly speaking, laid before the public, in two vols. 410. This work is said to be the best commentary on Thucydides that ever wa6 written. It was at fint supposed that Bab.tuel.bmi had VOL. II. U 1 46 History. The next remarkable production of this kind, which has been still more celebrated than the Athenian Letters 9 is the Travels of Anach arsis, by M. Barthelemi. The models of this learned composition are said to have been the Cyrop&dia, and the Travels of Cyrns ; and the author, we are told, devoted to it the labour of thirty years. Its great merit and singular popularity are well known. The Travels of Antenor, by M. Lantier, in imitation of Barthelemi's work, is, in every respect, inferior to that curious production. Besides the various kinds of history which have been mentioned, the eighteenth century produced histories of several Arts, Sciences, and departments of Literature. These, if not peculiar to this pe- riod, have greatly increased, in the course of it* in number, accuracy and value. Of the large list which might be recited, it is proper to notice, with particular respect, the learned and judicious History of Philosophy, by Brucker, abridged and presented in an English dress, by Dr. Enfield; the History of Astronomy, by M. Bailly; the History of Optics and of Electricity, by Dr. Priest- ley; the History of Chemistry, by Boerhaave, Wei glib, and others; the History of Medicine, by Le Clerc and Strengel; the History of English Poetry, by Dr. War ton; the History of Music, by Dr. Burney ; the History of the Law of Nations, by Ward 5 the History of Jacobinism, by the Abbe Bar ruel ; and the history of the Fine Arts, by the Abbe Winckleman, and others. The plan of publishing large Collections of State Papers, for historical purposes, though conceived, and in some degree executed, before the com- mencement of the eighteenth century, yet pre-emi- talcen the plan of his work from this publication ; but it has since ap- peared that he had never seen the Athenian Letters previous to the com- pletion of his celebrated Travels of Anacbartu. History. 1 17 nently belongs to this period. Never, certainly, were collections of this kind so numerous, exten- sive, and rich, or so useful to the historian, as during the last age. They were so numerous, in- deed, that no attempt can be made here to recount even the most voluminous and remarkable which were compiled in various parts of Europe. The most curious and valuable Collection of this kind that has been made in America, is that by Mr. Ehenezer Hazard, of Philadelphia, who, for his useful labours, is entitled to the thanks of every one who wishes to become acquainted with Ame- rican history/ Among the various contrivances to facilitate the acquisition of historical knowledge, to which the age in question gave birth, may be mentioned the Charts of History, in different forms, which mo- dern ingenuity has framed. These, it is believed, were first brought into Great-Britain from the con- tinent of Europe. Among the first presented to the British public were those invented and deline- ated by Dr. Priestley, with whose indefatigable labours we meet in almost every department of li- terature and science. The Lectures on History, by the same gentleman, may be considered, on the whole, as one of the most able and useful works produced by its author; and indeed as among the best and most satisfactory views of that subject which the age furnished. The eighteenth century not only gave birth to many original productions of the historical kind, but also to many very valuable translations of the works of ancient historians. This exhibi- tion of the well-constructed and elegant produc- tions of antiquity in modern dress, while it de- h See Historical Collections , 5cc. by Ebenizzcr HAZARD, A. M. 2 vols. 4to. 179a and 1794. 148 History. serves to be mentioned among the literary en- terprises which distinguish the age under consider- ation, may also, at the same time, be pronounced to have exerted a favourable influence on the cha- racter of modern historical composition. It is impossible to dismiss this subject without recollecting how much the researches of historians, in the eighteenth century, have contributed to fur- nish evidence in favour of Revelation. There never was a period in which Antiquities were so ex- tensively and successfully investigated; and every step of this investigation has served to illustrate and support the sacred volume. A few superficial inquirers, in the course of the century, supposed and hoped that they had made discoveries from the stores of antiquity which would be found destruc- tive of the inspired history. But these fond hopes were soon disappointed. When the path of inquiry opened by these sanguine discoverers was pursued further, and the facts on which they rested their op- position to Scripture were more closely examined, they were found to terminate in evidence of a di- rectly contrary kind from that which was at first expected. In this view it may be asserted, that some portions of the evidence in favour of Christie anity, instead of growing weaker by time, are more convincing and satisfactory to the candid mind, at the present hour, than they were, or, could have been, fifteen centuries ago. ( 149 ) CHAPTER XVIII, BIOGRAPHY. BIOGRAPHY is one of the oldest species of writing. After the restoration of learning this branch of historical composition became particu- larly popular in Italy and France. From the latter country the same taste passed into Great-Britain, where it has been ever since growing. Since the commencement of the eighteenth century, every literary country of Europe has produced a greater number of biographical works than at any former period. There certainly never was an age in which Memoirs, Lives, collections of Anecdotes, &c. re- specting the dead, were so numerous, and had such a general circulation, as that which is the sub- ject of this retrospect. Perhaps few works have contributed more to form a taste for biography, in modern Europe, than the Dictionary of M. Bayle, one of the most curious and learned publications of any age. Early in the century under review this work was trans- lated into English, and circulated in Great-Britain. Not long afterwards it was republished, with very large additions, which nearly doubled its original extent. The Biographical History of England, by Grainger, is entitled to the next place in recount- ing the British productions of this nature. This was followed by the Biographia Britannica, by Dr. Kippis, after the manner of Bayle. Since the appearance of this large collection of biography, several works, of a similar kind, have been laid 1 50 Biography, before the British public by Adams and others. The last publication of this class, and in some re- spects the best, is that by Drs. Enfield and Aiken, undertaken a short time before the close of the century, and yet unfinished. Besides these general biographical works, there were others, intended to exhibit the lives of parti- cular classes of eminent persons, of which a num- ber of high character were compiled and circulated during the last age. The Lives of the British Admirals form an important and interesting collec- tion of this kind. The Biography of illustrious British Naval Characters, by Charnock ; the lives of Eminently Pious Women, by Dr. Gibbons; the Biographia Medica, by Hutchinson ; the Biogra- phia Literaria, by Dr. Berkenhout; and several other similar works, are also entitled to respectful notice in enumerating this class of modern writings. The biographical collections made on the conti- nent of Europe, during the last age, were nume- rous and extensive, especially in the French and German languages. Among these the Histoire LJterairc, of M. Sennebier, has attracted much attention, and received much praise. Besides this, the Biographical Dictionary of learned Swedes, by Gezelius; the Lives of the Great Men of Ger- many, by Klein; and the large biographical works, byScHRANCK, Schiller and Meiners, of Germany; byD'ALiiMBERT,of France; and byTENEVELLi and Fabronius, of Italy, deserve honourable distinc- tion. Of many others, perhaps equally worthy of commendation, the author has too little knowledge to enable him to speak, and especially to delineate their character. But amongst all the Collections of Lives which the eighteenth century produced, the greatest, if not in bulk, yet in sterling merit, is the Lives of the English Poets, by Dr. Samuel Johnson. It Biography. 151 \z believed that this collection is without a parallel in any language, and certainly unequalled in the history of English literature. The author has been charged, indeed, with discovering strong and even bitter prejudices against some of the best charac- ters which he undertook to review. But admitting this to be true, and in some instances there is perhaps too much foundation for the charge, it may still be asked, where the student of polite li- terature will meGt with another collection of bio- graphical sketches, at once so original, instruc- tive, and entertaining; with a body of criticism so refined and discriminating; with a work abound- ing in so many beauties of style, so many just ob- servations on human nature, so many curious and striking remarks on various departments of know- ledge and of life, so many comprehensive views, and all so pure in their moral character, as the Lives of the Poets display ? The stores of literature, it may be confidently pronounced, will furnish him with no such work.' Among the numerous single biographical works which the last age produced, it will be impossible to recount all, or even the greater part of those which are worthy of notice. A few of those which are distinguished in the annals of English literature may be slightly mentioned. The Life of Cicero, by Dr. Middleton; the Life of Erasmus, by Dr. Jortin; the Life of Swift, by Mr. Sheridan; the Life of Metastasio, by Dr. Burney; the Life of Doddridge, by Mr. Or ton; the Life of Pe- trarch, by Mrs. Dobson; the Life of Bacon, by Mr. Mallet; the Life of Lorenzo de Medici, by i While this warm and unreserved praise is bestowed on Dr. Johnson, and particularly on the great biographical work which is the subject of the above paragraph, it is perhaps proper to inform the reader, that my opi- nions, on a variety of subjects, by no means coincide with those which he frequently avows, and takes pains to inculcate. What these opinions are, it would be unsuitable in this place to detail. 152 Biography. Mr. Roscoe; the Life of Burke, by Dr. Bissettj and the Life of Milton, by Mr. Haley, claim a distinction in this class of modern writings, which demands particular notice. \ The Life of Dr. Johnson, by Mr. Boswell, is- a curious and singular specimen of biography. Perhaps no character was ever so fully displayed in its alternate exhibitions of greatness and little- ness as the illustrious subject of this work. Mr. Boswell, in the compilation, had in view as a model, the Memoirs of Gray, by Mr. Mason } but in the opinion of the best judges, the biogra- pher of Johnson, with all his vanity and weak- ness, greatly exceeds Air. Mason in the quantity, the variety, and the richness of his materials. In favour of this plan of biographical composition much may be said. Had we memoirs of this ample and minute kind of every great benefactor to the in- terests of science, literature and virtue, they would form a most curious, and, in some respects, an inva- luable treasure. But it may well be questioned whether dragging into public view, and placing on permanent record, the occasional follies, the tem- porary mistakes, and every unguarded sally of merriment or passion, into which a great mind may be led, ought to be approved or encouraged. To delineate a character faithfully in its leading features, whether great and honourable, or other- wise, is the duty of every good biographer; but to crowd the pages of an eminently wise and vir- j Works intended to do honour to learned and ingenious men, by collect- ing their wise and witty sayings, and giving familiar details of their con- duct, were compiled many centuries anterior to the eighteenth. The earliest work of this kind now extant is the Memorabilia of Xenophon. Wolfius, in his Causaboniana, tells us that the first of the books in ana, was that compiled in honuur of the great Scaliger, and called Scaligerana, drawn from the papers of Vassant and Vertunian, who took the whole from the mouth of that celebrated scholar. In later times works of this nature have wonderfully multiplied. Monthly Review. Biography. 1 j 3 tuous man's life with the recital of every momen- tary error and ridiculous foible; to dwell with as much studious care on the trivial follies and pre- judices of such a character, as on his sublime powers and excellence; and to record every vain or erroneous saying, or unjustifiable action, which cannot be considered as properly belonging to the character, may be safely pronounced to be a plan of biography which, though highly interesting, is neither useful nor wise/ The manner of M. Bayle has been imitated by many subsequent writers. Of these the most re- markable compiler of individual Lives, in the English language, is Mr. Harris, whose biogra- phical works, on James I. Charles I. Oliver Cromwell, and Charles II, are generally known, and have been much applauded. Many single Lives of eminent men, on different plans, and of various degrees of merit, appeared on the continent of Europe, in the course of the last age. Of these the Life of Petrarch, by the Abbe De la Sade; and the Life of Erasmus, by M. Burigni, deserve particular notice. They are both biographical works of great merit, and pro- bably have few superiors of their kind in any lan- guage. Perhaps it might be added, that the plan k There are two extremes into which biographers are apt to fall. The one is adopting a continued strain of eulogy, and endeavouring either wholly to keep out of view, or ingeniously to varnish over the errors and weaknesses of those whose lives they record. To this fault in biographical writing Mr. Haley discovers, perhaps, too strong a tendency. If I donor greatly mistake, his Life of Milton and his Life of Cowper may both be justly impeached on this ground. The other, and a more mischievous ex- creme is, recording against departed worth, with studied amplitude, and disgusting minuteness, the momentary mistakes of forgetfulhess, the occa- sional vagaries of levity, and the false opinions, expressed not as the re- sult of sober reflection, but thrown out either in a mirthful hour, or in the heat of disputation. Of the latter fault Mr. Boswell's Life of Johnson furnishes perhaps the most singular example. The proper course is between these extremes; and of this course it is to be lamented that we have so few models. VOL. II. X 154 Biography. on which they are composed is, on the whole, the best plan of biography now in use. But these are only two specimens out of a very large list which, were the author sufficiently acquainted with them, might, with propriety, be mentioned with nearly equal honour. The Life of M. Turgot, by M. Condorcet, and the Life of M. de Voltaire, by the same author, have also been much cele- brated and admired, among a certain class of readers. At the close of the eighteenth century a species of biographical writing came into vogue, of which, it is believed, no example ever appeared in any preceding age. This is the Accounts of dis- tinguished Living Characters, with which, for some years past, Europe has abounded. It is not easy to say whether this species of writing is more useful or injurious in its tendency. Like almost every other kind of literary work, however, its effect must depend on the mode in which it is executed. If this be impartial, skilful, and just* it will, doubtless, tend to satisfy curiosity, to en- courage rising genius, to correct the foibles of pub- lic men, and to extend general knowledge. Means were adopted, during the last age, for facilitating the acquisition and retention of biogra^ phical knowledge, similar to those which were be- fore mentioned as belonging to the department of history. Biographical Charts were first formed on the continent of Europe, where they have appeared in various forms. This contrivance, it is believed, was first introduced into Great-Britain by Dr. Priestley. ( 155 ) CHAPTER XIX. ROMANCES AND NOVELS. FICTITIOUS narrative, as a medium of instruc- tion* or entertainment, has been employed from the earliest ages of which we have any knowledge. Of this kind of composition, we have some inter- esting specimens in the sacred writings. But, like every thing else in the hands of depraved man, it has been unhappily perverted and abused. For many centuries the only form of fictitious history in vogue was that of Romance,1 or descriptions of the characters and manners of former times, min- gled with many extravagant and improbable cir- cumstances, and calculated to meet that fondness for the marvellous, which so strongly characterizes the human mind. One of the earliest writers of this class, of whom we have any distinct account, but by no means one of the most extravagant of them, was Helio- dorus, Bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, who lived in the fourth century.'" His work was entitled / The word Romance is of Spanish origin, and signifies the Spanish tongue ; the greater part of which is derived from the ancient Latin or Roman language. It seems the first Spanish books were fabulous, and be- ing called Romance, on account of the tongue in which they were written, the same name was afterwards given, by the other nations of Europe, not to Spanish books, which is the proper application of the term, but to a certain class of fabulous writings. See Beattie On Fable and Romance. m Doubts have been entertained whether the work of Heliodorus were really the first romance. Some suppose that instances of this kind of writing maybe traced back as far as the time of Aristotle. Others have thought that, from the Asiatic Researches, and other modern publica- tions on Oriental literature, there is reason to believe that the native coun- try of Romance is the East, which seems to have produced many extrava- gant specimens, from time immemorial. See Curiosities of Literature, by D'Israeli. 156 Romances and Novels. Ethiopics, from the scene of the adventures being laid in Ethiopia. And although it was a decent and moral performance, and the inhabitants of Antioch attested that it had reformed the females of their city; yet the author, for writing, and re- fusing to suppress it, was deprived of his Bishopric, and deposed from the clerical office. M. Bayle humorously observes, that the marriage of Thea- gines and Charidea, the hero and heroine of this romance, was the most prolific of any that he had read of; having produced all the romances which have been written since that time. After the time of Heliodorus romances be- came still more extravagant and absurd in their character. The times and principles of Chivalry conferred upon them new features, and gave them a different cast from all the fictitious writings which had before appeared. In these performances the reader was continually presented with the wild ab- surdities, and the heroic exploits of knight-errantry. Giants, dragons, enchanted castles, fairies, ghosts, and all the tribes of imaginary wonders were con- stantly passing before him. Probability, and .even possibility, were little consulted. To arrest, asto- nish, and intoxicate the mind, seem to have been their principal objects. But extravagance was not the only fault ofthe old romantic writings. They were often grossly immoral in their nature and tendency, abounding in every species of impure and corrupting exhibition of vice. They were also, in general, tediously diffuse, extending to many volumes, and fatiguing the reader with their unnecessary prolixity. Romance retained its empire in every literary part of Europe, until the beginning of the seven- teenth century, about which time Micuel de Cervantes, a native of Madrid, published his ce- lebrated satirical romance, entitled The History of Romances and Novels. 157 Don Quixote. This performance was expressly intended to pour ridicule on those masses of ab- surdity and impurity which had so long maintained an influence over the wrorld. Few works were ever so much read, or so effectually answered their proposed end. Its effect was equal to the most sanguine expectations of the author. It 'de- stroyed the reign of chivalry; produced a new modification of public taste; occasioned the death of the old romance; and gave birth to another species of fictitious writing. This may be called romance divested of its most extravagant and exceptionable characters. In the works of this kind the heroism and the gallantry of the old romance were in a degree retained ; but the dragons, the necromancers, and the enchanted castles, were chiefly banished, and a nearer ap- proach made to the descriptions of real life. The JstneaofM. D'Urfe, and the Grand Cyrus, the Clelia, and the Cleopatra, of Madame Scudery, are among the most memorable specimens of ro- mance thus pruned and improved. These works, however, had still too much of the improbable and unnatural to please a just taste; and therefore gave way to a further improvement, which was the in- troduction of the modern Novel. The word Novel is intended to express that kind of fictitious history, which presents natural and probable exhibitions of modern manners and cha- racters." In this species of writing the extrava- n Most writers on this subject employ the word Romance to express both those performances which pourtrayed ancient manners, with all the ex- travagance and folly of chivalry ; and those which depict modern manners true to nature and life. But since the word Romance is considered as in- variably expressive of something wild, unreal, and far removed from com- mon practice, ought not some other word to be adopted, to designate those fictitious works which profess to instruct or entertain by describing com- mon life and real characters ? And is not the word Novel well suited to this purpose of discrimination ? This word has long been used ; but, if I do not mistake, in many instances, without that accuracy of application which is desirable. 158 Romances and Novels. gance, the heroic exploits, the complicated and endless intrigues, and the mock elevation before thought necessary, were abandoned: heroes, in- stead of being taken from the throne, were sought for in common life: in place of the enchanted cas- tles, the conflicts of giants, and the absurdities of chivalry, the incidents which daily happen in the world, the ordinary scenes of social and domestic intercourse, were introduced : instead of the pom- pous, inflated style formerly admired, and which alone was congenial with the romantic spirit, a more simple and familiar manner was adopted; and, from ten or twelve tedious volumes, the nar- rative was reduced to two or three, and seldom much exceeded the latter number. Of modern Novels a few appeared in the seven- teenth century; but the number was so small, and the character of these, for the most part, so low, that even the names of but a small portion of them have reached the present time. The eighteenth century may be peculiarly and emphatically called the Age of Novels. The first great work of this kind, in the English language, was Joseph Andrews, by Mr. Henry Fielding, a comic performance, which, though sometimes indelicate, and often ex- ceptionable in its moral tendency, yet displays great wit, humour, learning, taste, and knowledge of mankind." The next was Pamela, by Mr. Samuel Richardson. This work introduced, and rendered popular, the mode of writing novels in the form of Letters, which has been since adopted by many, both in Great-Britain and on the conti- nent of Europe. Pamela was succeeded by Tom o Dr. Beattie tells us, that Lord Lyttleton, once in conversation with him, after mentioning several particulars of Pope, Swift, and other wits of that time, when he was asked some question relating to the au- thor of Tom Jones, began his answer with these words, " Henry Field- ing, I assure you, had more wit, and more humour, than all the persons we have been s-peaking of put together." Romances and NoveU. 159 Jones, which, though by no means pure in its mo- ral tendency, is esteemed by the ablest critics, as the first performance of the heroi-comic kind that was ever written/ The same author next pro- duced his Amelia, in which he imitated the epic poets, by beginning his narrative in the middle of the story. This plan was soon followed by Rich- ardson, in his Clarissa Harlowe, and Sir Charles Grandison, in both which the epistolary form of writing is retained, to which he seems to have been particularly attached. The earliest productions of Great-Britain in this department of writing may be considered as her best. Fielding and Richardson have never been exceeded, and probably not equalled, by any no- velists since their day, either in their own or any other country. Each of these authors may be said to have invented a new species of fictitious writing, and to have carried it at once to the highest point of improvement which it has ever reached. Their talents were different, and their works display this difference in a very strong light; but each attained a degree of excellence in his way, altogether un- rivalled. Fielding is humorous and comic; Rich- ardson more grave and dignified. They both paint with a masterly hand; but Fielding is per- haps more true to nature than his rival. The former succeeds better in describing manners; the p * Since the days of Homer, says Dr. JBeattIe, the world has not seen a more artful epic fable than Tom Jones. The characters and adven- tures are wonderfully diversified ; yet the circumstances are all so natural, and rise so easily from one another, and co-operate with so much regula- rity in bringing on, even while they seem to retard the catastrophe, that the curiosity of the reader is kept always awake, and instead of flagging grows more and more impatient, as the story advances, till at last it be- comes downright anxiety. And when we get to the end, and look back on the whole contrivance, we are amazed to find, that of so many inci- dents there should be so few superfluous ; that in such variety of fiction there should be so great probability ; and that so complex a tale should be 30 perspicuously conducted, and with perfect unity of design." See the JDissertatian on Fable and Romantt, 1 60 Romances and Novels. latter in developing and displaying the lieart. In plot and contrivance Fielding has no superior; while Richardson interests us less by his incidents than by the beauty of his descriptions and the ex- cellence of his sentiments.9 Fielding is most at home when describing low life, and exhibiting the humorous effusions of coarseness and indelicacy/ Richardson, on the other hand, is rather in his element when displaying the purity and subli- mity of virtue/ The most eminent writers of dif- ferent countries have paid homage to the merits of Richardson as a novelist. His works have been translated into almost every language of Europe, and notwithstanding every dissimilitude of man- ners, and every disadvantage of translation, they have probably been more generally admired and eulogized than those of any other author in this species of composition. Though Fielding has been less popular abroad, owing, perhaps, to the peculiar appropriateness of his pictures of English manners; yet, in several important attributes of fic- titious narrative, he certainly transcends every other writer. These distinguished and standard novelists have had many imitators, particularly in their own coun- try; but none who have risen to the same degree q Dr. Johnson, once in conversation with Mr. Thomas Erskine, said, " Sir, if you were to read Richardson for the story, your impa- tience would be so much fretted that you would hang yourself. But you must read him for the sentiment, and consider the story as only giving oc- casion to the sentiment." r Richardson used to say, that had he not known who Fielding Was, he should have believed him to be an ostler. s Richardson was a man of great purity and excellence of character. He was one of the best bred gentlemen of his day — habituated to genteel life only — amiable, benevolent, and unaffectedly pious; and no doubt en- deavoured, though some have supposed without complete success, to con- struct all his narratives in such a manner as to give them an unexceptiona- ble moral tendency. Fielding was less pure in his principles and cha- racter, and had been more conversant at some periods with low life. In wit, humour, and knowledge of mankind, he has been pronounced inferior to no individual of modern times excepting Shaksfeare. Romances and Novels. 161 of" excellence which they attained. Among the most successful of these was Dr. Smollet. His Roderick Random was written in imitation of Tom Jones; his Humphrey Clinker, the last and best of his works, after the manner of Richardson; and his History of Sir Launcelot Greaves, with a view to the manner of Cervantes/ These imi- tations are by no means without success, and cer- tainly hold, in some respects, a very high place in the list of those fictitious writings which belong to the age under consideration. In exhibiting the pe- culiarities of professional character Dr. Smollet displays great powers. Perhaps no writer was ever more successful in drawing the character of seamen. Sometimes, indeed, his pictures border on the extravagance of caricatura, to which his satiri- cal and cynical disposition strongly inclined him. His propensity to burlesque and broad humour too frequently recurs; and he is often indelicate and licentious to a very shameful degree. These remarks apply, in some measure, to most of his works; but to his Peregrine Pickle, and The Ad- ventures of an Atom, the charge of indelicate de- scription, and immoral tendency, is particularly applicable. About the beginning of the eighteenth century M. Le Sace, an ingenious French writer, pub- lished his Gil Bias, which appears to have been among the earliest works of the novel kind, pub- lished on the continent of Europe, that rank with the first class, or that are now held in much esteem. This performance was intended to be a picture of Spanish manners, and abounds with a great variety of incident and vivacity of description. It differs from Tom Jones in that it partakes less of the Epic t It is obvious, from the definition before given of a Novel, that Sm ot- ter's Sir Launcelot Greaves does not strictly belong to this class ; but ra- ther falls under the denomination of Romance. VOL. II. Y 1G2 Romances and Novels. character, and may, with more propriety, be de- nominated a piece of " fictitious biography;" but resembles that celebrated work in wit, humour, and knowledge of the world. Soon after the pub- lication of Gil Bias, the Marianne of Marivaux, on the same general plan, appeared. This work dpas a place assigned to it among the best novels in the French language. It discovers much ac- quaintance with human nature, and, under the veil of wit and incident, conveys much useful moral. Several other novels were written by the same au- thor, but none of them are equal to this. They were succeeded by the fictitious writings of Vol- taire snd Diderot, which were of different kinds, and possessed different degrees of literary merit; but chiefly designed, like most of the other writings of those far-famed infidels, to discredit Religion, both natural and revealed, and to destroy the in- fluence of those institutions which have proved so conducive to human happiness. The novels of Diderot, in particular, abound with every species of licentiousness, and have a most pernicious ten- dency. M. Crebillon, the younger, distinguished him- self by several works of fiction, executed in a new taste, which, though rendered highly interesting to many readers by their levity, humour, and whimsical digressions, are yet dangerous in their tendency, from a continual display of libertine sen- timent. Madame Riccoboni is another distin- guished novelist of France, belonging to the pe- riod under review. Her Fanny Butler, and seve- ral other works, have been much read and admired; but have been also severely criticized, as containing much indelicacy, and even obscenity, in their nar- ratives. M. Marmontel, of the same country, also presented the public, during the period under consideration, with a new species of fiction, in Romances and Novels. 165 bis Moral Tales, which, being less prolix than the common novel, combine instruction and amuse- ment in a very pleasing degree. Many of them, however, it must be owned, are indelicate, and corrupting in their tendency, and ought to be con- sidered as especiallv unfit to be put, as they fre- quently are, into the hands of children and young persons. But, among all the French novelists, J. J. Rousseau unquestionably holds the first place as a man of genius. His Nouvelle Heloise is one of the most remarkable productions of the age. Elo- quent, tender, and interesting in the highest de- gree; yet full of inconsistency, of extravagance, of licentious principle, and of voluptuous, seduc- ing description. Poison lurks in every page; but concealed from the view of many readers by the wonderful fascination which is thrown around every object. Of the dangerous tendency of his wrork, indeed, the author was himself fully sen- sible, and speaks freely. A circumstance which forms one among the many grounds of imputation against the morality of that singular man.'" The writings of the distinguished novelists above mentioned produced, in every part of Europe, an host of imitators and adventurers in the regions of fiction. To give even a general sketch of the nu- merous classes of those who have written under the •y The character of Rousseau perhaps exhibits the most singular and humiliating contrasts that were ever displayed in a human being. Exalted genius and grovelling folly alternately characterized his mind. At some periods he appeared to be under the influence of the most pure and sublime moral feelings; while, at others/the lowest propensities, and most detesta- ble passions, possessed and governed him. Oftentimes, when speaking of morality and religion, one would imagine that sentiments of the most ele- vated benevolence and piety were habitual to him ; but the tenor of his life, and, indeed, his own Confessions demonstrate, that an unnatural compound of vanity, meanness, and contemptible self-love, a suspicious, restless tem- per, bordering on insanity, and a prostration of every principle and duty, to his own aggrandisement and gratification, were the real predominant characteristics of this strange phenomenon in human nature. 164 Romances and Novels. titles of Memoirs, Lives, Histories, Adventures, &c. would fill a volume. Since the time of Field- ing the Epic form of novels has been more in vogue than before. Plot has become more fashion- able, and is considered more essential to the ex- cellence of their structure. During the last thirty years of the century under consideration, the coun- tries most productive of respectable works in this species of composition were Great-Britain, France, and Germany. Among the later British novelists, Dr. Gold- smith, Miss Burney (now Madame D'Arblay), Mrs. Radcliffe, Mr. Mackenzie, Miss C, Smith, and Dr. Moore, undoubtedly rank highest. The Vicar of Wakefield will ever be read with new pleasure, as one of the finest, most natural, and most happily imagined moral pictures that was ever drawn. The author of Evelina, Cecilia, and Ca- milla, has marked out for herself a manner of writing in some respects new. If the reader do not find in her pages those bold and daring strokes which indicate the hand of a great and original genius; yet, in giving pictures of characters and manners^ simple, natural, just, lively, and perfectly moral in their tendency, she has no equal among her co- temporaries. The performances of Mrs. Rad- cliffe will be presently mentioned as belonging to a new and singular class of fictitious writings. The publications of Mr. Mackenzie, which be- long to this department of literature, have been jnuch read, and have received high praise. Miss Charlotte Smith holds an honourable place among the ingenious and moral novelists of the a^e. Dr. Moore, in describing English manners, has acquitted himself with high credit. But the works of the three last will probably never be mentioned as forming an era in the history of Bri- 'Romances and Novels. 165 tish novels, like those of Fielding, Richardson, SMOLLET, BURNEY, andRADCLIFFE. To the class of novels, rather than to any other, belongs that remarkable production*, the Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, by the Reverend Laurence Sterne. Notwithstanding the often repeated, and well supported charges, brought against this writer, of borrowing without acknow- ledgment, many of his best thoughts from pre- ceding British and French authors," yet his work is an unique in the history of literature. When it first appeared his readers w7ere astonished at the singular farrago of obscurity, whim, indecency, and extravagance which it exhibited. The majo- rity appeared to be at a loss, for a time, what judgment to form of its merits. But some of the friends of the writer, professing to comprehend his meaning, and disposed to place him high in the ranks of wit and humour, gave the signal to ad- mire. The signal was obeyed; and multitudes, to the present day, have continued to mistake his capricious and exceptionable singularities for ef- forts of a great and original genius. But his ge- nius and writings have certainly been overrated. That he possessed considerable powers, of a cer- tain description, is readily admitted; that the Epi- sodes of Le Fevre and Maria are almost unrivalled, as specimens of the tender and pathetic, must also be granted; but those parts of his works which deserve this character bear so small a proportion to the rest, and the great mass of what he has written is either so shamefully obscene, so quaintly obscure, or so foolishly unmeaning, that there are u It seems to be now well ascertained that Sterne carried to a very great length, the practice of filling his pages with plunder from other writers. His freedoms of this kind with the works of Rabelais, Burton (author of the Anatomy of Melancholy) and Crebillon, junior, have been par- ticularly detected. 166 Romances and Novels. very few works more calculated to corrupt both the taste and the morals. That a man who bore the sacred office should employ his talents in re- commending a* system of libertinism; that he who could so well delineate the pleasures of benevo- lence and purity, should so grossly offend against both; and that volumes which abound with such professions of exalted philanthropy, should con- tain so many pages on which a virtuous mind can- not look but with disgust and indignation, are facts more atrociously and disgracefully criminal than the ordinary language of reprobation is able to reach™ The last age is also distinguished by some pro- ductions of a singular kind, partaking of the ex- travagance of the ancient Romance, with some of the attributes of the modern Novel. The Castle of Otranto, by Lord Orford, better known by the name of Horace Walpole, was one of the earliest and most remarkable productions of this kind. To the same class, though in many respects differ- ent, belong the works of Mrs. Radcliffe. This lady has formed for herself a department of fiction which may be called new. She has been justly styled " the Shakspeare of romance writers," and displays a skill altogether unrivalled " in com- municating terrific impressions from imaginary causes." But it is a remarkable peculiarity of her narratives, and greatly augments her title to praise, that, while the scenes which she exhibits abound with wildness and terror, yet they are so softened iv " What is called sentimental writing," says Horace Walpoie, " though it be understood to appeal solely to the heart, may be the pro- duct of a very bad one. One would imagine that Sterne had been a man of a very tender heart; yet T know, from indubitable authority, that his mother, who kept a school, having run in debt, on account of an extra- vagant daughter, would have rotted in jail if the parents of her scholars had not raised a subscription for her. Her son had too much sentiment to have any feeling. A dead ass was more important to him than a living mother." Wal^oliar.a^ vol. i. Romances and Novels. 16? down, and the mind so much relieved by beauti- ful description, and pathetic incident, that the impression of the whole seldom becomes too strong, and never degenerates into horror; bnt pleasurable emotion is the predominating result. It ought, likewise, to be mentioned to her honour, that the general tendency of her writings is favourable to virtue/ To this mixed class also belongs the Monk of Mr. Lewis. While this production evinces talents^ it must be considered as highly mischievous in its tendency, and as disgraceful to the character of the writer. In this department of fiction several German writers have made a conspicuous figure, especially the authors of the Ghost Seer, The Victim of Magical Delusion, and many others of a similar cast. The herd of low and impotent imitators of these works, with which Great-Britain, and other parts of Europe, have abounded for several years past, while they dishonour literature, and corrupt good morals, present a very curious pic- ture of the taste and character of the age which gave them birth. Among the peculiarities of the century under consideration may be mentioned the practice of conveying certain principles on the subjects of mo- rals, religion, and politics, through the medium of fictitious narrative. Though many works of fiction had been formed, prior to this age, with the view to convey, to a certain extent, moral principles and impressions; yet the plan of attack- ing particular classes of men, or of doctrines through this medium, and of interweaving systems of mo- rality, theology, or philosophy, through the pages of romances or novels, was seldom, if ever at- tempted before the eighteenth century. x The Mysteries of Udolpho, the Romance of the Forest^ and The Italia-, are considered as the best performances of this lady. 168 Romances and Novels. One of the earliest productions of this kind was the Adventures of Telemachus, by Archbishop Fe- nelon, which appeared at the beginning of the century. This work was intended to assert and exemplify those moral and political maxims which the pious and benevolent author had before taught to the Dukes of Burgundy and Anjou, when committed to his tuition. The style of this cele- brated poem3' is generally admired, the fiction is ably conducted, and the moral is pure and sublime. Its extensive circulation and great popularity are well known. About the same time appeared the Tale of a Tub, one of the first publications of Dean Swift. The design of this allegorical fable was to expose certain abuses and corruptions in learn- ing and religion, especially the latter; and it has been pronounced in felicity of wit, in force of sa- tire, in copiousness of imagery, and in vivacity of diction, to exceed all the subsequent productions of the author.2 About twenty years afterwards the same celebrated writer published his Gidliver's Travels, a performance which wras, perhaps, more read than any other of the age. This satirical work is levelled at human pride and folly, at the abuses of learning, at the absurdity of theorists and projectors, and, especially, at the expedients and blunders of politicians. In this, as in the former, the fable is, in general, well conducted, the satire is keen, the description admirable, and the style at once easy, graceful, and vigorous. But the work is by no means free from gross faults. It discovers a prevailing fondness in the author for filthy allusions, and indecent nauseating descrip- y TekaacBus, though not written in verse, is so poetical in its character, that it may With propriety be denominated a poem. ss This praise must be received with qualification. The Tale of a Tub contains some images and allusions highly indelicate, and even grossly of- fensive. The author is also chargeable with treating serious things, in this performance, with too much levitv. Romances and Novels. 169 tions. The Voyage to the Houyhnhnms, in particu- lar, is very objectionable. Its satire is that of a misanthrope; its imagery and allusions those of a mind which delighted in filth; and its fiction alto- gether inconsistent and irrational. In 1759 was published the Rasselas of Dr. Johnson, a philosophical tale, the design of which was to convey, in the oriental manner, useful les- sons respecting the vanity of the world, the insuf- ficiency of temporal things to secure human happi- ness, and the consequent importance of having a due regard to things eternal. This work has been translated into almost all the modern languages of Europe, and was one of the first moral effusions of that mind which afterwards laboured so much, and so well, to " give ardour to virtue, and con- fidence to truth. " About the same time appeared the Candide of M. Voltaire, written to refute the system of optimism, and probably with a wish, also, to discredit the belief of a superintending Providence. There is a considerable similarity in the plan and conduct of Rasselas and Candide. Bat the circumstances under which they were pub- lished precluded the suspicion of either having been indebted to the other." After the publication of the foregoing works, Mr. Ridley, in his Tales of the Genii, endeavoured to defend some of the peculiar doctrines of Chris- tianity; while, on the other hand, these doctrines have been covertly attacked, in the Life and Opi- nions of John Bunckle, jun. in the Memoirs of se- veral Ladies, in The Spiritual Quixote, in Dia- logues of the Philosophers of Ulubne, and in several * " I have heard Johnson," says Mr. Boswell, " say of these two works, that if they had not been published so closely one after the other, it would have been in vain to deny that the scheme of that which came latest was taken from the other." BoswEtt's Life of Jobns9nt vol. i. p. z8a. VOL. II. Z 170 Romances and Novels. other works of fiction. That system of opinions usually styled the New Philosophy? has been ex- hibited with great zeal, with a view to its defence, in the fictitious writings of Diderot, and many other French novelists; and in those of Holcroft, Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Mary Hays, of Great-Britain. The same delusive and mischievous system has been successfully attacked and exposed in The Highlander, by Dr. Bissett ; in the Modem Philosophers, by Miss Hamilton; in the Memoirs of St. Godwin, in The Vagabond, in Plain Sense, and in various anonymous publica- tions of the novel kind. A number of other novelists, both in Great- Britain and on the continent of Europe, deserve to be mentioned, in recounting the conspicuous writers of this class, which belong to the eigh- teenth century. In Great-Britain female novelists have been numerous and respectable. Among these Airs. Brooke, Mrs. Inchbald, Mrs. Sheri- dan, Mrs. Yearsley, MIssSew^ard, Miss West, and Miss Williams have attracted most attention, and been the objects of most applause. In France, out of a long list which might be enumerated, the fictitious writings of M. de St. Pierre3 Madame Genlis, and M. Florian, are worthy of particu- lar distinction, especially on account of their pure moral tendency. In Germany the writers of ro- mances and novels, during the age under review, were extremely numerous. Of these Wieland is entitled to the first place. The appearance of his Agathon is represented as a grand epoch in the b By the Neiv Philosophy is meant, that system of doctrines concerning the constitution of man, and concerning morals and religion, taught by the author of the Systeme de la Nature, by Helvetius, and Condorcet, and afterwards by several other celebrated writers, both of France and Great-Britain. . Romances and Novels. 171 history of fictitious writing in that country/* Next to Wieland, Goethe is respectably known as a novelist, not only in his own country, but also throughout Europe. In a word, in every cultivated part of the European world novel writers have in- credibly abounded, in modern times; but the author has so little knowledge even of the names of the principal works of this kind, and so much less of their respective merits and demerits, that he cannot undertake to speak of them in detail. America has given birth to few productions in the department of romance or novel. Indeed, no work of this nature deserving respectful notice, had appeared in the United States prior to the year 1798, when Mr. Charles B. Brown, of Phi- ladelphia, published his Wieland, which has been since followed by Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, Edgar Huntly, and Jane Talbot, from the pen of the same author. Mr. Brown discovers, in these several productions, a vigorous imagination, a creative fancy, strong powers of description, and great command, and, in general, great felicity of lan- guage. He has the honour of being the first American who presented his countrymen with a respectable specimen of fictitious history; and is certainly the first who succeeded in gaining much attention to his labours in this branch of literature. It was before observed that the eighteenth cen- tury was the Age of Novels. Never was the lite- rary world so deluged with the frivolous effusions of ignorance and vanity, in this form, as within the last thirty years. Every contemptible scribbler has become an adventurer in this boundless field of enterprise. Every votary of singular, and especi- e Lessing, a German critic, of great learning and acuteness, pronounced The History of Agatbon to be one of the finest efforts of genius in the eighteenth century ; nay, he called it the first and only novel. of the Ger- mans, written for thinking men of classical taste. 172 Romances and Novels. ally of licentious opinions, has thought this a conve- nient mode of disguising and serving up his errors. The thirst for this species of composition is incon- ceivably ardent and extensive. All classes of per- sons in society, from the dignified professional cha- racter to the lowest grades of labouring indigence, seek and devour novels. These ephemeral produc- tions are daily composed, translated, revamped, and reprinted, to indulge the growing demand. What will be the effect and the end of this morbid appetite; whether, like many other diseases, it will work its own cure, or whether it will go on to in^ crease as long as human society shall exist, are questions to the solution of which the friend of hu- man happiness looks forward with deep solicitude. It has often been made a question, whether ro-r mances and novels form an useful kind of reading, or the contrary? This question, fifty years ago, was of little moment compared with the importance which it has lately assumed. At that period the number of novels was small, and the popular clas- ses of them sustained, in general, a tolerably pure moral character. Since that time, the case is, un^ happily, altered; their number has increased, their character is so changed, and the task of discrimi^ nating among them has become so delicate and ar- duous, that the question above stated must now be regarded as one of the most interesting that can be asked, concerning the literary objects of the day, by the wise and affectionate parent, the faithful guardian, or the mind of general benevolence. It may not be improper, therefore, before taking leave of this singular feature in the history of the eigh- teenth century, to offer two or three brief remarks on the general tendency of the class of writings un- der consideration. That fictitious history, when constructed on proper principles, and executed in a proper manner, Romances and Novels. 173 ' may be productive of utility, is a position too plain to be doubted. It is one of the most powerful means of exciting curiosity, of awakening sympa- thy, and of impressing the understanding and the heart. Such fiction " may do more good to many minds than the solemnities of professed morality, and convey the knowledge of vice and virtue with more efficacy than axioms and definitions. " On this ground it was, no doubt, that the infinitely wise Author of our religion frequently adopted the form of parable for communicating the most im- portant truths to his hearers. And, on the same principle, some of the wisest human teachers have used the vehicle of lively and interesting fiction, known to be such at the time, for insinuating into the mind moral and religious lessons, which, in a different form, might not so readily have gained" ad- mittance. It is obvious, then, that to this kind of writing, as such, there can be no solid objection. Novels may be so written as to promote the cause both of knowledge and virtue. They may be constructed in such a manner as will tend to lead the mind insensibly from what is sordid and mean to more worthy pursuits, and to fill it with pure, elevated and liberal sentiments. Nay, it may be further conceded, that, out of the myriads of no- vels which have been composed, a few are, in fact, entitled to this character, and have a tendency to produce these effects. But it is evident, that a kind of writing which, when wisely and ingeniously executed, may be conducive to the best purposes, may also, in the hands of the unskilful or the wicked, produce the worst effects. If an artfully conducted fiction be so well fitted to interest the curiosity, to awaken sympathy, and to impress the mind, then it follows that if this fiction be enlisted on the side of cor- rupt principle, or licentious practice, it must do 174 Romances and Novels. incalculable mischief. The question before usa therefore, must be solved by examining the influ- ence of novels, not as they might and ought to be composed, but as they are found in fact to be written. We are not to assume for our standard the utility which zvould be derived from this spe- cies of writing, were it confined to the enlightened and virtuous; but the character and tendency of that heterogeneous mass which is daily accumu- lating from every quarter of the literary world. What then is the general character of modern novels? The most favourable estimate that can be made stands thus : — Were the whole number which the age produced divided into a thousand parts, it is probable that five hundred of these parts would be found so contemptibly frivolous, as to render the perusal of them a most criminal waste of time. And though entirely destitute of character, yet so far as they are the objects of attention at all, they can do nothing but mischief. To devote the time and attention to works of this kind, has a tendency to dissipate the mind; to beget a dislike to more solid and instructive reading, and especially to real history; and, in general, to excite a greater fond- ness for the productions of imagination and fancy, than for the sober reasoning, and the practical in- vestigations of wisdom. Of the remaining five hundred parts, four hun- dred, and ninety-nine may be considered as posi- tively seductive and corrupting in their tendency. They make virtue to appear contemptible, and vice attractive, honourable and triumphant. Folly and crime have palliative and even commendatory names bestowed upon them ; the omnipotence of love over all obligations and all duties is continually maintained; and the extravagance of sinful passion represented as the effect of amiable sensibility. Surely these representations can have no other ten- Romances and Novels . 175 dency than to mislead, corrupt and destroy those who habitually peruse them, and especially those who give them a favourable reception. But this is not the worst of the evil. A portion of this latter class of novels may be charged with being seductive and immoral on a more refined plan. They are systematic, and, in some instances, ingenious and plausible apologists for the most attrocious crimes. In many modern productions of this kind the intelligent reader will recognize the following process of representation. Corrupt opi- nions are put into the mouth of some favourite hero, the splendour of whose character, in other respects, is made to embellish the principles which he holds, and the force of whose eloquence is used to recom- mend the most unreasonable dogmas. When this hero commits a crime, and when by this crime, ac- cording to the fixed law of the Divine government, he is involved in serious difficulty, if not lasting misery, the fashionable novelist endeavours to throw the blame on the religious and moral insti- tutions of the world, as narrow, illiberal and un- just. When a woman has surrendered her chas- tity, and prostituted herself to a vile seducer; and when she suffers in her reputation and her com- fort by such base conduct, all this is ascribed to the " wretched state of civilization," to the " de- plorable condition of society!" Every opportunity is taken to attack some principle of morality under the title of a" prejudice;" to ridicule the duties of domestic life, as flowing from " contracted" and c< slavish" views; to deny the sober pursuits of upright industry as " dull" and " spiritless;" and, in a word, to frame an apology for suicide, adultery, prostitution, and the indulgence of every propen- sity for which a corrupt heart can plead an incli- nation. 176 Romances and Novels. It only remains to speak of the one thousandth part not included in the classes already characterized. Of the greater portion of these the most favourable account that can be given is, that they are innocent and amusing compositions. But even with regard to a considerable number which have been com- monly placed among the good and useful novels, a correct judge would scarcely be willing to pro- nounce them innocent without some qualification. After all these deductions, how small is the num- ber of those which can be said to merit a perusal* or which can be considered as tending, in any to- lerable degree, to enlighten the mind, or to pro- mote the interests of virtue and happiness ! So small, indeed, that out of the numerous volumes which a simple catalogue of the novels produced in the eighteenth century would fill, a single page would embrace all that could be with propriety recom- mended to the attention of the youthful mind. Many novels which contain no licentious prin- ciples or indelicate descriptions, are still defective, inasmuch as they are not pictures of nature. When this is the case, though they be not chargeable with making a direct attack on the fortress of vir- tue, yet they are only fitted to mislead. To fill the mind with unreal and delusive pictures of life, is, in the end, to beguile it from sober duty, and to cheat it of substantial enjoyment. Were all the mischief presented to our view which has been done to thoughtless, unsuspecting minds, by ficti- tious writings of this character, it would be found to form a mass of crime and misery too great for the ordinary powers of calculation. But it is not enough that the fiction be true to nature. It may in no case depart from the proba- ble and natural; every line may be drawn with a strict regard to the original character designed to be represented; the most transient beholder may Romances and Novels. 177 pronounce the likeness to be perfect; and yet the view may be fitted to corrupt the mind of every one who looks upon it. The truth is, there are many characters which ought never to be drawn in fiction, as there are many which ought never to be contemplated in fact. And he who regards the welfare of a child will be as anxious to withhold from him the view of many natural and lively de- scriptions of vice, as to keep him from the com- pany of those who are really vicious. Cf Many writers," says a celebrated critic and moralist/ " for the sake, as they tell us, of following nature* so mingle good and bad qualities in their principal personages, that they are both equally conspicuous; and as we accompany them through their adven- tures with delight, and are led by degrees to in- terest ourselves in their favour, we lose the abhor- rence of their faults because they do not hinder our pleasure, or perhaps regard them with kindness for being united with so much merit. There have been men, indeed, splendidly wicked, whose en- dowments threw a brightness on their crimes, and whom scarce any villainy made perfectly detest- able, because they never could be wholly divested of their excellences; but such have been, in all ages, the great corrupters of the world; and their resemblance ought no more to be preserved than the art of murdering without pain."* Estimating novels, then, not as they might be made, but as they are in fact, it may be asserted, that there is no species of reading which, promis- cuously pursued, has a more direct tendency to d Dr. Johnson. Rambler, vol. i. e On this principle it is plain that such a character as Tom Jones ought; never to have been exhibited by a friend to virtue. And though the cha- racters drawn by Richardson are by no means so liable to censure on this ground as several of those by Fielding, yet it may be doubted whe- ther the Lovelace of the former, taken in all its parts, be a character calcu- lated to make a virtuous impression, especially on the youthful mind._ VOL. II. 2. A 178 Romances and Novels. discourage the acquisition of solid learning, to rill the mind with vain, unnatural, and delusive ideas, and to deprave the moral taste/ It would, perhaps, be difficult to assign any single cause which has contributed so much to produce that lightness and frivolity which so remarkably characterize the lite- rary taste of the eighteenth century, as the unex- ampled multiplication, and the astonishing popu- larity of this class of writings. The friend of novels will perhaps agree, that the promiscuous perusal of them is dangerous, and will plead for a discreet selection. But who is to make this selection? On whom shall devolve the perplexing task of separating the wheat from the chaff, the food from the poison? If amidst the mighty mass, those which are tolerably pure, and especially those which are calculated to be useful* be only now and then to be found, as a few scat- tered pearls in the ocean, shall the delicate and ar- duous task of making the choice be committed to minds " unfurnished with ideas, and therefore ea- sily susceptible of impressions; not fixed by prin- ciples, and therefore easily following the current of fancy; not informed by experience, and conse- quently open to every false suggestion, and partial account r" The imminent danger, and almost cer- tain mischief arising from a choice made by such minds cannot be contemplated by those who feel . J The celebrated Dr. Goldsmith, in writing to his brother, respect- ing the education of a son, expresses himself in the following strong terms, which are the more remarkable, as he had himself written a novel :— " Above all things, never let your son touch a romance or novel ; these paint beauty in colours more charming than nature ; and describe happi- ness that man never tastes. How delusive, how destructive are those pictures of consummate bliss ! They teach the youthful mind to sigh after beauty and happiness which never existed ; to despise the little good which fortune has mixed in our cup, by expecting more than she ever gave; and, in general, take the word of a man who has seen the world, and has studied human nature more by experience than precept ; take my word for it, I say, that such books teach us very little of the world." Life of Goldsmith, prefix td to bis Miscellaneous Works. Romances and Novels. 179 an interest in human happiness, without deep anx- iety and pain. And to expect a wise choice to be made by parents and instructors, is to suppose, what was never the case in any state of society, that they are generally enlightened and virtuous. On the whole, the answer of a wise preceptor to the main question respecting the utility of novels, would probably be something like this: — That, wholly to condemn them, and rigidly to forbid the perusal of any, in the present state of the literary world, would be an indiscreet and dangerous ex- treme; that reading a very few, therefore, of the best is not unadviseable ^ that in selecting these, however, great vigilance and caution should be exercised by those to whom the delicate and diffi- cult task is committed ; that the perusal of a large number, even of the better sort, has a tendency too much to engross the mind, to fill it with artificial views, and to diminish the taste for more solid read- ing; but that a young person habitually and indis- criminately devoted to novels, is in a fair way to dissipate his mind, to degrade his taste, and to bring on himself intellectual and moral ruin. g The author has no hesitation in saying, that, if it were possible, he would wholly prohibit the reading of novels. Not because there are none worthy of being perused ; but because the hope that, out of the polluted and mischievous mass continually presented to the youthful mind, a tole- rably wise choice will, in many instances, be made, can scarcely be thought a reasonable hope. As, however, those fictitious productions are strewed around us in such profusion, and will more or less excite the curiosity of youth, the plan of total exclusion is seldom practicable. In this case it is, perhaps, the wisest course to endeavour to regulate the curiosity which cannot be prevented, and to exercise the utmost vigilance in making a proper choice for its gratification, and in restraining this gratification within small bounds. For it may, with confidence, be pronounced, that NO ONE WAS EVER AN EXTENSIVE AND ESPECIALLY AN HABITUAL READER OF NOVELS, EVEN SUPPOSING THEM ALL TO BE WELL SE- LECTED, WITHOUT SUFFERING BOTH INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL "INJURY, AND OF COURSE INCURRING A DIMINUTION OF HAPPINESS. ( iao ) CHAPTER XX. POETRY. POETRY, in one form or another, has been the growth of every age with the history of which we are acquainted; and the eighteenth century had its full share of those who paid their court to the muses. It may be said with confidence, in- deed, that the last age produced a far greater num- ber of poets than any former period of the same ex- tent. But it must be confessed that, of this num- ber, few are entitled to the character of distin- guished excellence. The mantle of Shakspeare or of Milton has not fallen upon any succeeding bard. Since the death of the latter, more than a century has passed away without producing a rival of his great and deserved fame. Still it may be maintained that poets, and poetic excellence, have been produced, of sufficient distinction to do high honour to modern genius, and to merit a respectful consideration. The poetic diction and versification of several modern languages have been much enriched and refined, during the period under review. Of these improvements it may be proper to take some brief notice, before we proceed to consider the particu- lar specimens of poetic genius which belong to this period. During the period in question, English versifi- cation has been greatly improved. Though Dry- den, at the close of the preceding century, had done much towards the promotion of this object; Poetry. iSl yet the style of English poetry was left by him in an irregular, harsh, and incorrect state. He was succeeded by Mr. Pope, whose successful exertions to polish, refine, and regulate the language of our poetry, are well known. If Dryden displayed more vigour of genius, and more sublimity of con- ception than Pope, the latter undoubtedly exhibits a degree of correctness and elegance of diction, and of harmony and sweetness of numbers, which had never been equalled by any preceding poet, and which have never been exceeded since his time. " New sentiments, and new images," says a great critic, " others may produce; but to attempt any further improvement of versification will be dangerous. Art and diligence have now done their best; and what shall be added, will be the effort of tedious toil, and needless curiosity. "A English poetry is also indebted to several who have written since Mr. Pope. The names of these, and the nature and amount of the services which they rendered, will be more fully brought to the mind of the intelligent reader in reviewing hereafter the particular works by which they are most honourably known to the public. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, there was a race of versifiers in Europe, and es- pecially in Great-Britain, who have been called by the critics metaphysical poets J They were gene- rally men of learning, and many of them endowed with genius; but were either destitute of taste, or possessed only that which was false and perverted. Pedantic, subtle, obscure, and confused, they pre- sented absurd and gross conceits, rather than just images; scholastic refinements, rather than copies of nature; and far-fetched ideas and illustrations^ £ Life o/"Pope, by Dr. Johnson. i Life of Cowley, by Johnson. 182 Poetry. to display their reading, rather than that chaste simplicity which delights, and that " noble ex- panse of thought, which fills the whole mind." This race of poets, if such they maybe called, did not become extinct till towards the close of the seventeenth century. Cowley, Waller, Den- ham, and many others, were infected with the false taste which they had propagated, and thus ex- tended the mischief. Milton, though he adopted, in one instance, the manner of these metaphysical versifiers, yet in general disdained it, and contri- buted much to discourage the unworthy fashion. Dryden went still further, in some respects, in rectifying the public taste. But towards the close of the century, a style of poetry which had so long, and on such high authority, maintained its ground, ceased to be popular. The English poetry of the eighteenth century, therefore, is, in general, more delicate in its sentiments, more correct and elegant in its diction, more chaste in its figures and illustrations, more harmonious in its numbers, and, on the whole, more simple and natural in its struc- ture, than that of any preceding age. The improvements in French Poetry, in the cen- tury under consideration, though worthy of no- tice, have been less numerous and remarkable. With the nature of these, however, and the per- sons to whom the honour of effecting them is chiefly due, the author is not sufficiently acquainted to enable him to speak distinctly. In improving the poetry of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, it is believed that still less has been done within the last hun- dred years; but of this, also, too little is known to warrant an attempt to give any distinct views of the subject. The poetic character of Germany rose to great eminence in the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury. Among the earliest and most successful la- Poetry. 183 bourers in attuning the German language to poetry- were Haller, Klopstock, Gesner, and Wie- land. Before the works of these great literary reformers appeared, this language could scarcely boast of any poems superior to those of Gottsched and Schoonaik. A poetic diction was to be formed. Accordingly, Baron Haller is said to have written his poem on Reason, Superstition, and Infidelity, for the express purpose of proving that the German language was capable of an advan- tageous application to moral and philosophical poetry. It was before remarked, that Klopstock was eminently successful in improving the versifi- cation of his native language. His Messiah, on its first appearance, was severely criticised, on ac- count of the novel expressions and combinations which it contained; but these innovations soon gained credit, and were generally adopted; and the author may be said to have formed a new era in German poetry. Gesner and Wieland carried these improvements still further. Besides these, the writings of Gellert, Lessing, Kleist, Gleim, and several others, have contributed largely to en- rich and refine the versification of their country; insomuch that the poetry of Germany, which, half a century ago, was scarcely thought worthy of no- tice, may be reckoned, at the present day, among the most polished, harmonious, and spirited in the republic of letters. The poetry of Sweden received, during the same period, improvements of a similar nature. About the middle of the century arose Dahlin, the father of Swedish poetry. He attained high excellence in the Epic, Tragic, and Lyric departments of po- etic composition, and contributed much towards establishing the reign of taste in his country. To him many successors have arisen, some of whom have pursued, with honourable success, the same 184 Poetry, track. Among these, the most conspicuous are Count de Creutz, Count de Gyllenborg, Ma- dame DE NoRDENFLYCHT, Count OxENSTIERNA, Kellgren, Leopold, Lidner, Torild, and seve- ral others, whose writings abundantly testify, that the Swedish language, notwithstanding its former defects, is capable of exhibiting, under the hand of a master, all that harmony, tenderness, and force, which, when united, render the productions of the poet so interesting. The labours of Kellg r en, in particular, for a number of years past, to polish and refine the versification of his country, are said to have been eminently successful, and highly ho- nourable to his character/ The poetry of Russia is almost wholly the growth of the eighteenth century. Cantemir, Ilinski, Frediatofski, and a few others, adven- tured in this new field at a very early period of the century; but they were rather rhymers than poets. The first respectable poet in the Russian language was Lomonozof, who wrote about the middle of the century. His compositions are principally of the lyric kind, which, for originality, energy of lan- guage, and sublimity of sentiment, deserve much praise. He was followed in this career of improve- ment by Sumorokof, who is represented as the founder of the Russian drama, and one of the most successful refiners of the poetic language of his country. To these succeeded a number of poets, who all contributed something to improve the ver- sification of this language; among the most distin- guished of whom are Kheraskof and Karamsin. The Rossiada of the former, as it has been greatly admired by the author's countrymen, so its appear- ance doubtless formed an important era in the pro- gress of their poetic character. The various works j See Catteau's Vieiv of Stceden^ and Acerbi's Travels. Poetry. ]85 of Karamsin are also entitled to respectful notice among the valuable contributions to this branch of literary improvement. After these preliminary remarks concerning the refinements and riches which have been commu- nicated to the poetic language of several countries of Europe, it may be proper to take a brief review of the principal productions to which the eigh- teenth century gave birth, in the various depart- ments of poetry; after which the way will be pre- pared for some general reflections on the poetic character of the age. EPIC POETRY. In Epic poetry the period of this Retrospect produced few specimens above mediocrity. The Henriade of Voltatre stands at the head of the list. This performance, like most of the works of its celebrated author/ discovers great genius, and has been the subject of high applause, particularly among French critics. For boldness of concep- tion, general felicity of language, and just and noble sentiments, it is entitled to honourable dis- tinction. But from a real or supposed inaptitude of the French language for the majestic character of epic composition; from the indiscreet choice of a modern hero, and a recent train of events in the k Few literary men in the eighteenth century rendered themselves more conspicuous than Francis Arouet de Voltaire. He was born in 1694, at Paris, where he died in 1778. Endowed with an uncommon share of wit, humour, fancy, and taste, he was distinguished as an interesting and en- tertaining writer for more than half a century. He enjoyed a high repu- tation, not only as an epic poet, but also as a dramatist, an historian, a novelist, an essayist, and a miscellaneous writer. His talents were so va- rious, that there is scarcely any department of literary labour in which lu has not left something, which, taken alone, would show him to have been an eminent man. It is to be lamented that his talents were so much de- voted to the cause of impiety and licentiousness ; and that he so often be- trayed a willingness to set all principle, truth, and decorum at defiance for the purpose of attacking the religion and the character of Christians. VOL. II. iB 186 Poetry, author's own country, as the subject; and from some egregious faults in the incidents and ma- chinery, the best critics have denied to this poem the praise of first-rate excellence. The Leonidas of Mr. Glover is one of the most meritorious efforts in the department of epic poe- try which English literature presented, during the age under consideration. This work has long maintained a high character among English critics. The Calvary of Mr. Cumberland is entitled to the next place; a poem which has been pro- nounced to be " imbued with the genuine spirit of Milton, and destined, therefore, most probably, to immortality. " Though the author has not, per- haps, given sufficient scope to his imagination, but confined himself too closely to the sacred history, for the full exertion .of his poetic strength, yet both the plan and execution of his work do him im- mortal honour, and afford high pleasure both to the critic and the christian. The Joan of Arc, by Mr. Southey, while it obviously betrays the haste and carelessness with which it was written/ dis- covers, at the same time, the undoubted genius and taste of the author. The sentiments, in general, are noble and generous; the characters introduced are, for the most part, well supported; the imagery is bold and impressive, and the versification, with- out being always correct, is easy, harmonious, and beautiful. To these may be added Arthur, or the Northern Enchantment, by Mr. Hole, and several other epic poems, which, though not entitled to rank with those above mentioned, yet do credit to the poetic talents of their respective writers. But, if no poet since the time of Milton have ho- noured our language with a work which deserves to be compared with the Paradise Lost, yet this period / The Joan of Are probably furnishes the first instance in the history of literature of an epie poem of equal length being written in six iveeh ! Poetry. 187 has not passed without two important events. The Iliad, that great parent stock of epic productions, has been, in the course of the last century, incor- porated with English poetry, by the genius of Mr. Pope; and Fingaland Temora have been recalled from a long oblivion by the labours of Mr. Mac- pherson. In the former, this age may boast of having produced the noblest translation ever pre- sented to the republic of letters; and in the latter of having recovered a work of true and uncommon genius, which, on several accounts, will probably be read with pleasure for many centuries to come, whatever opinion may be formed with respect to its origin. The history of German literature, during the eighteenth century, presents us with an epic poem, which some have brought into competition with the Paradise Lost. This is the Messiah of Klop- stock, a work which has been, perhaps, more read throughout the literary world, and honoured with more general approbation than any other poetic production of the same country. The Mes- siah certainly may be, in some respects, ad- vantageously compared with the Paradise Lost. Though the former does not possess the " gigantic sublimity" of the latter, yet it elevates the mind by the grandeur and novelty of its fiction, and dis- plays more tenderness and pathos.'" The Death of Abel is not less familiar to every intelligent reader, m Herder, an eloquent German writer, thus compares the Paradise Lost and The Messiah: " The edifice of Milton is a stedfast and well-planned building, resting on ancient columns: Klopstock's is an enchanted dome, echoing with the softest and purest tones of human feeling, hovering be- tween heaven and earth, borne on angels' shoulders. Milton's muse is masculine: Klopstock's is a tender woman, dissolving in pious ecstacies, warbling elegies and hymns. When music shall acquire among us the high- est powers of her art, whose words will she select to utter but those of Klopstock?" Letters on Humanization. This is quoted from the Literary Hours of Dr. Drake, who says that " impartial posterity will probably confirm the judgment of Herder." A good English translation of Tie JMessiah is still a desideratum. 188 Poetry. and its merits have been generally acknowledged* Oberon,0 an epic romance, by Wieland, discovers the bold and vigorous imagination, and the felicity of description, for which the author has been long celebrated. In the Swedish language we also find, in the century under review, two respectable productions of the epic class. The first is entitled Swedish Li- berty, and is a performance of Dahlin, who was before mentioned as the father of poetry in that country. This work, with several essential faults, combines beauties and excellences which render it worthy of attention. The other work, which comes under the same denomination, is The Pas- sage of the Belt, by Count De Gyllenborg, from which the author has derived considerable reputa- tion among his countrymen. The Rossiada of Kheraskof, a Russian nobleman, was before men- tioned as entitled to respectful notice, not only because it possesses considerable merit as a poem; but because it was the first successful attempt to enlist the Russian language in the service of the epic muse, and because its appearance may be considered as forming an important epoch in the history of Russian poetry. The translations of different epic poems, in the course of this century, were so numerous, that to give a list and character of them all would lead us into a field far too extensive. But it would be unpardonable, even in this short sketch, to omit taking notice of a few besides those which have n the Death of Abel, like several other works of the same author, is written in a kind of loose poetry, unshackled by rhyme, and a precise, uniform adherence to measure. It has been said that this method of writing is peculiarly suited to the German language. It is to be lamented that this work, as well as the Messiah, has never been advantageously presented in English dress. o Oberon has been translated, by Mr. Sotheby, into English, in a style of elegance which does him great honour. Poetry. 189 been already mentioned. The celebrated Italian epic poem Gierusalemme Liberata, by Tasso, has also been elegantly translated into English, during this period, by Mr. Hoole. The three first books had been previously presented in an English dress by Mr. Brooke, on whose work Mr. Hoole passes the most liberal encomiums. To give a version of the whole was reserved for the latter gentle- man, who executed the task with very honour- able success. Shortly afterwards the Lusiad of Camoens, on which the Portuguese rest their claim to epic honours, was translated into English by Mr. Mickle, which, in spirit and elegance, is considered by some respectable critics, as rivalling the first productions of the kind in our language. The Iliad was translated, for the first time, and with considerable ability, into the Spanish lan- guage, about thirteen years ago, by Don Garcia Malo. The same monument of Grecian genius was also translated, not long since, with high re- putation, into the German language, by Voss, a distinguished poet of that country; and into Italian by the Abbe Cjesarotti. These several works are said to be considered, by their respective coun- trymen, as productions of the first class. To these may be added the translation of the Iliad, into English blank verse, by Mr. Cowper, which, though a more faithful version than the work of Mr. Pope, falls short of it, with respect to merit as a poem. The JEneid has also been trans- lated into German by Voss, before mentioned; into Italian by M. C. Bendi; and into English by Mr. C. Pitt. The work of the last named poet, though inferior to Dryden's translation in vigour and sprightliness, yet excels it in uni-, formity, correctness, and splendour of versification. Lucan's Pharsalia, as translated into English by Rowe, is pronounced by an eminent critic to be 190 Poetry. one of the greatest productions of English poetry; to exhibit more successfully than almost any other the genius and spirit of the original; and to deserve a much higher degree of approbation than it has generally obtained/ DIDACTIC POETRY. In this species of poetic composition the eigh- teenth century produced some works of great ex- cellence, some of which may be compared, without disadvantage, with the best specimens of any pre- ceding age. The Essay on Criticism, by Mr. Pope, as it was one of his earliest compositions, so it is also one of his best.9 In the opinion of a great critic " it exhibits every mode of excellence that can embellish or dignify didactic composition; se- lection of matter, novelty of arrangement, justness of precept, splendour of illustration, and propriety of digression. " The Essay on Man,r by the same author, though in some respects of inferior excel- lence, has been incomparably more read, and, in general, more highly applauded. This perform- / Life of Row e, by Johnson. q He produced this work at twenty years of age, and is pronounced by Dr. Johnson never afterwards to have excelled it. r It has been often said that Lord Bolingbroke had some agency in the composition of the Essay on Man. The following extract of a letter from the late Reverend Dr. Hugh Blair, of Edinburgh, will probably be considered as deciding the fact. " In the year 1 763, being at London, I was carried by Dr. John Blair, Prebendary of Westminster, to dine at old Lord Bathurst's. The conversation turning on Mr. Pope, Lord Bat hurst told us, that the Essay on Man was originally composed by Lord Bolingbroke, in prose, and that Mr. Pope did no more than put it into verse : that he had read Lord Bolingbroke's manuscript in his own hand writing, and remembered well that he was at a loss whether most to admire the elegance of Lord Bolingbroke's prose, or the beauty of Mr. Pope's verse. When Lord Bathurst told this, Mr. Mallet bade me attend, and remember this remarkable piece of information; as by the course of nature I might survive his Lordship, and be a witness of his hav- ing said so." Boswele's Life of Johnson, vol. iii. p. 133. Poetry. 191 ance is not distinguished by much novelty of sen- timent, or felicity of invention; but seldom have common ideas been presented with so much " beauty of embellishment," or so much " sweet- ness of melody. " Seldom have opinions of ques- tionable propriety been more happily disguised, or exhibited with such " dazzling splendour of imagery," and " seductive powers of eloquence." The Fleece, by Mr. Dyer, notwithstanding the small degree of distinction which it has attained, is pronounced, by good judges, to stand among the most excellent poems of the didactic kind which the moderns have produced. The Pleasures of the Imagination, by Dr. Akenside, is also a performance which belongs to this class; and is, doubtless, one of the most beautiful specimens that our language affords. Genius, learning, taste, pure morality, and liberal philosophy shine in every page. Dr. Armstrong, in his celebrated poem on the Art of Preserving Health, though he did not aim at so elevated a strain as Akenside, has produced a work of high excellence.' Never sinking below the dignity of his subject, he is al- ways chaste, correct, instructive, and elegant. The English Garden of Mr. Mason, may also be mentioned as a very finished and interesting specimen of didactic composition. Simple, natu- ral, and interesting in his descriptions, luminous and instructive in his philosophy, and purely moral in his sentiments, he is by no means the least of those authors on whose works the honour of English po- etry, for the last fifty years, must rest. In the Botanic Garden, by Dr. Darwin, there is a bold attempt " to enlist imagination under the banner of sci- ence," to an extent beyond example. In this at- s Lord Monboddo pronounces this poem to be the best specimen of didactic poetry in the English language, and equal to any, ancient or modern. Origin and Progress of Language. 192 Poetry. tempt the author has been successful to a degree which does him much honour as a poet. He unites great extent of learning v/ith singular variety and felicity of allusion, and a pleasing harmony and splendour of versification. But it must be ac- knowledged that there is an uniformity, which at length fatigues, and does not so much in- terest the reader as many less correct and regular performances/ The Minstrel, by Dr. Beattie, which may, without impropriety, be mentioned under this head, besides the most engaging pic- tures of nature, abounds in the richest sentimental, moral, and poetical beauties. The Essays on Painting, History, and Epic Poetry, by Mr. Hay- ley, though partaking of the historical and de- scriptive, are also didactic in their character, and exhibit a very large share of erudition, correctness, elegance, and poetic taste. Besides the specimens of didactic poetry above mentioned, English literature furnished a number of others, during the period under consideration, which though not in the first grade of excellence, are yet entitled to respectful notice. The Chace, by Somerville, to a just and intelligent view of its subject, adds felicity and variety of description, t It has been suggested that the author of the Loves of the Plants was considerably indebted to the Connubia Florum of De la Croix, both in the plan and execution of his work. This beautiful Latin poem wa9 first pub- lished in France, about the year 1727, and was reprinted at London, with notes and observations by Sir Richard Clayton, in 1791. If Dr. Darwin had ever seen De la Croix's work, (which can scarcely be questioned) some deduction must be made from his claim to originality. Still, however, the Botanic Garden will be entitled to no small share of ap- plause as a poem. Though many of the opinions of the author must be considered as erroneous; though his poetry evince more taste than ge- nius, more labour than invention, and display more meretricious glare than chaste ornament ; and though much of the praise which was bestowed on the work soon after its appearance must be deemed extravagant ; yet since the author of the Pursuits of Literature pronounced judgment upon it, its poetic character has, perhaps, in the estimation of many, sunk too low. Dr. Darwin is far from scanding at the head of modern poets; but he holds a place greatly above mediocrity. Poetry. 193 and elegance^ of language. The Infancy of Dr. Downman discovers him to have been a ocod poet, an excellent medical phijosopher, and a friend to morality and virtue. The Mine, a dra- matic poem, by Mr. Sargent, is considered by good judges as a work of genuine philosophical and poetical merit. And the English Orator, by Mr. Polwhele, displays much excellent sentiment and just precept, in very harmonious verse. With the didactic poetry produced on the con- tinent of Europe during the last age, the author has but little acquaintance. The Pnedium Rusti- cum of Father Vaniere, a Jesuit of France, pub- lished about the beginning of the century, has been ever since celebrated in the literary world as a specimen of elegant Latin poetry, connected with excellent precepts and just sentiments. The Columbia Florum of M. De la Croix, also a Latin poem, and published a few years after the Pradiam Rusticum, is scarcely less remarkable for the purity, vivacity, and elegance of its diction, the ingenuity of its fable and imagery, and the general soundness of its philosophy. The Abbe Delille, in his Garden, a didactic and descriptive work, presented his countrymen with a poem, which, though it does not display great invention, has been highly and justly applauded for the beauty of its descriptions, and the excellence of its versifi- cation. To these may be added Baron Haller's poem on Reason, Superstition, and Infidelity, be- fore mentioned, and which is worthy of its illus- trious author. MORAL AND DEVOTIONAL POETRY. The moral poetry of the eighteenth century may, without hesitation, be pronounced superior, in the union of correctness, purity and elegance, VOL. II. 7.C 194 Poetry. to that of any preceding age. This superiority1 is so remarkable that it must arrest the atten- tion of the most careless observer, and give plea- sure to every friend of human happiness. The age, it is readily admitted, gave birth to much li- centious poetry; but it produced, at the same time, much that exhibits a degree of purity and elevation of sentiment to which the history of lite- rature furnishes no parallel. The Night Thoughts, and the Universal Passion, by Dr. Young, are entitled to the first place iri this list. In these works the celebrated author has employed wonderful sublimity and force of imagination, eloquence and cogency of reasoning, and music of numbers, in conveying the most im- portant truths that can engage the attention of mankind. The Ethical Epistles, and some other moral productions of Pope, are models in their kind which have never been excelled. The Vanity of Human Wishes, a poem in imitation of the tenth satire of Juvenal, by Dr. Johnson, has been pronounced as high an effort of ethic poetry as any language can show. The Task, by Mr. Cow- per, is one of the signal honours of the age, in this class of poetic compositions. For purity of sen- timent, chasteness of description, simplicity and energy of style, and a vein of original and well di- rected satire, this work will be admired as long as taste and virtue exist. The eighteenth century is also distinguished by the Devotional poetry which it produced. The difficulty of this species of composition has been found and acknowledged, at all periods in which it was undertaken. Before the commencement of the age under consideration, theological doctrines, and portions of sacred history, had been made the subject of poetry, by a number of distinguished writers. Versions of the Psalms had been parti- Poetry. 195 cularly attempted by several persons with tolerable success. Among these the version of Brady and Tate held the first place in the English language. Indeed some parts of their work were so well per- formed that comparatively few of their successors have attained equal excellence. But among all the sacred poetry of the eigh- teenth century, that of Dr. Watts stands preemi- nent. His plan of evangelizing the Psalms of David, and accommodating them to the worship of God under the present dispensation, as it was equally new and ingenious, so it has received an unusual degree of approbation, and has, perhaps, been more useful than any other work in this de- partment of composition that was ever presented to the world. Simplicity, smoothness, harmony, and pious elevation remarkably characterize his verse. Next to the sacred poetry of Dr. Watts, the specimens produced by Mr. Addison, Dr. Doddridge, Mr. Pitt, Mr. Merrick, Dr. Black- cock, Mr. Logan, and several others, possess a high degree of merit. In this department of poetry it is believed that Great-Britain has excelled all other countries. Poetical versions of the Psalms made, during this period, on the continent of Europe, were nu- merous; but of these a very small portion are worthy of notice. The Hymns of Gellert, a ce- lebrated poet of Germany, are said to be entitled to a place in the first class of this kind of writings. satirical poetry. In this department of poetry the eighteenth century is, on the whole, superior to any preceding age. Two satirical poets of great eminence had flourished in Europe towards the close of the pre- ceding age. Boileau and Dryden, equal in most 196 Poetry. respects to the great Roman satirists, and in some superior to them all, brought modern satire to a very high degree of excellence. Dryden was the first who displayed with success the power of the English language in this kind of composition. In the eighteenth century the candidates for sati- rical fame were numerous; and in variety of man- ner, correctness of taste, purity of virtue, and, in some instances, in wit, humour, and force of ridi- cule, may be said to have exceeded all their pre- decessors. In this list Mr. Pope is entitled to the first place. His Satirical Epistles, his Imitations of the ancient satirists, his Dunciad,v and several other per- formances of a similar kind, have been long ad- mired. In keenness of satire, energy of descrip- tion, condensation of thought, and vivacity and correctness of style, he is, perhaps, superior to all who went before him. And though the moral tendency of some of his pictures may be questioned, yet he lashes vice with great force and effect.* The v Some of the images in the Bunciad are very gross and disgusting. Pope had too much of that fondness for impure ideas which was so con- spicuous, and carried so much further in the writings of Swift. u The author of the Pursuits of Literature thus speaks of this great poet ; " The sixth and last of this immortal Brotherhood, (the satirists) in the fulness of time, and in the maturity of poetical power, came Pope. All that was wanting to his illustrious predecessor found its consummation in the genius, knowledge, correct sense, and condensation of thought and ex- presssion, which distinguished this poet. The tenour of his life was pecu= liarly favourable to his office. He had first cultivated all the flowery ground* of poetry. He had excelled in description, in pastoral, in the pathetic, and in general criticism; and had given an English existence in perpetuity to the father of all poetry. Thus honoured, and with these pretensions, he left them all for that excellence, for which the maturity of his talents and judgment so eminently designed him. Familiar with the great ; intimate with the polite ; graced by the attentions of the fair; ad- mired by the learned;^ favourite with the nation ; independent in an ac- quired opulence, the honourable product of his genius and industry ; the companion of persons distinguished for birth, high fashion, rank, wit, or virtue ; resident in the centre of all public information and intelligence ; every avenue to knowledge and every mode of observation were open to his curious prying, piercing, and unwearied intellect. His works are so ge- nerally read and studied, that I should not merely fatigue, but I should al- most insult you by such a needless disquisition." Poetry. 197 Love of Fame the Universal Passion, byY)\\ Young, though mentioned under a preceding head, is also entitled to a place among the best satirical pro- ductions of the age. The characters are, in general, well selected and ably drawn, the illustrations are happy, the sentiments just, the imagery correct and various, and the satire at once easy, vivacious and moral. The satirical poetry of Dean Swift has various kinds and a high degree of poetic excellence; but delicacy is by no means one of its attributes. His wit is often extremely happy, and his ridicule just, lively, and powerful. " His diction is correct, his numbers smooth, and his rhymes exact. There seldom occurs a laboured expression, or a redun- dant epithet. All his verses exemplify his own definition of a good style; they consist of proper words in proper places.11 But the levity with which he frequently treats the most serious subjects is altogether unpardonable ;w and the unnatural fondness which he manifests for coarse indelicacy, and for images drawn from every source of physical impurity, cannot but fill with disgust the mind of every virtuous reader.* •w " I know not," says Dr. Beattie, " whether this author is not the; pnly human being who ever presumed to speak in ludicrous terms of the last judgment. His profane verses on that tremendous subject were not published, so far as I know, till after his death: for Chesterfield's letter to Voltaire, in which they are inserted, and spoken of with ap- probation, (which is no more than one could expect from such a critic) jtnd said to be copied from the original in Swift's hand-writing, is dated in 175a. But this is no excuse for the author. We can guess at what was in his mind when he wrote them ; and at what remained in his mind while he could have destroyed them, and would not. I mean not to insi- nuate that Swift was favourable to infidelity. There is good reason to believe he was not ; and that, though many of his levities are inexcuseable, he could occasionally be both serious and pious. In fact, an infidel clergy- man would be such a compound of execrable impiety, and contemptible meanness, that I am unwilling to suppose there can be such a monster. The profaneness of this author I impute to his passion fcr ridicule, and rage of witticism ; which, when they settle into a habit, arid venture on liberties with what is sacred, never fail to pervert the mind, and harden the heart." x Instances of this fault are so numerous and offensive in Swift's writings, that no further remarks force the criticism. 198 Poetry. The satires of Churchill display great vigour both of thought and language; and though the boldness of their abuse, and the nature of their subjects were, in some measure, the ground of their popularity, while the author lived; yet they have certainly great strength, and possess no in- considerable merit in their way. Vicious as was the character of the man, he knew how to expose and correct vice. The Rosci ad, and the Prophecy of Famine may be regarded as the best of his poems. London, a poem in imitation of the third. satire of Juvenal, by Dr. Johnson, was one of the early displays of that genius which afterwards shone with such distinguished lustre, and filled so large a space in the literature of the age. The Faust, of the celebrated Goethe, of Germany, occupies a high place in the list of modern satirical writings. The Table Talk, the Progress of Error, and some other satirical pieces, by Cowper, in purity, humour, dignity and force, have seldom been exceeded in any language. The Baviad and Maviad, of Mr. Gifford, have received much applause from some of the critics of Great-Bri- tain. To these may be added The Pursuits of Literature, a satirical poem, published a few years ago, by an anonymous hand. In this work every friend of truth, virtue, and sound learn- ing will find much to approve and admire. A large portion of the literary and moral opinions which it contains are doubtless entitled to the warmest approbation. But the judicious reader will also find much to condemn. The author dis- covers, on many occasions, a bitterness of preju- dice, and a rage for satire, which frequently lead him astray, and which detract greatly both from the dignity and the value of his work. His pe- dantic fondness for quotation is indulged to a de- gree which disfigures his pages, and encumbers Poetry. 199 and weakens his meaning; and after all, his notes are so much more spirited and valuable than his poetry, that the latter will seldom be read except as an introduction to the former/ Under the head of Satire falls that mock-heroic poetry, which is a species of composition almost wholly peculiar to modern times, and of which the last age has been abundantly prolific. Of this kind of poetry The Rape of the Lock, by Pope, is a specimen of first-rate excellence. In this work, novelty of imagery, fertility of invention, felicity of wit, and sweetness of versification, are combined in an exquisite degree. The Triumphs of Temper, by Mr. Hayley, may be considered as belonging to the same class. And though far from being equal to the immortal production of Pope, it dis- plays a degree of genius, taste, and humour highly honourable to the author. The greater part of the poetry of a certain Bri- tish satirist, who calls himself Peter Pindar, also belongs to this class. His writings abound in humour, which, though frequently gross, in- dicates talents of no common grade; and in wit, which though generally eccentric, and frequently devoted to the worst purposes, manifests extent of learning and force of imagination. Aware that quaint phrases, whimsical allusions, and laughable conceits, when presented unmixed, will soon cease to please, he has taken care to infuse into y The author of this singular work is still unknown. That he has great learning, and a comprehensive and vigorous mind, cannot be doubted ; and that in prose he expresses himself with much force, vivacity, and taste, is no less evident. But I must be permitted, on many subjects, to call in question both the candour of his temper, and the rectitude of his judg- ment ; and as a poet, notwithstanding all the applause which has been heaped upon him, I must consider him far below the great masters among whom he affects to take his station, and with whom he has the presump- tion to compare himself. His work is one of those which derive their chief importance and popularity from the praise and aspersion of living characters with which they abound; and which, in a few years, must fall into ob- livion. 200 Poetry. many of his pieces a considerable portion of sen- timent and tenderness, and sometimes to elevate his reader by an unexpected stroke of the sublime.2 Since the days of Butler many specimens of that burlesque poetry adopted by him in his Hudi- brass, have been given to the public; but few of them are entitled to the praise of high excellence. Probably the most successful imitations of the Hu- dibrastlc manner are to be found in the Alma of Prior, and the M'Fingal of Mr. Trumbull, a respectable poet of our own country. The merit of the former is so great, that Mr. Pope, with all his poetic fame, expressed a wish to have been the author of it; and the latter has been pronounced, by good judges, both in Europe and America, to be nearly equal to its great model. M. Gressett, a French poet of high reputation* has shown, in his Vert-Vert, and in his Chartreuse, that between the heroic and the burlesque there is still another species of poetry, partaking in some degree of the characters of both. A kind of com- position which, while it displays some of the attri- butes of moral and serious poetry ^ at the same time embraces the features of the satiric, the gay* and the refined comic, in a very pleasing degree. About fifty years before the commencement of the century under review, began the fashion of imitating the great satirists of Rome, or adapting ancient poetry to modern characters and manners. This kind of poetical exercise has continued in vogue to the present day, and the number of those who have made trial of their genius in this way has greatly increased. Of this imitation the sa- z The real name of this writer is Walcott. While justice is done to his talents, which, in a certain line, are really great, his faults and vices ought not to pass without censure. His blasphemous impiety cannot be viewed by the christian without abhorrence ; while the injustice and ma- lignity displayed against private character, in many of his writings, must be regarded with cordial detestation by every honest man. Poetry. 201 tires of Horace, Juvenal, and Persius, have all been the objects. And among these imitators are found the names of Pope, Johnson, Gifford, Lewis, and several other British poets. descriptive poetry. In Descriptive poetry the last age may lay claim to the character of distinguished excellence. It not only produced more in quantity, but also much of a superior quality to that of which any preceding period can boast. The Tale of the Hermit, by Dr. Parnell, deserves high praise for justness of sentiment, and delicacy and liveliness of colouring. The Windsor Forest of Pope also belongs to the same class, and for variety and elegance of de- scription, and particularly for a happy interchange of the descriptive, the narrative, and the moral, possesses great merit. But the work entitled to the highest place in this department of poetry, is the Seasons, by Thomson. This writer may be said to have created a new species of poetry. cc His mode of thinking and of expressing his thoughts is original. His blank verse is not the blank verse of Milton, or of any preceding poet. His numbers, his pauses, his diction, are of his own growth, without transcription, without imi- tation. He thinks in a peculiar strain; and he thinks always as a man of genius. He looks round on nature and life with the eye which nature be- stows only on a poet; the eye that distinguishes in every thing presented to its view, whatever there is on which imagination can delight to be detained; and with a mind that at once compre- hends the vast, and attends to the minute. He leads us through the appearances of things as they are successively varied by the vicissitudes of the year; and imparts to us so much of his own en- VOL. II. 2D 20<2 Poetry, thusiasm, that our thoughts expand with his imagery, and kindle with his sentiments. "a Kleist, of Germany, in the same department of poetic composition, has been compared with Thomson, and is said, by some of his country- men, to have attained nearly equal excellence. A similar comparison has also been made between the immortal British bard and Delille, of France, who, in his I J Homme des Champs, or Rural Phi- losopher, presented his countrymen with a poem of acknowledged merit. Though in this work, as well as in that which was before mentioned, there is but little display of invention; yet for correctness and elegance of versification, it sustains a very high character. The Traveller, and The Deserted Village, by Goldsmith, are so well known, and have been so generally admired, that a formal and detailed ac- count of their beauties is altogether unnecessary. His versification has been pronounced more sweet and harmonious than that of any other poet; and both his sentiments and imagery display excellence of the first order. The Wanderer, by Savage, discovers a large portion of those various and ex- traordinary powers which distinguished that un- fortunate and degraded man.6 It abounds with beautiful imagery, with " strong descriptions of nature, and just observations on life." The Ship- icreck, by Falconar, is well known, and has been universally esteemed, as abounding with the richest beauties. Scarcely, if at all, inferior in de- a Life of Thomson, by Johnson. b It is generally known that this extraordinary man was the son of Anne, Countess of Macclesfield, by an adulterous connection with Earl Rivers. His great talents; the unnatural cruelty of his mother; his degrading vices; his accumulated distresses, and his melancholy end, have been so often the subject of mingled astonishment and regret, that to attempt to describe them is as unnecessary as it would be unpleasant. He was born in 1 698, and died in 1743, one of the most remarkable instances of unfortunate genius that the age produced. Poetry. 203 scriptive excellence to any that have been men- tioned, are some of the poems of Robert Burns, the Ayrshire bard. Though his versification is frequently faulty, yet, for ease and vigour of lan- guage, for strong descriptive powers, and a vein of rich and exquisite humour, his productions have few rivals. None can read the works of this justly celebrated writer without admiring the genius which, amidst so many difficulties and discourage- ments, could soar so high; nor without lamenting the misfortunes and the vices which, with such a genius, and amidst so many excitements to virtue, could sink him so low. Walks in a Forest, and the Vales of Wever, by Mr. Gisborne, display a very honourable share of original and strong descriptive powers. A Tour through Wales, by Mr. Sotheby; Grove-Hill, by Mr. Maurice; The Sea, by Mr. Bidlake; The Pleasures of Memory, by Mr. Rogers, and the Pleasures of Hope, by Mr. Campbell, are all con- sidered by critics as possessing rich and various po- etic beauties. The Farmer s Boy, by Robert Bloomfield, to ease and sweetness of versification, adds descriptions of such original and inimitable excellence, as shows that they were drawn from nature; and it possesses likewise a vein of senti- ment and morality of the most elevated kind. pastoral poetry. The Pastoral poetry of the eighteenth century is also highly honourable to modern genius. A brief review of the principal names which belong to this class of authors will show that the last, with respect to this kind of poetic excellence, may be ad- vantageously compared with any former age. The pastorals of Pope, though not equal to most of his other works, have yet considerable 204 Poetry. merit to recommend them. The pastorals of Phillips, published about the same time, may be considered as occupying nearly the same grade of excellence. In the works of Gay and Shenstone are also found some specimens of this kind of com- position, which have generally a place assigned them among the pastorals of superior character. The Shepherd's Week of the former, and the Pas- toral Ballad of the latter, are considered among the most meritorious performances of their kind in our language. The Despairing Shepherd, of Rowe, is also worthy of high praise; and the various pas- toral productions of Collins, in richness and strength of description, in justness and simplicity of sentiment, have rarely been excelled. But infe- rior to none that have been mentioned is the Gen- tle Shepherd, of Allan Ramsay, a work of great and original genius, in which a happy delineation of characters, an affecting exhibition of incidents, and a captivating simplicity and tenderness re- markably prevail. But among all the pastoral poetry of the eigh- teenth century, the Idylls of Gesner unques- tionably hold the first place. He has, indeed, been pronounced the greatest pastoral poet that ever lived, not excepting Theocritus himself, the father of this species of poetry. In the novelty of many of his thoughts; in the judicious choice of sub- jects; in liveliness of description; and in exquisite pathos and tenderness of sentiment, he is without a rival . The Idylls, or Rural Stories of Mademoi- selle Levesque, a poetess of France, are said by some critics to approach that excellence which distinguishes the productions of Gesner. To these may be added the Eclogues of Fontenelle and De la Motte, of the same country, which de- serve to be mentioned with honour among the pas- toral writings of the age. Poetry. 205 The late pastoral poets of Great-Britain are nu- merous; but of these few are worthy of being dis- tinguished. Among such as deserve to be men- tioned with particular honour, Dr. Beattie and Mr. Southey stand in the first rank. The Her- mit of the former, which belongs to this class ra- ther than any other, in ease, in solemn musical expression, in elevation of sentiment, and in pa- thetic touches, is almost unrivalled, and would be sufficient alone to establish the author's immor- tality as a poet. And the Old Mansion House, the Ruined Cottage, and the Botany-Bay Eclogues of the latter, display the fine imagination, the grace- ful simplicity, and the general poetic excellence, for which the author is remarkable. In pastoral song and ballad, the poets of the last age incontestibly excelled those of all preceding centuries. In this class of poetic compositions Great-Britain has been particularly fruitful; and few names deserve to be mentioned with so much honour as that of Robert Burns, who was no- ticed in a former section. In the happy union of ease, simplicity, humour, pathos, and energy, he has had few equals in any age. LYRIC POETRY. The last age produced some specimens of lyric poetry which deserve the highest praise. It has been asserted, indeed, that in this species of com- position modern poets are universally and indis- putably inferior to the ancient; but this assertion is made too hastily, and without sufficient qualifi- cation. Some of the odes of Collins and of Gray will bear an honourable comparison with the best productions of this kind of any age. Besides these, the lyric compositions of Watts, Thom- son, Mason, Warton,Co\vper, Mrs. Bareauld, Q06 Poetry. and several other English poets, will long do ho- nour to the literature of their country. During the same period, much lyric poetry, of a respectable character, was produced on the con- tinent of Europe. In the French language, the odes of J. B. Rousseau, and of Gressett, are con- sidered by the critics of that country as among the most finished productions of their kind. To the odes of Rousseau this character is especially ap- plicable. In the Italian language, the odes of Me- tastasio; in the German, those of Klopstock, Weisse, and Wieland; and in the Swedish, those of Dahlin, and of Gyllenborg, are all admired among those who understand the languages in which they are respectively written. But it is be- lieved that' the best lyric poetry of Great-Britain, during this period, exceeds that of any other coun- try in Europe, and of course in the literary world. Under the head of lyric poetry, may be placed the species of composition called the Sonnet, with many excellent models of which the eighteenth century has remarkably abounded. This kind of poetry is of Italian origin. Dante, though not the inventor, was the first who succeeded in the compo- sition of it. The first successful attempts to present the Sonnet in our language, were made by Drum- mond, and afterwards by Milton. The former excelled in delicacy; the specimens furnished by the latter were chiefly distinguished by strength of expression, and sublimity of thought; but were by no means remarkable for smoothness, harmony, or elegance. In these respects, several writers of Sonnets, since the day of that immortal bard, though greatly inferior in genius, have much ex- celled him; and, of course, have produced com- positions of this kind before unequalled in English literature. Among those who have most distin- guished themselves in this department of poetry, are Poetry. 207 Miss Charlotte Smith, Mr. Bowles, and Miss Seward. " In sweetness and harmony of versifi- cation ; in unaffected elegance of style ; and in that pleasing melancholy which irresistably steals upon and captivates the heart, they have excelled all other writers of the Sonnet, and have shown how erroneous are the opinions of those who deem this species of composition beneath the attention of genius. "c Finally, under the general denomination of lyric poetry fall those various species of poetic compositions called Songs, Ballads, &x. of which the last age has been eminently fruitful. Never was there a period before in which the number and the poetic merit of these were so great as during that which is under review. In this department of poetry the Scotch and English have excelled not only their contemporaries, but all preceding writers. But this class of poets is so numerous, and so familiarly known, that no attempt will be made to exhibit even a selection of the best. elegiac poetry. That part of the poetry of the eighteenth cen- tury which falls under this head is worthy of par- ticular notice. It may be pronounced greatly superior to all the productions of a similar kind which belong to any preceding age. In this section several of the productions of Pope may be, with propriety, arranged, and must have assigned to them a high place. The elegies of Hammond, though scarcely possessing first-rate excellence, have been also celebrated. But the writer who confessedly stands in the first rank of elegiac poets is Gray. His Elegy in a Country Church Yard will be read e Drake's Literary Hours, vol. i. p. JI3» 208 Poetry. with admiration and delight, as possessing beauties of the most rich and exquisite kind, as long as taste and sensibility shall exist/ Another distinguished name, entitled to an honourable place in this list, is that of Shenstone, who produced at least one Elegy which will ever command admiration. Nor would it be just to pass in silence the name of Miss Seward, who, in this department of poetry, has displayed powers in the pathetic, the elegant, and the beautiful, which bid fair long to render her character conspicuous in the annals of English literature. The best elegiac poetry of the last age is dis-* tinguished above that of all preceding periods, by the union of a number of qualities which never before so conspicuously met in this species of com- position. These qualities are regularity, correct- ness, pathos, elevation of sentiment, and purity of d Thomas Gray was born in London in 1716, and died in 1771. His character, as drawn by a friend, is as follows : " Perhaps he was the most learned man in Europe. He was equally acquainted with the elegant and the profound parts of science ; and that not superficially, but thoroughly. He knew every branch of history, both natural and civil; had read all the original historians of England, France, and Italy ; and was a great antiqua- rian. Criticism, metaphysics, morals, politics, made a principal part of his study. Voyages and travels of all sorts were his favourite amusements ; and he had a fine taste in painting, prints, architecture, and gardening. With such a fund of knowledge, his conversation must have been equally instructing and entertaining ; but he was also a good man, a man of vir- tue and humanity." Dr. Johnson, in his Lives of the Poets, is generally supposed not to have done justice to this celebrated writer. From his Elegy in the Church Yard, indeed, that great Critic could not withhold the warmest praise. " In the character of this Elegy" says he, " I rejoice to concur with the common reader. It abounds with images which find a mirror in every mind, and with sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo. Had Gray written often thus, it had been vain to blame, and useless to praise him." After all, it must be acknowledged, that he wrote but little ; that only a part of that little is in the style of exquisite excel- lence; and that his Elegy is so greatly superior to every other production of his pen, as to excite a suspicion that it was the result of unwearied polish and elaboration, rather than the spontaneous effusion of a mighty genius. If this view of the subject be admissible, though Gray will still hold a place in the first rank of lyric and elegiac poets ; yet some of the praise which has been bestowed on his genius will be pronounced excessive; and the judgment of Da-. Johnjon less liable to exception than is commonly supposcd. . Poetry. 209 moral character. Never before were these charac- ters so frequently assembled, so harmoniously united, or so forcibly exhibited, as in some of the elegiac productions of the century under review. DRAMA. The Dramatic Poetry of the eighteenth century bears, in several respects, a distinguished charac- ter/ An obvious circumstance which deserves to be noted, is the great and unprecedented number of dramatic productions which have appeared during this period. In almost every civilized and literary nation the press has teemed with the efforts of the tragic and comic muse. Perhaps in no department of literature, if we except Novels, has the taste of the age for multiplying books been more remark- ably displayed than in that which is under consi- deration. In proportion as theatrical amusements have been multiplied and extended, the love of fame, the hope of profit, or a fondness for the em- ployment, have prompted many to appear as can- didates for supplying the demands of the public. Of the moral effect of this increase in the taste and demand for theatrical representations some notice will be taken hereafter. The specimens of English Tragedy which be- long to the period under review, though numer- ous, are yet few of them entitled to the praise of first-rate excellence. After the Mourning Bride, of Congreve, which properly belongs to the pre- ceding age, the Fair Penitent, and the Jane Shore \ of Ro\ve, with respect to time, hold the first place. These, though of different relative merit, yet, both e The author is sensible that many dramatic productions cannot with propriety be denominated poetic ; but to avoid multiplying chapters he has thought proper to throw under one head all those work*, whether poetic •r not, which belong to the dramatic clasi. VOL. II. zV, 210 Poetry. on account of their plot and language, have de- servedly continued to be favourites to the present day/ If Rowe paint the passions with less force and conformity to nature than Shakspeare and Otway, he is free from the barbarisms of the former, and the licentiousness of the latter. The Cato, of Addison, is generally known ; and the public seem now to be agreed in the opinion, that, notwithstanding all the loftiness of sentiment, and beauty of diction with which it abounds, as a Tra- gedy, it is too " regularly dull," and unnaturally stiff, for scenic representation. The Revenge, by Dr. Young, displays no small share of that sub- limity and fire which the illustrious author so re- markably possessed. Of his several Tragedies, this only keeps possession of the stage. The Gre- cian Daughter, and the Gamester, of Moore, will long remain very honourable monuments of the dramatic powers of their author. The Caractacus, of Mason, would have done credit to the most favourable periods of ancient lite- rature. Douglass, by Mr. Home, for several rea- sons, attracted an unusual degree of public atten- tion, when it first appeared; and has ever since maintained a high character/ Among the Tra- gedies of Thomson, Tancred and Sigismnnda alone merits distinction. This, with regard to / In these and the following remarks on dramatic poetry, the author takes for granted that no reader will consider him as expressing an opi- nion favourable to theatrical amusements. He is persuaded that the gene- ral character and tendency of such amusements are highly immoral ; but in this place, and always when he employs favourable expressions concern- ing certain dramas, he begs to be understood as merely delivering opinions of a literary kind. g Mr. Home was a clergyman of the church of Scotland. The cir- cumstance of a person of his profession giving encouragement to the stage, by writing for it, gave great and just offence, and made his tragedy an ob- ject of much more attention and interest than it would otherwise have been. He wrote several tragedies afterwards; but they were all unsuc- cessful. It seemed as if his genius had been absorbed by his first produc- tion. Poetry. 211 plot, sentiment, and style, is entitled to high re- spect; but, perhaps, scarcely to that degree which might have been expected from the great powers displayed in the Seasons. The Irene, of Dr. Johnson, though it "furnishes a rich store of noble sentiments, fine imagery, and beautiful language, is deficient in plan, pathos, and general impression." The Mysterious Mother, of Horace Walpole, though the subject is shocking, displays great talentsa especially in depicting the terrible. Miss Han- nah More's Percy is a popular tragic produc- tion/ Her Sacred Dramas, though a monument of her piety, and her desire to promote youthful improvement, will scarcely be thought to deserve, high praise as works of genius. To these may be added the Zenobia, the Grecian Daughter, and the Alzuma, of Mr. Murphy, which are consi- dered as respectable in their dramatic character, and pure in their moral tendency, but with a re- markable prevalence of terror in their impression. In the history of English Comedy, the eighteenth century forms an important era. Indeed, the En- glish language scarcely furnished an instance of pure or unmixed comedy prior to the commence- ment of this period. The comic productions of Shakspeare are well known not to have been of this kind; and those of Dryden and Southern were generally interspersed with too much of the tragic to have a place assigned them in the de- partment of ridicule alone. In the last age a re- markable revolution has taken place in this respect. Specimens of unmixed comedy have become fre- quent, or rather the most fashionable kind of dra- matic composition; and in a few instances the wit and humour of these productions are found b Percy is said to be a " bad alteration from Gabrielle da Fcrgy, by Do Billoy, a celebrated French Tragedian." Notwithstanding this charge, however, it has maintained a high, degree of popularity. 212 Poetry. more correct and refined, and their whole struc- ture more elegant than those of any preceding age. The English Comedies which have attracted attention, and to which great excellence is at- tributed, are numerous. The Careless Husband, ol Cibber, first performed in 1704, is generally ranked among the most respectable of this class, though it can scarcely be said to be perfectly pure in its moral tendency. The Recruiting Officer, and the Beaux Stratagem, by Farquhar, though liable to still greater blame, for the same kind of fault, have long been popular plays. The Conscious Lovers 3 of Sir Richard Steele, for purity and tenderness of sentiment, and chasteness of language, has generally received warm commendation. The Suspicious Husband, by Hoadly, also ranks high in this list. The Jealous Wife, and the Clandes- tine Marriage, by Colman, have had a degree of popularity much beyond ordinary comic produc- tions. The Good-natured Man, and She Stoops to Conquer, by Goldsmith, have generally a place assigned them among the superior works of this class. The School for Scandal, by Mr. Sheridan., is pronounced, in a literary view, the best comedy of the age; but when measured by a correct moral standard, considerable deduction must be made from its merit. The West Indian, and the Wheel of Fortune, by Mr. Cumberland, have been much applauded by judges of dramatic excellence. The comic productions of Garrick, though certainly not deserving of a place in the highest rank, are yet lively and pleasing, and in general free from the charge of immoral tendency. The Heiress, of General Burgoyne, for taste and wit, stands high in the opinion of connoisseurs. The comedies of Mr. Holcroft are entitled to considerable praise, as efforts of genius ; but the errors of the author's moral and philosophical principles are Poetry. 215 too often brought into view. In strong and popu- lar exhibitions of the vis co?nica, Mr. Macklin displayed unusual talents. For the construction of musical Afterpieces, of delicate and sentimental humour, Mr. Dibdin rendered himself famous. In Farce, few writers of the age discovered more broad humour than Foote; but his humour is generally coarse, frequently licentious, and in some instances so grossly impious and immoral, as to disgrace the author in the estimation of every vir- tuous mind. For taste and wit the dramatic pro- ductions of Mrs. Cowley and Mrs. Inchbald, deserve to be honourably mentioned. In elegant comedy, Miss Lee has displayed very respectable powers. But it would far exceed our limits to give a full catalogue of those who have sought and received high dramatic honours in the course of the age under consideration. The various dramatic works of O'Keefe, Kelly, Morton, Reynolds, and several others, are well known to those who have a tolerable acquaintance with the English drama, and have attained various degrees of respect in the public estimation. That kind of dramatic composition which is set to music, and is denominated an Opera, is well known to be a modem invention. This species of theatrical exhibition was first made in Italy, about the be- ginning of the seventeenth century; but it was never introduced into England till the beginning of the eighteenth. And in order to avoid the ab- surdity of dramas, in an unknown tongue (for the first operas performed in Britain were in the Italian language), Mr. Addison wrote and published his Rosamond. Since that time operas have become more popular in almost every part of Europe, and generally find a place where the theatre is sup- ported. The operas of Fontenelle, of Metas- tASio3 and of other celebrated dramatic writers, 214 Poetry. are well known. Bat they are, after all, a kind of composition too unnatural to hold a very high place in the list of dramatic amusements. The first serious operas were brought on the English stage by Dr. Arne, who translated some of the operas of Metastasio; but this kind of theatrical exhibition gained little ground. The first musical piece which commanded any great success on the English stage was the Beggars' Opera, of Gay. Since his time the comic opera has been much more popular than the serious. It would be a culpable omission to conclude our remarks on this department of British poetry, without taking some notice of the unwearied la- bours of literary men, during the age under con- sideration, to illustrate the writings of Shaks- peare, the great Father of the English drama. For some time after the publication of his works, they were, from the defective taste and negligence of the times, greatly corrupted by various tran- scribers and editors. The first attempt to remove these corruptions, and to present a corrected edition to the public, was made by Mr. Rowe, in 1709, with considerable success. Some years afterwards, Mr. Pope made his countrymen more fully acquainted than they had ever been before with the corrupt state of Shakspeare's text, and excited high expectations that a more complete reform of it would be effected by his labours. Neither his emendations, nor his commentaries, however, are now considered of much value. Indeed he has been openly charged with corrupt- ing, rather than purifying or elucidating his author. His edition was published in 1725. Pope was followed, in this field for the display of literary taste and enterprise, by Mr. Tiieosald, who, in 1733, gave a new edition; in preparing which for the press he collated many copies, and cor- Poetry. 215 rected many errors; but defective both in taste and learning, he was still far from having done justice to his undertaking. The next in this list of critical editors is Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose edition appeared in 1744, He made many emen- dations with great judgment, and in a manner which indicated both discernment and erudition ; but in others he discovered much caprice, and adopted a large number of the censurable innova- tions of Pope. In 1747, Dr. Warburton made trial of his great critical acumen, and his profound erudition, on the works of the same illustrious dra- matist; but though he displayed much sagacity and learning, his work was rather considered as an exhi- bition of himself, than an elucidation of his author. In 1765 appeared the edition of Dr. Johnson. This great critic threw more light on Shaks-^ peare than all who had gone before him* His preface to the edition, his numerous emendations, and his notes on obscure passages, discover a soundness of judgment* a profundity of critical skill, and an elegance of taste, which will do him lasting honour. The editorial labours of Mr. Ma- lone close the list. His edition appeared in 1789. Having devoted much time and pains to the work, and having the advantage of all that had been done by his predecessors, he may be considered, on the whole, the most complete commentator on Shakspeare that has hitherto appeared. The dramatic productions of France, during the period under consideration, were numerous; and some of them attained, and still hold a high repu- tation/ The first class of French Tragedies be- longing to this age may be slightly noticed. In this list the first place is due to the several tragic productions of Voltaire. The Zaire, the Alzire, i See La Harpe's Lectures^ and his Literary Corresftridencc. 216 Poetry. the Merope, and the Orphan of China, by him, are all possessed of distinguished excellence. It is peculiarly worthy of remark, that notwithstand- ing that celebrated infidel, in almost every page of his prose writings, discloses his hatred of reli- gion, and the profligacy of his principles, nothing can be more pure, in a moral and religious view, than his tragedies. Next to those of Vol- taire are the tragic compositions of the elder Crebillon, which are universally allowed to dis- play great powers, and especially to excel in force of character. His Bhadamislus and Atrceus are always quoted as his best performances. The tragedies of La Motte have also a place assigned them among the great dramatic productions of France, during the last age. Of his several works; the Lies de Castro holds the highest rank. The historical and patriotic tragedies of Dubelloy are much celebrated in the annals of French literature. His Siege of Calais attained the greatest degree of celebrity; and afterwards his Titus and %eU mira commanded considerable attention. The tragedies of M. Saurin are also honourably men- tioned among the critics of the author's own coun- try. Of these, to his Spartacus the most liberal praise has been given. M. Diderot, among the numerous productions of his pen, gave to the public several tragedies; but they are, like many of his other writings, more conspicuous monu- ments of his moral depravity than of his genius or taste. The French Comedies which have attracted at- tention are much more numerous. The comic production of Le Sage rank high in this list. His Tuscaret gained great and general popularity. The Le Glorieiix, and Le Philosophe Marie, of Desto itches, were still more eminently popular. The former, indeed., has been pronounced one of Poetry. fil7 the best comedies that the age produced. Piron was also a comic writer of great celebrity among his countrymen, and even throughout Europe. His La Metromanie is an effort of high dramatic genius ; but is liable to exception with respect to its moral tendency. The younger Crebillon dis- plays, in his comedies, a large portion of wit and humour, but they are too much of the licentious kind. M. Saurin is also distinguished as a writer of French Comedy. His VAnglomane is considered as the best production of his pen, in this depart- ment of dramatic writing. The comedies of M. Gressett sustain a still higher character. The Mechant, by him, ranks with the first comic works of the age. M. Boissy has displayed con- siderable talents as a writer of comedy. L* Homme du Jour, and Les dehors Trompeurs, hold a respect- able place in the critic's list. M. Beaumarchais is also entitled to notice as belonging to the same class. Though little can be said in favour of the moral tendency of his Barbier de Seville, Marriage de Figaro, or Mere Coupable; yet they discover so much wit and humour as to command much of the public attention. To France is ascribed the invention of a new species of drama, called Comedie Larmoyante, or Crying Comedy. This is a genus between tragedy and comedy of the pure unmixed kind; and also different in its character from the tragi-comedy of Dryden and Southern. It offers pictures of temporary domestic distresses, which in private life too frequently occur, and which, though attended with no consequences sufficiently fatal for tragedy, are too serious for comic representation. The inventor of this species of drama was M. La Chaussee. In this style of writing he has had several imitators. The domestic and sentimental comedies of M. Dorat are considerably cele- VOL. IT. :F 218 Poetry. brated; and the moral dramas of Mouval and BouiLLY have also a high reputation. Besides the French comic writers above men- tioned, several others have attained distinction, though in an inferior degree. Among these, Reg- nard, La Motte, Marivaux, Marmontel, Se- daine, and Saint Foix, deserve particular notice. It is to be lamented that purity of moral character cannot be generally ascribed to their productions. Though the best English comedies of the eigh- teenth century are far superior to those of the same language which were produced in the pre- ceding age, we cannot consider the same improve- ment as belonging to modern French comedy. Moliere, who died towards the close of the seven- teenth century, in the combined excellences of wit, humour, plot, and character, has never been equalled by any of his successors. It may be questioned, indeed, whether he was ever equalled, in all these respects, by any writer, ancient or modern. His plays have supplied materials for plunder to all other comic writers since his time. The dramatic works of Italy, during the period 6f this retrospect, were many in number, and some of them highly valued as efforts of genius/ In Italian Tragedy, the various works of Martelli, which appeared early in the century, hold an honourable place. His Perselide, Ifigenia, and Alceste, are generally enumerated among the best productions of his pen. To Martelli is ascribed the honour of having adopted a structure of poetry wThich had never before been used in Italy. The tragedies of Marchesi have also a high character among the critics of that country. Those under the titles of Crispo and Polissena have particularly attained general celebrity. The Merope, of Maf- j See "Walker's HittorUal Memoir on Italian Tragedy, 4to. I799. Poetry. 219 fei, is pronounced by some the best tragedy that was ever written. It is certain that few tragic productions have been more famed, or have served more frequently as models to subsequent writers/ Granelli and Bettinelli have also a place among the distinguished authors in this species of com- position. The Sedecia, Manasse, and Dione, of the former; and the Gionata, Demetrw, and Serse, of the latter, are considered as their ablest productions. Monti, of the same country, has obtained considerable distinction by his Man- fredi and Aristodemo. To these names may be added those of Cjesarotti and Alfieri, who have both produced tragedies of high reputation ; and that of Metastasio, whose Operas 2nd Sacred Dramas have been long and advantageously known to the public. He perfected the musical and serious drama of Italy, Rejecting marvellous in- cidents, and allegorical personages, his productions became more conformed to nature and life than those of his predecessors; and the music of his pieces was so introduced as to be performed by real actors, strongly agitated with passion, and, of course, giving more effect to their performance, than could be done in the chorus of Greek tragedy, which was usually executed by calm observers instead of those who participated in the action of the scene. Of the Italian writers of Comedy the author knows too little to attempt any distinct account. Few, if any, among them are more celebrated than Goldoni, the most voluminous dramatic writer of the eighteenth century. A large portion of the pieces exhibited on the Italian stage are from his pen. His comedies are so numerous that it would k The Merope, of Maffet, is said to have been the model of Vol- taire's tragedy of that name. It is asserted, also, that the work of Maffei is the real parent of Home's Douglas, f20 Poetry. be difficult to make a selection, and of such ac- knowledged merit that they need no additional encomium/ The dramatic writings of Germany first began in the eighteenth century to assume a respectable and interesting aspect. Indeed, till within the last forty years scarcely any specimen had appeared in this department of composition, which could be considered as doing honour to German genius, or which was much known beyond the bounds of that empire. But within this period some writers of high reputation have appeared, and raised the dramatic character of their country to great emi- nence. Goethe stands among the most celebrated Ger- man dramatists. His Sisters, his Stella, and his Jphigenia are considered as very honourable monu- ments of genius. The tragedies of Lessing have a high character among his countrymen, particu- larly his Emilia Galotti, Philotas, and Sarah Sajnpson. The tragic productions of Babo are also much distinguished. The most remarkable of these are Otto of Wittlesbach, Dagobert, and Con- science. But, perhaps, no tragic writer of Ger- many has gained a reputation more extensive and commanding than Schiller, whose Robbers and Don Carlos evince powerful talents, and have gained unusual popularity. The various dramatic works of Schroeder, Von Reitzenstein, and Iffland, have also attracted much attention, and received general applause. The last in particular is one of the most liberal contributors to the drama / Charles Goldoni was born at Venice, in 1707, and died at Paris in 1792. He is said to have been equal to the greatest comic poets of modern times, in dramatic talents, and superior to them all in the fertility of his genius. His works were printed at Leghorn, in 1791, in 31 volumes gvo. He has been generally called the Moliere of Italy ; and Vol- taire, in one of his letters to the Marquis Albercati, styles kim " the painter of Nature." Poetry. 221 of modern times. Towards the close of the cen- tury no dramatic writer in the German language was so generally popular as Kotzebue, whobc principal works are so generally known, that an attempt to enumerate them, or draw their charac- ter, is altogether unnecessary/" The dramatic writers of the rest of Europe, dur- ing the age under consideration, were few, and oi these few only a small portion gained any consi- derable celebrity. With the dramatists of Spain and Portugal the author has no acquaintance. In Sweden, the dramatic works of Dahlin, Gyllen- borg and Kellgren; in Denmark, those of Baron Holberg f and in Russia, those of Somorokof are among the most conspicuous and esteemed. There are several characteristic features which belong to the dramatic compositions of the eigh- teenth century, in which they differ from those oi" any preceding age. It may be proper to take '*» Several of the dramas of Kotzebue, as well as those of Schiller, and some other German writers, have been the subject of much criticism with respect to their moral tendency. It is impossible, in this place, to en- ter into a discussion of the merits of this inquiry. It is probable, how- ever, that every sober and reflecting mind will perceive much to censure on this ground, particularly in the writings of the two popular dramatists above mentioned. It is not objected to these writers that their characters are, in general, unnaturally drawn, but that such characters ought never to have been exhibited at all; not that their incidents are impossible or incredible, but that such incidents, whether in fiction or in real life, have always been powerful means of corrupting the principles, and undermining the virtue of those by whom they were frequently contemplated. n Baron Holberg was one of the most extraordinary characters of the age. He was born in Norway, towards the close of the seventeenth cen- tury ; was the son of a private sentinel, and learned to read without a mas- ter. Being deprived of his father at nine years of age, he persisted in pur- suing his studies, travelled from school to school, and begged his learning and his bread. Early in life he made the tour of Europe on foot, and went over to England, where he resided two years at the University of Oxford. Furnished with a large portion of the learning of Europe, he, at length, settled at Copenhagen, where his numerous writings gained him much public notice, and liberal governmental favours. He composed eighteen comedies. Those in his own language are said to excel ; and those which have been translated into French are represented as having great merit. He died about the year 1754. Goldsmith's Inquiry into the pre- sent State of Polite Learning, 222 Poetry. some notice of a few of these features before bring- ing this section to a close. One circumstance in which modern dramas dif- fer from those of former times, is, that they are more consistent and correct in the structure of their fable. If they do not surpass or equal some pre- ceding productions of this class in genius, theyr must be allowed to excel in taste and regularity of plan. Many of the noblest dramas which were given to the world before the eighteenth century, violated every principle of probability and nature. They departed from the most obvious unities of time, place and action. They gave to one country the customs, laws, and general characters of another; and thus, amidst splendid excellences, abounded with manifest absurdities; and while they gratified the taste, also put to a severe test the patience of the critic. With the most of these faults, even the immortal Shakspeare is charge- able. The best dramatists of the eighteenth cen- tury may be said, in general, to adhere more closely to probability and nature ; to employ a fable more correct and consistent, and less frequently to offend against the just laws of fiction. A further circumstance in which the dramatic compositions of the last age differ from those of former times, is, that they abound more in plot and action. The great excellence of Shakspeare is not the artful contrivance of his story, nor the variety and interest of his incidents. Were his plays tried upon ground of this sort, they would doubt- less be found inferior to many of smaller name. But his distinguishing merit consists in his know- ledge of human nature, in the accurate delineation of his characters, in forcible and natural descrip- tions, and in the weight and sublimity both of his sentiments and his language. These, notwithstand- ing numerous defects in the structure of his dramas, Poetry. 225 deeply impress the mind, dwell upon the memory, and secure to him a fame unrivalled and immortal. Some of the remarks which have been made on Shakspeare, particularly that which relates to his frequent deficiency in propriety of plot and incident, may be considered as applying to almost all the dramatic writers who went before him. Those of the last age, especially the first class, generally adopted a different method. A more artful con- trivance of fable is become fashionable; a more extensive and intricate plot is attempted; more intrigue and action are carried on; our curiosity is more awakened, and more interesting situations arise. This is said, by good critics, to be an im- provement. It is contended that it furnishes a more favourable field for the display of passion, and that it renders the entertainment both more ani- mated, and more instructive.0 It may also be mentioned as a peculiarity in the dramatic writings of the eighteenth century, that they are, in general, more decent, and more moral in their tendency than those of the age immediately preceding. The comedies of Vanburgh, so justly admired for their humour and native ease of dialogue, are extremely licentious; and, in the greater part of Congreve's dramas, amidst the brilliancy of wit, and force of language, which so remarkably characterize them, there are passages which put virtue and decorum entirely out of coun- tenance. In several of the comedies of Dry- den, the indecency is so palpable and shocking, that we are told, even in the dissolute age in which he lived, they were prohibited from being brought on the stage. It is but justice to say, that in the course of the last age, a more correct taste has arisen and prevailed. It is true, that in some of • Blair\> Lectures. 224 Poetry. the most popular dramatic productions of this period, indelicate scenes sometimes occur, and the general moral tendency of many is highly censur- able. Bat there has doubtless been, for a number of years past, a decency in the public taste, and in that of authors, which has revolted from open and gross obscenity, and, of course, given the dramatic publications of the day a great superiority, in a moral view, over those which were fashionable in the time of Otway, Congreve, Vanburgh, and Dryden. Among the first who signalized them- selves by discarding grossly sensual descriptions and indecent expressions from English Tragedy, were Mr. Rowe and Mr. Addison; and the like service was rendered to Comedy, by Sir Richard Steele, and some who immediately succeeded him. But, though the dramatic productions of the eighteenth century are, in general, more decent, and much less offensive in the exhibition of coarse licentiousness, many of them may be charged with a fault, which, though less obvious, is, perhaps, more mischievous in its tendency. This is the artful interweaving of false principles in religion and morals, w^ith the whole structure of their fable and sentiments. Theatrical exhibitions, as well as Novels, have been employed to insinuate the poison of corrupt opinions, decorated and con- cealed, into unsuspecting minds. A splendid hero is made to inculcate and recommend the most hateful principles; and an ingeniously contrived series of incidents to prepossess the mind in favour of vice. This, considered as a system deliberately instituted for the purpose of operating on public opinion, it is believed, is peculiar to the eighteenth century. Both Great- Britain and France have given birth to a few dramatic productions formed on this plan; but they have still more abounded in Germany. Poetry. 225 Another peculiarity of modern dramatic pro- ductions, especially of the Tragic kind, is, that they abound more in love than the ancient models. In the ancient tragedies this subject was rarely mentioned or alluded to; still more seldom did any of them turn upon it. On the contrary, love is the Chemistry, and Natural. History, have all produced new materials for the labours of poetic genius, enriched the stores both of imagery and diction, and thus contributed to render this kind of composition at once more in- structive and more pleasing. CHAPTER XXL LITERARY journals. IN the former part of the seventeenth century, " it was a consolation, at least for the unsuccess- ful writer, that he fell insensibly into oblivion. If he committed the private folly of printing what no one would purchase, he had only to settle the matter with his publisher: he was not arraigned at the public tribunal as if he had committed a crime of magnitude/" But in the latter part of that century, periodical Criticism began to brandish its formidable weapon, and those who undertook y Curttsit'ies of Literature, vol. i. p. I, Litr.rary Joun far the poblk Wex (daced in i Puh)icatioB», DKld ,ing accounts arr of new b i»g and inv nee, ;k their riv:, and have b tinuod. Th th centur for an incr their nun; b rioop changes in I , and for a r influence on the ta ions the public. The '::. r!< of this kind ever undertaken, was the Journal de by M. Sallo/ in l'66£. 1 wot; nded a vast variety of n M fa an ace which -. rained e men, and announced whatever ha-: that :n art, or c ic and chemistry, o I and ical observation in ana- , the d and secular d the censures of the i all p i to be noticed." This attempt veil received, that in the cour a fe rs it was imitated in almost all the an^ua^ Hafm : v M B To I Memoirs cles Arts et France, by M. D Lei . v?/e des L z Drxifu d: Sallo waa an E- ilor in the Parliament He published hi* Journal in the name of the Sienr dc Hi footman ; perhaps because he entertained but a faint hope «f • ■ 236 Literary Journals. Bayle, in 1684; the Bibliotheque Universelk, Choisie, et Ancienne, et Moderne, by Le Clerc^ about the same time ; the History of the Works of the Learned, by M. Basnage, in 1686 ; the Monath- lichen Unterredungen, of Germany in 1689; the Bocckzalvan Europe, by Peter Rabbus, in Hol- land, in 1692; an Historical Treatise of the Jour- nals of the Learned, in Latin, by Juncker, the same year; the Nova Liter aria Maris Balthici, in 1698; together with several others in Germany, prance, and Italy. The first work of the kind established in Great-Britain was the History of the Works of the Learned, begun in London, in 1699. Such was the state of Europe, with respect to literary journals, at the close of the seventeenth century. It will be observed, that, as they began in France, so they were most numerous and most encouraged in that country for a long time after- wards. Soon after the commencement of the eighteenth century these publications greatly increased, both in number and in the extent of their circulation. But this increase, for the first forty years of the period we are considering, was chiefly confined to the continent of Europe. The attempts in Great-Britain were few and short-lived. About the beginning of the century M. De la Roche formed an English Journal, entitled Memoirs of Literature. To this succeeded the Present State of the Republic of Letters, by Reid, the Censura Temporum, established in 1708, and the Bibliotheca Curiosa, about the same time. These, however, were by no means so instructive and interesting as modern Reviews. They only gave notices of a few principal publications, and retailed selections from foreign journals; and, together with several others, too unimportant to be named, were soon discontinued. Literary Journals. 237 No establishment of this nature, either perma- nent, or in any high degree respectable, was made In Great-Britain until 1749, when the Monthly Review was commenced, which has been ably supported until the present time. The Critical Review was established in 1756, nearly on the same plan. These were the only regular works of the kind in England until 1775, when another was begun, under the title of the London Review, by Dr. Kenrick, which, however, lasted but a little while. From that period to the end of the century they increased rapidly in number. They became gradually improved in their form, and were made to present a greater amount of infor- mation respecting the several works which they reviewed. Few magazines, or periodical publi- cations of any kind have been undertaken within a few years past, which did not include some kind of Review; insomuch that the literary journals in ^Britain at present are extremely numerous. The attempts to establish regular Reviews of new books, and of the progress of letters and science, in the United States, have been few, and generally unsuccessful. The small progress of a literary taste among the mass of our citizens; tfee scattered state of our population; the rarity of leisure with those who are best entitled to the character of scholars, together with the want of talents, enterprize and capital in the greater num- ber of those who have hitherto undertaken to con- duct such works, may be considered as the prin- cipal causes of their failure." a As early as I74r, a kind of Review was attempted by Dr. Frank- lin, who, in a Magazine which was continued only for a few months, gave notices of new American books, and presented liberal extracts from them. Attempts of a similar kind were made in several successive works a few years afterwards, but wich as little encouragement and success. Exertions were made to establish a more regular Review of American pub- lications, about the year 1 790, in two periodical works nearly at the same 238 Literary Journals. The Reviews of the eighteenth century are pub- lications of a very different character from the literary Journals of the seventeenth. A great por- tion of the latter were in the Latin language ; and almost all of such a nature as to be intelligible only to the learned. Of course they were seen and perused by few persons, and their influence' on public taste and opinion was comparatively small. But the Reviews of the last age, besides being multiplied to an unexampled extent, have received a popular cast, which has enabled them to descend from the closets of philosophers, and from the shelves of polite scholars, to the compting house of the merchant, to the shop of the artizan, to the bower of the husbandman, and, indeed, to every class of the community, excepting the most indigent and laborious. In fact, they have con- tributed to give a new aspect to the republic of letters, and may be considered as among the most important literary engines that distinguished the period under consideration. These publications have produced many advant- ages. They have excited a more general attention to the progress of literature than any former period could boast. They have diffused a knowledge of books, a taste for reading, and a spirit of curiosity and criticism, more widely than was ever before known, and among a portion of mankind which had never before been reached by such a taste. When well conducted, they have served to correct public opinion ; to lay a salutary restraint on adventurers time, the one in Philadelphia, and the other in Boston. They were, con- ducted, however, on a very small scale, with little of the boldness and im- partiality of true criticism, and commanded little attention from the pub- lic. They were, consequently, soon laid aside, as were several other under- takings cf a similar kind, for like reasons. In 1799 a more full and for- mal Review was begun in New- York, which has continued to the present time, and which, from the share of public patronage and attention bests . : I upon it, bids fair to be longer lived than any of its predecessors. Literary Journals. 239* in literature ; to present a powerful and useful check to the licentiousness of the press, and to fur- nish rich materials for the history of human know- ledge. It is true, these publications, which should be guides of popular opinion, are often partial, and sometimes grossly erroneous. Written by a number of different persons, and, of course, with different abilities, opinions, passions, and prejudices, the judgments they express can seldom be admitted without cautious inquiry and modification. Still, however, though the learned must ultimately judge for themselves, yet even they derive benefit from literary journals tolerably conducted; and their influence upon the great mass of those who occa- sionally read, is extensive and important. If it be objected that the knowledge they diffuse is super- ficial, it is what multitudes would never attain, if this means of bringing it within their reach were wanting; and that it is no better than total igno- rance, none will presume to contend. There is another class of publications nearly alli- ed to literary journals, and by the multiplication of which the eighteenth century is much distinguish- ed, the Transactions of Academics and philosophical Societies. Publications of this kind appear to have taken their rise near the middle of the seventeenth century; but, for a considerable time afterwards they were few in number, and were presented to the public at distant and irregular intervals. Since the commencement of the period under considera- tion, they have greatly increased in number, in the extent of their circulation, and in the practical and useful nature of their contents. Associations for literary and scientific purposes, of various kinds, and under different names, have multiplied in every part of the learned world, and have laid be- fore the public, at stated times, the result of their experiments and inquiries; insomuch that from 240 Literary Journals. the aggregate of their transactions a catalogue might be formed of several thousand volumes, most of which include much matter highly interesting to the philosopher, the artist, and the man of taste, and may be considered as presenting a tolerable; history of human knowledge during the period which they embrace. This mode of recording and announcing the dis- coveries and labours of science, though productive of much good, is yet not without its disadvantages. To understand the memoirs and acts which these ponderous volumes contain^ usually requires a pro- found knowledge of the subject. They are ad- dressed by philosophers to philosophers. Hence, though their circulation be more extensive in modern times than formerly, they are, of necessity^ even yet read by a chosen few. On this account it is, that while the archives of societies are filled with interesting and instructive memoirs, these labours of the learned are seldom brought forth from their obscure retreat, reduced to systematic arrangement, and exhibited in a popular manner* And for the same obvious reason it happens that the transactions of literary societies display a repe- tition of the same hints, experiments and discove- ries, which, for want of being more generally known, are often supposed, at each successive ex- hibition, to be original. This latter evil, however^ begins to be in some measure remedied, by adopt- ing a more popular form for these publications, and also by communicating, from time to time, to the public, the most important portions of their con- tents, in vehicles of more extensive circulation. Next to regular Rcviezvs, and the formal Me- moirs and Transactions of literary and scientific societies, it is proper to take notice of the numer- ous periodical works, under the name of Maga- zines, 8:c. with which the republic of letters has Literary Journals. 241 abounded in modern times. The astonishing number, and the extensive circulation of these works, are certainly among the peculiar charac- teristics of the age, and mark an important asra in the history of learning. The first publication ever made under the title of a Magazine was in the year 1731, by Edward Cave, of London, who then commenced the Gen- tleman's Magazine, which has been continued to the present time. Several periodical works had before appeared under different names; but they were chiefly confined to political transactions, and to foreign and domestic occurrences of various kinds, without paying much attention to literary objects. Indeed, this was the case with Mr. Cave's Magazine for several years after its com- mencement. The way, however, was gradually opened for the introduction of literary, moral, and philosophical discussions, and the work proved to oe one of the most popular and productive perio- dical pamphlets ever published. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, and especially in the last twelve or fifteen years of this period, these monthly miscellanies multiplied to a prodigious amount, and gained a circulation be- yond all former example. The taste for works of a similar kind spread rapidly over the continent of Europe, insomuch that their number at the present time is almost too great to be accurately estimated. In our own country the attempts to establish Magazines of different kinds have been very numerous; but, for the want of due encourage- ment, have generally failed in a short time. It is believed that the first attempt to publish a work of this nature in North-America was about the year 1741, by Dr. Benjamin Franklin, then a printer in Philadelphia. His publication, however, under the title of the General Magazine and Historical VOL. II. 2 i 242 Literary Journals. Chronicle, after a few months was discontinued. Since that time many similar undertakings have solicited the public patronage, and have gained attention and currency for a time, but have seldom protracted their existence beyond four, six, or, at most, eight years. The influence of these miscellaneous publica- tions has been as remarkable and extensive as their number. This influence has been in many respects advantageous. They have excited a taste for read- ing in many who could never have endured it un- der any other form than that of amusement They have inspired many youthful minds with a spirit of literary ambition and enterprize, which $vas after- wards productive of the most brilliant and success- ful exertions. They have recorded a number of facts, hints, observations and discussions, instruc- tive at the time they were made, and invaluable to posterity; but which would inevitably have been lostvhad they been presented to the public in a more evanescent form. And, finally, they have shed, in a gradual and almost insensible manner, numberless rays of knowledge among all descrip- tions of persons in the community, even indirectly among millions who never enjoyed the perusal of them, and have thus greatly enlarged 'the public understanding, and astonishingly increased the sum of popular information. But the great popularity, and the unexampled circulation of these periodical works, have also been attended with some disadvantages. They have made thousands of light, ostentatious and superficial scholars, and have evidently operated unfavourably to sound and deep erudition. They have led many a self-sufficient pedant to content himself with shining in borrowed plumes, and to indulge in the deceitful expectation of finding short and easy paths to real scholarship. They have dis- Literary Journals. 2-1-3 conran-ed those habits of connected reading and of patient systematic thinking, which were the glory of the learned in former ages, and enabled them to accomplish those mighty labours which fix their posterity in astonishment. Accordingly it would, perhaps, be no difficult task to show that the general literary features of the period before us remarkably correspond with this unfavourable picture, and that the general diffusion of superficial reading and scraps of knowledge may be said, pre-eminently, to characterize the last age. But this is not the whole of the evil. Such are the effects which must result from the general cir- culation of works of this nature, supposing them to be, on the whole, well conducted. Many of them, however, are by no means entitled to this character. They have often given prompt and willing cur- rency to erroneous opinions in morals and religion. They are too frequently found receptacles of such filth,' obscenity and impiety, as are fit for the perusal of none but the prostitute, the thief, and the mur- derer. It is scarcely necessary to add that the effect of such publications on the manners, principles and happiness of society, must be in a high degree pestiferous; and that this is one among the numerous instances in modern times, in which literature, perverted and abused under plausible forms, has been found insidiously to undermine the morals and welfare of man. Another item in the literary history of the age_ falls, perhaps, more properly within the design of this chapter than any other part of the present sketch. The mode of addressing the public by- short periodical Essays, though not wholly peculiar to the eighteenth century, was yet so much extend- ed, and had such a powerful Influence in this period, as to entitle it to be ranked among the re- markable circumstances of the age. "To teach 244 Literary Journals. the minuter decencies and inferior duties; to regu- late the practice of daily conversation ; to correct those depravities which are rather ridiculous than criminal, and remove those grievances which, if they produce no lasting calamities, impress hourly- vexation, was first attempted by Casa, in his book of Manners, and by Castiglione, in his Courtier / two books yet celebrated in Italy for purity and elegance ; and which, if they are now less read, are neglected, only, because they have effected that reformation which their authors intended, and their precepts are no longer wanted. Their usefulness to the age in which they were written is suffici- ently attested by the translations which almost all the nations of Europe were in haste to obtain. This species of instruction was continued, and, per- haps, advanced by the French, among whom La Bruyere's Manners of the Age,c though, as Boi- leau remarked, it is written without connection, certainly deserves great praise for liveliness of de- scription, and justness of observation. "rf The first series of essays devoted to common life in Great-Britain was the Tatler; the publica- tion of which began in 1709, by Sir Richard Steele, assisted by Addison, Tickel, and others. It appeared three times a-week. To the Tatler, in about three months succeeded the Spectator > a series of essays of the same kind, but written with less levity, upon a more regular plan, and pub- lished daily. " The Tatler and Spectator," says Dr. Johnson, " adjusted, like Casa, the unsettled practice of daily intercourse by propriety and politeness; and, like La Bruyere, exhibited the characters and manners of the age.- But to say b Casa and Castiglicne were Italian writers, who flourished in the sixteenth century. cLa Bruyere wrote towards the close of the seventeenth century. d Johnson's Lift: of Addison. Literary Journals. g 1 5 that they united the plans of two or three eminent writers, is to give them but a small part of their due praise. They superadded literature and cri- ticism, and sometimes towered far above their pre- decessors, and taught, with great justness of argu- ment, and dignity of language, the most important duties and sublime truths. All these topics were happily varied with elegant fictions and refined allegories, and illuminated with different changes of style and felicities of invention. It is said by Addison, in a subsequent work, that they had a perceptible influence upon the conversation of that time, and taught the frolic and the gay to unite merriment with decency; an effect which they can never wholly lose while they continue to be among the first books, by which both sexes are initiated in the elegances of knowledge."' The Spectator had not been supported more than eighteen months when it was discontinued. The year after, viz. in 1713, the Guardian was undertaken by the same Editor, assisted by the gentlemen before mentioned, as well as by Mr. Pope, Dr. Berkley, and others, and continued a little more than six months, with nearly the same respectability and success which had attended its predecessor. It was natural for the excellence and the reputation of those papers to produce many imitations. Accordingly, for a number of years afterwards, periodical papers were con- tinually announced, and pursued for a little while, under different names, and upon various plans; but they were generally feeble when compared with the noble models which had gone before them, and seldom commanded the public atten- tion for any length of time. Among these might be enumerated the Free-Thinker, the Humourist, e Life of Addison. 246 Literary Journals. the Observer, and a vast multitude of others that rose into view, lived their day, and sunk into for- getfulness. Cato's Letters, and the Craftsman, were executed with greater ability, and were also better received, being more devoted to political: discussion, than the papers which had gone before them. In 1750 the Rambler appeared, and for the first time presented a rival to the enchanting productions of Addison and his contemporaries. In this work Dr. Johnson, the principal writer, carried the composition of moral essays, and in- structive narrations, with respect to purity and dignity of sentiment, acuteness of observation, and vigour of style, to a higher degree of perfec- tion than they had ever before reached. Next followed the Idler, also by Dr. Johnson, but less laboured, and more light and superficial in its cha- racter than the Rambler. These were succeeded by the Adventurer, the World, the Connoisseur, the Mirror, the Looker-On, the Lounger, the Observer, and a number of others which deserve respectful mention, which contain many papers of high merit, and will long be read with pleasure. The numerous unsuccessful attempts which have been made, within a few years past, to revive this mode of writing, seem to indicate that it is nearly ex- hausted j and that to renew and carry it on re- quires more diligence, ability and leisure, than com- monly fall to the lot of those who adventure in. such a field. From the foregoing details, it appears that the eighteenth century may be emphatically called the age of periodical publications. In the number of these it so far transcends all preceding times, as to forbid comparison; and their amusing, popular form constitutes a peculiarty in the literary his- tory of the period under consideration, equally signal. They form the principal means of diffus- Political Journals. 247 ing knowledge through every part of the civilized world; they convey, in an abridged and agree- able manner, the contents of many ponderous volumes, and frequently supercede the appearance of such volumes ; and they record every species of information, from the most sublime investigations of science to the most trifling concerns of amuse- ment. When the future historian shall desire to obtain a correct view of the state of literature and of manners, during this period, he will probably resort to the periodical publications of the day, as presenting the richest sources of information, and forming the most enlightened and infallible guides in his course. CHAPTER XXII. POLITICAL JOURNALS. THE method of announcing political events, and the various articles of foreign and domestic intelli- gence, which usually engage the attention of the public, by means of Gazettes or Nezvspapers, seems to have been first employed in Italy, as early as the year 1536/ It was in that country that these vehicles of information received the name Ga- zetta/ which they have ever since retained/ f The first Gazette is said to have been printed at Venice, and to have been published monthly. It was under the direction of the government. g The word Gazetta is said, by some, to be derived from Gaze, r a, a Magpie or Chatterer ; by others, from the name of a little coin called Gazetia, peculiar to the city of Venice, where newspapers were first printed, and which was the common price of these periodical publications ; while a third class of critics suppose it to be derived from the Latin word Gaza-, colloquially lengthened into the diminutive Gazetta, and, as applied to a newspaper, signifying a little treasury of news. Curiosities of Literature* vol. i. p. 271. h Those who first wrote newspapers were called by the Italians Mc 248 Political Journals The earliest newspaper printed in Great-Britain was " The English Merairie, by Christopher Barker, her highnesses printer/' in 1588. But public prints of this kind, after the dispersion of the Spanish Armada, seldom appeared. The first regular weekly newspaper published in that coun- try was by Nathaniel Butter, in August, 1622, entitled " The certaine Neives of this present Weeke." Three years afterwards another of a similar kind was established. But, during the civil wars, which took place under the Protec- torate of Cromwell, these channels of public in- telligence became more numerous than ever; and were diligently employed by both parties to* dis- seminate their opinions among the people. About that time appeared the Mercurius Aulicus, the Alercurius Husticus, and the Mercurius Civicus, &c. And, it is said, that " when any title grew popular, it was frequently stolen by some anta- gonist, who, by this stratagem, obtained access to those who would not have received him, had he not worn the appearance of a friend. These papers soon became a public nuisance. Serving as receptacles of party malice, they set the minds' of men more at variance, inflamed their resent- ments into greater fierceness, and gave a keener and more destructive edge to civil discord. But the convulsions of those unhappy days left few either the leisure, the tranquillity, or the inclina- tion to treasure up occasional or curious composi- tions; and so much were they neglected that a complete collection is now no where to be found, and little is known respecting them."' nanti; because, says Vossius, they intended commonly by these loose papers to spread about defamatory reflections, and were therefore prohi- bited by Gregory XIII. by a particular bull, under the name of Menan- tist from the Latin minantes. Curiosities of Liitratur*) vol. i. p. 273. i Johnson's Lift and was received by the public in the most favour- able manner. It went through a number of edi- tions in the native country of its author, within a few years after its first appearance; was soon translated into the Italian language, and had many honours heaped upon it by the learned of those times. This work has been since enlarged and printed in four volumes folio, by Dr. Rees, and in this improved form is yet much valued. * It is believed that Dr. Harris's work was first published in 1704, VOL. II. aM k&6 Encyclopedias and Scientific Dictionaries. The next in order was a Dictionary of Arts and Trades, published by a society in France, arid em- bracing an amount of information on all mecha- nical subjects, more extensive and curious than had ever before been collected. This was fol- lowed by the celebrated French Encyclopedic, of which Messrs. D'Alembert and Diderot were the principal conductors, aided by a number of their learned countrymen. It is probable that they were prompted to this undertaking by the fame and success of Mr. Chambers's work; and also by a premeditated and systematic desigrt to: throw all possible odium on revealed religion. This great compilation was begun in 1752, and brought to a close about fifteen or twenty years afterwards, in thirty-three folio volumes. A lead- ing feature of the Encyclopedia is the encourage- ment which it artfully gives throughout to the most impious infidelity; and though much valuable science is undoubtedly diffused through its pages, yet it is so contaminated with the mixture of licen- tious principles in morals and religion, that no- thing but its great voluminousness prevents it from being one of the most pernicious works that ever issued from the press. After the appearance of the French Encyclope^ die, Baron Bielfeld, of Germany, published a work which he called The Elements of Universal Erudition. This compilation, however, is com- paratively little known, and is certainly inferior to many made both before and since. About the ^ear 1760, a bookseller, by the name of Owen, published a kind of Encyclopaedia, in three very large octavo volumes. This work, though less full on many subjects than some that had gone before it, yet contained much useful information, the mode of exhibiting which has been generally applauded. In 1764 appeared The Complete Die- Encyclopedias and Scientific Dictionaries. 267 tionary of Arts and Sciences, in three volumes folio, by the Rev. Henry Temple Croker, and others. This work, though, in many respects, worthy of public patronage, attracted but little attention, and gained but a small share of reputation. About the year 1773 was published, in Edin- burgh, the Encyclopedia Britatinica, in three volumes quarto, of which the principal editor was Mr. Colin Mac Farquhar, assisted by a num- ber of the learned men around him. A second edition of the same work was completed in 1783, enlarged to ten volumes quarto, executed chiefly by the same persons who had compiled the former edition. A third impression, still under the same title, was undertaken in 1789, with the aid of a number of new literary labourers, and completed in 1797, in eighteen quarto volumes. This work deserves to be highly commended on various ac- counts. The friendly aspect which it bears, in gene- ral, towards religion and good morals, is entitled to much approbation. And though, on some subjects, it is far from containing the same depth and extent of scientific research with the French Encyclo^ pedie, yet it presents a rich variety of knowledge, and, in the general usefulness of its tendency, far exceeds that celebrated performance. From the last edition of the Encyclopedia Bri- iannica, an American impression has been given by Mr. Thomas Dobson, a respectable printer and bookseller of Philadelphia, who, with a degree of zeal and enterprize then altogether unrivalled in the United States, soon after the commencement of the publication in Britain, announced his intention of giving it to the American public through the medium of his own press. His plan has been ex- ecuted in a manner equally honourable to himself and his patrons; and his edition, on account of many valuable additions and corrections, deserves 268 Encyclopedias and Scientific Dictionaries. to be considered as decidedly superior to that from which the greater part of it was copied." In 1783 some of the literati of France, not satis- fied either with the plan or the execution of the grand Encyclopedic, which had attracted so much of thepublic attention, commenced a new work under the title of the Encyclopedic Methodique. This has been, with some propriety, called a Dictionary of Dictionaries. It is entirely on a newr plan, and was lately finished, having reached the wonderful extent of two hundred volumes in quarto. It is scarcely necessary to say that this last work, exe- cuted by many of the persons who were engaged in the preceding, bears, like that, an anti-religious complexion; and that, while it displays much genius, learning, industry, and perseverance, its general tendency is highly unfavourable to the interests of virtue and piety. Some years before the close of the eighteenth century, a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences was undertaken by Varrentrapp and Wenner, learn- ed and enterprizing booksellers at Frankfort, in Germany. This work, under the title of AUgemeine Encyclopedic, der Kiinste und Wisse?ischafte?i, has already reached to a considerable extent, but is not yet completed. It has been said, by persons acquainted with the German language, to be, on the whole, so far as it has gone, the best Encyclo- pedia yet published. Several other compilations, intended to embrace the circle of arts and sciences, were made in dif- ferent parts of Europe, in the course of the last century. Some of these were translations or abridgements of those already mentioned, while others had better claims to originality. But too u Besides other new matter, Mr. Dobson's edition contains much im^ portant information respecting the United States not contained in the work, as it came from the British press. Encyclopedias and Scientific Dictionaries. 269 little is known of those which belong to either class, to undertake any detailed account of their characters, or even of their titles.^ It deserves also to be noticed, that the last age produced an unprecedented number of systematic works on particular sciences, exhibited in the form of dictionaries, and having the several parts dis- posed according to alphabetical arrangement. Of these the number is too great to be recounted. As a specimen, it may be observed, that we have dic- tionaries of Agriculture, by several associations and individuals; of Gardening, by Miller, Mawe, and others; of Trade and Commerce, by Rolt, Saver y, and Postlethwaite; of Law, by Jacobs; of Mathematics, by Hutton; of Chemistry, by Macquer and Nicholson; of Mineralogy, by Rinman; of Botany, by Martyn; and of Paint- ing, Music, &c. by various persons of learning and taste, in different parts of the world. That these numerous and extensive collections of the different branches of human knowledge have had a considerable influence on the literary and scientific character of the age, will scarcely be questioned. They have contributed to render modern erudition multifarious rather than deep. By abridging the labour of the reader they have diminished his industry. But they have been at- tended, at the same time, with considerable advant- ages. To those residing at a distance from large libraries, and other repositories of science, they tu The English Encyclopedia, begun a few years ago by Dr. Gregory and others, and intended to be comprized in eight or nine volumes 4to. was nearly concluded at the close of the century. The Encyclopedia Lox- dinensiS)begun near the expiration of the century, by Dr. Rees, and other learned men, is now publishing. The Encyclopedia Perthensis, which has been for several years printing in the city of Perth, in North-Britain, is also still unfinished; as is an Encyclopedia publishing by Mr. John Low, an enterprizing bookseller in the city of New- York, in which considerable progress is made, and which it is expected will form six quarto yolumes. 270 Education. have furnished a most instructive epitome of know- ledge. They have thus contributed to enlarge the mind, and to show the connection between the several objects of study; and though they are far from presenting a sufficiently minute and detailed view of each of the various subjects of which they treat; yet, to general readers, they give more infor- mation than would probably have been gained without them; and to readers who wish to investi- gate subjects more deeply, they serve as an index to more abundant sources of information. CHAPTER XXV. EDUCATION. EDUCATION has always been considered among the most difficult and important of those duties which are intrusted to man. Corresponding with its arduous and interesting nature have been the numerous plans to facilitate its accomplishment, or to improve its methods. Of these plans the eigh- teenth century was eminently productive, as no age ever so much abounded in learned and ingenious works on this subject; but the real improvements to which the period in question has given birth in the business of education, are by no means of that radical kind which might have been expected by the sanguine, from the progress of society in other arts and sciences. Still, however, the last age produced some events and revolutions, with regard to this subject, which demand our notice in the present brief review. Of the numerous treatises on the subject of Education, which were presented to the public in Education. 271 the course of the last age, there are few entitled to particular attention. Among these, perhaps, the celebrated work of Rousseau, under the title of Emilius, is most extensively known. This sin- gular production undoubtedly contains some just reasoning, many excellent precepts, and not a few passages of unrivalled eloquence. But it seems to be now generally agreed by sober, reflectingjudges, that his system is neither moral in its tendency, nor practicable in its application. If the author ex- Celled most other men in genius, he certainly had little claim either to purity of character, or real wisdom. Besides this work, a few others are worthy of particular notice ; some of which, if they have less claim to ingenuity than the celebrated production of Rousseau, are more judicious, practical, and conducive to the happiness of youth. The Method of studying and teaching the Belles Lettres, by M. Rollin, has received much attention and general applause, and is pre-eminently favourable to the interests of virtue and piety. The Plan of a Li- beral Education^ by Dr. Vicesimus Knox, is also the production of a learned and ingenious man, and may be ranked among the best modern treatises on this subject. The Eleme?itar-Werk, by Basedow, of Germany, is said to be one of the most influential and useful works on education that the age pro- duced. Much praise has also been bestowed on the Neuen Emit of Professor Feder, of Gottingen, which still continues to be held in esteem in the author's own country/ Towards the close of the * The author has no acquaintance with the works of Basedow or Fe- »er. This account of them is taken from a learned and interesting His- tor'ual Atcount of the Rise and Progress of Literature in Germany, published in the German Museum of London, and said to be drawn up by the Rev. Mr. Will, lately of London, at present minister of the German Calvinwt Church in the city of New- York. 272 Education. century was published a work entitled Lectures on Education, by David Williams, which, though it manifests considerable talents and erudition, is decidedly unfriendly to religion, and consequently to genuine virtue. To these may be added, the Theatre of Education, by Madame Genlis; a treatise on Practical Education, by Mr. and Mrs. Edgeworth; and smaller works, on the same subject, by Miss Wakefield and Miss Hamil- ton, both of Great-Britain; all of which, with various kinds and degrees of merit, have been much read and esteemed. The eighteenth century produced a remarkable revolution with respect to the objects of study m the education of youth. These are now more ac- commodated to the different employments for which the pupils are intended than in former times. Education, during this period, has been more than ever divested of its scholastic form, and rendered more conducive to the useful purposes of life. The study of the dead languages has been gradually declining throughout the age under re- view, and scientific and literary pursuits of a more practical nature taking their place. Instead of spending eight or ten years, as formerly, in the acquisition of Latin and Greek words and rules> youth are now more liberally instructed in the physical sciences, in belles lettres, in modern Ian- guages, in history, in geography, and generally in those branches of knowledge which are calculated to fit them for action, as well as speculation . Though the change in this respect has been carried to an ex- treme; though the disposition discovered by many instructors, during the last fifty years, to discard en- tirely from among the objects of study,therich stores of ancient literature, may be pronounced un^ friendly to true taste and sound learning; yet the Education. 21% revolution which has been mentioned may be con- sidered, in general, as a real improvement. Another obvious revolution which the last age has produced in the business of education, is re- moving a large portion of that constraint and ser- vility, and of those monkish habits, which were formerly connected with the diligent pursuit of knowledge, and considered a necessary part of a system of study. Modern academic discipline is much less rigid than it was a century ago. More scope is given to the natural spirit and tendencies of the youthful mind. The paths of instruction are more diversified, and more strewed with flowers. In a word, the labour of youthful study, formerly fashionable, has, in a great measure, ceased to exist. This has arisen from several causes; from the growth of luxury and dissipation, which are always unfavourable to sound erudition ; from the multiplication of helps and abridgements, to be hereafter mentioned, which, while they lessen the toil of the student, deceive him, by promising greater acquisitions than he can gain from them; and especially from the plans of education in modern times being so much extended, and the objects of study so greatly multiplied, as to render the wonted attention to each difficult, if not im- possible. Hence the greater number of scholars, at the present day, are more remarkable fox variety than depth of learning; and have generally con- tented themselves with walking lightly over the fields, and plucking the flowers of literature and science, instead of digging deeply, and with un- wearied patience, to gain the recondite treasures of knowledge/ y It has been asserted, by good judges, and probably with truth, that #ne of the principal reasons to be assigned for the comparative superficiality of modern classical learning, even in the best seminaries, is the increased use of translations, particularly within the last sixty or seventy yean. It VOL. II. zN 274 Education. A further circumstance, in some degree pectin liar to modern education, and which, no doubt, produces a considerable effect, is the early age at which students are admitted into the higher semi- naries of learning, and, as a necessary consequence, their premature entrance into the world. Lord Bacon somewhere remarks, that it was a defect in the plans of education, in his day, that students were introduced at too early an age to the more abstruse and grave parts of their philosophic stu- dies. This remark, in the eighteenth century, may be applied to the general period of beginning the academic course. The universities and colleges of modern times, especially in the United States, are filled with children, who are unable either suitably to appreciate the privileges they enjoy, or so much to profit by them, as at a more mature period of life. If these higher seminaries be in- tended, as they commonly are, to complete the education, then to send pupils to them before they have emerged from the state of childhood is al- together unwise. That this circumstance has an unfavourable influence on the dignity and gene- ral success of a course of public instruction can scarcely be doubted. That it should co-operate with other causes to render the number of superfi- cial scholars greater than they would otherwise be, seems to be an unavoidable consequence; and that it tends to diminish the subordination and the regularity of modern academic systems, experience abundantly demonstrates. The last century also produced considerable im- provements in the means of instruction. These is certain that helps of this kind, to abridge the toil of the indolent and careless, never before had so general a circulation ; and it is proverbially true, that acquisitions made by means of long and patient labour, are more deeply impressed on the mind, longer retained, and usually held in higher .-stimatioii, than those which cost but little time and pains. Education. 215 are of various kinds, and deserve our particular at- tention, in estimating the progress of literature during the period under consideration. The first circumstance deserving of notice unde.r this head, is the great multiplication of Seminaries of learning, in the course of the last age. This is a most interesting feature in the period which we are endeavouring to delineate. Institutions for the purpose of instruction, from universities down to the smallest schools, were never half, perhaps not a tenth part, so numerous as at the close of the eighteenth century. In every portion of the civilized world they have increased to an astonish- ing amount; they have brought the means of edu- cation to almost every door; and, with opportuni- ties, have presented excitements to the acquisition of knowledge before unknown. Charity Schools, if not first established, were greatly multiplied during this century; and, per- haps, deserve to be considered as one of the most useful plans of public beneficence to which the age gave rise. These have been numerous for many years, in several countries of Europe; but probably in no part of the world have so large a number been established, and on a footing so li- beral, as in Great-Britain. Institutions of this kind have also been, for some time, common and highly useful in the United States. The establishment of Sunday Schools deserves to be mentioned as a further improvement of modern times. This is an excellent plan for disseminating the elements of useful knowledge among the more laborious and indigent portions of society; and bids fair to be generally adopted throughout the christian world. The last age also abounded, beyond all prece- dent, in popular works, for facilitating and im- proving the education of youth. Of this kind are 276 Education. the numerous translations, compends and abridge- ments, which modern instructors have produced. Scarcely a department of art, science, or taste, can be mentioned in which numerous works of this nature have not been furnished by the friends of youth. To the same class also belong the moral tales, the histories, adventures, and selections, of which a few years past have produced an un- exampled number and variety. Some of these performances have been planned with great wis- dom, and executed with great felicity; and are eminently suited to attract the youthful mind, to direct and strengthen its growing powers, to beget a taste for the sciences, and to cultivate the best principles of the heart. Of many others, indeed, a very different character must be given; but it is certain, that parents and teachers were never be- fore presented with so rich a variety of helps, or so ample a field of choice, in works of this nature, as during the last thirty years of the period under re- view. Among the many writers and compilers to whom the public are indebted for their labours in this important field, it is difficult to make a selection of those who are most entitled to praise. Of this num- ber are, Mrs. Trimmer, Mrs. Barbauld, Miss C. Smith, Miss Hannah More, Miss Wake- field, Mr. Day, and Dr. Mavor, of Great-Bri- tain; Madame Genlis, Abbe Gaultier, M. de Beaumont, and M. Berquin, of France; Messrs. Basedow, Campe, Salzman, and Von Rochow, of Germany; andMr.LiNDLEY Murray, and Mr. Noah Webster, of our own country. To say that the performances of all these have commanded much attention, and that those of several of thern have been eminently and extensively useful, would be to describe their merits in a very im- perfect manner. Education. Ill From this multiplication of the means zx\& faci- lities of education we may account for the fact, that during the last century the advantages of edu- cation were more extensively diffused through the different grades of society than in any former age. It may safely be asserted, that there never was a period in which the elements of useful knowledge were so common and popular as during that which is under review. In all preceding stages of human improvement, knowledge was possessed by few. Before the invention of printing, indeed, the ob- stacles in the way of a general diffusion of informa- tion were numerous, and almost insurmountable; and even with the advantage of that invention, it was, in a great measure, confined to the opulent, until within the last hundred years. During this period, the great increase in the number of semi- naries of learning; the wonderful multiplication of circulating and other libraries ; the growing prac- tice of divesting the most important parts of know- ledge of their scholastic dress, and detaching them from the envelopments of dead languages; with various other considerations, have all conspired to extend the advantages of education, and to render the elements of useful knowledge more cheap and common than ever before. Towards the close of the eighteenth century, the physical education of youth became an object of more particular attention than it was in any for- mer period. The considerations of bodily health and vigour were by no means forgotten in the most ancient systems of education with which we are acquainted. Nay, it may be asserted, that, in practice, the ancients succeeded much betrer than the moderns, in rearing robust and vigorous chil- dren. But they attended less to theory than prac- tice; they attained the end without having just phi- losophical ideas respecting the means; and some- 273 Education, times indeed by methods which neither the habits nor opinions of modern nations would admit. But the eighteenth century gave bir,th to more specu- lation and writing on this subject than any former age could boast. The philosophy of physical edu- cation has been more studied, discussed and un- derstood. And though the luxury, the various pre- mature indulgences, and the general habits of the youth at the present day, may be considered as pe- culiarly unfriendly to health and long life, yet it is certain, that within a few years past the inquiries on this subject, and the theoretical and practical works in relation to it published, have been more numerous, more enlightened, and more conducive, so far as reduced to practice, to the union ofhealth> delicacy and virtue, than the wisdom of former ages produced.2 But, perhaps, one of the most striking peculi- arities of the eighteenth century, on the score of education, is the change of opinion gradually in- troduced into society, respecting the importance, capacity, and dignity of the Female Sex, and the consequent changes in the objects, mode and extent of their instruction. It is much less than a hundred years since female education was lament- ably, and upon principle, neglected, throughout the civilized world. Until the age under review, cc no nation, ancient or modern, esteemed it an ob- ject of public importance ; no philosopher or legis- lator interwove it with his system of general in- struction; nor did any writer deem it a subject worthy of full and serious discussion. Many sys? z Some of the methods employed by the ancients, for promoting the expansion, vigour, and longevity of the human body, were by no means consistent with delicacy or virtue, especially in the case of the female sex. In modern times, by more carefully studying, and more generally under- standing the philosophy of diet, exercise, air, dress, and general regimen, the improvers of physical education have been enabled to do much in a, way altogether consistent both with decorum and pure morals. Education. 279 terns of instruction have been adopted for the other sex, various as the countries, the government, the religion, the climate, and even as the caprices of the writers, who, at different periods, have under- taken to compose them. But, by a strange fata- lity, women have been almost wholly omitted in the account, as if they were not gifted with reason and understanding, but were only to be valued for the elegance of their manners, the symmetry of their forms, and the power of their blandishments." In the history of the earliest nations, we occasionally meet, indeed, with accounts of females who had elevated and powerful minds, and who were well informed for the period in which they lived. In the history of Europe, during the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries, we also find a few instances of distinguished women, some of whom, in talents, learning, and virtue, have, perhaps,, never been ex- celled since that period. But the number of this description was so inconsiderable, the circum- stances in which they were placed were so peculiar, and the influence of their character and example so small, that they scarcely form exceptions to the ge- neral statement which has been given. The great mass of the sex still remained unacquainted with letters and science; their whole attention being directed either to the allurements of personal deco- ration, or to the details of domestic economy. The eighteenth century produced a memorable change of opinion and of practice on this subject. The character and talents of the female sex have become, during this period, more highly esti- mated; their importance in society better under- stood, and the means of rendering their influence salutary, more familiarly known and adopted; in short, a revolution radical and unprecedented with respect to their treatment and character, has taken place, and wrought very perceptible effects in 280 Education. society. Female education has been more an object of attention, and been conducted upon more liberal principles within the last thirty years, in every cul- tivated part of Europe, and in America, than at any former period. Some of the ablest pens have been employed in prescribing plans for the culti- vation of their minds; seminaries of learning, par- ticularly adapted to their advantage, have been in- stituted; women have, of course, become, in gene- ral, better informed; the sex has furnished more instances of learning and talents than ever before; a female of elevated understanding, and of respect- able literary acquirements, is no longer a wonder- ful phenomenon. Corresponding to the increase of cultivation bestowed upon them, they have risen higher in the scale of intellect, and evinced a capa- city to vie with the other sex in literature, as well as moral excellence. In a word, at the close of the eighteenth century it had become as rare and dis- graceful for a woman to be ignorant, within certain limits, as at the commencement of it such igno- rance was common. As there is no truth more generally admitted, than that every step in the progress of civilization brings new honour to the female sex, and increases their importance in society; so there is, perhaps, no fact which better establishes the claim of the eighteenth century to much progress in knowledge and refinement, than the improvements in female education to which it has given rise. It is a pro- minent feature in the age, and forms one of its sig- nal honours, that its close found the female sex, through a great part of the civilized world, more generally imbued with the elements of literature and science, than they ever before possessed since the creation. The learning of the female world, in the period under review, may be considered as bearing some Education. 281 peculiarity of character. What might have been the nature, or extent of the attainments made by li- terary women in ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome, we are scarcely qualified to judge; but the learned women of Europe, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, according to the fashion of the day, entered deeply into the study of ancient languages ;fl they chiefly belonged to the higher ranks of life; and as writing and publishing were comparatively rare among all classes, so few females presented them- selves before the public in this manner. In the eigh- teenth century, the character of female learning be- came materially different. Literary females, during this period, paid more attention to general know- ledge, not omitting some of the practical branches of physical science. In studying languages, they devoted themselves more particularly to modern tongues,, especially the French, Italian, and Ger- man.6 Literature has descended from females of high rank, to those in the middle walks of life* and is, perhaps3 on the whole, more frequent among the latter than the former. And while learned women of former times wrote and pub- a Lady Jane Grat, who lived in the sixteenth century, was a profi- cient in classic literature. " She had attained a familiar knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages, besides modern tongues ; had passed most of her time in an application to learning, and expressed a great indifference for other occupations and amusements usual with her sex and station. Roger Ascham having one day paid her a visit, found her employed in reading Plato, while the rest of the family were engaged in hunting in the: park ; and on his admiring the singularity of her choice, she told him that she received more pleasure from that author than the others could reap from all their sport and gaiety.'' Hume. Queen Elizabeth was no less remarkable for her learning. She is said to have spoken both Greek and Latin with readiness, and to have been familiarly acquainted with the French, Italian, and Spanish languages. Other instances of the same kind might be adduced as belonging to that age. b A few females of the eighteenth century distinguished themselves by their profound and accurate acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics. The names of Madame Dacier, Mrs. Grierson, Mrs. Carter, and a few- others, will be remembered with respect as long as the ancient language* are studied. But there was certainly less disposition among the literary females of the eighteenth century to devote themselves to this pursuit than among those of the two preceding centuries. VOL. II. *Q 232 Education. lished little, those of that sex who have lately gained literary distinction have made numerous and valuable publications/ some of which will doubtless descend with honour to posterity. Tr^is revolution has been gradually effected, and was produced by a variety of causes. The pro- gress of refinement, while it raised the female- character, naturally placed that sex in a situation more favourable to the acquisition of knowledge. The unexampled diffusion of a taste for literature, through the various grades of society, could scarcely fail of increasing the intelligence, and meliorating the education of females among the rest. Added to these considerations, the example and the writ- ings of some celebrated women served to excite emulation, and to produce a thirst for knowledge among many others of their sex ; these latter, again, within the sphere' of their influence, produced the same good effects on their associates; academies for the particular instruction of females soon be- came popular; and thus, within the last fifty years, their literary interests have been constantly gaining ground. Among the numerous females whose names might be mentioned, as having contributed to this revolution, by their example and their writings, * " In this country," (England) says Mr. Polewhele, in his Unsex*/ Females, " a female author was formerly esteemed a phenomenon in Li- terature ; and she was sure of a favourable reception among the critics, in consideration of her sex. This species of gallantry, however, conveyed no compliment to her understanding. It implied such an inferiority of women in the scale of intellect as was justly humiliating : and critical forbearance was mortifying to female vanity. At the present day, indeed, our literary women are so numerous, that their judges, waving all complimentary civi- lities, decide upon their merits with the same rigid impartiality as it seems right to exercise towards the men. The tribunal of criticism is no longer charmed into complacence by the blushes of modest apprehension. It no longer imagines the pleading eye of feminine diffidence that speaks a con- sciousness of comparative imbecility, or a fearfulness of haying offended by intrusion." Education. 283 particular distinction is due to Mrs. Cocxburn/ Mrs Carter/ Mrs. Barbauld, Mrs. Lennox, Mrs. Montague/ Mrs. Macaulay Graham, Mrs. Chapone, Mrs. Radcliffe, Miss Hannah More/ Miss Seward, Mrs. D'Arelay, Miss Charlotte Smith, Miss Hamilton, Miss Wake- field, and many others, of Great-Britain; Mrs. Grierson/ and Mrs. Edgeworth, of Ireland: Madame Dacier, and Madame Chatelet/ of France; together with many more/ equally worthy of respectful notice, and who have long held a high place among literary females. The extension and improvement of female edu- d An acute and celebrated metaphysician of Great-Britain, who died in 1749. Her works have been since printed in two volumes octavo. e Miss Elizabeth Carter, an English lady of great erudition, and of distinguished talents. Her translation of EpUtetus is generally known. f " It is no trivial praise," says Mr. Polewhele, "to say that Mrs. Montague is the best female critic ever produced in any country." Unsex'd Females, p. 42. Note. g Miss Hannah More is one of the most illustrious ornaments of her sex that the eighteenth century produced. " To great natural endowments," says a late writer, " she has added the learning of lady Jane Grav with-* " out the pedantry, and the piety of Mrs. Rowe without the enthusi- *' asm." As no female writer in the English language is more celebrated than Miss More, so there is certainly no one to whom the general in- terests of virtue, and especially the female sex, are more indebted than to her. She has delineated the true honour and happiness of woman more faithfully, perhaps, than any other writer, and has plead her cause with discrimination, with dignity, and with effect. b Mrs. Constantia Grierson, descended fromverypoor and illiter- ate parents, in the county of Kilkenny, in Ireland. She was born in the year 1706, and died in 1733, in the 27th year of her age. She was pro- foundly acquainted with Grecian and Roman literature ; published editions of Terence and Tacitus, which are among the best extant ; and addressed an elegant Greek epigram to the son of Lord Cartaret, by the influence of which nobleman her husband procured a patent to be the King's printer for Ireland, on condition that the life and character of Mrs. Grierson should be inserted in it, as a monument in honour of her learning. i The numerous and profound works of Madame Dacier, in classic literature, are well known ; as are also the talents and learning of Madame du Chatelet, the able commentator on Newton. j To this list may be added the names of the Margravine of Anspach, Mrs. D0B30N, Mrs. Brooke, Mrs. Cowley, Mrs. Yearsley, Mrs. Inchbald, Mrs. West, Miss Lee, Miss Williams, and several others, distinguished in the walks of polite literature ; and also the honourable Mrs. Damer, Mrs. Francis, and Mrs. Thomas, celebrated f'-r their ac- quirements in the ancient languages. 284 Education. cation has also been promoted by the writings of Archbishop FENELON,Dr. Gregory, Dr. Fordyce, Mr. Bennett, Dr. Darwin, and some others. Even the celebrated work of Rousseau has contri- buted to this end, notwithstanding the visionary and erroneous principles with which it abounds. But while female talents have been more justly appreciated, and more generally improved, espe- cially during the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury, certain extravagant and mischievous doc- trines relating to that sex have arisen within this period, and obtained considerable currency. These doctrines are the following, viz. " That there is no difference between the powers and tendencies of the male and female mind; that women are as capable of performing, and as fit to perform, all the duties and offices of life as men; that their education should be the same with that of the men; in a word, that, except in the business of love, all distinctions of sex should be forgotten and confounded." These opinions, if not wholly new, and peculiar to the last age, have doubtless ob- tained a currency, within a few years past, which they never before had, and which has produced much interesting discussion, and very sensible ef- fects in society. The most conspicuous advocate of these opi- nions is the celebrated Mary Wollstonecraft/ whose ingenious vindication of the Rights of Wo- man is universally known ; and whose licentious practice renders her memory odious to every friend of virtue. In her principles on this subject she has been followed by several of her own sex, as well as by a few male writers. To the former class belongs Mary Hays, who, in her Novels i As this lady is better known by her maiden name than by that which, she assumed after becoming; the wife of Mr. Godwin, the former if retained. Education. 285 and Philosophical Disquisitions, has endeavoured, with great art and plausibility, to recommend the principles of this mischievous school. It cannot be denied that a total mistake con- cerning the capacity and importance of the female sex, has long held that part of our species under a most degrading thraldom, and obscured the por- tion of intellectual and moral excellence which they possess. It may also, with truth, be granted, that the idea of an original difference between the mental characters and powers of the two sexes has been pushed greatly too far, and been made a source of long-continued and essential injury to women. Females, if it were practicable or proper to give them, in all respects, the same education as that bestowed on men, would probably discover nearly equal talents, and exhibit little difference in their intellectual structure and energies. But is it possible, or consistent with the obvious in- dications of nature, to give them precisely the same education as is given to the male part of our species ? That this is neither practicable nor de- sirable will appear from the following consider^ ations. First. Women are obviously destined to different employments and pursuits from men. This is evi- dent from various considerationr. Among all the classes of animals with which we are acquainted, the female is smaller, weaker, and usually more timid than the male. This fact cannot be ascribed to difference of education, to accident, or to per- verted systems of living among the inferior animals ; for it is uniform, and nearly, if not entirely, uni- versal, applying to all countries, climates, and situa- tions; and if ever we may expect to find nature pure and unperverted, it must be among the brutal tribes. The same fact applies to the human spe- cies. The bodies of women, in general, are smaller 286 Education. and feebler than those of men, and they are com- monly more timid. This is not merely the case in the more polished states of society, in which false refinement, or injurious habits, may be supposed to have degraded the female character; but it is nearly, if not equally so among savages, where women, instead of being wholly or chiefly seden- tary, are rather the more laborious sex. How shall we account for this fact? Does it not seem to indicate a difference of employment and destination? Is it conceivable that there should be so much difference of structure between beings in- tended for precisely the same sphere of action ? No one can suppose this, who believes that the various departments of nature are all formed by a Being of infinite wisdom, and that in the economy of crea- tion and providence, means are adjusted to ends. Again ; the important offices of gestation and parturition being assigned to women, plainly point out the difference of situation, pursuit, and employ- ment for which we are contending. The various circumstances of infirmity and confinement result- ing from these offices, present insurmountable ob- stacles in the way of that sex engaging in many employments destined for men. If all distinctions, except in the business of love, ought to be con- founded, then females ought to be called to sit on the bench of justice, to fill the seats of legislation, to hold the reigns of executive office, and to lead the train of war. But would such a kind of ac- tivity as any of these stations suppose, comport with their sexual duties? The slightest reflection, it is presumed, will be sufficient to convince every unprejudiced inquirer, that there is a total incom- patibility between them. Secondly. To make the education and the em- ployments'of the two sexes precisely the same, would, if practicable in itself, be productive of the Education. 287 most immoral consequences. Let us suppose young females to mingle promiscuously with the youth of the other sex, in their studies, in their amuse- ments, and in all the means adopted to strengthen the bodies and the minds of each. Let us suppose, that after the elements of knowledge were ac- quired, the same employments were assigned to each sex. Let us suppose the various stations of civil trust to be rilled indifferently by men and women; the places destined for the instruction of lawyers, physicians and surgeons to be occupied by a jumb- led crowd of male and female students; the clerk- ships in counting-houses, and public offices, ex- ecuted by a joint corps of male and female pen- men; and the bands of labourers in manufactories formed without any distinction of sex. What would be the consequences of these arrangements? It would convert society into hordes of seducers and prostitutes. Instead of the regularity, the order, the pleasing charities, and the pure delights of wedded love, a system of universal concubinage would prevail. Seminaries of learning would be changed into nurseries of licentiousness and dis- ease; the proceedings of deliberative assemblies would be perverted or arrested by the wiles of amorous intrigue; the places of commercial or mechanical business would become the haunts of noisy and restless lewdness; and all sober employ- ment would yield to the dominion of brutal appetite. The far-famed author of the Rights of Wo- man, in the introduction to a book designed for the use of young ladies, does not scruple to say, that 3- in his old age he translated Cicero's treatise de Senecttde, with explanatory notes, which was published with a recommendatory preface by Dr. Frank- lin, in 1744. Mr. Logan had, with great care and pains, collected a Library of more than three thousand volumes, which, at that time, was by far the largest in Pennsylvania, and particularly rich in works in the Latin and Greek languages, and in the most curious, excellent and rare scientific publications. This valuable collection of books, usually called the Logamiam Library, was bequeathed by its possessor to the citizens of Philadelphia, and has been since deposited in one of the apartments belonging to the Library company of that city. Puoud's History of Pennsylvania, vol. i. p. 478, &C. v Mr. William Tennent had been a clergyman in the established church of Ireland before he came to America. Soon after his arrival he renounced his connection with the Episcopal church, and joined the Pres- bytery of Philadelphia. He was much celebrated for his accurate nnd profound acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics, and taught them with great success in his academy on the Neshaminy, which was called at *hat time his Log College^ from the edifice in which his instruction was 342 Nations lately become Literary. to flourish for some time, and was the means of forming a number of good scholars, and distin- guished professional characters. When it began to decline, the Rev. Mr. Roan, a learned and able divine, also of the Presbyterian church, erect- ed another academy at Neshaminy, in the vicinity of the former. Mr. Roan, as well as his prede- cessor, is entitled to grateful remembrance for his zeal and success in promoting useful knowledge. About this time also Mr. Tiieophtlus Grew," from England, Mr. Annan, from Scotland, and "Mr. Stevenson, from Ireland, set up grammar schools in Philadelphia, in which the dead lan- guages were taught with great skill and assiduity, Mr. Grew was the first person in Pennsylvania who undertook to teach the English language grammatically. By the aid of these teachers some of the oldest and most respectable inhabitants of Pennsylvania, now living, were initiated into the elements of English and classical knowledge. About the year 1740 the Rev. Dr. Francis Allison opened an academy for teaching the Latin and Greek classics and the sciences at New- London, in Chester county, Pennsylvania.™ Here he began that course of public instruction, and that carried on being built of logs. Mr. Tennent had four sons, Gilbert., William, John, and Charles, who were all distinguished and useful clergymen, and whose praise has long been in the churches. u Theophilus Grew was probably a son or grandson of the celebrated botanist bearing the same name, who, in 1676, first suggested the sexual doctrine of vegetables to the Royal Society of London. The former was much distinguished as a mathematician, and was afterwards professor of mathematics in the college of Philadelphia. iv The Rev. Francis Allison, D. D. was born in Ireland, in the year 1705. He received an excellent classical education at an academy in the north of that kingdom, under the particular inspection of the bishop of Raphoe, and afterwards completed his studies at the university of Glasgow. He came to America in 1735, and was the pastor of a Presbyterian church in Chester county, Pennsylvania, until about the year 1 753, when he was chosen rector of the academy in Philadelphia. Besides an unusually accurate and profound acquaintance wich the Latin and Greek classics, he^ was well informed in moral philosophy, history, and general literature.. He died in 1779, in ths seventy-fourth year of his age. Nations lately become Literary. 343 4eal for the diffusion of general knowledge, which ended only with his life, and to which Pennsylvania owes much of that taste for solid learning, and par- ticularly for classic literature, for which many of her eminent characters have been so laudably distin- guished. Not long afterwards the Rev. Samuel Blair opened an academy at Fog's Manor, also in Chester county, on nearly the same plan of education with that which was adopted in Dr. Allisons seminary, but with more particular at- tention to the study of theology as a science. Mr. Blair was a man of respectable talents as well as learning,* and was eminently serviceable to that part of the country as a teacher of human know- ledge, as well as a minister of the gospel. From this " School of the prophets," as it was frequently called, there issued forth many excellent pupils, who did honour to their instructor both as scholars and Christian ministers/ The next institution of this kind was the academy opened a few years after Mr. Blair's, by the Rev. Dr. Samuel Fin- ley,2 at West-Notingham, in Chester county^in which a number of young persons were instructed in the languages and sciences, and some in parti- cular trained up to usefulness and honour in the Christian church.* * The Rev. Samuel Blair was a native of Ireland. He came to America very early in life, and was one of Mr. Tennent's pupils, in his academy at Neshaminy. He was considered not only as one of the most learned and able, but also as one of the most venerable, pious, and excellent men of his day. y Among the distinguished characters who received their classical anif theological education at this seminary, were the Rev. Samuel Davjes, afterwards president of the college of New- Jersey ; the Rev. Dr. Rodger*, of New-York; the Rev. Messrs. Alexander Cummings, Jamej Fin- ney, Hugh Henry, and a number cf other respectable clergymen. z The Rev. Dr. Fin lev, afterwards president of the college of New- Jersey, was a native of Ireland. He came to America in early life, after having received an excellent education in his native country, and a short time after his arrival was licensed by the Presbytery of New-Brunswick. The eminence which he afterwards attained is well known. a Some of the facts and names above stated, were received by the au- thor from his venerable colleague, (£e Rev, Dr. RosGKas, an4 from Dr. Hugh Williamson, 344 Nations lately become Literary. Before the institution of these academies, that is, anterior to the year 1730, there was very little taste for classical learning in the middle colonies of America. It is true, the number of respectable di- vines, physicians and lawyers, was not small, but the greater part of those who had attained to any eminence had received their education in Europe, and almost all the instructors in academies or schools were emigrants from Great-Britain or Ireland. But from this period a new era com- menced. Native Americans began to discover a taste for both ancient and modern literature, and the interests of liberal knowledge began to assume a more promising aspect. It is generally known that the clergy, in all civilized nations, are the chief promoters of the instruction of youth. Accordingly, it is a remark- able fact, that in all those parts of our country in which the clergy are most numerous, pious, and exemplary, literature is most popular ; and in re- viewing the literary history of the several American States, we find that useful knowledge has been most early and most generally encouraged in those parts of the country in which clergymen of good character were most early and generally settled. This remark was strikingly confirmed and exem- plified in Pennsylvania and New-Jersey, at the period of which we are now speaking. The ex- ertions made by some of the clergy of these colo^ nies, at this period, for the promotion of literature, were unwearied and persevering, and deserve the most grateful acknowledgments. The Svnod of Philadelphia embarked in this cause with great zeal. They particularly favoured the academies of Dr. Allison and Mr. Blair, before mentioned. To the former they agreed to pay a certain sum annually, that he might be enabled to render his seminary more extensive in its plan, and especially Nations lately become Literary. 345 to educate for the service of the church, such pious young men as might not be able themselves to bear the expense of an academic course.6 But the clergy and others of the Presbyterian church, soon rinding that the provision heretofore made by them for the encouragement of literature was inadequate, began to form designs of more extensive and permanent utility. In the year 1746 a plan of a college was formed by a few distin- guished clergymen of this denomination, in the States of New-York and New-Jersey/ aided by some gentlemen of literary character and liberal views, of the same religious communion/ The b When Dr. Allison, after a few years, removed to Philadelphia, and was appointed Vice-Provost of the College erected there, his Academy at Neiv-London was transferred to JVew-Ari, a pleasant village in the State of Delaware, where it was put under the care of the Rev. Mt.M'Dowell, a respectable Presbyterian clergyman, who had received his education at the university of Edinburgh. This institution continued for a number of years under the patronage of the Presbyterian Church; and was the means of forming a number of excellent scholars, not only for the gospel ministry, but also for the other learned professions. c Among these were, I. The Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, a native of. Connecticut, and an alumnus of Yale College; a man of learning, of dis- tinguished talents, and much celebrated as a preacher. He was for some years minister of the Presbyterian Church at Elizabeth-Town, in New- Jersey, a. The Rev. Aaron Burr, also a native of Connecticut, and a graduate of Yale College, who was called, in I74*» to take charge of the Presbyterian church atNew-Ark, in New-Jersey, and who was so eminent as an able and learned divine, and an accomplished scholar, that he was after- wards unanimously elected President of the college which he was instrumen- tal in founding. He was the father of Aaron Burr, Esq. the present Vice- President of the United States. 3. The Rev. Ebenezer Pemserton, a native of Massachusetts, and a son of Harvard College, a man of respecta- ble abilities and information. He was, at this time, pastor of the Presby- terian church in the city of New-York, from which he removed to Bos- ton, and died many years afterwards, minister of the Old South church in that town. d The most distinguished of the lay gentlemen who aided in the erec- tion of this college, by their councils, property and influence, were the three following: 1. William Smith, Esquire, a native of England, who came to America about the year 1715, and received a liberal educa- tion in Yale college. He was bred a lawyer; attained great eminence at the bar, both for erudition and eloquence, and was afterwards one of the Judges of the supreme court of the province. 2. Peter Van Brvch Livingston, Esquire, a native of New- York, and descended from one of the oldest and most respectable families, who migrated thither from Great-Britain. He also received his education at Yale Col- VOL. II. zY 346 Nations lately become Literary. charter was obtained, and the college commenced its operation in Elizabeth-Town, New- Jersey, in the year above-mentioned, under the Presidency of the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, who was then pastor of the Presbyterian Church in that town. Mr. Dickinson dying the next year, the College was removed to New-Ark, in the same Province, and the Rev. Mr. Burr elected to the office of President; from which place it was finally removed in 1757, to Princeton, which had been agreed upon as its permanent situation/ The circum- stances attending the establishment of this College; the zeal for the promotion of literature, which was indicated by its erection, and which it served af- terwards greatly to increase; and the many distin- guished characters which it has contributed to form, render it, beyond all doubt, one of the most conspicuous institutions in our country, and one of those whose history and influence are most worthy of being traced. While these measures for the advancement of literature were proceeding thus favourably, Ben- jamin Franklin^ appeared in Pennsylvania, and kge, and was long distinguished as a judicious, well informed, and public- spirited man. 3. William Peartree ^ith, Esquire, also a native of New-York, a man of considerable talents and reading. It is believed he was an alumnus of the same college with the preceding. At the period of which we are speaking he resided in New-York, but afterwards removed to New-Jersey, where, after sustaining a number of public honours, he died a few years ago. Besides these, some other laymen might be men- tioned who were animated with a literary spirit, and embarked with zeal in the same cause ; but our limits forbid more minute details. e It ought not to pass unnoticed, that the middle colonies were mueh indebted for their progress in literature, at this time, to New-England. The first three presidents of New-Jersey college were born and educated in that country, as were also a considerable number of the other active and enlightened promoters of learning then residing in New-York, New- Jersey, and Pennsylvania. f Bexjamix Franklin was born in Boston, in the year 1705. He first came to Philadelphia in the autumn of 1723, in the character cf a journeyman printer ; established himself there in this business on his own account in 1729, and soon began to print a newspaper. In 1732 he com- menced the publication of Poor Richard's Almanack ; and from this time till about the year 1752, when he made his grand discoveries in Electricity, Nations lately become Literary. 347 began to distinguish himself by his exertions for promoting useful knowledge. The original genius of this celebrated man; his sound practical under- standing ; his scientific discoveries ; and his zeal and unwearied assiduity in forwarding every pur- suit which had for its object the progress of lite- rature, are wrell known, and have been applaud- ed not only by his countrymen, but also by the learned of all nations/ North-America in general, and in particular Pennsylvania, owes a large debt of gratitude to this man. He had great in- fluence in awakening and directing the attention of those around him to literature, science, and use- ful arts of every kind. He was one of the first native Americans who succeeded in cultivating an easy, unaffected and polished style of writing/ He was gradually rising in reputation and usefulness. His political charac- ter and activity, besides being irrelative to the present subject, are too •well known to render any attempt to detail them in this place either, necessary or proper. g A late writer in the Monthly Magazine of London (see the Sup- plement to vol. xiv), among other severe remarks on the state of American literature, affects to speak with great contempt of the character and writ- ings of Dr. Franklin. An essay which discovers so much ignorance, weakness, and inconsistency would not be noticed in this place, did it not afford an opportunity of doing justice to a man to whom our country ewes much. That the character and opinions of Dr. Franklin were, in all respects, faultless, is by no means contended. This was far from be- ing the case. But that he had an original genius, a strong mind, and much practical wisdom ; thathe made many valuable contributions to science and the arts ; and that his writings have been much read, translated into vari- ous languages, and quoted with respect by the learned of foreign countries, can be questioned by no one who is not as ignorant as he is prejudiced. h The anonymous writer above mentioned, after bestowing a number of severe epithets on the American style of writing, some of which are not altogether unmerited, represents our writers as having generally formed their manner after that of Dr. Franklin. It is scarcely possible to con- ceive of a remark more unfounded, or that discovers a more entire unac- quaintance with the subject which he undertakes to discuss. It is generally- known to well informed persons, that Franklin, as he tells us himself in his account of his own life, took the style of Mr. Addison for his model ; and though he was far from attaining a style equal to that of the illustrious British essayest, yet he certainly wrote with an ease, simplicity, spright- liness, purity, and perspicuity, highly respectable, and very different from the affectation, the bombast, and the perpetual use of unauthorized terms and phrases, which characterize too many American writers in later times, and from which some popular writers of Great-Britain arc by no means exempted. 348 Nations lately become Lifer ary. was the projector and founder of some of the most useful literary institutions which our country can boast ; and may justly be considered as having given an impulse to the public mind, in favour of liberal knowledge, which forms a distinguished era in the history of our country. Hitherto scarcely any native American had at- tracted attention among the learned of Europe, or by his writings or discoveries turned their eyes to this new world. The first persons who attained this honour, in any considerable degree, were the Rev. Mr. Jonathan Edwards,' the celebrated theological and metaphysical writer, and Dr. Ben- jamin Franklin. Though the genius, talents, and general character of no two persons could be more different; yet each in his way gained high and extensive celebrity, and for the first time con- vinced the literati of foreign countries, that Ame- rica had given birth to philosophers who were capable of instructing them. The arrival in America of the Rev. Mr. George i The Rev. Jonathan Edwards was born at Windsor, in Connec- ticut, October 5, 1703. He received his education at Yale college, where he graduated bachelor of arts in 1720. He early began to preach, and the Presbyterian church of New-York, then in its infancy, had the honour of enjoying his ministrations for eight months, in the year 1723. He after- wards became the pastor of a congregational church in Northampton, in Massachusetts ; and in 1757 was chosen president of the college of New Jersey, in which office he continued till his death, which took place March 22, 1758, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. This illustrious man was very respectably learned in the Latin, Greek and Hebrew languages, and also in the mathematics, and natural philosophy ; but in theological, moral and "metaphysical science, he discovered an acuteness, vigour, and comprehen- siveness of mind, which decidedly place him in the very first rank of great men belonging to the age in which he lived. He read Locke's Es- say on Human Understanding at thirteen years of age, and declared, to an intimate friend a short time before his death, that, at that early age " he was as much engaged, and had more pleasure in studying this work, than the most greedy miser could have in gathering up handfuls of silver or geld from a newly discovered mine." The fruits of this early initiation into metaphysical science were afterwards laid before the public in his Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will, &c a work which has been pronounced " one of the greatest efforts of the human mind," which was received with high approbation in Europe ; and which has been, ever since its publica- tion, quoted as a great standard work on the subject of which it t Nations lately become Literary. 349 Berkeley, then dean of Deny, afterwards bishop of Cloyne, deserves to be noticed \n the literary history of America, not only as a remarkable event, but also as one which had some influence on the progress of literature, particularly in Rhode-Island and Connecticut. This great man, in 1729, nine- teen years after the publication of the celebrated work in which he denied the existence of the material world, came to America with a particu- lar view to the establishment of an Episcopal col- lege, to aid in the missionary cause/ He landed at Newport, in Rhode-Island, and purchased a country seat and farm in the neighbourhood of that town, where he resided about two years and an half. And though various circumstances discou- raged him from prosecuting his original design, and induced him to return to Europe without ef- fecting it; yet his visit was by no means without its utility. The presence and conversation of a j Dr. Berkeley was bom in Ireland in the year 1684, and received his education at Trinity college, Dublin. About the year 1724, he was made dean of Derry; and in 1725, published a plan, which he pur- sued with great zeal, of establishing a College in one of the Bermudas, or Summer Islands, the principal objects of which were, the obtaining a better supply of missionaries for the colonies, and the conversion of the American Indians to Christianity. The plan was favourablv received not only by his friends, but also by the government. He obtained a charter for the proposed college, in which he was named as the first President ; and also a parliamentary grant of £. 20,000 sterling for its support. In the month of February, in the year 1729, he came to America for the purpose of putting his plan into execution, and brought with him his lady, whom he had married but a few months before. Soon after his arrival he be- came convinced that the plan of establishing the proposed College in the Bermuda isles was by no means an eligible one ; he therefore wrote to his friends in England, requesting them to obtain an alteration in the charter, fixing the institution on some part of the American con- tinent (which would probably have been New-York), and soliciting the immediate payment of the sum which had been granted for its esta- blishment. Finding, however, after a delay of two years and an half, that there was no probability of the money being paid, and considering his plan as impracticable, he embarked at Boston, in September, 1731, and returned to England. In 1733 he was promoted to the Bishoprick of Cloyne, and in January, 1753, he died in the city of Oxford, universally i-espected and lamented. While he resided at Rhode-Island, he composed bis Aleipbrott, or Minute Philosopher. 350 Nations lately become Literary. man so illustrious for talents, learning, virtue, and social aUractions, could not fail of giving a spring to the literary diligence and ambition of many who enjoyed his acquaintance. He visited the various literary institutions which came within his reach, and wrote and spoke in their favour, as op- portunities were afforded, and their exigencies re- quired. He exercised particular munificence to Yale College, to which his attention was directed by one of the trustees of the institution with whom he was acquainted, and also by the Rev. Mr. Williams, then President of the College, with whom he corresponded. Soon after his return to Europe he sent, as a gift to this College, a deed of the farm which he held in Rhode-Island, which he directed to be appropriated to the maintenance of the three best classical scholars who should re- side at College at least nine months in a year, in each of the three years, between their first and se- cond degrees;* and all surplussages of money, aris- ing from accidental vacancies, to be distributed in Greek and Latin books, to such under-graduate students as should make the best composition, or declamation in the Latin tongue, upon such a mo- ral theme as should be given them. This dona- tion is still held by the College, and the distribu- tion of the Deans Bounty is annually and faith- fully performed, agreeably to the directions of the donor. While at Newport, the Dean also pre- sented a copy of his own works to the College Li- brary; and after his return to Europe, partly out of his own estate, but principally with monies which k The Dean directed, that on the sixth of May annually, or, in case that should be Sunday, on the seventh, the candidates for this bounty should be publicly examined by the President of the College, and the se- nior Episcopal Missionary within the colony who should then be present, and in case none should be present, then by the President only: And in ca^e the President and senior Missionary should not agree in deciding Q}\ the best scholars, that .then the case should be decided by lot. Nations lately become Literary. 351 he procured for the purpose, by donation in Eng- land, he made an additional present of nearly one thousand volumes to the same Library.' In 1748 a public Library was established at Newport, in Rhode-Island, by Abraham Red- wood, Esq. an opulent gentleman, who wished to encourage literature. It was founded for the use of all denominations of christians indiscrimi- nately; a company was afterwards incorporated by the legislature, for the purpose of holding and su- perintending it; and large additions were made to it by donations from Europe and elsewThere. This Library afforded to the inhabitants of Rhode-Is- land means of literary improvement which they had never before enjoyed ; and no doubt contri- buted something to the extension of a taste for letters and science in that colony. '" The influence of Dr. Fran»lin's literary zeal and industry soon began to display itself in Penn- sylvania. In 1742, an Association, which had been formed at his instance, and by his unwearied exertions some time before, was incorporated, by the name of " The Library Company of Phila- delphia." This institution was greatly encouraged by the friends of literature in America and in Great-Britain. Valuable contributions were made to it, not only by Franklin, and his literary friends and countrymen, but also by his correspondent, Mr. Collinson, by Thomas and Richard Penn, and others. From that period to the present it has been continually growing; and now, in conjunc- / The attention and munificence of the Dean to Yale College, when considered in all its circumstances, reflects much honour on his disinter- estedness and liberality. When it is considered that he was warmly attached to the Episcopal Church, and that he came to America for the express purpose of founding an Episcopal College; his Catholicism, in patronizing an institution, under the exclusive direction of a different de- nomination, will appear worthy of high praise. , m This Library, which bore the name of its founder, was, in a great measure, destroyed during the Revolutionary w»r. DO ><"> Nations lately become Literary, tion with the Loganian Library, forms the largest and best collection of books in the United States." In 1749 Dr. Franklin drew up the plan of an Academy, to be erected in the city of Philadelphia, which was adopted and liberally encouraged ; and the seminary was established in the beginning of the following year. In 1753, through the interposi- tion of his learned and philosophic friend, Mr. Col- linson,0 of London, a Charter was obtained for this Academy, from the proprietors of the Pro- vince, accompanied with a liberal donation to- wards its funds. In 1755 an additional Charter was granted, extending the plan of the institution, and forming it into a College/ The first Provost was the Rev. Dr. William Smith,7 whose popu- n The City Library of Philadelphia contains, at present, between eleven and twelve thousand volurnes — say eleven thousand five hundred. The Loganian Library consists of about three thousand five hundred, making in the whole a collection of fifteen thousand volumes. o Peter Collinson, F.R. S. was a native of Westmoreland, in England, and resided the greater part of his life in the city of London. He was much distinguished by his fondness for natural history, and also by his desire and exertions to promote literature and science in the Ame- rican colonies. He long maintained a friendly correspondence with Lieu- tenant-Governor Colden, of New-York, and with Dr. Franklin, aa well as with other American gentlemen. He died in 1768. p In the establishment of this seminary on its original plan, and in finally erecting it into a College, Dr. Franklin is said to have been chiefly aided by the counsels and exertions of Chief Justice Allen, who was much distinguished as a friend to literature; by Thomas Hopkin- son, Esq. one of the Governor's Council; by the Rev. Richard Pe- ters, Secretary of the Province; by Tench Francis, Esquire, At- torney-General;' and by Dr. Phineas Bond, an eminent physician; all residing in Philadelphia. q The Rev. Dr. William Smith was a native of Scotland, and re- ceived his education at the University of Aberdeen, where he graduated in March, 1747. The three following years he spent in teaching in one of the parochial schools of that country ; and in 1750 was sent up to London, in pursuance of some plan for the better endowment of said schools. In London he was induced to relinquish the employment in which he was engaged, and to embark for America, where he soon after- wards arrived. Here he was employed upwards of two years as a private tutor in the family of Governor Martin, on Long-Island, in the pro- vince of New -York. In this situation he was invited to take charge of the College in Philadelphia, to which he consented; and, after revisiting England, and receiving regular ordination in the Episcopal Church, (which took place in December, 1753), he returned to America; and in Nations lately become Literary. 353 lar talents, and taste in polite literature, contri- buted greatly to raise the character of the College. He was principally assisted by the Rev. Dr. Fran- cis Allison, who had been called from his Aca- demy, before mentioned, to the office of Vice- Provost in this seminary; and who, perhaps, still more eminently contributed to its reputation for solid learning and useful knowledge. The effects of this establishment in awakening the attention of the public to the interests of learn- ing, and in exciting a taste for literature in Penn- sylvania, were soon visible. The first Commence- ment took place in a short time after the second Charter was obtained, when the honours of the institution were conferred on six young gentle- men," the most of whom became afterwards both conspicuous and useful literary characters, and were honourable pledges of the benign effects which this College was destined to produce on the literature and science, not only of Pennsylvania, but also of the neighbouring States. It has already been mentioned, that Dr. Frank- lin's exertions were eminently useful in promot- ing the cause of liberal knowledge in Pennsylva- nia. His experiments on Electricity were pecu- liarly fitted to awaken and stimulate the public mind, and were actually found to produce this ef- fect, in a very remarkable degree, both in Europe the month of Mav, 17o4, was placed at the head of this infant Seminary. The talents of this gentleman, and his history, from the time of his in- duction into the office cf Provost, until his death, in the month of May, 1803, are generally known. He gave important aid in the formation and establishment of another College in the State of Maryland ; and certainly rendered important service to the literary interests of America. It is ex- pected that his Works, in several volumes, will soon be laid before the public. r These were, Jacob Duche, Samuel Mag aw, James Latta, Hugh Williamson, Francis Hopkinson, and Hall. The first three became eminent Clergymen ; and two of the others have been long celebrated, in America, for their literary distinction, and their use- ful services in civil life. VOL. II. =Z 354 Nations lately become Literary. and America. He was soon joined by Mr. Tho- mas Hopkinson, the Rev. Ebenezer Kinnersley, Mr. Philip Syng, and others, who also became distinguished by their experiments on the same branch of philosophy. Mr. Kinnersley was af- terwards appointed a Professor in the College of Philadelphia, arid was one of the active promoters of useful knowledge of his day/ In the province of New- York the interests of li- terature had been more than commonly neglected before the middle of the eighteenth century. Few of the first settlers had any literary taste or acquire- ments; and though now and then an individual came to the province from Europe, who was learn- ed, and disposed to cultivate letters/ yet the num- ber of these was so small, and the great body of the inhabitants so little willing to second any en- deavours which they might make for the advance- ment of knowledge, that every thing relating to education was in a most deplorable state. Some of the more wealthy inhabitants sent their sons to Holland, or to Great-Britain, to be educated, while a few others, to whom this would have been in- convenient, placed their children in Yale College. From these sources almost all tfTe natives of New- York who, prior to the middle of the eighteenth s Mr. Kinnersley was bred a Baptist, and was for some time & preacher of that denomination; but afterwards, taking some offence, he kft the Baptist communion, laid aside his clerical character, and joined the Episcopal Church. t Governor Stuyvesant appears to have been a man of respectable' attainments in literature. Out of the small number of Clergymen who eame to the province in early times, a few had made considerable acquire- ments in letters. The ancestors of the Renssalaer, the Bayard, the? Livingston, and the Morris families, and a few others, who first came to the Colony, had also been liberally educated. Two or three of the Governors, who were sent at different times, were fond of literature, and made some exertions to promote it. Of this character, especially, was Governor Burnet. To these might be added some other names did our limits allow of more minute details. But the influence of these could not be great, when the mass of the people were regardless of every literary object. Nations lately become Literary. 355 century, enjoyed the advantages of a liberal edu- cation, had received the elements of knowledge. In the year 1729 a small Library was sent over to the city of New- York, by the " Society for pro- pagating the Gospel in foreign parts/' for the use of the Clergy, and other gentlemen of this and the neighbouring governments of Connecticut, New- Jersey, and Pennsylvania. This was the first pub- lic Library that was introduced into the Province; and it doubtless contributed, in some degree, to awaken and extend a taste for reading. In 17S4 a Society was established in the city of New- York, for the purpose of forming a pub- lic Library on a larger scale, and upon a more li- beral plan. This association soon received the countenance of the public, and immediately began to collect books. The Library, thus begun, has continued to grow to the present time, and now holds the third place among the public Libraries of the United States.** This establishment fur-, nished the first opportunity enjoyed by the citi- zens of New-York, in general, of obtaining access to a large collection of books. About this time some of the inhabitants of New- York, the greater part, if not all, belong- ing to the Episcopal Church, began to form the design of establishing a seminary of learning on a more extensive plan than any which had hi- therto been known in the province. Animated by the exertions made to found a College at Phila- delphia, they undertook to erect a similar institu- tion in their own city. At the head of the associ- ation formed for this purpose was Mr. James «d The Philadelphia Library, including the Loganian, contains about fifteen thousand volumes ; the Library belonging to Harvard College, about thirteen thousand ; and the Library of New- York, about seven thousand. S56 Nations lately become Literary. DeLancey," Lieutenant-Governor of the province, who, besides the aid of the Rev. Dr. Barclay,™ and other literary gentlemen of Nevv -York, was also assisted by the counsels and co-operation of the Rev. Dr. Johnson/ of Connecticut, and the Rev. Dr. Chandler/ of New-Jersey. In the be- u Mr. James De Laxcey was a native of New-York. His father, Mr. Stephen De Lancev, came from Normandy, in France, among the Protestants who tied from persecution in that country. The son was sent to England for his education, where, about the year 1725, he entered the University of Cambridge. Here he had the honour of "having for his tu or Dr. Herring, afterwards Archbishop of Can- terbury. Soon after his return home, in 1729, he was appointed a mem- ber of the Governor's Council; afterwards tilled the office of Chief Justice; became Lieutenant-Governor in 1753 ; and had long an extensive and com- manding inriuer.ce in the province. He died about the year 1760. %v The Rev Dr. Henry Barclay was a native of Albany, and re- ceived a liberal education at Yale College, where he graduated m the year 1734. Soon after leaving College he went to Great-Britain, where he received orders in the Episcopal Church, and was appointed Missionary to the Mohawk Indians. Having served in this capacity for some years, lie was called to the city of New-York, and appointed Rector of Trinity Church. In this respectable situation he continued till his death, which -cook place in 1765. x The Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson was bcrn at Guilford, in Con- necticut, October 14, 1696. He was educated at Yale College, where he took his first degree, in the year 1714. In 1720 he was ordained, by a council of Congregational Ministers, and installed pastor of a church at West-Haven, m Connecticut. After remaining in this situation a little more than two years, he alered his views concerning the doctrine, wor- ship, and government of the church with which he was connected, and went to England, where he took orders in the Episcopal Church, in the month of March, 1723. From this time till the year 1754, Dr. Johnson resided at Stratford, in Connecticut, where he had the pastoral care of an Episcopal Church. In the last mentioned year he removed to New-York, ana entered on the duties of his office as President of King's College. In this station he continued till February, 1763, when he resigned, returned to Stratford, and there again exercised his ministry till his death, which happened in January, 1772. Dr. Johnson was a man of distinguished talents and learning. He was intimately acquainted with Dean Berke- ley, during his residence in Rhode-Island; long maintained a friendly correspondence with him ; and became a convert to the peculiar metaphy- sical opinions of that great man. Besides other smaller works, he pub- lished a Compendium of Logic^ and another of Ethics, which were printed together in an octavo volume, in 1752, by D,-. Franklin, then residing in Philadelphia. He also published a Hebrew Grammar, in 1767, which evinced an accurate acquaintance with tha: language. For this account of Dr. Johnson, as well as for seme other facts and names in the history of American literature, the Author is indebted to a manuscript Life cf Dr. Johnson, drawn up by the Rev. Dr. Chandler, mentioned in the following note. y The Rev. Dr. Thomas Bradbury Chandler was a native of Nations lately become Literary. 357 ginning of the year 1753, an Act of Assembly :was passed for the establishment of the College, and making some provision, by a succession of lot- teries, for its support. In October, 1754, a regu- lar Charter of incorporation was obtained, and the Rev. Dr. Johnson named therein as the first Pre- sident. He entered on the duties of his office in jthe month of July the same year, and held the first Commencement in June, 1758, when eight young gentlemen, alumni of the College, were admitted to its honours.2 The Corporation of Trinity Church, in the city of New-York, early countenanced this College, and made a valuable donation to its funds. The institution also received important aid from the Honourable Joseph Murray," one of his Majes- ty's Council, and Attorney-General for the Pro- vince. He was a great friend to literature, and left the whole of his estate, consisting of books, lands, and other property, to the College. The names of some other benefactors, but less conspi- cuous than these, are to be found on the records of the institution. From this period we may date the rise of a lite- rary spirit in the province of New- York. It is true, this spirit was possessed, for a long time afterwards, by comparatively few individuals, and Connecticut, and received his education in Yale College, where he gra- duated Master of Arts in the year 1745. He soon afterwards went to England, and took orders in the Episcopal Church, and settled in the mi- nistry, at Elizabeth-Town, New-Jersey, where he long maintained a high character, both for talents and erudition. He was honoured with I gree of Doctor of Divinity by the University of Oxford. His respectable and useful life terminated in the year 1790. Z The names of these young gentlemen are, Samuel Verpi.axck, Rudolpjiis Ritzema, Philip Van Cortlaxdt, Samcel Pro- voost, Joshua Bloomer, Joseph Reed, Josiah Ogden, and Isaac Ocden. a Joseph Mvrray, Esq. was a native, it is believed, of Great-Bri- tain, and received his education there. The value of the estate whi ! left to the College amounted to about ten th usand p unds New-York currency, or twenty-five thousand doJJ 358 Nations lately become Literary. produced effects by no means so general or im- portant as the friends of knowledge could wish : but from this time the advantages of liberal edu- cation were more frequently enjoyed in the pro- vince, and some of those who were destined after- wards to fill the most conspicuous stations began to receive, at home, that instruction which before could only be received in other colonies, or in European seminaries. The interests of literature were, at this time, going on prosperously in Massachusetts. A few years before, Mr. Thomas Hollis,6 of London, an active friend to literature, as well as to civil and religious liberty, had made several valuable dona- tions to the University of Cambridge. He was followed in this munificence by his nephew, of the same benevolent disposition. To these generous benefactors that institution owes much. They esta- blished two Professorships, one of Theology, the other of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy; they presented many valuable books to the Uni- versity Library;' and made other donations of considerable value. One of the College buildings, erected in 1762, was called, in memory of these benefactors, Hollis-Hall. While the Hollis family exercised this genero-- sity towards the institution, benefactors were not wanting in our own country, to imitate their lauda- ble munificence. Thomas Hancock/ Esq. of Bos- b Different members of the Hollis family continued their liberal do- nations to this College, at different times, from an early period of the century till the commencement of the revolutionary war. c The Library of Harvard College took its rise soon after that Institu- tion was founded. In 1764 it consisted of about five thousand volumes. In the winter of that year, the greater part of this Library was destroyed by fire, with one of the College buildings. Since that time it has been gra- dually growing, and now consists of about thirteen thousand volumes. The chief contributors to this Library were the Mollis family, Thomas Hancock, Esq. Governor Bowdoix, Dr. Franklin, and several others. d Thomas Hancock, Esq. was uncle to the Honourable John Han- cock, President of Congress, and afterwards Governor of Massachusetts. The nephew, as well as the uncle, was also a benefactor to the College* Nations lately become Literary. 359 ton, founded aProfessorship of Oriental Languages, and contributed generously to the enlargement of the Library. Nocholas Boylstone, and Edward Hopkins, Esquires, also deserve to be respectively mentioned as among the benefactors of this im- portant seminary, and as enlightened friends to literature and science. In the former half of the eighteenth century, by far the greater portion of the book-printing done in the American Colonies was executed in Bos- ton. No where did so many original American publications issue from the press; and no where was so much enterprize manifested in republish- ing European works. These works, it is true, were chiefly on theological subjects, and comparatively few of a literary or scientific nature were circu- lated among the people, by means of American presses ; but still the books which were edited, had a tendency to enlarge the public mind, and to render a taste for reading more general. In Connecticut, at this time, literature and sci- ence were, on the whole, gaining ground. The appointment of the Rev. Dr. Cutler/ as Presi- dent of Yale College, was an auspicious event to that institution. He was a man of profound and e The Rev. Dr. Timothy Cutler received his education at Har- vard College, where he graduated in 1701. In 1710 he was ordained and installed minister of a Church in Stratford, according to the Consti- tution of the Churches in Connecticut. In 1719 he was chosen Presi- dent of Yale College, and entered on the duties of the office the same year. In 1722 he relinquished the communion of the Congregational Church, and soon afterwards went to England, and received orders in the Episcopal Church. He received the degree of Doctor in Divinity from both the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. He became Rector of Christ Church, in Boston, in the year 1723, where he died in 1765. He is represented to have been a man of strong natural powers, and cf exten- sive learning. He was well acquainted with classic literature, and was one of the best Oriental scholars ever educated in America. The Rev. Dr. Stiles says, " he had more knowledge of the Arabic than an} man in New-England before him, except President Chauxcey, and his. disciple, the first Mr. Thatcher." Dr. Cutler was also well skilled in Logic, Metaphysics, Moral Philosophy, Theology, and Ecclesiastical History. 560 Nations lately become Literary. general learning in the various branches of know- ledge cultivated in his day, particularly in Oriental Literature, and presided over the seminary which he was called to superintend, with dignity, use- fulness, and general approbation. He was suc- ceeded by the Rev. Elisha Williams/ who was inaugurated in the year 1726. Under his admi- nistration also, the College flourished, especially in the study of Classic Literature, Logic, Metaphy- sics, and Moral Philosophy. The successor of President Williams was still more illustrious. This was the Rev. Thomas Clap/ who was cho- sen President in 1739, and formally inducted into office the next year. He appears to have been one of the most profound and accurate scholars ever bred in Connecticut; and during the course of his Presidency, which continued till 1767, he succeeded in producing a greater attention than had been before paid to the abstruse sciences, par- ticularly to Mathematics, Astronomy, and the va- rious branches of Natural Philosophy. This period, indeed, may be considered as forming an era in the literary history of Connecticut. Passing on to Virginia, a few facts and names appear there about this time which are worthy of f Mr. "Williams was a good classical scholar, and well versed in Lo- gic, Metaphysics, and Ethics. The Rev. Dr. Doddridge, who was ac- quainted with him in England, gave him this comprehensive character. «« I look upon ?4r. Williams to be one of the most valuable men upon earth. He has joined to an ardent sense of religion, solid learning, con- summate prudence, great candour, and a certain nobleness of soul, capable of contriving and acting the greatest things, without seeming to be consci- ous of his having done them." g The Rev. Thomas Clap was born at Scituate, in Massachusetts, in 1703; graduated at Harvard College in 1722; settled in the ministry, at Windham, in Connecticut, in 1726; became President of Yale College in 1739 ; and died in 1767. He was respectably learned in the Greek, Latin, and Hebrew languages; but in the higher branches of Mathe- matics, in Astronomy, and in the various departments of Natural Philo- sophy, he had probably no equal at that time in America, excepting Pro- fessor Winthrop, of Cambridge. He appears also to have been exten- sively and profoundly read in History, Theology, Moral Philosophy, Canon and Civil Law, and, indeed, in most of the objects of £'-.:. tended to at that time. Nations lately become Literary, 361 notice/ The first printer introduced in that Co- lony, was about the year 1726, when William Parks settled there in that capacity. The first work of any consequence printed in the Colony, was the body of Laics, in folio, in 1733, by the per- son above-mentioned. The foundation of a Library in William and Alary College was early laid. This was augmented from time to time, by various means, particularly by private donations, from se- veral friends of literature, until it became a very respectable collection. The additions to it with- in a few years past have been few and small; hence it abounds more in ancient than modern works. Nor was Virginia, by any means, even at this early period, without instances of honourable lite- rary enterprize. The Histories of the Colony, pub- lished respectively by Stith and Beverley, are generally known. The former was a respectable Clergyman, and President of the College; and though he did not write elegantly, he was a faith- ful and judicious historian. The latter wrote with {ess prolixity and tediousness, but, at the same ime, with a less satisfactory fulness of informa- tion. Several other instances of literary exertion, made at this period in Virginia, might be mention- ed, did our limits admit of going into further par- ticulars. Among the promoters of literature in Virginia, at this time, it will be proper to mention Colonel Byrd, a native of that Colony, who had been li- berally educated in Great-Britain, and possessed a very ample estate. Few private persons in Ame- rica ever collected so large or so valuable a Library h Some of the names and facts mentioned in this section, relating to the progress of letters and science in Virginia, were communicated to the author, in a letter from Bishop Madisox, of Williamsburgh. The services rendered to the cause of liberal knowledge in America, and par., ticularly in his own State, by this enlightened Philosopher and Divide* are well known. YOL. II, a 362 Nations lately become Literary. as be left. He was a very ardent friend to the diffusion of knowledge, and freely opened his Li- brary for the use of all who sought information. Colonel Byrd died about the middle of the cen- tury. He made a few small publications, but they were not of a nature to command much of the public attention at this time. In North-Carolina and Georgia nothing worthy of notice was done for the promotion of literature, until the latter half of the eighteenth century. In those provinces there was not, until this period, a single seminary of learning worthy of the name; no native citizen had been at all distinguished for his attainments in knowledge. Of the few clergymen then residing in those provinces, the greater part were both illiterate and dissipated ; and almost all those of the learned professions, who were tolerably well informed, were either foreigners, or had received their education abroad. The literary situation of South-Carolina, in the former part of the century under review, was much more respectable/' At the commencement of this period, all the literary characters in that province were Europeans. The Clergy were few, and not more than one of them had been born in the province. The Physicians were also Eu- ropeans, and chiefly persons who had connec- tions with the British army or navy. The same mav be affirmed of the Lawyers; these all resided in Charleston, and were from Great-Britain or Ire- land. In 1700 a provincial library was established in Charleston, by the munificence of the Lords Proprietors, and of the Rev. Dr. Thomas Bray. This introduced a taste for reading among a por- i For the greater part of what is here stated respecting South-Carolina, the author is indebted to Dr. David Ramsay, of Charleston, who, on application, favoured him with a full and instructive communication on the subject. Nations lately become Literary. 363 tion of the inhabitants. In 1712 a Free School was established in that city, for " instructing the youth of the province in Grammar, and other arts and sci- ences, and useful learning, and also in the Christian Religion. "J In this seminary the Greek and La- tin languages were taught, by a succession of able instructors, and some good classical scholars were formed. Besides the free school, several private Academies were also formed a few years af- terwards, and had a useful influence. All the teachers in these seminaries were, for a consider- able time after their establishment, either from Europe or from the Northern Colonies. The first printer appears to have settled in Charleston be- tween the years 1720 and 1730. The first news- paper in the Colony was printed in 1730. The first native of South-Carolina who received a literary degree was Mr. Josiah Smith, who was born in Charleston, in the year 1704, gradu- ated at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, in 1725, and afterwards became a learned and respectable mi- nister of the Presbyterian Church/ The next in- stance of a native of South-Carolina receiving aca- demic honours, was that of Mr. William Bull, who received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, at Leyden, in 1735/ He was followed by Mr. John Moultrie, who received the same degree from j In this seminary there were two instructors; a Principal, -with a sa- lary of £. 400 sterling per annum ; and an Usher, with a salary of £. 209, both paid from the public treasury. These were liberal salaries consider- ing the time and the situation of the colonists. k Mr. Smith published a volume of Sermons in 1752, and several oc- casional discourses before and after. He also maintained a learned dispu- tation, in 1739, with the Rev. Mr. Fisher, on the right of private judg- ment. He closed an useful and honourable life in 1781, in the city of Philadelphia, whither he had been induced to fly during the Revolu- tionary- war. / The name of Dr. Bull was mentioned in a former chapter. On oc- casion of his receiving a medical degree at Leyden, he wrote and de- fended an inaugural dissertation. Be Colica Pkionum. He was afterwards Lieutenant-Governor of South -Carolina. 364- Nations lately become Literary. an University in Europe, in 1749."* Both of these were eminent for literature and medical science. The literary foreigners who came to South-Ca- rolina, at this early period, were numerous. Dr. John Lining, a native of Scotland, and a man of excellent education, came to that Province as early as 1725 or 1730. He was eminent as a phy- sician and philosopher." He corresponded with Dr. Franklin on the subject of Electricity, and was the first person who introduced an Electrical Apparatus into Charleston. Dr. Lionel Chal- mers, who came to the Colony from Great- Britain in the former part of the century, was also much distinguished for medical science, and for his various and extensive knowledge.0 Dr. Alex- ander Garden, also from Great-Britain, about the same time, was deservedly celebrated as a phy- sician and natural historian. Mr. Mark Catesby, an English naturalist, came to South-Carolina in the year 1722, and resided four years in the Co- lony, where he did much for promoting the know- ledge of Botany and Zoology/ To these may be m Dr. Moultrie wrote and defended a dissertation, De Febre Flava.. He was afterwards Lieutenant-Governor of East-Florida. n In 1740 Dr. Lining prosecuted, and afterwards published, a series of judicious statical experiments. And in 1753 he published a History of Yellow Fever, which was the first account of that disease that had been given from the American Continent. o Dr. Chalmers published a valuable work on the Weather and Dis- eases of South-Carolina, London, 1776. But his most respectable and useful work, is an Essay on Fevers, published at Charleston, in 1767. Be- sides these, he made several smaller publications. p Mark Catesby, F.R. S. was born in England, in the year 1679- He had an early and strong propensity to the study of Natural History ; and having some relations in Virginia, he determined to gratify his taste for inquiries of this nature, by exploring a part of the New World. He, therefore, went to that Colony in 1712, where he staid seven years, ad- miring and collecting the productions of the country. During this period he made numerous botanical communications to his friends in Great-Bri- tain. He returned to England in 1719 ; but soon afterwards, encou- raged by Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Sherard, and other naturalists, he determined to make another visit to America, and accordingly embarked for South-Carolina, where he arrived in May, 1722. He now remained four years in the country, exploring Carolina, Georgia, the Floridas, and Nations lately become Literary. 36$ added the Rev. Isaac Chanler, the Rev. Alex- ander Garden, the Rev. Henry Haywood, and the Rev. Richard Clarke, all from England, who settled in Carolina, as clergymen, and be- came conspicuous not only by their learning and talents, but also by means of various publications of more or less value, which yet remain to attest the reality of both.7 But notwithstanding the literary taste, conversa- tion, and writings of these individuals, the insti- tutions formed for the diffusion of knowledge were few in number, and by no means of respectable character. For the first thirty years of the eighteenth century, the Free School before-mentioned was the only grammar school in South-Carolina. For the next forty years there were only three in the Province, and all these were in Charleston, or its vicinity. In 1749 an association was formed in Charleston, for the establishment of a public Li- brary; but it was not till towards the close of the century that this institution grew to any high de- the Bahama islands. Returning to England in 1726, he employed' him- self for a number of years in preparing for publication his great work, entitled, The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Is- lands. The first part of this work appeared in 1730, and it was com- pleted in 1748, in two volumes fojio. He died in London, in 1749. Gro- novius, of Leyden, called a shrub of the Tetrandrous class Catesbea, after him. q The Rev. Isaac Chanler was born at Bristol, in England, in 1701, and came to South-Carolina in 1733. He settled, as Pastor of a Baptist Church, on Ashley River, in 1736, where he continued till his death, in 1749. Besides several smaller works, he published, The Doctrines of Glo- rious Grace unfolded, defended, and practically improved, 4to. Boston, 1744. The Rev. Alexander Garden was a different person from the physi- cian and naturalist of the same name. He made several publications on theological subjects. The Rev. Henry Haywood arrived in Charles- ton, from England, in 1739, from which time, till his death, in 1755, he wag minister to the Socinian Baptists in that city. He translated into English, Dr. Whitby's Treatise on Original Sin; and had prepared for the press a large volume in defence of the Apostolical Constitutions. He published a defence of Dr. Whitby, against Dr. Gill, and also a Catechism. The Rev. Richard Clarke, from England, was an elegant classical scholar. He published several pieces on the Prophecies, and on Universal Redemption. He was for some time Rector of St. Philip's Church la Charleston. 566 Nations lately become Literary. gree of respectability; so that until the Revolu- tionary war it was customary for the more wealthy either to employ private tutors of respectable cha- racter in their families, or to send their sons to fo- reign universities. In one or the other of these ways, a large portion of the best scholars, and most eminent public characters in the State, were formed. While Catesby and Garden were cultivating Natural History in Carolina, this noble branch of science was by no means neglected in some of the other Provinces. Paul Dudley, Esquire, of Massachusetts, at an early period of the century, made some valuable communications to the Royal Society of London, on zoological and botanical subjects. Lieutenant-Governor Golden/ of New- York > before-mentioned, w7as much devoted to the r Cadwallader Colder, Esquire, who has been repeatedly men- tioned in former chapters, was born in. Scotland, February 17, 1688. Ke •was the son of a clergyman ; and after having received the elements of a liberal education under the care of his father, he completed his studies at the University of Edinburgh, in 1705. He afterwards applied him- self to the study of Medicine, and Mathematical Science, until the year 1708, when, allured by the fame of William Penn's Colony, and by the invitation of a relative, he came over to Pennsylvania. There he engaged in the practice of physic, until the year 1715, when he returned to his native country. He staid, however, but a short time in Scotland; for the next year, after forming a matrimonial connection, he came a second time to America, where he spent the remainder of his days. In 1718 he removed to New-York, but soon afterwards relinquished the practice of Physic, and became, in succession, Surveyor-General of the Province, Master in Chancery, Member of the Council, and Lieutenant-Governor. In 1755 he retired with his family to Coldingham,- his seat on the Hud- son, where he spent the greater portion of his after life. Here he par- ticularly devoted himself to Botanical studies, and to a correspondence with learned men in Europe and America. Both he and his Daughter, (also a great Botanist), corresponded with Linnjeus, who, in honour of the latter, called a plant of the Tetrandrous class, Coldenea. This plant Miss Colden had rirV. described. Dr. Colden died in 1776; his prin- cipal publications are, Plant.? Coldinghamenses, in the Acta Upsalensia, for 1743 and 1744. Principles of Action in Matter, &c 4to. London, Dodsley, 1753. The History of the Five Indian Nations, two vols. 12mo. 1?'47, besides several smaller works on Tellovo Fever, On toe Cure of the Cancer, On the Malignant Sore Ihroat, &c. 8cc He was undoubtedly a man of va- rious and extensive learning, of respectable talents, and of great literal/ Industry. See Hardie's Biography, vol. ii. p. 131. Nations lately become Literary. 367 study of Botany, and made important contribu- tions towards a knowledge of American plants; especially of that part of America which was in the vicinity of his residence. Mr. John Bar- tram/ of Pennsylvania, was the first native Ame- rican who conceived and carried into effect the plan of a Botanic Garden/ for the reception and cultivation of indigenous as well as exotic plants, and of travelling for the purpose of accomplishing this plan. He did much to explore the natural his- tory of his native country. Dr. John Mitchell," s Mr. John Bartram was born near Darby, in Chester County, Pennsylvania, in the year 1701. His grandfather, of the same name, had come to the Colony in 1682, with the celebrated William Penn. This self-taught genius early discovered a great thirst for the acquisition of knowledge, and especially of botanical knowledge. He travelled in pursuit of it with unwearied diligence, in various parts of his native country, from Canada to Florida, and made such proficiency in the studr, that Linnjeus is said to have pronounced him the "greatest natural bo- tanist in the world." He corresponded with many of the most distin- guished men of science, both in America and in Europe. He was elected a member of several of the most eminent Societies and Academies abroad ; and was, at length, appointed Botanist to his Britannic Majesty George III. He died in 1777, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. t It cannot be said, that Mr. Bartram formed a Botanic Garden, in the scientific sense of the expression ; but he made a large and valuable collection of plants, on his farm near Philadelphia, which his sons have kept up to the present day. v Dr. John Mitchell, who was mentioned in a former chapter, as having come from England to Virginia early in the last century, appears to have been a man of observation, acuteness, and enterprize, as well as cf learning. His residence in Virginia was chiefly at Urbanna, a small town on the Rappahannock, about seventy-three miles from Richmond. He was a great Botanist, and seems to have paid particular attention to the Hybrid productions. He wrote an useful work on the general prin- ciples of Botany, and containing descriptions of a number of new genera, of plants, which was published in 4io. in 1769. He also wrote, in 1743, an " Essay on the Causes if the different Colours of People in differ nit Cli- mates," which was sent over to Mr. Colli nson, and published in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xliii. p. 102 — 150. Besides these, he pub- lished an " Essay on the Preparations and Uses of the various Kinds of Pot-Ashy Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlv. p. 541 — 563 ; and a " Letter concerning the Force of Electrical Cohesion." Philosophical Transactions, vol. li. p 390. See Pulteney's Sketches of the Progress of Botany, &c. vol. ii. p. 278, &c. It is believed the same man was the author of the Map of North-America, published in 1755, which he accompanied with a large Pamphlet, entitled, " The Contest in America;" and soon followed by another Pamphlet, entitled, " The Present State of Great-Britain and North-America" 1767. See American Husbandry, &c. vol. i.. p. 285. $6 8 Nations lately become Literary. who resided some time in Virginia, and Dr. John1 Clayton," a native of that country, both rendered important services in investigating the botanical treasures of America. To several of these the iovers of natural history owe a large debt of grati- tude ; nor can any one take the most superficial view of the progress of science in America with- out immediately recognizing the extent and the utility of their labours. The controversy respecting the introduction and support of Bishops of the Episcopal Church, in the American Colonies, may be considered as forming an important epocha in the literary history of our country. Every inquiry which induces men of learn- ing and talents to write, and which contributes to form good writers, deserves to be considered as an era in the progress of literature. The controversy above-mentioned was certainly useful in both these respects. It called into action latent talents, and by rousingthe public attention, and interesting the feel- ings of some of the most learned men in the country, it gave rise to a number of publications, and, no doubt, extended the taste for inquiry and reading. In this controversy, the principal writers were Dr. Jonathan Mayhew,w Dr. Charles Chauncey/ u Dr. John Clayton was a native of Virginia, and devoted a long life to the investigation of its botanical riches. He was a private country gentleman, of moderate fortune, and greatly respected by all who knew him. He resided in Gloucester County, about eighteen or twenty miles from the city of Wiliiamsburgh. Clayton's work appears to have been first printed under the following title; " Flora Virginica : Numeri Plan- tarum in Virginia Obser -cat arum, a Johanne Claytono.". 8vo. 1739— • 1743. It was afcerwards published under this title : Joh. Fred. Grono- vii, Flora Virginica, exhibens Plantas quas J. Claytonus observavit, follegit et obtulit, ijfc. Ladg. Bat. 4to. 1762. iv Dr. Mayhew was pastor of the West Church in Boston. He was a man of distinguished learning and talents. His principal work on this subject was written in 1764. x Dr. Charles Chauxcey was born in Boston, in the year 1705, graduated at Harvard College in 1721 ; was installed pastor of the First Church in Boston in 1727 ; in which station he continued till 1787 ; when he was removed by death. Dr. Chauncey was descended from the cele- brated man of the same name, who, in the days of Archbishop Laub, Natiojis lately become Literary. 369 Mr. East Apthorp/ and Dr Henry Ganer, of Massachusetts; Dr. Samuei Johnson, Dr. Sa- muel SeaBury/ Rev. Mr. Hobart, Dr. Welles," and Mr. Beach, of Connecticut; William Liv- ingston,6 Esq. and Dr. Myles Cooper/ of New- came to New-England, became President of Harvard College, and was much celebrated fi r his erudition, and especially for his acquaintance with Oriental literature. His descendant, of whom we are speaking, was also a man of strong mind, and extensive learning, and eminently distin- guished for his firmness and integrity. Besides several things which he wrote on the American Episcopate, he published a treatise on The Bene- vtolence of the Deity. 1724. Five Dissertations on the Fall and its Conse- quences. h'S5. And a work, entitled, The Salvation of all Men. 1/85. y The Rev. East Apthorp was, for a considerable time, the Rector of an Episcopal Church in Cambridge, near Boston. He left America in the course of the .revolutionary war. Besides what he published in his own country, he has made at least one publication since he resided in England, on the deisrical controversy, which is an honourable testimony both of his learning and talents. z The Rev. Samuel Seabury was Rector of an Episcopal church at New-London, in Connecticut, where he held a station among his clerical brethren of high respectability and influence. He was afterwards Bishop of the Episcopal Church in that State ; and was the first of this order that ever resided in America. Besides smaller tracts, he published, during his life, two volumes oi Sermons, which show him to have possessed a vigor- ous and well informed mind. A supplementary volume of Sermons, se- lected from his manuscripts, was published in 1798, two qr three years after his death. a The Rev. Mr. Hobart, and the Rev. Dr. Welles, were Congre- gational ministers of great distinction in Connecticut, the former resid- ing at Fairfield, and the latter at Stamford. They both took an active part in the controversy respecting the American Episcopate, and wrote ably on the subject. The Rev. Mr. Beach was an Episcopal clergyman, and was considered by those who espoused the cause, in support of which he embarked, as a respectable advocate of his Church. 6 William Livingston, LL. D. was a member of a family which emigrated from North-Britain, and which has, for more than a century, held a respectable and important station in New-York. He was born about the year 1723, and graduated at Yale College in 1741. After sus- taining some important offices in New-York, his native State, he removed into New-Jersey, and was ihe first Governor of that State after the de- claration of Independence. He continued to fill this office with great ho- nour to himself, and with great usefulness to the State, till the time of his death in 1790. Mr. Livingston made a variety of publications, besides those which related to the question of an American Episcopate, all of which indicate genius, taste, and learning. He was possessed of uncom- mon strength, discrimination, and vivacity of mind. Proposals have been lately made for publishing his works in several volumes. c The Rev. Myles Cooper was a native of England, and received his education at the University of Oxford. He succeeded Dr. Samuel Johnson, as President of King's College, which office he held a number of years. He maintained a literary character of considerable eminence. VOL. II. 3B 370 Nations lately become Literary, York; Dr. Chandler, of New- Jersey; Dr. Wil-» liam Smith, of Pennsylvania; and Mr. Boucher* of Maryland. From the middle of the century* to the commencement of the revolutionary war* this subject engaged much attention, and employed many pens in the American Colonies/ The establishment of the Medical School in Phi- ladelphia'forms an important era in the progress of American science. Before this time, there were no means of completing a regular medical educa- tion in the American Colonies, and all who wished to obtain such an education, were under the ne- cessity of going to Europe for the purpose. Hence, when the plan of a medical school was formed in Philadelphia, it became an object of peculiar im- portance and interest in the view of all who wished well to the improvement of the country. The plan was formed by Dr. William Shippen, and Dr. John Morgan, both natives of Pennsyl- vania, and began to be executed in the year 1764. In that year Dr. Shippen gave the first course of lectures upon Anatomy that was ever delivered in America. In 1765, Dr. Morgan began to give a course of public instruction on the Institutes of Medicine. In 1768, Dr. Adam Kuhn, also a native of Pennsylvania, and a favourite pupil of the celebrated Linnjeus, commenced a system of lectures on Botany and Materia Medica; and in 1769, Dr. Benjamin Rush, who had just returned from the University of Edinburgh, began to lec- ture on Chemistry. These lectures, which were delivered by the aforesaid gentlemen, as Professors of the College of Philadelphia, were all of them the first attempts of the kind which had been d The Rev. Drs. Rodgers, Mason, Laidlie, and Inglis, all of New-York, also wrote and published on the subject of the American Epis- copate, but less formally and extensively than the persons mentioned- above. « See vol. i. p. 320. Nations lately become Literary. 371 made upon any regular plan, on this side of the Atlantic. The medical school, thus formed, soon became an object of public attention ; was resorted to by pupils from different parts of the then Colo- nies ; has been since gradually increasing; and, at present, not only holds the first rank among simi- lar institutions in the United States, but will bear a very honourable comparison with some of the best medical seminaries in Europe. In 1767, an attempt was also made to establish a medical school in King's College, in the city of New-York/ Professors were appointed by the Governors of that institution, to teach the various branches of medical science ; and a few courses of lectures were given; but the design was not pur- sued with so much success as in Pennsylvania; it was wholly set aside by the revolutionary war, and did not revive again to any purpose, until the year 1792, when it was established on a new and better foundation, as was stated in another place, and now holds the second rank among the medi- cal schools of the United States. The institution of the Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, also deserves to be noticed among the events favourable to the progress of know- ledge in America, which took place about this time. Dr. Benjamin Franklin was the father of this institution; but he was ably assisted and supported in his exertions for its establishment, by the Rev. Drs. Ewing and Smith, by the me- dical and other Professors of the College of Phila- delphia, and by a number of the friends to litera- ture and science, then residing in that city. The Association was organized in 1769; and none who are acquainted with the progress of science in America need to be informed, that it has been f See vol. i. p. 321 372 Nations lately become Literary. signally useful in exciting a thirst for knowledge in our country, in calling into view scientific ac- quirements which were before hidden; and in pro- ducing a laudable emulation, not only among its. members, but also among other friends of learning in the remotest parts of the United States/ The Transit of Venus, as it happened in the year 1769, gave occasion to the exertion and developement of a considerable portion of that mathematical and astronomical skill which ex- isted in our country, but had hitherto been little displayed. This phenomenon attracted much at- tention in the American Colonies ; great prepara- tions were made for observing it ; and the observa- tions published by several philosophers on this side the Atlantic, were considered in Europe as highly honourable to themselves, and useful to the cause of science. The talents displayed on this occasion by the Rev. Dr. John Ewing,* Dr. David Rit- g This Institution, in 1771, consisted of about two hundred and fifty- five members. Of these, one hundred and fifty-seven were inhabitants of Pennsylvania? ten of Massachusetts; two of Rhode-Island ; four of Con- necticut; eleven of New-York; eleven of New-Jersey; three of Dela- ware ; five of Maryland ; four of Virginia ; five of South-Carolina ; one of Georgia; tea of the West-India Islands, and twenty-five of Europe. /.) The Rev. John Ewing, D. D. was born in East-Nottingham, in Ma- ryland, June 22, 1732. His classical studies were begun under Dr. Al- ilisox, at Nevv-London. He afterwards went to the College of New- Jersey, where he graduated in 1755. In 1759, he received a call to take the pastoral charge of the first Presbyterian Church in the city of Phila- delphia, which he accepted, and remained in this station during the whole of his after life. In 1773 he went to Great-Britain and Ireland, on a mission to solicit benefactions for the Academy at New-Ark, in De- laware, which was before-mentioned. During this visit, he formed an acquaintance with some of the most distinguished characters in those countries, and maintained a correspondence with them long afterwards. In 1779 he was chosen Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, which office, as well as his pastoral charge, he retained till his death. In all the branches of science usually taught in Seminaries of learning, more particularly in Mathematics, Astronomy, and every branch of Na- tural Philosophy ; in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, and in Logic, Metaphysics, and Moral Philosophy, he was probably one of the most accurate and profound scholars which his country can boast of hav- ing reared. He died in 1802, in the seventy-first year of his age, after having held, for near half a century, a distinguished place among the literati of America,. Those who wish to receive more particular infor- Nations lately become Literary. 37$ tenhouse,1' the Rev. Dr. Smith, Dr. Hugh Wil- liamson, and several others, of Pennsylvania ; l>y Mr. Benjamin West, of Rhode-Island ; by Pro- fessor Win throp/ of Massachusetts; and by some other American Astronomers, are too well known nation concerning the life, accomplishments, and publications of this great man, will be gratified with the perusal of a Discourse delivered on occasion ,f bit Death, by the Rev. John Blair Linn, D. D. a cc n.pre- hensive and eloquent eulcgium, which does honour to the Author, as well as to the Object of his panegyric. t David Rittenhouse, LL.D. F. R. S. was born a* German- town, near Philadekihif, AprilS, 1732. He was not favoured with a regular Academic education, but he was endued with a genius which rose above all difficulties, and which soon entitled him to a place among the most distinguished ornaments of his country. He early discovered a fondness for Mathematical and Astronomical inquiries, and was indulged by his parents in learning the trade of a clock and mathematical instru- ment-maker, in which he was his own instructor. While he resided with his father, in the country, he made himself maser of Newton's /V// The Hon. James Bowdoin, afterwards Governor of the Common- wealth, and a man of taste and science, was the first President of the American Academy. He was also a liberal benefactor to the institution, and continued to preside over it with honour until his death, in 1790. Ano- ther conspicuous benefactor to this association was Josiah Quincy, Esquire, a learned and eloquent counsellor, a distinguished patriot, and an able political writer. To these may be added, the Hon. John Adams, late President of the United States, and now President of the Academy, and Dr. Franklin, who also made important donations to the institu- tion. But the greater part of the funds of the Academy consist of five thousand dollars, presented to it by our illustrious countryman Count Rum ford, who, in 1796, made a donation of the above sum, the interest of which is to be applied and given once every second year, as a premium to the author of the most important discovery, or useful improvement, which shall be made known to the public in any part of the Continent of America, or in any of the American islands, during the preceding two years, on Light or on Heat. u The family of Phillips, in Massachusetts and New-Hampshire, has been long distinguished for its great wealth, and also, for its love of religion and literature. A complete history of the munificence exer- cised towards public institutions at different times, by the members of this family, would probably furnish an amount of benefactions seldom equalled pi this country. S82 Nations lately become Liter art;. Academy in the town in wh'ch he resided. In this laudable undertaking he was aided by his brothers, the Honourable John Phillips, LL.D. of Exeter* and William Phillips, Esq. of Boston. Not long afterwards the former of these brothers founded, and very richly endowed an Academy at Exeter, the place of his residence. Both these academies are called by the name of the family to whom they owe their existence; both continue to grow in respectability and usefulness, and are likely long to remain monuments of the noble and distin- guished public spirit which gave them birth.™ Immediately on the return of peace, a College was established in the town of Carlisle, in Penn- sylvania. This institution received the name of Dickinson College, being called after the celebrated statesman and political writer, John Dickinson, Esq. who was its most liberal benefactor* Doctor Rush also, and several other gentlemen of distinc- tion in Pennsylvania, were among the most active friends and promoters of this establishment. Soon after the Charter for this College was obtained, the Rev. Dr, Charles Nisbet, of Montrose, in Scotland, was called to be its President. He ac- cepted the invitation, and in the year 1784 arrived in America. It is scarcely necessary to say, that the eminent talents, and profound and general learning of this gentleman, were considered as an important acquisition to the literary interests of our country, and that he soon contributed to raise the character of the institution. From this period to the close of the century he continued to preside over it with usefulness and honour. Seminaries of learning began now to multiply ra^- pidly. From the peace of 1783 to the close of 1800, iv In furnishing instances of individual liberality to public institutions) it is believed that Massachusetts exceeds all the other States. Na (ions lately become Literary. 383 there were seventeen Colleges founded in the United States, viz. two in Massachusetts, one in Vermont, one in New- York, two in Pennsylvania, four in Maryland, one in North- Carolina, three in South- Carolina, one in Georgia, one in Kentucky, and one in Tennessee. Besides these, Academies, dur- ing this period, were multiplied almost without number. Indeed, it may be questioned whether seminaries of the higher order have not been made so numerous in many parts of our country, as to produce effects directly the reverse of what were intended. It is as possible to have too many col- leges, as it is to have too many lazvs, or too many books. The institution of these academies was soon followed by the organization of a new Medical School attached to the University of Cambridge, in Massachusetts. This event took place in 1783, when the first Professors were appointed, and the first system of medical lectures delivered in that Commonwealth. The Governors of the University were enabled to effect this establishment by means of several generous donations, made for this par- ticular purpose, by Dr. Ezekiel Hersey, an en- lightened and opulent physician of Hingham; by his widow, a few years afterwards ; by his brother, Dr. Abner Hersey, of Barnstable; by Dr, John Citmming, of Concord; and by William Erving, Esq. of Boston/ The several Professorships bear the names of their respective founders; and while they exhibit monuments of laudable beneficence, x Dr. Ezekiak Hersey gave£. 1000 Massachusetts currency, to ba applied to the support of a Professor of Anatomy and Surgery; his widow a like sum, for the same purpose ; his brother, Dr. A. Hersey, £.500, for the encouragement and support of medical instruction ; Dr. Cimmixg, a like sum to be applied to the same object; and William Ervixg, Esq. £. 1000, to be devoted to the support of a Professorship of CkeviLtry and Materia Medica. These several sums, amounting to between 13000 and 14000 dollars, are funded, and their annual proceeds devoted to ths objects directed by the donors. 584 Nations lately become Literary. have proved highly useful in the diffusion of sci- ence/ In 1783 Mr. Noah Webster, of Connecticut, published the first part of his Grammatical Insti- tute of the English Language? This was soon fol- lowed by two other parts of the same work; by Dissertations on the English Language, and by seve- ral other publications from the same pen. The in- fluence of this gentleman in promoting a taste for philological inquiries and good writing among his countrymen; the general introduction of his In- stitute into the schools of America; and the exten- sive utility of his learned labours, are well known, and are worthy of particular notice in tracing the literary history of our country. The establishment of the Federal Government, in 1789, may be considered as the last grand epocha in the progress of knowledge in America. From this period public tranquillity and confidence began to rest on a foundation more solid than before ; wealth flowed in on every side; the extension of our intercourse with Europe, the great seat of ci- vilization, refinement and literature, rendered us every day more familiar with trans-atlantic produc- tions and improvements; and a sense of national dignity and independence becoming gradually more strong and general, all conspired to furnish y The author takes pleasure in acknowledging, in this place, his obli- gations to his friend, the Rev. Dr. Eliot, of Boston, for a large por- tion of the information he is able to give respecting the literature of Massachusetts. From a mind so well stored on the subject of American antiquities, he might have drawn much more ample materials, had appli- cation been made early enough to admit of a leisurely attention to the ob- ject. z This work was begun the autumn of 1782, and published in the spring of 1783, at Hartford. The success which has attended it, not- withstanding so many other Spelling Books and Grammars have solicited, public favour since it appeared, at once does honour to the Author, and shows, that education is by no means neglected in America. At the be- ginning of the year 1801, more, than one million and an half of copies of this work had been sold, Nations lately become Literary. 385 the means, and to excite an ambition for enriching our own country with the treasures of knowledge. From this time till the end of the century, literary institutions of various kinds were multiplied with astonishing rapidity in the United States. Besides Colleges, Academies, and subordinate Schools, Scientific Associations were formed; Libraries be- gan to be established in the most remote parts of the country; Printing Presses and Bookstores ap- peared in great numbers where they were never before known; Newspapers became numerous to a degree beyond all precedent; and the rewards of literary labour, though still too small, were considerably augmented. The establishment of the Historical Society of Massachusetts, in 1791; of the Medical Schools of New-Hampshire and Kentucky, in 1798; of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, in* 1799; and of the numerous Medical and Agricultural Societies in almost every part of the United States, within a few years past, deserve particular notice, and form interesting items in the annals of our literary progress. At the beginning of the century there were two Colleges in the American Colonies. At the close of it there were twenty-five ; from which it may be estimated that four hundred students are annually sent forth, with academic honours. At the be- ginning of the century the number of Academies was small; and even these were on a comparatively narrowr plan, and were ill attended by students; but at the close of it, the number of these insti- tutions had become so great, in almost every State in the Union, especially in the Eastern and Middle States, that it would be difficult to form a tolera- bly correct estimate of their number. At the commencement of the century there were but tzvo public Libraries in the American Colonies : these belonged to Harvard College, and to the Province VOL. II. 3 D 386 Nations lately become Literary. of South-Carolina, and were very small/ Since that period the number has increased to many' hundreds, and is every year becoming still greater.6 Private Libraries have also become numerous and extensive in a still more remarkable degree. At the commencement of the period under re- view, there were but three ox four Printers in the American Colonies; and these carried on their business upon a very small scale, and in a very coarse, inelegant manner. But at present the number of Printers in the United States may be considered as near three hundred; and many of these perform their work with a neatness and ele- gance which are rarely exceeded in Europe. At that time the printing an original American work, even a small pamphlet, was a rare occurrence, and seriously weighed, as an important undertaking; while the reprinting of foreign works was seldom attempted. But. now at least one hundred Ameri- can works, some of which are large and respecta- ble,'annually issue from our presses; and the re- publication of foreign books is carried on in almost every part of our country, and particularly in the capital towns, with a degree of enterprize, and to an extent which would not disgrace some of the most cultivated parts of the European world. Before the revolutionary war the Booksellers m the American Colonies were few, and carried on their business on a contracted plan. Since that time their number has increased more than fifty fold; and the extent of their annual sales, perhaps, a In the seventeenth century, some of the Congregational Churches in Massachusetts began to form Church Libraries. These were considerably numerous and useful; and some of them remain till the present day. The use of these Libraries, however, was chiefly confined to the particular congregations whose property they were. b The number of incorporated Libraries in Massachusetts is said to b« abouc one hundred. The number in the other Eastern States is not known j biK institutions of this kind are far more numerous in New-England thai} in any c.her part of cur country. Nations lately become Literary. T>87 in a still greater proportion/ Thirty years ago, he who undertook to dispose of a moderately large edition, even of a Spelling-book, considered him- self as engaging in a hazardous cnterprizc. Ed in 1790, a single bookseller thought himself war- ranted in attempting an American edition of the Encyclopccdia Britanniea, in eighteen quarto vo- lumes, and completely succeeded in making it a profitable undertaking/ And since the last-men- tioned year, a number of works extending to many volumes have been carried through American pres- ses, with great ease and readiness. The first edition of the Bible ever printed in America was that by the Rev. John Eliot, the celebrated Apostle of the Indians, in the language of the Natieks. This monument of pious labour was first printed at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, in 1664, and a second edition at the same place sixteen years afterwards. From this period till near the close of the revolutionary war, at so low an ebb was the book-trade in our country, that we hear of no attempt to print an edition of the Bible on this side of the Atlantic. About the year 1781, Mr. Robert Attken, of Philadelphia, undertook to present the American public with a duodecimo edition of the Sacred Scriptures. This laudable undertaking was executed, but with great difficul- ty, arising from the peculiar situation of the coun- try at that time/ But within the last eighteen or c In 1802, the German plan of disposing of books by means of Literary Fairs, -was adopted in the United States. The first Book-fair was held in New-York ; and it is proposed, in future, to hold them statedly in that city. It is believed that Mr. Matkew Carey, a well informed and enterprizing bookseller of Philadelphia, was one of the first who suggested the propriety and utility of the undertaking, which has so far happily suc- ceeded, and bids fair to be highly useful, both to the book-trade and to the cause of literature. d The person here alluded to is Mr, Thomas Doeson, of Philadelphia, an intelligent and respectable bookseller, who has probably contributed as much as any individual in his line to the promotion of American literature. e Immediately after the publication of this edition of the Bible, pea£$ 383 Nations lately become Literary. twenty years, undertakings of this kind have be- come so numerous and so familiar, that the impor- tation of Bibles for the supply of the American market, though not entirely, has in a great measure ceased. The first quarto edition of the Bible printed in the United States was in the year 1791, by Mr. Isaac Collins, then residing at Trenton, in New-Jersey. In a few months afterwards, ano- ther quarto edition was published by Mr. Isaiah Thomas, of Worcester, in Massachusetts; who, in the same year, laid before the public the first folio edition of the Holy Scriptures that was printed in the United States. Since that time several folio editions of the Bible, and a number of quarto editions, have been printed in our country, and begin to be considered by our printers and book- sellers as small and easy undertakings. Those kinds of literary productions which have been most common and most successful in the United States, are theological and political works, and those intended for the use of schools. For the first we are indebted to that seriousness and taste for religious inquiry which prevails in New-Eng- land, and in a considerable, though less degree, in the Middle and Southern States. The almost uni- versal taste for the second class of books we owe to the nature of our government, which is emi- nently calculated to foster, to bring forward, and to display political talents, and to excite the at- tention of every class of citizens to political inqui- ries. And the general encouragement given to productions of the last-mentioned kind arises from that disposition to attend to the education of chil- dren, which has long characterized the Eastern took place, when it was soon found that Bibles could be imported from Great -Britain cheaper than it was possible to print them here. Mr. Ait- kEN, therefore, not obtaining a ready sale for his edition, which had been carried on with great difficulty, was nearly mined by the undertaking, Nations latch) become Literary. 389 States, and which, during the last ten years of the century under review, rapidly extended itself through every part of the Union. The School establishments' of New-England, es* pecially in the States of Massachusetts and Con- necticut/ though they took their rise in the seven* teenth century, yet underwent such modifications, and received so many improvements in the eigh- teenth, that it would be improper to pass them without notice in this retrospect.^ These establish- ments have been carried to such a degree of per- fection, that in New-England, and particularly in the two States above-mentioned, scarcely an indi- vidual can be found, of either sex, who has not been instructed in reading, writing and arithmetic) and who does not habitually read more or less in newspapers, and a few of the best books on reli- gion and morality. Attempts have been made in some of the Middle and Southern States to adopt similar plans of general education; but though much has been done, in several of these States, towards rendering the elements of English litera- ture a boon within the reach of all classes in the community, yet, the habits of the people not be- ing so favourable to the diffusion of knowledge, and their characters and manners being less homo- geneous, they have made less progress towards maturing and perfecting their school establish- ments than the Eastern States. /"The School system of Connecticut is generally considered the mosk^er- feet in the United States. The parish Schools in that State amount to at ieast twelve hundred, containing, on an average, forty Scholars each, oir forty-eight thousand in the whole. Next to that of Connecticut, in point of excellence, we may place the School system of Massachusetts. The num# ber of Schools in that State is not known to the Author. He presumes, however, that it cannot be less than in Connecticut. g The Author takes pleasure in acknowledging his obligation to Noah Webster, jun. Esquire, for some valuable information respecting the Jiterature of Connecticut during the eighteenth century; and especially for a more satisfactory account of the School establishments in that Stale Jtjian he had before revived. 390 Nations lately become Literary. It may not be improper to take notice of some of those branches of science and literature which have been most cultivated in the United States; and also of the names of those who have been principally distinguished by their attention to these objects. In Mathematics, Astronomy, and the more ab- struse departments of Mechanical Philosophy, our country has been distinguished to a degree which, all things considered, is highly honourable to American genius and diligence. The names of Greenwood, Winthrop, Bowdoin/ Willard, Fobes, and others of Massachusetts; 'of West, of Rhode-Island; of Clap, and Mansfield, of Con- necticut; of William Alexander, commonly called Lord Stirling,' of New-Jersey; of God- frey, RlTTENHOUSE, EwiNG, WlLLIAMSON, PaT- terson, and Ellicott, of Pennsylvania ; and of Madison, Page, and several more of Virginia, are so well and so respectably known, that it is unnecessary to enlarge on their merits/ Besides h James Bowdoix, LL. B. F. R. S. was born in Eoston, Massachu- setts, August 18, 1727'. His father was a native of France, and fled among the persecuted Protestants of that country, first to Ireland, and af- terwards to New-England, where he arrived in the year 1688. His son James, the object of our present attention, was educated at Harvard Col- lege, where he received his first degree in 1745. After filling some im- portant stations in public life, he was chosen Governor of Massachusetts in 1785 and 1786. He died in 1790, greatly and generally respected. Those who have perused the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, will recollect the several papers contained in them, which manifest no common taste and talents in astronomical inquiries. i William Alexander, Esq. was a native of the city of New-York, but spent a considerable part of his life in New-Jersey. He was considered, by many, as the rightful heir to the title and estate of an Earldom in Scot- land, of which country his father was a native ; and although when he went to North-Britain in pursuit of this inheritance, he failed of obtaining an acknowledgment of his claim by government ; yet, among his friends and acquaintances, he received, by courtesy, the title of Lord Stirling. He discovered an early fondness for the study of Mathematics and Astronomy 5 and attained great eminence in these sciences. j The Author, in this list, has only introduced the names of such Ma- thematicians, Astronomers, &,c. as, by means of some publication or other display of their learning and talents, appeared to him to have made them- selves more than usually known. He is sensible that a number of tha Nations lately become Literary. 391 the learning and talents of these native citizens, Lieutenant-Governor Colden, mentioned in seve- ral former chapters, and Professor Minio/' both of North-Britain, deserve, among many others, to be mentioned with honour, as having contributed to the cultivation of mathematical and astronomi- cal science in our country. Chemical Philosophy has also been cultivated in the United States with a zeal and success worthy of respectful notice. The first course of instruc- tion in Chemistry ever attempted in America, was in the year 1769, by Dr. Benjamin Rush, about that time appointed Professor of this branch of science in the College of Philadelphia. -rTo Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, of Xew-York, the honour is due of having first publicly taught, in an Ame- rican Seminary, the system of Chemistry digested and published by Lavoisier and his associates. This was. in a course of Lectures delivered by him in Columbia College, in the year 1792, as a Pro- fessor in that institution : and his various publica- tions and numerous experiments on the subject, from that time to the present, have doubtless con- tributed to extend the taste for chemical inquiries. Dr. Mitchill was soon followed by Dr. AVood- house, of Philadelphia, Dr. Maclean, of Prince- Professors of these branches of knowledge in our Colleges, both native citizens and foreigners, scand high in the estimation of all who know them ; and though not brought so immediately before the public, yet possess, per- haps, a degree of erudition and skill, little, if at all inferior to those posses- sed by the persons above named k Walter Minto, LL. D. was a native of Scotland, and received a liberal education in that country. Early in life he visited Italy, and spent a number of years at Pisa, pursuing, with great diligence, his mathema- tical and astronomical studies. Soon after the close of the revolufionary war, he came to America, and about the year 178/ , was appointed Pro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in the College cf Xev-^fenej. Jn this situation he was respected and useful. He was, be) ond all doubt, a great Mathematician and Astronomer, as appears from his fiesearcbe* into some Parts of the Theory of the Planets, &c. 8vo. London, 1, 83 ; and also from his Oration on the Progress and Importance of tie M~at>jc+)nati*;i: Science*, be. 1788. He died about the year : . 392 Nations lately become Literary. ton, Dr. Dexter, of Cambridge, and, in a few years afterwards, by several others, in different parts of the continent. This department of phy- sical science is much more studied in the Middle and Southern States than in New-England. The arrival of Dr. Priestley in the United States gave a spring to the study of Chemistry on this side of the Atlantic. This celebrated Philo- sopher possesses an ardour and activity of mind, which are eminently fitted to influence those with whom he has any intercourse, and to draw the public attention to the objects which he pursues. And although he still adheres to a system of doc- trines which a great majority of Chemists consider as erroneous, yet his numerous experiments and publications on the subject since he has resided in the United States, have contributed to excite a spirit of inquiry, and to improve the public taste for chemical philosophy. The votaries of Natural History in the United States, though not numerous, are respectable, and have rendered important services to this branch of science. Besides those of this class whose names were mentioned in preceding pages, a few others are entitled to particular notice. The Rev. Dr. Cutler, Mr. Peck, and Dr. Wateriiouse, of Massachusetts; Dr. Mitchill, of New- York; the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, and Mr. Marshall, of Pennsylvania; and Mr. Walter/ of South-Caro- lina, are all advantageously knovvn by their pub- lications on different branches of Natural History. But, among the natural historians now living in / Thomas Walter was a native of England, a man of liberal educa- tion, and much devoted to Botany. Ke settled in South-Carolina, a few miles from the city of Charleston, where he resided a number of years as a planter, and where he died towards the close of the eighteenth century. He published his Flora Carolir.iana in 1788. He introduced a new species of grass, from which much was expected ; but it did not stand the test of time. Nations lately become Literary. 395 the United States, Professor Barton, of Phila- delphia, undoubtedly holds the first rank. His various works evince a closeness of observation, an accuracy of inquiry, an extent of learning, and a vigour and comprehensiveness of mind, which are equally honourable to their possessor, and to his country. Should his life and health be spared, he bids fair to attain a place among the most ac- complished scientific naturalists of the nineteenth century. In the science of Medicine, our country has pre- sented specimens of learning and talents of the most honourable kind. It may be questioned whether this science is cultivated more zealously or more successfully in any part of the world than in America; or whether any Medical School in Europe furnishes, on the whole, greater advantages to the student than that of Philadelphia/" The spring which was given to the study of medicine within the last ten years of the eighteenth century, in the United States, deserves to be noticed as very- remarkable. This was effected, not only by the writings of several distinguished American Physi- cians, among whom Dr. Rush holds the first place, and to whom Medical Science on this side of the Atlantic owes a large debt of gratitude; but also, and perhaps more especially, by the unprecedented frequency with which our country has been visited, during this time, by pestilential diseases, which have roused the attention and called forth the ta- lents of our Physicians, and led to investigations, to vi It is not contended, that the advantages to be enjoyed in the medical school at Philadelphia are equal to those furnished by the clinical lec- tures and practice, in the numerous and large Hospitals of London, and the still more numerous courses of Lectures, delivered by private instruc- tors in that city. It is only meant to be asserted, that no regular medical school, connected with any University of Europe, offers to the student better means of medical instruction than those which may be enjoyed in Philadelphia. yOL. II, 3E 394 Nations lately become Literary. an interchange of opinions, and to a publication of the results of their inquiries, which were never so general before. In the Mechanic Arts, so far as respects the in- genuity of individuals, and the important service rendered by numerous inventions and improve- ments, America yields to no nation under heaven. Perhaps, considering the amount of our popula- tion, and the peculiar circumstances of our people, we have furnished even a greater number of these inventions and improvements than our just propor- tion. On this subject, as it would be difficult to enter into details without exceeding all convenient limits; so there can be no doubt that a number of instances, abundantly sufficient to support the as- sertion here made, will readily occur to every reader. The Quadrant, by Godfrey 5 the Orrery, by Rittenhouse; the Machinery for manufactur- ing Cards, by Whittemore; and that for manu- facturing Fire-arms, by Whitney, form but a very small number of the large list that might be presented. Of talents in the Fine Arts, America has been less productive. But we have satisfactory evidence that this arises not so much from the want of native genius, as from the want of cultivation and en- couragement of the genius we possess. The names of West, Trumbull, Copely, and Stuart, are more than sufficient to rescue their country from any imputations of deficiency on this head, When we pass on to Theology, the noblest and most important of all sciences, it will be found, that, on this subject, America may claim high distinction. To omit many names of less note, the theological writings of President Edwards, and of the Rev. Dr. Hopkins, have excited much attention in the religious world. The former, in particular, deserves, perhaps, to be considered as Nations lately become Liicrarij. One of the greatest divines that ever lived. Besides many Tracts of high reputation, on detached points of theology, and which have been well received, not only in America, but also in Europe; a num- ber of volumes of Sermons have been produced by our countrymen, which show, that the eloquence of the pulpit is by no means neglected. The first volume of Sermons ever published in America, that had any just claim to correctness and elegance of style, wras printed in Boston, in the year 1727, by Ebenezer Pemberton, pastor of a Church in that town. Since that time, the collections of Sermons, by President Davies," Dr. Lathrop, Dr. Seabury, President Smith> Dr. Linn, Dr. Strong, Dr. Clarke, Dr. Emmons, and several others, of different kinds and degrees of merit, have received much public approbation.0 In the Philosophy of the Human Mind, the eigh- teenth century did not produce a greater effort of genius, than the Treatise on the Will, by President ft Rev. Samuel Davies was born In the County of Newcastle, in the State of Delaware, November 3, 1724. He received the greater part of his academic and theological education under the care of the Rev. Mr. Samuel Blair, of Fog's Manor, in Pennsylvania, and was licensed to preach the gospel, by the Presbytery of Newcastle, about the year 1745. Soon after this event, he travelled into Virginia, where he settled in the rainistry, in Hanover County, and remained there in an extensive sphere. of usefulness, and highly respected for a number of years. In 1753, he was chosen by the Synod of New-York, at the solicitation of the Trustees of New-Jersey College, to accompany the Rev. Gileert Texxext on a mission to Great-Britain and Ireland, to solicit benefactions for said College. In 1759, he was elected to succeed Mr. Edwards in the Presi- dency of that institution. In this station he remained but eighteen months, being removed by death in January, KT61, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. The genius, taste, learning, and eminent piety of President Davies, have been so much celebrated, that it is unnecessary to dwell on them here. His Sermons, in three volumes, were first published in 1765. Then uncommon merit is well known. They have undergone a number of im- pressions. o Besides the more formal volumes of Sermons above mentioned, it would be easy to select smaller collections of discourses on particular sub- jects, which do honour to the genius, learning, and taste of their respective authors; and the single Sermons of merit are much more numerous; but it is obviously impossible to indulge such minute details, consistently with the reouisite brevity. 396 Nations lately become Literary. Edwards. And perhaps it may be asserted, that within the last thirty years a fondness for metaphy- sical subtleties and refined speculations has remark- ably characterized the theological publications, particularly in the Eastern States of America. In Classic Literature, the United States have given birth to little that can be deemed remarkable. The first translation of a classic author ever made and published in America was by James Logans several times before mentioned, who, in 1744, published a version of Cicero's treatise De Senec- iute, with explanatory notes, Since that time several works of a similar kind have been executed in the United States. Among many others who might be mentioned as distinguished for their classic learning and taste, it would be improper to omit the name of Charles Thomson, Esq/ late Secretary of the American Congress. The erudi- tion and skill of this gentleman, especially in Greek literature, do honour to our country. He has com- pleted a translation of the Sepluagint version of the Old Testament Scriptures, and of the Original of the New Testament, which the friends of Bib- lical literature in America hope soon to see pub- lished; and which, in the opinion of good judges^ will be a valuable acquisition to sacred criticism. Of Oriental Literature, the votaries in America have been few, and of the fruits of their erudition little has been laid before the public. With regard^ indeed, both to Classic and Oriental literature, our country has rather lost than gained ground within the last hundred years. For though a greater num- ber of persons now gain a smattering of classic lite- rature than at the beginning of the century; yet of p This gentleman received the rudiments of his education at the Aca- demy of Dr. Francis Allison, before mentioned, where he was asso- ciated in study with Dr. Ewing, Governor M'Kean, and a number of €>ther Americans of literary distinction. Nations lately become Literary, 39^ those who pay attention to this study, much fewer are deeply and thoroughly instructed. And with respect to Oriental learning, those who have any tolerable acquaintance with it in the United States are rare indeed. To the names of those Amerxans mentioned in former parts of this work, who were distinguished by their knowledge of the Hebrew language, that of the Rev. JDr. S tiles, President of Yale College, may be added. At the time of his death, he probably left no superior among his countrymen in this branch of literature.7 It has been asserted, and probably with truth, that in Political science, and in Parliamentary eld- cjuence, the United States will bear a very honour- able comparison with any nation. Besides the eminent political writers mentioned in a former page, the names of Adams, Hamilton, Madison, Jay, and several other native citizens, are known and celebrated in Europe. In addition to these^ many Counsellors and Juridical characters might be enumerated, w7ho not only hold a high station among: ourselves, but who would also be considered as ornaments of the bar and the bench, in the most enlightened countries of Europe. The Historians of America were enumerated q Ezra Stiles, D. D. and LL. D. was born at North-Haven, in Connecticut, December 10, 1727. He was educated at Yale College, where he received the degree of A. B. in the year 1T46. He was ordained to the work of the Gospel ministry, and installed Pastor of a Church at Newport, Rhode-Island, in 1755; and was chosen President of the Col- lege at which he had received his education in 1777 ; in which important office he continued till his death, in 1795. Dr. Si ii.es was one of the most learned men that our country ever produced. He had a great amount of general knowledge, but he was particularly attached to Oriental litera- ture. Besides an acquaintance with the Hebrew language more than commonly extensive and profound, very few on this side of "he Atlantic ever made so great progress in the knowledge of the Arabic, Cbaldakr, Syriac, and Samaritan dialects ; and on the Persic and Coptic he had be- stowed some attention. He corresponded with learned Rabbis in the Hebrew language, and revived the study of it in the College over which he presided. For upwards of thirty years he held a distinguished place among the active friends and promoters of literature in the United States, 398 Nations lately become Literary. in a former chapter, and some references made to their respective merits.'' None of them, indeed* can boast of having attained that elaborate polish, and that exquisite felicity of manner which dis- tinguish the first class of English historians. But the most of them are respectable writers ; and several have acquitted themselves in a manner which does credit to their taste in composition, as well as to their fidelity in collecting and commu- nicating information/ The respectable Poets of America are not nume- rous. The most conspicuous of these were noticed in a preceding division of this work/ It is not necessary here to repeat their names, or to attempt a comparative estimate of their merits. Their number is gradually increasing;1* and when that leisure and encouragement shall be afforded to men of genius in this country, which are enjoyed in many parts of Europe, we may expect to pro- duce Poets, who shall vie with the most celebrated of the old world. But in no respect does the literary enterprize of America appear more conspicuous than in the ra- pid increase of the number and circulation of News- papers, within the last thirty years. The ratio and amount of this increase were stated in another r See page 140, &c. of the present volume. * Histories of different American States have been promised by several ■writers. The public, particularly, look forward with high expectation to the appearance of The History of North-Carolina, which has been for some time prepared by Dr. Hugh Williamson, whose talents and learn- ing are a pledge that it will prove an interesting and instructive work. t See pages 230 and 231 of this volume. i) Since the close of the eighteenth century*, another writer has appeared, who, if we may judge by his first production, is destined to hold a high place in the catalogue of native Poets of America. This writer is the Rev. John B. Linn, D.D. of Philadelphia, whose Powers of Genius, a didactic and descriptive Poem, published in 1801, displays imagination, taste, a.nd reading. This Poem was so favourably received, that a second edition v/as called for in less than a year, into which the Author has introduced large and valuable improvements. Nations lately become Literary. 399 place." In this respect we go beyond every other nation. It were well if these vehicles of infor- mation had improved as much in purity, intelli- gence, and instructiveness, as in other respects; but the blindest partiality for American literature must perceive and lament the sad reverse ! It may not be improper to attempt, in a few sentences, a comparative estimate of the extent to which different branches of knowledge are cul- tivated in different parts of the United States. That amount of knowledge which is usually ac- quired at common schools, viz. reading, writing, and arithmetic, is more generally diffused among all classes of the people in New-England, and par- ticularly in Massachusetts and Connecticut, than in any other portion of our country, and indeed than in any other part of the globe. This maybe ascribed to the superior excellence of their School establishments ; to the number, piety, and dili- gence of the Clergy; to the regular organization of their towns and parishes; to the honourable point of light in which the instructors of youth are considered f and to the general spirit of activity and enterprize which must be admitted to enter into the national character of New-England. It may also be observed, as another circum- stance of discrimination, that in the Eastern States a larger portion of the youth pass through a regu- lar collegiate course of education, than in any other u See pages 250 and 251 of the present volume. iv This circumstance has a most benign influence in New-England. In the Middle, but more especially in the Southern States, the employment of a Schoolmaster is considered by many as rather degrading, and has sometimes been used as a ground of reproach. The consequence is, that too many of the instructors of youth in these States are ignorant and vi- cious adventurers; these who are well qualified rather shunning an office to which so little respect is attached. In the New-England States it is otherwise. Some of their greatest Divines and Statesmen were School- masters in early life. The employment is considered and treated as an honourable one. The consequence is, that the common parish schools are generally under the care of well informed and virtuous men. 400 Nations lately become Literary. part of our country. In New-England, the mass of the people are more generally taught to respect literature, and to make exertions for conferring this advantage on their children. In that part of the Union also, the expense attending an Acade- mic course is rather less than in most of the other American Seminaries. These two circumstances have a natural tendency to fill their Colleges with a greater number of Students than are to be found elsewhere. The Classic Literature of the United States, as was before remarked, is almost every where super- ficial. It is believed, however, that the learned languages, and especially the Greek language, are rather less studied in the Eastern than in the Middle and Southern States. It is true, many more individuals attend to this branch of learning in the former than in the latter; but they read fewer books, and devote a less portion of time to the ob- ject/ For this fact, many reasons might be as- signed ; but it is not necessary to mention more than two. The one is, that, owing to the superior wealth enjoyed by a number of individuals in the Middle and Southern States, it w^as more common, during a great part of the eighteenth century, to send young men to Europe for their educa- tion from those States, than from New-England. The youth, thus educated, might be expected, of course, to bring back with them to their native country, a larger portion of classic literature than could be easily acquired in American seminaries. Another reason is, that, wmile almost all the in- structors of youth in New-England, and especially x The Author is aware, that in tracing the literary history of New- England, the names of some classical Scholars of great eminence arc found. He means, however, only to speak of the degree of attention generally paid to Classic literature, by those who go through a colle- giate course in the Eastern States, and especially within the last twenty or thirty years. Nations lately become Literary. 401 (he higher classes of them, during the last hundred years, have been natives; a large portion of the Superintendents of Academies, and of the Presi- dents and Professors of Colleges, in the Middle and Southern parts of our country, during the same period, were Europeans, and many of them emi- nently accomplished in classic literature. If, there- fore, the knowledge in this branch of learning, acquired in the best seminaries of Europe, were usually more accurate and profound than could ordinarily be obtained from our native citizens, it must follow of course, that those who derived their classical learning from the former of these sources, were, in general, more thoroughly instructed themselves, and consequently more capable of instructing others, than those who had access only to the latter. In the study of Oriental Literature, it is be- lieved that New-England has generally excelled the Middle and Southern States. Certain it is, that we hear of more eminent Orientalists in the former than in the latter; if we except a kw fo- reigners occasionally residing among us. This we may ascribe to the great Oriental learning of seve- ral of those distinguished divines who came with the first settlers to New-England, or who soon af- terwards followed them thither. The influence o£ these men has continued, in a degree, to the pre- sent day. To this circumstance it may be added, that the University of Cambridge, in Massachu- setts, is the only seminary of learning in the United States in which a Professorship for instruction iri the Oriental languages has been steadily main- tained through the whole of the eighteenth cen- tury. In the cultivation of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, it is difficult to say to what part of our country the preference ought to be given, Pro? VOL, II, ?f 402 Nations lately become Literary. bably an impartial judge, taking the whole his-* tory of the country together, would give the palm, in this respect, to Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. The Sciences of Chemistry, Natural History^ and Medicine,, have long been, and continue to be, more successfully cultivated in the Middle and Southern than in the Eastern States. The same reasons apply in this ease that were suggested with respect to Classic literature. Comparatively, few young men have been sent, at any period, from the Eastern States to European seminaries to complete their medical education. Besides this consideration, foreigners, even of literary and sci- entific character, have received less encourage- ment to settle in those States than in most other parts of the Union. On the other hand, from the Middle and Southern States a number of young men have been, every year, sent to the Medical Schools of Europe, who not only attended the or^ dinary courses of instruction in Medicine, strictly so called, but also the Lectures delivered on Che- mistry and Natural History, as important auxili? ary branches of Philosophy. It is further to be observed, that several learned and enterprizing foreigners, who visited and resided for some time in New- York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South- Carolina, devoted much of their time and atten^ tion to Natural History f. excited some of the nar live citizens, in their respective neighbourhoods, to engage in this study f and thus introduced that y There is a particular reference here to Catesby, Garden-, ancj Walter, who resided in South-Carolina; to Mitchell, who spent a number of years in Virginia; to Professor Kalm, who devoted several years to travelling in the Middle States; to Schoepf and Wangen- heim, who came to America with the German troops, during the Revo- lutionary war ; to whom may be added, Dr. Colden and Dr. Muhlen- berg, whose talents and zeal in the study of Botany have been before re- peatedly mentioned. z It was probably owing to the conversation and influence of these, *r of soms other foreigner* visiting the country, that Clayton, Starke^ Nations lately become Literary. 40$ taste for inquiries of this nature which has ever since existed* in a greater or Jess degree, in some individuals in those States. New-England has given birth to the greatest number, and the most eminent of the native Theo- logical writers of America. And there is no doubt that by far the larger portion of the Sermons printed in the United States, whether in volumes or single discourses, is produced in that part of our coun- try. It may also be asserted, that almost all the valuable disquisitions on the Philosophy of the hu- man mind, which have been published on this side of the Atlantic, were written in New-England. In the literature and science of Politics, it is not easy to say which part of our country is most en- titled to credit. If we pronounce in favour of those States, which have produced the greatest number of eminent political writers, we must give the first honours to Massachusetts, New- York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. But there is no sub- ject more generally studied, in every State in the Union, than Political science ; none on which our literary men so frequently write; and, of course, none which so constantly calls forth the exertion of talents. Of Historical composition, the Eastern States have produced their full proportion, and rather more. Of respectable Poets, they have given birth to a greater number than any other proportional division of the Union. And in Belles Lettres ge- nerally, there is, without doubt, more cultivation in New-England than in any other part of our •country; if we except the larger cities in the Middle and Southern States. With respect to the Mechanic Arts, New-Eng- land has furnished her full proportion of those in- Cary, andGREENWAY, of Virginia; and the Bartrams, Marshall, fend others, of Pennsylvania, were so much devoted to botamcal pursvute. 404- Nations lately become Literary. ventions and improvements which do honour to* American genius. And with regard to the Fine Arts, three out of four of our greatest native Painters were born in that division of the country. It must, however, after all, be acknowledged* {hat what is called a liberal education in the United States, is, in common, less accurate and complete; the erudition of our native citizens, with some ex- ceptionSj less extensive and profound ; and the works published by American Authors, in general, less learned, instructive* and elegant/ than are found in Great-Britain, and some of the moreen- lightened nations on the Eastern continent. These facts, it is apprehended, arise not from any defici- ency of talents in our country, nor from any inap- titude in its soil or atmosphere to promote the growth of genius; but from one or another, and, in some cases, from a combination of the follow- ing causes. 1 . Defective plans and means of instruction hi our Seminaries of learning. The great majority of our Colleges have very inadequate funds. The consequence is, that in most of them the Professors are few in n amber, and have assigned to them too large a field of instruction. Hence they can con- vey but very superficial knowledge of the various branches which it is made their duty to teach, and if well qualified themselves, which is far from be- ing always the case, find it impossible to do justice to the pupils. In some instances, also, the Trus- tees or Governors of American Colleges, either from their own ignorance, or in compliance with popular prejudice, have so contracted the time re- a It is not meant to be denied that a few of the works published in America are as profound and instructive as any on similar subjects published elsewhere. It is simply intended to give a general character of American publications, liable to such exceptions as the mind of the well' informed reader will readily supply. Nations lately become Literary. 405 Cmisite for completing a course of instruction, as to render it necessary wholly to dispense with, or lightly to hurry over, some of the most important branches of knowledge. Accordingly, in some of these institutions, Mathematical Science is unpo- pular, and the acquisition of as little as possible especially of the higher branches of it, enjoined on the student. In others, Classic literature, and es- pecially the Greek language,6 is in low estimation, and not more studied than is indispensibly neces- sary to obtaining a diploma. If well bred scho- lars ever issue from such Seminaries, they must be formed by a degree of private and individual ap- plication rarely to be met with in youth. 2. Want of Leisure. The comparatively equal distribution of property in America, while it pro- duces the most benign political and moral effects, is by no means friendly to great acquisitions in literature and science. In such a state of Society, there can be few persons of leisure. It is neces- sary that almost all should be engaged in some active pursuit. Accordingly, in the United States, the greater number of those who pass through a course of what is called liberal education, in the hurried manner wThich has been mentioned, en- gage, immediately after leaving College, in the study or business to which they propose to devote themselves. Having run over the preliminary steps of instruction in this business, probably in a man- ner no less hurried and superficial than their acade- mic studies, they instantly commence its practical pursuit; and are, perhaps, during the remainder of life, consigned to a daily toil for support, which precludes them from reading, and especially from gaining much knowledge out of their particular b In some American Colleges, we are told that no more knowledge of Greek is required in those who graduate Bachelor of Arts, than that which fciav be derived from the Grammar and the Greek Testament. 406 Nations lately become Literary. profession. Such is the career of ninety-nine our of an hundred of those in our country who belong to the learned professions. When the alternative either lies, 6x is supposed to lie between erudition and poverty, or comfortable affluence and mode- rate learning, it is not difficult to conjecture which side will be chosen; nor is it suprizing that, in such a state of things, there should be less profound erudition, less elegant accomplishment in litera- ture, than where a considerable number enjoy all the advantages of exemption from laborious duties* and all the accommodations of opulent leisure; To this circumstance may be ascribed the su- perficial and unpolished character of many of our native publications. All that their authors, in many cases, want, to render them more replete with instruction, more attractive in manner, and, of course, more worthy of public approbation, is leisure. But, able only to redeem a few hasty hours for literary pursuits, from the employments which give them bread, they must necessarily, if they publish at all, send forth productions, from time to time, bearing all the marks of haste and immature reflection. 3. Want of encouragement to learning. Men cannot be expected to labour without the hope of some adequate reward. Genius must be nourished by patronage, as well as strengthened by culture. Where substantial emoluments may be derived from literary exertion, there, and there alone, will it be frequently undertaken to any considerable extent. Hence, in those countries where genius and learning are best rewarded* there they are ever found to be most cultivated. In the United States, the rewards of literature are small and uncertain. The people cannot afford to remunerate eminent talents or great acquirements. Booksel- lers, the great patrons of learning in modern times> Nations lately become Literary, 407 fire in America too poor to foster and reward the efforts of genius. There are no rich Fellowships in our Universities to excite the ambition of students; no large ecclesiastical benefices to animate the ex- ertions of literary divines/ Academic chairs are usually connected with such small salaries, that they present little temptation to the scholar; and, finally, the State offers very inconsiderable motives for the acquisition of knowledge, and the exertion of talents. Its rewards are small, and its favour capricious. Can it be wondered, then, that those who have some acquaintance with books, and hold important stations, are more anxious to secure per cuniary advantages, and to place themselves in a situation independent of popular favour, than to make advances in literature, or to do honour to their country by the display of intellectual pre- eminence? Besides, the spirit of our people is commercial. It has been said, and perhaps with some justice, that the love of gain peculiarly characterizes the inhabitants of the United States. The tendency of this spirit to discourage literature is obvious. In such a state of Society, men will not only be apt to bend their whole attention to the acquire- ment of property, and neglect the cultivation of their minds as an affair of secondary moment ; but letters and science will seldom be found in high estimation ; the amount of wealth will be the prinr cipal test of influence ; the learned will experience but little reward either of honour or emolument; and, of course, superficial education will be the prevailing character, c The Author would by no means be understood to express an opinion that such immoderately lucrative places, either in Church or in State, are' on the whole, useful, or desirable. He is persuaded that they are much more productive of mischief than of advantage. But that they often excite lite- Irary ambition, and afford, in many instances, convenient and useful leisure to literary characters, will scarcely fee questioned by those who h*ye paid any attention to the subject, 403 Nations lately become Literary. Nor is it of less importance here to recollecr, that the nature of our connection with Great- Britain has operated, and continues to operate un-> favourably to the progress of American literature. Long accustomed to a state of colonial depend- ence on that enlightened and cultivated Nation, we have also been accustomed to derive from her the supplies for our literary wants, And still con- nected with her by the ties Gf language, manners, taste, and commercial intercourse, her literature, science and arts may be considered as ours. Being able, therefore, with so much ease, to reap the fruits of her fields, we have not sufficient induce- ment to cultivate our own. And even when an excellent production of the American soil is offered to the public, it is generally undervalued and neg- lected. A large portion offc our citizens seem to entertain the idea, that nothing worthy of patron- age can be produced on this side of the Atlantic. Instead of being prompted to a more liberal en- couragement of genius because it is American, their prejudices, on this account, are rather exr cited against it/ 4. Want of Books. In the capital cities of Eu- rope, the votary of literature is surrounded with immense Libraries, to which he may easily obtain access ; and even in many of the smaller towns, books on any subject, and to almost any number, may be easily obtained. It is otherwise in Ame- rica. Here the student, in addition to all the d The writer in the Monthly Magazine, whose strictures on American literature were before mentioned, represents the inhabitants of the United States as having strong prejudices in favour of their own produc- tions, and ridicules them for preferring American publications to all others. In this, as well as in most of his assertions, he discovers profound igno- rance of the subject. The fact is directly the reverse. Americans are too apt to join with ignorant or fastidious foreigners, in undervaluing and de» crying our domestic literature ; and this circumstance is one of the nume- rous obstacles which have operated to discourage literary exertions on this eide of tke Adantic, and to impede our literary progress. Nations lately become Literary. 409 other obstacles which lie in his way, has often to spend as much time and thought to obtain a parti- cular book, as the reading it ten times would cost. Our public Libraries are few, and, compared with those of Europe, small. Nor is this defect sup- plied by large private collections ; these are also rare. And to render the evil still more grievous, the number of literary and enterprizing booksel- lers is yet smaller. It is only within two or three years that we have begun to receive, with any kind of regularity or promptitude, the best British works as they issue from the press. Such are some of the causes which have hitherto impeded the progress of American Literature. Their influence, however, is gradually declining, and the literary prospects of our country are bright- ening every day. Letters and science are becom- ing more important in the public estimation, The number of learned men is becoming rapidly greater. The plans and means of instruction in. our Seminaries of learning, though by no means improving in all respects, are, in some, receiving constant melioration. The emulation of founding; and sustaining a national character in science and learning begins to be more generally fdt, and? from time to time, will doubtless be augmented! A larger proportion of the growing wealth of our country will hereafter be devoted to the improve- ments of knowledge, and especially to the fur- therance of all the means by which scientific dis- coveries are brought within popular reach, and rendered subservient to practical utility. Ameri- can publications are every day growing more nu- merous, and rising in respectability of character. Public and private Libraries are becoming more numerous and extensive. The taste in composition among our writers is making very sensible progress in correctness and refinement. American authors YOL. II. 3 G 410 He capitulation. of merit meet with more liberal encouragement $ and when the time shall arrive that we can give to our votaries of literature the same leisure, and the same stimulants to exertion with which they are favoured in Europe, it may be confidently predicted, that letters will flourish as much in America as in any part of the world ; and that wTe shall be able to make some return to our trans- atlantic brethren, for the rich stores of useful knowledge which they have been pouring upon us for nearly two centuries. RECAPITULATION, WE have now made a hasty tour through one of the departments of the subject which we under- took to examine. From the foregoing survey, which, however tedious it may have appeared to the reader, is, in reality, a very rapid one, the eighteenth century appears to bear a singularly distinct and interesting character. In almost every department of knowledge, wTe find monuments of enterprize, discovery, and improvement; and, in some, these monuments are so numerous, valuable, and splendid, as to stand without parallel in the history of the human mind. There have been periods in which particular studies were more cul- tivated ; but it may be asserted, with confidence, that in no period of the same extent, since the creation, has a mass of improvement so large, diversified and rich been presented to view. In no period have the various branches of science, art 'and letters, received, at the same time, such liberal accessions of light and refinement, and been .jr.ade so remarkably to illustrate and enlarge eac]i Bee aplt ulation. 4 1 1 other. Never did the inquirer stand at the con- fluence of so many streams of knowledge as at the close of the eighteenth century. But, in order to bring more immediately and disinctly into view the leading characteristics of the last age, as deducible from the statements which have been given, an attempt will be made to sum them up in the few following particulars: 1. The last century was pre-eminently an age of free inquiry. No period in the history of man is so well entitled to this character. Two centuries have not rolled away, since the belief that the earth is globular in its form was punished as a damnable heresy ; since men were afraid to avow the plainest and most fundamental principles of philosophy, government, and religion; and since the spirit of liberal inquiry was almost unknown. In the se- venteenth century, this spirit began to show it- self; but it was reserved for the eighteenth to wit- ness an indulgence and extension of it truly won- derful. Never, probably, was the human mind, all things considered, so much unshackled in its in- quiries. Men have learned, in a greater degree than ever before, to make light of precedent, and to throw off the authority of distinguished names. They have learned, with a readiness altogether new, to discard old opinions, to overturn systems which were supposed to rest on everlasting foun- dations, and to push their inquiries to the utmost extent, awed by no sanctions, restrained by no prescriptions. This revolution in the human mind has been attended with many advantages, and with many evils. It has led to the developement of much truth, and has contributed greatly to enlarge the bounds of literature, science, and general improve- ment. It has opened the way to a free communi- cation of all discoveries, real or supposed, and re* 412 RecapitulatiolL moved various obstacles which long retarded the progress of knowledge. Bat this spirit of inquiry, like every thing else in the hands of man, has been perverted and abused. It has been carried to the extreme of licentiousness. In too many instances, the love of novelty, and the impatience of all re- straint founded on prescription or antiquity, have triumphed over truth and wisdom ; and, in the midst of zeal for demolishing old errors, the most sacred principles of virtue and happiness have teen rejected or forgotten. 2. The last century may be emphatically called the age of physical science. It was not till the Seventeenth century that the physical sciences be- gan to assume a conspicuous place among the ob- jects of study. Before that period, the learned languages, ancient history; and the metaphysical jargon of the schoolmen, had chiefly engrossed the attention of literary and scientific men. From the time of Bacon and Kepler, a taste for natural phi- losophy began to extend itself. This taste was cherished and improved by the scientific associa- tions which began to be formed in different parts of Europe about the middle of the seventeenth century. But in the eighteenth, it became far more predominant than at any former period, and may be said to form a prominent feature of the age. It has been seen, that several branches of Me- chanical Philosophy \ wholly new, were introduced into the popular systems in the course of this pe- riod ; and that in almost all the branches formerly studied, there were made immense discoveries and improvements. Chemistry has been so much improved and extended, both in its principles and application, that it may be pronounced a new sci- ence. In Natural History, the progress of philo- sophers, within the last hundred years, has been no Jess signal and honourable. The amount of what Recapitulation. 413 has been accomplished in various plans of classifi- cation, in the corrections of nomenclature, and in additions to the former lists of specimens in natural history, more particularly in zoology, botany, and mineralogy, is too great to be collected or exhi- bited by any individual. A similar extension of our knowledge has taken place in Medicine, in Agriculture, in Geography, and in the princi- ples, as well as practice of Mechanic Arts. All these come under the general denomination of Physical Science. It is too evident to admit of a doubt, that there never was a period in which so much enlightened attention was paid to objects of this kind, or any thing like such a sum of improvement introduced as in the eighteenth cen- tury. Some observers of the revolutions and progress of science have divided the century under review into three parts, and considered each part as par- ticularly distinguished by the cultivation of one of the principal physical sciences. From 1700 till 1735, the Neivtonian Philosophy engaged the largest share of the attention of the learned. How great a portion of the publications and controver- sies of that day had a respect to this philosophy, the well-informed reader will not be at any loss to re- collect. From 1735 till about the year 1765 or 1770, may be called the period of Natural History fj as the various branches of study included in this general denomination, more especially zoology and botany, were never before, in any comparable degree, so much cultivated. For this prevalence of the study of Natural History we are, perhaps, indebted to the genius, labours and influence of no two individuals so much as to those of Linsueus, and the Count De Buffon. From 1770 till 1801, may be styled the period of Chemistry; that science having given •rise to more numerous experiments and publican 414 Recapitulation. tions during this period than any other. Thos<^ who had most influence in bringing into vogue this branch of physical science, and conferring upon it that importance and extent which it has gained, are Scheele, Klaproth, Lavoisier, and Priestley. Upon a review of the foregoing sheets, it may also be remarked, that the physical sciences, dur-4 ing the period in question, appear to have been cultivated with unusual ardour in particular coun- tries. In Mechanical and Mathematical Philosophy i it is not easy to say to which of the scientific na- tions of Europe the palm of superiority ought to be awarded. In Chemistry, France is doubtless entitled to the first place. After her, Germany, Great-Britain, &c. follow in comparative merit. In Natural History, the different nations may be represented as standing in the following rank. First France, second Germany, third Sweden^ fourth Great-Britain, fifth Switzerland, Italy, &c. &c. In Medicine, Great-Britain, beyond all doubt, has long held the first place, though it must be ac- knowledged, that the progress of medical science in France, Germany, and the United States, to- wards the close of the century, deserves to be no- ticed as very remarkable and promising. In Geo- graphy, Great-Britain and France must divide the larger portion of the mass of honours between them. In Agriculture, the highest praise is un- questionably due to Great-Britain. And in all those scientific researches which bear upon Arts, Manufactures, and Economy, the last mentioned country must also be pronounced to stand first in order. 3. The eighteenth century may, with propriety, be styled, the age of economical science. In all preceding ages, science, and the economical arts were too generally viewed as unconnected. The philosopher thought it beneath his dignity t© Recapitulation . 415 direct his inquiries to the aid of the mechanic, and to the various details of public and domestic eco- nomy ; ani the mechanic and economist had been taught to consider the inquiries of the philosopher as mere curious speculations, with which the prac- tical concerns of life had little to do. The eigh- . teenth century has produced a signal revolution, both in the aspect of scientific investigations, and in the state of public opinion on this subject. Philosophy has assumed a more practical and use- ful form. The artist and the philosopher have learned to go hand in hand. Many modern dis- coveries, in different branches of science, and especially in Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, while they gratify liberal curiosity, and give plea- sure to the man of speculation, have also rendered essential service to the Mechanic arts, to Agricul- ture, to Medicine, to domestic economy, and, in general, to the abridgement of labour, and to the more easy and cheap preparation of the various comforts and elegancies of life. It would be easy to give a catalogue of economical philosophers of the eighteenth century, who were never equalled by any of preceding times. To mention no more, our illustrious countryman, Count Rumford, at the close of this period, presented to the wTorid an example of practical science, of which we shall perhaps search in vain for a parallel in the history of man. 4. The last century may also, in a peculiar and distinguishing sense, be called the age of expe- riment. The mode of pursuing knowledge, by observation, experiment, analysis, and an induc- tion of facts, though not absolutely begun by Lord Bacon, was, for the first time, employed to any considerable extent by that enlightened philoso^ pher. The influence of his example in this respect^ in the sixteenth century, in which he lived, was 416 Recapitulation. comparatively small. In the seventeenth, his plan of philosophizing was more frequently adopted. But in the eighteenth, it obtained an ascendency and prevalence never before known in the history of science. Never were there so many heads and hands at work, to deveiope the arcana of na- ture, to investigate her laws, and to bring former principles, as far as possible, to the test of weight, measurement, and vision. The amount of experi- ments of different kinds, and instituted for differ- ent purposes, laid before the public, within this period, by individuals, and by learned societies,, forms a mass of stupendous extent, and presents one of the most prominent features of the age. These remarks apply almost exclusively to the physical sciences ; for there is too much reason to suppose, as will be afterwards shown, that, in the philosophy of the human mind, and especially of human duty, the prevailing character of the age3 and particularly of the latter part of it, has been that of vain speculation and fantastic theory, rather than of principles dictated by sober and enlight- ened experience. But in the physical sciences, amidst much false theory, such an immense variety and amount of facts and experiments have been laid before the public, as eminently to distinguish the eighteenth from all preceding centuries. 5. The last age was remarkably distinguished by revolutions in science. Theorists were more numerous than in any former period, their systems more diversified, and revolutions followed each other in more rapid succession. In almost every department of science, changes of fashion, of doc- tririe, and of authority, have trodden so closely on the heels of each other, that merely to remember and enumerate them would be an arduous task. The frequency and rapidity of scientific revo- lutions may be accounted for in various ways. The extraordinary diffusion of knowledge -, thp Recapitulation . 417 swarms of inquirers and experimenters everv where abounding ; the unprecedented degree of intercourse which men of science enjoyed ; and, of consequence, the thorough and speedy investi- gation which every new theory was accustomed to receive, all led to the successive erection and demolition of more ingenious and splendid fabrics than ever previously, within the same compass of time, passed before the view of man. The rapid succession of discoveries, hypotheses, theories and systems, while it has served to keep the scientific world more than ever awake and busy, has done mischief by perplexing the mincj with too many objects of attention, and by ren- dering the labour of the student more extensive, difficult, and tedious. If, in the seventeenth cen-r tury, the inquirer had reason to complain, that the shifting aspect of science rendered necessary the most unremitting vigilance, and an endless repe- tition of his toil, this complaint might have been urged with an hundred fold more reason in the eighteenth. The advantages, however, of this state of things may be considered, on the whole, as pre- dominant. The ardour, the competition, and the diligence in the pursuit of knowledge which it has inspired, deserve at once to be recognized as beneficial, and to be noticed as distinguishing characteristics of the age. 6. The last century is pre-eminently entitled to the character of the age of printing. It is ge- nerally known, that this art is but little more than three centuries old. Among the ancients, the dif- ficulty and expense of multiplying copies of wTorks of reputation were so great, that few made the attempt; and the author who wished to submit his compositions to the public, was under the ne- cessity of reciting them at some favourable meet- ing of the people. The disadvantages attending vol, n. ig 418 Recapitulation . this state of things were many and gfeat. It re* pressed and discouraged talents, and rendered the number of readers extremely small. The inven- tion of printing gave a new aspect to literature, and formed one of the most important eras in the history of human aff?irs. It not only increased the number, and reduced the price of books, but it also furnished authors with the means of laying the fruits of their labours before the public, in the most prompt and extensive manner. Considering this art, moreover, as a great moral and political engine, by which an impression may be made on a large portion of a community at the same time, it assumes a degree of importance highly interesting to the philanthropist, as well as to the scholar. The extension of this art in the eighteenth cen- tury forms one of the leading features of the age. In the sixteenth and seventeeth centuries, especi- ally in the former, printing presses were few, and, of course, publication was by no means easy. The century under review exhibited an immense exten- sion of the art. This extension was not only gene- ral, but so great, that the most moderate estimate presents a result truly stupendous. There was probably a thousandfold more printing executed in the course of this century, than in the whole pe- riod that had before elapsed since the invention of the art/ The influence of this fact, in increasing the sum of public intelligence, and in keeping the minds of men awake and active, cannot but be noticed by the most superficial observer of the cha- x This will appear a moderate calculation, when it is considered that there is a prodigious increase, not only in the number of new works an- nually issued from the press, but also in the extent and number of edi- tions constantly demanded by the public. And when to this is added the amount of printing which has been continually going forward, particu- larly within the last fifty years, in furnishing the whole literary world with such a number and variety of periodical publications, as Reviews, Maga- zines, Newspapers, 8cc. the estimate above stated will probably be thought rather to fall below than to exceed the truth. Recapitulation . 419 racier of the period under consideration. Print- ing presses have not only become numerous in the populous cities, in every literary portion of the world; but also in remote parts of the country these engines for the diffusion of information are found : thus furnishing the good with the means of sowing the seeds of truth and virtue, and the wicked with the means of scattering poison, to an extent never before witnessed in human society. 7. The last century is entitled to distinction above all others, as the age of books; an age in which the spirit of writing, as well as of publica- tion, exceeded all former precedent. Though this is closely connected with the foregoing par- ticular, it deserves a more distinct and pointed notice. Never, assuredly, did the world abound with such a profusion of various works, or pro- duce such an immense harvest of literary fruits. The publication of books, in all former periods of the history of learning, laboured under many difficulties. Readers were comparatively few f of course writers met with small encouragement of a pecuniary kind to labour for the instruction of the public.2 Hence, none in preceding centu- y " To prove the paucity of readers," in the seventeenth century, " it may be sufficient to remark, that the British nation had been satisfied From 1623 to 1664, that is, a period of forty-one years, with only nvo edi- tions of the works of Shakspeare, whicli probably did not together make one thousand copies." ir/f c/ Mii.ton, by Johnson. Whereas, in the eighteenth century, from 1733 to 1778, that is, in for- ty-five years, ten large and splendid editions of the same author were given to the public, and, probably, at least ten more, of a less magnificent kind, in various parts of the British dominions. Allowing each of these editions to have consisted of two thousand copies, which, on an average, may be supposed a moderate allowance, the number of copies of one pub- lication called for by the English literary public, in a given period of the eighteenth century, will be found forty times greater than the number called for, during a period nearly equal in the seventeenth. z The advantage now enjoyed by authors, of deriving large profits from the sale of copy-rights, is wholly modern. Mr. Baretti, a friend of Dr. Johnson, who resided for some time in England, about half a century ago, told the Doctor, that he was the first man in Italy who re- ceived money for the copy-right of a book. Boswell's Life of Jokn- Son, vol. ii. p. 503. Though this practice had been established ion& be- 420 Recapitulation. ries became authors, but such as were prompted by benevolence, by literary ambition, or by an enthusiastic love of literature. But the eigh- teenth century exhibited the business of pub- lication under an aspect entirely new. It pre- sented an increase in the number, both of writers and readers, almost incredible. In this century, for the first time authorship became a trade. Multitudes of writers toiled, not for the promo- tion of science, nor even with a governing view to advance their own reputation, but for the mar- ket. Swarms of boo k-makers by profession arose, W7ho inquired, not whether the subjects which they undertook to discuss stood in need of further investigation; or whether they were able to do them more ample justice than their predecessors; but whether mo7*e books might not be palmed upon the public, and made a source of emolument to the authors. Hence, there were probably more books published in the eighteenth century, than in the whole time that had before elapsed since the art of printing was discovered; perhaps more than were ever presented to the public, either in manu- script, or from the press, since the creation. This unprecedented and wonderful multiplica- tion of .books, while it has rendered the means of information more easy of access, and more popular, has also served to perplex the mind of the student, to divide his attention, and to distract his powers. Where there are so many books, there will be less deep, original, and pa- frre in Great-Britain, yet even there the instances of literary profit were rare, and the amount, in general, extremely small, until the middle, and toward the close of the eighteenth century. Milton sold his Paradise .Lost for five pounds, on condition of receiving some small subsequent emo- lument, if the sale should prove ready and extensive. Forty-six years af- terwards, Mr. Pope received two hundred pounds for each volume of his translation of the Iliad, artvkvee hundred pounds for the whole work. And towards the close of the century, the rewards of Krerary labour were, in many instances, augmented tear, six, and even ten fold. Recapitulation . 42 \ tient thinking; and each work will be studied with less attention and care. It may further be observed, that the abridgements/ compilations, epitomes/ synopses, and selections which are daily pouring from the press in countless numbers, and which make so large a part of modern publica- tions, have a tendency to divert the mind from the treasures of ancient knowledge, and from the volumes of original authors/ Thus, the multipli- citv of new publications, while they wTould seem at first view, highly favourable to the acquisition of learning, are found, as will be afterwards more fullv shown, hostile to deep and sound erudition. The allurements to authorship which the modern state of literature holds out, also lead to another evil, viz. the hasty production of books. The no- num prematur in annum of former times, has been too generally disregarded or forgotten by late writers. Authors, instead of holding their works under the polishing hand of criticism for many years, are now tempted prematurely to hasten be- fore the public. We have lately heard of an Epic Poem, nearly as long as the Paradise Lost, com- posed in gix zveeks! and of writers on the most im- portant and difficult subjects, running a race with the press. The mischiefs arising from such rapi- a Never was there an age in which the abridgement of voluminous works was carried to so great and mischievous a length as in the eighteenth cen- tury. This mode of treating a prclix writer may, in some cases, be jus- tified; but, in general, it deserves to be reprobated as a practice both pre- sumptuous and unfair. Dr. Johnson often spoke of this practice in terms of warm and just indignation. Once, in particular, hearing a friend ob- serve, that " abridging a good book was like presenting a cow with her head and tail cut oif," he replied, with equal wit and seventy — " No, Sir, it is making a cokv to have a calf." b " Epitomes are the moths and corruptions of history, that have fret- ted and corroded the sound bodies of many excellent histories, and wrought them into base and unprofitable dregs." Bacon. c " It is observed," says Dr. Johnson, " that a corrupt society has many laws; I know not whether it is not equally true, that an ignorant age has viany booh. When compilers and plagiaries are encouraged, the treasures of ancient knowledge will lie unexamined, and original authors wiil be neglected and forgotten." 422 Recapitulation. dity of composition are many and great. Writers of the most exalted genius and extensive learning, when they proceed in this manner, must throw into their volumes much crude and indigested matter; and when those of ordinary capacity presume to indulge in the same haste, nothing can be expect- ed from them but half-formed conceptions, and useless, if not mischievous productions. Hence, the last age is distinguished above all others, by producing thousands of worthless volumes, which encumber the shelves of libraries, and consume,, without profit, the time of unwary readers. The spirit of trade, by which the authors and publishers of books first began, in the eighteenth century, to be actuated in any considerable degree, has produced, and still continues to produce ano- ther serious evil. It too often leads men to write, not upon a sober conviction of truth, utility, and duty, but in accommodation to the public taste, however depraved, and with a view to the most advantageous sale. When pecuniary emolument is the leading motive to publication, books will not only be injuriously multiplied, but they will also be composed on the sordid calculation of ob- taining the greatest number of purchasers. Hence, the temptation to sacrifice virtue at the shrine of avarice. Hence, the licentious and seductive cha- racter of many of those works which have had the greatest circulation in modern times, and which have produced the greatest emolument to their authors. From the unprecedented spirit of publication which the eighteenth century exhibited, it has happened, as a natural consequence, that the cha- racter of an author has become lower in the pub- lic estimation, than it generally stood in preceding ages. Every object loses something of its value in the public esteem, in consequence of being cheap Recapitulation. 423 and common. Thus it has fared with the dignity of authorship. Persons of this profession have be- come so numerous in society; many of those who engage in it discover such a selfish and mercenary spirit; and it is found so easy a task to compile a book, that their importance has suffered a diminu- tion in some degree corresponding with the number and worthlessness of their literary labours. Another signal revolution in the literary charac- ter of the eighteenth century, and closely con- nected with the multiplication of books, is, that Booksellers have become the great patrons of litera- ture. In ancient times, authors having no hope of finding a remuneration for their labour in the ge- neral sale of their works, were under the necessity of attaching themselves to some private patron, who, to great wealth, united a fondness for litera- ture and literary men. Some of the most accom- plished writers of antiquity would have been un- able to pursue their studies, or to complete those works which have so long instructed and delighted the world, had they not enjoyed the smiles of cer- tain individuals of opulence and taste, who made it their pride and pleasure to foster literary merit. The same state of things existed, in a degree, for nearly two centuries after the art of printing was discovered. The number of publications and of readers was comparatively so small, that Booksel- lers were few; and those who engaged in this em- ployment had little business, and, of course, occu- pied a humble station in society. The eighteenth century exhibited this class of tradesmen under an aspect entirely new. The great increase in the number of readers and purchasers of books, and the corresponding increase in the number of pub- lications, and in the extent of the editions, both of old and new works, have raised the bookselling business to a most important and lucrative employ- 424 Recapitulation. merit. The number of those who engage in this business, is probably increased, taking the literary- world at large, more than an hundredfold* The extent and profits of their trade have grown in a still greater proportion. These circumstances have enabled them to become the patrons of learning; to pay generously for literary labours; and to put it in the power of authors to appear more spee- dily and advantageously at the bar of the public. Hence the ease of publication. And hence the countless number of volumes, which could never have found their way to the press in a different state of society. 8. The eighteenth century is distinguished for the UNPRECEDENTED DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE, Not only has a greater number of books issued from the press, during this period, than the accu- mulated product of all preceding ages can display; but these books have had a more general circula- tion than in any former period. To read, a little more than a century ago, was by no means a ge- neral object of attention. At that time, neither the middle classes of society, nor oftentimes per- sons of high rank, thought ignorance a disgrace. The Female sex seldom resorted to books, either for amusement or instruction; and many respect- able habitations scarcely contained a volume ex- cepting the Bible, and one or two devotional books of standard value. In fact, as books of sci- ence then rarely appeared, so " those which did appear, containing the accumulated stores of pro- found research, and entensive reading, were nei- d The increase in the number of Printers and Booksellers in America, during the period in question, was at least in this proportion. And there can be no doubt, that a similar increase has taken place in most other parts of the literary world. In the city of Paris, there are said to be four hun- dred and fifty-five Booksellers, and three hundred and forty Printers. In London, the number, though not so large, is very great. In Germany, these classes of tradesmen are probably more numerous, but more scat- tered through the empire. Recapitulation. 425 ther accessible nor intelligible, but by a few who had leisure, much previous information, and perseverance." It is true, as will be presently- acknowledged, that such as, at that time, pro- fessed to devote themselves to study, were, in ge- neral, at least equally, if not more learned, than those who profess to belong to the same class at the present day. But the number of those at the end of the eighteenth century, who were in the habit of reading a few books, and who possessed a moderate and respectable share of information, was certainly far greater than in former periods of the history of man. Some modern zealots, indeed, have gone beyond all just bounds, in describing the illumination and refinement of this period. We are not so much wiser than our forefathers, as the sanguine and ig- norant would sometimes represent us. But there is surely no extravagance in saying, that there never was an age in which knowledge of various kinds was so popular and so generally diffused, or in which so many publications were circulated and read. The elements of literature and science have descended from the higher classes of society, and from universities, to the middle, and, in some in- stances, to the lower orders of men. Speculations which were once, in a great measure, confined to the closets of the curious, have gradually mingled themselves with the most prevailing and familiar doctrines of the day. Many modern females are well informed, and a few extensively learned. The common people read and inquire to a degree that would once have been thought incredible. Semi- naries of learning are multiplied beyond all pre- cedent. The number of students which they con- tain is, in general, much greater than formerly. Modem books, even those on subjects of science, are now divested of their former envelopements of VOL. II. 3l 426 Recapitulation. dead languages, and presented in a plain and po- pular dress. Booksellers, more rich, active and en- terprizing than they were a century ago, now find it their interest to scatter books in every direction, and to convey some knowledge of them to every door. Libraries have become far more numerous, and are placed on a more popular footing than for- merly. Circulating Libraries' have been intro- duced during this period, and have contributed greatly to extend the taste and the means of read- ing ; and, finally, periodical publications, and a va- riety of other small works, which might be pro- cured at a trifling expense, and understood by moderate capacities, or with little previous infor- mation, broke down the large masses of science and learning, presented their component materials in small and convenient portions, and thus fitted them to be received by every mind. 9. But, notwithstanding the wonderful multi- plication of books, the last century may, with pro- priety be styled, the age of superficial learn- ing. Erudition, strictly so called, has been evi- dently on the decline, from the commencement of this period to ite termination. The number of readers, indeed, and of those who assume to them- selves the title of literary men, was doubtless far greater at the close of the century than ever before, since reading was known : but the number of the truly and profoundly learned was perhaps never so small, in proportion to the whole number who rank with men of letters and science. This is probably owing, in a great measure, to the fol- lowing circumstances. The artificial, luxurious, and dissolute character e Circulating Libraries, it is believed, were first instituted in the eigh- teenth century. The first establishment of this kind in London was commenced by one Wright, a bookseller, about the year 1740. In 1800 the number of these Libraries in Great-Britain was not less than one thousand. Recapitulation. 427' of the age was not favourable to laborious and pa- tient study. Few can be expected to devote them- selves habitually to that kind of reading which re- quires deep reflection, and long continued atten- tion, amidst the solicitations of company and plea- sure, and the thousand dissipating attractions which an age of refinement, and of greatly extended in- tercourse, presents. Another circumstance which has contributed to characterize the eighteenth century, as an age of superficial learning, is the unprecedented circula- tion of Magazines, literary Journals, Abridgments, Epitomes, &c. with which the republic of letters has been deluged, particularly within the last forty years. These have distracted the attention of the student, have seduced him from sources of more systematic and comprehensive instruction, and have puffed up multitudes with false ideas of their own acquirements. The mass of new, hastily composed, and superficial works, have engrossed the minds of by far the greater number of readers, crowded out of view the stores of ancient learning, and even many of the best works of the preceding century, and taught too many to be satisfied with the meagerness of modern compends and compi- lations. It may be safely pronounced, that the eighteenth century, not only with regard to the treasures of Classic literature, but also with respect to a knowledge of the best writers of all the pre- ceding seventeen centuries, was retrograde rather than progressive throughout the whole of its course. An additional cause, unfavourable to deep and sound erudition, is the nature of those employ- ments which, in modern times, solicit the atten- tion of mankind. In every age, a great majority of men are destined to a laborious and active life. But in the eighteenth century, the wonderful ex- 4*251 Recapitulation. tension of the commercial spirit; the unprecented multiplication of the objects and means of mercan- tile speculation; and the numerous temptations to a life of action, rather than of study, have brought more into vogue than formerly, that light, super- ficial, and miscellaneous reading, which fits men for the compting-house, and the scene of enterprize and emolument, rather than the recondite inves- tigations of the closet. There is also another cause which prevents in- dividuals from acquiring the same depth of learn- ing which was formerly attained. " The circle of human intelligence, within an hundred years, has been greatly extended : the objects of curious speculation, and of useful pursuit, have multi- plied: many new branches of abstract science have been invented: many theories in physical philosophy have been established: the mechanical arts have received great enlargement and improve- ment : criticism has had its principles rendered more evident, and its application more exact: the analysis of the human mind is now generally an object of inquiry; and modern authors^ in volumi- nous metaphysical treatises, in histories, in poems, and in novels, unfold the seminal principles of vir- tue and vice, and sound the depths of the heart for the motives of human action. Of these ob- jects of mental occupation, every man who is ele- vated above the lower orders of society, is obliged to know something, either by the love of novelty, or by the shame of ignorance. But if the objects of inquiry be numerous, each cannot be investi- gated profoundly; the powers of the human mind are finite, and the union of accuracy and universa- lity of knowledge is a chimera. In this case, there- fore, the search will not be for complete and sys- tematic treatises, which examine a subject on all Sides, and in its minutest parts, detect it in its most Recapitulation. 429 obscure beginnings, and trace its influence in the remotest consequences ; but for books of less tre- mendous bulk, which exhibit the subject in its most material points, preserving general outlines, and principal features. "J To the causes above mentioned may be added one other, derived from the more frequent inter- course of men in advanced civilization. " In this intercourse, a taste for learned and ingenious con- versation has arisen, and the natural desire of su- periority impels men to excel in it. But in col- lecting means for acquiring this excellence, the spe- cious rather than the useful are sought. Facts are stored, not for the exercise of rational criticism, nor for the deduction of important truth, but that they may be again distributed."^ Hence the temp- tation to study many subjects superficially, but to gain the complete mastery of none. Hence those scraps and shreds of knowledge which are daily served up in periodical publications, and scattered through all grades of society, excepting the very lowest, in popular manuals, form a large part of that learning which is daily sported in the social circle, and in the conflicts of disputation. 10. From the details which have been given in the foregoing chapters, it appears that the last cen- tury may, with peculiar propriety, be styled, the AGE OF TASTE AND REFINEMENT. In the produc- tions of bold and original genius, though greatly fruitful, it has, perhaps, been exceeded by some former ages $ but in the general prevalence of taste and refinement, it may be confidently asserted that no age ever equalled the last. This remark might be illustrated at great length, by recurring to the / Monthly fieviaa, vol. xxix. p. 302, N. S. g Ibid. h " Much has been written in this age," says Voltaire, " but genius belonged to the last." 430 Recapitulation . state of the various branches of human knowledge and art, during the period in question. In the physical sciences it might be shown, that, though great and splendid discoveries have been made in this period, much more has been done in pursuing former discoveries, in extending the limits of principles before established, in forming systems of classification, arrangement, and nomen- clature> and in conferring beauty and elegance on every part. In the Mechanic Arts also, inventions have been made highly honourable to the genius of the age; but the improvements in simplicity, convenience, accuracy, and exquisite nicety of workmanship, are far more numerous, and more strikingly characteristic of the age/ But, perhaps, to Polite Literature this general remark may be ap- plied with still more confidence, and to a greater extent. The poets and historians of the eighteenth century have the advantage of all their predeces- sors in no respect so decidedly as in uniform cor- rectness, polish, and taste. In a word, the Mas- ter Builders in the temple of knowledge, during this period, have been, perhaps, fewer in number than in several preceding centuries ; but neither the number nor the success of those who busied themselves in extending, polishing, and adorning the fabric, was ever so great. This feature of the last age remarkably appears in the state of what may be called the mechanical part of literature. The refined, elegant, and ex- pensive manner in which books have been for some time printed and decorated, more especially within i It cannot be denied, that some articles of ancient manufacture which have come down to our times, discover an exquisite polish and elegance of workmanship, which we seldom find exceeded, perhaps not equalled at the present day. But that the Mechanic Arts, in general, reached a de- gree of improvement in the eighteenth century, which they could never before boast, particularly in simplicity, convenience and beauty, it is pr«k- >umed that none will hesitate to admit. Recapitulation. 431 the last ten or fifteen years of the century, as it marks a period of luxury and taste, so we may question whether it has not been carried to an in- jurious length. If this system of sacrificing the useful to the ornamental be pursued much further, it must contract the circulation of books, and, of course, diminish the number both of authors and of readers. Some have even pronounced, that it must operate to produce a " counter revolution in the republic of letters, and introduce all the mis- fortunes of a manuscript age." 11. The century under consideration may be denominated the age of infidel philosophy. There have been in every age " profane and vain babblings, and oppositions of science falsely so called." But it may be confidently pronounced, that there never was an age in which so many deliberate and systematic attacks were made on Revealed Religion, through the medium of pretended sci- ence, as in the last. A few truly learned and in- genious men made such attacks the main business of their lives; and many others, of humbler name, who vainly aspired to the name of philosophers, have directed their puny efforts towards the same object. The doctrine of Materialism, probably, had a greater currency among certain classes of the learned, during this period, than in any former age enlightened with Christian knowledge. It was, indeed, pushed to an atheistical length by some who assumed the name, and gloried in the character of philosophers. Astronomical records have been fabricated or misinterpreted for the pur- pose of discrediting the sacred chronology. The natural history of the Earth, of Man, and of other animals, has been pursued with unwearied dili- gence, to find evidence which should militate against the information conveyed in the Scriptures. 432 Recapitulation. The discoveries in Chemistry have been tortured to furnish a physical solution of all those phenomena of motion, life, and mind, which are unanimously- considered, by more sober inquirers, as teaching the immateriality of the soul, and as proclaiming the existence of a supreme intelligent First Cause. Systems of Moral and Political philoso- phy have been formed, by which their authors meant to strike at the root of evangelic truth. And all the stores of ancient and modern literature have been ransacked to obtain some pretext for disbelieving the precious Records which God con- descended to bestow on our fallen race. This rage for impious theory, though it had long before existed, began more boldly and exten- sively to proclaim its views about twenty years before the close of the period under consideration. There is scarcely a single branch of human know- ledge to which this scientific and literary perver- sion has not reached; and scarcely a ridiculous or odious form of error to which it has not given rise. Were these motley and grotesque figures, formed by perverted genius, only intended to traverse the stage, for the temporary purpose of amusement, they might excite less of our attention ; but, considering them, as their framers have anxiously desired to make them be considered, as guides to knowledge, and as rules of action, every lover of human happiness will regard them with more serious and indignant feelings. And although their influence has been counteracted by means which will be presently mentioned, they have yet poisoned the principles, and completed the ruin of millions. Almost every successive age has some peculiarity in the style and manner of its philosophers and writers; some particular livery, which serves to distinguish it from other times. The scientific Recapitulation. 433 liyery of the last age is, as we have seen, a fantastic patch-work, enriched with many beautiful and precious materials, but deformed by the mixture of many gaudy colours and false ornaments. Among the latter we may reckon that continual prating about the " energies and progress of Mind," the " triumph of Reason," the " omnipotence of Phi- losophy," the " perfectibility of Man," &c. &c. which was never before so loud and frequent ; which has been employed, with particular volubi- lity and success, by infidel philosophers; and which, amidst continual and abundant refutations, is yet clamorous and obtrusive. 12. The period under review may be pronounced the age of Christian Science. This is by no> means inconsistent with the statement in the last particular ; for, after all the attacks of infidelity, and of theoretical philosophy, the Religion of Christ, when contemplated through the medium of science, has had a complete and unprecedented triumph during this period. It has been often objected to Christianity, that it is unfavourable to the progress of knowledge; that it discourages scientific enterprize; that it is inimical to free in- quiry, and has a tendency to keep the minds of men in blindness and thraldom. The history o£ the last concurs with that of many preceding cen- turies, in demonstrating that the very reverse o£ what the objection states is the truth. Christian nations, during the period in question, have been, of all others, most remarkable for favouring the advancement of liberal knowledge. In those coun- tries in which Religion has existed in its greatest purity, and has enjoyed the most general preva- knee, literature and science have been most ex- tensively and successfully cultivated. It is also worthy of remark, that, among all the professions denominated learned, the clerical profession may VOL. II. 3K I8# Recapitulation. be considered as having furnished as many, if not more authors of distinction than any other. And if we join to the clergy those lay-authors who have been no less eminent as Christians than as scholars, the predominance of learning and talents on the side of Religion will appear too great to ad- mit of comparison, But this is not all: — As the last century is re- markable for having furnished an unprecedented number of attacks on Revealed Religion, through the medium of science ; so it is also no less re- markable for having derived much support to Revelation, and much valuable illustration of the Sacred Writings, from the inquiries of philosophers and the observations of travellers. Many of the discoveries made in mechanical and chemical phi- losophy, during this period, have served to elu- cidate and confirm various parts of the Christian Scriptures. Every sober and well-directed inquiry into the natural history of man, and of the globe we inhabit, has been found to corroborate the Mosaic account of the Creation, the Fall, the De- luge, the Dispersion, and other important events recorded in the sacred volume. To wmich we may add, that the reports of voyagers and travel- lers, within this period, have no less remarkably served to illustrate the sacred records, and to con- firm the faith of Christians. Never was there a period of the same extent in which so much light and evidence in favour of Revelation were drawn from the inquiries of philosophy as in that which is under review: nor was it ever rendered so ap- parent, that the information and the doctrines con- tained in the sacred volume perfectly harmonize with the most authentic discoveries, and the soundest principles of science. 13. The last century may be emphatically cal- led the age of translations.-—" Of almost every Recapitulation, 45$ other kind of writing the ancients have left us models which all succeeding ages have laboured to imitate; but Translation may justly be claimed by the moderns as their own."- — The Greeks, so far as we know, achieved nothing worthy of no- tice in this department of literary labour. The Romans, who confessed themselves the scholars of the Greeks, made a few versions of those writ- ings which they followed as models/ but itdoes not appear that any of their writers grew eminent by translation; and, indeed, it was probably more frequent to translate for private exercise or amuse- ment than for fame. For three centuries past the art of translation has been gradually gaining ground throughout the literary world, both in frequency and elegance/ But the extension of this art, in both these re- spects, during the period under review, was so great and signal, that it must be considered as forming a remarkable feature of the age.- — Trans- lations from every polished language, into every other of this character, have not only become nu- merous, but have also attained, particularly within j Every man in Rome who aspired to the praise of literature thought it necessarv to learn Greek, and, therefore, stood in little need of trans- lations. Translation, however, was not wholly neglected. Dramatic poems could be understood by the people in no language but their own ; and the Romans were sometimes entertained with the tragedies of Eu- ripides, and the comedies of Menakder. Other works were some- times attempted : in an old scholiast there is mention of a Latin Iliad, and we have not wholly lost Cicero's version of the poem of Aratus.— Idler, ii. No. 68. k Chaucer, the father of English poetry, was among the first trans- lators into our language. He left a version of Boetius On the Comforts of Philosophy, which, though dull, prosaic, and inelegant, held at that early period, a conspicuous place. Some improvement in the art of trans- lation was made in the reign of Queen Elizabeth; but. still any thing like freedom and elegance was seldom attained. It was not till towards the close of the seventeenth century that this art began to be generally understood, and its proper principles reduced to practice. It is unnceessary to add, that, since that time many specimens of translation have been presented to the world, which are altogether unequalled in the history of preceding ages. 436 Recapitulation. the last fifty years, a degree of refinement and ex« cellence never before known. Versions of the Greek and Roman Classics have especially abound- ed during the period in question. And though this circumstance has contributed to render some knowledge of those great works of antiquity more popular, it has also been connected with the de- cline of Classic Literature, which was before men- tioned. As elegant versions increased in number and circulation, it was natural that the originals should become gradually more neglected. The number and excellence of modern trans- lations may be considered as removing one of the impediments which bar the way to science, and as diminishing the inconvenience arising from the multiplicity of languages. But the length to which this practice is now carried will probably be found to discourage the study of languages, to diminish literary industry, and, of course, to render know- ledge still more superficial. 14. The last century may further be denominated the age of literary honours. The practice of conferring the honours of literary institutions on individuals of distinguished erudition, commenced in the twelfth century; when the Emperor Lotha- Rius, having found in Italy a copy of the Roman Civil Law, ordained that it should be publicly ex- pounded in the schools: and that he might give encouragement to the study, he further ordered, that the public Professors of this law should be dignified with the title of Doctors.1 Not long afterwards the practice of creating Doctors was borrowed from the Lawyers by Divines, who, in their schools, publicly taught divinity, and conr / The first person created a Doctor, after this ordinance of the Empe* ror, was Bulgarus Hugoliistus, who was greatly distinguished for hi* learning and. literary labour. Recapitulation. 437 ferred degrees on those who had made great pro- ficiency in this science. m From this period till the beginning of the eigh- teenth century, the conferring of literary honours was generally conducted by the respectable Univer- sities of Europe, in a cautious, discriminating, and judicious manner. And even in the former half of the century under review, these honours were bestowed with much comparative reserve and de- liberation." But in the latter half of this period, the practice of literary institutions, in this respect, was materially different. As the students in these institutions became more numerous, and literary characters in general more common, Universities began to bestow their laurels with a more free and incautious hand. Genuine erudition and talents began to be less considered as qualifications, than station, popularity, or wealth. By these means, collegiate honours have become by far more cheap and common, during the period under review, than in any former age ; but, as the natural con- sequence of this, they have also become less va- luable and less esteemed. The same remarks, in substance, apply to mem- bership in literary and scientific Societies. Before the eighteenth century, honours of this kind were conferred on few or none but those who were eminent for learning or talents. Bat the popular diffusion of knowledge, and the artificial state of society which distinguish the last age, led to a m This practice of conferring degrees in Divinity was first adopted in the universities of Bononia, Paris and Oxford. — See Mather's Mag- nalia Christi Americana, b. iv. p. 134. n It is remarkable that the celebrated Dr. Samuel Johnson, when he had made great proficiency in literature, could not obtain the degree of Master of Arts from Trinity College, Dublin, though powerful interest was made in his behalf for this purpose. Instances of the failure of ap- plications of a similar kind, made in favour of characters still more dis- tinguished than Johnson was at that period, are also on record. 43S Recapitulation. more unsparing distribution of honours of *this kind ; so that literary and scientific associations, at the close of the period which is the subject of this retrospect, consisted of a larger number of members than ever before, and more particularly of members of an unqualified and inefficient character. 15. The eighteenth century was pre-eminently THE AGE OF LITERARY ANDSCIENTIFIC INTERCOURSE. It has been repeatedly remarked in the foregoing sheets, that the extension of Commerce, the dis- coveries in Geography, and the improvements in Navigation, in the Mechanic Arts, and in the modes of travelling, have led to a more general intercourse among mankind than in any former period. This remark may be extended to the re- public of letters. In all preceding ages, learned men were in a great measure insulated. Those of one country knew little of those of another; and if any one wished to obtain more particular infor- mation concerning the treasures of knowledge possessed by an individual, or a nation, he was under the necessity of travelling into the country with which he sought to be acquainted, and of making personal inquiry for this purpose. And even after the art of printing was discovered, the intercourse between dirTerent parts of the learned world was so small, for more than two centuries, that some of the greatest benefactors to the cause of knowledge were little known out of their own country, and some but imperfectly even within these limits. In the eighteenth century it was remarkably otherwise. The great extension of the art of printing in this period, joined with the circumstan- ces above stated, have brought ail classes of men in the literary world better acquainted with each other, and especially those who are devoted to the improvement of letters and science. The number Recapitulation. 439 of literary Journals in every part of Europe has greatly increased within the last fifty years, their plans have been much improved, and their circula- tion prodigiously extended; learned individuals and societies now maintain a more free and friendly correspondence than formerly; the great improve- ments in Post-office establishments, within this pe- riod, have facilitated, to an unparalleled degree, the intercourse between distant parts of the earth;8 foreigners of distinction are more frequently elected members of academies and other associations of a similar kind; Commerce, as its channels became multiplied and enlarged, furnished, at once, a con- venient medium, and strong incentives to literary intercourse; the great increase in the practice of translating respectable wTorks into all polished lan- guages, has also served to render books of value, and their authors, more generally known: — to all which maybe added, that the increased frequency and extent of modern travels, have been decidedly favourable to the correspondence of learned men, and to a knowledge of the works and characters of one another. Such is an imperfect outline of the literary and scientific character of the century to which we have just bidden adieu. The picture is necessarily exten- sive and various; and the features, however unskil- fully sketched, are presented with sufficient accuracy o To illustrate this remark, two or three facts will be stated with re- gard to a single post-office establishment. In 1728 the London post ar- rived one day at Edinburgh with only one six-penny London letter, and that was addressed to the Post-Master-General on office business. The arrival of the post was then only once a fortnight ; now it is six times a week. The post then employed ten days in travelling from London to Edinburgh; now it employs only three. Then the mail produced no re- venue or nett profit to government, but was rather a continual charge ; but the revenue of the post-office in Scotland, for the year ending in April, 1802, was £85,791 lis. 3d. sterling, or about 500,000 dollars/ A corresponding increase in commercial and literary intercourse has taken place in the same period, in almost every cultivated part of the world. 440 Recapitulation. to show that they are striking, arid worthy of more minute examination. They are not, indeed, all cal-^ culated to give pleasure to the benevolent mind : some are distorted and disgusting, and a few heavy and uninteresting; but a much greater number are at once strong, highly illuminated, and pre-emi- nently engaging. If these be mingled, as in most pictures that are drawn true to nature, it is presumed that, in the present instance, the agreeable features predominate in a greater degree than in any deli- neation of a former period of similar extent. Those, therefore, who have witnessed the close of the century under review, have indeed reason to congratulate themselves as an highly favoured generation. Though they have been pained with the sight of some degrading retrocessions in human knowledge, and almost stunned with the noisy pretensions of false philosophy, they have seen, at the same time, improvements in science, which their fathers, a century ago, would have antici-^ pated with astonishment, or pronounced altoge- ther impossible. They have seen a larger por-^ tion of human society enlightened, polished, and comfortable, than ever before greeted the eye of benevolence. They have, in a word, witnes- sed, on the one hand, the accession of honours to science, which it could boast in no former pe- riod ; and, on the other, a degree of usefulness reflected from science to economy and art, no less conspicuous and unrivalled. The lapse of another century such as the eighteenth — -a century that should bring with it an equal amount of discoveries and improvements, and present an equally rapid increase in the means, and in the diffusion of know- ledge, would confer an aspect on systems of sci- ence, of which we, at present, are little qualified to judge. Such a century the nineteenth is likely to prove. Recapitulation . 441 But let none indulge the vain dream that all darkness is about to be banished from the earth, and that human nature is rapidly hastening to per- fection. " When the philosophers of the seventeenth century were first congregated into the Royal So- ciety, we are told that great expectations were raised of the sudden progress of useful arts. The time was supposed to be near when engines should turn by a perpetual motion, and health be secured by the universal medicine; when learning should be fa- cilitated by a real character, and commerce ex- tended by ships which could reach their ports in defiance of the tempest. But that time never came. The Society met and parted without any visible diminution of the miseries of life. The gout and stone were still painful ; the ground that was not ploughed brought forth no harvest ; and neither oranges nor grapes could grow upon the hawthorn. "p The same result, it may be con- fidently predicted, will appear at the close of the century on which we have now entered. The advocates of the supremacy of Reason and the perfectibility of Man, at every successive retros- pect of human affairs, will find themselves refuted and confounded. And though Science, slowly advancing amidst the opposing hosts of prejudice, mistaken facts, and false theories, will reach far beyond its present limits, it must ever fall short of those extravagant expectations which, founded in ignorance of human nature, and discarding the dictates of experience, cannot avoid proceeding in error, and ending in disappointment. Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century ! your predecessors of the past age have bequeathed to you an immeasurable mass both of good and evil. Contemplate the labours and the progress of your VOL. II. 3L p Idler, vcl. ii No. 88. 442 Recapitulation. fathers, and be animated in your course ! Mark the mistakes of those deluded and presumptuous spirits who have misled and corrupted their species^ and learn caution and wisdom from their errors! Behold how much has been done by patient in- quiry, by faithful observation, by accurate expe- riment, and by careful analysis and induction; but how little by fanciful speculation, by the dreams of hypothesis, by vain boastings or by waging war against Nature's God! Learn to distinguish that Philosophy which is the friend of truth, the handmaid of virtue, the humble interpreter of Jeho- vah's works, and the ornament of rational minds, from that ignis fatuus which shines but to deceive, and allures but to destroy. Remember that by giving yourselves up to the guidance of the latter,- you can gain nothing but disappointment and shame; but that the sober, diligent, and perse- vering pursuit of the former is the plain and only road to those discoveries which will yet further enrich the sciences; to those improvements which will adorn life ; to those practical arts which will add utility to ornament ; and to that substantial advancement in knowledge which the enlightened and benevolent mind anticipates with a glow of delight. ADDITIONAL NOTES NOTES ON CHAPTER XIL Metaphysical Science not popular, p. 3. 1 HE disposition to undervalue and neglect metaphysical science is one of the most disgraceful characteristics of the last age. The influence of this disposition is more extensive and more mischievous than is commonly imagined. It is unfavourable to strength and accuracy of reasoning; has a most pernicious effect on morals and religion, and, conse- quently, on private and public happiness. When a man de- clares that he has no taste for metaphysical reading and in- quiries, he pronounces a satire on his own mind; but when he ridicules those who have such a taste, he attempts to tram- ple on the dignity and the happiness of his species. Such per- sons surely forget that some of the most important questions that interest us as men, as scholars, and as Christians, can only receive a correct solution by means of metaphysical prin- ciples. Des Cartes, p. 3. Renes Des Cartes was born at La Haye, in France, in 1596, and educated among the Jesuits. His doctrines con- cerning the human mind were first published about the year 1633, and soon began to excite much attention among the learned. For a number of years before his death he re- sided chiefly in Holland. Removing to Stockholm, in con- sequence of an invitation given to him by the Queen of Swe- den, in 1649, he died there in 1650. It is universally known that the opinions taught by this great man long filled an im- mense space in the philosophical world. Locke, p. 4. John Locke was born at Wrington, near Bristol, in South- Britain, in the year 1632. He was educated at the Univer- sity of Oxford, which he entered in 16 51. After leaving 444 Additional Notes. the university he studied physic, and engaged for a time in the practice of this profession. In 1664 he went to Germany, as secretary to Sir William Swan, English envoy to the Elector of Brandenburgh. In 1 670 he began to form the plan of his Essay on the Human Understanding, which he published in 1690. He died in 1704. Of the vigorous in- tellect, the profound and extensive views, the great learning, and the excellent character of this celebrated " master builder" in science, it is unnecessary to speak. The above dates are given merely for the convenience of reference. Ei^rors and Tendency of Locke's Philosophy, p. 6. While ample justice is done to Mr. Locke's genius; while the splendid service which he rendered to the philosophy of mind is readily acknowledged; and while his intentions are allowed to have been unexceptionably pure ; yet it may be doubted, whether his writings have not done more to pro- mote a spirit of scepticism than those of any other individual since his time. This effect has been produced, not only by some of his doctrines, but also by the general spirit of his philosophy. In tracing all our ideas to two sources, sensation and re-> flection, he imposed on the mind of the inquirer by a plau- sible, but most deceitful appearance of simplicity. It is no less true in the philosophy of the mind than in that of the physical sciences, that attempts to simplify and generalize may be carried not only further than truth will warrant, but also to a seductive and mischievous length. Mr. Locke defines reflection to be " the notice which the mind takes of its own operations, and the manner of them." This definition, be- sides being rather descriptive of consciousness than of rejlec- tion, embraces a more important error. - To say that all our ideas are ideas either of sensation or reflection, is to say that we can think of nothing but an object of sense, or an act of our own minds. But is this true? According to this ac- count, what shall we say to the various exercises of memory, of imagination, Sec. ? This philosopher, also, in represent- ing ideas, not as thoughts in the mind, nor yet the external objects of thought; but as intermediate, occult images, which alone the mind contemplates, gave countenance to a principle from which the most dangerous and absurd inferences have since been made. The whole controversy about innate Additional Notes. 445 ideas, if Mr. Locke uniformly employs this phrase in the same sense, is a war of words. If an idea be an object of thought which intervenes between the mind and the thing perceived, none can, or ever did, suppose that ideas are innate in this sense. To assert that the mind has such innate ideas, would be to represent it as thinking before it thinks, and acting before it acts. — From these and other erroneous principles taught by this great philosopher, it soon became apparent that doctrines from which he would have shrunk with abhorrence must ne- cessarily result; and the history of metaphysical science since his time evinces how mischievous is en or, when supported by the authority of such a mind as that whicii produced the Essay on the Human Understanding. Hume. p. 9. David Hume, the celebrated metaphysician and historian, was born in Edinburgh, in the year 1711. He was designed for the law by his friends, but having no inclination iimself to that profession, he applied to business, and in 1734 be- came a clerk to a merchant at Bristol. Soon afterwards he went to France, where he wrote his Treatise of Human Na- ture, which was published at London in 1139. Between this period and his death he travelled into Italy, Germany, and again into France. His Moral Essays were published in 1 742 ; his Political Discourses, and his Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, in 1752; his Natural History of Religion in 1756 ; and his History of England was com- pleted in 1761. He died in 1776. Ph ilosophy o/ Hume, p . 9 . Mr. Hume taught that all the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves into two classes, viz. impressions and ideas; comprehending under the former all our sensations, passions, and emotions; and under the latter the feint images of these, when we remember or imagine them. Our ideas, in the opinion of this philosopher, are all copied from our impressions, the former differing from the latter only in being weaker perceptions. " He adopted Locke's account of the origin of our ideas, and from that principle inferred, that we have no idea of substance, corporeal or spiritual; no idea of / 446 Additional Notes. power; no other idea of a cause, but that it is something ante* cedent, and constantly conjoined to that which we call its effects ; in a word, that we can have no idea of any thing but our sensations, and the operations of mind of which we are conscious," and that nothing else exists. — Reid's Essays, II. But though Mr. Hume's fundamental doctrines were thus extravagant and absurd; and though his philosophy, falsely so called, leads to the most unlimited scepticism, as he doubtless intended it should; yet both he and Bishop Berkeley ren- dered important service to metaphysical science. The mode in which they discussed their very errors and absurdities con- tributed to confer on this branch of philosophy a perspicuity and precision, which are of the utmost importance in study- ing the human mind. On the subject of causation Mr. Hume has thrown new light. Some of his reasonings, indeed, on this subject, were suggested by Malebranche, and, even at a still earlier period, by Bacon and Hobbes. Ideas, also, similar to some of those which he advanced, were thrown out by Barrow, Butler, Berkeley, and others. But Mr. Hume has the merit of having first clearly shown to philosophers, that our common language, with respect to cause and effect, is merely analogical ; and that, if there be any links among physical events, they must for ever remain invisible to us. Nor is the justness of this doctrine to be doubted on account of the sceptical inferences, which its author has deduced from it : his error, in this case, does not so much lie in his premises as in the conclusions which he draws from them. In fact, if this part of his system be admitted ; and if, at the same time, we admit the authority of that principle of the mind which leads, tis to refer every event to an efficient cause ; his doctrine con- ducts us to a result more sublime, more favourable to piety, and more consistent with sound philosophy, than the opi- nion commonly held on this subject. — See Stewart's Phi- losophy of Mindy Notes C and D. Dr. Reid. p. 10. t Thomas Reid, D. D. was born at Strachan, in Kincar- dineshire, North-Britain, April 26, 1710. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen, and for a number of years held the pastoral charge of the Congregation of New-Machar, in the neighbourhood of that city. He was chosen Professor Additional Notes. 447 of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow in 1763. His Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense, was published in 1764; his Essays on the. Intellectual Powers of Man, in 1785 ; and his Essays on the Active Powers, in 1738. He died October 7, 1796, in the 87th year of his age. Few men, since the days of Locke, have discovered talents more eminently fitted to explore the regions of mind than this philosopher. Dr. Retd\s Philosophy, p. 11. Besides the doctrine of perception, stated in the above*. mentioned page, Dr. Reid's system is distinguished by a view of the powers of the mind, or of the sources of our ideas, which differs considerably from the systems of his pre- decessors. Instead of dividing the intellectual powers into simple apprehension, judgment and reasoning, as the greater number of metaphysical writers have done since the days of Aristotle, he considers this division as far from embracing all the phenomena of mind. He does not, indeed, attempt a complete enumeration of all the powers of the human un- derstanding; but supposes that there are at least nine ; viz. 1. The powers we have by means of our external senses. 2. Memory. 3. Conception. 4. The powers of resolving and analysing complex objects, and compounding those which are more simple. 5. Judging. 6. Reasoning. 7. Taste. 8. Moral perception. 9. Consciousness. — Each of these he supposes to be an original and distinct power, not resolvable into any one or more of the rest. This may be pronounced an important step in the progress of metaphysical science. Incalculable injury has been done to various branches of philosophy by injudicious attempts to reduce numerous facts and principles to one or two classes, when they do not admit of such plausible simplification, and when they can be considered with advantage only in detail. The progress of medical science has been retarded by too close an adherence to systems of nosological arrangement. Che- mical philosophy may also be said to have been disserved by premature attempts to form a regular classification of its phe- nomena. Metaphysicians have fallen into a similar mistake. One writer on the "human mind tells us that all its operations may be explained by referring them to sensation and reflection. Another would derive all our ideas from sensation only ; while 448 Additional Notes. a third would account for every intellectual exercise, by ascrib- ing them to vibrations of a stronger or weaker kind. Though some of these writers approach much nearer to the true doc- trine of mind than others, they are all erroneous; and many of their mistakes arise from aiming at a simplicity of which the subject does not admit. The works of the Author of Nature can be contemplated by us only in detail: and the pro- cess of generalization, though always pleasing to human prid°, and sometimes, in a degree, just and useful; yet, when car- ried beyond a certain length, is, doubtless, calculated to de- ceive the inquirer, and to countenance the most mischievous errors. Dr. Re id was enabled to present the improved views of the science of mind, which his works contain, by pursuing a method of inquiry which he first applied to this subject. The inductive plan of investigation, recommended by Bacon, had been long before applied to the physical sciences ; and a few writers, from the beginning till the middle of the eighteenth century, had suggested the propriety of attempting to explore, on similar principles, the phenomena of the intellectual world. But Dr. Re id is asserted to have been the first person " who conceived justly and clearly the analogy between these two different branches of human knowledge; defining with pre- cision the distinct provinces of Observation and of Reflection, in furnishing the data of all our reasonings concerning Mat- ter and Mind; and demonstrating the necessity of a careful separation between the phenomena which they respectively exhibit, while we adhere to the same mode of philosophizing in investigating the laws of each." — Stewart's Life of Reid, p. 48. Dr. Reid's Use of the Phrase Common Sense, p. 12. " One of the first writers who introduced the phrase Com- mon Sense into the technical or appropriate language of Lo- gic, was Father Buffier, in a book, entitled, Traite des Premieres Verites. It has since been adopted by several au- thors of note in Great-Britain, particularly by Dr. Reid, Dr. Oswald, and Dr. Beattie; by all of whom, however, I am afraid, it must be confessed, it has been employed without a due attention to precision. The last of these writers uses it to denote that power by which the mind perceives the truth of any intuitive proposition, whether* it be an axiom of ab- Additional Notes. 449 stract science, 01 a statement of some fact resting on the im- mediate information of consciousness, of perception, or of me- mory ; or one of those fundamental laws of belief which are im- plied in the application of our faculties to the ordinary business of life. The same extensive use of the word may, I believe, be found in the other authors just mentioned. But no authority can justify such a laxity in the employment of language in phi- losophical discussions: for if mathematical axioms be (as they manifestly and indisputably are) a class of propositions essen- tially distinct from the other kinds of intuitive truths now de- scribed, why refer them all indiscriminately to the same prin- ciple in our constitution? If this phrase, therefore, be at ail retained, precision requires that it should he employed in a more limited acceptation; and accordingly, in the works un- der our consideration, it is appropriated most frequently^ though by no means uniformly, to that class of intuitive truths which I have already called fundamental laws of be- lief. When thus restricted, it conveys a notion unambiguous at least, and definite; and, consequently, the question about its propriety and impropriety turns entirely on the coincidence of this definition with the meaning of the word as employed in ordinary discourse." " I have said that the question about the propriety of the phrase Common Sense, as employed by philosophers, must be decided by an appeal to general practice: for although it he allowable, and even necessary, for a philosopher to limit the acceptation of words which are employed vaguely in com- mon discourse, it is always dangerous to give to a word a scientific meaning essentially different from that in which it is usually understood. It has, at least, the effect 'of misleading those who clo not enter deeply into the subject; and of giving a paradoxical appearance to doctrines which, if expressed in more unexceptionable terms, would be readily admitted." " It appears to me that this has actually happened in the pre- sent instance. The phrase Common Sense, as it is generally understood, is nearly synonymous with Mother-wit ; denot- ing that degree of sagacity (depending partly on original ca- pacity, and partly on personal experience and observation) which qualifies an individual for those simple and essential occupations which all men are called oji to exercise habitually by their common nature. In this acceptation it is opposed to those mental acquirements which are derived from a regular education, and from the study of books; and refers not to the speculative convictions of the understanding, but to than 3-M 450 Additional Notes. prudence and discretion which are the foundation of success- ful conduct. Such is the idea which Pope annexes to the word, when, speaking of good sense, (which means only a more than ordinary share of common sense) he calls it " The gift of Heaven, And though no science, fairly worth the seven." " To speak, accordingly, of appealing from the conclu- sions of philosophy to common sense, had the appearance, to title-page readers, of appealing from the verdict of the learned to the voice of the multitude; or of attempting to silence free discussion, by a reference to some arbitrary and undeftnable standard, distinct from any of the intellectual powers hitherto enumerated by logicians. Whatever countenance may be sup- posed to have been given by some writers to such an inter- pretation of this doctrine, I may venture to assert, that none is afforded by the works of Dr. Reid. The standard to which he appeals is neither the creed of a particular sect, nor the inward light of enthusiastic presumption ; but that con- stitution of human nature without which all the business of the world would immediately cease; and the substance of his argument amounts merely to this — that those essential laws of belief to which sceptics have objected, when con- sidered in connection with our scientific reasonings, are im- plied in every step we take as active beings; and, if called in question by any man in his practical concerns, would expose him universally to the charge of insanity." — Stewart'^ Life of Reid, p. 118—120. Leibnitz, p. 14. Godfred William Leibnitz was born at Leipsic, irf Saxony, in the year 1646. He was a prodigy of learning, had an astonishing memory, and possessed great vigour and versatility of talents. His works are very voluminous. His doctrines concerning the mind may be gathered from his Theodicea, published towards the close of the seventeenth century. The system of philosophy taught in this work was designed partly in emendation of the Cartesian, and partly in opposition to the Newtonian. Leibnitz retained the subtle matter, the universal plenitude, and the vortices of Des- Cartes, but differed in some respects from that philosopher. But against Sir Isaac Newton his scientific warfare was principally directed. — He died in the year 17 16. Additional Notes. 451 Wolfe, p. 17. Christian Wolfe, a native of Breslau, in Germany, was born in the year 1 679. He was a follower of Leibnitz,, and wrote largely in defence of his philosophical opinions. At the age of 26 Wolfe had acquired so much reputation 7is to be appointed Professor of Mathematics in the University of Halle, and soon afterwards Professor of Philosophy in ge- neral in the same institution. His famous work, entitled, Thoughts on God, the World, and the Human Soul, in which his metaphysical doctrines are delivered, was published in 1719. Accused of heresy, on account of his holding the doctrine of necessity, and some other obnoxious opinions, he was banished from the Prussian dominions in 1723. For a number of years after this event Germany was filled with dis- putes concerning his opinions, and the treatment which he had received; and the names of Woljians and A nti-Woljians were every where heard. In 1732, the current of public opinion turning in his favour, he was recalled from his exile, and ap- pointed Vice-Chancellor of the University of Halle. In 1745 he was raised to the office of Chancellor of the University, and created a Baron, by the Elector of Bavaria. — He died in- 3754. Stahl\s Doctrine concerning the Mind. p. 17. Contemporary with Wolfe was the celebrated George Ernest Stahl, Professor of Medicine in the University of Halle. He was distinguished not so much by any new doc- trine concerning the nature and powers of the mind (for it is even uncertain what were the opinions which he held on this subject), as by entertaining the singular idea, that the soul presides over, and governs the whole economy of the body, both in health and disease. To the will he referred ail the vital functions, and contended, that if there be instances in which we will an effect, without being able to make ic an object of attention, it is possible that what we call vital and involuntary motions may be the consequences of our own thought and volition. He supposed that the influence of the soul is extended to every part of the system by means of the nerves ; and that, when their action is impeded or deranged, disease is the unavoidable consequence. These opinions oC 452 Additional Notes. Stahl were adopted, particularly by a number of medical philosophers in different nans of Europe; but at the close or the century there were few or none who professed an ad- herence to them. Hartley's Phitasapky. p. 17. It is asserted, in the above-mentioned page, that Dr. Hart- ley derived his doc trine of -vibration from Newton. The truth is, that Dr.1 Willi am Briggs, who instructed New- ton in anatomy, appears to have been the first who taught the doctrine of nervous vibrations. This he did in his Nova Fisionis Theoria, published in 1632. Newton, taking the idea from him,, suggests it, not as a fixed opinion, but as a modest query (see 23d query, subjoined to his Optics), whe- ther Cl vision is effected chiefly by the vibrations of an elastic medium, excited in the bottom of the eve by the rays of light, and propagated along the solid, pellucid, and uniform oapillaments of the optic nerve? And whether hearing is effected by the vibrations of the same or of some other me- dium, excited by the tremor of the air in the auditory nerves, and propagated along the solid, pellucid, and uniform capilla- ments of those nerves r" And so with regard to the other senses. Wnat was thus suggested by Newton became a fundamental principle in Hartley's system, and has been considered by him and his followers as. placed on the high ground of demonstration. Kant\s Philosophy. Immanuel Kant was born in 1724, anil is still living. His philosophy has excited almost as much attention as that of Wolfe did eightv years ago, and has called forth the ta- lents of many of the most eminent men of Germany, for and against it. Besides those who have been already men- tioned as distinguished parti zans in this controversy, there are some others worthy of notice. Joh. Gotth. Fuhte, of Jena; Professor Born, of Leipsic; Professor Beck, of Ro- stock; and the Rev. Geo. Sam. Mellin, of Magdeburg, have written largely and ably in defence of the Kantian doc- trine; while Feder, Eberhard, Professor Tiedemann, and Professor Ma as, have been equally conspicuous, zealous and able in opposition to this far-famed system. Additional Notes. 458 Helvetius. p. 28. Claude Adrian Helvetius was hern In Paris, in the year 1715. In the year 1/758 he produced his first work, entitled, V Esprit, which, on account of its atheistical prin- ciples, was condemned by the Parliament of Paris. The odium which he incurred hereby induced him to visit Eng- land in 17G4, and from thence he went to Prussia, where he was very favourably received by the king. On his return to France he led a retired life in the country, and died in 1771. His treatise on Man, formed on the same principles with his first work, was published a short time before his death. He wrote a poem, in six cantos, entitled, Le Bonheur, which was published in 1772. Helvetius may be regarded as one of the earliest and mat conspicuous of the advocates for that system of materialism, and of atheistical reveries, usually called the new philosophy. Edwards, p. 30. An ingenious and learned friend, on reading the assertion, in the above-mentioned page, that " President Edwards ap- pears to have been the first Cahinist who avowed his belief so fully and thoroughly in the doctrine of moral necessity as his book indicates," made the following remarks: " You have mistaken the fact with reference to President Edwards. His .great mind was, indeed, nobly exercised in the defence of truth. He -appears an original in the inven- tion of arguments against his adversaries, but not in discover- ing the truths which he states respecting the liberty of the Will. The connection between motives and volitions, the liberty of choice in man, and the necessity of the futurition of human voluntary actions ; in short, every part of moral necessity consistent with free agency, was embraced and un- derstood before his dav, although not so successfully demon- strated as by him. You should have taken notice of his son, Jonathan Edwards,. D. D. late President of Union College, in Schenectady. He was an able metaphysician. Few works in the English language discover more penetration than his book on the Liberty of the Witt" On the reputation of these two American divines, the cha- . racier of our country, with respect to ntecaph ysical science, 454 Additional Notes. may honourably rest. The father, considering the circum- stances in which he was educated and spent his life, was truly a prodigy of talents. For aciueness and extent of compre- hension, and fervour of piety, he has had but few equals be- longing to any age. The son very much resembled his fa- ther, in talents, in piety, and in the circumstances of his life. Materialism, p. 31. The same friend who was mentioned in the preceding note, communicated the following remarks on the subject of Ma- terialism, which I cannot deny myself the pleasure of insert- ing at length in this place. " Numerous are the advocates of die material system. In order to enforce our belief in its doctrines, conjecture and in- genuity have done their best. And, after all, great must be the faith, or rather the credulity, of those who can believe it. " If we are to account for all the varieties of thought tipon mechanical principles, ic will be necessary to consider the subject in the light of known mechanical laws. Whe- ther we adopt the hypothesis that the nerves are like fiddle- strings, or that they are full of a medullary substance capable of vibrations, the fundamental principle of materialism is one. * The vibrations of matter produce thought.' — On this theory it may be observed — " 1. It never has been proved that there are such vibra- tions. It is a mere hypothesis. It may serve for specula- tion; but to built a system on such a basis is credulity, not philosophy. " 2. Granting, for argument's sake, the existence of vi- brations, there is no necessary connection between vibration and though!:. If there is not, there must be another hy- pothesis introduced, viz. * There viay be a connection be- tween vibrations and thought.' Upon this hypothesis I should be glad to see Dr. Priestley or Dr. Darwin give us a poem or dissertation upon the thoughts of the Harpsichord while the strings are vibrating at the touch of a lady's finger; or upon the grave speculations of a mill-pond while the boys at play are throwing stones into it. " 3. Suppose I again grant, for further argument's sake, this hypothesis to the materialists. It will be necessary to show that, in vibrations, considered abstractedly, there is such a variety in kind and degree as corresponds exactly with all the varieties of thought. Additional Notes. 455 M There are at least ten distinct intellectual powers. NoC one of these can be accounted for by one or more of the others. There are, 1. The powers which we have by means of our five senses. 2. Attention. 3. Memory. 4. Abstrac- tion. 5. Judging. 6. Reasoning. 1. Taste. 8. Powers of moral perception. 9. Consciousness. 10. Conception. Each of these is distinct, and a distinct source of ideas. The active powers, moreover, arc numerous; and the mind, so consti- tuted, is capable of a vast variety of thoughts, differing in kind and degree. Do vibrations afford an equal variety? No: it is not possible that there should be any more than two kinds of vibrations in a uniform elastic medium. 1. They may be quick or slow. 2. They maybe strong or weak. These kinds admit of various degrees; and this is all the variety of which the laws of matter (however finely organized the ma- chine) will admit. Now, he must certainly be ignorant of his own mental operations, or of the laws of motion in mat- ter, who can be persuaded of an exact correspondence of the one to the other. Certainly credulity never appeared more conspicuous in the devotees of Popish superstition than it does in the advocates and believers of the material system ! " Shall vibrations in an elastic medium be supposed to ac- count for all the original powers, intellectual and active? Put all these out of the question except; one class, viz. the powers we have by our external senses, and even then there is a ma- nifest disparity. Had we no sensations but those of hearing , this theory would not be so contemptible. There is a cor- respondence between vibrations and sound. These sensations will themselves appropriate all the varieties of vibrations; and even then it will be necessary to conceive of some sentient being, capable of those sensations, distinct from all the vi- brations which produce them. " Hearing, however, is but one of our senses; and its sen- sations are the most simple: they differ only in degree. By each of the other four we have a variety of sensations which differ specifically as well as in degree. Who can name the varieties of colour which we perceive by the eye? Tastes and smells are innumerable. They differ specifically, and each is capable of all degrees of strength and weakness. But how shah we find in vibrations a variety corresponding to the im- mense variety of sensations which we have from sight, hear- ing, taste, smell, and touch? And how shall they account for all the ideas which we have from all the other sources and powers of thought, upon mechanical principles? Com- 456 Additional Notes. mon sense, reason and philosophy, are in a lamentable con- dition when such theories gain ground among men. He who would be a materialist in the nineteenth century, would have been a believer in the doctrine of transubstantiation in the twelfth.* Modern Materialists, p. 33. The principal materialists of the eighteenth century dif- fered, in some of the details of their opinions, from those philosophers of preceding rimes who held the same gene- ral doctrine. Epicurus supposed the soul of man to be a material substance, but a very refined and attenuated kind of matter. He taught that this substance, notwithstanding the extreme subtlety of its texture, is composed of four distinct parts ; fire, which causes animal heat • an ethereal principle, which is moist vapour; air ; and a fourth principle, which is the cause of sensation. This sentient principle he supposed to differ essentially from the three former, but to be, like the rest, corporeal, because it is capable both of acting and being acted upon by bodies. From the union of the soul, thus constituted, with the body, he believed life and sensation to result. Something like this seems to have been the opinion of almost all the ancient materialists. Spinoza and Hobbes held a system of materialism quite as gross as any of their predecessors; for they seem to have thought that every ma- terial atom is, in a greater or less degree, animated or en- dowed with sensation. Dr. Hartley (if he be ranked in this class, and it is not easy to give him any other place) sometimes appears to recognize a sentient principle, which, if not wholly immaterial, differs from any ideas which he seems to have formed of ordinary matter. Dr. Priestley's opi- nions on this subject, considered as a connected system, are new. He denies that there is any ground for making a dis- tinction between the soul of man and the body ; supposing the whole human constitution to be made up of one homo- geneous substance. He denies that we have any evidence that the Deity himself is immaterial, in die commonly received sense of this word; and, finally, by the adoption of Father Boscovich's theory, he so refines and spiritualizes matter, as to make it an extremely different thing from that gross and impenetrable substance which it is generally represented to be. He differs from preceding materialists, then, in* his views of o Additional Notes. 457 the nature of matter, and in rejecting the idea entertained by most of them, that the sentient principle is a species of matter peculiarly refined and attenuated. Dr. Darwin, in his celebrated work, entitled Zoonomia, has offered a physiological theory of mind, which, though more seductive, and, consequently, more dangerous than some others, may be said to contain more crude and inconsistent metaphysics than almost any modern system of materialism of equal reputation. The greater part of his opinions on this subject have been borrowed from other writers; so that, as a pneumatologist, he has little claim to originality, excepting in the method of combining and arranging his doc- trines. The genius of the author, indeed, has given to his metaphysical errors a popular and plausible aspect; and they will probably lead astray thousands of superficial and incon- siderate readers; but they can scarcely mislead inquirers of a more discerning character. Dr. Darwin supposes that the sentient principle, or the mind of man, is a subtle fluids which he denominates Sen- sorial Power, or spirit of animation. This Sensorial Power he represents as secreted in the biain, and in the medullary part of the nerves, where it especially resides, and from which. it extends to every part of the body, without being cognizable by our senses, except in its effects. He supposes that the oxygen which enters into combination with the blood in re- spiration, affords the material for the production of Sensorial Power; that this fluid is liable to be accumulated or diminished by various circumstances; that it is constantly expended by stimuli, and is probably too fine to be long retained in the nerves after its production in the brain; and, finally, that it is capable of assuming the property of solidity, or divesting itself of this property at pleasure. This Spirit of animation, or Sensorial Power, according to the theory under review, produces contractions or motions in the animal fibre, and these fibrous motions, thus occasioned, are the immediate cause of all our ideas; an idea being de- fined " a contraction, or motion, or configuration of the im- mediate organs of sense." This Spirit has Jour different modes of action ; or, in other words, the mind possesses Jour dif- ferent faculties, which are occasionally exerted, and cause all the contractions of the fibrous parts of the body. These are, 1. The faculty of causing fibrous contractions in con- sequence of the irritations excited by external bodies. 2. The faculty of causing Contractions in consequence of the 3N 458 Additional Notts. sensations of pleasure or pain. 3. The faculty of causing contractions in consequence of volition. 4. The faculty of causing contractions in consequence of the associations of fibrous contractions with other fibrous contractions, which precede or accompany them. These four faculties, during their inactive state, are termed irritability, sensibility, voluntarity, and associability ; . in their active state they are termed irritation, seyisation, volition, and association. (See chap. iv. of this work.) Upon these principles Dr. Darwin accounts for all the phenomena of mind. Memory, accord- ing to this author, embraces a class of ideas arising from vo- lition and association. Imagination includes those ideas which were originally excited by irritation, and become, in like manner, more frequently causable by sensations of pleasure or pain. Ideas of Abstraction and of Reflection are partial re- petitions of former perceptions, by the repetition of a certain stimulus. (See Zoonomia, vol. i. § 5, 6, 14, 15.) — It will readily be perceived that this theory of mind has not only all the exceptionable characteristics of that of Dr. Hartley, but that it is liable to the additional charges of being more complex and less consistent. As this theory makes an important part of a medical work, which is highly popular, and has an extensive circulation in the United States; and as there is reason to suppose that many superficial thinkers have been seduced into the adoption of its principles by the plausible aspect which it wears, the follow- ing remarks are respectfully submitted to the reader, not as containing a full refutation of the Darwinian doctrines, but as suggesting some hints worthy of the consideration of those who are disposed to embrace them. 1 . Dr. Darwin sets out with a singular inconsistency. He declares that, by the Spirit of Animation, or Sensorial Power, he means only that animal life which mankind possess in common with brutes, and, in some degree, even with ve- getables ; and that he leaves the consideration of the immortal part of us, which is the object of religion, to those who treat of revelation. Yet he afterwards proceeds, in the same work, to show how the Sensorial Power produces ideas of memory, imagination, abstraction, &c. which have always been considered as belonging to the rational and immortal mind of man, by all who believe that such mind exists. Does Dr. Darwin mean to express an opinion that man possesses the noble powers of reasoning, judgment, imagination, ab- Additional Notes. 459 ^traction, memory, reflection, &:c. in common with brutes? or does he suppose that the soul, the immortal part, possesses intellectual powers of a different kind ? 2. It may be observed that this theory embraces a general doctrine, which is gratuitously assumed, and is altogether un- philosophical. Its object is to reduce all the energies of in- tellectual and animal life to the operation of an invisible fluid secreted by the brain, and existing in every part of the body. But does this fluid exist? It is surely unphilosophical to take for granted the existence of a substance, and then to proceed, on the supposition, to a long train of inferences, the validity of which must all rest on the first assumption. Besides, this supposed fluid gives no real aid to the inquirer when admitted. It explains nothing. The whole business of causation is as much in the dark, after all this parade of developement, as ever. Unwilling to confess himself ignorant of any thing, Dr. Dar- win endeavours to amuse his own mind, and the minds of his readers, with contractions, fibrous motions, appetencies, and other apologies for ignorance. But these words convey no dis- tinct ideas to the mind ; they enable us to make no real pro- gress in the investigation of truth. In this writer's philoso- phical works the poet too often appears with all his parade of fictions. Suppositions are assumed for facts; conjec- ture is brought in aid of hypothesis ; and from these ma- terials, with all the formality of legitimate deduction, a system is formed. But when the good old rule of philo- sophizing— (< The causes must be both true and sufficient to explain the phenomena" — is rigidly applied, many of his most important postulates are found either utterly inadmissible, or to possess, if admitted, only a fictitious value. The sensorial power of this ingenious theorist, as applied to explain the phe- nomena of mind, too much resembles the occult qualities, the ■phantasms, and the essential forms of the schoolmen, to be respectfully viewed by a practical philosopher. 3. Several of the doctrines which enter into this theory are not consistent with themselves. Dr. Darwin sometimes uses the word idea to signify the organic affection, and some- times the mental affection ; or, to use his own language, it sometimes denotes the jibrous motion, and at others the sen- sorial motion; that is, it signifies both the cause and the effect. This inaccurate use of an important metaphysical word is the source of much loose, perplexed, and inconsistent reasoning. Again; the spirit of animation is said to have the powev 460 Additional Notes. of producing certain motions in the animal fibre. But if the power of producing fibrous contractions be inherent in this spirit (and such self-operating power is certainly sometimes ascribed by Dr. Darwin to the Spirit of Animation, espe- cially in cases of memory, &rc), then that portion of it which is in immediate contact with the fibre must induce contraction before the application of stimuli, unless the power be counter- acted. But, in this case, nothing is supposed to counteract its action ; and as the effect is not produced, where is the inhe- rent power of this subtle fluid ? If we say that the sensorium does not essentially possess the power, but excites motions of the fibres merely by its own motion, we subject the pheno- mena of life and mind to the principles of mechanics; but it is admitted by Dr. Darwin that the effects bear no mechanical proportion to their causes. Further, Dr. Darwin contends that fibrous motions con- stitute our notions or ideas of the qualities of external things. To illustrate this an argument is drawn from the luminous appearance in the eye, when it is struck in the dark, or when a corner of the ball is pressed. This effect, he supposes, is occasioned not by the presence of light, but by mere pres- sure; a supposition which, if admitted, must set aside his theory of ideas. The Sensorial Power in the eye has the same susceptibilities as that in the nerves of touch, and the fibres of both organs are equally contractile. They differ only in the yneans of irritation ; the structure of the external organ of the one being peculiarly adapted to the transmission of light. But if pressure can excite the sensation of a flash, this stimulus is not, like that of light, confined to the eye. It must excite similar fibrous motions of the rete mucosum, and the sense of touch will thus become a medium of vision. But this, though an unavoidable inference from Dr. Dar- win's principles, is contrary to his conclusions. Another gross inconsistency appears in the account which this theorist presents of the qualities belonging to Sensorial Power. To say that a substance can assume the property of solidity, and lay it aside; that it can occupy space, and cease to occupy it at pleasure, is to say that it can, at pleasure, exist, and cease to exist. The Sensorial Power is constantly represented as a material substance, at sometimes solid and impenetrable, and at other times not so. Now, if solidity be- long to matter at all, it must be essential to it under every va- riation of form, and can only cease to exist in the destruction of the substance. But this is not the whole of the difficulty: Additional Notes. 461 Dr. Darwin tells us (vol. ii. Additional Notes), that the doctrine of immaterial ideas is a "fanciful hypothesis, like the stories of ghosts and apparitions, which have so long amused the credulous, without any foundation in nature;" yet the Senso- rial Power is sometimes disrobed of its materiality. Is this consistent with the other doctrines concerning the Spirit of Animation which this writer teaches? When the Sensorial Power is led to assume spirituality, it is incapable of being acted on by matter, as he expressly declares ; consequently it ceases to exist, for it is no longer capable of acting or of being acted upon ; and, of course, in all such cases, life is sus- pended or destroyed. Wc have not, however, yet exposed, in its full extent, the inconsistency of Dr. Darwin on this subject. He observes that, although the Sensorial Power may sometimes disrobe itself of solidity; yet, whenever it communicates motion to the fibres, or is itself excited by their motion, it must necessarily be solid or impenetrable; because, as the muscular fibres approach each other in the contraction of a muscle, and as nothing can act where it does not exist, the approach of the particles can be explained only on the supposition of an intermediate agent. But if sensorial power, during its exertion, be solid and impenetrable, like the fibres on which it acts, the supposition of its existence will not render at all more explicable the phenomena of mus- cular contraction. For the Sensorial Power between the par- ticles of a fibre is in contact with those particles, or it is not. If it be, then the particles of the fibre cannot approximate, because there is no vacant space, and the Sensorial Power is not penetrable. The whole fibre, with its Sensorial Power, forms one connected substance, and is thence incapable of motion. But if the Sensorial Power be not in contact with the particles of the fibre on which it acts, it will be neces- sary to suppose the existence of another intermediate agent (a subtle fluid no doubt), as we are repeatedly assured that nothing can act where it does not exist. The doctrine of association is an important part of Dr. Darwin's theory; but upon the principles of this theory as- sociation is impossible. Association is a particular quality or state of Sensorial Power; but this power, or, which is the same thing, the spirit of animation, is in a perpetual state of flux. It is constantly secreted and expended, being too subtle to remain any length of time in the system. The particles of this spirit, then, cannot form any habitual connections or associations with each other, because, in the very act of 462 Additional Notes. association, they are expended and destroyed. According to any laws of matter with which we are acquainted, they can only be connected by means of repeated simultaneous action; but in their first action, according to this theorist, they expire, and their places are supplied by new particles, which, like them, can only act once and fly ofF. The fibres, indeed, re- main, amidst this continual flux of the vital fluid; but with- out it they possess no other qualities than those of inanimate matter. Once more ; Dr. Darwin allows that stimuli sometimes exist in contact with Sensorial Power, without producing cor- responding effects. He accounts for this fact by supposing that, from the inconvenience of obeying certain irritations, we learn to suffer the stimulating material to accumulate till it disagreeably affects us, and that the subsequent action is then in consequence of this disagreeable sensation. But this is in- consistent with his other doctrines. Sensations cannot in this manner produce contractions, if we adhere to his theory of the origin of ideas. What does he mean by saying, we suffer the stimulating material to accumulate ? The sensorial power exists in contact with the requisite stimulus : Is there a third principle, a presiding mind, in his creed, which regulates their action? These are a few of the inconsistencies with which this ce- lebrated work abounds. In no respect, perhaps, does the author display more loose thinking, and more glaring incon- sistency, than in the manner in which he speaks of Sensorial Power. Though he expressly represents the faculties of the sensorium as different states of the same vital fluid, or spirit, and though this doctrine forms the ground-work of his reason- ing ; yet he sometimes speaks as if these faculties were dif- ferent substances. Sensorial power is, with him, at one time solid and impenetrable, and at another spiritual and penetrable. And though he expressly ridicules the idea of an immaterial sentient principle in the mind, yet he frequently speaks in a manner which is altogether unintelligible without supposing some such principle, which is different from the external sti- mulus, the animal fibre, and the sensorial , power, and which regulates their reciprocal actions. 4. This theory is insufficient to account for the phenomena which it is intended to explain; and it is opposed to facts. The author supposes that the spirit of animation exists in four distinct states, to which he gives four names, as already mentioned. Now, this spirit, as has been repeatedly before Additional Notes. 463 Stated, is a material substance, and must, of course, be sub- ject to the laws of matter. But is matter, while it retains its nature, susceptible of these radical and essential changes ? Its form may be changed; the relation of its particles may varv; but its essential properties must remain the same. Notwith- standing this, the sentient principle, according to Dr. Dar- win, is continually undergoing changes of the most radical kind. The spirit of animation in volition differs from the spirit of animation in sensation, not merely in the position of its particles, but in its nature. We are elevated with rapture, or writhe in agony ; we revolt with horror from an object, or hasten to meet it with joy; we are alternately actuated by hope and fear, desire and aversion, love and hatred, joy and sorrow; in short, there is a diversity almost endless in the modes of our feelings, and in the characters of our ideas. Can ail these different and opposite states of mind be accounted for by any supposable changes in one homogeneous fluid? Or is it possible for that fluid to retain its nature, and all its defined attributes, and yet to be continually undergoing this essential change? Assuredly this cannot be the case, con- sistenly with any physical laws with which we are ac- quainted. Again ; in defining the difference between irritation, sensa- tion, volition, and association, Dr. Darwin resolves it all into the different portion of the sensorium in which they ori- ginate. Thus, " irritation is an exertion or change of some extreme parts of the sensorium ; sensation is an exertion or change of the central parts;" &c. But the Sensorial Power resides in every part of the body, and it is every where the same fluid, secreted by the same gland, endued with the same attributes, and susceptible of the same changes; and, of course, mere difference of place, if other circumstances be equal, is not sufficient to account for so great a difference as that between irritation and volition; and so of the rest. This is assigning a cause which is not known to exist ; and which, if it do exist, is not sufficient to explain the phenomena. But further defects in this theory appear. — From what or- gan of sense do we derive our abstract ideas? What fibrous motions are excited when we call to mind the ideas of wis- dom, benevolence, justice and truth ? According to Dr. Darwin, these general ideas are repetitions of former parti- cular perceptions, obtained through the organs of sense. But can general ideas be mere repetitions of particular ones? The simple statement of the doctrine is sufficient for its refuta- 464 Additional Notes, tion. The power of abstraction, then, must he given up, of Dr. Darwin's theory must be totally abandoned. Nor can this writer be considered as satisfactorily replying to this ob- jection, by asking, as he does, in his turn, how eise do we ac- quire abstract ideas, if not as he states ? Though we may not be able to find any other solution of the question, it does not follow that the one which he offers is adequate to the pur- pose. Memory is also altogether inexplicable on this theory. This too is said to consist in the repetition of former perceptions. But, according to this definition, the former perception must have been attended with an impression of a previous similar sen- sation, which involves an absurdity; and as this first contrac- tion of the fibre was occasioned by the action of a certain stimulus, it must be granted by the advocates of this theory, that the stimulus might have acted alone, and the idea of me- mory have been rhus produced, without any object of re- membrance. Besides, ideas of memory cannot arise from the motion of peculiar fibres, because these ideas belong alike to all our sensations. Nor are fibrous motions even necessary to their immediate production; for the idea of memory is ex- cited as readily by a desire which we have formerly experi- enced, or by a process of reasoning formerly made out, as by the renewed action of external stimuli. In short, the theory of Dr. Darwin, at most, can only be considered, by a candid inquirer, as solving the phenomena of one class of ideas, viz. those which we receive immediately from our ex- ternal senses. Even of some of these it furnishes an inade- quate solution; but all the rest, not only those of memory and abstraction, but also those of imagination, taste, moral perception, &c. are left completely in the dark, after all his fanciful attempts at explanation. It is also worthy of remark, that one of the leading doc- trines of this theory is plainly contradicted by fact. Dr. Darwin teaches that perception is not to be referred, as some have taught, to any common sensorium in the head, but that it takes place in the several organs of sense them- selves; that the fibrous motions in these organs constitute our ideas ; and that, of course, when any organ of sense is to- tally destroyed, all the ideas connected with it necessarily perish. But is the man who became deaf in adult years incapable of forming any ideas of sound ? Were Homer and Mil- ton unable to conceive of visual objects after they became* blind? The noble descriptions with which their poems Additional Notes. 465 abound are alone sufficient to refute Dr. Darwin. He is contradicted by the experience of every day. 5. Finally, this theory is unnecessarily complex, and of- fends against the best rules of philosophic simplicity. Irrita- tion is an exertion of the sensorial power^ or of the spirit of animation, exciting the fibres to contraction. By this con- traction no end appears to be gained. It is not the fibre which is sentient, but the sensorial power resident in the fibre. The contraction can, therefore, be of use only by communicating a certain effect to the sensorial power. But the sensorial power, according to this theory, was itself affected, previ- ously to the contraction, and was itself the proximate cause of the contraction. Of what use, then, is this combination of effects? It may, indeed, render error more complicated and perplexing; but it cannot assist us in the developement of truth. Such are some of the numerous defects and errors of this celebrated system of intellectual physiology. The author falls into the grand mistake adopted by all the materialists, viz. a belief that we are acquainted with the nature of cau- sation. In the physical world we see events connected with each other, with respect to time and place; but we know- not the relation which they sustain. At most, a series ^ of facts is all that we can determine. The links which bind them together, and the nature of the respective processes by which they succeed to each other — in a word, the nature of causation we can never understand. We are equally un- able to understand the nature of causation in the intellectual world. Dr. Darwin, like a number of ingenious and learned men before him, has attempted to explore this im- penetrable region. But in the attempt, instead of enlighten- ing us by the exhibition of facts, he amuses by presenting phantasms of his own creation. To these he ascribes such powers as suit his purpose; and having drawn out in detail a statement of the actions and variations of these fictitious be- ings, he would persuade us that the phenomena of mind are explained. But let none mistake words for ideas, or crea- tures of the fancy for realities. " The affections of the sen- tient principle are not rendered in the least degree more intel- ligible by resolving them into motions of solids or fluids; for the cause of motion is as inexplicable as the cause of the sen- tient affection. If the science of mind were less sure than that of matter, the systems of materialism might have some claim to our respect; but though they were liable to no, •o 466 Additional Notes. other objection, the material changes can be known to us only by the changes of mind, and must, of consequence, be liable to all their uncertainty. The theory of Dr. Darwin, therefore, has not made us more acquainted with the mys- tery of ourselves ; and whatever praise it may deserve as in- genious, its principles cannot be adopted as just." Those who would see a more detailed view of the defects, errors, and gross inconsistencies of the metaphvsical theorv of this celebrated physician, will do well to consult Observations on Zoononua, by Thomas Brown, Esq. Edinburgh. 8vo. 1798; a work which, though it contains, perhaps, some groundless strictures, manifests great acuteness, learning, taste and urbanity. Controversy respecting the Soul. p. 33. In 1702 William Coward, an English physician, pub- lished a work, entitled, Thoughts on the Soul, in which he maintained that it is material and mortal. He was answered by the Rey. Thomas Broughton, and others, and defended himself with great zeal. The House of Commons at length interfered in the dispute, and ordered his work to be burned by the hand of the common hangman. In 1706 Henry Dod- well5> a learned writer of South-Britain, published a singular work, in which he attempted to prove, from the Scriptures and the early Fathers, that the soul of man is a principle naturally mortal, but actually immortalized by the pleasure of God, by virtue of its union with the divine baptismal Spirit; and that, since the apostles, none have the power of giving this divine immortalizing Spirit excepting the bishops. This publication occasioned a controversy of considerable warmth and interest, in which Dr. Clarke, Mr. Norris, and others, wrote against Dodwell, and in which the subject received much elucidation. After Dr. Clarke, Andrew Baxter, a dis- tinguished writer of North-Britain, undertook, in a large work, to establish the immateriality of the soul. This work is generally considered as among the most able and satisfac- tory ever written in defence of the truth which it supports. Clarke, p. 33. Samuel Clarke, D. D. was born at Norwich, in South- Britain, in the year 1675. He was educated at the Univer- Additional Notes. 467 sity of Cambridge; and received orders in the Church of England about the year 1698. In 1706 he published his letter to Dodwell, on the immortality of the soul; a philo- sophical and learned discourse. In 1715 he maintained a controversy with Leibnitz, which has been much celebrated ; and in 1717 he published remarks upon Collins's Philoso- phical Inquiry concerning Human Liberty. His other works are numerous, and indicate great acuteness, learning, and critical skill. He died in 1729. Dr. Clarke is certainly entitled to a place among the greatest men of the eighteenth century. Price, p. 33. Richard Price, D. D. was born in Wales, about the year 1725. He was an eminent dissenting minister, no less distinguished for the amiableness of his private character than for his great talents, and his laudable exertions in the cause of human happiness. He published his Review of the prin- cipal Questions and Difficidties in Morals, &c. in 1758 ; his Observations on Reversionary Payments, &c. in 1771 ; and A free Discussion of the Doctrines of Materialism and Phi- losophical Necessity, with Dr. Priestley, in 1778. These are his most celebrated works. He died in 1791. Watts, p. 33. Isaac Watts, D. D. was born at Southampton, in South- Britain, in 1674. The works of this great and good man are numerous and excellent. His Treatise on Logic, his Treatise on the Improvement of the Mind, and his Philosophical Es- says, contain the chief of what he wrote on metaphysical sub- jects. He entered on the work of the Gospel ministry about the year 1 700 ; received the degree of D. D. from the Uni- versities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen, in 1723; and died in 1741. Controversy between Nominalists and Realists, p. 33. This controversy is not properly stated in the note in the above-mentioned page. The following view of the subject is, it is believed, more correct, and will, perhaps, be more intelligible to the reader. — The Realists supposed that there are certain substantial forms or essences, corresponding to ge- 468 Additional Notes, neral terms, and which the mind contemplates in employing such terms. - Thus, when the general term vegetable is used, . they contend that the mind contemplates some substance of a very refined nature, or a general form, having a positive existence. This substance or form, according to them, does not belong to any particular genus or species of vegetables exclusively, but is a phantasm, made up of every thing that is common to different genera or species. It is about this form or general essence that the mind is employed while con- sidering vegetable in the abstract. Both the Platonists and the Aristotelians were Realists, though differing among themselves with regard to some details. The Nominalists, on the other hand, contended that there are no existences in nature corresponding to general terms, and that the objects of our attention, in all our general spe- culations, are not essences, forms, or ideas, but words. Thus they suppose that, in the instance above selected, the word vegetable is the proper object of thought. This word, hav- ing been adopted as the representative of certain ideas col- lected from several genera and species, is used, in a manner, analogous to an algebraic character, which we employ through- out a process, without attending to the quantity which it re- presents. This was the doctrine of Zeno, of the Stoics, of Roscelinus, in the eleventh century, and of his successor, Abelard. The Conceptualists dissent from both' of the above-stated opinions. They suppose that words are connected, by com- mon consent, with certain attributes common to a number of genera and species, and abstracted from all peculiarities. By the law of the association of ideas, when the word vegetable is pronounced, all these attributes are drawn out of the ca- binet of memory, and arranged, by the faculty of conception, before the mind. This collection of ideas they suppose to be the object about which the mind is exercised. We lose sight of the word, and instantly attend to these conceptions. Metaphysical Improvements of the eighteenth Century. From a review of the whole of this chapter, it appears that the principal improvements which have been made in meta- physical science, during the last age, may be summarily pre- sented in the following particulars. 1. The Inductive Method of inquiry has been introduced Additional Notes. 469 into this branch of science, more fully and with greater suc- cess than ever before. In other words, some philosophers of the last age have taught us, for the first time, to study the human mind by ascertaining facts, and carefully observing and arranging its phenomena, without endeavouring to ex- plain these phenomena by hypotheses and conjectures. 2. The theory of Perception, which had, for so many centuries, perplexed and deluded philosophers, was, for the £rst time, during this period, denied and disproved, and a more rational doctrine introduced in its stead. 3. The enumeration and arrangement of the intellectual powers have been delivered, by metaphysicians of this age, from the false, inadequate, and mischievous simplicity, which were so long and obstinately adhered to by their predecessors. The original powers of the mind have been shown to be more numerous than they were before supposed ; and the plan of studying them in detail, rather than through the medium of a set of deceptive systematic rules, exhibited and recommended. 4. The metaphysical writings of the eighteenth century are, in general, more clear, popular and intelligible than those of any former age. To this some of the most erroneous writers of the age have, by their acuteness, contributed. Even Berkeley and Hume have thus indirectly subserved the interests of metaphysical science. NOTES ON CHAPTER XIII. Revival of Classic Literature in Britain, p. 37. WITHIN the last fifteen or twenty years of the eighteenth century, classic literature, and especially the study of the Greek language, has, in some degree, revived in Great-Bri- tain. From the time in which Barnes, Bentley, and Clarke flourished, till the period above-mentioned, their country could boast of few acquisitions in this department of literature. But towards the close of the century, rhe labours of Burney, Wakefield, Parr, and Porson, not to men- tion several others, who might with propriety be introduced into the same list, revived the taste for this kind of learning and will probably produce still more extensive effects. 470 Additional Notes. State of Classic Literature in America, p. 37. The statement respecting the low state of classic literature in the greater number of our American colleges, though true in general, is not to be admitted without exception. There are instructors in several colleges in the United States, under whose tuition a youth, who is disposed to do justice to him- self, may obtain as accurate and good an introduction to Greek and Latin literature as can be obtained in any European uni- versity, without exception. But as nothing more than the foundation of knowledge can be laid at seminaries of learn- ing, at least in the usual course; and as this foundation in classic literature is too seldom built upon, in after life, by the youth in America, we have fewer proficients in this depart- ment of learning than our just proportion. The author has been lately informed, and mentions with great pleasure, that in some parts of the United States there are promising appearances of a revival of classic literature. Greek and Latin Criticism, p. 46. Though it is certain that the great proficients in classic literature were much fewer at the close of the eighteenth century than at its commencement, yet, in some respects, these few possessed advantages which none of their predeces- sors enjoyed. The advantages enjoyed by them in the fol- lowing particulars are obvious. A spirit of philosophy has been introduced, during this period, into historical investiga- tions, which, united with the advantages of unwearied re- search, has greatly extended our knowledge of ancient man- ners, and afforded new illustration to ancient writings. The niceties of conjectural criticism have been carried, since the time of Bentley, to a greater length than was ever before known. The proper excellences of style have become lately much better understood than they were at earlier periods of the critical art ; and the reign of just taste among classical commentators more generally established. Many grammatical rules of the ancient languages, and especially of the Greek language, have been ascertained and laid down, with a degree of precision to which former critics were entire strangers. The metres of the ancient poets have been much better under- stood and illustrated by the commentators of the last century Additional Notes. 471 than those of any preceding age. And, finally, by the col- lections of new manuscripts, new light has been thrown on many passages of classic authors which were before unintel- ligible or obscure. For these improvements we are chiefly indebted to the critics of Great-Britain, Germany, and Hol- land. Editions of the Classics, p. 50* Almost all the classics had been repeatedly edited prior to the commencement of the eighteenth century. Besides many single works of high reputation which pertain to this class, there are two of a more extensive and celebrated kind, be- longing to the seventeenth century, which are worthy of notice. These are the Variorum editions, as they are gene- rally called, published in Holland, about the middle of that century, by Gr^evius, Gronovius, Schrevelius, and others ; and the still more famous editions, In usum Serenis- simi Delphini, published towards the close of the same cen- tury, under the patronage of Louis XIV. and chiefly com- pleted by the labours of Huet, Bossuet, Montausier, and RujEUS. But these, notwithstanding all their excellence, have not discouraged subsequent attempts. The editions which have been given to the public, during the period of this retrospect, are chiefly distinguished by their great typo- graphical elegance; their additions to the various readings be- fore collected ; the superior taste and delicacy of their con- jectural criticism ; and their more enlightened and liberal com- mentaries on the defects, beauties, and meaning of the ancient writers. The following editions of Greek authors, in addition to those before mentioned, are worthy of notice: viz. the works of Aristotle, by Buhle; of Longinus, by Pearce and Ruhnkenius; of Demosthenes, by Wolfius and Taylor; of Aristophanes and Sophocles, by Brunck ; and oiAnacreon, by Barnes, Pauw, Spaletti, Degen and Gail. The following editions of Latin authors also deserve to be mentioned: viz. Cicero, by Barbou ; Livy, by Crevier; Justin, by Barbou ; Sallust, by Havercamp, and by Don Gabriel, of Spain ; Terence, by Mrs. Grierson, by Westerhovius, and by Zeunius ; Pliny, sen. by Har- doin ; Pliny, jun. by Gesner, and by L'Allemand; Sue- tonius and Plautus, by Ernestus; and Propertius, by Broukhousius andBuRMANN. 472 Additional Notes* Translations of Classic Authors, p. 52. To the list of translations of Greek classics into the Eng- lish language, during the late century, add the following: — » Pindar, by West ; Anacreon, Bum, Moschus, and Theo- critus, by Fawkes; and Anacreon, by Moore. To the catalogue of versions of Latin classics into English, during the same period, we may add, the Bucolics and Geor- gics of Virgil, by Professor Martyn, of Cambridge; and the Comedies of Plant us by Thornton. The translation of the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, into French, near the beginning of the century, by Madame Da- cier, is among the numerous monuments of the learning and talents of that distinguished woman. The works of Plutarch were translated into French, early in the century, by M. Amiot, and, mere recently and ably, by M. Riccard. * The translation of the Bucolics and Georgics of Virgil^ into Greek hexameters, by Eugenius, a Russian Archbishop, is a singular specimen of literary labour. This work was splendidly printed, towards the close of the eighteenth cen- tury, under die patronage, and at the expense of Prince Po- temkin. NOTES ON CHAPTER XIV. Hebrew Literature, AMONG the numerous Hebrew Grammars which have solicited public attention during the last age, respectful notice ought to be taken of " A Plain and Complete Grammar of the Hebrew Language, with and without Points" By An- selm Bayly, LL. D. 8vo. 1774. The Tractatus Stigmologicus of the Rev. Thomas Bos- ton, a pious and learned clergyman of North-Britain, de- serves a distinguished place in the list of those publications which do honour to the eighteenth century, with respect to Hebrew literature. It is too little known, and as it is more read, will be more esteemed. Additional Notes. 473 The Origines Hebraicce of Professor Schultens, of Leyden, do great honour to this period. The Jar.ua Ile- hraiae Lifigtrie, by Reinecius; the Supplementa ad Lexica raica, by John David Michaelis; and the InMiiu- tiones Lingua llebraicce, by Schroeder, all of Germany, have been mentioned with much respect by the oriental critics of that country. The Apparatus Criiicus of Bengel is mentioned under this head by mistake. It does not belong to the department of Hebrew literature. It is a critical, learned, and highly va- luable work on the New Testament* It is also erroneous to ascribe a " great Hebrew Lexicon" to Calmet. That great man never published such a work. His Historical^ Critical and Chronological Dictionary of the Bible, in two vols, folio, is a work of high reputation, and contains much important criticism on the Old Testament Scriptures. Arabic Literature. Professor Reiske, of Leipsic, who died in 1774, after a hfe of more than eighty yeais, was one of the most able and zealous promoters of Arabic literature that the age produced. By his unremitted oral instructions, and by his valuable pub- lications, he contributed to the rearing of a great number of excellent Arabic scholars. His successor in the professorial chair at Leipsic, E. C. Rosenmuller, is highly distinguished in the same walk of literature. His Arabisches Elementar, &c. is represented as a work of much value, and worthy of a place in the library of every student of the Arabic lan^ guage. In 1800 Professor White, of the University of Oxford, presented to the lovers of Arabic literature a curious and va- luable work, entitled, Abdollatiphi Histories JEgypti Com- pendium Arabice et Latine. This work was first carried to England by Dr. Pocoxe, the celebrated traveller. His son, a great Orientalist, undertook to translate and publish it, but never completed his undertaking. Professor White, at length, published the original Arabic, with a Latin transla- tion, and learned notes. This has been represented as one of the most curious and valuable specimens of Arabic litera- ture ever imported from the East. Since the version of Sale, the Koran has been translated VOL. II. 3P 414 Additional Notes. into French by M. Savary, the celebrated traveller into Egypt. It is published with his Letters on Egypt and Greece* in six vols. 8vo. Persian Literature. The translation of the History of Nadir Shah was un- dertaken by Sir William Jones, at the instance of the King of Denmark. For this honourable monument of learned la- bour, his royal employer presented him with a snuff-box ! Persian literature has also been enriched, during the last age, with a number of other important translations into the different languages of Europe. Hindoo Literature. The principal compiler of the Lettres Edifiantes et Cn- ■rieuses, was Father Charles Gobien, a Jesuit, of St. Ma- loes, assisted by Du Halde, and others, of the same order. These Letters are filled with interesting accounts of the Na- tural History, Geography, Policy, and Literature of the coun- tries visited by the Jesuits. They appeared at an early period of the century, in a number of volumes. John Zephaniah Holwell, Esq. Governor of Bengal, was among the persons confined in the Black Hole, at Cal- cutta, in 1756, of which he published a narrative. He was among the first Europeans who engaged in the study of Hin- doo antiquities; and pointed out the path which others have so successfully pursued. He was, however, wholly ignorant of the Sanscrit language, and, on account of this deficiency, laboured under many disadvantages, and made gross mistakes in his investigations. : Mr. Halhed published a Grammar of the Bengal Lan- guage, in Calcutta, in 1778, and in London in 1780. Con- sidering this language as the sole channel of personal and epistolary communication among the Hindoos, of every oc- cupation and tribe; and considering, also, that, of all the oriental languages, this approaches nearest to the Sanscrit, in expression, structure, and character, every attempt to illus- trate its principles, and facilitate its acquisition, may be re- garded as an important present both to the literary and com- mercial world. Additional Notes. 475 Mr. Colebrooke, towards the close of the century, pub- lished a Digest of Hindoo Law, in four vols. 8vo. He was induced to undertake this work by the recommendation of Sir William Jones. It is, on various accounts, a curious and valuable work. The Rev. William Carey, a Baptist missionary of dis- tinguished talents and piety, has, by his persevering labours, rendered important service to Hindoo literature. At the close of the eighteenth century he had translated the whole Bible into the Bengalee language, had printed his translation of the New Testament, and distributed a large edition of this portion of the sacred scriptures among the Hindoos. This zealous and unwearied missionary has also formed a Sanscrit Gram- mar, and has begun a Dictionary of the same language. Chinese Literature. A curious specimen of Chinese literature was given to the world, during the eighteenth century, by Joseph Moyriac de Mailla, a learned French Jesuit. Having made himself acquainted with the Chinese language, this ecclesiastic was sent as a missionary to China in 1703. He was greatly esteemed by the Emperor, Kang-Hi, who employed him in making a map of China, and of Chinese Tartary. Mailla translated the great Annals of China into French, part of which translation has been published by the Abbe Grosier, under the following title: Histoire General de la Chine. 13 vols. 4to. Paris. 1777. — Mailla died at Pekin, in the year 1748. NOTES ON CHAPTER XV. French Language. oINCE the publication of Richelet's Dictionary, a more full and accurate one has been compiled by the Abbe Fe- raud. 476 Additional Notes. Italian Language. During a great part of the seventeenth century the Italian language was in a state of comparative degeneracy. It abounded, to an excess, with metaphor and antithesis, allu- sion and conceit; so that, instead of the simplicity which had before prevailed, affectation and obscurity became its dis- tinguishing characteristics. This taste was too much coun- tenanced and promoted by the writings of Marini, Tasso, and Chiabrera, which, though monuments of great genius, yet gave currency to false principles of composition. During this period the best models of ancient taste fell into neglect; and such only were selected for imitation as favoured the glit- ter, the bombast, and the pedantry which were then in vogue. Of this the satires of Benedict Menzini, and of Salvator Rosa, and the discourses of Mo rone, Pao- lettt, and others, afford sufficient proof. Towards the close of the seventeenth century these per- versions of taste began to decline, and the Italian literati as- sumed a style more simple, unaffected and accurate than that which had been in fashion for more than an hundred years. Apostolo Zeno, a distinguished Venetian writer, was one of the first who introduced a natural turn of sentiment and expression into his writings, and recommended this manner to his countrymen. Gravina, about the same time, re- called the attention of the learned to the best specimens of Grecian and Roman eloquence. Besides these, the poems oi ■ ar'ni, the miscellaneous pieces of Tagliazucchi, ;cal writings of Muratori, the dramatic produc- yIarteli, Maffei, C.esarotti, Alfieri, and Me r astasio, the various works of the Marquis of Beccaria, and many others, are entitled to particular notice, as honour- liteiatuie during the eighteenth century, and as having contributed to the progress of its improvement. the influence of these and other writers, the Italian 'language gained, in the eighteenth century, a degree of pu- rity, dignity, and general excellence, unknown even in the a^e of iiEMBo and of Casa. The ancient rules and models iste resumed, in a considerable degree, their sway; and, is, perhaps, of little less importance, some of the most classical productions of Great-Britain and of France, by being translated into Italian, and naturalized in that country, have contributed, in no small degree, to meliorate the public taste, and to produce a reform in the literature of that country. Additional Notts. 477 German Language. About the year 1720, the practice of employing the ver- nacular tongue in important scientific publications vyas com- menced in Germany. For the introduction of this improve- ment the honour is chiefly due to Thomasius, an eminent metaphysical and moral writer of that country ; and to Wo if, distinguished for his labours in the same department of science. Their example was soon followed by others. From that pe- riod, therefore, it became necessary for authors to culm ate their own language with greater care: the influence of which soon became visible in their writings. A few years afterwards, that is to say, about the middle of the century, the practice of translating the best French and English books commenced in Germany, and produced very sensible effects in meliorating the style of writing among the German literati. These events were 'succeeded by the works of several authors, who wrote with a particular view to the introduction of new idioms and graces of language, and whose exertions were productive of the most useful effects.— See the progress of improvement in German style more minutely traced in the 26th chapter of this work. NOTES ON CHAPTER XVII. THE principal writers of Universal History in Germany areGATTERER,HETNRICH,MuLLER,aildHABERLIN. The most distinguished writers of particular histories are Ge- eauer, Schmidt, Krause, Wieland, Galetti, and Schiller. The greatest Statistical historians are Achen- WALL, WALCH, ReINHARD,REiMER, MEUSELandSPREN- gel. ■ The History of England, in the form of Letters from a Nobleman to his Son, in two vols. 12mo, was ascribed to Lord Lyttleton, to the Earl of Orrery, and other noble writers; but was, in reality, written by Dr. Goldsmith. Mrs. Macaulay, in her History of England from the Revolution to the present Time, 4to. 1778, adopts the mode of writing in Letters, addressed to the Rev. Dr. Wilson. 47$ Additional Notes. Sir John Hawkins published an History of Music, in 1776, in five vols. 4to. This work contains much curious information, and is reputable to its author; but has been su- perseded by the better work of Dr. Burney. The first Chart of History was published, it is believed, in France, about the year 1760, by the Abbe Langlet du Fresnoy. A few years afterwards, a similar work, taken from Du Fresngy's, but much improved, was published in England. Dr. Priestley's New Chart of History was the third attempt of the kind ; and is, doubtless, superior to all preceding works of a similar nature. NOTES ON CHAPTER XVIII. THE FAoges of Fontenelle, and of D'Alembert, hold a distinguished place among the writings of this class in the last age. The American Biography, by the late Rev. Dr. Bel- knap, of Boston, in two vols. 8vo. is a work honourable to the compiler, and highly useful to the student of Ameri- can history. To the list of biographical works given in pages 151 and 152, it is proper to add, Memoirs of the Life and Admini- stration of Sir Robert Walpole, Earl of Orford, by Coxe. The Life of Lorenzo de Medici, by Roscoe, is worthy of more particular notice, and of more pointed praise, than are bestowed upon it in the above-mentioned page. It indicates an extent of reading, and an elegance of taste, which will do lasting honour to the author. The Life of Limiceus, by Stoever, deserves a place among the valuable biographical works which appeared to- wards the close of the eighteenth century. Almost all the Accounts of distinguished Living Charac- ters, with which the republic of letters has abounded within a few years past, have been worse than useless. With few exceptions, they have been written in a continued strain of panegyric, which is rather calculated to flatter its imme- diate objects, and to mislead others, than to gratify curiosity, or to convey instruction. If these works should be perused Additional Notes.. 479 a century hence, they will give scarcely any just information concerning the characters of which they treat. The number of self -biographers was much greater in the eighteenth century than in any former period. NOTES ON CHAPTER XX. Pope awrf Dryden. p. 181. A FRIEND of learning and taste, on reading what is said of the comparative merits of these two great English poets* made the following remark: " Dryden, in my opinion, did more to improve English versification than Pope. The in- terval is wider between Dryden and the best of his predeces* sors than between Dryden and Pope." Epic Poetry. Glove p. wrote a second epic poem, entitled, The A the-* niad, which has been praised; but is generally considered as inferior to his Leonidas. The Epigoniad, by the Rev. Dr. William Wilkie, of North-Britain, is an epic poem of some merit, but far from being entitled to a place in the first class. This writer has been called the " Homer of Scotland," His work was first published in 1757, and reached a second edition in 1759. — ■ He died at St. Andrews in 1772. In the composition of the Joan of Arc, Southey was as- sisted by his friend Coleridge, a poet of great genius and tasre. Cowper's Translation of Homer deserves an honourable place here. Considered as a translation, it is certainly su- perior to Pope's. Gilbert Wakefield observes, that whoever wishes to see Homer in English dress must read Cow PER. Oberon, though the best, is not the only epic poem pro- duced by Wieland. His Idris, his Ncuen Amadis, and his Liebe nm Liebe, were prior in time, but inferior in merit. 4S0 Additional Notes. They have, however, been highly commended, particularly by the critics in the author's own country. It is the opinion of some good judges that the Lusiad of Mickle is much superior to the Lusiad of Camoens. The translator has certainly, in some respects, improved on the original, and made many additions. The Poems of Ossian, a little before the close of the cen- tury, were translated into Italian, by Cesarotti, with great elegance. Didactic Poetry. Wieland, the celebrated German writer, has written se- veral didactic poems, which have been much commended. His Die Natur, his Anti-Ovid, and his Musarion, are re- presented as possessing peculiar merit. With the.r character, however, I have too little acquaintance to speak particularly. Besides these, the didactic poems of Hagedorn, Gieske, Kastner, Uz and Dusch, also Germans, have been spoken of, by the critics of their own country, with high respect. The Grave, a didactic poem, by Blair, is a work of great excellence, and general popularity. The following remarks may with propriety be read in con- nection with the character which is given of the Abbe De- lille's Garden. " Voltaire, in his discourse pronounced at his reception into the French Academy, gives several reasons why the poets of that country have not succeeded in describing rural scenes and employments. The principal one is, the ideas of mean- ness, poverty, and wretchedness, which the French are accustomed to associate with the profession of husbandry. The same thing is alluded to by the Abbe Delille, in the preliminary discourse prefixed to his translation of the Georgics. ' A translation,' says he, ' of this poem, if it had been under- taken by an author of genius, would have been better calcu- lated than any other work for adding to the riches of our lan- guage. A version of the ALneid itself, however well exe- cuted, would, in this respect, be of less utility; inasmuch as the genius of our tongue accommodates itself more easily to the description of heroic achievements, than to the details of natural phenomena, and of the operations of husbandry. To force it to express these with suitable dignity, would have been a real conquest over that false delicacy which it Additional Notes. 481 has contracted from our unfortunate prejudices." — Stew- art's Elements of the Philosophy of Mind, Part II. chap. v. § 2. second edit. Moral and Devotional Poetry. To the list of sacred poets, the immortal name of Cow- per ought to be added, as holding a place in the first rank. The orthodoxy of his faith, and the fervour of his piety, joined to his great talents, fitted him pre-eminently for this species of composition. Gellert is by no means the only sacred poet of whom Germany boasts. The Hymns of Kleist, Cramer, Klop- stock, Schlegel, and Herder, have received high praise. Descriptive Poetry . The Alptn of Baron Haller, published in 1729, is a de- scriptive poem of considerable reputation. The Friihling of Kleist is a poem of still more distinguished excellence. Though not equal to Thomson, with whom he has been compared, he has certainly painted some of the most beautiful scenes in nature, in just, vivid, and beautiful colours. To these may be added, belonging to the same class, the Luise of Voss, and the Hermann und Dorothea of Goethe, which are generally placed, in that country, in the first order of descriptive poetry. Drama. A tragedy, entitled, The Grecian Daughter, is, by mis- take, ascribed to Moore, in p. 210. He published no dra- matic work under that title. In p. 211 there is an erroneous statement respecting co<- medy. Several of Shakspeare's comedies are purely comic. His tragedies are rather chargeable with having a mixed cha- racter than his comedies. — Dryden also wrote several un- mixed comedies. Towards the close of the eighteenth century, the plays of Farquhar, on account of their licentious character, were seldom played, and never without great alterations. They are wholly discontinued on the American stage. VOL. II. 3Q 482 Additional Notes, Two comic productions of Mr. Sheridan, besides his School for Scandal, have been celebrated; viz. The Rivals^ and The Critic. Both these works, and especially the latter, are considered as doing honour to the fertile genius of the author. The younger Colman is entitled to a place among the distinguished comic writers of Great-Britain, at the close of the century under consideration. He is said, «by some, to be inferior only to Mr. Sheridan. His Ways and Means, his Surrender of Calais, and his comic opera of Inkle and Ya- rico, have commanded much popular applause. Some of his dramatic pieces, however, are said to be tinctured with mis- chievous principles, and to have an immoral tendency ; but of the nature and extent of these faults 1 have too little know- ledge to be able to speak precisely. The close of the century was distinguished by the drama- tic publications of Mies Joanna Baillie, who is considered by many as having retrieved the declining character of the age with respect to tragic composition. A respectable critic has pronounced, that, " for lofty poetry, sublime sentiment, and true pathos, her tragedies stand unquestionably at the head of every modern effort of the tragic muse." The three plays of Beaumarchais, mentioned in page 217, form one story; and in the last of the three, the crimes and follies of the characters are represented as punished. Besides the German dramatists«mentioned in pages 220 and 221, there are several others who deserve respectful notice. Schlegel, Weisse, Leisewitz, and Gerstenberg, have produced tragedies of high reputation. 'Hie tragedies of Klopstock are also represented as models of sublimity, both in sentiment, language, and action. — In comedy, Cruger, Klinger, Wetzel, Grosmann, and Engel, are spoken of as having merit of a very conspicuous and popular kind. But while many of the dramatic productions of Germany, during the period under consideration, stand high on the scale of genius and taste, some of them deserve to be reprobated as replete with erroneous sentiment, and as being most per- nicious in their moral tendency. The character of the drama in America, towards the close of the eighteenth century, began to be more distinct and na- tional than at any former period. Instead of waiting altoge- ther for the productions of the English stage, and continu- ing to be its servile echo, the American stage has exhibited a considerable number of original pieces, and others adopted Additional Notes, 483 from the French and German. And though the former are not equal to the first class of British productions, and the moral tendency of some of the latter has been questioned; yet they form one step in that literary progress of our country -which is more particularly detailed in another place. In enumerating the peculiar advantages under which poetic compositions -were presented during the last age, it would be improper to omit taking notice of the illustration of poetic pictures by elegant engravings, and other appropriate orna- ments. The Shakspeare Gallery, the plates for illustrating Milton, Thomson, and many other distinguished poets, had certainly no equals in any preceding age. NOTES ON CHAPTER XXII. Newspapers in the United States, p. 251. AFTER taking much pains to ascertain the number of news- papers printed in the United States, the author is enabled to present the following list. He dares not assert that it is ac- curate or complete; but it is as nearly so as he could make it. It is proper to observe, however, that, as the materials which form it were collected at different times in the years 1801 and 1802, it is not improbable that some of the papers mentioned have been since discontinued, and others established. The real number may certainly, however, be considered, in the gross, as rather greater than smaller than that which is here presented. In New-Hampshire there are ten newspapers; viz. three at Portsmouth; one at Concord; one_at Dover; one at Gil- mantown; one at Amherst ; one at Keene; one at Walpole ; and one at Dartmouth. They are all published once a week. In Massachusetts there are twenty-six newspapers; viz. five in Boston, each published twice a week : two in Salem; two in Newbury port; two in Worcester ; one in Brookfidd; one in Springfield ; one in Northampton ; one in Piiisjield; one in Dedham ; one in Stockbridge ; one in New- Bedford; one in Haverhill; one in Leominster ; three in Portland; 484 Additional Notes. one in Augusta; one in Castine; and one in Greenfield ; — all published weekly. The four last mentioned towns are in the Province of Maine. In Rhode-Island the number of gazettes has not been ascertained. It is believed there are four; viz. two in Pro- vidence, and two in Newport, each published twice a week. In Connecticut there are seventeen newspapers; viz. two at Hartford; two at New-Haven ; three at New-London ; two at Norwich ; one at Wyndham ; one at Stonington ; one at Litchfield; one at Sharon ; one at D anbury ; one at Nor- walk; one at Middletown; and one at Ntwfield. All these are published once a week. In Vermont there are eight newspapers ; viz. one at Bennington; one at Rutland; one at Vergennes ; one at Brattleborough ; two at Windsor; one at Peacham; and one at Randolph; — all published weekly. At the time when this list was communicated to the author (February, 1801), three new gazettes were talked of; viz. one each at Benning- ton, Burlington, and St. Alban's. In New-York there are thirty-eight newspapers; viz. in the city of New-York thirteen, seven published daily, four twice a week, and two xveekly; three in Albany, each published twice a week ; one at Brooklyn ; two at New- burgh; two at Poughkeepsie ; two at Kingston; one at Kaatskill; three at Hudson ; one at Troy ; one at Lansing- burgh; one at Salem ; one at Waterford; one at Johnstown ; one at Herkemer; one at Cooper stoxvn; one at Whitestown; one 2xRome; one at Oswego ; and one at Canandarqua; — ■ all printed xveekly. In New-Jersey there are eight newspapers; viz. two at Trenton; two at Newark; one at Elizabeth-Town ; one at Brunswick; one at Morristown; and one at Burlington. These are all printed weekly. In Pennsylvania the number has not been accurately as- certained. It is believed, however, to be about twenty-eight. Of these five or six are published daily ; about the same num- ber twice a week ; and the remainder weekly. At least five of the newspapers in Pennsylvania are in the German lan- guage. In Delaware there are three newspapers; viz. two in Wilmington, published twice a week ; and one in Dover, pub- lished weekly. In Maryland there are fourteen newspapers; viz. three in Baltimore, published daily; three in Washington, of Additional Notes. 485 which two ave puhlished three times a week, and one weekly ; two a. Georgetown, each printed three times a week ; and one at Annapolis; one at Easton ; two at Hagar^s-Town; and two at Frederick-Town; — all weekly papers. Tn Virginia there are seventeen newspapers; viz. two at Alexandria, published daily; three at Richmond, each three times a week; two at Norfolk, twice a week ; two at Peters- burg>h, twice a week; and one at Fredericksburgh, also twice a -TLk. Besides these, there are, one at Fincastle; one at L-rsburg; one at Lynchburg ; one at Staunton; one at Martinsburg ; and two at Winchester ; — all weekly papers. In North-Carolina there are eight newspapers; viz. tw7o ar Raleigh, the seat of government ; one at Edenton ; one at Newbern ; one at Wilmington ; one at Halifax; one at Salisbury ; and one at Lincolnberg ; — all weekly papers. In South-Carolina the number of newspapers could not he ascertained at the time when inquiry was made. There are probably at least six or eight ; perhaps a greater number. In Georgia there are six newspapers, viz. two in Savan- nah, one of which is published twice a week, and the other weekly; two at Augusta, each weekly ; and one weekly pa- per each at Louisville and at Washington. In Kentucky there are four newspapers ; viz. two at Lexington; one at Frankfort ; and one at Louisville ; — all weekly papers. In Tennessee there are two newspapers; viz. one at Knoxville, and one at Nashville; — both published weekly. In the State of Ohio there is at least one newspaper, printed at Chillicothe ; and probably one or two more. In the Mississippi Territory there is one newspaper, printed weekly at the city of Natchez. There are, then, in the United States, about 200 news- papers. Of these at least seventeen are printed daily, seven three times a week, thirty twice a week, and one hundred and forty-six weekly. The statement in p. 251 differs, in some respects, from that which is here given. It is believed that the latter is the more correct. ( 4S6 ) NOTES ON CHAPTER XXIII. American Philosophical Society, p. 259. JL HE following brief notices respecting the rise and progress of this institution, and its situation in 1803, are extracted from a private letter, addressed to the author by a member of the association. " In the year 1743 a society was formed in Philadelphia, taking the name of The American Philosophical Society. Its most early and active members were, Benjamin Franklin, Dr. Thomas Bond, Rev. Dr. Francis Alison, Rev. John Ewing, Rev. Dr. William Smith, and Mr. David Rit- tenhouse. " In the year 1766 another society was formed, under the name of The American Society for promoting and propa- gating useful Knowledge in Philadelphia. Among its most active members appear to have been Messrs. Charles Thompson, Edmund Physick, Isaac Paschall, Owen Biddle, Moses Bartram, and Isaac Bartram. " The chief business of the former of these societies seems to have been the making and receiving of communications on various philosophical subjects; and of the latter, the pro- posing and discussing of questions on a great variety of sub- jects, chiefly philosophical and political: and among these it is impossible not to discern strong symptoms of that spirit of freedom which was soon to discover itself in the American revolution. " In the beginning of the year 1769 these two societies united, under the name of The American Philosophical So- ciety, held at Philadelphia, for promoting useful Knowledge. The elder branch, at the time of the union, contained 144 members, including 80 corresponding members; and the younger branch contained 128 members. Several gentlemen, however, were at this time members of both. " The society was incorporated, by an act of the Legislature of Pennsylvania, in the year 1780. Aided by the munifi- cence of the State, and liberal donations of individuals, they have now erected, on a lot of ground in the State-House square, a commodious, and not inelegant building, where they keep their museum and library, and hold their meetings. Additional Notes. 487 H The society have published five quarto volumes of their Transactions. Their library, chiefly formed by the benevo- lent donations of similar societies both in Europe and Ame- rica, and of individuals, now contains upwards of 1 300 vo- lumes. Their museum of natural history is not yet very ex- tensive; but, however, contains a number of rare and valu- able specimens, chiefly of the fossil or mineral kind. Their philosophical apparatus is still in an infant state, but pro- gressive. " In the year 1786 Mr. John Hyacinth de Magellan, of London, made a donation to the society of 200 guineas, to be vested in a permanent fund, to the end that the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in premiums, to be adjudged by the society " to the author of the best dis- covery, or most useful invention, relating to navigation, astro- nomy', or natural philosophy (mere natural history only ex- cepted)." A few only of these premiums having been yet awarded, this fund is now considerably accumulated. The society have, from their own proper funds, offered premiums, and invited candidates to make communications of inventions or improvements relative to certain specified objects. " With respect to the number of the present members of the society I cannot speak with any degree of certainty. It may, perhaps, be about two hundred, of whom about one half may be foreigners, about forty in Philadelphia and its vicinity, and the rest in all parts of the United States. " The society, I may say with truth, is at present in a pretty flourishing condition. Its meetings are well attended, and every part of its business conducted with regularity. This, in justice, however, is to be ascribed to the zeal and activity of a very few of its members. " The society have no other funds than those which arise from the annual contribution of two dollars from each of its resident members, and the occasional donations of liberal in- dividuals." American Academy of Arts and Sciences, p. 260. The following extract of a letter from a member of the Academy, written in September, 1301, will give the reader a comprehensive view of the history of this institution, and of its state at that time. " The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was incor- 488 Additional Notes, porated May 3, 1780. The first meeting was on the 30th of the same month. The late Governor Bowdoin was elected President; and was annually re-elected until his death, which happened November 6, 1790. In May, 1791, the Hon. John Adams, LL. D. was elected President, and has been annually re-elected since, in the year 1785 the Aca- demy published a volume of their Transactions in quarto. The preface to this volume, the incorporating act, and sta- tutes of the Academy, together with Mr. Bowdoin's inau- gural address, which it contains, will give full information of the nature and objects of the society, and of its situation at that time. Though the volume is intrinsically valuable and well executed, and was offered for sale at the moderate price of sixteen shillings, yet it had a very limited sale, and the publication involved the Academy in a debt, which occa- sioned no small embarrassment. The first part of a second volume was, however, published in 1793, and a sufficient number of papers have been some time past selected to com- plete the volume. It will soon be published. " The present funds amount to about 7300 dollars, vested in different descriptions of stocks. Five thousand dollars of this sum arises from a donation made by Count Rum ford in 1 796 : the interest of which is, by the terms of the donation, to be * applied and given, once every second year, as a premium to the author of the most important discovery or useful im- provement which shall be made known to the public in any part of the continent of America, or in any of the American islands, during the preceding two years, on Heat or on Light.' The Academy have voted, that at their meeting in May next, and afterwards at their meeting in May biennially, they will decide on the discovery or improvement which shall appear to be entitled to the premium. Notice will soon be published of this vote. Count Rumford's donation is in three per cent, stock. The residue of the fund arises from a dona- tion of c£l00, given by Mr. Bowdoin in his will; the like sum given by Josiah Quincy, Esq. 440 dollars given by the General Court in 1787; and an annual assessment of two dollars on each member. The sum of five dollars is also paid by each member on his admission. In addition to the pecuniary legacy, Governor Bowdotn gave to the Academy his library, consisting of about twelve hundred volumes, with liberty to sell any part of it, the proceeds to be vested in books. About six' hundred volumes were sold under this permission. The library of the Academy now contains about Additional Notes. 489 thirteen hundred volumes, among which are many rare and valuable books. Besides Mr. Bowdoin, the principal do- nors are, the present President of the Academy, Dr. Frank- lin, and M. Veron, who was a suigeon in the squadron of M. de Ternay. The number of the original or statute members was sixty-two. One hundred and sixty-one mem- bers have been elected since the commencement of the insti- tution. There are now living, -of the whole corps, 170; viz. Resident members, by which is meant those who belong to the commonwealth 95 Resident in other States in the union 30 Foreign members 45 Making in the whole 170 " The Academy meets four times annually ; in January and May at Boston — in August and September at Cambridge. Their meetings at Boston are holden in an apartment lately assigned for their accommodation in the new State-House, where also their library and museum are deposited. A cata- logue of the books in the library is in preparation, and will soon be published. It has been sometimes remarked that this society has been, in a degree, languid in its operation, and has not fully satisfied the public expectations. Whatever justice there may be in such a remark, I shall not now at- tempt to trace the source. There is evidently a want of ex- citement j and the public ought to have candour enough to take part of the blame to itself. I have the satisfaction, however, to observe, that there appears, of late, a renewed and more lively attention among its members to the concerns of the institution. I ought to have mentioned, among the liberalities of the General Court, the plates of the map of the commonwealth, which were given to the Academy and to the Historical Society. The donation has been accepted, and a joint committee of the societies have lately sold the right of impression for seven years for 600 dollars, to be paid to the societies without any deduction. YOL. II. 3R ( 490 ) NOTES ON CHAPTER XXVL German Literature, p. 330. 1HE pernicious tendency* of many modern German publi- cations has been often the subject of remark within a few- years past. That works of solid merit, which cannot be too generally known and read, are every year published in that country, is not denied; but that a considerable number daily issue from the German presses, of a very different and most pestiferous character, can as little be doubted. A late writer, in a memoir on this subject, makes the following striking re- marks. How far they are just or otherwise is left to be de- termined by every reader. " After all, it may not be chimerical to suppose, that the general reception of 'the German writings, the universal pre- valence of the German taste, and the love of the wild and gloomy, are not to be accounted for from ordinary causes, and have in them more weight and importance than are usually attached to mere matters of taste and criticism. May not these be among the elements of feverish agitation and mighty change, afloat, by the permission of Providence, for pur- poses, to us inscrutable, in the moral system ? May not this revolution in taste be a prelude to other revolutions — a small skirt of the cloud, like a man's hand, ushering in the black- ening tempest? Are not the German writings calculated to generate, in both sexes, a ferocious hardihood, and inde- pendence of mind ; a dangerous contempt of established forms ; a promptitude, to suffer and to dare; an enthusiasm of cha- racter, fitting them for seasons of energy, of exertions, of privations, dangers, and calamities ? It is natural for human blindness and inattention to overlook the instruments and operations by which Providence prepares and fashions great and surprising events. It is the folly of man to ascribe too little weight and importance to moral causes ; while it is the course of Providence (as it were, on purpose to humble hu- man pride) to act by seemingly minute and inefficient causes. Who knows, then, but this preternatural appetite for the ir- regular, the indecorous, the boisterous, the sanguinary, and the terrific, may be the precursor of some strange moral or political convulsion?" — Transactions of the Boj/al Irish Aea- Additional Notes. 491 demy, vol. vlii. Reflections on the Style and Manner of some late German Writers, and on the Tendency of their Pro- ductions. By William Preston, Esq. M. R. I. A. American Episcopate, p. 368. Among those who signalized themselves as writers in favour of the introduction and support of an American Episcopate, the name of Mr. John Vardill ought not to have been omitted. Mr. Vardill was born and educated in the city of New-York. In the year 1762 he was admitted into King's College, as it was then called; and having passed, with high reputation, through the usual course of academic instruction, he received the degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts, and remained in the college for the purpose of prosecuting his studies, preparatory to his application for orders in the Epis- copal Church. In the year 1773 he was elected Fellow of the College, and Professor of Natural Law ; and, towards the conclusion of that year, went to England for ordination, where he has since remained. In early youth he discovered a very con- siderable poetical genius; and several of his publications in this way, at different periods of his life, have been received with much applause. He bore a conspicuous part as a writer at the commencement of the contest between this country and Great-Britain; and in the dispute relative to the introduc- tion and establishment of Bishops of the Episcopal Church. Dr. Seabury. p. 369. As Dr. Samuel Seabury was the first Episcopal Bishop that ever resided in the United States, it is thought proper to present the following additional information respecting him, which has been communicated to the author since the ac- count in the above-mentioned page was printed. He was born in 1728, and passed through the regular course of education in Yale College, where he graduated in 1751. In 1752 he went to Scotland for the purpose of s:u- dying Medicine; but soon afterwards turning his attention to Divinity, he went to London, where he was ordained a Dea- con, Dec. 21, 1753, by the Bishop of Lincoln, at the re- quest of Thomas Sherlock, Bishop of London; and a 492 Additional Notes. few days afterwards, Priest, by the Bishop of Carlisle. Be- sides remaining in Scotland about one year, he spent two or three months at the University of Oxford. He was first settled in the ministry at Brunswick, in New- Jersey. Here he remained about three years. From Bruns- wick, in the beginning of the year 1157, he removed to Ja- maica, on Long-Island, where he resided until December, 1166; thence he removed to Westchester, in the State of New-York. In this place he remained until the commence- ment of the revolutionary war, when he went into the city of New-York, and after the termination of this controversy settled in Connecticut. In 1777 he received the degree of Doctor of Divinity from the University of Oxford. Dr. Seabury went to England, in 1784, to obtain con- secration as Bishop of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut. Meeting, in South-Britain, with some obstruction to the ac- complishment of his wishes (an obstruction, however, en- tirely unconnected with personal considerations), he went to Scotland, where, in the month of November in that year, he was consecrated Bishop, by Messrs. Robert Kilgour, Arthur Petrie, and John Skinner, nonjuring Bishops of Scotland. He continued for a number of years after this period to re- side at New- London, and to discharge, in an exemplary man- ner, the duties of his office. He was warmly attached to the Episcopal Church, and generally esteemed as one of her most zealous and able defenders in America. — He died in 1796. American Colleges, p. 385. The following list of American Colleges has been made out with considerable care. It may, perhaps, be regarded as a record of some value, not only for gratifying present cu- riosity, but also for future reference. In Massachusetts there are three Colleges, viz. 1. Harvard College, or the University of Cambridge. This is the oldest institution of the kind in North-America. It was founded in 1638. In 1636 the General Court of Massachusetts gave c£400 towards the support of a public school at Cambridge, then called Newtown. Mr. John Harvard, an eminent cler- gyman, dying in 1638, left near £8 00, being the greater part of his estate, to the same object. In consequence of this Additional Notes. 493 donation, the General Court, the same year, enlarged the plan, and extended the powers of the institution, and gave it the name of Harvard College. Degrees were first con- ferred in the year 1642. This institution has to acknowledge the munificence of many liberal individuals. In 1699, the Hon. William Stoughton, Lieutenant-Governor of the province, erected a Hail for the accommodation of students, which was called by his name. Holden Chapel was erected in 1745, at the expense of the widow and daughters of Samuel Holden, one of the Directors of the Bank of England. Hollis-hall, erected in 1762, was so called in honour of Thomas Hol- lis, of London, who made numerous and large benefactions to the College. Besides these, the donations of Thomas Hancock, Drs. Ezekiel and Abner Hersey, William Erving, Esquire, and several others, were liberal, and have contributed to extend the plan and usefulness of the College. All the Professorships bear the names of the gentlemen who either gave a fund for their support, or contributed towards this object. The immediate Officers of this College are, a President (who is at present the Rev. Dr. Joseph Willard) ; Hollis Pro- fessor of Divinity ; Hancock Professor of the Hebrew and Oriental Languages; Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy ; Hersey Professor of Anatomy and Surgery ; Hersey Professor of the Theory and Prac- tice of Physic; Erving Professor of Chemistry and Ma- teria Me die a ; and four Tutors. The Board of Ove, zeers consists of the Governor, Lieute- nant-Governor; the members of the Council and Senate, and the Ministers of the Congregational Churches in Boston, Cambridge, Watertown; Cliarlestown, Boxbury and Dor- chester. The number of Students in this College may be estimated, on an average, from 180 to 200. The greater part of these board in the College. The expenses necessarily arising to each student within the walls, ?'. e. boarding, tuition, room- rent, &c. may be estimated at about 120 dollars per annum. The course of Instruction in this College is as follows : First year, the Students read Sallust, Livy, Horace, Terence, Homer, Xenophon; besides these, they attend to Rhetoric, Millot's Elements of Universal History, Pike's Arithmetic, Lowth's Grammar, French and Hebrew languages, Watts's Logic, Morse's Geography, and the use of the globes. Second 494 Additional Notes. year, Classics as before'; French and Hebrew languages, Logic, Geography, Arithmetic, and History continued ; Locke on the Understanding, Blair's Lectures, Mensuration, and Al- gebra. Third year, the Classics before enumerated ; French, Hebrew, History, and Locke continued ; with the addition of Euclid's Elements, Enfield's Philosophy, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Mensuration of Heights and Distances, Na- vigation, English Composition, and Forensic Disputations. Fourth year, Burlamaqui's Elements of Natural and Po- litical Law, Paley's Philosophy, Dialling, Spheric Geometry and Trigonometry, Ferguson's Astronomy, Doddridge's Theological Lectures, English Composition, &c. The Library is the largest excepting one, in the United States. It consists of between 13,000 and 14,000 volumes. The Philosophical Apparatus is ample, and generally said to be the best in America. The Funds are large, but their pre- cise amount is not known. The annual Commencement is on the last Wednesday in August. At the end of the year 1800, more than 3,600 Students had received the honours of the institution. 2. Williams* College. This institution was incorporated as a College in 1793, and is situated in Williamstown, in the County of Berkshire. It is named in honour of Col. Ephraim Williams, who died in 1755, and who left a large portion of his estate for the establishment and support of a seminary of learning. This seminary was first incorpo- rated as an Academy in 1785. Its plan was extended, and a Charter, constituting it a College, given in the year before- mentioned. The College Buildings are, two large edifices of brick ; one 82 feet long, 42 feet wide, and four stories high; con- taining 28 rooms for the accommodation of students, and a Chapel: the other 104 feet long, 38 feet wide, and also four stories high ; containing 32 rooms, with a bed-room and study adjoining to each. The former of these buildings was erected in 1788, at the expense of 1 1,700 dollars; the latter, in 1798, at the expense of 12,400 dollars. Besides these, there are a dwelling-house for the President, and a large and elegant Church, to the erection of which the Trustees con- tributed, on condition that the officers and students of the College should always be accommodated therein on the Lord's days, and have the use of it on public occasions. The Funds of this College are small, consisting of money on, interest, amounting to about 3,500 dollars, and a town- Additional Notes. 495 ship of land in the province of Maine, worth, perhaps, from 7,000 to 10,000 dollars. The income, from tuition, room- rent, &c. is about 2,000 dollars annually. The institution has been hitherto supported by Col. Williams's donation, by subscriptions among the inhabitants of Williamstown and its vicinity, by the product of a lottery, and by a grant of two townships of land in the province of Maine by the Legislature of the Stare. The Officers of this College are, a President (who is at pre- sent the Rev. Dr. Ebenezer Fitch) and four Tutors. The institution is governed by sixteen gentlemen, of whom the President for the. time being is one, and always presides at their meetings. The number of Students at the close of the year 1800 was S3. They are boarded in the College, and in private houses in the vicinity. The price of board, tuition, washing, wood, &c. amounts annually to about 100 dollars. The Library consists of about 600 volumes. Two literary- societies belonging to the College have a library in common, consisting of 300 volumes more. The Philosophical Appa- ratus is small; but well selected and good, so far as it goes. A good Telescope, and some other articles are much wanted to render the collection tolerably complete. The Course of Instruction is nearly similar to that which was detailed as taking place in Harvard College. The principal points of difference are the following — There ap- pears to be rather less attention paid to Classic literature here than at Harvard. Priestley's Lectures on History are studied, by the Junior class, instead of Millot's Elements; Edwards on the Will, by the Senior class, in addition to Locke ; and in some instances the Senior class has recited Dr. Hopkins's System of Theology; in others Dodd- ridge's Lectures. The annual Commencement is on the first Wednesday of September; and at the close of the year 1800 about 80 students had received the honours of the College. 3. Bcwdoin College. This College was instituted in 1794. It is situated at Brunswick, in the Province of Maine; 3nd was so called in honour of the late Governor Bowdoin. This institution is yet in its infancy. There are a Presi- dent (who is the Rev. Joseph M'Kean), lately appointed, and a Professor of Languages. With respect to the state of the funds, the number of the students, the course of instruc- tion, &c. no information has been obtained. But as the 496 Additional Notes College has not been organized more than three or four years.* its constitution cannot yet be very complete or mature. In New- Hampshire there is one College, viz. Dartmouth College, which was incorporated in 1769. This seminary is situated in Hanover, in the county of Graf- ton, and derives its name from the Earl of Dartmouth, one of its principal benefactors. The Rev. Dr. Eleazer Wheelock was the founder, and the first President. (See p. 374.) The first College buildings were erected in 1770, and a large addition made to them in 1786. The Government of the College is in the hands of twelve trustees, seven of whom make a quorum. By them all laws and appointments are made, and to them the officers are re- sponsible. The Officers are, a President (who is at present Johi* Wheelock, LL. D. the son of the first President} ; a Pro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy ; a Professor of the Latin and Greek Languages; a Professor of Chemistry and Medicine, and two Tutors. The Course of Instruction. Students must be qualified for admission, by a knowledge of the Greek Testament, of Virgil, and Cicero's Orations, and of the principles of Arith- metic ; artd when admitted, usually continue four years be- fore they receive degrees. The Freshman class attend to the Greek and Latin authors, the principles of composition, cri- ticism, rhetoric, &c. The Sophomore class to Geography, Logic, and the Mathematics. The Junior class to Natural Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, and the higher branches of the Mathematics: the Sophomores and Juniors, both continu- ing to devote a portion of their time to the Classics. The Se- nior class attend to Metaphysics, the principles of Civil Law, Divinity, Chemistry, and Natural History. The Funds of this College consist chiefly of lands granted by New-Hampshire and Vermont, most of which are still un- productive. Of these lands there are about 40,000 acres. The College Library consists of about 3,000 volumes. The Philosophical Apparatus is sufficient for a common course of experimental philosophy. The number of Students in 1801 was 140. The greater part of these are accommodated in the College. The annual expense of each individual, including boarding, tuition, &c. except cloathing and other contingencies, is about 100 dollars. In 1801 eight hundred students had graduated at this Col- lege since its establishment. Additional Notes. 4i)7 In Rhode-Island there is one College, viz. Rhode-Island College. The charter for this seminary was obtained in 1764. The Rev. James Manning, of New- Jersey, had the principal agency in founding it, and was cho- sen the first President. The College edifice was erected in. 1770. It is a spacious building, 150 feet long, 46 feet wide, and four stones high, and contains 56 apartments. The Government of the College is vested in a Board of Trustees. The immediate Officers are, a President, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, Professor of Law, and three Tutors. The Funds of this institution'are small, amounting to little more than eight thousand dollars, chiefly raised by subscrip- tion. The Philosophical Apparatus is tolerably complete. It has lately received considerable accessions by the liberality of Samuel Elam, Esq. of New-Port. The Library contains about 3000 volumes. The number of students in 1801 was 107. They are chiefly boarded in the College; and the necessary annual expense of each is about 100 dollars. There is by no means a general taste for literature in this State. Of the 107 students above mentioned only 12 be- longed to the State. The greater part of the rest were from Massachusetts, and a number from the southward, especially from South-Carolina. In Connecticut there is one College, viz. Yale College, at New-Haven. This institution was in- corporated in 1701, and was the third College established in the American Colonies. It received this name in honour of Thomas Yale, Esq. who had been Governor of Fort St. George, in India, and who was one of its liberal benefactors. The Officers of this College are, a President (now the Rev. Dr. Timothy Dwight); a Professor of Divinity; Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy ; Professor of Oriental Languages; and three Tutors. The number of Students in this College is believed to be greater than in any other in the United States. In 1801 they amounted to 217; and the number since that time has pro- bably increased. The students are chiefly boarded in the College, and the annual expense attending the accommoda- tion of each is from 120 to 150 dollars. The College Buildings are spacious and elegant. The Li- VOL. II. 3S 498 Additional Notes. brary consists of between 3,000 and 4,000 volumes. The Philosophical Apparatus is considered among the best in our country. The Funds are large, but the amount of them is not known to the writer. The annual Commencement is on the second Wednesday of September; and the number of students who had gradu- ated at this College, at the end of the year 1800, was about 2,600. The State of Vermont has one College, viz. Middlebury College, situated in the town of Middlebury, in Addison County. This seminary was founded in 1800, and is yet in an infant state. The Government of this College is vested in a Board of Trustees, consisting of sixteen gentlemen. The Officers in 1801 were, a President (the Rev. Mr. J. Atwater), and a Tutor. One or more Professors have probably been elected since. The Funds consist chiefly of lands, which, though little productive at present, promise hereafter to afford an ample support to the institution. The number of Students in the College, and Grammar School annexed to it, was, in 1801, about 30. Since that time it is believed they have increased. They are all boarded in private houses. The annual expense of each, including boarding, washing, tuition, die. is from 80 to 90 dollars. The Library is small, but increasing. The Philosophi- cal Apparatus is incomplete ; but measures have been adopted to render it less so ; and, on the whole, the institution has a prospect of becoming, at no great distance of time, exten- sively useful. New-York has two Colleges, viz. 1. Columbia College, in the city of New- York. This in- stitution was founded in 1754, under the title of King's Col- lege, which name, after the Revolution, was exchanged for the one which it now bears. (See p. 355 of this volume.) This College is under the direction of a Board of Trustees. The immediate officers are, a President (at present the Rev. Dr. Benjamin Moore, Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the State of New- York) ; a Professor of Moral Philosophy, Logic, Rhetoric, and Belles Lettres ; a Professor of the Greek and Latin Languages, and of Grecian and Ro- man Antiquities ; a Professor of Mathematics, Natural Philo* Additional Notes. 499 sophy, Chronology, and Geography ; and a Professor of Che- mistry. Besides these, there are in the Medical School attached to the College, a Dean of Faculty ; a Professor of Anatomy and Surgery ; a Professor of the Institutes of Medicine ; a Professor of Obstetrics ; and a Professor of Materia Medica and Botany. To qualify Students for admission into this College, it is ne- cessary that they should be able to read the four Gospels in Greek, together with four books of Virgil's JEneid, four books of Ccesar's Commentaries, and four Orations of Cicero against Cataline. The course of instruction in this College is as follows: The first year, Sallust, Livy, two books of VirgiUs Gcorgics, part of the Xezv-Testament in Greek, from 20 to 30 Dialogues of Lucian, and two books (generally) of Xeno- phon. To these are zdded, Arithmetic, Algebra, a small por- tion of Euclid, and Latin Composition. The second year, Virgil's Georgics finished, Horace's Odes, and part of his Satires, the Orations of Demosthenes, an additional portion of Xenophon, and two books of Homer. With these are mingled, English Grammar, six books of Euclid, Modern Geography, Trigonometry, with its varioug applications to Surveying, Navigation, &c. Latin and English Composition. The third year, Horace's Epistles and Art of Poetry, six books of Homer, Conic Sections, Spheric Trigonometry, with its application to Astronomical problems, Ancient Geogra- phy, Rhetoric, and English Composition. The fourth year, Natural Philosophy, Logic, and Moral Philosophy, Terence, Longinus, Chemistry, and English Composition. Public speaking once a week through the whole course. It is believed that there is no other College in the United States, in which the Greek and Latin Languages are studied with so much care, and to such an extent as in this institution. This College has a Library, consisting of about 3000 vo- lumes. Its Philosophical Apparatus is among the best in the United States. The number of matriculated Students is about 125. Besides these, there are the Students in the Me- dical School, and some others, who sustain a less formal con- nection with the institution. 2. Union College, at Schenectady. This College was founded in 1795, and though its growth has not beea very rapid, it bids fair to be an useful institution. 500 Additional Notes. The College Officers are, a President (now the Rev. Dr. Maxcey) 5 a Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philo- sophy ; and two Tutors. The number of Students in 1801 was about 43. They were at that time boarded in private families ; but are now ac- commodated in the College edifice, which is spacious and convenient. The Library consists of 800 volumes. The Philosophi- cal Apparatus is a respectably large and good one. The Funds of the institution are small. The State of New-JePvSey has one College, viz^ Nassau-Hall, or the College of New- Jersey, at Princeton. This College was founded in 1746, at Elizabeth- Town, from which place it was removed in 1747 to New- Ark, and in 1757 to Princeton, where it has since continued. About this time the large College edifice was erected, 180 feet long, 54 feet wide, and four stories high ; capable of accommodat- ing a large number of Students. (See Chapter xxvi. p. 345, of this work.) This building, together with the Library, much of the Philosophical xipparatus, 6cc. was destroyed by fire in the be- ginning of the year 1802. Since that time, however, by the aid of liberal benefactions from every part of the United States, it has been rebuilt, and the whole institution placed under new advantages and regulations, which promise a degree of re- spectability and usefulness greater than it had ever before at- tained. The Government of this College is vested in twenty-four Trustees, including the President of the College, and the Go- vernor of the State for the time being. The Officers of the College are, a President (the Rev. Dr. Samuel S. Smith) ; a Professor of Languages ; a Professor of Divinity ; a Profes- sor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy and Chemistry ; and three Tutors. The Library is now small ; but measures have been lately taken, which will probably soon render it one of the largest and best College Libraries in the United States. The Philo- sophical Apparatus is a respectable one, and also likely to be improved. The course of instruction in this Seminary is not accurately known to the writer. It is believed, however, that this is one of the institutions in the United States in which Classical learning receives more than usual attention ; and in which, be* Additional Notes. 501 sides an advantageous mode of pursuing most of the objects of study, polite literature is cultivated with great success. The number of Students in this College at the close of the year 1803, amounted to about 150; a greater number than ever before belonged to the institution. They are chiefly boarded in the College edifice. The annual expense of each is not certainly known, but is believed to be from 150 to 170 dollars. The annual Commencement in this College is on the last Wednesday of September. In Pennsylvania there are three Colleges, viz. ^ 1. The University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia. This institution was formed in 1791, by the union of the College of Philadelphia, founded in 1753, (seepage 352) and another institution, formed immediately after the Revolutionary war, under the same title which the united seminaries now bear. The Officers of this institution are, a Provost (this place is now vacant), who is also Professor of Natural Philosophy; a Vice-Provost, who is also Professor of Logic and Moral Philosophy ; a Professor of Greek and Latin Languages ; a Professor of Mathematics; a Professor of English and Belies Lettres ; and a Professor of Oriental Literature. Besides these, the instructors in the Medical School are, a Professor of Ana- tomy ; a Professor of the Institutes and Practice of Medicine ; a Professor of Materia Medica, Natural History, and Botany ; and a Professor of Chemistry. This Medical School is much more frequented by Students than any other in the United States. (See vol. i. p. 320. and vol. ii. p. 393.) The Library of this seminary consists of about 1000 vo- lumes. The Philosophical Apparatus is tolerably good. The whole number of Students belonging to the institution, at the close of the year 1803, was about 160; but of these only a small portion actually belonged to the classes in College. 2. Dickinson College, in Carlisle. This College was founded in the year 1783, and received the name which it bears in honour of John Dickinson, Esquire, the celebrate.] political writer, and its most liberal benefactor. (See page 382.) The Government of this College is in the hands of a Board of Trustees. The Officers are, a President (now the Rev. Dr. Niseet); Vice-President; and two Professors. The Li- brary consists of about 3000 volumes. The Philosophical Apparatus is small. The amount of the Funds is not known to the writer. 502 Additional Nota, The number of Students in this College is believed to be about 45 or 50. They are boarded in private families in the town. 3. Franklin College, in Lancaster. This institution was founded in 1787, for the particular accommodation of the German inhabitants of Pennsylvania, to enable them to edu- cate their youth in their own language, and in conformity with their own habits. The Principal is a German Lutheran, and the Vice-President a Calvinist. Its present state is not known to the writer; but it is believed not to be in a very flourishing condition. In Maryland there are four Colleges, viz. 1. St. Johns College, at Annapolis. This College was founded in the year 1784; and, together with the seminary which will be next mentioned, forms the " University of Maryland." This College is governed by twenty-four Trustees. Its Offi- ce)^ are, a President (now John M'Dowell, Esq.) and two Professors. Its Funds are chiefly derived from voluntary sub- scription, and an annual grant of c£i750 from the State, aided by the income from the Students for tuition. Its Library is moderately large; and its Philosophical Apparatus only toler- ably good. In 1801 the number of Students in this institution was about 90. 2. Washington College, in Chestertown, instituted in 1782, and, like the preceding, placed under the direction or twenty- four Visitors or Trustees. In 1787 a permanent fund was granted to this institution, by a law of the State, of £\25Q a year ; which has been since continued. No other particu- lars concerning this College are known to the writer. 3. The Catholic College, at Georgetown, on the Potow- mac. This institution is under the particular direction of the Roman Catholics, who form a considerable part of the popu- lation of Maryland. The writer has not been so happy as to succeed in his attempts to obtain particular information con- cerning this seminary. 4. Cokesbury College, at Abingdon, in Harford county. This College was founded by the Methodist Church in 1785, and intended for the education of youth belonging to that com- munion. It is so called in honour of the Rev. Thomas Coke, and the Rev. Francis Asbury, Bishops of the Me- thodist Episcopal Church. No particulars are known to the writer respecting the Officers, Funds, number of Students* &c. Additional Notes* 505 In Virginia there are two Colleges, viz. 1. JV ill iam and Mary College, at Williamsburgh. This institution was incorporated in 1693, by King William and Queen Mary, whose names it bears. The credit of obtain- ing the Charter, and of organizing the establishment, is due to the Rev. James Blair. (See p. 335.) This was the second College founded in the American Colonies. The governing powers in this College are vested in a Board of Visitors, not exceeding twenty. The Officers me, a President {now the Rev. Dr. Madison, Bishop of the Protestant Epis- copal Church in the State of Virginia), who is also Professor of Moral and Natural Philosophy ; a Professor of Mathematics ; a Professor of Ancient Languages; a Professor of Modern Lan- guages ; a Professor of Law ; and a Professor of Chemistry. In the Moral School, in this College, the course consists of, 1. Logic and the Philosophy of the Human Mind. On these subjects, the works of Duncan, Reid, and Professor Stewart are studied. 2. Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Here Dr. Blair's Lectures are chiefly used. 3. Moral Philosophy. In this department the author studied is Paley. 4. Natural Law. Rutherforth and Burlamagui, &c. 5. Law of Nations. Vattel and Martens. 6. Politics. Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, &c. 7. Political Economy. Smith's Wealth of Nations. In Natural Philosophy there is a regular course of Lectures, attended with every necessary experiment. In this course, the works generally referred tc, and recommended, are those of Rowning, Helsham, Martin, Desaguliers, Muschenbroeck, Cavallo, Adams, Lavoisier, Chaptal, &c. In the department of Law, the Professor takes an exten- sive view of the general principles of government; comments on the great work of Judge Blackstone ; explains the struc- ture and principles of the American governments, and parti- cularly of the government of Virginia. In teaching the an- cient and modern Languages, the usual course is pursued. Though all the Students are not compelled to attend to the former, yet a competent knowledge of them is necessary in order to the taking of a regular degree. No particular period of residence at this College is required. All students who are prepared to go through the prescribed examination mav receive its honours. The number of Students in this College, in the beginning of the year 1801, was 53. The Library contains about 300O volumes. The Philosophical Apparatus, when procured in & n 4 Additional Notes. 1768, was well chosen, and tolerably complete. It cost, at that time, between 2000 and 3000 dollars. Having been in constant use for more than 30 years, it stands in need of re- pairs, and is less complete than at first. The Funds of this College were much diminished by the Revolution. They now amount to about 4500 dollars per annum — derived from the rents of certain lands ; a certain proportion of Surveyor's fees; and the interest of monies loaned. There is probably no College in the United States in which political science is studied with so much ardour, and in which it is considered so pre-eminently a favourite object, as in this. 2. Hampden Sidney College, in Prince Edward County. This seminary was founded about the year 1774, chiefly by the exertions of the Rev. Samuel S. Smith, now President of the College of New-Jersey. This College has scarcely any Funds. The Philosophical Apparatus is small. Its Library consists of about 500 vo- lumes. The number of Students may be estimated, in gene- ral, at about 60 or 70. North-Carolina has one College, viz. The University of North-Carolina, in Chapel-Hill, Orange County. This institution was incorporated in 1789 ; and the Legislature of the State, by subsequent acts, made large grants for its support. The College buildings were erected in 1794; and tuition, it is believed, was commenced in 1795. The Funds of the University of North-Carolina are large. They consist of £ 14,777 in cash, public stock and bonds; of all the property in the State which is, or shall hereafter be escheated ; of 94,000 acres of land, in different parts of the State; and of other real property to a considerable amount. No other particulars concerning this institution are known to the writer. South-Carolina has four Colleges, viz. ,1. Winnesborough College, in Winnesborough, in Fair- field County. This institution was founded about the year 1795. It is yet in an infant state; the Funds, number of Stu- dents, &c. being small. 2. A College in the city of Charleston. This was insti- tuted about the same time with the preceding ; but has not yet attained any great degree of respectability. The Trustees have, in a few instances, conferred the degree of Bachelor of Additional Notes. 504[ Arts ; but have not, it is believed, attempted to bestow literary- honours of an higher grade. 3. A College at Cambridge, in the district of Ninety-six. This was incorporated at the same time with the two last men- tioned seminaries ; but it has dwindled into an unimportant school. 4. A College at Beaufort, also incorporated about the year 1795. This institution has yet been scarcely organized; but agreeable anticipations are formed of its respectability and usefulness. The reason why no College in this State has risen to much respectability is, that the Legislature, instead of directing their aid and patronage to one, which, under these circumstances, might have flourished, have divided their attentions and grants among several. The consequences have been very unfriendly to the progress of literature. Georgia has one College, viz. The University of Georgia, founded in 1785. This in- stitution is not yet fully organized. Liberal provision has been made by the State for its support; and when the build- ings and other arrangements shall be completed, it bids fair to be an extensively useful seminary. Kentucky has one College, viz. The Transylvania College, or University, at Lexington. This seminary was formed by the union of two academies in December, 1798, and styled by the act of union the Tran- sylvania University. The Government of this institution is vested in a Board of Trustees. The Officers are, a President (at present the Rev. Mr. Moore), who is also Professor of Logic, Metaphysics, Moral Philosophy, and Belles Lettres ; a Professor of Mathe- matics, Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, and Geography ; a Professor of the Greek and Latin Languages ; a Professor of Law ; a Professor of Medicine and Surgery ; and a Professor of Chemistry. The Funds of this University consist chiefly of lands, and may be considered as amounting to 179,000 dollars. The Library consists of more than 1300 volumes ; besides a Law Library, and a Medical Library, for the Students of Law and Medicine. The Philosophical Apparatus is respectable, and measures have been taken to render it still more so. The number of Students at this seminary, in 1801, was VOL. 11. - 3T G06 Additional Notes. about 70. Of these 19 were Students of Law, and six of Medicine. The annual expense of boarding, tuition, &c. is from 80 to 100 dollars. Tennessee has one College, viz. Greenville College, founded in the year 1794. The Funds of this institution are very small. It has a Library, consist- ing of 2000 volumes; a good Philosophical Apparatus, and about 20 Students. The Officers of the College are, a President (at present the Rev. Hezekiah Balch), and one other Professor. American Editions of the Bible, p. 387. I have lately ascertained that, prior to Aitken:s edition of the Bible, in 1781, there was an excellent edition of the Ger- man Bible, in Quarto, printed in the year 1776, by Chris- topher Sower, of Germantown, near Philadelphia. Mr. Sower was a man of large property, and occasionally a preacher in the German Churches in Pennsylvania. He un- dertook and executed this work at his own risk, and had the honour of printing the first Quarto Bible that ever issued from an American press. It is one of the best specimens of typo- graphy that our country has produced. NOTES ON THE RECAPITULATION. Reciting, instead of Printing, among the Ancients, p. 41 7. It is well known, that the ancients, being ignorant of the art of printing, were obliged to employ public rehearsals as the best means of publishing new compositions. In early times this was the case with writers of the first class. Herodo- tus recited his history in different portions, at the Olympic Games; and other writers of great reputation did the same. Tacitus speaks in the following language of the author, who is obliged to employ this method of publishing his works. " Cum toto anno, per omnes dies, magna noctium Additional Notes. 501. parte, unum librum extudit et elucubravit, rogare ultro et am- Lire cogatur, ut sint, qui dignentur audirc : et ne id quidem gratis: nam et domum mutuatur, et auditorium extruit, et subsellia conducit, et libellos dispergit : et ut beatissimus re- citationem ejus eventus prosequatur, omnis ilia laus intra unum aut alterum diem, velut in herba vel flore pvaecepta, ad nullam certam et solidam pervenit frugem : nee aut amicitiam inde re- fert, aut clientelam, aut mansurum in animo cujusquam bene- ficium, sed clamorem vagum, et voces inanes, et gaudium vo- lucre." — C. Cornelii Taciti Dial, de Oratoribus. ix. Pliny, in one of his Letters, gives a lively description of the disadvantages which authors had to encounter in this mode of publishing their compositions. " Magnum proventum poetarum annus hie attulit. Toto mense Aprili nullus fere dies, quo non recitaret aliquis. Ta- metsi ad audiendum pigre coitur. Plerique in stationibus se- dent, tempusque audiendi fabulis conterunt, ac subinde sibi nuntiari jubent, an jam recitator intraverit, an dixerit praefa- tionem, an ex magna parte evolverit librum? Turn demum, ac tunc quoque lente, cunctanterque veniunt, nee tamen re- manent, sed ante finem recedunt ; alii dissimulanter, ac fur- tim; alii simpliciter, ac libere. Sed tanto magis laudandi pro- bandique sunt, quos a scribendi recitandique studio hsec audi- torum vel desidia, vel superbia non retardat. Equidem prope nemini defui : his ex causis longius, quam destinaveram, tem- pus in urbe consumpsi. Possum jam repetere secessum, et scribere aliquid, quod non recitem; ne videar, quorum recita- tionibus affui, non auditor fuisse, sed creditor. Nam, ut in ceteris rebus, ita in audiendi officio, perit gratia, si reposcatur." PU71. lib. i. Ep. 13. The poets who could not obtain an audience otherwise, frequented the baths, and other public places, in order to fas^ ten on their friends, and procure an opportunity of reciting their compositions. Juvenal tells us, that the groves and marble columns of Julius Fronio resounded with the vocife- rations of the reciting poets. Frontonis platani, convulsaque marmora clamant Semper, et assicluo ruptae lectore columnar Exspectes eadeni a summo, minimoque poeta. Sat. i. ver. 12. The same satirist suggests, that the poet who wished hi* works to become known, might borrow an house for the purpose of public reading; and that the person who accom- 508 Additional Notes. modated the writer, might place his friends and freedmen on the back seats, with directions to be liberal in their applause. Et si dulcedine famae Succensus recites, Maculonus commodat aedes. Scit dare libertos extrema in parte sedentes Ordinis, et magnas comitum disponere voces. Nemo dabit regum, quanti subsellia constent. Sat. vii. ver. 39. In another place, speaking of Statius, a popular poet, he says: Curritur ad vocem jucundam, et carmen arnicas Thebaidos, lxtam fecit cum Statius urbem, Promisitque diem ; tanta dulcedine captos Afficit ille animos, tantaque libidine vulgi Auditur ; sed cum fregit subsellia versu, Esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendat Agaven. Sat. vii. ver. 82. From a passage in Horace it would seem that, in his day, writers of the first class disdained to employ this method of obtaining literary fame. Kon recito cuiquam, nisi amicis, idque coactus ; Nori ubivis, coramve quibuslibet. In medio qui Scripta foro recitent, sunt multi ; quique lavantes ; Suave locus voci resonat conclusus. Inanes Hocjuvat, haud illud quserentes, num sine sensu, "Tempore num faciant alieno. Sat. lib. i. Sat. iv. ver. 73. Influence of Printing, p. 418. The following remarks of Professor Stewart, on the pro- bable influence of printing upon the future interests of society, •are worthy of attention. Whatever may be thought of the truth or falsehood of the opinions which they express, they afford to the contemplative mind materials for very interesting reflections. " The influence which printing is likely to have on the fu- ture history of the world, has not', I think, been hitherto ex- amined, by philosophers, with the attention which the im- portance of the subject deserves. One reason for this may, probably, have been, that, as the invention has never been made but once, it has been considered rather as the effect of a fortunate accident, than as the result of those general causes on which the progress of society seems to depend. But it Additional Notes, 509 may be reasonably questioned, ho\y for this idea be just : for, although it should be allowed that the invention of printing was accidental, with respect to the individual who made it, it may, with truth, be considered as, the natural result of a state of the world, when a number of great and contiguous nations are all engaged in the study of literature, in the pursuit of science, and in the practice of the arts : insomuch, that I do not think it extravagant to affirm, that, if this invention had not been made by the particular person to whom it is ascribed, the same art, or some analogous art, answering a similar pur- pose, would have infallibly been invented by some other per- son, and at no very distant period. The art of printing, there- fore, is entitled to be considered as a step in the natural history of man, no less than the art of writing ; and they who are sceptical about the future progress of the race, merely in con- sequence of its past history, reason as unphilosophically as the member of a savage tribe, who, deriving his own acquaint- ance with former times from oral tradition only, should affect to call in question the efficacy of written records, in accele- rating the progress of knowledge and of civilization. " What will be the particular effects of this invention, (which has been, hitherto, much checked in its operation, by the restraints on the liberty of the press in the greater part of Europe) it is beyond the reach of human sagacity to conjec- ture; but, in general, we may venture to predict with confi- dence, that, in every country, it will gradually operate to widen the circle of science and civilization ; to distribute more equally, among all the members of the community, the ad- vantages of the political union, and to enlarge the basis of equitable governments, by increasing the number of those who understand their value, and are interested to defend them. The science of legislation, too, with all the other branches of knowledge which are connected with human improve- ment, may be expected to advance with rapidity ; and, in proportion as the opinions and institutions of men approach to truth and to justice, they will be secured against those revo- lutions to which human affairs have always been hitherto sub- ject. Opinionwn mini commenta delet dies, natura judicia confirmat" " Nor must we omit to mention the value which the art of printing communicates to the most limited exertions of literary industry, by treasuring them up as materials for the future ex- amination Of more enlightened inquirers. In tin's respect the press bestows upon the sciences an advantage somewhat ana- 310 Additional Notes. logous to that which the mechanical arts derive from the divi- sion of labour. As in these arts, the exertions of an unin- formed multitude are united by the comprehensive skill of the artist, in the accomplishment of effects astonishing by their magnitude, and by the complicated ingenuity they display ; so, in the sciences, the observations and conjectures of ob- scure individuals on those subjects which are level to their ca- pacities, and which fall under their own immediate notice, accumulate for a course of years ; till at last some philosopher arises, who combines these scattered materials, and exhibits, in his system, not merely the force of a single mind, but the intellectual power of the age in which he lives. " — Elements of the Philosophy rf the Human Mind> Chap. iv. Sect. 8. I agree with the Professor in thinking, that '* the influence which printing is likely to have on the future history of the world, has not been examined, by philosophers, with that at- tention which the importance of the subject deserves." But he has only presented the fair side of the picture. Experience proves, that this precious art is not devoted to laudable pur- poses alone; and that in estimating its future influence on hu- man happiness, we must take into the account the abuses to which it is liable, as well as the advantages which it tends to produce. END OF THE FIRST PART. ERRATA. VOL. I. )Page 47, line 20, for " serial" read aerial. 74, 3, for " eleven" read ten. 100, 9, for " consigns" read assigns. 140, 12, for " tree" read plant. 200, 5, for " Ki.ahkoth" read Klaproth. 344, 25, for " Sierra Leona" read Sierra Leone. 345, 17, dele " Flacourt." 347, 25, for u George" read Giorgi. 412, 1, for " Vernix" read Wenix. 421, 1, for " Morgan, of Great-Britain," read Morgiien, cf Italy. VOL. II. Page * 5, line 8, for " were" read are. 14, 4, for " Glasgow" read Edinburgh. 31 , 20, for " was" read is. 51, 11, dele " Casaubon." 60, 24, for " Danz" read Daxtz. 101, 24, for " part" read port. 175, 32, for " deny" read decry. 218, 1, for " Mouval" read Monval. 288, last line, for " corrupt" read correct. 388, note, for " Ezek.ia;i" read Ezekiel. Date Due D ** | ,\ ^«w*