j.,!.i|.,.>,-5.,-^,>(j j;.,, J,,.;-,.,... MM} LECTURES ON THE SACRED POETRY OF THE HEBREWS. TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE LATE RIGHT REV. ROBERt/lOWTH, D.D. F.R.S. PRELECTOR OF POETRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, AND LORD BISHOP OF LONDON ; BY G. GREGORY, F.A.S. AUTHOR OF ES^SAYS HISTORICAL AND MOR\L. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, THE PRINCIPAL NOTES OF PROFESSOR MICHAELIS, AND NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR AND OTHERS. THE THIRD EDITION. LONDON : PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGG & SON, CHEAPSIDE ; TEGG, WISE & TEGG, DUBLIN; GRIFFIN 8^ CO. GLASGOW AND JAMES & SAMUEL AUGUSTUS TEGG, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA. MDCCCXXXV. Printed by Walker & Greig, Kdinburgh. TO THE RIGHT REVEREND RICHARD, LORD BISHOP OF LANDAFF; WHOSE GREAT ABILITIES HE HAS ALWAYS ADMIRED, WHOSE CANDOUR AND LIBERALITY HE HAS REPEATEDLY EXPERIENCED; THIS ATTEMPT TO RENDER MORE EXTENSIVELY USEFUL AN INVALUABLE WORK, IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY HIS GRATEFUL SERVANT, THE TRANSLATOR. IHE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. It may not be improper to apprize the Public, tliat although the following Lectures be entitled Lectures on the Hebrew Poetry, their utility is by no means confined to that single ob- ject : They embrace all the great piunciples of general CRITICISM, as delivered by the ancients, improved by the keen judgment and polished taste of their Author. In other words, this work will be found an excellent compendium of all the best rules of taste, and of all the principles of composition, illustrated by the boldest and most exalted specimens of genius (if no higher title be allowed them) which antiquity has transmitted to us ; and which have hitherto seldom fallen under the inspec- tion of rational criticism. Lest, from the title of the w^ork, or from the circumstance of being originally published in a learned language, a prejudice should arise in the breast of any individual that these Lectures are addressed only to the learned, I think it a duty to antici- pate a misapprehension which might interfere both with his entertainment and instruction. The greatest as well as the most useful works of taste and literature, are those which, with respect at least to their general scope and design, lie most level to the common sense of mankind. Though the learning and genius displayed in the following Lectures must ever excite our warmest admiration ; though they abound in curious re- searches, and in refined and exquisite observations ; though the splendour of the sentiments and the elegance of the style will vi THE TRANSLATOK'S PREFACE. necessarily captivate the eye and the ear of the classical reader; the truth is, that they are moke calculated for per- sons OF taste and general reading, than for what is COMMONLY termed THE LEARNED WORLD. Here are few nice philological disquisitions, no abstruse metaphysical spe- culations ; our Author has built solely upon the basis of com- mon sense, and I know no part of his work which will not be intelligible and useful to almost every understanding. A still greater mistake it would be, to suppose any knowledge of the Hebrew necessary to enable us to read these Lectures with profit and pleasure. So happily does the simple genius of the Hebrew language accord with our own ; and so excellent a transcript of the original (notwithstanding a few errors) is our common translation of the Scriptures ; so completely, so mi- nutely, I might say, does it represent the style and character of the Hebrew writings, that no person who is conversant with it can be at all at a loss in applying all the criticisms of our Author. On this account I will venture to assert, that if the ge- nius of the Translator approached in any degree the clearness, the elegance, the elevation of the Author, these Lectures in our own language would exhibit the subject in a much fairer and more advantageous light than in the original form. The Eng- lish idiom, indeed, has so much greater analogy to the Hebrew, that the advantages which it possesses over the Latin must be obvious to any reader who compares the literal translations in each of these languages. But the utility of these Lectures as a system of criticism, is perhaps their smallest merit. They teach us not only taste, but virtue ; not only to admire and revere the Scriptures, but to profit by their precepts. The Author of the present work is not to be considered merely as a master of the general principles of criticism — he has penetrated the very sanctuaries of Hebrew literature ; he has investigated, with a degree of precision which few critics have attained, the very nature and character of their composition : by accurately examining, and cautiously compar- ing every part of the sacred writings; by a force of genius which could enter into the very design of the authors ; and by a comprehensiveness of mind which could embrace at a single THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. vii view a vast series of corresponding passages — he has discovered the manner, the spirit, the idiom of the original, and has hiid down such axioms as cannot fail greatly to facilitate our know- ledge and understanding of the Scriptures. The work would amply repay the trouble of perusing it, by the excellent eluci- dations of particular passages of holy writ which it affords ; but when we reflect, that these are connected with such rules and principles as may be applied with the greatest advantage to other difficult passages — with such rules, indeed, as will enable us better to comprehend the whole, surely it must appear ines- timable in the eye of any man who has at all at heart his own improvement in religious knowledge. Perhaps the sceptic may learn from the perusal of these Lectures, that the difficulties of which he complains in the Scriptures, are difficulties which might in some measure be removed by a little more know- ledge, and a little more diligence in the application of it. Per- haps, too, those profound and learned critics, who quote and censure authors whom they have never read, and talk fluently about languages the rudiments of which they have yet to learn, may find, to their great astonishment, that a degree of penetra- tion superior to their own is able to discover at least a few rays of sublimity in the writings of the Hebrews. Whatever be the merits or the defects of this Translation, on one account at least I will venture to promise myself the warmest commendations of my readers, namely, for having made them acquainted with the admirable criticisms of the learned Michaelis. I have much reason to regret that the na- ture of this publication would not permit the insertion of all his observations, and at full length. But the truth is, however suitable they may have been to the work in its original form, some of his remarks are too refined to be generally useful, and some of them too learned to be intelligible to any but those who are familiar with the whole circle of oriental literature. I have therefore selected such of them as I thought applicable to my present purpose : and as it was my wish to confine this work within as narrow limits as my duty to the public would permit, and to suffer in it nothing but what I esteemed imme- diately useful, I have taken the liberty of abridging some which viii THE TllANSLATOU'S PREFACE. I thought, ill a liteitil translation, might appear tedious to the Enghsh reader. Some observations of my own I have also presumed to intro- duce among the Notes. They were such as to me seemed cal- culated to render the work a more complete compendium of critical science. As I do not, however, think myself above censure, so I trust I shall not be found too obstinate for cor- rection. Should my indiscretion, therefore, have obtruded any thing which a fair and liberal critic shall deem impertinent or improper, I shall with much cheerfulness, in a future edition, submit to its erasement. It was not till I had consulted some of the first literary cha- racters concerning the propriety of substituting in the place of our Author's inimitable Latin poems any English versions, that I ventured to appear as a poetical translator. Even then I did not fail to inspect every modern author, who I imagined might furnish me with compositions worthy of appearing among the criticisms of Lowth. I have preferred Mr Merrick's Psalms to any version which 1 should have been able to produce, (except indeed in a single instance, where it was necessary that, the measure should be elegiac), not only on account of their in- trinsic merit, but in consequence of the commendation which our Author has bestowed upon them. By the kindness of Mr Mason also, this publication is enriched with one of the most beautiful lyric productions in our language, I mean his Para- phrase of the 14th of Isaiah. When I could find no translation to answer my purpose, I was obliged to attempt the versifica- tion of the passages myself. The public will therefore recol- lect, that I was a poet through necessity, not choice ; and will, I flatter myself, receive this as a sufficient apology for the in- difierent performance of that part of my undertaking. Presuming that it would be more agreeable to give the literal translations of the Hebrew from works of established reputation, I have taken many of them from our Author's excellent version of Isaiah, from Mr Blaney's Jeremiah, from Bishop Newcombe's Minor Prophets, Mr Heath's Job, and from Dr Hodgson's tran- slation of the Canticles : and this I trust will be accepted by those Gentlemen as a general acknowledgment. Where these THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. ix did not furnish me with a translation, I have endeavoured my- self to produce one as faithful to the original as my knowledge of the language would admit. Convinced, on the whole, of the utility of this publication, and yet aware of my own inability to do it justice, I dismiss it with that mixed emotion of confidence and humility which such a situation naturally inspires. Imperfect as it appears before the world, if it be the means of imparting to but a few some of that information which all who read the original must regret was not more generally diffused, I am sure I shall have deserved well of the community : at the same time, the reader will do me great injustice if he supposes that I have satisfied myself in the execution of my task. Whatever be its reception, it will disappoint no expectations formed by me of profit or of fame ; and if neither ensue from it, I shall have no just cause of com- plaint. It was impossible to read these Lectures with the at- tention which even this translation required, and not derive advantages from them far superior to the labour they have cost me ; and, whatever may be their effect with others, I am confi- dent they have left me something wiser, and I trust something better, than they found me. In the prosecution of this work I have incurred a debt of gratitude, which, if I cannot discharge, it is but fair to acknow- ledge. By the advice and encouragement of Dr Kippis, I was in a great measure induced to undertake this translation ; by a continuance of the same friendly disposition, I was enabled cheerfully to proceed in it. The public will easily perceive a part of their obligation and mine to the ingenious Mr Henley, of Rendlesham, in the numerous and valuable notes which bear his signature ; but I am also indebted to him for many correc- tions. These are not the only friends to whom I have been obliged on this occasion : I will venture to mention in particu- lar Mr Wakefield of Nottingham, a name sufficiently known in the classical world ; and Mr Foster of Woolton, near Liverpool, whose careful and laborious revision of my manuscript is the least of the many favours he has conferred upon me. To this companion of my youth I can indeed, with the strictest pro- priety, apply the language of the Roman poet, — X THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. ' ' Tecum etenim longos niemini consumere soles, Et tecum primas epulis decerpere noctes. Uuum opus, et requiem pariter disponimus ambo : Atque verecunda laxamus seria mensa. Nou equidem hoc dubitcs, amborum fadere certo Consentire dies et ab uno sidere duci. Nostra vel aequali suspendit tempora libra Parca tenax veri : seu nata fidelibus liora Dividit in geminos concordia fata duorum : Saturnumque gravem nostro Jove fraugimus una. Nescio, quod certe est, quod me tibi temperat astrum." James Street Terrace, Buddngham Gate, March 1. 1787. *^* The Author's Notes are all particularly distinguished. Those marked M. are by Professor Michaelis ; those marked S. H. are by Mr Henley ; and those marked T. by tlie Translator. THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE I'lli; FIXED TO THE SECOND EDITION. I SHALL endeavour, in a few words, to explain the additions and improvements which have been made to this Edition. I have revised the whole work ; I have added some things — I have corrected many ; and especially in the Notes. I have, however, refrained from all corrections which did not appear absolutely necessary. If any reader should object, that many passages remain which might be amended, as being scarcely established upon the grounds of certainty and conviction ; I have only to urge in my own defence, that, on very obscure and difficult subjects, it has always appeared to me sufficient to propose a probable explication ; nor can I esteem that to be correction, which only substitutes one conjecture for another. In other respects this Edition has received considerable im- provements. In the first place, I am greatly indebted to the friendly communications of the learned Dr Kennicott, for the variations of the different copies in several passages of the Old Testament which I have quoted. I have distinguished his notes by inverted commas, and by the letter K. subjoined. The manuscripts are numbered according to the catalogue annexed to that learned author's Dissertation on the Hebrew Text.* I have, moreover, added some observations of the * In the Third Edition, the manuscript copies are not cited according to these numbers, which are necessarily changed in the Bible published by Dr K. ; but it is only mentioned in how many manuscripts the dilibrcnt reading occurs. Some different readings also are cited at large. xii THE AUTIIOirS PREFACE. learned Dr Hunt, Professor of the Hebrew and Arabic lan- guages, which he kindly communicated at my request. These, also, I have distinguished by inverted commas, and the letter H. subjoined. After this edition was committed to the press, I was favoured with a sight of the Gottingen edition, published under the in- spection of the learned and ingenious Professor of Philosophy in that University, John David Michaelis, and greatly improved and illustrated by him. To this were added his Notes and ad- ditions, in which he has with great candour supplied my defects, and corrected my errors. These, with the Preface entire, and with a few additions to the Notes, communicated to me by the author, (who would have added more, but that he was prevented by the increasing business of the University), I have printed in a separate volume, lest my readers should be deprived of these very learned and excellent illustrations : and I chose to do it in a separate state, that the purchasers of the First Edition might partake equally of the benefit. Whatever some of these Notes may contain repugnant to my own sentiments, I have thought it better to submit them in this form to the judgment of the reader, than, by retracing my former ground, to divert his attention into a controversy, unpleasant, and probably fruitless. CONTENTS. LECTURE I. OF THE USES AND DESIGN Ol' POETRY. Lectures, ,— v«,™,«™, "^ ^ LECTURE H- THE MSION AND AREANGEMENT Of THESE LECT0BES. The dignity of the subject and its -j-^^Wen^- ^ ^^^.f^^'^L^n u"„ot"ht tu.ion-That Poetry wh«h P-«„''^<^ J; ^^l^ rr,Lble'us to account for end f>- P-;;-^f ,^;rinno fo mTj;,st es,i„,a.ion of its dignity : the naJure of the verse, the style, and the arrangement, THE FIRST PART. OF THE HEBREW METRE. LECTURE in. THE HEBREW POETRY IS METRICAL. from the equality and correspondence of the ^^"t'"^;"^ ' . , ^^^^^^^ other languages, ■ ' "' CONTENTS. THE SECOND PART. OF THE PARABOLIC OR POETICAL STYLE OF THE HEBREirS. LECTURE IV. THE ORIGIN, USE, AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARABOLIC, AND ALSO OF THE SENTENTIOUS STYLE. The Poetic Style of the Hebrews bears the general title of Parabolic-^Its constituent principles are the sententious, the figurative, and the sublime —The source of the Parabolic Style, and its original use : amono- other nations ; among the Hebrews— Certain examples of it preserved from the first ages in the writings of Moses: I. The sententious kind- its nature and eflfects,..^^ ,_ .^^^^ , P a ^7 - LECTURE V. OF THE FIGURATIVE STYLE, AND ITS DIVISIONS. I L The Figurative Style ; to be treated rather according to the -enius of the Hebrew Poetry, than according to the forms and arrangements of Rhetoricians— The definition and constituent parts of the Fio-urative Style, Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Personification— Th? reason of this mode of treating the subject— Difl^culties in reading the Hebrew Poetry which result from the Figurative Style; how to be avoided-l. Of the METAPHOR, including a general disquisition concerning Poetic Imagery ; the nature of which is explained, and four principaT sources pointed out : Nature, Common Life, Religion, History, _JL.,___ 51 LECTURE VL , OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. The frequent use of the Metaphor renders a style magnificent, but often obscure; the Hebrew Poets have accomplished the sublime without losing perspicuity— Ihree causes assigned for this singular fact • first the imagery which they introduce is in general derived from familial objects ; again, in the use and accommodation of it they pursue a cer tain custom and analogy ; lastly, they make the most free use of that which IS most familiar, and the nature and extent of which is most ge- nerally known— These observations confirmed by examples, (1.) from natural objects; sucli as are common to mankind in general,-such as are more famihar to the Hebrews than to others,— and such as are ne culiar to them, , . *^ 59 LECTURE VIL OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM COMMON LIFE. Examples of Poetic Imagery from common life— The habits of life ex tremely simple among the Hebrews, whose principal employments were agriculture and pasturage-The dignity of these employments ; and the splendour of the imagery which is borrowed from them : Threshing and kon CONTENTS. the threshing instmments-Tlie sublimity of the imagery which is tak. from famiUar objects results from its propricty-lhe poetic hell ot the Hebrews explained ; the imagery of which is borrowed from the.r sub- terraneous sepulchres and funeral rites, . -"— 1 age 70 LECTURE VIII. OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM SACRED TOPICS. Imai>^ec]s 'A^^aSis. k. A." Also in the same comedy, 1092, these songs are enumerated among the other apjiaratus of the entertainment : " The sprightly dance, Harmodius! thy delight." There is an allusion to the same, Ava-ts. 633. " My sword I'll bear hid in a myrtle branch ; And like Aristogiton walk in arms." It is evident from this ballad, that the conspirators, when they assaulted Hip- parchus, concealed their daggers in those myrtle garlands, which, if I mistake not, were carried by all who assisted at the sacred rites of the Panathenaic sacrifice: and this is indeed confirmed by the Scholiast upon Aristophanes, in the passage liefore referred to : " For these men, Harmodius and Aristogiton, l)a-,tiiy drawing their swords out of the myrtle boughs, fell furiously upon the tyrant." Hence, perhaps, arose the custom, that whoever sung any convivial song in company, always held a branch of myrtle in his hand. See Plutarch, i. Si/mp. Quest. 1. — Author s A^otc. Our Collins, in particular, has attributed this poem to Alca?us, in the fol- lowing beautiful lines: " What new AIc.tus, fancy blest. Shall sing the sword in myrtles drest, At Wisdom's shrine awhile its flame concealing, (What place so fit to seal a deed renown'd ?) Till she licr brightest lightnings round revealing. If leap'd in glory forth, and dealt her prompted wound." Ode to Liberli/. Lect. [. OF POETRY. 13 Nurse of Arts and eye of Greece, People valiant, firm, and free I* If, after the memorable Ides of March, any one of the tyrannicides had delivered to the populace such a poem as this, had introduced it to the suburra, to the assemblies of the forum, or had put it into the mouths of the conmion people, the dominion of the Caesars and its adherents would have been totally extinguished : and I am firmly persuaded, that one stanza of this simple ballad of Harmodius would have been more effectual than all the Philippics of Cicero. There are some other species of poetry, which with us generally appear in an easy and familiar style, but formerly assumed sometimes a graver and more important character. Such is the Elegy : I do not speak of the liglit and amo- rous elegy of the moderns, but that ancient, serious, sacred, and didactic elegy, the preceptress of morals, the lawgiver of nations, the oracle of virtue. Not to enter into a detail of authors, of whose works we are not in possession, and of whose merits we consequently can form no adequate judg- ment, it will be sufficient to instance Solon, the most vene- rable character of antiquity, the wisest of legislators, and withal a poet of no mean reputation. When any thing difficult or perplexing occurred in the administration of public affairs, we are informed that he had recourse to poetry.f Were the laws to be maintained or enforced upon any particular emergency ; was the indolence or licentious- ness of the citizens to be reproved ; were their minds to be stimulated to the love of liberty — he immediately attacked them with some poetical production, bold, animated, and * The above imitation, all but the third stanza, is taken from a paraphrase of this poem, said to be the production of Sir W. Jones. I'he following is a more literal translation, by Mr Cumberland : " He is not dead, our best belov'd, Harmodius is not lost, But with Troy's conquerors remov'd To some more happy coast. Bind then the myrtle's mystic bough. And wave your swords around ; For so they struck tlie tyrant low, And so their swords were bound. Perpetual objects of our love Tlie patriot pair shall be, Who in Minerva's sacred grove " Struck, and set Athens free." Observer, No. 49. — T. f See Plutarch and Diog. Laert. Life of Solon. li or THE USES AND DESIGN Li:ct. 1. sevciv; in tlie liighest tone of censorial gravity, and yet in no respect deficient in elegance : " Before tlie awful peal the lightning flies, And gathering clouds impending storms presage ; By souls aspiring civil freedom dies ; The people's madness whets the tyrant's rage." It is a well-known fact, that Athens was altogether in- debted for the recovery of Salaniis to the verses of Solon, even contrary to their own inclination and intention. After they had, from repeated overthrows, fallen into the deepest despair, insonuich that it was made a capital oflPence even to propose the renewal of the war or the reclaiming of the island, such was the influence of that single poem, which begins — " Let us march to Salamis," that, as if pronounced by a prophet instinct with divine enthusiasm, the people, propelled by a kind of celestial inspiration, flew immediately to arms, became clamorous for war, and sought the field of battle with such incredible ardour, that by the violence of their onset, after a great slaughter of the enemy, they achieved a most decisive victory. \\'e have also some remains of the celebrated Tyrttjeus, who " manly souls to martial deeds By verse excited." The whole scope and subject of his compositions is the cele- bration of valour and patriotism, and the immortal glory of tho.s<; who bravely fell in battle : — compositions which could impart some degree of courage even to the timid and un- manly ; by whicli, indeed, he elevated the minds of the Lacedemonians, which had been long debilitated and de- pressed, to the certain hope of victory. The fact is well known, and had it not been corroborated by the testimony of so many authors, it would doubtless have been thought by some incredible; though I confess it appears to me no less suj)p()i-ted by the reason of things than by the authority of the historian. It is impossible that men should act other- wise than with the most heroic ardour, the most undaunted resolution, who sung to the martial pipe, when arranged in military order, marching to the onset, or perhaps actually engaged, such strains as these : Our country's voice invites the brave The glorious toils of Mar to try; Curs'd be the coward or the slave, Who shuns the fight, who fears to die ! Lect. 1. OF POETRY. . 15 Obedient to tlie high command, Full fraught with patriotic lire, Descends a small but trusty band, And scarce restrains th' impatient ire. Lo I the hostile crowds advance ! Firmly we their might oppose ; Helm to helm, and lance to lance. In awful pomp we meet our foes. Unaw'd by fear, untaught to yield. We boldly tread th' ensanguin'd plain ; And scorn to quit the martial field. Though drench'd in blood, though heap'd with slain. For though stern death assail the brave, His virtues endless life shall claim ; His fame shall mock th' invidious grave — To times unborn a sacred name ! Not entirely to omit the lighter kinds of poetry, many will think that we allow them full enough, when we suppose their utility to consist in the entertainment which they afford. Nor is this. Gentlemen, altogether to be despised, if it be considered that this entertainment, this levity itself, affords relaxation to the mind when wearied with the labo- rious investigation of truth ; that it unbends the understand- ing after intense application ; restores it when debilitated ; and refreshes it, even by an interchange and variety of study. In this we are countenanced by the example and authority of the greatest men of Greece, by that of Solon, Plato, and Aristotle ; among the Romans, by that of Scipio and Liielius, Julius and Augustus Caesar, Varro and Brutus, who filled up the intervals of their more important engage- ments, their severer studies, with the agreeableness and hilarity of this poetical talent. Nature indeed seems in this most wisely to have consulted for us, who, while she impels us to the knowledge of truth, which is frequently remote, and only to be prosecuted witb indefatigable industry, has provided also these pleasing recreations as a refuge to the mind, in which it might occasionally shelter itself, and find an agreeable relief from languor and anxiety. But there is yet a further advantage to be derived from these studies, which ought not to be neglected ; for, beside possessing in reserve a certain solace of your labours, from the same repository you will also be supplied with many of 16 or THE I'SES AND DESIGN Lect. I. the brightest ornaments of literature. The first object is, inileed, to perceive and compreliend clearly the reasons, principles, and relations of things; the next is, to be able to explain your conceptions, not only with perspicuity, but with a degree of elegance. For, in this respect, we are all of us in some measure fastidious : We are seldom contented with a jejune and naked exposition even of the most serious sub- jects; some of the seasonings of art, some ornaments of style, some splendour of diction, are of necessity to be adopted ; even some regard is due to the harmony of numbers, and to the gratification of the ear. In all these respects, though I grant that the language of poetry differs very widely from that of all other kinds of composition, yet he who has be- stowed some time and attention on the perusal and imitation of the poets, will, I am persuaded, find his understanding exercised and improved as it were in this Palestra, the vi- gour and activity of his imagination increased, and even his manner of expression to have insensibly acquired a tinge from this elegant intercourse. Thus we observe in persons who have been taught to dance, a certain indescribable grace and manner ; though they do not form their common gesture and gait by any certain rules, yet there results from that exercise a degree of elegance, which accompanies those who have been proficients in it even w^hen they have relinquished the practice. Nor is it in the least improbable, that both CiEsar and Tully* (the one the most elegant, the other the most eloquent of the Romans) might have derived consi- derable assistance from the cultivation of this branch of po- lite literature, since it is well known that both of them were addicted to the reading of poetry, and even exercised in the composition of it.f This too is so apparent in the writings • " It will not be inconsistent with these studies to amuse yourself with poetry : — Tully, indeed, appears to me to have acquired that luminous and splendid diction wiiicli he possessed, by occasionally resorting to such occupa- tions." Quinct. lib. x. 5. — Jnt/iors Note. f It may be doul)ted whether Cicero was indebted for his excellence as an orator to tlic cultivation of poetry. He would have been accounted but a moderate orator, if his orations had only equalled his poetry, had he spoken as he sung: " Fortune foretuned the dying notes of Rome : Till I, thy consul sole, consoled thy doom." I do not expect from Cicero the polish and perfection of Virgil, but one might at least have hoped to meet in his verse some of that fire and fancy which appears in his oratory. The case, however, is far otherwise ; for he ap- pears not deficient in art, but in nature, in that energy and enthusiasm which is called the j>nrtic furor. Lect. I. OF POETRY. 17 of Plato, that he is thought not only to have erred in his judgment, but to have acted an ungrateful part, v^^hen he excluded from his imaginary commonwealth that art, to which he was so much indebted for the splendour and ele- gance of his genius, from whose fountains he had derived that soft, copious, and harmonious style, for which he is so justly admired. But to return to the nobler and more important produc- tions of the INIuses. — Thus far poetry nmst be allowed to stand eminent among the other liberal arts ; inasmuch as it refreshes the mind when it is fatigued, soothes it when it is agitated, relieves and invigorates it when it is depressed ; as it elevates the thoughts to the admiration of what is beauti- ful, what is becoming, what is great and noble : nor is it enough to saj^, that it delivers the precepts of virtue in the most agreeable manner; it insinuates or instils into the soul the very principles of morality itself Moreover, since the desire of glory, innate in man, appears to be the most power- ful incentive to great and heroic actions, it is the peculiar function of poetry to improve this bias of our nature, and thus to cherish and enliven the embers of virtue : and since one of the principal employments of poetry consists in the celebration of great and virtuous actions, in transmitting to posterity the examples of the bravest and most excellent Upon very mature consideration indeed I will venture to profess, that how- ever poetry may contribute to form an accomplished orator, I hardly ever ex- pect to find the same person excellent in both arts. Tlie language of poetry has something in it so different and contrary to that of oratory, that we seldom find those who have applied much to the one rise above mediocrity in the other. The chief excellence of an orator consists in perspicuity, and in such a degree of perspicuity as is necessary to render the composition intelligible even to the common people; but, though obscurity be not a necessary adjunct of a good poem, it must be considerably superior to the language and comprehension of the vulgar to rank above mediocrity. The orator must not deviate from the common and beaten track of language; the poet must aim at a happy bold- ness of diction, and wander into new paths. The orator, in order to be gene- rally understood, is necessarily more copious and i)rolix, not only than the poet, but than all other writers : the chief commendation of the poet is brevity. A poem is always enervated by circumlocutions, vuiless new lights of senti- ment and language are thrown in. For these and other reasons I am of opinion, that, if a well cultivated genius for poetry should apply earnestly to oratory, he might indeed prove such an orator as would please a learned audience, and not be unpleasing to the populace; but such a man will never prove a very popular orator, on whom the people sliall gaze with admiration and rapture, and who shall acquire a perfect ascendency over all their passions : and he who is by nature an orator, may possibly be a poet for the multitude, or by art and study, and the imitation of the best models, may make a decent proficiency, but he never can be a great and divine poet. — INI. B 18 OF tup: uses and design Lect. I. men, and in consecrating their names to immortality ; this praise is certainly its due, that while it forms the mind to habits of rectitude by its precepts, directs it by examples, excites and animates it by its peculiar force, it has also the disiiniruishcd lionour of distributing to virtue the most ample and desirable rewards of its labours. But, after all, we shall think more humbly of poetry than it deserves, unless we direct our attention to that quarter where its importance is most eminently conspicuous ; unless we contemplate it as employed on sacred subjects, and in subservience to religion. This indeed appears to have been the original office and destination of poetry ; and this it still so happily performs, that in all other cases it seems out of character, as if intended for this purpose alone. , In other instances poetry appears to want the assistance of art, but in this to shine forth with all its natural splendour, or rather to be animated by that inspiration, which, on other occa- sions, is spoken of without being felt. These observations are remarkably exemplified in the Hebrew poetry, than which the human mind can conceive nothing more elevated, more beautiful, or more elegant; in which the almost inef- fable sublimity of the subject is fully equalled by the energy of the language and the dignity of the style. And it is wor- tliy observation, that as some of these writings exceed in antiquity the fabulous ages of Greece, in sublimity they are superior to the most finished productions of that polished people. Thus, if the actual origin of poetry be inquired after, it must of necessity be referred to religion ; and since it appears to be an art derived from nature alone, peculiar to no age or nation, and only at an advanced period of so- ciety conformed to rule and method, it must be wholly at- tributed to the more violent affections of the heart, the nature of which is to express themselves in an animated and lofty tone, with a vehemence of expression far remote from vulgar use. It is also no less observable, that these affections break and interrupt the enunciation by their impetuosity; they burst forth in sentences pointed, earnest, rapid, and tremu- lous ; in some degree tlie style as well as the modulation is adapted to the emotions and habits of the mind. This is particularly the case in adn:iiration and delight ; and what jxissions are so likely to be excited by religious contempla- tions as these? What ideas could so powerfully affect a new- created mind, (undepravcd by habit or opinion), as the good- Lkct. I. OF POETRY. 19 ness, the wisdom, and the greatness of the Almighty ? Is it not probable, that the first effort of rude and unpolished verse would display itself in the praise of the Creator, and flow almost involuntarily from the enraptured mind ? Thus far, at least, is certain, that poetry has been nurtured in those sacred places where she seems to have been first called into existence ; and that her original occupation was in the tem- ple and at the altar. However ages and nations may have differed in their religious sentiments and opinions, in this at least we find them all agreed, that the mysteries of their devotion were celebrated in verse.* Of this origin poetry even yet exhibits no obscure indications, since she ever embraces a divine and sacred subject with a kind of filial tenderness and affection. To the sacred haunts of religion she delights to resort as to her native soil : there she most willingly inhabits, and there she flourishes in all her pristine beauty and vigour. But to have slightly glanced at the subject, appears sufficient for the present ; we shall soon perhaps find an opportunity of entering upon a more ample discussion. I trust indeed that you will pardon me. Gentlemen, if I do not as yet venture to explain my future plan of instruc- tion, and the form and method which 1 think of pursuing. That man must have too little respect for your judgment, and by far too high an opinion of his own, who would pre- sume to produce before you matter not sufficiently digest- ed, not sufficiently polished and perfected by study and by the maturest consideration. I have, therefore, determined * The most ancient poetry, as well as music, according to Plato, was "tliat which was addressed to the Deity under the appellation of hymns." — De Leg. lib. iii. Suetonius has illustrated this subject in a very elegant manner, though he is a little unfortunate in his etymology ; a circumstance not uncom- mon with the old grammarians. " When first," says he, " mankind emerged from a state of barbarism into the habits of civilized life, and began to be ac- quainted, in some measure with their own nature and that of the gods, they contented themselves with a moderate style of living, and a language just pro- portioned to their wants : whatever was grand or magnificent in either, they dedicated to their deities. As, therefore, they built temples more elegant by far than their own habitations, and made the shrines and images of their divi- nities much larger than the human form, so they thought it necessary to cele- brate them in a style of greater majesty than common ; in language more splendid, harmonious, and agreeable. This species of composition, because it assumed a certain distinct form, was called a poem, from the word 'roioryi;, and those who cultivated it were called poels.'' From a fragment of a work not extant concerning Poetry, quoted by Isidorus. Orig. lil). viii. c. 7 — Jut/tor's Note. 20 OF THE USES AND DESIGN Lect. I. within nivself, tluit notliinn- shall hastily or prematurely pro- ceed tVoin nic in this assembly, nothing whieh is not labour- ed to the extent of my abilities ; and that for what is want- ing in genius, in erudition, in fluency, and in every respect inwhich I feel myself deficient, I shall endeavour to com- })ensate, as nuich' as possible, by care and assiduity. If in these points I shall be enabled to perform my duty, I trust, Gentlemen, that other deficiencies you will be kind enough to excuse ; and that tlie person whom you have honoured with your favour and attention, with your candour and in- dulgence, you will continue to support. LEcr. II. OF THESE LECTU11E& 21 LECTURE II. THE DESIGN AND ARRANGEMENT OF THESE LECTURES. The dignity of the subject, and its suitableness to the design of the institution — That Poetry ichich proceeds from di- vine inspiration is not beyond the province of criticism — Criticism will enable us to account for the origin of the art, as well as to form a just estimation of its dignity : that the opirdon of the divine origin of Poetry was common in Greece — This work purely critical ; and, consequently, theological disquisitions loill be avoided — 7'he general dis- tribution of the subject into three paints — the nature of the verse, the style, and the arrangement, Socrates, as we read in Plato,* having been frequently admonished in a dream to apply to music, and esteeming himself bound to fulfil a duty which appeared to have been imposed upon him by divine authority, began with composing a hymn to Apollo, and afterwards undertook to translate some of the Fables of yEsop into verse. This he did, I apprehend, under the persuasion, that the first-fruits of his poetry (which he esteemed the principal branch of the science of music) f ought to be consecrated to the immortal gods ; and that it was not lawful for him, who was but little versed in those studies, to descend to lighter subjects, which perhaps might in the main be more agreeable to his genius, befoi'e he had discharged the obligations of religion. It is my intention, Gentlemen, to follow the example of this great philosopher ; and since the University has honoured me with this office of explaining to you the nature and principles of poetry, I mean to enter upon it from that quarter whence he thought himself obliged to commence the study and practice of the art. I have determined, therefore, in the first place, to treat of sacred poetry — that species, I mean, wliich was cultivated by the ancient Hebrews, and which is peculiarly * In P/iced, sub init. f " What then is education? — As far as respects the body, it consists in the gymnastic exercises; as far as respects the mind, it consists in harmony." Plato (le Rep. lib. ii. — Author's Note. 22 THE DESIGN AND ARRANGEMENT Lect. II. nppropriated to subjects the most solemn and sublime ; that, should my endeavours prove unequal to so great a subject, I may, as it were with favourable auspices, descend to mat- ters of inferior importance. I undertake this office, how- ever, with the most perfect conviction, that not only from a regard to thity it ought to be executed with diligence, but, from the respectability of that body at whose command it is undertaken, it ought to be executed with honour and reputation : nor is it merely to be considered what the in- tent of the institution and the improvement of the students may require, but wliat will be consistent with the dignity of this University. For, since the University, when it gave its sanction to this species of discipline by a special decree, recommended the study of poetry particularly because it might conduce to the improvement of the more important sciences, as well sacred as profane,* nothing could certainly appear more useful in itself, or more agreeable to the pur- pose of this institution, and the design of its learned patrons, than to treat of that species of poetry which constitutes so considerable a part of sacred literature, and excels all other poetry, not less in the sublimity of the style, than in the dignity of the subject. It would not be easy, indeed, to assign a reason, why the writings of Homer, of Pindar, and of Horace, should en- gross our attention and monopolize our praise, while those of Moses, of David, and Isaiah, pass totally unregarded. Shall we suppose that the subject is not adapted to a semi- nary in which sacred literature has ever maintained a pre- cedence? Shall we say, that it is foreign to this assembly of promising youdi, of whom the greater part have consecrated the best jiortion of their time and labour to the same depart- ment of learning? Or nuist we conclude, that the writings of those men who have accomplished only as much as human genius and abihty could accomplish, should be reduced to method and theory; but that those which boast a much higher origin, and are justly attributed to the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, may be considered as indeed illustrious by their native force and beauty, but not as conformable to the principles of science, nor to be circumscribed by any rules of art ^ It is indeed most true, that sacred poetry, if we contemplate its origin alone, is far superior to both nature and art ; but if we would rightly estimate its excellencies, See the Statute rclatin is wanting."— K. It may also be a Syriac gloss, which is the opinion of Cappel ; Crit. Sac. lib. iii. c. xiii. 8. Though there is a passage, where it occurs in the same person masc. >n"))3K ^D, "because thou hast said," Psal. Ixxxix. 3. So indeed almost all the old interpreters, except the Chaldean paraphrast, have taken it ; and rightly, indeed, if regard is to be paid to the context or the parallelism of the sentences. But this I rather esteem an error, though the IVIasorites have not noted it as such. "Verbs in wliich the > is added to the second pers. fem. sing. pret. follow the Syriac and Arabic form."— H. * A Masoretic term for a various reading. Lect. II L of the HEBREW METRE. 31 composition, and added frequently at the end of words, have so varied their style, as to form to diemselves a distinct 173 for D, or Dn, occurs frequently in tlie Hebrew poetry. See Psal. ii. 3, 4, 5. where it appears five times: sometimes in the singular for 1 ; see Isa. xliv. 15. liii. 8. Job xx. 23. xxii. 2. xxvii. 23. Psal. xi. 7. It is very often merely paragogic, or redundant. 1725 simply seems to be alto- gether poetical; it occurs in Nehem. ix. 11. and is taken from the Song of Moses, Exod. xv. 5. — It is, however, not the same with praefixes or suffixes. " Isa. liii. 8. 1)37. The Septuagint in this place is nz^^ £'? ^avcijov (he was led unto death) : in this it follows the Arabic version, which reads ni?3b." — H. Of these particles, >vhich I call poetical, there occur very few examples in the prose parts of Scripture ; indeed I do not know that there are any more than the following:— 1, Gen. i. 24-. but instead of 24"lX irT-H, the Samaritan copy has !!i*lNrr nTT, as it is also expressed in the Hebrew in the following verse. "•, Gen. xxxi. 39. twice : but it is also wanting in the Samaritan copy ; although it may possibly be meant for a pronominal affix. Also in Ruth iii. 3, 4. three times; iv. 5. and in 2 Kings iv. 23. " But in all these places, many MSS. confirm the Masoretic Keri ; for "• is wanting." — K. Lastly, 1)3, Exod, xxiii. 31. but instead of 173nU>'n:i, the Septuagint and the Vulgate read D"'^U'"^3, and the context favours this reading. Hitherto, perhaps, might be referred the H and ] paragogic, and the relative W, which occur more frequently in the poets than elsewhere. These are most, if not all of them, examples of anomalies, which serve to distinguish particularly the poetic dialect. To demonstrate more fully how freely they are made use of by the sacred poets, I shall annex a specimen, which Abarbanel exhibits as collected from one short poem, namely, the Song of Moses. " You may observe," says he, " in this poem, words sometimes con- tracted for the sake of the measure, and sometimes lengthened and extended by additional letters and syllables, according as the simple terms may be re- dundant or deficient. The letters which in this canticle are superadded, are as follow: — the vau and jod twice in the word 173VDD'', for in reality DD3 would have been quite sufficient: the jod is also added in ''TIN J ; the vau in 1)3biK'' ; the vau in 1)3\2;nin : the vau also in 173DD ; in 1731*^111 ; in 173^t7K : the thau in r7n73"'K." (In truth, this form of nouns appears to be altogether poetical; many examples of which may be found in Glass. Phil. Sac. p. 2G9. ; all of them, however, from the poetic and prophetic books.) " The vau in 173K''in ; in 173ri3n. The deficient are jod in n^ n"n7311 ; so in 173Kb73n for 07773 Kb73n : The vau in DbnD for inbn3 ; so also the word H^lb is deficient in the verse ]^^^ "•IIL''' bs 131733 ; for the prince of the prophets cannot be suspected of erring in grammatical or orthographical accuracy ; but the necessity of the verse and a proper regard to harmony so required it." Abarb. in McnUissn Dissert, ad Libr. Cosri. a Buxtorfio, edit. Basil. 1G60, p. 112. To these examples one might add from tlie same can- ticle 173 twice in 173D, 3 epithentic in 17737373^X7 paragogic in pTiT*. Concerning the glosses or foreign words which occur in tlie Hebrew poetry, in the present state of the Hebrew language it is difficult to joronounce on the ruins, as it were, of neighbouring and contemporary dialects : since possibly those words which are commonly taken for Chaldaic (for instance) might have been common to both languages ; on the contrary, some of those which more rarely occur, and the etymology of which we are ignorant about, may have 32 OF THE HEBREW METRE. Lixr. III. poetical dialect. Thus far, tlierclbrc, 1 think we may with safety alKjiu, that the Hebrew poetry is meti-ical. One or two of the peculiarities also of their versification it may be j)roper to remark, which, as they are very observable in those poems in which the verses are defined by the initial letters, may at least be reasonably conjectured of the rest. The first of these is, that the verses are very nnequal in length — the shortest consisting of six or seven syllables, the longest extending to about twice that number; the same poem is, however, generally continued throughout in verses not very unequal to each other. I must also observe, that the close of the verse generally falls where the members of the sentences are divided.* been borrowed from the neighbouring dialects. Since, however, there are some words which more frequently occur in the poetical remains, and which are not elsewhere to be found but in the Chaldee, we may reasonably conjec- ture concerning these, that they have been introduced into the Hebrew, or at least, after becoming obsolete in common language, might be again made use of: such are the following. Bar, (a son), Kosliet, (truth), Sega, (he increased), Slu'bach, (he praised), Zcdap/i, (he lifted up), Gnuck, (in the Hebrew tzick), he pressed, &c. Observe Moses, however, in the exordium of his last bene- diction, Deut. xxxiii. has he not also frequently admitted of Chaldaisms? \Vhat is nDK ? wliich again occurs, ver. 21. What is iin ? in both form and sense Chaldaic. What m .'' a word scarcely received into common use among the Hebrews till after the Babylonish captivity; especially since the Hebrew abounded in synonymous terms, expressive of the law of God. (But perhaps this last word in this place is rightly suspected to be an error. See Kennicott, Dissert. I. of ihe Hebrew Text, p. 4-27. and Houbigant in loc.) Isaiah, however, elegantly adopts the Chaldaic form speaking of Babylon, in the word mniTD, which in the Hebrew would be mniTO, chap, xiv, 4. Kor less appositely on the same subject does the Psalmist introduce the word IS^bbin, Psal. cxxxvii. 3. which is the Chaldaic for ^iJ'^bblU', as the Chal- dean paraphrast himself allows, who renders it by the synonymous term K3Tt^, as elsewhere he renders the word bblU ; (see Ezek. xxvi. 12. xxix. 19. xxxviii. 12, 13.); nor indeed do the other interpreters produce any thing to the pur- pose. Some instances of grammatical anomalies in the glosses have been de- tected ; sucli are the following Syriac or Chaldaic : ^D for "*j, Psal. cxvi. thrice; ciii. five times; also in Jer. xi. 15. ^m for V, Psal. cxvi. 12. p as a ter- mination plur. nom. masc. for DS Job iv. 2. xxiv. 22. xxxi. 10. and fre- quently elsewhere; also Prov. xxxi. 3.; Lam. iv. 3.; Ezek. xxvi. 18.; Mic. iii. 12. " nnx, the Samaritan, has iriN in the Arabic form, iin, mni?2, are Chaldaic as well as Arabic. li'^b^lH, but this word seems to have fol- lowed the etymology of the Arabic verb bbn, he bound, he led cajjtive ; whence the Septuagint a.Tetyocyovri: i]f/.it; ; and the Chaldaic K3Ui, he carried away captive." H. — ^luthors Note. • This mode of versification is not altogether foreign to our own language, as is evident from some of our earliest writers, particularly Piers Plowman. — S. H. Leot. Iir. OF THE HEBREW METRE. 3:i As to the real quantity, the rhythm, or modulation, these, from the present state of the language, seem to be altogether unknown, and even to admit of no investigation by human art or industry. It is indeed evident, that the true Hebrew pronunciation is totally lost. The rules concerning it, which were devised by the modern Jews many ages after the lan- guage of their ancestors had fallen into disuse, have been long since suspected by the learned to be destitute of autho- rity and truth : for if, in reality, the Hebrew language is to be conformed to the positions of these men, we must be under the necessity of confessing, not only what we at pre- sent experience, that the Hebrew poetry possesses no remains of sweetness or harmony, but that it never was possessed of any. The truth is, it was neither possible for them to recall the ti'ue pronunciation of a language long since obsolete, and to institute afresh the rules of orthoepy ; nor can any person in the present age so much as hope to effect any thing to the purpose by the aid of conjecture, in a matter so remote from our senses, and so involved in obscurity. In this re- spect, indeed, the delicacy of all languages is most remark- able. After they cease to be spoken, they are still significant of some sound ; but that in the mouth of a stranger becomes most dissonant and barbarous — the vital grace is wanting, the native sweetness is gone, the colour of primeval beauty is faded and decayed. The Greek and Latin doubtless have now lost much of their pristine and native sweetness ; and as they are spoken, the pronunciation is different in different nations, but every-where barbarous, and such as Attic or Roman ears w^ould not have been able to endure. In these, however, the rhythm or quantity remains ; each retains its peculiar numbers, and the versification is distinct : but the state of the Hebrew is far more unfavourable, which, destitute of vowel sounds, has remained altogether silent, (if I may use the expression), incapable of utterance, upwards of two thousand years. Thus, not so much as the number of syl- lables of which each word consisted could with any cer- tainty be defined, much less the length or quantity of the syllables ; and since the regulation of the metre of any lan- guage must depend upon two particulars, I mean the num- ber and the lengtli of the syllables, the knowledge of which is utterly unattainable in the Hebrew, he who attempts to restore the true and genuine Hebrew versification, erects an edifice without a foundation. To some of those, indeed, 31 OF THE HEBREW METRE. Lect. III. who have laboured in this matter, thus much of merit is to be allowed— that' they rendered the Hebrew poetry, which formerly sounded unconnnonly harsh and barbarous, in some den-rce softer and more polished ; they indeed furnished it widi a sort of versification, and metrical arrangement, when ballled in their attempts to discover the real. That we are justified in attributing to diem any thing more than this, is neither apparent from the nature of the thing, nor from the arguments with which they attempt to defend their conjec- tures.* Their endeavours, in truth, would rather tend to supersede all inquiry on a subject which the most learned and ingenious have investigated in vain ; and induce us to relinquish as lost, what we see cannot be retrieved. But although nothing certain can be defined concerning the metre of the particular verses, there is yet another artifice of poetry to be remarked of them when in a collective state, when several of them are taken together. In the Hebrew poetry, as I before remarked, there may be observed a cer- tain conformation of the sentences, the nature of which is, that a complete sense is almost equally infused into every component part, and that every member constitutes an en- tire verse : so that, as the poems divide themselves in a manner spontaneously into periods, for the most part equal ; so the periods themselves are divided into verses, most com- monly couplets, though frequently of greater length. This is chiefly observable in those passages which frequently oc- cur in the Hebrew poetry, in which they treat one subject in many different ways, and dwell upon the same sentiment ; when they express the same thing in different words, or difTerent things in a similar form of words; when equals refer to equals, and opposites to opposites : and since this artifice of composition seldom fails to produce even in prose an agreeable and measured cadence, we can scarcely doubt that it must have imparted to their poetry, were we masters of the versification, an exquisite degree of beauty and grace. In this circumstance, therefore, which is common to most of the Hebrew poems, we find, if not a rule and principle, at least a characteristic of the sacred poetry ; insomuch that in that language the word Mizmor-f (or Psalm), according * See the Brief Confutation of Bishop Hare's Hebrew Metres. f Zamar, he cut off, lie pruned, namely, the superfluous and luxuriant branches of trees. Hence Zemorah, a branch, or twig ; Marmarah, a pruning- liook : also he sung, or chanted ; he cut his voice by the notes in singing, or Lect. hi. of the HEBREW METRE. 35 to its etymology, is expressive of a composition cut or divided, in a peculiar manner, into short and equal sentences. The nature of the Greek and Latin poetry is, in this res- pect, directly opposite ; and that in conformity to the genius of the different languages. For the Greek, beyond every other language, (and the Latin next to it), is copious, flow- ing, and harmonious, possessed of a great variety of measures, of which the impression is so definite, the effects so striking, that if one should recite some lame and imperfect portion of a verse, or even enunciate hastily several verses in a breath, the numbers would nevertheless be clearly discernible : so that in these every variety essential to poetry and verse may be provided for almost at pleasure, without the smallest in- jury to the different metres. But in the Hebrew language the whole economy is different. Its form is simple above every other; the radical words are uniform, and resemble each other almost exactly; nor are the inflexions numerous, or materially different : whence we may readily understand, that its metres are neither complex nor capable of much variety ; but rather simple, grave, temperate ; less adapted to fluency than dignity and force : so that possibly they found it necessary to distinguish the extent of the verse by the conclusion of the sentence, lest the lines, l)y running into each other, should become altogether implicated and confused. Two observations occur in this place worthy of attention, and arise naturally from what has been said. The first is, that a poem translated literally from the Hebrew into the prose of any other language, whilst the same forms of the sen- tences remain, will still retain, even as far as relates to versi- fication, much of its native dignity, and a faint appearance divided it. Shur signifies singing with the voice (vocal music) : Nazan, to play upon an instrument. Zamar implies either vocal or instrumental melody. Thus, Bineginoth mismor shir (see Psal. Ixvii. 1.) I think means a metrical song, accompanied iviih ?misic. Thus I suppose mismor to denote measure, or numbers, what the Greeks called pu^fx,ov (rythmon). It may also be more immediately referred to the former and original sense of the root, as signifying a poem cut into short sentences, and 2-»'uned from every luxuriancy of expres- sion, which is a distinguishing characteristic of the Hebrew poetry. Prose composition is called Sheluchah, loose or free, diflused with no respect to rule ; like a wild tree, luxuriant on every side in its leaves and branches : Metrical language is Zinirah, cut and 2^ritncd on every side into sentences, like branches distributed into a certain form and order; as vines, which the vine-dresser corrects with his pruning.^knife, and adjusts into form. — AuUiors Note. 36 Ol Tin: HEBREW METRE. Lect. III. of vcrsificiition. This is evident in our common version of the Scriptures, where frequently " The order chang'd, and verse from verse disjoinM, Yet still the poet's scatter'd hmbs we find:" But the case is very different in literal translations from the Cheek or I^atin.* The other remark which I wished to reconunend to your notice is, that a Hebrew poem, if trans- lated into Greek or Latin'verse, and having the conforma- tion of the sentences accommodated to the idiom of a foreign language, will appear confused and mutilated; will scarce- ly retain a trace of its genuine elegance and peculiar beaut3\ For, in exhibiting the works of great poets in another lan- guage, much depends upon preserving not only the internal meaning, the force and beauty as far as regards the sense, but even the external lineaments, the proper colour and habit, the movement, and, as it were, the gait of the original. Those, therefore, who have endeavoured to express the beau- ties of the sacred poets in Greek or Latin verse, have una- voidably failed in the attempt to depict them according to their native genius and character; and have exhibited some- thing, whether inferior or not, certainly very unlike them, both in kind and form : Whether, on the other hand, they have been able to approach, in some degree, their energy, their majesty and spirit, it is not our present object to con- sider. * " Nevertheless," (that is, though the sacred poetrj' be not possessed of metrical syllables, and divided into feet, which is the opinion of this learned man), " we cannot doubt that it has another species of metrical arrangement, which depends upon the subject. — Is it not evident, that if you translate some of them into another language, they still retain this metrical form, if not per- fect, at least in a great degree? which cannot possibly take place in those poems the metre of which consists in the number and quantity of syllables." R, Azarias in ^fant^ss. Dissert, ad Libr. Cosri, p. 420. — Author s Note. Lect. IV. OF THE PARABOLIC STYLE. 37 THE SECOND PART. OF THE PARABOLIC OR POETICAL STYLE OF THE HEBREWS. LECTURE IV. THE ORIGIN, USE, AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARABO- LIC, AND ALSO OF THE SENTENTIOUS STYLE. The Poetic Style of the Hebrews hears the general title of Parabolic — Its constituent principles are the sententious, the figurative, and the sublime — The source of the Para- bolic style, and its original use : among other nations ; among the Hebrews — Certain examples of it preserved from the first ages in the writings of Moses. — 1. The sententious hind ; its nature and effects. The subject which next presents itself to onr investiga- tion, is the Style of the Hebrew poetry. The meaning of this word I do not wish to be restricted to the diction only of the sacred poets, but rather to include their senti- ment, their mode of thinking ; whence, as from its genuine source, the peculiar character of their composition may be deduced. It will be proper however, before we proceed, to remark, that as it is the nature of all poetry, so it is parti- cularly of the Hebrew, to be totally different from common language ; and not only in the choice of words, but in the construction, to affect a peculiar and more exquisite mode of expression. The truth of this remark will appear from what usually happens to a learner of Hebrew. He, for in- stance, who is a proficient in the historical books, when he comes to the poetical parts will find himself almost a perfect stranger. The phraseology, however, peculiar to the poets, the bold ellipses, the sudden transitions of the tenses, gen- ders, and persons, and other similar circumstances, I shall leave to the grammarian ; or rather I shall leave (since I do not find that the iijramniarians acknowledw anv distinction 38 Ol- THE PARABOLIC Lkct. IV. between poetical and common language) to be collected from ]->ractice and attentive reading. It would be a no less indolent and trifling occupation to post through all those forms of tropes and figures, which the teachers of rhetoric liave pompously (not to say uselessly) heaped together; since there is no necessity of applying to the sacred poetry for examples of these — every composition, however trite and barren^ abounding in them. Of these, therefore, we shall be s])aring, and use them not as freely as we might, but as mucii only as shall appear absolutely necessary : for at present we are not so much to inquire what are the general principles of poetical composition, as what are the peculiar marks and characters of the Hebrew poetry. Let us con- sider, therefore, v>hether the literature of the Hebrews will not suggest some general term, which will give us an oppor- tunity of discussing the subject, so as to bring it under one comprehensive view; and which, being divided according to its constituent parts, will prescribe a proper order and limit to our disquisition. A poem is called in Hebrew Mizmor, that is, as was before remarked, a short composition cut and divided into distinct parts.* It is thus called in reference to the verse and num- bers. Again, a poem is called, in reference to the diction and sentiments, Mashal ;\ which I take to be the w^ord * " Agreeable to this is the meaning of the Arabic verb Zamar, collected, or tied lip, therefore rendered smaller, and contained within less space : it also means to sing," &c. — H. f Numb. xxi. 27. xxiii. and xxiv. frequently. Mic. ii. 4. Isa. xiv. 4. Psal. xlix. 5. Ixxviii. 2. Job xxvii. I. xxix. I. Mashal, he likened, he compared, he spoke iti parables ; he littered proverbs, sentences grave and pointed, a composition ornamented ivitli figures and com- parisons : also he ruled, he loas eminent, he possessed dominion and authority ; delegated, perhaps, and vicarious in its original and restricted sense, whence at last it was taken more laxly, as referring to any kind of dominion: The elder servant of Abraham, who presided over his family, was certainly called Hamashel be-bal, usher lo. Gen. xxiv. 2. He was, in fact, a steward in the place of his master, and representing him by a delegated authority ; whence there is evidently a relation between the two interpretations of this root, con- sisting in this circumstance, that both the parabolical image and the steward or deputy arc rcpresentatire. Afashal is therefore a composition elevated and grave, weighty and powerful, highly ornamented with comparisons, figures, and imagery; such is the style of the Psalms, the Prophets, and the Book of Job : it is a diction which under one image or exemplar includes many, and may easily be transferred to every one of the same kind — which is in general tlie nature of proverbs: it is, in fine, any sentence or axiom excellently or gravely uttered, concise, and confined to a certain form or manner; as is evi- dent from 1 Sam. xxiv. H. and from many examples in the Proverbs of Solo- Lect. IV. AND SENTENTIOUS STYLE. 3!) properly expressive of the poetical style. Many translators render it by the word parable^ which in some respects is not improper, though it scarcely comprehends the full compass of the Hebrew expression ; for, if we investigate its full and proper force, we shall find that it includes three forms or modes of speech, — the sententious, the figurative, and the sublime. To these, as parts or divisions of the general sub- ject, may be referred whatever occui*s concei-ning the para- bolic or poetical style of the Hebrews: but the reason of this arrangement will perhaps be better understood, if we premise a short inquiry into the origin and early use of this style of composition. The origin and first use of poetical language are un- doubtedly to be traced into the vehement afiections of the mind. For, what is meant by that singular frenzy of poets, which the Greeks, ascribing to divine inspiration, distin- guished by the appellation of enthusiasm, but a style and expression directly prompted by nature itself, and exhibiting the true and express image of a mind violently agitated ? when, as it were, the secret avenues, the interior recesses of the soul are thrown open ; when the inmost conceptions are displayed, rushing together in one turbid stream, without order or connexion ? Hence sudden exclamations, frequent interrogations, apostrophes even to inanimate objects : for, to those who are violently agitated themselves, the universal nature of things seems under a necessity of being affected with similar emotions. Every impulse of the mind, how- ever, has not only a peculiar style and expression, but a cer- tain tone of voice, and a certain gesture of the body adapted to it. Some, indeed, not satisfied with that expression which language aflfbrds, have added to it dancing and song : and as we know there existed in the first ages a very strict connexion between these arts and that of poetry, we may " In Arabic, Mathal (for 12^, sh, and H, th, are interchangeable letters) means to make a likeness, to express or iniiiale a resemblance, to dictate a par- able or proverb, to give an instance.'^ — H. With Mashal, Chidah is frequently joined, and means, a sa^/ing pointed, ei- quisilc, obscure ; such as requires either to the conception or understanding of it considerable ingenuity. It is derived from Chnd, to propose a problem or enigma, or some exquisite and curious saying; which agrees with Chedad, to sharpen, or to be sharp. " In the Arabic, it signifies lo be bent; and Chid, he turned out of his way : whence Schultens (Comment, in Job xvi. 20.) deduces the Hebrew word Chidah; as it were an inlricate species of coniposilion, a riddle.'" H. — Au- tkor''s Note. 10 Ol THE PARABOLIC Lect. IV. possibly l)c iiulcbtcd to tlicm for the accurately admeasured versos mid loot, to the end that the modulation of die lan- iruagc iniojit accord with the music of the voice and the motion of the body. Poetry, in this its rude origin and commencement, being derived irom nature, was in time improved by art, and ap- l)lied to the purposes of utility and delight. For, as it owed its biith to the affections of the mind, and had availed itself of the assistance of harmony, it was found, on account of the exact and vivid delineation of the objects which it described, to be excellently adapted to the exciting of every internal emotion, and making a more forcible impression upon the mind than abstract reasoning could possibly effect : it was found capable of interesting and affecting the senses and ])assions, of captivating the ear, of directing the perception to the minutest circumstances, and of assisting the memory in the retention of them. Whatevpr, therefore, deserved to be generally known and accurately remembered, was (by those men who on this very account were denominated zvise)* adorned with a jocund and captivating style, illuminated with the varied and splendid colouring of language, and moulded into sentences comprehensive, pointed, and har- monious. It became the peculiar province of poetry to de- pict the great, the beautiful, the becoming, the virtuous ; to * The bards or poots arc enumerated by the Son of Sirach among the wise and illustrious men of former times : " Wise and eloquent in their instructions, Such as found out musical tunes, And recited written verses." — Ecclus. sliv. 4. Observe also, whether those four, whose wisdom is so much celebrated, I Kings iv. 31. Bcni Machol, be not So7is of the Choir; that is, musicians or poets : for they were (not Sons of Mahol, as our translators render it, taking an appellative for a proper name, but) sons of Zcrach, as appears from 1 Cliron. ii. (i. " Whence the eldest of them, Ethan, was also called Ha-Ezra- chi, 1 Kings iv. 31. where the Targuni expressly has it Bar Zcrach, son of Zcrach.'' — II. Among the Greeks also the poets were anciently called wise men or sophists : " Rosy Venus, Queen of all ! So the Wise bright Venus call." — Anacreon. Tliat is, the poets. — So also Pindar : " Sung by the Wise, And honoured by the will of Jove." — 1st. v. 36. Upon wliich passage the Scholiast: " The poets are commonly called wise men and sopliists." " The poets preceded these (the philosophers) by some ages; and, before \.hv name of ])hilosopkcr was known, were called wise men." Lac- fantiiis, lib. V, ."), — Author's Nnfc. Lect. IV. AND SENTENTIOUS STYLE. 11 embellish and recommend die precepts of religion and virtue ; to transmit to posterity excellent and sublime actions and sayings ; to celebrate the works of the Deity, his beneficence, his wisdom ; to record the memorials of the past, and the predictions of the future. In each of these departments poetry was of singular utility, since, before any characters expressive of sounds were invented, at least before they were commonly received and applied to general use, it seems to have aiforded the only means of preserving the rude science of the early times, and, in this respect, to have ren- dered the want of letters more tolerable : it seems also to liave acted the part of a public herald, by whose voice each memorable transaction of antiquity was proclaimed and transmitted throuo-h different ai)es and nations. Such appears by the testimony of authors to have been the undoubted origin of poetry among heathen nations. It is evident that Greece for several successive ages was pos- sessed of no records but the poetic ; for the first who pub- lished a prose oration was Pherecydes, a man of the Isle of Syrus, and contemporary with King Cyrus, who lived some ages posterior to that of Homer and Hesiod : somewhat after that time Cadmus the Milesian* began to compose history. The laws themselves were metrical, and adapted to certain musical notes : such were the laws of Charondas, which were sung at the banquets of the Athenians ;f such were those which were delivered by the Cretans:}: to the in- genuous youth to be learned by rote, with accompaniments of musical melody, in order that, by the enchantment of harmony, the sentiments might be more forcibly impressed upon their memories. Hence certain poems were denomi- nated vo'Mot (nomoi), which implied convivial or banquetting * Strabo, Geog. lib. i. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. vii. 56. and v. 29. This matter is well explained by Isidorus, however rashly some learned men may have taken it. " It is well known," says he, " that among the Greeks, as well as among the Latins, metrical composition was much more ancient than prose. Every species of knowledge was at first contained in poetry ; it was long be- fore prose composition flourished. The first man among the Greeks who composed in prose was Pherecydes Syrius ; among the Romans, Appius Crecus first published a work in prose against Pyrrhus." Isidor. Hispal. Orig. lib. i. 27. — Author's Note. f " The laws of Charondas were sung at banquets among the Athenians, as Ilermippus relates." Athcn. lib. xiv. 'S. See I3entley's Dissertation on Pha- tnris, p. 373. — Author s Note. \ TElian. Vnr. Hist. I. ii. 30. 42 OF THE PAllAKOLIC Lect. IV. songs, as is remarked by Aristotle;* who adds, that the same custom of chanting the laws to music existed even in his own time among the Agathyrsi.f If we may credit 8trabo,t. the Turdetani, a people of Spain, had laws in verse. But the Germans, § as' Tacitus positively asserts, had no records or annals but die traditional poems in which they celebrated the heroic exploits of their ances- tors. || In" the same manner, and on the same account, the • " Why are laws called canticles ? but that before alphabetical writing was invented, the laws used to be sung, that they might be preserved in remem- brance, as is the custom still among the Agathyrsi." Prob. S. 19. Q. 2S. — Authurs Kutc. f Possibly laws, which are in the sententious style, were originally precepts of equity and morals, and in course of time acquired authority in the courts of justice. There is much of this proverbial style in the ancient German laws ; and, I am assured by good authority, in those of Sweden also. Moses himself is so sententious and compact, and pays so much attention to brevity in many of his laws, that he seems to have adopted into his code some well- known proverbs, containing the general principles of equity : Of this I think there is an instance in Exod. xxiii. 5. in wliich there is a point and antithesis, more resembling the familiarity of a proverb than the dignity of a statute. To the example of the Lusitanians, we may add one more recent of the Swedes, who in the year 1718 published laws in verse. — M. \ Geog. lib. iii. § After the extraordinary revolutions of Germany, and the dispersion of that people into different colonies, it is not surprising that no monuments of the poetical records of our ancestors should remain. Scandinavia and Ice- land have been more fortunate in this respect; there the records of their most ancient transactions are traditionally preserved to this day. These instances o? a practice so agreeable to that of the Hebrews existing among a people so remote, serve to prove the great similarity in the human mind throughout all the countries of the globe, and show that the most natural and early mode of preserving facts has been by verses committed to memory, rather than by writ- ten documents. What Pocock relates of the Arabs, applies perhaps more directly to the present subject. " It seems," he says, " to be entirely owing to their poetry, that so copious a language is preserved in a perfect state. Among other commendations of their poetry, they enumerate this, that both the purity of tlie Arabic language, and the propriety and elegance of their pronunciation, have owed their preservation entirely to it. Ebn Phares ob- serves, that the Arabic poems serve in the place of commentaries, or annals, in which are recorded the series of their genealogies, and all the facts of his- tory deserving of remembrance, and from which a knowledge of the language is to be collected." — IM. However the antiquity of Ossian's poems, as exhibited to the public, may be doubted, it is certain that there exist in the Highlands of Scotland many remains of the ancient historical ballads, which, though in all probability of a much later date than the age of Ossian is pretended to be, contain many marks of wild genius, and, I am informed from good authority, furnished Mr Macphcrson with the bulk of his materials. — T. 11 To these testimonies concerning the early use of poetry, I will add a re- markable passage of Plutarch, which states summarily many facts relating to ihis circumstance. " The use of reason seems to resemble the exchange of Lect. IV. AND SENTENTIOUS STYLE. 43 Persians, the Arabs, and many of the most ancient of the eastern nations, preserved in verse their history and poU- tics, as well as the principles of religion iind morals : Thus all science, human and divine, was deposited in the treasury of the Muses, and thither it was necessary on every occasion to resort.* The only mode of instruction, indeed, adapted to human nature in an uncivilized state, when the know- ledge of letters was very little if at all diifused, must be that which is calculated to captivate the ear and the pas- sions, which assists the memory, which is not to be delivered into the hand, but infused into the mind and heart.f That the case was the same among the Hebrews ; that poetry was both anciently and generally known and prac- tised by them, appears highly probable, as well from the analogy of things, as from some vestiges of j)oetic language extant in the writings of Moses. The first instance occurs in one of the most remote periods of the Mosaic history — I mean the address of Lamech to his wives, which is indeed but ill understood in general, because the occasion of it is very obscurely intimated ; nevertheless, if we consider the apt construction of the w^ords, the exact distribution of the period into three distichs, and the two parallel, and as it money : that which is good and lawful is generally current and well known, and passes sometimes at a higher and sometimes at a lower value. Thus there was a time when the stamp and coin of all reasoning or composition was verse and song. Even history, philosophy, every action and passion which required grave or serious discussion, was written in poetry, and adapted to music. For what at present few will attend to, was then by all men thought an object of importance ; ftj/ ploughmen and bi/ bird-catc/icrs, according to Pindar. For, such was the inclination for poetry at that period, that they adapted their very precepts and instructions to vocal and instrumental music, and exhorted, reproved, and persuaded by fables or allegories. The praises also of their gods, their prayers and thanksgivings after victory, were all com- posed in verse ; some through the love of harmony, and some through cus- tom. It is not therefore that Apollo envies the science of divination this orna- ment, nor did he design to banish from the Tripos his beloved Muse; he rather wished to introduce her as one who loved harmony and excited to it ; as one who was ready to assist the fancy and conception, and to help to pro- duce what was noble and sublime, as most becoming and most to be admir- ed." Plut. Inquiry, H'liy the Pythia now ceases to deliver her oracles iyi vei-sc. — Aulhor's Note. See this subject treated at large. Essays historical and moral, by G. Gregory, Essay I. On the progress of Manners, p. 31. 37. 39, 4-0. 43.— T. * See Chardin's Travels, vol. ii. c. 14. Pocock, Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 158. f We may add, that poetry is much less liable to be corrupted than prose. So faithful a preserver of truth is metre, that what is liable to be changed, augmented, or violated, almost daily in prose, may continue for ages in verse, without variation, without even a change in tiie obsolete phraseology. — 31. 4.1. OF THE PARABOLIC Lect. IV. were correspoiuling sentiments in each distich, I appre- liend it wiU easily be acknowledged an indubitable specimen of the poetry of Ihe first ages : " Iladah and Sillali, hear my voice ; Ye wives of Laniccli, hearken to my speech : For I have slain a man, because of my wounding ; A young man, because of my hurt. If Cain shall be avenged* seven times, Certainly Lamech seventy and seven."f * *' If the murder of Cain shall be avenged." — That is, " If vengeance sevenfold shall fall upon the head of him that murders Cain, then vengeance seventy times seven shall fall on him that murders Lamech." Agreeably to what is pronounced by God in the 15th verse of the same chapter, " Whoso- ever slayetli Cain, vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold." — T. f Gen. iv. 23, "2 k The Jews have indulged great liberty of fiction and conjecture concerning this passage, which has answered no other purpose than to render it more perplexed to others also, who were unable to digest their whimsical and absurd explications. To me there is very little obscurity in the original ; for though we are necessarily ignorant of the name of the person who was murdered, I think it is sufficiently plain that some person was murdered by Lamech. I say person ; for what the Jews have feigned concerning the death of two persons, the one a youth and the other a man, proceeds entirely from their ignorance of the nature of the Hebrew poetry, and particularly of the parallelism or repetition of certain members of the sentences, which our Author has explained in a very masterly manner in the 19th Lecture. Nor is there any more reason to distinguish between the youth and the man, than to sup- pose Hadah and Sillah other than the wives of Lamech who are mentioned in the next line : " Hadah and Sillah, hear my voice ; Ye wives of Lamech, attend," &c. Tlic truth is, Lamech had committed a murder ; he repents of the fact, but hopes, after the example of Cain, to escape with impunity, and with that hope he i^heers his wives, who are anxious for his fate. It is not to be supposed that he addressed them in verse ; the substance ot what he said has been reduced to numbers for the sake of preserving it easily in the memory. This poem therefore constitutes a part of history known to the Israelites ; and Moses in- timates to what Lamech it relates, namely, not to the son of Seth, the father of Noah, but to this Lamech of the seed of Cain : What he adds is to this ef- fect : " This Lamech, who was of the seed of Cain, is the same who complained to his wives in those well-known traditional verses," Sec. That Moses has preserved many relics of this kind, is evident from the fragments of verse wiiich are scattered throughout his writings, and which are very distinguishable from his usual language. Such is that which he relates. Gen. iii. 2 k of the Cherubs placed at the east of the garden of Eden ; under which appellation I understand to be meant, not angels, but the Equi tonantes of the Greek and Latin poets ; the reasons for whicli opinion I have more fully explained in the Commentaries of the Royal Society at Gottingen, T. i. p. 17.J. The passage is without doubt poetical : " He placed before the gar- den Cherubim {tliundering horses) and a flaming sword, to keep the way of the tree of life ;" in plain terms, the dread of the frequent tempests and daily thunders deterred men from that track in which Paradise was situated, lest they should cat of the tree of life. — M. Lect. IV. AND SENTENTIOUS STYLE. 4-5 Another example which I shall point out to you, appears no less to bear the genuine marks of poetry than the former; The former part of the 23d verse is thus translated hy Houbigaiit -. " I, being wounded, have slain a man, Being assaulted, a young man." This translation is ingenious, and I think right : But even it seems to want some further explanation as well as confirmation ; which, since he has omit- ted, I will attempt. The speech of Lamecli is an apology for an homicide committed in his own defence, upon some man who violently assaulted him, and it appears struck and wounded him. An homicide of this nature he opposes to the voluntary and inexcusable fratricide of Cain. The phrases which produce the obscurity — Le-pctzangi, and Lc-chuburatlii, " because of my wound," that is, a ivound which xvas given mc, and " because of my blows (or stripes)," that is, stripes injiiclcd vjwn me, may, I think, be explained as fol- lows. The affixes to nouns (as Kimchius observes on Isa. xxi. 2.) are taken actively as well as passively: thus Chamasi, " my violence, or injury," means a violence committed against mc, Gen. xvi. 31. Jer. li. .35. Chamas Beni Je- houdah, " the violence of the sons of Judah," Joel iv. 19. Chamas Erctz, " the violence of the land," means that u'hich theij have suffered. " My ser- vant shall justify many, Be-deangthi, in his knowledge," that is, in their knoiv- ledge of him, Isa. liii. 11. Reaugecha, " thy thoughts," mean thoughts con- cerning thee, Psal. cxxxix. 17. The preposition ^ (/e) frequently means it'cause .• " The ships that went to Ophir, Le-zahab, because (or for the sake) of gold," 1 Kings xxii. 48. Le-abiv ve-le-emou. Sec. " because of his father, or because of his mother, or because of his brother, or because of his sister, he shall not pollute himself," Numb. vi. 7. See more in Noldius ad ^, No. 28. — ylu- thors 2\^ote. There is nothing in the context to induce a suspicion that Lamech had committed a murder. By taking to himself two wives, he first violated the divine institution of marriage. Such an offence was likely to draw upon him the resentment of his kindred, expose him to a particular quarrel (perhaps with his brother), and fill his wives with fear lest he should be provoked to follow the example of Cain. To remove therefore their apprehensions, he thus ex- postulates with them, contrasting the offences of polygamy and murder : Hadah and Sillah, hear my voice ; Ye wives of Lamech, attend to my speech : Have I slain a man in my contest? Yea, one born among my kindred ? If Cain shall be avenged seven times, Assuredly shall Lamech seventy times seven. ^D in various instances is used interrogatively; 1 Sam. xxiv. 20. 2 Kings xviii. 34>. Isa. xxix. 16. Prov. xxx. 4, &c. ^^iJSb, in mi/ division or strife, from riiS, scidit: but if the derivative be referred to the secondary sense, vulneravit — it may in that case be rendered, yroni mi/ wound, or the wound that I have injlicted. Tb"" signifies a son, or person born, and 1 very frequently occurs in the sense of yea. ^'^iT^ is, in various passages, equivalent to union, alliance, offiniti/. (In Mai. ii. li. the same term is applied to the marriage union.) — One born among my kindred may be considered as synonymous with my brother. — S. 1 1. I did not, however, think myself at liberty to depart in the text from that of our Author, though I think tliis explication exceedingly ingenious. Tlie reader may for further information on this sul)ject consult Dawson's Transla- tion of Genesis, c. iv. — T. -10 or TlIK I'AHAHOLIC Lr.cT. IV. and that is, tlie execration of Noah upon Ham ; with the niairnificent predictions of prosperity to his two brothers, to SliLiH in particular, and the ardent breadiings of his soul for iheir future liappiness : These are expressed in dn-ee equal divisions of verses, concluding with an indignant re- petition of one of the preceding lines : " Cursed be Canaan ! A servant of servants to his brothers let him be ! Blessed be jEHOvAn the God of Shem I And let Canaan be their servant. INIay God extend Japheth, And may he dwell in the tents of Shem I And let Canaan be their servant."* The inspired benedictions of the patriarchs Isaac and Jacob are altogether of the same kind ;f and the great importance of these prophecies, not only to the destiny of the people of Israel, but to that of the whole human race, renders it high- ly probable that they were extant in this form before the time of Moses ; and that they were afterwards committed to writing by the inspired historian, exactly as he had received them from his ancestors, without presuming to bestow on these sacred oracles any adventitious ornaments or poetical colouring. The matter will appear yet clearer, if we advert to some other verses, a little different in kind, to which the same historian appeals (as well known and popular) in testimony of the truth of his narration. Thus, when he relates the first incursion of the Israelites into the country of the Amo- rites, in order to mark more precisely the boundaries of that state, and to explain more satisfactorily the nature of the victories not long before achieved over the Moabites, he cites two fragments of poems ; the one from the book of the M^ars of Jehovah,:}: the other from the Sayings (Masha- luii) of those who spoke in parables ;§ that is, as appears * Gen. ix. 25—27. f Gen. xxvii. 27—29. 39, 40. \ Numb. xxi. 14, 15. § Ibid. 27 — 30. Compare Jer. xlviii. 45, 40. Aiytyf/,ciliemselves: he must not attend to the ideas which, on a cursory reading, certain words would obtrude upon his mind ; he is to feel them as a Hebrew hearing or delivering the same words, at the same time, and in the same country. As far as he is able to pursue this plan, so far he will com- prehend their force and excellence. This, indeed, in many cases it will not be easy to do ; in some it will be impossible ; in all, however, it ought to be regarded, and in those pas- sages particularly in which the figurative style is found to prevail. In ^Nletapiior, for instance, (and what I remark concern- ing it may be applied to all die rest of the figures, since they are all naturally allied to each other), two circumstan- ces are to be especially regarded, on whicli its whole force and elegance will depend : first, that resemblance which is the groundwork of the figurative and parabolic style, and which will perhaps be suificiently apparent even from a common and indistinct knowledge of the objects; and, se- condly, the beauty or dignity of the idea which is substi- tuted for another; and this is a circumstance of unusual nicety. An opinion of grace and dignity results frequently, Lelt.V. VIGUUATIVK LANGUAGE. 57 not SO iiiiich from the objects themselves in which these qiuiHties are supposed to exist, as from the disposition of the spectator; or from some shght and obscure relation or con- nexion which they have witli some other things. Thus it sometimes happens, that the external form and lineaments may be sufficiently apparent, though the original and intrin- sic beauty and elegance be totally erased by time. For these reasons it will perhaps not be an useless under- taking, when we treat of the metaphors of the sacred poets, to enter more fully into the nature of their poetical imagery in general, of which the metaphor constitutes so principal a part. By this mode of proceeding we shall be enabled, not only to discern the general beauty and elegance of this figure in the Hebrew poetry, but the peculiar elegance which it frequently possesses, if we only consider how forcible it must have appeared to those for whom it was originally intended, and what a connexion and agreement these figurative expressions must have had with their circumstances, feelings, and opi- nions. Thus many expressions and allusions, which even now appear beautiful, must, when considered in this man- ner, shine with redoubled lustre; and many, which now strike the superficial reader as coarse, mean, or deformed, must appear graceful, elegant, and sublime. The whole course of nature, this immense universe of things, offers itself to human contemplation, and affords an infinite variety, a confused assemblage, a wilderness as it were of images, which, being collected as the materials of poetry, are selected and produced as occasion dictates. The mind of man is that mirror of Plato,* which, as he turns about at pleasure, and directs to a different point of view, he creates another sun, other stars, planets, animals, and even another self In this shadow or image of himself, which man beholds when the mirror is turned inward towards him- self, he is enabled in some degree to contemplate the souls of other men; for, from what he feels and perceives in him- self, he forms conjectures concerning others ; and apprehends and describes the manners, affections, conceptions of others from his own. Of this assemblage of images, which the hu- man mind collects from all nature, and even from itself, that is, from its own emotions and operations, the least clear and evident are those which are ex})lored by reason and argu- ment; the more evident and distinct are those which are ■* De Rep. lih. x, sub init. 58 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. Lect. V. formed from tlic impressions made by external objects on the senses ; and of these, the clearest and most vivid are those which arc perceived by the eye. Hence poetry abounds most in those images which are furnished by the senses, and chiefly those of the sight, in order to depict the obscure by the niore manifest, the subtile by the more substantial ; and, as far as simplicity is its object, it pursues those ideas which are most familiar and most evident; of which there is such an abundance, that they serve as well the purpose of orna- ment and variety, as that of illustration. Those images or pictures of external objects which like lights adorn and distinguish the poetic diction, are indeed iniinite in number. In an immensity of matter, however, that we may be enabled to pursue some kind of order, and not wander in uncertainty and doubt, we may venture to fix upon four sources of these ideas, whither all that occur may be commodiously referred. Thus, poetical imagery may be derived, first, from natural objects; secondly, from the man- ners, arts, and circumstances of common life ; thirdly, from things sacred ; and, lastly, from the more remarkable facts recorded in sacred history. From each of these topics a few cases will be selected, and illustrated by examples, which, though chiefly of the metaphorical kind, will yet be in a great measure applicable to the other figures which have been spe- cified. These we shall afterwards take an opportunity to ex- plain, when not only the figures themselves will be noticed, but also the different forms and rules for their introduction and embellishment. Lect. VI. POETIC IMAGERY, &c. 59 LECTURE VI. OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. The frequent use of the Metaphor renders a style magnificent, but often obscure: the Hebrew poets have accomplished the sublime without losing perspicuity — Three causes assigned for this singular fact: first, the imagery which they intro- duce is in general derived from familiar objects: again, in the use and accommodation of it they pursue a certain custom and analogy: lastly, they make the most free use of that ichich is most familiar, and the nature and extent of which is most generally knoivn. These observations con- firmed by examples (1.) from natural objects: such as are common to mankind in general; such as are more familiar to the Hebrews than to others ; and such as are pecidiar to them, " The great excellence of the poetic dialect," as Aristotle most judiciously remarks, " consists in perspicuity without meanness. Familiar terms and words in common use form a clear and perspicuous, but frequently a low style ; unusual or foreign expressions give it an air of grandeur, but fre- quently render it obscure."* Of those which he calls fo- reign, the principal force lies in the metaphor; but " as the temperate and reasonable use of this figure enlivens a com- position, so the frequent introduction of metaphors obscures it, and if they very commonly occur, it will be little better than an enigma."-f If the Hebrew poets be examined by the rules and precepts of this great philosopher and critic, it will readily be allov/ed that they have assiduously attended to the sublimity of their compositions by the abundance and splendour of their figures, though it may be doubted whether they might not have been more temperate in the use of them. * Poet. c. 22. Modern writers are hardly aware of the ill consequence of what is called far-fetched imagery, or that which is taken from objects not generally known. This was the great error of Cowley, and the metaphysical poets of the last century ; an error for which no beauties can compensate, which always gives a harshness, often a prosaic appearance, to poetry, and never fails to be attended with some degree of obscurity.— T. f lb. and Quint, viii. 6. CO rOETIC IMAGERY FROM Lect. VI. For in tliosc poems, at least, in which something of uncom- mon grandeur and sublimity is aimed at, there predominates a perpetual, 1 liad ahnost said a continued use of the meta- plior, sometimes daringly introduced, sometimes rushing in with imminent hazard of propriety. A metaphor thus licentiously intruded, is frequently continued to an immo- derate extent. The orientals are attached to this style of composition ; and many flights which our ears, too fastidious perhaps in these respects, will scarcely bear, must be allowed to the general freedom and boldness of these writers. But if we examine the sacred poems, and consider at the same time that a great degree of obscurity must result from the total oblivion in which many sources of their imagery must be involved ; of which many examples are to be found in the Song of Solomon, as well as in other parts of the sacred writ- ino-s; we shall I think find cause to wonder, that in writings of so great antiquity, and in such an unlimited use of figu- rative expression, there should yet appear so much purity and perspicuity, both in sentiment and language. In order to explore the real cause of this remarkable fact, and to ex- plain more accurately the genius of the parabolic style, I shall premise a few observations concerning the use of the metaphor in the Hebrew poetry; which I trust will be suf- ficiently clear to those who peruse them with attention, and which I think in general are founded in truth. In the first place, the Hebrew^ poets frequently make use of imagery borrowed from common life, and from objects well known and familiar. On this the perspicuity of figura- tive language will be found in a great measure to depend; for a principal use of metaphors is to illustrate the subject by a tacit comparison : but if, instead of fiimiliar ideas, we introduce such as are new, and not perfectly understood ; if we endeavour to demonstrate what is plain by what is occult, instead of making a subject clearer, we render it more perplexed and difficult. To obviate this inconveni- ence, we must take care, not only to avoid the violent and too frequent use of metaphors, but also not to introduce such as are obscure and but slightly related. From these causes, and especiall}' from the latter, arises the difficulty of the Latin satirist Persius; and but for the uncommon ac- curacy of the sacred poets in this respect, we should now be scarcely able to comprehend a single word of their pro- fluctions. Lect. VI. THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. (,1 In the next place, the Hebrews not only deduce their metaphors from familiar or well-known objects, but pre-, serve one constant track and manner in the use and acconi- ( modation of them to their subject. The parabolic may in- deed be accounted a peculiar style, in which things moral, political, and divine, are marked and represented by com- parisons implied or expressed, and adopted from sensible objects. As in common and plain language, therefore, cer- tain words serve for signs of certain ideas, so, for the most part, in the parabolic style, certain natural images serve to illustrate certain ideas more abstruse and refined. This assertion, indeed, is not to be understood absolutely without exception ; but thus far at least we may affirm, that the sacred poets, in illustrating the same subject, make a much more constant use of the same imagery than other poets are accustomed to : and this practice has a surprising effect in preserving perspicuity. I must observe in the last place, that the Hebrews employ more freely and more daringly that imagery in particular which is borrowed from the most obvious and familiar ob- jects, and the figurative effect of which is established and defined by general and constant use. This, as it renders a composition clear and luminous, even where there is the greatest danger of obscurity ; so it shelters effectually the sacred poets from the imputation of exuberance, harshness, or bombast.* In order to confirm and illustrate by examples what has been briefly set forth in the preceding remarks, I shall pro- ceed to consider a few instances of metaphors derived from natural objects,f and such as are most in use : this I shall * It is very observable in our ovs^n as well as other languages, how much metaphors lose of the figurative sense by repetition ; and it is curious to remark how metaphors are in this manner derived from one another. From the re- semblance of a narrow bed of metal running in the earth, to the situation of a vein in the human body, it has taken that name ; and hence I apprehend are derived the expressions, a vein of poetry, a vein of/iu/nour, &c. — T. f The frequent recurrence for metaphorical expressions to natural objects, and particularly to plants and to trees, is so characteristic of the Hebrew poetry, that it might be almost called the botanical poetry. This circumstance, how- ever, is not at all extraordinary, if we consider that the greater part of that people were occupied with tilHng the earth, and keeping their Hocks ; and further, that the cultivation of poetry, instead of being confined to the learned, was so generally diffused, that every valley re-echoed the songs of the shej)- herds. Hence, in the very few remains of the Hebrew writings which are come down to us, I mean the Scriptures, there are upwards of 2o0 botanical 02 rOKTIC IMAGERY FROM Lect. VI. tlo in such a manner, that whatever observations occur upon one or two of them, may be appHed to many other instances. The images oWKjltt and darkness are commonly made use of in all languages to imply or denote prosperity and ad- versity, agreeably to the common sense and perception which all men have of the objects themselves. But the Hebrews employ those metaphors more frequently, and with less vari- ation, than other people : indeed they seldom refrain from them whenever the subject requires, or will even admit of their introduction. These expressions, therefore, may be accounted among those forms of speech which in the para- bolic style are established and defined ; since they exhibit the most noted and familiar images, and the application of them on this occasion is justified by an acknowledged analogy, and approved by constant and unvarying custom. In the use of images, so conspicuous and so familiar among the Hebrews, a degree of boldness is excusable. The Latins introduce them more sparingly, and therefore are more cautious in the application of them : — terms, which none use so frequently as the poets : and this circumstance, I think, gives an air of pastoral elegance to their poetry, which any modern writer will emulate in vain. It is however extraordinary, that the stars should be so seldom mentioned in the Hebrew poetry, for the names of not more than three or four occur in the whole Bible. It has been said, that the patriarchal shepherds applied very much to the study of astronomy ; but if so, whence is it that we meet with such frequent allusions to botanical subjects, and so few to the heavenly lumi- naries? A comet is, however, I think spoken of in Numb. xxiv. 17. and in allusion to David; but it is by Balaam, who, residing on the borders of the Euphrates, it is reasonable to suppose was not altogether unacquainted with the Babylonish sciences. — M. There appears but little foundation for this last remark of the learned Pro- fessor. Eor, in reality, so little are the heavenly bodies subjects of poetic allusion, that we find them but seldom introduced into any poetry either ancient or modern. Our Annotator seems to forget that poetry is no more than paint- ing in language, and has not respect to names but appearances. The appear- ance of every star is nearly the same, and consequently they can furnish no great variety of imagery, and that can only relate to their general qualities, their splendour, S^c. ; whereas the nature and visible qualities of plants are infinitely diversified, and therefore admit of a much greater variety of allusion. Indeed a poem, the i)rincipal imagery of which consisted of the names of stars, would be a very strange and a very dull production. We cannot, therefore, argue from the silence of the Hebrew poetry, that Moses or tlie writers of the Scriptures were ignorant of astronomy ; neither is it fair to sujtpose that a uatiun of shepherds, in the serene counlri/ of the East, were unacquainted with the host oC heaven, which in truth, from these causes, were the objects of ado- ration, and even of worship in tliose parts, as appears from the Preface to Mr Wood's Account of the liuins of Bcilbcc. — T. Lect. VI. THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. G.i Restore, great Chief, thy country's Hght I Dispel the dreary shades of night ! Thy aspect, Hke the spring, shall cheer. And brighter suns shall gild the year.* The most respectable of the Roman Muses have scarcely any thing more elegant, I will add at the same time, that they have scarcely any thing bolder on any similar occa- sion. But the Hebrews, upon a subject more sublime in- deed in itself, and illustrating it by an idea which was more habitual to them, more daringly exalt their strains, and give a loose rein to the spirit of poetry. They display, for instance, not the image of the Spring, of Aurora, of the dreary Night, but the Sun and Stars, as rising with increased splendour in a new creation, or again involved in chaos and primeval darkness. Does the sacred bard promise to his people a renewal of the divine favour, and a recommence- ment of universal prosperity ? In what magnificent colours does he depict it ! such indeed as no translation can illus- trate, but such as none can obscure : " The light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun,-|- And the light of the sun shall be sevenfold. J But even this is not sufficient : " No longer shalt thou have the sun for thy light by day; Nor by night shall the brightness of the moon enlighten thee : For Jehovah shall be to thee an everlasting light, And thy God shall be thy glory. Thy sun shall no more decline. Neither shall thy moon wane ; For Jehovah shall be thine everlasting light ; And the days of thy mourning shall cease. "§ In another place lie has admirably diversified the same sen- timent:— * Hor. Carm. iv. 5. f Hence Milton perhaps adopted his " another morning Ris'n on midnoon," &c. — Per. Lost, v. 308. — S. H. I Isa. XXX. 26. These and tlie following descriptions of the increased splendour of the sun and the stars, are not taken from natural ohjects, but from fable. The remarkable felicity of the people is compared with that golden age of which the prophets had acquired a knowledge from the Egyptians. Isaiah has expatiated very much upon this image, of which more in the Notes to the 9th Lecture. — IVI. S Isa. Ix. 19, 20. 04 POETIC IMAGERY FROM Lect. VI. " And the moon shall be confounded, and the sun shall be ashamed ; For Jkiiovah God of Hosts shall reign On Mount Sion, and in Jerusalem ; And before his ancients shall he be glorified."* On the other hand, denouncing ruin against the proud king of Egypt : " And when I shall put thee out, I will cover the heavens. And the stars thereof will I make dark ; I will involve the sun in a cloud. Nor shall the moon give out her light. All the bright lights of heaven will I make dark over thee, And I will set darkness upon thy land, saith the Lord Jeho- vAn."f These expressions are bold and daring; but the imagery is well known, the use of it is common, the signification defi- nite ; they are therefore perspicuous, clear, and truly mag- nificent. There are, moreover, other images from natural objects, which, although in some measure common to other nations as well as the Hebrews, are nevertheless, from the situation and nature of the country, much better known and more familiar to them. There is no metaphor more frequent in the sacred poems, than that by which sudden and great calamities are expressed under the figure of a deluge of waters. This metaphor seems to have been remarkably familiar to the Hebrews, as if directly taken from the nature and state of the country. The river Jordan was immediately before their eyes,| which annually overflowed its banks ; for the snows of Lebanon and the neighbouring mountains being melted in the beginning of the summer, the waters of the river were often suddenly augmented by the torrents which burst forth from them. Tiie whole country of Palestine § indeed was watered by very few perennial currents; but, being chiefly mountainous, was exposed to frequent floods, rushing violently along the valleys and narrow passages, after great tempests of rain, which periodically took place at certain seasons : and on this account Moses || himself com- mends to the Israelites the country which they were about * Isa. xxiv. 23. f Ezck. xxxii. 7, 8. ^ Josh. iii. 15. ; 1 Chron. xii. 15.; Eccliis. xxiv. 26. § See Sandy's Travels, B. iii. || Deut. viii. 7. xi. 10, 11. Lect. Vf. THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. Go to invade, as being totally different from every thing they had experienced in Egypt, or in the Desert of Arabia. This image, therefore, though known to all poets, and adopted by most, may be accounted peculiarly familiar, local in a manner, to the Hebrews; and of consequence we cannot wonder at its frequent introduction into their compositions. The prophet seems to have depicted the face of nature ex- actly as it appeared to him, and to have adapted it to the figurative description of his own situation, when iVom the banks of Jordan, and the mountains at the head of that river, he pours forth the tempestuous violence of his sorrow with a force of language and an energy of expression which has been seldom equalled : " Deep calleth unto deep, in the voice of thy cataracts; All thy waves and thy billows have gone over me."* It may not be improper to remark in this place, that though this metaphor is so usual in all the other sacred writers, whenever an occasion presents itself of introducing it, the author of Job, in the whole of that poem, which from the nature of the subject presented excellent opportunities of employing it, has not more than twice,f and then but slightly, made the least allusion to it. Nature, indeed, pre- sented a different aspect to the author, whoever he was, of that most noble poem, if, as many learned men conjecture, it was composed in some part of Arabia — for which, I con- fess, there is great appearance of argument from that fa- mous simile:}: in which he compares his friends with the perfidious brook ; a comparison manifestly taken from the rocky parts of Arabia, and adorned by many images proper to that region. Finally, there is a species of imagery, derived also from natural objects, altogether peculiar to the Hebrews. Among the mountains of Palestine, the most remarkable, and con- sequently the most celebrated in the sacred poetry, arc Mount Lebanon and Mount Carmel : the one, remarkable as well for its height as for its age, magnitude, and the abundance of the cedars which adorned its summit, exhi- biting a striking and substantial appearance of strength and majesty ; the other, rich and fruitful, abounding with vines, olives, and delicious fruits, in a most flourishing state both by nature and cultivation, and displaying a delightful • Tsal. xeiir-8. f See Job xxii. 11. xxvii. 20. \ Job vi. 15—20. 66 POETIC IMAGERY FROM Lect. VI. appearance of fertility, beauty, and grace. The different form and aspect of these two mountains is most accurately defined by Solomon, when he compares the manly dignity with Lebanon,* and the beauty and delicacy of the female with Carmel. Each of them suggests a different general image, which the Hebrew poets adopt for different purposes, expressing that by a metaphor, which more timid writers would delineate by a direct comparison. Thus Lebanon is used by a very bold figure for die whole people of the Jews, or for the state of the church ;f for Jerusalem ; J for the temple of Jerusalem ;§ for the king of Assyria || even, and for his army ; for whatever, in a word, is remarkable, august, and sublime :f and in the same manner, whatever possesses much fertility, wealth, or beauty, is called Carmel.** Thus too, by the fat rams, heifers, and bulls of Basan,ff by the wild beast of the reeds,f :|: or lion of Jordan, are denoted the * Cant. V. 15. vii. 5. f Isa. xxxiii. 9. xxxv. 2. I Isa. xxxvii. 21. ; Jcr. xxii. C. 23. § Zech. xi. 1. II Isa. X. 34. t ls»- ^^- 13. See Ezek. xxxi. ♦* Sec as above, and Isa. x. 18.; Mic. vii. 14. ; Jer. iv. 26. tf Tsal. xxii. 13. ; Ezek. xxxix. 18. ; Amos iv. 1. \\ Psal. Ixviii. 31. Cliaia/i Kaneh, " The wild beast of the reeds," is a peri- phrasis for " the lion ;" and that by no means obscure, if we bestow upon it a little attention. The lions make their dens very commonly among the reeds. Innumerable lions wander about among the reeds and copses on the borders of the rivers in Mesopotamia." Am. Mar. lib. xviii. c. 7. This is so fami- liar to tlie Arabs, that they have a particular name for the den or haunt of a lion, when it is formed among the reeds. Bochart. Hierog. Par. I. lib. iii. c. 2. Tiie river Jordan was particularly infested with lions, which concealed them- selves among the thick reeds upon the banks. Johan. Phocas, Descrip. Loc. Sanct. c. 23. See also, MaundrePs Travels, Jerome upon these words of Ze- chariah, xi. 3. " The voice of the roaring of young lions, for the pride of Jordan is spoiled." " With the river Jordan, (says he), which is the largest in Judea, and near which there are many lions, the Prophet associates the roaring of tliose animals, on account of the heat of the climate, the vicinity to the desert, the extent of that vast wilderness, the reeds and the deep sedge which grow about it." Hence, in Jer. iv. 7. the lion is said to go forth Me-sobechou (from his thicket) ; and, xlix. 19. " to ascend from the overflowing of Jordan." — In this place, therefore, (Psal. Ixviii. 31.), the u'ihl beast of the reeds, the herd of the strong, and the calves, are the lions, the bulls, and the beasts wantoning about, or, in plain terms, the fierce and insolent tyrants ; of whom, by a con- tinuation of the metaphor, the Prophet adds, " each of them eagerly" (for there is that force in the distributive in the singular number, and in the conjugation Ilithpael) " striking ivilli their feet, and disturbing the silver, or perhaps desir- able, rivers ; that is, destroying and laying waste the pleasant places of Judea. This very image is adopted by Ezekiel, xxxii. 2. and again xxxiv. 18, 19. in which places the verb raplias thrice occurs in tliat sense : see also Dan. vii. 19. But whether rxitz be spoken of the motion of the river, as in the Latin currere, (Virg. Georg. i. 132.), so as to signify the river, is not altogether so plain. LixT. VI. THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. 07 insolent and cruel tyrants of the Gentiles. In tins and other imagery of the same kind, though the sacred writers pre- sume to attempt what would not be allowed in the Greek and Latin poets, yet they cannot be accused of any deficiency in perspicuity or elegance, especially if it be remembered that the objects which furnished them with this imagery were all familiar, or, if I may be allowed the expression, in- digenous to the Hebrews. In a word, we may generally remark upon this head, that all poetry, and particularly that of the Hebrews, deduces its principal ornaments or imagery from natural objects : and since these images are formed in the mind of each writer, and expressed conformably to w^hat occurs to his senses, it cannot otherwise happen but that, through diversity of situ- ation, some will be more familiar, some almost peculiar to " This word (retzi) seems in the Arabic to convey the idea of water. For there is a verb riiz, to afford j)lent^ of' drink ; or to canlain stagnant water, as ajish-pond, or valley ; and the noun rutz, a quantity ofioatcr lying in the bot- tom of a lake or cistetm.'' — H. A gentleman of great learning and genius has furnished me with another explication of this passage, which perhaps will attract the attention of the learned reader. This learned man interprets the whole verse in this manner : Consume the wild beast of the reed ; the multitude of those who are strong in the calves of the nations ; who excite themselves with fragments of silver : disperse the people who delight in war." The wild beast of the reed is the hippopotamus, which lives among the reeds of the Nile : Under this metaphor the people of Egypt is properly delineated, which of itself opens the way to the explication of the whole verse. For the Egyptians are indeed alluded to through the whole of the passage : they were remarkable for the worship of calves, and that of Isis and Jljjis in the form of an ox ; and for their religious dances before these idols to the music of timbrels. The Chaldee runs thus : "The assembly of the strong, who put their trust in the calf-idols of the nations." — " Strong in the calves of the nations," is a phrase analogous to that, Eph. vi. 10. " Be strong in the Lord," and is an Hebraism. The manner of dancing in the worship of the Egyptian idols is confirmed from Exod. xxxii. 6. 19.; also both it and the use of the timbrel, Herod, lib. ii. The word \i;S1 is totally different from DS"1, which is also found in Prov. vi. 3. wlicre the Vulgate renders it hasten thee, or better, excite thee, since it is in Hithpael. In the Chaldee it means to trample; in the Syriac to dance ; in the Arabic to sjmrn ; whence in this place, " excite or stimulate themselves to dancing." — " With fragments of silver," (so literally); tliat is, with the small pieces or laminae of metal round the timbrel, which produce the jingling noise when the instru- ment is beaten. The timbrel was formerly a warlike instrument: " llie Queen calls fortli the band with warlike timbrels," Virg. Wlicnce Propertius also opposes the Egyptian timbrel to the Roman trumpet in the battle of Actium, (lib. iii. ix. 4.3.) If we consider it in this light, it will serve much to clear up what follows : " Disperse tlie people who delight in war." Tlius we have not only a clear description of the Egyptians, but one that agrees admirably with the context : " Princes, come out of Egypt," &c. — Aulhoi-'s Note. C8 POETIC IMAGERY FROM LtcT. VI. certain nations ; and even those which seem most general, will always have some latent connexion with their immediate origin, and with their native soil. It is the first duty of a critic, therefore, to remark, as far as is possible, the situation and habits of the author, the natural history of his country, and tlie scene of the poem. Unless we continually attend to these points, we shall scarcely be able to judge with any degree of certainty concerning the elegance or propriety of the sentiments : the plainest will sometimes escape our ob- servation ; the peculiar and interior excellencies will remain totally concealed.* • We must not omit noticing, in this place, those images which are derived from rivers and fountains, and the earth recreated with rain; which are indeed used by our poets, but more frequently by the orientals. For the scarcity of water, and the extreme heat of the summer, together with the wonderful fer- tility of the soil when watered, render this a more elegant and jocund compa- rison in the East than with us. In spring and summer, if the east wind con- tinues to blow a few days, the fields are in general so parched that scarcely a blade of any thing green remains ; many rivers and streams are dried up, the others are rendered briny, and all nature seems at the point of dissolution. After a plentiful shower, however, the fields revive beyond all expectation, the rivers resume their course, and the springs pour forth more delicious water. Mahomet makes use of this idea frequently, as figurative of the resurrection ; and in this he shows himself no less of a philosopher than- a poet. Dr Rus- sel has described this regeneration of nature in most lively colours in his Na- tural Historj/ of Aleppo, a book which every man ought to read, who wishes not only literally to understand the oriental writers, but to feel them. Indeed, for want of this, many similes appear to us bold and unusual, which among the orientals have a proper and distinct signification. Caab, an Arabic poet, who was contemporary with Mahomet, in one of his poems compares the teeth of a young lady when she smiled to wine mixed with water, in which remained bubbles of yesterday's rain. In Isaiah there are many allusions of this nature, the favourable or adverse state of the nations being frequently expressed by this image, which many commentators have attempted to explain with more exactness than a poetical idea will bear. They have taken what the poet meant figuratively, sometimes in a literal sense; and at other times they have ex- plained every thing in a mystical manner, and have pretended to define what is meant by the water, who are those that are thirst?/, &c. &c. intermingling many very pious reflections, but utterly foreign to the subject, and such as never once entered the mind of the poet. For it certainly was not the intention of the prophet to write enigmas, but to illustrate and adorn the beautiful figure which he introduces. Thus, ch. xxxv, 6, 7. speaking of the happy state of Palestine, at the time that Idumea was laid waste and subdued : " The desert, and the waste, shall be glad ; And the wilderness shall rejoice and flourish : For in the wilderness shall burst forth waters, And torrents in the desert : And the glowing sand shall become a pool. And the thirsty soil bubbling springs : And in the haunt of dragons shall spring forth The grass, with the reed, and the bulrush." Lect. Vr. THE OBJECTS OF NATURE. G9 It is however to be remarked, that the level ground suffers most from the intolerable heat, and that the deserts are almost destitute of water. He am- plifies the same image in a different manner in ch. xxxv. 17. celebrating the return of the Israelites from the Babylonian exile : " T'he poor and the needy seek for water, and there is none ; Their tongue is parched with thirst : I Jehovah will answer them ; The God of Israel, I will not forsake them. I will open in the high places rivers ; And in the midst of valleys, fountains : I will make the desert a standing pool ; And the dry ground streams of waters. In the wilderness I will give the cedar; The acacia, the myrtle, and the tree producing oil : I will plant the fir-tree in the desert, The pine and the box together." This is admirable painting, and displays a most happy boldness of invention ; The trees of different kinds transplanted from their native soils to grow toge- ther in the desert; the fir-tree and the pine, which are indigenous to Lebanon, to which snow, and rain, and an immense quantity of moisture, seem almost essential ; the olive, which is the native of Jerusalem ; the Egyptian thorn, indigenous to Arabia — both of them requiring a dry soil ; and tlie myrtle, which flourishes most on the sea-shore. The same image occurs, ch. xxxiii. 18—20. but placed in a different light. The poet feigns in this place, that the wild beasts of the desert, and the dragons themselves, which had been afflicted with thirst, pour forth their nocturnal cries in thankfulness to God for sending rain upon the desert. See also ch. xxxiv. 3, 4'. Sometimes in the district of Jerusalem, which by nature is a very dry soil, and in which there are few streams, an immense flood is seen to burst forth, and with irre- sistible violence fall into the Dead Sea, so that its water, which is more salt than that of any other sea, is rendered sweet. Gihon seems to have afforded the basis of the above description ; a rivulet which proceeds from Sion, when perhaps some uncommon flood had prodigiously increased it. If I am not mistaken, David was the first who made use of this bold figure, but with such a degree of modesty as becomes the author who first introduced it, Psal. xlvi. 2 — G. I suspect something of the kind indeed to have happened about the time of his composing that Psalm, for it is usual in earthquakes for some streams to be entirely drained, while others overflow. But his imitators, in their ardour for novelty, have gone far beyond him. Thus Joel intermingles with this figure the picture of the golden age, ch. iii. 18. : " The mountains shall drop down new wine. And the hills shall flow with milk, And all the rivers of Judah shall flow with water, And a fountain shall flow from the house of Jehovah, And shall water the valley of Shittim," — M. 70 POETIC IMAGERY Lect. VII. LECTURE VII. OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM COMMON LIFE. Examples ofiwetical imagery from common life — The habits of life extremely simple among the Hebreivs, lohose prin- cipal employments were agriculture and pasturage — The dignity of these employments ; and the splendour of the imagery which is borrowed from them : Threshing^ and the threshing instruments — The sublimity of the imagery ivhich is taken from familiar objects results from its propriety — The poetic Hell of the Hebrews explained; the imagery of which is borrowed from their subterraneous sepidchres and funeral rites. In my last Lecture I explained three causes, which have enabled the Hebrew poets to preserve in their figurative style the most perfect union between perspicuity and subli- mity. I remarked, in the first place, that they chiefly em- ployed images taken from familiar objects, such I mean as were generally known and understood ; secondly, that, in the use or application of them, they observed a regular track, method, or analogy ; and, lastly, that they used most freely that kind of imagery which was most familiar, and the application of which was most generally understood. The truth of these observations will, I think, find further and more decisive confirmation, if those metaphors be con- sidered which are taken from arts, manners, and common life. These, you will easily recollect, I before pointed out as another source of poetical imagery ; and for this part of tlie subject a few general observations will suffice, with an example or two out of the great number which present themselves in the sacred writings. The whole course and method of common or domestic life among the Hebrews of the more ancient times, was simple and uniform in the greatest degree. There existed not that variety of studies and pursuits, of arts, conditions, and employments, which may be observed among other nations who boast of supe- rior civilization ; and rightly, indeed, if luxury, levity, and pride, be the criterions of it. All enjoyed the same equal Lect. VII. FROM COMMON LIFE. 71 liberty ; all of tliem, as being the offspring of the same ancient stock, boasted an equality of lineage and rank : there were no empty titles, no ensigns of false glory ; scarcely any distinction or precedence but that which resulted from superior virtue or conduct, from the dignity of age and ex- perience, or from services rendered to their country. Sepa- rated from the rest of mankind by their rehgion and laws, and not at all addicted to commerce, tliey were contented with those arts which were necessary to a simple and uncul- tivated (or rather uncorrupted) state of life. Thus their principal employments were agriculture and the care of cattle ; they were a nation of husbandmen and shepherds. The lands had been originally parcelled out to the different families ; the portions of which (by the laws of the country) could not be alienated by sale,* and therefore descended to their posterity without diminution. The fruits of the earth, the produce of his land and labour, constituted the wealth of each individual. Not even the greatest among them esteemed it mean and disgraceful to be employed in the lowest offices of rural labour. In the scripture history, therefore, we read of eminent persons called to the highest and most sacred offices, heroes, kings, and prophets, from the plough and from the stalls.f Such being the state of things, we cannot reasonably be surprised to find the Hebrew writers deducing most of their metaphors from those arts particularly, in which they were educated from their earliest years. We are not to wonder that those objects which were most familiar to their senses afforded the principal ornaments of their poetry ; especially since they furnished so various and so elegant an assortment of materials, that not only the beautiful, but the grand and magnificent, might be collected from tliem. If any person of more nicety than judgment should esteem some of these rustic images grovelling or vulgar, it may be of some use to him to be informed, that such an effect can only result from the ignorance of the critic, who, through the medium of his scanty information and peculiar prejudices, presumes to estimate matters of the most remote antiquity ;X it cannot ♦ Lev. XXV. 13 — IG. and 23, 24. Compare 1 Kings xxi. 3, f See Judges iii. 31. vi. 11. 1 Sam. ix. 3. xi. 5. 2 Sam. vii. 8. Psal. Ixxviii. 72, 73. 1 Kings xix. 19, 20. Amos i. I. vii. 14., 15. I One would almost think that this keen remark was prophetically levelled at a late critic of a very extraordinary cast. It was a little unfortunate for that learned gentleman, that these Lectures were not Iranslnled previous to the 72 r () E T I C I M A G E R Y Li ex. VII. reasonably be attributed as an error to the sacred poets, ^vllo not onlv give to tliose ideas all their natural force and dignity, but iVetiuently, by the vivacity and boldness of the figure*, exhibit them with additional vigour, ornament, and beauty. It would be a tedious task to instance particularly with what embellishments of diction, derived from one low and trivial object, (as it may appear to some), the barn or the threshing-floor, the sacred writers have contrived to add a lustre to the most sublime, and a force to the most impor- tant subjects : Thus, " Jehovah threshes out the heathen as corn, tramples them under his feet, and disperses them. He delivers the nations to Israel to be beaten in pieces by an indented flail,* or to be crushed by their brazen hoofs. He scatters his enemies like chafPupon the mountains,f and dis- perses them with the whirlwind of his indignation.":]: " Behold I have made thee a threshing wain ; A new corn-drag armed w^'th pointed teeth : Thou shall thresh the mountains, and beat them small, And reduce the hills to chaff. Thou shalt winnow them, and the wind shall bear them away ; And the tempest shall scatter them abroad. "§ Of these quotations it is to be remarked, first, that the nature of this metaphor, and the mode of applying it, are constantly and cautiously regarded by the different authors of the sacred poems; and on this account, notwithstanding the boldness of it, both chastity and perspicuity are pre- served, since they apply it solely to exaggerate the slaughter and dispersion of the wicked. The force and aptness of the image itself in illustrating the subject, will also afford a very pi'oper and ready apology for some degree of freedom in the application of it, particularly if we advert to the nature and method of this rustic operation in Palestine. It was per- formed in a high situation exposed to the wind, by bruising the ear, either by driving in upon the sheaves a herd of cattle, or else by an instrument constructed of large planks, and sharpened underneath with stones or iron ; and sometimes by a machine in the form of a cart, with iron wheels or axles publication of Ins book : if they bad, be certainly would never have laid him- self open to the application of so pointed a sarcasm. — T. * Hab. iii. 12. Joel iii. 14. Jer. li. ,3.3. Isa. xxi. 10. f Mic. iv. 13. t Psal. Ixxxiii. Ik 10. Isa. xvii. 1,3. § Isa. xli. 15, 16. Ltci'. VII. FROM COMiMON LIFE. 73 indented, which Varro calls Pccjiicum,* as being brought to Italy by the Carthaginians from Phoenicia, which was adja- cent to Palestine. From this it is plain (not to mention that the descriptions agree in every particular) that the same custom was common both to the Plebrews and the Romans ; and yet I do not recollect that the latter have borrowed any of their poetical imagery from this occupation. It is proper however to remark, that this image was obvious and fami- liar to the Hebrews in a higli degree, as we learn from what is said of the threshing-floor of Oman the Jebusite,f which was situated in an open place (as were all the rest) in Jerusalem itself, and in the highest part of the city, in the very place, indeed, w^here the Temple of Solomon was after- wards erected. Homer, who was uncommonly fond of every picture of rural life, esteemed that under our consideration so beauti- ful and significant, that, in a few instances,:}: he draws his comparisons from the threshing-floor, (for even he w^as fear- ful of the boldness of this image in tlie form of a metaphor). Two of these comparisons he introduces to illustrate light subjects, contrary to the practice of the Hebrews ; but the third is employed upon a subject truly magnificent ; and this, as it approaches in some degree the sublimity of the Hebrew, it may not be improper to recite : — " As with autumnal harvests cover'd o'er, And thick bestrewn, lies Ceres' sacred floor, When round and round, with never-wearied pain, The trampling steers beat out tli' unnumber'd grain ; So the fierce coursers, as the chariot rolls. Tread down whole ranks, and crush out heroes' souls. "§ This comparison, however, though deservedly accounted one of the grandest and most beautiful which antiquity has transmitted to us, still falls greatly short of the Hebrew boldness and sublimity. A Hebrew writer would have compared the hero himself with the instrument, and not his horses with the oxen that are harnessed to it, which is rather too apposite, and too exacdy similar. || But custom had •iiot given equal license to the Greek poetry : this image had not been equally familiar, had not occupied the same place as with the Hebrews; nor had acquired the same force and authority by long prescription. * De Re Rust. 1. 52. f 2 Chion. iil. 1. \ See Iliad, v. & xiii. 588. § Tope's Iliad, xx. 577. || This will be more fully explained in Lcct. 12. 71 rOETIC liMAGERY Lect. VII. I ouf^lit not ill this place to omit that supremely magni- ficent delineation of the divine vengeance, expressed by imagery taken from the wine-press; an image which very frequently occurs in the sacred poets, but which no other poetry has presumed to introduce. But where shall we find expressions of equal dignity with the original in any modern language ? By what art of the pencil can we exhibit even a shadow or an outline of that description in which Isaiah de- picts the Messiah as coming to vengeance ?* '' Who is this that cometh from Edom? With garments deeply dyed from Botsra ? This that is magnificent in his apparel; Marching on in the greatness of his strength ? I who publish righteousnessjj and am mighty to save. Wherefore is thine apparel red ; And thy garments, as one that treadeth the wine-vat ? I have trodden the vat alone ; And of the peoples there was not a man with me. And I trod them in mine anger ; And I trampled on them in mine indignation ; And their life-blood was sprinkled upon my garments ; And I have stained all my apparel." But the instances are innumerable which might be quoted of metaphors taken from the manners and customs of the Hebrews. One general remark, however, may be made upon this subject, namely, that from one simple, regular, and natural mode of life having prevailed among the He- brews, it has arisen, that in their poetry these metaphors have less of obscurity, of meannesss or depression, than ♦ See Isa. Ixiii. 1 — 3. Our author, in his excellent Commentary on Isaiah, has a very long note, proving, against some learned interpreters, (I suppose Jewish), that Judas IMaccabcus could not be the subject of this prophecy. He asserts very properly, that the glorious but fruitless effort of the Maccabees, was not an event adequate to so lofty a prediction ; and he adds another very material circumstance, which he presumes entirely excludes Judas Maccabeus, and even the Idumeans properly so called ; for the Idumea of the prophet's time was quite a different country from that which Judas conquered. To the question, " To whom does it then apply?" he answers, To no event that he knows of in history, unless perhaps the destruction of Jerusalem and the Jewish polity, whicli in the Gospel is called the coming of Christ, and the days of vengeance. lie adds, however, that there are prophecies which inti- mate a great slaughter of the enemies of God and his people, which remain to be fulfdled : those in Ezekiel and in the Revelation are called Gog and Ma- gog ; and possibly this prophecy may refer to the same or the like event. — T. \ In one manuscript this word stands, " the announcer of righteousness." See Bishop Lowth's Nolcs on Isaiah. Llct. VII. FROM COMMON LIFE. 75 could be expected, when we consider the antiquity of their writings, the distance of the scene, and the inicomnion bold- ness and vivacity of their rhetoric. Indeed, to have made use of the boldest imagery with the most perfect perspicuity, and the most common and familiar with the greatest dignity, is a commendation almost peculiar to the sacred poets. I shall not hesitate to produce an example of this kind, in which the meanness of the image is fully equalled by tlie plainness and inelegance of the expression ; and yet such is its consis- tency, such the propriety of its apphcation, that I do not scruple to pronounce it sublime. The Almiglity threatens the ultimate destruction of Jerusalem in these terms : " And I will wipe Jerusalem, As a man wipeth a dish : He wipeth it, and turneth it upside down."* But many of these images must falsely appear mean and obscure to us, who differ so materially from the Hebrews in our manners and customs; but in such cases it is our duty neither too rashly to blame, nor too suddenly to despair. The mind should rather exert itself to discover, if possible, the connexion between the literal and the figurative mean- ing, which, in abstruse subjects, frequently depending upon some very delicate and nice relation, eludes our penetration. An obsolete custom, for instance, or some forgotten circum- stance opportunely adverted to, will sometimes restore its true perspicuity and credit to a very intricate passage. Whether the instance I have at present in view may prove of any utility or not in this respect, I will not presume to say ; it may possibly, however, serve to illustrate still further the nature of the Hebrew imagery, and the accuracy of tlieir poets in the application of it. Either through choice or necessity, the infernal regions and the state of the dead has been a very common topic with the poets of every nation ; and this difficult subject, which the most vigorous understanding is unable to fathom by any exertion of reason, and of which conjecture itself can scarcely form any adequate idea, they have ornamented with all the splendour of description, as one of the most important themes which could engage the human imagination. Thus the prompt and fertile genius of the Greeks, naturally adapted * 2 Kings xxi. 13. This is the answer of some prophet, as related by the historian. 7G POEXIC IMAGERY Lect. VII. to tlie fabulous,* luis eagerly embraced the opportunity to indulge in all the wantonness of fiction, and has peopled the infernal regions with such a profusion of monsters, as could not fail to promote die ridicule even of the ignorant and the vulgar.f The conduct of the Hebrews has been very diffe- rent : tiieir fancy was restrained npon this subject by the tenets of their religion ; and (notwithstanding the firm per- suasion of the existence not only of the soul but of the body alter death) we are to remember they were equidly ignorant with the rest of mankind of the Actual state and situation of the dead. In this case they have acted as in every other : • 1 fear our Author, who is not a little indebted to the Greeks, is rather unjustly severe upon them in this passage. The Infernal Regions of the Greeks, which probably they borrowed from the Egyptians, I have little doubt riowed from tlie very same source ; and the seat of the soul was supposed to be under the earth, because the body was deposited there. Neither can it be de- nied, that the Hebrew poets also feigned a sort of society or civil community of the departed souls, which without a doubt was utterly fabulous ; though we have none of their authors remaining who describe the fiction in terms equally precise with the Heathen writers, and presume " Pandere res alta terra ct caligine mersas." They have, moreover, their Elysium, their Styx, &c. of which I shall remark in the notes on Lecture 9. Nor is such a degree of fable inconsistent with poetry even of the most sacred kind ; for, though it be not exactly and literally true, it is yet very far from falsehood. Nay, I find the Hebrew poets more licentious in some respects, as to this matter, than even the Latin or the Greek ; for they not only suppose the human souls to descend to the infernal regions, but those of trees, and even of kingdoms, Isa. xiv. 9 — 20. Ezek. xxxi. 14-. IG, 17, 18. xxxii. (where not only they wlio were slain in battle are supposed to descend to the infernal regions, but the whole army of the vanquished, and the very kingdom itself). This very bold figure is so usual in the Hebrew writings, that it has been introduced into their prose composition ; and Christ, when he foretels the eternal duration of his Church, says, " the Gates of Hell," or the Kingdom or Power of Hell, " shall not prevail against it." — ]M. I must caution the reader, in this place, against the enthusiasm of our An- notator for the ancient learning, and particularly for that of Egypt. In this favourite pursuit, of finding out all the Grecian mythology in the Scriptures, he is certainly not less visionary than those commentators whose indiscreet zeal he has on other occasions so ably exposed. That the Hebrew poets have made use of poetical ornaments or fictions on many occasions, I am willing to admit ; and that these should bear some remote resemblance to the poetical ornaments of other nations, is natural enough to suppose ; but it is only such a general resemblance as will frequently occur in writers v.ho treat of the same subjects. For instance, it is a very natural fiction to place the residence of the soul after death beneath the earth, and the association which led to this notion was certainly, as our Author observes, the body's being deposited there ; but there is not the least occasion to recur to the Egyptian rites for this simple and easy fiction. Tlie other instances which our Annotator attempts to produce are very fanciful, as I shall demonstrate in the proper place. — T. f See Cicero, Quccat. Tuscuhm. 1. 5, 6. LtcT. VII. FROM COMMON LII'E. 77 what was plain and commonly understood concerning the dead, that is, what happened to the body, suggested the general imagery to which the Hebrews always resort in de- scribing the state and condition of departed souls, and in forming what may be termed, if the expression be allowable, their poetical Hell. It is called Shcol by the Hebrews themselves, by the Greeks Hades, and by the Latins Infer- nuin or Sejndchrum, Into the funeral rites or ceremonies of the Hebrews may be traced all the imagery which their poets introduce to illustrate this subject; and it must be confessed that these afforded ample scope for poetical embel- lishment. The sepulchres of the Hebrews, at least those of respectable persons, and those which hereditarily belonged to the principal families, were extensive caves, or vaults,* excavated from the native rock by art and manual labour. The roofs of them in general were arched ; and some were so spacious as to be supported by colonnades. All round the sides were cells for the reception of the sarcophagi : these were properly ornamented with sculpture, and each was placed in its proper cell. The cave or sepulchre admitted no light, being closed by a great stone, which was rolled to the mouth of the narrow passage. or entrance. Many of these receptacles are still extant in Judea: two in particular are more magnificent than all the rest,f and are supposed to be the sepulchres of the kings. One of these is in Jeru- * See Gen. xxiii. 2 Kings xiii. 21. Isa. xxii. 16. 2 Chron. xvi. 14. Josh. X. 27. Lam. iii. 53. John xi. 38. and the Evangelists, concerning the sepulchre of Christ. f See a description of these sepulchres, Serlio, Architethira, 1. iii. Villa- pandus, Jpparal. Urb. iii. 16. Maundrel's Travels, p. 76. Josephus makes frequent mention of the sepulchre of David. He calls tlie sepulchre itself roi.ai;v, the Lake of Averno, and Mount Posilypo. I have no doubt but that these works were antecedent to the time of Homer, who describes them as inhabited by the Cim- merians, a people who live in perpetual darkness, Od^ss. ix. sub init. ; as Epho- 73 rOETIC IMAGERY Elci\ VII. salein, ami contains twenty-four cells ; the other, containing twice that nmnber, is in a place without the city. h\ thci-otbre, we examine all those passages in which the sacred writers have poetically described the infernal regions, \ve may, it' 1 mistake not, clearly perceive them intent upon this "-loomy picture, which their mode of sepulture presented to their view. That which struck their senses they deline- ated in their descriptions : We there find no exact account, no explicit mention of immortal spirits ; — not, according to the notion of some learned persons,* because they disbelieved in the existence of the soul after death, but because they had no clear idea or perception by which they might explain where or in what manner it existed; and they were not possessed of that subtilty of language which enables men to speak with plausibility on subjects abstruse and remote from the apprehension of the senses, and to cover their ignorance with learned disputation. The condition, the form, the habitation of departed spirits, were therefore concealed from the Hebrews equally with the rest of mankind. Nor did revelation aiforcl them the smallest assistance on this subject ; not, perhaps, because the divine Providence was disposed to rus in Strabo, lib. v. says of them, " that they live in certain subterraneous thvellinf^s, which they call Argillas, and associate with one another by narrow fosses or passages ;" and the remaining monuments demonstrate this account not to be altogether fabulous. These caves are called Jrgillas, from the na- ture of the soil in which I believe they are usually dug ; " ^rgil, or that kind of earth which is used for cleansing, or white clay," Hesych. : whence a hill between Putcoli and Naples was called Leucogccus, Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 11. although those mentioned above are all hewn out of the solid grit, in order to resist the injuries of time. Hence Argiletum, the name of a street in Rome, taken from some argil of this kind, such as formed the cave of Cacus, which was not far from that street; though Virgil does not favour this opinion: see however Varro, De Ling. Lat. lib. iv. It is evident that Homer first, and Virrril after him, derived their notions of the infernal regions from these Cim- merian caves of Campania; and when Virgil is describing the cave of Cacus, when forced open by Hercules, the image of the infernal state immediately occurs : <' The court of Cacus stands reveal'd to sight, The cavern glares with new-admitted light. So pent, the vapours with a rumbling sound Heave from below, and rend the hollow ground : A sounding flaw succeeds ; and from on high The Gods with hate beheld the nether sky : The ghosts repine at violated right; And curse th' invading sun, and sicken at the sight." Dryden's Virg. iEn. viii. 321. — Author s Note. ♦ Sec Le Clerc, Comment. Hagiographa: consult the index for the word Immortalitas. Lect. Vir. FROM COMMON LIFE. 79 withhold this information from them, but because the present condition of the human mind renders it incapable of receiv- ing it: For, when the understanding contemplates things distinct from body and matter, from the want of just ideas, it is compelled to have recourse to such as are false and fic- titious, and to delineate the incorporeal world by thino-s corporeal and terrestrial. Thus, observing that after death the body returned to the earth, and that it was deposited in a sepulchre, after the manner which has just been described, a sort of popular notion prevailed among the Hebrews, as well as among other nations, that the life which succeeded the present was to be passed beneath the earth : and to this notion even the sacred prophets were obliged to allude occa- sionally, if they wished to be vmderstood by the people on this subject. Hence the meaning is evident, when the deceased are said to " descend into the pit,* to the nether parts of the earth, to the gates and chambers of death, to the stony places, to the sides, to the gates of the caverns ;" when it is said, that " the grave has swallowed therii up, and closed its mouth upon them;"f that " they lie down in the deep;]: immersed in a desert place, in the gulf, in thick darkness, in the land of darkness and the shadow of death, wild, hideous, where all is disorder and darkness; and darkness, as it were, in- stead of light, diffuseth its beams."§ The poets of other nations, amidst all their fictions, have yet retained a congenial picture of the habitations of the dead : thus the tragic poet has admirably described the deep course of Acheron : Through dreary caves cut in the rugged rock, Where reigns the darkness of perpetual hell.|| * nnU?, also '>11, or 'IN^? Job xxxiii. 18. Psal. xxviii. 1. and passim. n^nnn ynx, or nvnnn y"ix, Ezek. xxxi. 14.. xxxH. la and Psai. passim. hMiVJ '•"irU', Isa. xxxviii. 10. nrw ni)2, Job xxxviii. 17. Psal. ix. 14. ni)2 imn, Prov. vii; 27. Ili '•JIK, Isa. xiv. 19. n*i:i ^HD^S Isa. xiv. 15. Ezek. xxxii. 23. blKU^ ^D, Job xvii. IG. f blNTi; ""S, Psal. cxli. 7. ^H^ '•S, Psal. Ixix. 16. See also Isa. v. 14. i nbl2i)2, Psal. Ixix. 16. Ixxxviii. 7. nin^in, Job iii. 14. Ezek. xxvi. 20. § I remember, though I cannot refer to the passage, some Arabian writer considers the nocturnal darkness as an emanation from an opaque body, just as the light of day proceeds from the sun. — S. II. II Cic. Tusc. Qu/TSl. 1. 80 POETIC IMAGERY Lkct. VII. l^iit liow o-raiul and magnificent a scene is depicted by the Hebrew poets from tlie same materials, in which their de- ceased heroes and kings are seen to advance from the earth ! Figure to yourselves a vast, dreary, dark, sepulchral cavern,* where tlie kings of the nations lie, each upon his bed of dust,-]- the arms of each beside him, his sword under his head,:}: and the graves of their numerous hosts round about them :§ Be- hold ! the king of Babylon is introduced; they all rise and go forth to meet him, and receive him as he approaches ! " Art thou also come down unto us? Art thou become like unto us ? Art thou cut down and withered in thy strength, O thou destroyer of the nations !" — But I reluctantly re- frain.— It is not for me, nor indeed for human ability, to explain these subjects with a becoming dignity. You will see this transcendent imager}', yourselves, better and more completely displayed in that triumphal song which was com- posetl by Isaiah || (the first of all poets for sublimity and ele- gance) previous to the death of the king of Babylon. Eze- kiel1[ also has nobly illustrated the same scene, with similar machinery, in the last prophecy concerning the fall of Pha- raoh ; that remarkable example of the terrific, which is indeed deservedly accounted the peculiar excellence of this pro- phet. • Isa. xiv. 9. 18. Ezek. xxxii. 19. 21, &c. • IDiy^, Isa. Ivii. 2. Ezek. xxxii. 25. ^ S>;x>?, the cell which receives the sarcophagus. ^ Ezek. xxxii. 27. See 1 Mace. xiii. 29. § Ezek. xxxii. 22, 23, 24. II Isa. xiv. 4—27. f Ezek. xxxii. 18—32. Lect. VI I r. FROM SACRED TOPICS. 81 LECTURE VIII. OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM SACRED TOPICS. Imagery lohich is borrowed from the rites and ceremonies of religion, pecidiarhj liable to obscurity and mistake — In- stances of expressions ichich appear uncommonly harsh ; and of others, the principal elegance of which loould be lost, unless we adverted to the nature of the sacred rites — Jlie exordium of the hundred and fourth Psalm explained. The present disquisition concerning the poetical imagery of the Hebrews was undertaken, Gentlemen, principally with a view of guarding you against an error which is apt to mis- lead those who peruse without sufficient attention and infor- mation writings of so old a date ; namely, that of accounting vulgar, mean, or obscure, passages which were probably re- garded among the most perspicuous and sublime by the people to whom they were addressed. Now, if with respect even to that imagery which is borrowed from objects of nature and of common life (of which we have just been treating) such a caution w^as proper, it will surely be still more necessary with respect to that which is borrowed from the sacred mysteries of religion. For, though much of that imagery which was taken by the Hebrew writers from the general face of nature, or from the customs of common life, was peculiar to their own country, yet nuich, it must be confessed, was equally familiar to the rest of the world ; but that which was suggested by the rites and ceremonies of religion was altogether peculiar to themselves, and was but litde known beyond the limits of Judea. Since, therefore, this topic in particular seems to involve many such difficul- ties and inconveniencies, it appears to me deserving of a serious investigation ; and such investigation, I flatter my- self, will tend to restore in some degree the real majesty ot the Hebrew poetry, which seems to have shone forth in for- mer times with no ordinary splendour. The religion of the Hebrews embraced a very extensive circle of divine and human economy. It not only included all that regarded the worship of God ; it extended even to the regulation of the commonwealth, the ratification of the F g2 POETIC IMAGERY Lect. VIIL laws, the forms :iiul ad ministration of justice, and nearly all the relations of civil and domestic life. With them, almost every point of conduct was connected, either directly or in- directly, with their religion. Things which were held least in esteem by odier nations, bore among them the sanction of divine authority, and had a very close alliance with both the more serious concerns of life and the sacred ceremonies. On these accounts it happens, in the first place, that abun- dance of metaphors occur in the Hebrew poetry deduced from sacred subjects ; and further, that there is a necessity for tlie most diligent observation, lest that very connexion with the affairs of religion should escape us. For, should we be mistaken in so material a point ; should we erroneously account as common or profane w^hat is in its nature divine; or should we rank among the mean and the vulgar, senti- ments and images which are sacred and sublime; it is incre- dible how much the strength of the language, and the force and majesty of the ideas, will be destroyed. Nothing in nature, indeed, can be so conducive to the sublime, as those conceptions which are suggested by the contemplation of the greatest of all beings; and when the august form of religion presents itself to the mental eye, A fervent pleasure, and an awe divine, Seizes the soul, and lifts it to its God. It follows therefore of course, that the dignity of the Hebrew poetry must in some measure be diminished in our eyes, since not only the connexion of the imagery with sacred things must frequently escape our observation, but, even when it is most apparent, it can scarcely strike us with that force and vivacity with which it must have penetrated the minds of the Hebrews. The whole system of the Hebrew rites is one great and complicated allegory, to the study and observance of which all possible diligence and attention were incessantly dedicated by those who were employed in the sacred offices. On this occupation and study, therefore, all good and considerate men were intent : it constituted all their business, all their amusement; it was their treasure and their hope; on this every care and every thought was em- ployed ; and the utmost sanctity and reverence distinguished every part of their conduct which had any relation to it. Much dignity and sublimity must also have resulted from the recollection, which these allusions produced, of the LixT. VIII. lUOM SACRED TOPICS. 83 splendour and magnificence of the sacred riles themselves ; the force of which, upon the minds of those who had fre- quent opportunities of observing them, must have been in- credible. Such a solemn grandeur attended these rites, especially after the building of Solomon's temple, that, although we are possessed of very accurate descriptions, our imaginations are still utterly unable to embody them. Many allusions, therefore, of this kind, which the Hebrew poets found particularly energetic, and highly popular among their countrymen, may possibly appear to us mean and con- temptible ; since many things which were held by them in the highest veneration are by us but little regarded, or perhaps but little understood. I shall subjoin a few examples of what I have just been remarking ; or rather I shall point out a few topics, which will of themselves suggest a variety of examples. Much of the Jewish law is employed in discriminating between things clean and unclean ; in removing and making atonement for things polluted or prescribed; and under these ceremonies, as under a veil or covering, a meaning the most important and sacred is concealed, as would be ap- parent from the nature of them, even if we had not, besides, other clear and explicit authority for this opinion. Among the rest are certain diseases and infirmities of the body, and some customs evidently in themselves indifterent : these, on a cursory view, seem light and trivial ; but when the reasons of them are properly explored, they are found to be of con- siderable importance. We are not to wonder, therefore, if the sacred poets sometimes have recourse to these topics for imagery, even on the most momentous occasions, when they display the general depravity inherent in the human mind,* or exprobrate the corrupt manners of their own people,f or when they deplore the abject state of the virgin, the daughter of Sion, polluted and exposed.^ If we consider these meta- phors without any reference to the religion of their authors, they will doubtless appear in some degree disgusting and in- elegant ; if we refer them to their genuine source, to the pecu- liar rites of the Hebrews, they will be found wanting neither in force nor in dignity. Of the same nature, or at least ana- logous to them, are those ardent expressions of grief and misery which are poured forth by the royal prophet, (who, * Isa. Ixiv. 6. t Isa. i. 5, 6. IC. ; Ezek. xxxvi. 17. t Lam. i. 8, 9. 17. and ii. 2. 84. POETIC IMAGERY Lect. VI II, indeecl, in many of those divine compositions, personates a cluiracter tar more exalted than his own) ; especially when he complains, that he is wasted and consumed wuth the loath- someness of disease, and bowed down and depressed with a burden of sin too heavy for human nature to sustain.* On readin^r these passages, some, who were but little acquainted with the genius of the Hebrew poetry, have pretended to inquire into the nature of the disease with which the poet was affected ; not less absurdly, in my opinion, than if they had perplexed themselves to discover in what river he was plunged, when he complains that " the deep waters had " gone over his soul." But as there arc many passages in the Hebrew poets which may seem to require a similar defence, so there are in all pro- bability many, which, although they now appear to abound in beauties and elegancies, would yet be thought much more sublime were they illustrated from those sacred rites to which they allude; and as excellent pictures, viewed in their proper light. To this purpose many instances might be produced from one topic, namely, from the precious and magnificent ornaments of the priest's attire. Such was the gracefulness, such the magnificence of the sacerdotal vest- ments, especially those of the high-priest; so adapted were they, as Moses says, J to the expression of glory and of beau- ty, that to those who were impressed with an equal opinion of the sanctity of the wearer, nothing could possibly appear more venerable and sublime. To these, therefore, we find frequent allusions in the Hebrew poets, when they have oc- casion to describe extraordinary beauty or comeliness, or to delineate the perfect form of supreme Majesty. The elegant Isaiah § has a most beautiful idea of this kind, when he des- cribes, in his own peculiar manner, (that is, most magnifi- cently), the exultation and glory of the church, after its triumphal restoration. Pursuing the allusion, he decorates lier with the vestments of salvation, and clothes her in the robe of righteousness. He afterwards compares the church to a bridegroom dressed for the marriage, to which compa- rison incredible dignity is added by the word Ihohen — a metaphor plainly taken from the apparel of the priests, the force of which, therefore, no modern language can express. No imagery, indeed, which the Hebrew writers could em- ploy, was equally adapted with this to the display (as far * Sec Psalm xxxviii. \ Exod. xxviii. 2. See Eccliis. 1. 5 — 13. § Isa. Ixi. 10. Lect. Vril. FROM SACRED TOPICS. 8J as the human powers can conceive or depict the subject) of tlie infinite majesty of God. " Jehovah" is therefore in- troduced by the Psahnist as " clotlied with glory and with " strength,"* he is " girded with power ;"f wliich are the very terms appropriated to the describing of tlie dress and ornaments of the priests. Thus far may appear plain and indisputable ; but, if I mistake not, there are other passages, the beauty of which hes still more remote from common observation. In that most perfect ode, which celebrates the immensity of the omnipresent Deity, and the wisdom of the divine Artificer in forming the human body, the author uses a metaphor derived from the most subtle art of the Phrygian workman : " When I was formed in the secret place, When I was wrought with a needle in the depths of the earth."}: Whoever observes this, (in truth he \v\\\ not be able to ob- serve it in the common translations), and at the same time reflects upon the wonderful mechanism of the human body; the various implications of the veins, arteries, fibres, and membranes ; the " undescribable texture" of the whole fa- bric— may, indeed, feel the beauty and gracefulness of this well-adapted metaphor, but will miss much of its force and sublimity, unless he be apprized that the art of designing in needlework was wholly dedicated to the use of the sanctuary, and, by a direct precept of the divine law, chiefly employed in furnishing a part of the sacerdotal habit,§ and the veils for the entrance of the Tabernacle. Thus, the poet compares the wisdom of the divine Artificer with the most estimable of human arts — that art which was dignified by being con- secrated altogether to the use of religion ; and the work- manship of which was so exquisite, that even the sacred writings seem to attribute it to a supernatural guidance. H I will instance also another topic, which, if 1 am not de- ceived, will suggest several remarkable examples to this pur- pose. There is one of the Hebrew poems which has been long since distinguished by universal approbation ; the sub- ject is the wisdom and design of the Creator in the forma- tion of the universe : you will easily perceive that I have in view the hundred and fourth Psalm. The exordium is most * Psal. xciii. 1. f P^al. Ixv. 7. \ Psal. cxxxix. 15. § Exod. xxviii. .39. xxvi. 36. xxvii. 16. Coinpaie Ezck. xvi. 10. 13. 18. II See Exod. xxxv. 30—35. g6 POETIC IMAGERY Lect. VIII. sublime, and consists of a delineation of the Divine Majesty and power, as exemplified in the admirable constitution of nature. On this subject, since it is absolutely necessary to employ figurative language, the poet has introduced such metaphors as were accounted by the Hebrews the most magnificent and most worthy ; for all of them are, in my opinion, borrowed from the Tabernacle : but I find it will be necessary to quote the passage itself, and I shall endea- vour to explain it as briefly as possible. The poet first expresses his sense of the greatness and power of the Deity in plain and familiar language; and then breaks out in metaphor — " Thou art invested with majesty and glory :" AVhere, observe, tlie word lahash (to invest) is the word al- ways used to express the ceremony of putting on the sacer- dotal ornaments. " Covering thyself with light as with a garment :" The Light in the Holy of Holies, the manifest symbol of the divine Presence, is figured under this idea;*' and this * See Exod. xl. 34—38. Lev. xvi. 2. Numb. ix. 15, 16. 1 Kings viii. 10, II. 2 Chron. vii. 1, 2. A similar allusion, Isa. iv. 5. Ix. 2. 19. Zech. ii. 5. Rev. xxi. 23. — Author s Note. I do not know upon what authority our author has received this fact. The Rabbics, who talk much about the Sliechina, could not possibly be witnesses of that sight, which they themselves confess had disappeared for many ages before their time, and had never been seen in the second temple. Who, indeed, that is acquainted with the rules which sound reason dictates, and which all who study history must regard, will give credit, in a matter of so great antiquity, to witnesses whose faculty in fabricating falsehood has been so frequently ex- posed, and especially as ihcy themselves confess that they do not report the fact upon the authority of any books or records, but merely upon the tradition of their ancestors? and no man can be ignorant how much such a notion is likely to increase in the different hands through which it passes. In reality, I do not suppose our Author took up the matter upon their representation, but that he founded his opinion upon the passage in Lev. xvi. 2. which, however, the learned Tlialcman has asserted, is not to be understood of a miraculous She- china, but of a cloud of smoke which surrounded the throne consecrated to the Deity, lest the vacant seat should be exposed to the multitude. From the 13th verse of the same chapter the same author argues, that the cloud upon the mercy-scat was factitious, or arose from the incense which was offered there ; though I cannot say that I am so entirely of his opinion as to believe, that not even upon the solemn day of inauguration a cloud of a miraculous nature rested on the Cherubims. Unless, therefore, we interpret this passage of tlie Psalmist as intimating that God is the fountain of all light, I would refer it to that part of the history of creation which relates the first great dis- play of Almighty power. — M. Lect. VIII. FROM SACRED TOPICS. 87 singular example is made use of figuratively to express the universal and ineffable glory of God. '' Stretching out the heavens as a curtain :" Jeringnah is the word made use of, and is the very name of those curtains with which the Tabernacle was covered at the top and round about.* The Seventy seem to have had this in view, when they render it wcs/ hs^Piv (as a skin) :f whence the Vulgate sicut i)ellem, (which is a literal transla- tion of the Septuagint) ; and another of the old translators hspij^a, (a hide or skin). " Laying the beams of his chambers in the waters :" In these words the poet admirably expresses the nature of the air, which, from various and floating elements, is formed into one regular and uniform mass, by a metaphor drawn from the singular construction of the Tabernacle : for it con- sisted of many different parts, which might be easily sepa- rated, but which were united by a curious and artful junction and adaptation to each other.| He proceeds — " Making the clouds his chariot ; Walking upon the wings of the wind:" He had before exhibited the Divine Majesty under the ap- pearance which it assumed in the Holy of Holies, that of a brio^ht and dazzlino; lio;ht : he now describes it accordino; to that which it assumed, when God accompanied the ark in the pillar of a cloud which was carried along through the at- mosphere. That vehicle of the Divine Presence is, indeed, distinguished in the sacred history by the particular appel- lation of a chariot.^ " Making the winds his messengers, And his ministers a flaming fire :" * I do not see why we should suppose the comparison to relate to the taber- nacle of Moses more than to any other superb fabric of that kind. — M. f Compare Exod. xxvi. 7, &c. with the Septuagint. \ It is very evident, that if this observation of our Author prove any thing, it proves that any raftered building may be compared to the air. For my own part, I am certain that in this passage there is no allusion at all to the Tabernacle, in which there was no coennculnni, or upper chamber, but rather to the houses in Palestine, at the top of which there was a cn-nacuhuu, or chamber, apart from the rest, for the sake of retirement, which has been very accurately de- scribed by Shaw. — M. § 1 Ciiron. xxviii. 18. See also Ecclus. xlix. 8. 88 POETIC IMAGERY Lect. VIII. The elements are described as prompt and ready in exe- cuting the commands of Jehovah, as angels, messengers, or ministers serving at the Tabernacle, the Hebrew word being exactly expressive of the latter sense. *' Who founded the earth upon its bases :" The following phrase also, is directly taken from the same : " That it should not be displaced for more than ages : " That is, '' for a certain period known only to the infinite wisdom of God." As the situation of both was in this re- spect nearly the same, so, on the other hand, the perma- nence of the sanctuary is in other places compared, and in almost the same words, with the stability of the earth.* Perhaps, in pursuing this investigation with so much subtilty and minuteness, I have scarcely acted consistently with the customs of this place, or the nature of my design : but it appeared absolutely necessary so to do, in order to make myself perfectly understood ; and to demonstrate, that it is scarcely, or not at all, possible for any translation fully to represent the genuine sense of the sacred poets, and that delicate connexion which for the most part exists between their poetical imagery and the peculiar circumstances of their nation.:}: This connexion frequently depends upon the use of certain terms, upon a certain association between words and things, which a translation generally perplexes, and very frequently destroys. This, therefore, is not to be preserved in the most literal and accurate version, much less in any poetical translation, or rather imitation ; though * Psal. Ixxviii. 69. \ It may be asserted of translations in general, and I am sure I have expe- rienced the truth of the observation in this very attempt, that many of the minuter beauties of style are necessarily lost : a translator is scarcely allowed to intrude upon his author any figures or images of his own, and many which appear in the original must be omitted of course. IMetaphors, synecdoches, and metonymies, are frequently untractable ; the corresponding words w^ould probably, in a figurative sense, appear harsh or obscure. The observation, however, applies with less justice to our common version of the Bible than to any translation whatever. It was made in a very early stage of our literature, and when the language was by no means formed : in such a state of the lan- guage, the figurative diction of the Hebrews might be literally rendered with- out violence to the national taste ; and the frequent recurrence of the same images and expressions serves to familiarize them to us. Time and habit have now given it force and autliority ; and I believe there never was an instance of any translation, so very literal and exact, being read with such universal satisfaction and pleasure. — T. Lect. VIII. FROM SACRED TOPICS. 89 there are extant some not unsuccessful attempts of this kind. To rehsh completely all the excellencies of the Hebrew lite- rature, the fountains themselves must be approached, the peculiar flavour of which cannot be conveyed by aqueducts, or indeed by any exertion of modern art. 90 POETIC IMAGERY Lect. IX. LECTURE IX. OF POETIC IMAGERY FROM THE SACRED HISTORY. TJic imagery from the sacred history is the most luminous and evident of all — The peculiar nature of this kind of metaphor explained, as used by the Hebrew poets — The order of the topics ichich commonly furnish them: the Chaos and Creation ; the Deluge ; the Destruction of Sodom; the emigration of the Israelites from Egypt ; the descent of God upon Mount Sinai — This species of meta- phor excellently adapted to the sacred poetry, and particu- larly to the prophetic : not easy to form any comparison between the sacred and profane poetry in this respect. Four distinct classes of imagery having been specified as capable of being introduced in a metaphorical form into the poetry of the Hebrews, the last of these, or that which is suggested by the more remarkable transactions recorded in the sacred history, now remains to be examined. Here, however, since the nature of the subject differs in some de- gree from the former objects of our investigation, so the manner of treating it must be also different. The principal design of our late disquisition was, by considering the cir- cumstances, customs, opinions, and sentiments of the He- brews, to facilitate our approach to the interior beauties of their poetry ; and, by duly examining the nature of the cir- cumstances, to estimate more properly the force and power of each ; to dispel as much as possible the mists of antiquity ; to restore their native perspicuity to such passages as appear obscure, their native agreeableness to such as now inspire us with sentiments of disgust, their proper allurement and ele- gance to those which seem harsh and vulgar, and their ori- ginal dignity to those which the changeableness of custom has rendered contemptible or mean. In this division of our subject, on the contrary, but little will occur either difficult or obscure ; nothing which will seem to require explication or defence : oil will be at once perspicuous, splendid, and sublime. Sacred history illuminates this class of imagery with its proper light, and renders it scarcely less conspicuous Li;cT. IX. FROM THE SACRED HISTORY. 91 to US than to the Hebrews themselves. There is, indeed, this difference, tliat to the Hebrews the objects of tliese allu- sions were all national and domestic ; and the power of them in moving or delighting the mind was of course proportion- ably greater ; nay, frequently, the very place, the scene of action, certain traces and express tokens of so many miracles lying before their eyes, must have increased the eiiect. To us, on the other hand, however we may hold these facts in veneration, however great and striking they may be in them- selves, the distance of time and place must of necessity ren- der them less interesting. The manner in which these metaphors are formed is well deserving of observation, and is in fact as follows. In de- scribing or embellishing illustrious actions, or future events of a miraculous nature, the Hebrew poets are accustomed to introduce allusions to the actions of former times, such as possess a conspicuous place in their history ; and thus they illuminate with colours, foreign indeed, but similar, the fu- ture by the past, the recent by the antique, facts less known by others more generally understood : and as this property seems peculiar to the poetry of the Hebrews, at least is but seldom to be met with in that of other nations, I have de- termined to illustrate this part of my subject with a greater variety of examples than usual. I mean, therefore, to in- stance in a regular order certain topics or common-places of Scripture, w^hich seem to have furnished, if not all, at least the principal part of these allusions : it will be neces- sary at the same time to remark their figurative power and effect, and the regular and uniform method pursued in the application of them, which has been already stated as cha- racteristical of the poetical imagery of the Hebrews. The first of these topics, or common-places, is the Chaos and the Creation, which compose the first pages of the sacred histor}^ These are constantly alluded to, as expressive of any remarkable change, whether prosperous or adverse, in the public affairs — of the overthrow or restoration of king- doms and nations ; and are consequently very connnon in the prophetic poetry, particularly when any unusual degree of boldness is attempted. If the subject be the destruction of the Jewish empire by the Chaldeans, or a strong denun- ciation of ruin against the enemies of Israel, it is depicted in exactly the same colours as if universal nature were about to relapse into the primeval chaos. Thus Jeremiah, in that 92 POETIC IMAGERY Lect. IX. sublime, and indeed more than poetical vision, in which is represented the impending desolation of Judea: " I beheld the earth, and lo ! disorder and confusion ; Tlie heavens also, and there was no light. 1 heheld the mountains, and lo I they trembled ; And all the hills shook. I beheld, and lo ! there was not a man ; And all the fowls of tlie heavens were fled. I beheld, and lo ! the fruitful field (was become) the desert ; And all its cities were thrown down, Before the presence of Jehovah, Before the fierce heat of his anger."* And on a similar subject Isaiah expresses himself with won- derful force and sublimity : " And he shall stretch over her the line of devastation, And the plummet of emptiness."f Each of them not only had in his mind the Mosaic chaos, but actually uses the words of the divine historian. The same subjects are amplified and embellished by the prophets with several adjuncts: " The sun and the moon are darkened, And the stars withdraw their shining. Jehovah also will thunder from Sion, And from Jerusalem \vill he utter his voice ; And the heavens and the earth shall shake.":): " And all the host of heaven shall waste away : And the heavens shall be rolled up like a scroll ; And all their host shall wither ; As the withered leaf falleth from the vine. And as the blighted fig from the fig-tree. "§ On the contrary, when he foretells the restoration of the Israelites : " For I am Jehovah thy God; He who stilleth at once the sea. Though the waves thereof roar ; Jehovah God of Hosts is his name. I have put my words in thy mouth ; And with the shadow of my hand have I covered thee : * Jer. iv. 23 — 26. This image, and that which follows from Joel, the learned Michaclis will not allow to relate to the Mosaic chaos, but supposes them to be no more than a description of some liorrible and desolating tem- pest. Of this tlie reader must judge for himself. — T. f Isa. xxxiv. 11. I Joel iii. 15, 16. § Isa. xxxiv. 4. Lect. IX. FROM THE SACRED HISTORY. 9.3 To stretch out the heavens, and to lay the foundations of the earth ; And to say unto Sion, Thou art my people."* " Thus therefore shall Jehovah console Sion ; He shall console her desolations : And he shall make her wilderness like Eden ; And her desert like the garden of Jehovah : Joy and gladness shall be found in her ; Thanksgiving, and the voice of melody."-|- In the former of these two last quoted examples, the uni- versal deluge is exactly delineated, and on similar subjects the same imagery generally occurs. Thus, as the devasta- tion of the Holy Land is frequently represented by the re- storation of ancient Chaos, so the same event is sometimes expressed in metaphors suggested by the universal deluge : " Behold, Jehovah emptieth the land and maketh it waste ; He even turneth it upside down, and scattereth abroad the inhabitants. For the flood-gates from on high are opened ; And the foundations of the earth tremble. The land is grievously shaken ; The land is utterly shattered to pieces ; The land is violently moved out of her place; * Isa. H. 15, 16. Ragang, " tranquilizing, (or) instantaneously stilling;" it is commonly rendered clearing, dividing, not only in this but in the parallel places, Jer. xxxi. 35. Job xxvi. 12. I am, however, of opinion, that the meaning of the word has been totally mistaken. It denotes strictly something instantaneous ; a cessation of motion, or a sudden quieting, — as when a bird suddenly lights upon a tree. See Isa. xxxiv. 14. The Septuagint very pro- perly renders it, in the above quoted passage in Job, KxriTuva-i. Consult the Concordance. " If any doubt can remain concerning this translation of the word Ragan;5' OktifjC'ria.s ayuvcx, (pi(!i^ov av^enrof^zv " Neither can we celebrate a contest more noble than is that of Olympia:" /u.'/i'^i tv OXufA'Tiaxa ctyavos \']i^ov (ii>S]iovx. Find. OXvfiT. A. V. 11. & Schol. Edit. Oxon. " As if the city of the Lacedemonians were smaller than that of the Phry- gians." Eurip. Andi^om. v. 193. The metaphor taken from the dew is expressive of fecundity, plenty, multi- tude; (compare 2 Sam. xvii. II, 12. Mic. v. 7.) " A numerous offspring shall be born unto thee, and a numerous oflspring it shall produce." Jaladecha, " thy youth," or " the youth that are produced from thee;" the abstract for the concrete, as Shebah, " whiteness," or being grey-headed, for a grey-headed man, Lev. xix. 32. Shebi, " captivity," for a captive, Isa. xlix. 24-. ; and so the Chaldee Interpreter takes the following, "^mbin ^i{ni"}b piHS Thy offspring shall sit (or remain) in confidence." — Author s Notc.\ \ Eccles. xii. 2 — G. Concerning this passage, consult the learned Commen- tary of that excellent physician of the last century, Dr John Smith. See also what has been lately advanced on the same subject by the first physician of this age, Dr K. Mead, in his Medica Sacra. — Author's Note. Lr.cr. X. ALLEGORY. 107 expressed, most learnedly and elegantly indeed, but with some degree of obseurity, by different images derived from nature and common life : for by this enigmatical composi- tion, Solomon, after the manner of the oriental sages, meant to put to trial the acuteness of his readers. It has on this account afforded much exercise to the ingenuity of the learned, many of whom have differently, it is true, but with much learning and sagacity, explained the passage. There is also in Isaiah an allegory, which, with no less elegance of imagery, is more simple and regular, more just and complete in the form and colouring : I shall, therefore, quote the whole passage.* The prophet is explaining the design and manner of the divine judgments : he is inculcat- ing the principle, that God adopts different modes of acting in the chastisement of the wicked, but that the most perfect wisdom is conspicuous in all; that '' he wi!l," as he had urged before, " exact judgment by the line, and righteous- ness by the plummet ;":{: that he ponders with the most minute attention the distinctions of times, characters, and circumstances; all the motives to lenity or severity. All this is expressed in a continued allegory, the imagery of which is taken from agriculture and threshing : the use and suitableness of which imagery, as in a manner consecrated to this subject, I have formerly explained, so that there is no need of further detail at present. " Listen ye, and hear my voice : Attend and hearken unto my words. Doth the husbandman plough every day that he may sow, Opening, and breaking the clods of his field ? When he hath made even the face thereof, Doth he not then scatter the dill, and cast abroad the cum- min ; And sow the wheat in due measure ; And the barley, and the rye, hath its appointed limit ? For his God rightly instructeth him ; he furnisheth him witli knowledge. The dill is not beaten out with the corn-drag' ; Nor is the wheel of the wain made to turn upon the cummin : But the dill is beaten out with the staff"; And the cummin with the flail ; but the bread-corn § with the tlireshing-wain. * Isa. xxviii. 23—29. \ Isa. xxviii. 17. § pTV Dnb.] — I have annexed these to the preceding, disregarding the Masoretic distinction: in this I follow the LXX (though they have greatly 108 ALLEGORY. Lect. X. But not for ever will he continue thus to thresh it ; Nor to vex it with the wheel of his wain; Nor to bruise it with the hoofs of his cattle. This also proceedeth from Jehovah God of Hosts: He showeth himself wonderful in counsel, great in opera- tion."* Another kind of allegory is that which, in the proper and restricted sense, may be called Parable, and consists of a continued narration of a fictitious event, applied by way of simile to the illustration of some important truth. The Greeks call these allegories ami (or apologues), the Latins fabidcc (or fables) ; and the writings of the Phrygian sage, or those composed in imitation of him, have acquired the mistaken the sense) and Symmaclms. I suspect also that the "I before UTll has been obliterated, which Symmachus expressed by the particle ^s, the Vul- gate by autcm. The translation will sufficiently explain my reasons. Lechem, however, seems to be taken for corn, Psal. civ. 14-. and Eccles. xi. L " Cast thy bread," that is, " sow thy seed, or corn, upon the face of the waters:" in plain terms, sow without any hope of a harvest ; do good to them on whom you even think your benefaction thrown away: A precept enforcing great and disinterested liberality, with a promise annexed to it, " for after many days thou shalt find it again:" at length, if not in the present world, at least in a future, thou slialt have a reward. The learned Dr George Jubb, the gentle- man alluded to in p. 67. suggested this explanation, which he has elegantly illustrated from Tlieognis and Phocylides, who intimate, that to do acts of kindness to the ungrateful and unworthy, is the same as sowing the sea :^ Vain are the favours done to vicious men, Not vainer 'tis to sow the foaming deep ; The deep no pleasant harvest shall afford. Nor will the wicked ever make return. Theog. Tvuy,. V. lOo. To befriend the wicked is like sowing in the sea. Phocyl. V. 14.1. These, indeed, invert the precept of Solomon ; nor is it extraordinary that they should : The one, frail human power alone produc'd; The other, God. Author s Note. * " Four methods of threshing are here mentioned, by different instruments ; the flail, the drag, the wain, and the treading of the cattle. The staff' or flail was used for the grain that was too tender to be treated in the other methods. The drag consisted of a sort of frame of strong planks, made rough at the bot- tom with hard stone or iron : it was drawn by horses or oxen over the corn- sheaves spread on the floor, the drivers sitting upon it. The wain was much like the former, but had wheels with iron teeth, or edges, like a saw ; and it should seem that the axle was armed with iron teeth or serrated wheels through- out. Tlie drag not only forced out the grain, but cut the straw in pieces for fodder for the cattle ; for in the Eastern countries they have no hay. The last method is well known from the law of Moses, which ' forbids the ox to be muzzled when he treadeth out the corn.' " — Bishop Lowth's Isaiah, p. 278. LtcT. X. ALLEGORY. 109 greatest celebrity. Nor has our Saviour liiuisclf disdained to adopt the same method of instruction, of whose parables it is doubtful, whether they excel most in wisdom and utility, or in sweetness, elegance, and perspicuity. I must observe, that the appellation of parable having been applied to his discourses of this kind, the term is now restricted from its former extensive signification to a more confined sense. This species of composition occurs very frequently in the prophetic poetry, and particularly in that of Ezekiel. But to enable us to judge with more certainty upon the subject, it will be necessary to explain in a few words some of the primary qualities of the poetic parables, that, by considering the general nature of them, we may decide more accurately on the merits of particular examples. It is the first excellence of a parable to turn upon an image well known and applicable to the subject, the meaning of which is clear and definite; for this circumstance will give it perspicuity, which is essential to every species of allegory. If, therefore, by this rule we examine the parables of the sacred Prophets, we shall, I am persuaded, find them not in the least deficient. They are in general founded upon such imagery as is frequently used, and similarly applied by way of metaphor and comparison in the Hebrew poetry. Most accurate examples of this are to be found in the parable of the deceitful vineyard,* of the useless vine,f which is given to the fire ; for under this imagery the ungrateful people of God are more than once described. I may instance also that of the lion's whelps falling into the pit,]: in which is ap- positely displayed the captivity of the Jewish princes ; or that of the fair, lofty, and flourishing cedar of Lebanon,§ which raised its head to the clouds, cut down at length and neglect- ed, exhibiting, as in a picture, the prosperity and the fall of the king of Assyria. I will add one more example, (there is, indeed, scarcely any which might not with propriety be introduced here), I mean that in which the love of God * Isa. V. 1—7. t Ezck. xv. and xix. 10—14. | Ezck. xi'x. 1—9. § Ezek. xxxi. I take this passage according to the common explanation, disregarding that of Meibomius, which I find is blamed by many of the learn- ed ; and indeed it has some difficulties, which arc not easy to clear away. Nor can I indeed relish that /Assyrian, who has intruded himself 1 know not how. In the 10th, for Dm:) I think it were better to read Hi:) with the Syriac and Vulgate, which reading is adopted by the learned Iloubigant. Observe also, that the LXX have very rightly rendered Ben Grubalhiin l)y £/j ^str^v r«tf» vjipjXwv, ''through the midst of the clouds." — Authors Xote. 110 ALLEGORY. Lwt. X. towards his people, and their piety and fidelity to him, are expressed by an allusion to the solemn covenant of marriage. Ezekiel has pursued this image with uncommon freedom in two parables;* in truth, almost all the sacred poets have touched upon it. There was, therefore, no part of the imao'cry of the Hebrew poetry more established than this; nor ouf>ht it to appear extraordinary, that Solomon, in that most elegant poem the Canticles, should distinguish and depict the most sacred of all subjects with similar butlines, and in similar colours. It is not, however, sufficient, that the image be apt and familiar; it must also be elegant and beautiful in itself: since it is the purpose of a poetic parable not only to explain more perfectly some proposition, but frequently to give it more animation and splendour. The imagery from natural ob- jects is superior to all other in diis respect; for almost every picture from nature, if accurately drawn, has its peculiar beauty. As the parables of the sacred poets, therefore, con- sist chiefly of this kind of imagery, the elegance of the ma- terials generally serves to recommend them. If there be any of a different kind, such as may be accounted less delicate and refined, it ought to be considered, whether they are not to be accounted among those the dignity and grace of which are lost to us, though they were perhaps wanting in neither to people of the same age and country. If any reader, for instance, should be offended with the boiling pot of Ezekiel,:^ and the scum flowing over into the fire ; let him remember, that the prophet, who was also a priest, took the allusion from his own sacred rites : nor is there a possibility that an image could be accounted mean or disgusting, which was connected with the holy ministration of the Temple. It is also essential to the elegance of a parable, that the imagery should not only be apt and beautiful, but that all its parts and appendages should be perspicuous and perti- nent. It is, however, by no means necessary, that in every parable the allusion should be complete in every part; such a degree of resemblance would frequently appear too minute and exact : but when the nature of the subject will bear, nuich more when it will even require a fuller explanation, and when the similitude runs directly, naturally, and regu- larly, through every circumstance, then it cannot be doubted that it is productive of the greatest beauty. Of all these * Ezck. xvi. and xxiii. t Ezck. xxiv. 3, &c. Li:cT. X. ALLEGORY. lU excellencies, there cannot be more perfect examples than the parables which have been just specified. I will also ven- ture to recommend the well-known parable of Nathan,* although written in prose, as well as that of Jotham,:}: which appears to be the most ancient extant, and approaclies some- what nearer the poetical form.§ To these remarks I will add another, which may be con- sidered as the criterion of a parable, namely, that it be con- sistent throughout, and that the literal be never confounded with the figurative sense. In this respect it materially dif- fers from the former species of allegory, which, deviating but gradually from the simple metaphor, does not always immediately exclude literal expressions, or words without a figure. II But both the fact itself, and this distinction, will more evidently appear from an example of each kind. * 2 Sam. xii. 1—4. t Judges ix. 7—15. § Poetry seems to me to be often strangely confounded with oratory, from which it is, however, very different. These instances appear to me only the rudiments of popular oratory, the ancient and tinrefiued mode of speaking, as Livy calls it : and if tiie reader will be at the pains to examine Liv. 1. ii. c. 32. I dare believe he will be of the same opinion. Poetry, as our Author himself has stated, is one of the first arts, and was in a much more perfect state than we should suppose from the passages in question long before the days of Jo- tham : oratory is of more recent origin, and was, we may well suppose, at that period in its infancy ; as Cicero remarks, that it was one of the latest of the arts of Greece. Brut. c. 7. — M. See Essaijs Historical and Moral, p. 41. II I think there is great judgment and taste in this remark, of which the parable of the Good Samaritan will afford a happy exemplification in the men- tion of the man s journeying from Jerusalem to Jericho, a circumstance that gives substance and reality to the parable. It may be observed, moreover, that in allegorical writing the literal sense may be sometimes suffered to obtrude itself ujion the figurative with very good effect, just as the gold that betrays itself in glimpses from the plumage of the peacock, the scales of the dolphin, or (to illustrate my idea from Spenser) the texture of the loom, augments thereby the splendour of their colours. - " round about the walls yclothed were With goodly arras of great maiesty. Woven with gold and silk so close and nere That the rich metall lurked privily. As faining to be hidd from envious eye ; Yet here, and there, and every-whcrc, unawares It shewed itselfe, and shone unwillingly ; IJke a discolour'd snake, whose hidden snares Through the green grass his long bright burnisht back declares." Faery Queenc, B. iii. c. 11. s, 28. A fine poetical allegory of this kind may be seen in the first strophe of Gray's Ode on Poesy. — S. II, 112 ALLEGORY. Lect. X. Tlie Psalmist, (wlioever he was), describing the people of Israel as a vine,* has continued the metaphor, and happily drawn it out through a variety of additional circumstances. Among the many beauties of this allegory, not the least graceful is that modesty with which he enters upon and con- cludes his subject, making an easy and gradual transition from plain to figurative language, and no less delicately re- ceding back to the plain and unornamented narrative : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; Thou hast cast out the nations, and planted it, Thou preparedst room before it" After this follow some figurative expressions, less cautiously introduced ; in which when he has indulged for some time, how elegantly does he revert to his proper subject ! " Return, O God of Hosts ! Look down from heaven, and behold And visit this vine ; And the branch which thy right hand hath planted ; And the offspring ;{: which thou madest strong for thyself. It is burned in the fire, it is cut away ; By the rebuke of thy countenance they perish. Let thy hand be upon the man of thy right hand;§ Upon the son of man, whom thou madest strong for thyself." You may easily perceive, Gentlemen, how, in this first kind of allegory, the literal may be mingled with the figurative sense ; and even how graceful this practice appears, since light is more agreeably thrown upon the subject in an oblique manner, without too bare and direct an explication. But it is different, when tlie same image puts on the form of the other sort of allegory, or parable, as in Isaiah. || Here is no room for literal, or even ambiguous expressions; every word is figurative; the whole mass of colouring is taken from the same palette. Thus what, in the former quotation, is ex- pressed in undisguised language, namely, " the casting out of the nations, the preparation of the place, and its destruc- » Psal. Ixxx. 0—18. \ If I am not mistaken, all the old translators, the Chaldee excepted, seem to have read in this place Ben Adam, ' the Son of Man,' as in ver. 18. Dr Kennicott affirms also that he found this same reading in one manuscript." n. — Author s Note. § Tiiat is, the vinn wJio is joined to thee by a solcmyi covenant. The orien- tals all swear by lifting up the right hand. Hence also, among the Arabs, jamin is to swear.— M. II Chap. V. 1 — 7. Lect. X. ALLEGORY. 113 tion from the rebuke of the Lord," is by Isaiah expressed wholly in a figurative manner: — " The Lord gathered out the stones from his vineyard, and cleared it : but when it deceived him, he threw down its hedge, and made it waste, and commanded the clouds that they should rain no rain upon it." Expressions which in the one case possess a pe- culiar grace, would be absurd and incongruous in the other; for the continued metaphor and the parable have a very different aim. The sole intention of the former is to embel- lish a subject, to represent it more magnificently, or at the most to illustrate it; that, by describing it in more elevated language, it may strike the mind more forcibly : but the intent of the latter is to withdraw the truth for a moment from our sight, in order to conceal whatever it may contain ungraceful or disgusting, and to enable it secretly to insinu- ate itself, and obtain an ascendency as it were by stealth. There is, however, a species of parable, the intent of which is only to illustrate the subject: such is that remarkable one of Ezekiel,* which I just now commended, of the cedar of Lebanon : than which, if we consider the imagery itself, none was ever more apt or more beautiful ; if the description and colouring, none was ever more elegant or splendid ; in which, however, the poet has occasionally allowed himself to blend the figurative with tlie literal description : J Whether he has done this because the peculiar nature of this kind of parable required it, or whether his own fervid imagination alone, which disdained the stricter rules of composition, was his guide, I can scarcely presume to determine. * Chap. xxxi. t Stevcr. H. 11—17. 111. THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. Li.cr. XL LECTURE XI. OF THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. 'The dcjimtioii of the Mystical Allegory — Founded upon the idleyorical or typical nature of the Jewish reliyion — The distinction heticeen this and the tico former species of Alle- gory ; in the nature of the materials: it being allowable in the former to make use of imagery from indifferent objects; in this, only such as is derived from things sacred, or their opposites: in the former, the exterior image has 7io founda- tion in truth ; in the latter, both images are equally true — Tlie difference in the form or manner of treating them — The most beautiful form is ichen the corresponding images run j)arallel through the ichole poem, and mutually illustrate each other — Examples of this in the iid a7id Ixxiid Psalms — llie parabolic style admirably adapted to this species of allegory ; the nature ofiohich renders it the language most proper for j^rophecy — Extremely dark in itself, but it is gra- dually cleared up by the series of events foretold, and more complete revelation ; time also, zvhich in tlie general obscures, contributes to its full explanation. The third species of Allegory, which also prevails much in the prophetic poetr}^, is when a double meaning is couched under the same words; or when the same prediction, ac- cording as it is differently interpreted, relates to different events, distant in time, and distinct in their nature. These different relations are termed the literal and the mystical senses; and these constitute one of the most difficult and important topics of Theology. The subject is, however, connected also vvith the sacred poetry, and is therefore de- serving of a place in these Lectures. Li the sacred rites of the Hebrews, things, places, times, offices, and such-like, sustain as it were a double character, the one proper or literal, the other allegorical ; and in their writings these subjects are sometimes treated of in such a manner as to relate either to the one sense or the other singly, or to both united. For instance, a composition may treat of David, of Solomon, of Jerusalem, so as to be under- Lect. XI. THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. 115 ^tood to relate simply either to the city itseiraiid its monarchs, or else to those objects which, in the sacred allegory of tlie Jewish religion, are denoted by that city and by those mo- narchs : or the mind of the author may embrace both objects at once, so that the very words which express the one in the plain, proper, historical, and commonly received sense, may typify the other in the sacred, interior, and prophetic sense. From these principles of the Jewish religion, this kind of allegory, which I am inclined to call viystical, seems more especially to derive its origin ; and from these we nuist en- deavour at an explanation of it. But its nature and peculiar properties will probably be more easily demonstrable, if we previously define in what respects it is different from the two former species of allegory. The first remarkable difference is, that in allegories of the kind already noticed, the writer is at liberty to make use of whatever imagery is most agreeable to his fancy or inclina- tion : there is nothing in universal nature, nothing which the mind perceives, either by sense or reflexion, which may not be adapted in the form of a continued metaphor, or even of a parable, to the illustration of some other subject. This latter kind of allegory, on the contrary, can only be supplied with proper materials from the sacred rites of tlie Hebrews themselves; nor can it be introduced, except in relation to such things as are directly connected with the Jewish reli- gion, or their immediate opposites. J'or, to Israel, Sion, Jerusalem, in the allegorical as well as the literal sense, are opposed Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Idumea; and the same opposition exists in other subjects of a similar nature. The two former kinds of allegory are of the same general nature with the other figures, and partake of the common privileges of poetry ; this latter, or mystical allegory, has its foundation in the nature of the Jewish economy, and is adapted solely to the poetry of the Hebrews.* Hence that truly divine * I admire tlie perspicacity of our Author in discovering this circumstance, and his candour in so freely disclosing his opinion. I am, however, much in- clined to suspect those qualities which arc sujjposed to be altogether peculiar to tlic sacred poetry of the Hebrews; and there is, I confess, need of uncom- mon force of argument to convince me, that the sacred writings are to be in- terpreted by rules in every respect dillerent from those by which other writings and other languages are interpreted : but, in truth, this hypothesis of a double sense being applicable to the same words, is so far from resting on any solid ground of argument, that I fmd it is altogether founded on the practice of com- mentators, and their vague and tralatitious opinions. — INI. 116 THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. Lect. XL Spirit, which has not disdained to employ poetry as the in- terpreter of its sacred will, has also in a manner appropriated to its own use this kind of allegory, as peculiarly adapted to the publication of future events, and to the typifying of the most sacred mysteries ; so that should it, on any occasion, be applied to a profane and common subject, being diverted from its proper end, and forced, as it were, from its natural bias, it would inevitably want all its power and elegance. There is likewise this further distinction, that in those other forms of allegory the exterior or ostensible imagery is fiction only ; the truth lies altogether in the interior or remote sense, which is veiled as it were under this thin and pellucid covering. But in the allegory of which we are now treating, each idea is equally agreeable to truth. The exterior or ostensible image is not a shadowy colouring of the interior sense, but is in itself a reality; and although it sustain ano- ther character, it does not wholly lay aside its own. For instance, in the metaphor or parable, the Lion, the Eagle, the Cedar, considered with respect to their identical ex- istence, are altogether destitute of reality ; but what we read of David, Solomon, or Jerusalem, in this sublimer kind of allegory, may be either accepted in a litei'al sense, or may be mystically interpreted according to the religion of the Hebrews; and in each view, whether considered conjunctly or apart, will be found equally agreeable to truth. Thus far this kind of allegory differs from the former in the materials, or in the nature of the imagery which it em- ploys ; but there is some difference also in the form or man- ner of introducing this imagery. I had occasion before to remark the liberty which is allowed in the continued meta- phor, of mingling the literal with the figurative meaning, that is, the obvious with the remote idea ; which is a liberty altogether inconsistent with the nature of a parable. But to establish any certain rules with regard to this point in the conduct of the mystical allegory, would be a difficult and liazardous undertaking. For the Holy Spirit has evidently chosen different modes of revealing his sacred counsels, ac- cording to the circumstances of persons and times ; inciting and directing at pleasure the minds of his prophets:* at one time displaying with an unbounded liberality the clear * And yet those metaphors and parables, the laws and principles of which our Author has so correctly defined, proceed from the same Holy Spirit; and our Author does not deny his being confined by those laws. — M. Lect. XI. THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. . 117 indications of future events; at another, imparting some obscure intimations with a sparing hand. Thus thei'e is a vast variety in the use and conduct of the mystical allegory ; in the modes in which the corresponding images are arrang- ed, and in which they are obscured or eclipsed by one ano- ther. Sometimes the obvious or literal sense is so promi- nent and conspicuous, both in the words and sentiments, that the remote or figurative sense is scarcely permitted to glimmer through it:* On the other hand, and that more frequently, the figurative sense is found to beam forth with so much perspicuity and lustre, that the literal sense is quite cast into a shade, or becomes indiscernible. Sometimes the principal or figurative idea is exhibited to the attentive eye with a constant and equal light; and sometimes it unex- pectedly glares upon us, and breaks forth with sudden and astonishing coruscations, like a flash of lightning bursting from the clouds. But the mode or form of this fifjure which possesses the most beauty and elegance, (and that elegance is the principal object of this disquisition), is when the two images, equally conspicuous, run as it were parallel through the whole poem, mutually illustrating and correspondent to each other. Though the subject be obscure, I do not fear being able to produce one or two undoubted instances of this peculiar excellence, which, if I am not mistaken, will sufficiently explain what I have advanced concerning the nature of the mystical allegory. The subject of the second Psalm is the establishment of David upon the throne, agreeably to the Almighty decree, notwithstanding the fruitless opposition of his enemies. The character which David sustains in this poem is twofold, literal and allegorical. If on the first reading of the Psalm we consider the character of David in the literal sense, the composition appears sufficiently perspicuous, and abundantly illustrated by fiicts from the sacred history. Through the whole, indeed, there is an unusual fervour of language, a * When this happens to be the case, how are we to know that the other subject or sentiment, which our Author describes as almost totally eclipsed or extinguished by the superior light, is intended by the writer? If, as I am fully persuaded, a clear and exact picture of the Messiah be exliibited in I'sal. ex. what occasion is there to apply it also to David, who never performed the priestly function, nor ever sat at the right hand of God, that is, in the Holy of Holies, at the right of the Ark of the Covenant? On the contrary, if in Psal. xviii. the description of David's victories be so predominant as that it can scarcely be made to speak any other sentiment, what occasion is there to apply it at all to the Messiah? — M.' IIB TiJE :MYSTICAL ALLI':G0RY. Lect. XL brilliancy of metaphor; and sometimes the diction is un- comnion'lv elevated, as if to intimate, that something of a more sublime and important nature lay concealed within, and as if the poet had some intention of admitting us to the secret recesses of his subject. If, in consequence of this in- dication, we turn our minds to contemplate the internal sense, and apply the same passages to the allegorical David, a nobler series of events is presented to us, and a meaning not only more sublime, but even more perspicuous, rises to the view. Should any thing at first appear bolder and more elevated than the obvious sense would bear, it will now at once ap})ear clear, expressive, and admirably adapted to the dignity of the principal subject. If, after having considered jittentively the subjects apart, we examine them at length in a united view, the beauty and sublimity of this most ele- gant poem will be improved.* We may then perceive the vast disparity of the two images, and yet the continual har- mony and agreement that subsists between them; the amaz- ing resemblance, as between near relations, in every feature and lineament; and the accurate analogy which is preserved, so that either may pass for the original whence the other was copied. New light is reflected upon the diction, and a degree of dignity and importance is added to the sentiments, whilst they gradually rise from humble to more elevated objects, from human to divine, till at length the great sub- ject of the poem is placed in the most conspicuous light, and the composition attains the liighest point of sublimity. What has been remarked concerning this Psalm, may be applied with propriety to the seventy-second, which exactly resembles it both in matter and form. It might not impro- perly be entitled the Inauguration of Solomon. The nature of the allegory is the same with the former; the style is something different, on account of the disparity of the sub- ject. In the one, the pomp and splendour of victory is dis- played ; in the other, the placid image of peace and felicity. =* If, as we learn from the authority of the apostle Paul, this Psalm relates chiefly to Christ, his resurrection and kingdom, wliy should we at all apply it to David ? I do not deny that the victories of David, as well as of other kings of Jerusalem, to whom no person lias thought of applying the poem in question, might be celebrated in language equally bold and powerful : but let us remem- ber, that we have no right to say a work has relation to every person of whom something similar might be said, but to that person alone who is the actual subject of it. If Christ, therefore, be tlie subject of this poem, let us set aside David altogether. — M. Lect. XL THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. 110 The style of the latter is, therefore, more calm and tempe- rate, more ornamented, more ligurative ; not abounding in the same boldness of personification as the former, but rather touched with the gay and cheerful colouring of nature, in its most flourishing and delightful state. Trom this example some light will be thrown upon the nature of the parabolic style; in particular, it will appear admirably adapted to this kind of allegory, on account of its abounding so much in this species of imagery. For, as the imagery of nature is equally calculated to express the ideas of divine and spiri- tual or of human things, a certain analogy being preserved in each; so it easily admits that degree of ambiguity which appears essential to this figure. By these means the com- position is at the same time diversified and perspicuous, ap- plicable to both senses, and obscure in neither ; and, com- pletely coQiprehending both parts of the allegory, may clearly and distinctly be referred to eidier. Still, however, a degree of obscurity must occasionally attend this style of composition ; and this obscurity not only results from the nature of the figure, but is even not without its peculiar utility. For, the mystical allegory is on this very account so agreeable to the nature of prophecy, that it is the form which the latter generally, and I might add, lawfully, assumes, as most fitted for the prediction of future events. It describes events in a manner exactly conformable to the intention of prophecy ; that is, in a dark, disguised, and intricate manner ; sketching out in a general way their form and outline, and seldom descending to minuteness of description and exactness of detail. If on some occasions it expressly signifies any notable circumstance, it seems to be for two principal reasons:* first, that, as generally happens, by suddenly withdrawing from our view the literal meaning, the attention may be excited to the investigation of the figu- rative sense ; and secondly, that certain express marks, or distinguishing features, may occasionally show themselves, which, after the accomplishment of the prediction, may be sufficient to remove every doubt, and to assert and confirm, in all points, the truth and divinity of the prophecy.:}: * Psal. xxii. 17, 18, 19. and Ixix. 22. 1 If there be any one prophecy in tlie Bible comprising a tlouble sense, surely it is that in Isaiah, ch. vii. 15, &c. ; but notwithstanding the pretended clue to its two-fold import, which some have Hattered themselves with discover- ing in the separate addresses of the Prophet lo the A'ing, and to the House of D livid ; how little room there is for so fanciful an hypothesis, those may see 120 THE MYSTICAL ALLEGORY. Lect. XL The prophetic, indeed, differs in one respect from every other species of the sacred poetry : when first divulged, it is impenetrably obscure;* and time, which darkens every other composition, elucidates it. That obscurity, therefore, in which at first this part of the sacred writings was involved, is now in a great measure removed : there are now many things which the course of events (the most certain inter-, preter of prophecy) has completely laid open ; from many the Holy Spirit has itself condescended to remove the veil with which they were at first concealed ; many sacred insti- tutions there are, the reason and intent of which are more clearly understood, since the design of the Jewish dispensa- sation has been more perfectly revealed. Thus it happens, that, instructed and supported by these aids, of which the ancient Hebrews were destitute, and which in truth appear not to have been conceded to the prophets themselves, we come better accomplished for the knowledge and compre- hension of that part of the sacred poetry which is the most singular in its nature, and by far the most difficult of expla- nation. vlio will refer to Mr Postlethwaite's elegant discourse on the subject. [Cam- bridge, 178L]— S. H. * What our Author has advanced concerning the language of prophecy, is not quite so satisfactory as I could have wished ; for though the accomplishment of an event predicted be the only certain key to the precise application of every term which the prediction contained, yet if there be not something in the words of the prophecy which at the time of its delivery may serve to mark its general import, how shall those to whom it is addressed apply the prediction to its proper object and purpose ? Our Author traces in the prophetic language an assumption of imagery from the Chaos, Creation, Deluge, &c. ; surely then, if the application of figures from these topics were apposite and obvious, they must liave conveyed the general purport of the prediction wliicli contained them ; and, instead of being designed to obscure its real meaning, were doubt-- less employed for the contrary purpose. To me the reason of the thing is so clear, and our Saviour's practice of referring to former events with this very in- tent so certain, (see Matt. xxiv. 15. 37, Sec), that I cannot but consider it as the most prominent characteristic of the prophetic language. — S. IL Lect. XII. SliMILE, OR COINIPARISON. 121 LECTURE XII. OF THE COiAIPARISON, Comparisons are introduced for three j^urposes ; illustration, amplification, and variety — For thejirst an image is requi- site, a}}t, ux'U-hnou-n, and perspicuous ; it is of little conse- quence whether it be suhlime or beautiful, or neither : hence comparisons from objects tvhich are in themselves mean and humble, may be sometimes useful — For the purpose of am- plification an image is requisite which is sublime or beau- tiful, even though it shoidd be less apt and perspicuous : and on this plea, a degree of obscurity, or a remoteness in the resemblance, may sometimes be excused — When variety is the object, splendid, beautiful, and elegant imagery must be sought for ; and which has an apt agreement with the ob- ject of the comparison in the circumstances or adjuncts, though the objects themselves may be different in kind — The most perfect comparison is that in which all these excellen- cies are united — The peculiar form of comparisons in the Hebrew poetry ; it results from the nature of the senten- tious style — They are short, frequent, simple, depending often on a single attribute — Different images displayed in the 2)cirallel sentences : many comparisons are arranged in this manner to illustrate the same subject ; or different at- tributes of the same comparison are often distributed in the different divisions or jjarallelisms. In the following Lecture I shall endeavour to treat of the Comparison, which I have classed the third in order of the poetical figures, with a view of illustrating in some degree both its general properties, and its peculiar application and force in the poetic compositions of the Hebrews. Comparisons serve three distinct purposes, namely, illus- tration, amplification, and pleasure or variety.* * If I am not mistaken, among those writers wiio enter into the minuteness of criticism, a distinction is observed in the use of tlic words Comparison, Siinih', and Allusion. Comparison seems to be not only the general term, which in- cludes tlie whole class, but is more immediately appropriated to a certain species ; I mean the most perfect of them, where the resemblance is minutely traced through all the agreeing parts of the objects assimilated. — " Censure," says 12-2 SIMILE, OR COMPARISON. Lect. XII. In the first place, comparisons are introduced to illustrate a subject, and to place it in a clearer and more conspicuous point of view. This is most successfully effected when the object which furnishes the simile is familiar and perspicuous, and when it exactly agrees with that to which it is compared. In this species of comparison, elevation or beauty, sublimity or splendour, are of little consequence ; strict propriety, and a direct resemblance, calculated exactly for the explanation of the subject, is a sufficient commendation. Thus Homer very accurately depicts the numbers of the Grecian army, their ardour and eagerness for battle, by a comparison taken from flies collected about a milk-pail ;* and Virgil compares the diligence of the Tyrians in building their city, and the variety of their occupations, with the labours of the bees ;J without in the least degrading the dignity of the Epic Muse. Dr Ogden, in one of his excellent sermons, *' is so seldom in season, that it may not unaptly be compared to that bitter plant which comes to maturity but in the age of a man, and is said to blossom but once in a hundred years." Simile seems to be a term chiefly appropriated to poetry, and often implies a slighter and more fanciful resemblance than the former word. A species of comparison not extending to a simile is called an allusion; it chiefly consists in comparing one fact with another. The most fanciful and poetical is, when two facts, bearing a remote resemblance in a few circumstan- ces, are compared; a beautiful example of which may be found in one of Dr Ogden's sermons. — " If it be the obscure, the minute, the ceremonial parts of religion for which we are contending, though the triumph be empty, the dispute is dangerous : like the men of Ai, we pursue, perhaps, some little party that flies before us, and are anxious that not a straggler should escape ; but when we look behind us, we behold our city in flames." — T. * — — " thick as insects play, The wandering nation of a summer's day, That, drawn by milky steams at evening hours, In gather'd swarms surround the rural bovvers j From pail to pail with busy murmur run The gilded legions, glittering in the sun." — Pope's Horn. II. ii. 552. Mr Pope has considerably elevated this passage by the splendour of his imagery and diction. " The wandering nation," and the " gilded legions ;" each of these expressions raises the image very considerably, (though I do not altogeth er approve of thus heaping figure upon figure, or rather in this instance reverting in the way of metaphor to the first object of the comparison, for " gilded legions" are here actually compared with *' gilded legions.") — The rural scenery also, and the pleasant time of evening, give elegance to an idea very coarse and disgusting in itself. — T. I iEn, i. 432. See the use to which Milton has applied the same diminu- tive insect, Paradise Lost, B. i. 7G8., and the address with which the simile is introduced by the expressions, thidc-sivannd, &c. in the lines immediately pre- ceding. No writer was ever so great a master of amplification as INIilton. For proofs of this assertion, in addition to the comparison just referred to, see B. i. v. 196 — 285, c*l'c. B. ii. v. 285. 185. and other passages without number. — S. H. Lect. XII. SliMILE, OR CO.MPARISON. 1^3 I might produce many examples to tlie purpose from the sacred poetry, but sliall content myself with two or tln-ee, than which, both as to matter and expression, nothing can be meaner or more vulgar ; nothing, however, can be con- ceived more forcible or expressive. Isaiah introduces the King of Assyria insolently boasting of his victories : *< And my hand hath found, as a nest, the riches of the peo- ples ; And as one gathereth eggs deserted, So have I made a general gathering of the earth : And there was no one that moved the M'ing, That opened the beak, or that chirped."* And Nahum, on a similar subject : " All thy strong-holds shall be like fig-trees with the first ripe figs; If they be shaken, they fidl into the mouth of the eater."! There is also another comparison of Isaiah taken from do- mestic life, very obvious and very connnon ; but which, for the gracefulness of the imagery, the elegance of the arrano-e- ment, and the forcible expression of the tenderest affections, has never been exceeded : " But Sion saith : Jehovah hath forsaken me ; And my Lord hath forgotten me. Can a woman forget her sucking infant ; That she should have no tenderness for the son of her womb ? Even these may forget ; But I will not forget thee."§ * Isa. X. U. I Nah. iil. 12. § Isa. xlix. 14, 15. This sentiment is most beautifully paraphrased by an elegant poetess of our own times; the excellence of whose poetry is her least commendation. I cannot resist the temptation of transcribin"- a few lines which appear to me at once forcible, interesting, and sublime : — Heaven speaks ! O Nature, listen and rejoice ! O spread I'rom pole to pole this gracious voice ! " Say, every breast of liuman frame, that proves The boundless force with which a parent loves ; Say, can a mother from her yearning heart Bid the soft image of her child depart ? She ! whom strong instinct arms with strength to bear All forms of ill, to shield that dearest care; She! who with anguish stung, with madness wild, Will rush on death to save her threateri'd child ; All selfish feelings banish'd from her breast, Ilor life one aim to make another's blest ; — 124 SIMILE, OR COMTARISON. Lect. XII. There is aiiotlier species of compnrisoiij the principal in- tent of which is the iimpUfication of the subject; and this is Will she, for all ambition can attain, The charms of pleasure, or the lures of gain. Betray strong Nature's feelings? will she prove Cokl to the claims of duty and of love? — But should the mother from her yearning heart Bid the soft image of her child depart ; Should she, unpitying, hear his melting sigh, And view unmov'd the tear that fills his eye; Yet never will the God, whose word gave birth To yon illumin'd orbs, and this fair earth; Who through the boundless depths of trackless space Bade new-wak'd beauty spread each perfect grace; Yet, when he form'd the vast stupendous whole. Shed his best bounties on the human soul ; Which reason's light illumes, which friendship warms, Which pity softens, and which virtue charms. Which feels the pure affections' generous glow. Shares others' joy, and bleeds for others' woe — O ! never will the general Father prove Of man forgetful, man the child of love!" When all those planets in their ample spheres Have wing'd their course, and roH'd their destin'd years; When the vast sun shall veil his golden light Deep in the gloom of everlasting night; When wild, destructive flames shall wrap the skies, When Chaos triumphs, and when Nature dies ; God shall himself his favour'd creature guide Where living waters pour their blissful tide ; Where the enlarg'd, exulting, wondering mind, Shall soar, from weakness and from guilt refined; Where perfect knowledge, bright with cloudless rays, Shall gild Eternity's unmeasur'd days ; Where friendship, unembitter'd by distrust, Shall in immortal bands unite the just; Devotion rais'd to rapture breathe her strain. And Love in his eternal triumph reign ! Miss Williams's Poems, vol. i. p. 107. — T. Analogical positions serve for the most part as illustrations, rather than proofs ; but no demonstration of reason alone, can so closely take hold on the heart as the images contained in this expostulation. — For a mother to forget her sucking infant, and feel no tenderness for the son of her womb, is to be more unnatural than even a brute : but impossible as it may seem that one such viother should exist, yet, were the establisiied order of nature to be so far sub- verted as that every mother should become thus monstrous, still the Universal Parent will never forget his offspring. Pliny has mentioned a picture by Aristides of " a town taken by storm, in which was seen an infant creeping to the breast of its mother, who, though expiring from her wounds, yet expresses an apprehension and fear, lest, the course of her milk being stopped, the child should suck her blood." — This picture, it is probable, gave occasion to the following epigram of /Emilianus, which Mr Wei)b (see his Beauties of Painting, p. 16L) has thus finely trans- lated : — LfOT. XII. SIMILE, Oil COMrAlllSON. 125 evidently of a different nature from llie {brnier ; for, in the first place, it is necessary that the image which is introduced for the purpose of amplifying or ennobling a subject be sub- lime, beautiful, magnificent, or splendid, and therefore not trite or connnon ; nor is it by any means necessary that the resemblance be exact in every circumstance. Thus Virgil has the address to impart even to the labours of his bees a wonderful air of sublimity, by a comparison with the exer- tions of the Cyclops in fabricating the thunderbolts of Jupi- ter:* thus he admirably depicts the grace, the dignity and strength of his il^^neas, by comparing him with Apollo on the top of Cynthus renewing the sacred chorus ;f or with the mountains Athos, Eryx, and Apennine.:}: Thus also Homer,§ in which he is imitated by Virgil, H compares two heroes rushing to battle with Mars and his offspring Terror advancing from Thrace to the Phlegyans and Ephyrians. But if it should be objected, that as comparisons of the former kind are wanting in dignity, so these (in which fami- liar objects are compared with objects but little known, or with objects which have little agreement or resemblance to them) are more likely to obscure than to illustrate ; let it be remembered, that each species of comparison has in view a different end. The aim of the poet in the one case is per- spicuity, to enable the mind clearly to perceive the subject, and to comprehend the whole of it at one view ; in the other, the object is sublimity, or to impress the reader with the idea that the magnitude of the subject is scarcely to be con- ceived.1[ When considered in this light, it will, I dare 'EXxj, raXccv, Tta-^a. fMT^^o? ov ovx, ij( fia^ov ocf^iX^ne, /X7^a ficci iiv a/'^j? xoa^oKOfZitv iju,a,0ov. — Antholog. lib. 3. Suck, little wretch, while yet thy mother lives, Suck the la3t drop her fainting bosom gives. She dies ; her tenderness outlasts her breath, And her fond soul is provident in death.— S. H. * Georg. iv. 170. f ^n- iv. 14-3. I ^n. xii. 701. Whoever desires to see this accurately and scientifically explained, may consult an excellent work lately published by the learned Mr Spence, entitled Polymetis, p. 37. and 248. — Author s Note. § II. xiii. 298. II .En. xii. .'33 1. ^ A simile may, however, be taken from an object really inferior, and yet may serve to elevate the subject; but then the object of the figure must possess some of those qualities which, if they do not hcigl)ten our respect, will enlarge or vivify the idea. Thus a field of corn on fire is really a more trifling object 126 • SIMILE, OR COMPARISON. Lect. XII. presume, be allowed, that none of these forms of compari- son, when rightly applied, is deficient either in propriety or elegance. The Hebrews have nothing that corresponds with those fables to which the Greek and Roman poets have recourse when amplification is required; nor can we be surprised that imagery so consecrated, so dignified by religion and antiquity, and yet of so obvious and established acceptation as to be intelligible to the meanest understanding, should supply abundant and suitable materials for this purpose. The sacred poets, therefore, resort in this case chiefly to the imagery of nature ; and this they make use of, indeed, with so much elegance and freedom, that w^e have no cause to regret the ^\•ant of those fictions to which other nations have recourse. To express or delineate prosperity and opulence, a comparison is assumed from the cedar or the palm ;* if the form of majesty or external beauty is to be depicted, Leba- non or Carmel is presented to our view.f Sometimes they are furnished with imagery from their religious rites, at once beautiful, dignified, and sacred. In both these modes the Psalmist most elegantly extols the pleasures and advantages of fraternal concord : Sweet as the od'rous balsam pour'd On Aaron's sacred head ; Which o'er his beard, and down his breast, A breathing fragrance shed : than a city in flames ; yet Virgil, jEn. ii. v. 406. introduces it so artfully, that it not only serves to illustrate, but to raise our idea of the sack of Troy : " Thus when a flood of fire by wind is borne, Crackling it rolls, and mows the standing corn," &c. — Uryden. Of this kind also is that comparison of INIilton, in which he likens the spears of the angels surrounding Satan to a field of corn : " as thick as when a field Of Ceres, ripe for harvest, waving bends Her bearded grove of ears, which w ay the wind Sways them," &:c.—Par. Lost, B. iv. 983. The reason why great subjects may thus be elevated by a comparison with smaller, appears to be, because the latter, being more familiar to our minds, and therefore easier of comprehension, make a more distinct and forcible im- pression, and lead the m.ind gradually to the contemplation and proper concep- tion of the greater objects. — T. » Psal. xcii. 13. Numb. xxiv. 6. Hos. xiv. 6, 7, 8. Amos ii, 9. I See Lect. C. Lect. XII. SIMILE, OR COMPARISON. \>7 As morning dew on Sion's mount Beams forth a silver ray ; Or studs with gems the verdant pomp That Hermon's tops display.* Let us, however, attend for a moment to Isaiah, whom no writer has surpassed in propriety, when his aim is to illus- trate ; or in sublimity, when he means to amplify his sub- ject :— '' Wo to the multitude of the numerous peoples, Who make a sound like the sound of the seas ; And to the roaring of the nations, Who make a roaring like the roaring of mighty waters. Like the roaring of mighty waters do the nations roar ; But he shall rebuke them, and they shall Hee far away ; And they shall be driven like the chaff of the hills before the wind. And like the gossamer before the whirlwind. "| The third species of comparison seems to hold a middle rank between the two preceding : and the sole intent of it is, by a mixture of new and varied imagery with the princi- pal matter, to prevent satiety or disgust, and to promote the entertainment of the reader. It neither descends to the humility of the one, nor emulates the sublimity of the other. It pursues rather the agreeable, the ornamental, the elegant, and ranges through all the variety, all the exuberance of nature. In so extensive a field it would be an infinite task to collect all that might be observed of each particular. I shall remark one circumstance only, which, though it some- times takes place in the two former species of comparison, may be said, notwithstanding, to be chiefly appropriated to this last. There are two operations of the mind, evidently con- trary to each other. The one consists in combining ideas, the other in separating and distinguishing them. For, in contemplating the innumerable forms of things, one of the first reflections which occurs is, that there are some which « Psal. cxxxiii. 2, 3. Our Author on this occasion has quoted from Buch- anan's translation. In the above attempt I have copied Buchanan as nearly as our language would admit. — T. I Isa. xvii. 12, 13. " These five words D>^'':iD D^)D pKTTD W^tZHh ■jINU?^ are wanting in seven manuscripts; with tliis dilFerence in two of tiicm, V. 12. for t]"**T'i^ we read D"'i1. So ako the Syriac version, which agrees with them. These five words are not necessary to the sense; and seem to be repeated only by the carelessness of the transcriber," K. — Author^i Nolo. 1-28 SIMILK, OH COMPAIUSON. Li:ct. XII. have an inimediate agreement, and some which are directly contrary to each other. Tiie mind, therefore, contemplates those objects which have a resemblance in their universal nature in such a manner as naturally to inquire, whether in any respect they so disagree as to furnish any mark of dis- crimination ;, on the contrary, it investigates those which are <>enerally different in such a manner as to remark, whe- ther, in their circumstances or adjuncts, they may not pos- sess something in common, which may serve as a bond of connexion or association to class or unite them. The final cause of the former of these operations seems to be, to cau- tion and guard us against error, in confounding one with another; of the latter, to form a kind of repository of knowledge, which may be resorted to, as occasion serves, either for utility or pleasure. These constitute the two faculties which are distinguished by the names o^ judgment and imagination.^' As accuracy of judgment is demon- strated by discovering in things which have in general a very strong resemblance, some partial disagreement; so the genius or fancy is entitled to the highest commendation, when in those objects which upon the Vv'hole have the least agreement, some striking similarity is traced out.| In those comparisons, therefore, the chief purpose of which is orna- ment or pleasure, thus far may pass for an established prin- ciple, that they are most likely to accomplish this end when the image is not only elegant and agreeable, but is also taken from an object which in the general is materially different from the subject of comparison, and only aptly and pertinently agrees with it in one or two of its attributes. But I shall probably explain myself better by an example. There is in Virgil a comparison, borrowed from Homer, of a boiling caldron. § Supposing in each poet the versifica- tion and description equally elegant; still, as the relation between the things compared is different, so the grace and beauty of the comparison is different in the two poets. In * See riobbes of Human Nature, c. x. sect. 4. and Locke of Human Understanding., b. xi. c. 11. sect. 2. \ Elegance of expression consists in metaphors, neither too remote, whicli are difficult to be understood ; nor too simple and superficial, which do not affect the passions." Arist. lihel. iii. 10. " For, as was before observed, me- taphors must be taken from objects that are familiar, yet not too plain and com- mon : as in philosophy it is a mark of sagacity to discern similitude even in very dissimilar things." Ih. c. ii. — Author s Note. § .^n. vii. 462. Iliad, xxi. 362. Lect. Xir. sniILE, OR COIMPARISON. 129 Homer, the waters of the river Xanthus boiling in their channel by the fire which Vulcan has thrown into the river, are compared with the boiling of a heated caldron ; but Virgil compares with the same object the mind of Turnus agitated by the torch of the fury Alecto. The one brings together ideas manifestly alike, or rather indeed the same, and only differing in circumstances; the other, on the contrary, as- similates objects which are evidently very different in their nature, but aptly agreeing in some of their adjuncts or cir- cumstances. Thus the comparison of the Latin poet is new, diversified, and agreeable ; but that of the Greek, although not destitute of force in illustrating the subject, is undoubt- edly wanting in all the graces of variety, ornament, and splendour. For the same reason there is, perhaps, no comparison of any poet extant more ingenious, more elegant or perfect in its kind, than the following of the same excellent poet : " The hero, floating in a flood of care, Beholds the tempest which his foes prepare: To different objects turns his anxious mind; Thinks, and rejects the counsels he designed ; Explores himself in vain, in every part, And gives no rest to his distracted heart. So when the sun by day, or moon by night. Strike on the polish'd brass their trembling light, The glittering species variously divide, And cast their dubious beams from side to side ; Now on the walls, now on the pavement play. And to the ceiling flash the glaring day."* He appears to be indebted for this passage to Apollonius Rhodius : " In sad review dire scenes of horror rise. Quick beats her heart, from thought to thought she flies : As from the stream-stor'd vase with dubious ray The sunbeams dancing from the surface play ; Now here, now there, the trembling radiance falls, Alternate flashing round th' illumin'd walls : Thus fluttering bounds the trembling virgin's blood, And from her eyes descends a pearly flood.":}: In this description, Virgil, as usual, has much improved upon his original ; and particularly in that circumstance *• Dryd. Virg. ^En. viii. 28. \ Fawkcs's Jrgonautics, B. iii. SI6. I 130 SIMILE, OR COMPARISON. Lect. XII. which is the most essential of all, that on which the fitness of the comparison depends, and which forms the hinge, as it were, upon which it turns, he has gready surpassed the ancient author. It appears, tliereforc, that in comparisons, the chief de- sign of which is ornament or variety, the principal excellence results from the introduction of an image different in kind, but correspondent in some particular circumstances. There are, however, two capital imperfections to wJiich this figure is sometimes liable; one, when objects too dissimilar, and dissimilar chiefly in the adjuncts or circumstances, are forced into comparison ; the other, and not less common or impor- tant, though perhaps less adverted to, w^hen the relation or resemblance is in general too exact and minute. The com- parison in the one case is monstrous and whimsical;* in the other, it is grovelling and inanimate. Examples innumerable in illustration of the present sub- ject might be found in the sacred poetry; I shall, however, produce not more than two from Isaiah. The first, from the historical narration of the confederacy betw^een the Syi-ians and the Israelites against the kingdom of Judah, " which when it was told unto the king," says the prophet, " his heart was moved, and the hearts of his people, as the trees of the wood are moved with the wind."| The other is a poetical comparison, which is fuller and more diffuse than the custom of the Hebrews generally admits : the sub- ject of correspondent application, however, is perfectly exact. * Tl)e principal fault which I have observed in the comparisons of the orientals is, that the resemblance is often too fanciful and remote. They are, however, not singular in this respect: the following occurs in one of our most elegant poems, and in my opinion it is in this respect very reprehensible. De- scribing the village clergyman, and his care of his flock, the poet proceeds : — " His ready smile a parent's warmth express'd, Their welfare picas'd him, and their cares distress'd ; To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven. As some tall cliff that lifts its awful form, ^ Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal simshine settles on Ins head.'' — Deserted Village. — T. There is another defect in this passage, which perhaps is the real cause of that here pointed out, arising from the use of the term as, by which the resem- blance between the mountain and the man is announced : not to mention the want of the antithetical so, which should necessarily have introduced a further application of the simile. — S. M. j Isn. vii. 2. Li;cT. Xir. SliMILE, Oil COMPARISON. 131 The divine grace,* and its effects, are compared witli showers that fertilize the earth ; an image which is uniformly appro- priated to that purpose : " Verily, like as the rain descendeth, And the snow from the heavens ; And thither it doth not return ; But moisteneth the earth, And niaketh it generate, and put forth its increase ; That it may give seed to tlie sower, and hread to the eater ; So shall he the word which goeth from my mouth ; It shall not return unto me fruitless ; But it shall effect what I have willed, And make the purpose succeed for which I have sent it.";]: More examples, and of superior elegance, may be found in the Song of Solomon. § It must not, indeed, be dissembled, that there are some in that poem which are very reprehen- sible, on account of that general dissonance, and fanciful '" This passage of the prophet loses much of its poetical beauty if it be not rightly understood. He is not speaking of that grace which the school divines treat of, and which has been celebrated since the time of Augustine in so many controversies, nor of the virtue and efficacy of the gospel in correcting the morals of mankind, but of the certain accoinplishment of the prophetic word. It was very customary among the Hebrews to compare the word of God, and particularly the word of prophecy, to a shower of rain ; Deut. xxxii. 2. ; Ezek. xxi. 2. ; Mic. ii. 6. ; Job xxix. 22, 23. When, therefore, it is their intention to describe the certain and inevitable accomplishment of the divine oracles, they represent the earth as impregnated and fertilized by this refreshing rain. Isaiah has celebrated in the xlth chapter, as well as in the chapter under our consideration, ver. 3, 4, and 5. the eternal covenant of God with the Israelites, and the accomplishment of that perpetual and permanent grace which he had sworn to David, namely, that an eternal and immortal king should sit upon his tin-one; and that he should rule and direct the heathen. If these should appear to any person above credibility, he advises liim to recollect that the divine counsels are far above the reach of the human understanding; and that those things are easy to him, which appear most difficult to us. He adds, that the sacred oracles, however miraculous, will most assuredly be fulfilled ; that the iL'ord of God may be compared to snoxo or rain, which does not return to heaven before it has performed its office of ivalering and fecundating the earth : so it is with the projjhctic decrees, or the divine predictions of future events. And in this light I understand the passage from the context, both from what precedes and what follows. There is one similar in cli. xlv. 8. ; but tiie idea is more condensed, assuming rather the form of a metaphor or allegory than of a comparison : " Drop down, O ye heavens ! the dew from above ; And let the clouds shower down righteousness : Let the earth open her bosom, and let salvation produce her fruit; And let justice push forth lier bud together." — IVI. t Isa. Iv. 10, 11. § See Cant. iv. I — 5. farther explained Lcct, 31. 132 SIMILE, OR COMPARISON. Lect. XII. agreement, wliich I have just remarked* as a great imper- fection attending the free use of this figure. We must be cautious, however, lest in some cases we charge the poet with errors which are in reahty our own ; since many of the objects which suggested these comparisons are greatly obscured, and some of them removed entirely beyond the sphere of our knowledge, by distance of time and place. It is the part of a wise man not rashly to condemn w^hat we are able but partially to comprehend. These three forms, according to which, for the sake of perspicuity, I have ventured to class Comparisons in general, are however not so incompatible that they may not occa- sionally meet and be variously blended with each other. That, indeed, appears to be the most perfect comparison, which combines all these different objects, and, while it ex- plains, serves at the same time to amplify and embellish the subject; and which possesses evidence and elevation, sea- soned with elegance and variety. A more complete ex- ample is scarcely to be found than that passage in which Job impeaches the infidelity and ingratitude of his friends, who in his adversity denied him those consolations of ten- derness and sympathy, which, in his prosperous state, and when he needed them not, they had lavished upon him : he compares them with streams, which, increased by the rains of winter, overflow their borders, and display for a little time a copious and majestic torrent ; but with the first im- pulse of the solar beams are suddenly dried up, and leave those who unfortunately wander through the deserts of Arabia destitute of water, and perishing with thirst.J Thus far of Comparisons in general, and of their matter and intention : it remains to add a few words concerning the particular form and manner in which the Hebrews usually exliibit them. The Hebrews introduce Comparisons more frequently perhaps than the poets of any other nation ; but the brevity of them in general compensates for their abundance. The resemblance usually turns upon a single circumstance; that they explain in the most simple terms, rarely introducing any thing at all foreign to the purpose. The following ex- ample, therefore, is almost singular, since it is loaded with an extraordinary accession, or I might almost say a super- fluity, of adjuncts: — * Sec Cant. vJi. 2. 4. | Job vi. 1 5—20. L KIT. XII. SIMILE, OR COMPARISON'. 1.33 " Let them be as grass upon the house-top, Whicli, before it groweth up, is withered ; With whicli the mower Hlleth not liis hand ; Nor he that gathereth tlie sheaves his bosom : Nor do they that pass by say, The blessing of Jehovah be upon you;* We bless you in the name of Jehovah. "| The usual practice of the Hebrews is indeed very different from this : sometimes a single word, and connnonly a very short sentence, comprehends the whole comparison. This peculiarity proceeds from the nature of the sententious style, which is always predominant in the Hebrew poetry, and, as I before remarked, consists in condensing and com- pressing every exuberance of expression, and rendering it close and pointed. Thus, in the very parts in which other poets are copious and diffuse, the Hebrews, on the contrary, are brief, energetic, and animated ; not gliding along in a smooth and equal stream, but with the inequality and im- petuosity of a torrent. Tims their comparisons assume a peculiar form and appearance; for it is not so much their custom to dilate and embellish each particular image \vith a variety of adjuncts, as to heap together a number of parallel and analogous comparisons, all of which are ex- pressed in a style of the utmost brevity and simplicity. Moses compares the celestial influence of the divine song which he utters by the command of God, with showers which water the fields ; and on an occasion when a Greek or Latin poet would have been contented with a single comparison, perhaps a little more diffused and diversified, he has introduced two pairs of similes exactly expressive of the same thing : *' My doctrine shall drop as the rain ; My language shall alight like the dew : As the small rain upon the tender herb ; And like the thick drops upon the grass."§ The Psalmist makes use of the same form in the following : '' O my God ! make them as the chaff whirled about; As the stubble before the wind : As the fire burnetii the forest, And as the flame kindleth the mountains ; * A customary expression made use of in this business. See Ruth ii. 4. \ Psal. cxxix. G — 8. See also Psal. cxxxiii. .'?. § Deut. xxxii. 2. Ui SIMILE, OH CO.\J PA lllSON. Lect. XII. So do thou pursue them with thy tempests, And with thy whirlwind make them afraid."* Tliis is, indeed, the most common, but by no means the only form which this figin'e assumes in the Hebrew poetry : tliere is another, in which the comparison is more diffusively displayed ; in which case the equal distribution of the sen- tences is still strictly adhered to ; the image itself, however, is not repeated, but its attributes, which explain one another in two parallel sentences — as Moses has done in a compari- son immediately following that which I just now quoted, in which he compares the care and paternal affection of the Deity for his people, with the natural tenderness of the eagle for its young : " As the eagle stirreth up her nest ; Fluttereth over her young ; Expandeth her plumes, taketh them ; Beareth them upon her wings.":}: The same is observable also in that most elegant comparison of Job, which I formerly commended; and which, for this reason, I shall now quote entire by way of conclusion : " My brethren have dealt deceitfully like a torrent. As the torrents of the valleys they are passed away ; Which are congealed § by means of the frost ; The snow hideth itself in their surface : As soon as they flow, they are dried up, When it is hot they are consumed from their place ; * Psal. Ixxxiii. 13 — 15. Between these two comparisons there exists so nice a relation, that they would form one simple comparison, were it not that the sententious distribution of the verses had disposed the subject in a different form and order. Their threshing-floors were so constructed in open situations, that, when the corn was beaten out, the wind carried oft" the chaff and straw, ■which being collected together was burnt. See Isa. v. 24-. Matt. iii. 12. and Hammond's Com. Jaguar, however, is used for any high and uncultivated place, as appears from IMic. iii. 12. " This sense of the word is also confirmed from the Arabic Vagnary a mountain steep and difficult of access." H. — Author s Note. Perhaps it may be thought too free a version to render tsbnlD "^nSIDll, " And with thy whirlwind involve them in terror;" — but the words themselves seem to comprise no less. — Pursue them with Ihy tempests, is an evident reference to the dissijmtion of the dtajf, and what follows relates clearly to the expansion ofthejlame. — S. H. \ Deut. xxxii. 11. § Or, as Dr DurcU proposes, ivhich stand still ; as though the original had been lI3'»'1*Tpn, instead of tD'^'Tlpn. — For this elegant emendation the learned Doctor is indebted to Father Iloubigant, but he forgot to mention its autlior: Mr Heath, however, had a better memory. — S. H. Lect. XIL SIIMILE, OH COMPARISON. I3j The paths of their channels arc diminished, They ascend in vapour, and are lost. Look for them, ye troops of Tenia ; Ye travellers of Sheba, expect them earnestly. They made no haste ; because they depended on them : They came thither, then were they confounded."* * Job vi. lo — 20. " In the fifth line the word H*!!"* is one of those which only once occur in the Scripture. In the Arabic and Chaldce the proper force of the verb i*lT is to Jiow, to Jlow off, or to overjloiv : thus the sense will I)e, In the time in iL'hich tlicy Jiow, or Jlow off; that is, are dissolved by the melting of the ice." — H. In the 20th verse it appears one should read *irTl3l, with the Syr. and Chald. — Author s Note. 136 I'EHSOXiriC ATION. Lect. XIII. LECTURE XIII. OF THE PROSOPOPCEIA, OR PERSONIFICATION. Two kinds of Personification : ichen a character is assigned to fictitious or inanimate objects ; and iclien a -probable speech is attributed to a real person — Of fictitious and inanimate characters; of real characters — TJie Prosopopoeia of the mother of Sis era [iji the song of Deborah) explained: also the triumphal song of the Israelites concerning the death of the king of Babylon (in Isaiah), ivhich consists altogether of this figure, and exhibits it in all its different forms. The last in order of those figures which I proposed to treat of, as being most adapted to the parabohc style, is the Pro- sopopooia, or Personification.* Of this figure there are two kinds : one, when action and character are attributed to fic- titious, irrational, or even inanimate objects; the other, when a probable but fictitious speech is assigned to a real charac- ter. The former evidently partakes of the nature of the metaphor, and is by far the boldest and most daring of that class of figures. Seasonably introduced, therefore, it has uncommon force and expression; and in no hands what- ever is more successful in this respect than in those of the * The passions of resentment and love have been very accurately traced by some late writers on the human mind, into the senses of pain and pleasure : the one arising from the habitual inclination to remove what is luirtful ; the other, from that of possessing what is a source of grateful sensations, and a mean of increasing pleasure. (See Hartley on Man, and a Dissertation prefixed to King's Origin of Evil.) The strong expression of these passions is, however, chiefly directed to rational, or at least to animated beings ; but this is the effect of reason and habit. The passions are still the same, and Mill frequently dis- play themselves in opposition to reason. A child turns to beat the ground, or the stone, that has hurt him, (see Lord Kames' Elements of Criticisni) ; and most men feel some degree of affection even for the old inanimate companions of their happiness. From these dispositions originates the figure wJiich is the great and distinguishing ornament of poetry, the Prosopopoeia. This figure is nearly allied to the metaphor, and still more to the metonymy ; it is to the latter what the allegory is to the metaphor. Thus, when we say, " Youth and beauty shall be laid in the dust," for persons possessing youth and beauty, it is hard to determine whether it be a metonymy or a prosopopoeia. Lyric poetry, in which the imagination seems to have the fullest indulgence, and which abounds with strong figures, is most favourable to personification. — T. Lect. XIH. personification. 1.37 Hebrew writers; I may add also, that none more frequently or more freely introduee it. In the first place, then, with respect to fictitious charac- ters, the Hebrews have this in common with other poets, that they frequently assign character and action to an ab- stract or general idea, and introduce it in a manner acting, and even speaking, as upon the stage.* In tliis, while they equal the most refined writers in elegance and grace, they' greatly excel the most sublime in force and majesty. What, indeed, can be conceived apter, more beautiful, or more sublime, than that personification of Wisdom which Solomon so frequently introduces? exhibiting her not only as the director of human life and morals, as the inventor of arts, as the dispenser of wealth, of honour, and of real felicity ; but as the immortal offspring of the onmipotent Creator, and as the eternal associate in the divine counsels: " When he prepared the heavens, I was present ; When he described a circle on the face of the deep : When he disposed the atmosphere above ; When he established the fountains of the deep : W^hen he published his decree to the sea, That the waters should not pass their bound ; Wlien he planned the foundations of the earth : Then was I by him as his offspring ; And I was daily his delight ; I rejoiced continually before him : I rejoiced in the habitable part of his earth, And my delights were with the sons of men. "J How admirable is that celebrated personification of the divine attributes by the Psalmist! how just, elegant, and splendid does it appear, if applied only according to the literal sense, to the restoration of the Jewish nation from the Babylonish captivity ! But if interpreted as i*elating to that sublimer, more sacred and mystical sense, which is not obscurely sha- * There is a very animated personification of this kind in one of Dr Ogdcn's sermons, though by some it may perhaps be thought too bold for that species of composition. " Truth," says that elegant and sublime writer, " is indeed of an awful presence, and must not be aflVonted with the rudeness of direct opposition ; yet will she sometimes condescend to pass for a moment unregarded, while your respects are paid to her sister Charity." That of Bishop Sherlock, which our Author has quoted in his admirable Introduction to English Grammar, " Go to your natural religion, lay before her Mahomet and his disciples," &c. is well known, and is one of the finest examples of this figure I have ever seen. — T. \ Prov. viii. 27—31. 138 PERSONIFICATION. Lect. XIII. iloweil luulcr the ostensible image, it is certainly uncommon- ly noble and elevated, mysterious and sublime : <' Mercy and Truth are met together ; Righteousness and Peace have kissed each other."* Thei-e are many passages of a similar kind, exquisitely ima- gined, and, from the boldness of the fiction, extremely forci- ble. 8ucli is that in Habakkuk, of the Pestilence marching before Jehovah when he comes to vengeance : f that in Job, in which Destruction and Death affirm of Wisdom, that her fame only had come to their ears: J in fine, (that I may not be tedious in quoting examples), that tremendous image in Isaiah, of Hades § extending her throat, and open- ing her insatiable and immeasurable jaws. || * Psal. Ixxxv. 11. t Hab. iii. 5. \ Job xxviii. 22. § Isa. v. 14. II I have not observed, even in the Hebrew poetry, a bolder use of this figure, than in a passage of Tacitus, ^4n. 16. 21. Trucidatis tot insignibus viris, ad postronnvi Nero Virlulem ijxsam exscindere concupivit, inlerfectu Tlirasea, &c. " After the slaughter of so many excellent men, Nero meditated at length the extirpation of Virtue herself by the sacrifice of Thrasca," &c. In the opening of CoUins's Ode to Mercy is a noble example of the pro- sopopa'ia : " Thou, who sitt'st a smiling bride. By Valour's arm'd and awful side," &c. But the whole compass of English poetry cannot furnish a more beautiful specimen than the following : " Loud howls the storm ! the vex'd Atlantic roars ! Thy Genius, Britain, wanders on its shores ! Hears cries of horror wafted from afar, The groans of anguish, 'mid the shrieks of war ! Hfears the deep curses of the Great and Brave Sigh in the wind, and murmur in the wave ! O'er his damp brow the sable crape he binds. And throws his victor-garland to the winds." Miss Seward's Monody on Mnjor Andre. How diflerent are these instances from the frigid attempts of inferior writers ! Tlie following personification is completely ridiculous. It is, however, ex- tracted from a poem, which has been highly extolled by one who calls himself a Critic : " Invidious Grave, how dost thou rend in sunder "Whom love has knit, and sympathy made one !" — Tlic Grave, a Poem. It is a happy thing, that as there arc poets of all degrees, there are also critics of taste and judgment exactly equal and correspondent to them. — Par nobile ! The picture of a Grave rending a thing in sunder, can only be matched by the following passage from the same incomparable performi-tnce : ■ " But tell us, why this waste, Why this ado in earthing up a carcass ^ That's fall'n into disgrace, and to the sense Smells horrible ? Ye undertakers ! lell us" Lect. Xlll. PERSONIFICATION. 130 There is also another most be:iutiful species of personifi- cation, which originates from a well-known Hebrew idiom, and on that account is very familiar to us; I allude to that form of expression, by which the subject, attribute, accident, or eifect of any thing, is denominated the son. Hence, in the Hebrew poetry, nations, regions, peoples, are brought upon the stage as it were in a female character : " Descend, and sit in the dust, O virgin, daughter of Babylon ; Sit on the bare ground without a throne, O daughter of the Chaldeans :* For thou shalt no longer be called the tender and the deli- cate."! " Where are the mighty thunderbolts of war ? Alas! how slim, dishonourabli/ slim /" " Now tame and humble, like a child thaCs whipj/d, Shake hands with dust," &c. " Perhaps so7He hackney hunger-bitten scribbler Insults thy memorj%" " Here the lank-sided miser — worst of felons ! Who meanly stole (discreditable shift!) From back and belly too their proper cheer, Lies cheaply lodg'd." " O that some courteous ghost would blab it out. What 'tis ye are," ivc. O great Man-eater W^hose every day is carnival, not sated yet ! Like one, whole days defrauded of his meals. On whom lank Hunger lays his skinny hand." No wonder the above Critic could discover nothing sublime in Virgil and the Scriptures. — T. •' " Sitting on the ground was a posture that denoted deep misery and dis- tress. The prophet Jeremiah has given it the first place among many indica- tions of sorrow, in that elegant description of the distress of his country, Lam. ii. 8. * The elders of the daughter of Sion sit on the ground, they are silent,' &c. We find Judea, says Mr Addison, (on Medals, dial, ii.), o7i several coins of Vespasian and l^itns, in a j^osture that denotes sorrow and captivity. — I need not mention her sitting on the ground, because ive have already spoken of the aptness of such a posture to represent extreme affliction. I fancy the Romans might have an eye to the customs of the Jewish nation, as well as those of their country, in the several marks of sorrow they have set on this figure. J'he Psalmist describes the Jews laTuenting their captivity in the same pensive pos- ture : * By the waters of Babylon we sat down and ivept, when we remembered thee, 0 Sion/ But what is more remarkable, we find Judea represented as a w'oman in sorrow sitting on the ground, in a passage of the prophet that foretells the very captivity recorded on this medal." — See Bishop Lowth's Notes on Isaiah, c. iii. v. 26. f Isa. xlvii. 1, &c. UO PERSONIFICATION. Lect. XIII. Lo ! Sion's daughter, prostrate on the earth, All mournful, solitary, weeping, lies ! In vain her suppliant hands to heaven extends ; She sinks deserted, and no comfort finds.* Unless we attend to this peculiar phraseology, such expres- sions as the " Sons of the bowf and of the quiver,":}: for ar- rows, will seem extremely harsh and unnatural; as well as that remarkable personification of Job, denoting the most miserable death, " the first-born of the progeny of Death." § The parabolic style no less elegantly assigns a character and action to inanimate objects than to abstract ideas. The holy prophets, moved with just indignation against the un- grateful people of God, " obtest the Heavens and the Earth, and command universal Nature to be silent. 1| They plead their cause before the Mountains, and the Hills listen to their voice." 5f All is animated and informed with life, soul, and passion : " Let the Heavens rejoice, and let the Earth be glad ; And let them proclaim through thenations, Jehovah reigneth. Let the Sea roar, and all that it containeth ;** The World, and the inhabitants thereof: Let the Floods clap their hands ; Let the Mountains break forth into harmony :f f Before Jehovah, for he cometh. For he cometh to judge the earth.":}: | " The Waters saw thee, O God ! The Waters saw thee, they were grievously troubled ;§§ The Deep uttered his voice ; And lifted up his hands on high." || || And Job admirably in the same style : " Canst thou send forth the Lightnings, and will they go ? Shall they say unto thee, Behold here we are ?"5|^ With equal success they introduce objects which have no exis- tence in the order and economy of nature; though it must be confessed, that it is attended with much greater hazard of propriety; for, to those which are within the province of nature, we readily attribute a degree of life and sentiment. Of this the following dialogue in Jeremiah is an admirable specimen : — * Lam. i. 1, &c. t Job xli. 19. t ^-am. iii. 13. § Job xviii. 13. || Dent, xxxii. 1. Isa. i. 2. t Mic. vi. 1. ^* 1 Chron. xvi. 31. ff Psal. xcviii. 7, 8. \\ Psal. xcvi. 1.3. §§ Psal. Ixxvii. IG. |{ || Habak. iii. 10. ^^ Chap, xxxviii. 35. Lect. XIII. PERSONIFICATION. 141 " Ho ! Sword ofjKiiovAH I How long wilt thou not be at rest ? Return into thy scabbard ; Return, and be still. How can it be at rest, Since Jehovah hath given it a charge ? Against Askelon, and against the sea-coast, There hath he appointed it."* The other kind of prosopopoeia, to which 1 alluded in the former part of this Lecture, is that by which a probable but fictitious speech is assigned to a real person. As the former is calculated to excite admiration and approbation by its novelty, boldness, and variety ; so the latter, from its near resemblance to real life, is possessed of great force, evidence, and authority. It would be an infinite task to specify every instance in the sacred poems, which on this occasion might be referred to as worthy of notice ; or to remark the easy, the natural, the bold and sudden personifications; the dignity, impor- tance, and impassioned severity of the characters. It would be difficult to describe the energy of that eloquence which is attributed to Jehovah himself, and which appears so suitable in all respects to the Divine Majesty; or to display the force and beauty of the language which is so admirably and peculiarly adapted to each character; the probability of the fiction ; and the excellence of the imitation. One example, therefore, must suffice for the present; one more perfect it is not possible to produce. It is expressive of the eager expectation of the mother of Sisera, from tlie inimi- table ode of the prophetess Deborah. f The first sentences exhibit a striking picture of maternal solicitude, both in words and actions; and of a mind sus- pended and agitated between hope and fear : *=' Through the window she looked and cried out, The mother of Sisera, through the lattice : Wherefore is his chariot so long in coming ? Wherefore linger the wheels of his chariot ?" Immediately, impatient of his delay, she anticipates the con- solations of her friends, and her mind being somewhat ele- vated, she boasts, with all the levity of a fond female, — (Vast in her hopes and giddy with success); * Jer. xlvii. 6, 7. t Judges v. 28—30. U2 PERSONIFICATION. Lect. XIII. " Her wise ladies answer her ; Yea, she returns answer to herself: Have they not found ? Have they not divided the spoil ?" Let us now observe, how well adapted every sentiment, every word is, to the character of the speaker. She takes no account of the slaughter of the enemy, of the valour and conduct of the conqueror, of the multitude of the captives, but Burns with a female thirst of prey and spoils. Nothing is omitted, which is calculated to attract and en- gage the passions of a vain and trifling woman — slaves, gold, and rich apparel. Nor is she satisfied with the bare enu- meration of them : she repeats, she amplifies, she heightens every circumstance ; she seems to have the very plunder in her immediate possession; she pauses, and contemplates every particular : " Have they not found ? Have they not divided the spoil ? To every man a damsel, yea a damsel or two ? To Sisera a spoil of divers colours ? A spoil of needlework of divers colours, A spoil for the neck* of divers colours of needlework on either side." To add to the beauty of this passage, there is also an un- common neatness in the versification, great force, accuracy, and perspicuity in the diction, the utmost elegance in the repetitions, which, notwithstanding their apparent redun- dancy, are conducted with the most perfect brevity. In the end, the fatal disappointment of female hope and credulity, tacitly insinuated by the sudden and unexpected apostrophe, " So let all thine enemies perish, O Jehovah I" is expressed more forcibly by this very silence of the person who was just speaking, than it could possibly have been by all the powers of language. But whoever wishes to iniderstand the full force and ex- cellence of this figure, as well as the elegant use of it in the Hebrew ode, must apply to Isaiah, whom I do not scruple * bbU7 '•"iKIltb, " A spoil to ornament the neck," is the constructive for the absohitc. See Mic. vi. 16. ; Lam. iii. Ik and 66. For further satisfac- tion on this subject consult Buxtorf, Tlics. Gram. ii. 4. who, nevertheless, in the same work interjirets this phrase in a different manner. The Seventy read I'lNl^tb, and the Syriac b^liy ; the context .will hear either. — Author s Note. Lect.XIII. personification. 14-3 to pronounce the subliniest of poets. He will there find, in one short poem, examples of almost every form of the pro- sopopoeia, and indeed of all that constitutes the sublime in composition. I trust it will not be thought unseasonable to refer immediately to the i)assage itself, and to remark a few of the principal excellencies.* The prophet, after predicting the liberation of the Jews from their severe captivity in Babylon, and their restoration to their own country, introduces them as reciting a kind of triumphal song upon the fall of the Babylonish monarch, replete with imagery, and with the most elegant and ani- mated personifications. A sudden exclamation, expressive of their joy and admiration on the unexpected revolution in their aflairs, and the destruction of their tyrants, forms the exordium of the poem. The earth itself triumphs with the inhabitants thereof; the fir-trees and the cedars of Lebanon (under which images the parabolic style frequently delineates the kings and princes of the Gentiles) exult with joy, and persecute with contemptuous reproaches the humbled power of a ferocious enemy : " The whole earth is at rest, is quiet ; they burst forth into a joyful shout : Even the fir-trees rejoice over thee, the cedars of Lebanon : Since thou art fallen, no feller hath come up against us."f This is followed by a bold and animated personification of Hades, or the infernal regions. Hades excites his inhabi- tants, the ghosts of princes, and the departed spirits of kings : they rise immediately from their seats, and proceed to meet the monarch of Babylon ; they insult and deride him, and comfort themselves with the view of his calamity: '' Art thou, even thou too, become weak as we ? Art thou made like unto us ? Is then thy pride brought down to the grave ? the sound of thy sprightly instruments ? Is the vermin become thy couch, and the earth-worm thy * Isa. xiv. 4—27. f Thus spiritedly versified by Mr I'otter : The lordly Lebanon waves high The ancient honours of his sacred head ; Their branching arms his cedars spread, His pines triumphant shoot into the sky : " Tyrant, no barb'rous axe invades, Since thou art fallen, our unpierc'd shades." See the conclusion of Lcct. 28. — T, 14.4 PERSONIFICATION. Lect. XIII. Again, the Jewish people are tlie speakers, in an exclama- tion alter the manner of a funeral lamentation, which in- tleed the whole form of this composition exactly imitates.* * Tlirenctic strains on the untimely decease of royal and eminent perso- na"-es, were of high antiquity amongst the Asiatics. Thus Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, v. 177. Cll. Av']f4^a.Xf/.ii; u'$as, 'TMNON T A2IHTAN ^«, A.iffToivx f i^uvdaffeo, Tav £v 0PHNOI2IN fjt^ffav, '^IKVfflV fjLlXlOV' And again, Orestes, v. 1402. AIAINON, AIAINON, APXAN, 0ANATOT. Ha^Scc^oi Xiyii(riv, A I, A I, A