MmuHumt ^? a ^-^Ihy^uAk ^^ -7 /^d-O- / / VEDANTISM, BIUHMISM, AND CHRISTIANITY EXAMINED AND COMPAEED. A PBIZE ESSAY. BY THE EEV. JOSEPH 'ilULLENS, •5 MISSIONARY OF THE LONDON MISSIONAEY SOCIETY. CALCUTTA : PRINTED BY J. THOMAS, BAPTIST MISSION PEESS, FOK THE CALCUTTA CHRISTIAN TRACT AND BOOK SOCIETY. 1852. ADVERTISEMENT. In September, 1849, the Committee of the Calcutta Christian Tract and Book Society issued the follo\Yiug notice : " It is proposed to award a Prize of Three Hundred Rupees to the best Essay, either in EngHsh or BengaH, on Vedantism, or the systems inchided under that name. " The Essayist will be required to give an account of the Origin and Antiquity of Yedantism, and of its true characters and dog- mas, illustrated by copious quotations from Vyasa and his fol- lowers ; and to discuss in like manner the question whether any such system is really to be found in the Vedas. " He will then examine whether the modern system so called, as taught in the Bramha Sabha, be identical with the Vedanta of Vyasa ; and if not, what its peculiar doctrines are, and on what foundation they rest. " Finally, the Essayist will be required to point out the insu- perable difficulties which He in the way of receiving either of these systems as a revelation from Grod ; and to contrast them with Christianity, as adapted to be the religion of mankind." The present Essay was among otliers written in repl}^ to this notice, and to it the prize was awarded. CONTENTS. Page Introduction, ... ... ... ... 'l Eeasons for giving up all faith in Puranic Hinduism, ... 4 Sketcli of the History of the Tattwabodhini Sabha, 5 PAET I. The Docteines of the Vedanttc Schools. Chapter I.— The Vedant of Yyas and his Followers, ... 11 Origin and Antiquity of Vyas's System : his Commentators : Vedantic Authorities, ... ... ... ... 13 Sec. 1. — Definition of Vedantism ; its scope and aim ; the authorities from whence it is derived ; the condi- tions and mode of studying it, ... ... 19 2. — Of Brahma ; liis Attributes ; his relation to the Universe, ... ... ... ... 24 3. — Of the Universe and its Elements : . . . ... 32 4. — Of Man ; body and soid, ... ... ... 35 5. — The State of Man in relation to Brahma, and how ^ he may be freed from it, ... ... ... 42 Chapter IL— Tlie Vedantism of the Vedas, ... ... 62 Introduction. — Description of the Upanishads, ... 63 Sec. 1. — The Scope and Aim of the Yedic doctrine; the con- ditions and mode of Study, ... ... 65 2. — Of the Supreme Brahma ; liis attributes ; relation to tlie Universe ; extensive evidence of Pantheism, ... 73 3. — The Universe and its Elements : including the Gods, 90 4. — Of Man, body and soul : Pantheism again, ... 93 5. — The State of Man, and how he may be freed from it, 98 Chapter III. — Modem Brahmism, ... ... 109 Introduction. — Authorities which define the modern system, 110 Sec. 1. — The Sources of Di^dne Knowledge, ... ... 112 2. — The Supreme God, ... ... ... 114 3. — His Attributes, ... ... ... ih. 4. — His Helation to the Universe, ... ... 115 5. — Gods and Debtas, ... ... ... 117 6. — Of Man, ... ... ... ... ib. JPage See. 7.— Of Morality, ... ... ... ... 118 8. — Family Duties, ... ... ... 120 9.— Man's Duty to Himself, ... ... ...121 10.— Of Motives to Virtue, ... ... ...122 ll.-OfSin, ... ... ... ... ih. 12.— The Pimisliment of Sin. ... ... ...123 13.— The Way of Salvation, ... ... ,.. ih. 14. — Of the Transmigration of Souls, ... ... 127 15.— The Future World, ... ... ... 128 Summary. Points on which the ancient and modern sys- tems agree : and on which they differ, ... ... 129 PAET II. These Systems aee not of Divine Oeigin. Introduction. — Principles of enquiiy, derived from the Con- stitution of Man, ... ... ... ... 134 Sec. 1. — The Vedas are not a Eevelation from God, . . . 136 2. — Difficulties in Studying the Vedas, ... ... 142 3. — Vedic Science, ... ... ... 143 4.— TheDoctrmeofMaya, ... ... ... 147 5. — Pantheism, ... ... ... ... 150 6.— The Morality of Pantheism, ... ...153 7. — Defence of Idolatry, ... • ... ... 156 8. — On Transmigration. ... ... ... 165 9. — On Caste and its Effects, .. . ... ... 172 10. — The Heligion of Nature, its Uncertainty, Deficien- cy and Want of Power, ... ... ... 176 PAET III. The Claims or Cheistianity. Sec. 1. — The History of the Way of Salvation, .. . ... 196 2. — What Christianity is and what it means, . . . 201 3.— The Moral Precepts of the Bible, ... ... 206 4.— The Character of Christ, ... ... ... 211 5.— The Jews Witnesses to the Truth of the Bible. . . . 215 6.— The Miracles of the Bible, ... ... 218 7.— The Prophecies of the Bible, ^ ... ... 223 8,— Christianity a Universal Religion, ... ... 239 9.— The Effects of Christianity, ... ...233 Conclusion, ... ... ... ... 245 VEDANTISM, BRAHMISM, AND CHRISTIANITY. INTRODUCTION. During the past few years, the spread of English Educa- tion, of European Science, and of moral and religious truth, in Bengal, has produced a most powerful impression upon native society. Great numbers of young men, especially in Calcutta and its neighbourhood, have given up a blind and bigoted attachment to the idolatrous system long honoured by their forefathers ; and have exhibited an anxiety to seek a better and purer faith. With their enlarged views of scientific and moral truth, with a finer standard of judgment than that possessed by their untaught countrymen, in all that concerns their best interests, it was impossible that they should continue to receive, in silence and respect, the legends which their ancestors devoured without question. Looking at Puranic Hinduism any way, they can see only foolish theories, abominable gods, sensual worship and degrading dogmas, leaving fearful traces of evil in the character and practice of their unthinking worshippers. While believing that in the creation of the Universe is seen the most glorious proof of the power and wisdom of God, tliey learn from the description of it in the Shastras, the most humiliating evi- dences of his indecision, imbecility and folly. While believ- ing that God is one^ they find two rival deities claiming their regard, and sometimes quarrelling with each other. While believing that God is all-wise, they find that Brahma knew B not the constitution of the world that he had formed ; and Vishnu could not reproduce the universe without the Yedas. Ram was not aware of the capture of Sita ; nor did Kali know that she was dancing on her lord. God is all-power- ful. But Brahma wept because he could not create : Vishnu could not conquer Raban without Hanuman ; nor save himself from the curse of Bhrigu. Krishna could not get king Danda's mare even by stealing, nor conquer the Kurus with- out a lie. Siva could not save his ling, nor preserve from destruction the head of his son : nor could Surja provide himself with a new set of teeth. Men must believe that God is true. But Brahma was cursed for lying : Vishnu became incarnate to deceive king Bali : Ram lied to Raban ; and Yudhisthir lied at the suggestion of Krishna. If God is pure, how can the superior gods of Hinduism claim that character ; when according to the Shastras, they were guilty of adultery, harlotry, incest and drunkenness. Brahma wished to violate his daughter : Vishnu seduced Jalandhar's wife : Mahadev was openly profligate : Indra deceived the wife of Goutam : Ram was put out of caste for killing Brahmans : and Krishna's adulteries and murders are known to the wide world. While standing aghast at the character of these gods, thev cannot think well of the mode of their worship. Base, brutish idolatry ; the adoration of mud and wooden images, are enjoined by the Shastras, and practised to such an extent as to make the Hindus the most idolatrous people on the face of the earth. The Charak Puja cannot teach them kindness ; nor the Ras, moral purity. The Snan Jattra will not impress them with a conviction of God's holiness ; nor the songs of the Rath Jattra elevate it in their esteem. A wise man must feel that the endless ceremonies enjoined by the Purans contain no true way of sal cation. They see that thousands who daily bathe in the purifying Ganges are among the vilest people of the country ; and that long pilgrimages to see a wooden Jagannath lead only to immorality, disease and death. They cannot see any virtue in the name of Hari to purify the heart and pardon sin : nor discern the justice of God in the fact that, when the wicked Ajamil on his death- bed accidentally called his son Narayan, he was reckoned as Laving appealed to Vishnu, and was therefore saved from the vengeance of Yam. The rite of Sati, they know, was encourag- ed and fostered by this system ; and the cruel exposure of the sick at the Ganges' side is so encouraged to the present day. Compelled to abjure the system both for its objects and mode of worship ; for its cruel dogmas and unsatisfying rites, .their condemnation of it is confirmed by surveying its con- stant fruits. They see every where religious error, gross darkness and grievous superstition. The gods are feared, never loved. The scream of the owl, the chirp of the lizard, the sight of an empty pitcher, the sound of the word *Kachchhap,' are believed to determine the fortunes of men for good or evil. The most grovelling notions prevail con- cerning the nature and character of the supreme ; the most grovelling notions of moral duty and religious obligation. They see the worst vices extensively prevalent, yet fostered by the religion which all believe. Men and women are made the slaves of a lordly priesthood ; while the whole female population are consigned to the depths of ignorance and de2;radation. When they see all this, they cannot but feel ashamed and disgusted with the faith of their fathers, and desire, in any le- gitimate way to provide themselves with a better. In this they feel rightly. True religion is an all-important blessing ; the salvation of the immortal soul is an all-absorbing: care. But many have forsaken the old belief, only to adopt another system which has errors of its own. Avoiding the rocks of Scylla' they dash upon Charybdis ; and cannot escape the dreadful ruin which falls upon all, who die unreconciled to an offended God. Such an error some of their best friends have seen with great regret ; and with a view to open their B 2 eyes to the true character of their posifion, they have sug- gested the present enquiry into the Vetlantic and Christian systems, which now above all others claim their homage. To this enquiry they request their candid and prayerful atten- tion. For their good alone it is intended : may that good be its result ! Among those who, in modern days, were the first to throw aside the Puranic system as an abominable error, stood fore- most the Raja Rammohan Roy. He was learned in the Shastras beyond many Pandits of his time, and gave especial attention to the study of the Vedas. There he found the doctrine of one God, ' the God of the whole world,' and believing that that was the basis and sum of true religion, he desired that his countrymen should embrace it. Unlike the apathetic many of this land, be felt a love for his degraded countrymen, and having, as he believed, found the true light, he determined to make efforts to communicate that lis-ht to others. **He appeared among his countrymen as a champa- tree in a wood of thorns." At a great expense of money and trouble, he collected certain of the Upanishads, trans- lated them into Bengali and, with other works, caused them to be circulated. Though much opposed by his family and friends, and suffering much from obloquy (as all reformers do), he steadily persevered in his efforts. With a view to give a public expression of his opinions, in January, 1 830, (or according to the Bengali Sakabda, 1 1th Magh, 1751,) he and his friends established the Brahma Sabha ; that is, a regular meeting, after the model of Christian meetings, in which the Upanishads should be read and explained, and the worship of Brahma celebrated with hymns and prayers. The anni- versary of this day is still observed with ceremony among his followers. After his departure to Europe, the Sabha gradually lost its members ; it fell to the ground, and nothing was heard of its objects for a period of six years. The con- viction, however, that the gross idolatry of Puranic Hinduism cannot be sustained, continued to gain strength; and in 1839 another attempt was made to revive the opinions and re- embody the purpose of Rammohan Roy. On the sixth of October (iVswin 21st, 1761), the Pandit Ram Chandra with his scholars and friends, ten in number, met in the house of Babu Dwarkanath Thakur, established the present Tattwabodhini Sabha, and determined, by actively advocating their views, to endeavour to gain converts to their faith. In 1840, the Katha Upanishad was pubHshed and a school established. The members slowly increased in number: being 112 in 1841, but falling of to 83 the follow- ing yejir. In 1843, a kind friend presented the Sabha with a press and fount of types, and from that time it increased in importance. Larger meetings began to be held : new members enrolled their names ; a spirit of activity was infused into the leaders ; and strong efforts were made to spread far and wide the doctrines which they had embraced. The tim.e was most favourable for such an advance. English education had produced in the minds of hundreds^ the very conviction from which the Sabha started ; namely, the falsity of Puran- ism ; a conviction which in the days of Rammohan Roy had been shared by comparatively few. The special aim of the Tattwabodhini Society, as recorded in its own papers, is to "make known the Rehgion of Brahma;" to induce men to believe that religion, and practise what they beheve. This end it seeks in no narrow sphere. It desires that the light of wisdom "should brighten the whole of India ; that each man of the 140 millions living between the Himalaya and Cape Comorin should become a member of the society : and that hence the Hindu race should enjoy the respect and honour, which were shown to their great ancestors, in the days when Hindustan was the chief seat of learnino; and relis-ion." For the accomplishment of this end, it purposes to employ special means, described in its Reports. 1 . The religion of Brahma must be drawn out from the Shastras. 2. The wisdom and power of God must be demonstrated from his B 3 6' works. 3. The rules by which men may be guided to a rehgious practice, must also be laid down. Under the Jirsf of these, is to be determined what the original Shastra is ; what rules it prescribes for sacrifices, ceremonies, conduct, and worship ; and by what clianges the modern system, con- tained in the Tantras, Purans, Six Darsans and'Smritis, came to arise. To discover these important facts, a complete col- lection must be made of the four Vedas, all the Smritis, the Six Darsans, all the Purans and all the Tantras : and pandits and scholars must be appointed to read, translate, examine and describe them. The second item in the plan also requires much labour. For a complete illustration of the wisdom, power and goodness of the Creator in his w^orks, treatises on Physiology, Mental Science, Astronomy, Natural History, Chemistry and the like, must be written in the native tongue ; and that boys may study them, the whole country must be tilled with schools. To accomplish the thh^d plan, that of inducing men to win the favour of God by doing works approved by him, a complete system of morals must be pub- lished. In a review of this great object to be composed by such gigantic means, the society might well confess ; (Report for 1847) that "its labours are mountains, its duties wide as the sea ;" and its prospect of success a distant one. But this did not deter the members from attempts to achieve it. ^yith the press they felt they had an important agent at their command, and accordingly established the Tattw^abodhini Patrika. This periodical has been considered from the first their mid- yantra or chief engine of action. It has now been established eight years, and has circulated considerable information con- cerning the Shastras. It has published large portions of the Sanhitas of the Rig Veda ; several of the Vedantic Upani- slmds, with Sanskrit commentaries and an English translation : discourses delivered at the Brahma Sabha ; treatises by Rammohan Roy on the subject of their faith ; discourses on Natural Theology ; Moral Proverbs : Essays on the Vedas and some of the Purans ; accounts of Hindu Seels ; a Ben- gali translation (in part) of the Mahabharat ; reports of the Society ; defences against attacks : and so on. The Patrikti has been given grafAs to all the members of the Society, and circulated in Calcutta, Krishnaghur, Suksagar, Burdwan, Huo-hlv, Dacca, and Benares. Several of its papers have been reprinted in a separate form : and other valuable works have been issued from its press ; among them the Katha, Miindaka, and five other Vedantic Upanishads, the Vedunta Sd)', the Brahma Dharma and the Panckadosi, a treatise by Sankar-Acharjya. As a further means of securing their proposed end, four young men were despatched as students to Benares, with a view to purchase, or if necessary, copy out a complete col- lection of the Yedas and other Shastras ; and also to study them under the most experienced pandits. One of them in the course of two years made considerable progress, and on his return to Calcutta became assistant-Secretary to the Society and one of the Acharjyas of the Brahma Sabha. The others, after making some advance, were compelled to return to Calcutta before their studies were finished. A considerable library has been collected, partly in Benares, partly in Calcutta : including the Vedas, Vedangas, Darsans and various Purans, with commentaries, treatises, &c. in Sanskrit. Other works are in Beno-ali and Ens-lish : the library contains more than thirteen hundred volumes, great and small. The Society likewise began to establish Schools, in which Vedantic writings should form an important part of the class- books, and their doctrines hold an equally important place in the daily instructions. The first school was established in Calcutta, but was soon closed, the youths of this city being more anxious to learn English than study the Vedas. A mofussil school was determined on, and opened at Bansbariya near Hughly, in May, 1843. This school also was closed after three years for want of funds, and the land and school- 8 house were sold to the Free Church Mission. No similar effort has since been made. Again, the Society has from the first endeavoured to consohdate itself, and cultivate devout feelings amongst its members, by the celebration of regular worship. For this purpose the followers of this doctrine, whether members of the Tattwabodhini Society or not, meet on Wednesday evenings as a Brahma Samaj, "an assembly of the worshippers of Brahma," at the premises of the Society in Chitpore Road. Their long hall has been neatly fitted with pews, rising backward from the centre to the two ends, and well lighted by chandeliers and wall-shades. lu the middle of the hall upon a dais of grained marble, sit the two pandits, the leaders in the worship : and in a recess imme- diately opposite to them are the musicians. The service com- mences with the reading of various passages from the Yedas. The Guyatri is recited and meditated on. A hymn from one of the Upanishads is then chanted by all present. An exposition of texts from the Vedas, or an Essay on some branch of Natural Theology, follows ; and is succeeded by a short discourse by some member of the Sabha, frequently by its President. The service closes with the singing of Brahmic h3'^mns by the professional musicians, who accompany it with V^their instruments. The whole occupies about an hour. The impulse given to the Society in 1843 continued to increase its numbers and power for nearly five years. The meetings for worship were regularly held, and were numer- ously attended. Their present house was (we believe) purchased ; and several branch societies were established ; of which the most flourishing were at Krishnaghur, Suksugar, and Dacca. But in 1847, the Society reached its zenith and since then its numbers, and especially its income have steadily declined. The Reports ascribe its first decrease to the com- mercial distress of 1847: the revolutions of Europe also, according to the same authority, were not without their influ- ence. The last two Reports contain no mention of the branch societies : they show that the number of members has considerably decreased ; that the monthly subscriptions have fallen lower than in the nine years previous ; that the expen- diture has, in consequence, been greatly reduced ; and that the Press has saved the Society from debt by the profits of its job-printing. The following table, drawn up from the Society's own publications, contains evidence of these facts. Whether the decrease will be a permanent one remains to be seen. Report of the year. Members. Income ) Rlonthly including S Subscriptions. Expendi- ture. 1762 1. e. to April, 1841 105 1538 5 5 1077 1487 10 1763 1842 112 2476 12 10 2389 7 10 2304 15 5 1764 1843 83 3476 9 2892 15 2896 15 15 1765 1844 138 4416 7 10 3388 5 4682 13 1767 1846 500 uhkriown. 4000 unknown. 1768 1847 573 6727 7 4850 7 10 6045 1769 184^ 574 *31I3 4 5 4450 4 10 *5361 8 10 1770 184i) 505 3116 1 10 2386 3720 1771 1850 481 3031 13 2086 3301 6 1772 1851 488 3155 10 2066 14 5 3124 9 10 An attentive examination of these Reports develops a significant fact which does not appear upon their surface. In April, 1847, the Society contained five hundred and seventy-three members, of whom only two hundred and sixty- seven remained members in April, 1850; so that out of the jive hundred and seventy -three, more than three hundred had left the Society within three years. May not this decrease arise from the fact that much of the power of the Society and of its apparent increase of numbers arises from what it repudiates, not what it teaches. There are hundreds of young men in Calcutta who cannot be Puranists ; they do not however wish to shake off all the restraints and forms of religion, nor do they wish to break their caste by professing themselves Christians ; they therefore enter the Tattwabo- dhini Society as a convenient resting-place. But the repeti- * This is the ordinary income and expenditure. A.n extraordinary sum of Rs. 3,-125 was al>o paid for the building of the third story of the house : but was given by Babu Debendrauaih Thakur. 10 tion of the same Srutis, of the same addresses on the works of creation, of the same moral precepts, without an all- powej'ful motive to enforce them, soon wearies them and compels them to leave. If however this notion be incorrect, and their members continue to be worshippers in the Brahma Samaj though they resign their places in the Tattvvabodhini Society ; it at least shows that they do not care much for their religion, since they are unwilling to pay three rupees a year for its extension or for the reading of its periodical. Such is the early history of that Society which hopes " to cut the net," which Christians are said to be weaving for the people of India. Pleasant it may be to see so many educated youiig men, meet together regularly for a calm and simple worship ; and to find them putting forth efforts to promote (as they think) the welfare of their countrymen. But if that system which leads them to do so be a system of error, those efforts can only add to existing evils, while the precious life of those who follow it will be spent upon seeking a soul- destroying bubble. To shew that that system is erroneous in its basis, its superstructure, its end : — and to point out a divine system as satisfying and as purifymg as it is wise, is the object of this little work. In carrying out this object we shall endeavour — First : To state the opinions and doctrines of the Vedan- Tic Schools. Secondly: To show that they are not Revelations of religious truth : and Thirdly : That Christianity possesses claims to be so considered, and is in every way superior to these systems, in its origin, its doctrines, and its fruits. 11 PART I. THE DOCTRINES OF THE VEDANTIC SCHOOLS. The Vedantic system has not always been the same. Like other systems both of ancient and modern Philosophy, it exhibits a variety of stages. All the great features of the system existed in the time and works of Vyas : in later days arose different * Schools,'' produced by varied interpretations of his language on obscure points ; or by the natural endea- vour of their leaders to account for certain dogmas and to ward off their legitimate consequences. The germs of the system and its chief doctrines are to be found in the Vedas themselves, though not taught with that fulness and elabora- tion, which we find in other and later works. The system recently introduced into Calcutta by the Tattwabodhini Society is not strictly speaking the Vedant, though on some points closely connected with it. Each of these varieties we shall examine in its turn. CHAPTER I. The Vedant of Vyas and his followers. The unanimous voice of Hindu antiquity points out the great sage Badarayan, otlierwise called Veda- Vyas, as the first writer upon the Vedantic system. None of the Hindu Sages rank higher in learning, and yet very little is known of his life and history. The manner of his birth is related in his own work, the Mahabharat.* It is said that Parasar a brahman, the grandson of Vashishtha, passing along the banks of the Yamuna, saw a fisherman's daughter, with whose beauty he was much struck. He accordingly attempted to seduce her and succeeded, having produced an island in the * Mahabharat : Adi Parba. 12 river and covered it with a mist, in order to prevent a dis- covery. The injured maiden gave birth to a son, who from being born on the island and from having a dark complexion was called Krishna Dwaipayan, ** the dark islander." From the time of his birth he left his mother and became an ascetic in the woods. All his time was spent in the practice of religious austerities (tapa) and the study of religious subjects. "With the affairs of common life he busied himself but little. Sometimes he was present at a celebrated sacrifice, or endea- voured to advise his relatives in their quarrels. But he quitted his retirement on one occasion for a very special object, which deserves mention. His mother, through the blessing of Parasar, had become the wife of Santanu, the celebrated king of Hastinapur, and by him had borne two sons. Of these the elder died young : the other. Raja Vichi- trabirya married Amba and Ambalika, two daughters of the kins of Kasi, but died without issue. Most anxious to save the celebrated race of Kuru from extinction, the royal mother Satyabati, re-called her son Vyasa from his studies and with many tears besought him to save the race, by raising up issue from his brother's widows. He did so. From Amba was born Dhrita-rashtra ; and from Ambalika, Pandu. From the former of these sprung a hundred sons : from the latter came Judhisthir, Bhim and A'rjun. Thus the three great heroes of the Mahabharat were Vyas's own grandsons. The age in which these events occurred was not the first in which Yyas had appeared. We are informed by his great Commentator that he had formerly been born as a brahman, named Apantara Tama : and having by his faithful performance of the requisite ceremonies attained perfect * wisdom,' he became entitled to complete beatitude, absorp- tion into Brahm.a. His later birth was not occasioned by any error on his part, but arose out of the special commission he had received to compile the Vedas. This story is consistent with another in the Vishnu Puran, that Vyas is Naruyan himself. 13 By the force of his austerities (yog-bole) Vyasa attained astounding wisdom, and prepared within his mind an immense Encyclopaedia of Hindu learning. It is said* that as he was thinking how to obtain a worthy scholar to write it down, Brahma himself appeared, praised his acquisitions and advised Ganesh to be sent for. The god of wisdom himself became his Secretary and, among other productions, forth came the Mahabharat. But the greatest work attributed to him is the compilation and division of the Vedas, from whence he has attained the name of Veda- Vyasa '* divider of the Veda." The Vedas or their doctrines seem to have existed before his time as ancient traditions, even bearing to some extent their present names ; but he was the first to arrange in a systematic form the heterogeneous mass of hymns and prayers, cere- monial rules, doctrines and fables of which they were com- posed. In this task he was assisted by various co-adjutors *' well read in those works." Paila aided him to form the Rig A^eda ; Vaisampayan to arrange the Yajur ; Jaimani the Sam Veda ; and Sumanta the Atharbba. These learned pandits were members of the school which Vyasa seems to have formed for the study of religious questions. "This original tree of the Vedas, having been divided by him into four principle stems, soon branched out into an extensive forest." Besides this important compilation, Vyas wrote a treatise on the theolo2:v of the Vedas, in which he reduced to system the various doctrines they contain. This work is variously called the Vttar Mimansa, the Saririk Sutras and the Brahma Sutras, &c. He is said also to have written the Purans. His works thus constitute an immense body of Hindu learning. The a^e in which he lived, in which the Vedas took a definite shape and the Vedanta was reduced to system, cannot be exactly determined. The language, the grammatical forms and the style of the Vedas prove that they are undoubtedly most ancient, but the works contain no system of chronology which will infallibly connect them with contemporaneous * Mahabharat : Adi Parba. Tattw. Patiika, No. 67, p. 192. C 14 events in other well-known countries. We are able however to determine their date with some approximation to truth, from two independent sources which give a somewhat similar result. In the Vishnu and other Purans we have lists of the Hindu kings of various dynasties, who reigned over the districts of Hindustan in ancient times. Two of these, the famihes of Ikshaku and the kings of Magadha, agree toge- ther very well, and incidental notices occur which show them to have a foundation in fact. In the latter hst occurs the name of king Nanda who was to exterminate the Khetriyas " and brino; all the earth under one umbrella." Now kins Nanda immediately preceded Chandragupta, whose reign, we know, began 315 B. C. : and thus we find a basis on which Hindu chronology may be built. From Parikshit, the grandson of Arjun (with whom the Kali Jug began) to Nan- da, the sum of individual reigns makes up 1500 years ; but the sum total of the same period is stated in the Vishnu Puran at 1015, and in the Matsya and Vayu Purans at 1050 years.* During this time there were (according to the best accounts) forty-seven kings, who therefore reigned on an average twenty- two years each, the average of the reigns of the Jewish kings who were their contemporaries. The above period of 1050 years, added to the reign of Nanda and his sons (about forty years according to Col. Wilford), and to the date when Chan- dragupta mounted the throne, will give the date B. C. 1405, as that of the birth of Parikshit and conclusion of the Great War. The Vishnu Puran gives B. C. 1370 for the same date. As however there is some confusion in the earliest reigns, the best authorities, (Wilson, Colebrooke, and others) agree in considering the total as somewhat too large, and estimate the real date a little later.f These calculations are strangely confirmed by the Calendar attached to the Vedas, and made in the time of Parasar, the father of Vyas. The position of the Colures at the time the table was made, is mentioned in * Vishnu Puran. pp. 484, 5. f As. Res. IX. 87, 116. 15 it, and from the astronomical data given, it has been calculated by Mr. Davis that the table must be dated B. C. 1391.* From these considerations it appears that the great war, de- scribed in the Mahabharat, the leaders in vphich were Vyas's grandsons, took place in the middle of the fourteenth CENTURY. The compilation of the Vedas by Vyas, and the formation of the Vedantic system by him immediately pre- ceded it. At that period the Israelites had conquered Canaan, relapsed into idolatry and were in subjection to the kings of Moab and Hazor, to be delivered from the latter by Deborah and Barak. One hundred years after, the victories of Ninus consolidated the Assyrian Empire and led to the foundation of its wondrous palaces. Before two hundred years had past, came the war of Thebes, the Trojan war, and the founding of the cily of Tyre. Thus the civilization and learning of Hin- dustan long preceded that of western Asia and of Europe. They were preceded only by those of Egypt ; and no written, works are known older than those of Vyas, except the Penta- teuch and Book of Joshua. The Vedant is the last of the six * Darsans' or systems of Hindu Philosophy. This is proved from the fact that in it the authors and opinions of the other schools are often referred to chiefly for the sake of being controverted ; and even the doctrines of the Buddhists and Jains are objected to and refuted. The Vedant does not stand perfectly alone. It adopts the modes of argument employed by the Nyay Dar- san, and is still more closely connected with that of the Purbba Mitndnsd attributed to Jaymani. The systems indeed as their names imply, form parts of one whole ; the Purbba Mimansa dealing with the ritual ceremonies of the Vedas, the Uttar Mimansa or Vedanta, with its doctrinal theology. The Authorities from which the Vedantic system must be learned, authorities which enjoy the reputation of a divine origin are, besides the Vedas, the Brahma Sutras and the * As. Res. IX. 87. Mr. Bentley reckons the same 1153 B. C. Vni. 233. c 2 16 Bhagahat Gitd, both which are the work of Veda Vyasa. The Bharma Shdstra of Mann is also reckoned such. The Bhagabat Gitd forms part of the Bhisma Barhha, the Sixth book of the Mahabharat. It is divided into eighteen Sections, and professes to describe a conversation between - Krishna and Arjun immediately preceding the battle of Kurii- khyetra. Arjun was in deep grief at the slaughter which had taken place ; and because the warriors on both sides were sprung from one family. Krishna in order to remove his grief teaches him, that from the nature of things, it was useless to mourn or to rejoice ; and enters into the whole Vedant doctrine to defend his position. The dialogue is related by Sanjay, the charioteer, to the bhnd Dhritarashtra, who had enquired from him the news of the battle. Krishna declares himself to be the author of its doctrines : and as a proof exhibits himself to Arjun in his divine form. Some critics doubt whether the Mahabharat is the work of Vyasa. It is possible that the present work is not his, and was written on a basis which he originally composed. But however that be, the work itself declares asrain and a^ain that Vyas is the author; and Hindu scholars universally receive it as a divine composition from his pen. The Sdririk Sutras are aphorisms, 555 in number, stating in a few words the principles of the system. They are divided into four Books (adhyay) each of which has four Chapters (pada) ; these again are divided into Sections (adhi- karana) according to the subject. The number of Sections is 191. Each Section should, (if perfect) contain five parts: the subject to be treated of; — the g?owZ/^ respecting it ; the plausible solution of that doubt ; the real solution; the rela- tion of the subject to other works. The five are however not often found complete. Frequently the real solution only is given and a plausible one not hinted at. At other times the latter is examined with all its arguments and attempts are made to refute them. The Sutras, unhappily, treat their subjects so concisely, that it is most difficult to understand 17 them. The obscurity is increased by the old forms of lan- guage in which they are written. Like the ' paragraphs' of a * text-book' they just state a principle or argument and leave it. Hence from the first, commentaries have been necessary for their explanation, and doubtless the original commentator was the author himself, when he delivered the Sutras to his scholars. The greatest of all the numerous commentators on the Sutras of Vyas is Sankar Acharjya. This learned Hindu bears a name second to none in the rans-e of Indian philosophy, except that of Vyasa himself. He is the most illustrious disciple of the Vedant, and did much by his lectures, discussions and writings to increase the number of its followers. Of his parentage we know nothing. He is said to have been an incarnation of Siva ; to have been bora at Sringagiri, where he founded a celebrated school, and to have died at Kancha. He appears to have travelled much and to have lived to a great age ; he is known even more in South India than in Bensral. The a2:e in which he lived can be pretty well determined from the following considerations, though it is not absolutely certain. In the Buddhist perse- cution which began at the opening of the sixth century A. D. Kumarila was a chief agent. This persecution had concluded before Sankar's birth and he himself names an immediate predecessor of Kumarila. The Malabar history puts him a hundred years after Kumarila : and if the reign of this king be placed about 550 A. D., the time in which Sankara flourish- ed may be reckoned between 650 and 740 A. D. This view is confirmed by an allusion in the History of Cashmir to a great discussion amongst the learned, in which the victory was given to some Bengali strangers. Lalitadya, who reigned between 710 — 750 A. D., was then living. Now we know that Sankar repeatedly held discussions with various classes of pandits, and thereby greatly promoted the growth of Vedan- tism ; also that one of the places which he visited was Cashmir : on this account the above allusion is thought to apply to him. His philosophical victories are celebrated in the Prabodh c 3 18 Chandroday , and from his time, the Vedant held the fore- most place among the schools of Hindu philosophy. As we have said, he travelled far and wide and disputed every where for his views of theology. He gathered many disciples, and left to them an immense mass of Vedautic learning as the result of his own studies. Amongst these writings, which are highly honoured to the present day, stands first his Com- mentary on the Sdririk Sutras, entitled Saririk Mimansa Bhasya. His Scholia to the Vedantic Upanishads and Bha- gavat-Gita rank next in value ; and lastly, the Atmdhodhy XJpadesh Sahasri, Panchadosi and other original works, in which he describes the system in his own way. Next to the writings of Vyas, the Sutras and Bhagavat- Gita, the Commentaries of Sankara on these works and the Vedas, are the best authorities for the Vedant system. Hence they have been commented on and expounded by others, as Anandagiri, Adwaitananda, &c. The great number of these commentaries is a proof of the impulse given by this great scholar to the Vedantic school. In addition to them various elementary works have been published on the system. One of the latest and most popular is the Vedanta Sar ; it is mentioned here, because it has recently been made accessi- ble to students in Bengal. This little work was written by Sadananda, the disciple of Adwaitananda and gives a syste- matic outline of the chief doctrines of the Vedant with argu- ments in their favour. It dwells especially on those parts of the science which describe the mode of learning it and the way in which the necessity for it (caused by the world's ig- norance) arose. It is therefore in some parts exceedingly abstruse and difficult to comprehend. The edition published in Calcutta by the Tattwabodhini Sabha, contains the San- skrit text, with a Bengali translation and two Sanskrit com. mentaries. There is also printed with it a celebrated work by Sankara Acharjya, the Hastamalaham accompanied by a Bengali translation and Sanskrit commentary. From these sources of information, let us now describe the system and its 19 doctrines. The Vedanta Sar treats of it under four heads : the person ciualified to study the system ; its object, the reunion of the supreme and individual souls ; the coinection as shown bv various cate";ories, and the four means to be employed in the study. As there are various objections to this arrangement, when brought into comparison with that of other authorities, we have made one of our own, with a view to exhibit in the clearest way information derived from the whole. Section I. — Befinition of Veddntism ; its scope and aim; the authorities from whence it is derived ; the conditions and mode of studying it. A brief definition of the term Vedanta is contained in the Vedanta Sdr.'^ " The name Vedanta applies to the argu- ments of the Upanishads ; also to the Saririk Sutras and other Shastras auxiliary thereto !" The object of the system is to show '• the unity between the sentient soul and Brahma, the soul in its pure state. "f Hence it may be described as a desire of knowing Brahma. In the first Sutra, Vyas says : '* Athat.o Brahmajigyasa iti :" i. e. after proper preparation for the study, and because the knowledge of Brahma is the chief end of man,;|: an enquiry after Brahma remains. He must be known, and therefore sought after. The knotty point then arises ; " Is this object known or unknown ?" If known, there is no need of searching after it. If unknown and unknowable, it cannot be known. Sankara replies to these questions thus : * Every man perceives the existence of himself. If he does not, he does not exist : That self is Brahma. If you reckon Brahma as self, is not all known? No. For the chief dispute is about its proper qualities. * Vedanta Sar : (Calcutta Edition) p. 2. f Ditto, p. 9. X * Brahmabagatirhipurusliartha ; Tasmadu Brahma jigyasitobyam. Commentaiy of Sankara A'charya on the Brahma Su'tras : p. 4. Calcutta Edition, 1818. 20 Some assert it is the hody only ; others the vital senses ; others the mind ; others space ; and so on.' *' Wherefore the desire of knowing Brahma, which the doctrines of the Vedant examine, conjoined with reasoning not opposed to the traditionary system, and having feUcity for its end, is praised in this introduction." How then is the true knowledge of Brahma to be attained. All the schools of Hindu philosophy recognize three ways of obtaining knowledge in general : the perceptions of the senses ; the deductions of reason ; and tradition or revelation. In the search after Brahma, however, the first two methods are inadmissible. He is beyond the sphere of sense ; and reason will fail to understand him. Sankara remarks this in many passages of his commentary. *' By the eye of none is he perceived, from its defect of form ; neither is he understood by the voice, since he cannot be named, nor by the other senses."* "The senses have naturally for their object exter- nal things, not Brahma. "f Again, "it is clear from the Shas- tras that he is not to be reached by reasoning : that doctrine is not to be acquired by discussion." J " This is true ; not by the senses nor by arguments is the Supreme to be proved ; but by tradition he really is so."§ " Brahma we can follow after, not by reasoning, but by the doctrine of teachers given by perpetual tradition." j] "The knowledge of Brahma is employed in explaining the sense of the passages in the Shastras ; it is not employed about other kinds of proof, such as reasoning and the like."^ These and numerous similar passages show that the Yedantists keep to one kind of proof, which is called pramdn * proof,' dgama ' tradition,' and Sruti ' hearing,' ' authority.' The revelation or tradition on which the svstem is based, is embodied in the Shastras. (Sank. Br. Sut. p. 6.) "For understanding the true nature of that Brahma, the cause and * Sank, on the Mund. III. p. 1. t Sank. Br. Sut. T. 1.2 : p. 6. X Sank, on the Ken. p. 7, line 12. § Ditto ditto, p. 14, line 5. II Ditto ditto, p. 15, line 10. ^ Sauk. Br. Sut. p. 5. 21 authority are the Rig Veda and other Shastras mentioned. For by the authority of the Shastras is Brahma, the cause of the origin, preservation and destruction of the world, understood That Brahma, omnipresent, almighty, the cause of the production, preservation and destruction of the world, is known by the Vedantic Shastras. How? On account of their tendencies. For in all the Vedanta Shastras, the passages are so written, that men may see Brahma and under- stand his meaning." But the knowledge of the Shastras is not altogether sufficient. A scholar may find a difficulty in getting at their true meaning. This meaning is to be obtained from masters^ pandits and others, well acquainted with the Shastras, who themselves received it from others who were their teachers. " He who knows the Shiistras, will search after the knowledge of Brahma, not from his own judgment," but from the instructions of his master. Hence the sreat honour paid in Hindustan to learned instructors, and the large number of scholars who in former days attended them. All the Shastras exhibit examples of the teacher instructing his disciples, and holding discussions with them on their subjects of study. It is this circumstance that has given rise to the many branches, that have sprung up in the various schools of philosophy, and which have derived their weight from the skill with which any pandit advocated a peculiar interpretation of his book of authority. The series of teachers, through whom the doctrine has come down to us, must have had a beginning : and it is plainly declared that the beginning is Brahma himself. Many state- ments to this effect will be quoted in the next chapter ; at present it will be sufficient merely to cite the following. *' Of the great body of Shastras, beginning with the Rig Veda, embracing many sciences, like a light, illuminating all things, and possessed of the quality of omniscience, the origin and cause is Brahma. For such a Shastra as the Rig Veda, en- dowed with the quality of omniscience, can have no other origin than an omniscient one." 22 But the knowledge of Brahma is not to be attained by every one. Desirable as it may be, for the results which professedly follow it, Brahma has his favourites for whom it is reserved. In the Brahma Sutras (1.3. 34-38) it is decided after some discussion that none but the twice-born are competent to study the Shastras. " The purification of the upanayan (the investiture of the sacred thread) is the ground of instruction : therefore none but Brahmans, Khetriyas, and Vaisyas have authority to study the Vedas : Sudras are forbidden to do so." But not only are women, Sudras and Mlechhas excluded from a knowledge of the science, even among the twice-born a man will neither possess the ability nor the power to attain that knowledge, unless Brahma causes him to do so. On this Sankar says ; ** Sometimes a scholar endowed with a good intellect and free from errors, understands even a difficult thing as soon as it is heard ; another not so. We see this in the Shastras. Thus after it had been said ; * The being who is beheld in the eye, he is the soul, the immortal, the fearless one; he is Brahma,' Virochan, king of the Asurs, though instructed by Prajapati himself, on account of the perversity of his nature, understood that that soul is the body. Even the king of the gods, once, twice, thrice did not understand it ; but his natural perversity being removed, he at once understood that it was Brahma. So in the daily life of students one understands a thing well : another, its opposite : another, nothing." We notice next the manner in which the study is to be prosecuted. It is reckoned most important in itself, and can be taken up only in the most serious way. Before a student betakes himself to a master, he must be properly qualified. The description of the qualified person [Adhikari] is given in the Vedtinta Siir, (pp. 3-10, Calcutta Ed.) and in the Com- mentary of Sankar on the Brahma Sutras. He must first find out the sense of the Vedas, by the study (according to rule) of the Vedas and Vedangas. He must in this or a pre- vious birth renounce all the objects of desire, such as sacri- 23 fices which gain heaven ; also works which are forbidden, such as killing brahmans and the like. By the performance of the SandJujdbandhan and other appointed ceremonies ; by offering expiations ; and engaging in acts of internal worship, he must purify his mind from errors and fix it upon Brahma. He has then to perform * the four means,' sddhan chatushtay . a. He must distinguish between the real and unreal thing ; that is, must consider every thing unreal except Brahma, b. He must free himself from all desire of enjoying the fruits of merit, whether given in this world or the next. " The cast- ing away of all desire must necessarily precede the knowledge of the Supreme Soul." c. He must exclude from his mind and from his senses every object which does not refer to Brahma. He must endure cold and heat without knowing a difference between them. He must be prepared to contem- plate Brahma alone and to believe all that his teacher says. d. Lastly, he must have an earnest desire after liberation from self and absorption into Brahma. These exercises completed, he will be duly * qualified :' he may then repair to a teacher for further instruction. "As a man with a blazing head goes into a pool of water, so the qualified person, burned by the fire of birth, death and other worldly misery, with offerings in his hands, repairs to a teacher learned in the Vedas and putting his faith in Brahma, and becomes his follower." (Ved. iSar, p. 10). Implicit confidence in the teacher is the first condition of receiving instruction. Only from the master is the knowledge of Brahma to be obtained at all : Guru prasd- da labhydn. The whole process is however so difficult that few can be expected to go through it, and reap the benefits which it is intended to secure ; and this the Vedant confesses. " A few among ten thousand mortals strive for perfection ; and but a few of those who strive and become perfect, know me according to my nature."* * Sir Charles Wilkius's Bhayavat-Gitd, Chap. VII. p. 69. 24 Section 2. — Of Brahma. The existence of the Supreme Brahma is a point which the Yedantic authorities take no trouble to prove. It appears to them self-evident : and indeed cannot be proved ; Brahma being entirely superior to human reasoning. His various attributes, however are enumerated again and again at great length : especially in the Sutras and the commentary upon them. Thus: "Brahma is eternal, omniscient, pervader of all things, ever satisfied in nature, ever pure, intelligent and free; wisdom and delight." *'That being is the true, unchanging, eternal one. Like ether he penetrates all things ; he is free from all change, ever satisfied, without limbs, in nature light itself. He, in whom right and wrong with their effects, and the three times have no place, is without body, and is freedom itself."* "That supreme Lord pervades all things, and is independent and one ; there is no one like him, no one superior to him ; the whole world obeys his will. Why ? He is the internal spirit of every thing that is ; who, by means of the divisions of an impure delusion in names and forms, makes himself, the one God, having always but one taste, and renowned for pure intellect, multiform."-}* The tenth and eleventh Sections of the Bhugahat-Gitd con- tain noble descriptions of the majesty and splendour of the Supreme. As to his nature, Brahma is declared to be Supreme Litel- ligence. *' On account of the eternal essence of intellect in Brahma, (as light is the essence of the sun,) no regard can be allowed to other supports of intelligence." This intel- ligence is not only compared to light, as in the passage just quoted, but is said to be light. "Tliough Brahma is in his very nature intellect, yet the word light (jijdtih) describes him, as it does the cause of the illumination of the whole world."]: So in the following striking passage; "As a mass * Sankara on the Brahma Sutras, pp. 8, 10. t Commentary of Sankara on the Katha Upanishad. + Sank, on the Br, Sut. pp. 19, 37. 25 of salt is, not internally, not externally, but entirely, a mass of savour ; so that spirit is, not internally, not externally, but entirely, a mass of intelligence.'** He is also described as existence pre-eminently, and as enjoying perpetual delight. These notions are all combined in the term * Sachchidananda.' Brahma is not always invested with these attributes. la the intervals between the great ages, termed Kalpas, he is said to be altogether Nirgun * without qualities ;' and to recline upon the leaves of the Banyan tree in a state of pro- found repose. The Sutras (HI. 2. 13, 14.) declare the latter to be the true description : not the former, nor the two toge- ther. It is only in relation to the creation those qualities are attributed to him. Really ** he is unaffected by the modifi- cations of the world ; as the clear crystal, seemingly coloured by the red blossom of the hibiscus, is not the less really pellucid." *' He changes not : all change is expressly denied him by texts in the Vedas ;" (III. 2. 1 1, 12.) " The lumi- nous sun, though single, yet reflected in water, becomes various ; and so does the unborn divine soul, in various bodies." (III. 2. 20). His relation to the Universe in general is clearly stated in the shastras. He is the cause of it. ** All the Vedantic authorities show the Spirit to be the cause of the Universe." (Br. Slit. I. 1. 10.) One text to this effect has already been quoted : "He is the Almighty Creator of the world, and the all-wise author of the Shastras." (I. 1.2.) "Brahma is almighty, ready for every action, without any organs or instru- ments of action. His will alone is a sufficient cause of the creation of the Universe : and he has done it for sport." (II. 1.30,33.) ** This whole world was spread abroad by me in my invisible form. All things are dependent upon me, but I am not dependent upon them." [Bh. Gita, Ch. IX.] The mode of creation is also described. He is said to have con- * Vedanta or Brahma Sutras, III. 2. 16. The edition we refer to is that published in Calcutta, in 1843, by Babu Nimai Charan Mittri. D 26 ceived the desire to create, and to have used certain special words in the process. *' From Vedic words, the universe, beginning with the gods, has sprung." Respecting the words employed, it is said ; " Uttering the word hkur he created the earth." " He formed bodies with two feet and four feet, and becoming a bird he entered into them," filling them as their creator spirit. [III. 2. 22.] He is also the destroyer of the universe. At the end of a fixed period, by a certain necessity of his nature, Brahma destroys and absorbs into himself the universe he has created ; only however to reproduce it when another period returns. This subject is fully described in the Vedas, and we shall see more of it in the next chapter. Brahma is the internal ruler of the universe : this may readily be conceived ; but he is also said to be its material cause. [The expression material cause is most generally employed to denote the meaning here intended : but is un- suitable in the case of the Vedant because, as we shall imme- diately see, in its theory no such thing as matter exists.] Thus the second Siitra affirms : " He, from whom are the birth, preservation, and destruction of the universe, is Brah- ma." Here the word * birth,' Janma,"^ is employed, not * creation,' Srijan. The doctrine follows immediately from another, that Brahma is himself the very substance and material of which the universe is made. This undisguised Pantheism is taught in the clearest manner in the Vedantic authorities which we have cited above. It is the great basis on which the system rests. If it be not taught, the very aim of the system is set aside, and the ignorance which man possesses of the real union between the individual soul and the Supreme, can never be put away. But to put it away is the very end and object for which the system has been framed. The fact therefore of the real identity between Brahma and the soul, between Brahma and the whole universe, is asserted again and again, and illustrated by numerous examples. It is carefully laid down in the Sutras of Vyas, (I. 4. 23 — 26.) 27 and defended by a long course of reasoning. IVIore than this, the opinions of the Sankhya philosophers, who advocate a • plastic nature' and a real ' material cause' in its proper sense, are shown to be opposed to the doctrine of the Vedas. These Sutras say (I. 4. 23 ;) *' Brahma is also the substance {prakriti) of the universe ; for so the propositions [in the Vedas] and their illustrations require : the reference to his desire and the distinct mention of both [lead to the same con- clusion]. Because he makes himself by transformation [both active and passive]." The commentary of Sankar Acharjya elucidates this concise and obscure statement : it contains among other things the following passages. '* It has been said above that as we ought to know the laws, since they are the cause of our comfort, so ought Brahma to be known as the cause of endless felicity. It has been declared that from him are the origin, preservation and destruction of the uni- verse. Now as this description may apply both to the mate- rial cause (as clay and gold are the material cause of pots and bracelets), and to the efficient cause (as the potter and goldsmith are efficient causes), a doubt arises, of what kind is the causahty of Brahma. Brahma must be reckoned both the * substance' (that is the material cause) and the efficient cause. Why ? Because * the propositions [of the Vedas] and their illustrations,' found in the shastras, * require' us to believe it. The * proposition' is this ; * Hast thou asked (the teacher) about that notion by which the thing unheard becomes heard, the thing unthought becomes thought, and that which is unintelligible becomes understood?' This knowledge of other things respects the knowledge of their material cause, since the effect differs in no wise from that cause ; but it is different from the efficient cause, as a car- penter differs from a house. The * illustrations' given point out the same cause ; viz. * as by a ball of clay, all clay is known, and the change is one of name (produced) by words only, while in the thing itself there is clay only,' &c. This example points out the material cause, as it does also in the D 2 28 following cases : ' As by one golden ornament, every golden thing is known ; as by one knife for cutting the nails, every iron thing is known, &c.' Again when it is said, * he from whom all these creatures are born,' the shastra points out their origin, that is, their material cause, for he who begets any thing is its origin." On the 24th Sutra, Sankar says ; " The reference to his ' desire' shows him to be both the efficient and material cause. For in the passages where it is said, * He desired : I will become manifold and will produce ;* the desire has reference to him as the efficient cause ; and from the words / will become manifold the material cause follows. Again, the same fact is learned from the * distinct declaration' [see the 25th Sutra] that both the production and destruction of the universe are from him. This shows him to be the material substance of the universe ; ' All these creatures spring from the aether and into the sether fall.' That from which any thing springs and into which it is dissolved, tnust be considered its material cause, as the earth is the cause of rice and barley. Again [see 26 th Siitra] Brahma is proved to be the substance of the universe from the words of the shastras, * he himself transforms himself.' He himself speaks of him as an active agent ; but transforms himself points him out as passive." Of the reasoning of the great commentator in these pas- sages, I shall at present say nothing ; 1 only wish to show that in his opinion these Siitras of Vyas distinctly declare Brahma to be not only the efficient cause of the universe, but its material cause likewise ; in other words the very material of which it is made. But the Sutras do not leave the subject here. They not only state the doctrine positively, but take up objections and opinions contrary to it. The philosophers of the Sankhya school assert that the universe is made of a * plastic nature* and a * material cause' independent of the Deity. This asser- tion the Sutras endeavour to disprove, showing that that material cause is the Deity himself: thus establishing their 29 Pantheistic doctrine on the firmest basis, by the direct denial of the proposition which contradicts it. The objections to the doctrine are also taken up by Sankar, and in the best way he can, he endeavours to answer them. * How can this uni- verse, [it is asked] which is manifold, void of life, impure, irrational, proceed from him who is one, living, pure and rational V [He answers] : * The lifeless world can proceed from Brahma just as lifeless hair can spring from a living man.' ' But in the universe we find him who enjoys and him who is enjoyed : how can he be both V * Such are the changes of the sea. Foam, waves, billows, bubbles, are not different from the sea which is in its native waters. Still a difference is perceived in them by turns, and an activity which agrees with their mutual union. Nor, though they are iden- tical with the sea, do these changes obtain the condition of each other ; nor does the difference follow from the nature of the sea, if they do not obtain these conditions by turns. In the same way, he who enjoys and he who is enjoyed do not by turns gain each other's condition, nor are they different from the supreme Brahma." Again, " There is no differ- ence between the universe and Brahma. The effect is not different from its cause. He is the soul ; the soul is he. The same earth produces diamonds, rock-crystal, and red or- piment. The same sun produces many kinds of plants. The same nourishment is converted into hair, nails, and so on. As milk is changed into curds, and water to ice, so is Brahma variously transformed without external aids. So the spider spins its web from its own substance ; spirits assume various shapes 5 cranes propagate without male&; and the lotu&grows from swamp to swamp without organs of locomotion, &c.'* (Br. Sut. II. I. 14 — 26, with commentary). Again ; "Nothing exists but he, although different texts of the Fedds seem to im pig the contrary.^* [III. 2. 29]. The Bhagabat Gita is not silent on a doctrine so vital. The following are some of its statements. [Chap. IV. p. 24] : " Brahma is the oblation ; Brahma is the clarified butter ; D 3 30 Brahma is the fire of the altar ; by Brahma is the sacrifice performed ; and Brahma is to be obtained by him, who makes Brahma alone the object of his works."* [C. VII. p. 70] : *' I am the creation and dissolution of the whole universe. There is not any thing greater than I : all things hang on me, even as precious gems upon a string. I am moisture in the water ; light in the sun and moon ; invocation in the Vedas ; sound in the firmament ; human nature in mankind ; sweet* smelling-savour in the earth ; glory in the source of light : in all things I am life ; I am zeal in the zealous ; and know, Arjun, that I am the eternal seed of all nature.'* [C. XV. p. 113] : *' Know that the light which proceedeth from the sun and illuminateth the whole world, and the light which is in the moon and in fire, are mine. I pervade all things in nature, and guard them with my beams. I am. the moon, whose nature it is to give the quality of taste and relish, and to cherish the herbs and plants of the field. I am the fire residing in the bodies of all things which have life, where joined with the two spirits which are called Pran and Opan, I digest the food which they eat." [C. VI. p. 68] : " The man, whose mind is endued with this devotion, and looketh on all things alike, beholds the Supreme Soul in all things and all things in the Supreme Soul. He who beholds me in all things and all things in me, I forsake not him, and he forsaketh not me." " I am the sacrifice ; I am the worship ; I am the spices ; I am the invocation ; I am the ceremony to the manes of the ancestors ; I am the provisions ; 1 am the fire and I am the victim. I am the mvstic figure Om ; the Rig, the Sam and Yajur Vedas ;" [C. IX. p. 80]. The Vedanta Sar takes up the doctrine at the very out- set, and lays down principles, the ultimate development of which is intended to establish it upon the strongest ground. I will quote only one passage. •' There is no distinction * 3"Wt