tihv<xry of Che theological ^emmarjo 
 
 PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY 
 
 PURCHASED BY THE 
 HAMILL MISSIONARY FUND 
 
 BV 3265 .S74 1896 
 Stewart, Robert, 1839-1915 
 Life and work in India 
 
1956 
 
THE HEART OF THE PUNJAB, 
 
 Showing the Mission Field of the United Presbyterian Church of North America, and parts of other Mission Fields. 
 
(^AUG 8 1956 
 
 Life and Work inJndia 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE 
 
 CONDITIONS, METHODS, DIFFICULTIES. RESULTS, FUTURE 
 PROSPECTS AND REFLEX INFLUENCE 
 
 OF 
 
 MISSIONARY LABOR IN INDIA 
 
 ESPECIALLY IN THE 
 
 PUNJAB Mission of the united Presbyterian Church of 
 NORTH America 
 
 /6y 
 ROBERT STEWART, D. D. 
 
 ONE OF THE WORKERS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 PEARL PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 i8q6 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY ROBERT STEWART 
 
 PRINTED 8V 
 
 GEO. S. FERGUSON CO., 
 
 PRINTERS & ELEOTROTYPERS, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA., U. S. A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 npHIS book deals with both the facts and the theory of 
 missions. It presents the surroundings, the details 
 and the results of Christian pioneer work, especially as 
 they are exhibited in the great field of modern missions 
 — India. And it strives to do so in a fuller and more 
 systematic form than that of any single volume now be- 
 fore the public. 
 
 A concrete case is made the chief source of ilkistra- 
 tion, so as to give unity, vividness and point to the nar- 
 rative ; and naturally the example selected for this pur- 
 pose is that one with which the writer is most familiar 
 and in reference to which he can speak from personal 
 observation and experience. But this case is largely a 
 typical one, and in all its main features resembles that of 
 most other missions in India ; while, in many of its 
 characteristics, it bears a strong likeness to foreign 
 missions in every part of the world. Moreover, dif- 
 ferences, when they do exist, are frequently noted. 
 Hence the author expects his book to be read with in- 
 terest, not only by members of his own church, but also 
 by Christians of every name. 
 
 Considerable attention is given to missionary problems, 
 and the arguments, or materials, required for their solu- 
 tion are frequently presented. Especially does the 
 writer point out the difficulties which lie in the way of 
 
 (3) 
 
4 PREFACE 
 
 the development of a mature, self-supporting, self-gov- 
 ernine church in non-Christian lands, and show the need 
 of the removal of these obstructions if the great mission- 
 ary enterprise is to accomplish its glorious end with 
 rapid speed. 
 
 A copious index has been added to the volume to 
 make it more useful as a manual, or a book of reference. 
 
 And now, having completed his task conscientiously 
 and as carefully as he could, the author sends out his 
 book to the world in the hope and with the prayer that, 
 through the blessing of God, it may be made the humble 
 means of advancing in some degree that important cause 
 to which it is devoted. 
 
 Robert Stewart. 
 
 St. Clairsvillk, Ohio, 
 December, 1895. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 MAP — Heart of the Punjab and U. P. Mission Field Frontispiece 
 
 CHAPTER I — Approaches to the Field 
 Ordinary Routes — Lines of Steamers — Passage Taken — Description of Journey — 
 Liverpool, Gibraltar, Red Sea, Bombay — By Rail in India — Lines on tke Pacitic 
 — Projected Routes by Arabia or the Euphrates — The Transcaspian Line.. . .9-20 
 
 CHAPTER H— Outside Political Conditions 
 China and Baluchistan — Burmese War^Border Warfare — Manipur Rebellion — 
 The Mahdi — Dhulip Singh — Russia's Progress in Asia — English Fear of Russia 
 — Afghanistan a Buffer — What we Dreaded Most 21-27 
 
 CHAPTER HI— British Rule in India 
 The Machine, Civil and Military — The Viceroys : Lytton, Dufiferin, Lansdowne 
 and Elgin — The Lieut. -Governors of the Punjab — Object of British Rule in 
 India — How it Helps and How it Obstructs Mission Work 28-39 
 
 CHAPTER IV— Climatic Conditions 
 The Monsoons — The Hot Season — The Rains — Hail, Dust Storms and Earth- 
 quakes 40-43 
 
 CHAPTER V— Sanitary Conditions 
 Unfavorable to Health — Deaths by Violence — Experience with Snakes and Scor- 
 pions — Diseases — Cliolera, Small-pox and Fever — Health Resorts — Dharmsala, 
 Murree and Kashmir — Their Drawbacks 44-54 
 
 CHAPTER VI — Domestic and Social Conditions 
 Houses — Furniture — Clothing — Food — Punkhas — Vermin — Servants — Separation of 
 I Families — Homes for Children — Salaries — Recreations — Intercourse with Anglo- 
 Indians — With Travelers — With Natives SS-'^S 
 
 CHAPTER VII— Financial Conditions 
 
 Ordinary Appropriations — Gifts for Special Objects — For Permanent Improvements 
 
 — The Stewart Fund — The Q. C. Fund — Help from the Women's Board and 
 
 Sabbath Schools — Contributions in India Itself — Government Aid — Favorable 
 
 Exchange , 69-73 
 
 CHAPTER VIII— Conditions of Travel and Communication 
 Metaled Roads — Mud Roads and Bypaths — Railways — Dak Garies — Tongas — 
 Ekkas— Dolies — Dandies — Shigrams — Tum-tum — Control of Public Conveyances 
 — Traveling Outfit — Inns — The India Postal Service — Its Arrangements and Ad- 
 vantages 74^84 
 
 (5) 
 
6 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER IX— Linguistic Conditions 
 
 Many Tongues in India— The Hindustani — The Punjabi — The Acquisition of Lan- 
 guages — Conditions of Success 85-88 
 
 CHAPTER X — Missionary Neighbors 
 
 Some Unpleasant Facts — More of a Different Character — Aid in Evangelism, Educa- 
 tion and Christian Conflicts — Inter-Mission Conferences and Organizations 
 
 The Presbyterian Alliance — Presbyterian Union — Christian Literature 89-93 
 
 CHAPTER XI— Our Special Field 
 
 Missions in India — Their History — Number of Laborers — Division of the Land — 
 Missionary Comity — The Punjab— Missions Established There— The United 
 Presbyterian Field— Its Growth and Size — Points of Historical, Geographical, 
 Commercial and Scientific Interest 94-106 
 
 CHAPTER XII— Our Special Field— Its People 
 
 Punjabies and the Inhabitants of India — Their Race and Physical Characteristics — 
 Their Occupations, Village Life, Wages, Clothing and Religion — A Compara- 
 tive Census — Modern Hinduism Described — Hinduism in the Punjab — Sikhism 
 — The Jains — The Buddhists — The Arya Samaj — The Parsees — The Muham- 
 madans and Muhammadanism — Low-Caste People — Europeans, Eurasians and 
 Native Christians 107-128 
 
 CHAPTER XIII — Organization for Work 
 
 Missionaries not Independent — Church Courts and Missionary Societies — The 
 Missionary Association, its History, Constitution, Powers and Methods — The 
 Missionary's Individual Authority — His Relation to Native Agents 129-139 
 
 CHAPTER XIV— Secular Work 
 Learning the Vernacular Language — Financial Business — Sub-Treasurers' Work^ 
 Superintendents' — General Treasurer's — Purchase of Land — Building Houses 
 — Repairs — Teaching and Managing Schools — Medical Work — Remedies Dis- 
 cussed 140-147 
 
 CHAPTER XV— Evangelistic Work— I 
 Aim of Missions — General Principles — Home Religion — Employer's Influence — 
 Social Intercourse — Mistakes Corrected — Bazar Preaching — Melas 148—161 
 
 CHAPTER XVI— Evangelistic Work— II 
 The Eaucational Policv — Dr. Duff's Course — Government Education, Its History 
 and Provisions — Mission Schools — Their Lack of Conversions — Causes- 
 Arguments Against the Educational Policy — Arguments in Favor of it — 
 Present Duty — Policy of the U. P. Mission — Conclusion 162-173 
 
 CHAPTER XVII— Evangelistic Work— HI 
 Zenana and Afedical lVo7-k — Conversion of Indian Women — Its Importance — Igno- 
 rance of these Women — Their Power in the Home^The Zenana Described — 
 The Zenana Worker's Experience and Methods — Her Advantages and Disad- 
 vantages— Results — Medical Missionary Work — Its Growth and Necessity — 
 Objections and Benefits — Our Own Special Efforts in this Line — A History and a 
 Report - 174-183 
 
CONTENTS 7 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII -Evangelistic Work— IV 
 Through Literature — Itineration — Congregational Services — Efforts of the Common 
 People — Moral and Spiritual Character — Testimony Bearing 184-197 
 
 CHAPTER XIX— Evangelistic Work— V 
 Through Forms and Ceremonies — Apologies — Controversy — Worldly Influences — 
 Asceticism and Fakirism 198-217 
 
 CHAPTER XX — Obstruction and Persecution 
 Physical Hindrances — Hindrances from the Government — From European Resi- 
 dents — From Neighboring Missions and Missionaries — From Lack of Funds — 
 From Imperfection of Laborers — From Different Views of Mission Policy — From 
 False Religions — From Caste — Opposition to Our Getting Locations for Work — 
 To Our Prosecution of Labor — To the Hearing of the Gospel — To Religious In- 
 quiry — To the Belief of the Truth — To Baptism and a Public Profession — Persecu- 
 tion of Low-Caste Converts by High-Caste People and by Low-Caste Neighbors 
 — Continued Persecution of Christians After their Baptism — Little Persecution 
 unto Death — Caste Giving Way Somewhat 218-236 
 
 CHAPTER XXI— Evangelistic Results— I 
 General Influence — Secret Converts — Professing Christians, their Number and Dis- 
 tribution — Classes from which they are drawn — Causes of this 237-248 
 
 CHAPTER XXII— Evangelistic Results— II 
 Character of Native Christians — Doubts of Some Regarding their Piety — No "Re- 
 viva's " — Many Ignorant and Imperfect — Some Fall Away — Proofs of a Work of 
 Grace — Many Stand Good Church Examinations— Make Great Sacrifices — Bear 
 Persecution — Desire Knowledge — Love their Christian Teachers — Exhibit Com- 
 paratively High Morality — Christian Servants, Worthless or Not ? — Why — Native 
 Christians Not Specially Covetous — But Liberal — Show Continual Improvement — • 
 Are Anxious for the Salvation of Others — Testimony as to the Character of Indi- 
 viduals — Ameera — Daulah — Chhero 249-260 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII — Lower Training of Christians 
 Stages of Missionary Work — Training of Christians in a Compound — In a Village — 
 The Underworker — Village Life — Primary Duties — Worship Described — Singing, 
 Prayer, Sacraments — The Sabbath School — Secular Schools — Their Drawbacks — 
 Teaching Urdu — Central Schools and Inspectors — Panchnyats — Sub-superintend- 
 ence — The Missionary's Work — Monthly Meetings — Methods Autocratic — Melas 
 — Christian Villages or Settlements — Hindrances to Primary Training — The Re- 
 sult 261-276 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV— Higher Training of Christians— I 
 Its Necessity — Means Employed — Central Schools — The Christian Training Insti- 
 tute, its History, Character and Results — The Girls' Boarding School — The The- 
 ological Seminary — Why Greek and Hebrew Should Be Taught Theological 
 Students in India 277-293 
 
 CHAPTER XXV— Higher Training of Christians— II 
 Schools of Neighboring Missions — Success of Higher Education Among our Peo- 
 ple — Schemes of Private Study — Summer Schools — Religious Conventions — 
 Monthly Meetings — Church Courts and their Drawbacks — Religious Literature — 
 Bible Translations — How Made and Circulated — The Urdu Version — The Pun- 
 jabi — The Psalms in Meter — Bhajans — Indian Lyric Poetry — Catechisms — Other 
 Books, Tracts and Newspapers — Theology — History — Book of Discipline — 
 Summary of Vernacular Christian Literature 294-309 
 
8 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI — Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity — I 
 Financial Self-support — Extreme Rarity in Mission Lands — Apparent Exceptions — 
 Madagascar — Missions of the C. M. S. and S. P. G. — Japan — The Sandwich 
 Islands — A Burning Question — Our Own Mission Like Others Generally — 
 Churches Not Financially Self-sustaining — Efforts and Progress Made — Reme- 
 dies Proposed — Lessening Salaries — Increasing Contributions — Have Missions 
 Started Wrong? — Poverty of the Native Church — How this May Be Remedied — 
 By Education, Industrial Training and Agricultural Settlements — Their Draw- 
 backs — By Church Growth Especially Among the Rich — Practical Suggestions — 
 Neighboring Missions 310-332 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII — Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity — II 
 Church Organization — Our Defects in this Particular — Are they Justifiable ?— 333-337 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII — Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity — III 
 Self- Governing Power — What it Implies — Fewness of our Ministers — Cause of the 
 Deficiency — Character of our Elders and Ministers — Capability of Exercising 
 Self-Government — Objections Considered —Advantages Presented — Evils thus 
 Removed — Instructive Precedents — Additional Objections Answered — Sum- 
 mary. 338-350 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX— The Outlook 
 Statistics Encouraging — Comparative Progress of Other Religions — Islam Making 
 Few Converts — Statement of the I. E. R. — Spurts of Hindu Revival — Caste Giv- 
 ing Way — Gross Hinduism Diminishing — Reforms Advancing — Indifference of 
 Many Hindus to their Faith — Brighter Record of Christian Missions — Splendid 
 Field among the Lowly — Danger of Compromise— Danger of Neglecting the De- 
 pressed Classes — Danger of Unbrolherly Interference — Danger of Neglecting the 
 Native Christians and the Native Church — But Great Hope of Triumph — Not 
 Immediately — Nor as The Statesman Forecasts — But in a Century or two — The 
 Church like a Banyan Tree ZS^-j^^ 
 
 CHAPTER XXX — The Reflex Influence of Missions 
 Physical Effects— Nervous Exhaustion — Fret and Worry— Shortened Life— Intellec- 
 tual Stimulus — Literary and Linguistic Culture — Social Effects — Influence on Pa- 
 triotism — And on Piety — Trial of Temper — Opportunities for Private Devotion and 
 the Study of God's Word — The Atmosphere of Heathenism— Burns' Experience 
 
 Habit of Suspicion — Reflex Influence of Autocratic Power and Secular Work — 
 
 Discouragements— Conflicts — Favorable Side — First Impetus of Zeal— Divine 
 Promises— Consciousness of a Great Work — Prayers at Home— Rapid Conver- 
 sions — Opportunity for Compassion — Fraternal Intercourse — Disgust at Heathen- 
 ism— Active Evangelism — Liberality — Prospect of Reward — A Summing Up — 
 Qualifications of an Indian Missionary — Reflex Influence of Missions on the 
 Home Church 362-382 
 
 Statistical Appendix 383-386 
 
 Topical Index 387-413 
 
"isag>mmK.^SSmss& 
 
Life and Work in India 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 APPROACHES TO THE FIELD 
 
 Ordinary Routes — Lines of Steamers — Passage Taken — Description of Journey — 
 Liverpool, Gibraltar, Red Sea, Bombay — By Rail in India — Lines on the Pacific 
 — Projected Routes by Arabia or the Euphrates — The Transcaspian Line. 
 
 |HE opening of tlie Suez Canal in November, 1869, revolu- 
 tionized Eastern navigation more than any other event that 
 has occurred during this century — except, it may be, the 
 application of steam as a propelling power to ocean vessels. 
 The distance between London and Bombay by the Cape of Good 
 Hope is 11,220 miles; by the Isthmus of Suez, 6332 miles — a differ- 
 ence of nearly 5000 miles. This means a reduction of almost three weeks 
 in the time taken by an ordinary Oriental steat-ner in passing between 
 the two points, or a shortening of the journey by water to about one- 
 half what it formerly was. 
 
 Making due allowance for detention at Liverpool in changing vessels, 
 it now requires from five to seven weeks for a traveler to go from New 
 York to the western coast of India, and a week less if he crosses the 
 continent of Europe by rail and takes a steamer at Marseilles or one 
 of the Italian ports.* 
 
 One or the other of these routes is that chosen by n^ost of our 
 American missionaries in reaching their fields of labor in the great 
 Asiatic peninsula. Sometimes Philadelphia, Boston or Baltimore is 
 made the point of departure. Our own Foreign Board — that of the 
 United Presbyterian Church of North America — has often sent its 
 
 * Recently the mails were transmitted, via Brindisi, to Bombay in about three 
 weeks; but this was a rare passage. 
 
 (9) 
 
10 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 agents by the Ameri- 
 can Line from the 
 first-named city, 
 where this Board is 
 located ; but a large 
 majority of those who 
 leave our shores to 
 labor for Christ in 
 India cross the At- 
 lantic by one of 
 the great lines which 
 run between New 
 York and Liverpool. 
 From Liverpool, or 
 London, to Calcutta, 
 Madras, Bombay or 
 Karachi, passage on 
 some steamer going 
 around by the Strait 
 of Gilbraltar can gen- 
 erally be secured in 
 a few days ; or the 
 traveler may "book" 
 through by rail to 
 some port on the 
 Mediterranean, and, 
 by prearrangement, 
 meet a ship there. 
 The advantages of 
 the latter course are 
 a saving of time, an 
 opportunity of sight- 
 seeing on the conti- 
 nent and freedom 
 from the perils and 
 the seasickness of 
 the Bay of Biscay. 
 Its disadvantages are 
 greater expense and trouble and the limitation of the amount of a 
 
LINES OF STEAMERS 11 
 
 passenger's luggage. Excess of baggage is, in this case, generally 
 sent as freight direct from England to India, or by special arrange- 
 ment carried around on the same British steamer which the owner 
 himself takes at Marseilles, Naples or Brindisi. 
 
 There is a great difference in the character of the various lines of 
 steamers, and a corresponding difference in their rates of passage. The 
 Peninsular & Oriental has for many years been the most celebrated 
 line connecting Europe and the East. It carries the mails, is patron- 
 ized by many English officials and makes regular, and comparatively 
 rapid, time. But it is the most expensive of all, and is not much used 
 by missionaries unless they travel second-class. Other well known 
 lines are the British India, the Anchor, the Clan, the Rubittino 
 (Italian), and the Messageries (French). Of late the Hall Line, run- 
 ning between Liverpool, Marseilles and Karachi, has been quite pop- 
 ular with people in the Punjab. It gives excellent accommodations, 
 makes good speed, carries a fine class of passengers, is available either 
 for a continuous sea-journey or trans-continental travel, and has an ar- 
 rangement by which travelers, homeward bound, have special railway 
 facilities in India. 
 
 During the past fourteen years most of the Punjab missionaries have 
 made Bombay their point of entry or departure in going to or from 
 the land of the Vedas. A few have gone or come by Calcutta, and still 
 more by Karachi, which is growing in popularity. 
 
 The majority of our American missionaries have heretofore taken 
 first-class passage on steamers in journeying back and forth between 
 this and their field of labor. Many, however, have traveled second- 
 class, at least part of the way. Occasionally, as upon a few of the P. 
 & O. steamers and the Messageries Line, second-class cabin arrange- 
 ments are very good, and, where the company is not too large or 
 promiscuous, may be accepted for the sake of economy, in spite of 
 close quarters and inferior tone. As a general rule, however, mission- 
 aries ought to travel first-class on shipboard, exception being made 
 only when they find in a lower class wholesome food and clean berths, 
 and when their party is large enough and homogeneous enough to con- 
 trol practically matters in which they have a common interest. 
 
 On European and Indian railways, however, the case is different. 
 Usually second-class travel by rail is just as comfortable, speedy and 
 honorable as that which is called first-class. No objection, whatever, 
 can be made to it, except its greater limitation of allowable luggage, 
 
12 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 and possibly the greater exposure which it brings in India to associa-. 
 tion with undesirable companions. 
 
 The cost of a missionary's journey from Western Pennsylvania to 
 Lahore (or vice versa) — first-class on a ship and second-class by rail in 
 a foreign land — is at present rates about $300 or $325, and half that for 
 children under twelve years of age — infants being free. This includes 
 a moderate outlay for hotel bills, as well as incidental expenses, which 
 may be necessary at New York, Liverpool, or other points on the way; 
 but it does not include the cost of transmitting extra packages as 
 freight. 
 
 Some Mission Boards have friends or business correspondents at 
 ports where changes must be made, to help missionaries in getting a hotel 
 or securing tickets for their forward journey. Occasionally there is 
 some advantage in this arrangement ; but if there is a good business 
 person in the party, especially an experienced gentleman, such aid might 
 better be dispensed with. It is generally less satisfactory, and often more 
 expensive than independent action. Previous knowledge of suitable 
 hotels and boarding places, however, is desirable when one enters a 
 city for the first time ; but this can usually be secured from fellow- 
 travelers, local papers or standard guide books. 
 
 Let us now imagine the missionary on his way to our Punjab field. 
 He has left his home in the interior, furnished himself in New York or 
 Philadelphia with warm wraps for the Atlantic (the stormiest, coldest 
 part of his journey), bid good-bye to friends and begun his voyage on 
 the broad, deep ocean. If he is a bad sailor, and experience alone can 
 decide this point, his soul and stomach will soon be sorely tried, and 
 he may wish himself back again at home ; but if of different constitu- 
 tion, he will — unless an accident occurs, or the sea is too heavy — con- 
 tinue to enjoy the trip until he readies Queenstown and Liverpool. 
 Even if he has not taken congenial companions with him, he will al- 
 most certainly find a few among his fellow-passengers ; while interesting 
 books, innocent sports and opportunities of doing good, will suffice to 
 fill up all the time which he does not care to employ in watching the 
 restless waves around him. Reaching port, he gets his baggage 
 examined by the custom house officer, and having, of course, no dyna- 
 mite, whiskey, or tobacco among his effects, is soon set free, and takes 
 a cab for a hotel (kept on the common European plan), or a boarding 
 house. After refreshments and a few inquiries made of the female 
 clerk, he threads his way to the offices of the different steamship 
 
ENGLAND AND BEYOND 
 
 13 
 
 SIGHTING LAND. 
 
 companies, and obtains all the information necessary to get the whole 
 field of traveling possibilities before him. Then, consulting his associ- 
 ates (if he has any), he settles on a 
 particular line, steamer, and state- 
 room, and secures his passage. This 
 fixes the time of his departure on 
 the next stage of his journey. 
 
 Should a itw days elapse before 
 the sailing of his vessel, he and 
 his party will run down to London 
 (tliird-class by rail), or to Glasgow 
 and Edinburgli, or across to Ire- 
 land, cfr out to Chester and Strat- 
 ford-on-Avon, and derive as much 
 good as possible from their enforced 
 delay. While in Liverpool, too, 
 they note the heavy draught-horses, 
 tall policemen, splendid docks, and 
 substantial buildings of England's great commercial seaport. 
 
 The day of departure having arrived, and letters having been mailed 
 for home friends and the mission field, they set sail, and in a few hours 
 are making full headway down the Irish sea. Passing Holyhead, 
 Small's Lighthouse, and Land's End, they reach the open ocean, and 
 press on across the mouth of the British Channel and the Bay of Biscay 
 until they sight the coast of Portugal. The chances for stormy and for 
 fair weather up to this point are about equal. The Bay, as well as the 
 coast of Portugal, has a bad reputation, and occasionally ships have 
 been lost in its raging waters — some containing missionaries during the 
 last decade — but occasionally it is as smooth and safe as any part of the 
 whole route. 
 
 In six or seven days, Gibraltar is reached, and one has an oppor- 
 tunity of seeing the classic Pillars of Hercules and that wonderful rock- 
 fortress whose possession has entered so largely into Britain's naval and 
 imperial strength. Proceeding, the ship sails along the beautiful coast 
 of Southern Spain, catches a glimpse, here and there, of Northern 
 Africa and the Island of Sicily, passes St. Paul's Bay on the coast of 
 Malta, stops to coal at Valetta, and on the fourteenth day out reaches 
 Port Said, where arrangements are made to go through the Suez 
 Canal — if after dark, with the aid of electric light. 
 
14 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 IN THE CANAL. 
 
 Twelve hours afterwards the Red Sea comes into view, and Bible 
 students are all alive, noting every object before them which 
 
 might have any connection 
 with the departure of the 
 Israelites from Egypt. The 
 Bitter Lakes, Suez, Jebel Ata- 
 kah, the low stretch of coast 
 between that range of moun- 
 tains and the sea, the Wells of 
 Moses, and the distant hills on 
 the farther shore — all come in 
 for their share of observation 
 and remark. 
 
 But the ship does not delay 
 long at Port Ibrahim, nor do 
 objects of interest cease to 
 meet a traveler's attention as 
 she proceeds on her voyage. 
 On both sides of the Gulf of 
 Suez, for its whole length of 
 1 20 miles, the yellowish-white shore is visible, while the Sinaitic group 
 of mountains, bleak and jagged, form an appropriate background on 
 the east. At a point about ninety-five miles from Suez, Mt. Sinai 
 comes into view between two peaks, of which the southern is Mt. 
 Catherine. This, of course, is earnestly scanned with glasses during 
 the short time when it remains in sight. 
 
 Two or three hours afterwards our company enters the main body of 
 the Red Sea, passes The Brothers and sails near the Daedalus light- 
 house. This is a singular structure rising apparently out of the sea, 
 built upon the southern edge of a circular submerged coral reef which 
 does not inclose more than a square half-mile of area, but is distinctly 
 recognized by the calm, green waters (only three or four feet in depth) 
 that cover its surface. On this reef a ship is said to have foundered 
 some years ago, plunging down at the very edge in water one hundred 
 fathoms deep, while the passengers, by wading out on the unseen, but 
 solid, platform beside her, escaped with their lives. 
 
 Several days now elapse during which little land is visible, and 
 nothing arises to arrest a traveler's attention except the continually 
 increasing heat. Then come into view, successively, Jiibal Tur, 
 
ADEN AND BOMBAY 15 
 
 Jubal Sukr, the constellation of the Southern Cross, Perim (a coaling 
 station), the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb and, loi miles beyond Perim, 
 Aden — a bleak, hot, almost rainless peninsula, of volcanic origin, form- 
 ing an outpost of the Indian Empire, where a garrison of soldiers con- 
 stitutes the chief part of the population. Here, perhaps, the ship may 
 be delayed a few hours and her passengers may thus get an opportunity 
 of landing and sight-seeing. If so, they will be abundantly repaid. 
 If less fortunate, they can at least observe the Somali divers who, 
 in spite of sharks, dare to sport by the vessel's side, and crying, " Have 
 a dive, have a dive ! " dart downward with incredible quickness and 
 certainty after the shillings, or rupees, that are thrown overboard for 
 the amusement of the donors and the benefit of the performers. 
 
 Seven days more of sailing across the Arabian Sea, which, except in 
 the monsoons, is almost always calm, bring the missionary party to 
 Bombay or Karachi — if to the former place, without showing them any- 
 thing very remarkable on the way, except perhaps a spouting whale or 
 a passing ship — if to the latter place, over a course which also brings 
 into view several islands and the southernmost points of the peninsula 
 of Arabia. 
 
 In Bombay they take lodgings at the Esplanade, or the Byculla, hotel, 
 or possibly at a cheaper and less pretentious place of entertainment. 
 Some time elapses before their baggage is examined and forwarded and 
 preparations are fully made for the journey northward by rail. Sola 
 hats and bedding must be purchased ; for it is not safe, even in winter, 
 for a European or American stranger to expose himself much in or- 
 dinary headgear to an Indian sun, and on the railways and at many 
 hotels, bedding is conspicuously absent. Meanwhile, if a little leisure 
 can be found, they secure a look at the splendid buildings on the 
 Esplanade (as fine as any other modern structures in India), take a 
 drive to Malabar Hill (where the Parsee Towers of Silence are) and, 
 from the elevation thus secured, get a fine view of Bombay city and 
 its beautiful harbor, go across to the Caves of Elephanta in a little 
 boat, call on some of the local missionaries, take a ride on the tram- 
 way, which is now run by electricity instead of horse power, or wander 
 on foot through the narrow streets of the native part of the city, where 
 everything they see or hear is so strange, picturesque and interesting. 
 
 At length their hotel bill (one or two dollars a day) is paid, a good, 
 big luncheon basket well filled with eatables procured, and entering a 
 shigram, they are driven to the Colaba station of the Bombay, Baroda 
 
16 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 and Central Railway. Here they procure second-class tickets at the 
 rate of fifty or sixty rupees apiece and are soon comfortably seated in an 
 apartment on the train occupied only by themselves, while but a few 
 minutes elapse before the engine whistles and their journey of 1324 
 miles to Sialkot is begun. 
 
 From eighty to one hundred hours are consumed in this part of their 
 trip if they go by way of Delhi and do not stop over at any point on 
 the road.* Bleak cliffs, barren deserts, compactly built but sad- 
 looking towns, wells used for irrigating purposes, extensive unculti- 
 vated plains, monkeys, jackals, deer, antelopes, wild birds, green or 
 yellow patches of grain, picturesque mountains, pretty railway stations 
 ornamented with garden beds of flowers and running vines, and a great 
 variety of other interesting objects, greet the eye and help to lessen the 
 tedium of the journey ; while at various stopping-places refreshments, 
 or regular meals, can be had, as desired. The lack of a knowledge of 
 the language of the country does not prevent the newcomers from 
 traveling with a good degree of comfort, altliough it interferes greatly 
 with their ability to ask questions and pick up information. 
 
 Should the Sabbath intervene, requiring rest, or the party wish to 
 stop and see the wonders of the land, they may break their journey at 
 Delhi, Agra or Lahore, and finish it when their object is accomplished. 
 Having arrived at their destination, they find some of their brethren, 
 who had been apprized by telegraph of their coming, waiting at the 
 station to receive them. The welcome which they get is of the most 
 cordial character and soon they feel fully installed as regular members 
 of the missionary household. 
 
 Should the party land at Calcutta or Karachi, instead of Bombay, 
 they would meet with other objects of interest at the port of entry; 
 and, on their journey into the interior, which in either case would be 
 also wholly by rail, they would pass through different towns and 
 scenes ; but on the whole their impression of the country would be 
 much the same. By way of ■ Karachi, however, 173 miles would be 
 saved in the sea-journey and 400 miles in the railway ride ; wliile ten 
 days on the sea and a {t\^ hours on land would be lost were Calcutta 
 made the port of entry. 
 
 *They will pass through Siitat, Baroda, Ahmedabad, Ajmere, Jeypore, Rewari, 
 Delhi, Meerut, Amritsar and Lahore. The newly-opened railway from Rewari, by 
 Hissar and Firozpur, to Laliore shortens the journey i86 miles, but travel by that 
 route prevents passengers from seeing Delhi and Amritsar, 
 
WESTERN AND OTHER ROUTES 
 
 17 
 
 ORIENTAL HARBOR. 
 
 Missionaries may go from America to India by a westward route, 
 crossing the Pacific Ocean and traveling by way of Yokohama, Japan, 
 and Hong Kong, China. In 
 that case they will take passage 
 on a vessel of the Occidental and 
 Oriental Line at San Francisco 
 or on one of the steamers of the 
 British Canadian Line at Van- 
 couver, but they will change 
 lines and steamers at Hong Kong, 
 and may stop for a time also, if 
 they so desire, in Japan. This 
 route brings the traveler to 
 Madras or Calcutta, whence he 
 makes his way inland as already 
 described. The distance b\ 
 water from New York to Karachi 
 via Liverpool, Gibraltar and 
 Suez is 9200 miles. The dis- 
 tance from San Francisco to Calcutta, on the eastern side of India, 
 is about 9900 miles; and from Vancouver, 500 miles less. American 
 missionaries from the extreme West might therefore very properly go 
 by the Pacific route, although at best it is somewhat more tedious 
 and expensive; but Pennsylvanians will find that it requires at least 
 twelve days more of travel and sixty dollars more passage money 
 than the usual eastern route. However, some might prefer it because 
 of its novelty, or because, having traveled the other way, they could 
 say, at the end of their trip, that they had journeyed round the world. 
 
 Is it probable that other and better routes to India will soon be 
 opened ? 
 
 Several have been suggested during the last thirty years. 
 
 One of these is a railway from Suez across the Arabian Peninsula 
 and through Persia to Karachi, a distance of 2400 miles. Another 
 is what is called the Euphrates, or the Tigris, route. This con- 
 templates a' railway from some port on the Mediterranean Sea — say 
 Alexandretta — past Aleppo — and down the Euphrates to Hillah, Bas- 
 sorah or Koweit, where it could connect with steam navigation for 
 Karachi and Bombay ; or from Alexandretta by Aleppo to Diarbekir 
 and down the Tigris to Baghdad and thence across the country to 
 2 
 
18 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Bassorah or Koweit, or from Baghdad direct to Mohammerah and 
 along the northeastern shores of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, 
 past Bushir, Bunder Abbas and Sonmiyani to Karachi ; or a road start- 
 ing from Constantinople, instead of Alexandretta, passing through the 
 midst of Asia Minor to Diarbekir and connecting with the line 
 already described. A continuous railway from Alexandretta to Kara- 
 chi through Baghdad would be about 2750 miles in length, and could 
 be traveled easily in four or five days, while less than a day longer need 
 be spent on the Mediterranean in reaching its western terminus than in 
 reaching Port Said by the present route. Thus a full week would be 
 gained by passengers bound for Karachi. 
 
 But railway connection between Calais and Constantinople* was 
 opened up in the fall of 1888, so that passengers can make the journey 
 from London to Constantinople in ninety-four hours. Supposing, then, 
 that a railway was finished between Constantinople and Karachi, as 
 above described, the whole distance from London to Lahore would be 
 about 4975 miles, and, at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour, could be 
 traversed in eight or ten days, not counting Sabbaths of rest. The 
 present route from London, or Liverpool, to Lahore, byway of the sea 
 and the Suez Canal to Karachi, is about 6100 miles and occupies in its 
 passage a period of about twenty-four days. Thus a Constantinople 
 route would shorten the distance from 1000 to iioo miles and the trip 
 fourteen or fifteen days. 
 
 The prospect of the early completion of any of these routes is not 
 very bright. Notwithstanding the fact that some surveys connected 
 with them have already been made and a good deal of writing done in 
 their behalf, and even a few miles of the road through Asia Minor 
 have been built, so many obstructions are generally put in the way of 
 such enterprises by the Turkish government tliat we cannot hope for a 
 satisfactory conclusion of any projects in this direction for many years 
 to come. 
 
 Much more is to be expected from another route, or rather concat- 
 enation of routes, namely, that which lies through the Czar's Asiatic 
 dominions. 
 
 About seventeen years ago a railway was completed between Poti 
 and Batoum on the Black Sea, and Baku on the Caspian Sea. At or 
 before this time the European system also reached Vladikavkaz, on 
 
 * Through Basle, yienna, Pesth, Belgrade, Nisch and Sophia. 
 
THE TRANSCASPIAN ROUTE 19 
 
 the northern side of the Caucasus mountains, 130 miles from Tiflis, an 
 important station on the former railway. 
 
 In 1S80 the Transcaspian Line was begun, starting at Michaelovsk, 
 on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, and since that date this rail- 
 way has been pushed forward with great energy into the very heart of 
 Asia. It was finished to Kizl Arvat (159 miles from Michaelovsk and 
 162 from Uzun Ada) in 1880-81 ; * to Uzun Ada, the present point 
 of departure (by a branch line), in 1S85 ; to Askabad (136 miles) in 
 1885; to Merve (214 miles) July 2, 1886; to Charjui, on tlie Amu 
 Darya f or ancient Oxus river (a distance of 147 miles), Dec. 13, 
 1886; to Bokhara (sixty-six miles) in April, 1888; and to Samarkand 
 (175 miles). May, 1888. Since then perhaps 100 miles additional rail- 
 way, or 1000 miles in all, have been finished, and soon Tashkend (190 
 miles from Samarkand) and other important Central-Asian points will 
 be bound with iron links to the great Transcaspian system. 
 
 It is proposed to tunnel the Caucasus mountains between Vladikav- 
 kaz and Tiflis, as also to build a railway between the former place and 
 Petrovsk, an important northern port of the Caspian, and possibly to 
 run another road down the western shore of this sea from Petrovsk to 
 Baku. It is also, no doubt, the intention of the Russians to extend 
 their Transcaspian Line towards Herat and India — tlie object of this 
 movement being partly commercial and partly administrative, or mili- 
 tary. Such improvements spring of necessity from that aggressive 
 policy by which Russia is striving to extend, as well as conserve, her 
 Oriental possessions. 
 
 The British government in India, moreover, has not been idle in 
 pushing out her means of easy communication with the North. 
 About 1000 miles of railway and other roads were projected as early 
 as 1 88 1, and some of the plans then adopted have since been realized 
 in fact. Especial mention must be made of the Sind Pesliin railway 
 and the Khojak tunnel. The former runs through, and (by a different 
 branch) around, the Bolan Pass, from Sibi to and beyond Quetta, a 
 military outpost in the border of British Baluchistan; and the latter 
 (the tunnel) pierces the Kwaja Amran range of mountains eighty or 
 ninety miles further on in the direction of Kandahar. The railway 
 was finished to the base of the above-mentioned range in January, 
 1887, ^•''d the tunnel in August, 1891. 
 
 * Seventeen miles of this part were laid in seventeen days, 
 f The bridge over this river is one mile, 992 ft. long. 
 
20 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 The distance from the Khojak tunnel to Duschak, the nearest pouit 
 of the present Transcaspian Railway, is about 700 miles. The best 
 route lies through Kandahar, Girishk on the Helmund river, Herat, 
 and probably along the banks of the Hari Rud and the Tejend rivers 
 by Sarrakhs, an important Russian outpost. Everywhere in this 
 direction a road would be of comparatively easy construction ; and 
 who knows but that in a few years, through the force of military neces- 
 sity and imperial ambition, this gap may be traversed by the iron 
 horse and made a highway for common travel ? 
 
 Whenever such a result is reached, continuous railway communica- 
 tion between the Straits of Dover and Calcutta will be interrupted 
 only at the Caspian and Black Seas. Reckoning the distance from 
 Odessa to Poti (or Batoum) at 1000 miles, and that across the Caspian 
 from Baku to Uzun Ada, or Krasnovodsk, at 200 miles, and the 
 Straits of Dover at twenty miles, we find that the whole distance 
 from London, by Cologne, Berlin, Odessa, Poti, Baku, Uzun Ada, 
 Duschak, Sarrakhs, Herat, Kandahar and Quetta, to Lahore would be 
 5260 miles, of which as much as 4040 miles would be covered by rail 
 when this route is completed. It ought not, therefore, to take more 
 than eleven or twelve days (two weeks, counting Sabbaths) to pass be- 
 tween the two places, or less than one-half the time which it now 
 takes, by way of the Strait of Gibraltar. Should the necessity of 
 crossing the Black Sea be removed also, by tlie completion of railway 
 connections west of the Caspian, three or four days additional might 
 be saved in making the same journey. 
 
 Hence, to say nothing of a railway along the western side of the 
 Caspian across Persia, that is from Petrovsk to the Tigris, or the Per- 
 sian Gulf, or of the Siberian railway which, with its connection south 
 from Orenburg, Omsk or Semipalatinsk, might open up a northwestern 
 route by way of Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean, nothing is more 
 likely than that some of the present foreign missionaries of Lidia 
 will, before they die, have the pleasure of going to and from their 
 fields of labor in less than half the time which it now takes and with 
 half the seasickness which they now experience. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 OUTSIDE POLITICAL CONDITIONS 
 
 China and Baluchistan — Burmese War — Border Warfare — Manipur Rebellion — 
 The Mahdi — Dhulip Singh — Russia's Progress in Asia — English Fear of Russia 
 — Afghanistan a Buffer — What we Dreaded Most. 
 
 |AVING accompanied the missionaries to their field of labor 
 in the Punjab, let us observe their surroundings and the 
 conditions under wliich they have been required to work. 
 Beginning with the outside circle we note various polit- 
 ical neighbors who have somewhat disturbed the peace of the country 
 where their Mission is established. 
 
 Of China little need be said, as the Himalaya Mountains form an 
 almost impassable barrier, separating Thibet, her nearest tributary 
 province, from the peninsula of India; and (during the past fourteen 
 years) scarcely the shadow of a quarrel has arisen between that country 
 and Great Britain. 
 
 Similar remarks may be made of Siam, Anam, Kafiristan and 
 Baluchistan, although the last-named country was years ago somewhat 
 troublesome and part of its territory was then brought within the 
 "sphere of British influence." 
 
 The case of Upper Burma has been somewliat different. There a 
 war arose between King Thebaw and the Indian Viceroy in the fall 
 of 1S85 which ended in the deposition of the former and the complete 
 annexation of his dominions to British India. This war, however, 
 although the most important carried on by our rulers within the past 
 fourteen years, was comparatively distant from the Punjab and excited 
 no special interest there among either Hindus or Muhammadans, 
 unless they were soldiers or the friends of soldiers. Hence it pro- 
 duced scarcely a ripple in the current of our missionary work or life. 
 
 Several other contests occurred between the Government of India 
 and border tribes: for instance, that of the Zhob Valley in 1884, the 
 
 (21) 
 
22 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Sikkim Expedition in 1888, the two Black Mountain wars in the fall 
 of 1888 and in 1891, the Lushai Uprisings in 1889 and 1892, the 
 Kohat war in 1891 and a akirmish with some Afghan tribes in the fall 
 of 1894. But these contests hardly rose above the dignity of 
 skirmishes and, although nearer, gave us little more anxiety than did 
 the Burmese campaign. 
 
 The rebellion in Manipur, a native state on the borders of Assam, 
 which occurred in March, 1S91, and led to the assassination of Mr. 
 Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, and the execution of 
 several high native officials, as well as to the deposition and banishment 
 of the king, gave us a serious, though temporary, shock — partly, how- 
 ever, because it was simultaneous witli rebellious demonstrations in 
 
 Calcutta, Benares and other 
 places, and revealed in a striking 
 manner the fact that the basis of 
 England's imperial rule in the 
 East possessed elements of insta- 
 bility. 
 
 The rise of the so-called 
 Mahdi in Africa and his success 
 in maintaining his position there, 
 together with the prospect of 
 his crossing over the Red Sea 
 into Arabia and making a tri- 
 umphant march, as the promised 
 messenger of God, to Persia, 
 Afghanistan and India, excited 
 greatly the imagination of the 
 Muhammadans of our neigh- 
 borhood in 1884 and made us 
 Christians glad when the tide 
 of battle turned against him and 
 he disappeared from view. 
 
 The threatened coming of the 
 Maharaja Dhulip Singh to India as the avowed head and king of the 
 Sikh nation, in the spring of 1S86, was doubtless disturbing in its 
 effects upon the native population of the Punjab and a cause of fear 
 to the government. But his detention at Aden and return to Europe 
 
 MAHARAJA DHULU' SIM H IN r\RIY 
 MANHOOD. 
 
JiUSSIA 'S FROGHESS IN AS /A 23 
 
 effectually quenched all the incipient fires of an uprising among the 
 people, if there were any, and gave us peace. 
 
 But the outside movement which more than any other disturbed In- 
 dia during the period under review was Russia's constant advance in 
 that direction — with the intention, it was supposed, of driving out the 
 English from Hindustan and extending her own dominions to the Bay 
 of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Russia's progress in Asia was begun by Yarmak in the latter part of 
 the sixteenth century and, continuing at intervals ever since, has 
 proved to be one of the most wonderful facts and factors of modern 
 history. Tomsk was founded in 1604; the sea of Ochotsk reached in 
 1639; Irkutsk founded in 1661 ; the country between the Ural Moun- 
 tains and the Baikal lake was conquered in 1725; the east coast of 
 Siberia reached in 1 738 ; and the complete conquest of that region 
 secured in i860 — through the cession by China of the left bank of the 
 Amoor river and as much of thfe country southward as lies between 
 its Asuri branch and the Pacific coast. Recently (in 1895) rights in 
 Corea have been granted to Russia by both China and Japan, as the 
 result of the war between these two countries. Meanwhile, too, prog- 
 ress had been made in the acquisition of the Caucasus and of Trans- 
 Caucasia, although the full possession of this country was not entirely 
 obtained until about the year 1871. Turkestan also had for years felt 
 the encroachments of this aggressive power and was now destined to 
 receive fiirther attention. Orenburg was founded in 1742; Ashurada 
 was seized in 1841 ; the left bank of the Amu river was conquered in 
 1845 ; Chemkend was taken in 1864 and Tashkend the next year; 
 half of Khokand was annexed in 1867 ; in 1868 the Russians captured 
 Samarkand and completely crushed the power of the Emir of 
 Bokhara ; Krasnovodsk, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, was 
 occupied in 1869 and Michaelovsk founded in 1870; in 1871 the 
 neighboring portion of the Turkoman region as far as Kizl Arvat was 
 annexed ; in June, 1873, Khiva fell and was brought into subjection 
 to the Czar; in 1876 the remaining half of Khokand was annexed ; in 
 1881 the Turkomans were conquered by Skobeleff at Geok Tepe, and 
 soon after Merve became Russian. Less than three years ago also the 
 Czar sent his explorers and soldiers into the heart of the Pamirs, where 
 China and Afghanistan have both been resisting his claims, and where 
 England, as a friend of the latter, has stood ready to oppose them. 
 
 And never has Russia been compelled to recede permanently from 
 
24 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 any advance which she has ever made. Her retreats in the Caucasus 
 before its native chiefs and the power of Persia, and in the East under 
 Chinese pressure, have always been temporary in their character. 
 She knows well how to place her garrisons and preserve her conquests. 
 We have already seen her activity in pushing out railways beyond the 
 Black Sea and the Caspian, by means of which she can at pleasure 
 concentrate her forces at any requisite point and successfully quell any 
 threatening revolt. See, too, how the great Siberian railway, which 
 was projected in 1890, is being rapidly thrown across Asia, with the 
 prospect of its being completed by the beginning of the next century, 
 or shortly after, if not before. 
 
 As announced by Peter the Great and his successors, the object of 
 this forward movement is the civilization of that part of the world. 
 And it must be admitted that such a result has to some extent taken 
 place. Wherever the Russian flag goes, there Eastern slavery at once 
 ceases to live, and those cruel, barbarous methods of government 
 which everywhere exist among Central-Asiatic tribes are replaced by a 
 system more orderly, just and humane. Safety also being universally 
 secured by Russian arms, agriculture, manufactures and trade have 
 received a mighty stimulus and are adding rapidly to the wealth and 
 the happiness of the people. The Russians, moreover, and especially 
 the Cossacks, can enter into the feelings of conquered Orientals more 
 fully than persons of English blood, can draw them into closer rela- 
 tion to themselves and bring them up more rapidly to their own stand- 
 ard of civilization. 
 
 Benevolence, however, cannot be admitted to be the only, or even 
 the chief, motive which actuates the Russian in his advancing course. 
 No doubt he is ambitious also and is striving with all his might to 
 secure tlie largest and most powerful empire on the face of the earth. 
 Especially is he jealous of Great Britain and China, his most formid- 
 able rivals. The former particularly is the object of his constant envy 
 and opposition. Both as an ally of the Sultan and the ruler of a 
 populous Asiatic empire, Queen Victoria stands much in the way of 
 the accomplishment of his purposes. Nor is the threat of invading 
 India always a stratagem intended simply to weaken her and her ally's 
 hold upon the Dardanelles and hasten his own conquest of Constanti- 
 nople and his acquisition of the outlet of the Black Sea. Without 
 doubt he has designs upon India itself and, in spite of the peaceful 
 character of such Czars as the late Alexander, hopes eventually to add 
 
FEARS OF INVASION- 25 
 
 it as one of the brightest of the world's gems to his sovereign's 
 crown. 
 
 And well do the English understand this object. Nothing haunts 
 an Anglo-Indian more than the fear of an invasion from "the king 
 of the north." Fitfully, too, has he taken measures to prevent such 
 a catastrophe. In 1S69 a zone was sought which, being occupied by 
 a friendly power and being recognized at the same time by Russia as 
 non-Russian, might act as a buffer to ward off the blows of his 
 advancing rival. This was found in Afghanistan, which moreover — 
 to make the arrangement doubly sure — was taken into still closer 
 friendship with England than it had been before and heavily subsi- 
 dized. But unfortunately, even with a change of Afghan rulers, even 
 after the too independent Shere Ali gave place to Yakub Khan and 
 the unfaithful Yakub Khan was supplanted by the present Amir, 
 Abdurrahman, this friendship never became very cordial; and, what 
 was worse still, the northern boundary of Afghanistan remained in the 
 cloudy, unsettled condition in which it had been for years. Hence it 
 became necessary, not only to guard against the intrigues of Russia 
 and Afghanistan, but also to secure a boundary between them south of 
 which the former could not come. This led to the appointment in 
 1884 of what is called the Delimitation Commission. But the labors 
 of this Commission did not really begin until 1885, when, starting at 
 Sarrakhs and working eastward, it erected boundary pillars as far as 
 the Pamirs. 
 
 The first four years of the period under special review were there- 
 fore years of anxiety for us. This reached its climax in the spring of 
 1885, when tlie " incident at Penjdeh," as it is called — that is, a 
 quarrel and a skirmish between the Russian and Afghan forces — 
 occurred, and fears were entertained that war between the two great 
 contending powers had already begun. All through the winter of 
 1884-85 great military activity was displayed in India. Preparations 
 were made for forwarding troops. Soldiers were subjected to constant 
 drill. Sham battles (to give experience) were fought near the various 
 cantonments. The writer's own residence at Sialkot was often in the 
 centre of such contests and once, at least, made the figurative object 
 of attack. 
 
 A similar but less violent scare also occurred in the spring of 1887. 
 
 What we missionaries dreaded most was the confusion which would 
 inevitably arise in the course of a contest for supremacy. 
 
!fWB7;!:^:^^f^;f??fis^'X^;:m:r2')S^f!*S^ 
 
 MOUNTAINEERS IN ACTION. 
 
 (26) 
 
HUSSIAN AND ENGLISH RULE COMPARED 
 
 It mattered comparatively little which kingdom exercised authority 
 over us. Both are nominally Christian governments and, as Ameri- 
 cans, we might hope for fair treatment even from Russia, which, in 
 political matters at least, has always been a friendly power. True, we 
 greatly preferred the English as our rulers. They are our own flesh 
 and blood ; they represent a higher civilization ; they give us a strong, 
 just, peaceful rule ; they are more tolerant of non-conformists and 
 dissenters than Russians are ; they march in the forefront of the 
 world's progress ; they furnish us more aid and sympathy in our 
 special work than the Czar could be expected to give. The latter 
 might treat us as he does the Stundists. 
 
 But it was the time of invasion, conflict and possible change which 
 after all we most feared. From time immemorial the Punjab has been 
 the highway for invading forces and the great battle-ground for con- 
 tending armies. Here Aryan Hindus, Scythians, Greeks, Persians, 
 Mongols, and various Muhammadan dynasties — even the English them- 
 selves — have successively met their opponents and had many of their 
 fiercest and most decisive contests. Knowing all this, our imagination 
 dwelt somewhat on the possibilities of the future. The march and 
 countermarch of armies past our doors, the raids of guerilla bands and 
 the slaughter of regular engagements, the temporary suspension of 
 civil law, the incoming of fierce Cossacks, reckless Turkomans and 
 fanatical Afghans, the uncertainty as to which side might be taken by 
 the natives around us, these were the things of which we most thought 
 and talked, and the things which we most dreaded. 
 
 Happily we were not called upon to pass through such an experience. 
 God in His providence continued to keep us under British rule and 
 Russia is still far away. 
 
 But why, may we not ask in concluding this section, should not 
 these two great powers come to some amicable arrangement by which 
 Afghanistan would be divided between them, their boundaries made 
 contiguous, and the terrible (though able) despotism of such rulers as 
 Abdurrahman brought to an end ? How much would the world be 
 a gainer thereby ! 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 
 
 The Machine, Civil and Military — The Viceroys : Lytton, Dufferin, Lansdowne 
 and Elgin — The Lieut.-Governors of the Punjab — Object of British Rule in 
 India — How it Helps and How it Obstructs Mission Work. 
 
 |HAT is the character of British Rule in India, and how does 
 it affect our mission work ? 
 
 The Government of India is a vast and complicated, but 
 smoothly working, machine, controlled in all its departments 
 — legislative, executive and judicial — by a single man called a Viceroy 
 and Governor-General, who is changed every four or five years at the 
 will of the British Government, and is subject in a large degree to the 
 will of the Secretary of State for India, who resides in London, is as- 
 sisted by a Council of retired Anglo-Indians, and represents the reign- 
 ing ministry, which in turn is influenced to some extent by the chang- 
 ing moods of Parliament and the people of Great Britain. 
 
 Within the limits of native, feudatory states, of which there are some 
 eight hundred altogether — embracing three-fifths of the entire territory 
 and three-thirteenths of the entire population — this government gives 
 large liberty to hereditary princes in the management of tlieir own do- 
 minions; but they can have no independent foreign policy and even 
 their internal administration is subject to the inspection and the advice 
 of a British political officer, called the Resident. 
 
 The Governors of Bombay and Madras, who are sent out from Eng- 
 land, as the Viceroy himself is, on account of their rank and political 
 prominence, have also extensive powers of their own and, in questions 
 not imperial, communicate directly with the Home Government, and 
 not through the Viceroy. 
 
 Other British territory, however, is ruled directly by the Governor- 
 General and his assistants — as also is the whole territory in regard to 
 matters of an imperial nature. 
 (28) 
 
THE RULERS OE INDIA 29 
 
 Aid in this is derived first, from Committees — Viceregal, District 
 and Municipal ; secondly, from the Civil Service, or the Staff of 
 Administration ; and thirdly, from the Military Department. 
 
 The members of the Viceregal Council are appointed for ten years. 
 It consists for ordinary purposes of six persons selected by the Crown. 
 These are the Commander-in-C'hief of the Indian Army, a legal mem- 
 ber, a financier, a man skilled in engineering and two experienced 
 members of the Civil Service. For purposes of legislation twelve more 
 persons are added on the nomination of the Viceroy, of whom one- 
 half must be non-official persons and of whom some are always natives. 
 But in certain cases the Governor-General can overrule the decisions 
 of this Council. District and Municipal Committees have only a 
 limited amount of local power. 
 
 The Administration Staff consists of four sections : First, the Cove- 
 nanted Civil Service, which is composed of persons ai)pointed after 
 competitive examination in England, who go out to India under 
 specially favorable rules. Their number is somewhat less than one 
 thousand altogether. These are divided between the executive and the 
 judicial departments — the highest prize of the former being a Lieut. - 
 Governorship and of the latter a Judgeship in the High Court. About 
 two-thirds are attached to what is called the Bengal Civil Service, and 
 the rest in equal proportions to the Bombay and the Madras Services. 
 Of the Bengal Civil Service about one-third belong to Bengal proper, 
 one-third to the Northwest Provinces and Oude, and one-tenth to 
 the Punjab, while the remainder are distributed to Burma, Assam and 
 other points. Secondly, the Statutory Civil Service which is selected 
 from among the natives. Many of its appointments are in the gift of 
 Local Governments. Thirdly, Military officers of the Staff Corps in 
 civil employ. Fourthly, a large class of uncovenanted servants of 
 different grades, who may be either Europeans or natives.* The 
 number of first-class appointments eligible to natives is constantly in- 
 creasing. These various officers, however appointed, rise through 
 merit or seniority until they have reached a certain period of life or 
 service, when the most of them are allowed to retire on a pension 
 which Cas well as their graded salary) is regulated by fixed rules. 
 
 Under the Viceroy, next in order, come the Governors, Lieutenant- 
 Governors and Chief Commissioners, who (with differing powers) 
 
 *See Hazeir s Annual {ox 1893. 
 
30 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 stand at the head of Provincial Governments* and are aided by 
 Commissioners, Judges, Deputy Commissioners, Assistant Commis- 
 sioners, Police Magistrates and other ofificers, to whom labor, 
 according to its locality, nature and importance, is distributed, and 
 through whom appeals are conducted and the whole machinery 
 worked. 
 
 The highest officer of the Punjab, where we labored, has the rank 
 of a Lieutenant-Governor, Under him are, not only a High Court 
 and Heads of Administration, residing at Lahore, but also, according 
 to the reorganization effected in 1884, six Commissioners of Divisions 
 and thirty-one Deputy Commissioners — besides a host of subordinates. 
 Deputy Commissioners usually have charge of separate Districts and 
 are the officers with whom we missionaries have had most to do. 
 They possess a measure of judicial authority, as well as executive con- 
 trol ; and through them also most new movements originate. 
 
 In the entire civil service of India (covenanted and uncovenanted) 
 there are perhaps 3000 persons whose salaries, aside from allowances, 
 vary from 125 to 8333 f rupees a month, that is (estimating according 
 to the present value of the rupee), from about 40 to 2500 dollars. 
 But the number of subordinate officers and clerks in government employ 
 runs up to tens of thousands. 
 
 Supporting this civil service is a military department which can be 
 employed to preserve peace, or enforce obedience, when necessary. 
 This consists of a Commander-in-chief,;}; with headquarters at the seat 
 of General Government, a regular army of about 220,000 soldiers (one- 
 third of whom are European), a volunteer force (mostly European and 
 Eurasian) of 20,000 or 25,000 men, and a drilled police organization 
 of 200,000 natives, officered largely by Europeans — to say nothing 
 of the armies of native princes which, on occasion, have been offered 
 
 * Madras and Bombay, the territories of the two Governors, are called Presiden- 
 cies. 
 
 f This amount is given to Lieut. -Governors ; the Governors of Madras and 
 Bombay get 10,000 rupees per mensem ; the Viceroy, 20,833 P^'" rnensem ; or, at 
 present rates of exchange, nearly twice as much as the President of the United 
 States. 
 
 \ Three persons have successively occupied the position of Commander-in-chief in 
 the Indian army during the past fourteen years — Sir Donald Stewart, down to the 
 fall of 1885 ; Sir Frederick Roberts, from that time down to the spring of 1893, and 
 Sir George White ever since. 
 
LORDS LYTTON AXD RIPON 81 
 
 to defend the empire from external attacks. These various forces are 
 stationed at different points throughout the country so tliat they can 
 be readily used in any quarter in any given emergency. The Punjab 
 is well stocked with sokiiers on account of its being a border Prov- 
 ince, and because it lies on the direct route to and from Central 
 Asia. In our own field cantonments are located at Jhelum, Sialkot 
 and Ravval Pindi — the last-named said to be the largest within the 
 bounds of the British Empire. 
 
 During the period of which I am specially writing several viceregal 
 changes have taken place. Lord Lytton, who went to India in 1S76, 
 was succeeded, in April, 1880, by the Marquis of Ripon ; and the 
 latter, January 13, 1885, by the Earl of Dufiferin, whose term ended 
 December 13, 1888. Then came the Marquis of Lansdowne, who 
 gave place to Earl Elgin, January 27, 1894. 
 
 Politically Lord Lytton was a Tory, and of his private character 
 (whether justly or not) men did not speak well. Naturally, therefore, 
 our mission cause was not much aided by his presence. 
 
 Lord Ripon was a Roman Catholic pervert from Anglicanism and 
 in politics an advanced Liberal — a strange combination. It cannot 
 be said, however, that he allowed his religious convictions to affect his 
 public acts, except perhaps that he took special pleasure in any " func- 
 tions" which tended to honor and establish his own church, and also 
 by his example and liberality gave it substantial aid. His wife is said 
 to have been a decided Protestant of the Church of England type. 
 Lord Ripon's administration has been much praised in certain quar- 
 ters from a political point of view; but, in the opinion of most non- 
 partisans, improperly. Two very serious defects were exhibited in his 
 course — unwise liberalism and a disposition (towards the last at least) 
 to play the demagogue. Having an eye to the approval of his own party 
 in England, he endeavored to carry out its principles in the government 
 of India faster than the people were prepared to put them in practice, and 
 also by injudicious speeches excited hopes in the minds of the turbulent 
 and disloyal natives which could not possibly be gratified. Hence, 
 while some of his measures were good and may lead eventually to the 
 safe exercise of more republican methods, his reign was decidedly 
 unsettling in its character and tended to pit foreigners and natives 
 against each other in unhappy conflict. Never during our whole stay 
 in India was there so much of the spirit of unrest, strife and fear of 
 internal commotion as during the time when what is called the Ilbert 
 
32 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Bill was under discussion ; that is, from February 2, 1S83, when it was 
 introduced into the Council, to January 25, 1884, when it was passed. 
 This bill, as first prepared, proposed to give a large number of native 
 magistrates, even in outlying districts, that jurisdiction over Euro- 
 peans which had previously been exercised only by European officials. 
 As finally adopted it was shorn of its most obnoxious features, but the 
 feeling aroused by this as well as other measures and acts of Lord Ripon 
 never became fully allayed while he remained in power. 
 
 Lord Dufferin's coming, however, seemed like oil poured upon the 
 troubled waters. His great reputation as an able and experienced ser- 
 vant of the crown, his thorough acquaintance with Oriental character 
 and Russian aggression, his moderate political views as a Liberal 
 Unionist, and his smooth and cautious methods as a tried diplomatist, 
 excited expectations which were not doomed to disappointment. 
 Without rudely and rashly discarding his predecessor's measures, he 
 yet settled down to that quiet, firm, straightforward policy which the 
 country so much needed, and in the place of doubt, confusion and 
 bitterness produced confidence and internal peace. Perhaps he was 
 too reticent and diplomatic in his public utterances. On such occasions 
 he had the art of pleasing everybody present, without revealing any- 
 thing, in an almost unsurpassed degree. But such a manner involved 
 the loss of that educating influence which comes from greater frank- 
 ness. Better this, however, than Lord Ripon's exciting harangues. 
 
 Lord Dufferin's aggressive movements were reserved for his foreign 
 policy. It was under him that the Amir of Afghanistan was brought 
 to more satisfactory terms, the work of boundary delimitation pushed 
 forward to a conclusion, and Upper Burma annexed to the Indian 
 Empire. 
 
 Religiously Lord Dufferin made little impression on the country ; nor, 
 apart from the usual trend of a settled governmental policy, did he 
 affect our mission work. He was too much of a diplomatist to show 
 any partiality even for his own faith ; nor did any of his public sayings 
 or doings indicate that he took a very deep interest in the spiritual wel- 
 fare of India's perishing millions. 
 
 Lord Lansdowne, a Liberal Unionist also, followed largely in the 
 footsteps of his predecessor — although in a more open and less mysteri- 
 ous way. The most signal disturbance of his administration was the 
 Manipur rebellion ; but this occurred in a frontier state. Gener- 
 ally speaking, India proper was peaceful and happy during his 
 
L OKD LANSD O IV NE 
 
 33 
 
 viceroyalty, while movements tending to strengthen the empire, 
 internally and externally, went on without interruption. Towards 
 the last, a reorganization of 
 the Viceregal Council was ef- 
 fected ; and under Gladstone's 
 regime advancement (wise or 
 unwise) was made in the exten- 
 sion of the privilege of suffrage 
 and the bestowal of the right of 
 self-government upon the people. 
 
 The greatest stain upon his ad- 
 ministration was undoubtedly his 
 support of the Contagious Dis- 
 eases Acts, the Opium trade, and 
 the Excise Laws. But these evils 
 are of older date, and were up- 
 held by previous Viceroys, just 
 as they have all along had their 
 roots also in the home govern- 
 ment. Lansdowne's reign, how- 
 ever, attained an unenviable 
 prominence in the persistent 
 effort which he and his assistants 
 
 made, to retain them, and that, too, in the face of parliamentary acts 
 and the righteous indignation of a Christian public. 
 
 Lord Elgin, the successor of Lord Lansdowne on the viceregal 
 throne of India, was the third choice of the Gladstonian government 
 for that position, Sir Henry Norman and Lord Cromer having pre- 
 viously declined it. His father held the same post thirty years pre- 
 viously, and, having died in Lidia, lies buried at Dharmsala. The present 
 Lord Elgin was not prominent in home politics, and has never given 
 evidence of high administrative ability; but he is said to make on the 
 whole a very good Viceroy. According to the Simla Times he is per- 
 sonally a teetotaler, strict in his views with regard to balls, parties, and 
 the gaieties of life. But officially, as far as the opium traffic and other 
 kindred evils are concerned, he appears to walk in the way of his pred- 
 ecessors, and upholds the policy which from a moral point of view has 
 proved to be such a curse to the country and to the entire East. 
 
 Of Lieut. -Governors we have had four in the Punjab since the period 
 
 LORD LANSDOWNE. 
 
34 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 began of which we are specially writing — Sir Robert Edgerton, who 
 served from April 2, 1877, until April 2, 1882; Sir Charles Aitchison, 
 who followed him and ended his term April 2, 1887; Sir James Lyall, 
 who served from that date until April 2, 1892; and Sir Dennis Fitz- 
 patrick, his successor, who is still in office. 
 
 Of all these high officials Sir Charles Aitchison, more than any other, 
 impressed his own ideas upon the government of the Province. This, 
 too, was specially manifest in the work of education and in the applica- 
 tion of the principle of local self-government. He was recognized as 
 an able ruler, with liberal ideas. His character and his religious views 
 also were of a high order. He was always ready to help missions, as 
 far as the law would allow, by expressions of sympathy and substantial 
 gifts. He was a Scotch Presbyterian. 
 
 Sir James Lyall's administration was less vigorous and less in sym- 
 pathy with the higher movements which were going on around him. 
 He was too much inclined to condone the bad deeds of high officials, 
 and censure the good deeds of those who were active Christians. It 
 was by him that a noted profligate judge, condemned both by public 
 opinion and judicial decision, was treated tenderly and allowed to con- 
 tinue in office — a disgrace to the sacred ermine. And it was during his 
 administration that another member of the Civil Service (Mr. Drysdale, a 
 nephew of Dr. Duff and a son-in-law of Dr. Morrison) was dismissed from 
 government employ for his activity in disseminating Bible truth. Yet 
 even Sir James Lyall could not help aiding mission schools and hospitals 
 when such aid came clearly within the line of a pronounced government 
 policy. 
 
 Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick is a Roman Catholic, and has the reputation 
 of being very unpopular with his fellow-officials ; but as far as missions 
 are concerned he has proved to be neither a help nor a hindrance. 
 
 As a matter of fact, it cannot be denied that British Rule in India 
 was acquired and is maintained by force, and that the primary objects 
 leading to its establishment and continuance have been commercial prog- 
 ress, personal profit, and imperial aggrandizement. Hence a strong, 
 vigilant government has been kept up, such a government as will secure 
 peace and safety, develop industry, and supply honorable places for 
 Britain's sons. 
 
 But beyond this it also sets before itself the civilization and elevation 
 of the natives of India, and their preparation for such freedom as is 
 exercised by the people of England themselves in their own land. In 
 
HOW BRITISH RULE AIDS MISSIONS 35 
 
 private addresses and communications, moreover, Anglo-Indian officials 
 have gone so far as to assert that the Christian ization of India also was 
 one of the great objects of their occupation of the land, or rather an ob- 
 ject without whose accomplishment they could not hope to attain the 
 ends officially set before them, secure the true welfare of the peoi)le and 
 justify their presence in the country. 
 
 Hence British Rule is in many ways helpful to mission work in India. 
 It secures almost perfect safety for the missionary wherever he may go 
 throughout the length and breadth of the land. It may be an exaggera- 
 tion to say, as some have said, that a white lady may travel from one end 
 of the peninsula to the other, on highway or byway, with as little fear 
 of molestation as she can in England or America ; but such a statement 
 in regard to many parts of the country approaches very near to the 
 truth. British authority also patrols the people so well as to suppress 
 in large measure those internal feuds and conflicts wliich were formerly 
 common in the country and which, if now existent, would be highly 
 unfavorable to the propagation of Scripture truth. It secures to every 
 individual the right to worship God according to the dictates of his own 
 conscience — criminal acts excepted — and hence reduces religious perse- 
 cution for Christian profession to the smallest possible degree. It 
 abolishes, or condemns, from time to time, old laws and practices, even 
 if they are based on Hindu Shastras, which are opposed to human rights 
 and Christian morals. For instance, it has placed among criminal or 
 unlawful acts widow-burning (1829), infanticide, exposure of children, 
 disinheritance of Christian converts (1832 and 1850), prohibition of the 
 marriage of widows (1856), superstitious intimidation, exemption of 
 Brahmans from capital punishment (181 7), slavery (1848), and the denial 
 of all rights, privileges and humanities to outcastes. It exhibits in its 
 administration a remarkable degree of fairness, impartiality and justice ; 
 and, as far as Europeans or high-grade native officials are concerned, 
 presents such an ideal of truthfulness, honesty, incorruptibility and 
 paternal regard for the welfare of the community as to commend the 
 religion with which it is connected and from which it springs to the 
 admiration of the people. 
 
 British Rule also provides telegraphic and postal arrangements of a 
 high order, excellent means of travel by rail, palanquin, stage and 
 horse, good highways, rest-houses and beasts of burden, and (in 
 important stations) first-class physicians — all of whicli may be util- 
 
36 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ized by a missionary to his own advantage and the advantage of his 
 calling. 
 
 It opens up the way to mission work, too, by its system of schools 
 and colleges and its efforts to diffuse such knowledge as may dispel 
 superstition, undermine false faiths and prepare the people for an intel- 
 ligent and comparatively unprejudiced reception of the Gospel. As 
 foreign missionaries are members of the ruling race and persons of 
 high occupation, it ensures them also such political rights and social 
 standing as increase greatly their prestige and make them respected by 
 all classes of the community. 
 
 It provides liberally for the religious wants of its Christian soldiers 
 and employees,* builds beautiful churclies in prominent places f and, 
 through its chaplaincies J and spiritually-minded adherents, helps to 
 give Christianity a name and an influence in that populous land. 
 
 It aids Missions to get a foothold and maintain their civil rights in 
 Native States, as was the case ten years ago (1884-85) in Indore. It 
 sustains a Mission's right to hold property and exempts its funds, and 
 sometimes its buildings, from special taxation. It aids Missions 
 directly by donations of real estate (or their equivalent in money) and 
 by grants-in-aid to their schools, dispensaries, hospitals, orphanages, 
 leper asylums and any other institutions they may establish which are 
 largely benevolent and civilizing in their character and thus can be 
 considered proper objects of government help. 
 
 It calls on missionaries at times for their assistance in important 
 investigations and in the preparation of laws which may be suited to 
 the people's wants. It bears testimony in its official reports to the 
 importance and the excellence of any work, done by Missions or mis- 
 sionaries, which has been particularly remarkable for its elevating and 
 beneficent influence. And finally, through the semi-official and 
 unofficial remarks of its agents, it often virtually commends even the 
 distinctive work of a missionary in Christianizing the country and dis- 
 seminating Gospel truth. As an instance of the last-named benefit 
 
 * At a total cost of about twenty-two lakhs of rupees (oi- $800,000) — so says the 
 Civil and Military Gazette of Jan. i, 1889. Yet it has no established church, 
 strictly so called. 
 
 f 617 stations and out-stations. 
 
 X 2\\ regular; loo aided; total 341. Of these 215 are Church of England, 
 that is, Episcopalian; 76, Roman Catholic; 22, Presbyterian; and 28, Wesleyan or 
 non-conformist. — Sir Theodore Hope in the London Times of Feb. 21, 1893. 
 
HOW THE GOVERNMENT RETARDS MISSIONS 37 
 
 and in confirmation of much tliat has just been written may be quoted 
 what Sir Cliarles Elliott, the Lieut. -Governor of Bengal, is reported 
 to have said at a Christian meeting in Darjeeling, May 13, 1892. 
 "As the head of the Bengal government," he remarked, "I feel that 
 the missionaries are, so to speak, an unrecognized and unofficial 
 branch of the great movement in which we are all engaged, and which 
 alone justifies our presence in the country. They occupy a field 
 which the officers of the government are unable to take up. In 
 religious matters we have to treat all alike, and to show no more con- 
 sideration for one faith than for another j and yet we know right well 
 that the only hope for the realization of our dream, and for the eleva- 
 tion and development of the people, lies in the evangelization of 
 India, and we know that the people who are carrying on this work are 
 the missionaries. It is they who are filling up what is deficient in the 
 efforts of the government, by devoting their lives and their labors to 
 bringing the people of India to the knowledge of Christ." 
 
 But there is another side to this picture. British Rule has not 
 always been helpful to the cause of Christ in India, and in some 
 respects has been positively injurious. 
 
 The very fact that Christianity in a general sense is the religion of 
 the governing power and receives civil protection and commendation 
 gives it a prestige with some aspiring people that works unfavorably in 
 the production of false and insincere converts; while on the other 
 hand this same fact brings the Gospel into bad odor with a different 
 class of persons (those who hate the government) and prejudices them 
 against it. True, American missionaries have an advantage over Brit- 
 ish missionaries in reference to this matter, because they can disclaim 
 all connection whatever with the government and the government's 
 representatives, receiving as they do their commission and their sup- 
 port from an alien land and a voluntary church. But this does not 
 detract greatly from the force of the statement which has just been 
 made. 
 
 Again, that type of Christianity which is supported by the Indian 
 government and exhibited by its agents is often so low in its tone and 
 so deficient as a model, that earnest, evangelical laborers are hindered 
 rather than helped by its presence. 
 
 Owing also to the ease with which false testimony can be secured, 
 justice often miscarries and numbers of innocent people are heavily' 
 fined or thrown into prison; while the importance given to a written 
 
38 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 contract in judicial contests frequently becomes the means of increas- 
 ing the native money-lender's usurious oppression and extortion. In 
 this way that ideal of impartial fairness and complete justice which 
 naturally belongs to British Rule, and which has been referred to as 
 an important means of recommending that Christianity which Britons 
 profess, often becomes greatly obscured and loses its attractive power 
 — or rather, becomes repellent in its influence. 
 
 The neutral position which, as Sir Charles Elliott says, government 
 must assume in dealing officially with different religions, is itself mis- 
 understood by many natives and attributed more to a lack of faith in 
 Christianity than to the principle of evenhanded justice ; while the 
 gift in various ways of vastly more money, or its equivalent, for the 
 support of native faiths than is given for the support of the Gospel, 
 produces the same, if not a worse, effect. 
 
 As a matter of fact, too, the government does not allow even as 
 much freedom to its Christian servants, or others, in propagating their 
 religious tenets as it does to Hindus and Muhammadans. How it 
 acted in the case of Mr. Drysdale has already been mentioned. Ref- 
 erence might also be made to the manner in which it discriminated 
 against the Salvation Army in Bombay, by stopping their street pro- 
 cessions and imprisoning some of their officers in the year 1883 — thus 
 denying rights to these people which were freely granted to the propa- 
 gators of all other religions. 
 
 And what shall we say of its abolition of the law of the Sabbath 
 during Lord Lytton's administration and its constant violation of the 
 command to keep God's day holy, especially in the management of its 
 railways and public works, or of those other foul blots on government 
 morals: its opium trade, its excise system and its "regulation" of 
 the social evil. Hardly anything in all the annals of civilized or semi- 
 civilized nations exceeds the disgraceful wickedness of its persistance 
 (for financial reasons alone) in raising and selling* a drug like opium, 
 which destroys physically and morally so many thousands — yes, we 
 may truthfully say, so many millions — of the human race, and doing 
 so, too, not only among its own people, but also among 
 people of other lands ; and more than this, forcing it at the point of 
 
 * The production of opium has been a government monopoly for more than a hun- 
 dred years. Cultivators undertake to deliver the whole product at a contract price 
 to government agents, who dispose of it monthly at auction, to exporters, or issue it 
 to the excise department for consumption in India. 
 
GREAT PUBLIC F.VILS 39 
 
 the sword into the markets of unwilling nations (especially China), 
 and thus insuring their increased demoralization. Less evil, it may be, 
 is the system by which it derives a revenue from the manufacture and 
 the sale of intoxicating liquor as a beverage, but only because it is 
 narrower in its range, less compulsory in its character, and less sweep- 
 ing in its effects. While more disgusting than either is the third evil 
 mentioned — the provision which, under the plea of protecting the sol- 
 diers from contagious diseases, it makes (or has made) for the safe 
 gratification of their depraved lusts ; and that, too, in the face of over- 
 whelming opposition from the Christian people of England and even 
 the adverse action of Parliament itself. 
 
 In view of all these things it can be easily imagined how much in 
 the government missionaries have to contend against, or explain away, 
 in order that they may secure for the Gospel, among the natives of 
 India, an unprejudiced hearing and unimpeded power. 
 
 Still, taking all in all, we are thankful that our political situation is 
 as good as it is. In no heathen country throughout the world, per- 
 haps, can better civil conditions be found for the spread of divine 
 truth. We know of no other government which we would import into 
 India and take in exchange for a British Viceroyalty. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 
 
 The Monsoons— The Hot Season— The Rains— Hail, Dust Storms and Earthquakes. 
 
 |EW things modify mission work in India more than the 
 character of its climate. Our own field lies between the 
 thirtieth and the thirty-fourth degree of north latitude 
 and is mostly plains. These plains are from 500 to iioo 
 feet above the level of the sea. On the northeast side are the Hima- 
 laya Mountains, which rise in successive ranges to the region of 
 perpetual snow. In Jhelum the Salt Range also breaks the monotony 
 of the general level and throws up peaks to the height of 3000 feet. 
 
 There being no barrier between us and the seacoast, the winds which 
 sweep across the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea every summer in 
 their northeastern flight and lick up and carry forward great quantities 
 of moisture in their progress, prese on uninterruptedly until they reach 
 our field and lose their freight in successive rains. Hence we have 
 every summer what is called a barsat, or rainy season. This, roughly 
 speaking, includes the months of July and August, preceding which 
 are three months of great heat and drought. 
 
 These seasons (of rain and heat) are the two most characteristic 
 features of our India climate; while the sharper winters of the Punjab 
 also distinguish it from most other parts of India. After the barsat 
 ' we have dry weather, which gets gradually colder until mid-winter, 
 when a few showers of rain fall. Then the thermometer in some dis- 
 tricts of the Punjab will reach freezing three or four mornings in suc- 
 cession and ice will be formed an eighth of an inch thick — only to 
 melt, however, as soon as the sun rises. This, our coldest weather, 
 usually occurs about the first day of February. But in rare instances 
 snow has been known to fall also at some of the most elevated stations 
 on the plains. It did so at Rawal Pindi during the winter of 1892-93. 
 The heat which we experience in April, May and June constantly 
 (40) 
 
THE HOT SEASON' 41 
 
 increases in intensity until it is modified by the rains about June 
 2oth or 25th ; but the whole period is remarkably hot. Even in 
 April the thermometer often rises to 100° Fahrenheit in the shade, 
 while the number of days in May and June when it does not reach 
 this height is comparatively few. The average maximum for May, 
 1884, at Sialkot was 105.5°; f^"" the first twenty-four days of June 
 104.17°, and on only nine days during this period did the mercury 
 fail to reach 100°, while on twelve days the thermometer read 110° 
 or more, and once 117.5°. The hottest years during tlie period of 
 which I am specially writing were 1887 and 1888. The mean of the 
 highest daily readings in the shade and the sun during 1887 was as 
 
 follows : 
 
 In the shade. In the sun. 
 
 For April 99-2° ^53-5° 
 
 " May 110.68° 163.57° 
 
 «' June 107.1° 160.4° 
 
 " whole quarter 1057° 150-2° 
 
 The total number of days in the same quarter of 1888 when the 
 thermometer rose above 100° was 63; number above 105° was 40 ; 
 number above 110° was 24; number above 115° was 10. The 
 highest heat registered in the shade at any time during the decade 
 (1882-92) was about 118.5°. ^^'^ i*^ is said that sometimes the 
 temperature rises to 125° or 130°. It is during this season that the 
 luh blows — that steady, hot, dry, southwestern wind which burns 
 one's cheek like air from a heated furnace, and absorbs every 
 particle of moisture lying in its pathway. 
 
 At such seasons, outside work must be done mornings and evenings. 
 Schools begin at 5.30 a. m. and close at 11.30. Morning church 
 service is held at 6 or 7 a. m. Traveling is usually done at night. 
 Foreigners cannot venture out much without pith or cork hats and 
 umbrellas. During the day houses are closed to keep out the heat. 
 Punkhas (large fans hanging from the ceiling and pulled with ropes by 
 coolies) are set in motion and other devices adopted to secure a cer- 
 tain degree of comfort. Even at night the air will sometimes remain 
 above blood heat and bed clothing will feel hot to the touch. Per- 
 haps the most uncomfortable time is just when the rains begin, when 
 the temperature is very high and the air full of moisture, when 
 perspiration sticks to the body and no relief is given by its evaporation. 
 
 On the plains rain, even in the barsai (the chief wet season), does 
 
42 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 not usually come every day ; but sometimes the fall during a downpour 
 is very heavy and occasionally storms are accompanied by thunder and 
 lightning. The seasons of 1886, 1890, and 1893 were very remark- 
 able in this particular at Sialkot and indeed throughout the Punjab. 
 In the latter part of July, 1886, sixteen and one-half inches of rain 
 fell during thirty-six hours in the Sialkot cantonment, producing 
 a flood such as had not been seen for ten or twelve years. During the 
 week beginning August 4, 1890, 24.31 inches of rain fell at Sialkot — 
 the fall varying each day from half an inch to full ten inches. The 
 latter amount came down August loth, and almost all of it within the 
 space of six or seven hours on that day. Even this cloudburst, how- 
 ever, was surpassed in some other places. At Surat twelve inches 
 of rain fell in twenty-four hours and at Mahura (Bombay Province) 
 fifteen inches in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Of course great damage is done by such deluges in a country where 
 most of the houses are built of sundried brick. It is calculated that 
 700 buildings were destroyed at Sialkot in 1890 by the storms 
 above-mentioned ; while several persons were either killed or badly 
 injured. At Mahura seventy-four lives were lost, 305 cattle killed and 
 1027 houses ruined. In July, 1893, Rawal Pindi, Bhera and Jhelum 
 suffered terribly from floods. The river Jhelum rose very suddenly 
 and swept through the streets and bazars of the last-named city, and 
 the houses and shops "just melted down." Half the place became a 
 mass of ruins. Nothing of our church was left but the front wall, and 
 Dr. Johnson's dispensary and surgical instruments were badly damaged. 
 The dispensary in Bhera was also washed away. 
 
 But it is on the hills that we see the greatest and most continuous 
 rains. Our chief sanitarium, Dharmsala, has an unenviable pre-eminence 
 in this particular — probably because it lies so near, and just under, 
 the high range of mountains which stops almost all the clouds in their 
 northern flight and causes them to precipitate their moisture. For 
 two or three months perfectly dry days are almost unknown there, 
 while often the clouds pour down their contents in great floods. The 
 first week of August is the usual climax, when hardly an hour passes 
 without rain. During the year 1888, 103.05 inches of rain fell at that 
 station; 133-89 inches in 1889; 117. 41 inches in 1890 — from April 
 to September inclusive ; while it is said that during one twelve-month 
 some years ago the rainfall reached almost 200 inches, or over sixteen 
 
HAIL AND EARTHQUAKES 43 
 
 feet. On July 31, 1890, as much as 6.22 inches fell; August 19, 
 1890, 6.52 inches; and July 10, 1889, 8.2 inches. 
 
 Hail often falls during the hot weather on the plains, and sometimes 
 the stones are as large as hens' eggs, endangering the lives of both man 
 and beast. At hill stations, snow gets to be several feet deep during 
 the winter. In the winter of 1892-93, it was said to have had a depth 
 of fifteen feet at Murree. Dust storms {andhies) characterize the hot 
 and dry weather of every season on the lowlands. These appear to be 
 currents of colder air, highly charged with electricity, rushing down 
 from the upper strata. Sometimes they take the form of whirlwinds; 
 always they dash along with great force, bearing in their bosom clouds 
 of dust and sand. Although for the moment very disagreeable, com- 
 pelling us to close all the doors and windows of our houses, they gener- 
 ally bring some relief from the heat and answer in this respect the pur- 
 pose of rain storms. The thermometer has been known to fall 14° 
 within an hour's time through the occurrence of such a phenomenon. 
 
 Earthquakes are quite frequent in the Punjab, and in elevated parts 
 very destructive. One which occurred during the night of May 29 and 
 30, 1885, shook the wliole region around us and north of us, develop- 
 ing a centre apparently in Kashmir, where it overturned houses, rent 
 hills and made great havoc. Over three thousand persons and ten 
 times as many sheep, goats, cattle and horses perished in this catas- 
 trophe. Some villages lost their entire population, thousands of dwell- 
 ings were destroyed and great fissures left in the earth, or depressions 
 made, which were still visible six years afterwards, when the writer 
 visited the valley. 
 
 All these physical and climatic conditions modify our life and work 
 in that country. They affect greatly our health, our personal habits, 
 our metliods and time of itineration, our migration to and from the 
 hills, our style of buildings and our periodical visits to America. No 
 wonder the primitive Aryans exalted the Sun (Surya), the Rain (Indra), 
 and the Storm (the Maruts) to the highest rank in their pantheon. 
 These forces of nature even yet exercise there a dominating power over 
 man and beast. 
 
H 'i 
 
 PP 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 I^WB^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 !^ 
 
 S^ 
 
 &' 
 
 w\a5j(r)^ 
 
 !n^5^ 
 
 
 i 1^^ 
 
 •x^^\y 
 
 ;ti)^ 
 
 ^4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 &I 
 
 
 ITO^Jij^^^^^ 
 
 U llti^' 
 
 
 id 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 SANITARY CONDITIONS 
 
 Unfavorable to Health — Deaths by Violence — Experience with Snakes and Scor- 
 pions — Diseases — Cholera, Small-pox and Fever — Health Resorts — Dharmsala, 
 Murree and Kashmir — Their Drawbacks. 
 
 N regard to health, physical strength and longevity we find 
 many unfavorable conditions in that part of India where 
 our mission work is carried on. 
 
 True the population of the country is increasing at the 
 rate of nearly one per cent, per annum, and old people are often seen 
 there, the limit of life being about the same as in the United States of 
 America. Occasionally, too, extraordinary longevity may be observed. 
 A Muhammadan woman died at Mian Mir, near Lahore, some years 
 ago, who was credited with having reached the advanced age of 150 
 years. The grandson, at whose house she expired, was himself eighty 
 years of age, having children and grandchildren married. 
 
 Still these facts do not disprove the statement made at the outset of 
 this chapter. Exceptions, of course, will always occur; and the chief 
 reason for the rapid increase of the population is simply this : adults 
 there almost universally marry, marry early and have large families. 
 This practice is viewed as almost a religious duty. 
 
 But through neglect, ill treatment, physical violence, bad food, bad 
 water, insufficient clothing, accidents and lack of medical remedies, 
 thousands of infants and small children (especially females) perish, 
 while diseases of various kinds, and other causes, carry off every year 
 multitudes of the remainder. 
 
 During the year 1883, 20,571 persons in India were killed by snakes 
 and 2399 by wild animals. In 1888, 20,067 were killed by snakes; 985 
 by tigers; 287 by wolves; 217 by leopards, and 1139 by other animals. 
 And, though hundreds of dangerous beasts and thousands of venomous 
 serpents are destroyed every year, the annual mortality from their at- 
 (44) 
 
WILD ANIMALS AND SNAKES 
 
 45 
 
 tacks remains about the same. The Punjab, however, is less affected 
 from this cause than almost any other Province in India. During the 
 year iS86 only 115 7 persons were killed here by snakes and wild beasts. 
 Of these, scorpions killed six persons ; wolves four ; jackals eleven ; 
 leopards five; and bears two. And during the year 1890 only 834 per- 
 sons were reported as killed by snakebite, and thirty-one from the 
 attacks of leopards, bears, hyenas, wolves and other animals. Some 
 poisonous snakes are found at our own stations on the plains and some 
 dangerous animals (especially bears and leopards) at Dharmsala, our 
 principal summer refuge ; but only now and then has a casualty oc- 
 curred within the range of our personal knowledge. 
 
 Yet we sometimes have unpleasant experiences with snakes that may 
 or may not be poisonous. Once a serpent fell on the floor of the 
 writer's dining-room at Sialkot from the neighborhood of the roof; at 
 another time one fell near the head of 
 the bed where he was sleeping ; on a 
 third occasion, at Dharmsala, one was 
 found near his little boy (eighteen 
 months old) in the corner of the room 
 where he was playing with his toys; 
 on a fourtli occasion one was killed 
 under the window-sill beside the bed 
 on which a lady missionary had been 
 reposing ; and on a fifth occasion a 
 snake was killed in the same lady's 
 dressing-room. Miss E. Gordon says, 
 " I once jumped out of the door of my 
 room screaming, while a snake, with its 
 forked tongue out, jumped in at tlie 
 
 same door." The Rev. A. B. Caldwell also speaks of killing a cobra 
 near his bath-room, and a karait in the bath-room itself, as well as other 
 similar experiences. Often, too, we had trouble with scorpions as well 
 as snakes, killing in our own house alone at Dharmsala twenty or twenty- 
 five of these dreaded creatures almost every season. Sometimes they 
 get into shoes and clothing that are left on the floor over night; and 
 once we found a big, black specimen under one of our pillows. 
 
 Of diseases, the most fatal in our part of the country are usually 
 cholera, small-pox, bowel complaints and fever; and that, too, in the 
 order named — fevers being by far the most destructive of all to human 
 
46 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 life.* But we have also many cases of pulmonary trouble, dyspepsia, 
 heat apoplexy, liver complaint, spleen, and eye disease. In 1889, when 
 the death-rate slightly exceeded the average for the previous five years, 
 the number of deaths from cholera reported in the Punjab, where the 
 total population is 25,061,956, was 2858 ; from small-pox, 7928; from 
 bowel complaints, 18,066; and from fevers, 428,712. In 1888, there 
 were 14,938 deaths from cholera ; f 16,938 from small-pox; and 
 379,893 from fever. In 1890, there were fewer deaths from bowel 
 complaints than in 1889, and only a itvf more fatal cases of small-pox; 
 but cholera was very prevalent, and the mortality from fever was some- 
 thing phenomenal. 
 
 Indeed that year was the unhealthiest known in the Province since 
 1868, when the system of recording births and deaths was introduced ; 
 999 municipal towns and 2402 villages were visited by cholera ; while 
 in many places scarcely an individual escaped without an attack of 
 fever. Rawal Pindi, one of our present Districts, suffered more than 
 any other in the Punjab during the year 1888, losing fifty out of every 
 thousand of its inhabitants. But Sialkot, Gujrat and Gujranwala 
 suffered most in 1890. The first-named out of a population of about 
 1,100,000 lost 103,360, or nearly ten per cent, of the whole. About 
 two-thirds of this mortality occurred in the quarter ending November 
 30th, and one-third during the month of October. The number of 
 deaths in one week, October 5th to nth, was 8663 — that is, at the rate 
 of forty per cent, yearly. 
 
 Cholera, perhaps, makes the most stir and creates the greatest panic 
 — ^just because it strikes so unexpectedly and produces such fearful 
 agonies. And sometimes it is, indeed, very destructive. In 1892, as 
 many as 10,000 are said to have died of this disease in the Sialkot Dis- 
 trict alone. But, even at its worst, it does not carry off one twenty- 
 fifth as many of the people of the Punjab as fever does. In all India, 
 however, it is estimated that there are nearly 420,000 fatal cases of this 
 disease in a single year. 
 
 Small-pox would exhibit a larger mortality than it does were it not 
 for the excellent system of vaccination established, although even now 
 125,500 persons are said to die annually of this malady in India. 
 
 * It is said that 3,500,000 persons die annually of fever in India. 
 
 t That year fifty per cent, of the cases were fatal. Two-thirds of the Europeans 
 attacked in Rawal Pindi and Murree died. It was also more fatal to Muhammadans 
 than to Hindus. 
 
FEVERS AND MEDICAL SCIENCE 47 
 
 Government agents arc found at all central places whose sole business 
 it is to go around to the houses of the people and vaccinate everybody 
 without charge, using lymph taken directly from a living child's arm 
 or a living calf's body.* 
 
 Fevers are generated after a rainy season by the action of the hot sun 
 upon the saturated earth and rank vegetation, drawing forth their nox- 
 ious vapors and miasmatic influences. Hence they are more common 
 in the fall and early winter than at any other season ; but no period 
 of the year shows entire freedom from tlieir presence. Of the different 
 kinds which are prevalent, "intermittent, remittent, typhus and ty- 
 phoid may be mentioned — typhus in some places being endemic. 
 Typhoid fever is very common among young European officers and 
 soldiers. One great reason why fevers prove so fatal to the natives is 
 because they seldom can procure good nursing or good medical treat- 
 ment. Although the government does admirably wherever it has es- 
 tablished dispensaries and hospitals, it cannot reach easily the great mass 
 of the people who live at a distance from them ; and native doctors, who 
 pretend to give medicine according to the old Greek or the Hindu 
 system, are usually quacks. 
 
 Medical science appears to have had considerable development in 
 India before the Christian era ; but its best period was contemporary 
 with the ascendency of Buddhism (250 B. c. to 600 A. D.), during 
 which public hospitals were established in many cities. When Bud- 
 dhism passed into modern Hinduism (600-1000 a. d.) it greatly de- 
 generated, chiefly through the increasing stringency of caste rules, and 
 the abolition of hospitals. Mussalman doctors, or hakims, came in 
 with the progress of Muhammadan conquests, bringing with them a new 
 school of medicine. At present, however, little knowledge even of 
 their own systems is sought, or acquired, by those who pretend to heal 
 disease according to the ancient methods. "Hindu medicine," says 
 Sir William Hunter, " has sunk into the hands of the village kabiraj, 
 whose knowledge consists of jumbled fragments of the Sanskrit texts 
 and a by no means contemptible pharmacopoeia, supplemented by spells, 
 fasts and quackery." f And those hakims who claim to be of the 
 Grecian School are no better. They seem to classify all diseases and 
 
 *One objection to vaccination, however, is the suspicion that it sometimes propa- 
 gates leprosy and other diseases. A child of one of our missionaries once suffered 
 very seriously and very mysteriously from the effects of this process. 
 
 f Sir William Hunter's " The Indian Empire," pp. 115-I18. 
 
48 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 remedies as cold or hot, without any perceptible scientific basis for such 
 a distinction ; and their practice rises little above that of hap-hazard 
 applications. A more rational method of medical and surgical treat- 
 ment reached India through the advent of Europeans. Now every 
 regiment has its surgeons and every civil station its doctors — all of the 
 regular school — who have received their education in Great Britain ; 
 and medical institutions have been established in India itself for the 
 training of natives in every branch of this useful art. Generally 
 natives prefer this ^/zgr^z/ (English) method when they can avail them- 
 selves of it, especially if the doctor is a European or an American. But 
 sometimes this is not the case. A physician attached to the court of 
 the Maharaja of Kashmir told the writer that he was required to use all 
 three systems: the Hindu in treating the ladies of the King's Zenana, 
 who were very bigoted Hindus; the Greek in administering to the 
 Maharaja himself ; and the English in prescribing for the Maharaja's 
 brother, who is a man of greater intellect and more enlightened views. 
 Missionaries labor under the disadvantage of being foreigners, born 
 and brought up in a more temperate zone, and (other tilings 
 being equal) suffer more than natives from the bad sanitary conditions 
 of the country. But the mortality among foreigners is after all less 
 than among the same number of natives* — simply for the reason that 
 they can provide better for themselves and their families than the ma- 
 jority of natives and can get better medical treatment. Their good 
 clothing, comfortable houses, excellent food and drink, careful habits, 
 judicious nursing and prompt use of the best medical remedies, under 
 the advice of well-educated doctors, secure them either immunity al- 
 together from prevalent diseases, or the most rapid recovery possible. 
 It is their practice, moreover, to seek every summer freedom from bad 
 sanitary surroundings, reinvigoration of body, and complete recovery 
 from many ailments, in a sojourn at health resorts on the hills. 
 Mothers with their young children, who suffer most from the climate, 
 spend three or four months at some such mountain retreat during the 
 worst season of the year, while unmarried ladies and gentlemen also 
 get a briefer yearly vacation of rest in a similar way. Of course I am 
 speaking here of ordinary missionaries. Some with mistaken ideas of 
 
 * Only 8 deaths have occurred abroad in our missionary circle during the past 15 
 years — 4 adults (all married ladies) and 4 children. This does not include one male 
 missionary and one child who died in America. Our missionary band during these 15 
 years has comprised altogether 16 men, 45 women and 35 children. 
 
~i.L I lll Hl i nH l ^ullll i l I ll ' II [ i lLlll i ll ll n i I m i nn 
 
 '^^ SI , 1 ,. 
 
 
 
 
 ^^'■K -i.' ' i^ ' 
 
 - \ „<f* If •'l^ ^?*.* ^ 
 
 
 
 V49) 
 
50 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 higher consecration shorten their lives, and exhibit a greater mortality 
 than even natives, by their ascetic practices. 
 
 The health resorts to whicli we go are usually on some spur of the 
 Himalayas from 5000 to 8000 feet above sea-level. Those for the 
 north are scattered all along the border in that direction from Abbota- 
 bad to Darjiling, Simla, the summer capital of the Empire, being the 
 largest, richest and most celebrated. At these places, the families of 
 European officers live during six months of the year; and here the 
 officers themselves often spend their vacations. Every house (accord- 
 ing to English style) has its own name and is generally at some distance 
 from its neighbors — located wherever a favorable spot can be found ; 
 while good roads wind back and forth in irregular parallels around the 
 hills and through the valleys of the place, bringing the houses within 
 easy reach of one another and giving ready access also to the church, 
 the assembly room, the bazars, the post office, and the other public 
 buildings which are found in every station. 
 
 Dharmsala is the sanitarium which has been used most by our own 
 mission. It is located on the northern side of the Kangra Valley, fifty- 
 three miles from Pathankot, our nearest principal mission station. Two 
 mountain spurs, forming a V, or a U, with the apex at the base of Dharm- 
 kot, which rises a thousand feet higher, shoot out in irregularly 
 descending stages till they reach the plateau below. On these the 
 principal part of the station is built. Here are fifty or sixty dwelling 
 houses for foreigners, two bazars, barracks for a hundred white sol- 
 diers, and lines for a battalion or two of Gurkhas. Here a Commis- 
 sioner, a Deputy Commissioner, and other officers have their head- 
 quarters in the summer. Here also we have five houses : two, named 
 Sunny Side and Shady Side, facing eastward on the western spur of the 
 station, about 6000 feet above the level of the sea ; and four, called 
 Rookwood, Carleton Cottage, Eagle's Nest and Aerie, 1500 feet higher 
 up, on Dharmkot. The first two have been long in the hands of the 
 Mission. The last are on property which was purchased by us in the 
 spring of 1883. Masadi, a typical farmer-shepherd and the head of a 
 Gaddi village, has had local charge of this property for twenty or 
 twenty-five years. 
 
 Hardly any hill retreat can boast of grander scenery in its immediate 
 neighborhood than Dharmsala. Viewed from our lower houses, or the 
 road to the Gurkha lines, or from the European barracks, a splendid 
 picture presents itself to a beholder. 
 
VIEW FROM SUNNY SIDE 51 
 
 On the right, 2500 feet below, spreads out Kangra Valley, renowned 
 for its rice fields and tea plantations ; and beyond it, more than 
 twenty miles away, the lower plateau of hills (called the Siwalik Range) 
 with their wavy, choppy sea of peaks, and beyond that again, the 
 white sandy fringe where the Beas river has its bed ; and beyond that 
 still, the distant plains which at their farthest limit can be hardly 
 distinguished from the sky with which they seem to blend. 
 
 Right at our feet we look down into a deep, wood-skirted valley; 
 and beyond, at about our own level, we behold the eastern mountain 
 spur upon which most of the station is built. There a bazar 
 (McLeod Ganj, it is called) and English residences peep out prettily 
 through their rural surroundings, while the hill itself advances upward 
 in stages from the court-house below to the foot of Dharmkot above. 
 Beyond this spur again, but trending to the right, rise in succession 
 higher spurs, called Tarun, Titarna and Gandaru, whose grass-covered 
 sides exhibit a beautiful green, and whose massive, rounding tops seem 
 like the backs of gigantic, crouching elephants. 
 
 On the extreme left, towering 1500 feet above us, is seen Dharmkot, 
 with its well wooded front and top, through whose verdant foliage the 
 white of an occasional house makes its appearance. On its right, and 
 2500 feet higher still, stands the rounded top of Kunal Patthar, be- 
 tween which and Tarun a deep valley and a dark forest are visible. 
 And beyond all these spurs again, skirting the whole background at 
 the distance of ten or fifteen miles, but seemingly nearer, appears the 
 gray granite of the main ridge, whose jagged peaks — Balain, Bag, 
 Andrar, Asral, Toral and Talang — rise each to the height of 16,000 or 
 18,000 feet above sea-level, and whose more depressed and less exposed 
 parts exhibit patches of perpetual snow. 
 
 Seen at different seasons — in sunshine or shadow, when the clouds 
 are rising or the sun is setting, when snow is falling on the highest 
 points or a storm rages below, when a full moon casts its pale light 
 upon the foreground or a rainbow spans the abyss at our feet — these 
 various objects, combined together as the God of nature has placed 
 them, present a panorama of diversified beauty and grandeur which 
 (once seen) can never be effaced from the memory. And then every 
 other standpoint has its own special picture to present and its own 
 peculiar tale to tell — each of which has distinctive attractions. 
 
 More minutely considered, too, Dharmsala has minor beauties. Its 
 great tree rhododendrons which bloom in April, its multitudinous 
 
52 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ferns (rooted in the bark of trees and, during the rains, fringing them 
 to the height of forty feet), its graceful deodars (akin to the cedars of 
 Lebanon), its i)retty churchyard and cemetery,* its little lake, its 
 neighboring waterfall, its canals for irrigation, its troops of monkeys, 
 
 its far-renowned fountain and 
 '— shrine called Bhagsu, its pretty 
 
 walks and bridle-roads 
 
 all add 
 
 to the pleasure of a residence 
 there. What an opportunity 
 there is also during fair weather 
 for little excursions in various 
 directions and extemporized 
 picnics ! And how pleasant and 
 even romantic it is to camp out 
 for a day or two at Laka, just at 
 the foot of the highest range, 
 and, as a part of our experience 
 there, make a trip to the pass 
 near it, 14,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea! 
 
 Next to Dliarmsala, Murree 
 It lies farther north and west 
 
 A MOUNTAIN FAMILY. 
 
 was our most frequented hill station 
 — only thirty-nine miles from Rawal Pindi — and its average elevation 
 is 1000 feet higher than that of Dharmsala. It also contains three 
 times as many residences and a much greater variety of shops, and 
 other conveniences. 
 
 Dalhousie, too, was occasionally patronized by our missionaries. 
 It is located about as near to Pathankot as Dharmsala is ; and, although 
 its scenery is not so grand as that of Dharmsala, its approaches are 
 lovelier, and the beautiful lake of Khajiar, and Chamba beyond, 
 furnish delightful termini for brief excursions ; while the mountains 
 and valleys still farther back give unlimited scope for pedestrian tours. 
 
 Mussoorie and Landour also (Siamese twins), though farther away 
 from our field, have in recent years provided a summer retreat for some 
 
 *Said to be the prettiest in all India — a beautiful resting-place for Mrs. Anderson 
 and two of Dr. Barr's children. Here lies one of India's Viceroys — Lord Elgin, 
 father of the present Viceroy, who died at Dharmsala in the discharge of his duties 
 on the 20th of November, 1863. His monument is of graceful gothic architecture, 
 fifteen or twenty feet high. 
 
MUSSOORIE AND THE VALE OF KASHMIR 53 
 
 of our people — chiefly on account of their schools. Woodstock 
 (for girls) is the best school of its class in all India. From this station 
 grand views may be had of the Dehra Dun Valley and the Himalayan 
 snow-field. On the horizon of the latter, seventy-five or one hundred 
 miles away, can be seen some of the loftiest peaks in the world. 
 
 Occasionally our missionaries prefer spending their vacation in 
 taking a tour through some elevated picturesque region. Several 
 young ladies have made the journey through Simla and Kulu to 
 Dharmsala, spending a it^ days on their way with the Rev. M. M. 
 Carleton and his wife at Kotgarh. But more have gone to the cele- 
 brated Vale of Kashmir, which lies (surrounded by mountains) 5000 
 feet above the level of the sea and presents a striking combination of 
 attractive scenery and delightful experience. 
 
 Nothing in the world, perhaps, is more pleasing to a lover of 
 nature, or a seeker of rest, than a visit to this valley. The picturesque 
 scenery on the road thither, the girdle of snow-covered peaks, presided 
 over by Nanga Parbat, 27,000 feet high; Mount Haramuk and the 
 oval-shaped vale below, through which winds leisurely, in many a 
 fold, the river Jhelum ; the different lakes, intersecting canals, plateaus 
 and mountain meadows ; Srinagar, with its curious bridges, buildings 
 and people — an Asiatic Venice, whose houses (roofed with earth and 
 flowers) appear "like one vast and variegated parterre;" the chinar 
 groves and artificial gardens ; the thousand and one Oriental ob- 
 jects which meet the eye; the boat life — so quiet, convenient and 
 restful ; 
 
 "And the sounds from the lake, — the low whisp'ring in boats, 
 As they shoot through the moonlight; — the dipping of oars, 
 
 And the wild, airy warbling that everywhere floats 
 
 Through the groves, round the islands, as if all the shores 
 
 Like those of Kathay utter'd music, and gave 
 
 An answer in song to the kiss of each wave," 
 
 — all have a singularly touching effect upon the traveler's heart and 
 give the region immortal renown. 
 
 " Who has not heard of the Vale of Kashmir 
 
 With its roses the brightest that earth ever gave, 
 Its temples, and grottoes, and fountains as clear 
 As the love-lighted eyes that hang over the wave ? " 
 
54 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 All these health resorts and touring regions, however, have their 
 drawbacks. Dharmsala is too wet (especially for rheumatic patier\ts), 
 furnishes a poor market, was twice visited by cholera (last in 1890) 
 and until lately has been difficult of access.* The bridge over the 
 Chakki was not ready for travel until June 15, 1890, and neither the 
 doli (palanquin) nor the tonga service between it and Pathankot has 
 been satisfactory. Dalhousie is built too much on the hillsides and its 
 houses are too close to one another. Mussoorie is too far away from 
 our field, as also perhaps is the Vale of Kashmir. Murree has been 
 scourged too often by cholera (very severely in 1888) and has a poor 
 water supply. f Simla is too fashionable and too expensive a 
 place for missionaries to live in ; and the trip through Kulu 
 is rather wearisome. Of all elevated regions, moreover, it may be 
 said that they are not good for heart troubles and that they have their 
 own peculiar diseases. 
 
 Nor is it possible in any of these stations to counteract altogether 
 the debilitating effects of the climate on the plains. The thermometer 
 at Dharmsala, even as high up as Dharmkot, sometimes rises above 80°, 
 and the continuous rains which visit it every season are very depressing. 
 Occasional visits to the home land are absolutely necessary to sup- 
 plement all the preventives and remedies which missionaries are able 
 to adopt in their field of labor, if they wish to maintain their strength 
 in a normal condition and be capable of lengthened service. Es- 
 pecially is this the case with ladies; while as for children, they must 
 be taken home and left there, to get a good constitution, if for no 
 other reason. 
 
 * The average expense of each adult in a family, while going to or from Dharm- 
 sala, is about eleven dollars; to or from Murree, six dollars and a half. The 
 whole expense of my ten days' trip to Kashmir (including a journey of 350 miles) 
 was forty-three dollars. 
 
 -}■ Cholera also sometimes visits Kashmir, and when it broke out at Srinagar in the 
 latter part of May, 1892, 1731 cases, v/ith 990 deaths, were reported in four days. 
 
ON A LAKIC IN KASHMIR. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 DOMESTIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 
 
 Houses — Furniture — Clothing — Food — Punkhas — Vermin — Servants — Separation of 
 Families — Homes for Children — Salaries — Recreations — Intercourse with 
 Anglo-Indians — With Travelers — With Natives. 
 
 HAT about your domestic and social life ? How are you 
 housed ? What comforts have you ? How do you dress ? 
 What kind of food do you eat? How do the natives 
 live ? Such questions are often asked a returned mission- 
 ary, and ought to be answered. 
 
 An India missionary's dwelling is usually located, not in the heart 
 of towns or cities, but in the open country — partly because land is 
 dearer in closely populated places, and partly because it is more com- 
 fortable and healthful to live where there is a freer circulation of air. 
 
 Our houses on the plains are built chiefly with the design of keeping 
 out heat. Hence they have very heavy brick walls — generally one and 
 one half or two feet thick — and are covered with massive flat roofs, 
 composed of brick, mortar and earth, supported by a wooden frame- 
 work thrown horizontally from wall to wall. The floors also are 
 earthen, covered with concrete and hard plaster, or brick. The main 
 rooms, forming a compact centre, are surrounded by smaller rooms and 
 
 (55) 
 
56 LIFE AND WORK' IN INDIA 
 
 verandas, partly for use and partly to keep the heat from striking the 
 interior walls. Our houses have also lofty ceilings (from twelve to 
 twenty feet high), so as to give plenty of air during that part of the 
 day when the windows and doors need to be tightly closed. Light is 
 admitted through small windows near the ceiling which are worked by 
 cords, and through glass doors, which thus serve a double purpose. 
 There are no cellars or second stories usually. Our Zafarwal house is 
 the only double-storied one on the plains in our Mission ; while Sunny 
 Side and Shady Side are the only ones on the hills. The kitchen is 
 not in the dwelling proper, but stands near by ; while servants have 
 their own little houses in a convenient locality. 
 
 The furniture of our homes is often quite scanty, and generally 
 second-hand. Country-made cotton carpets (called daries), charpais 
 (native bedsteads), chests of drawers in two sections, chairs of different 
 sorts, tables (dining, centre and study), sideboards, presses for cloth- 
 ing and books, a few rugs, and some pictures or other ornaments on the 
 walls, comprise the bulk of our household goods. English people in 
 India generally try to make one room look attractive, but care little for 
 the rest — they have to move so often. 
 
 No effort is made by missionaries to keep up with a fashionable world 
 in the style of their garments. Only in great cities, large cantonments 
 and popular hill stations, can tailors, dressmakers and milliners be 
 found who make any pretension to advanced work in their different 
 lines. And, as their charges are high and our need of fine clothing is 
 not great, we do not often patronize them. Native tailors {dai-zies), 
 however, can be hired in many places at low wages, who are good imita- 
 tors, and, with the aid of other garments or published patterns as guides, 
 can, under the eye of a skillful mistress, produce articles of male and 
 female attire which answer very well under all ordinary circumstances; 
 while bonnets, when they look too wretched, can be renewed or touched 
 up by the ladies themselves in some sort of style. But many articles 
 are often worn peculiar to the country — such as white or khaki (dust- 
 colored) suits, pith or soft felt hats, cork helmets, shaggy, woolen 
 pattu cloaks or overcoats; while in rain or sun, a double-covered 
 white-topped umbrella is almost indispensable. Hence garments taken 
 to that country give place a great deal to others and, if they can be kept 
 from vermin, frequently last for years. A gentleman's black suit and a 
 lady's silk dress have been known to do duty on state occasions from 
 the time of their owners' arrival in the country until their departure on 
 
FOOD AND MEALS 57 
 
 furlough. Hence, too, a group of missionaries generally presents a 
 motley, and, to an unfamiliar eye, a somewhat amusing aspect. Cloth- 
 ing of different eras, dating from the time when their respective wearers 
 left home, mingled with local fashions or individual whims, combine 
 to give them a nondescript appearance. This is one reason why old 
 missionaries shrink from durbars, levees, dinners and calls on the more 
 fashionable English, and why they are disposed to push out new-comers 
 as their representatives when duty requires some attention to the de- 
 mands of society. 
 
 Of food we can usually get a variety either from the bazar or from 
 our own garden ; for missionaries try to keep up a garden, even if it is 
 somewhat expensive. Mutton is our staple and best meat ; although 
 beef, fowl and fish are sometimes placed on our tables. Of vegetables — 
 we have potatoes, common and sweet, cabbage, tomatoes, cauliflower, 
 onions, lettuce, egg-plant, celery, beans, peas, turnips, radishes and 
 bindis (okra) in their season ; and of fruits — oranges, pomelos (shad- 
 dock, grape fruit), bananas, peaches, apricots, mangoes, plums, pears, 
 guavas, grapes, limes, loquats, melons, and occasionally, perhaps, a 
 taste of strawberries. Canned fruits, jams, biscuits (crackers) and fisli, 
 bottled prunes, vinegar and condiments of e<'ery kind — brought all the 
 way from England or America — can be had by paying the prices asked 
 for them. Sugars are made in the country ; rice and tea grow in 
 Kangra Valley ; rock-salt is brought from the Salt Range of the Jhelum 
 District ; while several kinds of dal (pulse) and other cereals are an- 
 nually cultivated by all the farmers. Bread (often not good) we gener- 
 ally get from a baker, and butter from the bazar ; but many missionaries 
 have their own cows, and can thus provide plenty of milk for young and 
 old — and may be butter also ; while the water drawn from our deep 
 wells is of the very best quality, and, either with or without lime juice, 
 furnishes a very necessary and refreshing drink. 
 
 We have two standard meals : breakfast between ten and twelve in 
 the forenoon and dinner from four to seven in the evening ; but, as it 
 is not wise to go out and do our morning work on an empty stomach, 
 we usually take a little tea, toast, and perhaps an egg, immediately 
 after rising. This is called little breakfast. About one or two p. m. 
 we have a cup of tea; and the same with a biscuit an hour or two after 
 dinner — perhaps outside of the house under a tree. Morning worship 
 comes just before or after breakfast — often in Hindustani with the ser- 
 vants; evening worship, as at home. 
 
58 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 In serving meals the style set by English people in that country is 
 somewhat followed by missionaries. Several courses are given. 
 Breakfast begins with porridge of some kind and dinner with soup. 
 The latter ends with dessert which is usually pudding. Pies are gen- 
 erally discarded ; so is ice water, even in hot weather, and of course 
 wine, or strong drink of any kind, which forms such an essential part 
 of the Anglo-Indian's diet. Of native dishes we often have curry and 
 rice. Kichari (a preparation of rice and dal with spices, fried onions 
 and boiled eggs, chopped fine), pilau (which consists of rice boiled 
 with ghi, fat, and either meat or some vegetable), and, for very young 
 children, paspas (a combination of rice and chicken cooked together). 
 Hot water plates are also sometimes used to keep our food warm. 
 
 In the summer punkhas are kept going day and night, mornings and 
 evenings excepted ; while daily baths are common. In the winter (from 
 the beginning of October to the end of February) we have more or 
 less fire in our dining and sitting-rooms and in the study — even though, 
 during the middle of the day when we go out, pith hats and umbrellas 
 may be required to protect us from the rays of the sun. 
 
 Much discomfort in housekeeping arises from leaking roofs, dust, 
 ants, rats, mice, lizards, neolas, gnats, mosquitoes, wasps, crickets, 
 fish-moths, sparrows and other nuisances. Rugs and loose articles 
 must be shaken every day ; carpets once a week. When big rains 
 come carpets must often be lifted, furniture moved and vessels set here 
 and there to catch the dripping water. Birds find our rooms cooler 
 than the outside air, and often make their nests in some part of our 
 unplastered ceilings ; rats and mice have their fun racing back and 
 forth through our bedrooms at night, sometimes gnaw our clothing or 
 books and, when they can, steal our food. Neolas (weasels) glide in 
 and out of our houses through any opening which they may find, jump 
 on our tables or sideboards, upset our milk jugs and dive their noses 
 into our butter. Gnats, sand flies and mosquitoes do their best to 
 make a living off us when we are asleep and, except when punkhas are 
 going, must be warded off by nets. Lizards glide continually over our 
 walls and ceilings and often drop down on our tables, beds or floors. 
 Fish-moths get behind our pictures and, when they find an opportunity, 
 fringe the edges of our photos and engravings. Common moths infest 
 our wardrobes and destroy our woolen garments. Crickets roughen 
 and deform the backs of our books and the smooth surface of our 
 shoes. Locusts once in a while devour our gardens and defile 
 
SER VANTS 
 
 59 
 
 our wells.* Ants invade our sideboards and swarm over our carpets. 
 Meat, and other edibles must be kept in dolies (movable cupboards, 
 with feet and perforated sides), which are either hung up by a rope or 
 set in vessels filled with water — to keep out small vermin. White 
 ants unexpectedly rise through some unobserved opening in the floor 
 and, before we are aware, eat holes in our carpets and rugs, destroy 
 many dollars' worth of books, and reduce to shreds the contents of a trunk. 
 They have no more respect for broadcloth or silk than for the coarsest 
 cotton. Book covers furnish them a toothsome repast. Theology and met- 
 aphysics give them no difficulty whatever, and even Greek, Arabic 
 and Hebrew roots are devoured as stubble. Metal, glass, queens- 
 ware and the harder parts of 
 some kinds of wood are about 
 the only things that defy their 
 ravages. Trunks must be placed 
 on skeleton benches, called tea- 
 poys, and daily — if not hourly 
 — inspection must be kept up 
 to detect their approach and 
 circumvent their movements. 
 
 But perhaps more annoyance 
 comes from the ways of ser- 
 vants than from anything else 
 connected with housekeeping : 
 they practice so much deceit 
 and pilfering. Not only money, 
 but provisions, wood and small 
 articles of value must be kept under lock and key. The bunches 
 of keys carried around by us would be objects of wonder to people at 
 home. Sugar, rice, potatoes — everything required in cookery — must 
 be doled out just as it is needed and, after that even, a close watch ob- 
 served. When servants buy anything for us we must demand of them 
 a strict account, if we desire to see that in weight, measure or price 
 they do not get the advantage of us. But, in spite of all our efforts, 
 no doubt we lose, and they gain, twenty or twenty-five per cent, of 
 everything which passes through their hands. 
 
 Why then keep so many servants ? Would it not be cheaper and 
 more satisfactory, and every way better for us to do our own work, or 
 * As was the case in the summer of 1S91. 
 
 HILLS OK WiiriE ANTS. 
 
60 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 at least try to get along with fewer servants ? No ; it would not, even 
 if the task were possible, nor would it be fairly treating that cause for 
 which we are laboring in India. An entire reconstruction of methods 
 and conveniences would be required to do without servants, and that, 
 too, at considerable cost ; and, should missionaries attempt this mode 
 of managing their household affairs in that country, they would at any 
 rate soon be laid aside from disease and sink under the burden — 
 to say nothing of the great diminution of that strength and leisure 
 which, under present conditions, can be expended in mission labor. 
 Besides, a loss of prestige and influence among the natives would in- 
 evitably follow such a course. Orientals think meanly of a sahib who 
 does not keep servants ; and they even feel that he is doing the poor a 
 great wrong by not furnishing them employment and thus helping 
 them to make a living. A kind and generous spirit, moreover, helps 
 to commend the religion of him who exhibits it and to show that its 
 essence is love. 
 
 Nor is it possible for one or even two servants to do all the work 
 which is now distributed among several. To such an arrangement the 
 caste system presents an insuperable obstacle. The cook will not take 
 care of the horse or the cow ; the gardener will not carry water for the 
 kitchen ; nor will any servant but a mihtar sweep the floors or attend 
 to the bath-room. Besides, the cost of service would not be lessened 
 much anyhow by such an arrangement. One man then would want 
 the same wages that all get now. 
 
 Taken at the worst, however — including both wages and stealing- 
 it may be safely affirmed that our household service costs us little, if 
 any, more than one good servant in an American city. We are truly 
 thankful that at such a trifling expense the missionary can be relieved 
 of many worldly cares and set free for higher and nobler, if not more 
 necessary, work. . 
 
 Speaking of domestic trials, we should remark here that the greatest 
 cross, by far, which a Christian foreign missionary is called upon to 
 bear in India, is separation from other members of his family and 
 especially his separation from children when it is necessary for the 
 latter to be taken home and left there. Almost every married man 
 experiences something of this trial during the itinerating season, 
 although as a general thing his household accompanies him on his 
 preaching tours. In the summers, too, his wife and children must go 
 to the hills before he does, producing a separation of two or three 
 
SEPARATION OF FAMILIES 
 
 61 
 
 months out of every twelve. And then, when the little ones reach the 
 age of eight or ten years, considerations of health, morals, education, 
 spiritual profit and future prospect, demand that they permanently 
 leave that country and make their home in a better land. This 
 usually leads to their separation from father and mother for several 
 years at the most critical period of their lives. A good Providence 
 watches over them, it is true ; and missionaries' children, as a general 
 thing, fare as well and become as useful as those of any other class of 
 Christians. But the trial, nevertheless, is a sore one to both old 
 and young ; nor can words well portray the anxiety which it produces 
 or the tears which it occasions. 
 
 CENTIPEDE {about life-size). 
 
 Some churches are providing American Homes for the children of 
 foreign missionaries who remain in the field, with the design of fur- 
 nishing these little ones all the comforts and advantages of a Christian 
 family at a figure within the ability of the parents to pay. Such 
 homes are usually established where there are good church and school 
 privileges and, wlien properly conducted, are no doubt of great 
 benefit to all concerned. But the separation of brothers and sisters, 
 as they grow older, and their accommodation under different roofs, 
 though perhaps necessary, adds one more to the long list of such 
 experiences and, if possible, should be avoided. Whatever its draw- 
 backs, however, an arrangement like this is undoubtedly far better 
 than any which requires the children to return to India. 
 
 The matter of salary is about the last thing considered by a foreign 
 
62 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 missionary in going out to his field of labor for the first time — if 
 thought of at all ; but, as many persons ask him about it and wish to 
 know whether or not he fares as well as others or is provided with a 
 comfortable living, it may be well here to make a it\s remarks in 
 reference to the subject. 
 
 The salary given one of our United Presbyterian ordained India 
 missionaries — including allowances of every kind — is about equal to 
 the average given by other societies working in that coimtry. Some — 
 for instance the American Methodists, and perhaps the Baptists — give 
 slightly less ; the Free Church of Scotland and the Wesleyans, thirty 
 per cent, more ; the Established Church of Scotland, more still ; the 
 American Presbyterian Church, about the same as our own. Govern- 
 ment chaplains of the junior grade receive about as much as we do ; 
 chaplains of the senior grade, sixty per cent. more. Members of the 
 Covenanted Civil Service get on the average about three times as 
 much as we do; while government servants of all kinds, ecclesiastical, 
 civil, military, and medical, have, in addition to their salaries, the 
 promise of pensions also after their term of service is completed. Un- 
 married lady missionaries receive an income equal, perhaps, to the 
 average given female teachers in America. 
 
 Many British Boards and Churches differ from our own and other 
 American bodies, in disclaiming the right to lessen the wages of 
 missionaries while they are actually filling out a term of service in the 
 field, following in this particular the policy of their civil government. 
 They also discriminate between doctors and ministers, and between 
 new and old missionaries, in regard to the amount of their salary. 
 But no difference in the pay of any one, married or unmarried, is 
 allowed by our church on account of ordination, special talent, college 
 graduation, medical training, or experience ; although allowances are 
 granted for children under eighteen years of age and to single ladies 
 who are required to keep house alone. The principle followed in all 
 these arrangements is that each person should have a decent living. 
 
 And this the missionaries have had — partly, however, because ex- 
 change has been on the constant decline, bringing them a greater and 
 greater number of rupees for every dollar spent in India, while there 
 has not been a proportionate increase there in the cost of the necessa- 
 ries of life. 
 
 But no provision is made for the aged, or the infirm, except to con- 
 tinue them in the field on full salary. Our Association thinks that if 
 
RECREA TIONS 63 
 
 the way for retirement on a moderate pension were opened up, it 
 would be more agreeable to the laborer himself, more economical to 
 the church and more advantageous to the mission cause. Of course, 
 like other helpless Christians, retiring foreign laborers might obtain 
 admission to a Home for the Aged ; but none of them desires to be 
 compelled to do so, and if left to their own choice, as might be the 
 case did they have a pension, most would probably prefer some other 
 place of final rest. 
 
 The recreations of missionaries are not very numerous, or at least 
 they do not take up much of their time. An evening ride in a tum- 
 tum, or phaeton, a call on one of our associated brethren (foreign 
 or native), a game of lawn tennis or badminton — where there are 
 young people — a little singing or other music, an informal breakfast or 
 dinner with one of our neighbors, an occasional anniversary of 
 some kind, an hour witnessing the sports of English soldiers or a dis- 
 play of native fireworks, a quiet Fourth of July celebration, a visit to 
 the military parade-ground on grand occasions, a family picnic on the 
 hills — these are the chief variations from the regular monotony of our 
 more serious life. 
 
 The daily mail is also a source of great pleasure to us, because it 
 brings us letters from our associates, as well as newspapers — perhaps 
 even a daily paper, giving us a glimpse of the world's doings, and es- 
 pecially the events of that Oriental world in which we are living. But 
 more enjoyable still is the weekly arrival of the foreign mail bringing 
 its package of letters and its budget of newspapers from 'Jiome. How 
 eagerly mail day is anticipated ! How heartily every bit of news is 
 read ! How much the whole is pondered over ! How happy we are 
 when all the news we get is good news ! How depressed when word 
 comes of the death, or serious illness, of friends— perhaps of a dear 
 parent or a loving child ! How disappointed, too, is the unfortunate 
 one who gets nothing at all in the mail ! Missionaries at least know 
 well the meaning of these Scripture passages : " Hope deferred maketh 
 the heart sick," and "As cold waters to a thirsty soul so is good news 
 from a far country." 
 
 The only class of foreigners with whom we have any special inter- 
 course in a social way is that of civil and military officers. Occasion- 
 ally we exchange calls with some of these, or are asked to take a meal 
 at their tables. Now and then, too, we may be invited to their more 
 formal levees and other entertainments where, by courtesy, we ministers 
 
64 . LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 are allowed the rank of chaplains.* Instances of considerable intimacy 
 between missionaries and English officers might also be mentioned. 
 Some of the latter are very pious, take a deep interest in our Christian 
 work and make us truly happy by their kindness, their sympathy and 
 their financial help. Association with such is a great pleasure. 
 
 But for many reasons this feature of our experience is quite limited. 
 It is hard for persons to be good missionaries and at the same time to 
 meet the requirements of fashionable society — impossible, indeed, we 
 should say. Besides, there are not many Anglo-Indians congenial to 
 us. Few of them are spiritually minded or take any particular interest 
 in our missionary work ; and if religious at all, their religion is prone 
 to assume, either the narrow form of High Churchism and Ritualism, 
 or the equally narrow, but antipodal, form of Plymouthism. Their 
 ways and tastes and manner of talking also are different from ours. 
 Our American accent and nasal tones seem as strange to tliem as their 
 British accent and monotonous pharyngeals do to us. Occasionally, 
 too, when advances are made, or even calls returned, one meets witli a 
 cool reception. f While Englishmen can be found who exhibit the 
 highest type of gentility, others can be found who are of the very op- 
 posite character, persons who seem to measure the height of their rank 
 by the number and the violence of their social (unsocial) rebuffs. Be- 
 sides it appears hard for most people who have been trained in the 
 school of a graded aristocracy to strike that golden mean between 
 fawning adulation and patronizing condescension, which alone can 
 win the heart^of a true republican. 
 
 Visits from home friends, or travelers, are few and far between in 
 our India mission field — it lies so far to the north, and is so destitute 
 of world-renowned objects. The visit made by Dr. W. W. Barr and 
 the writer in 1 880-81 was the first that occurred after the origin of 
 the Mission in 1855. Since then seven Americans have either gone 
 expressly to see it or have included it in their tours — two young ladies 
 (Dr. Adamson, of Philadelphia, and Miss Mary H. Peirce, of Sioux City, 
 Iowa), in the spring of 1890 ; Miss Ida Gordon, in the winter of 1S91 
 -92; the Rev. John Gillespie, D. D., in December, 1891; the Rev. 
 
 * Anglo-Indian Society is perhaps the most exacting in the world in regard to the 
 rules of social precedence. 
 
 j- In Anglo-Indian society the stranger (new-comer) is expected to call first; and 
 invitations to call are never given by either party — it being considered bad form to 
 ask others thus to pay you their respects. 
 
NATIVE LIFE 
 
 65 
 
 D. A. Murray, a Japanese missionary, in 1893, and two sisters of the 
 Rev. J. H. Martin (Mrs. E. M. Giffen, of the Egyptian Missfon, and 
 Miss Dora Martin), in 1894-95. As might be imagined, such episodes 
 are interesting events to us. We wish they v/ere more frequent. 
 
 INTERIOR OF A NATIVE HOUSE — BY DAY AND BY NIGHT. 
 (From a Punjabi drawing.) 
 
 The style of living exhibited by our native helpers and Christians 
 varies greatly with the amount of their income. The larger part of 
 the people, being poor^ live in a very primitive manner. One or two 
 5 
 
66 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 small rooms of a mud house, opening out into the street or into a little 
 yard, h^rlf a dozen articles of furniture, a few wheat cakes, called 
 chapaties, an occasional cup of milk, clothing barely sufficient to 
 cover the body and that washed very seldom, a hukka (big pipe) — 
 these are about all they possess. Persons with a little larger income 
 have a veranda also in front of their dwelling, keep two or more 
 changes of raiment and get a greater variety of food. A still higher 
 grade of people live in roomier houses, some of which are two-storied, 
 and can separate the zenana more completely from that part of 
 their dwelling which is frequented by men. They also keep a 
 servant or two. Only a few of our people — such as the late Rev. E. 
 P. Swift and the Rev. Thakur Das — can adopt to any great extent 
 the mode of living which is exhibited by Europeans. 
 
 Among native Christians, men witli men, and women with women, 
 have a good deal of social intercourse in an informal way, accompanied 
 generally by the use of the hukka ; but only on some great occasion 
 (such as a wedding) do they give dinners and bring together a large 
 company of friends. Nor do tlie different sexes, even at these more 
 formal gatherings, mingle together as they do in European society. 
 
 Between foreign missionaries and their native brethren, whether 
 ministerial or not, little intercourse of a strictly social character 
 prevails. This is owing partly to the great difference in their styles 
 of living. Neither party relishes much the food used by the other. 
 Besides, such entertainment as the natives would try to give foreigners 
 would involve them in too much expense. The cost of even biscuit 
 and tea, or a plate of sweet meats, cuts deeply into their scanty wages. 
 Lack of leisure, too, is an important consideration. But, after all, the 
 great reason probably lies in that example which has been set us by 
 government officials. Caste, pride of race, different modes of 
 thinking, different grades of culture, different ideas of woman-kind, 
 differences of religion, lack of tact, and other things, combine to 
 raise a \^all of social separation between natives and foreigners even 
 when they belong to the same public service and meet every day in 
 the discharge of their ordinary duties. Both parties, moreover, seem 
 to be about equally at fault in the matter. 
 
 Now this tone, feeling, practice spreads until it affects mission 
 people as well as others. All are influenced by the same great spell. 
 More than this : it must be remembered that the missionaries and 
 the great majority of the more highly educated Christians stand to 
 
WHY ANGLO-INDIANS AND NATIVES DO NOT MIX 67 
 
 one another in the relation of employers and employees. This of 
 itself naturally causes them to keep aloof from one another. They 
 cannot well meet on an equality. But, whatever the cause, the result 
 is evil and ought to be prevented if possible. Better would it be for 
 both sections of the community if they saw more of each other, and 
 met more frequently on the plane of common Christian friendship. 
 Better for the cause of Christ if foreigners and natives could get into 
 closer touch with one another and, with a fuller understanding of each 
 other's tastes, desires and aspirations, push forward, side by side, the 
 great work in which they are all engaged. And if any missionary 
 methods or habits stand in the way of this end they ought to be 
 changed. 
 
 Various explanations are given of the cause of a lack of closer 
 intercourse between Anglo-Indians and the people whom they rule in 
 India. 
 
 A native writer attributes it to the earlier experiences of the English 
 with barbarian races in other parts of the world which have caused an 
 instinctive, uncontrollable feeling of contempt for any people with a 
 dark complexion — in other words to "the antipathy of a white man 
 for a nigger." 
 
 A different explanation, however, is given by an Englishman. He 
 says : 
 
 "Most likely the sentiments and prejudices that stand, in the way 
 of a free intercourse between the races are so complex that any simple 
 explanation would be impossible. We are partly to blame, or rather 
 to be pitied, for a certain stiffness of demeanor which always makes 
 a foreigner ill at ease in our company. The average Englishman be- 
 haves no worse to the native of India than he often does to a German 
 or an Italian. As a nation we are seldom happy in our intercourse 
 with strangers of another race ; and Indian gentlemen are a])t to 
 mistake the ^^//r/zm^ of our national manners for contemptuous intoler- 
 ance. Then, again, the conditions under which most P2nglishmen live 
 in India have helped to make it difficult for the two races to join in 
 social amusements. The hard-worked Anglo-Indian has little time to 
 cultivate the amenities of society, save those which conduce most 
 directly to his own health and comfort. He has little leisure to 
 fulfil the rather exacting requirements of Oriental etiquette. A tropical 
 sun leaves only a few hours in the day for the pleasures of life, and 
 
68 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 these are more easily pursued in the company of his own country- 
 men." 
 
 A British newspaper also says that " the arguments which Anglo- 
 Indian society chiefly relies on to justify its exclusiveness 'are by no 
 means easily met. It will be urged, for instance, that Hindus as a 
 rule regard the European as unclean ; that Muhammadans look upon 
 women, English ladies included, with sentiments which, to politer 
 Europe, have seemed liorrible ever since the days of kniglit-errantry. 
 You cannot well be fjiendly, says the Anglo-Indian, with a man who 
 directly you leave will carefully purify himself from the contamination 
 of your visit. You would not have your wife and daughters stared "at 
 and spoken to by men whose theories about the sex are untranslatable. 
 Arguments of this kind are usually accepted as convincing. Still, 
 on the other hand, were native society homogeneous — consisting either 
 of all Hindus or all Muhammadans, all Sikhs or all Rajputs — a modus 
 Vivendi would most likely have been discovered long ago. Perhaps, 
 therefore, the real impediment to a closer and kindlier intercourse is 
 the difficulty of being several things to several conditions of men — of 
 being an adept in some three or four different ceremonials and a 
 master of as many different styles of conversation. As at present 
 informed, Anglo-Indian society is of opinion that the trouble needed 
 to acquire such arts is not worth taking." 
 
 All admit, however, that the present situation is a political mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 AN ANGLO-INDIAN'S FRIEND. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 FINANCIAL CONDITIONS 
 
 Ordinary Appropriations — Gifts for Special Objects— For Permanent Improvements 
 — The Stewart Fund — The Q. C. Fund — Help from the Women's Board and 
 Sabbath Schools — Contributions in India Ilself^Governmcnt Aid — Favorable 
 Exchange. 
 
 ONEY is as necessary to mission work as to other enterprises. 
 Hence it is a pleasure to note that our financial condition 
 was constantly improving during most of the period about 
 which we are writing. 
 This was true first of the amount appropriated by the home church 
 for our current expenses year by year. The proportion of mission 
 funds approved for India by tlie Assembly of 1881 was not quite 
 four-elevenths of the whole amount appropriated to the foreign field ; 
 since 1884 it has been about one-half. The amount expended in 1881 
 was almost exactly $20,000 ; in 1891 it was about $48,000. Several 
 causes contributed to this change: first, the growing liberality of the 
 American Church ; secondly, better acquaintance with oiu- work ; 
 thirdly, the manifest blessing of God upon our field ; and finally 
 persistent effort on the part of our missionaries to bring about this 
 result, including an appeal to the Board and a memorial to the General 
 Assembly. 
 
 The money given for special objects by people at home in our own 
 church has also increased, just as it has in other denominations. In 
 this way some pupils have been supported in our schools, some Bible 
 women have been employed, and even the salaries of some mission- 
 aries have been paid. From the very beginning of the period about 
 
70 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 which we are writing until his deatli, March 21, 1893, money was 
 furnished by Mr. T. D. Anderson, of Baltimore, Md., to support two 
 lady missionaries in zenana work. Others have pursued a similar 
 course ; and especially has this been true of missionary societies, con- 
 gregations, Sabbath Schools, Colleges and Theological Seminaries. A 
 generous rivalry has sprung up between different localities and organi- 
 zations, the result of which is that nearly all our lady workers and 
 some of our ordained men also have their salaries paid by special agencies. 
 Although the money thus contributed does not theoretically increase 
 the amount of our current funds, but merely diminishes the sum re- 
 quired to be given through regular church channels, as a matter of 
 fact its effect thus far has been to stimulate greatly the whole mission 
 movement, increase the number of our laborers and swell the funds of 
 our general treasury. Indeed, at one time it carried our church 
 through an important crisis, and even yet we hardly see how our 
 foreign work could get along without it. 
 
 What the ultimate effect of thus giving for special objects may be, is 
 hard to say. Some think it tends to narrow the missionary views and 
 feelings of both givers and receivers and prevent the growth of that 
 broadening outlook and all-embracing sympathy upon which alone 
 a steady, healthy advancement in the support of Christ's cause can be 
 based — to say nothing of its effect upon the great motives which should 
 underlie and dominate all liberality and Christian activity, viz., love 
 of the Saviour and love of souls. But, as already intimated, such re- 
 sults have not yet been particularly visible.* 
 
 For permanent improvements also we have received very generous 
 contributions. Four of these deserve particular mention : namely, the 
 Stewart Legacy, the Quarter Centennial Fund, the appropriations 
 made by the Women's Board for Hospitals and Dispensaries, and col- 
 lections received from Sabbath Schools. 
 
 The bequest of over $40,000 made by Archibald Stewart, Esq., of 
 Indiana, Pa., came into the hands of the Foreign Board in the 
 years 1879-1S83. After $4000 had been deducted to pay a debt due 
 the Egyptian Mission, twofifths of the remainder (or about $14,600) 
 
 * Dr. Dennis says, " Some method must be devised by which voluntary contribu- 
 tions to foreign missions shall appeal not simply to impulse or to choice or to incli- 
 nation, but to an abiding conviction, a profound sense of duty, a consciousness of 
 sacred obligation and a deep spirit of personal loyalty to our Lord." — Foreign 
 Missions after a Century, p. 220. 
 
FUNDS FOR PERMANENT lAIPROVEMENTS 71 
 
 were given to the India Mission and appropriated to the establishment 
 of such a Theological and Literary Institute as would prepare native 
 Christians for ordinary religious work as well as for the Christian 
 ministry. The sum designated had swollen by accruing interest to 
 $15,710.22 before it left America and since its arrival in India has 
 gained over thirty per cent, from the same cause — making a total of 
 about 50,000 rupees. More than three-fourths of this sum was ex- 
 pended in purchasing the ground and erecting the buildings of the 
 Christian Training Institute. The rest — now amounting to about 
 14,000 or 15,000 rupees — is still in the hands of the Mission for future 
 improvements of a similar character. 
 
 The Quarter Centennial Fund was a thank-offering raised to com- 
 memorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of that Union (in 1858) of the 
 Associate and the Associate Reformed Churches by which the United 
 Presbyterian Church of North America was formed. Of this sum one- 
 fifth was appropriated to the foreign work of our church — to be divided 
 equally between its Missions in Egypt and India. India's share, as 
 far as received before February, 1892, amounted to 91,451 rupees. 
 This had increased, by accruing interest, about 12,000 rupees — mak- 
 ing a total of more than 103,000 rupees. 
 
 Nearly all of this fund hitherto expended has gone to the improve- 
 ment of the Girls' Boarding School buildings and the erection of 
 Mission residences. About one-third remains still in the mission 
 treasury, or did so when the writer left India. 
 
 From the Women's Board money aggregating $7000 or $8000 was 
 received for the erection of buildings connected with their medical 
 work in Sialkot, Jhelum, Bhera and other places, some of which was 
 raised by a special appeal. 
 
 From Sabbath Schools a large sum has been recently obtained to 
 assist in purchasing the property transferred to us at Rawal Pindi when 
 that station was turned over to our church by the Presbyterian Board. 
 
 These permanent improvements have been of great importance in 
 establishing and carrying on our work. We know not how we should 
 have succeeded without them. In a wonderful manner God raised up 
 ways and means for their acquisition just as they were wanted, and 
 greatly blessed us in so doing. We think that we have been more 
 highly favored in this particular than most Missions. 
 
 But other sources of income must not be overlooked. 
 
 One of these is the benevolence of our foreign laborers, most of 
 
72 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 whom adopt the tithe rule of giving and contribute liberally in various 
 ways to aid special departments of their own or their neighbors' work. 
 
 Another is the gifts of native Christians, who not only help to main- 
 tain pastors, but also contribute to the erection of village churches and 
 the support of evangelistic laborers. 
 
 A third is the generosity of English officers and residents. The 
 amount received from this source, however, is not as great as that 
 obtained by the Missions of some other denominations; nor is it as 
 great in our case as many persons might suppose it should be. The 
 reasons are obvious. First, none of these people are members of our 
 church, or admitted in any way to the management of our work; while 
 at the same time they can find in the neighborhood numerous mission- 
 ary undertakings of their own churches, which naturally absorb the 
 chief part of their interest and liberality. And then for policy's sake 
 we make little effort to solicit their patronage and pecuniary aid. In 
 solving the various problems of our missionary life we feel more inde- 
 pendent and under less obligation to consult the wishes and prejudices 
 of others when only a small fraction of our income is due to their 
 benevolence. Nevertheless we do receive some contributions from this 
 source, but chiefly for those semi-secular departments of our work — 
 educational and medical, for instance^which present a civilizing and 
 humanizing, as well as an evangelizing aspect. Since the Lady Duf- 
 ferin scheme was started in the summer of 1885 medical aid for native 
 women has been particularly -popular with the official classes, and our 
 Mission has shared with other agencies their gifts to this object. The 
 Lady Dufferin Fund itself, however, cannot be drawn upon for the 
 support of medical missionary work. This is one of the conditions 
 under which it obtains subscriptions, deference being paid to the 
 wishes of Hindu and Muharamadan patrons. 
 
 Another source from which we secure pecuniary help is the govern- 
 ment proper. This occurs chiefly in our educational and medical de- 
 partments — and for the same reasons, moreover, as have just been 
 mentioned in accounting for the private contributions of the English 
 to these branches of mission work. Through special favor for a time, 
 and (since 1886) through conformity to the rules of a new educational 
 code, some of our schools for boys or girls in Jhelum, Gujranwala, 
 Sialkot and Rawal Pindi have received "grants-in-aid" from public 
 funds, without which a part of them might have been disbanded. The 
 Gujranwala High School, indeed, has thus become almost independent 
 
GOVERNMENT AID, FEES AND EXCHANGE 73 
 
 of the mission treasury. Donations of land were also made by the 
 government to our Women's Memorial Hospital in Sialkot during the 
 years 1888 and 1889, while yearly appropriations to its support are 
 made by both the Municipal and District Committees. Some might 
 question the policy, and even the morality, of such entangling alli- 
 ances with the Powers of the land, and doubt whether they do not 
 lead to more evil than good. But we are bound at any rate to record 
 them as matters of history and to state also that they have been the 
 means of considerable pecuniary help. 
 
 Fees paid by school pupils and doctors' patients is the last item of 
 direct revenue which requires particular mention ; nor has it been by 
 any means an unimportant one. 
 
 Indirectly, too, it may be remarked. Providence has favored ns in 
 the transfer of money from America to India. Owing to the depreci- 
 ation of the silver coinage of India, our Bills of Exchange have realized 
 more and more as the years rolled on, while the purchasing power of 
 rupees has diminished much less rapidly. Only once during the past 
 fifteen years has there been any considerable rise in the rate of ex- 
 change. That was in the summer and fall of 1890, when the United 
 States Congress passed a law requiring the monthly purchase of 
 4,500,000 ounces of silver. Commencing with 1882 and ending with 
 1894 the number of rupees received for every ^100 averaged each 
 year as follows: 245, 252, 251^, 261 j{, 281, 286, 297, 296y6, 266, 
 285^, 319^, 324^, 361. Thus while some loss was incurred by the 
 early transfer of permanent funds to the mission field there has been a 
 decided gain in the matter of current funds. Every hundred dollars 
 sent by our Foreign Board in 1892 for the general work was worth 
 forty-seven per cent, more to us than the same amount in 1882. 
 
 In almost every way, therefore, God has blessed our Mission finan- 
 cially during the past fourteen or fifteen years, raising up friends 
 just at the required time, and ordering his general providence so as to 
 swell the receipts of our sacred treasury. While it is true that we 
 might have used to advantage much more money than we actually got, 
 and while it is also true that the church miglit have sent us far more 
 than she did, we are exceedingly thankful that the pecuniary conditions 
 under which we operated were as good as they proved to be. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 CONDITIONS OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION 
 
 Metaled Roads — Mud Roads and Bypaths — Railways — Dak Gharies — Tongas— 
 Ekkas — Dolies — Dandies — Shigrams — Turn-turns — Control of Public Con- 
 veyances — Traveling Outfit — Inns — The India Postal Service — Its Arrangements 
 and Advantages. 
 
 LTHOUGH India is a very populous country and many of 
 
 its inhabitants can be reached without effort, easy and 
 
 quick modes of travel and communication are important 
 
 matters in evangelizing its general masses and establishing 
 
 among them the Christian Church. 
 
 Fortunately in the neighborhood of central stations, between large 
 cities, and on tliewaytothe hills, we have roads of superior excellence. 
 In our part of the country there is a large amount of a certain kind of 
 half-solidified calcareous limestone, called kankar, forming a stratum 
 two or three feet thick, several yards below the surface of the ground 
 on the plains, which makes the very best material for roads. After 
 being broken into small pieces, softened with water and pounded down 
 into an even, compact layer, it produces a turnpike unsurpassed, if not 
 (74) 
 
A'O.tDS IN INDIA 75 
 
 uiH(|ii,iIk(l, ill tlic world for siuoolluicss ;uul solidity. Over such 
 loads — never ilistmbeil by frost uiiil every ilay swept by low-casle 
 coolies — wheeled conveyances can roll at the most raind pace with 
 scarcely a jar, and teams can draw the heaviest loads. Within the 
 limits of our mission Icrriloi y tmiipikes of this character have been 
 made bctwei'u Lahore and Altock, between Sialkot and Wazirabad, 
 and between Amrilsar and Tathankot — to say nothinf; of many smaller 
 thorough fiires and of streets in cantonments. 
 
 On the way to the various hill stations also, roads, more or less solid 
 in their formation and more or less ada[)led to the use of wheeled ve- 
 hicles, have been gradually pre[)ared, while treacherous mountain 
 streams have been spanned by stone or iron britlges. Between Rawal 
 Pindi and Murree, except in two places, where streams remain im- 
 briilgeil, an admirable road was finished many years ago, since which 
 perioil to/ii^iis have been carrying passengers over the route at the rate 
 of eight or ten miles an luun-. 
 
 Between l\ithankot and 1 )alhousii', and especially between I'athan- 
 kot and hliaruisala, where our missionaiies have generally gone for 
 rest, the progress in making good roads has been slower. Not until 
 the summer of 1S90 was the Chakki bridged — that broad, treacherous 
 stream whose crossing was so nnu h drcailed by travelers. And, al- 
 though e/^•/cirs sometimes made the journey between the two latter 
 stations, oidy a missionary would think of driving a four-wheeled con- 
 veyance over the route ; and hi' only occasionally. Hut a Av/^'fC ser- 
 vice has at last been started, carrying passengers as far as Shahpur, or 
 about three- fourths of the way ; and in the course of time we may 
 hope that the road, ami the means of travel in that direction, will be 
 all that any one could wish. 
 
 Besides the metaled {/.wi/ciir) roads of whiih we have spoken, there 
 are some prelly fair ordiiiaiy " nuid roads," connecting the prini ipal 
 towns of llu' variiius histricts. 'Hiese are often filty or sixty feet 
 wide, skirti'd by Iwo or more rows of trees and carried across muddy 
 streams (and sloughs) by biidges or beds of masonry. Duiiiig a 
 large part of the year these highways may be traversed by carts, and 
 even carriages, with some degree of ease; but in dry weather they get 
 very dusty ami in the rainy season very muddy. Nor have improve- 
 ments progressed far enough to secure in many places the bridging of 
 those broad, sandy, changeable and more dangerous streams (such as 
 the Degh and the Ra\'i) which lie between some of our chief mission 
 
7r> LIFE AND WORK IN IXDIA 
 
 centres. If these streams are too deep to be forded they must be 
 crossed on rude, flatboat ferries. 
 
 l^ranching out from tliese hard (^pakkd) and soft {kac/icJi/ui) roads, 
 whicli are duly kept up by the government, is a vast net-work of un- 
 fenced lanes and jxathways, by wliich every village and every well is 
 brought into contact with the outer world. In width these minor 
 roads range from two to ten or twelve feet ; they are often hollowed 
 out, through excessive wear and the encroaching enterprise of neigh- 
 boring farmers ; they are sometimes crossed by little earthen aqueducts, 
 used in the process of irrigation ; they are seldom level, or entirely free 
 from obstructions ; and in rainy weather they are frccjuently filled with 
 water or deep mud. As might be imagined, therefore, traveling by 
 these roads is very difficult, except on foot or horseback. Yet in a 
 suitable season some do manage to wend their way through them, or 
 around them, in itun-lums, and to a small extent also in four-wheeled 
 spring-wagons. 
 
 India is not remarkable for its railroads ; but a beginning was made 
 in 1853, when the first Hue of a few miles was opened between Bombay 
 and Thana. Now about 18,500 miles are finished and in successful 
 operation, about as many as in the whole of South America. These 
 traverse the length and breadth of the peninsula and connect all the 
 great cities and military cantonments. Some are owned and managed 
 by the government ; but most are constructed by private capital on 
 which a certain minimum of interest is guaranteed by the govern- 
 ment, to which in return they owe a certain measure of subordination. 
 Of the Punjab railways, two were in operation when the writer entered 
 our field : the Northern State, which ran from Lahore to Peshawar, 
 and the Scinde, Punjab and Delhi, which, by its' two great arms, con- 
 nected Lahore with Karachi on the one hand, and Delhi on the other. 
 A branch of the latter, however, starting at Amritsar, was finished as 
 far as Dinanagar in November, 18S3. and as far as Pathankot, in January, 
 18S4. A branch of the former also, striking off at Wazirabad, was 
 opened to Sialkot, December 10, 1883, and to 'lawi, near Jamu, March 
 15, 1890. Shortly before, too, the Sind Sagar Line — which at first 
 was simply an offshoot of the Northern State, leading from Lala Musa 
 to the Salt Mines near Pint! Dadan Khan — was (for military reasons) 
 ]nished forward to the west and northwest, a section of it reaching 
 Bhera, one of our more important stations, in January, 1882. These 
 extensions added greatly to our railway advantages and helped much 
 
RAIL WA Y ACCOM MO DA TIONS Tl 
 
 to clieupcn, as well as cx[)cclitc, our missionary journeys. The two 
 great lines and their branches, it may also be remarked, were subse- 
 (juently consolidated into one system, called the Northwestern Rail- 
 way, which has since been operated directly by the government. 
 
 Railway accommodations in India are dilTcrent from those of almost 
 any other country in the world. As in iMuoi^e, they are of several 
 grades — first, second, intermetliate and third classes — of which (on 
 the Northwestern Railway) the fare for the first grade is from one to 
 one and a \\d\{ annas (that is, from twcj to three cents) a mile; for the 
 secontl grade, half as much; for the inlerniediale, half the latter; and 
 f(jr the third grade, one-third (;f the second class, or one-sixth of the 
 first. 
 
 'I'liirtl-class carriages are box cars, well ventilated through open 
 windows, entered from the sides by many doors, and either seated 
 crosswise in compartments, or lengthwise in four rows — a second story 
 sometimes being seen. In these may be crovvtled eighty or one hun- 
 dred passengers. 
 
 Intermediate carriages differ from these in being provided with glass 
 windows, in having comj)artments shut off from each other by close 
 ])arlitions, and in other respects. 
 
 Second-class, as well as first-class carriages, contain only two cf)m- 
 partments — both kinds, however, being often found united under the 
 same roof. These compartments (of both grades) are entered from 
 the side, have cushioned scats six feet long, u])per berths (to be let 
 down at pleasure) and toilet rooms. They are also intended to ac- 
 commodate at night oidy as many passengers as there are scats and 
 berths, so as to i)rovide sleeping facilities for every occupant. 
 
 First-class compartments are more attractively fiuMiished than the 
 second-class, and are made to hold fewer people, four being the usual 
 limit in the former and five, or seven, in the latter. 
 
 All the carriages, exce[)t third-class, arc lighted at night by kero- 
 sene lamps let down through the roof, whose heat is cut off from the 
 interior of the rooms by semi-spherical, inverted glass globes. Night 
 travelers are expected to provide their own bedding, and nothing is 
 more common among a passenger's luggage than his bundle of pillows 
 and comforters, wrai)pcd uj) probably in a i)iece of strijK'd blue and 
 white cotton carpet and held together either by a rope or a big shawl- 
 strap. Provision is always made in the lowest two grades, and some- 
 times in the upper two, for a separation of the sexes ; while reserved 
 
78 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 carriages or compartments, may be had at additional expense by pre- 
 vious arrangement. 
 
 British officials are expected to ride first-class and British soldiers 
 second-class. Natives and other Europeans, if they can afford it, may, 
 and often do, travel in these grades also ; but the common people gen- 
 erally are satisfied with third-class accommodations. Missionaries on 
 long journeys usually ride second-class; but on short trips, and in 
 ordinary cases, they travel either intermediate, or third-class. 
 
 The stations on an East Indian railway are usually very pretty, sub- 
 stantial, one-storied brick structures containing a variety of waiting, 
 dining and baggage rooms, telegraph and booking offices, verandas, 
 punklias and all the other accommodations needed by travelers, while 
 they are generally decorated with vines and flanked by tastefully ar- 
 ranged flower beds or grass plots. In large centres, too, immense 
 arched roofs cover the railway tracks and protect the incoming and 
 outgoing trains from rain or sun. At these stations coolies are always 
 present ready to carry luggage or do errands, while venders of fruit, 
 sweets and curiosities wander from carriage to carriage offering their 
 wares for sale and singing their peculiar but monotonous songs. Hired 
 Hindu and Muhammadan water-carriers are also present, especially in 
 warm weather, ready to supply the wants of passengers of their own 
 faith ; and sometimes the latter will condescend to pour a little of the 
 contents oiX^x'i ghara into the hands, or the vessel, of a thirsty Chris- 
 tian. 
 
 While American railway travel may be more rapid and, in Pullman 
 cars, more luxurious than East Indian, there can be no question that the 
 latter has advantages for privacy, comfort and economy superior to 
 that which is ordinarily experienced in the home land. 
 
 Besides the railway carriages which have just been described, a great 
 variety of conveyances may be found in India — some peculiar to tlie 
 country; others imported, or invented, by foreigners. 
 
 In a few places the dak gari (pronounced dock garry) is still used. 
 This, which may be seen in an accompanying illustration, is a four- 
 wheeled, covered, box-shaped, spring-wagon, so arranged that the two 
 occupants can either sit or lie at pleasure. The dak gari is carried 
 with rapid speed (sometimes fifteen miles an hour) over smooth roads 
 by horses, changed every five miles. Traveling by it, however, is 
 expensive (from ten to thirty cents a mile for each passenger), and 
 gradually railroads, or tongas, are taking its place. 
 
80 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 The tonga is a two-wheeled spring-cart in which the semi-circular 
 bed is swung very low, with either one cross-seat behind, backed by the 
 driver's, or two side-seats. Its cover is a low, semi-cylindrical, iron- 
 framed, canvas-backed affair — intended to shield the occupants from 
 either sun or rain. Luggage can be tucked under the seats, or lashed 
 to the sides over flanges thrown out for the purpose. As in the case 
 of dak garies, tonga horses — of which there may be one, two or three 
 running side by side — are changed every i^w miles. This is rapidly 
 becoming the fiivorite public veliicle for carrying travelers back and 
 forth between hill stations and railways. 
 
 Tlie ekka {ox yakkd), of which illustrations may be seen elsewhere,* 
 is a light, one-horse, covered, native cart whose spring comes alto- 
 gether from the bamboos and slender poles of which it is largely 
 composed. It has no seat — only a floor, less than three feet square, 
 elevated higher than the wheels, on which the rider or riders (for there 
 are often five or six of them) squat, or sit flat. As the wheels are ir- 
 regularly made and wabble badly and the horses are often miserably 
 trained creatures, ekka riding, in the posture described, is not always 
 a pleasure. But it is sometimes adopted by missionaries on country 
 roads and in going to the hills. It is cheap, only two cents a mile for 
 the use of a whole ekka. 
 
 The doli {ox palanquin) is an ancient, Oriental conveyance, which 
 has often been described. An illustration of it may be seen elsewhere. f 
 Although far from luxurious, no mode of travel, when all goes well, is 
 easier, or better for invalids and children, than by this, especially over 
 rough roads, and in going to the hills it has been much employed. 
 But, as it is somewhat expensive and slow, and bearers are becoming 
 very unreliable, it is gradually passing away. 
 
 Dandies and jhanipans\ are used much by ladies in hill stations, as 
 also ^xQkhatolas\iox small children. All of these belong to the pal- 
 anquin order, and are carried by men trained- for the purpose. 
 
 In large stations shigranis (shaped like dak garies) and carriages 
 may be hired at a fixed hourly or daily rate for travel within the city 
 limits. 
 
 Besides such public conveyances, all sorts of private carriages are 
 kept by English people. But spring-carts — some with and some with- 
 out tops — are more common than anything else. These can be used 
 to advantage on country roads, as well as those in the main station. 
 
 * Page 367. •}• Page 135. J See illustration on page 49, 
 
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CONVEYANCES. 81 
 
 Missionaries occasionally have carriages or spring-wagons of their 
 own, but a one-horse, two-wheeled vehicle, commonly called a tum- 
 tum, is their standard conveyance. This has two seats back to back, 
 and is useful under almost all circumstances. Sometimes riding horses 
 or ponies are used by them (especially by the young ladies) in village 
 work, while jinrickshas, drawn by coolies, are occasionally employed 
 in going to and from city zenanas, or girls' schools ; nor are bicycles 
 altogether unknown. 
 
 Public conveyances of all kinds, and burden bearers are largely 
 under the management and control of the government. When a man 
 wants ponies, mules, baugiwalas, coolies, bullock carts, or camels, for 
 carrying luggage, or when he requires palanquins, ekkas and other 
 means of travel, it is generally necessary for him to address a note to a 
 government official who has charge of the business, or to a semi-official 
 agent, who (as for instance in the case of dak ghari zxidi palanquin 
 owners) has certain recognized privileges and responsibilities, through 
 whom the requisite service is obtained. To some extent this arrange- 
 ment means forced labor; but without it, in many cases, the traveler 
 would be put to great inconvenience and often fail to get on at all. 
 Besides, the employed, as well as the employer, are thus protected fully 
 in their rights, and in many cases prefer working under a government 
 order (Juikm') to the hap-hazard of a more voluntary method. 
 
 Not without much annoyance and loss, however, does a foreigner 
 travel in India by any other public conveyance than the railway. 
 Whole chapters might be written of balky, sorebacked, wicked horses, 
 unpunctual doli-bearers, dishonest coolies, tricky boat owners, and 
 wretched conveyances. 
 
 This part of my book would not be complete if I did not speak of 
 the arrangements which a paternal government has made in India to 
 accomodate the traveling public when they wish to stop, rest and 
 refresh themselves. Serais, or native inns, are found in many places, 
 where for a small fee animals may be fed, victuals cooked and beds 
 spread for the night. Dak (or stage) bungalows, also, have been 
 erected on every main road at regular intervals, where Europeans 
 may get every requisite for satisfactory lodging and eating at estab- 
 lished prices — except bed clothing. This it must be remembered, is 
 always provided by the traveler himself and must be carried with him 
 wherever he goes. Some hotels, indeed, furnish the use of mattresses 
 and bed clothing (perhaps at a little extra charge) ; but the rule in 
 6 
 
82 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 India is that a tourist or a guest must have with him, as part of his 
 personal luggage, everything of this kind which he needs. It is as 
 necessary a part of his baggage as his changes of raiment ; and when- 
 ever a sahib makes a journey you will be as sure to see among his 
 effects a bundle of comforters, blankets and pillows, as a valise, a trunk, 
 or a money satchel. With this exception, however, a regular dak bun- 
 galow is provided with every needful requirement. It is only in 
 remote districts and unfrequented regions that travelers are thrown 
 entirely upon the mercy of residents, or compelled to carry their own 
 provisions. All these advantages, of course, are a help to the mis- 
 sionary and the Christian native laborer, as well as others, when they 
 need them. 
 
 But there are other means of communication in India besides those 
 which accommodate passengers. 
 
 One of these is the Post Office. The India Postal Service is one 
 of the most perfect in the world. According to the census of 1891 
 it numbers more than 8000 post offices and 71,000 miles of post roads. 
 These are found in all parts of the country. Sometimes the mails are 
 carried by railway and sometimes by fonga, but often by relays of 
 runners, who travel in a jogging trot five miles an hour and keep up their 
 movement night and day. The soft jingling of the bells of these 
 carriers and the glitter of the heads of their mace-like carrying-staffs help 
 to enliven travel on the country roads and at night often add to the 
 weirdness and the romance of a journey. 
 
 Arrangements are made for the carriage, not only of letters, postal 
 cards and papers, but also of packages, to any part of India and the 
 United Kingdom. Letters of an important character, too, can be 
 registered and even insured, at some additional expense, while parcels 
 can be sent, if desired, " value payable on delivery (V. P. D.)," just as 
 express companies in America carry goods C. O. D. — the money 
 received being returned to the sender of the parcel. Funds also can 
 be transferred from one part of the country to another by postal 
 order. 
 
 All but two of these advantages attach also to communications with 
 the foreign countries that are embraced in what is called the Postal 
 Union, among which is our American Republic. One exception 
 relates to parcels. Only books and other printed documents can be 
 transmitted as such through the mails between India and the United 
 States. Other articles are forbidden — chiefly perhaps on account of 
 
THE INDIA POSTAL SYSTEM 83 
 
 tariff laws. The second exception is that of registered letters. Money 
 orders, bills of exchange and letters of credit must take their place in 
 sending funds. Nor are rates of postage excessive. One-half an 
 anna, that is, about one cent, will carry a letter weighing half a tola, 
 that is, about one-fifth of an ounce, to any part of British territory in 
 India; and five times that amount will carry a letter weighing half an 
 ounce to any part of the British Empire, or any Union country in the 
 world. 
 
 Several peculiarities of the India Postal System arrest the attention 
 of a foreigner. One is that no extra charge is made for stamped 
 envelopes, as is done in the United States. They can be had as 
 cheaply as the stamps alone. This arrangement is made to encourage 
 the use of envelopes among natives. Another singular thing is the 
 permission given writers to cancel their own stamps. This is done 
 to prevent their being pilfered by servants, or peons, on their way to 
 the post office. But it does not of course supersede or in any way 
 interfere with the official cancellation required by the postal department 
 itself. Another characteristic is the universal employment of letter 
 carriers and the great effort made to reach every resident and give him 
 his mail in his own home. Every post office, as far as known, has its 
 peons hired for this purpose, and each peon has his district, and to 
 each is given all the mail matter of his own district ; and if a resident 
 cannot wait until his letters and papers are brought to him in the 
 regular way he (or his messenger) can find them only in the hands of 
 the letter carrier, either at the time of the distribution of the mail, or 
 while the carrier is making his circuit. If the addressee cannot be 
 found after a thorough search, and no special directions have been 
 left by him for the postmaster's guidance, his correspondence is 
 forwarded at once to the dead-letter office. Scarcely anything is 
 retained more than two or three days in the local offices themselves. 
 Should mistakes, delays or villainous acts occur and proper notice be 
 given, nothing can surpass the promptness and thoroughness with which 
 the matter is investigated and remedied. And, to furnish all needful 
 information in regard to everything connected with the postal service, 
 a guide is published from time to time and sold at a nominal price ; 
 while printed forms and blanks are supplied in any quantity when- 
 ever required for postal purposes. Notices of a change in the time of 
 the arrival or the departure of mails is also sent to every sahib' s 
 house. 
 
84 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Another peculiarity is this : that every post office of any size is also 
 a savings-bank, where small sums of money can be deposited for safe- 
 keeping at a low rate of interest — to be drawn out at the pleasure 
 of the depositor, according to fixed rules. This is a very convenient 
 arrangement for the poor people of the country. They can thus save 
 many a pice which would otherwise be squandered, or, what is worse, 
 find its way into the capacious coffers of greedy and unscrupulous 
 banyas. Nor are ordinary Anglo-Indian banks half so secure as the 
 postal service institutions ; for the latter are guaranteed by the credit 
 of the Indian Government itself. 
 
 Scarcely inferior in excellence to the postal service in India is its 
 telegraph system, which is also under the control of the government. 
 About 40,000 miles of wire are up and in operation. Lines run to 
 every District capital and every large town. Messages can be sent 
 night and day — "deferred" for half a rupee; "ordinary" for one 
 rupee and "preferred" for two rupees — with special rates for com- 
 munications containing more than eight words. These are always sent 
 in English as that tongue is found to be the most compact and the 
 most convenient for telegraphic purposes. Connection is also made 
 by ocean cables with all the other telegraphic systems of the world. 
 If necessary a man at Sialkot, or Rawal Pindi, can hold converse any 
 day with his friends in China, Europe or America. Telephones, 
 however, are seldom found in India — if found at all. Nor is it likely 
 that they will become common in that country soon — for the simple 
 reason probably that they cannot be kept so completely under the 
 control of the government, as can either railways or telegraphs, and 
 should disaffection or mutiny arise, they might be made a means of 
 great embarrassment and serious political trouble. It is supposed that 
 even if a Mission would establish a system of telephonic communica- 
 tion between its various houses in the same station the authorities 
 would interfere and order its discontinuance. 
 

 CHAPTER IX 
 LINGUISTIC CONDITIONS 
 
 Many Tongues in India — The Hindustani — The Punjabi — The Acquisition of Lan- 
 guages — Conditions of Success. 
 
 NDIA is a country of many languages. Of non-Aryan 
 tongues alone Sir William Hunter, in his book entitled 
 "The Indian Empire," gives a list of 107, besides thirty- 
 one others that are termed closely related dialects. Of 
 Aryan tongues also, which are directly descended from the Sanskrit 
 and spoken by the great body of the people, there is a large number — 
 the principal of which are the Hindi, the Punjabi, the Gujrati, the 
 Marathi, the Urdu (or Hindustani) and probably the Bengali. 
 
 The Hindustani (or Urdu) tongue is of later origin than most of the 
 others. It sprang up during the eleventh century and afterwards in 
 the camps of the Muhammadan conquerors of India ; and, although 
 based upon the Hindi, it contains an almost equal number of Persian 
 and Arabic words — besides a considerable sprinkling of English. This 
 tongue, as Whitney says, " has enjoyed more literary cultivation than 
 any other of the recent dialects and is the lingua franca, the official 
 language and means of general intercourse, throughout the whole pen- 
 insula." It is used largely in schools, is the language of men more 
 than of women, of the bazar more than of the household, of cities more 
 than of villages, and of Muhammadans more than of Hindus. Among 
 the Muhammadans of Northwestern India, Persian is a very popular 
 
 (85) 
 
86 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 tongue, and on account of its gracefulness is often employed at dur- 
 bars and in making presentation addresses. For a long time it has 
 been the French of the East. 
 
 On the northern border of our field Kashmiri is spoken by some 
 people and especially Dogri ; and, in Rawal Pindi, Pashtu is used by a 
 i&^ immigrants from Afghanistan. But Punjabi is the language most 
 used by the masses. This language, however, has been much modi- 
 fied by the Hindustani, and in no two Districts is it just the same. 
 Indeed marked variations can often be observed within the limits of 
 a few miles. Printed Punjabi books, too — of whicli^ however, there 
 are very few — present generally an archaic form of the speech, called 
 the Gurmukhi ; although the Punjabi of to-day is not altogether un- 
 represented in published literature. As education grows and intelli- 
 gence spreads it is probable that Punjabi will become more and 
 more assimilated to Urdu and perhaps be supplanted by it alto- 
 gether. But at present it is very much loved by the people. They 
 call it a mithizuban, a sweet tongue. It is the language of their child- 
 hood, their mothers and their homes. English is, of course, taught 
 in schools, and, being the tongue of their rulers, enjoys a peculiar 
 prestige among educated people and some of them talk it very cor- 
 rectly and even beautifully ; but as only 360,000 natives in the whole 
 Indian Empire — that is, one in 800 — are reported in the last census 
 as able to read and write it, there is at present absolutely no ground 
 for the belief that it will eventually become the language of the 
 masses. As for the English of poor whites and uncultured Eurasians, 
 that often shows sad degeneration and, with its local idioms and 
 peculiar accent, seems like a travesty of what it is intended to be. 
 
 Urdu, or Hindustani, is the tongue which missionaries generally 
 first undertake to learn when they go to India ; but in our scheme of 
 studies Punjabi is early introduced and, as the years roll on, will be 
 used more and more. A preacher, or a zenana worker, can accom- 
 plish very little in our villages through any other language. As a 
 means of understanding better the spoken tongues of the people, 
 missionaries sometimes study also the Persian and the Arabic, or the 
 Hindi and the Sanskrit. A breadth of view and a wealth of words 
 are thus acquired which often prove highly beneficial. 
 
 The acquisition of a language, so as to think, speak and write in it 
 with fluency and power, is a great work and generally requires several 
 years of patient labor. The eye, the ear, the hand, the tongue and 
 
LEARAUiYG FOREIGN TONGUES 87 
 
 the throat must all be trained. And never perliaps does a foreigner, 
 commencing the study after he is twenty years of age, so learn it that 
 his origin cannot be detected by a native. Generally, indeed, he has 
 a marked alien accent. 
 
 Hence the necessity of learning the tongue (or tongues) of the 
 people is one of the great difficulties lying in the pathway of the mis- 
 sionary who enters our foreign fields and one of the great obstacles to 
 his success as a Christian laborer. Although English idioms, tones 
 and defects (being those of the governing race) are as free from offense 
 as any, and although, unlike the vernacular Arabic in Egypt and 
 Syria, Indian vernaculars are not by any means regarded as sacred, 
 or perfect, by those who speak them, still, imperfection in their use 
 hinders much a preacher's usefulness; and herein generally lies a 
 great difference between native and foreign evangelists. This is one 
 reason why we must depend so largely on native help, and why the 
 great apostles of India must be looked for, not among Englishmen, 
 Americans or Germans, but among the Indians themselves. 
 
 For the benefit of persons contemplating missionary work we ought 
 also to remark liere that success in overcoming linguistic difficulties 
 depends even more upon natural characteristics of body, mind and dis- 
 position than upon age. As a man is in his native English, so in a 
 somewhat lower degree is he likely to be in any other language which 
 he may seek to acquire. If he is slow, slovenly, inaccurate, hesitating, 
 inelegant, unattractive or weak in his use of his mother tongue, so will 
 he be also in his use of the Punjabi, or the Urdu. If he speaks, spells 
 and writes well in the former, so with sufficient experience will he also 
 do in the latter. Scholarship, eloquence and variety of speech, or 
 their opposites, are simply the outgoings of the man. It matters little 
 what medium of expression is employed. The man shines forth and 
 cannot be materially modified. 
 
 But previous experience in learning to speak and write foreign 
 tongues is of immense advantage to a person in thus acquiring a new 
 language ; and the larger the experience, the greater the advantage. 
 This arises partly from the fact that his ear by such experience is better 
 trained to distinguish sounds, partly because a man who can freely use 
 more than one language is not so embarrassed, or prejudiced, by the 
 laws and the peculiarities of his own vernacular, or in other words, is 
 more ready to recognize and appreciate strange idioms, and partly 
 from the fact that he has a larger stock of similar words and analogous 
 
88 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 forms of speech to which he can refer as a help to his understanding 
 and an aid to his memory. 
 
 Children of missionaries, too, who spend part of their early life in 
 India, have a great advantage over others in learning the language of 
 that country when they return at mature age to take up missionary 
 work there ; and that, too, even when, as a matter of consciousness, 
 they have entirely forgotten what they previously knew of these tongues. 
 Their vocal organs, on account of early practice, are better adapted to 
 make those sounds which do not occur in English; while words long 
 since forgotten readily come back again to the memory, or are at least 
 more easily learnt than if they had never been known. 
 
 The time necessary to acquire a fair knowledge of Urdu, or Pun- 
 jabi, differs of course with different individuals. One year's study of 
 them is required in our Mission before any one is allowed to assume 
 any responsible work. But even then a missionary's attainments in 
 this direction are generally very imperfect. Some advocate a prepara- 
 tory period of two or even three years ; and certainly few can become 
 really fluent or elegant extemporaneous speakers in the language of 
 the country before the expiration of that length of time. Not that 
 either of the above-mentioned tongues is remarkably difficult to ac- 
 quire. Persian and French are doubtless easier to learn : but Arabic 
 and English are harder. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 MISSIONARY NEIGHBORS 
 
 Some Unpleasant Facts — More of a Different Character — Aid in Evangelism, Educa- 
 tion and Christian Conflicts — Intei-Mission Conferences and Organizations — ■ 
 The Presbyterian Alliance — Presbyterian Union — Christian Literature. 
 
 HRISTIAN neighbors have much to do with the policy, the 
 comfort and the success of any particular Mission. 
 
 Providentially we have had great reason for thankful- 
 ness in this respect. Compared with previous decades, 
 and some other Missions, our relation to outside Christian workers 
 during the past ten or twelve years has been good, and continually 
 growing better. 
 
 True, unfavorable matters might be mentioned. Sometimes a lack 
 of sympathy has been felt; sometimes the intention to ignore or reject 
 our co-operation in various forms of religious activity has been mani- 
 fest ; sotnetimes a bad example, or erroneous teaching, has tended to 
 thwart our efforts for good ; sometimes our methods, and especially our 
 aim to reach the depressed classes, have been severely criticised ; and 
 sometimes our territory has been invaded, our converts and employees 
 decoyed away from us, and our work in different places somewhat de- 
 ranged. 
 
 But, happily, we have been kept to a large extent from the en- 
 croachment of those denominations which, on account of their peculiar 
 views of church polity, sacramental grace, baptismal forms or the 
 Spirit's leading, reject the obligations of a generally accepted mission- 
 ary comity and feel at liberty to extend their borders wherever they 
 see fit. Happily, too, there has been a growing disposition on the 
 part of adjacent fellow-laborers to co-operate with us and seek our help 
 in matters of common interest. 
 
 Union in direct evangelistic work has not, indeed, been common — • 
 just because it is not often practicable ; but instances of it might be 
 
 (89) 
 
90 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 mentioned in bazar preaching at Sialkot and Khewra, in special ser- 
 vices at Dliarmsala during tlie summer of 1886, in several itinerating 
 tours, and at melas (religious fairs). Connected with this might also 
 be mentioned exchange of pulpit service by native pastors and preach- 
 ers. 
 
 More mutual aid, perhaps, has been given one another by different 
 religious bodies through their various educational institutions. Our 
 High Schools have trained boys of other churches ; and several male 
 and female schools of other denominations have been patronized by 
 our native helpers. The fruits of our Theological Seminaries are not 
 enjoyed exclusively by the churches to which they severally belong; 
 while the summer school for workers held in 1893 at Sialkot has been 
 mentioned as a happy instance of mutual and profitable co-operation 
 between the Scotch Mission there and ourselves. 
 
 Through correspondence and conferences of various kinds also mu- 
 tual sympathy has been aroused, different views exchanged, general 
 principles of action evolved, and resolutions adopted, which have 
 helped forward the common cause. 
 
 Among tlie inter-mission conferences which have been held special 
 mention might be made of local religious meetings, such as the Sialkot 
 Conference of May, 1893, the Lahore monthly Missionary Conference 
 which was established in 1890, the Punjab Ladies' Missionary Confer- 
 ences of December, 1882, and February, 1888, the Liter-Mission Com- 
 mittee on Popery, which met June 12, 1890, the Semi-Centennial 
 celebration of the Ludhiana Mission in December, 1884, and tlie great 
 Decennial Conferences of Lidia missionaries Avhich were held about 
 the close of the years 1882 and 1892. At all these meetings our own 
 Mission had representatives, and at many of them one or more of our 
 number read papers or made addresses. 
 
 More regular and systematic co-operation was secured, however, 
 through permanent organizations. The Association of Female Workers, 
 having its centre at Mildmay Park, London, frequently brought 
 together Christian ladies of every name in the same station for com- 
 bined prayer and mutual profit. A Provincial Branch of the 
 Lidian Sunday-school Union was organized at the Sunday-school 
 Convention in Lahore, December, 1890; and through it our Sabbath- 
 school movements are kept in touch with all work of a similar kind in 
 the whole country. The Punjab Bible and Religious Book Societies, 
 which for some unaccountable reason had previously admitted only two 
 
THE PRESBYTERIAN ALLIANCE 91 
 
 or three denominations into their membership and management, 
 placed itself on a more liberal basis in December, 1890, and adopted a 
 new set of rules by which workers in our church were also given the 
 right to sit and vote in their general meetings, and by which one of 
 our number was assigned a place on the Executive Committee. For a 
 longer time, too, we have been associated with others of like ecclesi- 
 astical polity in India through what is termed the Presbyterian Al- 
 liance. 
 
 The movement originating this began in January, 1871, and after 
 three preliminary meetings reached a permanent form in 1875, when a 
 constitution was adopted. The objects of the Alliance are to promote 
 sympathy, co-operation, and a closer union among Presbyterian 
 Churches in India — also to strengthen native congregations and make 
 them a power for good. Five meetings of this Alliance have been 
 held: the first in December, 1877 ; the second, in 1880; the third, in 
 1883; the fourth, in 1886; and the fifth, in 1889. The first three 
 were held in Allahabad ; the fourth in Bombay ; and the fifth in 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Through this organization matters of common interest have received 
 special attention and the esprit de corps of our division of the great 
 Christian army strengthened. Under the stimulus of action taken by 
 the General Alliance of Reformed Churches, at their London meeting 
 in 1 888, a movement in favor of ecclesiastical Union among the 
 Presbyterians of India was started in the Lahore Presbytery of the 
 American Presbyterian Church about the beginning of the year 1889 
 and prosecuted through a Committee of the Presbyterian Alliance 
 during the next two years. But difficulties of language, travel and ex- 
 pense, differences of ritual and discipline, dissatisfaction with the basis 
 proposed, the hitherto imperfect development of the native church and 
 the foreseen depressing effect of organic union upon foreign support, 
 soon led the majority to feel that such a union was impracticable and 
 undesirable. Hence the effort to secure it was abandoned. 
 
 February 27, 1894, a meeting of the representatives of various 
 Presbyteries was held in Agra and resolutions were adopted favoring 
 the ecclesiastical union of all churches speaking the Hindustani tongue : 
 that is, the churches of Northern India from Darjiling to the Punjab; 
 but thus far the movement does not seem to have aroused much enthu- 
 siasm or to have reached any practical conclusion. 
 
 Whether the time will ever come for the formation of a closer 
 
92 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 alliance among the Presbyterians of India than that which now exists 
 is questionable. Local and perhaps Provincial Unions of an ecclesias- 
 tical character may eventually be effected; but as soon, almost, might 
 we expect the formation of a Presbyterian Church for all Asia as tor all 
 India. Diversities of language and condition are of too varied and 
 permanent a character to promise such a consummation early, if ever. 
 And certainly the arguments favorable to union in India are far less 
 powerful than those which can be adduced for union in America or 
 Great Britain.* 
 
 But leaving this digression, we proceed to note a more useful and 
 effective method of past co-operation, and that is in the department of 
 Christian literature. The production in sufficient quantity of suitable 
 newspapers, magazines, tracts and books for the direction of mission- 
 aries and the instruction and edification of the native church, is a 
 work so vast and varied and so dependent upon a large patronage that 
 no one ecclesiastical body can accomplish it alone. While, therefore, 
 our own laborers have contributed something to the general cause in 
 this direction, as we shall see in its proper place, outsiders have 
 returned the favor with compound interest. Such English periodicals 
 as the Bombay Guardian (Independent), Indian Witness (Methodist), 
 Indian Standard (Presbyterian Alliance), Indian S. S. Journal (^. S. 
 Union), and Indian Evangelical Review (undenominational), and 
 such vernacular publications as the Nur Afshan (American Presby- 
 terian), Kaukab-i-Hind (Methodist) and Makhsan-i-Masihi (American 
 Presbyterian), have not only been channels for the dissemination of 
 our own literary productions, but, being taken extensively by our 
 people, have been to them a constant means of education, information 
 and stimulus. The notes on the International Series of Sabbath- 
 School lessons, which have been published at Allahabad and Lucknow, 
 have also partly supplied a want among us not hitherto met by our 
 own efforts. Religious text books, catechisms, biographies, works of 
 controversy, monthly tracts, and Christian publications of every 
 description have been to a considerable extent provided for us by Reli- 
 gious Book Societies and the more private efforts of other ecclesiastical 
 bodies, or their individual members. Those translations of the Scrip- 
 
 * When native churches become independent, it is probable that unions will be 
 formed, not so much on the basis of old denominational attachments, as on the basis 
 of local propinquity or of causes more distmctively Oriental than Occidental in their 
 character. 
 
SUMMARY 
 
 93 
 
 tures, moreover, which we mostly use, were made by persons outside 
 of our bounds, and published by societies of an undenominational 
 character. 
 
 As a summary then of this whole section it may be said that our 
 ecclesiastical and missionary neighbors have been on the whole highly 
 beneficial to us in our local work — partly by refraining from encroach- 
 ment and interference, and partly by giving us substantial aid where 
 co-operation was needed. 
 
 TAILOR BIRU. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 OUR SPECIAL FIELD 
 
 Missions in India — Their Histor)' — Number of Laborers — Division of the Land — 
 Missionary Comity — The Punjab — Missions Established There — The United 
 Presbyterian Field — Its Growth and Size — Points of Historical, Geographical, 
 Commercial and Scientific Interest. 
 
 N account of the special efforts wliich have been put forth for 
 its evangelization India has been regarded as the great 
 Mission field of modern times. Of the 10,000 or 10,500 
 missionaries now laboring in different parts of the world, 
 more than one-fourth are located within the borders of the British 
 East Indian Empire. 
 
 The first Protestants to enter this field were Danes, namely, Bar- 
 tholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau, who landed at Tranque- 
 bar in 1706. These were followed at various periods during the 
 eighteenth century by forty-seven others from Denmark, of whom the 
 most distinguished was Christian Frederick Schwartz, called sometimes 
 the Apostle of India. These missionaries met with a large degree of 
 success in the southern part of the country ; but owing to tlieir di- 
 minished number in the early part of this century, the mission was 
 finally abandoned and the fruits of its labor were transferred to the 
 Church Missionary Society and the Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel — both English Episcopal organizations. This fact largely ex- 
 plains why the latter bodies make such a good display in statistical 
 tables. 
 
 Of existing societies the first to enter India was the English Baptist, 
 which, under the leadership of John Thomas and William Carey, be- 
 gan work in Bengal in the year 1793, over one hundred years ago. 
 Other churches and organizations followed its example : the London 
 Missionary Society, in 1798; the American Board, in 1813; the C. 
 M. S., in 1814; the S. P. G. and the Wesleyan Missionary Society, 
 (94) 
 
MISSIONARY COMITY 95 
 
 in 1817; the General Baptist Society, in 1822; the Church of Scot- 
 land, in 1828; and so on, until now, as can be seen from the map 
 on page 97, at least sixty different organizations are at work. 
 
 So large, however, is the country (its area, including Burma, 
 being about 1,560,000 square miles), and so vast the population 
 (in 1891, 288,159,672 souls), that Missions need not in the least 
 degree conflict with each other. Supposing that there are 2200 
 foreign missionaries actually on the ground,* 900 of whom are or- 
 dained, and that the population at present is about 300,000,000, then 
 there would be one missionary to every 700 square miles of territory 
 and every 136,000 inhabitants, and one ordained foreign minister to 
 every 1670 square miles of territory and every 334,000 inhabitants. 
 Accordingly Missionary Associations, as a general thing, have tacitly 
 settled on such a division of the field (all but large cities) that they 
 can each work separately. Cities of great size are excepted, because 
 they are often necessary as centers of operation, and also because the 
 evils of interference with each other, by overlapping Missions, are in 
 such places reduced to a minimum. 
 
 It has been a question with some how far missionary comity and 
 courtesy should be carried in limiting church extension. Have re- 
 ligious bodies the right to establish Mission boundaries between them- 
 selves and others, beyond which neither party can pass ? Is not the 
 command to all and each this: " Go ye into all the world "? Ought 
 we not to follow the leadings of the Spirit? Should not every mission- 
 ary society labor in those localities where she feels that she can work 
 more effectively than others? Have we a right to sit still and see wide 
 doors unentered and promising classes neglected, just because they are 
 found within the limits of a neighbor's artificially formed territory? 
 Ought not the liberty given various denominations in America to be 
 extended to laborers in foreign Mission fields ? 
 
 As long as there are different denominations of Christians, based on 
 other grounds of separation than those of locality, no doubt it must be 
 conceded that, under ordinary circumstances, they each have the right 
 to establish themselves wherever they discover a prospect of success 
 without violating the laws of Christian courtesy; and it must be con- 
 ceded also that in the course of time that policy which now prevails in 
 America can properly, and will certainly, be pursued in missionary 
 lands. But at present the conditions of the work in countries like 
 * Not counting those who are at home on furlough. 
 
96 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 India are such as to demand a different course. So long as new con- 
 verts are as weak and as poorly established in the faith as they now are, 
 so long as they can be tossed about, not only with every wind of doc- 
 trine, but also with every change of worldly prospects, so long as 
 denominational strife continues to be the stumbling-block, and the 
 hindrance, and the scandal winch it now is (when carried on) in 
 heathen lands, so long as the field remains as large, the harvest as 
 great, and the laborers as few as they are at present, and every hour 
 and every thought engaged in denominational struggles seems such a 
 waste of valuable force, every consideration of brotherly love and zeal 
 for the conversion of men demands that Missions keep within well- 
 defined limits and see that they do nothing to distract or damage their 
 neighbors' work ; and especially so when experience proves that en- 
 croachment can seldom be made without taking mean advantages, 
 starting unseemly controversies and marring spiritual life. 
 
 It is generally conceded that one ordained foreign missionary, re- 
 siding in the head town of a Civil District and laboring witliin its 
 bounds, together with several native helpers of various grades, can hold 
 that District as "occupied" territory. And even a native minister, 
 acting as full superintendent, may take the place of the foreigner with- 
 out impairing this claim. The presence of zenana missionaries and 
 native zenana workers, too, will of course strengthen the claim very 
 materially, as will also an increase in the number of ordained ministers 
 and other laborers. Less force would be required to hold one of the 
 divisions of a District, called a Tahsil, provided work had been com- 
 menced there previous to the arrival in the metropolis of the District 
 of a missionary force sufficient, as above-described, to hold the entire 
 District. 
 
 That portion of India which Providence gave our Mission as a 
 special field, when it began work there in the year 1855, lies in the 
 Punjab. 
 
 The Punjab (or " land of the five rivers," as the name signifies,) is the 
 extreme northwestern part of the Indian peninsula. In shape it may 
 be compared to a great hour glass about 450 miles high and 160 miles 
 through the waist, lying on its side, with its western end slightly tilted 
 up. Its area (including the feudatory States) is 144,436 miles, and its 
 population, according to the census of 1891, 25,061,956 souls. That 
 is, the Punjab is a little larger than Prussia or the combined territories 
 of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey and Delaware, and con- 
 
INDIA MISSIONS — THEIR FIELDS AND DATES. 
 
 Baptist (British) 1793 
 
 London 1798 
 
 American Board 1813 
 
 Church of England 1814 
 
 S. P. G. (EngUsh) 1S17 
 
 Wesleyan (English) 1817 
 
 General Baptist (English) 1822 
 
 Church of Scotland 1828 
 
 Free Church of Scotland 1828 
 
 American Presbyterian , 1S34 
 
 Basel (German) 1834 
 
 American Baptist 1836 
 
 Free Baptist (German) 1836 
 
 Gossner's (German) 1840 
 
 Leipzig (German) 1841 
 
 Irish Presbyterian 1841 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodist 1841 
 
 American Evangelical Lutheran 1842 
 
 American Reformed (Dutch) 1853 
 
 Moravian 1854 
 
 American United Presbyterian 1855 
 
 Methodist Episcopal of America 1856 
 
 United Presbyterian of Scotland i860 
 
 Danish Lutheran i86t 
 
 English Presbyterian, ,,.,„i--ti. ..!•.. Hit. M 186? 
 
 7 
 
 Hermannsburgh (German) 
 
 Friends' Mission 
 
 Indian Home Mission 
 
 American German Evangelical 
 
 Canadian Baptist 
 
 Scotch Episcopal 
 
 Original Secession (Scotch) 
 
 Canadian Presbyterian 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Free Methodist (American) 
 
 Disciples (American) 
 
 Am. Ref. Presbyterian — present move- 
 ment 
 
 Strict Baptist (English) 
 
 Faith Mission 
 
 Private Mission 
 
 Purity Mission 
 
 Agra Medical 
 
 Oxford Brotherhood 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Salvation Army 
 
 866 
 866 
 867 
 
 870 
 872 
 876 
 
 883 
 861 
 877 
 
 Besides these are the Christian Alliance, the A. 
 I. E. Society, the I. F. N. Society, the F. F. M. 
 Association and many organizations of ladies. 
 
 t97) 
 
98 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 tains a population greater than that of Austria and more than one-third 
 of that found in the whole United States. 
 
 A large part of the surface of the Province is covered by the Himal- 
 ayan mountains which, in many irregular but more or less parallel 
 ranges, stretch along its northern and northeastern boundary ; but the 
 great body of the country is a gently sloping plain, leading from the 
 hills on the one side to the sandy deserts on the other, and varying in 
 height from looo, or 1200, to 220 feet above the level of the sea. 
 This plain is watered by five rivers — the Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, 
 the Chenab and the Jhelum — from which the Province is named, and 
 also by the great Indus into whicli they flow, and the Kabul river 
 which forms the latter's principal western branch. 
 
 Politically the Province is divided into two very distinct classes of 
 territory, first, that of native feudatory States, and secondly, that 
 which belongs directly to the British Crown and is wholly governed by 
 its officers. The former comprises about twenty-six per cent, of the 
 area and about seventeen per cent, of the population, and is portioned 
 out among thirty-four semi-independent chiefs. The latter, which 
 comprises the remainder of the territory and population, is divided into 
 thirty-one Districts. Of the Native States, twenty-three lie among the 
 Himalayas, and their Rajput dynasties are among the oldest ruling 
 families in the world ; ten, mostly Sikh, hold the center of the eastern 
 plains; while Bahawalpur, a Muhammadan State, occupies the south- 
 western corner of the Province. 
 
 The first Mission to enter the Punjab was the American Presbyterian,* 
 which began work at Lndhiana in 1834, and, after tlie complete con- 
 quest of the Sikhs and the annexation of the Province by the British 
 (March, 1849), immediately crossed over the Sutlej and established 
 itself at Jalandhar and Lahore. Subsequently this Mission occupied 
 also Amballa, Rawal Pindi, Hoshiarpur, Firozpur and other places, and 
 by January i, 1891, held a field embracing more than 6,000,000 
 people. 
 
 Following the Presbyterians, in 185 i, came the Church Missionary 
 Society (Church of England), which began operations at Amritsar (its 
 present chief center) and subseqently branched out into Kangra, La- 
 hore, Peshawar, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Kash- 
 mir and other places, comprising in its present field over 7,000,000 
 souls. 
 
 About the close of the year 1S56, a missionary of the Church of 
 
 * Work was begun in Delhi in 1818, but that was then outside of the Punjab. 
 
M/SSWXS IN THE PUNJAB 99 
 
 Scotland arrived at Sialkot and, by the first of January, 1891, this de- 
 nomination had taken up work at Gujrat, Chamba, Wazirabad and 
 other points to such an extent that its field might be said now to em- 
 brace nearly 1,500,000 people. 
 
 Several other societies and churches have also entered the Punjab 
 Mission field, as may be seen by the map on page 97 — namely, the 
 English Baptist (at Delhi and Simla), the Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel (at Delhi), the Moravian (in Lahul, Ladakh, etc.), 
 American Reformed Presbyterian (in Patiala), the Cambridge Mission 
 (at Delhi), the American Methodists, Plymouth Brethren and perhaps 
 others. But the number of missionaries emi)loyed by any one of these 
 is not large, nor in the aggregate can they be said to have assumed the 
 responsibility of evangelizing a population of more than 2,500,000. 
 
 The American Associate Presbyterian Church, now merged in the 
 United Presbyterian, was tlie third to commence mission work in the 
 Province, beginning August 8, 1855. Its first station was Sialkot; but 
 it subsequently extended its boundaries to Gujranwala, Jhelum, Gur- 
 daspur and other points, until, at the time of the writer's visiting it in 
 1880, its missionary claims extended over a territory comprising about 
 2,500,000 souls. 
 
 Since then various changes have taken place through which its 
 boundaries have been curtailed in certain directions and extended in 
 others. 
 
 First came the addition of the District of Jhang, in the spring of 
 1884. Jhang is a District of large size (5702 square miles) but com- 
 paratively limited population (436,430 inhabitants), lying on both 
 sides of the Chenab river, southwest of the District of Gujranwala. 
 No railway as yet penetrates its borders; no cantonment is located 
 within it; its European population consists of only a kw families 
 clustering around the seat of local government, between Jhang 
 City and Maghiana ; its territory is largely desert ; its temperature is 
 iiigh in tlie summer, and its atmosphere very dry. For these reasons 
 an appointment for work here is considered by civil officers one of the 
 most undesirable in the Punjab. But it has some prospects of better 
 irrigation, increasing population and more convenient railways ; while 
 its people, as others elsewhere, are perishing from the lack of the bread 
 of life. Hence its claims upon us as a neighboring field for work 
 could not be denied. 
 
 Many years ago our Mission made arrangements for a man to go to 
 
100 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Jhang to begin labor there. But liis departure was delayed a few 
 weeks ; and while on his way thither he heard that another man had 
 been sent before him to the same District by a neighboring Mission. 
 So, deeming further progress unnecessary, he returned, and our designs 
 for the occupation of the field were for the time abandoned. 
 
 Christian work in the District, however, was never manned by our 
 neighbors to such an extent that their occupation of the territory, ac- 
 cording to the rules of missionary comity, could be considered estab- 
 lished, or exclusive; while from about the year 1880 it virtually ceased 
 altogether. Under tliese circumstances a petition came to our Pres- 
 bytery from the most prominent native Christian of the District pray- 
 ing us to begin missionary labor there. 
 This petition received a favorable hear- 
 ing and representatives were sent 
 thither, as well as to Montgomery, 
 an unoccupied District contiguous to 
 Jhang on the southeast, through which 
 our employees were required to pass on 
 their journey by rail to the latter Dis- 
 trict. 
 
 About the same time also we entered 
 the Bhera tahsil* of the Shahpur Dis- 
 trict. Shahpur is a District of medium 
 size, lying between Jhelum on the 
 li^ji^i^ north, and Jhang on the south; while 
 
 Gujranwala skirts its southeastern bor- 
 der.. It has a dense population, and is more easily reached than Jhang. 
 Of this District, Bhera is the most eastern, and in some respects the 
 most important, tahsii* Its chief town, called also Bhera, is the 
 largest in the District and contains about 18,000 inhabitants, mostly 
 Hindus. The country around it, moreover, is fertile and well culti- 
 vated ; while a branch of the Sind Sagar Railway, having its terminus at 
 Bhera, connects it with the outside world. 
 
 For some time Shahpur was claimed by another Mission which had 
 established its center in Find Dadan Khan, one of the /a-^^/Zr of our 
 Jhelum District ; but the claim never was sealed by important work, 
 and in Bhera no missionary operations whatever had been carried on. 
 
 * Pronounced tie-seal. A (uhsil is one of four or five subdivisions into which a 
 District is divided. 
 
CHANGES IN OUR OIVN FIELD 101 
 
 Hence, as it could be conveniently reached by our Jhelum missionaries 
 and formed a good substitute for Find Dadan Khan, work was begun 
 there by our people in the spring of 1884, and ever since has been 
 pushed forward with energy. 
 
 The next most important change in our field came with the readjust- 
 ment of boundaries between our Mission and that of the Scotch Es- 
 tablished Church. As early as 1861 a regular agreement was entered 
 into by the two bodies according to which the Wazirabad road formed 
 their separating line in the Sialkot District. Owing to a resolution 
 passed by the Punjab Missionary Conference of 1862-1863, however, 
 which the Scotch considered a nullification of the above-mentioned 
 compact, this dividing line ceased to be recognized by them after the 
 lapse of two or three years. From time to time our Mission, which 
 took a different view of the question, objected to their course; but it 
 was not until work among the depressed classes was taken up by the 
 Scotch also in 1885 that the evils of a '' no boundary" policy became 
 manifest to all, and unendurable. It was then seen by both parties 
 that the rivalry engendered under such a system was greatly marring 
 the work of the Lord and that some kind of a settlement must be 
 made. Negotiations to this end began early, but it was not until the 
 spring of 1889 that a final agreement was reached. Then a new com- 
 pact was entered into, affecting not only the Sialkot District, but also 
 all our mutual claims to territory elsewhere, except in the direction of 
 Jamu. By it we surrendered a part of the Sialkot field which we had 
 under the first arrangement, and also Dalhousie in the Gurdaspur 
 District; while a definite boundary line was drawn (about ten miles 
 distant) around Wazirabad in the Gujranwala District. The good re- 
 sults of a settlement, fully recognized and maintained by both parties, 
 have since been clearly shown. 
 1 The same spring (1889) a boundary was established between our 
 Mission and the Narowal Mission of the Church of England, which 
 had been operating in the Raya tahsil of the Sialkot District. For 
 various reasons, one of which was encouragement (at first) by the 
 Narowal missionaries, our representatives began and carried on work 
 in the above-mentioned tahsil among the depressed classes. But when 
 this work grew to large proportions strong opposition to it arose from 
 our brethren in Narowal, and at last we accepted the proposition to 
 establish a boundary between the two Missions, over which neither 
 party should pass. This arrangement left the Narowal Mission in undis- 
 
102 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 tiirlied possession of a considerable field in and around that city, and 
 entailed a loss on us of eight or nine hundred baptized converts. 
 
 The last, and, in some respects, most important change affecting our 
 field came in the year 1891, when the American Presbyterian Board 
 and Mission transferred to our missionary jurisdiction the Rawal Pindi 
 District and so much of the Hazara District as could be conveniently 
 worked from Rawal Pindi and Murree as centers. 
 
 Rawal Pindi District is one of the most prominent in the Punjab. 
 It covers a large territory, contained in 1891 a population of 886,164, 
 about 70,000 of whom are in its capital town, is skirted on one side 
 by the Jhelum and on the other by the Indus river, is well supplied 
 Avith railway facilities, comprehends both hill and plain country, pos- 
 sesses one of the most popular health resorts (Murree) in North India, 
 forms the best point of departure for reaching Kashmir, is the head- 
 quarters of a Commissioner's Division, and contains a cantonment and 
 a military garrison superior in size to any other in India, or (some say) 
 in the whole British Empire. Hazara District bounds Rawal Pindi on 
 the north and much of it is more accessible from the latter as a center 
 than from any other mission point. It contained in 1891 over 515,000 
 people. 
 
 This field was first occupied by the American Presbyterians in 1856, 
 the Rev. J. H. Morrison, D. D., being its pioneer missionary. Promi- 
 nent among those who have since labored there may be mentioned the 
 Revs. J. H. Orbison, Reese Thackwell, David Herron, J. F. Ullmann 
 and Robert Morrison. A Boys' High School, primary schools for 
 both boys and girls, zenana visitation, an organized church, street 
 preaching, itineration and colportage represent the chief agencies and 
 means through which they operated. By the transfer of the station 
 to us we received three mission residences, several school buildings, a 
 church, some minor pieces of property, and an organized congregation 
 of twenty- four members. 
 
 This change was made because the field could be more conveniently 
 worked by us than by the Presbyterians, and because the latter wished to 
 concentrate their force and use more of it in important departments of 
 labor which otherwise would be neglected. It is a happy instance of 
 that fraternal comity and co-operation which should always prevail 
 among the followers of Christ. 
 
 In summing up the result of these changes we find that since 1880 
 our Mission has increased in the extent of its territory from 11,000 to 
 
PLACES OF HISTORICAL LWTEREST 103 
 
 more tlian 23,000 square miles and in population from about 2,500,000 
 to nearly 4,500,000 souls ; that is, it is now more than twice as large as 
 Belgium, about half as large as New York, and more than half as large 
 as Pennsylvania or Tennessee ; wliile its population is greater than that 
 of Scotland, Ohio or Illinois. Compared with other Punjab Missions 
 in these particulars, it ranks third (as before), but only a little below 
 the American Presbyterian, which lost largely by the changes that 
 increased our field. Comparing its different jjarts with one another, 
 we find its densest population in the Gurdaspur and Sialkot Districts* 
 and its most sparsely settled region in West Gujranwala and Jhang.| 
 
 Within the limits of our special field are found many points of his- 
 torical, geographical, commercial and scientific interest. 
 
 Its chief rivers are referred to in the Rig Veda. Herodotus and 
 Megasthenes speak of the Indus. The Jhelum is the Hydaspes of the 
 Greek historian Arrian ; the Chinab, the Acesines ; the Ravi, the 
 Hydraotes; and the Beas, the Hyphasis. Jhelum City is mentioned 
 in the Mahabharat. Sialkot according to tradition was founded by 
 Raja Shal, who is named in the poem. About the time of Christ it 
 was the capital of Raja Risalu, a renowned Punjab hero and the sub- 
 ject of a thousand legends. Taxi la of the Rawal Pindi District owes 
 its origin to the Takkas, a Scythian tribe who entered the country 
 about 600 B. c, and at the time of Alexander's invasion, 300 years 
 later, was the richest and the most populous city between the Indus and 
 the Jhelum. Rawal Pindi itself, tmder the name of Gajipur, was the 
 capital of the Bhatties in days almost as ancient; while the Turanian 
 Ghakkars, as early perhaps as 513 B. c, began to settle near Jhelum and 
 laid the foundation of that harassing power which so long resisted 
 Muhammadan invasion, and was not thoroughly crushed until the 
 year 1S30. When Alexander invaded the Punjab he crossed the 
 Indus at Attock (or perhaps Ohind, a few miles northeast of 
 that place,) and the Jhelum at Jilalpur, near which he fouglit his 
 decisive battle with Porus and founded the memorial cities of 
 BucephalaJ and Nicaea.§ Asarur, in West Gujranwala, is another 
 place of ante-Christian origin. It was at first called Taki from the 
 Takkas who founded it ; and when the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, 
 
 * In Sialkot 552 to the square mile. f In Jhang 72 to the square mile. 
 
 \ In honor of his famous horse Bucephalus which died there. 
 
 \ In honor of his victory over Porus and the allied Punjabi chiefs. 
 
104 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Hiouen Thsang, visited the Punjab, 633 a. d., it was the capital of 
 the whole country. 
 
 Buddhism, especially that of Asoka's reign, has left the marks of its 
 ancient presence in the stupas, or topes, which are found at Asarur, 
 Taxila, Manikiala, Rawal Pindi, and other points. 
 
 Several cities are celebrated for their connection with the different 
 Muhammadan dynasties. Muhammad Ghori placed a garrison at 
 Sialkot about 1154 a. d. Bhera escaped great injury from Baber in 
 15 19 only by paying a fine of two lacs of rui)ees, and was sacked 
 by Ahmed Shah's general, Nur-ud-din, in 1757. The extensive 
 fortress at Rotas, near Jhelum, was built by Sher Shah in 1540, to 
 overawe the Ghakkars. The Attock fort was erected by Akbar in 
 1579-1583, and the ruined fortifica- 
 tion at Shekhopura, in West Gujran- 
 wala, by his son Jahangir, who lies 
 buried near Lahore. Pasrur, Emin- 
 abad and Kalanaur were all promi- 
 nent places during tlie reign of the 
 Mughals. At Kalanaur, Akbar the 
 Great, the ablest of the Mughal 
 emperors, was crowned February 15, 
 1556, and the platform on wliich the 
 ceremony took place is still standing. 
 Gurdaspur, Ramnagar, Sialkot, Eminabad, Jhang, Chiniot, Akalgarh, 
 and especially Gujranwala, were also closely connected with the 
 Sikh rule. 
 
 Gurdaspur was founded by Banda, a Sikh rebel, in the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century. Sialkot contains a celebrated shrine of Baba 
 Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, and a fine temple, with a high spire, built 
 by Raja Tej Singh, is seen for many miles around. Eminabad possesses 
 a sacred Sikh tank, and Chuharkanna a sacred mound — both memo- 
 rable for their association with the founder of Sikhism. Gujranwala 
 was not only the birthplace of Ranjit Singh, "the Lion of the 
 Punjab," but also the capital of both his father and grandfather, and 
 the home of many Sikh chiefs. Under a mausoleum there, erected to 
 the memory of Ranjit Singh's father, is preserved a portion of the 
 ashes of the great Maharaja himself. Ramnagar, which was founded 
 by the Muhammadans and first called Rasulnagar, was stormed and 
 taken by the same great ruler in 1795 ; and near that city, in 1848, an 
 
BUDDHIST TOPES AND OTHER MOUNDS 105 
 
 indecisive battle was fought between Sher Singh and the English 
 under Lord Gough. 
 
 Intimately connected with British Rule also, may be mentioned 
 Rawal Pindi, Sialkot and Jhelum, wnere military garrisons are estab- 
 lished, and Murree, which was for some time the summer seat of the 
 Punjab Government. Rawal Pindi, moreover, was the point where 
 Lord Dufferin and the Amir of Afghanistan met in the great durbar 
 of April, 1885 ; while Sialkot and an island in the Ravi, near Gurdas- 
 pur, are historically associated with the Indian mutiny. 
 
 Of all past dynasties, too, remains are found in the form of ruins, 
 coins, specimens of pottery or special memorials. Reference has 
 already been made to the Buddhist topes. These are monuments of a 
 peculiar shape intended for the preservation of sacred relics — especially 
 what are called "the seven precious things:" namely, gold, silver, 
 lapis lazuli, crystal, red pearl, diamond and coral. Most of the 
 topes now in existence are simply ruined mounds. 
 
 And there is a vast number of other mounds also, accumulated by 
 the erection, the destruction and the re-erection of towns, or cities, 
 and the continuation of such processes from century to century. Many 
 of these mounds have been abandoned for other sites and now stand 
 solitary, covered with potsherds and brickbats — dry, barren hillocks, 
 dotting the Punjab plains and utilized often as Muhammadan burying 
 grounds. Others still underlie cities and raise them up to a con- 
 spicious height. Some have been excavated and thus been led to 
 yield up their treasure of old coins and their other memorials of past 
 ages. Every conqueror, every dynasty of rulers, and almost every 
 prince in this way furnishes the evidence and the date of his presence. 
 No source of ancient history in the Punjab is so general, so definite 
 or so connected, as the relics that are thus exhumed and found for sale 
 in many bazars. The vast ruins of Rotas, Attock, Taxila and other 
 points, are well worth a visit, too, simply on account of their size, 
 their variety and their architectural peculiarities. Those at Taxila are 
 said to be the most extensive in the Punjab. 
 
 Nor is our field destitute of objects of geologic and geographic in- 
 terest. Of these may be mentioned the curious and picturesque 
 features of the Chinab at Chiniot, the Indus at Attock and the Ravi at 
 Madhopur, as well as the remarkable salt mines of the Jhelum District 
 and the notable hills of Jhelum and Rawal Pindi — to say nothing of 
 
106 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 the snow-capped Himalayas whose silvery outlines form such a striking 
 peculiarity of our northern and northeastern outlook. 
 
 Of peculiar manufactures also, both native and foreign, our field 
 furnishes its due share. Sialkot produces its damascene work, its in- 
 laid cutlery, \X.% phulkaries and its paper; Jhang, its inlaid wood-work 
 and large-checked, blue-and-white cloths ; Bhera, its green-handled 
 daggers and knives ; Gujranwala, its blankets ; Dhariwal its woolen 
 fabrics ; and Sujanpur, its sugars. 
 
 But -more interesting and more important than any of these things, 
 from a missionary point of view, are the people of the country — their 
 character and their religion — subjects which will occupy our attention 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 HlNDLb KATl.NG. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 OUR SPECIAL FIELD— ITS PEOPLE 
 
 Punjabies and the Inhabitants of India — Their Race and Physical Characteristics — 
 Their Occupations, Village Life, Wages, Clothing and Religion — A Compara- 
 tive Census— Modern Hinduism Described — Hinduism in the Punjab — Sikhism 
 — The Jains— The Buddhists— The Arya Samaj — The Parsees— The Muham- 
 madans and Muhammadanism — Low-Caste People — Europeans, Eurasians and 
 Native Christians. 
 
 UNJ ABIES, and, indeed, the great body of the people of 
 India, are, like ourselves, Caucasians of the Aryan or Indo- 
 European race. It is remarkable how many persons are 
 seen there whose form and features remind one of counter- 
 parts whom he has left behind him in Europe or America. 
 
 But there is a difference notwithstanding. In size they are usually 
 smaller than Americans and in color darker. Their hair and eyes are 
 almost universally black, and their complexion of every shade from 
 buff to brown — all made so probably by the heat of a tropical sun ; 
 and among the lower classes are often found peculiarities of counte- 
 nance, and depth of color, which plainly suggest amalgamation with 
 some other race. 
 
 In many places, chiefly northward, Pathans, that is Indo-Afghans, 
 are found, who claim to be of Israelitish descent and who, by their 
 greater stature, more prominent features and fiercer character, present 
 a marked contrast to the rest of the population. Mongolians are seen 
 in the persons of occasional Chinamen, and also of Gurkha soldiers 
 from Nepal, who compose several regiments of the British army ; while 
 Parsees, who were originally Persians (as their name indicates), and 
 Abyssinians are occasionally met with ; Europeans also (Englishmen, 
 Germans and others,) of course frequently appear. 
 
 Climate, religion, despotic government and other causes have com- 
 bined to modify the natural characteristics of the Hindu people — 
 
 (107) 
 
108 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 diminishing their energy, persistence of purpose, self-poise, practical 
 wisdom and general intellectual caliber; while of true historical in- 
 stinct and capacity for original scientific investigation they possess 
 little or nothing. But they have wonderful (though unbalanced) philo- 
 sophical, or metaphysical, acumen (or rather, imagination), and great 
 aptitude for the acquisition of language ; while their taste for music 
 and skill in producing it, either with voice or instrument, is greater 
 
 than those of some other 
 >''-'/ ^^^^^^^^ - " „^^, Orientals. As yet mod- 
 
 ern education has af- 
 fected only a small per- 
 centage of their number ; 
 but the ability of many 
 to acquire it is unques- 
 tioned. 
 
 As to occupation, al- 
 most all the different 
 trades and professions 
 which characterize civil- 
 ized and half-civilized 
 life are represented 
 among them, and usually 
 these are transmitted 
 from generation to gen- 
 eration through heredi- 
 tary channels; but in 
 no department do they 
 rise to the highest degree 
 of excellence. Their 
 methods of tilling the 
 soil, preparing food, building a house or manufacturing garments 
 (although reasonably efficient) are still primitive and slow; while 
 Hindu art, of which much has been said, secures admiration more 
 on account of its singularity, or because it is i)roduced by hand alone, 
 than on account of its surpassing merit. 
 
 In the Punjab and in India generally, as in other Oriental countries, 
 almost all the people live huddled together in towns and villages, 
 many of which are surrounded by walls, or are at least virtually walled 
 from the custom of joining together the outside circle of houses and 
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
WAGES AND CLOTHING 109 
 
 building them without low exterior windows. This habit arose in 
 unsettled times, and under bad government, through the fear of rob- 
 bers and bandits. Some of these towns are composed almost entirely 
 of sun-dried brick and mud dwellings ; others are largely built of more 
 solid materials. Some are chiefly Hindu towns ; others, principally 
 Muhammadan ; others contain an equal proportion of the adherents 
 of each of these faiths ; while near almost every town, village or city, 
 but separated from it by a small alley, is a quarter set apart for the 
 residences of low-caste people, called a taiti. 
 
 Owing to the great density* of the population, the past ravages 
 of war, and other causes, wages are low and poverty general. Com- 
 mon laborers (coolies) get only five or six cents a day, and skilled 
 mechanics little more than twice as much. Hence, although families 
 club together in a patriarchal manner and thus make the most of what 
 they have, their style of living seldom rises above the bare necessaries 
 of life, and often does not reach that point. Mud houses are more 
 general than any other; clothing consists only of a few cotton gar- 
 ments (cloths), thrown around the body; and coarse wheaten, corn or 
 millet cakes, with an occasional dish of rice, furnish the ordinary 
 food of the people. A small percentage of the educated, especially 
 among those who are Christians or who are in government service, 
 aspire to the habits and apparel of Europeans ; but only a (qw, even of 
 those who are called rich, are disposed, or able, to carry this tendency 
 to any high degree, f 
 
 Ordinary Punjabi male attire consists of the following five articles : 
 first, a langoti or loin cloth, which is often very small ; secondly, a 
 dhoti, or about four yards of cotton muslin (English calico), wound 
 around the waist and covering both thighs and legs as far as the knees, 
 or lower ; thirdly, a chadar, or cotton muslin shawl, two or two and 
 a half yards square, worn around the shoulders and over the whole 
 body (head included) in sleep ; and fourthly, a pai^ri, that is, a turban, 
 of four yards of muslin or upwards wound around the head ; lastly, 
 slipper-like shoes called yW/a;?. Coolies often dispense with all except 
 the first and the last two articles of apparel. Some have a woolen 
 chadar in winter. Some add a kurta of cotton cloth to their ward- 
 robe. This is either like a waistcoat, or like a European's shirt worn 
 
 * In 1 89 1 the average for all India including Burma was 185 to the square mile; 
 lor the Punjab including Kashmir, nearly 174; for our field, about 187; for the Sial- 
 kot District alone, 552. -j-See also Chapter VI, pp. 65, 66 and 121. 
 
110 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 outside. Muhammadans of some means often wear very wide-legged 
 paejamas ; and Hindus, of like standing, paejamas whose legs at the 
 lower extremity are close-fitting like tights. All truly native garments 
 are destitute of buttons. The use of buttons indicates progress. 
 
 People who are rich, and especially people of high rank, add chogas 
 (robe-like gowns) and other articles of dress to their attire and make 
 their clothing of silk, gold-cloth and other gorgeous and expensive 
 materials; and in durbars they present a striking appearance. 
 
 Ordinary female attire consists of a chadar worn over the head as 
 well as the shoulders, a kurta, paejamas of a very baggy description, 
 but tight-fitting at the ankles, 3iX\d Jiitian. Hindu women sometimes 
 wear skirts, and a few castes substitute for the kiirta a garment cover- 
 ing less of the upper part of the body than that does. Jewels are worn 
 by all classes in the nose and the ears, as well as on the head, the arms 
 and the ankles, and they are made of various materials ranging from 
 glass to pure gold aiid diamonds. 
 
 As to religion, twenty per cent, of the whole population of India are 
 Muhammadans and seventy-two per cent. Hindus, or more correctly 
 seventy-six and one-half per cent., if we include among the number 
 forest tribes, Sikhs and Jains.* 
 
 In the Punjab, however, the proportion is very different. Of these, 
 according to the census of 1881, Muhammadans formed about .557 of 
 the population; Hindus .377; Sikhs .059; Jains, .002 and all others 
 .005 ; and this is doubtless about the present proportion of these differ- 
 ent classes. 
 
 Modern Hinduism is the resultant of beliefs and influences which 
 have been operating upon the Aryan race during the past 3000 years 
 
 *The following comparative table is taken from the census of 1891 : 
 
 Hindus, 207,654,407 
 
 Mussalmans, 57,365,204 
 
 Forest Tribes (animal worshipers), 9,302,083 
 
 Buddhists, 7,101,057 
 
 Christians, 2,284,191 
 
 Sikhs, 1,907,836 
 
 Jains, 1,416,109 
 
 Parsees, 89,887 
 
 Jews, 17,180 
 
 Atheists. Agnostics, etc., 289 
 
 Total, 287,138,243 
 Unclassified addition in corrected returns, 1,021,429 
 
 Total, 288,159^2 
 
MODERN HINDUISM 111 
 
 or more. Theoretically it is pantheistic, but practically polytheistic. 
 Accepting three original and supreme manifestations of the eternal 
 spirit — Brahma, Vishnu and Siva (the Tri-murti) — it has admitted into 
 its- pantheon a multitude of gods either related to them by marriage, 
 descent or service, or identified with them through the principle of 
 incarnation or special embodiment. These are presented to the eye in 
 the form of idols, pictures, persons, animals, tombs or natural objects, 
 and are worshiped by prayer, genuflection, prostration, dancmg, sing- 
 ing, bell-ringing, incense-burning, gifts of flowers, food or clothing, 
 water libation, animal sacrifices, repetition of the divine name or 
 mantras, prostitution, and in other ways. Hindus believe in the effi- 
 cacy of charms and asceticism, in astrology, exorcism, necromancy, 
 witchcraft, the evil eye, and other forms of superstition. They also 
 believe in the transmigration of souls and make salvation to consist in 
 their final absorption into the Supreme Brahm, of whom (or which) 
 indeed they really form a part. Brahmans, their hereditary priests, are 
 fed, worshiped and obeyed as divine, and form the highest of a grada- 
 tion of castes which are supposed to have their origin, not only in 
 differences of race, occupation and personal merit, but also in the will 
 of God. 
 
 Hindus of the Punjab, as a general thing, neglect the worship of the 
 great gods and confine their attention to local deities, or those benevo- 
 lent and malevolent beings which are supposed to affect their daily 
 life; and their acts of worship change in frequency and earnestness 
 according to their own varying circumstances and necessities. Brahma 
 worship is said to be unknown and Vaishnavism,* as a sect, is confined 
 altogether to the Brahmans. Shivalas, that is, temples of Siva, are 
 common, and so are images of Ganesh (the elephant god), Hanuman 
 (the monkey god) and Krishna (the tricky god). As in other parts of 
 India, the most numerous temples are those devoted to Siva, which 
 contain a combined linga and jiw?/', with their accompanying image of 
 a bull — the gross and indecent symbols of the reproductive power of that 
 god; while on the hills one frequently meets with the iron trident of 
 the same deity under his titleof Mahaveda. Shrines of Sitala, the small- 
 pox goddess, are located near towns and villages ; and when that terrible 
 disease is prevalent, these are often visited for the purpose of obtaining 
 deliverance from its dreaded power. Resort is also had to all sorts of 
 charms and superstitions to accomplish the same object or avert some 
 * The worship and worshipers of Vishnu. 
 
112 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Other evil. Of trees, the deodar, pipal and banyan are worshiped 
 more than others ; and of animals, the cow species — for which there is 
 such a veneration that Brahminy bulls roam the country at their own 
 free will, and he who kills or injuries one, or indeed any of his species, 
 is in danger of losing his life. Snakes are also worshiped by some 
 tribes. 
 
 Women, as a rule, are more devoted Hindus than men ; and in 
 family life, with its events of birth, second birth, betrothal, marriage, 
 death, burial and sraddha (worship of ancestors), we find the most 
 persistent religious rites. But public festivals, occurring at established 
 intervals in honor of particular gods, are common and secure the at- 
 tendance and aid of both sexes and of all classes, and do more perhaps 
 than anything else except caste (whose rules are rigidly observed) to 
 establish and perpetuate the system of which they form a part. 
 
 Sikhism, of whose adherents eleven-twelfths live in the Punjab, has 
 passed through several stages since its rise 400 years ago. 
 
 Its first and most distinguished teacher {guru), Baba Nanak, like 
 Buddha, revolted against the ceremonial and social restrictions of 
 Hinduism and sought a compromise of religions — especially of the 
 Muhammadan and Hindu faiths, in the declaration of one God for 
 all and in the emphasis which he laid upon good deeds and quiet con- 
 templation. He discouraged caste, respected Muhammadan as well as 
 Hindu teachers and preached repentance. But he believed in the 
 transmigration of souls, in veneration of the cow, in abhorrence of the 
 hog and in abstinence from all flesh as food. 
 
 The {omt\\ guru, Ram Das (1574 to 1581), founded Amri tsar, which 
 became the Jerusalem, or the Mecca, of Baba Nanak's followers and 
 the seat of their great temple — the Golden. 
 
 The fih\\ guru, Arjan (1581 to 1606), was a remarkable organizer, 
 systematized the faith and practice of the sect and gave it a written 
 rule of faith in the Granth, whose veneration is its chief form of idola- 
 try. He also exhibited considerable taste for trade and politics. 
 
 Har Govind, the sixth gum (1606 to 1645), was a warrior, changed 
 what was before a religious sect into a military society and started a 
 policy — the reverse in many respects of that of the founder of Sikhism 
 — which was followed by all his successors down to the days of British 
 rule. 
 
 But Govind Singh, the last ^//r« (1675 to 1708), modified the char- 
 acter of Sikhism more than any of his predecessors. Following the 
 
THE SIKHS AND THE JAINS 113 
 
 example of his Muhammadan enemies, he made his religion the basis 
 of political power; and, in pursuit of this object, he abolished caste, 
 instituted the Khalsa, or, "society of the liberated," and gave his 
 people outward signs of their faith — such as the unshorn hair, the short 
 drawers, the title Singh (lion), the wearing of steel, and abstinence 
 from tobacco. 
 
 The military and political taste thus infused into Sikhism and culti- 
 vated by the Govinds, culminated in the remarkable career of Ranjit 
 Singh, who became King of the Punjab and one of the greatest rulers 
 of India. 
 
 At present the Sikhs are generally loyal to the British Government 
 and abstain from political intrigue ; but they are a very brave people, 
 exhibit a fine physique, and make good soldiers and good policemen. 
 In point of education, however, they are surpassed by some of their 
 neighbors, and in point of religion they have greatly degenerated. 
 Although willing to eat from the hands of Mussulmans, caste is as 
 strictly followed by them as by Hindus proper, and low-caste p'eople 
 who adopt their faith (called Mazhabi Sikhs) are kept at a distance 
 and excluded from the higher privileges of the community. Sikhs 
 also reverence Brahmans, worship deities and practice their idolatrous 
 and superstitious rites. In short, they have substantially assumed (or 
 resumed) the place of a Hindu caste. 
 
 Much the same may be said of the Jains also, about whom opinion 
 is divided as to whether they are degenerate Buddhists or an independ- 
 ent, and perhaps earlier, sect of Hindus, exhibiting originally many 
 of the same principles. True, these people still hold doctrines and 
 practices which lean toward Buddhism ; and their reverence for ani- 
 mal life is carried to such an extreme that devotees brush their own 
 pathway, strain their drinking water and wear a cloth over their 
 mouths for fear they may tread upon, swallow or inhale some living 
 thing. They are, moreover, peculiar in reverencing twenty-four beati- 
 fied saints, chief of whom are Parasnath and Mahavira. But they also 
 recognize the whole Hindu pantheon as fit objects of worship, and 
 resemble Hindus in their family rites, their wedding and funeral cere- 
 monies, their observance of caste, their reverence for the cow, their 
 fasts and their pilgrimages. Indeed, they call themselves "good Hin- 
 dus." Unlike the Sikhs, Punjab Jains are comparatively well edu- 
 cated and almost all of them are traders and live in cities. They be- 
 long also, as a rule, to the Banya or the Bhabra castes. 
 
114 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Of Buddhists, a very few are found in two hill Districts of the Pun- 
 jab — Lahul and Spiti ; but even these are greatly Hinduized and can be 
 scarcely distinguished from their neighbors. As Buddhism every- 
 where has discarded the atheism of its founder and become practically 
 idolatrous, so what is left of it in India has in various degrees re-ab- 
 sorbed the doctrines and the practices of the faith against which it was 
 originally a protest, although in so doing it has in turn exercised a re- 
 acting influence upon Hinduism itself. 
 
 Of the reforming Hindu sects which have lately arisen in India, the 
 Arya Samaj is the only one which has made much stir in the Punjab. 
 This was founded by Dyananda Saraswati, who died at Ajmere in 
 1883, at the age of fifty-nine. As the name suggests, it is distinctively 
 Indian, national and anti-foreign in its character. Hence, although it 
 recognizes and acknowledges many of the absurdities of modern Hin- 
 duism, it claims that these are corruptions of the Hindu faith which 
 have arisen in the course of ages, through a departure from the teach- 
 ings of the Vedas — books which they, like other Hindus, accept as of 
 divine origin, and claim to hold in great reverence. Like the Brahma 
 Samaj it rejects pantlieism and polytheism ; but its theism is akin to 
 deism, lacking warmth and enthusiasm. It also opposes ceremonial 
 religion, asceticism, idolatry and (theoretically, but not practically) 
 caste. And more than this, it rejects the doctrine of incarnation, 
 atonement, inspiration and miraculous divine intervention, chiefly be- 
 cause of their affinity to Christian ideas. On the other hand it retains 
 a belief in the doctrine of transmigration, and, under the influence of 
 its anti-foreign bias, claims that the Vedas are not only the source of 
 such Christian beliefs as it sees fit to approve, but also of all modern 
 inventions and scientific theories. Against the Bible and whatever is 
 distinctive in Christianity, it takes a determined and bitter stand, and 
 by means of public teaching, tracts and books, seeks as much as possible, 
 to propagate its tenets and obstruct the efforts of Christians. Its 
 "church" buildings, its meetings upon the Sabbath when people 
 generally have most leisure, its reproduction in the vernacular of such 
 infidel objections to the Scriptures as have originated in the West, and 
 its public opposition to our bazar preaching, form distinctive features 
 of Punjab religious life. And among educated young men it has 
 great success, too. There are many flourishing societies of Aryas in 
 the Punjab and an Anglo- Vedic college, as well as a leading paper 
 
ARYAS, PARSEES AND MUHAMMAD A NS 
 
 115 
 
 called the Arya Patrika, in Lahore, both of which represent the inter- 
 ests of this class of Hindus. 
 
 Besides being opposed by missionaries, however, this sect has been 
 resisted by orthodox Hindus, and very justly too, on the ground that 
 it misrepresents the teachings of the Vedas. A movement having this 
 object in view was started in 1887, through which several Sanskrit 
 Schools were established, at least 400 societies organized, lecturers 
 sent into various parts of the 
 country, a great convention 
 held at Delhi in November, 
 1890, and money raised to 
 found a college in that city. 
 As the result of these efforts 
 many abandoned the Samaj 
 and returned to their idols. 
 
 Of Parsees, who are modern 
 Zoroastrians and fire worship- 
 ers, very few are found in the 
 Punjab ; but these few are gen- 
 erally prominent and wealthy 
 merchants. Bombay and Surat 
 are the chief centers of this ^;'' 
 sect. Tliey are all descendants 
 of Persians, who were driven 
 from central Asia to India by 
 Muhammadan persecution, 900 
 or 1000 years ago. 
 
 Another religious division of 
 Punjabies and in point of num- 
 bers the most important of all, 
 is that of Muhammadans. The parsee. 
 
 readers of this book know that 
 
 Muhammadans acknowledge only one God, deny the divinity of Christ, 
 reject idols, accept Muhammad as the last and greatest of the prophets, 
 claim the Koran to be inspired and superior to all previous revelations, 
 and in earlier ages employed the sword to propagate their faith. They 
 entered India nearly 1300 years ago, and through a succession of 
 dynasties, the greatest of which was the Mughal, for more than 1000 
 years exercised imperial authority over a large part of the country, 
 
116 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 and by force or otherwise obtained many converts to their faith. 
 And now we find that they comprise one-fifth of the whole population 
 of the British East Indian Empire, more than one-half of the inhabi- 
 tants of the Punjab and nearly three-fourths of the people living within 
 the limits of our special Mission field. 
 
 But the Muhammadans of India exhibit characteristics different from 
 those of their invading ancestors as well as their coreligionists else- 
 where. This has been caused partly by the great addition once made 
 to their number of insincere and half-assimilated converts. Centuries 
 of comparative inactivity in the presence of entrenched idolatry also 
 have helped to quench their fiery zeal and modify their peculiar 
 traits. Hence we find that they have become greatly Hinduized. All 
 observe caste so far that they will not eat or smoke with any but their 
 own brethren.* All reverence tombs, saints and shrines and places 
 of pilgrimage. Almost all cherish heathen superstitions. Many tribes 
 of converted Mussalmans retain and fee Brahmans ; while some 
 actually employ them to conduct their marriages according to the 
 Hindu ceremonial, only adding the Muhammadan ritual, as a legal 
 precaution. 
 
 Still Muhammadans on the whole manifest great attachment to their 
 own sect and are ready to propagate it in every possible way. Their 
 three-domed mosques {masjids) f are found in city, town and village, 
 kept in good repair, and are much frequented by zealous worshipers. 
 Their forms of prayer are observed in public and private, at appointed 
 hours, by thousands of the unabashed faithful. Their fasts, feasts and 
 
 * The remembrance, too, of the Hindu castes from which Muhammadan families 
 originally sprang is generally preserved by them with pride and made to influence 
 their social and industrial life — just as it is also among the Sikhs, the Jains and 
 people of other religions — Christians not excepted, I am sorry to say. And the 
 course of the government in taking the census has a tendency, moreover, to perpetu- 
 ate this class feeling ; since it requires every one in giving his name to state his 
 caste, and hardly a Hindu caste can be mentioned which is not represented, in the 
 reports, among the adherents of other faiths. For instance, of thirty-three major 
 castes named in the Sialkot Gazetteer of 1883-4, only two are without representa- 
 tives among the Muhammadans, and only six without representatives among the 
 Sikhs ; while there are five castes reported as entirely, and eight as almost entirely, 
 Muhammadan — some of them having been added to the general catalogue by Islam 
 itself. Nor is anything said here about the twenty-two minor castes which are 
 found in the same Di^tl■ict. 
 
 f Muhammadan architecture in India differs from that of Egypt, Syria or Con- 
 stantinople. See illustration, p. 329. 
 
SKEPTICS AND LOW-CASTE PEOPLE 
 
 117 
 
 holidays, particularly the Ramazan and the Muharram, are among the 
 most notable features of Punjabi life. Their religious teachers 
 {inaulvies and others) are trained in the Koran and ready to defend its 
 doctrines against all aggressors. Their monastic and begging fakirs 
 (of whom there are said to be seventy-two different societies in the 
 Moslem world) furnish an army of fanatical and unscrupulous zealots, 
 prepared to advance their cause, secretly and openly, even by fraud 
 and bloodshed. Their desire to get new converts is equalled only by 
 their regret at numerical loss and their hatred of those who abandon 
 their faith, or make apostates of their followers. And, notwithstand- 
 ing the modifying and mollifying influences of daily intercourse, be- 
 tween them and other sects, especially between them and Hindus, a 
 slumbering, implacable 
 enmity exists, which re- 
 quires only a suitable 
 occasion to reveal its 
 deadly bitterness. 
 
 It must not be sup- 
 posed, however, that 
 skepticism and infidelity 
 have not made inroads 
 upon the Muhammadan 
 or the Hindu ranks. As 
 the result of secular edu- 
 cation and the reading 
 of anti-Christian En- 
 glish books, many pupils 
 have lost faitli in their 
 ancestral religion, with- 
 out becoming Christians, and are tossed upon the sea of doubt or agnos- 
 ticism. True only 289 report themselves as such in the census, and 
 perhaps most of these are Europeans; but many others, while nomi- 
 nally attached to the old systems, are really infidels. 
 
 Besides the divisions described, another remains, deriving its chief 
 importance to us from the fact that hitherto it has furnished the great- 
 est number of Christian converts. This is what is usually called the 
 low-caste or outcaste people, and sometimes the " depressed classes." 
 In census statistics they get the title of Chuhras (sweepers, scavengers), 
 Megs (weavers), Mochies (shoemakers), Chamars (tanners and work- 
 
 ATTITUDES OF MOSLEMS IN PRAYER. 
 
118 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ers in leather), Doms (handlers of carcases), Teli (oilmen), Sansies 
 (gypsies), and so on, being reckoned as castes under these names, al- 
 though outside of the pale of real Hinduism. It is probable that they 
 represent what is left of the aborigines of the country, reinforced from 
 time to time by the addition of persons who, for some reason, lost caste 
 and were excluded from the so-called higher classes. 
 
 These people hold a degraded position in the eyes of both ISIussal- 
 mans and Hindus and are almost destitute of social, political and legal 
 rights. And it must be admitted that they are generally of darker 
 color, weaker intellect and less energetic nature than those who despise 
 them. This is especially true of the Chuhras, who remove night soil, 
 eat carrion aud the leavings of the people, and, in villages, occupy a 
 relation to farmers somewhat similar to that of serfs. 
 
 Religiously considered, the mass of these people cling more or less 
 to one or another of the great faiths of the country, without being fully 
 admitted to their communion. About three-fourths are thus attached 
 to Hinduism, three-sixteenths to Muhammadanism and one-sixteenth 
 to Sikhism. But remnants of a peculiar and perhaps primitive faith 
 are found among the majority of low-caste people, and in many cases 
 this is the predominant element of their religious belief. The Chamars, 
 for instance, do not believe in transmigration of souls, but think that 
 the good go direct to heaven and the bad to hell. The Sansies vener- 
 ate a mythical teacher {giini) named Sans Mai, whom they hold to be 
 the founder of their sect. The Chuhras worship " one supreme deity, 
 without form or habitation, and believe that the good go to heaven as 
 soon as they die, while the bad pass into punishment, but for a while 
 only. They worship and make offerings of fowls and the like at a 
 small earthen shrine with a flag above it, which is dedicated to Lai 
 Beg or Bala Shah, the high priest of the caste. They also invariably 
 bury their dead and that mouth downward " * — for fear that the dis- 
 embodied spirit might become a troublesome ghost. 
 
 One curious semi-idolatrous custom of the Chuhras is noticed by 
 almost every one who has lived any time in the Punjab. It is that of 
 Gugga gana, or singing Gugga. Its origin and character are thus de- 
 scribed : f "It seems that once upon a time there was a king who had 
 three sons. One of these sons, named Gugga, killed his two brothers, 
 
 *Ibbetson. 
 
 f By the Rev. C. B. Newton, D. D., in the " Lodiana Mission Report " for 1893, 
 pp. 18, 19. 
 
LOW-CASTES AND CHRISTIANS 119 
 
 and when reproached by his mother for this very unfraternal proceed- 
 ing committed suicide in a pet by riding into a quicksand which 
 swallowed up prince and horse. It is a custom with the Chuhras to 
 celebrate his death by setting up a pole once a year with a flag on it 
 and singing songs in his praise. The higher castes in the villages 
 assemble around the flag-staff, listen to the music and present offerings 
 of money and grain, which the singeis appropriate." 
 
 Notwithstanding these superstitious observances, Mr. Denzil Ibbet- 
 son, a member of the India civil service and a close observer with large 
 opportunities for information, declares that the doctrine of the religion 
 of the Chuhras "resembles Christianity more nearly than anything 
 else we have in India." 
 
 In the case of many (perhaps most) of these people, however, it 
 might be properly said that they have no religion whatever. Their 
 minds present a blank upon this subject, or perhaps I should say as 
 nearly a blank as those of any tribe on earth. 
 
 Heretofore low-caste persons have numbered one-eighth of the pop- 
 ulation of the Punjab ; but, on account of their present restlessness 
 and upward aspirations, they are rapidly losing many of their peculiar 
 traits — social, industrial and religious — and becoming assimilated to, 
 or absorbed by, the higher classes. 
 
 Of nominal Christians in the Punjab little need be said, as they are 
 few in number. They comprise Europeans, Eurasians and Natives.* 
 
 Of Europeans we have civil and military officers, soldiers, mission- 
 aries, railway employees, tea planters, business men and laborers of 
 every grade. Those who were outside of the civil and military service 
 in 1891 number 6,145, of whom 2,887 were females. With some ex- 
 ceptions the condition of this class is not promising. Efforts indeed, 
 have been made to better the circumstances and prospects of what is 
 sometimes called the "British Colony in India." But with wages so 
 low, native competition so general and persistent, and the difference 
 between foreign and native styles of living so great, such efforts appear 
 to be almost hopeless. Nor are the religious conditions under which 
 they live any more promising. Chaplains often neglect them ; church 
 
 *The census of 1891 gives the following numbers: 
 
 1. Total Christians, including Europeans and Roman Catholics, 57. 125 
 
 2. Protestant Native Christians, 20,729 
 
 3. Proportion of all Christians to population, .002 
 
 4. Proportion of Protestant Native Christians to population, .0008 
 
120 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 people often repel, rather than attract, them ; native Christians have 
 no influence over them ; missionaries often consider them beyond the 
 limits of their peculiar commission. Woe to the white people (es- 
 pecially those of education and refinement) who on account of pecu- 
 niary misfortunes are compelled to remain and bring up their families 
 in that country ! To such it is a poverty-stricken land and a moral 
 pest house. 
 
 Of Eurasians, that is, persons of mixed European and Asiatic blood, 
 there were 2 191 in the Punjab at the time when the last census was 
 taken. These, while they have the rights, labor also under many of 
 the disadvantages, of their whiter brethren, and find it hard to com- 
 pete with pure natives in the race for a decent livelihood, social ad- 
 vancement and more elevated character. 
 
 Of native Christians, only a chance one is found not directly con- 
 nected, either as worker or member, with some missionary movement; 
 that is, very few are nominally Christian and yet so far outside the pale 
 of Protestant communion that, like members of a corrupt Christian 
 sect, they form the subjects of special missionary effort. 
 
 A close observer can usually distinguish all the various classes of 
 Punjabi people which have been described, by their dress, their habits, 
 their names and their general appearance. The Sikh costume and 
 other peculiarities have already been mentioned. Hindu men wear 
 an undipped mustache, a crown scalplock of hair, closely drawn cover- 
 ing for their limbs, the high-caste thread (if among the " twice born "), 
 upper garments parted on the right side or thrown over the left 
 shoulder, and sometimes a tika (devotional sign) upon their foreheads, 
 made with red, yellow and white pigment, which varies according to 
 the character of their favorite god.* They also clean their teeth with 
 the finger next the little one. Muhammadans wear a clipped mustache, 
 clothing of more sombre tints, garments parted on the left side or 
 thrown over the right shoulder, more flowing apparel below the hips, 
 and sometimes a side scalplock of hair, or hair dyed red in imitation of 
 Muhammad's; and, in cleaning their teeth, they use the forefinger. 
 Parsees and cultured Christians, as well as Eurasians, dress more like 
 Europeans ; but the first mentioned often wear a peculiar hat which is 
 shown in a preceding picture. Hindus have names drawn from the 
 
 * The mark of the Vaishnavas consists of two perpendicular strokes meeting below 
 in a curve, denoting the footprints of Vishnu ; that of Saivas consists of three hori- 
 zontal lines, made with white or gray ashes. 
 
CLASSES COMPARED 121 
 
 Sanskrit tongue and Hindu mythology ; Moslems, from the Arabic 
 tongue and in memory of ancient Muhammadan worthies ; while native 
 Christians frequently abandon names, reflecting their old faith, and 
 assume those that are Biblical or European. Hindu women incline 
 more to the use of skirts than Muhammadan women ; but in the Pun- 
 jab both classes frequently wear a loose kind of drawers, called pae- 
 jamas. The biirka (a long, bag-like, heavy, white veil covering the 
 whole person,) is used by both Hindu and Muhammadan ladies of a 
 certain grade when they appear in public* 
 
 It has already been noted that nearly three-fourths of the people 
 within our special field, say seventy-one per cent., are Muhamma- 
 dans proper. Perhaps twenty per cent, are Hindus proper; four per 
 cent. Sikhs ; four per cent, low-caste ; and the remainder (one per 
 cent.) of other religions. The Muhammadans are everywhere more 
 numerous than the Hindus ; but they predominate most largely in our 
 northwestern districts. They are almost all, too, of the Sunni, or 
 orthodox sect. A few Shiahs are found here and there, particularly in 
 Jhang and Jhelum ; and in the last-named District we meet with Wa- 
 habies also. Sikhs are common in Gurdaspur, Sialkot and especially 
 Gujranwala, which is one of their historical centers. These three 
 Districts also contain most of our low-caste population. 
 
 The comparative standing of the different religious communities in 
 point of education can be approximately inferred from the number of 
 candidates reported in the Punjab University examinations of March, 
 1891. Of a total of 1175 persons, making their appearance in these 
 examinations, 737 were Hindus; 310 Muhammadans; 104 Sikhs; 
 and 24 Christians — that is, about one to every 45,000 Muhammadans; 
 one to every 14,500 Sikhs; one to every 13,000 Hindus; and one to 
 every 1500 or 1600 Christians. The returns from Madras (for 1890- 
 91) indicate that in the eleven first and second-grade mission colleges 
 of the Presidency there were 1242 students enrolled, of whom 6 were 
 Europeans; 137 Christians ; 13 Muhammadans; 776Brahmans; 304 
 non-Brahman Hindus ; and 6 others — while the whole population of the 
 Presidency ranged as follows: 3.6 per cent. Brahmans ; 2.2 per cent. 
 Christians; 87.8 per cent. Hindus; and 6.4 per cent. Muhammadans; 
 that is, the comparative eagerness of these various classes to secure 
 higher education may be represented by the following numbers : 
 Brahmans 215 ; non-Brahman Hindus 3.5 ; Christians 65 ; Muhamma- 
 * See pp. 65, 66 and 109. 
 
122 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 dans 2 ; others 30. In schools of all grades in India there were, ac- 
 cording to the census of 1891, 3,682,707 pupils; of whom 2,512,916 
 were Hindus; 836,389 Muhammadans; 25,568 Europeans and Eura- 
 sians ; 86,314 Native Christians ; and 221,520 miscellaneous. That is, 
 one in every 82 of the Hindus, one in every 68 of the Muhammadans, 
 one in every 20 of the Christians, and one in every 90 of other classes 
 were attending school. In higher education, therefore, we find Brah- 
 mans taking the lead by a long distance, and Christians well advanced ; 
 while Muhammadans take the lowest place. In lower education 
 Christians stand first ; Muhammadans next ; Hindus next, and all 
 others, taken together, last. The Christians reported of course em- 
 brace all classes of that name, Roman Catholics and Syrians as well as 
 Protestants. 
 
 As to morals and manners Punjabies exhibit the characteristics which 
 might be expected from the religion that they profess and the circum- 
 stances in which they have been placed. 
 
 Some good traits may be observed. 
 
 Hindus have been called " the cleanest people in the world." Tliey 
 bathe every day. It is a part of their religion. Muhammadans also 
 wash before meals and prayers. And even coolies keep their teeth 
 beautifully white by frequent cleansing. But the water in bathing 
 tanks is often foul, and as for the clothing of the majority of the 
 people, it is generally in a soiled, and sometimes in a filthy, condition. 
 
 Up to the present time natives of India are generally a temperate 
 people. The use of strong drink is forbidden both by the Koran of 
 the Mussalmans and the caste rules of Hinduism. And very seldom 
 do we find men drunk — far less frequently than in so-called Christian 
 countries. Sometimes evidence of the use of opium, bhang or ganga 
 (liquors from the hemp plant), ox arq (distilled spirits) is observed; 
 but the frequent use of intoxicants, as a beverage is a western vice, 
 brought in by Europeans, and as yet has advanced beyond the ranks 
 of its importers only to a very limited (although constantly increasing) 
 extent. Even the use of tobacco is discarded by the Sikhs and 
 others. 
 
 The Punjabies are also a very polite people — polite according to 
 their notions of politeness. True, their inquisitiveness and ignorance 
 of English manners often lead them to say and do things contrary to 
 our notions of good taste. But in their own way they are respectful 
 to equals and superiors and observant of those forms of urbanity which 
 
GOOD TRAirS OF THE PUNJAB lES 123 
 
 in the East are recognized as becoming. This leads them, as a rule, 
 to reverence the aged of either sex and submit to their authority. 
 
 More than this, they are on the whole a mild and gentle people — 
 gentle even to the lower animals. Hindus get this trait partly from 
 their religious beliefs and partly from their absorption of Buddhistic 
 sentiments. But even Muhammadans (if we except Pathans and 
 border tribes) have acquired something of the same spirit from their 
 association with the Hindus. True, this characteristic is not universal, 
 or uniformly exercised, and in times of fanatical uprising disappears 
 altogether ; but, compared with the peculiarities of other peoples, it 
 may be termed a national characteristic. 
 
 The Punjabies are also an industrious and frugal race. Although 
 Orientals are generally poor, they cannot properly be called lazy; 
 much less can they be charged with a spirit of prodigality. They 
 work as vigorously as the climate of their country justifies them in 
 doing, and as constantly as their opportunities allow; while those 
 who have more money than is required to get the necessaries of life 
 are as much inclined to parsimony as to the opposite extreme. 
 
 In addition to this Hindus i^roper are at present tolerant of other 
 religions, while Muhammadans refrain from oppressing the poor by 
 excessive usury, or indeed by any usury at all. The Koran forbids it. 
 
 Another excellence, which springs from their patriarchal mode of 
 living, is the provision thus made by Punjabies for the support of the 
 unemployed and the destitute, without making them a public charge. 
 As long as any member of a household has money he shares it with his 
 companions through the common treasury. There are no poorh'''Uses 
 in India. And even ordinary beggars fare about as well as other 
 people — some of them, indeed, better than the average. To those 
 who ask alms in the name of God it is considered a duty to give; and 
 a curse is feared in case of refusal. 
 
 But the other side of the picture is a very dark one. 
 
 One of the vernacular papers, the Oudh Akhbar, in giving a view of 
 the character of Anglo-Indians (Europeans), incidentally refers in the 
 way of contrast to some of the minor sins of its countrymen. As 
 quoted in the Civil and Military Gazette of Lahore, it says : 
 
 "The European is always a strict adherent to his promise — a quality 
 the entire absence of which among our countrymen is bitterly de- 
 plored. As a rule, the Indians always reckon their neighbor's smart- 
 ness of faculty by the amount of deception and unfaithfulness he 
 
124 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 displays towards his friends and confederates, and the more deceptive 
 a man, the more he is admired and esteemed by our countrymen, 
 which is quite contrary to the rules of humanity. Again, Europeans 
 never resort to oaths in the course of conversation, while our country- 
 men, whether Hindu or Muhammadan, scarcely ever speak a word 
 without taking a long oath, lest they should be disbelieved by their 
 hearers. The custom of impressing the veracity of your words by 
 means of oaths is, to say the least of it, despicable. Again, Europeans 
 are very punctual, while there is an extreme lack of punctuality 
 among our countrymen. Again, Europeans never go complaining 
 of their friends and acquaintances, as the Indians do. In the event 
 of a misunderstanding between friends, the European will never make 
 it a matter of complaint or scandal, and will never go expounding his 
 grievances before all with whom he comes in contact. The Indians, 
 on the contrary, love to tell tales about their friends behind their back. 
 They seldom or never have the courage to'tell a person his faults to his 
 face, but will run the unfortunate man to eartli before all his friends 
 in his absence. In his presence, however, they will appear very 
 pleasing and even go to the extent of flattering him. Again, Euro- 
 peans are never known to be dilatory in the performance of their 
 duties, while our Indian brothers seldom think of their duty, and, 
 when they do think of it, it is conveniently forgotten, or put off" to the 
 last moment." 
 
 Heartily can we wish, with the C. c^ M. Gazette, that "one-half of 
 the above, so far as it relates to Europeans, was as universally true, as 
 the writer evidently believes." Certainly Anglo-Indian society is not 
 what it should be, and by its character argues weakly in favor of 
 Christianity. Besides occasional instances of bribery, dishonesty, in- 
 justice and political corruption, there is a vast amount of pride, im- 
 morality, unseemly strife, intemperance and dishonorable ambition 
 among English officials and their families ; and, as for British soldiers, 
 the less said about their virtue and their freedom from profanity the 
 better. Indeed, only a short time ago, a writer in the St. Stephen's 
 Review, as quoted by the same Lahore paper, said that, " in point of 
 morals, Anglo-Indian society is worse than any civilized nation. It is 
 utterly corrupt. Good men and true women are the exception and 
 not the rule." And such is the impression which one gets from read- 
 ing Rudyard Kipling's stories. 
 
 No doubt Rudyard Kipling and the St, Stephen's Review make 
 
A Fakir. 
 Sweeper Children. 
 
 TYPES OF PUNJABIES. 
 A Frequent Sight. 
 
 Musicians. 
 A VenJer of Sweets. 
 
 Lowly People. 
 A Bihishti. 
 
MORALS OF THE PEOPLE 125 
 
 highly exaggerated representations of the wickedness of Anglo-Indian 
 society. But, granting the worst that can be properly said in regard 
 to it, there is as little doubt that the Ondh Akhbar was right in con- 
 trasting it favorably with the morals of Hindu and Muhammadan so- 
 ciety. 
 
 That paper did well to speak of the deception and the falsehood of 
 native East Indians, and their unfaithfulness to promises. Violation 
 of the ninth commandment is well nigh universal. The atmosphere 
 of the whole country is full of deceit. We find it among household 
 servants, in the bazar, in the civil courts, in the palaces of native 
 princes. It is said that one-half the prisoners of the jails are held in 
 duress through false charges. For a few annas almost any amount of 
 untruthful testimony can be purchased. No one takes any account of 
 lying. 
 
 And just as much can be affirmed of their violation of the seventh 
 commandment. Virtue is considered of little worth by either men or 
 women. Only when it's loss affects a parent's prospects, or a hus- 
 band's rights, does it seem to have any value ; and often not then. 
 And this state of feeling is grounded in, and to a large extent sanc- 
 tioned by, the religions of the country. Not only were Muhammad 
 and his most renowned successors polygamists, and one of the most 
 popular Hindu gods licentious, but polyandry is legalized by Hindu- 
 ism, and polygamy by both faiths. Hinduism also recognizes eight 
 different kinds of marriage, some of which are no better than free 
 love, condemns even child widows to perpetual celibacy, approves of 
 sacred prostitution, and sanctions the worship of the sakti principle, 
 with all its disgusting orgies ; while Muhammadan ism legalizes concu- 
 binage, gives to men almost unlimited freedom of divorce, and prac- 
 tically retains in fair standing those who are professional strumpets. 
 No wonder therefore that great laxity of morals prevails everywhere, 
 and that Paul's arraignment of heathenism, in Rom. i : 21-32, proves 
 to be literally true in modern India. 
 
 Akin to this trait is the low estimate placed upon woman in that 
 country, and the degraded and subordinate position in which she is 
 found. 
 
 Although not excluded from the hope of Paradise, and often treated 
 with honor and affection, Muhammadan women are, by their law, so 
 restricted in their religious and social privileges, so subject to the arbi- 
 trary will of their husbands or fathers, and so deprived of the power 
 
126 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 of redress, as to make their condition in many cases little better than 
 that of slaves. 
 
 The spirit and the teachings of Hinduism, too, are equally degrad- 
 ing. Even in the evolution of the universe, according to Hindu 
 philosophy, there is a subordination of the female (Prakriti) to the 
 male (Purusha) principle; and in the evolution of salvation, as a 
 Hindu understands it, the inferiority of the female sex is made to stand 
 out still more prominently. Indeed, that sex is considered an obsta- 
 cle, rather than an aid to perfection. As heaven is supposed to be the 
 cessation of all desire, so woman, more than almost anything else, is 
 
 supposed to stand in the way of its 
 realization. She is the siren who 
 lures to sin and keeps from nirvana 
 — "the very gateway of hell."* 
 A Hindu, on being questioned once 
 as to matters in wliich all Hindus 
 were agreed, is said to have men- 
 tioned two — the sacredness of the 
 cow and the evil of woman. Prac- 
 tically, indeed, these theories and 
 legal principles, like those of Mu- 
 hammadans, are often thwarted in 
 their effects by natural affection 
 and the workings of conscience — 
 as well as by woman's own tact, 
 tongue and will. But, granting all 
 this, there is a vast difference be- 
 tween the rights, privileges and influence of the female sex in India 
 and in gospel lands. 
 
 Intolerance and bitter persecution of religious converts is another 
 characteristic of the people of India. This, of course, would not be 
 thought strange in the case of Moslems, because their faith and his- 
 tory are the very embodiment of this principle. But, tolerant of 
 other religions as Hindus are, they also are as bitter in their feelings 
 as Muhammadans can be toward persons who seek to proselyte their 
 people, and especially toward those of their brethren who abandon 
 their faith, break caste and become adherents of a non-Hindu sect. 
 Every device that ingenuity can contrive is employed to prevent such 
 
 * Article ill Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. IX, p. 13. 
 
 GANESII, THE COD OF WISDOM. 
 
THEFT AND MURDER 127 
 
 a result, or to punish the offender who has ehided their efforts and 
 asserted his freedom — persecution being carried, if possible, to the 
 point of murder. Were it not for the strong arm of the English Gov- 
 ernment this characteristic would be more marked than it is now. 
 
 Violation of property rights is also a common thing in India, and 
 that, too, notwithstanding the vigilance of the police. Several tribes, 
 such as the Sansies, are, by their caste profession, thieves, and have to 
 be put under restriction by government authority. Frequently, too, we 
 hear of the pillaging, robbery and murder done by dakoits, who, in 
 organized bands, swoop down on a village and in a few minutes ac- 
 complish all the destruction of a raiding party in time of war. Some- 
 times burglars enter a tent, or break through the walls of a house, and 
 carry off everything of value which they can find. Confidence games 
 are also played with success, bribes taken (imposed even) by many na- 
 tive officials, and gambling pursued with unrelenting cruelty. 
 
 But the chief difference between Indian and American or European 
 society in this matter is in the general propensity for petty thieving and 
 over-reaching. Reference has already been made to this trait in the 
 case of servants. But servants are not the only ones of whom it is 
 characteristic. All classes, high and low, are permeated with the spirit. 
 It is considered a small fault for a man to keep back dues, or appro- 
 priate articles, when he can do so without being detected, or if de- 
 tected, without being prosecuted and punished. Perfect honesty is the 
 exception, not the rule. And then, in the case of money lenders and 
 others, we have examples of persons (and they are numerous) who 
 under forms of law grind the faces of the poor, and subject them to 
 deep Tinancial distress. One of the greatest curses in India is the 
 Hindu broker. 
 
 Nor even among the "mild Hindus" is there as much regard for 
 human life as in Christian countries. True, human sacrifices, widow- 
 burning and professional, caste-approved murders, like those of the 
 Thugs, have almost all ceased. But this is so chiefly because they have 
 been suppressed by the strong arm of British authority — the same 
 Power which also forbids the possession of firearms to natives without 
 license, and thus greatly diminishes the amount of ordinary bloodshed 
 which might otherwise be expected. But, in spite of police control 
 and imperial law, there are many murders committed which come to 
 light ; while the number of lives taken secretly by exposure, poison and 
 otherwise (if fully known) would no doubt be appalling. 
 
128 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 This is particularly true of the treatment of helpless people, especially 
 women, and female infants — proof of which is to be found in the smaller 
 reported birth-rate, and the greater yearly mortality, of females than 
 of males, as well as in the large disproportion existing between the two 
 sexes in the enumeration of the census. Sometimes towns report 
 fewer births of female infants until the matter is brought to the atten- 
 tion of the magistrates and they are threatened with a fine, when — as 
 is said to have lately been the case wnth a Gurdaspur village — the re- 
 ports experience a violent and amusing change, even exhibiting the 
 very opposite extreme. During 1886 the infant death rate of females 
 in the Jalandhar District was 319 per 1000 against 274 per 1000 in 
 males. According to the census of 1891, there were 1666 more males 
 than females in the city of Jhelum, where there was a total population 
 of only 9688; and in Lahore less than 41^ per cent, belonged to the 
 weaker sex. 
 
 For both religious and moral reasons, therefore, the need of Chris- 
 tian work in our field must be evident to all. Men may talk about 
 hope of salvation for the heathen without missionary effort, but where 
 can we find a man among them who, without Christian faith, even in 
 the eyes of charity, exhibits that spirit and character (holiness) which 
 the Bible tells us is necessary to eternal life. No doubt the testimony 
 of every evangelical laborer would be, "I never saw one," And then 
 what shall we say of the temporal benefits of Christian labor among 
 these people? Even if godliness were profitable only for "the life 
 that now is " — if our only hope were to elevate them in the scale of 
 civilization, fit them for self-government and make them more intelli- 
 gent, moral and congenial companions — this labor would not be in 
 vain. 
 
 BE'^^^^^H 
 
 T^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 
 ^M 
 
 Bfi flFl^8|t^^?Sj^^^^'=s^ 
 
 ^4il^^ 
 
 ^§||torif^ 
 
 
 
 V^IS 
 
 
 
 DH'nmS'Srfi^ 'W^^S^^ 
 
 ^Siw. 
 
 **** IHmti " 
 
 
 
 I JHSli 
 
 
 ioy 
 
 isBii 
 
 ifiBSS 
 
 
 ISBmm 
 
SACKED CATTLE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ORGANIZATION FOR WORK 
 
 Missionaries not Independent — Church Courts and Missionary Societies — The 
 Missionary Association, its History, Constitution, Powers and Methods — The Mis- 
 sionary's Individual Authority — His Relation to Native Agents. 
 
 fOME persons, perhaps, imagine that missionaries laboring 
 in foreign lands carry on their work separately and inde- 
 pendently of one another — disseminating gospel truth 
 wherever and however they may each think best. But 
 such is not the case. There are very few perfectly independent mis- 
 sionaries. As a rule they are under authority and must regulate their 
 movements according to the appointment and the direction of some 
 higher power. What this power is differs in different Missions and at 
 different periods of the same Mission, depending as it does upon char- 
 acteristics of church polity, progressive development and orders from 
 the home church. 
 
 In our own Punjab field, as in all Presbyterian Missions, the ruling 
 power is an association of some kind — either a church court or a soci- 
 ety organized for the purpose under a special law. 
 
 Of church courts— or administrative bodies, as they might be called 
 9 (129) 
 
130 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 — we have Sessions, Presbyteries and a Synod * — that is, a gradation of 
 ecclesiastical organizations, according to our Presbyterial system. 
 
 Sessions are composed of elders and ministers, chosen by the congre- 
 gations, ordained by the imposition of hands and regularly installed 
 in their office, according to an established law, which is contained in 
 our "Book of Government." Higher courts, according to the same 
 law, consist of elders (delegated by the Sessions) and ordained minis- 
 ters ; and in all these courts, as well as Sessions, no distinction is made 
 on account of color, caste or place of birth. 
 
 Ordained foreign missionaries are required by our church to join 
 Mission Presbyteries and take part in their deliberations j while unor- 
 dained missionaries are expected to join congregations in the field as 
 private members, not only in order that they may retain a name and a 
 place in the visible church, have a right to sacramental privileges and 
 grow in every grace, but also in order that they may set before native 
 Christians an example of subordination to God's appointed ordi- 
 nances, secure their sympathy by hearty co-operation and stimulate 
 them to every good work. 
 
 Church courts have not only the power of receiving church mem- 
 bers, administering the sacraments, exercising discipline, organizing 
 congregations and ordaining ecclesiastical officers, but also the power 
 of carrying on Christian work within their own territorial bounds, as 
 far as their means and opportunities will justify; and this power has' 
 been exercised by those that are organized in our India field. Ses- 
 sions there have employed special agents to co-operate with the pastor 
 and work among the unconverted, and have carried on almost every 
 species of missionary labor. Presbytery, too, has had jurisdiction over 
 every part of our field, has established new Mission Districts, appointed 
 mission superintendents, ordained men {^sinc titiild) for purely evangel- 
 istic work, established Christian schools and published religious litera- 
 ture. Indeed, through an organized system of Committees, established 
 as early as the month of January, 1884, she possessed machinery suffi- 
 cient to execute every form of ecclesiastical or missionary enterprise ; 
 and, though some of the Committees then appointed, for various rea- 
 sons, died out, others remained as active instrumentalities down to the 
 time of the formation of tlie Synod. 
 
 * This was constituted at Sialkot, November 7, 1893, in obedience to the direction 
 given by the General Assembly in May preceding. It is called the Synod of the 
 Punjab. 
 
MISSIONARY SOCIETIES IN INDIA 131 
 
 Unlike the Mission, too, it should be remarked, these ecclesiastical 
 courts are not placed in subordination to the Board of Foreign Mis- 
 sions, but have direct connection, through their highest body, with the 
 General Assembly at home, by which alone their acts can be reviewed. 
 
 Of missionary societies in the field, we have, first, Women's Mission- 
 ary Associations, local and Presbyterial, and secondly, an association 
 called "The Mission," or more definitely and legally, "The Sialkot 
 Mission " — taking its distinctive name from the first station occupied, 
 just as the Ludhiana Mission of the American Presbyterian Church 
 owes its name to the city where they first began work. 
 
 Our Women's Missionary Societies are of recent origin and resemble 
 somewhat organizations of the same name at home. Indeed, they 
 form a part of that extensive system of Ladies' Missionary Associa- 
 tions, which, following the trend of the times, has developed so rapidly 
 and wonderfully in our American Church during the past few years. 
 The first congregational W. M. S. organized was that of Gurdaspur, 
 which originated in the early eighties. Four others have been formed 
 since that time. The Presbyterial Association was founded and held 
 its first meeting at Gurdaspur, January 15, 1891.* These bodies, 
 however, have as yet exercised little authority of any kind, their work 
 hitherto being confined almost entirely to that of stimulus and the ad- 
 vancement of Christian fellowship. 
 
 Far different is it with that association which we call The Mission. 
 This was organized almost at the beginning of our work — just as soon, 
 indeed, as the first minister was reinforced by ministerial associates. 
 At the outset it consisted of only foreign male missionaries ; after the 
 ordination of Messrs. Swift and Scott, which took place January 7, 
 1859, native ordained ministers also were admitted to membership ; a 
 few years subsequently the latter were excluded ; and finally an enlarge- 
 ment took place so as to embrace lady foreign missionaries. 
 
 The last change took place in 1890 — virtually in January, when by 
 a vote of the Mission they were allowed to participate in its proceed- 
 ings, and legally in May, when the General Assembly changed the 
 Manual so as to correspond with the Mission's action. Two limita- 
 tions, however, may be observed in regard to the admission of 
 women: — first, as to individuals; and secondly, as to jurisdiction. 
 The General Assembly's act is so worded, or at least so interpreted, 
 
 * As a Synod has been organized, some changes in this Association will probably 
 occur. 
 
132 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 as to exclude nearly all married lady missionaries ; and even those 
 ladies, married or unmarried, who are admitted to membership cannot 
 advise and vote on any matters except those which affect their own 
 work. The latter limitation practically amounts to little, since almost 
 all action touches the ladies' work more or less closely ; nor is the 
 former complained of by the parties affected. Some, of other 
 Missions, have doubted the propriety of admitting any women to 
 membership in the ruling Council, which carries on mission work. 
 But since the principle has been admitted by our church, it is hoped 
 that, under the operation of a liberal spirit, all distinctions will soon 
 cease, wliether they relate to persons or measures. 
 
 Reference has been made to the Manual. This contains the Con- 
 stitution of the Mission, as well as many other matters affecting the 
 duties and the rights of foreign missionaries. It is sometimes called 
 the Manual of the Board of Foreign Missions, because it is usually 
 prepared and proposed by that Board \ but it has no authority without 
 the approval of the General Assembly, and hence might more properly 
 be termed the Manual of the General Ass'embly, relating to foreign 
 missions, especially since its regulations are as binding on the Board 
 as on the Mission. 
 
 According to this Manual all Mission action must be submitted to 
 the Board for its approval, or disapproval ; and the latter has the veto 
 power. Happily the Board seldom interferes with the details of our 
 missionary work and in this respect diverges greatly from the harassing 
 policy pursued by some other Home Committees (especially those of 
 Scotch and British Churches) which retain as much power as possible 
 in their own hands. So seldom, indeed, does our Board express its 
 disapprobation of the Mission's course that action taken by the latter 
 on almost all subjects has virtually become final, and is carried out, as 
 such, witliout waiting for the former's decision.* 
 
 Of course there are exceptions, just as there should be. One of these 
 is in regard to estimates. Although the Mission knows better what 
 money it needs to carry on its work efficiently, the Board knows better 
 how much it can safely be responsible for, and hence must exercise the 
 right of saying what it can furnish; although even in this matter the 
 
 * The Corresponding Secretary of our Board from its organization, June 3, 1859, to 
 his death, which occurred August 21, 1893, was the Rev. J. B. Dales, D. D., LL. D., 
 and on account of his long, active and sympathetic services, it is only proper that we 
 give his portrait. 
 
POWERS OF THE MISSION 
 
 133 
 
 General Assembly knows better than either party what the church can 
 give, and should tiierefore have the final decision. 
 
 The Commissioners of the Free Church of Scotland, who visited 
 India in the winter of 1889-90, thought that the regulation of bound- 
 aries in mission fields ought also to be largely in the hands of the 
 Home Committee, because it would be less likely to act from party 
 spirit and personal prejudice than persons who are in the field ; and 
 certainly no marked increase of mission territory should be perma- 
 nently decided upon without the sanction of those who have as much 
 to do with the support of the 
 work as have the members of the 
 Board at home. 
 
 And more confidently still, no 
 doubt, may we affirm that the 
 fundamental constitution of the 
 Mission and the ultimate deter- 
 mination of the questions, who 
 shall be its members and what 
 shall be its powers, ought to be 
 largely in the hands of the home 
 church ; for in such matters, if 
 in anything, party spirit, personal 
 ambition, established custom and 
 racial prejudice are likely to 
 affect the judgment of those who 
 already possess, as well as those 
 who earnestly want, power. Be- 
 sides, where the rival of the 
 Mission for power is an eccle- 
 siastical court — such as the Synod, or the Presbytery — there is only one 
 body exercising authority over both parties, and hence in a position to 
 mediate properly between them, and that is the General Assembly. 
 Even the Foreign Board will be always inclined to favor that organi- 
 zation with which alone it is officially connected — namely, the Mis- 
 sion. 
 
 Our Mission resembles other deliberative bodies in the character of 
 its officers and in its methods of transacting business. It has a regu- 
 lar Annual Meeting (formerly in January, now in October,) and can 
 
134 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 meet at other times, either on adjournment, or at the special call of 
 its presiding officer. It can take action also by circular, and in this 
 respect differs from Associations at home. A Circular, according to 
 the law adopted in January, 1885, is really a written motion, signed 
 by the mover and seconder and passed around, through the mail or 
 otherwise, by the President, for the votes of the different members. 
 This enables the Mission to transact urgent business without the trou- 
 ble and expense of a formal meeting, and in this point of view is al- 
 most a necessity. But it has its disadvantages. Amendments cannot 
 be satisfactorily offered, and the light which springs from discussion is 
 largely absent ; while, in announcing his decision as to the result, the 
 President may officially make remarks which virtually modify the 
 character of the action. Besides, in some Missions it has been em- 
 ployed occasionally as a means of undoing business previously tran- 
 sacted with great deliberation at a regular meeting. 
 
 The powers of the Mission are not clearly defined in our Manual. 
 It is said to exist "for the management of the finances and general 
 directing and supervising of the mission work," while matters strictly 
 " ecclesiastical " are supposed not to come within its province. Great 
 opportunity for contraction, or expansion, is therefore given ; and, as 
 a matter of fact, the character of the distribution of powers made be- 
 tween the Mission and our ecclesiastical bodies has not been uniform, 
 but has varied witli the convictions, impulses and aggressive tendencies 
 of their respective members. Generally it has been asserted by mis- 
 sionaries that the management of foreign funds and foreign mission- 
 aries comes under the sole direction of the Mission ; while the control 
 of money raised by natives and of employees supported by tliis money, 
 comes within the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical bodies. It is also con- 
 ceded that the latter authorities alone have the right to ordain minis- 
 ters and elders, establish regular pastoral connections, organize 
 churches, and manage the Theological Seminary. But these limita- 
 tions have not been strictly adhered to ; while between them is a con- 
 siderable area of doubtful (or neutral) territory, in occupying which 
 practice has varied. Occasionally, too, for policy's sake, co-operation 
 has been sought or exercised, so as to secure harmony of action. For 
 instance. Presbytery has been asked to sanction rules governing the 
 qualifications and the pay of Mission servants ; while Presbytery has 
 taken action confirming ecclesiastical appointments made by the Mis- 
 
(135) 
 
136 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 sion and authorizing baptismal acts performed, and cliurch discipline 
 exercised, by missionaries or other ministers without the authority of 
 a Session. 
 
 It may be remarked, however, that, generally speaking, during the 
 earlier half of the period chiefly under review there was a growing dis- 
 position to throw as much power as possible into the hands of the 
 Presbytery; while during the latter half the tide kept flowing in the 
 opposite direction. This change in the usual course of things is one 
 of the causes of the memorial sent up by several native ministers to 
 the Assembly of 1892, and one of the reasons, put forward by some, 
 why a readjustment of the rights and powers of these rival authorities 
 should be made. 
 
 Coming down to particulars, we are required to note that the Mis- 
 sion, as an organized body, has included among its prerogatives the 
 preparation of missionaries for labor;* their location, their assign- 
 ment to special duties, and their change from one place, or work, to 
 another; the approval of estimates, expenditures and accounts; the es- 
 tablishment of rules regulating the wages of employees and limiting 
 the outlay of funds in various directions ; the sanction of plans for 
 buildings, and the assignment of mission dwellings to particular per- 
 sons ; the appointment of committees to perform a special work; the 
 direction of official correspondence, intended for publication in the 
 church papers ; the approval of annual reports; granting missionaries 
 leave to ask the Board for permission to go home on furlough ; the ap- 
 peal for more funds and more missionaries; the establishment of insti- 
 tutions for training native agents, and sometimes also the appointment 
 of such agents to a particular station or work. 
 
 Our Annual Meetings are busy and interesting occasions, lasting for 
 about a week. Every one of the dozen or more sub-treasurers, as well 
 as the general treasurer, presents an account of all his receipts and ex- 
 penditures, and these reports are individually examined, approved, 
 audited and signed, and balance sheets are prepared for transmission 
 to the Board. f Personal reports of their work during the year are also 
 given, either orally or in writing, by missionaries, and a Committee 
 
 * Especially the oversight of their instruction in the vernacular tongues. 
 
 f Since the change of the time of the Annual Meeting to October, much of this 
 work is done by a Committee specially appointed for the purpose, which meets at the 
 end of the year, so that the accounts of the whole year may be considered and 
 closed. 
 
ANNUAL MEETINGS 137 
 
 appointed to compile from them a general report for publication, both 
 in India and America. All sorts of business — memorials, appoint- 
 ments, appeals, reports of standing committees, amendment of Mission 
 rules, approval of estimates, settlement of boundaries, requests of 
 neighboring Missions, calls for new missionaries, approval of plans for 
 new buildings, purchase of more mission property, assignment of 
 houses on the hills, granting leave to go home, and many other matters 
 — are duly transacted and in the course of their transaction call forth 
 a vast amount of discussion. Conferences are also held for the pur- 
 pose of considering various questions of Mission policy, or stimulating 
 spiritual life. And on Sabbaths religious meetings are attended — gen- 
 erally in connection with the congregation of the place — and some- 
 times the Lord's Supper is dispensed. Always, too, there is a good 
 deal of social enjoyment ; since meals are taken at a common board, 
 and, during periods of recess, leisure is given to old and young for 
 conversation or recreation. 
 
 Until recently, Annual Meetings were held in rotation at the prin- 
 cipal stations of the Mission, and the brethren of the station chosen 
 (including ladies) were expected to entertain those who came from a 
 distance; although tents were often required to provide entertainment 
 for all. In January, 1S92, however, a general fund was established, 
 and a regular assessment instituted, to pay all expenses, and one place 
 was selected as the point of annual rendezvous. That place is the 
 Christian Training Institute, Sialkot. 
 
 Among the more permanent appointments which missionaries as 
 individuals receive directly from the Mission are the superintendence 
 of Missions in a particular district, or of the Boarding School, or of 
 the Christian Training Institute, or of a hospital, the charge of ze- 
 nana work, or Girls' Schools, the training of Christian women, the 
 management of High Schools, and the duties of a treasurer — general or 
 subordinate. Once appointed, the missionary, as a general thing, is 
 left to do his own work with a free hand — subject only to the limita- 
 tions of his field and treasury, and the general rules which have been 
 adopted in regard to his particular department of labor. Only in the 
 management of the Girls' Boarding School, the Christian Training In- 
 stitute and the medical work, are there Committees (called Boards) 
 established to superintend superintendents and form a responsible 
 agency between the individual missionary and the Mission ; nor, as far 
 as known, has the success of this exceptional policy in these instances 
 
138 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 been such as to recommend its adoption in other cases. As it is not 
 wise for the Foreign Board to interfere with the Mission in the details 
 of its work, so it does not seem wise for the Mission to hamper its 
 different members by additional machinery, especially when that ma- 
 chinery is largely of a personal character, and composed of only a itw 
 individuals. 
 
 The missionary, supposed to be free and responsible in his special 
 sphere of labor, employs sucli native helpers, and makes such expendi- 
 tures, as in his judgment are necessary to carry on his work with efifi- 
 ciency. If he is the manager of a school, his assistants will be mostly 
 heathen ; if the superintendent of evangelistic work, they will be en- 
 tirely Christian and of good ecclesiastical standing. But whether 
 Christian or non-Christian, they are all subject to his control and can 
 be retained or dismissed at his pleasure. Once, indeed, a class of men, 
 called " Mission servants," were sent hither and thither by the Mission 
 itself and were supposed to hold their position independently of the 
 will of the missionary under whom they were laboring. But later this 
 distinction was lost. Even elders, theological students, licentiates and 
 ordained ministers (all but settled pastors) came finally to hold the 
 same relation to their work as other employees and could be discharged 
 by the superintendent if he saw fit — although, in tlie case of ministers, 
 sanction by the Mission itself was required to make the discharge final. 
 In 1893, as one of the results of a memorial sent up to the General 
 Assembly, native ministers were again made "Mission servants" so 
 far that, in their dismissal, the Mission alone can exercise original ju- 
 risdiction ; but no exception has been made in behalf of any other class 
 of laborers — that is, in behalf of 205 of our 212 native workers. 
 
 This autocratic method of management prevails largely also in 
 some other Missions besides our own, but with minor modifications. 
 
 The simplicity of the policy is evident ; and, were the missionary 
 always wise and just, its efficiency and general usefulness would be 
 undoubted. The unimpeded will of one man would make every part 
 of his machinery as free from defects, and as smooth in its operation, 
 as is possible with the materials at his disposal. Native helpers would 
 seek above all things to please their sahib, would naturally suppress 
 every feeling and every act which might be construed as rebellious or 
 antagonistic, and would do his every bidding with alacrity. Unity of 
 purpose, harmony of movement, vigor of action and possibly largeness 
 of result, would be secured. 
 
THE AUTOCRATIC POLICY 
 
 139 
 
 Whether this policy, liowever, even in an ideal condition, accords 
 with the genius of Presbyterianism, pays proper respect to the plans, 
 official acts and interests of ecclesiastical bodies and ecclesiastical in- 
 stitutions, allows every man his full rights, is best fitted to satisfy native 
 Christians, elevate their motives, or build up a zealous, self-acting, 
 mature, native church, and may be viewed with indifference as a highly 
 excellent, although confessedly temporary, form of missionary effort — 
 are questions about which men may differ, and of which more may be 
 said hereafter. 
 
 VARIETIES OF LOCUSTS. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 SECULAR WORK 
 
 Learning the Vernacular Languages — Financial Business — Sub-Treasurers' Work — 
 Superintendents' — General Treasurer's — Purchase of Land — Building Houses 
 — Repairs — Teaching and Managing Schools — Medical Work — Remedies Dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 ONTRARY to the opinion which most people have, a mis- 
 sionary's work is often to a considerable extent secular in 
 its character — much more so on the average than that of 
 a minister in gospel lands; and almost necessarily this is so. 
 The acquisition of the foreign languages througli which he must 
 operate is an intellectual and a physical process which meets him at 
 the outset, and absorbs a large share of his time and attention. 
 Sounds are to be apprehended and accurately made ; words are to be 
 learned ; grammatical rules are to be acquired ; books are to be read ; 
 a strange chirography is to be rendered familiar to the eye and the 
 hand ; attempts at conversation and public speaking must be made. 
 For a time the learner's mind dwells on little else than strange forms, 
 sounds and idioms. Like a jingling ditty, which one has chanced to 
 repeat too often, or the positions and movements on a chess board to 
 him who spends much time at the game of chess, such linguistic pecu- 
 liarities present themselves at every turn and shut out more serious 
 thoughts. The victim (if such he may be called) is continually trans- 
 lating, criticising, practicing. Even the house of God, where truth 
 is presented in new and imperfectly apprehended language, and wliere 
 many strange expressions meet him for the first time, is not free from 
 the exercise. The newcomer is verily persecuted by the spectre of a 
 foreign speech. It even haunts him in his dreams. And this condi- 
 tion of things does not disappear altogether very soon, nor very sud- 
 denly, in any case. Gradually, of course, it passes away ; but it lin- 
 gers longer than some would imagine. 
 (140) 
 
STUDYING THE PEOPLE 
 
 141 
 
 The study of the country, and of the manners, customs, prejudices 
 and other peculiarities of the people, is also a process which requires 
 much observation, reading and experience of a secular character. It 
 is well for missionaries, perhaps, that they have not now the miracu- 
 lous gift of tongues — unless, indeed, they possessed with it an equally 
 miraculous power of understanding fully the subjects with which tliey 
 have to deal. Many unfortunate mistakes would be made by new mis- 
 sionaries if they could begin their missionary efforts at once. A 
 knowledge of one's audience is necessary to insure appropriate re- 
 marks and judicious evangelism. Even under present conditions the 
 foreign laborer is sometimes 
 exceedingly unfortunate in his 
 statements — to say nothing of 
 the frequency with which his 
 imprudence is hidden, or nulli- 
 fied, by imperfections of speech. 
 The preparatory work to be 
 performed by a missionary, 
 therefore, in the direction just 
 indicated, is by no means small. 
 
 And then, after his labors are 
 fairly begun, he finds, often to -^ 
 his surprise, that spiritual work, 
 strictly so-called, is far from 
 being all that he is called upon 
 to do. 
 
 Financial matters, for in- 
 stance, must absorb many hours 
 of his time. Even if he is not 
 a sub-treasurer, he is necessarily 
 
 required to keep accounts. He must look after the wages of his sub- 
 ordinates and approve the monthly bills which they present to the 
 treasurer proper. He must also be responsible for incidental expenses, 
 and note down every one of the items, large and small, which make 
 up his debits and credits — all of which must be handed in every 
 month to his superior in the financial department. But, ten chances 
 to one, he is the sub-treasurer himself and must "keep" his own 
 "books." This involves the transcription of all accounts into a day 
 book and a ledger, the balancing of these at the end of the year, to 
 
 OFFICERS AT 
 
142 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 show that his accounts are correct, and that he has not overrun his 
 estimates — a work which has often cost missionaries many an anxious 
 tliought. It involves also, frequent letters to the General Treasurer 
 for money — as well as to the bank through which the business is done 
 — and the changing of government notes into silver rupees, which is 
 sometimes an annoying process. It involves, moreover, the payment 
 of employees and others, when their monthly work is done, and 
 taking from them receipts as vouchers. All, too, must be submitted 
 to the Mission, or the Financial Committee, at its annual meeting, for 
 approval or disapproval. 
 
 The amount of labor included in the sub-treasurer's work may be 
 inferred from one example, that of the writer as superintendent of the 
 Christian Training Institute. His books show expenditures under 
 thirteen different heads, and receii)is under four heads. The former 
 comprised Boarding, Books and Stationery, Clothing, Doctor and 
 Medicines, Library, Professors' Salaries, Teachers' Salaries, Servants' 
 Wages, Scholarships, Traveling, Repairs, Allowances, and Incidentals; 
 the latter, Fees, Private Support, General Treasury and Micellaneous. 
 Some of these heads, too, suggest a great amount of trouble. Take, 
 for example. Boarding. Food and fuel must be purchased every week 
 or month, inspected, weighed and put into the store-room, and the 
 quantity and cost of each kind noted down ; then it must be meas- 
 ured or weighed, as it is daily given out to the cooks; then the pre- 
 pared food must be inspected and sampled, from time to time, and 
 complaints attended to; and all through the process a sharp lookout 
 must be kept up for pilferers. Take again the item of Clothing. 
 Cloth must be purchased at the lowest market price, measured and 
 paid for ; tailors must be secured to cut it up and make it into gar- 
 ments of various sizes ; these must be assigned to the different boys 
 and labeled, and from week to week they must be changed also and 
 given to the washerman ; while not in use they must be kept in a 
 safe place ; when damaged they must be repaired ; and an account must 
 be kept, not only of what each boy receives, but also of what the washer- 
 man receives and returns, and of all expenses for manufacture or repair. 
 Similar trouble is necessary in reference to shoes, caps and turbans. 
 And so we might go over the whole catalogue. One can easily imagine 
 how much precious time is consumed in the different departments. 
 
 If a man itinerates he must keep an account also of his traveling 
 outfit, his camels, his daily expenditure for fuel, feed and other mat- 
 
FINANCIAL BUSINESS— BUYING LAND 143 
 
 ters. If he keeps a bookshop, he must, from time to time, take an 
 inventory of his stock, note down daily sales, and go (or send) to the 
 general depot for new supplies. If he superintends a press he must 
 attend to the various matters which are required to keep it in constant 
 and efficient operation; and have his note-book convenient, so that he 
 will not forget any outlay. 
 
 In addition to such financial work, the General Treasurer must keep 
 up a correspondence with the Treasurer of the Foreign Board in 
 America, look after an advantageous disposal of his Bills of Exchange, 
 keep a bank account, see that each sub-treasurer gets his monthly 
 quota of funds, provide in some way for deficiencies, keep a record of 
 all his transactions, report annually to the Mission and the Treasurer 
 of the Foreign Board, and make out balance sheets for publication. 
 
 Akin to such labor is the acquisition of land for mission dwellings, 
 village schools, hospitals, churches, bookshops and other necessary 
 purposes — also the erection of suitable buildings, and their repairs from 
 time to time. 
 
 It is generally difficult to acquire real estate in India. Foreigners 
 are viewed with distrust ; and missionaries labor under the additional 
 disadvantage of being professed agents for the introduction of a new 
 religion into the country. Few, therefore, like to sell them land or 
 houses. Even a large price will often fail to induce a man to part 
 with his possessions. Besides, property belongs to families rather 
 than individuals, and the head of a household would not like to sell 
 his ancestral estate without the consent of his friends, even if he could 
 do so. And more than this, a man's neighbors also have something to say 
 in the transaction. According to an ancient Indian law, intended to 
 protect a village from the intrusion of strangers, people owning land 
 near that which has just been sold, can, within a limited period, claim 
 the latter, by themselves paying the sum for which it has changed 
 hands, and thus cut out the alien purchaser. This right is called the 
 haqq-i-shufa. It often stands in the way of a good title, and hinders 
 the efforts of a missionary to get for himself a local habitation. Our 
 superintendents have often labored for years to obtain a property foot- 
 hold in certain places; and sometimes they have failed in their object 
 after all. 
 
 The erection of buildings is also a very common, as well as a very 
 troublesome and tedious, work in a mission field. Probably forty or 
 fifty different structures have been put up during the past fourteen 
 
144 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 years by our own people. Mr. Scott's work in this department ag- 
 gregated a value of perhaps 14,000 rupees before his last return to 
 America; Mr. Lytle's still more; the writer's own about 48,000 ru- 
 pees, and that of the whole Mission more than 100,000 rupees. x\s a 
 general thing, too, every part of this kind of work must be superin- 
 tended by the missionary himself. First, he must make a plan of the 
 building and calculate how much of each kind of material is needed. 
 Then perhaps he must manufacture the brick, though in large stations 
 this can be found ready-made for sale. When bought, the brick, as it 
 is delivered, must be inspected and counted. Lime and other materials, 
 for mortar and concrete, must also be prepared or procured, under 
 close personal supervision. Logs, too, must be bought ; and in doing 
 so several trips, perhaps, must be made to the river depots whither they 
 have been floated from the mountain forests. Afterwards these logs 
 must be transported to their destination, sawed into lumber by hand, 
 and made ready for the carpenter — all under the eye of the sahib. 
 Then the bricklayers, carpenters and common laborers must be set to 
 work at their various tasks, their roll called morning and evening, their 
 work inspected several times a day, mistakes corrected, lazy or ineffi- 
 cient employees weeded out, and provision made for every emergency. 
 As the business advances, glass, putty, tiles, paint and other articles 
 must be purchased, and new men employed to put them in their proper 
 places. Weekly pay bills must also be made out and the wages of 
 every laborer duly paid. And a strict account must be kept of every 
 item of expenditure — to be reported to the Mission when the work is 
 done. 
 
 At home, where building is accomplished with such astonishing ra- 
 pidity, people may regard this branch of our labor as comparatively 
 small. But the circumstances in America are very different ; and we 
 may safely assert that such work in India gives a man at least five 
 times as much trouble as the same amount does here. The erection of 
 a 5000-rupee house virtually constitutes a whole season's labor for the 
 missionary in charge. 
 
 Besides building proper also, we must notice the missionary's work 
 of making yearly repairs, which, though not so expensive as the former, 
 is, in proportion to its cost, still more tedious and annoying. 
 
 Our work of education, too, involves a great deal of secular labor. 
 .True, the great end of our educational system is religious — the con- 
 version of sinners and the edification of saints — and the consideration 
 
EDUCATIONAL AND MEDICAL WORK 145 
 
 of this feature will come farther on. But the machinery is largely 
 secular. Bible instruction, as a rule, cannot occupy more than one 
 hour every day. The rest of the school time must be filled up with 
 ordinary recitations. Sometimes the missionary may delegate such 
 tuition to other persons. But often he does not do so entirely; and 
 always, if he wishes to draw large pay for his superintendence from 
 government sources, must he spend several hours daily in teaching 
 some of the branches of the university curriculum. Religious instruc- 
 tion is not taken into account by government inspectors. And then 
 the general work of superintendence necessarily involves a great deal 
 that is secular. Teachers must be looked after, their work tested, and, 
 wlien vacancies occur, their places filled. Examinations must be held 
 from time to time, reports made out, pay rolls inspected, fees, scholar- 
 ships, repairs, grants-in-aid and other matters looked after; and some- 
 times even the physical training and autliorized amusements of the 
 school require attention. Only those who have had experience in 
 educational work can properly sum up the whole. 
 
 And these remarks apply not merely to the High Schools and other 
 institutions, intended more particularly for the conversion of the 
 heathen, but also in a large degree to the Christian Training Institute, 
 the Girls' Boarding School, and such village schools as are established 
 more especially for the edification of Christians. 
 
 Similar remarks may also be made in regard to medical work. 
 Every missionary must pay some attention to sanitary matters and the 
 art of healing, whether he be principal of a school or superintendent 
 of missions. When pupils get sick the instructor would be hardhearted, 
 indeed, if he left them altogether to the tender mercies of their igno- 
 rant friends; and when the institution is a boarding school he is es- 
 pecially responsible. As the minister goes forth on his preaching tour 
 also, it is impossible for him to escape the pleadings of the afflicted for 
 relief. Invalids often crowd around him ; and his mission as an am- 
 bassador for good would suffer greatly if he turned them all away 
 without help. Even as he sits at home applications for medicine are 
 of daily occurrence. Missionaries, therefore, cannot well escape the 
 secular work of distributing medical remedies and healing disease ; and 
 frequently this work breaks in pretty seriously upon their time and 
 strength. 
 
 And especially is this true of medical missionaries, strictly so called. 
 For this particular object they have gone out to the field. Scores of 
 10 
 
146 LIFE AND WORK TX INDIA 
 
 "cases" are daily brought before them in the dispensary, or the hos- 
 pital — besides those that must be treated in the homes of the people. 
 It is difficult for a skillful and successful doctor to find an hour's leisure 
 for any other business than that of his immediate profession. Direct 
 religious instruction must be largely delegated to other hands. 
 
 Connected with even the most purely spiritual departments of mis- 
 sionary labor also, is an unusual amount of business which may be 
 called unspiritual and secular. The preparations for bazar preaching, 
 evangelistic tours, literary production or even pastoral work, and the 
 accompaniments which environ them, are largely of the earth, earthy. 
 A big setting is required for the precious jewel. 
 
 But, it may be asked, is there no remedy for this state of things? 
 Cannot some substitute be found for religious agents in doing secular 
 work? Might not a layman be sent out to the field to assume the 
 great burden of keeping accounts and erecting houses? Might not 
 building, at least, be done by a contractor? Cannot natives be em- 
 ployed to lessen the task of foreign missionaries? Might they not act 
 as sub-treasurers, teachers and medical assistants? Might not the ad- 
 vice of Hobab to Moses be followed, aids appointed, and the leaders 
 be set free for higher and more spiritual work? 
 
 To some extent this is done, as I have already hinted. Sub-treas- 
 urers sometimes get their subordinates to keep special accounts, and 
 report from time to time. Almost all the secular teachers in our 
 schools are natives, and most of them non-Christian. Assistant over- 
 seers and special agents are employed by superintendents in the work 
 of building. Apothecaries, nurses and native doctors are hired to help 
 a physician-in-charge. Much of the drudgery, and comparatively un- 
 important business in every department, is delegated by a missionary 
 to persons of smaller pay and lower office. 
 
 But the amount of economy and substitution which can thus be se- 
 cured is unavoidably limited. A lay missionary, appointed for purely 
 secular work, would not be less expensive than a minister. Nor could 
 he assume all the labor of keeping accounts or building houses, to say 
 nothing of the superintendence of schools. Necessarily he would be 
 dependent on local agents for nine-tenths of the details of his business.. 
 He could not be everywhere at once. And the local agents employed 
 ought not in most cases to be of lower rank than himself. Nor can 
 responsible contractors be found in many (if any) of our stations ; and, 
 if secured, their work of superintendence would prove more costly than 
 
IS A REMEDY POSSIBLE? 
 
 147 
 
 that of the missionaries themselves. Schools, too, that are taught 
 chiefly by non-Christians, are of little account as religious agencies 
 without a strong infusion of missionary zeal and missionary scrutiny. 
 Nor can physicians well delegate much of their work in healing the 
 sick to others. The responsible head must be present whenever pos- 
 sible. 
 
 Besides, even supposing a radical change of policy in this matter prac- 
 ticable, the general question comes up whether anything would be 
 gained by shifting all secular work from the missionaries to the shoul- 
 ders of Christian natives.* Of course they ought to get scftne training 
 in this direction, so as to assume in due time all the responsibilities of 
 an independent church. But native helpers of character and capacity 
 are comparatively limited, and they are all needed in a spiritual 
 sphere. Why subject them to such an extensive worldly influence and 
 draw them away almost entirely from the great work of spreading the 
 gospel? Would not the native church suffer thereby ? Unfortunate, 
 indeed, is it that missionaries are involved in so much that appears 
 alien to their calling. But is it not better that they bear the chief 
 part of this burden themselves and leave their converts freer for reli- 
 gious growth and religious activity ? Will not the cause of Christ 
 there be further advanced, in the long run, by this policy than by the 
 opposite ? 
 
 * I take it for granted that no one would insist on using non-Christian natives any 
 more than we do. Some think that they ought not to be employed at all, especially 
 as teachers. 
 
 W^^ 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 P^j^lJSJ^^tf/likS 
 
 
 3I^£bl^s£H^i 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 EVANGELISTIC WORK— I 
 
 Aim of Missions — General Principles — Home Religion — Employer's Influence — 
 Social Intercourse — Mistakes Corrected — Bazar Preaching — Melas. 
 
 HE great object of Missions, like that of our Lord's advent 
 into tlie world, is to save sinners and thus manifest tlie 
 glory of God — that is, to save sinners from the guilt, the 
 power and the consequences of sin, not only in this life, 
 but also and especially in that which is to come. Hence, it is not 
 primarily to educate, or civilize, or humanize the heathen, although 
 such ends are important ; nor is it to secure the adoption of a religion 
 which is better than others only in the sense that it is the highest of 
 its class, every one of which is measurably useful in accomplishing the 
 same end. It assumes that all men are sinners and exposed to God's 
 wrath, that Christ is the only Saviour, that the Bible is God's only 
 inspired book, that the interests of eternity are immeasurably superior 
 to those of time, and that other religions, having no basis in divine 
 revelation and failing to save the soul from everlasting death, are 
 therefore false — in other words, that besides that of Christ " there is 
 none other name under heaven given among men, whereby we must be 
 saved." 
 
 But Missions have reference not only to the present generation but 
 also to their posterity. Hence missionary work proper keeps both 
 classes in view, and includes two things: — first, the offer of salvation 
 to living men and the conversion of their souls ; secondly, the train- 
 ing of these converts and tlieir organization and development into 
 a steadfast, active, self-supporting and self-perpetuating church. 
 
 Without the former, not even a beginning would be made. With- 
 out the latter, no permanence could be given to the movement and no 
 assurance felt that the work would go on in after time. The first has 
 special reference to the present generation, or at most the present age ; 
 (148) 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES 14<) 
 
 the latter looks forward to other generations and subsequent ages. 
 The first furnishes the material out of which that self-propagating or- 
 ganism is formed which is expected to exhibit perpetual life. Without 
 the former, missionaries might better stay at home altogether ; with- 
 out the latter, they can never safely abandon the field and return 
 finally to their native land. 
 
 The conversion of souls (a missionary's first object) comes inevitably 
 as the effect of regeneration. Regeneration is a divine operation ac- 
 complished, in the case of responsible persons, by the power of the 
 Spirit through the presentation of gospel truth. It is a sudden, radi- 
 cal, supernatural change — called in the Scriptures a new birth, or a new 
 creation. When this change takes place, the subject naturally turns to 
 God and holiness ; he becomes a follower of Christ ; he is converted. 
 
 Usually some kind of preparation precedes this change. God gen- 
 erally manifests his regenerating power according to the laws of the 
 human mind and of that moral force, which we call influence. As a 
 rule intellectual belief in fundamental error is removed and a histori- 
 cal belief in Christianity created before the crisis comes. Conviction 
 of sin also is a common antecedent. Hence, the value of science, re- 
 ligious controversy. Christian evidence and the ten commandments 
 as factors in missionary work. In like manner, too, there is often a 
 kindly feeling cherished towards Christians, and especially Christian 
 ministers, by those whom God subsequently calls from death to life. 
 Hence, the value of good example and benevolent acts, or institutions, 
 in the propagation of our faith. Reference must be had to both the head 
 and the heart in trying to convert others. But this preparation may 
 be very brief in point of time and very slight in point of character — 
 if not, to all human view, entirely wanting in some cases. Certain it 
 is, at any rate, that such an influence, however important as a prepara- 
 tion, is not the direct means, any more than it is the efficient cause, 
 of real conversion. The appointed means through whose instrumen- 
 tality divine life flows from the Spirit of God into a soul is some Bible 
 truth ; and generally the truth which is most blessed to this end is 
 what we call simple and fundamental, the essence of the gospel. 
 
 But plans and contrivances are necessary to secure an audience and 
 obtain a favorable hearing for the gospel. Some men are more easily 
 reached in one way, and some in another ; while many stand aloof 
 and defy almost all efforts to arrest their attention. This is true in 
 every land, but especially in heathen lands. 
 
150 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Hence the great variety of methods in missionary work. 
 Perhaps the first way in which foreign laborers generally begin the 
 spread of the gospel is through home influence, and especially family 
 religion, the audience being their own domestics. By a life of impar- 
 tiality, justice, honesty, purity, and kindness they are sometimes ena- 
 bled to make a good impression upon their dependents even before they 
 can speak well the language of the people. Then, as soon as possible, 
 family worship is conducted at least once a day in the native tongue, 
 and all servants are expected to be, and generally are, present. At 
 this service the Bible is read, and perhaps explained, and God is ad- 
 dressed at the throne of grace in simple words. It may be, too, that a 
 Psalm is sung. The whole exercise, repeated in varied and attractive 
 forms, is naturally impressive, and sometimes leads to saving results. 
 And then, as occasion offers, the mistress of the home will read the 
 Bible to her only female servant (the ayah or nurse) and teach her in a 
 familiar manner the way of salvation. On the Sabbaths, also, when 
 the family is on the hills or at a distance from regular preaching, all 
 are called together at a suitable hour to hear a more extended and 
 formal discourse in reference to divine things ; nor is this service neg- 
 lected wlien the sahib is absent from home, as is often the case ; for 
 his place is filled, and frequently well filled, by his wife. Indeed, the 
 mem-sahiba, as she is called, is the more powerful factor in this domes- 
 tic missionary work, coming in contact with her dependents, as she 
 does, so frequently, and visiting their families so often in their own 
 houses, especially during times of affliction. 
 
 Of the value of this method of work, when employed in a proper 
 manner and accompanied by sincere prayer, there can be no doubt. 
 Beyond the missionary circle, too, it has been found very effective. It is 
 said that almost all of Gen. Pryor's servants were brought thus to con- 
 fess Christ. The sphere is not large ; but within this sphere the light 
 may, for that very reason, be made to shine all the more powerfully. 
 
 As a further extension of this method comes the influence which a 
 missionary may exert over his employees. When itinerating, superin- 
 tending a school or erecting a building, he always has under him a 
 number of non-Christian teachers or laborers. The relation which he 
 sustains to them forbids anything like compulsion in religious matters, 
 and often requires him to bear patiently with their superstitions and 
 Pharisaical forms. He must do nothing to break a Hindu's caste. 
 He must allow a Muhammadan to say his prayers as frequently as his 
 
INFLUENCE IN SOCIAL INTERCOURSE 151 
 
 conscience, or his desire to rest, demands such an exercise ; and that is 
 generally pretty often.* But, notwithstanding this, his position as 
 employer also gives a missionary the oj^portunity to speak a word occa- 
 sionally in behalf of his own faith ; and by tact, with the blessing of 
 God, he may sow seed which will afterwards bring forth fruit. Often 
 a very tender feeling exists between an old employee and his superior, 
 and on this feeling through divine help may be grafted the higher 
 principles of spiritual life. At any rate prejudices against Christianity 
 may thus be removed from the hearts of bricklayers, carpenters and 
 coolies, and, through them, from the hearts of a whole community ; 
 and the common people generally may, in this way, even acquire an 
 admiration for the character of the good sahib, who has ministered so 
 largely to their temporal necessities, as well as for the religion which 
 he represents. Thus a popular sentiment begins to spring up which is 
 favorable to the spread of the gospel in other ways. 
 
 Similar to this in some respects is the influence which a missionary 
 exerts in his ordinary intercourse with others. Orientals, at least the 
 people of India, are sociable in their nature ; and there is no subject 
 upon which they are more willing to converse than that of religion. 
 Reverence for a superior Power, or Being, is grounded in their nature 
 so fundamentally that the absence of religious sentiment, and religious 
 profession, in any one is considered a great disgrace ; and to call a 
 man be-din, that is irreligious, is the greatest of insults. Skepticism 
 and agnosticism are foreign products, and are found only among 
 Europeans, or those educated natives who have come under the influ- 
 ence of English infidelity. 
 
 Easy then is it to draw out a business man, a loiterer, or a fellow- 
 traveler on the subject which engrosses a missionary's thoughts. The 
 reverse, which so generally, and, I may say, so unreasonably, prevails 
 in Christian lands, is unknown in the far East. A companion's feel- 
 ings are never hurt by a respectful reference to his religion. And 
 every branch of the theme, too, may be touched. The nature of 
 God's being, his relation to the universe, his modes of communication 
 
 *Muhammadan law requires its adherents to pray five times a day: — ^just before 
 sunrise; shortly after noon ; about three or four P.M.; just after sunset, and when 
 night has set in. At three other periods prayers are optional — namely, when the 
 sun is well up; about eleven A. M., and after midnight. Each prayer is preceded 
 by an ablution of the hands, face and feet ; and the whole exercise will average per- 
 haps ten minutes in length. For attitudes in prayer, see illustration, p. 117. 
 
152 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 with men, human depravity, transmigration of souls, the consequences 
 of sin, salvation, nirvana, temple or mosque worship, the mysteries of 
 the Christian faith, the evidences of its superiority and a multitude of 
 similar topics may be discussed without offense. Sometimes, indeed, 
 one meets with scowling pundits, or rabid maulvies, who can them- 
 selves say nothing pleasant to a Christian, and who can hear nothing 
 opposed to their own views without anger. But generally the reverse 
 is true. 
 
 Hence, a great opportunity is given in the varied experiences of so- 
 cial intercourse to present Christ and his salvation. As the mission- 
 ary, or the native Christian, sits in a banya' s shop, reposes under a 
 pipal ox a banyan tree, trudges along a country road on fool, stops at a 
 bungalow or a serai (native inn), watches the farmers at work in their 
 fields, refreshes himself with a drink at some shaded well, chats with 
 his neighbors, receives calls from high-caste babus, travels by rail or 
 climbs the mountain steep, he can often drop a remark, or present a 
 series of truths, which under the illumination of God's Spirit ends in a 
 saving result. Well do I remember a religious talk which Dr. Gordon 
 gave some Himalayan peasants whom we met at Kala Patthar — a big, 
 black-faced stone on the side of a mountain 15,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. And of my own conversations by the way, one 
 highly interesting is recalled which was held with a Hindu bachelor 
 of arts, on the subject of prayer, as we were traveling together from 
 Lala Musa to Bhera. 
 
 In this way, too, as well as by the last mentioned, a favorable knowl- 
 edge of Christianity is diffused among the masses of the people, and 
 something done to create that Christian atmosphere which, it is hoped, 
 will one day envelop the whole region and make conversion a com- 
 paratively easy, natural and common process. 
 
 And here, before advancing further, it might be well perhaps to cor- 
 rect some false impressions which are abroad in certain quarters. 
 
 One is that we can readily classify conversions so as to designate 
 definitely by what methods they were secured. Occasionally, indeed, 
 this may be done. Where a new convert has been reached only by 
 one method, or where his religious experience is so distinct that he can 
 point out the exact influence which has been used by the Spirit for his 
 great change, we may feel some certainty in regard to the matter — ^just 
 as, on the other hand, when a particular method has lain entirely out- 
 side the range of anew convert's experience, we may confidently assert 
 
FALSE IMPRESSIONS CORRECTED 
 
 153 
 
 that it has liad no influence over him. But in the case of many con- 
 verts no such definite judgment can be given. Where missionary 
 methods are numerous, and often widely brought into use, and over- 
 lap one another, and where inquirers, before taking a stand for Christ, 
 touch missionary work at many points, it is frequently impossible to 
 say just under what influence the tide began to turn. 
 
 IJANYAN TREE AND WELL. 
 {Fro?n a Punjabi drawing. ) 
 
 Equally difficult, therefore, is it for a missionary, or a native 
 worker, to decide that this convert, or that, has been the fruit of his 
 own individual labor. In inducing persons to enlist in the work of 
 foreign missions, too much stress has sometimes been laid upon the 
 idea that, while in Christian lands much uncertainty prevails on the 
 
154 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 subject, in heathen countries a minister may be quite sure what souls 
 have been given to him for his hire — that is, he can positively say in 
 regard to many professed Christians, " These have been given me as 
 my crown of rejoicing; I alone have been made the instrument of 
 their conversion," But in comparatively few cases can Christian 
 laborers there, any more than here, and especially foreign missionaries, 
 make such assertions with any degree of confidence. Fellow-workers, 
 fellow-Christians, Bibles, tracts and otlier agents or means of influence, 
 are so numerous, and gospel methods are so dove-tailed one into 
 tlie other, that we are compelled to say, "Not unto us, O Lord, not 
 unto us, but unto thy name give glory." Blessed, indeed, is it to feel 
 that one has a share in the movement — a part in founding God's church 
 where other men have not labored; but for his full and exact hire every 
 one must wait until results are classified by an infallible hand and 
 each "shall receive liis own reward according to his own labor." 
 
 And in harmony with all this may be observed the difficulty of de- 
 termining the relative value of different methods of missionary work. 
 Of course we may look at them a p7'iori, and determine which are more 
 or less likely to accomplish the end in view ; we may notice how far 
 they correspond with the principles of human nature or the examples 
 and the teachings of God's word; we may tell whether they tend to 
 exalt liuman rather than divine wisdom, or civilization and culture 
 rather than holiness ; we may note whether they give many and favor- 
 able opportunities for religious effort, or the contrary ; we may even 
 broadly make an estimate of their different results in the past and ascer- 
 tain which upon the whole is apparently most useful. But at best the 
 comparison is an imperfect one and should always be made with great 
 respect for contrary views. 
 
 Returning from this Vief digression, it should perhaps be remarked 
 next that the first formal evangelistic work which a missionary is likely 
 to undertake, especially if he be a pioneer, is that of bazar preach- 
 ing. A bazar is a street, or a square, where common business is done 
 and where crowds assemble. There the shops, or stores, are found. 
 There merchandise is sold or exchanged. A town, or city, may have 
 several bazars, such as the grain bazar and the shawl bazar ; but gen- 
 erally one of these is more prominent than the rest and hence is called 
 the sadr, or big bazar. 
 
 Bazar preaching is therefore what we call street preaching at home. 
 Against this method of operation laws in India are not very strict, or 
 
(155) 
 
156 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 at least not very rigidly enforced. Fakirs of all kinds, jugglers and 
 mountebanks may stop almost anywhere in the place of general con- 
 course and for a time exhibit their shows, or perform their pranks. No 
 one is likely to disturb them. So is it with the representatives of dif- 
 ferent religious faiths. The bazar is comparatively free for the prop- 
 agation of their tenets, or at least practically free. Christian work- 
 ers, therefore, avail themselves of the liberty of there making known 
 the gospel. 
 
 If a foreign missionary be present little difficulty is experienced in 
 securing an audience. Curiosity will lead people to crowd around a 
 white man. They want to get a close view of his odd hat, dress, 
 traveling rig* and manners, and see how he can talk their language. 
 Like the Athenians also, they often wish to hear what the " babbler " 
 has to say. They take a certain kind of delight in the " strange 
 things" that are brought to their ears. At least what they see and 
 hear gives them occasion and materials for gossip. 
 
 Should the collection of an audience be delayed, however, perhaps 
 some one strikes up a spiritual song — either a Psalm set to Western music, 
 or a bhajan — and is joined in singing by his companions. In some 
 Missions a concertina, cornet or other musical instrument is often em- 
 ployed. In either case the exercise is almost sure to arrest the atten- 
 tion of wayfarers. Music has charms to soothe and please the Indian ear. 
 In rare instances, pictures, religious or otherwise, are presented to at- 
 tract the eye — either with or without a magic lantern. Very often, 
 however, a bazar preacher, without any other preliminary, immedi- 
 ately begins with the reading of God's Word. This itself will draw 
 people around him in most cases. 
 
 And, however the audience may have been secured, such an exercise 
 as this at any rate almost always forms the first part of the service 
 proper. Nothing is more likely to win the hearers under such circum- 
 stances. Indian people of all classes have great reverence for any 
 Book which claims to be of divine origin. The preacher may be falli- 
 ble ; but if he has a "Thus saith the Lord " for what he proclaims, 
 prejudice is disarmed. The authenticity and the genuineness of the 
 volume are matters of secondary consideration, and do not affect the 
 primary attitude of their minds. 
 
 Generally a plain passage of Scripture is selected — a parable, or a 
 miracle, the story of Christ's death, the history of the fall of our first 
 * A bicycle attracts multitudes. 
 
BAZAR PREACHING 157 
 
 parents, or a description of human depravity ; and this, or the Psahii 
 sung, becomes the basis of an address which is made as practical and 
 personal as possible. Remarks are also offered by others besides the 
 principal speaker, and variety introduced. But, for obvious reasons, 
 prayer is frequently omitted. 
 
 While these exercises are in progress the audience is constantly 
 changing. One man goes and another comes. There may indeed be 
 an entire alteration of the constituent elements of the assembly. 
 Only one thing is certain : all will be men. If a woman hears any- 
 thing it will be through a latticed window overhead, or from the coun- 
 ter of a neighboring salesman where she is transacting business ; possi- 
 bly from the roof of a house which forms part of her zenana. 
 
 In its primitive form bazar preaching means that the preacher must 
 stand on the public highway and proclaim his message. But a banya 
 often allows you to sit on his counter,* or, if he has such an article, 
 will offer you a chair, which, under the circumstances, is a great boon. 
 As the years roll on, too, some shop will be hired and made the basis 
 of operations — serving not only as a bookstore, or a reading-room, but 
 also as a point where morning and evening the gospel may be pro- 
 claimed to passers-by. Such centers have been established in Jhelum, 
 Pathankot, Sialkot, and perhaps other places. Where this is the case, 
 even if the police should appear and order your hearers to " move 
 on," you are yourself perfectly secure, sitting as you do in your own 
 rented house. 
 
 It must not be supposed by any that quietness is the distinguishing 
 characteristic of a bazar audience. Far from it. Many persons, indeed, 
 listen respectfully and make no sign of either approval or disapproval. 
 But it is different with others. A few exhibit astonishment at the good 
 news. Some, especially Hindus, will cry out "That's all true," or 
 *' The Sahib is right," or " Your religion is good for you, and ours is 
 good for us; let every one follow the path that his fathers trod." 
 Some will ask questions — often of the most difficult or irrelevant char- 
 acter — and try to embarrass the preacher or get up a laugh at his ex- 
 pense. Some — Muhammadan bigots or Aryans, for instance — will 
 present objections, or flatly contradict the speaker, reading perhaps 
 
 * This is simply the front edge of the floor of his stall. It faces the street and is 
 two feet or two and one-half feet high. Any one who has ever seen the shops of 
 Pompeii or of modern Italian towns can easily understand the architecture of our 
 Indian bazars. 
 
158 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 out of the Koran, or an infidel book, to establish their points ; and 
 frequently bystanders of this class will try to break up the meeting, 
 or turn it into an assemblage for the propagation of their own religious 
 views. Occasionally, too, they carry their violence so far that the po- 
 lice are asked to interfere and quell disturbance. 
 
 As might be supposed, therefore, every one does not make a good 
 bazar preacher. Ready wit, a quick ear and a nimble tongue are nec- 
 essary for success in this capacity — also that mysterious power by 
 which men can naturally overawe opposition and keep a restless audi- 
 ence under control. 
 
 Of the value of this metliod of evangelization on the whole, how- 
 ever, there can be no doubt. In some cases definite conversions are 
 reported ; in others, persons are led to become inquirers and frequent 
 callers on the missionary or his assistants — the final result being a full 
 confession of faith. Often men hear something of Christ in this way 
 who are never otherwise brought within the sound of the gospel. An 
 opportunity is thus given also to discover the spontaneous sentiments 
 of the people, their great difficulties, and the objections that active 
 opponents make to the truth which we proclaim. Even the wrangles 
 which are started and the bitter words which are sometimes spoken by 
 enemies, may be so managed, or answered, as to secure the complete 
 discomfiture of our assailants and turn the tide of general feeling in 
 our favor. A quick and happy repartee will often drive an opponent 
 disarmed from the field. While, then, bazar preaching is a difficult 
 mode of evangelism, and should not be employed by those who are con- 
 stitutionally unfitted for it, and while its place is no doubt being 
 gradually taken by bazar chapels, and other methods of work which 
 are quieter and more successful, it is not only one of the most interest- 
 ing and picturesque ways of preaching Christ, but it has also been an 
 important agency in the spread of the glad tidings of salvation and the 
 diff"usion of that knowledge without which the heathen must perish. 
 
 Of a quieter and perhaps more useful character is what may be called 
 back street, private court, or mahalla preaching. This takes 
 place beyond the din of the bazar, in some retired part of the town or 
 cit)' — on a vacant lot, at a point where several ways meet, or in the 
 outer court of some friendly man's house. Perhaps the people of the 
 neighborhood are brought together by previous visits to their houses, 
 or messengers sent to announce the time and the place of preaching ; 
 or perhaps a drum, singing, or a display of pictures answers the same 
 
PREACHING AT MELAS 
 
 159 
 
 purpose. Generally a light bedstead, called a charpai, is brought out 
 for the preacher to sit upon. Here, as in the bazar, the main part of 
 the hearers will be men ; but frequently women also are seen peeping 
 around the corners of the walls or over the edges of the house roofs. 
 Besides the freedom from disturbance which this method usually brings, 
 it also insures a more homogeneous company of listeners, and the mes- 
 senger of divine truth can regulate his thoughts and words accordingly. 
 
 / ii .A/ 
 
 GREAT MELA AT HARDWAR — HINDUS BATHING. 
 
 Each mahalhi, or ward, is generally inhabited almost exclusively by 
 one kind of people — Hindus, Muhammadans, Sikhs or some other class. 
 Moreover, when the service is finished at one point the preacher and 
 his assistant can move on to another quarter and obtain a new audience. 
 Thus a great variety of work can be done and a large number of hear- 
 ers can be reached. 
 
 Preaching at melas partakes very largely of the characteristics of 
 
160 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 bazar preaching. A mela (or fair) is a great gathering of people as- 
 sembled for the purpose of celebrating some religious event, or for com- 
 mercial purposes ; and very often both objects are combined. It also 
 provides an occasion for friendly intercourse and for amusements of 
 every description. Almost always such melas are held at stated places 
 — near a temple, a shrine or a celebrated tomb. Every one, too, has 
 its appointed season — generally annual, but sometimes after longer in- 
 tervals. 
 
 Of these there are two each in our Sialkot and Gurdaspur fields of 
 sufficient importance to be specially mentioned — besides others else- 
 where. One is that held in April at the shrine called Ber Baba Nanak 
 near Sialkot. Here the Baisakhi festival at the commencement of the 
 new Hindu year is kept with great rejoicing, as many as ten or fifteen 
 thousand people being sometimes in attendance. Another is the cattle 
 fair held at Gulu Shah's tomb, about six miles from Pasrur, " which 
 lasts a week and on the principal day (September 21st) is attended by 
 over 70,000 persons, who come from all parts of the province." The 
 two belonging to our Gurdaspur field are held — one at Kalanaur, in 
 March, and the other at Pindori, seven miles east of Gurdaspur City, 
 in April. Gujranwala District also furnishes some important fairs, 
 especially one of the Sikhs at Eminabad, and one, which lasts a month, 
 at Drunkel, in honor of Pir Lakh Datta. 
 
 When a Christian laborer wishes to proclaim the gospel at such 
 places he usually puts up one or more tents and provides sittings (mats 
 or benches) for a large number of people. This indicates that he 
 " means business," encourages people to tarry and listen, and insures 
 better order than he would have in a tired, restless, standing crowd — 
 to say nothing of the comfort which it brings to himself. He also 
 secures as many assistants as possible, so as to keep the time fully oc- 
 cujjied and provide variety of entertainment. Sometimes the whole 
 working force of a District may be called in for such occasions. And 
 then, to obtain the best results, the speakers will be thoroughly or- 
 ganized for their particular work, study up specially assigned subjects 
 and come prepared to make effective addresses. Psalms also are often 
 sung at intervals, tracts distributed and every effort made to impress 
 and instruct the people. 
 
 Were it not for the general din and confusion of the mela, a con- 
 gregation of 500 or 1000 persons might often be collected within the 
 sound of the preacher's voice ; but, owing to the cause mentioned, not 
 
RESULTS OF PREACHING AT ME LAS 
 
 161 
 
 more than about 200 can comfortably hear the gospel at any one time. 
 Still the results are sometimes wonderful. Frequently persons have 
 been brought to confess Christ then and there, and some have even 
 broken caste and received baptism before the assembled throng. This 
 was a common experience under 
 the preaching of the Rev. S. 
 Knowles of the M. E. Mission, 
 Gonda. But such baptisms 
 were discouraged within our 
 own field, and at last by the 
 Methodists themselves — partly 
 because there was so little op- 
 portunity of testing the genuine- 
 ness of the conversions, and 
 partly because the applicants 
 often lived at a great distance, 
 even beyond the bounds of the 
 minister's mission territory, and 
 the initial step could not be fol- 
 lowed up with suitable pastoral 
 care and instruction. 
 
 Like bazar preaching, how- 
 ever, preaching at melas helps 
 much the diffusion of gospel 
 light and the preparation for 
 successful work in other ways. 
 
 In 1883 some men from the neighborhood of the Ravi river came 
 to our missionaries in Gurdaspar and Zafarwal for baptism, who had 
 heard the gospel at a mela and had thus become convinced of its 
 truth ; and, after inquiry, it was found that the good leaven had spread 
 in their neighborhood to such an extent, through their instrumentality, 
 as to affect many villages and over 200 people. 
 
 SEARCHING THE JUNGLE. 
 
 11 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 EVANGELISTIC WORK— II 
 
 The Educational Policy — Dr. Duffs Course — Government Education, its History 
 and Provisions — Mission Schools — Their Laclt of Conversions — Causes — 
 Arguments Against the Educational Policy — Arguments in Favor of it — 
 Present Duty — Policy of the U. P. Mission — Conclusion. 
 
 Y an educational method of evangelism is meant that 
 
 which contemplates the conversion of the young through 
 
 the opportunities given, and the influence acquired, in 
 
 training their minds and communicating to them secular 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 The Rev. Alexander Duff", D.D., LL.D., is usually considered the 
 founder of this policy. He landed at Calcutta May 27, 1830, and 
 several weeks afterward, in accordance with his instructions, opened 
 up a school in that city which soon grew into a college. This policy, 
 as has been remarked, " was to substitute for the existing evangelistic 
 work amongst the lower classes of Indian Society an educational work 
 among the Brahmans. It was maintained that in this way Hinduism 
 would be attacked at its heart, that when once the influence of Western 
 science and philosophy had been brought to bear upon the philosophy 
 and the pseudo-science of Hinduism, the whole system would crumble 
 to the dust ; and, over and above all else, that as the Brahmans were 
 the recognized leaders of Hindu life, their conversion would be 
 speedily followed by the conversion of the whole nation."* As he 
 himself said to the people of Scotland, " We shall, with the blessing 
 of God, devote our time and strength to the preparation of a mine, 
 and the setting of a train, which shall one day explode and tear up the 
 whole from its lowest depths." 
 
 His college soon became a great success. More than one thousand 
 names were found on its rolls. Lord Wm. Bentinck, the Governor- 
 
 * Methodist Times. 
 
 (162) 
 
GOVERNMENT EDUCATION IN INDIA 163 
 
 General of the day, pronounced the result, in an educational point of 
 view, unparalleled. " From the very first, too, the Bible itself was made 
 a school-book and class-book, and so made distinctly, avowedly and 
 exclusively for religious and devotional exercises." * 
 
 Evangelistic and missionary services in the English language were 
 also carried on outside of the college by the principal and his associ- 
 ates, and their successors. And, as the consequence of all, many im- 
 portant conversions took place. Dr. Duff's converts were for fifty 
 years frequently seen in different parts of India, and they vv^ere also 
 considered an important and influential class of Christians. 
 
 Later, however, a marked change in the situation took place. The 
 education of the people was recognized as a duty of the government, 
 and colleges and schools were opened up under its management and 
 support. In 1854, too, a comprehensive despatch on the subject was 
 sent out to India by Sir Charles Wood (afterwards Lord Halifax) which 
 is called the basis and charter of the present educational system, hav- 
 ing been confirmed by subsequent administrations. 
 
 Under the stimulus thus given, schools of every grade sprang up in 
 all important places. Some of them were started, managed and sup- 
 ported altogether by the Provincial Governments themselves ; but 
 many were simply aided schools managed by local bodies, or religious 
 societies. In 189 1 tlie total number of educational institutions of all 
 sorts in India was 138,054, attended by an aggregate of 3,682,707 
 pupils — showing an average of about one school to every eleven and 
 one-half square miles of territory and one pupil to every seventy-eight 
 of the whole population. Many of these institutions are colleges and 
 high schools, or in otlier words, schools directly preparing for college. 
 Of the former there are now 105 arts colleges, with 12,165 students, 
 and special schools for the professions, containing 3424 students. 
 
 In each Province, too, a Director of Public Instruction was ap- 
 pointed, with assistants of every kind, and especially Inspectors of 
 every grade, whose duty it is to visit regularly all schools having any 
 connection with the government system and see that they come up 
 in every particular to the required standard. 
 
 More than this, several Universities were established, cliiefly on the 
 model of the University of London. Three of these — Calcutta, 
 
 *Badley's Directory. \ See also pp. 121, 122 and 165. 
 
164 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Madras and Bombay — were incorporated in 1857. The University of 
 the N. W, Provinces is of more recent origin, as also is the Punjab 
 University. The latter was called into existence October 14, 1882; 
 but its work had been virtually performed since 1870 by the Punjab 
 University College. These Universities are almost exclusively examin- 
 ing bodies, with the privilege of conferring degrees in arts, law, 
 medicine and civil engineering. " Though not themselves places of 
 instruction, the Universities control the whole course of higher edu- 
 cation by means of their examinations. Tlie entrance examination for 
 matriculation is open to all, but when that is passed, candidates for 
 higher stages must enroll themselves in one or other of the affiliated 
 colleges." * 
 
 A ten year's course of study precedes matriculation — three in the 
 Lower Primary ; two in the Upper Primary ; three in the Middle and 
 two in what is called the Entrance. In the college course jDroper there 
 are four years — two up to F. A. and two more to B. A. Then there 
 are special courses for M. A. and a dozen other degrees. 
 
 In 1881-2 a viceregal Education Committee was employed to inquire 
 into the condition and needs of the whole system and suggest changes. 
 The modifications recommended by this Commission were chiefly 
 those that would bring it more fully into accord with the principles of 
 the great despatch of 1S54, which hitherto had been only imperfectly 
 followed. That despatch, while recognizing as a government function 
 the education of the people, provided for the restriction of efforts in 
 behalf of higher education, which could only be reached by the few, 
 and the increase of efforts to diffuse elementary education among the 
 many. It also provided that high-class institutions "should be pro- 
 moted, not so much by direct government action as by giving grants- 
 in-aid, and by special attention to help on independent efforts to 
 educate the masses." 
 
 The modifications proposed by the Education Commission began to 
 be introduced in the Punjab on April i, 1886, which forms on that ac- 
 count a marked era in our Punjab educational history. The chief 
 changes made were, first, the transferrence of more power to Munici- 
 pal Committees and other local bodies ; secondly, the requisition of 
 heavier fees from high-grade students; thirdly, the payment of grants- 
 
 *Sir William Hunter. 
 
MISSION SCHOOLS 165 
 
 in-aid, not by special enactment, but according to results ; and fourthly, 
 the commencement of zaviindari (or farmers') schools, with a special 
 course of study.* 
 
 As missionaries had been pioneers in educational work, so they 
 adapted themselves to the governmental system as it developed from 
 time to time, and utilized it as far as they could for the purpose of dis- 
 seminating Bible truth and converting souls. Indeed mission schools 
 of every grade are reckoned among the best in India. Presbyterians 
 especially have taken an advanced position in the work of high educa- 
 tion. Of all the matriculations reported by Protestant Missions in 
 India from 1872 to 1890, more than forty-five per cent, are credited to 
 Presbyterians; while of F. A.s they claimed more than seventy-seven 
 per cent., of B. A.s more than ninety-one per cent., and of M. A.s 
 seventy-four out of a total of seventy-five ; and had the Bombay Free 
 Church College reported its results it is probable that these percent- 
 ages would have been materially increased. The Free Church of Scot- 
 land, too, it should be remarked, excels all the rest of its order in this 
 department and may be termed the leading educational missionary 
 body of that land. Of high schools also, Presbyterians have a much 
 larger proportionate share than any other ecclesiastical family in India, 
 unless it be the Congregational. 
 
 The number of conversions, however, secured by this method of 
 " missionating " is now confessedly much below what it was at the 
 beginning; and, as a consequence, those denominations which have 
 devoted much of their strength to it have follen far behind others in 
 the evangelization of their field. 
 
 Some of the reasons for this result are obvious. 
 
 First, it is probable that there has not been for some years as much 
 earnest, prayerful and persistent effort to save souls through educa- 
 tional work as there once was. This is owing to various causes. 
 (i) The University system now dominates the whole movement and 
 
 * While, absolutely considered, great progress has been effected in educational 
 work since it was commenced by the British in India, it must not l)e imagined by any 
 one that, relatively considered, this work has made much headway. Where only one 
 in seventy-eight of the population is a school pupil and less than six per cent, of the 
 people can read or write in any tongue, and only one in 800 can read and write 
 English, there is evidently much, and very much, yet to be done. Especially is 
 this so in the case of females, of whom it is said only one in 173 can read and 
 write. See pp. 121, 122 and 163. 
 
166 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 leads mission schools, as well as others, to aim not so much at spiritual 
 as educational results. The great ambition among pupils is to pass 
 their examinations, secure their certificates, or diplomas, and prepare 
 themselves for positions in government service, or elsewhere. For this 
 object, too, more than anything else, all non-Christian teachers and 
 inspectors labor in behalf of the pupils ; and too frequently the same 
 thing becomes, consciously or unconsciously, the leading aim of 
 Christian teachers, and even of missionary superintendents and pro- 
 fessors themselves. Conversion of souls becomes a secondary matter. 
 (2) Again, mission high schools and colleges are largely dependent 
 upon fees for support and must be managed so as to please the pupils 
 and hasten their educational advancement, or lliey will become un- 
 popular and fall to the rear. Religious instruction is therefore given 
 at a disadvantage and is likely to degenerate into a merely literary 
 exercise or a means of intellectual stimulus. (3) Again, as govern- 
 ment grants-in-aid are regulated in amount by the size of the roll, the 
 attendance of the scholars, success at examinations and other similar 
 considerations, managers of mission schools are strongly tempted to 
 make everything bend in this direction ; and, as Bible teaching counts 
 for nothing pecuniarily, it is in danger of being neglected. (4) Again, 
 owing to the fact that there are now many rival, non-Christian schools, 
 mission institutions cannot be as independent as they were in the days 
 of Dr. Duff and cannot regulate their course altogether to suit the 
 highest ends of religious work. (5) Again, the conversion of a pupil, 
 culminating in baptism, always makes a great commotion, disturbs the 
 discipline of a school, and sometimes almost destroys it — a conse- 
 quence which its managers will try to avoid. (6) Finally, the idea 
 that educational missionaries should aim primarily and especially at 
 the Christianization of their pupils seems to have been distinctly 
 abandoned by some. One of the professors in one of the leading 
 Christian colleges of India is said to have written as follows: " 'AH 
 we want you to remember,' some one has said, * is that you are mission- 
 aries first and educationists after.' That is the very point that I deny. 
 We are not missionaries first and educationists after, but missionaries 
 in, and through and by education, and it is only as we realize this that 
 our work can become truly and permanently effective. If we are to 
 regard our schools and colleges as preaching places where the instruc- 
 tion we give in philosophy, science and history is an entirely sub- 
 ordinate thing, performing merely the function of attraction, like the 
 
OBJECTIONS TO THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY 1G7 
 
 drum of the Salvation Army or the orchestra at St. James' Hall, then 
 I for one say, Let us give them up, and hand over the work of educa- 
 tion to those who will do it honestly." 
 
 But even when religious impressions are made on pupils during 
 school hours, they are probably not now followed up as fully and per- 
 sistently as they once were by private evangelistic efforts ; and this is 
 another reason why educational work is not so successful in converting 
 pupils as it was in former days. 
 
 More than this : when the educational policy was started there were 
 not many half-way houses between Christianity and heathenism, where 
 pupils, disgusted with gross idolatry and only partly convinced of the 
 truth of Bible doctrines, could rest and gratify their reforming tenden- 
 cies. Now we have the Brahma Samaj, the Arya Saniaj, the Deva 
 Dharm Samaj, and other similar organizations. Here the awakened 
 are likely to go and stay. 
 
 And then God's plan, from the days of the apostles, seems to have 
 ever been to advance the spread of the gospel more among the poor, 
 the despised and the downtrodden than among the rich, the proud and 
 the domineering. In every age and country it has been comparatively 
 true, that "not many mighty, not many noble are called." "God 
 hath chosen the foolisli things of the world to confound the wise." * 
 No wonder then that Educational Missions, which work mostly among 
 high-caste people, make a less favorable show in church statistics than 
 those that pursue a different policy. 
 
 As a consequence of the long-continued paucity of converts from this 
 policy many missionaries attack it as entirely unjustifiable, and in do- 
 ing so bring up additional objections, which they consider overwhelm- 
 ing. They say that it is not the plan of Christ and his apostles ; that 
 Paul's preaching in the school ofTyrannus was not a parallel case ; 
 that it secularizes Christian Missions and leads the servants of Christ 
 to spend much time and strength on intellectual and worldly matters 
 which ought to be spent in religious work ; that it tempts to an un- 
 natural and somewhat enslaving alliance between the church and the 
 state ; that it leads to the acceptance of money as grants-in-aid which 
 has been obtained by the opium trade, and otherwise tainted with cor- 
 ruption ; that it tends to produce among missionaries a class of govern- 
 ment apologists, men who are ready to defend public immoralities; 
 that in more advanced institutions it pampers the pride, arrogance and 
 
 * See Chapter XXI. 
 
168 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 intolerance of educational missionaries and cultivates a spirit far from 
 Christ-like ; that it gives heads of colleges and their associated pro- 
 fessors undue prominence in missionary conferences and councils, and 
 magnifies their influence far beyond that of Christian laborers who sur- 
 pass them in years, experience and evangelistic success, thus marring 
 the general course of missionary movements; that it assists a class of 
 natives who least need help in India and neglects the rest ; that it aids 
 to swell the list of educated, unemployed, and dangerous political agi- 
 tators, a class which the government itself is striving to diminish; that 
 it puts a sword into the hand of Christ's enemies and sliarpens the in- 
 tellects of those who are avowedly anti-Christian ; that it has pro- 
 duced the only organized rivalry and opposition to mission work; that, 
 by teaching English, it opens up to educated natives the whole armory 
 of Western rationalism and infidelity ; that it spends money on heathen 
 teachers which ought to be expended on Christian preachers, and 
 diverts missionary funds in some degree from the great object for which 
 they were collected ; that it leads to the neglect of work among vil- 
 lagers, low-caste people and others who have shown themselves more 
 ready than the higher classes to embrace Cliristianity ; that it leads to 
 the neglect of Christian youth and retards the development of a vigor- 
 ous, highly equipped and aggressive Christian Church ; that it relies 
 upon the assistance of high-caste converts and the power of educated 
 intellect, in other words upon an "arm of flesh," to evangelize India, 
 rather tlian upon the Spirit of the living God ; and that Providence, by 
 refusing to bless it, has set upon it the seal of his condemnation. 
 
 On the other hand, supporters of schools claim that a certain amount 
 of intelligence and mental training are necessary properly to appre- 
 hend the gospel ; that the higher classes should not be altogetlier 
 neglected; that the educational method is about the only one which 
 can be employed to reach them ; that by this policy we can influence 
 them at an impressible period of life ; that though there are {q^n con- 
 verts, these few are exceedingly important and in after years become a 
 great power for good ; that, besides the few who are actually baptized, 
 there are some secret converts ; that science tends to destroy Hindu 
 superstition and prepare the way for the gospel ; that all pupils of 
 mission schools get correct views of Christianity and help to prevent 
 or dispel the false notions of our religion which are so likely to spring 
 up among their countrymen ; that most pupils become friends of the 
 missionaries and give them valuable assistance in their village and other 
 
DEFENSE OF THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY 169 
 
 work ; that good schools keep Missions prominently before the public 
 and help to establish their reputation ; that an impression also is thus 
 produced that missionaries desire the advancement of the natives in 
 civilization ; that educational institutions furnish a medium through 
 which to reach the parents and the friends of the pupils; that by es- 
 tablishing courses of lectures, reading rooms and opportunities for 
 personal intercourse a college may be made the centre of a great net- 
 work of influences which will tell for good upon the whole commun- 
 ity ; that an educational policy brings us into contact with govern- 
 ment officials and makes them interested in all our work ; that if we 
 do not educate the higher classes either the Government or Popery 
 will, producing as a consequence either rank infidelity or a new form 
 of superstition ; that schools afford missionaries a field for work at all 
 seasons and in all kinds of weather ; that mission colleges, though es- 
 tablished primarily for the heathen, furnish places where aspiring 
 Christian students also may go and receive a good education under 
 Christian influence;* that these colleges will eventually, indeed, be- 
 come entirely Christian and carry with themselves into the Christian 
 Church all the prestige of their preceding fame, and that some of our 
 higher institutions are almost self-supporting and require very little of 
 the funds of Mission Boards. 
 
 The controversy thus brought before us is of long standing, and, 
 as years advance seems to increase in intensity and bitterness. Nothing 
 for instance in the late Decennial Missionary Conference at Bombay 
 created deeper feeling than this subject. And what makes the matter 
 more perplexing is that men of undoubted piety, great ability and 
 deep evangelical earnestness are to be found on both sides of the 
 question. 
 
 While the writer would say nothing against primary education as a 
 means of preparing people for reading the Scriptures and receiving the 
 gospel and is persuaded that higher education is also an important 
 means of developing believers and strengthening the Christian Church, 
 and ought to be carried on, even to the most advanced standard, 
 where the number of Christian students justifies it, he cannot but think 
 that in India, under existing circumstances, the arguments of those who 
 oppose higher education as at present conducted for evangelistic pur- 
 
 * Twenty-five Christian students were on the roll of tlie Lahore Christian College 
 for the year 1893. Of '242 students in the Mission Colleges of Madras Presidency 
 for 1890-91, 143 were either Europeans or native Christians. 
 
170 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 poses are weighter than the arguments of the other side and should 
 prevail. 
 
 If so, what ought to be done? 
 
 One of three courses is suggested. 
 
 First, reform the present methods. Let Christian teachers take the 
 place of those that are non-Christian.* Improve the course of Scrip- 
 ture study. Put the best work upon Bible recitations. Be less solicit- 
 ous for fees, or attendance, or educational results, than for the salva- 
 tion of souls. Throw around the school on Sabbaths, and at other 
 seasons, more religious exercises. Hold protracted meetings under the 
 direction of specially qualified evangelists. Encourage private in- 
 quiry. Be not afraid to baptize a convert. Secure the establishment 
 of a Christian University which will put a premium upon religious 
 knowledge and use the weight of its great influence in behalf of the 
 truth. 
 
 Or secondly, abolish as fast as possible all institutions above the 
 Primary which have a purely evangelistic object, or make them almost 
 exclusively schools for Christians. Owing to obligations previously 
 incurred, this work of abolition may sometimes be very difficult ; but 
 in few cases, should time be given, would it be found impossible. 
 
 Or thirdly, turn over all such institutions to the government, or 
 better still, to some other society, whose object will accord more fully 
 with the actual results than that of a purely missionary body. If peo- 
 ple wish to give Hindus and Muhammadans the benefits of our West- 
 ern education under Christian management let them do so through As- 
 sociations formed for that particular purpose. 
 
 Our own Mission has generally pursued a middle course in regard 
 to this matter ; and her work from an educational point of view has 
 been largely successful. In April, 18S3, she abolished her Boys' 
 School in Jhelum, but all along has continued her High Schools at 
 Gujranwala and Sialkot. Slie also has kept up Girls' Schools for the 
 heathen in Gujranwala, Jhelum and some other places; but in 1882 
 she stopped those that had been carried on in Sialkot, although these 
 were revived again in 1893. Into village Christian Schools also a 
 limited number of non-Christians have been admitted, ever since they 
 were started. 
 
 * Some non-Christian teachers, however, are remarkably true to their employers. 
 Only their example is against our cause. Those who have been long in mission ser- 
 vice and have done faithful work ought to be treated considerately and justly. 
 
172 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 The Rawal Pindi High School, whose roll in November, 1894, con- 
 tained 1 160 names, was not founded by our Mission, but came to us in 
 1892 from the American Presbyterian Mission, and has been continued 
 since that time, partly for the sake of perpetuating the work which had 
 already been begun there. But we alone are responsible for starting 
 (in 1893) a College department in connection with tliis school and 
 providing means of instruction to students, especially non-Christians, 
 as far up as F. A.* 
 
 The Gujranwala High Scliool for Boys, under Dr. McKee and 
 others, has for many years been kept in the front rank as to numbers 
 and educational excellence. Sometimes it reports over a thousand 
 scholars ; \ and a large percentage of its candidates every year pass 
 the University examinations. The Central and Branch Schools for 
 girls in the same place have had an interesting history under the suc- 
 cessive direction of Misses Calhoun, Wilson, Mukarji and others ; and 
 such also has been the case with the Jhelum Girls' School, under 
 Misses Anderson, Given, and their successors. 
 
 Of these institutions, however, none but the High Schools and the 
 College carry education to an advanced stage, or are much influenced 
 by the University system. And in all of them special effort is made 
 to give thorough religious instruction. Every day's exercises in the 
 Boys' Schools are opened with the reading of a passage of Scripture, 
 and prayer, and sometimes an address ; and one period (say three 
 quarters of an hour) is devoted in each class to Christian teaching. 
 Even on Sabbaths the pupils are generally assembled together for di- 
 vine service, or special lessons in the Bible ; and in Girls' Schools 
 Christian text-books are used. 
 
 True, many of the teachers in these institutions and all the callers | 
 in the Girls' Schools are non-Christians; and, in the necessarily frequent 
 absence of the Christian overseer, abuses are apt to creep in. True, also, 
 the missionary is sometimes led to teach a secular subject, and may be 
 kept by his school duties from evangelistic efforts in distant villages. 
 
 But probably there are no similar institutions in India wliere the 
 
 * First Arts — the end of the Sophomore year. 
 
 fin December, 1893, there were 1024 on the roll. Recently there has been con- 
 siderable decrease. 
 
 \ A caller is a kind of chaperon employed to gather up the children from their 
 homes and take them to and from the schoolroom. See Gal. 3 : 24. They are al- 
 most always poor widows, and somewhat elderly. 
 
RESULT OF OUR SCHOOL WORK 
 
 173 
 
 Single aim of saving souls is kept more constantly before the minds of 
 those who are conducting them, or where they are allowed to interfere 
 less with other efforts to spread the gospel. 
 
 Little direct result, however, in the way of making converts, has 
 come from all our labors in this department. Some pupils, indeed, 
 have confessed Christ and become active helpers in doing good; and 
 others have appeared to be deeply impressed. But the chief benefits 
 experienced from this policy with us, as in other Missions, have been 
 of that more general character to which reference has already been 
 sufficiently made. 
 
 Hence the writer is not disposed to apologize for the continuance 
 of our own higher school work as an evangelizing agency. He thinks 
 that it is involved in many of the same evils which opponents of an edu- 
 cational policy have been constrained to condemn elsewhere, and, being 
 almost destitute of spiritual fruit, should, therefore, be treated in one or 
 other of the three ways that have been suggested. Especially does he en- 
 tertain this view regarding the incij)ient College at Rawal Pindi. The 
 establishment of this institution was a distinct departure from the 
 policy which we had previously adopted, as well as from the policy of 
 our predecessors in that station. In view of the paucity of our forces, 
 the doubts which many entertain of the usefulness of even High Schools 
 as a means of converting the heathen, and the fact that one good Christian 
 College had already been started in the Punjab where all of our con- 
 verts who wished to do so could pursue their education, the writer is 
 aware of no reason by which it can be justified. 
 
women's jewels. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 EVANGELISTIC WORK— III 
 
 Zenana and Medical IVork — Conversion of Indian Women — Its Importance — Igno- 
 rance of these Women — Their Power in the Home — The Zenana Described — 
 The Zenana Worker's Experience and Methods — Her Advantages and Disad- 
 vantages — Results — Medical Missionary Work — Its Growth and Necessity — 
 Objections and Benefits — Our Own Special Efforts in this Line— A History and 
 a Report. 
 
 |ET US now notice special methods, other than that of 
 schools, which have been employed by us to secure the 
 conversion of Indian women. 
 
 It would be hard to exaggerate the importance of reach- 
 ing this class with the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. Not only are 
 they a nutiierous part (almost one-half) of the population, and found 
 in every home, but they are generally much more ignorant and super- 
 stitious than the men and lack the opportunities enjoyed by the latter 
 to acquire knowledge. Men and boys can go without restriction to 
 the bazat's and melas and mingle with their fellows in every crowd that 
 promises interesting or useful experience. For years, too, many of 
 them have been attending schools where they have acquired training 
 and scientific information. But from the time that they are nine years 
 of age, members of the weaker sex, in families of any pretension, must 
 confine themselves to their own homes ; or, if occasionally they appear 
 abroad, it must be under a heavy veil or in a closed palanquin. Girls' 
 (174) 
 
HINDRANCES IN A HINDU HOME 175 
 
 Schools, moreover, are of recent origin, embrace only a few pupils,* 
 and reach these few only for a short time, as early marriage is the 
 general rule, and once a girl is married she rarely interests herself in 
 school life. Nor have Orientals yet got over the idea that it is a dis- 
 graceful thing for a man to teach his own wife and daughters. 
 
 In many houses, therefore, a great gulf separates the two sexes. As 
 a native newspaper says : 
 
 "The educated native is nowhere so miserable as in his own home, 
 and by none is he so much embarrassed as by his female relations. 
 His private life may be said to be at antipodes with his public career. 
 In public he may be a Demosthenes in oratory, or a Luther in reform; 
 in his home he is but a timid, crouching Hindu, yielding unquestion- 
 ing submission to the requisitions of a superstitious family. Between 
 husband and wife there can be no rational conversation, no hearty ex- 
 change of thought and sympathies, no co-operation in really useful 
 undertakings, and no companionship. They cannot possibly agree, 
 and so long as the illiterate wife governs the household according to her 
 orthodox prejudices, the nation cannot make any real advancement." 
 
 And these remarks are especially true in regard to religious progress. 
 So long as mother, sister, wife and daughter remain in darkness so 
 long must husband, brother and son virtually remain so too. None are 
 more ready to drive away from home a Christian convert than the fe- 
 male members of his own household. Hence, the conversion of In- 
 dian women is not only important in itself — as important intrinsically 
 as the conversion of men — but it bears a very close relation to the lat- 
 ter. How can we expect any great relaxation of the rules of caste, or 
 any great movement among families, or even among the male heads of 
 families, toward Christianity, until the female sex is enlightened ? 
 The ignorance and heathenish condition of women is, perhaps, the 
 greatest barrier, now found in India, to the spread of divine truth. 
 " When we get the women of India on our side, with a Christian in- 
 telligence to guide them, and with warm sympathy for their husbands, 
 then," says a distinguished missionary, "the battle will be won." 
 
 *The number of female pupils in all India reported in the year 1890 was 
 294,036; of males, 3,325,105, or more than eleven times as many males as females. 
 Even our own Mission reported only 1037 girls in her schools at the close of 1S93, 
 although she had 4823 boys under instruction. And in 1894 when 4679 male pupils 
 were reported, only 1097 female scholars appeared on the rolls — that is, just about 
 one-seventh of the whole attendance. 
 
176 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 One method by which an effort is made to reach this class is that of 
 zenana visitation. 
 
 The word zenana, or zanana, is of Persian origin, and is derived 
 from zan, which means a woman. Anything is zenatia which pertains 
 to a woman. Hence, the application of the word to that part of 
 Oriental houses which women occupy. This is generally the inner 
 or the rear portion of the dwelling, and often it is furnished in the 
 shabbiest manner. Men appropriate to themselves the front and more 
 exposed parts of the house — which are also, of course, the cheeriest ; 
 and, if any fine furniture adorns the establishment, there is the place 
 where it is most likely to be found. But sometimes the zenana part 
 also is well finished and well supplied with every requisite. Nothing 
 could have been more elegant than the zenana section of an Aryan 
 gentleman's house in Miani, which the author saw before it was occu- 
 pied by his family. It consisted of several stories of rooms and veran- 
 das, surrounding, as usual, a central court, which supplied air and 
 light to all. But money was not spared in its construction. Its panel- 
 work painting, its Sanskrit mottoes in gold and variegated colors, its 
 splendid wall mirrors, its carved screens and polished hard-wood 
 frames, its ceilings dazzling with pictures and tiny looking-glasses, its 
 bay-windows and cabinets — all exhibited the highest style of Indian 
 art. 
 
 Into such places as this, and into other abodes far less pretentious, 
 the zenana worker goes with her message of love. 
 
 In our field she finds little difficulty of entrance. Probably ten 
 times as many houses are open as can be reached by all the ladies and 
 their assistants. Even after the great excitement against such work in 
 Jhelum, which occurred during the year 1884, two hundred zenanas could 
 be counted as still open to the lady missionary. Nor is the visitor (or 
 visitors, for usually two work together) required to leave her Bible be- 
 hind her when she goes into these places. Nor yet is it necessary for her 
 to teach embroidery, or knitting, or any other accomplishment as an in- 
 troduction to higher work. The prospect of learning to read and 
 getting acquainted with a more advanced condition of society is usu- 
 ally sufficient inducement to overcome every objection. True, there 
 are unaspiring women, and surly husbands, and closed houses, espe- 
 cially among the Muhammadans. But the rule is otherwise, and 
 sometimes ardent longing for a missionary's visits reigns in the heart 
 of a zenana. 
 
EXPERIENCE OF ZENANA WORKERS 
 
 177 
 
 According to their own account zenana workers meet with a varied 
 experience. Occasionally there is a great deal of ceremony as they 
 enter and leave. Servants flit hitlier and thither with messages, halls 
 and courts are passed, some of which perhaps contain cattle, and a 
 period of waiting is required before the reception room and the be- 
 gums'^'- are reached ; and occasionally, during or after the interview 
 a present is offered the caller as a token of respect. But generally 
 there is less delay and less formality. 
 Almost always, however, each visitor 
 receives the best seat which can be fur- 
 nished her — whether that be a European 
 chair, a kiirsi, or a c/iarpai. Sometimes 
 only the ladies of the house are present ; 
 sometimes a neighbor or two, or even a 
 whole room full of friends, make their 
 appearance. Occasionally the hostess 
 and her companions appear in their 
 finest silks and are weighed down with 
 costly jewels ; but sometimes they ap- 
 pear almost in a state of nudity. 
 
 Conversation often begins with the 
 most trivial subjects. The new Miss 
 Sahiba is generally put through some 
 such a catechism as this: "Are your 
 parents living ? Have you brothers and 
 sisters ? Are they married ? Are you 
 married ? Why did your parents neglect 
 to marry you ? Did nobody ever ask 
 you to be his wife ? Will you ever be 
 married? Why don't you wear rings 
 
 in your ears and nose? Why did you come to this country? What 
 salary do you get ? The Mem-Sahiba's catechism resembles this very 
 much, but includes also the question. How many sons have you? 
 never the question. How many daughters? 
 
 When such inquiries are ended, it often takes a good while for the 
 narrow-minded women to recover from the wonder produced by some 
 of the answers which they receive. Gradually, however, progress is 
 made, religious topics introduced, a part of the Bible read, dhajans 
 
 * Native ladies of a high rank. 
 
 13 
 
 MARY ANNA. 
 
178 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 sung and the hearers directed to Jesus as their Saviour. Often, too, 
 regular lessons are given, and zenana scholars, through repeated visits, 
 eventually brought up to the point of reading the Scriptures for them- 
 selves. 
 
 One disadvantage of zenana visitation is that male relatives some- 
 times make their appearance, either to scoff or encourage, and when 
 this happens many of the women scatter in different directions; 
 although not always. Another disadvantage is that only the more 
 cultured and experienced class of laborers can be employed in this 
 work. High-caste native ladies have an aristocratic feeling and will 
 not be satisfied with any but what they consider the very best. Still 
 another disadvantage is that no house can be visited very frequently. 
 Five or six zenana visits a day are about all that a lady worker or her 
 companion can overtake; and, if they have forty or fifty houses on 
 their list, no one of them can get much of their attention. And then 
 audiences in houses of high-caste people are usually quite small, much 
 smaller than can be had in a girls' school. 
 
 On the other hand there is close personal contact in zenana work, 
 and instruction can be brought home very directly to the heart. A 
 mature class of persons, too, can be reached in this way and women 
 can be taught who would otherwise remain entirely ignorant of the 
 gospel, to say nothing of the opportunity thus given to continue and 
 complete work which has been begun in the schools or started by a 
 medical practitioner. 
 
 Direct results of a spiritual character have not yet appeared to any 
 great extent. Few have been brought in this way to make a public 
 profession of their faith in Christ, but as many, perhaps, as could be 
 expected when we consider the tremendous difficulties which lie in the 
 way of such an act. Private confession of faith, however, is not rare ; 
 and certainly much has been done by zenana workers to dispel igno- 
 rance and superstition, and lessen the hold which idolatry has upon a 
 Hindu home. 
 
 But zenana visitation has a broader sense than that which is gener- 
 ally attached to it. It may apply to work in the houses of the common 
 people, who constitute a large majority of the population. Less cere- 
 mony is required in reaching this class than the more aristocratic, and 
 less time needs to be spent by a visitor in secular instruction. Besides, 
 larger audiences can be readily secured. Almost as easy is it for a 
 lady missionary to collect a company of women in the court of a work- 
 
MEDICAL MISSIONARY WORK 179 
 
 ingman's house, to listen to her message, as it is for a missionary of 
 the other sex to gather a company of men at a street corner for a 
 similar purpose. And probably this is the more useful and effective 
 branch of zenana work. There may be more noise and eclat in the 
 conversion of a begum, or a veiled Muhammadan lady, than in the 
 conversion of the wife of a carpenter or a cooly ; but whether it in- 
 volves larger and more blessed consequences is a question, and certainly 
 it is not likely to occur so often. 
 
 Medical missionary work has become an important branch of Chris- 
 tian labor among the heathen. In September, 1892, it was reported 
 by the Medical Missionary Record of New York that 359 fully quali- 
 fied foreign physicians, of whom 74 were women, were then engaged 
 in such work in various parts of the world — 126 in China, 76 in India, 
 46 in Africa and iii in other regions — also that 173 of these physi- 
 cians had gone out from the United States and 169 from Great Britain. 
 The American Board alone, from its origin down to Jan. i, 1895, ^^^d 
 sent out 89 medical missionaries, of wliom 55 were not ordained. The 
 "Statistical Tables of Missions in India," prepared in 1890, report 97 
 foreign and Eurasian and 168 native Christian medical workers of both 
 sexes in that country, as well as 166 hospitals and dispensaries; while 
 in the Punjab alone there were 34 foreign and Eurasian and 35 native 
 medical workers, and 34 hospitals and dispensaries. Of late years, 
 moreover, influences have been at work specially tending to increase 
 the number of missionaries and Christian helpers engaged in medical 
 work among the women of that land ; and chief among these influences, 
 no doubt, have been the interest taken by Lady Dufferin and her suc- 
 cessors in the provision of suitable medical treatment for upper-class 
 {pardah) women and the scheme of help which (since the year 1885) 
 they have carried on with this end in view.* 
 
 As has already been remarked, f every missionary is required to 
 dabble in medicine. But the well-trained physician goes into the 
 business more fully and systematically than others. A dispensary is 
 establi.shed either in his own house or at a convenient point, where he 
 sees patients at stated hours, inquires into their maladies and supplies 
 remedies. Perhaps, too, he has a hospital near at hand into which the 
 more serious cases are admitted for regular treatment. A Bible worker 
 also talks to the people while they wait for medical examination at the 
 dispensary, and either he or his employer daily visits the hospital for 
 
 *See p. 72. fSee pp. 145, 146- 
 
180 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 religious conversation and prayer with its inmates. Besides this the 
 medical man, or woman, is often called abroad to see sick people in 
 their homes, where attention may be paid to spiritual as well as physical 
 disease. And more than this : at fit seasons the physician generally 
 travels around among the towns and villages of his District carrying 
 the double blessings of temporal and eternal healing to multitudes of 
 people. 
 
 That such work is of a highly beneficent and humanizing char- 
 acter — that there is great need of scientific medical advice in a land 
 where quacks are almost as numerous as fakirs* — that the call for lady 
 doctors coming to us from millions of women, who by inexorable 
 
 custom are shut off from the sur- 
 gical ministrations of men, is 
 loud and heart-rending — and 
 that for Christian communities 
 themselves, and especially for the 
 foreign missionary circle, so far 
 as it is located at a distance 
 from trained physicians, the 
 medical missionary is almost a 
 necessity — are facts which have 
 often been presented to people 
 of Christian countries, and which 
 no one would be inclined to 
 question. 
 
 But some of the very objec- 
 tions that have been made to 
 educational work as an evangelistic agency have also been made to 
 medical work having the same end in view. It is said to be largely 
 secular in its character, to involve a great deal of expense, to form an 
 unholy alliance with the government by drawing funds for its support 
 from the public treasury, to be frequently dominated by the desire to 
 make a good display of medical rather than religious results, to fear con- 
 version and baptism as the direct consequence of its efforts lest such 
 events might create serious trouble and even temporarily close a hos- 
 pital or a dispensary, and to be generally barren of direct spiritual 
 fruit. It has even been said that educational work is more hopeful 
 than medical, because it deals solely with the young and by its regular, 
 
 * See pp. 47, 48. 
 
 A NATIVE WOMAN. 
 
ADVANTAGES OF MEDICAL MISSION WORK 181 
 
 repeated and protracted opportunities has a better chance to instruct 
 the mind and reach the conscience. 
 
 Much, however, can be said in favor of the latter method of spread- 
 ing the gospel when conducted under wise regulations. Its expenses 
 are largely borne by fees, Municipal or District grants, and voluntary 
 contributions from outside sources. It almost always secures an audi- 
 ence without difficulty. It obtains a great variety of hearers — persons 
 of all ages, classes and conditions — Hindus, Muhammadans and 
 Sikhs — Brahmans, Khatriyas, Sayyids and Chuliras — men and women. 
 It tends to break up distinctions of caste. It reaches people when the 
 heart is made tender by affliction and is susceptible of religious im- 
 pressions. It comes enforced by practical kindness and undoubted 
 human sympathy. It has no superior as a pioneer agency in entering 
 new fields, and sometimes succeeds in starting and establishing mission 
 work where all other methods completely fail. It furnislies the sesame 
 which opens the door of many a zenana that is closed to ordinary Bible 
 teachers. It claims the example of our Lord Jesus Christ and his 
 apostles, who not only preached the gospel to the poor but healed the 
 sick, cured the deaf and gave sight to the blind — a claim which is not 
 altogether nullified by the fact that the great object of the New 
 Testament miracles was to establish the Messiahship of Christ and 
 confirm the communications of his inspired messengers. 
 
 Not mentioning the ordinary ministrations of unprofessional laborers, 
 our own special efforts in this department have been altogether in the 
 line of zenana medical work. This has been due partly to the greater 
 need of such efforts among women than among men, partly to the 
 stimulus experienced from a general movement in India toward 
 medical help for the female sex, and partly to the fact that Providence 
 favored us more in - getting laborers for this department than for 
 medical work of a more general character. 
 
 As early as September 17, 1880, Miss Euphie Gordon and Mrs. 
 Johnson opened up a hospital for women in Gurdaspur which continued 
 in operation for about five years, and did much good. This was closed 
 only because the ladies in charge of it wished to go to America to se- 
 cure a regular medical education and no one else appeared to take their 
 places. 
 
 When Dr. White arrived in the country and was located at Sialkot, 
 still more extensive movements of a similar character began in that 
 city. Dispensary work, to a certain extent, was required from the very 
 
182 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 beginning of the Doctor's residence there. A hospital was also started 
 in Sialkot on January 12, 1S88, and a building erected for its use which 
 was formally opened December 30, 1889, and completed in the spring 
 of 1891. At Pasrur, a Tahsil town nineteen miles distant from Sial- 
 kot, a branch dispensary was established November, 1890, and placed 
 in charge of a European assistant. A class of students was also formed 
 at the principal station to whom instruction was given in medical 
 science. And every year tours have been made in various directions 
 so as to reach as far as possible the people of the towns and villages of 
 the District. As an indication of the amount of work done it may be 
 noted that, during 1891, 24,366 patients were treated at the dispen- 
 saries and 63 at tlie hospital; while 465 surgical operations were per- 
 formed, 15 of which were classed as major. Thirty villages were also 
 visited and 1275 calls made upon patients in their homes. 
 
 When Dr. Johnson reached India, after receiving a thorough course 
 of medical training in the United States, she was located in the Jhe- 
 lum Mission District, which included Bhera. This was in March, 
 1890. Dispensaries were soon opened up at both Jhelum and Bhera; 
 and, though the buildings erected for their use were swept away by the 
 floods of July 20, 1893, the work of dispensing medicine did not cease. 
 Since then, too, a new dispensary has been built at Jhelum, while visits 
 to zenana patients and medical tours through various parts of the sur- 
 rounding country have been as common as in Sialkot. A few sufferers 
 have also been treated as indoor patients at Jhelum and soon, it is 
 hoped, a fully equipped hospital will be opened. Dr. Johnson's state- 
 ments of the amount of work done from year to year resemble very 
 closely those of Dr. Wiiite. In her report for the year 1893 she says, 
 "At our Jhelum Dispensary we have treated 7061 new and 3710 old 
 patients, making a total of 10,771, while Miss Morgan, our European 
 assistant at Bhera, treated 3941 patients, making a grand total of 
 14,712 patients for the year." 
 
 When Dr. White left for America in the early part of 1894 her work 
 was left in charge of Mrs. Fretwell and the native assistants, but in 
 March Dr. Johnson was also directed to make periodical visits to the 
 hospital at Sialkot. Now it is in charge of a new missionary, Mary 
 A. Platter, M. D. 
 
 In spiritual efforts the usual methods are employed in both fields. 
 Bible reading and exhortation at the dispensaries and hospitals, re- 
 ligious conversation in the zenanas, printed passages of Scripture dis- 
 
RESULTS OF MEDICAL MISSION WORK 
 
 183 
 
 tributed as tickets or tracts, and prayer for a blessing wherever prac- 
 ticable : these are all employed to draw patients to the great Healer of 
 souls. 
 
 As for results, two baptisms occurred among the patients at Gurdaspar 
 hospital and one notable conversion was reported at the beginning 
 of the work in Sialkot, that of a veiled Muhammadan lady; while 
 several instances have been given of persons upon whom it is thought 
 a deep religious impression was made. But the most remarkable result 
 of all, perhaps, is that wider diffusion of Scripture knowledge among 
 an exceedingly ignorant, yet important class, through which we hope 
 in due season to reap an abundant harvest. 
 
 THE LIGHTHOUSE. 
 
BUFFALOES BATHING IN A VILLAGE POND. 
 
 i^From a Punjabi Drawing^ 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 EVANGELISTIC WORK— IV 
 
 Through_Literature — Itineration — Congregational Services — Efforts of the Common 
 People — Moral and Spiritual Character — Testimony Bearing. 
 
 LTHOUGH the use of literature for evangelistic purposes 
 is generally connected with some other method of circu- 
 lating the gospel, its character is so distinct as to justify 
 separate mention. Nor has it been an unimportant 
 arm of the service. Bibles, tracts, treatises, books, newspapers, cards 
 — in Urdu and Punjabi — all forms of publication have been used 
 as opportunity offered. In every school the Word of God is 
 found as a text book ; and at every religious service, whether in 
 church, bazar, or zenana, a portion of the same Book is read as one of 
 the means of grace. Cards containing Scripture texts are given out at 
 the hospitals and monthly tracts distributed gratis among people who 
 can read. Books are sold at a cheap rate, wherever a purchaser can 
 be found, and religious newspapers are loaned to inquirers. In sev- 
 eral of our stations, moreover, this work has been specially strength- 
 ened and concentrated by the establishment of a bookshop and the 
 employment of a colporteur. Such has been the case at Jhelum, Guj- 
 ranvvala, Gurdaspur and, to some extent also, at Sialkot and Pathankot. 
 These shops contain reading-rooms and become the fountains of a cer- 
 (184) 
 
LITERATURE AND ITINERATION 185 
 
 tain amount of literary stimulus and religious life. Words are often 
 read or heard there, as well as elsewhere, which, we are well assured, 
 have had their appropriate effect in dispelling superstition and con- 
 verting the soul. 
 
 All the literature thus circulated does not of course come from our 
 own press or our own pens. Indeed the great bulk of it, as we have 
 seen (p. 92), is obtained from neighboring missionary sources. 
 
 But our own workers nevertheless have done something in this line. 
 In the early eighties we had a lithographic press, managed by the Pub- 
 lication Committee of the Presbytery, on which were printed several 
 books ; and among them was one at least, of 48 pages, addressed to non- 
 Christians, entitled "Brief Evidences of Christianity" — an English 
 treatise translated from the original of Dr. Alden by Dr. Martin. But 
 the management of a press without continual employment was found 
 to be expensive and unsatisfactory. Hence it was abandoned ; and 
 ever since our literary productions have been printed elsewhere — some- 
 times at Mission expense and sometimes not. Of evangelistic publica- 
 tions thus issued, one of 138 pages by the writer may be mentioned, 
 called "The Saviour's Claim " — the translation of a book by the late 
 Rev. R. H. Pollock, D. D. But the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das has been by 
 f:ir our most prolific author. Up to April, 1894, he had published ten 
 different books and had written at least eleven different series of let- 
 ters, besides many single communications for newspapers, chiefly the 
 Niir Afshan. The books contained an aggregate of 1252 pages and 
 6000 copies, and some of the series of letters extended over a period of 
 three months. Another book of 150 pages was also ready for publica- 
 tion. Many of these treatises are controversial, or apologetic, in their 
 character, and hence have an evangelistic aim. 
 
 Itineration designates a certain method, or rather application of 
 methods, which has been peculiarly characteristic of our own mission- 
 ary efforts — so much so that we may be called pre-eminently "an itin- 
 erating Mission." 
 
 It implies, of course, movement from point to point and is opposed 
 to that policy which would confine work chiefly to a few centers. It 
 carries Christian effort not only to cities, but also as far as possible to 
 the towns and villages of the outlying district and seeks to reach peo- 
 ple of every class, far and near. 
 
 Three varieties of this kind of evangelism may be mentioned, corre- 
 sponding respectively to three different kinds of temporary homes used 
 
186 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 during the work of itineration — namely, tents, public houses and mis- 
 sion buildings. The first of these varieties was more universally exhib- 
 ited in former days than at present, but has always been necessarily 
 confined to the coolest part of the year ; that is, to the five months be- 
 ginning October 15th and ending March 15th. Indeed, seldom is the 
 season for tenting even that long. The other two varieties are of later 
 growth — the third last of all — and, while they can be utilized at all 
 seasons of the year, they become more common when, on account of 
 the weather, tenting is impossible, and especially during the dry, hot 
 months of spring and early summer. 
 
 Itinerating with tents has generally been considered the most 
 romantic, interesting and attractive feature — the very flower indeed — 
 of missionary life. 
 
 For some days, or even weeks, preparation must be made. Tents 
 must be purchased, or overhauled and repaired ; camels must be hired, 
 either by private arrangement or through the intervention of a govern- 
 ment officer ; camel boxes — great wooden bags or panniers made with, 
 or without, different compartments — must be obtained ; wagons, horses, 
 harness, saddles, provisions, clothing, tent furniture and all other nec- 
 essary articles must be got ready ; servants and Christian helpers must 
 be notified ; and often vexatious delays occur, even after the day of 
 departure has been set. The camel at best is not a very amiable ani- 
 mal, and when he is made to kneel down and take on his load, his 
 grunting and growling and awkward attempts to rise and resist the 
 process, furnish an impressive and sometimes an amusing entertain- 
 ment for strangers. 
 
 When all is ready and the caravan begins to move in a body it pre- 
 sents a curious spectacle. The Sahib and his family in a two-wheeled 
 cart or covered spring-wagon, the Miss Sahibas on ponies or in a tum- 
 tum, the native Christian helpers, mounted as best they can be or not 
 mounted at all, the servants on foot, and the camels with their irregu- 
 lar and motley loads — tent poles, tent coverings, boxes, bundles, 
 trunks, bags, tables, chairs, carpets, chests of drawers and charpais be- 
 ing all jumbled together without regard to symmetry or anything else 
 but the need of a balance — form a cavalcade whose appearance upon 
 an American highway would attract a crowd of observers. 
 
 For some time the journey, forsooth, lies over a good road and is 
 destitute of remarkable incident; but when bypaths, streams, villages 
 or ravines are reached the case is likely to be different. Frequently 
 
ITINERA TING EXPERIENCES 
 
 187 
 
 the road is so rough that walking is preferred to riding in a wagon. 
 Sometimes a wheel breaks and compels the occupants of a tum-tum to 
 dismount. Sometimes a camel gets frightened, or stuck in the mud, 
 or loses his balance in ascending an embankment, and sad havoc is 
 made of the load which he carries. Occasionally a horse, or a wheeled 
 conveyance, sinks into a quicksand when crossing a river and only 
 with the greatest difficulty can be extricated. Sometimes a rider is 
 thrown from his pony, or his cart upsets, and he gets a sprained ankle, 
 or meets with even a worse disaster. Sometimes a dust storm or a 
 shower of rain appears and drives 
 
 everybody to seek the nearest and ^^ •,,-•-- p^^t.--^--.-., 
 
 best possible shelter. 
 
 And, as the pilgrims jog along, in- 
 teresting sights greet their vision : — 
 first, the almost continuous stream of 
 travel leading in the opposite direc- 
 tion ; people of every faith and caste 
 and style of dress, or undress, on foot ; 
 babies carried astride the shoulders of 
 men or the sides of women ; ekkas 
 overflowing with passengers and, like 
 a sleigh, warning everybody of their 
 approach by jingling bells; great carts 
 heavily laden with finely broken straw 
 {bhusd) or some other farm product; 
 strings of cattle, asses, mules, ponies 
 or camels bearing their burdens of 
 grain or other freight ; men and women 
 astride of donkeys, mules or horses ; 
 
 a chance bhangiwala, palanquin, or English conveyance ; and now and 
 then a bridal procession with its curtained doli, its noisy music and 
 its indispensable marriage presents. Green fields, creaking well-wheels, 
 singing birds, mud villages, half-brick towns, extensive plains, decep- 
 tive mirages, distant, snow-covered mountain ranges, flocks of geese, 
 ducks and other water fowl in mid-air, and occasionally jackals, deer 
 or other wild animals, also form features of the passing panorama, or 
 give it a perpetual background. 
 
 When the missionaries' destination is reached an encampment is 
 formed in the midst of a crowd of gaping natives. This is done by 
 
 BHANGIWALA. 
 
188 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 pitching their tents on public ground and as near the village as may 
 be. In India almost every town has a common at one side which can 
 be used for this purpose. 
 
 Five tents, at least, are necessary to make a comfortable and reason- 
 ably complete missionary encampment — one for the Sahib and his 
 family, one for the young ladies, one for the native Christian workers, 
 one for the servants and one for preaching services, called a shainiana. 
 The first of these contains a central enclosure perhaps twelve feet in 
 width by eighteen or twenty- four feet in length, with its end frontward, 
 which is curtained off transversely into two apartments — one back 
 used for sleejoing purposes, anil the other forward (half as large), which 
 combines sitting-room, dining-room and study all in one; while over 
 the whole is a two-fold canvas roof sloping to each side. Extending 
 across the rear is also a rectangular or semicircular bathroom, and 
 across the front a covered veranda of similar size and shape which, by 
 being enclosed, may be utilized to increase the size of the sitting-room. 
 Over the earthen floor of the whole tent is spread a common Punjabi 
 cotton carpet, called a dari, and at one end of the sitting-room is 
 placed a small stove whose pipe extends through the canvas of the 
 tent ; while camp tables, chairs, stools, trunks, beds, washstands, 
 writing-desks and other necessary articles, occupy their appropriate 
 places — mayhap a good deal crowded. 
 
 The young ladies' tent is of somewhat similar character, but gener- 
 ally smaller ; while the tents for natives are still less elaborate and 
 costly. The shamiana is a square tent with a flat top and upright sides. 
 Its ground floor is covered either with a cotton carpet, or rough matting, 
 and on this the audience sits — only the leaders ofa meeting being expect- 
 ed to occupy stools. But the shamiana is often omitted from an itiner- 
 ating outfit, and in that case services must be held in one of the other 
 tents or in the open air outside — unless, indeed, there is a village 
 schoolhouse or church in the neighborhood, or somebody offers a pri- 
 vate court for the purpose. 
 
 Not far away from the tents may be seen the wheeled conveyances 
 of the party ; while horses and camels (and cows, too, if there be any) 
 are tethered, or tied, at a convenient distance. One or more camp 
 fires also enliven the scene and are made useful for warming and cook- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 At night particularly the scene appears weird and picturesque — 
 cooks preparing meals over their chulhas (little fireplaces, made of mud 
 
VILLAGE OFFICERS 
 
 189 
 
 or a few bricks), men warming themselves at the open fires, lamps 
 swinging before the tents, watchmen pacing backward and forward, 
 servants and helpers flitting hither and thither, horses blanketed, camels 
 munching green fodder, or " put to bed " side by side with blankets 
 thrown over the tops of their saddles, the stars shining overhead 
 and perhaps the moon pouring down its pale light — one is re- 
 minded more of the state than of the church militant. 
 
 Every village of any size has at least two officers — a headman, called 
 a lamhardar,"^ and a watchman, called a chaukidar. Application is 
 
 BLUE HERONS. 
 
 often made to the former for fuel, grass, horse-feed and certain kinds 
 of provisions — such as eggs, milk, fowls, meat and perhaps rice, dal 
 (lentils), turnips and onions ; and, when at all friendly, these he 
 furnishes, if he can, through an order given to some of his people. 
 Of course they are paid for. The chaukidar is also expected to see 
 that no harm comes to the encampment from theft or assault, and 
 sometimes a special night watchman is employed from the village as 
 an additional security against damage. This throws the responsibility 
 
 * Some towns are large enough to have several lambardars, one of whom ranks 
 the others and is called an ala-lambardar. 
 
190 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 where it will do the most good, and paves the way for a quick and easy 
 remedy when harm is done. 
 
 Sometimes, however, no dependence is placed upon village officers 
 for help during the work of itineration. This is especially the case 
 when, because of the indifference or unfriendliness of the Deputy 
 Commissioner, or for some other reason, the lambardars take no inter- 
 est in their missionary visitors. Then servants either get supplies as 
 best they can from the bazars, or the Christians of the place (if there 
 be any), having been previously notified, see that abundant provision is 
 made, at the proper time, for their friends. 
 
 By common law camels and goats can, without being considered 
 trespassers, browse on any shrubs or trees which may be found in their 
 wanderings ; and their owners even cut down small branches of foliage 
 to furnish them with food. Hence camels after a wearisome 
 march are generally turned loose to get something to eat, and 
 their long snake-like necks, winding among the branches of the trees 
 or stretched up to an enormous height in an effort to reach tempting 
 leaves, constitute one of the curious sights of an Indian encampment. 
 Formerly, too, missionaries, who, like other Europeans, are allowed to 
 carry firearms, supplied their own tables with meat by killing ducks, 
 geese, partridges, quails, kunjes and even deer; but the custom has 
 almost died out, partly because they have less time to spare for the 
 purpose, and partly because they find that such a practice prejudices 
 the minds of the Hindus against their work ; for this class of religion- 
 ists, theoretically at least, hate the destruction of animal life. Water 
 also can be generally had from a village well without extra expense 
 through the Muhammadaii water-carrier {bihishii) who accompanies the 
 missionaries in their itineration. 
 
 But all the requisites of a long tour cannot be supplied in any of the 
 ways which we have mentioned. Hence a messenger must be occa- 
 sionally sent to the original point of departure for many articles, need 
 of which becomes apparent from time to time. This messenger also 
 acts as a mail carrier. 
 
 Religious work usually begins as soon as a missionary party reaches 
 its place of encampment, and becomes a little settled. Around the 
 laborers, male and female, collect companies of men and women, com- 
 ing chiefly perhaps to gratify curiosity or obtain medical aid, but ready 
 also to listen to the message of him, or her, who brings glad tid- 
 ings of spiritual good. And this state of things is likely to con- 
 
RELIGIOUS WORK ON A TOUR 191 
 
 tinue all day — the audiences constantly making up their losses by de- 
 parture from new arrivals. At two or three periods of the day, also, 
 more formal services may be held in the preaching tent or some other 
 suitable place. This is almost certain to be the case if Christians live 
 in the neighborhood. 
 
 But work is not confined to the encampment or to the people who 
 visit the laborers in their temporary home. The gospel is carried as 
 far as possible to every individual in the village. Preachers go to the 
 bazars, and back streets, and low-caste quarters ; zenana workers visit 
 the homes of the inhabitants; and everywhere, in every manner, an 
 effort is made to disseminate the truth and dispel superstition. 
 
 Nor are other villages of the neighborhood forgotten. From two to 
 four days are usually spent at each place of encampment, and, on days 
 when there is no moving, the laborers divide into two or more parties 
 and each party visits two or more villages, repeating in each village 
 the efforts which have already been described. Thus a wide circle of 
 evangelism is secured at every center which is occupied. 
 
 But other work is also performed on their itinerating tours. The 
 whole round of missionary duties as far as possible must be carried 
 along with the party and fully discharged. Schools must he inspected ; 
 native Christians must be examined ; new converts must be baptized ; 
 communion services must be held ; homes for village workers and houses 
 for village churches must be secured ; reports must be received or pre- 
 pared ; accounts must be kept ; correspondence must not be neglected, 
 and mothers must see to the instruction of their children. 
 
 Nor are the experiences of the camp always lovely. Sometimes the sun 
 at midday makes it too hot for people to remain in tents and drives 
 them under the shade of an umbrageous tree. Occasionally rain pours 
 down in such quantities that the tents and much of their contents are 
 completely saturated, and it becomes impossible either to move the en- 
 campment or to occupy it in comfort. Sometimes the wind and dust 
 storms give a good deal of trouble. Now and then village officers are 
 unfriendly and greatly obstruct our movements. Sometimes thieves 
 enter the tents and carry away valuables. In this way one of our young 
 ladies, in 1883, ^^st nearly a month's salary, besides articles of apparel, 
 while another had her medicine chest rifled. Sometimes the night is made 
 fearful by the howling of jackals, dogs and even wolves. Now and then 
 the smells of a locality become unendurable. Sometimes mad dogs, or 
 crazy fakirs, give great annoyance, especially to the ladies. Sometimes 
 
192 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 a camel dies from rain and cold, or a saddening accident hapi)ens to 
 an employee — as was the case at Dinanagar in 1891, when one of the 
 camel men, who was cutting limbs off a tree, fell to the ground and 
 received fatal injuries. Often, too, the annoyance felt from a con- 
 tinual stream of native visitors becomes painful. Said one who has 
 now gone to her long rest, "It is not altogether the work which 
 wears me out. When from morning to night, women and children — 
 and men too — come, one company after another, crowding around the 
 door, peeping through the chicks^ or lifting them up, looking upon 
 white people, their clothing and their manner of living, as a great 
 
 %\w^«fr-^'^' 
 
 JACKAL. 
 
 tamasha,^ it can be borne a few days very well, but after a few months 
 it becomes monotonous. It is true we can have them driven back from 
 the tent, and often have to do so for a while ; but it would not do to 
 drive them away altogether. We might as well stay at home if we did 
 so." 
 
 The second variety of itinerating work differs from that already de- 
 scribed in the substitution of public houses for tents while on a tour. 
 These public houses are chiefly dak (stage) bungalows, rest houses at- 
 tached to native inns, and police bungalows. | The two former can 
 be occupied at a fixed daily rent-rate, while the last can be had only 
 
 * Curtains made of slit bamboos woven together with cord. 
 
 f Show, entertaining sight. % See pp. 81, 82. 
 
ITINERATING IN BOATS 193 
 
 through the courtesy of police officers — a courtesy, however, which is 
 often extended to missionaries. Hindu dharmsalas — that is, lodging- 
 places for pilgrim Hindus — have also sometimes, though rarely, been 
 granted for the use of a Christian laborer. 
 
 The third variety of itinerating work differs from the latter in the 
 substitution of mission for public houses. These may be chapels, 
 school buildings or small bungalows. Of late years such houses have 
 been multiplied within our borders, and in the future many more will 
 probably be erected. Either the second or the third variety, or both 
 combined, must be adopted in seasons when, on account of the 
 weather, itinerating with tents is impossible ; and, although at present 
 less flexible tlian the first, it is probable that, on account of their greater 
 cheapness, they (especially the last named) will gradually supersede 
 tenting at all seasons as the work advances and more lodging places are 
 established.* 
 
 These varieties, moreover, involve less trouble than the first. They 
 do not require such elaborate preparations and such a caravan of 
 beasts, wagons or men. Just in proportion to the curtailment experi- 
 enced in this respect, however, does the romance connected with itin- 
 eration diminish, while some comforts connected with the first method 
 must also be dispensed with. 
 
 Notliing has been said of boats as a means of travel and shelter dur- 
 ing evangelistic tours because they have heretofore been little used 
 anywhere in India, except perhaps in Kashmir. But the time is com- 
 ing when they will doubtless be utilized more than they are now. We 
 have several Districts in our own Mission where they would answer a 
 good purpose. Especially is this the case with Jhang. Jhang is trav- 
 ersed by the Jhelum and the Chenab rivers ; and, as the country not 
 watered by these streams is largely desert, most of the towns and the 
 population are located on or near their banks and can be easily reached 
 by boat. The day, therefore, may not be far distant when a mission- 
 ary vessel will play as important a part there as the Ibis does on the 
 Nile in Egypt. 
 
 Itineration, with us, has proved to be an exceedingly fruitful means 
 of disseminating truth and making converts to Christianity. This is 
 due probably, under God, to the number and the character of the 
 people who have been reached. Perhaps ten times as many different 
 persons are in this way made to hear the gospel as could be brought 
 
 * Indeed, tenting, even among the civil officers, is not as common as it once was. 
 13 
 
(194) 
 
CONGREGATIONAL EVANGELISM 195 
 
 to hear it with the same efforts in a large city, and especially in a 
 central station which had been occupied by missionaries for years. 
 And then the classes met with are not usually so rich, or j)roud, or 
 caste-bound as city people are. Many of them are poor and humble ; 
 many belong to the depressed tribes ; many are outcastes. 
 
 Itineration has also grown to be an indispensable means of inspecting 
 and edifying native Christians and native churches. So great, indeed, 
 has this work become that evangelization proper has been reduced to 
 a secondary and somewhat incidental place among the labors of a 
 touring evangelist. But remarks on this aspect of the subject will be 
 more appropriate in Chapters XX and XXIII. 
 
 The services held in congregations, organized and unorganized, in- 
 cluding, not only regular preaching on the Lord's day, but also Sab- 
 bath schools, prayer meetings and the local mission work of pastors, 
 elders and members, may be mentioned as another important factor in 
 our evangelistic efforts, as well as in the edification of God's people. 
 The preaching of a settled minister, or a "supply," is often attended 
 by persons who are not Christians, and, where schools have been esta- 
 blished, the number of such hearers has sometimes amounted to hun- 
 dreds. The same thing may be said of Sabbath schools. Many of 
 the scholars are unconverted — Hindus, Muhammadans, Sikhs and low- 
 caste people, both children and adults. Indeed, sometimes a nucleus 
 of Christian pupils does not appear in such schools at all ; they are 
 wholly missionary in their character. Occasionally also congregations 
 employ special workers to labor among unconverted people under the 
 direction of their ecclesiastical superiors. 
 
 Even under past conditions the benefit of such influences, emanating 
 constantly from each of our congregational centers, has been worthy 
 of notice ; and when churches are more fully organized, become settled 
 with well qualified pastors, secure missionary rights within well under- 
 stood boundaries, obtain suitable and properly located church build- 
 ings, are relieved from all hampering restrictions and are made to feel 
 that the progress of Christianity in their neighborhood depends mainly 
 on their efforts, we may expect not only that their liberality and piety 
 will be increased, but that their evangelistic movements and evangelis- 
 tic success will be multiplied many fold. 
 
 But in our experience the initial work of making new converts has 
 been accomplished more through the personal and private efforts of 
 the common members of the church than through any other agency— 
 
196 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 more indeed, perhaps, than through all other agencies combined. As 
 natives generally have more to do with this Avork than foreigners, so 
 the common people, as a class, have more to do with it than native 
 ministers and paid helpers. When a man finds the Saviour and em- 
 braces Christianity, Andrew-like, he goes at once to his brother and 
 makes known the fact and strives to get him to follow his example. 
 Neighbors, relatives, friends, in his own and other villages, are thus 
 reached by close contact and by the strongest personal influence which 
 can be brought to bear upon them. And the leaven spreads from his 
 converts to others, and from them to others, and so on until a wide 
 circle is reached. Sometimes, before a final decision is made, scores 
 of people are thus brought into a state of inquiry, and when the time 
 for action comes all move in a body and ask to be baptized. This 
 is especially the case with those who belong to the depressed classes. 
 
 True the native worker, technically so-called, and the missionary 
 have each their part to fulfill. The former follows up what has been 
 accomplished by non-official inferiors and does all he can to give new 
 inquirers a correct knowledge of the Christian religion ; while the 
 latter inspects, instructs, exhorts, sifts and receives into the church 
 those who make a credible profession of faith. There are many cases, 
 indeed, in which new converts hear the first sound of the gospel from 
 the lips of a native or a foreign minister ; but such, it may be confi- 
 dently asserted, is not the general rule. Before his voice reaches 
 them another and humbler agent has extended to them the blessed 
 news of a Saviour. They have enjo3'ed the benefit of that gracious 
 provision, ''Let him that heareth say, Come." 
 
 The value of a consistent character, pure motives and sincere love, in 
 connection with all the methods of evangelization which we have 
 named, ought not to be overlooked. Ignorant and educated heathen 
 alike can appreciate the presence or the absence of these qualities. 
 And what a powerful influence they exert ! Not many years ago an 
 Arya lawyer of Amritsar was convinced of the truth pf Christianity, it 
 is said, by the condescending humility of a " Church " missionary, the 
 Rev. H. E. Perkins. This missionary had formerly been a Commis- 
 sioner in the civil service, and the lawyer had seen him enjoying the 
 jjlenitude of power and honor which belong to that high office. Now 
 he saw him sitting on a small carpet at a Hindu fair, distributing 
 tracts, and speaking to the poor people about Christ, The contrast 
 was so vivid as to lead to his conversion. He could not but feel that 
 
HIGH CHARACTER NEEDED BY EVANGELISTS 
 
 197 
 
 a religion which produced such results must be genuine. The man, 
 who does not practice what he preaches, who sliows that lie is influ- 
 enced in his work by selfish or worldly motives, who takes no heart 
 interest in his hearers, who looks down upon them with contempt, 
 may perchance be used as the instrument of God in saving souls ; but 
 such is not likely to be the case. It is the sincere, self-sacrificing, 
 hardworking, kindhearted, sympathetic, spiritually-minded minister, 
 or lay worker, who, in India as well as elsewhere, is usually blest to the 
 salvation of the lost. The people must feel that the preacher or 
 teacher loves them and is seeking their highest good. 
 
 Nay more, they sometimes require him to attest the truth by his 
 own religious experience. A Muhammadan woman, who was disposed 
 to cavil, once exacted this proof from one of our missionary ladies. 
 Sitting close to her, and looking her steadfastly in the eye, she asked 
 the latter about her personal trust in the Saviour and her personal hope 
 of everlasting life — examining her in a way which surpassed the strict- 
 ness of the Session by which she was admitted into the church. Such 
 replies were received as stopped all cavilling on the inquirer's part, for 
 she said, " I suppose it is all true," although she did add, "but I can- 
 not understand it." Testimony-bearing, when it comes from honest 
 lips, is certainly a powerful means of convincing and converting sin- 
 ners : and, although it has been seldom used in its technical sense by 
 our workers, as Methodists require, there is no doubt that without its 
 real exhibition in the conduct, manner and life of our laborers little 
 good would have been accomplished. Blessed is the Christian worker 
 who shows in his every movement that his " life is hid with Christ in 
 God." He is likely to be a winner of souls. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 EVANGELISTIC WORK— V 
 
 Through Forms and Ceremonies — Apologies — Controversy — Worldly Influences — 
 Ascelicism and Fakirisni. 
 
 fNLY a Step forward leads us to observe that we place 
 less dependence upon forms and ceremonies in our evan- 
 gelistic work than upon the simple preaching of the 
 gospel. Earnest, extemporaneous i)rayer, heartily sung 
 bhajans, the reading of God's word, plain statements of divine 
 truth, warm exhortations to repent and accept Christ — these, in 
 ever-varying phase, constitute the main staple of our missionary ser- 
 vices. Our great aim is to make people acquainted with their lost and 
 undone condition by nature and with their only way of escape from 
 impending wrath. The introduction of a ritual into bazar preaching, 
 or itinerating efforts, would seem to us as useless as it would be ridicu- 
 lous. Such a course might make good Roman Catholics, or Church 
 formalists, but, in our opinion, would only hinder the work of heart 
 conversion. It is the kernel, not the husk of Christianity which we are 
 seeking most to produce. 
 
 Nor do we find that the heathen are specially attracted by mere forms. 
 They have enough of these in connection with their own faith. If they 
 make a change of religion at all they are more likely to pass clear over 
 to spiritual Christianity than to do anything else. This no doubt is the 
 reason why Roman Catholics succeed better when they " missionate " 
 among Protestant converts than among Hindus. Idolatry and Popery 
 are too much alike. 
 
 Nor have we depended much upon controversy, or even apologetics, 
 for the conversion of souls. True, the evidences of Christianity are 
 often taught, especially in schools, and sometimes form the necessary 
 antecedent of real faith ; and, wliere people's minds are filled with 
 superstitious notions and wrong religious principles, and even cham- 
 (198) 
 
AID FROM REMNANTS OF TRUTH IN HEATHENISM 199 
 
 pions of error are found ready to uphold it with tongue and pen, con- 
 troversy cannot be altogether avoided. It forces itself upon us in the 
 caviling of opponents, in the honest doubts of inquirers and even in 
 the clear definition of Bible doctrine. Every phase of truth has its 
 corresponding phase of error, and a refutation of the latter will some- 
 times bring out into bolder relief the correctness and the beauty of the 
 former. Besides, there is a sense in which men must be emptied of 
 false principles before they are prepared to receive those that are true. 
 
 But no religion is entirely destitute of correct principles, and no 
 adherents of a false faith are so completely filled with error as to reject 
 every vestige of truth. By emphasizing whatever good remains, its 
 importance will be more fully appreciated by those who hold it, and 
 hope may be entertained that it will quietly dislodge some of the follies 
 with which it has been unnaturally associated. And then, such rem- 
 nants of a primitive religion may be utilized as the seed of something 
 better — the stock on which may be grafted the teachings of a higher 
 revelation. But even if not, great confidence may be placed in the 
 self-evidencing and illuminating power of inspired, heaven-taught 
 truth. As natural darkness is most easily displaced by the introduc- 
 tion of light, so the simple, eternal verities of God's gracious Word 
 have been found the best means of dispelling spiritual darkness. One 
 ray of gospel fact will put to flight a whole host of armed doubts and 
 entrenched idolatries. Once get a hearer clearly under the beams of 
 the Sun of Righteousness and little difficulty will be experienced in 
 dealing with his pantheistic or superstitious errors; nor will the ques- 
 tion of Christ's divinity or God's trinity trouble him long. Gordian 
 knots are then untied " without hands." Everything adapts itself to 
 the new situation. Old things pass away. 
 
 Public oral debate, moreover, in India, as well as elsewhere, depends 
 so much on the character of the persons engaged in it and the cir- 
 cumstances by which it is surrounded that, except under rare conditions, 
 it is not safe to rest the truth on its issues. This was illustrated in May 
 and June, 1893, by a celebrated debate between some Christians and 
 Muhammadans in Amritsar, in which, even according to the judgment 
 of our brethren, the victory of the former was a matter of doubt, and 
 in consequence of which houses even as far away as Sialkot were closed 
 to tlie admission of zenana workers. Readiness of wit, aggressive and 
 persuasive eloquence, happy repartees, bold assumptions, plausible 
 sophistries, or the cheers of a sympathetic audience, may easily turn 
 
Zabttr 19.* 
 
 
 D.S. 
 
 I !>!>: H? '' i »i*IP^ » * I— ^— i-HH— ^i^fl 
 
 Chorus. — Asman ba-yan | karde Khud- ( a de kam \ sare 
 Karde haD j Rabb di wadi- [ a- [ i. 
 
 1. Din karde J rahnde din- ] an nala [galian 
 Bat bakhshdi { rat nun dan- ] a- | i. 
 
 2. Na hai zu- ] ban na a- | waz snni ] jandi 
 Tar zam- J in mcha, ] la- ] i. 
 
 3. Sari za,:- j tnln dean | kandean | tori 
 Apni 1 gal bhi.pahunch- | a- | i. 
 
 4. Tambu ban- | ayS- Rabb | ne suraj de 1 layi 
 Uhnan wich j rakbi unchh- 1 a- | i. 
 
 5. Lire de ] wangar mai- | dan wich jo | daurda 
 Daurne de 1 nal khnshi- | a- 1 i. 
 
 6. AjBmin de I kande thon | due Icande | gbflmda 
 Sabnan nUn. | de^dl rosb- j pa* | i> 
 
 * The Ninteenth Psalm in Oriental meter — a ohajan. 
 (200) 
 
CONTROVERSY IN EVANGELISTIC WORK 201 
 
 the tide of conflict in popular estimation against those who are the 
 advocates of truth and righteousness. Such champions as the late 
 Rev. E. P. Swift, in such places as Gujranwala, may indeed gain some 
 advantage in tournaments of this character, as once this minister did 
 in debating with the distinguished Dayananda Saraswati shortly before 
 the latter's death. And sometimes Providence in a wonderful manner 
 eventually overrules a temporary defeat to the advancement of His 
 cause. This was true even in the case of the debate at Amritsar to 
 which reference has just been made. In the flush of supposed victory 
 Mirza Gulam Ahmed, of Kadian, the Goliath of Islam, was bold enough 
 and impudent enough to predict the death of his opponent, Judge 
 Abdulla Athim, within fifteen months from that date ; but, in spite of 
 his age and ill health and the efforts made by Muhammadans, through 
 the use of a poisonous cobra, and otherwise, to insure the fulfillment of 
 this prophecy, the latter outlived the period allotted him and, through 
 his preservation, became the occasion, if not the cause, of many con- 
 versions. But such results are not always to be expected. In most 
 cases it is undoubtedly better to avoid public debate altogether, or, if it 
 must be engaged in, to have it carried on through the printed page. * 
 
 No doubt a time of greater controversy is before us. Modern 
 heathenism will not die any more easily than ancient heathenism did. 
 Its struggles, too, will certainly become more violent as the end ap- 
 proaches. It \\\\\ then have to be dealt with as the circumstances re- 
 quire. But Julian the Apostate's day is still in the future; and until 
 it comes we may hope that Christianity will continue to be advanced 
 in India more successfully by a dogmatic and irenic, rather than a 
 polemic style of preaching. Even apologetics will continue to hold a 
 subordinate place, as it has heretofore done with us. 
 
 It seems almost superfluous to say that worldly influences have not 
 been used by us to obtain converts or secure their steadfastness in their 
 Christian profession. Yet the charge that we did so has been made 
 against us, as well as against other Missions, by unfriendly critics and 
 superficial observers. And there are some facts, too, which give the 
 color of truth to this charge. New converts from the higher classes must 
 often have a living provided for them, for the simple reason that they 
 are cast out penniless from their former homes and, unless they obtain 
 a living or means of livelihood through us, they must starve — a result 
 which we would not of course allow. And even among low-caste 
 * See remarks on bazar preaching, pp. 157, 1 58, 227, 228. 
 
202 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 converts, who, on account of their undisturbed home relations, are 
 more independent pecuniarily, it has sometimes been thought best to 
 select and employ one or more influential men in each neighborhood 
 to assist in the care and the instruction of the people there; and 
 the hope of being so employed has perliaps operated in certain cases 
 as a stimulus to early and, it may be also, hasty profession. As 
 one characteristic of our policy also is to educate those wlio profess 
 Christianity so far at least that they can read and write, and to choose 
 bright youths for further instruction in advanced schools, so that they 
 may be fitted for teaching or preaching, the prospect of such advant- 
 ages may have had some effect in leading men to embrace Christianity. 
 Besides, it was doubtless felt by many poor people that the change 
 from an outcaste condition to that of brotherhood in religion with the 
 ruling race, was a distinct rise in civil and social standing ; and this 
 also may have had an attractive power. 
 
 Sucli influences, however, have not been used designedly for this 
 purpose but, on the contrary, every effort has been made to divert at- 
 tention from them and to reduce them to the lowest possible limit 
 which was consistent with other obligations. Promises of money, sup- 
 port, employment or land were never made to any on condition that 
 they become Christians, and, when such subjects were mentioned by 
 inquirers, higher and purer motives were faithfully set before them. 
 They were given to understand that true Christianity was spiritual in 
 its nature and, while including much earthly good, looked above and 
 beyond such temporal benefits to those blessings which are heavenly 
 and eternal and unspeakably more important in their character. So 
 anxious, indeed, have we been to avoid even the appearance of bribery 
 in our evangelistic work that possibly we have gone too far in the op- 
 posite direction and have refrained from giving that amount of tem- 
 poral assistance to the struggling Christian community which may be 
 necessary, not only as a means of their defense against proselyting 
 neighbors, but also as a means of securing their speedy advancement 
 towards the goal of a comfortable living, high civilization and eccle- 
 siastical maturity. 
 
 Some applicants for admission to the church, however, manifest 
 wonderful ignorance of the real nature of the Christian religion and 
 exhibit motives for embracing it of such a singular, sordid and amus- 
 ing character that readers of this book will doubtless be interested in 
 two or three specimens. 
 
WORLDLY AND AMUSING APPLICANTS FOR BAPTISM 203 
 
 Once a man frcm Pasrur came to me and wanted ba|)tism pet ke 
 waste, as be said — that is, for his stomach's sake. He liad had a hard 
 time getting along as a Muhammadan and thought that he could suc- 
 ceed better in making a living if he were a Christian. Of course he 
 expected the missionaries to give him employment, and money too. 
 This is a common motive with Mussalman inquirers — one, moreover, 
 with which they are familiar in the propagation of their own religion — ■ 
 but it is not often professed so honestly and so innocently. 
 
 Another man came to Mr. Lytle and wished baptism, stating that his 
 relatives had treated him badly and he wished to disgrace them as much 
 as possible. He could think of no more effectual way of bringing dis- 
 honor upon their name than by himself becoming a despisedand hated 
 Isai (Christian). Had his self-sacrificing spirit arisen from love instead 
 of revenge it might have been touching. As it was, it provoked a 
 smile. 
 
 Another man, a Muhammadan, well educated and of good address, 
 applied to Dr. McKee in 1885 for admission to the church, but at the 
 close of his conversation stated that there was one indispensable con- 
 dition of his becoming a Christian — he must be given an English or 
 an American wife ! 
 
 One is reminded by these incidents of what Augustine says of the 
 people of his day. " How many," he complains, "seek Jesus only that 
 he may benefit them in earthly things ! One man has a lawsuit, so he 
 seeks the intercession of the clergy. Another is oppressed by his 
 superior, so he takes refuge in the church ; and still another that he may 
 secure the wife of his choice. The church is full of such persons. 
 Seldom is Jesus sought for Jesus' sake." Yet this is a vast exaggera- 
 tion as far as our own case is concerned. What Augustine supposed to 
 be general in his own time represents only exceptions with us. 
 
 Another method of evangelization, practiced by some and advocated 
 by others, which has not been adopted by us, demands more than a 
 passing notice.* In its most extreme form it is called 7^/(v>/i-w, but it 
 admits of different varieties according to the amount of austerity 
 and self-sacrifice which they respectively exhibit — the common element 
 being a greater degree of these characteristics than missionaries and 
 native Christian workers at present generally exhibit. 
 
 *For the simple reason that the propriety of its adoption has often been a burn- 
 ing question in mission fields and has not by any means been settled to the satisfac- 
 tion of all Christians, either at home or abroad. 
 
204 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 In tlie India of to-day there are at least three distinct modes of liv- 
 ing — the official Anglo-Indian, the Eurasian and the Native. The 
 first is adopted by civil and military officers of European origin and 
 by all foreigners and Eurasians who can afford it. While appropriating 
 to itself anything desirable that is peculiar to the East it seeks also to 
 retain as far as possible all the comforts and advantages of higli Occi- 
 dental civilization. The second is adopted not only by Eurasians gen- 
 erally but by poor whites and aspiring Christian natives. It is not 
 
 of course so expensive or luxu- 
 rious as the former and em- 
 braces more articles and cus- 
 toms of purely Indian origin. 
 The third is that adopted by 
 the natives generally. 
 
 Each of these styles, how- 
 ever, comprehends a large num- 
 ber of gradations, correspond- 
 ing to differences of taste, rank, 
 wealth and economy. As the 
 Viceroy's table and equipage 
 are superior to that of an Assis- 
 tant Commissioner or an army 
 Lieutenant, although botli are 
 Anglo-Indians, so are a native 
 Rajah's house and clothing in- 
 comparably superior to those 
 of a coolie, altliough both are natives; while between the extremes 
 given, in either case, there are many rungs to the social ladder. 
 
 Separate, too, from all of these is the manner in which a fakir lives. 
 The fakir is a sacred man, a religious devotee. His life is consecrated 
 to the pursuit of " piety " and the advancement of his own religion. 
 He may be a Hindu, a Mussalman, a Sikh, a Buddhist, or an adherent 
 of some other faith. He may belong to a secret fraternity of his own 
 order, or he may be an independent worker. He has taken on him- 
 self the vows of celibacy, poverty and perhaps obedience. He wanders 
 about from point to point and has no home except the " religious 
 house " to which he is attached. He scorns work and has no means 
 of livelihood except begging. His clothing, whatever he has, is of a 
 peculiar cut and color and betokens, not only his profession, but also 
 
CHRISTIAN WORKERS— THEIR MODES OF LIVING 205 
 
 the particular sect of fakirs with which he is connected. His hair is long, 
 curly, matted or covered with dirt. His body from head to foot, is 
 perhaps besprinkled with ashes. Sometimes he practices great austeri- 
 ties — fasting, self-torture, long pilgrimages and difficult tasks. Often 
 he is a bad man — a liar, a thief, a confidence man, a rake or a mur- 
 derer — and almost always he is an impudent fellow. The people fear 
 and sometimes honor him — and hence feed him ; although they often 
 see through his trickery and despise him. But on the whole he is no 
 doubt one of the chief supporters and propagators of the religion to 
 which he is attached. Romanath Chowdry goes so far as to call the 
 ascetics of India " the captain-generals of Hinduism." 
 
 Now, advocates of the Christian faith in India exhibit almost all these 
 modes of living, while engaged in disseminating the truth. Most 
 Protestant foreign missionaries adopt a humble variety of the first 
 method named. Some who have smaller salaries drift downward very 
 closely to the Eurasian style. Members of the Oxford Brotherhood at 
 Calcutta and the Cambridge Mission at Delhi cling to the Anglo-In- 
 dian mode, but live in common and, like fakirs, remain unmarried. 
 Roman Catholic missionaries combine the Eurasian method with the 
 celibacy and the other vows of their monastic orders. Native minis- 
 ters and other laborers usually exhibit the ordinary native styles of 
 dress and housekeeping, although these of course vary in character ac- 
 cording to their monthly pay. Salvation Army people of European 
 origin also attempted at the outset to live altogether as natives do, and 
 some of them even went so far as to become fakirs ; but later, for 
 health's sake, many of their practices in this matter had to be aban- 
 doned. Christian natives have also sometimes adopted the life of a 
 fakir and wandered about among the people preaching the gospel, 
 depending upon the liberality of their hearers for food, drink and 
 clothing. 
 
 Within a few years strenuous efforts have been made by some good 
 people to secure a greater degree of self-sacrifice on the part of those 
 who labor for Christ in heathen lands, and especially in India. The 
 Eurasian style of living, or \\\tvia media as they call it, has been 
 recommended by one class to all foreign missionaries. Such men as 
 Sir William Hunter and the Hon. W. S. Caine have praised highly the 
 celibacy and the fancied austerities of the Oxford and Cambridge 
 Brotherhoods, or have lauded to the skies such fatal exposure to leprosy 
 as was exhibited by Father Damien. Salvation Army methods have 
 
206 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 been advocated by others and even fakirism has been urged, not only 
 upon natives, but also upon European laborers. 
 
 In favor of the new modus operafidi, and especially fakirism, the fol- 
 lowing arguments have been adduced : 
 
 First, that, unlike the stipend system, it accords with the genius of 
 the people of India and is practiced everywhere in that country by 
 other religions. It is said that there are nearly three millions of fakirs 
 there ; and that one in every ten of the India people is supported by 
 the other nine on account of his devotion to their faith. And " many 
 of the fakirs," as the Lahore Church Gazette said, "are so respected, 
 and others so much dreaded, that the rajah himself will rise upon his 
 elephant to salute them, while the common folk intensely covet their 
 blessing, and fear nothing so much as their curse and their dis- 
 pleasure."* 
 
 Again, it is said to accord with Biblical teaching, where we are re- 
 quired to " endure hardness as good soldiers of Jesus Christ " and to 
 " be all things to all men '' that we " might by all means save some." 
 
 Biblical, and especially New Testament, examples are also cited to 
 support it — the Seventy Disciples, for instance, the Twelve Apostles and 
 our Lord Himself. The Seventy particularly are thought to have been 
 a representative body, typical of the Church and her work in all ages ; 
 and as they went out on their mission, like fakirs, without scrip or 
 purse, so should we. 
 
 Subsequent Christian example is also adduced in its favor, such as 
 that of Paul and Barnabas in the apostolic church, Jerome, Bernard, 
 Boniface and the thousands who followed them as Roman Catholic 
 friars and monks in subsequent centuries, the Waldenses, the Lollards 
 and the early reformers. Burns and the China Inland missionaries, the 
 Bishop Taylor force in Africa, Carey, Bowen, Protestant Brotherhoods 
 and native Christian fakirs in India — all of whom, with many others, 
 have adopted more or less the self-sacrificing methods which we are 
 considering, and have been ready to "spend and be spent " in Christ's 
 service. Moody himself has been called a fakir. 
 
 Again, this method, even in its milder phases, is said to be more 
 economical than the prevailing policy, while under every form it pro- 
 vides sufficient support for Christian laborers. The Eurasian has 
 fewer wants than the Anglo-Indian, the native than the Eurasian, and 
 the fakir than the ordinary Hindu. If a wanderer, he does not require 
 f' Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XI, p. 283. 
 
FAKIR ISM IN MISSIONS ADVOCATED 207 
 
 a house or house furniture. If unmarried, he has no family to care for. 
 The demand upon Mission Boards for funds is thus greatly lessened, 
 or stopped altogether. A willing people feed and clothe the sacred 
 messenger. The Lord provides for His own. 
 
 Further, the policy advocated would, it is thought, secure more and 
 better laborers. As less money would be required for workers already 
 in the field, a surplus would be left in the mission treasuries at home 
 and this could be used in getting other laborers. And a similar ex- 
 pansion of force would be gained among natives in the field also, where 
 missionaries take the lead in self-denial. Moreover the ministry se- 
 cured by such a call would, they say, be more humble, loving, earnest 
 and devoted than officers of the present missionary army, foreign and 
 native, are. A sifting test would operate from the very beginning. 
 
 Moreover, the effect of the work on the spirit of those performing it 
 would, it is said, be better than under the present policy. As wants 
 would be diminished, so would cares also. Anxiety about food and 
 clothing, and the support of new converts or native workers, and the 
 worthiness of applicants for baptism, would be reduced to the smallest 
 possible limit. The money element would be eliminated from many 
 missionary problems. Laborers would learn to trust the Lord more 
 than "uncertain riches." Their minds would be set free for full con- 
 secration to spiritual duties. Racial heartburnings and jealousies 
 would also disappear. All would be placed on a common level. The 
 gap between foreign and native workers would be bridged over. 
 
 With some, too, the newly advocated methods would give Christian 
 workers a better reputation. The charge that they are mere hirelings 
 would vanish away. They would take their places in the ranks of 
 honored ascetics, and, like other fakirs, would be regarded as holy 
 men. 
 
 And more important still, it is claimed that they would be more 
 successful in winning converts to Christianity. Poverty, say the ad- 
 vocates of this policy, is one of the essential elements of spiritual suc- 
 cess. God loves to honor the good soldier who endures hardship 
 for Christ's sake. The hearts of men are easily inclined, not only 
 towards such a worker himself, but also towards the Master whom he 
 serves. And especially is this thought to be the case in India. Two 
 hundred such laborers, it is supposed, would do more than twice as 
 many others to make heathenism tremble. 
 
 And then this policy would check admission of unworthy people 
 
208 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 into the church. None would be drawn towards a profession of faith 
 by worldly motives. As even officers of the church and evangelists 
 received little or no stipulated pay, much less could pecuniary rewards 
 of any kind be expected by new converts. The final decision of an 
 inquiring soul would be determined by other and better considera- 
 tions. 
 
 Some again contend for this method because it is the only one which 
 can become a permanent fixture in the Eastern church. The stipend- 
 iary system, they say, being of Western origin, is an exotic and must 
 necessarily die when the hot-house of Western influences is removed. 
 
 Some again contend for this policy for the very opposite reason — 
 namely, that it is temporary in its character, intended only to meet a 
 great emergency and provided simply to advance as fast as possible the 
 present work of Christianizing India. They admit that it cannot and 
 ought not to be made a permanent characteristic of the fully developed 
 church. But the need of laborers now, they say, is too great, and the 
 urgency of the hour too imperative, to wait on the slower methods of 
 of highly organized evangelism. 
 
 Finally, it is urged that this method will have a good reflex influence 
 on the home churches, making them more liberal and devoted to the 
 cause of niissions. Men would give more bountifully knowing that 
 their funds are not wasted, and their hearts would be drawn mor. 
 powerfully towards laborers who were in such a marked degree bearing 
 the heat and burden of the day. 
 
 Our own Mission, however, like most others, refuses to encourage a 
 new departure in the direction indicated and clings tenaciously to its 
 old and established method. While glad to see Clirist preached by all 
 classes and in all ways, it does not wish formally to incorporate fakir- 
 ism, or any of its partial imitations into its settled policy, but rather to 
 check its spread. And with good reason, too, the writer thinks : 
 
 For first, the new method accords not so nuich with the genius of 
 Oriental people as with the genius of their religions — religions which 
 we know to be false. The root idea of fakirism is self-atonement, 
 legality, dependence upon austere rites for salvation. By abstinence 
 from marriage, wealth and ordinary comforts, the devotee is supposed 
 to acquire merit for himself. He becomes a "holy" man; he is 
 thought to have communication with the unseen world. And this 
 gives him power over ordinary people. He works upon their super- 
 stitions and fears. In other words the whole foundation of his in- 
 
FA KIR ISM IN MISSIONS ATTACKED 
 
 209 
 
 fluence is wrong. It is not desirable for us to become identified even 
 in appearance with such theories. 
 
 Again, Christians can never hope to rival successfully Hindu or 
 Muhammadan fakirs. The depth of poverty, wretchedness, filth and 
 suffering to which some of the latter descend cannot be voluntarily 
 reached by those who believe in Christ. True Christianity has an 
 elevating rather than a degrading tendency. The devotees of false 
 faiths will always surpass Christians in asceticism, and in conflicts on 
 this line will always be victorious. Contention with them is futile. 
 
 This arises from the fact that fakirism, in its essence, is contrary to 
 
 HINDU BARBER. 
 
 the spirit and the teachings of the New Testament ; and the fact that it is 
 so furnishes another reason why we should avoid it. The basis of sal- 
 vation, as offered in the gospel, is not self-inflicted torture, but Christ's 
 righteousness. Holiness is to be sought, not through ''bodily exer- 
 cises," but through faith, love and new obedience — through the pres- 
 ence and power of the Holy Spirit. Hence there is no necessary 
 antagonism between genuine religion and the comforts of this world. 
 True, it generally comes first to the poor, but it does not tend to keep 
 them poor. Godliness is even said to be profitable for " the life that now 
 is," as well as for " that which is to come." Hence superior excel- 
 14 
 
210 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 lence is not attributed to celibacy, bodily mortification, or the vow of 
 poverty. Marriage is declared to be " honorable in all." The bishop 
 himself" must be the husband of one wife." 
 
 Nor are the Biblical examples given favorable to the adoption of 
 fakirism as a mode of evangelistic effort. Paul was by no means a 
 fakir. He supported himself by his own labor and positively refused 
 to take gifts from those among whom he preached. If he accepted 
 help from any one it was from distant believers. Nor was Jesus an 
 ascetic. He "came eating and drinking" — not in the style of the 
 Essenes, or even John the Baptist. His support, too, was obtained 
 chiefly from loving companions, who ministered to him of their sub- 
 stance. And as for the rules given The Seventy, whose mission was 
 temporary, we can hardly adopt the view that they were intended to 
 apply literally to all subsequent missionaries and Christian laborers, 
 since they were so soon discarded even by tiie great apostle of the 
 Gentiles himself. 
 
 Fakirism, too, is non-Protestant in its character — that is, contrary 
 to the general spirit, teachings and practice of Protestant Christians, 
 although exceptional cases may be cited. 
 
 And while in early ages it was adopted by Roman Catholics, and 
 even now is made an important part of their working system, history 
 shows that it came to them from a heathen source. The Oriental belief 
 that matter is essentially evil was its parent, and the non-Christian idea 
 that penance is meritorious has ever given it continued life and vigor. 
 
 Nor can we find any encouragement in the history of monasticism 
 for its adoption by Protestants of the present day. " For tlie simple, 
 divine way of salvation," says Dr. Schaff, "monasticism substituted 
 an arbitrary, eccentric, ostentatious and pretentious sanctity. It dark- 
 ened the all-sufficient mei its of Christ by the glitter of the over-meri- 
 torious work of man. It measured virtue by the quantity of outward 
 exercises, instead of the quality of the inward disposition, and dissem- 
 inated self-rigliteousness and an anxious, legal and mechanical religion. 
 It favored the idolatrous veneration of Mary and the saints, the wor- 
 ship of images and relics, and all sorts of superstition and pious 
 frauds. It lowered the standard of general morality in proportion as it 
 set itself above it and claimed a corresponding higher merit; and it 
 exerted in general a demoralizing influence upon the people." * 
 
 And besides this, almost everything that is good in the policy pro- 
 ♦SchafF's "History of the Christian Church," Vol. Ill, pp. 177, 178. 
 
_^;g 
 
 
 
 (211) 
 
212 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 pounded has already been incorporated into our present system. If, 
 as is supposed, a large amount of voluntary help would thus be secured 
 in propagating the gospel, it may be replied that such help is had now. 
 We have just seen how much the unpaid common people have to do in 
 making converts among their neighbors. And many honorary — that is, 
 self-supporting — missionaries, too, are operating in various parts of 
 India.* Such devices also as are employed by the Salvation Army to 
 obtain audiences are not unknown in well-established Missions. A 
 member of the London Missionary Society says, "We carry a flag, use 
 a fiddle and give short sparkling addresses in the bazars." And as for 
 unmarried workers, especially women, they have for over forty years 
 formed a part of our regular forces in the field. True, we do not en- 
 courage a wandering, beggarly life, nor do we extort vows of celibacy 
 from single ladies, nor consider that they have forsaken their calling 
 when they marry missionaries, or that they have forsaken the path of 
 duty when they marry Christians in any sphere of life. In other words 
 we have adopted the excellencies, but not the evils, of monasticism. 
 
 And we think at any rate that missionaries, both married and un- 
 married, already make as many sacrifices as they ought to be expected 
 to make. Some of the trials through which they pass are greater than 
 those which befall Romanist friars or even Hindu fakirs — greater partly 
 because of the character of their previous life and training. And what 
 a contrast now exists between the comforts of the average minister at 
 home and those of the average laborer in heathen lands ! Wliy then 
 should the latter be required to descend to a still lower plane of com- 
 parative hardslii[)? 
 
 Besides would it not be wronging his children to require him to 
 adopt even the Eurasian mode of living? Eurasians and "poor 
 whites" cannot give their little ones that training, or' that cliance in 
 life, which belong to the average European or American. Mission- 
 aries reduced to their circumstances could not send their families to 
 the hills for the sake of health, nor could they keep them in the United 
 States to get a good education. Their offspring would be condemned 
 to a lower status in every respect than that which the parents enjoy. 
 The health, the intelligence, the morals, the religion, and the worldly 
 yjrospects of the children would probably all suff"er as the result. 
 
 * It is said that fifty missionaries of the C. M. S., working in various parts of the 
 world, draw no salary from the Society, and sixty of the China Inland Missionaries 
 support themselves by their own means. 
 
FAKIR ISM NOT AN IMPROVEMENT 213 
 
 Nor would it be right to ask native laborers to descend to a lower 
 plane than that which they now occupy, or to make sacrifices which, 
 comparatively speaking, are greater than those which we make. When 
 urged to do so they reply in the language of Bubu Ram Chandra Bose,* 
 "The master must lead, not only exhort, and if the few missionaries 
 who stand up for asceticism cannot encourage it by example, as well as 
 by precept, the less they talk of it the better." 
 
 The contention, too, that this new policy would be likely to secure 
 more or better laborers does not seem to rest on a very good founda- 
 tion. At least it is probable that if adopted there would be a deterio- 
 ration in the intelligence and the mental training of those who would 
 present themselves for Christian service. And as for the spirit of de- 
 votion, it is not probable that the worldly advantages now offered have 
 much influence in drawing any one towards the foreign field ; and, 
 though the wages offered a native may have something to do with his 
 willingness to enter mission employ, it is hard to see how the diminu- 
 tion of the salary given, or its entire abolition, would secure other oi 
 more faithful men. Certainly the number of native workers would not 
 be increased thereby, any more than the abolition of a missionary's 
 salary would increase the number of foreign workers. 
 
 Nor is a more ascetic mode of living likely to augment the happiness 
 or improve the character of those who adopt it, but rather the con- 
 trary. If married, their expenses and parental anxieties would be 
 greater. 'I'hey would always be struggling to make ends meet. They 
 would perhaps become miserly and set a bad example of liberality be- 
 fore the natives. If regular fakirs, they would have no settled home, 
 no secret closet for devotion, no opportunity for study or self-improve- 
 ment, and little chance of profitable association with godly men. The 
 props to virtue which marriage, society, church organization and 
 previous reputation furnish would be largely wanting. They would be 
 l)eculiarly exposed to temptation. A wandering life naturally tends to 
 the decay of spirituality and the loss of moral character. Great grace 
 would be necessary to prevent a downward course. 
 
 Nor would it be likely to enhance the reputation of a preacher. 
 The hope of his being considered a kindhearted, generous ''nourisher 
 of the poor " would have to be abandoned. It would be hard for him 
 to avoid even the charge of niggardliness. Sufficient support, more- 
 over, when drawn from the common treasury of a Brotherhood, would 
 *In " Hindu Heterodoxy," p. 1S7. 
 
214 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 invalidate his claims to voluntary poverty, or peculiar self-denial. 
 The adoption of native costume, too, strikes the people as a kind of 
 deception — a pretension to be what one is not — such apparent decep- 
 tion as deeply distressed the Rev. W. C. Burns and led him to wish 
 that he had never abandoned European clothing.* Nor is the reputa- 
 tion of heathen fakirs so holy in the Bible sense of the word, as to in- 
 crease that of Christians who follow their mode of life, but rather the 
 
 HINDU WASHEKMEiN. 
 
 reverse. The fact of celibacy, indeed, is a presumption against chas- 
 tity in India, and many fakirs are actually known to be depraved, im- 
 moral men. Even in the bazar a Christian fakir would be regarded 
 with less favor than a resident laborer, while regularly organized 
 churches would look upon him with suspicion if he came without 
 proper credentials. 
 
 Not likely, therefore, is it that the proposed new policy would be 
 
 * " Memoir of the Rev. William C. Burns," p. 590. 
 
FAKIR ISM NOT MOKE SUCCESSFUL IN PRACTICE 215 
 
 more successful in winning souls to Christ than that which has been 
 generally adopted by Protestant Missions. And in accordance with 
 this judgment is its history, so far as it has been brought into prac- 
 tice. Roman Catholics, after the labor and growth of 400 years, 
 number only about 1,350,000 converts in India, while in less than 
 half that time, Protestant converts have reached a total of 600,000 
 or 700,000. During the five years between 1880 and 1885 Roman 
 Catholics increased (so said) three and one-half per cent, annually ; 
 Protestants nine per cent, per annum. In 1889 the following was 
 written, " Nine men have joined the Oxford Brotherhood in Calcutta 
 during the nine years of its history, but only three of these remain 
 to-day. Eight converts are said to have been made from Hinduism 
 during this period and three of these have gone over to Rome." 
 Even the Superior became a pervert to the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Another writer says, " Mr. Bovven lived for many years on a pittance 
 in the native quarters of Bombay. As a devoted missionary he has 
 never been surpassed ; but it is a striking fact that he did not succeed 
 in making converts. Father O'Neil, in another part of India, sub- 
 mitted himself with heroism to self-denial and hardships such as few 
 Europeans would be physically equal to, but he scarcely baptized a 
 single person." And similar to this is the testimony of the Rev. J. N. 
 Forman in regard to his own experience while trying to live among 
 the people as one of them. He says,* " It soon became clear that my 
 motives were not appreciated. I was looked on as a low specimen of 
 an Englishman, 'poor white trash.' I would not have objected to 
 this, had it in any way put me in a position to do more good. But 
 my influence was very perceptibly decreased. I seemed to get no 
 hold on the people, high or low. I was hated by some, despised by 
 others, disregarded utterly by more, and made the sport of small boys. 
 At one point in the city, the children changed from hooting at me to 
 horribly blaspheming Christ." Nor is the success of the Salvation 
 Army so phenomenal as to offset such testimony and justify a different 
 conclusion. As Sir Chas. Elliot says, "The mere reduction of the 
 
 missionary's income would only condemn him to a life of 
 
 squalid poverty, which would undermine his constitution without in 
 
 * Makhsan-i-Masihi of April 15, 1890. Compare with this also Dr. Morrison's 
 experience in China. See Dr. Stoughtoa's " Religion in England — iSoo to 1850," 
 Vol. I, p. 254. 
 
216 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 any way increasing his usefulness or making him veneraDle in the eyes 
 of the people." 
 
 Especially would asceticism in its extreme forms destroy the in- 
 fluence and the example of a home. " There are many important ad- 
 vantages," says the Methodist Times, " in the existence of one happy 
 Christian home in a purely heathen, Indian town. It is an object les- 
 son of Christianity which has more weight than hundreds of sermons. 
 Many educated Hindus to-day watch, with a scarcely-to-be-regretted 
 envy, the fellowship and sympathy which unite the English missionary 
 and his wife. The missionary home is a powerful influence for the 
 amelioration of the lot of Indian women and the regeneration of Indian 
 society. On the lines of the Salvation Army this phase of missionary 
 influence vanishes." 
 
 Again, the methods of the ascetic school involve a great expenditure 
 of life and health. That the irregular habits of a fakir tend to under- 
 mine his constitution and shorten his career, even if he be a native, 
 needs no great amount of proof. And especially is this the case with 
 Europeans and Americans. Look at the early history of the Salvation 
 Army — required, as itsofiicers were, to live like the natives and subsist on 
 a mere pittance. What a record of sickness, starvation, breakdowns and 
 deaths — with all the loss of time and energy and working power 
 which such a system involved! No wonder it was called "simply 
 murder in the plains of India," a " method of dying rather than a 
 style of living," a "reckless waste of human lives and human zeal 
 and energy ! " No wonder that even the Army itself was compelled 
 to change its policy in some measure, abandon vegetarianism and al- 
 low the use of sandals and sun hats ! Half its forces were swept away 
 before a language could be learned or an enemy reached. And similar 
 remarks might be made about unnecessary exposure to leprosy and 
 smallpox in the discharge of missionary duties. The vow of a mis- 
 sionary does not require him thus to destroy his working ability and 
 diminish the length of his ministerial course, but rather the contrary. 
 He is bound to make the most of himself in the sphere to which the 
 Lord has called him. 
 
 Besides, such a system in its extreme forms would hinder very much 
 the development of liberality both in the native church and in the 
 church at home. How can native Christians be taught to lay by in 
 store on the first day of the week as the Lord has prospered them if 
 the stipendiary system, as it is called, is to be abolished — if their 
 
FAKIRISM A HINDRANCE AND A DAMAGE TO MISSIONS 217 
 
 ministry is to be sustained by alms, or haphazard instrumentalities? 
 And must the Church in Christian lands be deprived to any extent of 
 the spiritual benefit and the great joy which arises from the exercise 
 of a grace that God has heretofore so largely blessed ? 
 
 While then, we should welcome help from any source or class of 
 people that promises usefulness, even from a Christian fakir, and while 
 it is doubtless true that missionaries and upper-class native preachers 
 are too much inclined to stand aloof from those who are socially be- 
 neath them, and would have more power for good if, through the 
 cultivation of a Christ-like spirit, they could condescend more fully 
 to men of low estate, we cannot but think that the adoption of ascetic 
 methods as a common policy would be a hindrance rather than a help 
 to our evangelistic work. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 OBSTRUCTION AND PERSECUTION 
 
 Physical Ilindiances — Hindrances from the Government — From European Resi- 
 dents — From Neighboring Missions and Missionaries — From Lack of Funds — 
 From Imperfection of Laborers — P>om Different Views of Mission Policy — 
 From False Religions — From Casle — Opposition to Our Getting Locations for 
 Work — To Our Prosecution of Labor — To the Hearing of the Gospel — To Re- 
 ligious Inquiry — To the Belief of the Trutli — To Baptism and a Public Profes- 
 sion — Persecution of Low-Caste Converts by High- Caste People and by Low- 
 Caste Neighbors — Continued Persecution of Christians After their Baptism — 
 Little Persecution unto Death — Caste Giving Way Somewhat. 
 
 F the providential hindrances to' our evangelistic work 
 which are essentially physical in their character — such as 
 climate, sickness and bad roads — it is unnecessary to speak 
 particularly here, as they are described at length in other 
 places.* And the same thing may also be said of linguistic and edu- 
 cational obstructions. f All that need be remarked now on the sub- 
 ject is that these obstacles to missionary labors are by no means trifling 
 and that, taken as a whole, they prevent a large percentage of our 
 Cliristian force from being brouglit into successful use. 
 
 That hindrance, as well as help, comes from the government, too, 
 has been noted elsewhere.;!; Non-Christian officers — and nominally 
 Christian officers, too, — are sometimes unfriendly and join the ranks 
 of our persecutors; § administrative measures are occasionally carried 
 out in such a way as to oppress our people, or hinder their religious 
 activity; and even laws have been enacted which dishonor the Chris- 
 
 *See Chapters IV, V, VIII, XXIII and XXX, and pp. 185-189, etc. 
 
 f See Chapter IX, and pp. 86-88, 140, 141. 
 
 X See pp. 37-39. 
 
 § A striking instance of this was given at Bombay during the year 1894, in the 
 unjust condemnation and imprisonment of foreign missionaries there for their ex- 
 posure of the evils of the opium trade. 
 (218) 
 
GODLESS EUROPEANS AND UNFRIENDLY CRITICISM 219 
 
 tian name and throw discredit upon missionary efforts. It is hard for 
 the natives of India to discriminate between the principles of our re- 
 ligion and that practical exhibition of Christianity which is given in 
 the British Rule. No wonder then that regulated vice, excise laws 
 and a legalized opium traffic occasionally fill them with disgust and 
 bring Christian workers into contempt. No wonder the zenana on 
 this account is now and then closed to Bible readers. 
 
 Similar obstruction also comes through the lives and principles of 
 Europeans. Too many Anglo-Indians are irreligious, immoral and in- 
 fidel. Too many anti-Christian books of Western origin find their 
 way to India and are republished there. The rejection of Bible doc- 
 trine, practically and theoretically, by those who are supposed to have 
 tested it and to know all about it, goes far to counteract any influence 
 which missionaries and native Christians may exert in its favor.* 
 
 Unfriendly criticism by, neighboring missionaries has also done 
 something to diminish the power and the success of our evangelistic 
 efforts. 
 
 This criticism has referred chiefly to our work among low-caste peo- 
 ple — the depressed classes. Some objected to them as proper persons 
 upon which to expend our energies, called them " depraved poor," 
 and doubted the possibility, or at least the probability, of truly chang- 
 ing their character. In other words, they were supposed to be too low 
 down to be reached effectually. It is better, these critics said, to 
 work among the *' well-born," the higher castes. Others admitted 
 that such people might be Christianized, but claimed that it was bad 
 policy to begin with them. They disliked the idea' of now flooding 
 the native church with a great mass of converts from the despised 
 classes and thus at the very outset fixing its character as a lower- 
 caste organization. It could never, they thought, have any stand- 
 ing in the community ; nor under such conditions could high-born 
 Hindus and Muhammadans be easily reached, if reached at all. 
 Better, they said, commence with the natural "and historic leaders of 
 society, and work downward, rather than upward, among the castes. 
 Others objected to the qualifications for baptism which we required 
 of these poor people. They wanted, besides a credible profession 
 of faith in Jesus as their Saviour, more intellectual and educational 
 attainments exhibited by those who received this ordinance than we 
 were disposed in all cases to insist upon. They demanded of candi- 
 * See pp. 37, 124, 125. 
 
220 LIFE AND WORK LV INDIA 
 
 dates for baptism at least the ability to repeat the Lord's Prayer, 
 the Apostles' Creed and the Ten Commandments. 
 
 On most of our laborers these criticisms had little effect except 
 perhaps that of a stimulating character. They felt that notwithstand- 
 ing such strictures our policy was right, and hence pressed forward 
 in maintaining it without the least shadow of turning — glad to find 
 their course, so far as its main features are concerned, vindicated at 
 last by its general adoption throughout the Punjab. In all cases, 
 however, this was not the result ; and it is easy to see how the first 
 two criticisms so far as they were considered just, would operate in 
 diminishing the zeal and the activity of our workers among low- 
 caste people. Neither a foreign nor a native minister, affected by 
 such sentiments, could labor with much heart for tlie evangelization 
 of Megs and Chuhras. And as a natural consequence, too, his 
 harvest of converts from these classes would be small. The demand 
 for such intellectual attainments on the threshold of baptism as 
 those which have been named would also materially limit the number 
 of persons actually baptized and received into the church. 
 
 Encroachment by other Missions, moreover, had the same ultimate 
 effect of diminishing additions to our fold. This was due, partly to 
 the loss of some of our laborers and people and their union with our 
 rivals, partly to the necessity for self-defense and the withdrawal for 
 this purpose of a detachment of our forces from evangelistic work, and 
 partly to that loss of moral and spiritual power which is almost neces- 
 sarily produced by a course of conflict. 
 
 The limitation of our funds and of our ability to hire laborers has 
 also had the natural effect of limiting the amount of our work and the 
 number of conversions arising therefrom. Sometimes in the midst of 
 our greatest need and finest prospects a curtailment of our estimates has 
 been made by the home church which operated disastrously. During 
 the time of our first conflict with the Roman Catholics, for instance, 
 one of our superintendents was on this account compelled to dismiss 
 seven helpers at once — a loss which was sorely felt. 
 
 To all these obstructions must be added the imperfection of our 
 evangelistic laborers. That the best have been "compassed w^th 
 infirmity" and have failed to reach that degree of usefulness which 
 should have been attained, is no more than they themselves would 
 admit; while a few have shown more than ordinary weakness. 
 
 Some, too, have had their time and strength so largely absorbed in 
 
DOUBTFUL VIEWS OF MISSIONARY rOLICY 221 
 
 other necessary labors that it was physically impossible for them to 
 take much part in lengthening the cords of our missionary encampment. 
 Indeed, the edification of baptized believers and their development as 
 an organized church have grown to be a work of such great propor- 
 tions as to threaten very seriously the possibility of aggressive warfare,* 
 
 Some again have entertained doubtful views of missionary policy. 
 To several of these views reference has already been made in speaking 
 of the criticism to wliich we have been subjected by our neighbors. 
 But there are others also. For instance, some appear to think that the 
 possession of a bad motive by applicants for baptism must be taken for 
 granted until the opposite is proved by incontestable evidence, rather 
 than the more charitable view that, while great care should be taken 
 in the baptism of professed converts (remembering that a credible pro- 
 fession is one which constrains us to believe in its sincerity), until a 
 bad motive becomes manifest, the possession of a good motive by those 
 who profess their faith in Christ should be assumed as a fact. And 
 again, some express the conviction that they ought not to baptize any 
 more applicants for baptism than they are able afterwards to train prop- 
 erly or care for — in other words, keep Christ's lambs out of the fold 
 until that fold is enlarged and put in order, so that every member of 
 the flock can be systematically fed and nicely housed — as if these lambs 
 would not do better in the church than in the world any how, however 
 imperfect the former might be, or as if the Lord would make a mistake 
 in regenerating people too fast and would not, in His providence and 
 by His grace, make abundant provision for the spiritual nourishment 
 and the highest welfare of all His new-born children. 
 
 And then a few, perhaps, temporarily lost faith in the spirituality 
 and the real efficiency of their own or their brethren's missionary labor. 
 In other words they became discouraged. This feeling led them to 
 find fault and tear down rather than build up. Instead of advancing 
 with the enthusiasm which characterizes those who have full confidence 
 in the work of the Lord as done through their instrumentality, its 
 possessors were disposed to retire as far as possible from active partici- 
 pation in the movements of the field. 
 
 Such defects of character, reputation, strength, theory and zeal, 
 helped, of course, to lessen the amount of effective work done by our 
 laborers, as well as the number of persons on the roll of their professed 
 converts. 
 
 *See pp. 19s, 272 and 273. 
 
222 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 The position taken by our church in regard to the baptism of polyga- 
 mists, opium-eaters and wine-drinkers should also be mentioned here, 
 because it stood somewhat in the way of rapid progress. Not that we 
 had many cases to deal with, for the contrary is the fact, but that the 
 stand which we took against polygamy and intemperance made our 
 church door narrower than that of some other missionary bodies, and 
 kept away a few applicants for baptism who might elsewhere have been 
 received. 
 
 Among American Missions generally total abstinence is the rule and 
 strict temperance a sine qua non of church membership ; but the same 
 cannot be said of all Missions from other parts of the Christian world. 
 A stream in foreign lands cannot be expected to rise any higher than 
 the source at home from which it flows. 
 
 As for polygamous marriages, no missionary in India, I suppose, would 
 tolerate them for a single moment in the case of those who, previous 
 to their assumption, had been members of the church. Diverse views, 
 however, are held regarding the baptism of polygamists when this 
 improper relation has been entered into before conversion. Some 
 would baptize them if they otherwise made a credible profession 
 of their faith in Christ, and still allow them to continue in a state 
 of polygamy until a change has been effected by death, but at the 
 same time exclude them from tlie Lord's Supper. Some would bap- 
 tize them and admit them to full communion, but consider them 
 ineligible to official position in the church, basing their views partly 
 on the fear (certainty, they affirm) that divorced, unmarried women 
 will enter upon an immoral life, and partly on their interpretation of 
 I Tim. 3 : 2, which requires the bishop but not a private member 
 (they say) to be the husband of only one wife. Some would require 
 a polygamist to divorce all his wives except one before receiving 
 the ordinance of baptism — giving him, however, the privilege of 
 choosing from among them which one he will retain. Others, with 
 whom the writer agrees, would require him to divorce all his wives 
 except the first, who alone in God's eyes is his properly wedded com- 
 panion, but expect him still to support those who are discarded. 
 
 The subject having been brought to the attention of our General As- 
 sembly in 1880, action was taken by that body forbidding the reception 
 of polygamists into the church ; and in accordance with this decision 
 we are required to act. Hence, although a difference of opinion in 
 regard to the matter is still entertained by brethren in the field, our 
 
HINDRANCES FROM PRE-M/LLENARIAA^/SM 223 
 
 practical course in reference to it has helped to lessen the increase of 
 our church membership; but not very much. 
 
 And what about pre-millenarianism ? How "has the adoption of this 
 doctrine affected your laborers ? Has it made them more, or less, 
 active — more, or less, successful? "It must be admitted," says one, 
 " that, as a general rule, faith is the measure of success in religious work, 
 as it is also in religious life. It must also be admitted that pre-mil- 
 lennial views of Christ's coming, as generally held, are unfavorable to 
 strong faith in the present success of the gospel. The man who be- 
 lieves that the church is becoming worse and worse and will soon be 
 involved in complete ruin, who has no confidence in the means of grace 
 as now administered for the extensive conversion of our fallen race, 
 who preaches the word merely, or chiefly, from a sense of duty, who 
 considers himself simply a ' witness ' testifying to a lost and ruined 
 world, who looks to the personal reign of Christ as that which alone 
 can cure existing evils and bring men to obey him, cannot as a rule 
 preach the truth with much expectation that it will be accepted by 
 large numbers of men." What now, our friends inquire, is the practi- 
 cal result in your own field ? 
 
 Fortunately, or unfortunately, we can give no reply whatever to this 
 question — for the simple reason that none of our foreign or native 
 laborers, as far as known, have adopted the view mentioned. All are 
 either opposed to it or are inclined to leave it as an unsettled point. 
 In some neighboring Missions, indeed, pre-millennialists hold a promi- 
 nent place and seem to be earnest workers ; but regarding even their 
 success the writer can make no statements which would either confirm 
 or disprove any theory on the subject. 
 
 I am happy to say, however, that among ourselves no one has yet 
 arisen who believes in the future probation of those who die impenitent 
 — a doctrine, which in the opinion of most evangelical workers is 
 almost certain to cut the sinews of missionary effort both at home and 
 abroad. Our hindrances of theory and policy have not been so serious 
 as this — although they have been real notwithstanding. 
 
 But the greatest hindrance to our evangelistic efforts has come, as 
 might be supposed, from false religions — from the pronounced enemies 
 of our faith. 
 
 And the characteristic presented by them which has been found 
 most obstructive in its nature is no doubt caste. Caste rs that system 
 by which Hindus are divided into various hereditary classes and made 
 
224 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 subject to various regulations and customs, called caste rules. Origin- 
 ally this division accorded somewhat with differences of race, occu- 
 pation, and political, social or religious relationship; and these differ- 
 ences are still largely perpetuated. But the sacred books of the Hin- 
 dus also teach that this division is based upon a difference of creation 
 and divine appointment — in other words, that the various castes are 
 separate species, or orders, of the human race, just as elephants, dogs 
 and cats are different species of animals. Caste rules relate chiefly to 
 marriage, food, drink, professional occupation, religious privileges and 
 funeral rites. They are very strict and precise in their nature, and their 
 enforcement forms perhaps the most permanent and distinctive feature 
 of Hindu life. And, as the effect of this, almost all other religions in 
 India have also become involved in the meshes of caste and have be- 
 come subject to some of its more important regulations.* 
 
 The evils of caste from an evangelistic point of view are chiefly two : 
 First, it threatens every person inclined to become a Christian with 
 losses and sufferings of the most grievous character ; and secondly, it 
 segregates the new convert and puts him in a position where he can 
 have little or no influence over his former friends. Even the first of 
 these evils is calculated to hinder our work very" much, because it not 
 only deters many from the initial step of making honest inquiry into 
 the truth of the Christian religion, but also prevents people from con- 
 fessing Christ unless they have an extraordinary amount of moral and 
 physical courage. But the second evil is still greater, because it cuts 
 off so effectually what might be called the natural growth of the good 
 work of winning souls. Not only is the ordeal of social, civil and 
 religious ostracism with which the profession of Christ is connected, a 
 severe trial to the individual convert himself, but (what is more to be 
 regretted) it prevents him from securing the salvation of his kindred. 
 The leaven is at once removed from the lump where it was primarily 
 put, and hence can have no effect on its former surroundings. The 
 production of a second convert among caste people is therefore just 
 about as difficult as was that of the first. This makes the process of 
 evangelization slow. Grain by grain the non-Christian mass must be 
 transferred to the granary of the Lord. There can be little of what 
 might be called a chain movement or cluster conversion. 
 
 How different the result among people of no caste, from which class 
 we draw most of our converts ! And how different even among Hindus 
 * See Chapter XII and especially p. ii6. 
 
OBSTRUCTIONS TO GETTING A LOCATION FOR WORK 225 
 
 and Muhammadans when, as occasionally happens, the new convert is 
 in such a position as to secure indifference to caste ! As an illustration 
 take the case of a Muhammadan maulvie, living in the neighborhood 
 of Pasrur, who was baptized in 1892 by the Rev. T. F. Cummings and 
 mentioned in his report of the work of 1893. Of him Mr. Cummings 
 says, "The faith of the maulvie, who was baptized two years ago, has 
 been rewarded by the baptism of his wife and children. It was his 
 wish at one time to give her the choice of being turned out of the 
 house, or becoming a Christian, but Paul's counsel prevailed, and the 
 happy result is a Christian home. Living as they do, in their home 
 village, their faith has an excellent influence on their Hindu and Mu- 
 hammadan neighbors." 
 
 But, apart from the hin- 
 drances imposed by caste, great 
 obstructions of a serious charac- 
 ter have been presented to the 
 spread of the gospel in India. 
 
 First, ministers and preachers 
 have been hindered both in 
 getting a suitable location for 
 their work and also in the prose- 
 cution of the work itself. 
 
 Occasionally laborers find it 
 difficult to obtain a favorable 
 position for even an hour's 
 
 J > ^ WOLF. 
 
 service or a day s encampment. 
 They are compelled to move 
 
 on to another bazar, or another village. But especially is it difficult for 
 them to obtain places of residence and good sites for permanent insti- 
 tutions — such as school houses, bookshops, churches and hospitals.* 
 High rents are charged ; offensive conditions are imposed ; titles are 
 beclouded; the haqq-i-shtifa* is brought into use; sharp tricks are 
 resorted to ; lawsuits are started ; water is denied the preachers ; owners 
 refuse to rent or sell at all. And then, if building becomes necessary, 
 efforts are made to hinder its progress or stop it altogether, even if 
 physical force has to be resorted to. 
 
 Only a few instances can be mentioned. 
 
 A young Christian, named Robert Bruce, who had for several years 
 
 *See p. 143. 
 15 
 
226 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 owned a piece of land in Sialkot, undertook to erect a house upon 
 it in the fall of 1883. Muhammadan neighbors interfered, drove 
 the bricklayers from their work, insulted Robert on the street, tried to 
 wrench his property from him by unjust claims, assaulted his female 
 relatives, tore jewels from his niece's ears and arms, thereby lacerating 
 her flesh, refused to return the stolen property and were only stopped 
 in their obstructive course by an appeal to the Deputy Commissioner. 
 
 About the same time the Christians of Sabzkot undertook to put up 
 a house for preaching and school purposes at their own expense, and 
 when its walls were nearly finished the zaildar — a high officer of the 
 neighborhood * — compelled them to desist from their work. 
 
 When Mr. (afterwards Rev.) Haqq's labors at Dinanagar were 
 meeting with great success in 1882, his neighbors, becoming alarmed, 
 urged his landlord to turn him out of the house in which he was liv- 
 ing. Hearing of a building site near by, he undertook to purchase it. 
 But Muhammadans beset the seller at once, saying, " You must not sell 
 to a Christian ; if you do, he will build a church, a bell will ring, and 
 everybody will turn Christian. Do not let them have a foothold and 
 we will buy your site." So they collected money and bought it, and 
 thus defeated our catechist's intentions. Subsequently Sardar Dingal 
 Singh, a wealthy gentleman of Lahore and a warm friend of Chris- 
 tians, presented him with a building lot in the neighborhood. The 
 municipal authorities, however, refused him the usual permit to build 
 until compelled to do so by their superiors. And when the erection 
 of the house was begun, two Hindus set up a claim to the land, 
 stopped the work, and took the case into court before a Muhammadan 
 judge. But prayer was offered up to God by the Christians in behalf 
 of our cause, and this judge, after much deliberation, gave a decision 
 in favor of the defendant before hundreds of angry opposers. Appeal, 
 however, was taken to an English Magistrate, w^ho reversed the deci- 
 sion of the lower court, after which appeal was again made by Aziz ul 
 Haqq to the Commissionei of the Division, who at last confirmed him 
 in his rights. 
 
 When it was found necessary in 1889 to get more land for the 
 Memorial Hospital, Sialkot, a high District officer suggested an effort 
 to secure the adjoining lot from the owner, Sardar Jadjodh Singh, who 
 resided in Benares; and it was thought that he might give it gratis. 
 
 * The zailda?- is an executive officer, superior to the lambardar, and exercising 
 authority over many villages — sometimes thirty or forty. 
 
CONTROVERSIAL OPPOSITION, AND INDIGNITIES 227 
 
 But before our request reached him we found that he had already given 
 it to the Arya Samaj. Evidently an Aryan, hearing of our proposed 
 efforts, had anticipated us and circumvented our plans by a previous 
 communication, sent probably by telegraph. 
 
 In the prosecution of their labor, also, missionaries and native 
 workers have often had to endure many indignities and great opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 To the controversial disturbances which frequently arise during bazar 
 preaching, zenana work and evangelistic tours reference has already 
 been made in various places.* Sometimes these become very annoying; 
 sometimes they break up a meeting. Sometimes controversy is con- 
 ducted by our opponents in a quieter and less offensive, but shrewder and 
 more systematic manner — so ably indeed as to tax all the resources of our 
 representative. Miss C. E. Wilson, for instance, met a Muhammadan in 
 one of her zenanas, May 15, 1888, who had read the Bible tlirough, pos- 
 sessed Scott's commentary and a concordance, and seemed to be an hon- 
 est inquirer, but was ready notwitlistanding to bring forward many ob- 
 jections to our holy religion, as well as arguments to support his own 
 faith ; and the very impartiality and intelligence which he appeared to 
 manifest only made it all the more difficult to deal with him and to 
 neutralize the effect of his discourse upon others. 
 
 But. opposition often takes a more material and degraded form. 
 
 Sometimes wood, water and fodder have been refused our workers 
 by the local authorities of the place where they had encamped. f Once 
 when some zenana workers were seated on a charpai by the side of 
 which was a heap of straw, talking with a woman, who seemed much 
 interested, a boy perhaps fifteen years old entered and coming towards 
 them said, " Get off my charpai. Sit on that straw. Straw is good 
 enough for Christians." Again, a young lady wrote, "In two or 
 three of the villages which we visited the people were very hardened. 
 They would not even give me a place to sit upon and would not per- 
 mit me to open my Bible ; and when we got into our conveyance to 
 go away they began giving us abuse'' — a very mild term for i\\t gali, 
 or billingsgate, which native people generally disgorge upon such oc- 
 casions. At another time a fakir, whether crazy or not is uncertain, 
 seized a missionary's horse as she was driving it on her rounds in a 
 tum-tum, and was only shaken off through the agility and bravery of 
 her servant. On another occasion, when a lady and her Bible woman 
 
 * See pp. 157-161, 176, 178. t See pp. 189, 190. 
 
228 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 were passing along the streets of Bhera, dust and stones were thrown 
 after them, while a crowd of boys followed them with rude drums, 
 making as much noise as they could. During the summer of 1889, 
 not only was boisterous opposition preaching kept up close to one of 
 our bazar stations in Sialkot, during the hour of our services, but in 
 the early part of July hostility became so fierce that brickbats were 
 thrown at our laborers and their turbans pulled off their heads, and 
 notice had to be sent to the Deputy Commissioner. 
 
 Hindrances to the hearing of the gospel are also as common as op- 
 position to its proclamation. 
 
 Sometimes these are of a trifling character but nevertheless effective. 
 
 The entrance of a sahib — a male missionary — has been known to 
 drive a whole roomful of women from the presence of their Chris- 
 tian instructor. Hindus have sometimes kept their girls from a Chris- 
 tian school because Muhammadans were present, and both these 
 classes have often declined to patronize our schools because low-caste 
 children were admitted, or because enough of distinction between 
 their children and the others was not made in our school arrangements. 
 It is sometimes hard, also, to get Hindus and Muhammadans to meet 
 together for religious instruction upon the Sabbath, because with them 
 this is a weekly holiday. 
 
 Often, however, the hindrances have a deeper meaning. Hatred 
 of the truth and fear of our success frequently prompt people to avoid 
 the sound of the gospel, or to hinder others from hearing it. A Ro- 
 man Catholic missionary has been known to pass without abashment 
 into the midst of one of our audiences and quietly drive out all whom he 
 claimed to be his own people. Husbands sometimes treat their wives 
 in the same manner. "One day," says a zenana worker, " while we 
 were reading the Bible in a water-carrier's house to his wife, a very 
 beautiful woman who loved to listen, her black, ugly, pock-pitted, 
 one-eyed husband came in and asked, ' What is the use in your read- 
 ing to these cattle? ' — that is, his wife and other women. Finding that 
 we did not mind him, he got back into a corner and beckoned his 
 wife away, leaving us to finish and depart without meeting her again." 
 " At one place," says Miss Gordon, " we were refused a hearing alto- 
 gether, and at another the people not only would not hear, but fol- 
 lowed us and threw clods after us. However, a young woman in the 
 crowd who had been a pupil in the Girls' Mission School at Gujran- 
 wala, began eagerly to rehearse portions of the Bible and we became 
 
OBSTRUCTIONS TO INQUIRY AND CONVERSION 229 
 
 much interested in her; but a man appeared and rudely drove her 
 away." Amir Bibi's baptism in 1886 was the cause of the closing, to 
 zenana laborers, of all Muhammadan houses in Gujranwala near where 
 she lived, except two. Fear was entertained that other converts 
 might be made. And a similar fear seems to have prompted the great 
 Hindu revolt against mission work among women in Jhelum during 
 the spring of 1884, when the native authorities of the place were 
 ranged against us and our Hindu Girls' Schools were for a time en- 
 tirely closed. Such also was the root of the Moslem opposition to 
 Dr. Johnson's dispensary work in the same city six years afterward, 
 when applications for medicine greatly fell off and on two days there 
 were none at all. Although desirous of medical treatment and secular 
 instruction for their wives and daughters, tlie people of that place 
 hated to receive these favors in connection with Bible teaching. They 
 dreaded the results. 
 
 And what is true in ordinary cases is especially true in regard to 
 persons who have become interested in the Christian religion and have 
 attained the position of religious inquirers. Every effort is made to 
 prevent them from advancing any further in their search after Bible 
 truth. Their attention is turned to other things ; they are urged 
 to be faithful to the religion of their fathers ; they are sent away 
 from the neighborhood where Christians labor; they are detained 
 from church services by main force ; their Christian literature is stolen 
 from them and destroyed ; they are beaten, imprisoned at home, stu- 
 pefied with poisonous drugs, and even threatened with death if they 
 do not desist from what is considered religious folly. And, what per- 
 haps is worse than all, lies are often told about us and our motives, 
 and the truths of the Christian religion are taught them in a perverted 
 form. 
 I No doubt, too, there is a mighty internal struggle in the case of 
 many converts. It is hard for us to realize what a great revolution of 
 thought and feeling must occur in their hearts. Philosophies, super- 
 stitions, customs, caste rules, religious ideals, social relations, long- 
 cherished hopes and fears must all undergo a radical change. A new 
 Bible, a new ministry, a new brotherhood, a new way of salvation, a 
 new theory of religious life, a new creed, a new system of morality, a 
 new mode of worship, a new idea of birth, death, heaven and hell, a 
 new God, must take the place of the old. As Dr. Dennis well says,* 
 *In "Foreign Missions after a Century," p. 189. 
 
230 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 " Old friendships must be broken, family glory must be dimmed, long- 
 cherished pride humbled, natural timidity must be conquered, social 
 inertia must be overcome, irresolution must be cast aside, hereditary 
 indisposition to change must be banished, personal interest must be 
 sacrificed, worldly loss must be faced, alliance with priestly power must 
 be forfeited, and a leap into the unknown and untried experiences of 
 an absolutely new religion must be taken, and all upon the basis of 
 what seems to be comparatively slender historical evidence, without 
 the familiar eclat of public approval." And to these internal obstruc- 
 tions must also be added the natural depravity of the human heart, its 
 deep-seated hatred of holiness and its aversion to everything else that 
 is distinctive in the Christian faith— besides the machinations of the 
 
 Evil One, who always 
 stands ready to do the 
 part of a vigilant general 
 for all opposing forces. 
 Surely the internal diffi- 
 culties in the way of the 
 conversion of a heathen 
 man are almost incal- 
 culable. Only a miracle 
 of grace can change his 
 heart, revolutionize his 
 intellect, and make him 
 a true Christian. 
 
 Great external ob- 
 struction also meets him when he is ready for baptism — the recog- 
 nized sign of a Christian profession. The trials to which he was 
 previously subjected by unbelieving friends are now redoubled. If 
 a high-caste school boy, he is generally compelled to seek baptism in 
 a distant city where his relatives will not be likely to interfere with 
 the performance of this rite. If under age, or alleged to be so, his 
 case is probably taken by parents, or guardians, to a civil court and an 
 order asked in favor of their custody of the boy. Detention of a child 
 less than fourteen years of age is considered kidnapping. At eighteen, 
 however, he is in all respects legally free from his natural custodians. 
 Cases of persons between the ages of fourteen and eighteen are treated 
 on tlieir merits. If such a convert is able to judge and act for himself, 
 he may be legally baptized and need not be restored to his parents, or 
 
CASES OF PERSECUTION' 231 
 
 guardians. All depends upon whether he acts freely and intelligently 
 in receiving baptism and has the ability to earn a living for himself.* 
 Should he be restored to his Hindu or Muhauimadan friends, he can 
 expect only the greatest indignities. He will be kept closely guarded, 
 or be transported to a distant part of the country where he will be 
 helpless ; and in almost all cases he will be subjected to personal vio- 
 lence. He may be even poisoned and altogether put out of the way. 
 If a Hindu, his head will be shaved and he will be compelled to par- 
 take of a mixture of cow's dung and urine — a recognized means of 
 ceremonial purification and restoration to the religion of his fore- 
 fathers. And in the case of high-caste persons of any age, or of 
 either sex, who succeed in running the initial gauntlet and entering 
 the Christian fold, there is the almost inevitable loss of property, par- 
 ents, husband or wife, children, friends and everything else which 
 men hold dear. The new convert must begin life over again. 
 
 Two cases may be mentioned — both Muhammadans and both 
 women. One was a beautiful, m^rxxtd, pardah-?iaslii>i (or veil-wearing) 
 lady, who gave every evidence of conversion at the Sialkot Dispensary 
 in its early days. Strenuous efforts were made to prevent her baptism. 
 When she fled from home for this purpose she was forcibly brought 
 back again, taken away to another city, kept a prisoner among 
 relatives and threatened with every kind of injury if she attempted to 
 escape. And when she did escape and was enabled to join the com- 
 pany of Christian friends, threats of a suit for the recovery of jewels 
 which she had taken with her were made, marital claims were bran- 
 dished over her head, plans for waylaying and kidnapping her were 
 laid, and (worse than all) the wily arts of seduction were employed to 
 destroy her character. 
 
 The other case was that of Gulam Bibi, who was baptized by the 
 name of Ruth at Jhelum, Nov. 3, 1890. As her friends disapproved 
 of her course, she did not return to them after baptism, but went to 
 live with Miss Given. Under the fiilse plea that her father was sick, 
 she was induced, however, to go to see him, and there her relatives 
 abused her very much. Rescued by some Christians, she came back 
 again to Miss Given, but was visited under various pretences at differ- 
 ent times during the subsequent week by her former friends. Finally, 
 when a chance occurred on one of these occasions, she was forcibly 
 
 * See the decision given at Allahabad as tuld in an article in the Indian Evan- 
 gelical Review, Vol. XVII, pp. 56-77. 
 
232 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 seized and carried off, but not without a fierce struggle in which Mrs. 
 Scott, Miss Given and their servants took the girl's part. Miss Given 
 wrote at the time, "Mrs. Scott received a scratch on her arm from 
 which blood was flowing. 1 understood that the old man struck her 
 with his stick. He raised his stick on me once, but one of the servants 
 caught him. It is said that I was knocked down and that the women 
 caught me by the throat, but I have no recollection of either. I felt 
 neither pain nor fright. All I thought of was to free the poor girl. I 
 know my shawl was torn off me twice. I heard continually ringing in 
 my ears, 'We will kill you, We will kill you,' but I paid no atten- 
 tion." But all was of no avail. Poor Ruth was carried away, several 
 men holding her hands and several her feet, while her screams were 
 heartrending. Notice was given to the Chief of Police, however, and 
 in less than two hours she was brought back again, but not till she had 
 endured much suffering, being bruised and sore all over. A short 
 time afterward, too, the principal offenders were sent to jail — some for 
 three months each and one for four months. Ruth afterwards went to 
 the Girls' School at Sialkot and is now the wife of Barkat Masih of the 
 Gujranwala District. 
 
 But upper-class people are not the only ones who suffer persecution 
 at the time of baptism, or in prospect of it. Low-castes and outcastes 
 suffer in the same way. 
 
 Occasionally, it is true, members of the depressed classes are even 
 encouraged to become Christians by their non-Christian friends and 
 neighbors. At Saddowal in 1883, the ala-lambardar, a Hindu, who 
 was at one of our services, listened with great attention to all that was 
 said ; and when the preacher (who was addressing especially candidates 
 for baptism) made a brief pause in his discourse, he took occasion to 
 break in himself with an exhortation for them to remain firm in the faith. 
 
 But such experiences are rare. As a general thing both Hindus and 
 Muhammadans dislike the upward aspirations of these poor people. 
 The former are afraid that their Christianization will threaten the 
 stability of the whole caste system. They tliink that if the sills are 
 removed the entire structure will tumble to the ground. The latter 
 would much rather see the Chuhras embracing Islam ; while both 
 Hindus and Muhammadans, contemplating the elevation of low-caste 
 people to the rank of Christians, fear the loss of the service of a class 
 upon which they have heretofore depended, especially in the work of 
 agriculture. 
 
PERSECUTION OE LOW-CASTE PEOPLE 233 
 
 Hence statements like the following have been common in describ- 
 ing our evangelistic experience: "A number of inquirers were not 
 baptized for fear of persecution, as they were threatened by their 
 enemies, and could not at this time openly confess Christ ; " or this: 
 "Moti'swife and children were among the number baptized. The 
 wives of the other men became frightened and did not come out. The 
 Hindu and Muhammadan villagers are very much opposed to these 
 people becoming Christians ; " or again, " There were a few who ex- 
 pected to be baptized this evening ; but, poor people ! they were 
 threatened so by the zamindars (farmers) for whom they work that they 
 felt that they could not come out now. The zamindars heard this 
 afternoon that they expected to be baptized, and told them that if 
 they were baptized they would not give them any work to do nor any- 
 thing to eat. And, I suppose to make them believe that they would 
 do it, they took some of their grain from them. It would seem to 
 them very much like facing starvation to be baptized now." 
 
 "At a village called Dargahiwala, five miles north of Qila," wrote 
 the Rev. E. P. Swift in 1885, "great earnestness to embrace the 
 Christian religion was felt among the low castes. The catechists 
 visited the place several times, instructing them in regard to the plan 
 of salvation. The whole Community sent a message to me to come 
 and baptize them. Afterward when the headman of the village dis- 
 covered that they had sent for a padri'^ he at once assembled the 
 people and told them not to become Christians. He said the padri 
 would make them eat frogs, pigs and lizards, and, if they persisted in 
 becoming Christians, he would turn them out from the village and en- 
 tirely deprive them of their houses and work. We were obliged to 
 leave the place because the poor people had lost -all courage for the 
 time, and were afraid to come near us. This plainly shows what bitter 
 hatred the Muhammadans have in their hearts against our Lord and 
 Saviour Jesus Christ." 
 ' And sometimes opposition to the baptism of members of the de- 
 pressed classes is also received from their own caste (or no-caste) 
 brethren. Often a near relative (wife, husband or mother) gives as 
 much trouble to an inquirer, or a candidate for baptism, as a similar 
 relative would do among the Hindus or the Muhammadans; and 
 sometimes the number of such opponents is overwlielming. 
 
 When Piyara, a Meg, wanted to be baptized in Zafarwal, he was at 
 
 * The common name for a Christian minister in India. 
 
234 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 first forcibly kept by his friends from going to church for this purpose; 
 but afterward he escaped and obtained the rite. 
 
 When Cheddu of Naya Pind (a Meg also) was converted, he met 
 with great opposition from his wife and all his kinsfolk, and on this 
 account was hindered from making an early profession. But his con- 
 science troubled him, especially when he was sick, and finally he sum- 
 moned up sufficient courage to face all difiiculties and confess Christ. 
 His wife told him that if she had known that he would become a 
 Christian she would have poisoned him. 
 
 From Ramnagar, in the Gujranwala District, Miss McCullough 
 wrote, Feb. i, 1892, " People at home as well as here have the idea 
 that it is not hard for the low-caste people to become Christians. 
 With my own eyes I have seen that it is hard for the respectable ones 
 among them to do so. Yesterday a young man, named Piran Ditta, a 
 sweeper, was baptized. His family is among the best of his class. 
 He has been an inquirer for some months. Saturday he came to us 
 and said that he desired to be baptized on the Sabbath. We found 
 that he wanted his wife also to become a Christian, and that she in- 
 tended to comply with his wish. We found, too, that he had endured 
 a great deal of persecution because he had openly declared that he was 
 a Christian, and intended to be baptized in his own village, and wanted 
 all to be present to see the rite performed. The Muhammadans tried 
 to persuade him to join them and offered hi.ii a salary if he would do 
 so. Yesterday, when he had received baptism, during the prayer, his 
 mother began to beat him with a stick. He jumped and ran to one 
 side ; and, after giving Laddha the catechist a blow, she ran after her 
 son and beat him thoroughly, first with the stick and afterward with 
 her shoe — at the same time weeping, and giving him the worst kind of 
 abusive talk. He just stood and took it all." 
 
 The harsh treatment which people continue to receive after they 
 have professed Christianity has also a deterrent influence on all who 
 think of joining their ranks. This ill treatment assumes a variety of 
 forms. Sometimes our people are turned out of employment ; some- 
 times they are kept from getting water at a public well ; sometimes 
 troublesome lawsuits are brought against them and they are involved 
 in debt ; sometimes they are compelled to do more than their share of 
 work for government officers, and that too without pay — as has been 
 the case when a Lieut. -Governor or a Financial Commissioner made 
 his tour through a District ; sometimes they are unjustly put upon the 
 
OPPRESSION OF CHRISTIANS 
 
 235 
 
 / 
 
 official list of rogues and are consequently exposed to frequent arrest 
 and much suffering — as was often done in the Sialkot District ; some- 
 times they are falsely accused of crime and thrown into prison ; some- 
 times they are cruelly beaten, as Bir Singh was by the farmers of Gan- 
 gohar in 1887 ; sometimes they are deprived of their property by force 
 or fraud, and treated with the greatest indignity; sometimes they are 
 kept from prosecuting their 
 own trade, as was the case 
 once or twice at Sialkot 
 witli a bricklayer named 
 Prema; sometimes false 
 stories are circulated in 
 regard to their character ; 
 sometimes a private wrong 
 is done them and, instead 
 of obtaining redress, they 
 are punished as though this 
 wrong had been done by 
 themselves to the perpetra- 
 tors. 
 
 Two instances may be 
 specially mentioned. 
 
 One is that of a young 
 Muhammadan living in the 
 village of Bhado-Chida, 
 who was baptized in 1S94, 
 and on account of this act 
 was afterwards called upon 
 to endure persecution. He 
 was not allowed to take 
 water from the common 
 well, although he owned a 
 
 third of it ; and one of tlie rooms attached to his house was burned. 
 Yet we are told that he remained firm in the faith and was finally estab- 
 lished in all his rights by the Deputy Commissioner. 
 
 Another is the case of Rura of Chimma. When he was a lad he 
 went out to cut grass with some other boys. The/<rz;/^/^/(a;/- of Qila, 
 Suba Singh, a petty officer, came along and demanded the grass from 
 him. Low-caste people, '\i sepies (that is, a kind of serfs), are expected, 
 
 \ 
 
 PUNJABI POLICEMEN. 
 
236 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 and indeed bound, to comply with such orders. But Rura's father was 
 not a scpi. So he said, " I am a Christian, I wont give you the 
 grass." This enraged \\\& jamadar, and excUiiming, "Why do you 
 call yourself a Christian ? " he took the grass by force, beat Rura and 
 said to the farmers, " Let some one arrange it so that this boy can be 
 put in prison." A man, named Maulu, cut some of his own maize and 
 mixed it with the grass that Rura had cut, then charged him with 
 theft, and had him taken into custody and hand-cuffed. The same 
 was also done to his father, and it was with the greatest difficulty that, 
 even after the expiration of a week, they could recover their freedom. 
 This treatment was much the same as that which the farmers of Mo- 
 hanwala threatened the Christians of that place after the missionary 
 camp would be removed. They said, " We will report you as thieves, 
 even though we have to take some of our own goods and put them 
 into your houses as a basis for accusation." 
 
 Once a woman in Gurdaspur was so terribly beaten that her injuries 
 resulted in death ; and, while something else was ostensibly the occa- 
 sion of the attack, everybody believed that the real cause was her pro- 
 fession of Christianity. Similar instances have also occurred in Zafar- 
 wal and other parts of our field. And sometimes, doubtless, secret 
 murders of our members occur, about which we can only entertain sus- 
 picion. But, after all, cases of persecution unto death within the limits 
 of our field are rare indeed. For this, no doubt, we have reason to 
 thank the strong arm of the British Government, which, while unable 
 to prevent or remedy all minor ills, has hitherto provideniially suc- 
 ceeded in protecting most of the Lord's people from fatal onslaughts. 
 
 It is probable, too, that tlie rigors of caste are giving way to some 
 extent, especially in the case of Muhammadans, and that the time may 
 be near when this great barrier to the gospel will be partly removed. 
 
 Muhammad Husain, several months after his baptism, when the first 
 flush of excitement, anger and opposition among his friends and core- 
 ligionists had died away, began to visit his mother and other near rela- 
 tives in their own home, and was even permitted to partake of food 
 there, though apart from the rest; and as far as known this intimacy 
 still continues. Other similar cases might also be given. 
 
 But the day of an easy and peaceful confession of Christ in Lidia is 
 to all human appearances far distant. Hitherto, at least, the work of 
 evangelization has met with many obstructions, and the foundations 
 of Zion have been laid amid the jeers and missileb of bystanders. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 EVANGELISTIC RESULTS— I 
 
 General Influence — Secret Converts — Professing Christians, their Numl)er and Dis- 
 tribution — Classes from which they are drawn — Causes of the Distinction. 
 
 jjHEN Lady Dilke visited India in the winter of 1888-89 ^^^ 
 took pains to examine into the character of Christian Mis- 
 sions, what struck her most was not the number of actual 
 converts which they made, but the social and political 
 influence which they exerted among the masses. She saw how, 
 by means of education, moral teaching, good example, social 
 intercourse, medical aid and hearty sympathy, missionaries and 
 their assistants were winning the hearts of the people, elevating them 
 in the scale of civilization and doing a work even for British Rule 
 which Anglo-Indian officials did not and could not do. " It seems 
 to me," she said, " that a day may come when the influence of their 
 patient and self-sacrificing devotion will have created a bond of union 
 between ruled and rulers which shall offer a stronger resistance to the 
 advance of foreign foes than the weight of our sceptre and the sharpness 
 of our sword." 
 
 And the position thus gained by such laborers appears to strike al- 
 most every one who makes a brief sojourn in India and does not 
 actually shut his eyes to the facts of the case. Well does the writer 
 remember how, when Dr. W. W. Barr and he visited our Mission in 
 1880-81, the non-Christian natives of Gujranwala and Sialkot seemed 
 to vie with Christian converts in showing their appreciation of the 
 benefits conferred upon them by the missionaries and the church, from 
 which they, as well as their visitors, had come. And even such Anglo- 
 Indian papers as the Civil and Military Gazette, of Lahore, concede 
 the point without question. Referring to Lady Dilke's conclusion that 
 " socially and politically the missionary is a success," that paper says, 
 " It is a pity she should have wasted time in proving such an estab- 
 
 (237) 
 
238 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 lished fact. No one for a moment doubts that as a teacher and an 
 examplar of Western doctrine and conduct the missionary is worth the 
 price." And, in reviewing Sir Charles Aitchison's glowing address 
 on the probability of converting India by means of missions, it admits 
 " that India must profit by the non-official teaching of a creed, whose 
 morality is above reproach, by men whose motives are above 
 suspicion." 
 
 Besides this, there is no doubt that our own Mission, as well as 
 others, has secured in many minds an intellectual belief in tlie truth of 
 
 Christianity. Natives not a few 
 have been brought to see its 
 superiority to tlieir own faith. 
 They acknowledge its ability 
 to purify society, spread intelli- 
 gence, stimulate enterprise, ad- 
 vance civilization, create wealth 
 and conquer the world. Tliey 
 recognize in the Lord Jesus 
 Christ a Person whose equal 
 has never appeared on the earth. 
 Were the people around them 
 all ready for the change they 
 would willingly abolish Hin- 
 duism and Muliammadanism 
 and substitute in their stead 
 that religion which has made 
 the West so much greater than 
 the East. Without any spiritual 
 conviction, or enough interest 
 in the matter to break caste and follow an independent course, they 
 yet might be called Christians as truly as many in England and America 
 who actually bear the Christian name. 
 
 Further, we can confidently claim some secret converts — an unregis- 
 tered company of true believers, whose profession of faith in Christ has 
 gone no further than that of credible private statements made to Chris- 
 tian workers, or perhaps noiseless actions indicating more certainly 
 than words that a change had been wrought in their hearts. 
 
 A Hindu woman of Gujranwala, for instance, showed the utmost 
 anxiety to hear and learn about Clirist and to commit the Bible to 
 
 CIVILIZATION AND SAVAGERY. 
 
SECRET CONVERTS 239 
 
 memory. Such passages as John 3:16 were very dear to her. Though 
 persecuted by her friends, and forbidden by her guru to read or hear 
 the gospel, she persisted in her course and said, " I feel as if God 
 would take away my very life if I quit reading and I cannot help it." 
 She was also very fond of prayer and experienced the greatest willingness 
 to try to obey God's commandments as fast as she learned what they 
 were. Her spirit, too, seemed to be of the most childlike character. 
 And yet she was not a public professor of Christianity. 
 
 Another zenana inmate of the same place once said, " I would gladly 
 leave this house of ease and plenty and beg my food from door to door 
 if I could be free to serve Christ." 
 
 Again a Brahman, of Zafarwal, who for some time had been an in- 
 quirer and had often attended religious service, was taken fatally ill, 
 and on his death-bed, though surrounded by Hindu relatives, made 
 great efforts to secure the visit of some person who could tell him more 
 about Christ. Providentially no one could be found near enough to 
 gratify his desire. Who knows but that the seed already sown in his 
 heart may have been growing secretly, and that, as in the case of the 
 dying thief, though unwatered by sacramental ordinances, it may now 
 be bearing fruit in paradise? 
 
 So also may it be with one who on earth belonged to the other ex- 
 treme of Hindu society — the sweepers' caste. She was tlie wife of 
 a Christian, and died of consumption at Gujranwala in 1884. Though 
 never baptized, she always took pleasure, during her illness, in the 
 visits of Christian workers, and frequently asked them to read God's 
 Word to her and pray with her. She often said that she trusted in the 
 Lord Jesus Christ and loved God very much for sending his Son into 
 the world to save sinners. Her husband also testified that she loved 
 and trusted the Saviour and that even the heathen women around her 
 said, " She died a Christian." 
 
 Indeed so frequently are cases of apparent religious earnestness met 
 with outside of the church that one of our number says, '' I believe 
 there are more Christians in India than we fancy. Baptism is not a 
 saving ordinance. There are many hidden ones." 
 
 But the chief proof of our evangelistic success is to be found after all 
 in the number and the character of our professing converts. However 
 much men may belittle statistics (while perhaps they magnify the in- 
 definite considerations to which our attention has just been directed), 
 it cannot after all be successfully denied that statistics are by all odds 
 
240 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 the most tangible and trustworthy basis upon which to rest our conclu- 
 sions. If Elijah was encouraged by the fact, when made known to 
 him, that 7000 Israelites had not bowed the knee to Baal, and even 
 angels are said to rejoice over the conversion of one repenting sinner, 
 the Christian Church now need not be ashamed, or afraid, to enumerate 
 the trophies secured by her representatives in heathen lands — whether 
 these trophies are numbered by ones or by thousands. It is only a 
 kind of infidelity which contends that statistical tables, when discreetly 
 prepared and intelligently examined, are misleading. 
 
 Tables showing the progress of evangelistic work in our field are 
 given in the Appendix to this volume. 
 
 From these tables we learn that during the fifteen years, beginning 
 Jan. I, 1880, and ending Dec. 31, 1894, 9451 adults were baptized on 
 their own profession of the Christian faith and that there were at the 
 end of that time within our bounds 5756 persons termed either com- 
 municants or baptized adults ; besides 3894 other baptized persons — 
 making a total in our Christian community of 9650 souls.* 
 
 Compared with the multitudes around us this number seems but 
 a drop in the bucket, being less than one in every 400 of the en- 
 tire population. And when we compare our absolute increase with 
 the growth of the general community during the period referred to, 
 the advancement made seems to be not only small but entirely hope- 
 less. While the Mission has gained only a little over 9000 persons, the 
 community as a wliole has increased about 500,000 ; that is, there are 
 now within the bounds of our field about 490,000 more people outside 
 of the pale of the Christian Church than there were at the close of the 
 year 1879. 
 
 But when we compare percentages of increase the comparison puts 
 on a different aspect. Supposing that we had a Christian community 
 of 500 at the beginning of the year 1880 and 9650 at the close of 1894, 
 our percentage of increase for the fifteen years intervening would be 
 about 1830; while that of the population generally was only about fif- 
 teen or sixteen. That is, the ratio of Christian growth has been 120 
 times as great as that of the people taken as a whole. Supposing the 
 same ratios of increase to continue during the next fifteen years, we 
 
 * No account is here taken of the large number of persons who were dismissed to 
 other denominations at the time of the readjustment of our mission boundaries. 
 Through this process we experienced a net loss of 800 or looo communicants and 
 1200 or 1500 of Christian population. 
 
COMPARATIVE GROWTH IN NUMBERS 241 
 
 should have, at the close, a Christian population of over 175,000, 
 while the whole census would indicate an increase of 650,000 ; and 
 during a subsequent period of like length the Christian Church would 
 begin to take rapid strides in advance of the general community. But, 
 as such calculations in regard to the future are largely speculative, all 
 we need affirm here is that the work has made a good beginning and 
 promises, with God's blessing, to approach nearer and nearer the goal 
 of complete conquest. 
 
 Compared with similar work around us, too, we have much reason to 
 be thankful. According to the statistics of the Decennial Missionary 
 Conference, the entire Protestant Native Christian Community in the 
 Punjab in 1881 was 4762 ; in 1891 it was 20,729 — a growth of 335 per 
 cent. Our figures for the same years were 660 and 10,165 respec- 
 tively — that is, an increase of 1440 per cent. It will be seen, too, that 
 our total Christian population was almost one-half that of the whole 
 Punjab, although we had only 12 out of a total of 91 ordained mission- 
 aries, 24 out of a total of 126 lady workers and 10 out of a total of 50 
 native ministers. 
 
 Compared with India generally also our growth was good. In 1881 
 there were 417,372 Protestant native Christians in the whole peninsula ; 
 in 1890 there were 559,661 — an increase of about 34 per cent. Our 
 increase for the same period, as already seen, was 1440 per cent. 
 
 Even compared with similar work in the North India Conference of 
 the American M. E. Church, ours was quite hopeful during the period 
 referred to ; for their Christian population increased only 303 per cent., 
 or about one-fifth that of our percentage. But since 1890, when our 
 progress almost came to a standstill, they have been advancing so 
 rapidly as to leave us far in the rear. In April, 1894, the whole Na- 
 tive Christian Community, reported in the statistics of their India and 
 Malaysia Missions, numbered 72,000, and people were being added to 
 their roll at the rate of fifty a day. 
 
 The 9650 native Christians now in our field are distributed as fol- 
 lows : 1959 in the Sialkot Mission District; 2721 in Pasrur ; 1270 in 
 Zafarwal ; 2202 in E. Gujranwala ; 712 in W. Gujranwala; 595 in 
 Gurdaspur ; 39 in Pathankot ; 79 in Jhelum ; 46 in Rawal Pindi ; and 
 27 in Bhera.* Thus it will be seen that the great body of them are 
 found within the limits of a comparatively small region just north of 
 the thirty-second parallel of latitude, between the seventy-fourth and 
 
 * See map. 
 16 
 
242 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 the seventy-fifth degrees of longitude — Sialkot Civil District forming 
 the central section, with parts of Gujranwala and Gurdaspur flanking 
 it on the western and eastern borders. This result is not surprising, 
 since that is the region where we have worked longest and most — as it 
 is also the region where live the majority of that class of people from 
 which we have drawn the principal part of our converts. 
 
 As early as 1859 a very interesting movement towards Christianity 
 began among the Megs of Zafarwal and has continued, though not with 
 uniform power, from that time down to the present.* 
 
 But the movement which has brought the most converts into our 
 fold originated in 1873 ^^ Marali, which was then attached to the 
 Sialkot Mission District, but afterward (from 
 1882 to 18S7 inclusive) to the Zafarwal District, 
 and since then has been included in the Pasrur 
 District. This was a movement among the 
 Chuhras, a small, lame man, named Ditt, who 
 is now an elder at Marali, being its first convert 
 and the chief agent in causing its early spread 
 there. From Marali this work extended in 
 various directions wherever Chuhras were settled 
 until it had reached every one of our Mission 
 Districts except Rawal Pindi, Jhang and per- 
 haps Jhelum. But the movement in Gujranwala 
 among this class originated almost as early and 
 may have been altogether independent. This 
 started at Dogra taiti, near the city, and Karm 
 Bakhsh, now an elder and earnest worker, was 
 its first fruit. But whether independent or not, the influences 
 emanating from both centers soon coalesced and co-operated with 
 one another in their advancing course. 
 
 The most productive years in our history were the seven commenc- 
 ing with 1883 and ending with 1889 — 1886 being the climax, when 
 1936 adults and 719 infants were baptized. But as the rise of the tide 
 was not uniform so neither has been its fall. The year 18S8 was more 
 fruitful in conversions than 1887, and 1889 far surpassed any year pre- 
 ceding 1886. Since 1889 there have been considerable yearly addi- 
 tions by baptism — more than there were before the year 1883 ; but 
 after all, to our apparent discredit, they have not been specially re- 
 
 * Until 1882 Zafarwal was included in the Sialkot Mission District. 
 
 UNDER FULL SAIL. 
 
FROM WHAT CLASSES CONVERTS COME 243 
 
 markable except in one or two localities, while losses have been so 
 great on account of the readjustment of boundaries, and for other 
 reasons, that our net total Christian population was 300 less at the 
 close of 1894 than five years previously. 
 
 From what classes do these converts come? Briefly speaking, there 
 have been more men converted tlian women — more villagers than city 
 people — more poor than rich — more illiterate than educated — and more 
 from the depressed than the higher classes. 
 
 Perhaps twice as many men as women have been baptized. This 
 has been due, not only to the greater intelligence of the male sex in 
 that country and the more frequent opportunities which they have had 
 for getting light, but also probably to the more conservative character 
 of the female sex and their greater attachment to the customs, the su- 
 perstitions and the religion of their ancestors. Old social ties, too, 
 have perhaps been stronger in their case. 
 
 The proportion of village to city Christians may be inferred from 
 the number of points where they reside (557 in all) and the fact that 
 we have at most only a few places altogether within the limits of our 
 field that may be called cities or even towns. Probably nineteen- 
 twentieths of our people live in villages of less than 800 inhabitants. 
 The law regulating the growth of the Ancient and the Mediaeval Church 
 seems, therefore, to be reversed in this particular as far as we are con- 
 cerned — as far indeed as India Missions generally are concerned. It 
 is not so much in the great centers that we find success as in country 
 places. Should the work go on as it has been doing for a kv^ genera- 
 tions, the words heathen and pagan will not be appropriate with us in 
 designating non-Christian, idolatrous people. If etymology is to be 
 regarded in the use of terms, 2(rl?and.v\6. citizen will have to take their 
 places. 
 
 These people, too, are generally poorer than those who reside in 
 towns, while those who confess Christ are mostly the poorest of these 
 poor. The great body of our Christians are common coolies or 
 sweepers, and earn a precarious livelihood as hired laborers. Many of 
 them are agriculturists, but work for Hindu or Moslem farmers in a 
 kind of serfdom. Nor is this serfdom of that fixed variety which 
 guarantees permanent home and perpetual employment. They are 
 liable to be dismissed from time to time at the will of their masters. 
 A few of our people rent and farm land for themselves, while a rare in- 
 
244 LIFE AND WORK ]N INDIA 
 
 dividual, here and there, owns property as other zamindars do.* A 
 number of the Christians speculate in skins and other articles of mer- 
 chandise ; some weave for a living; some are house servants ; some 
 are teachers, scriveners, policemen, or employees in the civil service; 
 while about 200 are working for the Mission. Among all these not 
 one would be called wealthy even in India, and probably not more 
 than one family in a hundred makes even a respectable living; while 
 the mass of our members would be glad to earn two or three dollars a 
 month, each. 
 
 That our converts previous to their baptism were generally illiterate 
 is not perhaps in itself a very surprising fact, since the great body of 
 the people in India are of this character. But it is a fact which ought 
 to be noted, because some persons contend that education is almost a 
 necessary preliminary to successful evangelism and also because we 
 have labored diligently among all classes of society. A few educated 
 ("wise") men, have been "called;" perhaps one in a hundred of 
 our adult baptisms has sprung from this class ; but when we consider 
 the closeness of our relation to the educated people of our field, both 
 in and out of schools, it is certainly surprising that they have not fur- 
 nished us more converts. Education may not be an actual hindrance 
 to the belief of the gospel, but the history of our work shows that it 
 is at least not much of a helj). Probably pride of intellect and learn- 
 ing overbalance any advantage that may be derived from clear percep- 
 tion and logical power. The humble "unwise" enter into the king- 
 dom of heaven before those of an opposite character. f 
 
 So has it been also with outcaste and low-caste people. Although 
 constituting but a small percentage of the entire population, they have 
 furnished us twenty times as many converts as all the rest put together. 
 
 Not that we have lacked in the matter of Hindu and Muhammadan 
 conversions. As far as can be ascertained we have had as many of 
 these as Missions generally. Indeed, contrary to the fears of some, 
 our work among the depressed classes has been a help, rather than a 
 hindrance, to work among the higher classes. Hindus and Muham- 
 madans, who would take their children out of a school established for 
 themselves, on the introduction of low-caste pupils, are, in villages, 
 
 *0n inquiry in April, 1891, it was found that of the 98 boys then present in our 
 Christian Training Institute 25 were agriculturists, while only one of these came 
 from a family that worked its own land. 
 
 t See pp. 165-167, 173. 
 
CONVERTS FROM THE LOWLY 24o 
 
 glad enough to send their boys and girls to a school that had been es- 
 tablished primarily for Chuhra Christians. Efforts, therefore, to edify 
 our village people furnish additional bases for operations among their 
 "better-born" neighbors. Besides, Chuhras have themselves been 
 known to be the agents in securing Hindu conversions. And, what is 
 still more important perhaps, the conversion, education, moral im- 
 provement and elevation of people, who have for generations been al- 
 most beneath contempt, furnish an object lesson of the most striking 
 character, showing everywhere in unmistakable language the power of 
 our holy religion, and this influence has had something to do in win- 
 ning the higher classes. 
 
 Still our main success, as already stated, has not been among the 
 latter but among the despised and the downtrodden — among those 
 who are considered too degraded to have even a name or a place in 
 the system of Hindu caste. 
 
 This, however, is by no means an exceptional fact. All the ad- 
 vance movements of Christian Missions in India have been among 
 similar people. It is from the Karens, the Telugus, the Santals, the 
 Chamars, the Kols, the Khasis, the Shanars, the Chuhras, and other 
 tribes of like standing, that the present Indian Church has received 
 the great body of its membership ; and the Salvation Army seems to 
 get a large part of its soldiers from the Dheds of Gujarat, the Mahars 
 of Poona and the Pariahs of Cape Comorin. No remarkable work has 
 ever yet been reported among the Brahmans, the Rajputs, the Khatri- 
 yas, or even the Muhammadans. 
 
 Such also has ever been the history of Christian Missions. The 
 gospel, in permeating society, has almost always filtered up instead of 
 down. Except when propagated by force, it usually begins with the 
 lower strata of the people and gradually rises until it reaches the noble 
 and the great. It was a matter of reproach in the early days of Chris- 
 tianity, and strenuously urged against it by its enemies, that " the new 
 sect was composed almost entirely of the dregs of the populace, of 
 peasants and mechanics, of boys and women, of beggars and slaves." 
 And earlier still, the Apostle Paul writes to the Corinthians: " Ye see 
 your calling, brethren, how that not many Avise men after the flesh, not 
 many mighty, not many noble, are called ; but God hath chosen the 
 foolish things of the world to confound the wise ; and God hath 
 chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are 
 mighty ; and base things of the world, and things which are despised, 
 
246 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 hath God chosen, yea, and things wliich are not, to bring to nought 
 things that are: that no flesh should glory in His presence." Other 
 words could scarcely be selected more fitting than these to describe 
 the condition of the Indian Church at the present time.* 
 
 And then-, besides being in accordance with God's usual method of 
 operation, this result has been favored in our case by special provi- 
 dences : 
 
 First, by the fact that these poor people are without caste, and 
 hence free from those restraining rules and harsh customs which, as we 
 have seen, do so much to prevent the spread of the gospel leaven. f 
 Christian converts from this class are not persecuted as much by their 
 old friends as those that come to us from Hinduism or Islam. And, 
 what is more important, they are allowed to remain at home where they 
 can act as evangelistic workers among their own kindred. 
 
 These outcaste people, too, are freer from superstition and entangling 
 error than others. They are not troubled either with the fierce con- 
 victions of the Moslems or the ensnaring philosophies of tlie Hindus. 
 Their minds are more of a blank in regard to religious subjects ; and 
 whatever beliefs they have resemble more the teachings of Christianity 
 than do those of most of the iniiabitants of India. | 
 
 Again, this class have been for some time in a transition state. 
 Little by little their old religious moorings have been abandoned ; one 
 by one they have been attaching themselves to other faiths. North of 
 a certain latitude almost all have become Muhammadans. The Musal- 
 lies of Jheluni belong to this class ; as also do many in the Gujranwala 
 District. Some have adopted Sikhism and thus acquired the name of 
 Mazhabi Sikhs — that is, Sikhs by religion. Others are yielding greater 
 and greater homage to Bralimans and bid fair to become, at some future 
 date, a Hindu caste. And this migratory tendency is favored by their 
 general desire to rise in the social scale. They are aiming at better 
 things in every point of view. No wonder then that Christianity 
 furnishes for them elements of attraction, and that some are led to 
 adopt it as their new religion. 
 
 And especially so when we observe again that their tribal traditions 
 and prophecies point in this direction. Some years ago Mrs. S. Mar- 
 tin wrote as follows : " The wide door effectually opened among these 
 people (the Chuhras) is a remarkable providence. There is a wide- 
 spread belief among them to this effect : — that they and other Hindus 
 
 * See pp. 165-167, 173. f See pp. 223-225. J See pp. 11 7-1 19. 
 
A CHUHRA TRADITION 
 
 247 
 
 are descended from a common ancestor, tliat at one time a cow died 
 in front of this ancestor's home and that the elder sons, having suc- 
 cessively refused to remove it, induced their youngest brother Balmik, 
 or Balisha, to take it away, promising that after four hours he should 
 be purified and restored to the family. At the end of the four hours 
 they put it off till the fourth day ; and on the fourth day it was post- 
 
 COCOANUT TREES. 
 
 poned for four months ; and then again, for four years. When four 
 years had transpired they declared he could not be restored at that 
 time, but a promise was given that his descendants would certainly be 
 restored in the fourth yi/g* They believe that this fourth yug has 
 now come and that Chiihras, Hindus and Muhammadans are all to be- 
 come Christians, and in this way all are to become one people." 
 Through such traditional sayings and beliefs as these many of these 
 
 *0r j'tig — that is, age, period. 
 
248 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 outcastes have been brought under Christian instruction and through 
 this to a saving knowledge of Christ. 
 
 But are not these people, morally speaking, the most depraved part of 
 the whole community? By no means. Caste in India has nothing to 
 do with morals. Intellectually, indeed, the low castes are beneath the 
 higher castes ; and so they are also in the ability to lead, hold their 
 own, and act independently. This is shown where both classes con- 
 tend with each other, on an equal footing, in schools and other places, 
 and is proved also by the fact that they have been kept so long in a 
 state of subjection ; although this subordination has been partly the 
 cause, as well as the effect, of the inferiority mentioned, and may 
 therefore be removed in time by a course of training. But, as far as 
 morals are concerned, they are equal to any other great class in British 
 India and superior to some of these classes. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 EVANGELISTIC RESULTS— II 
 
 Character of Native Christians — Douljts of Some Regarding their Piety — No " Re- 
 vivals " — Many Ignorant and Imperfect — Some Fall Away — Proofs of a Work 
 of Grace — Many Stand Good Church Examinations — Make Great Sacrifices — ■ 
 Bear Persecution — Desire Knowledge — Love their Christian Teachers — Ex- 
 hibit Comparatively High Morality^Christian Servants, Worthless or Not? — 
 Why — Native Christians Not Specially Covetous — But Liberal — Show Continual 
 Improvement — Are Anxious for the Salvation of Others — Testimony as to the 
 Character of Individuals — Ameera — Daulah — Clihero. 
 
 UND now comes the inquiry, What is the spiritual and moral 
 cliaracter of our professing Christians ? Are they truly 
 united to the Saviour or not? This is a question which 
 is often asked, and especially in regard to those who 
 come to us from the depressed classes. And there are unfriendly 
 critics who do not hesitate to give them a bad name and to 
 say that our work is destitute of the marks of a work of grace, or at 
 least of a great work of grace. The same thing, too, has been said of 
 work among similar classes elsewhere, and even of the whole mass of 
 native Christians in India. Such superficial observers as Canon Tay- 
 lor, and even many Anglo-Indian officials, speak of '' the great mis- 
 sionary failure" and refuse to believe that any Christianizing influence 
 has been exerted on those of the Indian people who have been brought 
 into the church. A member of the Civil Service writes that 99 per 
 cent, of his associates consider every native Christian a blackguard, a 
 thief and a liar ; although his own testimony on the subject, after 
 thorough trial, is the very opposite ; and Dr. Robson says that native 
 Christians are better exponents of Christianity than the majority of 
 Anglo-Indians themselves. 
 
 It is admitted that our people have not been led to profess Christ 
 through the gateway of what is called a " revival ; " that is, through 
 the instrumentality of mass-meetings in which the Spirit of God has 
 
 (249) 
 
250 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 demonstrated His overwhelming power by the production of loud cries, 
 or other expressions of deep feeling. We have had no pentecostal 
 outpourings where individuals exhibited profound conviction of sin, 
 great fear of divine wrath or strong love for the Saviour, or where the 
 mass of the hearers seemed to be swayed hither and thither by the 
 irresistible impulse of a Superior Presence. Nor, as far as the writer is 
 aware, have there been any such revivals among the natives anywhere 
 else in all India. This may be due to the peculiarity of their tempera- 
 ment — not being an emotional people — or it may be due to the fact 
 that Christianity comes to them, not so much as an old faith, already 
 accepted in a historical sense, to be now received also with the heart, 
 as a new faith to be now acknowledged as the only true religion for 
 
 the first time with the understanding as 
 well as the emotions. But, whatever 
 may be the cause, such no doubt is the 
 actual history of our work. 
 
 It must be admitted also that many 
 of our people, as yet, are very ignorant. 
 They have only lately come from the 
 depths of heathenism and spiritual dark- 
 ness. The older ones have not been 
 educated. They lack the intellectual 
 discrimination necessary for profound thought and the memory needful 
 to retain much truth. Their opportunities for information, too, have 
 been limited. 
 
 Moreover, many of them exhibit great imperfection of life and char- 
 acter, just as Christians do all the world over. Indeed, it is only right 
 to say that in some respects they are exceptionally weak. Those sins 
 to which they were peculiarly liable in an unconverted state cannot be 
 uprooted all at once. Superstitions and temptations to immorality 
 still retain something of their former power ; their views of Christian 
 marriage are defective ; and the Sabbath is not kept by them as it is 
 in America and Scotland. Nor are religious habits of any kind as 
 universally and as firmly fixed as they ought to be ; while periods 
 of spiritual declension may be noted in the case of individuals and 
 even whole communities, which lasts for months and sometimes 
 years. 
 
 Many also reveal in time the fact that they have never experienced a 
 change of heart. Some fall into gross sin and are suspended from the 
 
 GILAHRIES. 
 
PROOFS OF PIETY OF NATIVE CHRISTIANS 251 
 
 privileges of the church. Some commit crime and find a lodging-place 
 in jail. A few apostatize and return to their former faith. 
 
 Still, tliat many of the conversions are genuine and that a great 
 work of grace has been going on in our field, can be established, we 
 think, by convincing proofs. 
 
 One proof is the character of the answers which they give when they 
 are admitted into the church on examination. These often exhibit 
 great simplicity, earnestness and real religious experience. An ex- 
 aminer, hearing them, cannot resist the conclusion that the applicants 
 are sincere in their Christian profession. 
 
 Great sacrifices are also sometimes made by many who join the 
 church and a willingness is shown to abandon everything that is op- 
 posed to Christianity. An exorcist of Pasrur, for instance, who relied 
 lupon his conjurations as a means of livelihood, gave up his business 
 entirely in honor of the wonder-working Messiah and after baptism 
 earned his bread by the sweat of his brow. 
 
 Persecution, too, as we have already seen,* is frequently endured 
 upon such occasions, and this persecution, moreover, is often of the 
 most trying character, and may be continued for many years. It is 
 hard to see how men can voluntarily bear so much opposition and suf- 
 fering, without the prospect of much temporal good as a result, if they 
 are not true Christians. 
 
 Many of our people have also a great desire for knowledge, both 
 secular and religious. The village schools are well attended and 
 parents generally want their children to study also in the Christian 
 Training Institute ; while the love of preachers and preaching is widely 
 diffused and sometimes intense. Often requests are made by Chris- 
 tians for the establishment of a school in their village or for the loca- 
 tion of a Christian worker there. Voluntary, independent movements, 
 too, are sometimes attempted. A young man living at a village three 
 miles distant from Badomalli attended school at the latter place in the 
 morning and in the afternoon gathered the children together in his 
 own town — his little sisters along with the rest — and taught them from 
 day to day what he had learned himself, and appeared to do it well ; 
 nor did he seem to expect any compensation for the work. 
 
 Frequently the warmth of affection shown by village Christians for 
 their religious instructors is very touching. They will run to meet 
 them as they are approaching their town, escort them to their lodging- 
 * See pp. 229-236. 
 
252 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 place, give them the best attention which their circumstances allow, 
 express great regret that they cannot come oftener and even send for 
 them when their absence becomes protracted. " Sometimes I feel 
 almost discouraged," says a zenana worker, "when people in the vil- 
 lage send for us to come to them and seem so eager to hear, and at the 
 same time have the women in the city scolding because we do not go 
 oftener to them, when we are working to the point of exhaustion every 
 day." Nor is it the worker alone who is loved. The message which 
 he brings is after all the chief attraction. Says a superintendent of 
 missions, " Men who have worked from sunrise to sunset under the In- 
 dian sun in the harvest field sit gladly till almost midnight to listen to 
 the gospel." Occasionally, too, peoj)le will go a long distance to hear 
 the Word. A woman in the Pasrur District once walked ten miles, 
 carrying a baby, to attend religious services ; and others walked twelve 
 miles, carrying their little ones, to be present at a meeting of the 
 Women's Missionary Association at Zafarwal, in the winter of 
 1892-93. 
 
 It may also be confidently affirmed that the standard of morality and 
 good conduct among our people is higher than it is among the classes 
 from which tliey iiave sprung. Cases of discipline, scandaloussin, and 
 apostasy do indeed sometimesarise ; but they are rare — rarer, too, among 
 low-caste converts than among others. Comparatively speaking, we have 
 little trouble on account of the use of opium or strong drink, stealing 
 or profanity, false swearing or rioting, idolatry or exorcism, polygamy 
 or wife-beating, or even breaches of the seventh commandment. And, 
 while there is often reluctance shown to bring offenders to justice in 
 ecclesiastical courts, it is doubtful whether more of this feeling exists 
 among Christians in India than in America. 
 
 That some native professing Christian domestics are worthless is no 
 doubt true, and that even missionaries, knowing the temptations which 
 beset servants and aware that few besides those who are disqualified for 
 higher work apply for employment in this capacity, often hesitate to 
 hire them, is also true ; but, as far as our observation goes, there is no 
 ground for that wholesale condemnation of those who enter domestic 
 service which is fashionable in certain quarters. A part of them adorn 
 their Christian profession in this sphere and set a good example to their 
 associates ; while the average honesty and faithfulness of the whole 
 class is certainly superior to that of Hindus and Muhammadans in a 
 like position. 
 
NATIVE CHRISTIANS— THEIR IIBERALITY 253 
 
 The causes of the preference given by many Englishmen to heathen 
 domestics and employees are various. One has heard Christian ser- 
 vants condemned by a friend ; another has tried one and found him 
 wanting ; a third fears their employment would arouse the jealousy or 
 the opposition of other servants ; another dislikes the strain of always 
 setting a good example to those who, he knows, are constantly ex- 
 pecting it ; another wants his private life hidden from all who bear the 
 Christian name ; another prefers servants whom he can kick and cuff 
 as "niggers," without any fear of scandal ; another despises mission- 
 aries and all who are connected with them. 
 
 That native Christians also try to better their own worldly condi- 
 tion, and are sometimes even covetous, is also admitted. In this respect 
 they resemble their brethren in other parts of the world, especially in 
 England and America. But that this, with them, is a peculiarly beset- 
 ting sin can hardly be proved ; nor, except in a few cases, can it be 
 shown that they are transgressing the spirit of a commandment which 
 requires " the lawful procuring and furthering the wealth and outward 
 estate of ourselves and others." That men reduced to the extreme of 
 poverty which they exhibit should seek more of the comforts of life is 
 only natural and right. So long as they do not make mammon their 
 god, they are simply treading the path of duty. 
 
 And we find that this trait does not by any means prevent the rise, 
 or suppress the growth, of Christian liberality. True, the aggregate of 
 their religious and charitable contributions is not great, and many fail 
 to give as the Lord hath prospered them. But some do remarkably 
 well. In several cases churches or school houses have been erected 
 wholly, or chiefly, by native Christians. A number of laborers have 
 also been supported by the funds which they contributed. For some 
 time nearly all the members of the Sialkot church gave three per cent, 
 of their income to make up the pastor's salary. Hundreds of rupees 
 were given yearly by natives to swell the Presbyterial treasury. Vol- 
 untary thank-offerings, moreover, have not been unknown ; and, 
 where cash was not available, farm products have been substituted. At 
 Badoki, for example, a large brass pan is sometimes set in the midst of 
 the congregation, in which, at the proper time, men, women and 
 children deposit the contributions of various kinds of grain which they 
 bring in their cotton shawls and chadars. And the chief reason, no 
 doubt, why larger results in this direction are not realized is because 
 suitable means have not yet been employed everywhere to secure them. 
 
254 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 The fact, too, that in most cases continual improvement in every 
 respect is manifested, and that even backsliders have been reclaimed, 
 goes far to prove the presence of God's Spirit and the hopeful condi- 
 tion of the work generally. 
 
 <' I have been out among the Christians all the month and am glad 
 to say that I found them all well and growing slowly in knowledge and 
 grace, with one or two exceptions." "We met with discouragement, 
 but I never was as much encouraged in the work as now." "There 
 seems to be a steady improvement in the Christian community at Sad- 
 owal. The women show much more intelligence with regard to Bible 
 knowledge than they did two or three years ago." " I am greatly en- 
 couraged in regard to the Christians who came from tlie outcaste 
 classes. In many places we see a great increase in knowledge, a very 
 
 evident strengthening of the faith, a 
 greater desire for holiness of life and 
 more zeal in good works." Such word 
 often has come to us in reports and 
 private letters during the past twelve 
 years. 
 ^ The recovery of Badoki and other 
 
 =^ backsliding congregations is also very 
 significant. For several years Badoki 
 KHARGosH. was Considered lost and doubts were 
 
 entertained whether it had ever enjoyed 
 the presence of God's Spirit. But in 1888 it began to revive, and 
 in 1889 Miss McCullough writes of it, "Badoki has given us more 
 heartaches than any other village of the District, and it is comforting 
 now to see signs of growth in grace." And afterwards these signs 
 grew stronger and stronger. 
 
 Another encouraging evidence that God has been with us is the 
 anxiety which our people have had for tlie salvation of their friends and 
 neighbors, and their zeal in trying to bring them into the Christian 
 fold. How much this has aided our evangelistic work has already been 
 mentioned,* and further reference need not be made to it here, except 
 to say that we can hardly present a stronger proof that Christ has been 
 dwelling in the hearts of his professed people. 
 
 More than this, the testimony of Christian workers, both native and 
 foreign, as to the character of individuals with whom they have been 
 
 *See pp. 195, 196. 
 
TESTIMONY REGARDING INDIVIDUALS 255 
 
 closely associated, as also in regard to the work generally, may be cited 
 in great abundance to prove the claim that God's Spirit has been work- 
 ing with us. 
 
 " I believe Dina Nath to be a true Christian." 
 
 " How well Khaji trains up her children ! " 
 
 " He was a good boy — remarkably fond of his Bible — devoted to his 
 Master's service." 
 
 ''Fazl Din says he is often deeply moved by the effects of preach- 
 ing; and his throat seems to fill up as he makes this statement." 
 
 " He is a good man ; I just love him." 
 
 ** It made our hearts rejoice to see how readily he accepted Christ as 
 the Son of God and his only Saviour." 
 
 " Tears sometimes come into the eyes of Wadhawa's wife and evi- 
 dence of deep emotion is given as I speak to her of Jesus, his death 
 and his love." 
 
 " Shana, my chaukidar, gives three annas a month for the support 
 of the church, and that, too, without being asked. He seeks the 
 treasurer." 
 
 "The man named Hukma is quite grey-haired, but he is very 
 earnest, and during the preaching, when it was said that the world 
 would hate and persecute them, he lauglied right out, literally fulfilling 
 Christ's command (Matt. 5 : 12) to rejoice and be exceeding glad. 
 Thus we see that the leaven is working and the Spirit is working, too." 
 
 " Farman Shah, in all his trouble, has never faltered in his allegiance 
 to Christ, and says that even if they kill him he will not give Him up." 
 
 " A man who had denied his Saviour two years ago was received 
 back, and this time his wife also came and was baptized. At the close 
 of the communion service I took him by the hand, saying, 'Hidayat 
 Masih, you have brought reproach upon His name in the past ; I hope 
 you will strive all the more to honor Him in the future.' To this he 
 made no reply, but I saw the tears flowing freely, and I thought of 
 Peter, who, remembering his sin, went out and wept bitterly." 
 
 "Rahim Bakhsh grew in grace and less worldly towards the last, and 
 gave evidence of genuine religious experience." 
 
 "Two members have died during the year. One of these was a 
 student of theology — a good, promising boy. His disease was con- 
 sumption, and in all his sufferings he gave evidence of earnest faith in 
 Christ." 
 
 " From the time of Likar's conversion till God called him away, his 
 
256 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 walk and conversation, although not perfect, were such as marked him 
 as one destined for a better land." 
 
 " Kaka, while on his deathbed, said, 'This is not my house; I am 
 going to a beautiful home ' — that is, where Christ lives. Another con- 
 vert, Kanda by name, having been attacked by pneumonia and being 
 in great pain, was asked if he was afraid to die ; he replied, ' No ; why 
 should I fear when Jesus is near me.' Seeing his relations greatly 
 worried over his sickness, he requested them to be calm, saying, ' My 
 faith is firm in Christ.' " 
 
 " It has not been my lot here to visit a happier family or one where 
 husband and wife seemed so happy in each otlier and so mutually de- 
 voted to the work of Christ." 
 
 "There is much to encourage. Some of the girls give unmistak- 
 able evidence of Christian development." 
 
 "Incidents are becoming much more frequent which show that the 
 leaven of the gospel is working among the masses and among all 
 classes. ' ' 
 
 " On the whole, work is encouraging in the majority of the vil- 
 lages." 
 
 " There are some who I trust shall shine as jewels in the Saviour's 
 crown. I well recall listening to an old man as he recited the story of 
 the sufferings and betrayal of our Saviour. Tears came to my eyes and 
 his voice broke as he told of Peter's denial and tliought of his own too 
 frequent denials of that same Master. This man was careful to instruct 
 his family and to repeat with them, each day, the Lord's Prayer." 
 
 " Some said of their persecutors, ' They may drive us out of the vil- 
 lage, but they can't drive us away from Christ.' " 
 
 " While the village men are talking to me of their own trials, diffi- 
 culties and successes, and of their own Christian experience, I receive 
 benefit myself." 
 
 "The Christians in many villages show an interest in the Word of 
 God and a desire to receive instruction. While still ignorant, some at 
 least have obtained a saving knowledge of Christ." 
 
 "The progress made and the change effected are simply wonder- 
 ful." 
 
 " What would have seemed a miracle to the missionaries a few years 
 ago has now come upon us so gradually that we scarcely realize what 
 has been done and is being done by the Spirit of God here. No 
 earthquake; no noise as of a rushing mighty wind; but a still, small 
 
SUMMARY OF TESTIMOXIALS 257 
 
 voice, a secret working of the leaven, a quiet germination and growtli 
 of the seed sown. Watered by the gentle dews of the Spirit, it has 
 sprung up, until now the fields seem waving with ripening grain." 
 
 '' I must say that I am not only hopeful but confident that the great 
 majority of those baptized will prove themselves to be living stones in 
 the temple of our God, provided hard, faithful, patient and loving 
 work be done among them." 
 
 "The solemn conviction forced itself upon us that none other than 
 the Lord Christ Himself, being by the right hand of God exalted and 
 having received of the Father the promise of the Holy Ghost, did shed 
 forth this which we saw and heard. Overwhelmed with awe, we could 
 but exclaim, ' The Lord hath done great things for us, whereof we are 
 glad.'" 
 
 These testimonials have been culled at random from letters, reports 
 and other documents covering almost the whole period which has 
 elapsed since 1881 and emanating from every part of our field. They 
 show the opinion of a large number of our workers — foreigners and 
 natives, men and women — in regard to matters coming under their 
 immediate observation, written mostly at the time when their impres- 
 sions were fresh and when they would be least likely to be mistaken. 
 Nor has the Mission as a body shrunk from officially endorsing their 
 judgment. Even at an early stage of the work she declared that God 
 had "vouchsafed a manifest blessing upon her labors" and resolved 
 to recognize this fact with profound gratitude and great joy. 
 
 How any one, therefore, can deny the reality of a great work of 
 grace among us is a mystery. God's Spirit has certainly been abroad 
 "convincing and converting sinners and building them up in holiness 
 and comfort, through faith, unto salvation." Even if half our pro- 
 fessing Christians were hypocrites, this would still be true. 
 
 As a further proof and illustration, however, of the manner in v/hich 
 Christ has been manifestly transforming and guiding these poor people, 
 I take the liberty of condensing and appending several biographic no- 
 tices which were given by Miss C. E. Wilson in the Christian In- 
 stnicfor oi ]n\y 2T„ 1891. 
 
 " Ameera, a low-caste woman, was a heathen when I came to Guj- 
 ranwala in 1875; but within two years this unhappy, grumbling old 
 creature was transformed into a happy, bright-faced Christian ; and she 
 has continued so to this day, with very icw slips into the slough of 
 despond. 
 17 
 
258 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 " When Miss Calhoun first gave her the gospel message she tliought 
 it too good news for her, and said, ' I am too old to change my re- 
 ligion now.' But in the course of time she accepted Christ and was 
 received into His church by baptism. Ever after her dark, wrinkled 
 face was lit up with joy and peace. She believed, and realized the 
 abiding presence of the Saviour, and has often strengthened my faith 
 and gratitude, when calling upon her to read God's Word to her and 
 pray with her. She was always so grateful for the least kindness shown 
 her and constantly thanking and praising God for His goodness. I 
 often felt that she was outstripping me in grace and faith. She had 
 nothing but the coarsest food and clothing and her surroundings were 
 bare of all temporal comfort ; and her happy, contented spirit was a 
 constant rebuke, calling up Paul's question, ' Who hath made thee to 
 differ?' 
 
 "Of late years she expresses herself as waiting for Jesus to call her 
 home, and often longs for His coming. I have not seen her lately, but 
 Mrs. Murray says that her faith is firm and that she still enjoys hear- 
 ing the Word of God and engaging in the exercise of prayer." 
 
 "In the early part of my mission life, in Ameera's village there was 
 a young school girl, named Daulah. She, with a number of others, 
 learned to read the gospel and accepted its teachings. As the fruit of 
 Miss Callioun's labors, she and several of her companions were received 
 into the church ; and she was shortly after married to a young Chris- 
 tian, named Nanak, and tlie two served us faithfully as house servants 
 for several years. When Miss McCullough went home on a furlough, 
 they were sent to live in a village and work as catechists. She became 
 the mother of six children. The last one came during the dreadful 
 fever epidemic in the Gujranwala District and she and her babe, and 
 another child, succumbed to it. 
 
 " She was a good wife and mother, and a beautiful, little, black-eyed 
 woman. Though not a woman of marked piety, she was a steadfast 
 Christian and died a hopeful Christian death. Those who were at her 
 bedside say that she repeated nearly one-half of the first chapter of 
 John and the twenty-third Psalm and said a great many things about 
 Christ. Mrs. Murray, who was with her and prayed with her, bears 
 testimony to her joyful death." 
 
 " Chhero was one of two Christian young men of the Gurdaspur 
 District whom we employed last summer to pull pankhas for us. He 
 was quite blind. We became acquainted with him about three years 
 
CHHERO, THE BLIND COOLY 259 
 
 ago, on our first itinerating tour through this District. His mother 
 brought him to us and plead with us to try and save his eyes, lest he 
 should go blind. We gave him medicine and all was done to save 
 them that could be done, but the white scum continued to grow, and 
 soon the light of this world was quite shut out from him. He had 
 learned to read a little before his eyesight gave way. He had a reten- 
 tive memory and a tolerably bright mind, and gave good heed to the 
 Word of God read in his hearing, and committed to memory six chap- 
 ters of Matthew and the whole of a little catechism on the Bible. By 
 this means he got a good knowledge of Scripture history and seemed 
 to know it all by heart. During the two months and a half that he 
 was with us we also gave him additional lessons with the view of mak- 
 ing him a teacher of more ignorant people. He was so cheerful, kind 
 and willing, too, that we all learned to love him and were sorry when 
 vacation time came, and he had to go home. 
 
 "But he soon took the fever and, after an illness of eight days, 
 called his mother and said, ' God is calling me. I want to give some- 
 thing in His name before I go.' She had nothing in the hou.se but 
 some crude sugar, about ten cents' worth, and she called her neighbors 
 and distributed that among them in his behalf. The mother wept and 
 said, 'O son, how can I spare you?' He replied, 'This little 
 brother, Yusif, in your lap, will take my place and comfort you.' He 
 then asked if it was ten o'clock. When told that it was about that 
 time (for they had no timepiece), he said, ' I am going to God ; salam 
 to you ; this is the time he told me I was to go ; ' and then he quietly 
 passed away. 
 
 " His friends and neighbors, and we all, felt sorry when we heard 
 of his death ; yet we rejoice in the good evidence we had that he was a 
 true child of Jesus. Nothing pleased him more than to recite or hear 
 His word and sing His praise, and his prayers were full of simple faith 
 and trust. On one occasion he greatly touched our hearts by the 
 grateful manner in which he thanked God for all the kindness of the 
 missionaries who had come so far to teach them, and by the manner 
 in which he also said, 'I thank Thee, Heavenly Father, that, though 
 Thou hast seen fit to deprive me of bodily sight, yet Thou hast given me 
 spiritual sight and fixed Thy truth in my heart.' He did not give up 
 hope of bodily sight being restored until Dr. Johnson examined his 
 eyes last summer and solemnly told him there was no hope. The 
 ringing, hearty answer, ' All right ! ' brought tears to the eyes of those 
 
260 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 who heard it. His mother still grieves for such a loving son ; but we 
 tell her not to weep for him, but to prepare to meet him in heaven." 
 
 Such are a few examples of the grace of God as it is displayed in the 
 redemption of the Chuhras — the most despised of the low-caste peo- 
 ple — and a partial proof of the fact that our labor has not been in vain 
 in the Lord. 
 
CARING FOR HER YOUNG. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 LOWER TRAINING OF CHRISTIANS 
 
 Stages of Missionary Work — Training of Christians in a Compound — In a Village — 
 The Underworker — Village Life — Primary Duties — Worship Described — Sing- 
 ing, Prayer, Sacraments — The Sabbaili School — Secular Schools — Their Draw- 
 backs—Teaching Urdu — Central Schools and Inspectors — Panc/inyats — Sub- 
 superintendence — The Missionary's Work — Monthly Meetings — Methods Auto- 
 cratic — Melas — Christian Villages or Settlements — Hindrances to Primary 
 Training — The Result. 
 
 HE second great part of a missionary's task, as we have al- 
 ready seen,* is the establishment of a self-supporting, self- 
 propagating chmxh. And this part comprehends two main 
 subdivisions — first, the training of Christian converts; and 
 secondly, ecclesiastical organization proper and church development. 
 Together with evangelism, these constitute an ascending series in the 
 I scale of missionary duties. First the materials for a church must be 
 collected. This is the work of evangelism. Then these materials must 
 be trimmed and polished. This is the work of Christian training. 
 Then, having been prepared, they must be built up into a living temple. 
 This is the work of church edification. 
 
 Not that these various branches of labor are so essentially distinct 
 that they cannot be carried on simultaneously or that they cannot co- 
 operate with one another. An ideal condition of things means the 
 very opposite. It exhibits a work of Christian training which also 
 
 * See pp. 148, 149. 
 
 (261) 
 
262 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 reaches out after the conversion of sinners, and shows a developinc^ 
 church which assumes more and more the edification of its own mem- 
 bers and the evangelization of the people around it. The three proc- 
 esses should overlap and interpenetrate one another; and this to some 
 extent has been realized in our own case. But, as a matter of fact, 
 this ideal is seldom fully attained ; and in giving a description of the 
 progress of our efforts, it is convenient to make the distinction 
 specified. 
 
 The work of training converts contemplates their advancement in 
 everything which helps to make them intelligent, steadfast, active and 
 useful Christians — that is, in religious knowledge, good habits, pure 
 morals, spiritual desires and holy zeal. It really begins before their 
 baptism as a preparation for the reception of that sacred rite ; and 
 some of our workers are disposed to prolong this period of preparation, 
 partly as a test of the sincerity of the candidates, and partly be-cause, 
 in some instances, converts show more desire for improvement before 
 they are baptized than afterwards. But the general rule is to baptize 
 applicants as soon as they make a credible profession of faith and leave 
 the chief work of training to be done subsequently — as appears to be 
 directed in Matt. 28 : 19, 20. 
 
 In the case of high-caste converts and Muhammadans, almost all of 
 whom are compelled to leave home as soon as they forsake their old 
 religion, this training is usually done at, or near, the Christian laborer's 
 own residence — that is, in a Mission compound. Here they are brought 
 under gospel influence, day by day, and gradually led into all truth 
 and duty. 
 
 But the great body of our people, as already stated, are of low-caste 
 origin and can stay without great difficulty in their own houses and 
 among their own kindred; and often whole families of this class, and 
 even whole connections, are baptized at the same time. 
 
 Supposing then that a number of persons in a village, or in several 
 neighboring villages, have passed the initial stage of formal admission 
 to clujrch membership, the first thing usually done afterward is to put 
 a Christian helper there to act as an underworker. He goes from house 
 to house, gets acquainted with the peculiarities of each individual, cor- 
 rects any wrong impressions which the people may have had respecting 
 Christianity, confirms their opposition to the false religion which they 
 have abandoned, teaches them as fast as he can passages of Scripture, 
 a Bible Catechism, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer' and 
 
CHUHRA QUARTER OF A VILLAGE 
 
 263 
 
 ^i^mf 
 
 the fundamental principles of our holy faith, urges them to abandon 
 every form of sin, and exhorts them to commence family and secret 
 prayer. He also meets with them as often as he can — perhaps every 
 day — for public worship, and on the Sabbath is expected, not only to 
 conduct a regular religious service and preach, but also to hold a Sab- 
 bath School and catechetically instruct all, old and young, in regard 
 to divine things. 
 
 Sometimes, too, one of the more intelligent of the members is 
 deputed to act as his assistant and helps to keep his neighbors up to 
 the right mark ; while in due season a school teacher is also added. 
 
 It is hard for one who has not actually seen the village life of 
 Chuhras in India to imagine the humble and peculiar circumstances 
 under which this work is done. 
 
 Remember that the Chuhra quarter is on the outskirts of the village 
 proper, facing the open country (which 
 is not remarkable for its sweet smells *) — ^ - 
 
 and often near scooped-out, artificial 
 ponds of dirty water, called chhappars, 
 which serve for washing and bathing 
 and (in extreme cases) drinking pur- 
 poses, as well as for the refresliment of 
 buffaloes and other domestic animals. f 
 Remember that the village streets are 
 narrow and filthy, often only three or hyena. 
 
 four feet wide — that the houses are all 
 
 built of mud and consist each of only a room or two, facing a small 
 court which is surrounded by a mud wall — that the furniture of the poor 
 people comprises simply one or two charpais, a spinning-wheel, some 
 cooking utensils and a few other articles — that the dusky children of 
 the place go about without much if any clothing on, and that generally 
 the men and sometimes the women, appear in such soiled and scanty 
 attire that they would be arrested as public nuisances in any American 
 town. Remember, too, that the men are generally absent in daylight 
 at their field work ; that all, old and young, are at the outset perfectly 
 
 * Fields adjacent to an Indian town are always covered with the remains of dead 
 animals, deposits of human filth, and rubbish of every description, while scavenger 
 birds and animals are often present, busy at their gluttonous and nasty, but highly 
 necessary, work. 
 
 ^ See illustration on p. 184. 
 
2G4 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 illiterate and that at first there is no public meeting-place, except an open 
 common, where a person can collect the people to give them an address. 
 
 Under such circumstances, the Christian worker who has taken up 
 his abode among them, or perhaps hired a house in some more desir- 
 able quarter, begins his labors. One by one the people are taught a 
 little of God's Word and introduced into the outskirts of the great 
 temple of divine truth. Wherever he can get an oj)portunity two or 
 three persons are, for a few minutes, formed by him into a class to 
 learn passages of Scripture and questions in the catechism — women and 
 children by day, and men at night — and at set periods, especially on 
 the Sabbath, as many as possible are assembled on the common, or in 
 a private court, to engage in more formal worship. His work is em- 
 phatically " precept upon precept, precept upon precept, line upon 
 line, line upon line; here a little and there a little." 
 
 In the course of time, perhaps, a small mud building is erected on 
 the common, or a purchased lot — the people themselves putting up the 
 walls and the Mission bearing the expense of the woodwork — and here 
 the worker and the teacher can carry on their labors more conven- 
 iently. Possibly, too, after a while, a few benches, a chair and a desk 
 are put into this building ; and even a second room may be added, 
 which can be occupied as a rest-house by the missionaries, and others, 
 when they visit that part of the country on a tour of duty. For the 
 Christian laborer himself also a permanent home is sometimes pro- 
 vided. Thus the work advances step by step. 
 
 Orientals (men) in company usually sit with their turbans on, and 
 would feel very much ashamed to do otherwise ; but this custom has 
 been abandoned by India Christians in public worship, out of defer- 
 ence, no doubt, to Western ideas. If a member of the audience does 
 not take off his turban we may be perfectly sure that he has never been 
 baptized. A similar influence is at work on the Eastern practice of 
 removing shoes {Julian, slippers, sandals) when people enter a house, 
 and especially a house of worship. Formerly our people universally 
 observed this custom and left their shoes at the entrance of the room 
 where there was a religious service, considering it "holy ground." 
 But latterly tliere has been a change in many places in regard to this 
 matter, especially in the more "advanced" congregations. Village 
 Christians, however, often retain the primitive practice. 
 
 The forms and exercises of worship adopted in our work are essen- 
 tially those which prevail among Presbyterians everywhere. They in- 
 
OUR FORMS 01' WORSHIP DKSCRIIiKD 205 
 
 elude prayer, praise, Scripture readin<3^, preaching, niulual exhortation, 
 giving, and at limes the sacraments of the New Testament — Baptism 
 and the Lord's Sup[)er; but these exercises are, of course, varied in 
 number, length and character by circumstances. 
 
 Our " praise " consists in the singing of Psalms — some of which are 
 in Western meter and set to Wcstrrn music, and sonir in Oriental 
 meter and set to Oriental nuisic. 'I'he latter, wliich arc (ailed bliajaiis, 
 are very [)opular, especially in country places; but the inrmer are used 
 more in cities and old congregations. Our bJuiJans arc in the Punjabi 
 tongue; our Western meter versions in Urdu. Sometimes pco[)le rise 
 and stand during the exercise of singir.g and sometimes they sit. 
 
 The Scripture reading embraced in a regular religious service is 
 usually performed by the leader, as it is at home. Preaching is also 
 the work of the leader, except in prayer meetings and other confer- 
 ences, when an opportunity is given for remarks by any member of the 
 audience; but in promiscuous assemblies men alone have thus far 
 availed them.selves of this privilege. Sermons are almost universally 
 s])oken (not read) and are addressed to hearers as directly and forcibly 
 as possible. As a general thing, too, they are less elaborate and formal 
 than the sermons in America; nor has any standard of length become 
 fixed. 
 
 Prayer, except when the Lord's prayer may be repeated in concert, 
 is always free and extemi)oraneous ; and, when finished, it is often at- 
 tested and strengthened by a sincere and general, but somewhat sup- 
 pressed, cry of " Amen." No attiiude in this exercise has yet become 
 universal. Perliaps partial prostration — that is, kneeling with the fore- 
 head touching, or almost touching, the door — is as common as any 
 other. It suits village people very well, as during worship they gener- 
 ally sit on the llocjr anyhow; and besides it acc(jrds with boih Hindu 
 and Muhammadan customs. \\\ older congregations and larger i)laces 
 seats are often ])rovided for adults, especially the men, and sometimes 
 for the whole audience. Under such circumstances standing is a com- 
 mon attitutle in prayer. This is the form adopted in the Sialkot 
 church. But kneeling, either with the face towards the rear of the 
 church (Methodistic style), or with the face towards the pulpit (Epis- 
 copalian style), prevails in some congregations; and sometimes, ac- 
 cording to Western fashion, people sit and pray (if they pray at all) 
 with, or without, their heads resting on the i)ews before them. Oc- 
 casionally I have seen almost all of these attitudes assumed by different 
 
266 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 individuals in the same congregation during the same exercise. The 
 habit of offering up a silent prayer at the beginning, and again at the 
 close, of a religious service seems to be universal among our people and 
 comes to us apparently from British sources. As soon as a worshiper 
 takes his place in the meeting he looks up to God for a blessing upon 
 the exercises before him ; and again, after the benediction is pro- 
 nounced, he sits for a minute or two and secretly pours out his lieart 
 to Heaven in thanksgiving and petition. People never rush out of 
 church immediately after the preacher's voice ceases to be heard. It 
 would be thougln very rude and irreverent for any one to do so. 
 
 Little peculiarity may be observed in the method of administering 
 the sacraments of the church. Previous to the celebration of the 
 Lord's Supper one or more preparatory services are usually held, and 
 for some days or weeks beforehand the minds of intending communi- 
 cants are turned towards this solemn ordinance. Common native 
 bread, which is unleavened, and the juice of the grape, as extracted 
 from raisins,* often furnish the emblems which are used in the sacra- 
 ment itself, and of these the members partake as they sit in their 
 places, separate from others, and receive them from the officers of the 
 church. 
 
 Fasting, as a religious exercise, has occasionally (but rarely) been 
 appointed, either to prepare people for the observance of the Lord's 
 Supper, or, in times of declension and providential distress, to secure 
 the return of God's blessing; and sometimes, too, with manifestly 
 happy results. This exercise is not only Biblical in its character but 
 it is also familiar to Eastern people, especially Muhammadans, and its 
 introduction into our usages seems perfectly natural. 
 
 It has been stated that a local worker is expected to carry on a Sab- 
 bath School among the people of his neighborhood. Sabbath Schools, 
 indeed, have for thirty years or more been a special feature of our 
 work of religious training. According to the Statistical Tables of 
 1890, we had within our bounds 90 of the 116 Sabbath Schools es- 
 tablislied in the Punjab and 2959 of the 4331 pupils. At the close of 
 1893 ^s reported 131 Sabbath Schools and 3162 scholars, and at the 
 close of 1894, 99 Sabbath Schools and 2474 scholars. In large places, 
 where secular education is more advanced and many teachers can be 
 had, Sabbath Schools are conducted after Western models and some- 
 
 * Common wine, whether fermented or unfermented, is an expensive article in 
 India — too expensive for ordinary congregations. 
 
SABBATH SCHOOLS AND DAY SCHOOLS 267 
 
 times the Inlcnialional Series of Sabbath-School Lessons is used. 
 The Rev. T. L. Scott for several years published tliese lessons with 
 the sanction of Presbytery ; and recently an effort of a more ambitious 
 character to provide helps was made by a regularly appointed commit- 
 tee, though this effort was not continued very long. But the helps 
 prepared by neighboring Missions have also been used in some places. 
 In villages the local Christian worker has been the chief, and some- 
 times the only, instructor; and, as many scholars are not able to 
 read, much has depended upon his oral communications and his faith- 
 fulness in catechetical drill. Our Sabbath Schools are composed 
 •mostly of" Christians and the members of Christian families; but, in 
 cities especially, they are attended frequently by non-Christian 
 scholars, and some of them may be classed as altogether missionary in 
 their character. It may also be remarked here that, as a means of 
 mutual assistance, we joined with others, December lo and ii, 1890, 
 in forming a Punjab Auxiliary to the Indian S.-S. Union. 
 
 The establishment of secular schools as an aid in our village work 
 seems to be absolutely necessary. Our Christian converts in outlying 
 points are usually without any education whatever, nor are they able 
 to get any without our assistance. It becomes our duty, therefore, to 
 teach them at least to read the Bible. 
 
 Of village Primary Schools we have about 120 within the bounds of 
 our field, with an aggregate of 4500 scholars. The curriculum of study 
 followed in them is that which has been adopted by the government, 
 extends over a three years' course and, when successfully pursued, 
 qualifies the pupil for admission into an Upper Primary School, should 
 he have an 0])portunity of attending one. Religious instruction is also 
 given regularly and all available means are used to make the schools 
 subservient to their great end — the moral and spiritual elevation of the 
 Christian community. And, that they may become something of an 
 evangelistic power, children of other religions also are often admitted 
 as jMipils. It has not been a very rare thing to see Hindus, Sikhs, 
 Muhammadans, Chuhras and Christians all sitting side by side, read- 
 ing Urdu or listening to a gosj^jcl story. 
 
 But there are some drawbacks to this branch of work. 
 
 One is the lack of good school-houses. In many cases, indeed, 
 there are no school-houses at all. The pupils are taught under a tree 
 or beside a mud wall, or on the open common, or in a private house. 
 
 Another is the lack of Christian teachers. The demand for edu- 
 
268 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 cated Christians in purely evangelistic labor is so great that few are 
 left for the work of secular instruction, and these few must receive 
 comparatively high wages. Hence we have been compelled to em- 
 ploy many non-Christian teachers — teachers who are not only unable 
 to give religious instruction, but whose example, at least, is against us. 
 Some of these teachers, indeed, by favoring pupils of their own faith, 
 neglecting Christian children, and following other devices, have done 
 what they could in a covert manner to defeat the great object which 
 we have in view. 
 
 Another drawback is the necessity of not only teaching Urdu, but of 
 teaching it (and other branches) in the Urdu tongue,which to most of the 
 scholars is almost a foreign language. The authorities of the Province 
 exalt Urdu at the expense of Punjabi and make the former the chief 
 vehicle of education, native literature and civil administration. 
 Hence the latter is not recognized in any authorized course of study 
 except that appointed for zamindari schools ; * and zaviindari schools 
 do not suit us, because we want our primary institutions to be prepara- 
 tory to those that are higher. 
 
 Urdu, or Hindustani as it is often called, must therefore be made 
 as familiar to our pupils as their village dialect ; and their effort to ac- 
 quire it, and through it to acquire also all the other branches embraced 
 in our school curriculum, becomes, as every one can easily see, a great 
 task. 
 
 And then the character adopted in teaching them Urdu is so hard 
 to learn. Hindustani may be written or printed in one of three char- 
 acters — the Persian, the Arabic, or the Roman. The Persian is simply 
 the Arabic in a running hand, called Nastaliq. Both therefore give 
 different forms of letters for the beginning, the middle and the end of 
 words, while vowels for the most part must be guessed at. In Hindu- 
 stani, too, three letters are added which are not found in the Persian 
 tongue and seven not found in the Arabic. Persian Urdu, moreover, 
 cannot be printed from regular type, and, being lithographed, partakes 
 constantly of the variations which characterize handwriting. In cor- 
 respondence, too, it is often written in a broken shorthand, called Shi- 
 kasta. All these forms which must become familiar to the pupil, 
 make the Arabic, and especially the Persian, character difficult to 
 learn. Roman Urdu is the easiest of all, even to a native. An expe- 
 rienced missionary says, " The time occupied in teaching an average 
 * Farmers' Schools; see p. 165. 
 
10^1:^6^ 
 
 ^A\ 
 
 ililliiWtlfili H^uU-^-*'' '//ii*^ 
 
 (269) 
 
270 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 child to read the Roman character would be about a month, whereas 
 the Persian character, under the same conditions, needs a year." Ro- 
 man Urdu presents only about one-third as many forms as either of 
 the other characters; while vowels, as well as consonants, are repre- 
 sented. Being printed with type, too, it is more uniform in its appear- 
 ance than the Persian lithographed Arabic, and in writing it is seldom ab- 
 breviated. More than this, it is less trying to the eyes and more legible. 
 Yet the hardest of these characters for a learner (namely the Persian) is 
 the one which is retained in the Punjab school system, as it is also in the 
 civil service. This is due to the prestige given it under the Mu- 
 hammadan rule, to the cheapness with which it can be printed, and to 
 the fact that the great mass of Urdu literature is found in this charac- 
 ter. Many India missionaries, especially those who are located in 
 Oude and the Northwest Provinces, would like to substitute the Ro- 
 man for the Persian in their educational work, not only because it is 
 easier, but because the knowledge of Roman alone would cut off the 
 followers of Christ and many others from the corrupting influence of 
 native writings — hardly anything but that which is distinctively Chris- 
 tian being printed in Roman Urdu. But the tide of sentiment and 
 power is against them, and as years roll on the difficulty of making 
 any change becomes greater and greater. 
 
 Otiier obstructions to the rapid and successful advancement of 
 pupils in village schools up to the required standard are found in the 
 age and the intellectual weakness of some of them, and in the irregu- 
 larity of their attendance upon the instruction of their teacher. 
 
 To remedy these various drawbacks, several expedients have been 
 tried. One is the establishment of a Central School in every Mission 
 District, where, under the immediate eye of the Superintendent and 
 the teaching of a superior instructor, scholars nearing the close of 
 the Lower Primary course might be taken for a time and receive special 
 attention. Another is the a])pointment of a faithful, qualified inspec- 
 tor for the Mission District whose duty it is to visit the schools fre- 
 quently and keep them up to the required mark. Help has also been 
 derived from submission to the examination of a local government in- 
 spector, from whom official certificates can be had at the end of the 
 third year. This has a specially stimulating effect on teacher and 
 scholars, and, besides, lays the foundation for a grant-in-aid from public 
 funds ; but, of course, whatever objections may be urged against gov- 
 ernment help in other cases may also be urged against it in this case. 
 
PANCHA YA TS 271 
 
 Of other local agencies established for the improvement of the }^qq- 
 ■^Xq, patichayats and zenana missionary societies may be mentioned. 
 
 The latter are few in number and have not yet developed into a 
 force of any great power; but they are progressing and will eventually, 
 no doubt, be very helpful to the female members of the church.* 
 
 Panchayats\ are local ruling committees, composed of the heads of 
 the people, in imitation of similar bodies among the Hindus. They 
 were sanctioned by the Mission in 1891, with the design of aiding dis- 
 cipline and training men for the eldership, and are found in some 
 parts of our field. Their work is to watch over their respective Chris- 
 tian communities and exercise a sort of civil as well as ecclesiastical 
 control among them — trying cases of wrong doing and imposing fines 
 or other penalties, according to their judgment of what would be right. 
 
 Some doubt the expediency of this arrangement. They dislike its 
 encroachment upon the functions of both the State and the Church, 
 and its confusion of the temporal and the spiritual penalties which 
 these authorities respectively impose. They fear, too, that it may 
 lead to the assumption by 2^ panchayat oi the powers of a Session and 
 to its virtual, if not actual, determination of the question, Who have 
 a right to participate in the sealing ordinances of the church? They 
 fear also that, by thus establishing a substitute for the Session, the 
 work of regular church organization will be postponed instead of 
 hastened. Better in their opinion ordain elders and form Sessions as 
 soon as possible for purposes of ecclesiastical government (as the 
 Apostle Paul did) and not foist upon our people a Hindu device, in- 
 volving similar power and requiring apparently similar qualifications. 
 However this may be, panchayais axt an established fact, and their aim 
 at least is to help forward the work of Christian training. 
 
 Of course where congregations are regularly organized a readjust- 
 ment of the various local agencies employed in the edification of 
 Christians takes place. Instead of the local mission agent comes the 
 pastor, or the stated supply, and instead of \.\\q panchayat the divinely 
 authorized church court. The Sabbath School and the missionary so- 
 ciety also become arms of the church proper, and even the parish 
 school may be subjected to pastoral oversight. 
 
 As a sub-superintendent, too, the ordained minister, whether settled 
 
 * See pp. 129-132. 
 
 f Courts of five or more — from the word pattck, which means five. (Pronounced 
 punch-i-ut.') 
 
272 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 or not, may be made responsible for work in a large number of un- 
 organized centers surrounding his place of residence. These it be- 
 comes his duty to visit as often as possible; and over all the inferior 
 agents and agencies located there he is expected to exercise a certain 
 amount of authority. He is also required to preach as often as pos- 
 sible in every part of his little "diocese," examine candidates for ad- 
 mission to the church and, whenever he thinks proper, administer the 
 ordinance of baptism. Where an ordained minister is not available, 
 this work of sub-superintendence is often performed by a licentiate, or 
 a high-class catechist — but, of course, without the liberty of baptizing 
 converts. 
 
 It should be noted here, too, that, although our Christian women 
 are largely accessible to men in their work of Christian instruction, 
 sometimes female agents also are employed locally as zenana workers 
 and Bible readers, and that they do much among their own sex in the 
 different villages, and circles of villages, to supplement the labors of 
 male Christian agents. 
 
 Finally, over and above all these influences, comes the work of the 
 superintendent (who is generally a missionary), of the foreign ladies, 
 and of those native helpers who may be attached, temporarily or 
 otherwise, to their general staff. 
 
 These may take a run out from the headquarters of the Mission Dis- 
 trict to some part of their field, and spend a short time there, or they 
 may make a regular tour, as we have already indicated, in describing 
 evangelistic operations ; * and, wherever they go, they will, generally 
 be met not only by the local laborers of the village itself, but also by 
 the sub-superintendent and any others who may in any sense be re- 
 sponsible for the work there. 
 
 The task falling to these higher officers as they go out among the 
 native Christians is varied in its character. 
 
 First of all, it comprehends the duty of inspection. Schools, cate- 
 chumens, the people generally, must be examined and their progress 
 noted ; rolls of day schools. Sabbath Schools, baptized adults, baptized 
 infants and inquirers must be scrutinized, corrected or purged ; reports 
 of work done, and of the condition of things generally, must be heard. 
 
 Cases of discipline must also be attended to ; inquirers must be 
 taught ; candidates for baptism must be examined and received into 
 the church j sites for school-houses, churches and rest-houses must be 
 
 *See pp. 185-195. 
 
MO NTH L V MEE TINGS AND LITER A TURE 273 
 
 selected or purchased ; arrangements must be made for building ; 
 preaching, zenana work and instruction of all kinds must be kept up 
 as continuously as possible during the sojourn of the party ; the Lord's 
 Supper, perhaps, must be dispensed ; everything in fact must be done 
 while they are present which will tend to edify the people and benefit 
 the cause. 
 
 Every month, too, in some Mission Districts, a general meeting of 
 all the workers (male or female) is held by the mission, or the zenana, 
 superintendent, not only for the purpose of giving them their wages, 
 but also for the purpose of hearing their reports, approving or disap- 
 proving their plans, correcting their mistakes and guiding their future 
 labors. And sometimes, in cases of emergency, a local worker, or sub- 
 superintendent, will make a special report of difficulties, by mail or in 
 person, to his or her superior, and, if possible, secure such action as 
 may be necessary to provide a remedy. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the machinery is complicated and that the 
 appliances are many and varied which we have used for the purpose 
 of training Christ's people and bringing them up to a higher condition 
 of religious life and work. It will also be seen that our methods are 
 largely autocratic in their nature and bear a closer likeness to Episco- 
 palianism, or rather to the arrangements of the India Civil Service, 
 than to Congregationalism or Presbyterianism. Even the sealing or- 
 dinances of the church (Baptism and the Lord's Supper) are dispensed 
 frequently, not under the direction and superintendence of ecclesias- 
 tical courts, but according to the will of the officiating minister alone. 
 This at the outset of missionary operations is no doubt necessary, but 
 its continuance beyond the limits of necessity has a retarding rather 
 than an advancing influence. It hinders the development of autonomy 
 in the native church and checks the progress of republican Presbyte- 
 rianism. It is to be hoped, however, that church organizations will be 
 established more rapidly in the future than they have been in the past 
 and that Sessions, Presbyteries and Synods will be allowed to do their 
 own appropriate work.* 
 
 To Christian literature as a means of general edification only allu- 
 sions have heretofore been made, nor will much be said in regard to it 
 now, because occasion will be given hereafter in another connection f 
 for its consideration as a whole. It is simply necessary to state here 
 that, notwithstanding the illiteracy of our people, papers, tracts and 
 
 * See pp. 138, 139, t See Chapter XXV; also pp. 184, 185. 
 
 18 
 
274 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 books have had an important place, and doubtless will in the future 
 have a still more important place, in the work of advancing their in- 
 telligence, piety and usefulness. 
 
 Of Christian melas (or conventions) and Christian villages nothing 
 has been said heretofore, because they have not been employed much 
 by us as a means of developing fraternal or spiritual life among our 
 j)eople. But a few words in regard to their character may not be out 
 of place. 
 
 A Christian mcla is much like an old-fashioned Methodist camp- 
 meeting. Christians from all sides meet in some previously selected 
 locality and for one, two or more days spend their time in social inter- 
 course and religioys worship — bringing their provisions and their Psalm 
 books with them. That such meetings, occasionally held and properly 
 conducted, do good, there is no doubt. They develop a sense of 
 brotherhood, strengthen confidence in the stability of the Christian 
 cause, create enthusiasm for the spread of the gospel, advance Scrip- 
 ture knowledge, deepen piety and by their size make a marked im- 
 pression upon the world around. Of a inela, held May 24, 1894, in 
 the Gurdaspur District, at which 150 persons, or about one-fourth of 
 the Christians of the District, were present, Mr. Caldwell says, " This 
 gathering has done much to incite the spirit of self-support. A few 
 have declared independence and are no longer under the direct con- 
 trol of the higher castes." 
 
 In this connection, too, it might be remarked that, through our 
 Presbyterial system, a good opportunity is presented, from time to 
 time, for holding such conventions. As Presbyterians are required to 
 meet regularly for ecclesiastical business, so, without much extra trouble, 
 the common people might then be collected together for purposes of 
 religious edification. Even the proceedings of Presbytery itself might 
 be utilized to promote the same great end. 
 
 In favor of the policy of collecting our baptized people into particu- 
 lar localities and establishing Christian villages or settlements, we can- 
 not say so much. Only one project of the kind has been attempted 
 within our bounds — that of Scottgarh, near Zafarwal. But this has not 
 proved much of a " success ; " nor, as far as can be ascertained, has the 
 Scotch Mission experiment at Sialkot, nor the Cliurch Mission move- 
 ment at Clarkabad. One difficulty is the expense involved in such 
 attempts to build up independent Christian communities. Another is 
 the trouble connected with their management. A third is the failure 
 
" DRAWBACKS TO CHRIST/AN TRAINING 275 
 
 to discover among Christians, huddled together in this way, any more 
 signs of religious advancement than among others. But the greatest 
 objection of all, perhaps, is the fact that under such circumstances 
 Christians exercise less influence over the ungodly than they would in 
 a more scattered condition. Better, if possible, for new converts to 
 live in the families and in the neighborhoods where they have been 
 brought up. There they can help to spread the gospel and, while in 
 the world, show that they are not of it. The leaven has a chance to 
 do its appropriate work. In the case of high-caste converts and Mu- 
 hammadans it may be necessary to accept that segregation which is 
 forced upon them by their former friends and give them shelter for a 
 time on Mission compounds ; but even this phase of the policy of the 
 aggregation of Christians has developed manifold evils and in many 
 instances has been severely and justly condemned. The compound as 
 well as the village system only helps to multiply and intensify the re- 
 stricting evils of caste.* 
 
 Besides the drawbacks to successful Christian training which have 
 already been mentioned incidentally in the course of our narrative, 
 many other hindrances to this work are worthy of notice. One is the 
 lack of natural talent on the part of many of the people. This affects 
 their acquisition and retention of knowledge, as well as their culture in 
 many ways. Another is their poverty. More wealth would secure 
 them more leisure and more means of self-improvement. Another is 
 the failure, thus far, to establish the Sabbath as a recognized Christian 
 institution, and the dependence of these people for employment upon 
 persons who do not value the sacredness of God's holy day. Another 
 is the lack of interest on the part of some of our professed Christians. 
 There are idlers, mischief-makers, obstructors and even traitors in the 
 camp itself. Besides there is the opposition and persecution of out- 
 siders. Thus many of our people are hindered in their efforts for good 
 and some are made to stumble. The proselytism which has been 
 carried on by the Romish Propaganda, the Plymouth Brethren, and 
 others, has also had its deleterious effects upon many besides those who 
 were actually decoyed away from our fold. The imperfection of those 
 agents, too, upon whom we have been dependent for the application of 
 our methods and the operation of our machinery, ought not to be over- 
 looked ; nor in making an estimate of the damage springing from this 
 source should we except what has arisen from our own weakness. In- 
 *See pp. 20I, 223-225. 
 
276 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ternal strife and division may also be mentioned as fruitful sources of 
 spiritual harm and especially that lack of unity and sympathy which 
 for a few years has existed between foreign and native workers. 
 
 However, in summing up the results of our work in training the 
 Christian masses, the writer feels assured that, notwithstanding all 
 drawbacks and hindrances, much has been done. Tiiousands of people 
 have learned to read the Bible. Multitudes have been taught passages 
 of Scripture and the fundamental principles of our holy religion. 
 Hundreds of homes have been consecrated by the erection of a family 
 altar. Whole communities have been brought to prize the house of 
 God and the ordinances of the church. Scores of common people have 
 taken pleasure in the work of exhortation and soul-saving. Many have 
 been strengthened in faith to resist temptation or bear persecution. 
 The entire Christian community has exhibited a slow but gradual and 
 general rise in moral and spiritual character above the surrounding 
 population. And instances are not uncommon where belief in Christ 
 has been known to sustain the departing spirit of a poor native while 
 passing througli the waves of Jordan to the shores of the Promised Land. 
 
 But other influences have been at work in improving the condition of 
 our people, and other good results can be named, besides those which 
 have heretofore been mentioned. Of these it will be our privilege to 
 speak in the next chapter. 
 
HILL WATER-CARRIER. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 HIGHER TRAINING OF CHRISTIANS— I 
 
 Its Necessity — Means Employed — Central Schools — The Christian Training Insti- 
 tute, its History, Character and Results — The Girls' Boarding School — The 
 Theological Seminary — Why Greek and Hebrew Should Be Taught Theo- 
 logical Students in India. 
 
 HE influences referred to at tlie close of the last 
 chapter are those which are brought to bear more di- 
 rectly upon a select portion of our people, by means of 
 which these few are advanced to a higher stage of secular 
 education and Christian culture than that of the common mass. 
 
 Such training becomes an absolute necessity in missionary work for 
 several reasons: — first, in order to set an example of methods and re- 
 sults which will stimulate the native Christians generally to higher at- 
 tainments and lead them to make a personal effort in that direction ; 
 secondly, to provide the means of superior culture to those of the peo- 
 ple who may be able, partly or wholly, to pay for it ; thirdly, to pre- 
 pare the agents through whom lower, as well as advanced, training may 
 
 (277) 
 
278 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 be accomplished ; and finally, to give the Christian community a 
 standing in higher social circles which will help forward the great 
 work of universal evangelization. 
 
 Each Mission, too, must take its share of this burden. Even if it 
 were perfectly fair to throw the whole of the trouble and the expense 
 of this work upon others, and even if other Missions could be found 
 ready to aisume it, the result of such a course would be injurious at 
 home. Each field has its own peculiar necessities and these can be 
 met best on the ground itself by home agencies. For harmony's sake 
 alone it is not desirable that the sons and the daughters of our well- 
 to-do people be educated under the somewhat diverse influences of 
 neighboring Missions; while as for catechists and other Christian 
 laborers, those whom we get from other fields are usually less acquainted 
 with our wants and less satisfactory in their work than those who are 
 brought up and trained among ourselves. 
 
 The means which we have used for purposes of higher training are 
 the following: — advanced schools, schemes of private study, conven- 
 tions of various kinds, church qo\xx\.%, panchayats,^ sermons and lectures, 
 and religious literature. 
 
 Of advanced schools which we have established, having this end 
 in view, the Christian Training Institute, the Girl's Boarding School 
 and the Theological Seminary may be mentioned as the most im- 
 portant ; but our High Schools, whose primary object is evangelistic, 
 have also been utilized for this purpose, while Central Schools and 
 Medical Classes have accomplished something in the same direction. 
 
 Central Schools in Mission Districts have already been referred to as 
 a means of completing work imperfectly done in village Primary 
 Schools. f But occasionally they have been used to carry children 
 forward into the Upper Primary; and now that the Christian Train- 
 ing Institute has been raised to the grade of a High School, it is 
 probable that they will be utilized more than they have been heretofore 
 to prepare pupils for entrance into the Middle Department of the 
 Institute, and that the Upper Primary of the latter will vanish 
 altogether. 
 
 This School (The Christian Training Institute) was begun by the 
 Sialkot Presbytery I in the summer of 1881 and is located at Sialkot. 
 
 *See p. 271. j- See p. 270. 
 
 Jin 1887 the management of the school was transferred to the Mission; and at 
 that time also a special Board of Directors was appointed. 
 
THE CHRISTIAN TRAINING INSTITUTE 279 
 
 For many years previously sucli a school had been desired ; but the 
 growing needs of the Theological Seminary and the work generally 
 then absolutely demanded it, and the funds received from what is 
 called the Stewart legacy then for the first time gave complete assur- 
 ance of its pecuniary support.* At that time, too, the brethren of 
 the field had the prospect of help from one who was specially called 
 from America to take charge of the school and thus relieve them of 
 a work which, without such help, might have unduly increased their 
 burdens. 
 
 The school was organized on our old compound at Sialkot ; but a 
 new and better location, three miles north, was procured for it from 
 the Ladies' Association of the Church of Scotland in the summer of 
 1882. On this property, which contains eleven or twelve acres of 
 land, was erected by Mr. John Inglis, in the early days of the B.ritish 
 occupation of the Punjab, a large house, which was the home of the 
 Deputy Commissioner of the District at the time of the mutiny, and,, 
 after its transfer to the Ladies' Association of the Church of Scotland, 
 the seat of the Girls' Orphanage. To the improvements already 
 found there others were added by us during the year 1883 — ^ house 
 for the Head Master, another for unmarried, and a third for mar- 
 ried students — and in the early part of October of that year the in- 
 stitution was moved to that compound. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, too, a large well was dug and a second house for 
 unmarried scholars was built ; but, as the school was small at first, and 
 several vacant rooms in our large dwelling, together with the shade of 
 several umbrageous trees, furnished abundant room for class recita- 
 tions, and differences of opinion in regard to the location and the 
 character of additional buildings existed at any rate in the Presbytery, 
 no decided effort to erect the main structures required by the institu- 
 tion, as it advanced, was made for several years. 
 
 Finally, on the 26th of December, 1887, ground was broken for the 
 foundation of the chief building of the Institute, and in March, 1S89, 
 it and its companions were reported to be virtually completed. These 
 are four in number — all of brick and one-storied — so joined together 
 at the corners that they enclose a large, well-protected quadrangle 
 (court) where the boys may play, sleep, eat or study, as occasion re- 
 quires. The front building, which is used for recitations and general 
 meetings, is 140 feet long, while in width and height it gradually be* 
 
 *See pp. 70, 71. 
 
280 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 comes larger towards the renter, where its width is 58 feet and its 
 height about 35 feet. It covers an area of perhaps 32 square rods. 
 In this are a central hall and six recitation rooms, while the veranda 
 which encircles the whole irregular front provides separate, cozy nooks 
 for many additional classes. The buildings flanking this on the riglit 
 and left of the quadrangle mentioned are dormitories, each containing 
 two large rooms, between which is a small room for the monitor. The 
 rear building contains the kitchen, the store-rooms, the library and a 
 temporary hospital. This structure and the dormitories all face the 
 central court and have verandas in front, while their outer-wall win- 
 dows are ten or twelve feet above the floor. Thus the privacy is per- 
 fect. Should need require it the amount of accommodation given 
 might be easily doubled by the addition of second stories to the rear 
 buildings. 
 
 Col. G. Newmarch, of the Royal Engineers,* who was then located 
 at Sialkot as Executive Engineer, kindly drew the plans of these 
 buildings and gratuitously rendered us great service during the course 
 of their erection ; but some suggestions were received from different 
 members of the Mission besides the writer, while the latter not only 
 superintended the whole work, but took occasion to introduce minor 
 improvements where convenience or economy seemed to demand them. 
 A Muhammadan, named Umr Bakhsh, was the chief overseer (jnisfari), 
 and Bhola, his assistant. 
 
 The native Christians are very proud of the Christian Training In- 
 stitute, as thus completed. In their farewell address to the superin- 
 tendent when he left India in February, 1S92, they called it a beauti- 
 ful and magnificent building and said that it had " no equal of its 
 kind in the Punjab" — that is, none equal which had been erected 
 solely for the benefit of the Christians. 
 
 The internal economy of the school has been managed so as to 
 change the condition of the living of the pupils as little as possible 
 and make it easy for them to return again to village life and work. 
 Married students, of whom there was a large percentage in the early 
 days of the institution, have been given a monthly scholarship and 
 have been required to maintain their households with it as they would 
 at home. At first, too, unmarried pupils received a scholarship and 
 were compelled to cook their own food and manage for themselves; 
 but this arrangement did not prove very successful, because of the in- 
 * Since 1888 he has been promoted to a higher rank. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY IN THE INSTITUIE 281 
 
 experience of the boys and because it interfered with their studies. 
 Hence a change was made; and, since 1887, food and clothing, in- 
 stead of money, have been provided directly through the authorities 
 of the school. 
 
 The course of study heretofore pursued in the Institute extends over 
 a period of five years,* accords with the government scheme, and in- 
 cludes both that of the Upper Primary and the Middle departments — 
 two years being required in the former and three in the latter. Down 
 to November, 1885, what is called the Vernacular Course was followed. 
 This embraces (besides the Urdu tongue) Persian, History, Geograpliy, 
 Physical Science, Algebra to the end of simple equations, Euclid to 
 the end of the fourth book, and Mensuration — with Arabic and San- 
 skrit optional. By request of the natives, however, the English Course 
 was substituted for the Vernacular in the fall of 1885 and pursued for 
 six years, when to my regret a return was made to the Vernacular. 
 The English Course embraces less mathematics, but includes tuition in 
 the English language. Judged by American standards, therefore, the 
 secular instruction given in the Institute was about equal to that secured 
 in one of our ordinary academies ; but two years more would be re- 
 quired to fit a pupil for entrance upon the college course which has 
 been established by the Punjab University. In March, 1889, the Pres- 
 bytery petitioned the Mission to raise the Institute to an Entrance 
 standard and establish a higher grade for boys whose parents could 
 pay fees; but the petition at that time was unsuccessful. In the fall of 
 1893, however, tlie Mission not only resolved to reintroduce the Eng- 
 lish course and substitute it in place of the Vernacular, but also virtu- 
 ally granted Presbytery's request ; and, unless a new turn is taken 
 within a short time, we may expect that in due season the Sialkot 
 Training Institute will be a High School, preparing Christian pupils 
 for entrance into College. This, in the writer's opinion, is a good 
 move and will help materially to build up the native community in 
 intellectual, social and spiritual power. 
 
 Besides a course of secular studies, one of a religious character has 
 also been pursued in the Institute — one period (about fifty minutes) 
 being devoted each day to its recitations. This course embraces 
 special studies in the Bible, Sacred and Profane History, Elements of 
 Theology, and other subjects which may fit the pupils for usefulness as 
 Christian laborers. The weekly prayer-meeting, a voluntary mission- 
 
 * Lately this has been changed to six years so as to embrace more Bible study. 
 
282 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ary society and bazar preaching, have also been utilized for practical 
 drill in Christian work, and especially in the exercise of public speak- 
 ing and exhortation ; while on the Sabbath religious services and a 
 Sabbath School help forward the course of religious improvement. 
 
 Pupils above a certain age and below a certain standard have not 
 been allowed to take English, or to advance beyond the Upper Pri- 
 mary ; but at the end of that time they have been formed (with others) 
 into a Normal Class and for six months longer have been given special 
 instruction in matters related to the work of teaching. Opportunity 
 has also been furnished this class to get practical experience during 
 that period in a Model School ; while the amount of their religious 
 study has been doubled. At the close of this training, they go out as 
 teachers and lower-class workers into the mission field. 
 
 The wives and the daughters of the married students are formed into 
 a special school of their own, taught to read, and given instruction in 
 the Bible. Thus they become fitted for zenana work in the villages 
 when they leave the Institute, 
 
 Tliree missionaries have held the position of superintendent of the 
 Christian Training Institute : Dr. Barr, during the first year, and since 
 April, 1894; the writer, from the close of Dr. Barr's first administra- 
 tion to the latter part of February, 1892 ; and Dr. McKee, from that 
 time until April, 1894. During the summer of 1894, while Dr. Barr 
 was in Kashmir, the Rev. T. L. Scott acted as manager in his place. 
 While the Institute remained on the southern compound Miss McCa- 
 hon had charge of the women's department. Since its removal to the 
 present quarters this position has been generally held by the wife of 
 the superintendent. 
 
 Five natives have occupied the post of chief Christian teacher in the 
 Institute — the Rev. Jiwan Mai, from the beginning to August, 1884; 
 David Charles, from September 2, 1884, to the summer of 1885 ; 
 Amos, from tlie fall of 1885 to November, 1887 ; M. A. Thomas, from 
 August, 1889, to the spring of 1892 ; and J. Isaac, from the fall of 
 1887 to the present date, except during the time when Mr. Thomas 
 was employed, when he took the second rank. All except Amos and 
 J. Isaac, too, held the position of Head Master. The Rev. Jiwan Mai 
 is the only one who was brought up and trained in our field. Amos 
 came to us from the Methodist Episcopal Mission ; the rest, from the 
 Church of England. Mr. Thomas was the best scholar of all and 
 Amos the best exhorter; but Mr. Mai was a good teacher and for 
 
(283) 
 
284 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 general usefulness and integrity none stood higher than Mr. Isaac. 
 While with me, the help of the last named was indispensable in the 
 management of the pupils on the compound. Mention should also be 
 made of Jawala, who acted as monitor and house-father for the boys 
 from May i, 1884, to August 6, 1891. He was an honest, trustworthy 
 old man and, although uneducated, did good service in his position. 
 
 That the Christian Training Institute has been a great power for 
 good in our field goes without saying. Up to April, 1894, about 370 
 male and perhaps 60 female pupils had had their names upon its rolls; 
 while the actual attendance had risen from 19 the first session to about 
 120 the last. Most of these scholars came to it from the village Chris- 
 tian schools where they had passed the Lower Primary Standard and 
 many of them were quite young in years. At the Institute they made 
 advancement in spiritual as well as secular knowledge ; and, altliough 
 some were disciplined for bad conduct, and even suspended, as many 
 as twenty-five or thirty have been known to make a public profession 
 of Christ during a single twelve-month. Many, indeed, took only the 
 Normal Course, or, for various reasons, abandoned their studies before 
 reaching the close of the Third Middle; but those who left have gen- 
 erally gone to swell the list of workers in our own and other Missions, 
 or have made themselves useful in some secular occupation. Besides 
 eight who had died, nine who were studying elsewhere and thirty-six 
 whose location and business were not known to me, ninety-five other 
 male pupils had left the Institute before I took my furlough in Febru- 
 ary, 1892 ; and of these ninety-five, sixty-eight had been in Christian 
 service and two in government employ; while thirteen were engaged 
 in manual labor and ten were with their parents, and only two had 
 apostatized. Several of the pupils, moreover, had become elders or 
 students of theology and three soon afterwards became licentiates. 
 And, now that the school is thoroughly established and has large 
 classes, we may hope from it in the future still more important results. 
 
 Similar work has been done for the female part of our Christian 
 community by the Girls' Boarding School, which is also located at 
 Sialkot. This was started by Miss McCahon as a Girls' Orphanage in 
 February, 1879, when the Orphanage of the Ladies' Association of the 
 Church of Scotland at Sialkot was closed, and four girls were returned 
 to us whom we had been supporting in that institution. To these as a 
 nucleus seven others were added the first year, three the second and 
 three also the third — seventeen in all — of whom, however, seven for 
 
GIRLS' BOARDIXG SCHOOL 285 
 
 various reasons had left, leaving ten as the total number in actual at- 
 tendance at the close of 1881. Of these, some were not orphans but 
 daughters of the Christians, or others, who had sent them to the school 
 for education. Hence the name of the Institution was for two years 
 given as the Girls' Boarding School and Orphanage. But, as the lat- 
 ter part of the name seemed to hinder its popularity and the great 
 object of the school at any rate had changed so as to be more par- 
 ticularly the training of the daughters of our Christians, it now began 
 to be termed simply The Girls' Boarding School and that has been its 
 designation ever since ; but day scholars, as well as boarders, are also 
 admitted to its educational privileges. 
 
 This institution has always been located on what is called our old 
 (or South) Mission Compound at Sialkot. In January, 1887, a reso- 
 lution was passed in the Mission to remove it to Gujranwala. A site 
 was also then selected at that place ; and after the lapse of two and one- 
 half years, the plan of a new building to be located there was prepared 
 and adopted. But the inexpediency of such a change, which was 
 maintained by some from llie beginning, became evident to all and the 
 resolution was rescinded in January, 1890. 
 
 At first some old buildings and an enclosure perhaps twelve rods square 
 were utilized for the school, but a new dormitory was erected in 1886, 
 and in 1890 the court was enlarged so as to be double its former size, 
 while improvements were added which increase the accommodation 
 of the institution many fold and fit it admirably for the accomplishment 
 of the end for which it was established. These consist of dormitories, 
 offices, store-rooms, matron's quarters, cook and wash-houses, verandas 
 and other structures, ranged around and facing the interior (Eastern 
 fashion) and forming part of the bulwark by which the children are 
 protected from outside interference — a high brick wall being erected 
 to serve this purpose wherever a vacancy occurs in the exterior rampart 
 of buildings. The northeastern corner of the rectangle is joined to the 
 bungalow of the lady superintendent so that she can enter and leave 
 the school, night or day, without exposure of any kind. Near the 
 northwestern corner also, but a few feet outside, stands the bungalow 
 which is used for recitations and public meetings of all sorts. This is 
 a flat-roofed, one-storied, brick building, erected in regulation (Anglo- 
 Indian) style — with a hall in the center and side-rooms for classes, and 
 of course an abundance of veranda shade. It is the most expensive 
 and showy part of the whole institution, and answers its purpose well. 
 
286 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 The control of the school has always been in the hands of the Mis- 
 sion ; but, for two years at least, the Education Committee of Presby- 
 tery took its examinations, and in the spring of 1887 a Board of ladies 
 was appointed to supervise the whole work and report from time to 
 time to the Mission itself. 
 
 Miss McCahon, who founded the school, has had charge almost ever 
 since; but Miss Gordon took her place while she was absent in Amer- 
 ica on furlough, and several other ladies have at times either co- 
 operated with her, or acted as temporary superintendents. 
 
 Besides the lady superintendent and one or two Christian female 
 teachers, it has been found necessary to employ other instructors also 
 in secular branches; and these have been usually non-Christian men. 
 Little harm, perhaps, has heretofore arisen from this arrangement ; 
 yet its incongruity in a school for Christian girls is undoubtedly more 
 striking, especially to an Oriental, than that of the similar arrange- 
 ment which exists in our boys' school ; and, while the time is anxiously 
 looked for when the latter institution can successfully make a change, 
 that day will be doubly welcome when in the former well qualified 
 Cliristian teachers, and better still. Christian women, can take the place 
 of Hindu and Muhammadan men.* 
 
 Pupils often enter the Girls' Boarding School at a younger age and 
 with less previous education than they do the Christian Training In- 
 stitute. Hence the curriculum of study commences lower down. Nor 
 has there been the same effort in the Girls' Boarding School to cling 
 closely to the government scheme. Girls seldom go into government 
 employ or into any service where a regular certificate would do them 
 any good. Their sphere of action, in most cases, is expected to be 
 the home and the neighborhood where they live. Our great aim then 
 is to make them useful wives and mothers and zenana workers. Hence 
 the English language has never been taught them, and their study of 
 the Persian even has been regarded with disfavor ; while special stress 
 has been laid upon their religions instruction. 
 
 As in the Christian Training Institute, so in the Girls' Boarding 
 School, an effort is made to train up the pupils in native style — ex- 
 cepting of course its filth and its disorder f — so that when they return 
 
 * See pp. 296, 297. 
 
 f When pupils enter school they are universally required to pass through a course 
 of cleansing before they become fully installed in their new life ; and sometimes it 
 takes a good while to free them from the dirt and the vermin which come with them 
 
DRAWBACKS TO GIRLS' SCHOOLS 287 
 
 to their village homes they may not be extravagant, or discontented, 
 or unfitted for their life-work. Hence opposition has always been 
 made to the use of English dress in school (especially the skirt) and to 
 the adoption of any practice which would separate them unnecessarily 
 from their country sisters, or which, on account of the expense, could 
 not be kept up afterward. The food, the raiment, the furniture, the 
 habits of the scholars, as far as practicable, are Punjabi. They eat 
 without knives and forks, sit mostly upon the floor or upon the ever 
 present and ever useful charpai, and draw water from their well in 
 native style. The girls, too, are required by turns to do the cooking 
 and the housekeeping of the establishment. They must also make their 
 own garments, and perform any other domestic duties that may fall to 
 their lot. Even interference with studies is allowed rather than a 
 training which would impair their usefulness at home, when they leave 
 school. 
 
 Girls' schools of all kinds in India, and especially boarding 
 schools, labor under disadvantages which do not attach so much to in- 
 stitutions established for the other sex. For one thing they are not so 
 well attended as the boys' schools.* Parents are not usually as anxious 
 for their daughters, as for their sons, to be educated. Why should 
 they be ? They see no special worldly advantage in the education of 
 the former ; and in their eyes, if they are still heathen, girls at any rate 
 are an inferior class — "mere cattle," as they say. And even Chris- 
 tian parents sometimes share this feeling to a considerable extent. 
 Besides, parents are naturally more reluctant for their daughters to 
 leave home to be educated than for their sons to do so. Moreover, 
 the stimulus to study, experienced by girls in India while at school, is 
 not as great as that experienced by boys. Fewer professions and 
 avenues of business requiring education are open there to women than 
 to men, and they do not feel the same necessity for being diligent and 
 passing the prescribed examinations. And then marriage, which gen- 
 erally closes their school life, usually takes place at an earlier age in 
 the case of girls than in the case of bo3's. 
 
 Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, considerable progress 
 
 as a part of tlieir personal property. The same process, too, must be renewed every 
 time they return to the institution from home, after vacations — which on that account, 
 as well as others, are made as few as possible. 
 
 * For the comparative proportion of boys and girls attending school in India, and 
 in our own Mission field, see note, p. 175. 
 
288 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 has been made by our Girls* Boarding School. About one-half as many 
 names are found upon its roll as upon that of the Christian Training 
 Institute ; at least one in every five of the pupils reaches the Upper 
 Primary; and almost all while at school become communing members 
 of the church. Of those who leave the institution about one-sixth be- 
 come paid laborers in zenana visitation ; about one-third are married 
 by our Christian helpers and co-operate with them in their work ; 
 while the remaining half settle among our ordinary members and become 
 there a leavening and moulding influence — mostly for good.* Here- 
 after, too, the fruits of labor in this institution will doubtless be far 
 more abundant than they have been in the past. The enrollment of 
 the school now is about twice what it was in 1888 and nearly three 
 times what it was in 1885. 
 
 Our third principal institution for the higher training of Christians 
 is the Theological Seminary. This originated in tlie spring of tlie year 
 1877, and, for some time was the only school of the kind among all 
 the Presbyterians of India. Having for its direct object the prepara- 
 tion of candidates for the gospel ministry, it was started, and has all 
 along been carried on, by our highest ecclesiastical court. Until Octo- 
 ber, 1893, this was the Sialkot Presbytery. As the Synod of the Pun- 
 jab, however, was formed at that time, our Seminary naturally, by the 
 direction of the General Assembly, passed under the care of that body, 
 by which it has ever since been managed through a Board of Directors. 
 But for pecuniary support, as well as for the employment of its students 
 during vacations, the institution is dependent upon mission funds. 
 Missionaries themselves, too, and native ministers under the pay of 
 the Mission, are employed as professors. Hence the Missionary As- 
 sociation has much to do in carrying it on and can help or hinder its 
 progress at pleasure. 
 
 The first professors appointed were the Revs. J. S. Barr, D. D., 
 Principal, Andrew Gordon, D. D., and G, L. Thakur Das. The last 
 
 * In March, 1893, the following report was made: 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled from the beginning 167 
 
 " " " now in school 72 
 
 " " " that have been in the Upper Primary 16 
 
 " " " known to be dead 4 
 
 " " " married to Christian workers 27 
 
 " " " who have themselves been paid workers 15 
 
 In the summer of 1893 t'le roll increased to 81, but by the close of that year was 
 reduced to 67. June 29, 1895, 85 pupils answered to their names at roll-call. 
 
THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 289 
 
 named was released in January, 1880, and the Rev. S. Martin, D. D., 
 appointed to take his place ; while Dr. Gordon about the same time 
 ceased to take any part in the work of instruction. When the writer 
 of these images reached India in January, 1882, Dr. Barr also resigned 
 his position and the former was regularly appointed to take his place 
 — as the General Assembly of the year preceding evidently intended. 
 After my return to America and the formation of the Synod, the Rev. 
 J. P. McKee, D. D., was appointed a professor; and, after his departure 
 from India (in April, 1894), the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das was added to 
 the staff of professors. 
 
 The Seminary has always been located at Sialkot — first on the South 
 Compound and afterwards at the Christian Training Institute. No 
 special buildings, however, have been erected for its accommodation — 
 those connected with the Institute having hitherto been thought suffi- 
 cient to meet all necessary requirements. But the remainder of the 
 Stewart Fund, so far as it goes, could be used when needed to provide 
 for it better quarters in the future.* 
 
 A nucleus for the library of the Seminary was obtained in 1882 from 
 the gift of several hundred volumes, which for years had been accumu- 
 lating in the hands of the Mission. This was increased a few years 
 afterwards by the donation of seventy volumes from the United Presby- 
 terian Board of Publication and by the purchase from time to time of 
 new and second-hand books. In 1892 a case full of books and pam- 
 phlets (244 volumes in all) was also presented to the institution by 
 one of the professors. At present the number of volumes in the 
 library is about 1000. These are mostly English books. 
 
 It has been the aim of the managers of the Theological Seminary to 
 combine as far as possible the theoretical with the practical — book in- 
 struction with work in the field. Hence a course of four years was 
 adopted and the vacations made long, so that the students could spend 
 several months every year in mission work. This policy it was 
 thought would train the students better, and also test their capabilities 
 more fully, than a shorter course of longer sessions and less experi- 
 ence. 
 
 Tiie curriculum of study pursued is, in its main features, that wliich 
 Theological Seminaries adopt at home — embracing the original 
 tongues of Scripture, theology, ecclesiastical history, Bible introduc- 
 tion, apologetics, homiletics, church government, hermeneutics, and 
 
 * See pp. 70, 71 and 279. 
 19 
 
290 LIFE AND WORK IJV INDIA 
 
 Biblical antiquities. Some differences, however, may be noted. 
 First, we pay less attention there to the various Occidental errors in 
 theology which have sprung up during the course of its development 
 than is done in American Seminaries, and more attention to the errors 
 which have arisen in India itself. Our apologetics, too, deals more 
 with the false religions and philosophies of the East than with those 
 of the West. Our course in ecclesiastical history, moreover, is less 
 elaborate and less burdened with minutiae than that which is adopted 
 in Europe and America. But more time is given in India than in 
 America to the study of the Bible in the vernacular. We desire our 
 students to be well acquainted with the fundamental facts and princi- 
 ples and texts of Scripture. 
 
 As for Greek and Hebrew, some difference of opinion and practice 
 is found in India. One party would be contented with a very brief 
 course in these languages, or with their expulsion from the Seminary 
 curriculum altogether, thinking that what is known of these tongues 
 by the missionaries is sufficient for all practical purposes in that coun- 
 try. Others would give them a place at least as prominent as is given 
 to tliem at home. 
 
 To the latter class the writer belongs. We see that most of the theo- 
 logical students and native preachers know little or nothing about 
 English, and cannot therefore in ministerial work avail themselves of 
 the help to be derived from English commentaries, while Urdu com- 
 mentaries are few and imperfect — so that they absolutely need the 
 advantage to be derived from direct access to the original words of 
 inspired men. As the writer has said elsewhere:* "Were students 
 w^ell acquainted with English, so well acquainted that they could con- 
 sult English commentaries, sermons and dictionaries with ease and 
 satisfaction, they might make very fair preachers without knowing the 
 Bible in the original tongues. But this they are not. The only 
 books they can consult are the {fw, imperfect ones which have been 
 written in the vernacular or translated into it. Confined to these, 
 their minds must remain dwarfed, their knowledge circumscribed, and 
 tlieir preaching of the most barren and least varied character. To 
 remove this defect a knowledge of Greek and Hebrew is the best 
 remedy. This will bring them to the fountain-head — to the center 
 whence all good commentators and preachers must make their de- 
 parture. No other attainment will give more fruitfulness to their think- 
 * See ihe Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XVI, p. 395. 
 
NATIVES IN BIBLE TRANSLATION 291 
 
 ing, or more certainty to their convictions, as they discourse on God's 
 Word." 
 
 And then a thorough acquaintance with the original tongues of 
 Scripture is one thing that is necessary to the acquisition of that self- 
 confidence and that independence of foreign missionaries without 
 which the native church cannot rise to her proper dignity and effectu- 
 ally carry on her own work. 
 
 Especially is it needed in order that she may secure a thoroughly 
 good translation of the Bible. When the question of revising the 
 present Urdu version of the Scriptures was before the Punjab Bible 
 Society in the spring of 1892 and a resolution was passed requesting 
 the British and Foreign Society, which had assumed the management 
 of the work,* to appoint on the translating committee " if possible," 
 one or more natives, the writer at least, who was present, felt deeply 
 humiliated. Was it at all doubtful, he asked himself, whether natives 
 suitably qualified could be found for this work ? If so, was it not our 
 fault as missionaries? If, after one hundred years of labor, and the 
 acquisition of a Protestant Christian community of five or six hundred 
 thousand souls, " possibly " none among them might be secured, who 
 were at least as well fitted as Englishmen for this purpose, has there 
 not been some serious defect in our policy ? Are the Greek and He- 
 brew tongues any more foreign to the former than to the latter, and 
 are not the former better acquainted with their own language? Ought 
 we then to think for a moment of going ahead in the preparation, or 
 the revision, of a version for the use of the common people without 
 native help? Ought not, in fact, the business to be put mainly into 
 native hands ? Until this can be done, ought not the present version 
 to be allowed to stand as it is? Is it not almost a waste of time and 
 funds to employ foreigners specially for the purpose of revision ? 
 Have not all the great and abiding Bible translations of the world, 
 such as the English and the German, emanated from natives of the 
 countries for which they were made? Can we expect India to be an 
 exception to the general rule? Surely then our Theological Semi- 
 naries ought to adopt such a course of study as will early secure the 
 only result in this matter which can be at all satisfactory. j" 
 
 *See pp. 92, 93 and 300-303. 
 
 f In justice to all parties it should be noted here that some natives were eventually- 
 appointed upon the Bible Revision Committee, although they are not the leading 
 element. The chief reviser is an Anglo-Indian, the Rev. H. E. Perkins. 
 
292 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 And very easy, too, is it for the natives of India to learn Hebrew 
 and Greek, especially if their minds have been trained to study as 
 high up, at least, as the Middle standard. Far easier, in my opinion, is 
 it for them to do so than it is for Englislimen or Americans — partly 
 because these tongues bear some affinity to their own, and partly 
 because the genius of the people seems (now, at least) to lie more than 
 ours in the direction of the acquisition of language. Certain it is, at 
 any rate, that some students at our Seminary displayed remarkable 
 aptitude for this branch of study. Three read the Bible through in 
 Hebrew and Greek either before they left the institution or shortly 
 afterwards. 
 
 One difficulty which we experience in our theological institutions is 
 the lack of suitable text books. In several departments oral instruc- 
 tion alone can be given — either in the form of original lectures or 
 translations of English books. It will be some time, no doubt, before 
 a sufficient number of suitable publications can be prepared and issued 
 in the vernaculars of the country to meet all the requirements of such 
 a school. Students who read English well of course do not feel this 
 deficiency so much as others. 
 
 But there are few such students. Our standard of secular education 
 in the admission of pupils has never been higher than what is called 
 the Middle,* or its equivalent ; and this does not necessarily include 
 any English at all ; and what it may include of this tongue is, at best, 
 but a smattering. From present indications, too, there is a possibility 
 that even so high a standard as this may not be retained. At a late meet- 
 ing of the managers of the school it was agreed to admit students of a 
 lower grade, and as a matter of fact the first-year class of the Semin- 
 ary during the summer of 1894, it is reported, was largely filled with 
 men who have advanced no higher than the Upper Primary. 
 
 If the object of this change is to make the Seminary a Training 
 School for Christian workers, as well as ordained ministers, it may be 
 tlie means of doing good ; but if its design is to lower the standard 
 of the Christian ministry, in the opinion of the writer it is a great 
 mistake, and unless soon modified, will certainly entail injury and degra- 
 dation upon the native church. But, whatever the end or the pro- 
 priety of the change, as long as the present arrangement lasts our 
 remarks in regard to the need of suitable text books for the institu- 
 tion will only be emphasized by its existence. 
 
 * That is, within two years of entering the Freshman Class at College. See p. 164. 
 
RESLLTS' OF SEMINARY TRAINING 
 
 293 
 
 The number of pupils in our Seminary has never been very large, 
 chiefly because few men were admitted under the care of the Presby- 
 tery as students of theology. The reasons why more were not thus 
 admitted can be given more appropriately hereafter.* 
 
 That our Seminary has done good, however, will not be denied. 
 All except two of the native ministers that have been ordained within 
 our bounds since 1880 have received the most or the whole of their 
 theological education within its walls, as have also all our licentiates, 
 and several other persons who are useful laborers in our own and 
 neighboring Missions. In the future, too, with proper encouragement 
 and under proper management, it ought to be a means of far greater 
 good than it has been in the past. Indeed, the hope of the India 
 church lies largely in the increased growth and efficiency of its theo- 
 logical institutions. Without a well qualified native ministry the 
 church will always be crippled, and without Seminaries this ministry 
 cannot be supplied. 
 
 *See Chapter XXVIII. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 HIGHER TRAINING OF CHRISTIANS— II 
 
 Schools of Neighboring Missions — Success of Higher Education Among our Peo- 
 ple — Schemes of Private Study — Summer Schools — Religious Conventions — 
 Monthly Meetings — Church Courts and their Drawbacks — Religious Litera- 
 ture — Bible Translations — How Made and Circulated — The Urdu Version — 
 The Punjabi — The Psalms in Meter — B/iajmis — Indian Lyric Poetry" — Cate- 
 chisms — Other Books, Tracts and Newspapers — Theology — History — Book of 
 Discipline — Summary of Vernacular Christian Literature. 
 
 HILE the institutions already described are the chief ones 
 upon which we have depended for the higher education of 
 Christians, some help has also been derived from our High 
 Schools, where a fevf of our boys, for local reasons, have 
 studied up to the Middle standard and even beyond it — from the Medical" 
 Class at Sialkot, where several women and girls have learned to be 
 nurses, apothecaries and medical practitioners of a primary grade — 
 and from schools of other Missions, where certain of our high-class 
 workers have thought it best to send their sons and daughters. Occa- 
 sionally, too, some of our people have depended largely upon the gov- 
 ernment schools of their neighborhood for the education of their chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Wliile claiming that our institutions of learning have all done great 
 good, it must be admitted that the various efforts which we have put 
 forth to produce a large class of educated people among our native 
 converts have not been crowned with very flattering success. Al- 
 though thousands have learned to read and write a little, and hundreds 
 have passed the Lower Prirnary standard, not more than 400 
 of our Christians perhaps have ])assed the Upper Primary and not 
 more than sixty of these the Middle School standard, while not more 
 than ten have reached College Entrance, two the degree of F. A. and 
 two the degree of B. A. All, too, who have reached Entrance or 
 (294) 
 
WHY A SCARCITY OF WELL-EDUCATED CHRISTIANS? 295 
 
 any of the more advanced grades, have, with one exception, been edu- 
 cated for their higher degrees at schools outside of our own field and 
 most of them come to us from other Missions — although, to offset this, 
 it may be remarked that two or three persons now in other fields 
 reached a high standard while with us. 
 
 Why this scarcity of well-educated men and women among our peo- 
 ple ? it may be asked. Scores of Hindus and Muhammadans are going 
 up every year from our schools to the University examinations and 
 many of them pass on into college classes and take the highest degrees. 
 Why can we not say the same of our Christians also? 
 
 For one thing, it may be replied, in a general way, that all the 
 causes heretofore mentioned, which operate against our various schools, 
 have helped to diminish the number of that class of persons from 
 whom alone we can expect any to seek the higher degrees. 
 
 The pupils, too, who might go on, in many cases do not want ad- 
 vanced education, but prefer entering early the field of practical work. 
 Some have little ambition ; some are married men and have children, 
 and wish to do something for the support of themselves and their fam- 
 ilies; some perhaps desire to get married ; some see the need of labor- 
 ers in God's vineyard and hasten to supply the want as far as they 
 can ; some are pressed to do so by outside influence. Thus from one 
 motive or another, as Dr. Martin says, "they leave school so soon to 
 get mission employment that they do not obtain half an education." 
 We felt this much in the Christian Training Institute. 
 
 And then pupils who would continue their studies if they could, 
 have not in most cases the opportunity or the pecuniary means that 
 are needful for this purpose. Those Hindus and Muhammadans who 
 secure a good education generally live in the neighborhood of High 
 Schools and have sufficient leisure and money to gratify their desire 
 for more learning. Our people are scattered through the country and 
 are exceedingly poor. Very rarely can they follow the example thus 
 set before them by the heathen. 
 
 Nor has the Mission hitherto felt disposed to give them much as- 
 sistance in the matter. Her efforts have been confined chiefly to the 
 preparation of men for evangelistic work, and kw have been wanted 
 for this purpose of a higher grade than the Middle standard,* which 
 until lately was the limit set for theological students. Indeed, some 
 members of the Mission have not been very anxious that young men 
 * Two years below entrance into college. 
 
296 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 should even reach this standard and enter the ministry. They have 
 desired rather a large number of low-grade workers for employment in 
 villages and obscure places. These are less expensive and more bid- 
 dable than persons of superior education, and can get nearer the com- 
 mon people. They have less aspiration also, and are, it is thought, less 
 disposed than highly paid and highly trained laborers to seek after 
 power and independence and to give trouble to their missionary su- 
 periors. With some, therefore, it has been a matter of rejoicing, rather 
 than otherwise, to find Christian young men leaving the Christian 
 Training Institute and our other mission schools before they have 
 finished their course. And, as for the advancement of any beyond the 
 Middle, until lately no provision whatever was made for the purpose. 
 Christians who had studied up to the Entrance standard or above it 
 were hardly wanted by the Mission in ordinary evangelistic or pastoral 
 work, and what were needed as Head Masters and helpers in High 
 Scliools could be readily obtained from other Missions, almost all of 
 whom have surpassed us in tliis department of missionary effort. 
 
 "Our Mission," said Dr. McKee, in 1894, "has never encouraged 
 high education among the native Christians. This has been so marked 
 a feature of our policy that our most intelligent members have invari- 
 ably sent their children outside of our field to be educated, with the 
 result that they are generally lost to our church. We have not a 
 single minister who is educating his children in our Mission." * 
 
 And similar to this is the testimony of Sophia E. Johnson, M. D. , 
 one of our laborers at Jhelum, who, in a paper read before the Con- 
 vention of the Women's General Missionary Society of the United 
 Presbyterian Church of North America, held in Jersey City during the 
 month of May, 1895, and afterwards published, f says, " The time will 
 come — nay, has come — when the zenana medical missionary will have 
 to employ heathen assistants; as our missionaries are obliged to do in 
 the Boys' Mission Schools and even in our own Christian Girls' Board- 
 ing School. 
 
 " Perhaps you will ask, Why is this so? One reason is because we 
 
 have been afraid to go ahead with our Christian boys and girls for fear 
 
 I 
 *The aristocratic feeling of the parents has also had much to do in producing this 
 
 result. Our own schools for Christians are largely filled with pupils of low-caste 
 origin. We have no institution intended specially for children of the " best fami- 
 lies," as some of the schools of our neighbors profess to be. 
 
 f In the IVomen^s Missionary Magazine for August, 1895, pp. 7, 8. 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION OF CHRISTIANS 297 
 
 of spoiling them, while we have spent, and are s[)ending, our energy, 
 money and time in educating the heathen, who now form three-fourths 
 of the staff of teachers in every Mission School in our Mission. 
 Hardened souls as they are, they like the missionaries for what they 
 can get out of them, but they don't come to Christ." * 
 
 Although the Rawal Pindi College is only two years old, and a 
 movement to take over under our management the Bhera School has 
 been recently originated, and both are almost exclusively schools for 
 the heathen, it is nevertheless gratifying to find that our past mistake 
 in regard to the higher education of Christians has been partly recog- 
 nized and that provision has been made for its correction in the near 
 future by the elevation of the Christian Training Institute to the dig- 
 nity of a High School. Not only should we be able to supply our 
 highest institutions with a few Bible instructors but also with a suffi- 
 cient number of Christian teachers to fully man them in every depart- 
 ment, so as to obviate the necessity of employing heathen helpers. 
 Moreover, a few native ministers of superior grade are needed as 
 special champions of the truth and mission superintendents. f And a 
 good thing it would be if we had more representatives in government 
 employ and in business circles. By such additions to the higher ranks 
 of our Christian population the whole cause would be benefited and 
 Zion would be made to arise and shine. The glaring inconsistency of 
 our educating Hindus and Muhammadans to advanced degrees and 
 neglecting the people of God would also be removed. And thus, too, 
 one of the great causes of complaint made by our native Christians 
 would be taken away. 
 
 But besides regular institutions of learning, schemes of private study 
 have also been established for our workers, by pursuing which they 
 might progress in secular and religious knowledge, as well as practical 
 force, and, on passing examinations in which, at stated intervals, they 
 might be advanced in salary, dignity and general usefulness. The 
 most important of these is one which was adopted by the Sialkot Pres- 
 bytery in October, 18S7, and which has ever since been in operation. 
 These schemes resemble somewhat the arrangements made by Metho- 
 
 * Compare wilh this the objections made to an educational policy in evangelistic 
 work (pp. 165-16S, 173), and obstructions to the increase of a well-qualified native 
 ministry (Chap. XXVIII). 
 
 f Hence arose our "Evangelical Grade" — the one to which tlie late Rev. E. P. 
 Swift belonged and to which the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das belonged before he left our 
 church. 
 
298 LIFE AND WORK IM INDIA 
 
 dist Episcopal Conferences for the improvement and advancement of 
 their preachers and exhorters. Little practical benefit, however, has 
 hitherto been derived from them by us. Perhaps the course of study 
 proposed is too hard ; perhaps the workers have not enough leisure 
 time to pursue it properly ; perhaps the arrangements for examinations 
 are not as favorable as they should be ; perhaps there is not enough 
 of ambition among those for whom these schemes are intended. 
 Whatever the cause, few have availed themselves of the advantages 
 thus set before them. 
 
 Summer schools, no doubt, have accomplished more. These are 
 held for a few days, or weeks, at the season when least can be done in 
 itineration and village work. Sometimes they are local, including 
 only the laborers of one District. Sometimes the workers of several 
 Districts are joined together in the meetings. The exercises consist of 
 special lectures, drills, Bible readings, conferences, prayer meetings — 
 anything and everything, in short, which would conduce to intellectual 
 growth, Biblical knowledge, practical skill and spiritual life. And all 
 are under the leadership of specially appointed and specially qualified 
 instructors, foreign or native. 
 
 Religious conventions differ from summer schools in being less pro- 
 tracted, formal and select in their character. A programme is made 
 out beforehand, and perhaps printed, and papers are read or addresses 
 delivered on special subjects. But the Christian community in general 
 is expected to attend, while there is a great deal of freedom and spon- 
 taneity in their proceedings — just as is the case at home. Several con- 
 ventions of this character have been held during the past twelve years, 
 and, as a general thing, they have been highly profitable. 
 
 The monthly meetings of workers, when they make their reports to 
 their superintendent and receive their pay, have already been men- 
 tioned in another connection.* These are sometimes conducted in 
 such a way as to be very useful to all the participants. The simple re- 
 ports of success, or trial, then given will often themselves have a 
 marked effect for good upon every hearer; while the advice presented, 
 the prayers offered up, tlie Psalms sung, and the brotherly sympathy 
 felt, help greatly the general edification of all who are present, and 
 tend to lift minister and helpers alike to a higher plane of Christian 
 activity and religious experience. 
 
 Church courts have also exercised a good training influence upon 
 
 ♦See p. 273. 
 
<(f:H»f-.>m ^-s-' 
 
 
 A (iKdli' (JF (;IIKI^^1A^S. 
 
 women's department, christian training institute. 
 
CHURCH COURTS AS TRAINING SCHOOLS 299 
 
 officers of the church. Here ministers and elders learn parliamentary 
 and ecclesiastical law and become skilled in the management of church 
 business. Here they learn that self-restraint, that deference to authority, 
 that discrimination between the true and the false, that regard for the 
 rio-hts of others, and that obligation to seek the edification of the whole 
 church, which are necessary to make them safe and useful rulers over 
 the people of God. Missionaries, of course, are expected to co-operate 
 in such organizations, and, when they are qualified by gifts and ex- 
 perience for the business, do much, by example and precept, to instruct 
 their native brethren and prepare them for independent action. Co- 
 operation by them in the lowest courts (Sessions) as elders, under the 
 moderatorship of native pastors, as is sometimes done, also gives a 
 pattern of humility, submission and brotherly love, which helps to curb 
 the spread of an ambitious or a supercilious spirit, and tends, either to 
 prevent the opening of a chasm of alienation between foreigners and 
 natives, or to close such a gap when it has already been made. 
 
 One great drawback to this branch of higher training is that mis- 
 sionaries themselves have little experience in parliamentary and eccle- 
 siastical business previous to their departure for a foreign field. Very 
 seldom have they ever been in a pastorate, or have they ever been for 
 any length of time members of a church court at home, before under- 
 taking the important responsibility of leadership in the formation of a 
 young and rising church abroad. With the prestige of Europeans and 
 Americans, they yet often make the mistakes of a tyro ; and the result 
 of such teaching and influence upon the natives is likely to be crude- 
 ness, inconsistency, confusion and ignorance of, or disrepect for, the 
 Presbyterian polity, if not for all parliamentary law. A special course 
 of instruction and discipline in matters of this kind is certainly an im- 
 portant prerequisite to successful ministerial work abroad, and should 
 be taken by all ordained men who go to our foreign missions — especially 
 at the present stage in their progress of development. 
 
 Another drawback, particularly in the higher courts, is the lack of 
 pecuniary responsibility, and dei)endence for the sinews of power upon 
 the Missionary Association. Without men or money little can be done 
 in any undertaking; and for these necessaries, Sessions, Presbyteries 
 and the Synod are dependent upon the will of the Mission. The 
 knowledge of this fact takes away the chief stimulus to action in our 
 ecclesiastical bodies. A damper is thus thrown upon plans, resolu- 
 tions and discussions. Every one knows that nothing can be finally 
 
300 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 settled in these courts and that the Mission may not even consider the 
 matters which they bring forward. Natives feel that they are wasting 
 breath by speech-making, and thought by careful deliberation. Foreign 
 members are shy to commit themselves — reserving their opinions 
 and remarks for another arena. Tiius the dryness of routine, the 
 platitudes of commonplace talk, and the wildnesses of undigested 
 thought are substituted for the earnestness and brightness and effective- 
 ness of serious debate. The training and growth in wisdom sought for 
 are largely lost. A sense of irresponsibility and weakness dominates 
 everything and settles, like a partial paralysis, over the whole pro- 
 ceedings. For this reason some natives have gone so far as to express 
 the wisli that, until more power is given our higher courts, these courts 
 would cease to act altogether. 
 
 Associated with all these various means of lower and higher training 
 is that of the printed page — religious literature. 
 
 First and foremost in this line comes, of course, the Bible in vernacu- 
 lar tongues. Three translations have been utilized — the Urdu, the 
 Gurmukhi, and the Punjabi in Persian character. 
 
 The Urdu, which is published in three characters — Roman, Persian, 
 and Arabic — had its beginnings in the early part of the century. Two 
 independent versions of the New Testament were then issued — one by 
 the Serampur (Baptist) missionaries in 1811 and another by Henry 
 Martyn (Cliurch of England) in 1815, which had been completed as 
 early as 1808. But the Old Testament in Hindustani was not com- 
 pleted until 1842. It is sometimes called the " Shurman and Hawkins " 
 translation ; but the Rev. James Wilson also is said to have had a share 
 in its production. The Rev. J. A. Shurman belonged to the London 
 Missionary Society ; the Rev. James Wilson was an American Presby- 
 terian. When a second edition was needed, Dr. Joseph Warren, an 
 American Presbyterian missionary of Allahabad, was associated with 
 Mr. Shurman in the work of revision, and, as the latter died when this 
 work was half finished, most of the labor connected with it fell upon 
 the former. From time to time, too, as other editions were required, 
 changes have been made in these versions to make them more faithful 
 or intelligible. What is sometimes called the Mirzapur translation or 
 revision, (that is, the product of the labors of Dr. R. C. Mather and 
 others, which was published at Mirzapur, a station of the London Mis- 
 sionary Society in Bengal,) is now recognized by many as the stand- 
 ard edition of the Urdu Bible. But in 1892 a conunittee was appointed 
 
TRANSLATION OF THE SCRIPTURES 301 
 
 by tlie British and Foreign Bible Society to undertake a thorough re- 
 vision of all past efforts, so as to secure a still more perfect version.* 
 
 It may be of interest to note here that the work of translating the 
 Scriptures into the different languages of the non-Christian world and 
 of revising old translations, as well as the work of distribution, is ac- 
 complished mainly at the expense and under the direction of the great 
 Bible Societies of Protestantism, and especially two of these — the 
 American, and the British and Foreign — and that these societies divide 
 the foreign field between themselves in such a way that their under- 
 takings will not clash. Hence we find the American Society alone 
 operating in Mexico and Cuba and the British and Foreign Society in 
 Greece, while the latter claims the special right to carry on its work in 
 lands which are ruled by the Queen of England. 
 
 True, a fundamental principle with the American Society is this, 
 that " wlierever American missionaries go, needing the Holy Scriptures 
 as a part of the weapons with which they are to conduct their fight with 
 irreligion and sin," there it may "go along, tendering its aid and 
 sharing in the work which they do ; " and the British Society, too, 
 seems to act according to the same principle. This is why we find the 
 former association helping American missionaries in Bengal, Madura, 
 M^idras and other parts of India, and the latter extending her aid, at 
 least in recent years, to the agents of the Church Missionary Society 
 in Egypt. 
 
 But, however the division of the territory may be effected, local 
 societies, found in the different non-Christian countries reached, are 
 usually connected with that larger organization which claims the field 
 to which they respectively belong. This is why the work of revising 
 our Urdu version fell into the hands of the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society; and, as this society is supported chiefly by members of the 
 Church of England, it is easily seen that that religious body has the 
 predominant influence in determining who the translators, and what 
 the result, shall be. 
 
 The propriety of now undertaking a revision of the Urdu Bible in 
 the manner indicated is questionable. That the present version is de- 
 fective all will admit. It is not always founded on the best readings ; 
 it does not always give the exact meaning of the original ; its language 
 
 * See article by tlie Rev. J. J. Lucas, D. D., in the Indian Evangelical Review, 
 Vol. XIII, pp. 45, 46 ; also " Life of Henry Martyn," by George Smiih, LL. D., and 
 pages 184 and 291 of this book. 
 
302 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 is often too high and too difficult for the common people. But what 
 we need more than anything else is a new version from entirely native 
 sources (from one man alone, if possible) as the basis of revision — a 
 version couched in the simplest and most idiomatic terms, and yet true 
 to the Hebrew and the Greek of inspired men — just such a version as 
 that of Tyndale or Luther was; and until such a version springs up 
 we foreign missionaries might very well wait and devote our strength 
 to other work. The present version will meanwhile answer the great 
 ends of a translation very well.* 
 
 The Gurmukhi is a Punjabi translation of the New Testament and 
 portions of the Old, and is published in a character of its own which 
 resembles somewhat the Devanagari of the Sanskrit. A Punjabi ver- 
 sion was issued as long ago as the year 1815 by the Serampur mission- 
 aries ; but the one referred to here is that which was prepared by the 
 Revs. John Newton, D. D., L. Janvier and others. It was begun in 
 1837, but was not entirely completed until the year 1866. Lately, too, 
 it has been undergoing revision. This is used sometimes by zenana 
 workers and preachers in the villages, and is understood better by il- 
 literate people than tlie Urdu. But it covers only a part of the Bible 
 and requires for its perusal the acquisition of a new character ; and be- 
 sides, the language used varies materially from the Punjabi of our own 
 field. It is the tongue of a more eastern section and of an earlier day 
 — of a time when Sikhism was dominant. 
 
 The Punjabi gospel in Persian character is an effort at a new trans- 
 lation of the New Testament, published in a form which can be read 
 by those who are acquainted with the Persian Urdu. It originated in 
 our own Mission. Dr. Gordon, it is known, was very much in favor 
 of literature of this character ; but the Rev. D. S. Lytle is the one who 
 arranged for its production, and Rahmat Masih, then a licentiate under 
 our care, is the one who was employed by him to do the work of trans- 
 lation. After two or three of the gospels had been put into Persian 
 Punjabi and published — the first in 1885 — the Punjab Bible Society 
 expressed a desire to take over the work into their own hands and, 
 with our permission, did so. This was in 1886. But only the gospels, 
 as yet, have been rendered into this character. Of the benefit derived 
 from this translation, so far as it has been made, one can hardly speak 
 too highly. It brings the most interesting part of God's Word home 
 to the apprehension of more people that any other version in our pos- 
 
 * See pp. 290-292. 
 
THE PSALMS IN METER 303 
 
 session and is an invaluable help to zenana and village work. It is to 
 be hoped that no unpractical scruples about the exact rendering of cer- 
 tain words will prevent the early completion of at least the whole New 
 Testament in this form and that it will always be kept in stock for sale. 
 
 Next to prose translations of the Bible, versions of the Psalms in 
 meter have done more perhaps than any other species of literature to 
 develop and sustain the religious life of our people. Up to the year 
 1883 we were wholly dependent upon chants for our service of praise, 
 or upon such metrical versions as could be had in the publications of 
 other Missions. Those found in a book of Psalms and Hymns, called 
 " Zabur aur Git," were more used than any others. But they were few 
 in number and not very closely conformed to the original. Accord- 
 ingly efforts were put forth at an early date to secure a complete and 
 faithful version of our own. Little progress was made, however, until 
 the year 1882 — partly because those interested in the work oscillated 
 between the adoption of Eastern and Western meters. In January, 
 1882, an order was given by Presbytery to her Psalm Committee to 
 prepare first a version in Western meter. This was more needed at that 
 time than the other, and the direction given was, under the circum- 
 stances, no doubt a wise one. By the spring of 1883 seven Psalms in 
 meter were adopted, and published, and brought into use ; and in 
 another year sixteen more. These were in the Persian character. 
 Twenty more Psalms were reported ready in October, 1884; six in 
 April, 1885 ; nineteen in October, 1885, and thirty-two in October, 
 1886. These, with those previously printed, made 100 in all 
 and were published together, first (in the fall of 1887) in Roman 
 Urdu, and afterwards (in 1889) in the Persian character. In Octo- 
 ber, 1891, the remaining fifty Psalms were also published in the latter 
 form, and subsequently they appeared in Roman also. 
 
 The poet employed in performing this work of versification was the 
 Rev. Imam ul Din Shahbaz. But the chairman of the Psalm Commit- 
 tee, and others, rendered him some assistance, especially in ascertain- 
 ing the exact meaning of the original Hebrew. Until his departure 
 for America in the spring of 1S85, Dr. Gordon was the chairman of 
 the Committee, and after that, Dr. Martin. 
 
 These Psalms have given us great aid and satisfaction in the ordi- 
 nance of praise, especially in our older and more established congre- 
 gations.* 
 
 * See p. 265. 
 
804 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 But the less cultured of our people like native meters and native airs 
 better than those of Occidental origin, and it was found necessary to 
 prepare versions of the bhaja7i form, and that, too, in the Punjabi 
 tongue — the language which they love most and knovv best. Before 
 the Presbyterial Committee could begin this work, however, a differ- 
 ent Committee, composed of missionaries alone, was appointed by the 
 Mission (in January, 1S90) to perform it — the Rev. D. S. Lytle, chair- 
 man. But, little could be done without native aid, and e.s])ecially the 
 aid of our poet. Accordingly the Rev. I. D. Sliahbaz was virtually 
 added to the Committee and performed the most important part of its 
 literary labor. The result was published in the early part of the sum- 
 merofi893. It consists of fifty-five selections of Psalms with music. Mr. 
 Lytle is responsible for the notation of most of the music — the airs be- 
 ing such as he found already establislied in the songs of the people. 
 
 These bhajans occupy a place somewhat analogous to the "Bible 
 Songs" in our home church, or S. S. Hymn Books in other churches, 
 but their use at present is even more extensive. Scarcely anything else 
 is now sung in our village congregations, at melas, or in bazar work. 
 
 Indian lyric poetry, and the tunes associated therewith, resemble 
 very much the songs of the Bedouins of Egypt and Western Asia. 
 The scientific difference between them and those which prevail among 
 us Western people has never yet been thoroughly investigated. 
 Rhyme, we know, is largely discarded in the former and less attention 
 is paid to regularity of feet than in Occidental poetry. " The octave 
 in its music," says Sir William Hunter, " is divided into twenty-two 
 subtones, instead of the twelve semi-tones of the European scale, and 
 the complicated structure of its musical modes rests upon three separate 
 systems, one of which consists of five, another of six, and another of 
 seven notes." The effect upon a Western ear is not always pleasant. 
 It seems often like a " ballad in a minor key sung intentionally out of 
 tune; and melodies which the Indian composer pronounces to be the 
 perfection of harmony, and wliich liave for ages touched the hearts and 
 fired the imagination of Indian audiences, are condemned as discord 
 by the European critic."* Yet some of its tunes are most delightful. 
 Their very weirdness, wildness, plaintiveness and curious repetitions 
 chain the attention and entrance the heart even of a foreigner, and to 
 a native are as irresistible as the songs of paradise. Of some hill airs 
 introduced into a new edition of a Hindustani tune book, containing 
 *Sir William Hunter's " The Indian Empire," p. 119. 
 
Prehtde 
 
 Zabur 22.* 
 
 Moderately fast 
 
 frtiuae moaeraieiy jasi ^,, 
 
 jE^gi igEg3= gg^g |a 
 
 f^^^^ 
 
 ±urqs::^« 
 
 D. S. 
 
 /TV 
 
 B-^ 1- 
 
 ?^eS^ 
 
 i|:--q= 
 
 
 CAo.— AiKhudawand | aiRabb mere ] kyunTunmeri | sundanahin 
 Jderimadad | tefaryadthon | durkyunrahnda | sundanahin, 
 
 1. AiKhudawand [ RabbTumera | mainpukarda | fajare tainunj, 
 Rat nun bhi main | chup na rahuda ] par Tu meri | sunda nahin 
 
 2. Tun Khudawand | pak Khuda hain \ pahanda hai TQn | wadi ai { 
 Asra rakhaya | pio dadean ne | uhnan nun tun [ chaddiya nahin 
 
 3. Arzi Tere | agge kiti | uhnan nun chut- | kara miliya { 
 Jinhan asra { Teri kita | uh sharminda | hoe nahin. 
 
 I. Mainunsabmal- [ amatkarde | sarewekbke ] sang bhi lande | 
 Sir bilaunde | rahnde apne | hun main kira | banda uahitk 
 
 5. Kahnde hain uh | thatha marke J oh bharosa [ Rabb te dharda | 
 Je Khuda hai | us nal rSizi | tan uh us niin | chadda nahin. 
 
 6. Tere hathon ] janam paya | tQn ne main nun j ai Khudawand j 
 Man di god wich | asrS ditta f tQn ne main nun j chaddiya nahin. 
 
 * The Twenty-second Psalm in Oriental meter — a bhajan. 
 20 (305) 
 
306 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 bhajans and gazals, the preface says, "Though monotonous in their 
 endless repetitions, they are as weird and strange as their own Hima- 
 layas, breathing not only the sameness of mountain range, but the dash 
 of streamlet and gleam of sunshine, or in the oft-recurring minors, the 
 awe of unapproachable heights." Indeed, were it not for the popular 
 songs which it has produced, Hinduism would be shorn of half its 
 power. 
 
 Of other literature, catechisms perhaps come next in order as a 
 means of training our people. Several of these have done good service 
 within the bounds of our field — first, a translation of Brown's " Short 
 Catechism " into Urdu by Miss McCahon, and another of the same into 
 Punjabi, under Dr. Martin's direction ; next, an Urdu version of the 
 Assembly's " Shorter Catechism " issued by the Presbyterians from their 
 Ludhiana press, and an easy " Bible Catechism " prepared and published 
 by the Methodists at Lucknow ; then a little book, called " The Punjabi 
 Ilm-i-Ilahi," translated by Miss Campbell, and a "Protestant Cate- 
 chism" translated and printed by the writer of this book in 1890. 
 When the Christian Training Institute was started, a knowledge of the 
 Assembly's "Shorter Catechism " was made a condition of admission 
 into that institution, but this condition soon became a dead letter. 
 However, most of the students know it well before they leave the Insti- 
 tute, as do also the girls of the Boarding School. In villages the other 
 catechisms (especially the first two named) have been taught more 
 than it has been. 
 
 Little other printed matter of a Christian character reaches our 
 common people except perhaps Barth's " Scripture History " and some 
 other elementary books (which are occasionally used as text books in 
 primary schools) and monthly tracts, which are issued gratis by differ- 
 ent societies or private individuals; although copies of \.\\t N'ur Af- 
 shau and other vernacular Christian newspapers are often taken by our 
 workers and read more or less to, and by, the villagers among wliom 
 they labor. 
 
 Urdu commentaries on the different books of the Bible, as already 
 mentioned, are not numerous, and those that have been prepared are 
 generally either very simple in their character or written in the interest 
 of some particular denomination. Nothing of the kind, moreover, 
 has been prepared by our laborers. A series of thorough commentaries 
 extending over the whole Bible is one of the desiderata of the Indian 
 Church. 
 
USEFUL BOOKS IN THE VERXACULAR 307 
 
 In the line of theology several books hav-e done us some service. 
 First, Dr. J. S. Barr's condensed translation of the theology of Dr. 
 Charles Hodge, This was used some in the Theological Seminary. 
 But it covers only a part of the work and still lies in an unbound and 
 unpublished, although printed form. Help in the Seminary was also 
 derived from a translation into Roman Urdu of Dr. A. A. Hodge's 
 "Outlines of Theology" by the Rev. J. J. Caleb, of Allahabad. Al- 
 though the language of this book is high, our students generally could 
 understand it and profit by it. Less pretentious works are " Talim ul 
 Iman," a translation of an American compend of theology* by one 
 of the Allahabad missionaries, and a translation of selections from 
 Brown's " Explication of the Shorter Catechism " by the Rev. Samuel 
 Martin, D. D. The former particularly was helpful in our Training 
 Institute and the Girls' Boarding School. But the edition ran out and 
 the use of the book, to our regret, had to be discontinued. 
 
 No good, complete church history has yet been prepared and pub- 
 lished in Urdu. Dr. Wherry's version of Dr. Mofifit's brief work is 
 too small for the use of theological students, touching only the heads 
 of events. What is needed is a work about as large as Dr. George P. 
 Fisher's "History of the Christian Church," or Smith's "Students* 
 Ecclesiastical History," with a good analysis attached. A larger work 
 was begun by the writer of these pages but has been continued only as 
 far as the second volume. It embraces first, " The Apostolic Church," 
 which is a translation of the first part of Dr. Killen's "Ancient 
 Church," and secondly, " The Ante-Nicene Churcli," an extensive com- 
 pend of the second volume of Dr. Schaff's " History of the Christian 
 Church," both of which were prepared with the consent of their dis- 
 tinguished authors. Were the series completed it would be of great 
 use, for reference at least, to many persons besides those who are 
 attending Theological Seminaries. The present writer had also a 
 translation made of Fisher's " History of the Reformation," but it has 
 never yet been revised or published. 
 
 A small "Greek Grammar" by Dr. Youngson, a small "Greek 
 Lexicon " by Dr. Ewing, a " Hebrew Grammar" by Dr. Warren, and 
 a " Lexicon " by Dr. Hooper, have done good service in our Seminary, 
 and so also have other works of a less technical and more practical 
 character done among our ministers and Christian workers. 
 
 One other book, too, must be specially mentioned. It is our " Book 
 
 *Dr. John McDowell's. 
 
308 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 of Discipline " — embracing, not only the Book of Church Government 
 and Discipline, but also our Directory for Worship and the Rules of 
 Order to be followed in ecclesiastical courts. This translation, which 
 is chiefly the work of the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das, dragged along for 
 several years, but was finally issued in the spring of 1887, and since 
 then has been of great use in the management of the business of Ses- 
 sions, Presbyteries and the Synod. In connection with this also 
 should be mentioned a " List of Urdu Equivalents for English Tech- 
 nical Terms used in Conducting Presbyterial and Synodical Business," 
 which was published in 1885 by order of the Presbyterian Synod of 
 India and supplied a crying want. 
 
 While noting the above-mentioned works more particularly, it must 
 be remembered also that a considerable number of other books and 
 tracts have been issued by the various Book Societies and presses of 
 India and that many of these find their way to the homes of our 
 workers and our people. In a descriptive catalogue of Urdu Chris- 
 tian Literature and other publications, prepared and published by the 
 Rev. H. U. Weitbrecht, Ph.D., in 1886, mention is made of 489 
 different Christian books and tracts which had been issued in Urdu, 
 352 of which were intended for Christians and 137 for non-Christians. 
 Of the first class, 25 were commentaries \ 25 Bible hand-books ; 38 
 doctrinal, moral and pastoral ; 9 church history ; 8 sermons ; 53 
 devotional; 7 biograpliy ; 98 stories ; 13 for women and girls ; 57 for 
 children, and 19 miscellaneous. Of the second class, 75 are said to 
 have been general in their cliaracter, 6 directed against Hinduism, 52 
 against Islam and 4 against the reforming sects of both Hinduism and 
 Muhammadanism. Mention is also made of 96 publications in Pun- 
 jabi (besides the Holy Scriptures), 41 of which were for Hindus, 9 for 
 general use, and 46 for the young. 
 
 From a recent report of the Punjab Religious Book Society, we find 
 that they keep in stock for sale, at their fine depository in Lahore, 479 
 different publications in Persian Urdu, 190 in Roman Urdu and 82 in 
 Punjabi, or 651 altogether. Of these 253 are issued by the Punjab 
 Society itself; 84 by the Society for the Propagation of Christian 
 knowledge ; 65 by the American Presbyterian Mission ; 64 by the 
 Methodist Press at Lucknow ; 56 by the North India Tract Society at 
 Allahabad ; 26 by the Orphanage Press at Secundra ; 20 by the 
 Orphanage Press at Mirzapur ; and the rest, by various other pub- 
 lishers. These books have circulated, to some extent, among those of 
 
RELIGIOUS BOOKS IN URDU AND PUNJABI 309 
 
 our people who could read and were able to purchase them and have 
 done great good.* 
 
 The absolute number of separate publications will appear dimin- 
 ished a good deal, hovvever, when we note the fact that many of them 
 are found printed in both Urdu and Punjabi, and sometimes in both 
 Roman and Persian Urdu. Their aggregate amount also does not 
 accord with tlie number of volumes enumerated ; for most of the vol- 
 umes are very small — mere tracts and pamphlets, indeed. Of the 479 
 printed in Persian Urdu, only %^ contain each 100 pages or more, and 
 only 43 additional treatises contain more than 50 pages each; 
 while at least 100 publications contain less than 20 pages each. One 
 series of 24 illustrated books, found in all three forms, making a total 
 of 72 volumes, does not show a book in any form of more than 12 
 pages. The largest volume is a "Concordance" of 901 pages; the 
 next, a " Commentary on Acts " of d^)^ pages ; and the third a " Book 
 of Common Prayer" (Church of England), containing 561 pages. 
 The books, too, are largely of what might be called the Sabbath- 
 school variety, and, although suited to our people while they remain 
 babes in Christ, are ill adapted to lead them on to a high degree of 
 religious intelligence and Christian manhood. 
 
 But a beginning has been made, and we may hope that, as the years 
 roll on, our Punjabi Christians will not only inherit the literary pro- 
 ductions of the past but also acquire many and valuable additions to their 
 stock of published works and show the benefit derived therefrom by a 
 marked advance in every grace. 
 
 * The receipts from the sale of vernacular books by the Punjab Religious Book 
 Society, ^ince the year 1884, has averaged about 10,000 rupees yearly ; from all kinds 
 of books, about 20,000 rupees per annum. 
 
/^^ i^f/l, 
 
 CROCODILE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT AND MATURITY— I 
 
 Financial Self-support — Extreme Rarity in Mission Lands — Apparent Exceptions — 
 Madagascar — Missions of the C. M. S. and S. P. G. — Japan — The Sandwich 
 Islands — A Burning Question — Our Own Mission Like Others Generally — 
 Churches Not Financially Self-sustaining — Efforts and Progress Made — Reme- 
 dies Proposed — Lessening Salaries — Increasing Contributions — Have Missions 
 Started Wrong? — Poverty of the Native Church — How this May Be Remedied 
 — By Education, Industrial Training and Agricultural Settlements — Their 
 Drawbacks — By Church Growth Especially Among the Rich — Practical Sug- 
 gestions — Neighboring Missions. 
 
 jOW we come to the most difficult and discouraging part of 
 our subject — namely, ecclesiastical development and matu- 
 rity — by which is rneant not only cliurch organization and 
 self-support, but also the establishment in every particular 
 of a self-governing, self-propagating religious body. All heretofore 
 mentioned under the head of evangelism and Christian training is pre- 
 liminary to this and has this for its great object and aim ; and without 
 securing this end Christian Missions can be said to accomplish little or 
 no permanent good. A few souls, indeed, may be saved (and this it 
 must be admitted is an important matter), but, unless the foundation 
 (310) 
 
MJSSIOA' CHURCHES IN LEADING-STRINGS 311 
 
 of a perpetual work can be laid, the movement becomes largely a fail- 
 ure. It does not strike its roots deep down into the soil. It is liable 
 to be swept away by blasts of persecution. It needs to be constantly 
 fostered, coddled, protected by outside influences. It gives no prom- 
 ise of bearing abundant, unintermittent and unceasing fruit.* 
 
 And yet this is just the condition of most Protestant Missions at the 
 present time. Sporadic cases of fn.ancially self-sustaining congrega- 
 tions may indeed be pointed out in connection with the operations of 
 various missionary bodies. There have been a few such among the 
 Karens of Burma, the Cingalese Christians of the American Board 
 and the Mahrattas of Southern India — to say nothing of other lands 
 where the gospel has been propagated. And, what is more encourag- 
 ing still, two or three countries, such as Japan, may be named where 
 native churches have been combining together on an independent 
 basis, declaring their impatience of the necessity of foreign help, and 
 making rapid strides towards the goal which we are contemplating ; 
 while the Sandwich Islands in 1863 announced their ability to do 
 without the oversight of the American Board and aspired themselves to 
 a place among the Christian nations of the world. 
 
 But such instances as these are rare indeed. At least ninety-five 
 per cent, of all the Christians and the churches in strictly mission 
 lands are still in the leading-strings of those to whom they were in- 
 debted for their first knowledge of the gospel — financially dependent 
 upon them, and intellectually, morally, spiritually and ecclesiastically 
 under their guidance and subject to their will. 
 
 Madagascar has been called " the crown of the London Missionary 
 Society " and " the miracle of modern missions," and, as an example 
 of rapid and general conversion to Christianity, it can be cited as one 
 of the most remarkable instances of modern times. "The Hovas," 
 it is said, "have been a nominally Christian nation for thirty years." 
 They are said to have a well-developed Christian church, with 1061 
 native ordained ministers; 5870 native preachers; 1300 congregations; 
 63,020 church members, and 74,428 school pupils ; and Christianity has 
 been officially proclaimed to be the law of the land.f Yet these Hovas 
 still cost the London Missionary Society " many thousands a year " and 
 the expense required for mission work among them "shows no signs 
 of diminution." 
 
 The Church Missionary Society of England was organized in April, 
 
 * See pp. 148, 149 and 261. f The statistics are those given in 1894. 
 
312 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 1799, and is now said to be the largest in the world. Its operations 
 extend to various parts of Africa, Central Asia, China, Japan, New 
 Zealand, North America and the North Pacific ; and in India it sur- 
 passes every other organization working there in the number of its 
 laborers and converts. It embraces altogether 844 European mission- 
 aries, 347 of whom are ordained ; 312 native and Eurasian clergy and 
 4876 native lay teachers. It reports 54,561 native communicants, 
 200,484 adherents, 2025 schools and 81,648 jjupils. These are found 
 in 324 stations scattered widely over the two hemispheres.* And 
 almost equal to this association in the extent of its operations is the 
 "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts," which 
 was incorporated June 16, 1701, became a distinctly missionary 
 agency in 182 1 and now forms the other great arm of the Church of 
 England in her efforts to evangelize the world. 
 
 And yet, at a late Anglican conference of Missions in London, the 
 Rev. R. P. Ashe, formerly of Uganda, is reported to have stated as a 
 sad fact that, " after a century of effort and the expenditure of many 
 noble lives, as well as of some millions of money, the Church of Eng- 
 land (extraordinary to say) has signally failed to establish one solitary 
 or single native church in any part of the world — that is to say, a 
 church self-governed, self-supporting, and expanding, or exhibiting 
 any true signs of vitality as a church." 
 
 And substantially the same thing may be said of almost every other 
 denomination and society in the mission field. 
 
 Even the sporadic cases of congregational self-support (in a finan- 
 cial sense), to which we have already referred, are in many instances 
 more apparent than real. Tliey often lack permanence of pecuniary 
 strength. The churches in question are continually oscillating be- 
 tvveen a condition of dependence and one of independence. Fre- 
 quently, too, foreigners, and even missionaries, figure most promi- 
 nently on their subscription lists, as has been true, for instance, in our 
 Sialkot church ; while, in almost all cases, much of their moral and 
 their religious strength is derived from their mission surroundings. It 
 is doubtful whether any of them, or even an association of them, 
 would be able to stand alone. 
 
 Nor are the beginnings of independence as exhibited in Japan, or 
 the Sandwich Islands, free from mistrust. In respect to doctrine, dis- 
 cipline, legislation and elevated religious life, the native churches of 
 * Statistics published in 1894. 
 
SANDWICH ISLANDERS AND THE HOVAS 313 
 
 Japan show serious defects, and sometimes appear to be almost on the 
 verge of shipwreck — and that, too, while still surrounded, and to some 
 extent supported, by missionary forces. It has also been found neces- 
 sary for the American Board to continue assisting the churches of the 
 Sandwich Islands, not only by grants of money in aid of their various 
 enterprises, but also (since 1877) by furnishing a superintendent for 
 their Training School. This has been owing partly, no doubt, to the 
 rapid decrease of the native population. But one of the revelations 
 made by the late establishment of a new government there is the small 
 .progress made by Christianity among many of the people of that archi- 
 pelago and the difficulty experienced in preventing, not merely the 
 restoration of a corrupt monarchy, but even a relapse into heathenism 
 itself. Were it not for the descendants of missionary agents and 
 foreign settlers residing at Honolulu and other points in the neighbor- 
 hood, history might be compelled to revise its decision in regard to 
 that region, and point to it, not so much as a " miracle of missions," 
 as a conspicuous example of the failure, or at least the degeneracy, of 
 missions. 
 
 What is the reason of all this? Why can we not have results similar 
 to those which followed the work of the apostles? Have we not been 
 operating on a wrong basis, or in a wrong direction ? Cannot some 
 remedy be applied to the present widespread malady? Cannot the 
 danger of atrophy be checked ? Cannot the infantile state of mission- 
 ary churches be soon changed into that of manhood ? These are press- 
 ing questions — questions, too, which are engaging the serious attention 
 of earnest minds in every direction. 
 
 Speaking of the condition of the Hova Christians in Madagascar, a 
 venerable Congregational minister of England asks, " Is that as it 
 should be ? I know what will be said of the instability of new con- 
 verts, and truly said ; but, admitting the need of European guidance 
 at the beginning, can there be the same need now? To say that if 
 left to itself the native church would lapse into heathenism is really to 
 say that Christianity is a foreign exotic in Madagascar, which can only 
 live under shelter and protection, than which no more damaging con- 
 fession could be made. What I plead for is this : that the whole mis- 
 sionary question needs to be reconsidered. Besides contributions and 
 more earnest prayers, we want the highest statesmanship applied to the 
 difficulties that thicken about us." 
 
 And, referring to the "tremendous indictment" of " Church Mis^ 
 
314 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 sions " by Mr. Ashe (dready quoted), a newspaper says, "We very 
 much wish that Mr. Ashe had been able to explain at greater length what 
 he really meant. We are all assured he fully recognizes the extent and 
 reality and vitality of missionary success. His words apply to the one 
 point — a point of great importance — the absence of any case of entire 
 and absolute native church organization. Our method is certainly 
 more or less unlike that adopted by the apostles." Another paper, 
 too, speaking of the same failure, says, "It is surely a serious reflection 
 on the methods on which work has been done. There is no doubt that 
 a wide difference exists between many or most of the lands in which 
 Christ is now preached to the heathen and the countries in which He 
 was originally preached ; but still there are old lands, such as India 
 and China, in which it ought to be possible to form self-governing 
 and self-supporting churches." 
 
 Our own India Mission, I am sorry to say, exhibits the same defect 
 in this particular that is exhibited by most other Missions, and part of 
 our duty now is to present and discuss, in the light of our own special 
 experience, the jiroblem thus forced upon our attention. 
 
 Ecclesiastical maturity, in the large sense in which we now use the 
 term, embraces three things — pecuniary self-support, thorough church 
 organization and self-governing power. 
 
 In each of these respects, however, we have to confess a great de- 
 ficiency. Our native church is far from being financially self-sustain- 
 ing ; four-fifths or five-sixths of our people are outside of regularly or- 
 ganized congregations; and our supply of well qualified native minis- 
 ters, pastors and elders, comes deplorably short of that which is neces- 
 sary to thoroughly man and carry on independently and properly the 
 work of the field. 
 
 That considerable effort has been made to instruct our members in 
 regard to the great principles of liberality and secure their fulfillment 
 of the obligation to give for religious and benevolent objects as the Lord 
 hath prospered them, is undoubtedly true. Sermons have been preached 
 upon the subject ; conferences have been held having this as one of 
 their objects ; resolutions have been passed by the Mission, and by our 
 ecclesiastical bodies, not only expressing what we regard as Scriptural 
 views of Christian beneficence, but urging people to do what they can 
 to support and spread the gospel ; aid has been offered congregations 
 by the Mission, according to a sliding scale, on condition that the re- 
 mainder of a pastor's salary be raised by the people themselves; mis- 
 
PROGRESS TOWARDS SELF-SUPPORT 315 
 
 sion superintendents and others have helped to manage church sub- 
 scription lists and done what they could, not only to secure signatures, 
 but also to see that promised dues are paid. A Permanent Committee 
 of Sialkot Presbytery was also appointed in 1883 to take the general 
 oversight of this whole work, issue tracts and hold conferences on the 
 subject of Christian beneficence and bring the members of the church up 
 to a higher standard of liberality. 
 
 And, as already indicated,* some progress has been made in accom- 
 plishing the end aimed at in these efforts. Every settled congrega- 
 tion gives something for the support of its pastor ; and for several years 
 the Sialkot church, through the help of foreign members and adherents, 
 has been self-sustaining. Many vacant charges and unorganized con- 
 gregations have paid part of the expense of religious work within their 
 own bounds. Church buildings and schoolhouses, in almost every 
 instance, have owed their erection partly to contributions of labor or 
 money from Christians in their neighborhood. Some congregations 
 and local societies have supported workers in the evangelistic field and 
 thus aided the general cause of missions. The expense of entertaining 
 delegates at Presbytery, Synod and conferences of various kinds has 
 been borne chiefly without any draft upon a foreign treasury. Schemes 
 of an extended character, resembling the Sustentation Funds of Scot- 
 tish Churches, have been started, pushed and supported with enthusiasm 
 by natives. Contributions to the Quarter Centennial Fund of the Ameri- 
 can Church, to the Foreign Board, to Freedmen's IMissions, to special 
 work in the Egyptian Mission, and to other outside objects, have at 
 times been made with great heartiness by members of the India Church. 
 In 1886 the Rev. I. D. Shahbaz alone sent thirty rupees to the treasury 
 of our Foreign Board. In March, 1889, after a great calamity had be- 
 fallen their suffering brethren in China and a strong appeal for help 
 had been made to the people of India, our Sialkot church gave 180 
 rupees to the Chinese Relief Fund. 
 
 But, after all, the advancement made by our India Church towards a 
 condition of self-support has been very slight indeed. The salaries of 
 the seven native ministers now f connected with it vary from thirty 
 to 120 rupees a month, while several of the brethren get eight 
 
 *See pp. 195, 251 and 253. 
 
 f This and the following pages were written before the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das 
 left our Mission. It has not been thought necessary to modify the verbiage to suit 
 the conditions now existing. Probably, too, Thakur will return to us. 
 
316 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 rupees extra as a special monthly allowance, and the total paid 
 them amounted to 380 or 390 rupees per mensem, or an aggregate of 
 about 4600 rupees per annum. But the sum of the contributions made 
 by natives to all the various branches of Christian work carried on 
 within our bounds, amounts, as reported in our statistics, to an average 
 6f less than 1700 rupees a year,* or very little more than is necessary to 
 pay one-third of the salaries and allowances of our native ministers. 
 And yet the sum paid these seven ordained men is but a small part of 
 the amount given to all our 212 native workers. Probably the Chris- 
 tian teachers in our different schools alone get three times as much as 
 is paid to our ministers, while the wages of our unordained village 
 preachers, licentiates, theological students, and zenana workers, swells 
 many fold more the outlay of money made by the Mission. Add to 
 this also the expense of our various bookshops, hospitals, dispensaries, 
 schools, publications and church buildings, and it can easily be 
 imagined how far short the funds contributed by natives come of bear- 
 ing all the expenses incurred by our missionary efforts, as at present 
 carried on. Suppose that foreign missionaries should now abandon 
 the field altogether and the cost of supporting them be entirely dropped, 
 probably not more than three per cent, of the remaining expense would 
 be borne by the gifts of the native church — if its past liberality is to 
 be accepted as any guide to what it would be after such a step had been 
 taken. 
 
 And even if there was a reconstruction of methods, so as to give 
 them a closer resemblance to the machinery of American and British 
 churches, much the same disproportion would still exist between the 
 money which is given and what would be required. Suppose that each 
 of our sixty-nine organized and unorganized congregations and mis- 
 sion centers had a pastor, or a stated supply, our institutions were prop- 
 erly manned, our literary work fully carried on, our aggressive move- 
 ments on an ungodly world kept up, and full provision were made for 
 substitutes in the case of the sickness or the death of laborers, at 
 least 100 ministers or licentiates would be demanded ; f and the 
 
 * In 1893, 1384 rupees were reported; in 1894, 1322 rupees. See table in 
 Appendix. 
 
 f The Mission in a plan of proposed help which was adopted for consideration in 
 the early part of the year 1893 decided that " not more than six villages should be 
 included in one pastorate." According to this scheme fully 93 ministers would be 
 needed for pastoral settlements alone in our 557 villages, or 24 more than are in- 
 cluded in the above calculation. 
 
STANDARD FOR THE NATIVE MINISTRY 317 
 
 salaries of this number, according to the rates now given, would 
 amount to 60,000 or 65,000 rupees (^18,000 or $20,000) — that is, 
 to thirty or forty times the sum total of native contributions usually 
 reported. Nor is anthing said in this calculation of the money which 
 would be required in church erection, repairs, and Christian benevo- 
 lence, or of the many other expenses which are always incurred by an 
 active, zealous, high-spirited organization. 
 
 But might not the salaries of ministers, and perhaps some other items 
 of expenditure, be materially lessened ? Possibly they might. 
 
 Some think that a lower standard for the ministry than that which 
 we have set might be adopted and a cheaper class of laborers thus be 
 secured. They would be willing to ordain men who had only just 
 reached the Upper Primary standard of secular education,* or even 
 men below this, in order to lessen the difficulty of congregational self- 
 support. But this, in the writer's opinion, would be a very disastrous, 
 and almost a suicidal, policy. It would degrade the native ministry, 
 keep the common members of the church at a low point of Scripture 
 knowledge, make our religious work contemptible in the eyes of a 
 large part of the community, prevent it from being as aggressive and 
 influential as it should be and hinder greatly the progress of the church 
 there towards a condition of ecclesiastical maturity. A Middle School 
 standard f for ordinary ministers and at least a College Entrance stand- 
 ard | for some more highly educated clergymen, to be professors, 
 authors, editors, pastors of important churches and qualified champions 
 of the faith : these together form as low a standard as we can afford to 
 establish for the ambassadors of Christ in such a land as India, es- 
 pecially if the church there is ever expected to carry on its work as an 
 independent, self-governing and self-propagating body.§ "The 
 priest's lips should keep knowledge." 
 
 While, however, the salaries of native ministers may not be lessened 
 by lowering the qualifications of the ministerial class as a whole, they 
 probably can be diminished in the course of time by a change of 
 
 * Five years above ABC, but five years below College Entrance. 
 
 f Two years below College Entrance. 
 
 J These are the two grades which for many years we have had in India. One we 
 call the lower grade, the other the evangelical. 
 
 \ It is not even likely that our American Church would ever be willing to grant 
 autonomy to her Indian dependency if the ministry of the latter were allowed to 
 sink to a lower grade. 
 
318 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 custom. The law of demand and supply of course rules in the minis- 
 terial market as it does in markets of other kinds of labor, and the 
 wages now given is simply the result of that law. But as more Chris- 
 tians become educated, as the number of theological students, licen- 
 tiates and ministers increases, in short as the market becomes better 
 
 stocked, we may expect 
 salaries to go down. 
 It is probable, too, that 
 native preachers them- 
 selves, in order to se- 
 cure greater ecclesiasti- 
 cal independence, will 
 manifest more and 
 more of a self-sacrific- 
 ing spirit and cheer- 
 fully accept wages 
 wliich may be lower 
 than wliat their neigh- 
 bors and predecessors 
 have been accustomed 
 to receive. 
 
 The hope, however, 
 of such a reduction as 
 some appear to expect 
 must certainly be aban- 
 doned. Good Chris- 
 tian laborers are in 
 great demand and must 
 continue to be so for 
 a long time to come. 
 It is impossible now to 
 get enough of them at a reasonable salary to take the place of heathen 
 teachers in our mission schools ; and in evangelistic work, the super- 
 intendent is often compelled to employ persons of doubtful or 
 indifferent merit. The field for Christian labor, too, is constantly 
 enlarging. Zion is extending her borders. New stations are estab- 
 lishing and new openings for faithful workers are multiplying at a 
 rapid rate. Those who are qualified to preach the gospel with 
 acceptability and efficiency must, therefore, be able for many years 
 
 FLYING FOXES. 
 
SALARIES OF NATIVE MINISTERS 319 
 
 hereafter to command high wages.' Nor is it probable tliat employers, 
 who in this case are missionaries and native churches, will form a com- 
 bination for the purpose of establishing lower salaries. To some ex- 
 tent pressure may be brought to bear upon ministerial employees and 
 little by little the reduction of their wages secured ; but efforts of this 
 character smack so much of the dishonorable methods which are used 
 by rings in some departments of secular business, and seem so much 
 like devices of oppression, that they would undoubtedly do more harm 
 than good. And, besides, there is a point below which we ourselves 
 should not desire native salaries to go. A certain amount of good 
 food and clothing and religious literature and comfort is absolutely 
 necessary in order that " the man of God " may do justice to himself, 
 his family, his parishioners and the church at large. It must be re- 
 membered, too, that a Christian minister cannot follow the patriarchal 
 style of living, or adopt some of the other economical expedients 
 which prevail among Hindus and Muhammadans, and hence needs 
 more vaoxxty Xk\?cc\ pundits ox maulvies to maintain a worldly position 
 corresponding to that which they hold. 
 
 But granting that a considerable reduction could be made in minis- 
 terial salaries, supposing that they should be cut down one-half or even 
 two-thirds (an almost violent hypothesis), the present contributions of 
 the native church would still not support more than five or ten per 
 cent, of the ordained preachers, that, without the assistance of the mis- 
 sionaries, would be necessary to properly carry on our work ; while 
 education, church erection, publication and contingent expenses would 
 still remain unprovided for. 
 
 But cannot the amount of contributions received from natives be 
 increased? Yes; I suppose it can. There has not heretofore been 
 that regular system, that general co-operation, that wise leadership, 
 that persistent effort, that constant instruction, that hearty stimulus in 
 regard to this matter which there ought to be. Movements have been 
 too spasmodic, circumscribed, mechanical and inharmonious, to reach 
 the highest limit of possible success. Native Christians, too, in many 
 cases, dislike the general course which has heretofore been pursued by 
 Missions and missionaries, and have become so soured and disgusted 
 that they cannot be induced to give as they would otherwise do. A 
 prominent native member of another denomination, one high up in the 
 Civil Service, was once approached by two foreigners with inquiries in 
 regard to the reasons why he and his brethren do not furnish more pe- 
 
320 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 cuniary assistance to the work of the Lord which is going on around 
 them, and in reply made remarks substantially as follows: "This is a 
 delicate question, and I wish you had gone to some one else for the 
 answer. Only this I would say, We do not give liberally because we 
 do not like mission methods. I was once in mission service, but when 
 I saw the way that missionaries treat the natives I concluded to aban- 
 don it. It was a hard struggle, however, and now I do not give liber- 
 ally to their work because I do not like their methods. The natives 
 have no chance. So when collections are taken up I only contribute 
 enough to get the plate passed by." This man, although acknowl- 
 edged to be a good Christian in every other respect, was supposed to 
 give only about one per cent, of his large income to religious and 
 charitable objects. And similar to his are the feelings and the practice 
 of many of his class. Unless, therefore, we deny altogether the sincer- 
 ity of such persons in explaining their own illiberality, it must be ad- 
 mitted that a modification of the present policy and the spirit which 
 have often characterized mission work would, without doubt, make a 
 great difference in the condition of the treasury of the native church. 
 
 But, conceding the most that could be reasonably expected from 
 such a change, contributions would doubtless fall short of what is nec- 
 essary to run all the machinery of an independent, self-governing, 
 aggressive ecclesiastical body. 
 
 It must be remembered that our people, as a general rule, are among 
 the poorest of the poor in that indigent land. It is probable that, on 
 an average, the families in our church do not receive a constant income 
 of more than four or five rupees a month, that is, less than two dollars. 
 Supposing then that the number of these families is 4000 (a large 
 estimate) their total income would therefore not exceed 16,000 or 
 20,000 rupees a month. One-tenth of this would be 1600, or 2000, 
 rupees ; and one-tenth of a year's income would be from 20,000 to 
 24,000 rupees, or about 7500 dollars. Even imagining then that all 
 gave tithes, and that all gave all their tithes for ecclesiastical objects, 
 there would still be a large deficit in the church treasury — too large a 
 deficit to be covered by what they would probably receive from their 
 heathen neighbors or their Christian rulers. 
 
 Nor could all be expected to adopt the tithe system. The Chris- 
 tians of England and America .come far short of giving according to 
 this standard. Even American ministers and elders do not alwa3'S fol- 
 low this rule. Perhaps foreign missionaries them.selves may sometimes 
 
LIBERALITY OF HINDUS AND MOSLEMS 321 
 
 be found among the delinquent, ones. How then can we hope that 
 converts from heathenism will all, at once, rise to the standard pro- 
 posed upon this subject? A great many will, doubtless, give little or 
 nothing ; the majority will contribute as Christians of other countries 
 generally do ; only a few will, at first, "give tithes of all that they 
 possess." If an average of four or five per cent, of the income of the 
 people could be constantly secured for religious and charitable objects 
 we should consider their liberality hopeful — almost phenomenal ; and 
 if three-fourths of this found its way into the congregational or the de- 
 nominational treasury, those interested in the self-support of native 
 churches might feel greatly encouraged. 
 
 True, some might be disposed to judge them by a standard different 
 from that which prevails among Occidental Christians, and expect 
 them to give according to the rules which guide their Hindu or Mu- 
 hammadan neighbors. 
 
 Strange as it may seem at first view, these heathen people surpass the 
 followers of Jesus generally in their measure of religious liberality. 
 
 According to a Muhammadan of high official standing in Gujran- 
 wala, the Moslems of the Punjab are required by rule to give twelve 
 per cent, of their income to the support of their religion ; and though 
 tlie very poor are practically exempt from this law, many others are 
 said to live up to it. Nor does this include all their contributions. 
 Much is also expended in the form of marriage and funeral fees ; and 
 more still in building the tombs of saints — to say nothing of the 
 bakhshish which is given to beggars and fakirs. 
 
 Nor are Hindus behind the Muhammadans in this matter, although 
 more irregular and fitful, perhaps, in their liberality. Offerings to the 
 gods are common and frequent among them, just as are also gifts to 
 Brahmans, family priests {purohits), j'ogies, fakirs and others — while 
 every faithful Hindu spends a large amount of money in keeping the 
 feasts and performing the special ceremonies required by his sacred 
 books. Some also before they die build a temple, a shrine, a tank, a 
 drinking fountain, or some other object of supposed public benefit, 
 which will perpetuate their names, and, as a "good work," add to 
 their hope of reaching the goal of salvation, as they understand it. 
 Frequently, too, Hindus receive needy brethren into their families 
 and care for them. A Brahman Head Master of the Gujranwala High 
 School, who afterwards became a Christian, thus adopted three boys 
 into his household and gave them a good education. 
 21 
 
322 I^TFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 As therefore people professing highly corrupt forms of Christianity 
 frequently surpass those who are truly evangelical in the extent of the 
 sacrifices which they are ready to make in behalf of their faith (per- 
 haps because of the stronger " legal bias " which they possess) so do 
 these heathen and deistical Muhammadans surpass the majority of 
 Christians of every name in reference to the same matter, and probably 
 for the same reason. Salvation *' by faith without works," for the 
 present at least, is outshone in its liberality by salvation grounded 
 on self-righteousness. 
 
 It is hardly reasonable, however, to expect the native Christians of 
 India, although they are surrounded by Hindus and Muhammadans, 
 and many of them come from the ranks of these people, to imitate 
 them in the freeness of their contributions to religious objects, and 
 thus become exceptions among the adherents of their adopted faith, 
 however desirable such a course might be. Not only have they an 
 aversion to almost everything which is characteristic of heathenism and, 
 on conversion, find mission work supported in an entirely different way 
 from their old faith, but they also enter the Christian fold poor, and 
 feel more like being objects of charity than dispensers of charity. The 
 most that we can hope from them is that they follow in the footsteps 
 of their fellow-Christians elsewhere and give to the Lord as above 
 indicated. 
 
 But the amount thus obtained, as every one who makes the calcula- 
 tion can easily see, is still only the minor part of what would be 
 needed merely to support the native ministry which would be required 
 to carry on our work (provided they were left to do so without foreign 
 help), to say nothing of the expense of the rest of the ecclesiastical 
 machinery. 
 
 Should we take account of pastors only among the ministers, and 
 adopt the Mission's estimate of ninety-one as the smallest number that 
 could properly man our congregations, forty or forty-five families might 
 be reckoned to each pastoral settlement, with their monthly income, 
 for all purposes, of i6o or 220 rupees ; and even if four per cent, of 
 this could be made available for pastoral support, each settled minister 
 would still receive only from six to nine rupees a month — that is, 
 from one-ninth to one-sixth of the average income of our native clergy 
 in 1894. 
 
 From every point of view, therefore, the native church within our 
 field seems at present to be entirely incapable of pecuniary self-support. 
 
REMEDIES DISCUSSED 323 
 
 Some are disposed to lay the blame of this condition of things upon 
 the policy which Missions have heretofore pursued of paying native 
 Christian laborers. They claim that it would have been better not to 
 have offered them any assistance whatever from mission funds, but to 
 have required them from the start to depend for their support entirely 
 upon the contributions of their fellow-countrymen. They say that the 
 present necessity of giving high wages would in this way have been 
 avoided altogether. Others affirm that, while native laborers ought to 
 be paid from foreign funds, they have always been paid too much — that 
 if native ministers received the wages of common carpenters and other 
 mechanics in their own neighborhood, they would, comparatively speak- 
 ing, be put upon an equality with ministers in our own and other 
 Christian lands, and that the adoption of this standard would speedily 
 bring about the result for which we are all working. Others again, 
 such as J. G. Shome, M. A., a prominent convert from Hinduism in 
 Calcutta, would abolish the stipendiary system altogether, and, after 
 educating native ministers, would send them forth without purse or 
 scrip and make them virtually fakirs. 
 
 Much of all this, however, appears to the writer visionary, impracti- 
 cable or unwise. The necessity and the duty of paying mission helpers 
 for their services cannot be justly denied and if the people to whom 
 they minister cannot, or will not, do so, others who have the ability to 
 pay them ought to assume this responsibility. Natives have as much 
 right to compensation for their work as missionaries themselves have. 
 The laborer, whether white or colored, is certainly " worthy of his 
 hire." Perhaps larger salaries have sometimes been paid than should 
 be paid ; but the adoption of the standard of pay which has been set 
 for neighboring masons, weavers or bricklayers cannot be properly en- 
 forced everywhere, in determining ministerial wages, any more than 
 the standard of wages set for employees in government service can be 
 used for this purpose. In some countries one or the other of these 
 criteria might do well enough, but in other countries neither ought to 
 be commended. The true test in deciding what clergymen's salaries 
 should be is this : whatever may be necessary under the circumstances for 
 the successful prosecution of the Lord' s work. As for fakirism, enough, 
 it is thought, has elsewhere been said to secure its condemnation.* 
 
 While then something may be attributed to defects of policy, to the 
 scarcity of a native ministry, and especially to the lack of proper tact 
 
 *See pp. 208-217. 
 
324 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 and effort in developing the liberality of the people, the great cause of 
 the pecuniary inability of the native church in our field to carry on its 
 own religious work in a satisfactory manner is really \\.% poverty. 
 
 How can this be renriedied ? 
 
 In one of three ways : either by increasing the power of our people 
 to earn money, or by adding to their numbers, or by bringing into 
 the church men of means and consecrated benevolence. 
 
 The first of these has been attempted by many Missions in India as 
 a part of their religious duty. 
 
 One method which they have adopted in this attempt, and by far 
 the most general metliod, is that of education. By giving Christians 
 who were capable of receiving it intellectual training and secular 
 instruction they have fitted tliem for positions of pecuniary profit 
 which they could not otherwise have reached. Some have thus been 
 prepared for government service and have found permanent, honorable 
 and lucrative employment as village officers, clerks, civil engineers, 
 apothecaries, doctors, tax collectors, judges, police inspectors and 
 executive officials of various grades.* Others have been qualified for 
 the work of teaching and have obtained good salaries in the depart- 
 ment of education. Others still have been taught with special 
 reference to missionary work and have secured a better living as 
 preachers and colporteurs than they could have had in their heredi- 
 tary calling. 
 
 Another method adopted for the advancement of the people in 
 worldly prosperity is tliat of industrial training. Some have been 
 taught the arts of cooking, tailoring, shoemaking, printing, bookbind- 
 ing, carpentry, masonry, and other trades, by means of which they 
 have been able to get better wages than they would have got as 
 coolies, sweepers or weavers. Sometimes Missions have established 
 schools with particular reference to this kind of training. Printing, 
 publishing and tailoring for instance, are specialties at the Secundra 
 Orphanage, near Agra; carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring and carpet 
 weaving at Ludhiana; and printing at Lucknow — ^just as in our Mis- 
 sion we once had an establishment for the manufacture of soap, 
 candles, oil and spirits of turpentine. 
 
 A third method is the establishment of agricultural settlements, 
 whither people without land, or the means of husbandry, can remove, 
 
 *One Christian in the Punjab Judiciary is said to get now a salary of from 800 
 to 1000 rupees monthly. 
 
NOW NATIVES CAN BE HELPED IN BUSINESS 
 
 325 
 
 and where they can be supplied with every requisite for this business, 
 and form not only a self-supporting but a progressive community. 
 Such a settlement has been made by the Church Mission at Clarkabad 
 in the Lahore District, and another by the Scotch Mission at Sialkot. 
 This is one of the devices by which the Roman Catholics have also 
 endeavored to draw off our adherents and the adherents of other 
 Protestant Missions to their own fold. They have the beginnings of 
 an agricultural settlement on the Chenab Canal in West Gujranwala, 
 where land can be purchased from . 
 the government, at a low figure, 
 by any one who desires to use it 
 for farming purposes. 
 
 Another method proposed is 
 the formation of one or more 
 native Christian regiments in the 
 British army, by enlisting in which 
 new converts might secure honor- 
 able employment and at the same 
 time become a bulwark of strength 
 to the Indian Government. 
 
 And, in connection with all such 
 efforts, missionaries do what they 
 can to get situations for their 
 people and furnish them with em- 
 ployment or trade. Many native 
 Christians are hired by Missions 
 
 themselves either in secular or religious work. Some are accepted as 
 private servants. Many are given letters of recommendation through 
 which they may obtain some kind of labor elsewhere. The products 
 ^ of their hands, too, when needed, find a readier sale among mission- 
 aries and their assistants than do the manufactures of aliens. For 
 many years, for instance, the Christian Training Institute was fur- 
 nished with cloth by the Christian weavers of Zafarwal. 
 
 The drawbacks to these various methods, however, are many and 
 noteworthy. 
 
 Candidates for government positions are numerous and good posts 
 in the Civil Service are scarce ; and, for policy's sake, Hindus and 
 Muhammadans, whose numbers in the country predominate so largely, 
 are given the lion's share of such favors. Besides, Christian converts 
 
 SILVERSMITH. 
 
326 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 from the low castes stand a poor chance for appointments of any kind 
 when Brahma ns and Say y ids are their rivals. 
 
 Missions on the other hand are handicapped by the lack of means, 
 and cannot, as employers, open up a very large market for Christian 
 workers, especially those of a high grade ; and, more than this, the 
 multiplication of such employees unnecessarily would only rivet more 
 tightly the bonds of Missions, prevent them from soon leaving the 
 field, and delay the coming to the native church of that very ecclesi- 
 astical maturity which is aimed at. 
 
 In manual training, too, it is difficult to secure proper instructors, 
 since the freemasonry of native guilds stands in the way of the 
 extension of the knowledge of their arts — hereditary caste feeling and 
 self-interest uniting to shut out all apprentices who belong to other 
 families than their own. Nor are promising pupils abundant. The 
 brightest boys we have want higher work than this, and would rather 
 labor with their heads than with their hands. It is only the duller 
 that can be induced to enter industrial schools. 
 
 It is hard also for Christian artisans, however skillful and well- 
 taught they may be, to get employment, even where the contractor, 
 or the overseer, is a Christian. People of different religions do not 
 work well together and caste operates with all the exclusiveness and 
 the tyranny of trade unions to maintain its monopolies. Hindus and 
 Muhammadans, moreover, prefer patronizing merchants, shop-keepers, 
 and manufacturers of their own faith ; and, by dealing with others in 
 some kinds of business, they would actually violate the laws of their 
 respective sects. This leads to practical boycotting and compels the 
 Christian community to depend mostly upon itself for patronage in its 
 various departments of trade, as well as service. Only as coolies, 
 farm hands, weavers and laborers of the lowest grades, or as dealers in 
 such detested articles as hides, are its members allowed to work, or do 
 business, with any degree of freedom. As far as the Christian popula- 
 tion generally is concerned, more respectable avenues of profit are 
 closed to their ambition. Thus far, too, the government has not 
 seen fit to form regiments of native Christians ; nor, if military ser- 
 vice were actually available, would it promise to be of any great bene- 
 fit to our people. What would be gained socially and pecuniarily 
 would be overbalanced by the unsettled, wild and anti-spiritual life 
 which usually characterizes the career of a soldier ; and even money 
 
GROWTH OF PECUNIARY STRENGTH 327 
 
 earned in this way would probably be wasted in extravagance and fail 
 to do the cause of Christ any great good.* 
 
 Until, then, Christians becQme numerous enough, or rich enough, to 
 furnish a large amount of patronage, until they themselves can provide 
 employment for a considerable number of mechanics and artisans — in 
 short, until as a distinct part of the community they can stand alone 
 and be somewhat independent of the rest of the population — little 
 can be expected of the effort to elevate them, or at least the mass of 
 them, to a higher position in the business or the manufacturing world. 
 Indeed, just at present, the trend of their worldly prosperity is per- 
 haps downward, rather than upward. Shutting out of the account the 
 it"^ who are in Government or Mission employ, the financial condition 
 of the great body of our people in their present depressed, unpopular 
 and ostracized state, as contrasted with that of the adherents of other 
 religions, is very similar to that unhappy spiritual condition which is 
 referred to by our Saviour when, after saying, "Whosoever hath, to 
 him shall be given and he shall have more abundance," he adds, 
 " Whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken away even that he 
 hath." Important, indeed, is it to start Christians in the right direc- 
 tion as they seek greater worldly prosperity, instruct them as far as 
 possible in useful trades, and thus prepare them for every emergency; 
 but the full advantage of such a course can be practically reached only 
 in a somewhat distant future, when outward circumstances have 
 changed. 
 
 The growth of the Christian population, however, will gradually 
 help the working-classes in their struggle for a good livelihood by giv- 
 ing them a more extensive patronage ; and when this occurs, tliey will 
 have also the means of greater liberality. 
 
 And if this growth takes place to some extent within the bounds of 
 organized congregations, it will help ecclesiastical self-support in 
 another way — that is, by swelling the aggregate sum of local contribu- 
 tions which may become available for the payment of pastors' salaries 
 and other expenses connected with the various churches. Other things 
 being equal, a congregation of ninety families ought to give twice as 
 much for ecclesiastical purposes as one of forty-five families — the esti- 
 mated present average number ; while the congregational expenses in 
 both cases would be substantially alike. The prospect, however, of an 
 
 * Objections to an agricultural settlement, or a Christian village, are given elsewhere. 
 See pp. 274, 275. 
 
328 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 early result of this character is not very bright ; for growth hereafter, 
 for a time at least, will probably be experienced more in lengthening 
 the cords of Zion than in strengthening her stakes — in the addition of 
 new Christian villages to our present number, rather than in the mul- 
 tiplication of Christians in any of our present villages. In many places 
 all of that class of people which has heretofore been easily affected by 
 gospel influences have already been brought into the church, while in 
 almost all villages the local community belonging to this class is com- 
 paratively small ; and until other castes and classes begin to show signs 
 of speedy conversion we cannot expect any individual congregations 
 to become large. For years to come, in all probabilty, our churches 
 will generally be " little flocks." 
 
 Whether more can be expected soon from the addition of men of 
 means is a question. Such people are confined mostly to the higher 
 castes ; and, as heretofore observed, converts of this class generally 
 come to us singly, and are therefore compelled to forsake all their 
 worldly possessions, as well as everything else that is dear to them, in or- 
 der that they may make and maintain a Christian profession. Instead of 
 increasing our financial strength, therefore, they become a burden and 
 themselves need to be provided for in a worldly point of view. They 
 are more helpless by far than our low-caste converts. These can at 
 least stay among their own people and make a living for themselves, 
 although this living may be a poor one. Occasionally, however, a 
 Hindu or a Muhammadan family comes out as a whole from its former 
 religious connections, attaches itself to the people of God, and brings 
 its'property with it.* And in the future we may hope that such cases 
 will be more frequent than they have been in the past. And when 
 they become common, and congregations contain a sufficient number 
 of this class, of course these congregations will become self-sustaining, 
 and the problem of ecclesiastical self-support will be solved. But at 
 present this state of things seems to be far distant. 
 
 What then ought to be done to hasten pecuniary self-support as 
 rapidly as possible ? What are the practical conclusions forced upon 
 us by such a review of the whole situation as we have heretofore 
 given? 
 
 Evidently first we ought to develop as fast as we can the liberality 
 of the Christians already attached to our cause. Such plans should be 
 adopted as will everywhere secure regular, systematic, hearty, prayer- 
 
 *See pp. 224, 225. 
 
.j^BM^i 
 
 
 (329) 
 
330 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ful, intelligent and generous giving. Instruction, exhortation, ex- 
 ample, co-operation, subscription lists, assessment, rewards, discipline 
 — all the usual means of stimulus — should be employed as occasion 
 offers. But, of course, they ought to be used wisely. It will not do 
 to press the assessment plan, or disciplinary measures too far ; nor 
 should the sliding scale system of giving grants-in-aid from mission 
 funds on certain pecuniary conditions be made so inflexible in its ap- 
 plication in any instance as to be unjust, or to injure the general cause 
 of evangelism. 
 
 And, as a help to this development, every reasonable effort should 
 be made to secure the hearty co-operation of foreign and native laborers 
 in every department of Christian work. All gaps of alienation existing 
 between these two classes should be filled up. Mutual Christian so- 
 ciability and friendship should be cultivated. Each class should re- 
 gard and treat the other as brethren. Neither should undertake to 
 exercise lordship over the other. Especially should those mission 
 methods be abandoned against which natives so much protest, and 
 which, as a stumbling-block, have hindered so much the liberality of 
 men of means. Let natives share with foreigners the direction of 
 Christian work, the distribution of mission funds, the employment and 
 dismissal of native laborers and the control of all other matters which 
 affect so deeply their own interests and the success of that cause for 
 which they are earnestly laboring. This will have a marked effect 
 upon their generosity and the generosity of their kinsmen. 
 
 Let the education of Christians be also pushed forward as rapidly as 
 possible and especially the training of men and women for religious 
 work. This will help the cause of self-support in two ways: first, by 
 qualifying men for lucrative situations and thus giving them the means 
 of liberality, and secondly, by increasing the number of candidates for 
 Christian labor and thus diminishing their average salary. 
 
 Again, the work of evangelism should be continued with energy and 
 zeal. The idea of waiting until our present congregations are drilled 
 up to a high point of liberality and Christian grace before advancing 
 much further in the effort to convert sinners, is, in the writer's opin- 
 ion, detrimental to the speedy attainment of a condition of pecuniary 
 self-support on the part of the native church, although its advocates 
 cherish a very different impression. In raising money numbers are 
 an important factor. The larger the subscription list the greater the 
 aggregate sum of contributions obtained as a general rule. Besides, a 
 
PRESENT DUTY 331 
 
 more extensive patronage is thus opened up to Christian trade and the 
 whole community made more independent. And especially will evan- 
 gelistic success in the neighborhood of existing congregations (organ- 
 ized or unorganized) have the effect of hastening the end aimed at ; for 
 there any increase of membership which may be secured can be made 
 available, as we have just seen, in helping to support a particular 
 pastor. 
 
 Efforts to convert men belonging to the upper classes, moreover, 
 ought not to be neglected. As already seen, they have more of this 
 world's goods than others, and, should they be able to retain these 
 after becoming Christians, they would make useful helpers in a 
 pecuniary point of view. Hence the advantage of strong pastors to 
 man even village churches — men whose influence will be felt among 
 all castes. Hence also the importance of zenana work everywhere, 
 without which whole households (with all their belongings) are not 
 likely to be won over to Christ. 
 
 Industrial training, too, is a department of missionary effort which 
 ought to receive some attention. As Christians increase in numbers 
 and wealth and are enabled to furnish more patronage, Christian 
 mechanics and artisans can find a continually growing field for the 
 prosecution of their respective trades, and those interested in their wel- 
 fare should see to it that suitably qualified workmen are ready to avail 
 themselves of the opportunity thus extended to them. In this way the 
 wealth of the whole household of faith is likely to be advanced and the 
 probability of its early reaching a condition of ecclesiastical maturity 
 increased. 
 
 The financial condition of the natives of neighboring Missions in 
 India is not in every respect the same as that of our own, excepting, of 
 course, that of the converts of the Punjab Mission of the Church of 
 Scotland, which operates in a contiguous field and spends its great 
 strength on the same class of people. Most of the Missions round 
 about us embrace among their members fewer from the low castes and 
 a larger percentage of the well-to-do. Hence the average contributions 
 of their people to religious and charitable objects amount to more than 
 ours. For a time at least four rupees to every communicant, or about 
 half a rupee to every member of the Christian community, was the 
 usual sum reported in the statistics of both the Ludhiana Mission and 
 the Church Missionary Society of the Punjab. But their congregations, 
 as a rule, seem to be smaller than ours, and it is doubtful whether, after 
 
332 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 all, they are any nearer a condition of pecuniary independence than 
 the churches of our own field. The North India Conference of the 
 M. E. Church, previous to their great advance movement among the 
 depressed classes, reported contributions from natives averaging about 
 one rupee to every " full member " and one-third of a rupee to every 
 individual embraced in its Christian population — a better showing than 
 we have been able to make. But since their great ingathering from 
 the low castes began it is probable that their situation resembles ours 
 almost exactly.* 
 
 Hence, in all likelihood, much of what has hitherto been said in this 
 chapter about our own difficulties and duties will apply with equal pro- 
 priety to our India neighbors — if not also to Missions carried on else- 
 where among people of like wealth,. civilization and Christian training. 
 
 * The native churches in India and Ceylon, under the care of the American Board 
 of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, gave in 1893-94 an average of about five 
 rupees or $1.50 a communicant for all religious purposes, or about two rupees for 
 every member of the Christian community. This was about one-tenth of the whole 
 cost of the Missions. In Turkey, under the same Board, native contributions 
 amounted to one-fifth of the entire sum expended ; in Japan about one-fourth ; in 
 China about one-sixtieth. 
 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT AND MATURITY— II 
 
 Church Organization — Our Defects in this Particular — Are they Justifiable ? 
 
 HE progress made by our India Mission in church organi- 
 zation has been fully as slow as that made in the matter 
 of self-support. 
 
 From the latest statistics furnished by Presbyterial clerks 
 we learn that in the three Presbyteries which compose the Synod of the 
 Punjab there were, at the close of the year 1894, 12 churches contain- 
 ing 27 elders and 11 23 communicants. We also learn that two of the 
 congregations had only one elder each, so that, according to the rules 
 of Presbyterian order, they had lapsed into an imperfectly organized 
 state through the lack of the number of elders (two or more) necessary 
 to form a full Session, and had fallen practically under the sole man- 
 agement of the pastor, or the superintendent of missions. Only 10 
 churches, therefore, had a complete Presbyterian organization, and in 
 these were only 910 members. The average number of elders, more- 
 over, in the total 12 churches, was only a trifle over two, while that of 
 our home churches is about four. Looking at the statistics again, we 
 observe that there were 4633 communicants in unorganized stations — 
 that is, altogether outside of the churches and under the direct control 
 of mission superintendents. Hence less than one-fifth of our mem- 
 bers had their names upon a church roll and less than one-sixth of the 
 whole number were found in churches having a complete organization. 
 Were all our communicants organized into churches as large and as 
 well-equipped as those which we have mentioned, we could report 
 62, instead of 12, congregations and 140, instead of 27, elders.* 
 
 * In the statistics of the Sialkot Mission (of same date), as published in the " Report 
 of the Board of Foreign Missions," the number of communicants is given as only 3058, 
 and baptized adults as 3289. This is said to be " due to the execution of a mission 
 rule requiring the division of the baptized adults into two classes — those who have 
 
 (333) 
 
334 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Looking at the dates when our churches were formed, we find also 
 that progress towards organization has in recent years been decreasing 
 rather than advancing. Three of them were established by the Sialkot 
 Presbytery before 1880, five during the next five years, and two since, 
 while two during the past six years have been received from other de- 
 nominations. 
 
 The state of things thus indicated may perhaps find its parallel in 
 other Missions ; but it does not, to say the least, accord very closely 
 with ideal Presbyterianism, nor indeed with any standard church pol- 
 ity, and has therefore been made a matter of frequent remark and re- 
 proach by people in the home field. Nor does the writer suppose that 
 any person abroad, either foreign or native, can be found who looks 
 upon it with entire complacency and does not in some respects deplore 
 it. Differences of opinion, however, exist in regard to its necessity. 
 
 Some are disposed to justify it as the best possible condition which 
 can be secured under the circumstances. They claim that there are 
 not, in many places, men enough fit to hold the position of an elder, 
 and hence that there are few mission centers which, as yet, are ripe for 
 ecclesiastical organization. Our people, they say, are mostly ignorant, 
 weak and incapable of governing wisely ; and those who are qualified 
 to assume responsibility are nearly all in Mission employ, and perhaps 
 brought there from a distance, and hence not in a proper position to 
 rule the churches sympathetically, besides being liable to frequent 
 transfer. They think that the present method of receiving and disci- 
 plining members, and administering sacraments, through a mission su- 
 perintendent, assisted by his helpers and perhaps 2l panchayat (that is, a 
 virtual Session — see p. 271), answers the great end of such work well 
 enough, is free from the friction and restriction which might attend 
 the existence of rival authorities, and may be safely tolerated until the 
 
 actually communed and those who have not," but does not necessarily imply on the 
 part of the latter the lack of the proper qualifications for observing the sacrament of 
 the Lord's Supper, but "rather our inability, on account of the extent of our field, to 
 offer it to them." 
 
 Hence, even if the Mission's report were made the basis of our exhibit, little 
 change need be made in the above remarks, which are founded upon the long-estab- 
 lished custom of giving statistics and the only one which has been followed by the 
 church at home. All adults who have been baptized on their own profession of 
 faith, and thus far give evidence of being Christians, may be virtually classed with 
 communicants in discussing the special subject before us, just as they are in giving 
 the results of our evangelistic work in Chapter XXI. 
 
ARE MORE ELDERS OBTAINABLE? 335 
 
 different communities become wiser, wealthier and stronger than they 
 are now, and until they acquire more of the elements of independence. 
 Some of them, too, may fear the effect of a more extensive organiza- 
 tion upon the jurisdiction of a missionary and the constitution of 
 higher church courts. 
 
 Others, again, believe that all this is simply special pleading. They 
 take a more hopeful view of the situation and have more faith in the 
 solidity of the evangelistic work which has been done in our Mission. 
 They claim that from among our 212 trained native helpers, a major- 
 ity of whom are men, and many of whom have been taught in our own 
 schools, several times as many persons as are now in the eldership 
 might be judiciously chosen equally qualified to fill that office, and 
 that all that can be said against the fitness of any of them for it on ac- 
 count of their paid service, their alien birth, their difference of pre- 
 vious caste, their lack of oneness with the people, and their liability to 
 transfer, might be said with equal force against their fitness for that 
 work of instruction, discipline and control as missionary aids which is 
 now cheerfully accorded them, and might be said with still greater 
 force against the missionary himself. They are confident, too, that 
 scores of ordinary members might be found in our villages who have 
 received enough instruction to act as religious leaders among their 
 brethren, and who, even without much secular education, might (like 
 Ditt, Kalu or Kanhaya) make very good ruling elders — men, perhaps, 
 who now virtually perform the work of an elder as members of a. pan- 
 chayat, or assistants of the sahib. They feel, also, that through a 
 course of special training others might soon become similarly qualified. 
 On general principles, too, they argue that so much delay in forming 
 complete organizations is unnecessary. "Is it reasonable," they say, 
 " to suppose that God would bring into existence a large Christian 
 population, without including among their number persons who could 
 be wisely chosen at an early date to act as their ecclesiastical rulers? 
 Did not the apostles find such everywhere in their missionary tours ? 
 And ought we not to expect tlie same thing now? Will not the King 
 and Head of the church certainly care for his own body and see to it 
 that every organ necessary for its nourishment, growth and activity is 
 present, and fitted for its appropriate function?" Progressives also 
 ask, " Why should we fear the limitation of the jurisdiction of a mis- 
 sionary by the formation of more Church Sessions, or the curtailment 
 of his individual power by the introduction of more native elders into 
 
336 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 higher ecclesiastical courts ? By giving the details of work to others 
 might he not be released from these for other and perhaps more im- 
 portant duties? And, if he is able to sympathize with his India breth- 
 ren, might he not still expect his opinion to have great weight in their 
 councils and often become prevalent? And even if ecclesiastical ac- 
 tion did sometimes run counter to his views, could he always be sure 
 that God's will had not been thereby manifested? Might not the na- 
 tives often be nearer right than he is himself? And, at any rate, is 
 not this mature, independent, self-governing condition of the native 
 church the very thing at which we are specially aiming?" 
 
 More success has attended our efforts to organize higher, than lower, 
 ecclesiastical courts. A Presbytery (called Sialkot) was formed De- 
 cember i8, 1856 — the next year after our Mission was started ; and, as 
 the result of repeated motions and petitions, two more Presbyteries 
 (Gurdaspur and Gujranwala) were, by order of our General Assembly, 
 organized from it Oct. 17, 1893, while a Synod (called the Synod of 
 the Punjab), embracing all these Presbyteries, was formed Nov. 7, 
 1893, by direction of the same Assembly. Thus a gradation of eccle- 
 siastical bodies has been secured, through which business may be done 
 in accordance with the rules of Presbyterian order; and, on occasion, 
 appeal may be made from a lower to a higher court and, in all ordi- 
 nary cases, justice may be obtained without the reference of any mat- 
 ter to the General Assembly in America. Through the multiplication 
 of Presbyteries, too, these bodies are made comparatively small and 
 have a comparatively limited geographical jurisdiction, and can there- 
 fore meet often and perform rapidly and effectively the work which is 
 given them to do. 
 
 As early as January, 1883, seven Permanent Committees were also 
 appointed by the Sialkot Presbytery, somewhat analogous in their 
 character to the various Boards of tlie home church. These were 
 termed, respectively. Evangelization, Publication, Education, Church 
 Erection, Sabbath School, Christian Beneficence, and Statistics, and 
 had special charge of the matters which their names particularly indi- 
 cate. The different members of these Committees were chosen for 
 terms of various lengths, so as to combine as far as possible rotation in 
 office and growing experience. The design of this arrangement was 
 to draw the whole work of our mission field as much as possible into 
 the hands of the ecclesiastical court and thus secure the harmonious 
 and active co-operation of both foreigners and natives ; in other 
 
OUR DEFICIENCY SUMMED UP 
 
 337 
 
 words, its aim was to develop the wisdom, the energy and the self- 
 governing power of the church proper, as it had been established in 
 that region. 
 
 Some of these Committees — the first three named — continued to 
 act, at least occasionally, down to the year 1892 ; but the rest virtu- 
 ally ceased to exist at an early date, and even the first three, after the 
 year 1886, gradually lost the greater part of their power. The partial 
 failure of this effort at organization was due to various causes — partly 
 to the indifference of the members of the Committees or the pressure 
 of their other work, partly to the drift of management more and more 
 out of the hands of natives and into the hands of the Mission, and 
 partly perhaps to other causes. 
 
 But this section of the machinery of the old Sialkot Presbytery has 
 been, of course, transferred to the Synod as a higher court, and in the 
 future we ought to hear more of its activity and efficiency. 
 
 On the whole, however, our India Church lacks that thorough organ- 
 ization which is necessary to its complete independence as an ecclesi- 
 astical body. While it possesses all the grades of churcli courts which 
 are essential to its welfare, one of these grades (that of congregational 
 Sessions) has been very poorly developed and extended, pastoral set- 
 tlements are very rare, ordained ministers are very few, and as a natu- 
 ral consequence even the Presbyteries and the Synod lack the mem- 
 bership that is needful to insure them a vigorous life. The bony 
 framework is there in all its parts ; but there is a lack of flesh and 
 blood — of fullness, roundness and muscular development. 
 
 22 
 
m^ 
 
 CONSCIOUS STRENGTH. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT AND MATURITY— III 
 
 Self-Gover7iing Power — What it Implies — Fewness of our Ministers — Cause of 
 the Deficiency — Character of our Elders and Ministers — Capability of Exercis- 
 ing Self-Government — Objections Considered — Advantages Presented — Evils 
 thus Removed — Instructive Precedents — Additional Objections Answered — 
 Summary. 
 
 ELF-GOVERNING power, the third element of ecclesias- 
 tical maturity, implies two things: first, an official body 
 of sufficient size and excellence (both intellectual and 
 spiritual) to hold it ; and secondly, the opportunity of its 
 bringing such power into exercise. 
 
 That the number of our ruling elders is small has already been 
 observed, there being only twenty-seven all told in our whole field ; 
 and the causes of this paucity have also been discussed.* There is, 
 too, a similar scarcity of native ordained ministers. Only fourteen 
 of this class of officers had, up to January i, 1895, ever belonged to 
 our ecclesiastical body; and of these, three had died, two had been 
 suspended, and two had left to join other Christian denominations, 
 making the number on our roll, at the end of our thirty-ninth year of 
 
 * See pp. m-ZZfi. 
 (338) 
 
WHY THERE ARE FEW NATIVE MINISTERS 339 
 
 Christian labor there, just seven — that is, one to every 822 communi- 
 cants.* 
 
 The causes of our slow progress in the acquisition of a native min- 
 istry have been manifold. 
 
 One has been a disinclination on the part of the Mission to receive 
 as theological students men of high education and at the same time 
 promise them the privileges and tlie pay which are attached to what is 
 called the evangelical (or higher) grade of the ministry — the grade to 
 which the Rev. G. L. Thakur Das belonged before he severed his con- 
 nection with us last spring. Several applications were made for 
 admission under the care of Presbytery as students of theology of this 
 grade, but they were rejected, chiefly because it was thought that we 
 could not afford the outlay of money involved. 
 
 Another has been an unwillingness to make exceptions in regard to 
 the amount of help given students while at the Seminary. Some who 
 had had large salaries for years and whose households were expensive, 
 wanted to attend the Theological Seminary and thus become eligible 
 for ordination, but were not prepared to relinquish their salaries and 
 accept in their stead the monthly allowance which was granted mar- 
 ried students while at the school ; and a larger scholarship than this 
 sum neither the Mission nor the Presbytery was inclined to give them. 
 
 Another cause of the fewness of our native ministers has been a 
 lack of men, educated up to the Middle School Standard, having the 
 moral and the spiritual qualifications necessary for their admission 
 under the care of Presbytery as students of theology and willing to 
 enter the common (or lower) grade of the ministry. 
 
 Another has been a dislike on the part of many to ordain a man un- 
 til he has had a formal " call " to be the pastor of a particular congre- 
 gation and is ready to be installed in that position. In the year 1886, 
 when eight of our ministers were ordained, this sentiment, indeed, did 
 not have much influence. We were exceedingly anxious then to get 
 ministers for purely evangelistic work. But since that time opposi- 
 
 * This proportion still holds good ; for, though another minister has left our body 
 since the beginning of the year, it is believed that one of our candidates for the 
 ministry has within the same period been ordained and added to the roll. When 
 the Statistical Tables were prepared in 1890 there was one native minister to every 
 120 communicants in all the Missions of the Punjab, and in the whole of India one 
 to every 229. According to Dr. Smith's tables in his "Short History of Christian 
 Missions" there was in 1891 one native minister to every 313 communicants among 
 all tlte Missions of the world. 
 
340 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 tion to the ordination of a licentiate* witliout a call has had the as- 
 cendency. 
 
 In connection with this also may be noticed the fact that no 
 arrangements are made for the rotary distribution of our licentiates 
 among the different churches wanting a pastor, so as to give these 
 congregations a chance of hearing them and, if they are pleased, giv- 
 ing them a call. 
 
 It must be confessed, too, that superintendents of Missions and 
 other foreign laborers have sometimes abstained from encouraging em- 
 ployees in their desire to enter the ministry and have even thrown ob- 
 structions in the way of their reaching it. This may have been owing 
 to their doubt of the qualification of such helpers for this high office, or 
 for other reasons not so justifiable. But, whatever their motive, the 
 effect has been the same, namely, the hindrance of the growth of our 
 theological school and our ministerial force. 
 
 Dissatisfaction with the policy of our own Mission, or that of Mis- 
 sions generally, has also, doubtless, had its influence on the natives 
 themselves, not only in preventing the entrance of worthy young men 
 into Mission employ and the Christian ministry, but also in driving 
 away from our ministerial ranks persons upon whom we had actually 
 laid the hands of ordination. 
 
 Death, too, which spares neither high nor low, has been at work in 
 thinning our ministerial forces. 
 
 But, small as may be the number of our native ministers and licen- 
 tiates, little can be said against their character, or their fitness to per- 
 form satisfactorily the duties of an ecclesiastical ruler. Their average 
 education is good ; their morals are unexceptionable ; their spiritual 
 attainments are as high, perhaps, as that of white ministers generally ; 
 and of their wisdom and their capacity to direct and carry on religious 
 work, after they have acquired a fair amount of experience, no one has 
 the right to say a disparaging word. Our present elders, likewise, are 
 generally capable and trustworthy men, fit associates of their ministe- 
 rial brethren. 
 
 In the opinion, therefore, of many in other Missions and of some in 
 our own Mission, no valid objection can be made to the bestowal upon 
 these two classes (as an organized and united force) of a large amount 
 of ecclesiastical and missionary power ; and especially so while they 
 have associated with them on an equal footing, in all their higher 
 
 * A licensed preacher, but one not fully introduced into the ministry by ordination. 
 
SHOULD NATIVES HAVE MORE POWER? 
 
 341 
 
 church courts, foreign missionaries, who would probably continue to 
 exert a great influence over, them and supply whatever might be 
 deficient in their counsels. 
 
 True, it might be said that the great majority of these native minis- 
 ters and elders are now employees of mission superintendents and on 
 that account might be unduly biased by the opinions and the desires 
 of their superiors. The fear of the displeasure of their sahibs and of 
 dismissal from their service might lead them to adopt a course or cast a 
 vote occasionally which was contrary to their own convictions. But, 
 if any danger of this kind 
 existed, the present policy 
 of autocratic superintend- 
 ence which occasions it 
 might be easily modified, 
 or entirely abolished, and 
 such employees might be 
 placed under ecclesiastical 
 courts, or committees of 
 these courts, who would 
 determine their standing 
 and pay, and their reten- 
 tion in, or dismissal from, 
 the staff of workers. This 
 would give them a freer 
 and more independent 
 spirit, and lead them to 
 act from higher motives. 
 
 It might be said also 
 that if the number of or- 
 ganized congregations greatly increased, as should be the case, many 
 weak brethren would be admitted into the eldership and the tone of 
 that element considerably lowered, and that this would affect the 
 general character of our ecclesiastical courts. But, as we have already 
 seen, there is a considerable body of well-qualified men in the mem- 
 bership of the church from which a choice of elders might be made 
 and such a result as that which we have mentioned need not necessarily 
 follow, and probably would not follow, especially as the church is con- 
 tinually advancing in spiritual character and intelligence. And, even 
 if the eldership did somewhat degenerate, the balance of good influence 
 
 PARSEE CHILDREN. 
 
342 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 would be maintained still by that increasing native ministerial force 
 whose growth in numbers might be expected to run parallel with that 
 of their associates in authority. 
 
 True, the ministerial force itself might degenerate through the low- 
 ering of the standard of educational and other qualifications required 
 of candidates for the ministry. And here perhaps lies the great dan- 
 ger at the present time ; and one of the chief arguments in favor of 
 urging the retention of the Middle School standard,* or its equivalent, 
 as the lowest possible for the ministry, is the fact that an inferior 
 grade of ordained men might so weaken ecclesiastical bodies as to 
 render the bestowal upon them of large missionary powers a matter 
 of .doubtful expediency. So long, however, as the average talent, 
 education and character of our native ministers and elders remain what 
 they are, and at the same time missionaries are associated with them in 
 higher church courts, we may confidently affirm that they will be 
 abundantly capable of managing any amount of ecclesiastical business 
 and missionary work which may be assigned them. We are also fully 
 persuaded that, if the opportunity of exercising self-government under 
 these conditions is extended to them, they would in the course of a 
 few years attain all that learning, energy, zeal, self-poise, economy, 
 vigilance, caution, tact and statesmanlike prudence which will be re- 
 quired, on the withdrawal of foreign help, to maintain and extend the 
 cause of Christ in their own territory. 
 
 The bestowal of such authority would also do much to abolish evils 
 which are found in the mission field and help greatly to bridge over 
 that gap of separation which has been formed between foreign mission- 
 aries, on the one hand, and native Christians, or at least native 
 Christian workers, on the other. 
 
 That evils do exist and that they have produced a division, more or 
 less marked, between the two classes mentioned, has already been re- 
 ferred to and will not probably be denied by any. Missionaries and 
 their native brethren often find fault with one another. And the 
 charges made on both sides largely range around, and find their roots 
 in, that relation which they sustain to each other as employer and em- 
 ployee. The former blame the latter in many cases with laziness, in- 
 subordination, indifferent work, " eye-service as men-pleasers," illib- 
 erality, a grasping desire to get higher wages and greater privileges, 
 a parasitic spirit, indisposition to labor without pay, lack of generous 
 * Two years below the Freshman Class of a College. 
 
DIVISION BETWEEN NATIVE AND FOREIGN WORKERS 343 
 
 spontaneity in Christian efforts to do good, a disposition to hide one 
 another's misdeeds, and improper aspirations after more power. The 
 latter often blame the former with exhibiting towards them a distant, 
 unsympathetic, race-proud, overbearing spirit — with neglect, indiffer- 
 ence, uncharitableness, oppression, injustice, an indisposition to yield 
 them deserved honor, the failure to give them an equal chance with 
 the heathen in the race for education and high standing,* the denial 
 of their individual and ecclesiastical rights, the refusal to bestow upon 
 them a due share of self-governing power, and disagreeable treatment 
 of any who may sympathize with them in their wrongs.f 
 
 Of course it is not meant that all missionaries or all natives make 
 these charges and countercharges, or that there are no seasons of com- 
 parative peace, and even good feeling. The unemployed common 
 people, especially if they are uneducated, are, as yet, involved in such 
 controversies very little — although apparently inclining more and more 
 to the side of their own countrymen. Some workers, too, both foreign 
 and native, are very prudent and keep as far as possible from this strife, 
 or for different reasons gravitate towards the party with which they 
 would naturally have less affinity. And even those on both sides who 
 are loudest and most frequent in their cries find somehow a modus 
 Vivendi, and often enjoy such intercourse with one another as proves 
 comparatively pleasant to themselves and edifying to the native church 
 as a whole. 
 
 But the indictments above recorded are nevertheless pressed with 
 sufficient frequency and vehemence to cause much heartburning : and 
 no doubt, even admitting of exaggerations, there is a great deal of 
 truth in both of them, and certainly as much in the latter as in the 
 former. It is only a disposition to be perfectly honest and fair which 
 leads the able editor of the Indian Evangelical Review, now an old 
 and experienced missionary, to say, "Not only are Europeans, as a 
 class, but even missionaries are, with more or less of truth, accused of 
 pride, exclusiveness, overbearing manners, cold isolation, hauteur, 
 want of sympathy with natives as a class in their attempts to improve 
 their condition and to raise themselves in learning, intelligence, inde- 
 pendence and social position ; nay more, of jealousy, if not of opposi- 
 tion to their praiseworthy efforts to better themselves and those de- 
 pendent upon them. Many a missionary finds it hard to be sweet and 
 gentle amidst all the worries and ailments of this life, and, in his deal- 
 
 * See pages i68, 173 and 295-297. -j- See also pp. 66, 67 and 273, 
 
344 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 ings with the poor down-trodden native, to forget that he belongs to a 
 higher race in the scale of civilization and to the conquerors of the 
 country. He feels inclined sometimes to speak roughly, if not harshly 
 and tauntingly, to them as to his inferiors, as he would never do to 
 Europeans in his own country ; and the result is most sad. Their feel- 
 ings are hurt and their hearts are alienated." * In other words, a gulf 
 of separation is opened up between them. And in our own Mission 
 this gulf has been widened and deepened during recent years by events 
 which it is unnecessary here to recount. f 
 
 Now it is claimed by other missionaries besides the writer that the 
 bestowal of more authority and power upon our ecclesiastical courts, 
 where natives and foreigners meet on an equal footing, and the aboli- 
 tion of what might be called the autocratic method of superintendence, 
 would remove at once a large number of the evils mentioned, close up 
 to a vast extent the gap now existing between missionaries and natives, 
 stop in a considerable degree the complaints of both parties, and tend 
 greatly to heal the divisions of Israel. And so think the natives also. 
 And this is why in a memorial to the General Assembly of 1892 five of 
 our native ministers asked " that the Presbytery be made what the Mission 
 has hitherto been for the native agents — that their employment, salary, 
 transfer and dismissal be subject to the control of the Presbytery," J 
 although as an alternative they expressed a willingness to accept an 
 arrangement by which natives had representation in the Mission itself. 
 
 The granting of more power to ecclesiastical courts would also, no 
 doubt, produce other good results. 
 
 For one thing it would almost certainly give a great impulse to all 
 the various branches of Christian labor, develop the energies of our 
 native people and elevate the tone of piety throughout our whole field. 
 Native agents, instead of laboring to please their human superintend- 
 ents, would aim more at gaining the approbation of their Divine Master. 
 Regarding the work as their own they would enter into all its opera- 
 tions with heartiness and would rejoice to labor side by side with their 
 foreign brethren. A great ingathering of souls from an ungodly world 
 might therefore be confidently looked for. New zeal would be infused 
 into the effort to secure a more thorough ecclesiastical organization. 
 The purses of the natives would naturally be opened more widely to 
 the calls made upon their liberality. Self-support would probably be 
 
 * Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XII, p. 165. | See pp. 137-139. 
 
 ;j; At the time when the memorial was sent up, no Synod had yet been formed. 
 
(345) 
 
346 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 pushed to its farthest possible limit. The training of Christians would 
 advance even more rapidly than it does now. Presbyterianism as a 
 system would be regarded with more favor. No occasion would be 
 given other Missions to invade our territory. The tendency to abandon 
 our church and our employ would be checked. A spirit of loyalty 
 would shield us from every rival and make our forces a unit. Our 
 home church would be regarded as a loving mother, and a reign of 
 tranquillity would be inaugurated. In short, " the fruit of righteous- 
 ness would be sown in peace of them that make peace." 
 
 This policy, moreover, would tend to abolish a great anomaly in 
 Presbyterianism, namely, the management of ecclesiastical business 
 and the domination of church bodies by a Committee, which in our 
 own field we call The Mission. This method of control is contrary 
 to the genius of our church polity, or, for that matter, of any church 
 polity — an excrescence, indeed, on our whole system of ecclesiastical 
 government, and, like a parasite, if allowed to remain for any great 
 length of time, is apt to absorb into itself the life of the organism to 
 which it is attached and insure for the latter only a stunted growth. 
 The sooner, therefore, it can be removed the better. In the early 
 days of mission work, indeed, it may serve a good purpose, but as soon 
 as the ecclesiastical plant attached to it gets a good start and strikes 
 its roots down into the earth, the old stock should be cut away. If 
 the latter is left standing beyond its proper day untold harm will 
 surely be the result. 
 
 Nor is the course proposed so destitute of precedent as to place us 
 entirely on untrodden ground. By granting more power to the na- 
 tives in their ecclesiastical capacity, and thus paving the way for a 
 higher development of ecclesiastical manhood, we should only be fol- 
 lowing the path which missionary management in many other fields 
 has already taken and which it will everywhere, sooner or later, be 
 compelled to take. Our C. M. S. neighbors in the Punjab have already 
 turned over the executive control of their churches and the evangel- 
 istic work within congregational boundaries to the Church Council, 
 which embraces only two foreign members ; and even the financial es- 
 timates which are made by this body are practically final. Our Ameri- 
 can Presbyterian friends in the Ludhiana Mission have also recently 
 thrown much of their work into the hands of their ecclesiastical courts. 
 The American Methodists of India have for a long time done their 
 main mission business in Conferences, where natives and foreigners 
 
A CHEAT CHANGE NECESSARY 347 
 
 stand on an equality; and even their Mission Finance Committee 
 embraces a number of the former, as well as of the latter class. The 
 United Presbyterian Presbytery of Egypt has all along managed a large 
 part of the affairs of that mission field ; and probably none of its ar- 
 rangements, or requests, has ever been vetoed by the Missionary As- 
 sociation, which is also established there; although it is true that the 
 latter still retains altogether in its own hands certain branches of the 
 work. Everywhere, indeed, throughout the world where missionary 
 enterprises have made any headway the same question of control either 
 has arisen, or threatens soon to arise ; and never yet has it been satis- 
 factorily settled except in one way — that is, by admitting natives to a 
 share in the exercise of power. A pyramid can rest securely only in 
 its natural position. It is worse than folly to try to make it balance 
 forever on its inverted apex. 
 
 Even our own Mission, which resisted the prayer of the memorialists 
 to the General Assembly of 1892, has found it necessary since that 
 time to make concessions to their Oriental brethren. The power of 
 dismissing native ministers from mission employ has been taken away 
 from individual missionaries and reserved to the Mission itself. More 
 liberal terms of a financial character have been offered congregations 
 in the case of pastoral settlements ; grants of money for evangelistic 
 purposes have also been promised under special conditions; and one 
 of our native ministers, who refused to remain with us unless he was 
 given a responsible position and allowed to report directly to the Mis- 
 sion as an organized body, was appointed a professor in the Theolog- 
 ical Seminary and given the superintendence of a mission field. In 
 short a return has been made in some degree to the situation which 
 existed prior to the year 1886. 
 
 But such modifications of method are too fragmentary, too slight, 
 too much hampered by restrictions, too liable to repeal, and too doubtful 
 in their spirit, to act as an effectual remedy for the evils which have 
 arisen and secure all the benefits of ecclesiastical maturity. A more 
 radical and sweeping change is necessary before the breach between 
 our foreign and native brethren can be healed and the church of that 
 land can be made to " arise and shine " — such a change as that which 
 was asked for in the memorial, or that which was afterwards proposed 
 by our Foreign Board. And this, too, must be granted heartily, 
 hopefully and lovingly — not with the sneer of a cynic, or the reluct- 
 ance of a discomfited rival. 
 
348 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Nor do the objections made to this progressive course seem very 
 formidable. 
 
 Some appear to think that native ministers and elders cannot be 
 trusted with such great powers as it contemplates giving them. But is 
 not this a merely gratuitous assumption ? And if really true, may we 
 not appropriately inquire, Why have these men been ordained officers 
 of Christ's church at all? And if it be granted that the whole con- 
 trol cannot be surrendered to them, why stand in the way of their ob- 
 taining a part and, through experience, becoming qualified for greater 
 responsibilities? They only ask for a share with the foreign mission- 
 aries. Besides, in any case, cannot such checks be established as will 
 prevent the abuse of power? 
 
 Others think that every grant of authority to the native ministry 
 should be dependent upon, and measured by, the amount of money 
 received from tlie native church. Some would allow ecclesiastical 
 courts to control only native contributions and the persons or objects 
 that these contributions support. Some, in addition to this, would 
 give them also the control of foreign funds proportioned in amount to 
 those which come from indigenous sources. Some would refuse them 
 the management of either until the native church becomes financially 
 self-sustaining. But the reason for these limitations is not clear. 
 How can the source whence supplies are derived indicate who are best 
 qualified to distribute or use them? And why should the training for 
 ecclesiastical business and wise management be delayed, or hindered 
 altogether, by the indifferent question as to where the tools, or tlie 
 materials, with which they operate originate. A Hindu can learn car- 
 pentry as well with a London plane as with one made in Calcutta; and 
 self-governing power, which means ability and experience in govern- 
 ment, is, we have seen, as much a part of ecclesiastical maturity as 
 financial self-support. Both, indeed, should advance together so that 
 when the latter reaches its needful limit tlie former may not be want- 
 ing. Otherwise, like an untrained youth suddenly made rich, the na- 
 tive church might eventually cut a sorry figure and make itself ridicu- 
 lous. 
 
 But, some one says, the development of financial self-support in the 
 native church is hindered by the grant of self-governing power to her 
 official ministry, and the latter should wait upon the former. This is 
 a most astonishing statement. The very opposite would appear to be 
 the fact. A native ministry, with large powers, and experienced skill 
 
LACK, BUT HOPE 349 
 
 and hearty spirit, ought to do much to bring the church generally up 
 to a high point of liberality — more, certainly, than it can do with scant 
 authority, acting in a subordinate position, and weighed down by a 
 sense of personal wrong. Nor is a different conclusion favored by the 
 results of the policy which has prevailed in past years. 
 
 But discipline would suffer from the change and the moral and 
 spiritual tone of our native helpers would be lowered. So exclaims an 
 objector. Such, however, has not been the. result where the new regime 
 has been tried. A member of the Punjab Church Council, a mission- 
 ary, says that since power was given to that body discipline has become 
 stricter than it was before. The native members feel a responsibility 
 which they did not previously realize ; and, as a consequence, unfaith- 
 ful members and laborers are either improved or weeded out. Nor can 
 foreign missionaries ever be in such a position as to equal natives in 
 the detection of wrongdoing among people of their own class. 
 
 But furtlier remarks upon this part of our subject are unnecessary. 
 What has been said is intended simply to point out a way by which, in 
 the opinion of the writer and others, mission churches, and especially 
 our own India church, may preserve more fully what they have already 
 attained, and advance more rapidly than they have heretofore done 
 towards the goal of ecclesiastical maturity and complete success. That 
 they are generally a long distance from this consummation will not be 
 denied by any. In regard to financial self-support, completeness of 
 church organization, training for the exercise of self-government, and 
 even the opportunity of properly commencing this training, our Pun- 
 jab Synod displays a deplorable lack; and while her lack in these par- 
 ticulars is greater, doubtless, than that of most other churches which 
 are similarly situated, hardly a mission field can be found anywhere 
 throughout the world where complete ecclesiastical manhood and vig- 
 orous, independent church life has been reached by converts from 
 heathenism or their descendants. 
 
 Let no one suppose, however, that our Christian work in the Punjab 
 has been a failure, or that it does not display points of great excel- 
 lence. Ecclesiastical maturity, although a highly important matter 
 and the great end of all our labor, is, as we have already seen, only 
 one of three great branches of mission work, and in the other two we 
 have met with abundant success. The training of Christians in every- 
 thing except self-government, and especially the training of the com- 
 mon people, has been carried on as vigorously and as effectually as in 
 
350 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 many other fields ; while in pioneer evangelistic efforts and fruits our 
 Mission stands high above the average. Nor can we suppose that God 
 in His providence will not, in His own time and way, and probably 
 soon, accomplish the third object, which is necessary to crown the rest 
 and bring them to perfection. Should this chapter and the preceding 
 aid only a little in bringing about such a desirable consummation the 
 writer will feel that they have not been penned entirely in vain. 
 
 Wh-WER hlRDS AM) NhST 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 THE OUTLOOK 
 
 Statistics Encouraging — Comparative Progress of Other Religions — Islam Making 
 Few Converts — Statement of the /. E. R. — Spurts of Hindu Revival — Caste 
 Giving Way — Gross Hinduism Diminishing — Reforms Advancing — Indifference 
 of Many Hindus to their Faith — Brighter Record of Christian Missions — 
 Splendid Field Among the Lowly — Danger of Compromise — Danger of Neg- 
 lecting the Depressed Classes — Danger of Neglecting the Native Christians and 
 the Native Church — But Great Hope of Triumph — Not Immediately — Nor as 
 The Statesman Forecasts — But in a Century or two — The Church like a Banyan 
 Tree. 
 
 S for the general outlook of Missions in India I am glad to 
 be able to give a hopeful report. There can be no doubt 
 whatever that Christianity is making headway in that 
 country. Statistics themselves indicate this. From a total 
 of 91,000 Protestant Christians in the year 1851, the number rose to 
 138,000 in 1861, to 224,000 in 1871, to 417,000 in 1881, and to about 
 560,000 in 1890. And though the progress made has been very un- 
 even, both as regards time and place, no period has been characterized 
 by complete stagnation, and no section of the country has been en- 
 tirely destitute of substantial advancement. During the nine years 
 elapsing between the census of 1881 and the census of 1890, " Bengal 
 had an increase of 30 per cent., the N. W. Provinces and Oude 139 
 per cent., the Punjab 335 per cent.. Central India 132 per cent., Bom- 
 bay 92 per cent., and the Madras Presidency 22 per cent."* Natu- 
 rally, therefore, we are led to expect similar progress in the future. 
 And this expectation is strengthened when we consider the increase in 
 the number of workers, both foreign and native, who have been 
 specially engaged in Christian labor there. The number of ordained 
 
 *" Protestant Missions in India, Burma and Ceylon — Statistical Tables, 1890," p. 
 xiii. 
 
 (351) 
 
352 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 missionaries advanced from 339 in 1851 to 857 in 1890; the native 
 ordained agents, from 21 in 1851 to 797 in 1890; and native lay 
 preachers, from 493 in 185 1 to 3491 in 1890. Thus a greater and 
 greater amount of force is year by year brought to bear upon the cita- 
 dels of heathendom, and, other things being equal, we ought to look 
 for even larger results in the future than in the past. 
 
 True, other faiths are progressing also. Hindus, Muhammadans, 
 Sikhs and Buddhists are all growing numerically stronger ; and at every 
 census each can muster a larger number of adherents than it did at the 
 preceding roll-call. But in many cases their growth is less rapid than 
 that of the population generally, while in the case of Christians, and 
 especially Protestant Christians, advancement outruns the average, and 
 that too by a large percentage. During the ten years which elapsed 
 between the census of 1881 and that of 1891, the Sikhs increased 3 
 per cent. ; the Parsees 5 per cent. ; the Hindus 10.4 per cent. ; the 
 Muhammadans 14.4 per cent. ; the Jains 15.9 per cent. ; the Christians 
 of all classes 22,6 per cent. ; Protestant Christians 34.3 per cent. ; and 
 Buddhists 107 per cent. ; while the whole population increased 12.5 
 per cent. This shows that Christians far excelled all others in ratio 
 of increase except Buddhists, whose remarkable growth was due 
 more to the addition of Upper Burma, and other Buddhist regions, to 
 British East India Territory than to the spread of that faith among 
 unbelievers.* 
 
 Even Islam, the only great rival of Christianity as a missionary re- 
 ligion, was surpassed by the latter more than 50 per cent, in the ra- 
 pidity of its propagation ; and by Protestant Christianity (which after 
 all is the only form of our faith that we ought here to take into ac- 
 count) it was exceeded nearly 150 per cent. 
 
 Although Muhammadanism advances numerically, in India, more 
 rapidly than the general population, many doubt whether this compar- 
 ative progress is due in any great degree to inroads upon an outside 
 world. The Indian Evangelical Review is especially decided in its 
 contradiction of those who assert that this faith makes many proselytes. 
 It says, " The London Spectator estimates the number of annual con- 
 versions to Islam in India as no fewer than 100,000 ! Canon Taylor 
 says 600,000 ! The estimates are so recklessly absurd that to many 
 the very idea of formally contradicting them is itself absurd. And yet 
 such dense ignorance abounds, both here and at home, that to many a 
 * For other statistics, see pp. no, 119, 121, 122, 240-243 and Appendix. 
 
IS ISLAM GROWING? 353 
 
 formal contradiction becomes necessary. And the contradiction we 
 unhesitatingly give as full and as formal as we can. After enquiries 
 and investigations in various parts of the country, we emphatically as- 
 sert that there is not a word of truth in Canon Taylor's sensational 
 statements as regards India. He would be within the mark if he had 
 said 600 as the utmost figure for all India We do not be- 
 lieve that [even] 600 Hindus, Christians or Aborigines have become 
 Mussulmans within the last ten years. The only cases coming within 
 our knowledge were all cases of seduction — Hindu wives, or widows, 
 seduced by Muharamadans, and one or two Christian girls tempted into 
 so-called Muhammadan marriages. We have also heard of Muham- 
 madan men and women becoming Roman Catholics in the same way; 
 so that possibly as many are lost to Muhammadanism in this way as are 
 gained. " * 
 
 Probably the above statements of the /. E. Review are somewhat 
 extreme in their sweep, especially as far as the Punjab is concerned ; 
 but, one thing is certain : Canon Taylor and those who sympathize 
 with him in their strange eagerness to decry missionary effort and 
 champion the faith of the false prophet, can find little to justify their 
 wonderful assertions. Certain it is also that for every professed Chris- 
 tian who is induced to apostatize to Islam fifteen or twenty persons are 
 received by Christian Missions from the Muhammadan ranks. ■}" 
 
 Nor does Hinduism make any substantial progress other than that 
 which comes from its natural growth. 
 
 Spurts of Hindu revival may, indeed, be observed from time to 
 time. Great nielas are held and long-established pilgrimages are ob- 
 served with much of the old-time enthusiasm. Lacs of rupees are ex- 
 pended every year in festivals, and offerings to the gods, and gifts to 
 the Brahmans. \ Here and there temples are erected, or repaired, to 
 fulfill sacred vows, acquire merit and insure a happier transmigration 
 when death comes. § Revolts against the evangelistic efforts of Chris- 
 
 */. E. R., Vol. XIV, pp. 369, 370— for January, 1888. 
 
 f See pp. 115-117 and 244-246. 
 
 J On the i8th of September, 1893, 17,000 people, it was said, deposited images 
 of Ganpati in the sea at Bombay, at an immense cost of hard-earned money ; and the 
 number of licenses granted and paid for to form the processions for this purpose was 
 reported greater than it had been for years. 
 
 \ The money given lately by a few individuals to build new shrines at Kotla alone 
 (a village on our road to Dharmsala) must have exceeded the contributions of all our 
 native Christians for two or three years. 
 23 
 
354 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 tian missionaries and the aggressiveness of Islam are frequent. New 
 Colleges and High Schools are being occasionally established to check 
 and counteract the influence of Christian educational institutions. 
 Race pride, increasing patriotism and the growing desire for inde- 
 pendence (or freedom from foreign control) have done something in 
 recent years to strengthen Christophobia. A dogged tenacity in ad- 
 hering to ancient but injurious customs, moreover, characterizes the 
 temper of the masses, and, in some cases at least, whole neighborhoods 
 are found ready to revive the revolting but unlawful practices of hook- 
 swinging, suttee and human sacrifice.* 
 
 But that caste, the greatest obstacle to Christianity, is gradually giv- 
 ing way before the pressure of Western civiliza- 
 tion and evangelistic effort seems to be the 
 opinion of most persons who have made the 
 subject a matter of close observation. The 
 necessary commingling of many classes in 
 schools, in hospitals, in durbars, in railway 
 trains, in government service, in military cam- 
 paigns — the constant presence of a ruling race 
 who are outcaste and yet above caste — the 
 ability of another religion than that of the 
 Vedas to elevate even the lowest and most 
 despised of the people and make them " princes 
 in the land" — the broader and purer and 
 more benevolent teachings of the prophet of 
 Galilee — the preparatory movements of the 
 Holy Spirit — are all having their effect upon the ironclad system of 
 Manu and beginning to tell in the work of its destruction. And this 
 conclusion appears to be correct notwithstanding the acknowledged 
 fact that slow progress is being made in the work and that Hinduism 
 displays remarkable ability to modify caste and adapt itself to new 
 conditions. "I" 
 
 Quite sure we are, too, that educated and intelligent Hindus, and 
 especially those who have come much in contact with missionaries, 
 have been led, almost without exception, to abandon the grosser prac- 
 tices of the religion under whose influence they were born, and have 
 
 * Only two years ago a hook-swinging festival at a village seventeen miles from 
 Calcutta was reported in the newspapers. See also pages iio-ll6 />assim. 
 f See pp. 223-225, 
 
 JUGGERNAUT. 
 
IS HINDUISM GROWING? 355 
 
 been driven, either into complete infidelity, or into a faith drawn 
 directly from the Vedas, or into .some form of natural religion, or into 
 Christianity itself.* 
 
 And most of these persons, too, are ready for those social and legal 
 reforms which are suggested and urged by the progress of civilization, 
 even though the reforms proposed run counter to time-honored insti- 
 tutions and strike at the root of their sacred Shastras, as heretofore in- 
 terpreted. The revocation of the betrothal of girls on the death of 
 their intended husbands, the establishment of a higher age for the time 
 of full consent, the remarriage of widows, tlie permission to take sea 
 voyages without the loss of caste, and other changes of a similar char- 
 acter, have for some years been advocated by leaders of Hinduism 
 with ever-increasing prospect of success. 
 
 And in some instances even the common people seem to share with 
 such Hindus a lack of interest in the faith of their forefathers. " A 
 Brahman," says the Messenger, " was complaining bitterly to one of 
 our Amritsar brethren the other day. His ' burden ' was the indiffer- 
 ence of Hindus towards their own creed. He said, * These people are 
 utterly dead to their own religion. When they see me coming to 
 preach to them, they run away. And if by chance I can get hold of 
 them unawares, then, as long as I am there, they say. Very good ! 
 Very good ! But the moment my back is turned, they say, T/ie old 
 ass !' " 
 
 "Straws" of tliis cliaracter help to explain and confirm the statisti- 
 cal fact already given that in actual numbers Hinduism, notwithstand- 
 ing its enormous advantages, had in ten years fallen two per cent, be- 
 hind the rest of India's population in rapidity of increase. 
 
 Contrasted with the progress of other faiths, therefore, the growth of 
 Christianity in that country stands forth in striking and hopeful 
 prominence. Neither Hinduism nor Muhammadanism can show such 
 a brilliant record. 
 
 The fact, too, that there are in India so many aborigines and low- 
 caste people is a guarantee that our efforts to spread the gospel there 
 will continue to prosper. This class seems now to be ready to flock to 
 the Saviour in great masses ; and, even if there were no other persons 
 on whom we could make an impression, the prospect of growth from 
 such a source alone, if proper means are used to secure it, is enough 
 to fire the Christian heart with enthusiastic hope and burning zeal. 
 *See pp. 114, 117, 151, 167, 175 and 238. 
 
356 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 50,000,000 of these people (as they have sometimes been estimated), or 
 even only 20,000,000 of them, thoroughly converted to Christ, would 
 in themselves form a church of mighty proportions ; while the leverage 
 which would be secured through them for the conversion of the rest of 
 the population would be one of incalculable power.* 
 
 Several dangers, indeed, confront the Christian cause in India and 
 threaten to retard, or entirely obstruct, its advancement. 
 
 One is the danger of detestable neutrality on the part of its repre- 
 sentatives and of compromise with the opposing faiths. In their eager- 
 ness to be perfectly fair, to do full justice to the excellencies of Hin- 
 duism or Islam, to extend charity as far as possible towards even idol- 
 aters, and to uphold the principles of the science of comparative re- 
 ligion in its most recent and most progressive form, some who aspire 
 to be leaders in missionary work are inclined to magnify unduly the 
 ideals of false religions and lower the importance of the distinctive 
 features of the Christian religion — thus reducing all faiths, as far as 
 possible, to a common level, or, what is equally bad, blending them to- 
 gether in a resultant ideal which can be nothing else than a sublimated 
 form of natural religion. Against this tendency the champions of the 
 cross must set their faces like a flint if they expect to make any prog- 
 ress, or even to hold their own. The strength of Christianity lies in 
 its peculiar characteristics, and between it and every non-Christian 
 system an irrepressible conflict must ever be recognized. Its motto, 
 like that of the old Romans, can be nothing else than- this, Carthago 
 delenda est, "Carthage must be destroyed." Tht-least disposition to 
 parley, or flatter, or compromise will certainly end in disaster. As early 
 Christianity was sadly corrupted and weakened in the course of time by 
 ancient heathenism, so by relaxing our attitude of opposition to false 
 religions in India there is danger of a similar and even a worse result. 
 Hinduism has always displayed wonderful powers of resistance and re- 
 cuperation. Even when overthrown and almost destroyed it has risen 
 again and resumed its original sway. Buddhism could not hold her 
 own before its constant and well-directed attacks, but, driven from al- 
 most every part of her native land, was compelled to find a home in 
 distant regions, Hinduism at an early date paralyzed all efforts made 
 by ancient missionaries to spread the gospel in India. It recovered 
 speedily from the wounds inflicted upon it by Roman Catholic emis- 
 saries. It resisted with remarkable success the inroads of Muhamma- 
 *See pp. 117-iig, 242-248. 
 
DANGERS THREATENING MISSION WORK 
 
 357 
 
 danism and even impressed upon this intruder something of its own 
 character. And who can tell but that, through the aid of flattery or 
 concessions on our part, it might eventually make tlie Christian church 
 of these times one of its own castes, or infuse into it some of its own 
 characteristics, or allure it into the adoption of a defective and soul- 
 ensnaring ideal, or lead it to abdicate in favor of a more charitable 
 and " more rational " faith?* 
 
 Another danger is that of neglecting the open door for the gospel 
 which has been opened up among the depressed classes. Thank God, 
 
 
 
 -r*!^ 
 
 ON THE JHELUM, KASHMIR. 
 
 many are entering this door and obtaining the reward that has been 
 providentially prepared for their hands. This is one of the most 
 hopeful signs of the present day. But others have failed to do so ; 
 and others still, commencing this lowly work and apparently growing 
 tired of it, are losing their first zeal and directing their chief attention 
 to more respectable but less fruitful labor. In my opinion the speedy 
 conversion of India depends largely upon the earnestness and the ef- 
 ficiency with which efforts are now made to evangelize the aborigines, the 
 outcaste and the low-caste. In this direction lies the path of success. 
 * See pp. 1 1 3-1 15, 198-201. 
 
358 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Still another danger is this: that Missions, prompted by envy, 
 covetousness or some other motive, may forget Cliristian courtesy so 
 far as to invade one another's fields, and, through their ravages and 
 contentions, scandalize the name of Christ, throw His work into con- 
 fusion and hinder the progress of the gospel. Sad, indeed, has been 
 the history of such interference heretofore, and scarcely any more ef- 
 fectual way of crushing a holy cause in its infantile state can be de- 
 vised. Yet there is fear of such invasion — and that, too, not only by 
 such erratic and lawless skirmishers as Plymouth Brethren and soldiers 
 of the Salvation Army, and such avowed opponents as Roman Catho- 
 lics, but also by bodies which claim a place among the regular forces 
 of the church, are professedly concerned for the welfare of the entire 
 Protestant host, and would repel, if they could, the charge of adopt- 
 ing dishonorable methods in their missionary warfare.* 
 
 A fourth danger threatening missionary work in India, and perhaps 
 the greatest of all, is that of neglecting native Christians and failing 
 to develop and thoroughly establish the native Christian church. 
 Humanly speaking the conversion of India by foreign agents alone, or 
 even chiefly, is an impossibility. It is to the people of India them- 
 selves that we must look for the great apostles of that country — for the 
 leavening influence which will permeate its every part and make it a 
 Christian land. And the sooner this principle is fully accepted and 
 acted upon, the speedier will that end come for which we are all 
 praying.f 
 
 The great duty of the present crisis in India Missions, then, is to 
 emphasize every effort which can be put forth to educate and edify the 
 people of God there, and to adopt every expedient which will not only 
 bind native Christian laborers to missionaries with sincere and ardent 
 affection, but which will give them a name and an influence in their 
 own land. 
 
 No greater mistake, therefore, can be made than that of despising 
 native converts, neglecting their culture, discouraging church organi- 
 zation, undervaluing a native ministry, dishonoring pastoral authority 
 and withholding from ecclesiastical courts the exercise of large mission- 
 ary powers ; and especially so if greater attention be at the same time 
 paid to the culture of non-Christian Brahmans and Sayyids, because, 
 forsooth, they are high-caste. 
 
 The fact, too, that "New India," with its aspirations after greater 
 
 * See pp. 89, 95, 96, 220. f See pp. 87, 167, 195 and 196. 
 
WHEN WILL INDL4 BE, CONVERTED? 
 
 359 
 
 freedom of all kinds and its hope of the creation of a reformed religion 
 to take the place of old faiths, is beginning to raise its head, should 
 only make us all the more careful to avoid this mistake. Of one thing 
 we may rest assured : that Mission or Church in India which does not 
 recognize the spirit of patriotism and independence now rising so rap- 
 idly there among all classes of educated people and that spirit of con- 
 scious manhood now affecting so many of the more advanced Chris- 
 tians of the country, is doomed to take a secondary, or a third-rate, 
 position in the advancing columns of the Redeemer's army — to be 
 shorn of many of her brightest and best leaders — to lose a large part 
 of the rank and file of her soldiers — perhaps, to be overrun or entirely 
 swallowed up by wiser and more efficient, though mayhap less scrupu- 
 
 H...Jj^^ 
 
 - ' - - - —^-^ 
 
 INTERIOR OF A PUNJABI PRIVATE COURT. 
 i^From a Punjabi drawing. ) 
 
 lous, less courteous and less honorable, corps. The prosperous and 
 finally triumphant missionary bands will be those which early appro- 
 priate and thoroughly attach to themselves the growing life and 
 manly vigor of an aspiring native Christian community — which love to 
 exalt the native church and set a crown upon her head.* 
 
 And we have faith that most Missions will recognize, sooner or later, 
 this road to success and avoid not only the last danger mentioned, but 
 all the others to which we have referred. This is one of the reasons 
 why we believe that Christianity will continue to advance in India. 
 
 Present indications in the field, however, do not encourage the hope 
 which some cherish, that that country will be generally brought to 
 
 * See preceding chapters, here and there. 
 
360 LIFE AAD WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Christ in this generation, or even in the next generation. Such a re- 
 sult would be so unlike what has heretofore occurred that it could not 
 take place without the aid of divine power little short of the miracu- 
 lous.* 
 
 Nor, on the other hand, is The Statesman, a secular paper of India, 
 right perhaps in postponing the triumph of Christianity there to a 
 period several centuries in the future — however sincere and valuable its 
 testimony may be to the excellence of the work already done. It says : 
 
 *' ' New India * probably thinks but lightly of the work that is being 
 done by Christian missionaries. These missionaries, however, are 
 doing exactly that work which ought to be done by them. They are 
 destroying caste by the simple but effective method of attracting to the 
 Christian fold those who are the heaviest sufferers from the cruel in- 
 equalities of caste. They are destroying the Hindu Pantheon by hold- 
 ing up, in opposition to it, a more beautiful and encouraging picture 
 of the Unseen World. The groups of native Christians, scattered over 
 India, occupy in the midst of Hinduism a position exactly analogous 
 to the early Christian churches amidst the idolatries of Imperial Rome. 
 Not more than eighty years have passed since Christian Missions have 
 been at work in India systematically and continuously, and the prog- 
 ress made during that time has been, we take it, quite on a par with 
 the progress made during a like time among the cities of Imperial 
 Rome. Four hundred years divided the birth of Christ from the pro- 
 mulgation of the Imperial decree directing the abolition of Paganism 
 throughout the empire ; and assuming that British rule endures in India 
 for the next three centuries, who can doubt that Christianity at the end 
 of that time will embody the strongest spiritual power existing in the 
 country." f 
 
 But the writer of these pages feels compelled by the evidence before 
 him to place the ultimate triumph of Indian Christianity at a point 
 somewhat midway between the present time and the year 2300. He 
 
 *The writer does not feel justified in assuming that either the church at home or 
 missions abroad will be soon visited by an effusion of the Spirit much greater than 
 that which might be expected from past experience. His deduction is made from 
 facts of history and observation — including of course the well-established fact that 
 zeal for missions and laborers in missions are, within certain limits, constantly in- 
 creasing. More than this he considers simply speculation. God may have miracu- 
 lous things in store for the remaining years of this century, or this generation, or He 
 may not. We do not know. 
 
 f Quoted in the Indian Evangelical Review, Vol. XIV, pp. 371, 372. 
 
AN ENCOURAGING PROSPECT 361 
 
 hopes that the next century may witness it ; but he would not be sur- 
 prised to find that it is delayed for half a century, or even a whole cen- 
 tury, longer. 
 
 However, even The Statesman s forecast is encouraging and all the 
 more so as, with the progress and final success of the gospel in India, 
 will in all probability be associated the growth and complete establish- 
 ment of Christianity everywhere — a result which has been appropri- 
 ately illustrated by the growth of one of India's favorite trees: 
 
 " The Banyan of the Indian isle 
 
 Spreads deeply down its massive root, 
 And spreads its branching life abroad, 
 
 And bends to earth with scarlet fruit ; 
 But when the branches reach the ground, 
 
 They firmly plant themselves again : 
 They rise and spread and droop and root. 
 
 An ever-green and endless chain. 
 
 " And so the Church of Jesus Christ, 
 
 The blessed Banyan of our God, 
 Fast-rooted upon Zion's mount. 
 
 Has sent its sheltering arms abroad ; 
 And every branch that from it springs, 
 
 In sacred beauty spreading wide. 
 As low it bends to bless the earth, 
 
 Still plants another by its side. 
 
 " Long as the world itself shall last, 
 
 The sacred Banyan still shall spread, 
 From clime to clime, from age to age, 
 
 Its sheltering shadow shall be shed. 
 Nations shall seek its pillar'd shade, 
 
 Its leaves shall for their healing be : 
 The circling flood that feeds its life, 
 
 The blood that crimsoned Calvary." 
 
THE MULTIPLYING BANYAN TREE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX 
 
 THE REFLEX INFLUENCE OF MISSIONS 
 
 Physical Effects — Nervous Exhaustion — Fret and Worry — Shortened Life — Intellec- 
 tual Stimulus — Literary and Linguistic Culture — Social Effects — Influence on 
 Patriotism — And on Piety — Trial of Temper — Opportunities for Private Devo- 
 tion and the Study of God's Word — The Atmosphere of Heathenism — Burns' 
 Experience — Habit of Suspicion — Reflex Influence of Autocratic Power and 
 Secular Work — Discouragements — Conflicts — Favorable Side — First Impetus of 
 Zeal — Divine Promises — Consciousness of a Great Work — Prayers at Home — 
 Rapid Conversions — Opportunity for Compassion — Fraternal Intercourse — Dis- 
 gust at Heathenism — Active Evangelism — Liberality — Prospect of Reward — • 
 A Summing Up — Qualifications of an Indian Missionary — Reflex Influence of 
 Missions on the Home Church. 
 
 HAT influence has missionary life in the Punjab upon mis- 
 sionaries themselves? How does it affect their physical, 
 intellectual, social, moral and spiritual nature? This is a 
 minor question ; and yet it is one which is often thought 
 of and sometimes asked. An answer may be interesting to most of 
 our readers. 
 
 Of the physical effects of the climate of India something has been 
 
 said already in the fourth and fifth chapters. Compared with that of 
 
 England or the United States undoubtedly the climate of the Punjab 
 
 has a deleterious effect upon the bodies of Europeans and Americans. 
 
 (362) 
 
NERVOUS EXHAUSTION- 363 
 
 This is due partly to the fact that such persons there are living outside 
 of the conditions under which they were born and reared, and partly 
 to the unhealthy character of the country itself. The extreme heat of 
 certain seasons, the prevalence of malaria after the rains, the filthy 
 state of many towns and villages, the difference of temperature between 
 day and night, the unavoidable exposure to contagion where people 
 are so numerous and careless as they are in India, and the lack of 
 many medical and recuperative appliances when persons are ill — all 
 tend to increase the number, the virulence and the tediousness of at- 
 tacks from disease, as well as the liability to death. 
 
 The character of missionary work, too, tends in the same direction. 
 No other form of labor so exhausts the nerves as that which draws on 
 our sensibilities, our sympathies and the yearnings of our hearts. 
 Mere muscular, or intellectual work may be protracted much longer 
 than this without serious injury to the nervous system. But mission- 
 ary labor makes a heavy draft upon the feelings of a worker. Even 
 the poverty and physical sufferings of a degraded people appeal very 
 strongly to his pity and compassion. And much more, of course, do 
 their spiritual needs. The chief aim of a missionary, indeed, is to de- 
 liver the ignorant, the degraded and the lost from everlasting death ; 
 to develop among weak believers a higher spiritual life; to establish 
 the church on everlasting foundations-. Without a vast amount of 
 emotion this labor would appear hypocritical pretence, a mere sham. 
 But the very earnestness which it requires and includes makes it ex- 
 hausting, and soon brings weakness and disaster to the most delicate 
 part of our bodily frame. 
 
 Overwork also, as a matter of course, increases this effect. Yet it is 
 hard for Christian laborers on mission ground to avoid overwork. 
 The number of duties demanding immediate attention appear to them 
 almost boundless ; and there is no one but themselves and their native 
 helpers to perform them. The temptation to labor beyond their 
 strength, therefore, is almost irresistible. But this cannot be done 
 without incurring the penalty which is always attached to such a 
 course. 
 
 Fret and worry, however, have more to do with collapses of the ner- 
 vous system and the gradual breakdown of our bodily energies than 
 genuine work. The latter is natural and lies in the direction in which 
 our powers are made to operate. With well-oiled machinery we may 
 accomplish much of it. But the former run counter, or crosswise, to 
 
364 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 the natural movements of the soul, produce friction, and wear terribly 
 even the physical organism with which our invisible part is so 
 mysteriously connected. Yet the missionary has a great deal of such 
 worry and fret. He is troubled by the opposition and the persecution 
 of heathen men, by the deceitfulness of many inquirers, by the weak- 
 ness of his native brethren, by conflicts with his missionary associates, 
 by bad news from home, by his own mistakes and imperfections, and 
 by the failure of iiis various plans for self-improvement or the advance- 
 ment of Christ's kingdom.* 
 
 Parallel cases of like work and worry may be found, no doubt, in 
 the home field. Almost every minister of Christ, indeed, who is 
 earnestly devoted to his calling, may find himself overwhelmed with 
 duties, burdened with cares and vexed with the ungodly conversation 
 of the wicked ; and in many instances results follow his ministrations 
 similar to those which we have been describing. But beyond the 
 bounds of Christian civilization such cases are more frequent, and the 
 conditions of good health and long life in ministerial work less com- 
 mon, than they are in Europe or America. 
 
 Nor is this a matter of mere speculation. Statistics can be brought 
 to prove it. From Badley's "Indian Missionary Directory" (edition 
 of 1886) we learn that the average length of the ministries of 377 or- 
 dained men who had previously labored and died in India was a little 
 less than sixteen years. But the average length of the ministries of 
 the 216 clergymen of the United Presbyterian Church of North Amer- 
 ica who died during the twenty years preceding April, 1894, was 
 twenty-nine years and eight months, or about eighty-seven per cent, 
 greater ; and there is no reason to suppose that the United Presbyterian 
 Church, in this respect, has been an exceptional one among the differ- 
 ent denominations of the United States. Possibly this comparison 
 might be modified somewhat by including in our calculations the 
 ministries of those missionaries who, on account of ill health, old age 
 or other causes, left India and closed their lives elsewhere. But, 
 granting the utmost that could reasonably be demanded by this con- 
 sideration, we should probably find that the length of time which the 
 
 *An excellent article on " Missionary 111 Health " was published by the Rev. 
 Wallace Taylor, M. D., of Japan, in the Chrysanthemum of June, 1883, and is 
 copied in the Indian Evangelical Review of January, 1884. It gives remedies 
 and suggestions also which are very good. To this article the writer is indebted for 
 some of the ideas which he has just presented. 
 
INTELLECTUAL STIMULUS 365 
 
 foreign missionaries can hope to spend in religious labor in that coun- 
 try is not more than two-thirds of what they might spend in a Western 
 clime and in a Christian country. And this means, of course, a cor- 
 responding increase in the frequency of their ailments, weaknesses and 
 bodily pains. 
 
 On their intellectual part, missionary life has in many ways a stimu- 
 lating effect. 
 
 The opportunities which they have for travel enable them to see 
 much of the world and the people of the world. They observe many 
 scenes, pass througli many experiences, witness many incidents, and 
 come in contact with many races which, except for this, would have 
 forever remained to them comparatively unknown. New varieties of 
 food, speech and living, new styles of architecture, dress and manners, 
 new modes of thought and religious worship, new kinds of civilization 
 or barbarism, arrest their attention, broaden their views and arouse 
 their mental activities. A journey to the field of labor and one year's 
 residence there are equal to the reading of a good-sized library in their 
 effect upon one's intellectual growth and his acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 And the studies which missionaries are required to undertake in the 
 country itself have a similar effect. True, these are largely different 
 from those which ministers generally pursue in the home field. The 
 questions of science, philosophy. Biblical criticism, theology, national 
 reform, homiletic method and even Scripture interpretation, which 
 occupy so much of the time and thought of Occidental clergymen re- 
 ceive little attention in missionary lands. But in their place come the 
 study of Oriental tongues, philosophies and religious systems, the ef- 
 fort to grapple with error in forms as subtle and elaborate as any that 
 ever arose in Europe, the perplexing problems of church life in its new 
 and unsettled state, the preparation of a sound religious literature and 
 the acquisition of all that varied geographical, historical, political and 
 ethnological information which is necessary to give the Lord's servants 
 a thorough equipment in that part of His vineyard. The attainments 
 of Carey, Wilson, French and others show that the intellectual giants 
 and learned men of the church are by no means all confined to coun- 
 tries wliere Christianity is thoroughly established, but that they are 
 found also around campfires in the forefront of the army of God. 
 Possibly, indeed, missionaries as a class may stand higher in such at- 
 tainments than ministers of equal length of service do at home. 
 
 Nor are they destitute of the culture which conies from the perusal 
 
366 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 of the current literature of our time. Of the British or American 
 daily newspaper they indeed see little. That record of accidents, 
 crimes, party conflicts and political movements which it contains is 
 for the most part hid from their eyes. Only the great events of 
 Europe and the Western Hemisphere rise high enough for their obser- 
 vation. But they receive a fair proportion of the standard papers and 
 periodicals of the day, more perhaps than persons of a similar calling 
 take in the home field ; and whatever knowledge they get of the 
 world's progress is of the choicest and most important character. 
 
 Moreover, their opportunities of improvement even in the English 
 language are by no means few. As all the literature of this tongue 
 which they read is select, so, as a consequence, the best models which 
 it can furnish are ever before them ; while the influence of such pub- 
 lications is not neutralized by anything trashy. And in most cases 
 the same is substantially true of their English society. Missionaries 
 themselves are universally persons of some education before they go 
 out to the field. And, beyond their own circle, few are found to con- 
 verse with them in their mother tongue but those who are their equals, 
 or superiors, in every kind of culture. Tlieir tendency, therefore, is 
 to improve, to slough any defects of speech which they may possess 
 and rise to a higher type of style. Slang, bad grammar and bad pro- 
 nunciation are not tolerated ; and even that nasal drawl which is so 
 characteristic of many Americans and so offensive to British English- 
 men is to some extent lost. The exactness, too, with which our 
 tongue has to be taught in the mission schools of India helps to 
 develop accuracy of speech, as also does the critical habit which is 
 acquired in learning other languages in that polyglot land. Mission- 
 aries, moreover, write more books and more articles for public print 
 than the average clergyman does at home and in this way cultivate 
 their literary powers. True, the habit which they have, in talking 
 with one another, of interlarding English conversation with foreign 
 words and phrases, and also that of thinking a great deal in strange 
 tongues, to say nothing of other causes, sometimes give them a hesi- 
 tating manner and awkward phraseology when first called upon to 
 address British or American audiences ; but probably the percentage 
 of first-class English writers and speakers among them is as high as 
 that which can be found among people of a similar calling in the 
 home field. Certainly as long as they can produce such orators as 
 Drs. Duff, Lansing, Jessup, and Phillips, and such authors as Paton, 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS— PATRIOTISM 
 
 367 
 
 Gordon, Dennis, Miss West and Mrs. Maxwell, they need not be 
 ashamed of their brethren in any department of rhetoric. 
 
 The social effect of missionary life on those who engage in it may 
 be considered good or bad according to the standpoint from which it 
 is viewed. As a training school for "society " in the technical sense 
 of that word such a life is very poor. Except in rare cases, ievf 
 opportunities are given, or at least embraced, for experiences of this 
 nature. The opportunities had in India, however, whenever they do 
 occur, are of a superior character. Perhaps no class of people in the 
 world, aside from aristocracy or royalty themselves, are stricter in 
 their adherence to good form, when they meet in a social way, than 
 
 PUNJABIES CAMPING FOR THE NIGHT. 
 {From a Punjabi drawing.) 
 
 Anglo-Indians, although their society rules differ very much from 
 those which prevail in America. But the missionary's chief com- 
 panionship is found among his fellow-laborers, foreign and native, 
 and this, of course, lacks many of the characteristics of fashionable 
 life. Still, on that very account it is best for his work. It trains him 
 to reach powerfully many classes of men in that needy land.* 
 
 How is it with your patriotism ? some one asks. Does your love 
 of your own country die out through a sojourn in foreign lands? By 
 no means. The Fourth of July, the Stars and Stripes, the prosperity 
 of the American Republic, continue as dear to us as ever. And this, 
 too, not only because it is our native land, but also because we think 
 it the best country upon earth, a country where nature has lavished 
 
 * See pp. 63-67. 
 
368 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 her greatest favors, civilization is working out her most wonderful 
 problems and Christianity is achieving her grandest triumphs — the 
 leader, indeed, in the great procession of advancing humanity. But 
 our patriotism acquires chastening and correction by residence abroad. 
 We see the excellencies of other governments and the defects of our 
 own better than at home. We see, too, that universal suffrage and 
 republican institutions are adapted only to a people of high culture 
 and Christian civilization, that in many cases a different kind of rule 
 answers the great end of national life better than that which has 
 properly been adopted in the United States. We are also led to see 
 clearly that, among the people of every nation and over every other 
 human government, there is a kingdom established — higher and better 
 than them all, and one which demands our supreme allegiance — a king- 
 dom whose dominion is everlasting and whose progress will continue 
 until it fills the whole earth. To this universal and perpetual empire 
 we become more strongly attached. 
 
 It must be admitted also that as years roll on and home friends pass 
 away, as acquaintance with American affairs diminishes, and foreign 
 associations grow stronger, as Oriental habits become fixed and 
 interest in mission work acquires the strength of a second nature, little 
 desire remains in the heart of a foreign laborer to return to the land 
 of his birth, unless, indeed, it be for the sake of his children. Many 
 would rather live and die where they have worked so long and be 
 buried among the people to whose eternal good they have been 
 specially devoted. That is more like home than any other spot on 
 earth. 
 
 Whether missionary life is calculated to have a good or a bad effect 
 upon the piety of those who engage in it is a question upon both sides 
 of which much can be said. 
 
 No doubt the climate is apt to try one's temper. During the dry, 
 parching heat of May and June, or the sultry, steaming heat of July 
 and August, Satan finds many opportunities for a powerful attack upon 
 suffering, unwary souls. It is hard then to maintain that sweetness 
 and equanimity of spirit which ought to characterize a Christian 
 laborer. Piety transplanted from a temperate to a tropical zone is 
 likely to wither when the thermometer rises to ii8 degrees in the 
 shade and 170 in the sun. Provocation from human sources, too, is 
 sure then to be at its most active point. If outbreaks or storrhs ever 
 arise among either natives or foreigners they are certain to occur in 
 
EFFECT ON THE TEMPER AND PRIVATE DEVOTION 369 
 
 the summer season. Even if missionary correspondence is undated, 
 an expert might often discover by its very tone during what part of 
 tlie year it was written. Hot season letters are frequently " tales of 
 woe." " A good many vexations of late " — " I am too much out of 
 humor to write" — " This hot moist weather seems to put me all out 
 of sorts entirely. I have very little appetite, and my stomach seems 
 all out of order, and my nerves are not in good shape at all." These 
 are specimens of the summer communications which we get. 
 
 The diseases of the country, too, produce a peculiarly harassing 
 effect upon the temper. Everybody knows how liver complaint, dys- 
 pepsia, malarial fever and affections of the nervous system tend to 
 depress the spirits of a patient and make him irritable. Despondency, 
 gloom, fault-finding, and sensitiveness are likely to find in such a vic- 
 tim a ready soil. And similar to this is the effect of that physical and 
 mental exhaustion which comes from overwork, to say nothing of the 
 worry and fret which arise from many causes and of which we have 
 already written in this chapter.* 
 
 The lack of suitable opportunities for devotion may also be men- 
 tioned as one of the unfavorable conditions under which missionaries 
 cultivate their heavenly graces. Of the pious Robert Murray McCheyne 
 it is said that his morning hours were set apart for communion with 
 God and the nourishment of his own soul ; and such has been the 
 practice of almost all who have ever become rich in spiritual experience. 
 But during a great part of the year this practice is an impossibility in 
 India. Most of the morning hours there must be devoted to other 
 work than private contemplation. Nor do the foreign workers hold 
 many devotional meetings among themselves for mutual profit, their 
 time being so fully occupied with other matters, to say nothing of their 
 scattered state. Nor do they ever get a chance of attending those 
 great conventions and revival meetings, where religious feeling is 
 exalted to a lofty pitch, and where so many in Christian lands rise to 
 higher and higher planes of spiritual attainment, and receive impres- 
 sions for good which remain while life lasts. For many years, too, 
 young missionaries labor under the disadvantage of worshiping God 
 on almost all public occasions through a language which is imperfectly 
 understood. This distracts their thoughts, obstructs their apprehension 
 of the meaning of a discourse, and, in every exercise, hinders that 
 freedom of intellectual and emotional movement which is necessary to 
 
 * See also Chapters IV and V. 
 24 
 
370 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 delightful and profitable worship. The rays of divine truth and love 
 shine but dimly through such a hazy medium and exert but half their 
 gracious power upon a waiting soul. How often have missionaries 
 longed, not only for those grand congregations and inspiring move- 
 ments at home, which lift men out of and above themselves, but also 
 for songs and prayers and sermons in their mother tongue ! Urdu, or 
 Punjabi, seems like an interfering stranger, an ally of Satan.* 
 
 As a general thing, too, ordained ministers in a foreign mission field 
 give less time to the close study of God's word than ministers in 
 Christian lands, and this tends to prevent the expansion of their 
 religious life. Every one who has been an American pastor knows 
 what a stimulating effect he receives from the weekly preparation of 
 sermons for his people, liow his faith is deepened and his spiritual 
 character broadened by the prayerful, studious investigation of Bible 
 truth and the effort to bring his researches with clearness, warmth and 
 power home to his hearers. Each sermon is, or at least should be, a 
 stepping-stone to heaven. It is thus that God sanctifies his laborers as 
 well as their congregations. Missionaries have little leisure for this 
 work. Their discourses are almost always prepared hurriedly, often 
 on an itinerating march or on the last day of the week, and can very 
 seldom be thought out, or written down, in every detail. They are 
 compelled to preach too frequently, and perform too many other duties, 
 to delve very deeply into the meaning, or follow out very fully the 
 bearing, of Scripture texts. Nor is it often necessary for them to 
 pursue such studies. Most of their preaching is to the unconverted, 
 and they need only present the first principles of the doctrine of Christ. 
 But this is a disadvantage as far as their own spiritual improvement is 
 concerned. f 
 
 The atmosphere of heathenism is also against the religious advance- 
 ment of missionaries. This was felt very much by the Rev. W. C. 
 Burns in China. ''What need," says he, "have I of the presence of 
 the Lord of the Sabbath in a land like this, that I may not lose my 
 own soul in seeking to save the souls of others ! . . . Were it not my 
 abiding conviction that the Lord hath sent me here, and that His 
 grace is made sufficient for us in all circumstances, I would some- 
 times be overwhelmed when regarding the state of this blinded people 
 and the danger to which my own soul is exposed in dwelling among 
 
 *See also pp. 86, 87, 140. f See pp. 156, 157, 
 
HABIT OF SUSPICION ENGENDERED 371 
 
 them."* And well does his biographer remark, " Most of us little 
 think how hard a thing it must be for a solitary wanderer in such a 
 land as China to maintain the life of Christian godliness in the very 
 atmosphere and element of heathenism — without a Sabbath ; without 
 Christian fellowship or brotherhood; without a Christian face to look 
 into, or a Christian hand to grasp; with an utter disbelief of all 
 Christian truths, and of everything belonging to a higher world, looking 
 out from the eyes of all around him ; with nothing left to feed the 
 inner springs of the soul but his Bible, his closet (if indeed he can 
 command a closet), and his God. The brightest lamp will burn dim 
 in an impure and rarified atmosphere. " f These words might be 
 applied to life in India now except so far as they are modified by the 
 existence there of a measure of Christian society and the beginnings 
 of Christ's Kingdom. 
 
 One bad habit which is likely to be engendered and strengthened 
 in the heart of a missionary by this condition of the people is a dis- 
 trust of persons with whom he comes in contact, a suspicion that others 
 are acting from bad motives and guilty of bad acts. First, perhaps, 
 he discovers the treachery and dishonesty of servants; then the false- 
 hood and trickery of tradesmen ; then the untrustworthiness of almost 
 every Hindu, Muhammadan or low-caste man with whom he has any- 
 thing to do ; then the deceitfulness of many false inquirers or imperfect 
 Christians ; and this discovery of widespread depravity makes him 
 ready to suspect everybody, even the best of his native brethren, even 
 his European and American associates. In other words a spirit is 
 likely to be fostered the farthest remove possible from that charity 
 which "hopeth all things" and "thinketh no evil." No wonder a 
 Chinese missionary wrote once as follows: "Though physically in 
 splendid health, I do need, oh, so much, to go home. I am soaked 
 and saturated, not in heathenism, but in the type of character pro- 
 duced by centuries of heathenism. I should like to see if I could 
 regain, before it is hopelessly too late, a little of my old trust in my 
 fellow-man. I sliould like to see what it would feel like to go a whole 
 day without having a thought of suspicion or doubt about any one 
 around me ; to take everything I hear said to me in the entire day for 
 the face value of it, without discounting a fraction of a per cent. ; and 
 to have my own word taken in the same way ; to feel that no one was 
 weighing me in the balance, to see whether I was one who wished to 
 
 *" Life of W. C. Burns," pp. 357, 359. f " Life of W. C. Burns," p. 387. 
 
372 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 overreach, or one who could be very easily overreached. What will 
 cure me is nothing else in this world but just home." * 
 
 Another thing which is apt to affect the spirit of a missionary is the 
 autocratic power which he wields. He is a sahtb, an employer, a 
 master. He has servants, coolies, artisans, Christian workers under 
 him. He hires and dismisses at his pleasure. He says to one go and 
 he goeth ; to another do this and he doeth it. Scores of people await 
 the mandate of his will and either bask in his smiles or tremble at iiis 
 
 frown . There is danger of this 
 relation producing its ordinary 
 and natural effect, making him 
 proud, unsympathetic, domi- 
 neering, exacting, impatient, 
 severe, unjust, a lover of 
 power, and especially so when 
 there is with it all the con- 
 sciousness of a superiority of 
 race, and also blood-relation- 
 ship to the rulers of the land. 
 Some have likened the effect 
 to that which slavery has over 
 slaveholders. Great watch- 
 fulness and prayer are neces- 
 sary if the missionary is to 
 continue free from it. A 
 proper Christian spirit is 
 maintained with much diffi- 
 culty under such circum- 
 stances; and the provocations received from subordinates only add to 
 this difficulty. f 
 
 The secular work which missionaries have to do may also be men- 
 tioned as one of the unfortunate characteristics of their life. Such 
 work is not necessarily injurious to religious progress, but it is far from 
 being favorable to it. It is hard for the spirit to rise above business 
 cares and attach itself warmly to higher things. The world sweeps in 
 on the soul and, like an eastern luh, dries up its juices. Yet the mis- 
 sionary, as we have already seen, has a great deal of secular work to 
 perform, far more than an ordinary minister at home, where there are 
 * See pp. 59, 123-128. f See pp. 66, 67, 137-139. 273. 341-344- 
 
 HUMEWAKD BOUND. 
 
DISCOURAGEMENTS AND CONFLICTS 373 
 
 plenty of other people ready and fitted to build churches and "serve 
 tables."* 
 
 Add to all this the discouragements of every kind which a mission- 
 ary is continually encountering and we discover another jungle of 
 difficulties obstructing his progress towards heaven. Kis heart is set 
 on the conversion of this or that man, on the establishment of this or 
 that congregation, on the adoption or the abolition of this or that 
 custom, on the development of the native church in this or that direc- 
 tion, on the success of a multitude of plans and purposes, great or 
 small, which he feels would help the cause for which he is laboring ; 
 but in many cases he meets with failure and disappointment. The 
 gospel car moves but slowly, or not at all. He is checked, rebuffed, 
 circumvented — whichever way he turns — and there is no help. Under 
 such circumstances piety is likely to be dwarfed. It is hard to "walk 
 by faith," without any "sight." "Hope deferred maketh the heart 
 sick." Only by keeping close to the Saviour can he exclaim with the 
 apostle Paul, " We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed ; we 
 are perplexed, but not in despair ; persecuted, but not forsaken ; cast 
 down, but not destroyed." 
 
 And then, to crown all, come the debates which he is sometimes 
 compelled to carry on with his fellow-laborers. It is rare to find a 
 missionary without an opinion of his own and a determined will. 
 One could hardly get to the field without these traits of character. 
 It requires resolution and strong conviction for a man to leave home 
 and friends and civilization to work in a distant land among earth's 
 degraded ones. These are the characteristics which more than any- 
 thing else, perhaps, differentiate his spirit from that of the average 
 minister at home. Independence, and self-reliance, too, are culti- 
 vated by the nature of his employment. But these are the very things 
 which may bring him into trouble when he gets thoroughly down to 
 work. Questions of expediency, policy and principle arise, which are 
 felt to be important, and on whose decision the whole future of the 
 Lord's cause there seems to depend. As might be expected, there- 
 fore, differences of opinion arise in regard to their proper settlement 
 and controversies are started. Now it is hard to prevent such controver- 
 sies from degenerating into unseemly and personal strife. The gravity 
 of the questions themselves, the smallness of the circle in which they 
 are discussed, the earnestness of the contestants, and the fact that 
 . * See Chapter XIV. 
 
374 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 climate, ill-health or some other cause may have affected their temper 
 
 all combine to render a calm, dignified and happy solution, in some 
 
 cases, at least, impossible. Once in a while storms are almost sure to 
 arise. Yet every one will admit that this state of things, whenever it 
 does occur, is unfLivorable to the growth of piety and that those who 
 experience it must journey heavenward in the face of a heavy gale. 
 
 But there is another side to this subject. Circumstances favorable to 
 spiritual progress may also be pointed out in the lot of a missionary. 
 
 At the very outset is that impulse towards high and holy things 
 which a call to missionary work implies and gives. In almost every 
 instance a struggle takes place in the soul ; there are deep searchings 
 of heart ; the foundations of personal piety undergo examination ; 
 the needs of a lost and rained world rise prominently into view; a 
 deep yearning for the salvation of men takes possession of the heart; 
 difficulties, dangers and sacrifices only add fuel to the flame ; a new 
 baptism is experienced and a new consecration of self to the glory of 
 God is made. Under this impetus the missionary cuts the cords 
 which bind him to the home land and launches forth bravely in the 
 pursuit of his lofty aim. The momentum which he thus receives is 
 likely to benefit his whole future character and carry him forward 
 many degrees in his religious life. 
 
 Very clearly, too, can he claim the promises of God, going forth as 
 he does in obedience to our Lord's great command, " Go ye and make 
 disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the name of the 
 Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost : teaching them to 
 observe all things whatsoever I commanded you." The words, " Lo, 
 I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world," are continually 
 ringing in his ears and sustaining his heart. He feels that the One to 
 whom "all power has been given in heaven and in earth," is his 
 Leader and will ever remain his protecting, enlightening and helping 
 Friend. 
 
 A conscious sense of the great work which is given him to do also 
 helps to dignify and establish a missionary's soul and make him vigi- 
 lant in regard to his own spiritual life. He knows that he is engaged 
 in founding a new church, in starting a movement whose influence 
 will be felt for generations and that its whole character for centuries 
 perhaps will be determined by his teaching, his example and his spirit. 
 In short, he is conscious of being an apostle,* a successor (in all but 
 *The word apostle means literally a missionary, one sent forth. 
 
STIMULANTS TO PIETY 
 
 375 
 
 inspired power) of Peter and Paul, and feels that he is doing apostolic 
 work. This knowledge tends to develop his carefulness, his sincerity, 
 his prayerfulness and his consistency. 
 
 He is aware, too, that the Christian world, especially his own 
 church at home, is watching his course with deep interest and expect- 
 ing him to act as their fit representative ; and this fact is apt to pro- 
 duce the same effect as that wliich has just been mentioned. 
 
 KALBADEVI ROAD, BOMBAY. 
 (The scene of the riots ofiSgj.) 
 
 He knows also that thousands of God's people are praying for him 
 and for the success of his work. ' This is a great incentive to holiness 
 and a great help in the prosecution of his labors. Perhaps no other 
 single thing is more thought of, or more prized, by those who have 
 gone far hence to bear the gospel to the heathen. If persons at home 
 only realized this fact they would certainly pray for missionaries more 
 than they do. 
 
376 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Again, the rapidity with which converts are made helps to 
 strengthen the faith of those who are engaged in missionary work and 
 fill them with holy enthusiasm for the cause of Christ. Every one 
 knows how a time of ingathering, when sinners are flocking to the 
 Saviour by scores and hundreds, stirs the hearts of God's people, 
 increases their attachment to the Christian religion and brings them 
 nearer the Master. Just such a thing is likely to be the result in a 
 heathen land under similar conditions. 
 
 Compassion for souls, converted and unconverted, has also a chas- 
 tening, sweetening effect upon the human heart. And how much call 
 for this is there among the multitudes of India ! How many are scat- 
 tered abroad as sheep having no shepherd ! How many are dying 
 daily without a knowledge of Jesus ! How many Christians are weak 
 and ignorant, mere babes in Christ ! How many are destitute even 
 of the temporal necessaries of life ! What an appeal is made to the 
 tender, sympathetic feelings of a genuine missionary ! 
 
 Fraternal intercourse with Christian fellow-laborers, too, is a means 
 which God uses to keep the sacred flame of piety up to a glowing 
 point. And when they meet there is much of this among mission- 
 aries. They seem like members of one family. They are every one 
 exiles on a foreign shore. Their tastes, sympathies, antipathies and 
 aims are all very similar. They pray for each other, and extend to 
 one another a helping hand, as readily and as feelingly as though they 
 were brothers and sisters of the same household. Sometimes this 
 close relationship embitters and deepens strife and makes individuals too 
 free in speaking of the faults of their fellows, but its influence on the 
 whole is beneficial. The collected coals warm more than they burn.* 
 
 The deadening effect of heathenism upon the piety of those who are 
 brought under its influence has already been referred to. But there is 
 another point of view which may be taken of this system. Heathen- 
 ism, through its evils, is also apt to disgust and repel a healthy mind. 
 And this is the effect which is more generally felt by a missionary. 
 He sees the follies, the absurdities, the falsehoods and the degrading 
 morals of false religions and their adlrerents, and recoils from them with 
 decided aversion. Christianity, through mere contrast, only stands 
 out all the more clearly as of divine origin. Calmly and without ef- 
 fort he clings to it as the sole remedy for our race. His faith is 
 strengthened rather than weakened. He becomes firm as a rock. 
 * See pp. 63, 99 and 100. 
 
ADVANTAGES IN FAVOR OF PIETY 377 
 
 That very freedom also, with which a Hindu, or a Muhammadan, 
 confesses and upholds his faith induces similar freedom on the part of 
 a Christian in maintaining his own religion. It is easy for him to 
 preach " Christ and Him crucified." Instead of hiding Jesus, or being 
 ashamed of His work, he delights in praising an incomparable Master 
 and glories in the privilege of extending His cause. And this, of 
 course, has naturally a beneficial effect upon his piety. The more he 
 commits himself to the truth and stands up for Jesus the better Chris- 
 tian soldier he becomes.* 
 
 Perhaps, too, there is no class of persons engaged in Christian work 
 who are less concerned about their own worldly prosperity than mis- 
 sionaries. Of private secular business they have little to trouble them. 
 Nor does concern about fashion, dress or social standing have any 
 material effect upon their mind. Thus, being as far as possible free 
 from the vexations and the cares of this world, they can devote their 
 time and thoughts to better things. This is one of their great spiritual 
 advantages, f 
 
 And they can claim the blessing also, which is attached to great lib- 
 erality; for scarcely a foreign worker can be found who does not give 
 at least one-tenth of his income to religious and charitable objects. 
 Nor is this done ostentatiously, but as occasion arises in the course of 
 his work. If then it is true that " the liberal soul shall be made fat 
 and he that watereth shall be watered also himself," a missionary 
 ought to expect a large and perpetual increase of grace. And this 
 blessing ought to be heightened also by the fact that his gifts are ac- 
 companied in their distribution by personal effort for the good of 
 others. " If thou draw out thy soul to the hungry," says Isaiah, " and 
 satisfy the afflicted soul ; then shall thy light rise in obscurity, and thy 
 darkness be as noonday : and the Lord shall guide thee continually, 
 and satisfy thy soul in drought, and make fat thy bones ; and thou 
 shalt be like a watered garden, and like a spring of water, whose wa- 
 ters fail not." 
 
 The missionary, again, is as likely as any to be cheered and stimu- 
 lated in his Christian course by the prospect of a glorious reward. 
 Feeling that his work is an important one and that many souls now 
 and hereafter will be saved through his instrumentality, he seeks more 
 and more the great privilege of saying at last, " Behold,! and the chil- 
 dren which God hath given me." He feels confident that, though at 
 
 *See pp. 151 and 152. -t See pp. 56, 57, 61-63. 
 
378 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 present he "goes forth weeping, bearing precious seed," he will event- 
 ually return to the Lord in joy, "bringing his sheaves with him." 
 The anticipation of this happy hour is apt to deepen his earnestness 
 and stimulate his efforts as he presses forward towards a heavenly goal. 
 
 Whether missionaries are more affected by the favorable than the 
 unfavorable circumstances in which they are placed, whether as pil- 
 grims they travel more rapidly or more tardily towards the celestial 
 city than their brethren do at home, is a question which it would be 
 hard to answer. No doubt there is a great diversity of experience 
 among them. Some ripen fast for heaven and acquire much loveliness 
 of character. Others show frequently the depressing and embarrassing 
 effects of their unsanctified natures and evil surroundings. The chariot 
 wheels of their piety run heavily. One thing is certain however; 
 scarcely a missionary can be found who is not fascinated by the life 
 which he has adopted and does not wish to return to his field of labor, 
 who would not rather serve the Master on heathen ground than among 
 the churches at home; and, in analyzing this preference, we often dis- 
 cern in it not only an attachment to Oriental ways and a conviction 
 that foreign laborers have superior opportunities of doing good, but 
 also a consciousness that, in spite of all the hindrances to be found in 
 his ministry abroad, a laborer can there live nearer the Saviour and 
 have more precious communion with God. And especially may this be 
 said of lay workers, who, being mostly women, are more seldom called 
 upon to bear the secular drudgery of missionary life than ordained 
 men, and who, if they remained in the church at home, would, in all 
 probability, simply tread the path of ordinary Christians. 
 
 From what has been said it is easy to infer the proper qualifications 
 of a good India missionary. Evidently he should have a sound body, 
 especially good nerves, a good liver, a good stomach and good eyes. 
 Above all he should be proof, if possible, against the insidious attacks 
 of malaria. Again, he should be able to read, write and speak his own 
 language with accuracy, fluency and force, as a guaranty that he will 
 also be able to acquire and use new tongues in a similar way. He 
 ought, moreover, to have a good mind in many particulars. All kinds 
 of talent can be utilized, and the greater the variety the better. There 
 is as much need for intellect and statesmanship on mission ground as 
 in a more established condition of the church. Good organizing and 
 administrative ability, too, and even mechanical genius, are valuable 
 at the present time in mission fields. If a man is able to change his 
 
QUALIFICATIONS OF A GOOD INDIA MISSIONARY 379 
 
 employment readily and adapt himself to new circumstances and du- 
 ties without much difficulty, he has a nature happily fitted for the work 
 of a foreign missionary. And this, implies, of course, a self-sacrificing 
 spirit, not merely that heroic kind, which leads one to bear great 
 losses and crosses for Christ's sake, and which every missionary is sup- 
 posed to have, but that less showy, equally useful and possibly rarer 
 kind which enables one to bear little inconveniences and annoyances 
 without murmuring. Patience is nearly allied to this trait and no 
 person ought to go to the foreign field without it. There is so much 
 there to try this Christian grace that a large stock of it is extremely 
 necessary. Unfortunate is he who is sensitive, easily vexed or soon 
 made angry. A hopeful, cheerful, charitable disposition, too, is prob- 
 
 THE NEC LA AND HIS VICTIM. 
 {FrotK a Punjabi drawing.) 
 
 ably the most needful of all virtues in pioneer Christian work. There 
 is enough tendency in the very best foreign laborer to find fault, and 
 either grow callous and indifferent, or down-spirited, in the presence 
 of acknowledged evils. That is a besetting sin of the missionary. 
 What he needs is to guard against it, to look on the bright side of 
 things, to see the good qualities of native Christians, to have faith in 
 the growing excellence of their rising church, to see clearly its ultimate 
 triumph. Happy is he who has much of this insight and can labor 
 under its stimulus. The cynic, the sarcastic or sneering critic, the 
 croaker and the sad hearted laborer, might better stay at home, A 
 loving, humble, condescending spirit may also be mentioned as one 
 of the indispensable requisites for successful Christian work in heathen 
 
380 ' LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 lands, a spirit which is proof against the pride, the superciliousness, 
 the overbearing and dictatorial tone and the love of power which are 
 so likely to spring up under missionary conditions. Faith in Christ as 
 one's own personal Saviour, in the Bible as a divinely inspired book, 
 and in all the doctrines which are termed evangelical, has not been 
 mentioned, because it is acknowledged to be a qualification absolutely 
 necessary for successful religious work even at home. The uncon- 
 verted man, the skeptic, the rationalist and the man of half-way con- 
 victions are not wanted anywhere as leaders of the host of God. 
 
 But mission work has a reflex influence also upon the church in 
 Christian lands. Missionaries after all are only the agents of the peo- 
 ple of God who stay at home ; and, while the rebounding effect of 
 what they do is felt first and most powerfully by themselves, it is felt 
 also by those whom they represent. Through the arms stretched out 
 towards perishing heathen returning blood and a nervous thrill are 
 sent back to the great body of Christ itself. 
 
 The most significant fact in the history of the Protestant Church of 
 the nineteenth century has undoubtedly been her effort to evangelize 
 the world. Of conflicts with infidelity, of investigation into the foun- 
 dations of faith, of inquiries into the nature of inspiration, of Biblical, 
 archaeological, historical, and linguistic researches, of endeavors to 
 systematize, recast and illustrate theology, of efforts to reconcile the 
 facts of revelation and the facts of science, she has had, indeed, her 
 share during the hundred years which are now drawing to a close ; and 
 in some of these departments her achievements have surpassed those 
 of any preceding century. But her most important work and that 
 which has distinguished her most from the church of any preceding 
 period has undoubtedly been that world-wide movement which she 
 has been carrying on for the conversion of lost men. But this move- 
 ment has been a growing one. It started with small beginnings and 
 advanced step by step until it reached its present proportions. And 
 the cause of this gradual growth has been largely the success of the 
 work itself. Supposing that a magnet should magnetize a piece of iron 
 in its neighborhood and through the magnetism thus induced its own 
 power should be strengthened, and that the addition thereby secured 
 would produce still greater magnetic activity in the iron near it, which 
 again would have a reacting effect upon the original, and that thus the 
 induction would go on ad infinitum, we should have a good illustration 
 of the manner in which Foreign Missions have affected the home 
 
EFFECT OF FOREIGN WORK ON HOME WORK 381 
 
 church and vice versa. While the first missionary movement reaching 
 out to foreign lands necessarily started in the church itself, or in some 
 of her members, a reacting influence from abroad was soon returned 
 upon the originators, which again brought out an increase of effort for 
 the conversion of the heathen, and thus ever since, through the mutual 
 effects of action and reaction. Missions have been advanced and the 
 Church herself surcharged with missionary zeal. In other words the 
 growing energy of the people of God in carrying on evangelistic work 
 in non-Christian lands is largely due to the reflex influence of the work 
 itself. The fuel which it created has fed its own flame. 
 
 And, through the spirit thus fostered. Home Missions have also ex- 
 perienced a wonderful impulse. Those who yearn for the salvation of 
 distant heathen are the most likely to yearn for the salvation of god- 
 less neighbors, just as active home workers also are generally the most 
 forward to aid evangelism in a foreign field. It is the same sentiment 
 which fills the heart of both classes, the only difference being diversity 
 in the object upon which it chiefly terminates. And scarcely less re- 
 markable than the modern movement to spread Christianity among 
 Buddhists, Hindus, and Muhammadans has been the contemporaneous 
 struggle made by Protestant churches to win over to Christ every inch 
 of the territory, and every individual of the population, of so-called 
 Christian lands. The two movements have been acting and reacting 
 on each other in a glorious rivalry for the conquest of the world. 
 
 "As the rivers, farthest flowing, 
 
 In the highest hills have birth 
 As the banyan, broadest growing, 
 
 Oftenest bows its head to earth, 
 So the noblest minds press onward. 
 
 Channels far of good to trace ; 
 So the largest hearts bend downward. 
 
 Circling all the human race." 
 
 And powerful, too, has been the combined effect of these evangel- 
 istic efforts upon the character of Christianity itself. Believers have 
 felt a quickening in every part of their spiritual being. All the graces 
 of a God-given life have been developing, blossoming and bringing 
 forth fruit. Liberality has been increasing; benevolence has been 
 stretching forth her hands; purity has been cleansing our streets; self- 
 restraint, compassion and holy indignation have been starving or 
 
382 
 
 LIFE AND WORK IN INDIA 
 
 Strangling intemperance; gentleness has been mitigating strife; justice 
 has been abolishing slavery ; community of work has been uniting 
 Christians in holy fellowship; "the marshalled hosts of God's elect," 
 though in different corps, have been fighting side by side in the army 
 of Prince Immanuel. In fine, faith has been -'working by love;" 
 and believers have been adding to their " faith virtue, and to their 
 virtue knowledge, and to their knowledge temperance, and to temper- 
 ance patience, and to patience godliness, and to godliness brotherly- 
 kindness, and to brotherly-kindness charity;" while an immense 
 stride has been making towards that consummation of which the apos- 
 tle speaks when it is said that all the Lord's people will "come in the 
 unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a 
 perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ ; " 
 when, "speaking the truth in love," they will "grow up into Him in 
 all things, which is the head, even Christ, from whom the whole body 
 fitly joined together and compacted by that which every joint suppli- 
 eth, according to the effectual working in the measure of every part, 
 maketh increase of the body unto the edifying of itself in love." 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 (383) 
 
384 
 
 APPENDIX 
 INDIA. — Summary of Societies and Provinces: 
 
 I. Societies. 
 
 
 Foreign Native 
 
 Ordained Agents. Ordained Agts. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 Episcopal 
 
 Presbyterian ... 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Methodist 
 
 Various Miss.... 
 
 00 00 X 00 
 
 1793! 49I 58 49 8o!i29' 6 iQi35'2i5[ 
 1805! 71I 63 63 7o| 76 2|i8 46{ 67^ 84j 
 
 S W 
 
 706 100 146 147 144203 I 
 
 ,1828 53I 73! 88iosii49| 5 
 1834I 42; 74 87^107125 
 
 Totals. 
 
 1817, 13, 
 
 •'339478 
 
 43 7i|iio 
 
 II 9 65' 
 
 488I586857219722? 
 
 170249 
 
 39! ^\ 
 23! 48| 
 26,116 
 
 I 21 
 
 Native 
 Lay Preachers. 
 
 23 91 132 
 
 81581 398 
 
 26163! 504 
 
 17J 38, 93 
 
 10 36 112 
 
 30 61 24 
 
 4 I 3 
 
 :46i'797.72 
 
 118493 1266 
 
 19 
 2485 
 
 Churches 
 or Congregations. 
 
 CO 00 00 
 
 425 48 
 5821 42 
 870134 
 520 
 
 365 
 561 
 
 3491267 
 
 72 139 
 
 I34| S'l 
 
 617 1149 
 
 48 112 252 
 
 68' 278 343 
 
 27 63 147 
 
 5I 26I 26 
 
 2i8[ 449' 1 
 690' 625 2 
 19742274 S 
 287 4 
 206 5 
 6136 
 409,7 
 
 97112273136504863 
 
 IL Provinces. 
 
 Foreign Native 
 
 Ordained Agents. Ordained Agts. 
 
 Bengal 1799 9 
 
 N.W. Provi's\|i8i3 
 andOudh....j ;i858 
 
 Punjab I|i8i8 
 
 Central India...: 1842 
 Bombay 1813 
 
 1061106 
 
 73 74 
 
 40 38 
 
 II 17 
 
 38I 481 57 
 
 77 76 
 
 52 91 
 41 92 
 74150I 4 
 
 Madras 1706147201 19621726212 
 
 Total in India '339479^ 
 
 '8572197 
 
 >25!46i 
 
 
 \ 
 9411 
 
 50 II 
 
 23 7 
 
 Native 
 Lay Preachers. 
 
 9 
 
 6 15 
 23306 
 
 185 398 
 
 77 185 
 
 35 66 
 
 6 41 
 
 671 "3 
 
 Churches 
 
 or Congregations. 
 
 00 00 00 
 
 538I 781' 70138 
 
 209 495 17 
 
 4 
 
 383J 490 854 1 
 96' 132! 506 2 
 
 90 293 4 22 47: 65] 104 3 
 
 83 182 2 7, 37| 70 1344 
 
 124} 278] 13' 44| 64 135I 165I5 
 
 Ii82|i444 1462 161 712 1651 2758'3ioO| 6 
 
 363 
 
 79772 Ii8l493'ig66i985l2488 3491 267971 2278 3650 4863I 
 
 University Examinations in Mission Schools, 1872 to 1890. 
 
 Church 
 Families. 
 
 1872 TO 1881. 
 
 1882 TO 1890. 
 
 Totals 1872 to 1890. 
 
 Mat. 
 
 F. A. 
 
 B.A. 
 
 M. A. 
 
 Mat. 
 
 F.A. 
 
 B.A. 
 
 M. A. 
 
 Mat. 
 
 F.A. 
 
 B.A. M. A. 
 
 
 14 
 456 
 426 
 1328 
 
 23 
 176 
 
 45 
 
 92 
 
 34 
 602 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 332 
 
 1 
 41 
 
 13 
 777 
 914 
 1417 
 
 1 
 122 
 
 314 
 1384 
 
 26 
 
 114 
 
 1242 
 
 33 
 
 27 
 1233 
 1340 
 2745 
 
 23 
 382 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 214 
 
 348 
 1986 
 
 21 
 
 
 Congregational 
 
 28 
 121 
 1 574 
 
 I 
 
 Presbyterian... 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2468 
 
 728 
 
 341 
 
 42 
 
 1 3327I 1842 
 
 1382 
 
 33 
 
 579.=-. 
 
 2570 
 
 1723 
 
 75 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 1872 to 1881. 
 
 1882 TO 1890. 
 
 Totals 1872 to 1890. 
 
 
 Mat. 
 
 F.A. 
 
 B.A. 
 
 M. A. 
 
 Mat. F.A. 
 
 B.A. 
 
 M. A. 
 
 Mat. 
 
 F.A. 
 
 B.A. 
 
 M. A. 
 
 
 768 
 
 214 
 
 70 
 
 126 
 
 379 
 45 
 
 166 
 
 3° 
 14; 
 
 37 
 
 I 
 4 
 
 638 840 
 224 12 
 190 103 
 154 51 
 44 ? 
 
 626 
 
 34 
 27 
 9 
 
 33 
 
 1406 
 438 
 260 
 280 
 
 149 
 3262 
 
 1219 
 57 
 103 
 51 
 
 54 
 1086 
 
 792 
 
 34 
 27 
 30 
 840 
 
 70 
 
 Northwest Provinces 
 
 
 Central India ... 
 
 I 
 
 Madras... 
 
 1185I 250 
 
 2077 836 695 
 
 
 4 
 
 Totals 
 
 2468I 728 
 
 341 
 
 42 
 
 3327I 1842I 1382I 33 
 
 5795 
 
 2570 
 
 1723 
 
 75 
 
APPENDIX 386 
 
 Missionaries, Lay Preachers, Christian Communities and Pupils in Day Schools.* 
 
 
 Native Christians. 
 
 Communicants. 
 
 Total Pupils in Schools, 
 Males and Females. 
 
 iz; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -H 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 00 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i| 
 
 4'i44 
 
 7738 164961 75747i33i22| 1367 
 
 2081 5387; 30245 53801 
 
 4016, 2704 8253 12303 20488 
 
 2 
 
 22929 
 
 3471 1[ 48040 68954I 77466 1720 
 
 3845 
 
 60121 9689! 13775 
 
 i8i66 15844' 16457 28147, 42042 
 
 a 
 
 57952 
 
 8C5731154S3180681 193363' 9232 
 
 13544 
 
 23976, 40990: 52377 
 
 23636 31429' 51239 68198 79983 
 
 4j 
 
 821 
 
 3259 7474 17274 34395 272 
 
 1240 
 
 2647: 5714' 11128 
 
 12458 16956I 27235 ^0729 50523 
 
 *>l 
 
 4^04 
 
 II 187 31596 62536 62838 1692 
 
 3792 
 
 12576] 21924 24207 
 
 3787, 4784I 5939, 10969, 12713 
 
 (> 
 
 440 
 
 8361 2846 10646 323S1 367 
 
 394 
 
 1568' 4295 15782 
 
 1749 3723, 1C007 21790^ 56492 
 
 V 
 
 102 
 
 427J 2323 1534! 26096 II 
 
 80 6501 468J 1 1652 
 
 231 555 3002 55i6| 17475 
 
 1 
 
 91092 
 
 138731 2242584173721559661114661 
 
 24976 52816I113325 182722 
 
 64043I 75995 I22i32]i87652l2797i6 
 
 1 
 
 Native Christiaas. 
 
 Communicants. 
 
 T 
 
 3tal Pupils in Schools, 
 Males and Females. 
 
 •R 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 u 
 
 00 
 
 s 
 
 g 
 
 CO 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 00 00 
 
 1 
 
 iH 
 
 1 
 
 I4I771 20518 
 
 46968 
 
 83583 
 
 I0890II 33711 
 
 4620 
 
 13502 
 
 28689 
 
 37918 
 
 14568 
 
 136551 27950' 33450 50417 
 
 2 
 
 1732 
 
 3942 
 
 7779 
 
 12709 
 
 30321 573 
 
 1030 
 
 3031 
 
 5021 
 
 14722 
 
 4264 
 
 8370 17265' 25250 47311 
 
 3 
 
 98 
 
 1 1 36 
 
 1870 
 
 4762 
 
 20729 25 
 
 3S8 
 
 707 
 
 1948 
 
 6034 
 
 701 
 
 3608 10547 16567 22523 
 
 4 
 
 271 
 
 526 
 
 2509 
 
 4885 
 
 "343 68 
 
 138 
 
 665 
 
 2173 
 
 4580 
 
 596 
 
 1146 6130 8168 15037 
 
 5 
 
 638 
 
 2531 
 
 4177 
 
 11691 
 
 22455 290I 
 
 1 100 
 
 159' 
 
 4887 
 
 9192 
 
 6975 
 
 6514 7184 11562 2B120 
 
 ti 
 
 741 76 1 10078 160955 299742 365912 10334 
 
 17730 
 
 33320 
 
 70607 
 
 II0276 
 
 36939 
 
 42702' 53056' 92655J1 16308 
 
 _ 
 
 91092 138731 224258l4i7372'55966i;i466il 
 
 24976 
 
 52816 
 
 "3325 
 
 182722 
 
 64043 
 
 75995'i22i 32 187652279716 
 
 *This Table does not include Statistics for Ceylon or Burma. 
 
 Summary of Sabb.\th School.s in India, excluding Ceylon and Burma. 
 
 Totals of Societies. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Congregational 
 
 Episcopalian 
 
 Presbyterian 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Methodist 
 
 Various Missions ... 
 Women's Societies.. 
 
 Total \ 1867 6 
 
 3708 
 
 416 
 
 13792;: 850 
 1337311 461I 
 3564] i8j 
 15573 "69 
 5oo[j 18 
 509 19 
 
 279-^4 
 2406S 
 20867 
 
 535' 
 
 46351' 
 
 7501 
 
 3503135565 
 
 Totals of Provinces. 
 
 Bengal 
 
 N W. Provinces & Oudh 
 
 Punjab 
 
 Central India 
 
 Bombay 
 
 183 6938:1 613 19669 
 350 16671]^ 929 36498 
 27! 3007,! 123' 
 
 74[ 
 1311 
 
 2642 
 37" 
 
 Madras H021 28719 
 
 Total !|i867 6ie 
 
 7871 
 2571 11613 
 1401 55423 
 
 35031135565 
 
 Years of Service of the Foreign Ordained 
 Missionaries who were in India in i886.t 
 
 Nationality of India Missionariks.J 
 
 Over 50 years 2 
 
 From 45 to 50 years 4 
 
 From 40 to 45 years 5 
 
 From 30 to 40 years 42 
 
 From 20 to 30 years 114 
 
 From iot0 2j years 231 
 
 Under 10 years 393 
 
 Total number of Missionaries 791 
 
 Average years of labor, about 13 
 
 From Great Britain and Ireland 381 
 
 From the Continent of Europe 173 
 
 From the United States 139 
 
 From C^'nada... 23 
 
 From West Indies i 
 
 From other countries 32 
 
 Sons and Grandsons, born in India 42 
 
 Total 791 
 
 \ From Badley's Directory. 
 
 25 
 
 { From Badley's Directory. 
 
386 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 ' rt o til 
 V o J^ c 
 
 5 ^^ ■- 
 .E.Si rt.= 
 
 rt r e rt 
 
 0^59 
 
 - L. SC c £?&iS.I!i-^ g « - ^-5- 
 
 ~ o u 
 
 ° ° n 
 
 
 ^.^.i. 
 
 >, >. c 
 
 « « •- 
 
 QUS 
 
 u--- o 
 
 o o-s 
 
 1, 1- = 
 
 u qj ^ 
 
 SSr 
 
 
 ;z2;g 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 t^ H 0\ 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~F. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 « (^ •* t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « o <y^'^ ro^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 v6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fT 
 
 
 
 fT-i in in t^ r^ 0^ N 
 
 rio 
 
 
 
 
 (X) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OCO OO P] O Qv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M t^OO M oo t^co 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 1- i-i 00 moo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r- M ^ ro -^vO ■* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 roO^m-HN-^u-. 
 
 
 
 
 » 00 moo in On N W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w VO m 
 
 r 
 
 S 
 
 O" 
 
 ^O. ».. (N. "^ 1^©.. f>' 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 »-' 
 
 
 Oi vo ^ r-H\o 
 
TOPICAL INDHX 
 
 Abbotabad, a hill station, 50. 
 
 AbduU.i Athim, Judge ; in a debate. 201. 
 
 Abdurrahman, the Amir of Afghanistan ; an ally 
 of the English, 25 ; a despot, 27. 
 
 Ablutions of Hindus and Moslems, 122. 
 
 Abolition of High Schools suggested, 170; of 
 slavery by the Russians, 24. 
 
 Aborigines of India and low castes, 117, 118 ; 
 work among, encouraging and obligatory, 
 355-35.7- 
 
 Abyssinians in India, 107. 
 
 Accidents of travel, 186, 187. 
 
 Acesines, the Chenab river. 103. 
 
 Adamson, Dr., visits the U. P. Mission, 64. 
 
 Aden described, 14, 15. 
 
 Aerie, a house on Dharmkot, 50. 
 
 Afghanistan : railway through it, 19, 20 ; its 
 alliance with India, 25 ; a buffer against Rus- 
 sia, 25 ; should be under better rule, 27 ; allu- 
 sion, 86. 
 
 Afghans: fanatical, 27; speak Pashtu, 86. 
 
 Africa: seen, 13; the Mahdi in, 22; medical 
 workers there, 179. 
 
 Agnosticism, rare in India, no, 117, 151. See 
 Infidelity. 
 
 Agra : on the road to the Punjab. 16 ; meeting 
 of Presbyterians there, 91 ; its medical mis- 
 sion, 97; allusion, 324. 
 
 Ahmedabad, on road to the Punjab. 16. 
 
 Ahmed Shah, the emperor, at Bhera, 104. 
 
 Aitchison, Sir Charles : his administration as 
 Lieut. -Governor, 34 : his view of missions, 238. 
 
 Ajmere : on road to Punjab, 16 ; place of Daya- 
 nanda's death, 114. 
 
 Akalg;irh, under the Sikhs, 104. 
 
 Akbar : crowned at Kalanaur, 104 ; erected At- 
 tock fort, 104. 
 
 Alalatnbat liar of Saddowal, 232. 
 
 Alden's " Evidences of Christianity " translated, 
 185. 
 
 Aleppo, on one road to India, 17. 
 
 Alexander : his invasion of the Punjab, 103. 
 
 Alexandretta, as a railway terminus, 17. 
 
 Allahabad : judge's decision there, 231 ; Presby- 
 terian Alliance meetings there, 91 ; its S. S. 
 Lessons, 92; its Tract Society publications 
 308. 
 
 Alliance. General, of Reformed Churches, 91. 
 
 Alliance, Presbyterian, of India : its history and 
 aims, gi ; its organ, 92. 
 
 Amballa, occupied by Am. Pres. Mission, 98. 
 
 Ameera, of Gujranwala : sketch of, 257, 258. 
 
 Amen, said in worship, 265. 
 
 America to India: ordinary journey described. 
 12-16, and the cost. 12 ; via China and Japan', 
 17; allusions, 84, 144, 181, 289, 364. 367. 
 
 American Bible Society: its principles of work 
 and fields, 301. 
 
 American Board: when organized, 94; when 
 entered India, and where working, 97 ; in Cey- 
 lon, 311 ; in Sandwich Islands, 313 ; her medi- 
 cal missionaries, 179; her educational mission- 
 ary wprk, 165, 
 
 American Line of Steamers, 9, 10. 
 
 American Presbyterian Mission : when entered 
 India, and her fields, 97 ; her Punjab field de- 
 scribed, 98 ; occupation of Rawal Pindi, 102; 
 transfer ot this field to us, 102 ; her High 
 School at Rawal Pindi, 172; college in Lahore, 
 169, 173; her Punjab field compared with 
 others, 103 ; vernacular paper, the Nur Af- 
 shan, 92; Synod, 308; publications, 308; 
 school at Woodstock, 53; industrial work, 
 324 ; liberality, 331 ; policy regarding natives, 
 346 ; press, 306 ; semi-centennial, 90 ; moves 
 for Presbyterian Union, 91 ; salary of mission- 
 aries, 62. See also Ludliiana Mission. 
 
 American Reformed (or Dutch Reformed) Mis- 
 sion, 97. 
 
 Amir Bibi's baptism : its effects, 229. 
 
 Amoor river : left bank ceded to Russia, 23. 
 
 Amos, teacher in C. T. Institute, 2S2. 
 
 Amritsar : founded by Ram Das, 112 ; roads at, 
 75. 76; chief'center of C. M. S., 98; public 
 debate there, 199, 201 ; its Golden Temple, 
 112; allusions, 196, 355. 
 
 Amu, or Oxus, river ; reached by Russia, 23, 
 and by railway, 19 ; bridge across, 19. 
 
 Anam, peaceful, 21. 
 
 Anchor Line of Steamers, 11. 
 
 Anderson, Miss E. D. : her Girls' Schools in 
 Jhelum, 172. 
 
 Anderson, T. D., of Baltimore : his help, 70. 
 
 Andhi, described, 43. 
 
 Aiidrar, a peak at Dharmsala, S'- 
 
 Andrew-like workers, 196. 
 
 Anglo-Indians— that is, British people or their 
 white descendants, resident in India, especially 
 officials: comparatively few in India. 107: 
 niimber in the Punjab, 119, 120 : in civil and 
 military service, 29, 30; some colonists, no: 
 their mode of living, 204, 206 ; houses, 55, 56, 
 ills., 144, 368; house furniture, t;6; table. 57, 
 58; their hard work, 67 : how affected by the 
 climate, 362, 363, 368, 360; characteristic 
 traits. 67. 68 : compared with natives, 123-125; 
 their faults, 124, 125, 218. 219 ; social rules, 64, 
 367: intercourse with missionaries, 63, 64: 
 some Ritualists or Plymouth Brethren, 64; 
 attitude towards natives, 343, 344 : intercourse 
 with natives. 66-68; their opinion of native 
 Christians, 249 ; especially, of servants, 252 ; 
 why thev dislike Christian servants, 253 : their 
 fear of Russia, 25 : low condition of the poor 
 class, 86, iig; their dumb friend, 68: retired 
 from service, 28: illustrations of. 33, 74, 141, 
 155, 161, 204. See also under .£'«f//.f A, English- 
 Jiten and Europeans . 
 
 Anglo-Indian's friend, ills.. 68. 
 
 Anglo-Vedic College in Lahore, 114, 115. 
 
 Animals: aversion of Jains to killing, 113 : wor- 
 shiped bv Hindus, 112: deaths from, 44,45; 
 illustrations, passim. 
 
 Anklet, ills.. 124, 174. 
 
 Anna, one-sixteenth of a rupee, defined. 77 ; allu- 
 sion, 125, 
 
 (387) 
 
388 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Annoyances: of housekeeping, 58-60; of travel, 
 
 81, 82; of itinerating work, 191, 192. 
 Annual Meeting of the Mission: when and where 
 
 held, 136, 137; described, 133, 134. 
 Anvil: ills., 325. 
 Apologetics: taught in theological seminaries, 
 
 290. 
 Apologies: their use in missionary work, 198-201; 
 
 must not compromise, 356, 357; published in 
 
 Indian vernaculars, 308. 
 Apoplexy, heat: in the Punjab, 46. 
 Apostasy : of native Christians, rare, 252, but 
 
 sometimes occurs, 251, 255; to and from Islam, 
 
 352, 353- 
 
 Apostles of India: to be natives, 87, 358. 
 
 Apostles' Creed, referred to, 220. 
 
 Approaches to India, Chapter I. 
 
 Arabia: seen, 15; railway across. 17; allusion, 22. 
 
 Arabian Sea, described, 15. 
 
 Arabic character, in India, 268, 270. 
 
 Arabic tongue: spoken in Egypt, 87; studied by 
 India missionaries, 86; difficult, 88. 
 
 Architecture: of Moslems in India, 116; /7/j., 329; 
 of Hindus, ills., 111, 159; of Kashmir, ills.,-^; 
 of nice native houses, 176, 177. 
 
 Arjan, a Sikh^«ra, 112. 
 
 Arms. See under Fire Arms. 
 
 Army of India: its officers, constitution and size, 
 29-51; its Gurkhas, 50, 107; Sikhs, good sol- 
 diers, 113; its drills and sham battles, 25: char- 
 acter of British soldiers, 124; native Christian 
 regiments, 325-327; armies of native princes, 
 30, 31; volunteers, 30; its cantonments, 31; 
 commanders-in-chief, 30; pictures of soldiers 
 and officers, 141, 155, 161. 
 
 Arq defined, 122. 
 
 Arrian mentions the Jhelum, 103. 
 
 Art in India, 108, 176. See 3.\i,o Architecture 
 and illustrations generally. 
 
 Arya Patrika, a Lahore paper, ttg. 
 
 Arya Samaj: described, 114, iis; ahalf-way sta- 
 tion, 167; trickery of its adherents, 226, 227; 
 their annoyance in bazir preaching, 157,158; 
 one (a lawyer) converted, ig6, 197. 
 
 Aryan race in India. 107; their tongues and 
 other tongues, 85. 86; their pantheon, 43: their 
 invasion of the country. 27. See also Hindu, 
 Hinduism, and Hindus. 
 
 Aryans. See Arya Snmaj 2lT\A Aryan Race. 
 
 Asarur: once a capital, 103, 104: ruins there, 104. 
 
 Asceticism: of heathen origin, 210; opposed by 
 Arj'ans, 114; of no advantage in missionary 
 work. 203-217. See under Fakiristn. 
 
 Ashe, Rev. R. P., quoted on Church Missions, 
 312. 
 
 Ashurada, seized, 23. 
 
 Asia Minor : route through, to India, 18. 
 
 Askabad, on Transcaspian Railway, 19. 
 
 Asoka's reign, 104. 
 
 Asral, a peak near Dharmsala, 57. 
 
 Assam and Manipur, 22. 
 
 Assistant Commissioner, referred to, 30, 204. 
 
 Associate Presbyterian Mission, its origin, 99. 
 
 Asuri river, a boundary, 23. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean: journey across, 12. 
 
 Attitudes: of Moslems in prayer, ills., 117: of 
 Christians in prayer and praise, 265. 
 
 Attock: road to, 75; fort erected, 104; ruins at, 
 105; Indus at, 105. 
 
 Audiences: how to secure them. 149. 150. 
 
 Augustine's lamentation regarding the church of 
 his own time. 203. 
 
 Austerity. See Asceticism and Fakirism . 
 
 Authority of foreigners and natives in mission 
 work discussed. 342-349. 
 
 Autpcracy of mission superintendents; a hin- 
 
 Autocracy — Continued. 
 
 drance to good spiritual work in employees, 
 341; tends to keep up division, 66, 67, 344; its 
 modification, 347; its reflex influence on the 
 superintendents themselves, 372, 373; its pro- 
 priety, 272, 273. 
 
 Autonomy of native church. See Church in 
 India. 
 
 Ayah, a native nurse, 150; a subject of instruc- 
 tion, 150. 
 
 Baba Nanak : what he taught, 112 ; his shrine 
 at Sialkot and the mela there, 104, 160. 
 
 Bab el-Mandeb, passed, 15. 
 
 Baber fined Bhera, 104. 
 
 Babies, how carried, 187; ills., 124. 
 
 Babu : a title, like Mr. or gentleman, 152. 
 
 B. A. : number who passed this standard, 294,384. 
 
 Backsliders reclaimed, 254. 255. 
 
 Back-street preaching. See Mahalla Preach- 
 ing. _ 
 
 Badley's " Indian Missionary Directory : " quot- 
 ed, 364, 385. 
 
 Badoki congregation : its contributions of prod- 
 uce, 253 ; its recovery from backsliding, 254. 
 
 Badomalli school, 251. 
 
 Bag, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Baghdad, on Euphrates route, 17, 18. 
 
 Bahawalpur, a Muhammadan state, 98. 
 
 Baisakhi festival, 160. 
 
 Baku, railway terminus on Caspian Sea, 18, 19,20. 
 
 Bala Shah, or Balisha, or Lai Beg, or Balmik, 
 the high priest of the Chuhras, 118; tradition 
 about him, 246, 247. 
 
 Balain, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Balmik. See Bala Shah. 
 
 Baltimore, alluded to, 9. 
 
 Baluchistan, brought under British influence, 21. 
 
 Banda. a Sikh rebel, 104. 
 
 Banks of India, 84 ; post-office banks, 84. 
 
 Banya : avaricious, 37, 38, 84, 127 : his shop de- 
 scribed, 152, 157; many Jains of Banya caste, 
 
 "3- 
 
 Banyan Tree : its shade, 152 ; ills., 153, 362 ; a 
 symbol of the church's expansion, 361, 381. 
 
 Baptism : its relation to mission work, 230 ; prep- 
 aration for, 262 : qualifications for, 219-223, 
 762 ; examination for, 272 : relation to the 
 Lord's Supper, 333, 334 : singular motives for 
 wanting it, 202. 203; obstructions to, 230-234; 
 baptism at melas, 161 ; baptism in schools 
 and the effect, 166 ; baptism of minors and the 
 law regarding it, 230, 231 : baptism of polyg- 
 amists, 222, 223 ; baptism of families, 225, 
 328, 331 ; limitation of the number of baptisms, 
 221, 
 
 Baptist missions in India : general statistics, 
 384, 385. . . . ,^ 
 
 Baptist C American) mission, 97; Baptist (Cana- 
 dian) mission, 97. 
 
 Baptist (English) missions in India, 94, 97. 
 
 Baptist (General) missionary society, 95, 97. 
 
 Baptist (Strict) mission, 97. 
 
 " Baptized AdulLs ; " number and meaning of the 
 term, 333. 3:54. 
 
 Barnabas cited as an example of fakirism, 206. 
 
 Baroda, alluded to. 16. 
 
 Barber, Hindu : ills., 209. 
 
 Barr, J. S., D.D. : superintendent C. T. Insti- 
 tute, 282 ; theological professor, 288. 289 ; 
 translator of " Hodge's "Theology," 307. 
 
 Barr, W. W. , D.D. : visits the mission, 64, 237. 
 
 B.T)sat, or rainy season, 40,41. 
 
 Earth's " Scripture History" taught, 306. 
 
 Basel Missionary Society, 97. 
 
 Bassorah, on Euphrates route, 17, i8. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 389 
 
 Bathing, common in India, 58, 122. 
 
 Bathing tank : ills., 159. 
 
 Batoum, R. U. terminus on Black Sea, 18. 
 
 Bazar: defined, 154,157; ills., 155, 37:> ; allu- 
 sion, 174. See Siidr Bazar. 
 
 Bazar Chapels, or reading rooms, 151, 158,184,185. 
 
 Bazar preaching : described, 154-158; like pub- 
 lic debate, 199, 2ci ; like work at inelas, 159, 
 160; in evangelistic tours, 191, 225 ; opposition 
 at and obstructions to, 157, 158, 227, 228 ; co- 
 operation in, 89, 90; its value in evangelism, 
 158 ; qualifications for, 158. 
 
 Beas : one of the " five rivers," 98 ; the Hypha- 
 sis, 103 ; seen from Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Bed-clothing on journeys, 81, 82. 
 
 Bedin, explained and illustrated, 151. 
 
 Beggars in India, 123. 
 
 Begums: defined, 177; alluded to, 179. See 
 Fardah or Pardah-nisliin. 
 
 Belgium, compared with ihe U. P. field, 103. 
 
 Belgrade, on Constantinople route, 18. 
 
 Benares, home of Jadjodh Singh, 226. 
 
 Beneficence Committee of Sialkot Presbytery, 
 
 3'5- 
 
 Bengal : increase of Christians there, 351 ; Sun- 
 day Schools, 3S5 ; general statistics, 384, 385 ; 
 allusions, 300, 301. 
 
 Bengal, Bay of, 23. 
 
 Bengal civil service, 29. 
 
 Bengali tongue, 85. 
 
 Bentinck, Lord: his opinion of Dr. DuflTs college, 
 162, 163. 
 
 Berlin, on one route to Asia, 20. 
 
 Bernard, an example of fakirism, 206. 
 
 Bhabra caste and the Jains, 113. 
 
 Bhiigsu, a sacred fountain at Dharmsala, 52. 
 
 Bhajans. described, 304 ; used in ordinary wor- 
 ship, 265: at bazar preaching, 156 ; in zenanas, 
 177. '78 ; •" evangelistic work generally. 198; 
 specimens in Roman Punjabi, with music, 200, 
 
 :^o5- 
 
 Bhans^, an intoxicating liquor, 122. 
 
 Bkangi3.nA Bhangiivala, ills., 155, 187 ; allusion, 
 187. 
 
 Bhatties, their capital, 103. 
 
 Bhedo-Chida : a liaptism there, 235. 
 
 Bhera: on Sind Sagar R. R., 76; described, 
 100; fined and sacked, 104: its manulactures, 
 106; now occupied by U. P. Mission, 100; 
 persecution there, 227, 228 ; its medical work, 
 182; its school, 297: journey to, 152; dis- 
 pensary washed away by floods, 42. 
 
 Bhola, assistant tnistri, C. T. I., 280. 
 
 Bhusa, finely broken straw, 187. 
 
 Bible: taught in mission schools, 172, 184: in 
 the theological seminary, 290: read through in 
 the originals, 292 : an attraction in bazar work, 
 j 156, 157 ; rejected by Aryans, 114 ; its plan of 
 salvation, 209 ; how much studied by mission- 
 aries, 370 : vernacular commentaries few, 306 ; 
 translations, 92, 93, 291, 300-303. See also 
 under Bible Translation and Bible Societies. 
 
 Bible Societies: their work of translating and 
 distributing the Bible. 300. 301. See under 
 Bible Translation, British and Foreign B. 
 S . American B. S., and Punjab B. S. 
 
 Bible Translation : work in India, 291, 300-503 ; 
 into Urdu. 300-302 ; into Gurmukhi, 302 ; into 
 Persian Punjabi, 302. 303 ; SerHmpur transla- 
 tion, 300; Martyn's, 300; Shurman and Haw- 
 kins', 300: Mirzapur, 300; defects of present 
 Urdu version, 301, 302; new version needed, 
 but by a native, 291, 302 : the present move- 
 ment, 291 ; translation work of the U. P. Mis- 
 sion, 302. 303 : mostly done by others, 92, 93. 
 See Bible Societies. 
 
 Bicycle draws a crowd, 156. 
 
 Bihishti, or water-carrier : serves missionaries, 
 190; at railway stations, 78 ; ills., 124; on 
 hills, ills., 277. 
 
 Bindi, or Bhindi : that is, okra, 57. 
 
 Biographical sketches of some native Christians, 
 257-260. 
 
 Birds: indwellings, 58 ; ills., 93, 100, 173, 178, etc. 
 
 Bir Singh's beating, 235. 
 
 Biscay, Bay of: its roughness, 10; allusion, 13. 
 
 Hitter Lakes referred to, 14. 
 
 Black Mountain wars, 22 . 
 
 Black Sea : on one road to the East, 18, 20; rail- 
 ways beyond, 24 ; outlet of, 24. 
 
 Blue Herons, ills., 189. 
 
 Board of Foreign Missions of the United Pres- 
 byterian Church of North America : its loca- 
 tion, 9, 10; its Cor. Secretary, 132 ; its Treas- 
 urer, 143 ; how it sends out missionaries, 9, 10; 
 its powers and policy, 131-133 ; its relation to 
 ecclesiastical courts in the field, 131, and 
 to " The Mission." 131, 132 ; receives contri- 
 butions from India, 315; suggests a plan of 
 settling difficulties, 347. 
 
 Boards of Directors for institutions and work, 
 278, 286, 288. 
 
 Boards of Foreign Missions: their business agents 
 abroad, 12. 
 
 Boards, or Committees, of Scotch and British 
 churches : their policy, 132. 
 
 Boats : as a means of itineration, 193 ; ills., 36, 
 
 55. 357- 
 
 Bokhara : railway to, 10 ; annexed, 23. 
 
 Bolan Pass, a railway route, 19. 
 
 Bombay City : distance from London, 9 ; pass- 
 age to. lo ; port for missionaries, ix : described, 
 15, 16; from Persian Gulf to, 17; University 
 there, 163, 164; a Parsee center, 115; first 
 railway at, 76 ; Hindu devotion at, 353 ; Bow- 
 en's residence there, 215 : Alliance meeting at, 
 91 ; Decennial Missionary Conference there, 
 169; Kalbadevi Road, jV/j., 375; Bombay to 
 Sialkot by rail, 15, 16. 
 
 Bombay, Baroda & Central Railroad. 15, 16. 
 
 Botnbay Guardian, a help to missions, 92. 
 
 Bombay Presidency : powers of its governor, 28 ; 
 his salary, 30; its civil service, 30; increase 
 of Christians there, 351 ; statistics of its mis- 
 sions, 384, 385. 
 
 Bombay University, 163, 164. 
 
 Boniface, cited as a fakir, 206. 
 
 Book shops : described, 157, 184 ; used as bazar 
 chapels and meeting houses, 157, 158, 184. 
 
 Book Societies. See Religious Book Societies 
 and Bible Societies. 
 
 Boston, a point of departure, 9. 
 
 Boundaries for missions : policy of establishing, 
 95, 96, loi ; how regulated, 133, 137. 
 
 Boundary between Afghanistan and Russian ter- 
 ritory, 25. 
 
 Bowel complaints in the Punjab, 46. 
 
 Bowen, of Bombay : an example of fakirism, 
 206 ; his methods and success, 215. 
 
 Bracelet, ills., 124, 174. 
 
 Brahm, the Supreme, in. 
 
 Brahma : one of the Tri-murti, in ; worship of, 
 in. 
 
 Brahma Samaj : compared with the Arya Sa- 
 maj. 114 ; a half-way station, 167. 
 
 Brahmans : described, in; reverenced. 113; 
 fed, 116; loaded with gifts, 321, 353; favored 
 by government, 326; leaders of Hindu life, 
 162 ; getting education, 121, 122 : at hospitals, 
 181 ; no remarkable Christian work among, 
 245 ; complaint of one, 355 ; allusion, 246. See 
 Castes, High. 
 
390 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Brahminy bulls, described, 211. 
 
 Bribery in India, 127. 
 
 Bridge: over the Amu river, 19; in Kashmir, 
 53, and ills., 36, 357 ; over the Chaklci, 54. 
 
 " Brief Evidences of Christianity " translated, 
 185. 
 
 Brindisi, a celebrated port for steamers, 11. 
 
 British and Foreign Bible Society : its field, 301 ; 
 assumes the revision of the Urdu Scriptures, 
 291, 300, 301. See also Bible Societies and 
 Bible Translation. 
 
 British Army in India. See Army of India. 
 
 British Canadian Line of Steamers, 17. 
 
 British Colony in India, 119 ; condition of their 
 poor, 86, 119 ; how they speak English, 86. 
 
 British India. See India and British Rule. 
 
 British India Line of Steamers, 11. 
 
 British Rule in India : specially described, Chap. 
 Ill — See Contents : its territory, 28, 95 ; its 
 native states, 28 ; its complicated system, 28- 
 31 ; its departments and divisions, 28 ; connec- 
 tion with the Home Government, 28; with na- 
 tive princes, 28; its rulers, 28-30 ; Viceregal 
 Council, 29; Staff of Administration, 29 ; Civil 
 Service, 29 ; District and Municipal Commit- 
 tees, 29; Viceroys, 31-33; Governors, 28; 
 Lieut.-Governors of Punjab, 33, 34 ; its aim, 
 34, 35; its material improvements, 19, 35, 36; 
 maintained by force. 34 : its powerful protec- 
 tion, 35, 127; its stability, 22 ; peaceful, 35 ; 
 just, 35 ; its unintentional injustice, 37, 38 ; its 
 contests with border tribes, 21, 22 ; its occupa- 
 tion of the Punjab, 98 ; guarantees post-of- 
 fice b-jnking, 84 ; its educational system, 36, 
 163-165 : its religious establishment, 36 ; its aid 
 to missions, 34-37 ; its grants in aid to schools 
 and hospitals, 36, 72, 73, 270 ; employs Chris- 
 tians, 324, 325 ,■ schools utilized to train Chris- 
 tians, 294 ; its testimony about missions, 36, 
 37 ; its reforms, 35 ; its hurtfulness to missions, 
 37-39, 218, 219 : its public evils, 33, 38, 39, 218, 
 219; schools tend to infidelity, so said, 169; 
 its general excellence, 39 ; compared with Rus- 
 sian government, 27; with American, 367, 368 ; 
 how helped by missions, 36, 37, 237, 238, 325. 
 
 British territory in India. See British Rule and 
 India. 
 
 Brokers' extortion. See Banya and Money- 
 lender. 
 
 Brotherhoods in India. See Protestant Brother- 
 hoods. 
 
 Brothers, The, in the Red Sea, 14. 
 
 Brown ; his " Short Catechism " translated, 306 ; 
 his " Explication" in Urdu, 307. 
 
 Bruce, Robert : his trouble in building, 225, 226. 
 
 Bucephala and Bucephalus, 103. 
 
 Buddha : what he revolted against, 112. 
 
 Buddhism : its founder, 112 ; its failure in India, 
 356 ; its influence on Hinduism. 123 : its relation 
 to Jainism, 113; modern Indian Buddhism de- 
 scribed, 114; its seven precious things, to5 ; 
 its remains in the Punjab, 410. See Buddhists. 
 
 Buddhists: their number in India, no; their 
 growth, 352; their fakirs, 204: their ancient 
 medical work, 47; allusion, 381: See Buddhism. 
 
 Buffaloes : bathing, ills., 184 ; allusion, 263. 
 
 Building: how done in India, 55, 56, 143, 144; 
 trouble connected therewith, 143, 144, 225,226. 
 See Bungalow. 
 
 Buildings of natives. See Housrs. 
 
 Bull : image of, attached to temples, iii ; Brahm- 
 iny, 112. See CawSpecifs. 
 
 Bunder Abbas, on Persian Gulf, 18. 
 
 Bungalow : ills., 49, 56, 79, 144, 283, 368. See 
 also Houses. 
 
 Burglary in India, 127. 
 
 , Burial of the dead by Chuhras, 118. 
 
 Burka, or Burqa, defined, 121. 
 
 Burma; Buddhist, 352; its Civil Service, 29; an- 
 nexation of Upper, 21 ; allusion, 95. 
 
 Burns, Rev. Islay, on the atmosphere of hea- 
 thenism, 371 ; on his brother's costume, 214. 
 
 Burns, Rev. W. C, on the same (above) subject, 
 37°. 37'; h's costume, 214; memoir quoted 
 from, 214. 
 
 Bushir, on Persian Gulf, 18. 
 
 Caine, Hon. W. S., favors austerity in mission- 
 aries, 205. 
 Calcutta; route via, 10, 11, 16, 17; riot at, 22 ; 
 
 Alliance meeting at, 91 ; Oxford Brotherhood 
 
 at, 205 : allusions to, 20, 162, 215. 
 Calcutta University ; 163, 164. 
 Caldwell, Rev. A. B., his experience with snakes, 
 
 45 ; on a Christian iiiela, 274. 
 Caleb. Rev. J. J.; his translation of Hodge's 
 
 " Outlines," 307. 
 Calhoun, Miss E. : her schools, 172 ; allusion to, 
 
 258. 
 " Call " to a church required for ordination, 33. 
 Call to missionary work: its impetus, 374; its 
 
 signs, 378-380. 
 " Caller " in Girls' Schools defined, 172. 
 Cambridge Mission: at Delhi, 97, 90; how its 
 
 missionaries live, 205; commended by W. S. 
 
 Caine, 205. 
 Camels : their character, 186 ; how hired and 
 
 laden, 186 ; travel with, 186. 187 ; at night, 188, 
 
 189; how fed, 190; not hardy, 191, 192; ills., 
 
 182, 186. 
 Campbell, Miss M. J. ; her translation of " Ilm- 
 I i-Ilahi," 306. 
 
 Camping: of missionaries, ills., 186; of Punjab- 
 ' ies, 367 ; see Itinerating Work. 
 Canada ; missionaries from, in India, 385. 
 Canadian Presbyterian Mission, 97. 
 Canals : at Dharmsala, 52 ; Chenab, 325 ; Suez, 
 
 13 ; ills., 14, and map. 
 Cantonments of the Punjab, 31 ; in U. P. field, 
 
 102, 105. 
 Cape Comorin, 245. 
 
 Carey, entering India, 94 ; his mode of living, 206. 
 Caring for her young ; ills., 261. 
 Carleton, Rev. M. M , of Kotgarh, 53. 
 Carleton Cottage, Dharmsala, 50. 
 Carpenter, Hindu : ills., 108. 
 Cart, ills., 186, 247, 367. 
 Carthage, attitude of Romans towards, 356. 
 Caspian Sea : on northern route, 18-20 ; allusions, 
 
 23. 24- 
 
 Caste : its nature and spread, 223, 224 ; bears no 
 relation to morals, 248: rigidly enforced by 
 Hindus, 112, 126, 127, 224; caste among Sikhs, 
 112, 113; among Jains, 113: among Aryans, 
 114 ; among Muhammadans, 116 ; among Chris- 
 tians, 116; among the depressed classes, 117, 
 n8; fostered by the compound system, 275; 
 its evils, 224, 225; its tyranny, 326; its ob- 
 struction to faith, 229, 230; its absence favor- 
 able to evangelistic success. 224, 225, 246 ; must 
 be respected in meeting the people, 150; af- 
 fected by medical work, 181, 354, by schools, 
 267, 354, and other matters, 354 ; giving way, 
 236, 354, 360 ; has slight hold now on some, 114, 
 238 ; how lost caste may be restored, 231. 
 
 Castes : their number in the Sialkot district, 116; 
 how they may be formed, 113, 357. 
 
 Castes, high : converts from, few, 243, 244, 245, 
 328 : their conversion not hindered by low-caste 
 work, 244, 245 ; work among, should be pushed, 
 
 SSI- 
 Castes, low — outcastes : described, 117-120; how 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 391 
 
 Castes, low — Continued. 
 
 divided as to religion, 117, 118; their number. 
 355, 356 ; reached in itinerating, 195 ; open door 
 among ihem, 243-246, 355-357; favoring provi- 
 dences, 246-248 ; iheir conversion and liaptism 
 objected to, 219, but important, 357; freer from 
 superstition and error than others, 246: not 
 specially immoral, 248 ; motives leading them to 
 embrace Christianity, 201, 202 ; obstructions to 
 their baptism, 233, 234; not detrimental to 
 work among Hindus and Moslems, 244, 245. 
 See also Chu/tras, iiJfgs, Chamars, etc. 
 
 Catechisms : their preparation and use in the 
 vernacular tongues, 306. 
 
 Catechists : their duties, 272. 
 
 Catechumens, examined, 272. See Baptistn. 
 
 Caucasian railways, 18, 19. 
 
 Caucasians, or Indo-Europeans, 107. 
 
 Caucasus and Trans-Caucasia, 23, 24. 
 
 Caucasus Mountains, tunnel through, 19. 
 
 Celibacy, obligation of, condemned, 210. 
 
 Cemetery at Dharmsala, 52. 
 
 Census: mode of taking, in India, 116, 117; of 
 1891, no. 
 
 Centipede, ills., 61. 
 
 Central Asiatic tribes : their barbarous state, 24. 
 
 Central India: increase of missions there, 351, 
 384,385. 
 
 Central schools: described, 270 ; used in Christian 
 training, 278. 
 
 Ceremonies, religious : of little account in evan- 
 gelism, 198. 
 
 Ceremony in zenana visitation, 177 : in native 
 society, 68 ; among Anglo-Indians, 64, 367. 
 
 Ceylon: its self-supporting churches. 311. 
 
 Chadar : described, 109, no; used for carrying 
 grain, 253; ills., 177, 180, 228, 252, 288, 298, 
 etc. 
 
 Chakki river: when bridged, 54 ; described, 75, 
 
 Cha7nars, a low caste : described, 117, 118; allu- 
 sion, 245. 
 
 Chamba : in the Scotch Mission, 99 ; a point for 
 excursions, 52. 
 
 Chandni Chauk, Delhi, ills., 155. 
 
 Chants, in praise, 303. 
 
 Chapati, described, 66 ; ills.. 65, 288. 
 
 Chaplains, in India : their clas.ses and salaries, 
 36, 62. 
 
 Character, as a power in evangelism, 196, 197. 
 
 Characters, in printing Urdu, 268, 269. 
 
 Charjui, railway to, and bridge, 19. 
 
 Charles, David, of the Institute, 282. 
 
 Charms, Hindu, in. 
 
 Charpai : a native bedstead, 56 : used as a seat, 
 159, 227; allusions, 263, 287 : ills., 65, 194, 359. 
 
 Ckaukidar : described, 189 ; at an encampment, 
 189. 
 
 Cheddu's baptism, 234. 
 
 Chemkend taken, 23. 
 
 Chenab : one of tlie " five rivers," 98 ; its course, 
 99, 193; curious features at Chiniot, 105 ; canal, 
 325 ; the Acesines, 103. 
 
 Chess, used for illustration, 140. 
 
 Chluippars, village ponds, described, 263 ; ills., 
 184. 
 
 Chhero's conversion and death, 258-260. 
 
 Chicks, described, 192. 
 
 Chief Commissioners, 22, 29. 
 
 Children, native : how carried, ills., 124; of con- 
 verts, educated, 202. 
 
 Children of missionaries : must be taken home, 
 48, 54. 55, 6q, 61, 212; .separation from, a great 
 trial. 6o. 61 ; generally turn out well, 6t ; chil- 
 dren's Homes, 61 ; many become missionaries, 
 
 3,85- 
 Cnimma, Rura's home, 235. 
 
 China : its heathen character, 571; a victim of the 
 opium trade, 39 ; gave no trouble to India, 21 ; 
 in. the Pamirs, 23 ; opposed by Russia, 24 ; con- 
 cessions to Russia, 23, 24 ; its medical mission- 
 aries, 179; route via, 17-20; allusions, 23, 84. 
 
 China Inland Mission; its self-supporting mem- 
 bers, 212 ; their mode of living, 206. 
 
 Chinamen, in India, 107. 
 
 Chinar groves, of Kashmir, 53. 
 
 Chiniot : and the Sikhs, 104 ; Chenab at, 105. 
 
 Choga : ills., 341 ; worn by the well-lo-do, no. 
 
 Cholera : in the Punjab, 45, 46 ; at Dharmsala, 
 Murree and Srinagar, 54 ; why so fearful, 46. 
 
 Christ : a fakir, or not ? 206,210; his presence a 
 sustaining power in missions, 374. 
 
 Christian household, ills., 252. 
 
 Christian Instructor, quoted from, 257-260. 
 
 Christian Settlements. See Settlements. 
 
 Christian Training Institute : its history and 
 character, 278-284 ; ground for it purchased, 
 279 ; improvements added, 270, 280 ; built from 
 the Stewart Fund, 70, 71 ; architect, 280 ; build- 
 ers, 280 ; exterior views, ills., 9 ; interior court, 
 ills., 'i-ji; under the Mission, 137; Board of 
 Directors, 137, 278; Superintendents, 282; Head 
 Christian teachers, 282 ; monitor, 284 ; heathen 
 teachers, 286,296, 297; terms of admission, 306; 
 employment of pupils' parents, 244; course 
 of study, 281, 282 ; raised to Entrance standard, 
 297; Normal class, 282, 284 ; textbooks, 307; 
 missionary society, 281, 282; Sabbath School, 
 282 : women's department, 282, ills., 298 ; its 
 internal economy , 280, 281; secular work in it, 
 142, 144, 145 : its usefulness, 284 ; a drawback, 
 295 ; statistics, 284 ; allusions, 289, 325. 
 
 Christianity : its triumph in the Roman Empire, 
 360 ; in India, 360, 361 ; in the woi'd, 361 ; re- 
 jected by Aryans, 114. 
 
 Christians: statistics for India and each Province. 
 352-355, 384, 385 ; of the Punjab, described and 
 enumerated, 119, 120 ; statistics of different ec- 
 clesiastical families, 384, 385 ; of U P. Mission, 
 340-342, 386: opposed by Aryans, 114. See 
 also under Christians Native, Christianity, 
 Church, Converts and Missions in India. 
 
 Christians, European, in India See under An- 
 glo-Indians , Englishmen and Europeans. 
 
 Christians, Native: the number and the rapidity 
 of their growth : see under Christians, above; 
 their original caste and condition. Chap XXI ; 
 generally poor, 275, 320, 322, 324, 327; not im- 
 proving much in wealth, 327 ; dependence upon 
 non-Christians for employment, 275 ; in govern- 
 ment service, 284, 297, 324, 325, 326; aids to their 
 worldly prosperity, 324, 325, 327; obstructions 
 to their worldly prosperity, 325, 326 ; their lib- 
 erality discussed, 315-317, 319-322; their style 
 of living, 65, 66, 205, 263 ; their appearance and 
 dress, 278, 288, 298, 342 ; many ignorant, 250 ; 
 their standing as regards education, 121, 122, 
 294-297: their educaiion important, 267,297, 
 324, 330, 358 ; many weak, 250: their remem- 
 brance of their own caste, 116; some hypo- 
 critical, 250, 275 ; some, but few, apostatize, 
 250, 251, 252, 255; many genuine, 251-260; 
 proof of theirgenuineness, 221, 335 — also Chap. 
 XXII ; their social customs, 66 ; their social 
 advancement, 277, 278 : their intercourse with 
 missionaries, 66, 67 ; their habits in church, 
 264; their aid to evangelism, 195, 196,254; their 
 religious and moral traits, 249-260 ; their lower 
 and higher training: see Chapters XXIII, 
 XXIV and XXV, in Contents; also under 
 Training ; their elevation and primary duty, 
 358, 359; to be honored, 358; a group, ills., 
 298; in schools, ills., 278, 288, 298. See also 
 
392 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Christians, Native — Continued. 
 
 under Christians , Workers, Church, Con- 
 verts and Ministers. 
 
 Chrysanthemum,(\\iotcd on missionary ill health, 
 
 364- 
 
 Chuharkanna, at Eminabad, 104. 
 
 Chuhras : described, 117-119 ; their quarter of a 
 town, 263 ; their employment, 117, 232, ills., 
 124; some agriculturists and sepies,-2^2. ■z-^^, 
 244 ; their mode of life, 263, 264 ; their intel- 
 lectual weakness, 270, 275 ; in schools, 267 ; 
 their religious beliefs, 118, 246 , their tradition 
 about Gugga and Gugga ganu , 118, 119 ; their 
 transition state, 246; movement among, towards 
 Christianity, 242 ; seen at hospitals, 181 ; why 
 easily converted, 246; their tradition about 
 Balmik, 246, 247 ; number of converts from, 
 244 : instances of conversion, 239, 257-260 ; 
 persecution by, 233, 234 ; why kept down by 
 Hindus and Moslems, 232. See also under 
 Castes, L01V. 
 
 Chuthci, explained, 188. 
 
 Church buildings : U. P., in Rawal Pindi, ills., 
 345 : English, in Simla, ills., 283. 
 
 Church, Established : in India, or not, 36. 
 
 Church, General : how affected by missions, 380- 
 382. 
 
 Church Histories, in Urdu, 307. 
 
 Church in India: comes mostly from the de- 
 pressed classes, 245, 246; its poverty, 322, 324, 
 33') 33^ i ''s exaltation necessary, 359 ; kept 
 pure, or not, by fakirism, 208 ; autonomy hin- 
 dered by some mission methods, 273, 217; liber- 
 ality hindered by the same tiling, 319, 320. See 
 also Church, U. P., in India.. 
 
 Church in mission lands: its lack of maturity, 
 310-313; in leading strings, 311, 312; church 
 organization and establishment necessary, 148, 
 149; examples of self-supporting organizations, 
 
 Church Missionary Society, orC. M. S. : its his- 
 tory and statistics, 311 ; when organized, 94; 
 fields generally, 312; its honorary missionaries, 
 212 : its partial failure, 312, 313 ; in Egypt, 301 ; 
 fields and forces in India, 97, 312 ; in the Pim- 
 jab, 98 I work at Clarkabad, 274, 325 ; its Nar- 
 owal Mission, joi ; powers of its Punjab 
 Church Council, 346 ; its liberality, 331 ; allu- 
 sion, 274. 
 
 Church of England : its two great missionary 
 societies, 311,312; extent of its mission failure, 
 312-314; its chaplains in India, 36; building in 
 Simla, ills., 283 ; allusions, 300, 301, 309. 
 
 Church of Scotland — the Established ; her mis- 
 sions in India. See Scotch Missions. 
 
 Church, U. P., in America: longevity of her 
 ministers, 364. See U. P. Church, 
 
 Church, U. P., in India : statistics, 386; comes 
 mostly from the depressed classes, 245, 246 ; 
 its poverty, 322, 324 ; church service described, 
 264-266; building in Rawal Pindi, ///j-., 345 ; 
 its congregational evangelism, 195 ; its organi- 
 zation, Chapter XXXVII ; its lack of organ- 
 ized congregations, 314, 316; number required, 
 316; present number, 333 ; why so few, 334 ; 
 how affected by panchayats, 271 ; defects of 
 organization discussed, 334-336; each congre- 
 gation strengthened pecuniarily by its enlarge- 
 ment, 327 ; its various ecclesiastical courts, 
 336, 337: the powers, qualifications and de- 
 fects of these courts : see under Ecclesiastical 
 Courts : its deficiency in self-governing power. 
 Chapter XXVIII — see Contents ; its exalta- 
 tion necessary, 359 ; its members : see Con- 
 verts SLXiAChristians ; its ministers : see Minis- 
 ters, 
 
 Circular : business done by, 134. 
 
 Cities and towns : why often elevated, 105 ; how 
 built and inhabited, 108, IC9. 
 
 City High Schools. See High Schools. 
 
 Civil anil Military Gazette : quoted on religious 
 establishment, 36 ; quoting the Oudh Akhbar, 
 with comments, 123, 124 ; its view of missions 
 and missionaries, 237, 238. 
 
 Civil Service of India : how formed, 28, 29 ; for- 
 eigners and natives in, 29 ; some, but not many, 
 Christian natives in, 319, 324, 325. 
 
 Civilization and savagery : ills., 238. 
 
 Clan Line of Steamers, 11. 
 
 Clarkabad : not a remarkable success, 274 ; allu- 
 sion, 325. 
 
 Classes on railways, and fares, 77, 78. 
 
 Climate of the Punjab ; Chapter IV— see Con- 
 tents ; its distinguishing characteristic, 40 ; ef- 
 fect on the natives, 44, 107, 108, 123 ; effect on 
 the health and longevity of Europeans and 
 missionaries, 48, 50, 54, 216, 362-365, 385 ; ef- 
 fect on the temper, 368, 369. 
 
 Clothing. See under Dress. 
 
 Cobra : used in persecution, zoi ; one killed by 
 Mr. Caldwell, 45: ills., 45, 211, 379. 
 
 Cocoanut trees, ills., 247. 
 
 Colaba Station, 15. 
 
 College, preparation for, required, 164. 
 
 Colleges, anti-Christian, 114, 115, 354. 
 
 Colleges, Christian : at Lahore and Madras, 169; 
 number of Christian students, 169; U. P., at 
 Rawal Pindi, 172, 173, ills., 171 ; Dr. Duff's, 
 162, 163 ; Bombay Free Church College, 165 ; 
 primarily for the conversion of the heathen, 
 162, 165 ; statistics of degrees, 165, 384. 
 
 Colleges of all kinds in India: statistics, 163. 
 
 Cologne, route via, 20. 
 
 Colporteur. See Book Shops. 
 
 Comity and courtesy among missions : necessity 
 for, 95, 96, 220, 358 ; rules of, 96. 
 
 Commander-in-chief of the Indian army : the po- 
 sition, 29, 30 ; who have held it, 30. 
 
 Commentaries on the Bible in vernacular tongues: 
 few and much needed, 290. 306; number given, 
 308 ; one mentioned, 309. 
 
 Commissioners : Chief, 22, 29 ; ordinary, 30, 102, 
 196, 226 ; Deputy, 30 ; Assistant, 30. See also 
 Deputy Commissioner. 
 
 Committees : Vice-regal, District and Municipal, 
 28, 29. See under each. 
 
 Common, of a village or town, 188, 264. 
 
 "Common Prayer," in Urdu, 309. 
 
 Comorin, Cape, 245. 
 
 Comparative religion : good use of the science, 
 199 ; bad use of, 356, 357. See Apologies. 
 
 Compassion for souls : its effect on the nerves, 
 363, and on the heart, 376; need of it in India, 
 128, 363. 
 
 Compound system ; its uses and evils, 262, 275. 
 
 Compromise : danger of it, in missions, 356. See 
 Comparati7ie Religion. 
 
 Concordance in Urdu, 309. 
 
 Concubinage : legalized by Islam, 125, 126. 
 
 Conferences: of the mission, 137; of Christians 
 and workers, 274, 298 ; devotional for mission- 
 aries few, 369 ; of Association of Female 
 Workers, 90; of missionaries of different mis- 
 sions, 90. See Conventions . 
 
 Conflicts of missionaries : their evils, 05, 96, loi, 
 342-344 ; effect on piety, 373, 374. See Comity 
 and Missionaries. 
 
 Congregationalists ; their ecclesiastical polity, 
 273; educational work, 165; statistics, 384, 
 385. See American Board and London Mis- 
 sionary Society. 
 
 Congregations. See under Church. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 393 
 
 Conscience and natural affection among Mos- 
 lems, 126. 
 Conscious Strength : ills.,2,Z^- 
 Constantinople: route via, 18; Russia wants, 
 
 24 ; Moslem architecture there, 116. 
 Contagious Diseases Act, 33, 38, 39. See Social 
 
 Evil. 
 Contents, 5. 
 
 Contributions of produce, 253. See Liberality. 
 Controversy, public : its value as a means of 
 evangelism, 199, 201 ; between Christians and 
 Moslems at Amritsar, 199, 201 ; between Rev. 
 E. P. Swift and Saraswati, 201 ; qualifications 
 for, 199, 201 ; disturbances from, 227. 
 Conventions. See Conferences \ ills., 298. 
 Conversation: a means of evangelism, 151, 152; 
 
 in zenanas, 177, 178. 
 Conversion : defined, 149 ; ordinary preparation 
 for, 149, 198, 199 : means, 149 ; of the Chuh- 
 ras accounted for, 246-248; of India, when? 
 359-361 ; of the world, when ? 361 ; group or 
 chain, 328, 331. 
 
 Conversions : a first aim in mission work, 148, 
 149 : hard to tell by what mission methods 
 (152) orpersons (153, i54)secured; whenrapid, 
 stimulate entlmsiasm, 376. 
 
 Converts of India Missions : mostly from the 
 despised and lowly, 245 ; more rapid increase 
 than that of Islam or Hinduism, 352-355 ; 
 growth, 384, 385. See second subject below. 
 
 Converts of the early church like those of India, 
 203, 245, 246. 
 
 Converts of the U. P. Missions : described, 
 Chapters XXI, XXII — see Contents ; classes 
 drawn from, 243-248 ; some from high castes, 
 328; their baptism — see Bnfitisjit : number, 
 240, 242, 386; their distribution, 241, 242; 
 illiterate generally, 243, 244,267; their em- 
 ployment, 243, 244; sometimes fed and shel- 
 tered gratis, 201, 275 ; their training — see 
 Training; baptized adults, 333, 334; Secret 
 Converts, 178. 238, 239. See Christians. 
 
 Conveyances ; various kinds, 76-81 ; when pub- 
 lic, how secured, 81. 
 
 Cook ; what he will not do, 60. 
 
 Cooking in camp, 188, 189. 
 
 Coolies; their wages, 109. 
 
 Co-operation among missions and missionaries. 
 Chapter X ; between foreign workers and 
 natives, 342-346. 
 
 Corea : recent changes there, 23. 
 
 Corinthians, First, i : 26-29 quoted, 245, 246 ; 
 13 : S, 7 quoted, 371. 
 
 Corinthians, Second, 4 : 8, 9 quoted, 373. 
 
 Cossacks : their character, 24, 27. 
 
 Council : India, in London, 28 ; viceregal, 29. 
 
 Courts, ecclesiastical. See Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Courts of native houses; described, 176; ills., 
 359 ; of Institute, ills., 278. 
 
 Covenanted servants, 29. 
 
 Covetousness of native Christians, 253. 
 
 Cow species: worshiped, in, 112, 113; ills., 
 
 129. 144. 367- 
 
 Crickets deface book covers, 58. 
 
 Crime: diminished by British Rule, 35, 127, 128. 
 
 Criticism, unfriendly : its nature and results, 219, 
 220. 
 
 Critics doubt piety of native Christians, 249. 
 
 Crocodile : ills., 310. 
 
 Cross : the greatest of mission life, 60, 61. 
 
 Cuba referred to, 301. 
 
 Culture : of missionaries, 365-367 ; not the pri- 
 mary end of missions, 148. 
 
 Cummmgs, Rev. T. F. : his baptism of a Mos- 
 lem family, 225. 
 
 Curiosity draws a crowd in evangelism, 156. 
 
 Custom House business, 12. 
 
 Czar of Russia: his Asiatic dominions, 18; 
 conquers Khiva, 23. 
 
 Daedalus lighthouse: described, 14. 
 
 Dak bungalow: described, 81, 82; used in 
 
 itineration, 192. 
 Dak Ghari, or Dak Gari : described, 78, 80, 81 ; 
 
 ills., 79. 
 Dakoits : depredations of, 127. 
 Dal (lentils, pulse): used by missionaries, 58, 
 
 189. 
 Dales, Rev. J. B., D.D., note about, 132; por- 
 trait, 133. 
 Dalhousie: described, 52, 54, 75; occupied by 
 
 Scotch Mission, loi. 
 Damien, Father, 205. 
 Dandi : described, 80; ills., 49. 
 Danes: began Protestant Missions in India, 94; 
 
 their fields, 97. 
 Dangers : threatening Christian work in India, 
 
 356-358. See Missions in India and Outlook. 
 Dardanelles, 24. 
 
 Dari, cotton carpet: explained, 188; in tents, 188. 
 Darjiling, pronounced, and sometimes written, 
 
 Darjeeling: a hill station, 50; capital of Bengal 
 
 Government, 37; allusion, 91. 
 Darzi, defined, 56. 
 Daulah's history, 258. 
 Dayananda Saraswati: founder of the Arya 
 
 Samaj, 114; debate with Mr. Swift, 201. 
 Deathbed: of Daulah, 258; of Kaka, 256; of 
 
 Rahim Bakhsh, 255; of Chhero, 259, 260. 
 Death rate: in Punjab, from different diseases, 
 
 44-47; of male and female infants, 128. See 
 
 also Mortality and Statistics. 
 Debate, public, on religion. See Controversy. 
 Decennial Missionary Conference: at Bombay, 
 
 on education, 169; when held, 90. 
 Degh river: described, 75. 
 Degchi, cooking vessej: ills., 106. 
 Degrees given by universities, 164. 
 Dehra Dun Valley, 53. 
 Deism of Aryans, 114. 
 Deities, local, in. See also Gods, Idols and 
 
 Idolatry. 
 Delaware, compared with Punjab, 96. 
 Delhi: railway to, 16, 76: ills, of its bazar, 155; 
 
 Missions at, 99, 205; Hindu convention at, 115. 
 Demosthenes, 175. 
 Denmark: missionaries from, 94. 
 Dennis, Dr., quoted, 70, 229, 230; his style, 367. 
 Deodar trees: of Dharmsala, 52; ilh., 49, 283. 
 Depressed Classes. See Castes, Loiv 
 Deputy Commissioner: his oflice, field and im- 
 portance, 30; helps missions, 226, 235; of Sial- 
 
 kot, 279; allusions, 190, 228. 
 Dera Ismail Khan, occupied by the C. M. S. , 98. 
 Despised and downtrodden, reached first by the 
 
 gospel, 167 See Castes, Lo7v, and Converts. 
 Deva Dharm Samaj, a halt-way station, 167. 
 Devotion: unfavorable opportunities for, among 
 
 missionaries, 369-371. See Conferences and 
 
 Prayer Meetings. 
 Dhariwal: its woolen fabrics, 106. 
 Dharmkot described, 50, 51; its temperature, 54. 
 Dharmsala: described, 48-54, 75, 353; its rains, 
 
 42, 43; picture of Sunny Side and Shady Side, 
 
 49: unisn services at, go. 
 Dharmsalas, Hindu: described, 193. 
 Dheds, 245. 
 
 Dhobi, or washerman: ills., 214. 
 Dhoti, or Hindu's hair tuft, described, 109. 
 Dhulip Singh's portrait, 22; his strange freak, 22, 
 
 23. 
 Diarbekir, on Euphrates route, 17, 18, 
 
394 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Dilke, Lady: her view of missions, 237, 238. 
 Dina Nath's character, 255. 
 Dinanagar: railway to, 76; accident at, 192. 
 Dingal Singh, Sardar: his kindness, 226. 
 Directors: of Public Instruction, 163. See also 
 
 Boards 
 Disciples' Mission, 97. 
 Discipline, Book of: translated, 307, 308. 
 Discipline, cases of: 250, 252, 272; before pancha- 
 yats, 271; how affected by grant of self-govern- 
 ing power, 349. 
 Discouragements in work: their effect on activity, 
 
 221, and piety, 373. 
 Diseases in India: how they affect the health and 
 longevity, 362-374; how they affect the temper, 
 369. See Climate and below. 
 Diseases of the Punjab, 45-47, 54. 
 Dishonesty: common in India, 127, 142, 371, 372. 
 Dispensary: at Sialkot, 181-183,231; at Pasrur, 
 182; at Jhelum, 42, 182, 229 ; at Bhera, 42, 182. 
 See Hospital and Medical Missionary IVork. 
 District Committees: have limited powers, 29; 
 
 help medical missionary work, 73, 181. 
 Ditt. of Marali, 242. 
 
 Division between foreigners and natives in mis- 
 sions, 319, 320, 340, 342-344. 
 Divisions for Commissioners, 30, 102. 
 Divorce, effect of, in India, 222. 
 Doctors in India, 47, 48. 
 Dogra titti: beginning of work there, 242. 
 Dogri language, in U. P. field, 86. 
 Dogs annoying, 191; ills., 68, 367. 
 Doli, in bridal procession, 187; ills., 135. See 
 
 Palanqtiin. 
 Domestic conditions. Chapter VI., 150, 174-176, 
 
 263, 264, 287. 
 Doms, low-caste people, 118. 
 Dover, straits of, 20. 
 
 Drawbacks: to evangelistic work. Chapter XX 
 — see Contents; to Christian Training, 275, 276; 
 to Girls' Schools, 287; to Primary Schools, 
 267-270,' to educational work, 165, 167, 294, 
 295; to itinerating work, 190 ; to bazar preach- 
 ing, 157, 158; to worldly prosperity of Chris- 
 tians, 325-327 ; to ecclesiastictil courts, 299, 
 300; to piety among missionaries, 368-374. 
 See also Hindrances and Persecution. 
 Dress: of missionaries, 56, 57; of natives, 109, 
 110,263; of the different classes of Punjabies, 
 120, 121; of the rich, no; of the Sikhs, 113; 
 of policemen, ills , 235; of Parsees, ///j., 115, 
 341; of girl pupils, 286, 287, ills., 228, 288; 
 native dress undesirable for missionaries, 214. 
 Drunkel fair, 160. 
 Drunkenness, not common in India, a foreign 
 
 vice, 122. 
 Drysdale, Mr: dismissed from the civil service 
 
 for missionating, 34, 38. 
 Duff, Dr.: founder of educational policy, 162; his 
 theory, work and success, 162, 163; could be in- 
 dependent, i66 ; his eloquence, 366. 
 Dufferin, Lord: his viceroyalty, 31, 32; at Rawal 
 
 Pindi durbar, 105. 
 Dufferin, Lady: her medical scheme, 72, 179. 
 Duschak, on Transcaspian railway, 20. 
 Dust storms: described, 43; allusion, 187. 
 Duty, sense of, a sustaining power, 370. 
 Dyspepsia in the Punjab, 46. 
 
 Eagle, ills., 217; and her young, ills., 261. 
 
 Eagle's Nest, at Dharmkot, 50. 
 
 Earthquakes : in the Punjab, 43 : in Kashmir, 43. 
 
 Eastern travel : recent changes in, o. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Courts in U. P. Church of India, 
 33^> 337 ; their constitution and work, 129-131, 
 '33> 134. 136 ; their powers, 134-136 ; co-opera- 
 
 Eccleiastical Courts — Continued. 
 tion with the Mission, 134-136; dependence 
 upon the Mission, 299 ; their work of training 
 officers, 298-300 ; drawbacks to their work, 
 299, 300 ; their qualifications for exercising au- 
 thority, 340-349 ; why not wait for financial 
 self-support? 348. See also Church, U. P., in 
 India. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Development and Maturity : de- 
 scribed, Chapters XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII— 
 see Contents ; their necessity, 310 ; what they 
 include, 310' 314 ; how to be secured, 328- 
 
 ,331. 335. 336, 347- 
 
 Economy of fakirism, 206, 207, 210-217. 
 
 Edinburgh, side trip to, 13. 
 
 Education Committee of Presbytery : examines 
 Girls' B. School, 286 ; its history, 130, 336, 337. 
 
 Education of Christians in India : anxiety for, 
 among Christians themselves, 251, 252, 256, 
 343 ; especially for their children, 202 ; aids 
 them in worldly matters, 324, 330; highly im- 
 portant every way, 267, 358; how far advanced 
 generally, 121, 122, 291; how far advanced in 
 U. P. Mission, 294-297; means used to secure 
 improvement, 267-270, Chapters XXIV, 
 XXV ; drawbacks, 267-270, 295-297. See also 
 Christians, Converts, Drawbacks, Hin- 
 drances and Statistics. 
 
 Education of native ministry. See Ministers. 
 
 Education of non-Christians in India : how far 
 advanced, see Statistics, 86, 122, 163, 165, 
 17s ; of different religious sects, a comparison, 
 113, 121, 122; effect on Hindu reforms, 354, 
 355; effect on home life, 175; help or not to 
 evangelism, 165, 173, 244, 296, 297, 358; other 
 effects, 165-167, 343, &c. 
 
 Educational Policy of Evangelism : general ac- 
 count. Chapter XVI ; its aim, 162; a differ- 
 ent view, 166; its founder, 162; its chief 
 agents, 164, 165 ; its results, 165, 173, 244, 297. 
 358 ; causes of failure, 165-167 : objections to 
 it, 167, 168, 297, 343, 358; a secular burden, 
 144, 145. 146; defense of it, ^68, 169: present 
 state of the controversy, 169 ; author's conclu- 
 sion, 169, 170; suggestions of change, 170; in 
 the U. P. Mission, 170-173. 
 
 Educational System of the Indian Government: 
 described, 163-165 : origin, 163 ; Wood's de- 
 spatch, 163, 164 : Universities, 163, 164 ; Direc- 
 tors, 163: different degrees, 164: dominates 
 all education, 165, 166: Education Commission, 
 164; the Punjab Branch, 164, 165; helps pri- 
 vate and mission efforts, 36, 72, 73, 164, 270; 
 but is said to foster infidelity unintentionally, 
 151, i6g. See Statistics and British Rule. 
 
 Egypt: its Arabic, 87 : its Moslem architecture, 
 116; its Presbytery, 347; its Mission, 65 ; gifts 
 to its Mission from India, 315 ; passed en route, 
 M- 
 
 Ekkas : described, 80; on highways, 75, 187; 
 ills., i86, 367. 
 
 Elders of U. P. Church in India : from the In- 
 stitute, 284; material for, in U. P. Mission, 
 335, 341; their training possible, 271, 335; 
 their fewness and the causes, 335, 336, 338 ; 
 their excellent character, 340,341 ; their work 
 as evangelists, 195. 
 
 Electric light in the Suez Canal, 13. 
 
 Elephanta, Caves of, 15. 
 
 Elgin, Earl of, his monument at Dharmsala, 52. 
 
 Elgin, Lord: the present viceroy, 31, 33. 
 
 Elliott, Sir Charles : on the value of Missions, 37, 
 38 : on missionary poverty, 215, 216. 
 
 Eloquence of some missionaries, 365-367. 
 
 Eminabad : its objects of interest, 104 ; mela at, 
 160. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 395 
 
 Emotion : its cflfect on the nerves, 363. 
 
 Employer's relation to employees ; a means of 
 evangelism, 150, 151 ; an obstruction to close 
 Christian fellowship, 66, 67. See Autocracy. 
 
 Encampment of itinerating missionaries : de- 
 scribed, 187, 188, 191-193; its varied experi- 
 ences, 188-192. 
 
 England : its climate, 362 ; passage through, 9- 
 
 13- 
 
 English Church. See Church 0/ England. 
 
 English Government iu India. See British 
 Rule. 
 
 English Language : how spoken by the British, 
 64 ; by Americans, 64 ; by some natives of In- 
 dia, 86; by Eurasians and poor whites, 86; 
 taught in the schools of India, 86 ; but few 
 know it, 86, 290; not likely to come into gen- 
 eral use, 86 ; compared with other tongues, 88 ; 
 do missionaries improve in it or the contrary? 
 366, 367 ; its proper use a guarantee of excel- 
 lence in acquired tongues, ^^7. 
 
 English Officers: their peculiarities and their in- 
 tercourse with missionaries, 63, 64. See also 
 Anglo-Indians and Europeans. 
 
 English Presbyterian Mission, 97. 
 
 English sytem of medicine, 48. See also Medi- 
 cal Science, Surgeons, &c. 
 
 Englishmen: compared with Russians, 24-27; 
 rivals of Russians, 24-27; in India, 28-30, 107, 
 iig, 120; battle of Ramnagar, 104, 105. See 
 also Europeans, English Oj/jficers, British 
 Colony and Anglo-Indians. 
 
 Entrance Standard : defined, 164 ; for native 
 ministers, 317 ; not many passed, 294. 
 
 Ephesians 4 : 13-16 quoted, 382. 
 
 Episcopalians ; their style of kneeling, 265 ; 
 polity, 273; chaplains in India, 36; their 
 India Mission statistics, 384, 385. See Church 
 of England, C. M. S..S. P. G., &c. 
 
 Esplanade, Bombay : its fine buildings, 15. 
 
 Established Church in India, 36. 
 
 Etiquette among Anglo-Indians, 64, 367 ; among 
 Orientals, 264. 
 
 Euphrates Route to India, 17, 18. 
 
 Eurasians : who they are, 120 ; classed as 
 Christians, iig : their rights, &c., 120; num- 
 ber in the Punjab, 120; dress, 120 ; their Eng- 
 lish, 86 ; style of living, 204, 206, 212 ; this 
 style recommended by some to missionaries, 
 205-208, but improperly, 208-217. 
 
 Europe : passage across to India, 9-11 ; allusions, 
 84, 364. 
 
 European system of medicine, 48. 
 
 Europeans : in India ; 28-30, 107, 119 ; in the 
 Punjab, iig, 120; their employment, 119: atti- 
 tudes towards the natives, 66-68, 343, 344 ; 
 how affected by the India climate, 362, ^63, 
 368, 369. See also Englishmen, English On- 
 cers, Anglo-Indians and British Colony. 
 
 Evangelical grade of ministers. See under Min- 
 isters, Native. 
 
 Evangelistic work : described, Chapters XV to 
 XXII — see Contents ; preparation for, 140, 
 141, 196, 197; general principles, 148, 149; 
 home religion, 150; social intercourse, 151, 
 152, 167; bazar preaching, 154-158; Mela 
 work, 159-161 ; through schools, 162-173, 267 ; 
 in Zenanas. 174-179 ; medical means, 145, 146, 
 179-183; through literature, 184, 185, 308; 
 through itineration, 185-195; through rituals, 
 198, 199 ; through apologies and controversy, 
 198-201 ; through worldly influences, 201-203 ; 
 through asceticism, 203-217; hindrances, 218- 
 236, 274, 275 ; results. 237-260 ; result in U. P. 
 field summarized, 350 ; different methods com- 
 pared, 154, 158, 161, 165, 173, 178, 181, 183, 1S4, 
 
 Evangelistic votY— Continued. 
 
 193, 194, &c. ; evangelism by natives, 195, 196, 
 254 ; would be helped by more independent 
 church courts, 344, 346 ; helps self-support, 327, 
 328, 330, 331 ; preaching needed in, 156, 157, 
 199, 370. 
 
 Evidences of Christianity : taught in schools, 
 198 : Dr. Alden's book translated, 185 ; other 
 similar books, 185, 308. 
 
 Evils in mission fields and their removal, 342-344. 
 
 Ewing's " Greek Lexicon," 307. 
 
 Examinations: of Universities, 164; passing 
 tiiese the great aim of scholars, 166. 
 
 Exchange to India : rates of, 73. 
 
 Excise laws, 33, 38, 39. 
 
 Exorcist of Pasrur converted, 251. 
 
 Eye diseases in the Punjab, 46. 
 
 Faith : strengthened by the presence of heathen- 
 ism, 376. 
 
 Faith Mission, 97. 
 
 Fakirism : described, 204, 205, 208, 209; recom- 
 mended to Christian laborers, 205, 323 ; argu- 
 ments favoring, 206-208 ; arguments against, 
 208-217; injurious to health and life, 48, 50, 
 216. 
 
 Fakirs : described, 204, 205 ; means of livelihood, 
 204, 205, 206, 321; influence, 206; number in 
 India, 180,206; liberty given them, 156 ; hard- 
 ships, 212 ; a help to Hinduism, 205; help to 
 Islam, 117 : give trouble, 191 ; ills,, 124 ; Chris- 
 tian fakirs, 205, 206. 
 
 False impressions regarding evangelism cor- 
 rected, 152-154. 
 
 False religions : not entirely destitute of truth, 
 igg : but to be destroyed, 356. 
 
 Families, conversion of: difficult among caste 
 people, 224, 225 ; but imporfant, 328, 331. 
 
 Family religion : a means of evangelism, 150. 
 
 Family worship : among missionaries, 57. 
 
 Farman Shah's firmness under persecution, 255. 
 
 Farming as an employment for native Chris- 
 tians, 324, 325. 
 
 Fashion does not trouble missionaries, 56, 57, 
 
 367- 
 
 Fasting: as a religious exercise for Christians, 
 266 ; common in the east, 116, 117, 205, 266. 
 
 Fazl Din : testimony regarding him, 255 ; por- 
 trait, 342. 
 
 Fees: in schools, the effect, 166; in medical 
 work, 181. 
 
 Female education in India, 175. See also Ze- 
 nana, Women, Schools, &c. 
 
 Females ; mortality of. 44, 48, 128. 
 
 Ferns of Dharmsala, 51, 52. 
 
 Ferries over streams, 75, 76. 
 
 Festivals: Hindu, 112; Moslem. 116, 117. 
 
 Feudatory states. See Native States. 
 
 Fevers : in India, 46 ; in the Punjab, 45-47. 
 
 Fields : of different India Missions, 97 : of Pun- 
 jab Missions, 0S-103 ; of U. P Mission, 9g-io3, 
 Chapters XI, XII. 
 
 Filthiness : of villages, 263; of new school 
 pupils, 286; of fakirs, 205. 
 
 Finances of U. P. Mission ; good. Chapter VII ; 
 as to current expenses, 69: as to special ob- 
 jects. 70 ; as to permanent improvements, 70, 
 71 ; their multiplicity, 141-144 ; how managed, 
 136, 137 ; a burden on missionaries, 146, 147. 
 See also Income. 
 
 Financial commissioner's tour, 234. 
 
 Fire Arms : forbidden to natives, 127 ; allowed 
 to missionaries and other Europeans, 190. 
 
 Flesh : abstinence from as food, 112. 
 
 Flowers : ills., 147, 293. 
 
 Flying foxes, ills., 318, 
 
S96 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Food: of missionaries, 57, 58, 189; of natives, 
 66. 
 
 Forced labor in India, 81, 234. 
 
 p'oreign Board. See Board 0/ Foreign Mis- 
 sions, 
 
 Foreign Missions after a Century, quoted, 70, 
 229, 230. 
 
 Forman, Rev. J. N. : his experience in self- 
 denial, 215. 
 
 Forms and ceremonies as means of evangelism, 
 198. 
 
 Fort : at Attock, 104 , of Hari Parbat, at Srina- 
 gar, ills. , 36. 
 
 Fourth of July in India, 63, 367. 
 
 Free Baptist Mission, 97. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland : its fields, 97 ; commis- 
 sioners, 133 ; good educational work, 165. 
 
 Freedmen's Missions : contributions to in India, 
 315- 
 
 French tongue : compared with others, 85, 86, 88. 
 
 Fret and worry. See Worry. 
 
 Fretweil, Mrs. : at Sialkot Dispensary, 182. 
 
 Friends' Missions : 97. 
 
 Frugality and industry of natives, 123. 
 
 Fruits ol the Punjab, also imported, 57. 
 
 Fund: Stewart, 70, 71, 279, 289; Q. C, 71; 
 Lady Dufferin, 72, 179. 
 
 Furloughs, needed by missionaries, 54, 371, 372. 
 
 Furniture : ol missionaries, 56, 188; of villagers, 
 263, ills., 65, 359. 
 
 Gaddi people of Dharmsala, 50. 
 
 Gajipur, now Rawal Pindi, 103. 
 
 Citli, defined, 227. 
 
 Game, found in itinerating, 187, 190. 
 
 Gandaru, a peak at Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Ganda's portrait, 342. 
 
 Ganesh, or Ganesha, the god of wisdom, iii ; 
 ills., 126. 
 
 Ganga. from hemp plant, 122. 
 
 Gangohar, home of Bir Singh, 235. 
 
 Ganpati, images of, cast into the sea, 353. 
 
 Gari, general name for a wagon, 78-80; dak 
 gari. 'bee Vak Gari. 
 
 General Assembly of U. P. Church : on the 
 baptism of polygamists, 222 ; establishes Pun- 
 jab Synod, and two new Presbyteries, 130, 
 336; introduces ladies into the Mission, 131, 
 132 ; receives a memorial from native ministers, 
 344, 347 : a natural mediator between parties 
 in the field. 132. 133 ; allusions, 288, 289. 
 
 Gentleness of natives. 122, 123. 
 
 Geographic facts about our field, 105, 106. 
 
 Geok Tepe conquered, 23. 
 
 Geologic facts about our field. 105, 106. 
 
 German Evangelical Mission, 97. 
 
 Germans in India. 97, T07. 
 
 Ghakkars, described, 103. 
 
 Ghara : its use, 78 : ills., 49, 65, 124, 153, 155, 
 187, 359- 
 
 G/ii, clarified butter. 58. 
 
 Gibraltar : route 7'iii, 10, 13. 
 
 Giffin, Mrs. E. M. : her visit to India, 65. 
 
 Gilahries, squirrels, ills., 250. 
 
 Gillespie, John, D D., visits India, 64. 
 
 Girishk. on the Helmund river, 20. 
 
 Girls' Boarding School at Sialkot : under the 
 Mission, 137, 285, 286: its history and 
 character, 284-288 ; origin, 284; location, 28=;, 
 buildings and court, 285 ; helped by the Q C. 
 Fund, 71 : object. 285, 286 ; a day school also, 
 285 ; pupils trained in native style, i85 ; pupils 
 eating, ills., 288; course of study, 286; 
 heathen teachers of, 286, 296, 297 : teaches 
 Shorter Catechism. 306 ; drawbacks to, 287 ; 
 results of, 288 ; statistics, 284, 288. 
 
 Girls' schools : in Jhelum, 170, 229 ; at Rawal 
 Pindi, ills., 228 ; at Gujranwala, 170, 172, 228; 
 at Sialkot, 179; drawbacks to, 287; fewer 
 pupils than in Boys' Schools, 287, statistics, 
 175, 284, 288; allusion, 137. 
 
 Given, Miss: Jhelum Schools, 172; and the 
 persecution of Gulam Bibi, 231. 
 
 Glasgow: side trip to, 13. 
 
 Goats, ills., 52, 153; theirfood, 190. 
 
 Gods: of the Hindus, iii, 112, 125; of the 
 Sikhs, 112, 113; of the Jains, 113, of Bud- 
 dhists, 114; immoral, 125. See Deities and 
 Idolatry. 
 
 Golden Temple at Amritsar, 112. 
 
 Gonda and Rev. S. Knowles, 161. 
 
 Good Hope . Cape of, 9. 
 
 Good works of the heathen, 321, 322. 
 
 Gordon, Rev. Andrew, D. D.: talk at Kala 
 Patthar, 152: theo. professor, 288. 289; his 
 literary style, 367 ; favored Persian Punjabi, 
 302 ; aids in Psalm translation, 303. 
 
 Gordon, Miss E. G. : her adventure with a 
 snake, 45 ; an experience in zenana work, 
 228, 229. 
 
 Gordon, Miss Euphie : her medical work, 181. 
 
 Gordon, Miss Ida, visits India, 64. 
 
 Gospel : filters up instead of down, 245 , how 
 to secure for it a favorable hearing, 149, 150, 
 received with joy, 252. 
 
 Gossner's Mission, 97. 
 
 Gough, Lord : at Ramnagar, 104, 105. 
 
 Government of India, ^ee British Rule. 
 
 Government Schools, See British Rule, 
 Educational and System Schools. 
 
 Governors : their appointment, powers and 
 salary, 28, 29, 30. 
 
 Governors-General. See Viceroys. 
 
 Govind Singh, a Sikh Guru. 112, 113. 
 
 Graces needed by a missionary, 378-380. 
 
 Grain of the Punjab, 57, 58 
 
 Granth, written by Arjan and worshiped, 112. 
 
 Grants-in-aid of schools and hospitals, 36, 72, 
 73, 270; conditions on which they are given 
 and the effect, 166. 
 
 Great Britain : relations to China and other 
 neighbors, 21 ; connection with India, 28; mis- 
 sionaries from. 385. 
 
 Greece : Bible distribution in, 301. 
 
 Greek invasions of India, 27. 
 
 Greek medical system in India, 47, 48. 
 
 Greek tongue : its study in the Theo. Seminary 
 defended, 290-292; needed by ministers, 290, 
 291: use in Bible translation, 291: easily learned 
 by students. 292 ; text books in Urdu, 307. 
 
 Gugga : tradition about, 118. 
 
 Cugga gana described, 118, 119. 
 
 Gujranwala City : its High School. 72, 73, 170, 
 172, 321 ; birthplace of Ranjit Singh, 104; its 
 mausoleum, 104; a Sikh center, 104: book- 
 shop there, 184 ; its Girls' Schools described, 
 170, 172, 228, 229 : its zenana work, 229 : pub- 
 lic debate there, 201 : non-Christians of, 237 ; 
 Hindu women of, 238, 239: a Muhammadan 
 of, 321 : its blankets, 106; allusion, 285. 
 
 Gujranwala District: historical connection with 
 the Sikhs, 104, 105 : Sikhs common now, 121 ; 
 melas there. 160 : places of interest in, 104 : 
 mortality in 1890, 46; work there, 233, 234 : 
 mission bound.iry in, loi ; movement toward 
 Christianity at Dogra tatti. 242 : two low-caste 
 Christians of, 257, 25S ; Musallies of, 246 ; 
 allusion. 90. 
 
 Gujranwala West . sparsely settled, 103 ; histor- 
 ical places, 103, 104 ; agrictdtural settlement on 
 the Chenab Cannl, 325; work there, 233 ; statis- 
 tics, 241, 386 ; allusion, 103. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 397 
 
 Gujranwnla Presbytery organized, 336. 
 
 Gujrat District : occupied by the Scotch Mis- 
 sion, 99 ; mortahty in 1890, 46. 
 
 Gujrat Province : the Dheds of, 245. 
 
 Gujrati tongue, 85. 
 
 Gulu Shah's tomb and its cattle fair, 160. 
 
 Gurdaspur City : founded, 104 ; medical work, 
 181; book-shop, 184; Mission House, ills., 
 368; W. M. S. organized there, 131. 
 
 Gurdaspur District : in U. P. field, 09 ; dense 
 population, 103; woolen fabrics of Dhariwal, 
 io6; sugar of Sujaiipur, io6 ; Ravi at Mad- 
 hopur, 105 ; in Indian mutiny, 105 ; Sikhs 
 there, 104, 121; melcis there, 160,274; some 
 work there, 161 ; Dalhousie surrendered, loi. 
 
 Gurdaspur Presbyte-ry organized, 336. 
 
 Gurkhas at Dharmsala, 50; in army, 50, 107. 
 
 Gurmukhi tongue : described, 86, 302. 
 
 Gurmukhi version of the Bible : its history, 302. 
 
 Guru (religious teacher) : Sikh example, 112, 
 113 ; Sansi example, 118. 
 
 Gypsies in India, 118. 
 
 Hail on the plains, 43. 
 
 Hair, crown tuft of, called a Choii, 106, 120 ; 
 ills., 325. 
 
 Hakims defined, 47. 
 
 Halfway stations between Christianity and 
 heathenism, 167. 
 
 Hall Line of Steamers, 11. 
 
 Hanuman, the monkey god, iii. 
 
 Haqq, Rev. Aziz ul : his lawsuits, 226. 
 
 Haqq-i-Skufii , 143, 225. 
 
 Haramuk, a mountain in Kashmir, 53. 
 
 Haibor and Light House, ills., 183. 
 
 Hardwar mela, ills., 159. 
 
 Hares, ills., 254. 
 
 Har Govind, a Sikh^arw, n2. 
 
 Hari Parbat Fort, at Srinagar, ills, 36. 
 
 Hari Rud river, road along, 20. 
 
 Hawkins, Bible translator, 300. 
 
 Hazara District : described, 102 ; transfer to U. 
 P. Mission, 102. 
 
 HazelVs ^K«aa/ cited, 29. 
 
 Health ; conditions of, in India, Chapter V ; how 
 affected by mission work there, 362-365, 385 ; 
 destroyed by Salvation Army methods, 216. 
 
 Health resorts in India : described, 50-54 ; their 
 drawbacks, 54. 
 
 Heat in India : season of, described, 40-42 ; very 
 trying, .368, 369 ; guards against, 41, 58. 
 
 Heathen : education of. See Education of Non- 
 Christians. 
 
 Heathen assistants : in schools, 146, 168, 170, 
 172, 268, 286, 296, 297 ; in medical work, 296. 
 
 Heathenism ; its atmosphere stifling to piety, 
 370-372 ; its repelling effect, 376 ; to be resisted 
 without compromise, 356 ; the death struggle 
 yet to come, 201. 
 
 Hebrew text books in Urdu, 307. 
 
 Hebrew tongue : needed by native ministers, 290, 
 291, 302; should be taught in theo. semi- 
 naries, 290-292 ; easily learned by Indian stu- 
 dents, 292. 
 
 Helmund river : road beside it, 20. 
 
 Herat : on the road to India, 19. 
 
 Heresy in Indi.i, 290. 
 
 Hermannsburgh Mission, 97. 
 
 Herodotus speaks of the Indus, 103. 
 
 Heterogeneousness of Indian society, 68. 
 
 Hidayat Masih's restoration, 255. 
 
 High Caste Converts. See Converts, Castes 
 and Christians. 
 
 High Churchism, or Ritualism, in India, 64 ; no 
 help in evangelism, 198. See Qxford 
 BroiherhoQii and Ceremonies, 
 
 High Courts, 29, 30. 
 
 High Schools defined, 163 ; in missions, 165; at 
 Sialkot, 170; at Gujranwala, 170, 172, 321; at 
 Jhelum, 170; at Rawal Pindi, 102, 172, :V/j., 
 171: C. T. I., see Christian Training Insti- 
 tute; non-Christian teachers in, see Heathen 
 Assistants; secular work in, 144, 145; re- 
 ligious exercises in, 172, 281, 282 ; usefulness 
 in training Christians, 278, 284, 294 ; doubts of 
 evangelistic usefulness, 165-170, 173 ; improve- 
 ments suggested, 170 ; allusion, 137. 
 
 Hill Stations in India, 50-54. 
 
 Hill water-carrier, ills., i-ji. 
 
 Hillali, on Euphrates route, 17. 
 
 Hill, of white ants, ills., 59. 
 
 Himalaya mountains; described, 98; snow- 
 capped, 106 ; snow fields seen from Landour, 
 53 ; at Dharmsala, 51 ; in Kashmir, 53 ; native 
 states in, 98 ; a barrier, 21 ; different peaks, 51, 
 
 54- 
 
 Hindi tongue: a branch of the Sanskrit, 85 ; a 
 constituent part of the Urdu, 85 ; sometimes 
 studied by Punjab missionaries, 86. 
 
 Hindrances : to our mission work generally. 
 Chapter XX; physical, 218; linguistic and 
 educational, 218 : from the government, 37-39, 
 218, 2ig ; from the lives of Europeans, 37, 64, 
 124, 125, 219 ; from unfriendly criticism, 219, 
 220 ; from defects of laborers, 220, 221 ; from 
 times of communion, 222 ; from false religions, 
 224-236; from caste, 223-225; from mission 
 policy, 319, 320; see Policy, Educational 
 Policy and 356-358 ; hindrances to getting a 
 location for work, 225-227 ; to prosecution of 
 work, 227, 228; to the hearing of the gospel, 
 228, 229 ; to earnest inquiry, 229 ; to faith in 
 Christ, 229, 230; to baptism of higher classes, 
 230-234 ; to baptism of low-castes, 233, 234 ; 
 to the peace of Christians, 234-236 ; to primary 
 training, 275 ; to getting land, 143 ; to educa- 
 tional work, 167, 16S, 267-270, 295-297. 343, 
 358. See also Dratvbacks and Persecution. 
 
 Hindu : art, 108 ; barber, ills., 209 ; carpenter, 
 ills., 108; doctors, 47, 48; education, 121, 
 122; fakirs, 204, 205; farmers, 243; medical 
 work, 47, 48 ; music, 304-306 ; sacred books, 
 35, 114, 355; reforms, 114, 355; washermen, 
 ills., 214. See also Hindus and Hinduism. 
 
 Hindu Heterodoxy, quoted from, 213. 
 
 Hinduism, modern : described, 110-112, 114; its 
 pantheon, iii, 113, 360; its gods and idolatry, 
 ni; see also Idolatry, Gods and Deities; its 
 false science, 162 ; its view of marriage and 
 females, 125, 126 ; teaches gentleness, 123 ; but 
 persecutes, 246 ; its songs, 306 : its captains- 
 general, 205; relation to Sikhs, Jains, Bud- 
 dhists, Aryans and others, 113-115, 116, 118; 
 among low castes, 118; somewhat declining, 
 355; grosser forms abandoned, 354 ; recupera- 
 tive power, 356 : how best attacked. 162 ; must 
 be destroyed, 356. See Hindu, Hindus and 
 Natives. 
 
 Hindus : of Aryan race, no ; their numbers, no, 
 352-354 ; castes, ni, 116, 123, 124 ; dress, 109, 
 no, 120, 121; habits, 120; tika. 120; towns, 
 109; manner of eating, ills., 106; education, 
 121, 122 ; panchayats, 271 ; New Year's day, 
 160; their Tri-murti, in; pantheism and 
 polytheism, 43, in ; objects of worship, 43, 
 in, 112 : manner of worship, in ; gods 
 named, in ; gods immoral, 125; obstructions 
 to reaching heaven, 126 ; their philosophies, 
 246; festivals, 112, 160; morals, 122-128 ; toler- 
 ant sometimes, 123; yet persecute, 126, 127; 
 temperate, 122 ; liberal, 321, 322, 353; adverse 
 to killing animals, especially the cow species, 
 
398 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Hindus — Continued. 
 
 112, 190; religious devotion, 353, 354; women 
 especially bigoted, 48 ; home religious life, 112 ; 
 how they restore apostates, 230, 231 ; hate 
 Moslems, 117; in our schools, 267, 286; in S. 
 Schools, 195, 267; at bazar preaching, 157; in 
 Civil Service, 325 ; admire Christian home 
 life, 216; sometimes converted, 244; converts, 
 beneficiaries, 275 ; sometimes help us, 232 ; 
 oftener oppose us, 226, 232 ; persecute con- 
 verts, 126, 127, 230, 231 ; rebel against mission 
 work, 229 ; reforms, 355 ; Sabbath, a holiday, 
 228 ; allusions, 21, 159, 170, 204, 209, 219, 239, 
 247, 326, 381. See Natives, Hindu and Hin- 
 duis»i. 
 
 Hindustani tongue. See Urdu. 
 
 Hiouen Thsaiig's visit to India, 103, 104. 
 
 Hissar, on new route, 16. 
 
 History of the Church in Urdu, 307. 
 
 Houses: of missionaries, described, 55, 56; of 
 natives, 108, 109, 263. See Bungaiows and 
 Natives of India. 
 
 Hukka, or huqqa, native pipe, 66; ills., 153. 
 
 Hukma's holy joy, 255. 
 
 Hunter, Sir VVni.: on universities, 164; favors 
 austerity in missionaries, 205 ; on languages of 
 India, 85; on Indian poetry and music, 304; 
 on medicine in India, 47. 
 
 Husband and wife in India, 174-176, 228, 229. 
 
 Hydaspes, the Jhelum, 103. 
 
 Hydraotes, the Ravi, 103. 
 
 Hyphasis, the Beas, 103. 
 
 Ibbetson, Denzil, B. C. S. : quoted, 119. 
 
 Ibis boat mentioned, 193. 
 
 Idolatry: in India, iio-n6 ; at Bombay, 353. 
 See Gods and Deities. 
 
 Ignorance of new converts, 244, 267, 273, 275. 
 
 Illinois compared with our Mission, 103. 
 
 Illiteracy of the Indian people, 165. See Igno- 
 rance and Natiz'es. 
 
 Ill health. See Health. 
 
 Improvement of native Christians, 254. See 
 Christians and Training. 
 
 Income of U. P. Mission: its sources, 69-73; 
 from home church, 69-71 ; from foreign 
 laborers, 71, 72: from native Christians, 72; 
 from English officers and residents, 72; from 
 the government proper, 72, 73 ; from fees, 73; 
 from favorable exchange, 73. See also Fi- 
 nances. 
 
 Independence of Mission churches : the great 
 thins; aimed at, 148, 261, 310 ; how far possessed 
 by Japanese and other churches, 312, 313. 
 
 Independence of native ministers necessary, 291, 
 340, 341 ; aided by a classical education, 290, 
 291 ; by freedom from an autocratic policy, 
 341 ; and by the grant of more self-governing 
 power. Chapter XXVIII. 
 
 India: journey to, see America ; its area, 95; 
 population, 95, no; growth of its population, 
 352 : its tongues, 85 ; its government, see 
 British Rule, British Territory and Native 
 States; a rival of Russia, 19; its people de- 
 scribed. Chapter XII ; compared with Eu- 
 ropeans, 122-128; as a Mission field, 94, 95; 
 its Missions, map of, 97; when it will be- 
 come Christian, 359-361 ; referred to,. 364, 367, 
 369, 371, 376. 
 
 Indian Army. See Army in India 
 
 "Indian Empire," by Sir Wm. Hunter: cited, 
 47, 85, 304. 
 
 Indian Evangelical Review : a help to Missions, 
 92 ; quoted on fakirs, 206 ; an article quoted, 
 290, 291 ; cited on division between mission- 
 aries and natives, 343, 344 ; quoted on growth 
 
 Indian Evangelical Reviev) — Continued. 
 
 of Islam, 352, 353 ; cited on the conversion of 
 India, 360; article on ill health, 364; article on 
 Bible translation, 301 ; article on baptism of 
 minors, 230, 231. 
 
 Indian Government. See British Rule. 
 
 Indian Home Mission, 97. 
 
 Indian Missions. See Missions of India. 
 
 Indian Ocean, 2. 
 
 Indian Standard : a help to Missions, 92. 
 
 Indian Witness : a help to Missions, 92. 
 
 Indo-European race, 107. 
 
 Indus : receives the five rivers, 98; mentioned by 
 Herodotus, 103; crossed by Alexander, 103; 
 boundary of Rawal Pindi, 102; at Attock, 
 105. 
 
 Industrial training: discussed, 324, 326; at Se- 
 cundia, Ludhiana and Lucknow, 324 ; of U. 
 P. Mission, 324 ; hindrances to, 326 ; should 
 be given native Christians, 331. 
 
 Infanticide, female : common, 128. 
 
 Infidelity, Western: in India, 114, 117, 151, 219; 
 fostered by government education, so said, 
 151, 169. 
 
 Influence of India Missions, 237, 238. 
 
 Inglis, John: at Sialkot, 279. 
 
 Inns in India. See Rest Houses. 
 
 Inquirers : their difficulty, 229, 230; taught, 272; 
 desiring worldly help, 203. 
 
 Inspection: by sub-superintendents, 271, 272; 
 by missionaries, 272 ; by School Inspectors, 
 163, 270. 
 
 Inspectors of Schools : Mission, 270 ; govern- 
 ment, 163, 270. 
 
 Instrumental music, 156. 
 
 Intellect and intelligence : how affected by mis- 
 sionary life, 365-367. 
 
 Intemperance ; an obstruction to evangelism, 
 222. 
 
 Intermediate class on railways, 77. 
 
 International Series of S. S. Lessons, 267. 
 
 Intoxicants of India, 38, 39, 122. 
 
 Invasion of fields, harmful, 89, 95, 96, 220, 358. 
 
 Ireland : seen en route, 12. 
 
 Irish Presbyterian Mission, 97. 
 
 Irkutsk founded, 23. 
 
 Isaac, J. : position in C. T. I., 282, 284; por- 
 trait of himself and family, 252. 
 
 Isai. explained, 203. 
 
 Isaiah 58 : 10, 11 quoted, 377. 
 
 Islam persecutes, 117,201,231-233, 235,246. See 
 Muhammadanism and Muhattimadans. 
 
 Israelites : their departure from Egypt, 14. 
 
 Italian ports, 9, 11. 
 
 Italian shops, 157. 
 
 Itinerating work : described, 184-195 ; different 
 kinds, 185, 186; itinerating with tents, 186- 
 193 ; preparation for it, 186 ; the caravan, 
 186; the journey, 186, 187; the encampment, 
 187-189, 225 ; the tents, 188 : encampment at 
 night, 188, 189; supplies, 189, 190, 227; itin- 
 erating without tents, 192, 193 ; with boats, 
 193 ; results of intineration, and its excellences, 
 193, 195; period of itineration, 186, 193; sec- 
 ular work connected with it, 142, 143; ills.. 
 
 Jackals: met in itinerating, 187: ills., 65, 192. 
 
 Jadjodh Singh, sardar : and the Sialkot hospital, 
 226. 
 
 Jahangir's tomb, 104. 
 
 Jains ; their number, no ; tenets and character, 
 113 ; caste. 113, 116; increasing, 352. 
 
 Jalandhar District : occupied by Am. Presby- 
 terians, 98 ; infant death r3te of its males and 
 females, i2S, 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 399 
 
 Jamadar, a petty officer : arrests Rura, 235. 
 
 Jamu City : railway to, 76. 
 
 Jamil territory ; not assigned in a Mission set- 
 tlement, lOI. 
 
 Janvier, Rev. L. : his aid in translating the Pun- 
 jabi Bible, 302. 
 
 Japan: route via, 17; its self-supportirrg 
 churches, 311 ; their independence, 312; allu- 
 sions, 23, 364. 
 
 Jawala : monitor of the Institute, 284. 
 
 Jebel Atakah, on the Red Sea, 14. 
 
 Jerome, a fakir, 206. 
 
 Jersey City, 286. 
 
 Jessup, Dr. : his oratory, 366. 
 
 Jewelry: worn by many, no; in zenanas, 177; 
 ills., 174, 228, 325. 
 
 Jeypore, on road to the Punjab, 16. 
 
 Jhang : described, 99, 193 ; its sparse population, 
 103 ; connected with Sikhs, 104 : Shiahs there, 
 121 ; its inlaid work, 106; occupied by U. P. 
 Mission, 99, 100; allusion, 242. 
 
 Jhelum Cantonment, 31, 105. 
 
 Jhelum City; its census of males and females, 
 128 ; dispensary and hospital, 182 ; convention 
 at, ills., 298; Mission House, ills., 144: 
 church, zV/j., 298 ; book-shop, 157, 184; Hindu 
 and Moslem revolts, 176, 229 ; Girls' Schools, 
 170, 172; medical work, 182; Boys' School, 
 170 ; allusion, 296. 
 
 Jhelum District : skirted by Jhang, 100 ; its 
 mountains, 46, 105; salt, 57; Shiahs, 121; 
 Musallies, 246. 
 
 Jhelum Mission District : includes Bhera, 182 ; 
 progress there, 241, 386 ; allusion, 242. 
 
 Jhelum river: one of the "five rivers," 98; 
 same as the Hydaspes, T03 : crossed by Alex- 
 ander, 103 ; borders Rawal Pindi, 102 ; in 
 Kashmir, 53; in Jhang, 193: ills., 36 86, 
 
 357- , t T, 1 
 
 Jilalpur, where Alexander crossed the Jhelum, 103. 
 
 Jiwan Mai : work in C. T. I., 282. 
 
 yogi, a species of Hindu fakir, 321. 
 
 Johnson, Sophia E., M. D. : medical work, 181, 
 
 182 ; opposition to her dispensarj- work, 229 ; 
 
 at a serai, ills., 182; on higher education of 
 
 Christians, 296 ; her loss by floods, 42. 
 Journey to India. See America. 
 Jubal Sukr, on Red Sea, 15. 
 Jubal Tur, on Red Sea, 14. 
 Judgeship, a prize, 29. 
 Judges' salary in the Punjab, 324. 
 Jugeernaut, or Jaganath, ills., 354. 
 Jugglers : may perform in bazars, 156. 
 Jungle, ills., 161. 
 Jutian: described, 109, no; when removed, 
 
 264 ; ills., 342. 
 
 Kabiraj mentioned, 47. 
 
 Kalnil river, a branch of the Indus, 98. 
 
 Kachchlia. ■](>. 
 
 Kadian, allusion to, 201. 
 
 Kafiristan : no trouble to India, 21. 
 
 Kaka's happy death, 256. 
 
 Kala Patthar, black rock, 152. 
 
 Kalanaur: Akbar crowned there, 104; mela 
 
 there, 160. 
 Kalbadevi Road, Bombay, ills., 375. 
 Kandahar, 19. 
 Kangra Valley : in C. M. S. field, 98 ; its tea and 
 
 rice, 51, 57. 
 Kankar described, 74, 75. 
 Karachi : railway to, 76; routes via, 10, 11, 15, 
 
 16, 17, 18. 
 Karens : alluded to, 245 ; their self-supporting 
 
 churches, 311. 
 
 Karm Bakhsh's conversion, 242, 
 
 Kashmir: described, 53, 54; in C. M. S. field, 
 98; reached easiest from Murree, 102; boats 
 used there, 193 ; its earthquakes, 43 ; its 
 tongue, 86 ; medical treatment of its Maha- 
 raja and his family, 48; cholera in 1892, 54; 
 summer capital, Srinagar, ills., 36; on a lake 
 in Kashmir, z7/j., 55; the Jhelum river there, 
 36, 86, 357 ; boats, bridges, houses, ills., 36, 
 
 357- 
 
 Khaji's faithfulness to her children, 255. 
 
 Khajiar lake, near Dalhousie.. 52. 
 
 Khaki, or dust-colored, garments, 56. 
 
 Khalsa, a Sikh Council, 113. 
 
 Khargosh, hares, ills., 254. 
 
 Khasis, alluded to, 245. 
 
 Khatola, ills., 49. 
 
 Khatriyas : at dispensaries, 181 ; allusion, 245. 
 
 Khewra : bazar preaching there, 90. 
 
 Khiva fell in 1873, 23. 
 
 Khojak tunnel described, 19. 
 
 Khokand annexed, 23. 
 
 AVr/zrtr/ described, 58. 
 
 Killcn's " Ancient Church " translated, 307. 
 
 Kingdom of heaven : recognized specially by 
 missionaries, 368, 371. 
 
 Kipling, Ruclyard ; his stories of India life, 124, 
 125. 
 
 Kirkhian, windows, ills., 144, 368. 
 
 Kizl Arvat : taken, 23 ; railway to, 19. 
 
 Knowles, Rev. S., his success at melas, 161. 
 
 Kohat War, 22. 
 
 Kols, alluded to, 245. 
 
 Koran: as viewed by Moslems, 115: com- 
 mitted by maulvies, 117 ; against strong drink, 
 122 ; against usury, 123 ; quoted at bazar 
 preaching, 157, 158. 
 
 Kotgarh, beyond Simla, 53. 
 
 Kotla, shrines at, 353. 
 
 Koweit, on Euphrates route, 17. 
 
 Krasnovodsk, occupied, 23. 
 
 Krishna : his images common, in. 
 
 Kulu : trip through, 53, 54. 
 
 Kunal Patthar, a peak at Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Kursi : defined, 177 ; ills., ■^g. 
 
 Kuria : described, 109, no; ills., 124, 184, 
 228. 
 
 Kwaja Amran Mountains, on road to Kandahar, 
 19. 
 
 Ladakh occupied by Moravians, 99. 
 
 Laddha: at Ramnagar, 234. 
 
 Ladies' Association of the Church of Scotland, 
 279, 284. 
 
 Lady DufFerin scheme and fund, 72, 179. 
 
 Lady missionaries : their rights and powers in 
 the Mission, 131, 132 ; work, 174-183, 272 ; pub- 
 lic discourses, 150, 178, 179 ; house in Jhelum, 
 ills., 144; how' work affects their piety, 378. 
 See Women, Zenana and Medical. 
 
 Lahore ; capital of the Punjab, 30 ; to London, 
 18 ; route via, 16. 18, 20. 
 
 Lahore Christian College : its Christian students, 
 169; excellent character, 173. 
 
 Lahore District : its roads and railways, 75, 76 ; 
 in Amer. Pres. Mission, 98 ; allusions, 28, 104, 
 325. 
 
 Lahul: Buddhists, there, n4 ; occupied by Mo- 
 ravians, 90. 
 
 Laka, near Dharmsala, 52. 
 
 Lai Beg. ^te. Bala Shah. 
 
 Lala Musa and the Sind Sagar railway, 76 
 lusion, i=;2. 
 
 Lamhardar : described, 189: lower than 3 
 Zaildar, 226 ; sometimes indifferent to misson' 
 aries, igi. 
 
 Land laws in India, 143. 
 
 al- 
 
400 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Land purchasing. See Real Estate. 
 
 Landaur: described, 52, 53. 
 
 Langoti : described, log ; ilh., 155, 187, 214, 277, 
 
 325. 
 Language: acquisition of, 86.-88, 136, 140 ; easily 
 acquired by Europeans or not, 292 ; a foreign 
 language unfavorable to devotion, 369, 370. 
 Languages of India, 85 ; their study, 86-88, 136, 
 
 140. 
 Lansdowne, Marquis of: his viceroyalty, 32, 33 ; 
 
 portrait, 33. 
 Lansing, Dr. : his eloquence, 366. 
 Lawsuits, as means of persecution, 226. See 
 
 Hindrances. 
 Lay missionaries, male, 146. 
 Learning of missionaries, 365-367. 
 Leaven like influence of the gospel, 195, 196. 
 Legislation in, and for, India, 28, 29. 
 Leipzig Mission, 97. 
 Leopard : ills. , 230. 
 
 Leprosy piop.Tgated by vaccination, 47. 
 Liberality of Hindus and Moslems, 321, 322. 
 Liberality of missionaries, 289, 377. 
 Liberality of native Cbristians : instances, 314, 
 315, 253, 255 ; hindered by Mission policy, 
 319, 320; further increase possible, 319; the 
 tithe system, 320-322 ; hov/ to be increased, 
 328-330: efforts made and success, 314, 315; 
 liberality of the Ludhiana Mission and the C. 
 M. S., 331 ; of M. E. native church and the 
 Congregational, 332 ; how affected by the 
 grant of authority to natives, 348, 349. 
 Liberty of Christians in India less than that of 
 
 other sects, 38, 
 Licentiate : defined, 340 ; his duties, 272. 
 Lieut. -Governors: their position and salary, 29, 
 
 30 : of the Punjab, 33, 34 ; their tours, 234. 
 Likar's Christian walk, 255, 256. 
 Lingaz.nA Vouni, iii. 
 
 Linguistic conditions in India, Chapter IX. 
 Linguistic hindrances to work, 218. 
 Liquor trade in India, 38, 39. 
 Literature : as an evangelistic agency, 184, 185 ; 
 used in lower training, 273, 274 ; its forms, 184 ; 
 its languages, 184 ; its sources, 185 ; that of 
 the Sialkot Mission, and Presbytery, 130, 185, 
 307 ; a secular burden, 146 ; co-operation in 
 producing, 92, 93 ; in the vernaculars of India 
 described, 300-309. 
 Lithographing used in India, 268, 269. 
 Liver complaint in India, 46. 
 Liverpool: to India, 9-15 ; its sights, 13; allu- 
 sion, 9. 
 Living in India ; different modes of, 204, 205 ; 
 modes adopted by Christian workers and mis- 
 sionaries, 205, 319. 
 Lizards : in houses, 58 ; ills. , 104. 
 Locusts, ills., 139. 
 
 London: excursion to, 13; to India, 9-20. 
 London Missionary Society : enters India, 94 ; 
 fields, 97; methods of work, 212; in Mada- 
 gascar, 311 ; allusion, 300. 
 London 'limes. See Times. 
 Longevity : of natives of India, 44 ; of mis- 
 sionaries, 364, 365, 385. 
 Lord's Prayer: to be committed before baptism, 
 
 219, 220. 
 Lord's Supper : how dispensed in the U. P. 
 
 field, 266 ; by whom dispensed, 273. 
 Lota., a round drinking vessel, ills., 65, 106. 
 Low-caste people. See Castes, Loin. 
 Lower Primary School Standard, defined, 164, 
 267 ; referred to, 284, 294. See Primary 
 Schools. 
 Lucas, Rev. J J., D. D. : article on Bible Trans- 
 lation, 301, ' 
 
 Lucknow printing, 306, 324; its S. S. literature, 
 92. 
 
 Ludhiana occupied, 98. 
 
 Ludhiana Mission : name, whence derived, 131 ; 
 its Semi-Ccntennial, 98; its industrial work, 
 324, its liberality, 331 ; its policy regarding na- 
 tives, 346; its printing press, 306. See Amer- 
 ican Presbyterian Mission. 
 
 Lull : described, 41 ; referred to, 372. 
 
 Lushai uprisings, 22. 
 
 Luther : used as an illustration, 175 ; his Bible, 
 302. 
 
 Lutheran Missions, 07, 384, 385. 
 
 Lyall, Sir James : character as Lieut. -Governor, 
 
 34- 
 Lyric poetry of India, 304 
 Lytle, Rev D. S. : his relation to the Persian 
 
 Punjabi N. T., 302 ; work on the Psalms, 304; 
 
 experience with an enquirer, 203 ; building 
 
 work, 144. 
 Lytton, Lord : character and viceroyalty, 31 ; 
 
 abolishes the law of the Sabbath, 38. 
 
 McCahon, Miss E. L. : founds the Girls' Board- 
 ing School, 284; had charge, 286 ; her Short 
 Catechism, 306 ; her work in the Institute, 
 282. 
 
 McCheyne: his habits of devotion, 369. 
 
 McCuUough, Miss R. A. : her testimony regard- 
 ing Badoki, 254; alluded to, 258. 
 
 McDowell's Compend of Theology, translated, 
 307. 
 
 McKee, Rev. J. P., D.D. : Sup't Gujranwala 
 High Scliool, 172 ; Sup't C. T. Institute, 282; 
 Prof, in the Theological Seminary, 289 ; testi- 
 mony about the higher education of Chris- 
 tians, 296 ; experience with an enquirer, 203; 
 departure from India, 289.' 
 
 McKee, Mrs. J. P. : work in the Institute, 282. 
 
 McLeod Ganj at Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Madagascar : its fine missions, with statistics, 
 311 ; their dependence on foreign aid, 311, 313. 
 
 Madhopur : Ravi river at, 105. 
 
 Madras City : a possible port for missionaries, 
 17; route ziia, 10. 
 
 Madras Presidency: powers of its governor, 28; 
 his salarj', 30 ; its civil service, 29 ; increase of 
 Christians there, 351, 384, 385; education in, 
 121, 122, 169; Bible distribution there, 301; 
 statistics of its missions, 384, 385. 
 
 Madras University, 163, 164. 
 
 Madura: Bible distribution there, 301. 
 
 Magic Lantern : its use in missions, 156. 
 
 Mahabharat mentions Jhelum, 103. 
 
 Mahadeva : on the hills, in. 
 
 Mahalla : defined, 159; preaching, 158, 159. 
 
 Mahars, a low caste, 245. 
 
 Mahavira, a Jain saint, 113. 
 
 Mahdi : excitement about, 22. 
 
 Mahratta self-sustaining churches, 311. 
 
 Mails : foreign and domestic, 63 ; used in mission 
 work, 273; mails for a camp in itineration, 190. 
 See Postal Se7-z'ice. 
 
 Makhsan-i-Mosihi : a help in mission work, 92 ; 
 quoted, 215. 
 
 Malabar Hill, Bombay, visited, 15. 
 
 ^Ia!aysian M. E. Missions, with statistics, 241. 
 
 Malta : passed on the way to India, 13. 
 
 Manipur rebellion, 22. 
 
 Manu: his caste rules, 354. 
 
 Manual of Foreign Board and Mission, 131, 132. 
 
 Map : of The Heart of the Punjab and the U. P. 
 ^Iission, opposite title page; of routes to 
 India, 10; of India Missions, 97. 
 
 Marali ; beginning of mission work there, 242. 
 
 Marathi tongue, a branch of the Sanskrit, 85. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 401 
 
 Marriage : eight kinds among Hindus, 125 ; with- 
 in caste hnes, 224; associated with reiigior.s 
 rites, 112; among Moslems, 125; nuptial din- 
 ners, 66; marriage processions, 187; early 
 marriage interferes with education, 287 ; mar- 
 riage reform, 355 ; marriage or celibacy among 
 missionaries, 212. See Divorce. 
 
 Married lady missionaries : their work and in- 
 fluence, 150, 177, 192, 2S2, &c. 
 
 IMarseilles : a port used in going to India, 9. 
 
 Martin, Miss Dora: her visit to India, 65. 
 
 Martin, Rev. J. H. : his sister's visit, 65. 
 
 Martin, Rev. S., D. D. : Prof, in Theo. Semi- 
 nary, 289 ; chairman of the Psalm Committee, 
 303; translates "Brief Evidences," 185; also 
 Brown's "Explication," 307; his catechism, 
 306; quoted on drawbacks to higher education, 
 
 Martin, Mrs. S : quoted on annoyances in itin- 
 erating, 192 ; and on the open door among 
 Chuhras, 246, 247. 
 
 Martyn, Rev. Henry : his translation of the New 
 Testament, 300; reference to his life, 301. 
 
 Martyrs in India : now rare, but a few, 236. 
 
 Mary Anna's portrait, 177. 
 
 Masadi, our agent at Dharmsala, 50. 
 
 Masjids, or mosques, described, 116. 
 
 Matthew 28 : 18-20 : quoted, 374 ; its teaching on 
 baptism, 262. 
 
 Maturity of mission churches : its rarity, 311, 
 312; discussed, Chapters XXVI, XXVII and 
 XXVin — see Contents. See also under 
 Church and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Maulu, of Chimma, persecutes Rura, 236. 
 
 Maulvi : defined, 117; sometimes rabid, 152; 
 his wordly wants, 319. 
 
 Mausoleum of Ranjit Singh's father at Gujran- 
 wala, 104. 
 
 Maxwell, Mrs. E. B. ; her writing, 367. 
 
 Mazhabi Sikhs ; described, 113, 246. 
 
 Meals of missionaries described, 57, 58. 
 
 Meats of the Punjab, 57 ; also imported, 57. 
 See under Game. 
 
 Mediaeval Missions : different from modern, 243. 
 
 Medical classes : utilized in training Christian 
 girls, 294; allusion, 278. 
 
 Medical Missionary Record: statistics from, 
 quoted, 179. 
 
 Medical Missionary work : of missionaries gen- 
 erally, 145, 179; of medical missionaries par- 
 ticularly, 145, 146; of native helpers, 146; its 
 methods, 179-183; sustained by fees, iSi ; by 
 grants-in-aid, i8t ; by subscriptions, i8i ; aided 
 indirectly by the Lady Dufferin Scheme, 72 ; 
 arguments in favor of it, 180, 181 ; a good 
 pioneer agency, 181 ; supported by Christ's ex- 
 ample, 181 ; objections to it, 180, 181 ; secular, 
 in it, 145, 146; difficulties, 229; medical work 
 in the Sialkot Mission, 181-183 ; st.Ttistics, 179, 
 i8i, 182; spiritual results, 182, 183. 
 
 Medical Science in India : its history, 47, 48. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea : traversed by India mission- 
 aries, 10, 13, 17. 
 
 Meerut : route via, 16. 
 
 Megasthenes speaks of the Indus, 103. 
 
 Megs (weavers), a low caste. 117; Christian 
 movement among, at Zafarwal, 242, 325; 
 Piyara, a Meg, 233 ; Cheddu, a Meg, 234 ; allu- 
 sion, 220. 
 
 Mela, defined, 160. 
 
 Mela preaching : described, 160, i6i ; its value, 
 160, i6i ; co-operation in, 90. 
 
 Melas, Christian: described, 274; their value, 
 274 ; an example, 274. 
 
 Melas : Hindu, of U. P. field, 160 ; one at Hard- 
 war, ills., 159 ; alluded to, 161, 174. 
 
 20 
 
 Memorial Hospital, Sialkot. See IVomen's 
 Memorial Hospital. 
 
 Memorial of missionaries to the General As- 
 sembly, 69. 
 
 Memorial uf native ministers to the General As- 
 sembly : its character and purport, 344, 347, 
 348 ; its results, 138, 347. 
 
 Mem-sakiba ; defined, 150; her work, 150,* 177, 
 192, 282, &c. 
 
 Merchants of the Punjab, Parsees, 115. 
 
 Merve : taken, 23 ; railway to, 19. 
 
 Messageries Line of Steamers, 11. 
 
 Messenger, quoted on declining Hinduism, 35';. 
 
 Meter: the kind used in India version of the 
 Psalms, 303 ; Oriental and Occidental, com- 
 pared, 304. 
 
 Methodist Camp Meeting referred to, 274. 
 
 M. E. Church : its scheme of study for ministers, 
 297, 298. 
 
 M. E. Church in India: its fields, 97; in the 
 Punjab, 99; its liberality, 332; the power it 
 gives natives, 346, 347; its progress and 
 statistics, 241 ; baptism at melas, 161 ; its 
 printing at Lucknow, 306, 308, 324 ; its S. S. 
 literature, 92 ; its newspapers, 92 ; salary of its 
 missionaries, 62. 
 
 Methodist (Free) Mission. 97. 
 
 Methodist Tltnes : on Dr. Duff's educational 
 policy, 162 ; on the influence of a missionary 
 home, 216. 
 
 Methodists, Wesleyan : their fields in India, 97; 
 salary of the missionaries, 62 ; their chaplains, 
 36. 
 
 Methodists of all k:nds in India : statistics, 384, 
 385 ; their testimony bearing, 197. 
 
 Methods of Evangelization. See Ez'angelistic 
 Work. 
 
 Mexico : Bible distribution there, 301. 
 
 Miani : description of a house there, 176. 
 
 Michaelovsk : founded, 23 : railway to, 19. 
 
 Middle School Grade, or Department : defined, 
 
 292, 342, 317, 339 ; standard for the lower 
 grade of U. P. ministry, 339, 342 ; number 
 passed in our field, 294 ; till lately the highest 
 grade of the C. T. Institute, 297 ; no provision 
 till recently for the training of Christians 
 higher than this in U. P. Mission, 296. 
 
 Rlihtar : a sweeper of the Chuhra caste, 60. 
 
 Mildmay Park Association of Female Workers, 
 90. 
 
 Military of India. See Army. 
 
 Military Service for native Christians discussed, 
 325, 326. 
 
 Ministers, Native, in India generally : number 
 and increase, 351, 352, 384, 385 ; called pad- 
 ries, 233 ; an important force in converting 
 India, 87, 358 ; their special work at present, 
 196, 271, 272, 317; their thorough education 
 desirable, 292, 293, 317, 331 ; should know the 
 original languages of Scripture, 290-292 ; 
 qualifications for ordination, 339; should be 
 educated by each Mission for its own work, 
 278 ; their salaries regulated by supply and de- 
 mand, 317, 318; combination to force down 
 their salary improper, 319 ; a just standard of 
 salary, 323; their present style of living, 205, 
 319; their social customs, 66; their inter- 
 course with missionaries, 66, 67 : charges and 
 countercharges, 297, 342-344. See also next 
 subject. 
 
 Ministers, Native, of the U. P. Mission : their 
 two grades, lower and evangelistic. 297, 339 ; 
 not many of the latter needed, 339, but some, 
 297 ; standard of the former, 292, 342 ; of the 
 latter 317 ; a good education desirable, 292, 
 
 293, 317, 331 ; should know Greek and Hebrew, 
 
402 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Ministers, Native, of U. P. Mission — Continued. 
 290-292; provision for their theological training, 
 288-293 ; training through church courts, 298- 
 300 ; their fewness, 338, 339 ; causes of the 
 paucity, 339, 340; their salaries, 315, 316; 
 style of living, 65, 66, 205, 319 ; social customs, 
 66; intercourse with missionaries, 66, 67; 
 special work, 196, 271, 272, 317 ; relation to 
 missionaries, 67, 138, 139 ; complaints against 
 missionaries and vice versa, 297, 342-344 ; gen- 
 eral qualifications, 340-342 ; should have more 
 power and independence, 340-349. See also 
 last subject. 
 
 Miracles of Christ : their object, 181. 
 
 Mirage^;, seen in itinerating, 187. 
 
 Mirza Gulam Ahmed : debate with, 199, 201. 
 
 Mirzapur ; publications at, 308 ; its Bible a 
 standard, 300. 
 
 Mission Churches. See Church in Mission 
 La nds. 
 
 Mission Districts of U. P. field : named, 386 ; 
 defined, Map, opp. title page ; statistics, 241, 
 386; progress in, 341, 342; arrangements for, 
 270, 278. 
 
 Mission Life : its character and eflfcct on mission- 
 aries. See Missionaries. 
 
 Mission Policy. See under Policy. 
 
 Mission, U. P. See United Presbyterian Mis- 
 sion. 
 
 Mission work : its drain on the nervous system, 
 363 ; its stages, 148, 149, 261 ; its methods, 
 See under Evang^elistic Work, Training, 
 &c. ; see also Missions, Foreign. 
 
 Missionaries to India : the stimulus received from 
 their call, 374 ; qualifications desired, 378-380 ; 
 training needed, 299 ; truly apostles, 374, 375 ; 
 journey to India, Chapter I — see Contents ; 
 travel by steamer. 11 ; by rail, 11, 12 ; number 
 ordained in India, and their increase, 95, 351, 
 352, 384, 385 ; proportion to the field, 95; their 
 nationality, 385 ; number in U. P. field, 
 386; not generally independent, 129; their 
 training in the Mission, 136; acquiring foreign 
 tongues, 86-88, 140; study of the people, 141; 
 their salary, 61-63, 215,216; some honorary, 
 212 ; modes of living, 205 ; domestic conditions. 
 Chapter VI — see Contents; houses and furni- 
 ture, 55, 56; dress, 56, 57, table and food, 58 ; 
 sometimes get game, 190; modes of travel. 
 Chapter Vlll — see Contents; relation to the 
 government, 36, 37; fears from without, 25, 27, 
 35 ; liability to disease. Chapter V — see Con- 
 tents, also 364; sacrifices and burdens, 58-61, 
 192, 193, 212; recreations, 48-54,63-65; inter- 
 course with officials, 57, 63, 64; with travelers, 
 64, 65; with native Christians, 66, 67; with 
 fellow missionaries, 137, 376; shrink from 
 fashionable society, 57 ; under the Mission, 
 134; but have much freedom, 137, 138; their 
 secular work. Chapter XIV, 372, 373 ; their re- 
 lation to evangelism, 196; to work among 
 Christians, 196, 272, 273 ; educationalists, 165 ; 
 encouragements and supports, 374-37B; dis- 
 couragements, 373; conflicts, 373; authority 
 over natives, 66, 67, 138, 139 ; co-operation 
 with them, 299 ; sahibs, 341 ; relation to church 
 courts, 130, 299 ; complaints against native 
 workers and vice versa, 297, 342-344 ; cannot 
 often tell their own converts, 153, 154; their 
 studies, English, eloquence and intellectual 
 growth, 365-367 ; their attachment to home and 
 the foreign land, 367, 368 ; their mistakes, 
 weakness and imperfection, 220, 275, 299; 
 temper affected by climate, 368, 369 ; obstruc- 
 tions to their growth in grace, 368-374 ; helps 
 to their spiritual advancement, 374-378 ; their 
 
 Missionaries to India — Continued. 
 
 fraternal feeling, 376; unworldliness, 377; 
 liberality, 377; piety summed up, 378; differ- 
 ence between them and home ministers, 370, 
 373; how viewed by outsiders in India, 237, 
 238 ; their need of vacations and furloughs, 
 48-54, 371, 372: love to return to their field, 
 378 ; comparative mortality, 48, 50, 362-365, 
 385 ; length of service, 364, 365, 385 ; their re- 
 tirement, 62, 63, 368 ; their children's Homes, 
 61. 
 
 Missionary spirit : its history and propagation, 
 380, 381. 
 
 Missions : their high aim, 148 ; the great work of 
 the church, 380-382. 
 
 Missions, Foreign : their necessity and aim, 148, 
 363 ; their importance, 374, 375 ; what tasks 
 they undertake, 148, 149, 261 ; their organized 
 methods. Chapter XIII : their complicated 
 and sometimes autocratic machinery, 273 ; 
 their reflex influence. Chapter XXX — see 
 Contents; their effect on Home Missions and 
 vice 7iersa, 380-382 ; evils of encroachment on 
 one another's field, 89, 220, 358. See Mis- 
 sions in India, &c. 
 
 Missions, Home: their relation to foreign mis- 
 sions, 380-382. 
 
 Missions, in India: their necessity, 128; their 
 history, 94-97; have separate fields, 95-97; 
 map, 97; sometimes clash, 89,220,358; their 
 methods of evangelism. Chapters XV — XX 
 — see Contents ; of training Christians, Chap- 
 ters XXIII — XXV — see Contents ; their pro- 
 gress, 238-248, 351, 352, 384, 385 ; how viewed 
 by outsiders, 237, 238 ; converts mostly from 
 the depressed classes, 243, 245 ; compared with 
 missions of the Ancient and Mediaeval church, 
 243 ; compared with Roman Catholic, 214, 215 ; 
 their social and political influence, 37, 237, 
 238 ; dangers confronting them, 356-358 ; their 
 policy, see Policy; their outlook, see Out- 
 look; for particular Missions, see elsewhere. 
 
 Missions, Punjab ; 97-103, 241, 351, 384, 385, also 
 map opposite title page. 
 
 Miss-Sahiba, or unmarried lady, 177. 
 
 Misiari, a skilled artisan, 280. 
 
 Mithi zuban (a sweet tongue), applied to the 
 Punjabi, 86. 
 
 Mochies (shoemakers), a low caste, 117. 
 
 Model School, in C. T. I. ; 282. 
 
 Mofht's Church History, in Urdu, 307. 
 
 Mohammerah, or Euphrates route, 18. 
 
 Mohanwala farmers threaten Christians, 236. 
 
 Monasticism, condemned by its history, 210. 
 
 Money, as a basis of church authority, 348. 
 
 Money-lender's oppression, 37, 38, 84, 127. See 
 under Banya. 
 
 Mongol invasion of India, 27. See also Mughal. 
 
 Mongolians in India, 107. 
 
 Monkeys : at Dharmsala, 52 ; ills., 85, 141. 
 
 Monsoons, 15, 40. 
 
 Monthly meetings of workers, described, 273, 298. 
 
 Moody : classed as a fakir, 206. 
 
 Morals : of outcastes, 248 ; of Indian people gen- 
 erally, 123-128 ; of fakirs, 205 ; of native Chris- 
 tians, 252. 253; of native mmistry, 340; of 
 Anglo-Indians, 123-125 ; public morals, 33, 38, 
 39, 218, 219 ; good morals an aid to evangelism, 
 196, 197. 
 
 Moravian Missions in India, 97 ; in the Punjab, 
 99. 
 
 Morgan, Miss : at Bhera, 182. 
 
 Morrison, J. H., D. D. : founds the Mission at 
 Rawal Pindi, 102. 
 
 Morrison, Rev. Robert : son of former, at sanje 
 place, 102. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 403 
 
 Morrison, Robert, D. D. : his experience in 
 China, 215. 
 
 Mortality : great in India, 44, its causes, 44 ; in 
 Punjab, 44-50; of foreigners compared with 
 natives, 44-50 ; of missionaries, 48, 50, 362-365, 
 385- 
 
 Moses, Wells of: seen, 14. 
 
 Moslems : See Muhaviiiuidans. 
 
 Moths, in wardrobes, 58. 
 
 Moti, mentioned, 233. 
 
 Mounds of extinct cities, 105. 
 
 Mountain family, ills., 52. 
 
 Mountaineers in action, ills., 26. 
 
 Mountains: of Jhelum, 40, 105; of Dharmsala, 
 51. 52; of Kashmir, 53; of the Punjab gener- 
 ally, q8 ; ills., 49, 50, 52, 100, 283. 
 
 Mughal dynasty, 115, 116; its connection with 
 U. P. field. 104. 
 
 Muhammad, as viewed by Moslems, 115; a 
 polygamist. 125 ; his red beard, 120. 
 
 Muhammad Ghori : at Sialkot, 104. 
 
 Muhammad Husain and his relatives, 236. 
 
 Muhammadan : architecture in India, 116; 
 ills., 329 ; doctors, or hakims, 47, 48 ; fakirs, 
 204,209; farmers, 243 ; fasts and feasts, 116, 
 117, 266; inquirers, 203 ; invasions of the Pun- 
 jab, 27, 103; ladies, 177, see Begums; revolt 
 against mission work in Jhelum, 229 ; rule in 
 India, 115, 116; towns, log ; zenanas, 176, 229. 
 See Muhammadanism and Mtihaiiiinadans . 
 
 Muhammadanism; in India, 115-118, 122 ; among 
 the low castes, 118; influenced by Hinduism, 
 116, 123, 356, 357 ; proselytes to and from, 352, 
 353 ; converts from, 231, 235, 236, 244 ; such 
 converts helpless, 275. See Muhammadan 
 and Muhatmnadans . 
 
 Muhammadans : described, 115-118 ; their num- 
 ber, no, lis, 116; number increasing, 352; 
 quarter in towns, 159; clothing, no, 120, 121 ; 
 names, 121 ; favorite tongue, 85, 86; political 
 opposition to the Sikhs, 112, 113; education, 
 121, 122; teachers in our schools, 286; sects, 
 
 121 ; caste, 116 ; in Civil Service, 325 ; histor- 
 ical traces in our field, 104 ; habits and rules in 
 prayer, 116, 150, 151, 265, ills., 117; ablutions, 
 
 122 ; temperance, 122 ; abstinence from usury, 
 123; liberality, 321, 322 ; morals, 68, 122-128; 
 view of women, 68, 125, 126; fanaticism, 246 ; 
 persecuting spirit, 126, 225, 226, 231, 235; ex- 
 cited by rise of the Mahdi, 22; controversial 
 character, 157,158, 199, 201, 227; don't mix 
 with Hindus, 228; hate them, 117 ; opposition 
 to Christianity, 225, 226, 231-233, 235; contro- 
 versy at Amritsar, 199, 201 ; in bazar preach- 
 >"gi 157. 158 ; found in our village schools, 105, 
 267; and at dispensaries, 181; no remarkable 
 work among, 245; clannish, 326; allusions, 
 113, 170, 231, 247, 3H1. See also the two pre- 
 ceding topics and Islam. 
 
 Muharram, a great Moslem holiday and month, 
 
 "7- 
 
 Mukarji, Miss : her girls' schools, 172. 
 
 Multan : occupied by the C. M. S., 98. 
 
 Municipal Committees, 29 ; help medical work, 
 73, i8i. 
 
 Murder. See Crime. 
 
 Murray, Rev. D. A. : visits India, 65. 
 
 Murray, Mrs. : her testimony about Ameera, 
 258. 
 
 Murree : described, 52, 54, 75 ; in U. P. field, 
 102 ; cholera at, 46, 54 ; ills., 56. 
 
 Alusallies of Jhelum, 246. 
 
 Music : an attraction in mission work, 156 ; tal- 
 ent of Indian people for, 108. 
 
 Music, Oriental : described, 304, 305 ; ills., 200, 
 305. See Bhajans. 
 
 Mussoorie : described. 52, 53; 54. 
 Mutiny : in U. P. field, 105. 
 
 Nanak. See Baba Nanak. 
 
 Nanak's marriage, 258. 
 
 Nanga Parbat, a peak in Kashmir, 53. 
 
 Naples, on route to India, n. 
 
 Narowal Mission : boundary settled, 101, 102. 
 
 Nastaltq, running-hand, 268. 
 
 Native Christians. See under Converts and 
 Christians . 
 
 Native Church. See Church in India. 
 
 Native employees and helpers. Sec Workers, 
 Native. 
 
 Native ministers. See Ministry, Native. 
 
 Native modes of living. See Living. 
 
 Native States : of India, 28 ; of the Punjab, 98. 
 
 Natives of India: described. Chapter XII — see 
 Contents; houses and towns, 108, 109, 263; 
 race and physical traits, 107 ; peculiar talents, 
 107, 108; wages and poverty, 109, no, 123, 
 263 ; style of living, 109, 204, 205, 263; dress, 
 109, no, 113, 120, 121, 263 ; food, 109 ; religion, 
 109-128 ; proportion of different sects in India, 
 and in the Punjab, no, 119-121 ; their good 
 traits, 122, 123 ; religions, 151, 152; their bad 
 traits, 123-128 ; what the Oude Akhbar says, 
 123, 124 ; their illiteracy, 165 ; character to be 
 studied by missionaries, 141 ; illustrations on 
 many pages. See also Orientals, Hindus, 
 Muhammadans, &c. 
 
 Natural religion : danger from, 356. 
 
 Naya Pind, near Zafarwal, 234. 
 
 Necklaces, ills., 124. 
 
 Neighbor missionaries : their unfavorable atti- 
 tude and influence, 89, 219, 220 ; favorable, 89- 
 93. See Chapter X — Contents. 
 
 Neighbors, political: their effect on Missions, 
 Chapter II — see Contents. 
 
 Neolas in houses, 58 ; ills., 379. 
 
 Nepal: home of the Gurkhas, 107. 
 
 Nerves: how affected by sympathy, overwork 
 and worry, 363, 364. 
 
 Nests of birds, ills., 93, 261, 350. 
 
 " New India " : what it aspires to, 358, 359 ; its 
 view of Missions, 360. 
 
 New Jersey : compared with the Punjab, 96. 
 
 New Testament against asceticism, 209. 
 
 New York City: a point of departure, 9, 10, 
 12. 
 
 New York State: compared with the Punjab, 
 96 ; with the U. P. Mission, 103. 
 
 Newmarch, Col. G. : helps in building the Insti- 
 tute, 280. 
 
 News from home much looked for, 63. 
 
 Newspapers : used in Mission work, 92, 306. 
 
 Newspapers, secular: received and read, 63, 
 366. 
 
 Newton, Rev. C. B., D. D., quoted on Gugga 
 gana, 118. 119. 
 
 Newton, Rev. John, D. D., his Punjabi version 
 of the Bible, 302. 
 
 Nicaea : place of Alexander's victory, 103. 
 
 Nineteenth Century: its chief Ecclesiastical 
 feature, 380. 
 
 Nirvana: the Hindu's heaven, 126, 152. 
 
 Normal Class in the Institute, 282. 
 
 North India Conference : its liberality, 332. 
 
 North India Tract Society's publications, 308. 
 
 N. W. Provinces ; Civil Service, 29 ; University, 
 163, 164 ; mission progress, 351, 384, 385. 
 
 N. W. Railway, 77. 
 
 Northern State Railway, 76, 77. 
 
 Nose rings, ills., 228. 
 
 Nur Afshan : an aid to us, 92, 306 ; helped by 
 
404 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Obstructions to mission work, Chapter XX — 
 see Contents. See also under Drawbacks, 
 Persecution and Hindrances. 
 
 Occidental and Oriental Line of Steamers, 17. 
 
 Occupation of a field: when sufficient, 222. See 
 Comity. 
 
 Ochotsk : reached by Russia, 23. 
 
 Odessa, on the Black Sea, 20. 
 
 Officers in a temple, ills., 141. 
 
 Official News Correspondence, 136. 
 
 Officials : of the Government, see British Rule : 
 of a village, 189, 190. 
 
 Ohio : compared with the Punjab, 96 ; and the 
 U. P. Mission, 103. 
 
 Omsk, on Siberian R. R., 20. 
 
 On a lake in Kashmir, ills., 55. 
 
 O'Neil's self-denial and the result, 215. 
 
 Opium-eating, an obstruction to Evangelism, 
 222. 
 
 Opium trade of India, 33, 38, 39. 
 
 Orbison, Rev. J. H.. of R.iwal Pindi, 102. 
 
 Ordained agents in India. See Ministers. 
 
 Ordination : qualifications for, 339. See also 
 Ministers. 
 
 Orenberg : on Siberian railway, 20 ; founded, 
 23- 
 
 Organization for mission work, Chapter XIII; 
 inter-mission, 90, 91. 
 
 Organization of Churches. See under Church. 
 
 Oriental Harbor, ills., 17. 
 
 Oriental Houses. 176. See also Zenana and 
 Houses. 
 
 Oriental ways: attractive to missionaries, 378. 
 
 Orientals: their etiquette, 264 ; their genius, 2u8 ; 
 essentially religious, 151 ; not ashamed to talk 
 on religion, 131, 152. See also Natives, Hin- 
 dus, Muhanimadans, &c. 
 
 Original Secession Mission, 97. 
 
 Orphanage of Scotch Mission, 279 ; of U. P. 
 Mission, 284, 285. 
 
 Oude : its Civil Service, 29 ; increase of Chris- 
 tians there, 351 ; statistics, 384, 385. 
 
 Oudh Akhhar : its view of natives and Anglo- 
 Indians, 123-125. 
 
 Out-c.iste people. See Castes, Lo7u. 
 
 Outlook : as to wealth, 332 ; as to numbers, 328; 
 as 10 additions from high castes, 328 ; Chapter 
 XXIX — see Contents ; 359-361,384,385, 386. 
 
 Overwork among missionaries : its necessity and 
 results, 363, 369. 
 
 Owls, ills., 173, 361. 
 
 O.xen ploughing, ills., 144. 
 
 Oxford Brotherhood : their field, 97 ; their mode 
 of living, 205 ; their failure, 215. 
 
 Oxus river, or Amu Darya, 19. 
 
 Pacific routes to India, 17, 20. 
 
 Padri, common title of a minister in India, 233. 
 
 Paejamas, or Pyjamas: described, no ; worn by 
 
 different sects and sexes, no, 121 ; men's, ills., 
 
 342 ; women's, 228, 342, &c. 
 Pagri (turban) : described, 109 ; ills., 124, 342, 
 
 &c. 
 Pakka (solid, ripe), 76. 
 Palms : ills., 65, 74, 161, 238, 247. 
 Palanquin: described, 80: travel by, 54 ; ills., 
 
 135 ; allusion, 187. See also Doli and Khatola. 
 Pamirs: contested, 23. 
 Panchayat (local ruling committee) : derivation 
 
 of the word, 271 ; described and discussed, 
 
 271 ; takes the place of a Session, 334, 335 ; 
 
 allusion, 278. 
 Pankhas, or Punkhas : used by Anglo-Indians, 
 
 55, 78. 
 Pantheism of India, in, 114. 
 Pantheon, Hindu, in, 360. 
 
 Parasnath, a Jain Saint, 113. 
 
 Pardah, or Pardah-nashin (that is, veiled) 
 women : provision for their medical treatment, 
 179; an instance, 231 ; veil described, 121. 
 
 Parliament : its relation to India, 28 ; overruled, 
 
 33, 39- 
 
 Parrot, ills. , 88. 
 
 Parsees : orginally Persians, 107 ; described, 
 115; dress, 120; growing slowly in numbers, 
 352 ; ills., 115, 341. 
 
 Pashtu tongue : spoken by Afghans, 86. 
 
 Paspas : described, 58. 
 
 Pasrur town : described, 182 ; dispensary there, 
 182 ; mela near it, 160; in Mughal days, 104. 
 
 Pasrur Civil District : inquirer from, 203 ; ex- 
 orcist of, 251 ; a Christian woman's devotion, 
 252. 
 
 Pasrur Mission District : Christians there, 241 ; 
 progress of the gospel in, 386. 
 
 Pastors ; as evangelists, 195 ; relations to local 
 mission agencies, 271. 
 
 Pathankot town : nearest station to Dharmsala, 
 50 ; its doli and tonga service, 54 ; its roads, 
 75; its railway, 76; its bookshop, 157, 184. 
 
 Pathankot Mission District: progress of the 
 gospel there, 241, 386. 
 
 Pathans : described, 107 ; contrasted with Hin- 
 dus, 123 ; ills., 26. 
 
 Patiala : a native state, occupied by the R. P. 
 Mission, 99. 
 
 Patriarchal style of living : adopted by the na- 
 tives of India generally, 123; impossible for 
 Christian ministers, 319 ; its advantages, 123. 
 
 Patriotic feeling : of natives, a power, 359 ; of 
 missionaries, not quenched, 367. 
 
 Patronage necessary to financial support, 327. 
 
 Patton, J. G., D. D. : his interesting style, 366.; 
 
 Fattu clothing : described, 56. 
 
 Paul : place of his shipwreck, 13; an inspired 
 missionary, 375 ; his mode of life, 206 ; his 
 preaching in the school of Tyrannus, 167. 
 
 Paul Kiwal Singh's portrait, 342. 
 
 Pcirce, Miss Mary H., her visit to India, 64. 
 
 Peninsular and Oriental (P. & O.) Line of 
 Steamers, n. 
 
 Penjdeh : incident there, 25. 
 
 Pennsylvania: compared with the Punjab, 96; 
 and U. P. Mission, 103; allusion, 17. 
 
 Pensions : given to English officials, 29, 62 ; not 
 to missionaries, 62, 62- 
 
 People of the Punjab : Chapter XII. See A'a- 
 iives of India. 
 
 Perim : on the road to India, 15. 
 
 Ptijury, common in India, 125. 
 
 Perkins, Rev. H E. : once a Commissioner, 
 196: his conversion of a lawyer, 196; his 
 Bible revision work, 291. 
 
 Persecution in India, especially in U. P. field : 
 generally described. Chapter XXII — see Sylla- 
 bus ; frequent, 251; by Hindus, 229, 233,246, 
 &c.; by Moslems, 201,246; less among low 
 castes, 246, but exhibited, nevertheless, 234; 
 by women, 175, 234; by British Rule, 34, 38, 
 218; trickery employed, 236; instances. Chapter 
 y^y^, passim, 239 ; fatal instances rare, 236 ; a 
 hindrance to progress, 275. See also Hin- 
 drances and Draivbacks. 
 
 Persia : relation to Russia, 24 ; railways across, 
 
 17, 20. 
 
 Persian character In writing, 268, 270 ; why used 
 
 in India, 270. 
 Persian Gulf: railway to, 20. 
 Persian tongue : popular in the East, 85 ; easy 
 
 to learn, 88 ; studied by missionaries, 86. 
 Persians: represented in India by Parsees, 107, 
 
 115; their contests in the Punjab, 27. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 405 
 
 Personal, private efforts of Christians: a great 
 
 means of evangelism, 195, 196. 
 Peshawar: terminus of the railway, 76; occu- 
 pied by the C. M. S., 98. 
 Pesth : on Constantinople route, 18. 
 Peter: an inspired missionary, 375. 
 Peter, Second, i : 5-7, quoted, 382. 
 Peter the Great s ambition, 24. 
 Petrovsk, on the Caspian Sea, 19, 20. 
 Philadelphia, a sailing point, 9, 12. 
 Phillips, Dr., his powers of oratory, 366. 
 Philosophy of Hindus regarding the male and 
 
 the female principles. 126. 
 rhulkaries of Sialkot, or cloth ornamented with 
 
 flower work, 106. 
 Pice, one-fourth of an anna, 84. 
 Pictures, an attraction in bazar work. 156. 
 Piety of missionaries : circumstances favorable 
 
 to its growth, 374-378 : and the contrary, 368- 
 
 374 ; summing up, 378. 
 Piety of Native Christians discussed. Chapter 
 
 XXII— see Syllabus. 
 Pig-sticking in India, ills., 204. 
 Pilau, described, 58. 
 Pillars of Hercules passed, 13. 
 Pind Dadan Khan, occupied by the C. M. S., 
 
 loo, loi ; near the Salt Mines, 76. 
 Pindori : mela there, 160. 
 Pipal tree: a good shade tree, 152 ; worshiped, 
 
 112. 
 Piran Ditta's baptism, 234. 
 Pir Lakh Datta : mela in honor of, 160. 
 Piyara's bapti».m, 233. 
 Plains of the Punjab, 40, 98. 
 Plates, brass, for eating from, ills., 288. 
 Platter, Mary A., M.D., at Sialkot, 182. 
 Ploughs, ills,, 144. 
 
 Plutschau, Henry : reaches India, 94. 
 Plymouth Brethren among the Anglo-Indians, 
 
 64 ; in the Punjab, 99 ; their intrusion, 275, 
 
 358- 
 
 Poetry of India, Lyric : described, 304-306. 
 
 Police of India : their number, 30 ; useful at 
 times in mission difficulties, 127, 128, 132 ; at- 
 titude towards bazar preaching, 154, 156, 157; 
 picture of two, 235. 
 
 Policy of India Missions: some questionable 
 features, 138, 139, 319-223, 291, 292, 323. 356- 
 358, &c. ; has it been wrong? 313,314; does 
 it hinder liberality ? 319, 320 ; to be improved, 
 330 ; hinders sometimes the growth of the 
 native ministry, 340 ; regarding ministerial 
 education, 291, 292. 
 
 Politeness : a characteristic of the India people, 
 122. 
 
 Polyandry, legalized by Hinduism, 125. 
 
 Polygamy, in India, 125 ; its relation to baptism, 
 222, 223. 
 
 Polytheism of India, in, 114. 
 
 Pomelos (shaddock), 57. 
 
 Pompeii : shops of, 157. 
 
 Poona : its Mahars, 245, 
 
 Poor and despised first reached by the gospel, 
 167. 243-246, 355, 356, 357- 
 
 Poor-houses : none in India, 123. 
 
 Popery produces superstition, 169. See also Ro- 
 man Catholics. 
 
 Population of India : census, no; increase, 352 ; 
 causes of increase, 44. See also Statistics. 
 
 Porcupine, ills. , 332. 
 
 Port Ibrahim, at Suez, 14. 
 
 Port Said, on the way to India, 13, 18. 
 
 Porus fisjhting Alexander. 103. 
 
 Post Office. See Postal Service. 
 
 Postal Service of India ; described, 82-84 ; mail 
 carriers, 82 ; Postal Union, 82, 83 ; rates of 
 
 Postal Service of India — Continued. 
 
 postage, 83 ; curious features, 83 ; post-office 
 saving banks, 84; of special use and pleasure 
 to missionaries, 35, 63, 273. 
 
 Postal Union See Postal Service above. 
 
 Poti. on northern route, 20. 
 
 Poverty : of the natives of India, T09, no, 123, 
 263 ; of Christian converts, 167, 243-246, 320- 
 324, 331. 355> 356, 357: ''s remedies, 324-332; 
 connection between poverty and mission suc- 
 cess, 207, 208, 243-246. See also Natiz>es, Con- 
 verts, Christians, &c. 
 
 Praise, in worship of Indian U. P. Church, de- 
 scribed, 265, 303; in bazar preaching, 156. 
 
 Prakriti, in Hinduism, 126. 
 
 Prayer : of Punjabi churches, described, 265, 
 266 ; for missionaries, desired, 375, 376 ; omit- 
 ted often in bazar preaching, 156, 157. 
 
 Prayer Meetings : their good influence, 195. 
 
 Prayers of Moslems: how observed, 116, 151; 
 attitudes, ills., 117; ablutions before, 122. 
 
 Preaching: in bazars and at melas, see .fiazar, 
 Mela and Mahalla ; at home, 150; to the 
 heathen generally, 370 ; in Punjabi congrega- 
 tions, 265; in a village, ills., 194 ; in hospitals, 
 179 ; in schools, 172 ; in zenanas, 177-179. 
 
 Prema's persecution, 235- 
 
 Pre-millenarianism : its effect on missions, 223. 
 
 Preparation for missionary work. See Mission- 
 aries and Training. 
 
 Preparations for conversion, 149. 
 
 Presbyterial system, or Presbyterianism : in U. 
 P. Mission, 129-131; favorable to Christian 
 7nelas, 274 ; inconsistent with autocratic 
 methods, 138, 139, 273, or control by a Mis- 
 sionary Association, 346, or general lack of 
 local organizations, 333, 334; how to be made 
 more popular, 346. 
 
 Presbyterian Alliance. See Alliance. 
 
 Presbyterian chaplains, 36. 
 
 Presbyterian Mission, American. See Ameri- 
 can Presbyterian Mission. 
 
 Presbyterians in India : various societies and 
 their fields, 97; their comparative progress as 
 a family, 384, 385 ; their superiority in educa- 
 tional work, 165, 384 ; their effort to secure a 
 union, 91, 92. See also under the different 
 churches. 
 
 Presbyteries of U. P. Church in India : their 
 names and organization, 336 ; their constitution 
 and powers, 130, 131 : allusions, 273, 274. See 
 also Ecclesiastical Courts, Church, U, P., in 
 India and Sialkot Presbytery . 
 
 Presidencies in India : 30. See also Madras 
 and Bombay. 
 
 Press: of Sialkot (or U. P.) Mission, 185; of 
 Ludhiana Mission, 306; at Lucknow, 308 ; at 
 Secundra, 308 ; at Mirzapur, 300. 308. 
 
 Primary Schools or departments in India; two 
 grades. Upper and Lower, 164; in U. P. Mis- 
 sion villages, 267-270, 145, 170; in Central, 
 270, 278: in Institute, 278, 281. 282, 284; in 
 Girls' Boarding School, 288; in High Schools, 
 see High Schools : ills., 184, 228. 
 
 Private Study : scheme of, for native workers, 
 described, 298, 299. 
 
 Probation, future : doctrine of, injurious to mis- 
 sions, 223. 
 
 Promises and grace of God : a great support in 
 mission work, 370, 374. 
 
 Prophet: one who was false, 201; Muhammad 
 claimed to be, 115. 
 
 Proselytism : among Missions, 275 ; evils of, 95, 
 96, 275, 358 ; to and from Islam, 352, 353. 
 
 Prostration in prayer : by Christians, 265 ; by 
 Muhammadans, ills., 117. 
 
406 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Protestant Brotherhoods : in India, 205, 206 ; 
 how they hve, 205 ; not remarkably successful, 
 215. 
 
 Protestant Church. See Church. 
 
 Protestant Missions in India : compared with 
 Roman Catholics, 214, 215. See also Mis- 
 sions in India. 
 
 Protestantism: against fakirism, 210; of nine- 
 teenth century, described, 380. 
 
 Protestants of India. See Christians, Converts, 
 and Missions in India. 
 
 Proverbs 11 : 25 quoted, 377. 
 
 Providential helps to work among the oppressed 
 classes, 246-248. 
 
 Pryur, General : conversion of his servants, 150. 
 
 Psalm 126 : 6 quoted, 78. 
 
 Psalms 19 and 22 : Punjabi bhajans, 200 and 305. 
 
 Psalms : their translation into Urdu and western 
 meter, 265, 303 ; translation into Punjabi and 
 Oriental meter, or bhajans., 265, 304 ; use in 
 church service, 265 ; in bazar preaching, 156; 
 in zenana work, 177, 178; specimens, 200, 
 
 305. 
 
 Public morals, or wrongs, of India: 33, 38, 39, 
 218, 219. 
 
 Publication, U. P. Board of: its donation of 
 books, 289. 
 
 Publication Committee of Sialkot Presbytery : 
 its history and work, 185, 336, 337. 
 
 Publications, for missions, in India : 92, 93, 300- 
 309 ; by U. P. Mission, 185, 302-308. 
 
 Pulmonary disease in the Punjab, 46. 
 
 Pundits, or Hindu learned men, 152, 319. 
 
 Punjab Bible Society : its constitution, 90, 91 ; 
 action regarding a revision of the Urdu Bible, 
 291 ; assumes preparation of a Persian Punjab 
 translation, 302. 
 
 Punjab Literature : 86, 184, 265, 302, 304, 306, 
 308, 309 ; specimens, 200, 305. 
 
 Punjab Missionary conference of 1862-3 • on^ of 
 its resolutions, loi. 
 
 Punjab Province: described, 96-98: its name 
 defined, 96 : area, 96; plains, 40, 98 ; physical 
 features, 98 ; its anne.xation by the British, 98, 
 279; Civil Service, 29 ; officers, 30-34; Lieut. - 
 Governors, 30-34 ; political divisions, 98 ; na- 
 tive states, 98 ; population, 46, 96, 98 ; the 
 people described, Chapter XI — see Contents ; 
 its languages. Chapter IX; its educational 
 system, 163-165 ; its missions, 97-103, 241, 351 ; 
 statistics of its missions, 241, 384, 385 ; medical 
 missionary statistics, 179; S. Schools, 385; 
 journey to, described, 15, 16 ; a highway for 
 invading forces, 27 ; to be studied by Punjab 
 missionaries, 141 ; allusions, 11, 21, 321. See 
 also Punjahies , &c. 
 
 Punjab Religious Book Society ; its constitution, 
 90, 91 ; publications, 308 ; sales, 309 ; deposi- 
 tory in Lahore, 308. 
 
 Punj;ib school system : 163-165. 
 
 Punjab University : when established, 164 ; its 
 examination, 121. 
 
 Punjabi tongue : derived from the Sanskrit, 85 ; 
 in Gurmukhi character, 86, 302 ; in Persian 
 character, 265; in Roman, 200; commonly 
 used, 86 ; dear to the people, 85, 304 ; study of 
 it not encouraged by the government except 
 in zamindari schools, 268; learned and used 
 by Punjab missionaries, 86; translations of the 
 Bible into, 265, 302 ; literature in, see Punjabi 
 Literature : allusions, 87, 88, 370. 
 
 Punjabies, or the Punjab people : to be studied 
 by missionaries, 141 ; general description, 
 Chapter XII — see Syllabus. See A'a/zVi'J and 
 Orientals — also Hindus, Muhammadans , &c. 
 
 Punkhas, or Punkahs : their use, 58, 78. 
 
 Purdah. See Pardah. 
 
 Purity Mission, 97. 
 
 Purohits, Hindu family priests, 321. 
 
 Purusha : in Hindu philosophy, 126. 
 
 QiLA SuBA Singh in Pasrur tahsil, 235. 
 
 Quack doctors in India, 47, 48. 
 
 Qualifications for missionary work, 299, 378-380. 
 
 Quarter Centennial Fund, or Q. C. Fund : de- 
 fined, 71 ; help received from, 71 ; contribu- 
 tions to, in India, 315. 
 
 Queen of England: a hindrance to Russia, 24; 
 mentioned, 301. 
 
 Queenstown, in view, 12. 
 
 Quetta, on northern route, 20. 
 
 Quinton's assassination, 22. 
 
 Rahim Bakhsh's growth in grace, 255. 
 
 Rahmat Masih translates gospels into Persian 
 Punjabi, 302. 
 
 Railways in Europe, 11, 12, 13. 
 
 Railways in India: their history, 76; accom- 
 modations, 77, 78; stations, 78; fares, 77; 
 compared with European and American, 15, 
 '6, 78; government connection with, 35, 76; 
 His., 238. 
 
 Rains : damage done by, 42. 
 
 Rainy season : described, 40-43 ; its effects on 
 the temper, 368, 369 ; unfavorable for itinera- 
 tion, 186, 193. 
 
 Rajah : his mode of living, 204 ; will salute a 
 fakir, 206. 
 
 Rajput dynasties of the Punjab, 98. 
 
 Rajputs : not many become Christians, 245. 
 
 Ramazan fast, 117. 
 
 Ram Chandra Bose : quoted on fakirism, 213. 
 
 Ram Das, a Sikh^a>-«, 112. 
 
 Ramnagar : connection with the Sikhs, 104, 105 ; 
 and the Muhammadans, 104 ; baptism at, 234. 
 
 Ranjit Singh : the great Punjab ruler, 113 ; born 
 at Gujranwala, 104; some of his ashes there, 
 104. 
 
 Rasulnagar : now Ramnagar, 104. See Ram- 
 nagar. 
 
 Ravi : one of the " five rivers," 98 ; same as the 
 Hydraotes, 103 ; picturesque at Madhopur, 
 105 ; connection with the mutiny, 105 ; Chris- 
 tian movement near it, 161 ; crossed by a 
 ferry, 75, 76. 
 
 Rawal Pindi Cantonment : the largest British 
 garrison in tVie world, 31, 105. 
 
 Rawal Pindi City : described, 102 ; formerly a 
 capital called Gajipur, 103; snow at, 40; 
 cholera at, 46 ; road from, to Murree, 75 ; con- 
 nection with British Rule, 31, 105 ; great dur- 
 bar, 105; its girls' schools, ills., 228; high 
 school, 172: ills.,!-)!: college, 172,173,297; 
 ills., 171 ; church, 102, ills., 345; allusion, 84. 
 
 Rawal Pindi District: described, 102; occu- 
 pied by Am. Presbyterians, 98, 102 ; trans- 
 ferred to U. P. Mission, 102; allusion, 242. 
 
 Raya tahsil : its mission history, 105. 
 
 Reading rooms. See Book-shops. 
 
 Real Estate : hard to get in India, 143, 225,226; 
 cases cited, 225-227 ; manner of purchasing, 
 143, 272, 273 ; hagq i-shu/a, 143, 225. 
 
 Recreations of missionaries, 63-66, 137. 
 
 Red Sea : journey through, 14, 15 ; allusion, 22. 
 
 Reflex influence of missions: presented. Chapter 
 XXX — see Contents; on missionaries, 362-380; 
 on the Home Church, 208, 380-382. 
 
 Reformed (Dutch) Mission, 97. 
 
 Reformed Presbyterian Mission in the Punjab, 
 
 97, 99- 
 Reforms : in higher school work suggested, 170; 
 in mission policy advocated, Chapters XXVI— 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 407 
 
 Reforms— Continued. 
 
 XXVIII — see Contents; in Hinduism, 112-115, 
 
 355- 
 Registry oi births and deaths, 46. 
 Relics in the Punjab, 105. 
 Religions, false : contain some truth, 199 ; their 
 
 truths 10 be utilized in mission work, 199 ; no 
 
 compromise with, allowable, 356. 
 Religions of India and especially the Punjab : 
 
 described, 1 10-122. ?)^c aX^o Hindus , Muham- 
 
 madans, &c. 
 Religious Book Societies of India : their work, 
 
 92, 308, 309 ; of Punjab, 308, 309. See also 
 
 Bible Societies and Press. 
 Remedies : of the poverty of the native cluirch, 
 
 324-332 ; of her immaturity. Chapter XXVIII 
 
 — see Contents. 
 Repairs of houses, 144. 
 
 Reports : of workers, monthly, 273, 298 ; of mis- 
 sionaries, yearly, 136, 137. 
 Republican institutions: to whom adapted. 368. 
 Residents, of Indian Government, in Native 
 
 States, 28. 
 Re=t houses: government for travelers, 81, 82, 
 
 192; mission, for Christian laborers, 191, 264. 
 Results: of evangelism, Chapters XXI, XXII — ■ 
 
 see Contents — also, 350, 351-356, 384, 385, 386; 
 
 of the lower training of Christians, 276 ; of 
 
 higher training, 294, 295, 350, and passim. 
 Revivals : few in India, 369 ; not the gateway of 
 
 conversion at present, 249, 250. 
 Rewards: desired sometimes by converts, 201- 
 
 203; not promised by missionaries, 201, 202; 
 
 expected by missionaries, 377, 378. 
 Rewari, on the road to the Punjab, 16. 
 Rice fields of Kangra, 51. 
 Rig Veda: mentions the Punjab rivers, 103. 
 Ripon, Lord : his character and viceroyalty, 31, 
 
 Risalu, the Punjab hero, 103. 
 
 Rituals : not suitable for evangelism, 198, 215. 
 
 Roads in India : described, 74-76 ; metaled 
 (kankar), 74, 75; on the way to hill station 
 75 ; mud, or common earth, 75, 76 ; village 
 paths, 76, 186, 187; travel on, described, 1" 
 187. See Rail-ways. 
 
 Roberts, Sir Frederick : Commander-in-chief, 30, 
 
 Robson, Dr. : his opinion of native converts 
 249. 
 
 Roman Catholic: superstition, 169; friars or 
 fakirs, 206; chaplains in India, 36; mission 
 aries, how they live, 205, 210, 211. See Ro 
 man Catholics. 
 
 Roman Catholics : their formalism, 198 ; their in- 
 trusion and opposition, 220,228, 275 ; how they 
 sometimes proselyte, 353 ; their agricultural 
 settlement. 325 ; their comparative success 
 in missions, 198, 215 ; inter-mission committee 
 against, 90 ; allusions, 119, 122. See Roman 
 Catholic. 
 
 Roman character in Urdu : described and dis- 
 cussed, 268-270 ; easy to learn, 267, 270 ; ad- 
 vocated by missionaries, 270; its literature 
 pure, 270 ; specimens named and enumerated, 
 303, 307, 308, 309 ; Roman Punjabi specimens, 
 200, 305. 
 
 Roman Empire : its conversion compared with 
 that of India, 360. 
 
 Romanath Chowdry, quoted, 205. 
 
 Romans i : 21-32: a picture of Indian society, 
 125- 
 
 Rookwood, a bungalow on Dharmkot, 50. 
 
 Rotas ruins, 105. 
 
 Routes to India: Chapter I; ordinary, 9-16; 
 western, 17; Arabian, 17; Euphrates, 17, 18; 
 Transcaspian, 18-20 ; Siberian, 20 ; Map of, 10. 
 
 Rubettino Line of Steamers, 11. 
 
 Rules of Parliamentary and Ecclesiastical Order 
 in Urdu, 308. 
 
 Rupee : changes of value during 14 years, 73. 
 See Anna. 
 
 Rura of Chimma : his persecution, 235, 236; his, 
 and his wife's portrait, 342. 
 
 Russia : her aggressive policy, 18, 19, 23-25 ; 
 progress in Asia, 23-25 ; designs upon India, 
 23-27 ; guards against, by British Govern- 
 ment, 25-27; perseverance, 23, 24; good re- 
 sults of her progress, 24 ; jealousy of Great 
 Britain and China, 24, 25; fears of invading 
 India, 25, 27 ; effect on missionaries, 25-27 ; 
 rights in Corea, 23. 
 
 Ruth's baptism and persecution, 231, 232, her 
 marriage to Barkat Masih, 232. 
 
 Sabbath : Indian law for, abolished, 38 ; a holi- 
 day wiih Hindus and Moslems, 228 ; not well 
 established among village Christians, 275 ; no 
 true Sabbath among the heathen, 275, 370,371 ; 
 how kept by Aryans, 114. 
 
 S. S. Convention at Lahore, 90. 
 
 S. S. gifts for Raw.il Pindi, 71. 
 
 S. S. International Series of Lessons, 92, 267. 
 
 S. S. Journal : a help, 92. 
 
 S. S. Union of India, 90, 267 ; Auxiliary Punjab 
 Branch formed at Lahore, go, 267. 
 
 S. Schools: of U P. field, described, 266, 267; 
 contain Christians and non-Christians, 189, 
 267 ; a means of Evangelism, 195 ; statistics 
 for India according to Provinces and Ecclesias- 
 tical families, 385 ; statistics for the Punjab, 
 266, 385 ; for U. P. field, 266, 386. 
 
 Sabzkot : school and church building, 226. 
 
 Sacraments : how administered in India, 266. 
 
 Sacred books , reverence of Indian people for, 
 156; of Hindus, 35, 103, 114, 115, 355; of 
 Sikhs, 112: of Aryans, 114; of Muhamma- 
 dans, 115. 117, 122, 123. 
 
 Sacred Cattle ; reverenced by Hindus, 112,126, 
 and Sikhs, 112 ; ills., 129. 
 
 Sacrifices: of Hindus, in; human, almost 
 completely suppressed by the Government, 35, 
 127, but occasionally reported, 354. 
 
 Sacrifices : of missionaries, 48, 49, 58-61, 212, 
 362-365, 368-374; of native laborers, 213; of 
 native Christians, 251. See also Missionaries , 
 Ministers , Workers and Persecution. 
 
 Sadowal : a service there, 232 ; its improvement, 
 
 ^54- 
 
 Sadr, or chief, bazar, 154. 
 
 Sahib: defined, 372 ; applied to missionaries, 
 150, 151, 186, 372 ; how a sahib travels, 82, 186; 
 ladies called Sahzbas, 150, 177, 186. 
 
 Said : on the road to India, 13. 
 
 St. James' Hall : its methods, 167. 
 
 St. Paul's Bay, in sight, 13. 
 
 St. Stephen's Review, on Anglo-Indian morals, 
 124. 
 
 Saints : reverenced by Moslems, 116 ; by Jains, 
 113. 
 
 Saivas, or worshipers of Siva (Shiva) : their dis- 
 tinctive tika, 120. 
 
 Sakti principle worshiped, 125. 
 
 Salary: of Anglo-Indian officials, 30, 62; of 
 Government chaplains, 62 ; of missionaries, 61- 
 63, 205 : of native ministers, 65, 66, 315-319 : 
 of Christian teachers, 316 ; not desirable to re- 
 duce missionaries' salary, 212, 215, 216, 377. 
 
 Salt: comes from Jhelum, 57, 105; mines near 
 Find Dadan Khan, of that District, 76. 
 
 Salt Range of Jhelum, 40, 57. 
 
 Salvation: what is it? 148, 149; means of, 149, 
 150. 
 
408 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Salvation Army : its fieUli;, 97 ; its intrusive ten- 
 dencies, 358; its methods, 167; persecuted, 
 38 ; how its members live, 205, 216 ; whence it 
 draws its converts, 245. 
 
 Samarkand: ca]Uured, 23 : reached by rail, 19. 
 
 Sandwich Islands' Missions : their maturity, 311; 
 independence of the churches, 312, 313; Train- 
 ing School, 313 ; aid received from abroad, 
 
 313- 
 
 San Francisco, route via, 17. 
 
 Sanitaria of India. See Health Resorts. 
 
 Sanitarj' conditions of India missionaries. See 
 Chapter V, also 362-365. 
 
 Sans Mai : the mythical guru of the Sansies, 
 118. 
 
 Sansies : a low caste, 118 ; their traditional ^»>-«, 
 118; religion, 118; by caste employment, 
 thieves, 127. 
 
 Sanskrit: tongue, a mother language, 85, and 
 studied by missionaries, 86 ; texts, used in 
 medical practice, 47 ; mottoes, in houses, 
 176. 
 
 Santals : conversions from, 245. 
 
 Saraswati See Dayananda. 
 
 Sarrakhs : on Transcaspian route, 20. 
 
 Satan : busy in the heat, 368 ; a foreign tongue, 
 his ally, 370. 
 
 Sati-Chaunra, or the Suttee Monument, iils., 65. 
 
 "Saviour's Claim," translated, 185. 
 
 Sayyids : at hospitals, 181 : favored in getting 
 government employment, 325, 326. 
 
 Scales, His., 124. 
 
 Scavenger birds and animals, 263 ; ills., hyena, 
 263. 
 
 Schaff, Philip, D. D. : on monasticism, 210 ; his 
 " Ante-Nicene Church " translated, 307. 
 
 Scheme : Lady DufTerin's, for medical help, 72, 
 179 ; mission, for instructing workers. See 
 Private Study. 
 
 Scholarships given students, 280, 339. 
 
 Schools : as Evangelizing agencies, see Chap- 
 ter XVI — Contents; help to undermine caste, 
 267, 3-4 ; to train Christians, 264, 267-270, 278; 
 U. P. enumerated, 267, 278 ; U. P. described, 
 170-173, 182, 264, 267-270, Chapter XXIV, 294- 
 298; drawbacks to, 267-270; inspection, 163, 
 271, 272 ; grants-in-aid, 72, 73 ; statistics, 163, 
 165, 167, 175, 385, 386. See also Lower Pri- 
 mary, Upper Primary, Central, Middle, 
 High Schools, Christian Training Institute, 
 Girls' Boarding ScJiool, Summer School, 
 Heatlien Assistants, Educational System, 
 Tlieological Seminary, Statistics, Dra^vbac/es, 
 &c. 
 
 Schwartz : the apostle of India, 94. 
 
 Scinde, Punjab and Delhi Railway, 76. 
 
 Scorpions, troublesome, and sometimes deadly, 
 45 ; ills., 69. 
 
 Scotch, or Church of Scotland, Mission : enters 
 India, 97, 98 ; fields, 97 ; Punjab Branch de- 
 scribed, 98, 99; boundary adjusted, loi ; class 
 chiefly affected, 331 ; its agricultural settle- 
 ment, 274, 325 : co-operation with, 90. 
 
 Scotch Episcopal Mission, 97. 
 
 Scotland ; what Dr. Duff said to its people, 162 ; 
 compared with the U. P. field, 102. 
 
 Scotland, Church of ; its India Missions, see 
 Scotch Mission : its Ladies' Association, 279, 
 284; Girls' Orphanage, 279, 284. 
 
 Scott, Rev. G. W. : once a member of the U. P. 
 Mission, 131. 
 
 Scott, Rev. T. L. ; publishes S. S. Lessons, 
 267 ; superintends C. T. I., 282 ; building 
 work, 144. 
 
 Scott, Mrs. T. L. : experience with Gulam 
 Bibi, 232. 
 
 Scottgarh : not a success, 174. 
 
 Scythian invasions ol the Punjab, 27. 
 
 Sea Chair, ills., 372. 
 
 Searching the jungle, ills., 161. 
 
 Seasons : hot and rainy, described, 40-43, 368. 
 
 Second Class : on railways, 77 ; on ships, 11. 
 
 Secret Converts, 238, 239. 
 
 Secret fraternities of fakirs, 204, 205. 
 
 Secretary of State for India, 28. 
 
 Secular work of missionaries : Chapter XIV, 
 372, 373 ; study of language. Chapter IX, 140; 
 study of country and people, 141 ; financial 
 business, 141-144; purchase of real estate, 143 ; 
 building, 143, 144 ; secular teaching and school 
 management, 144, 145, 272, 273 ; medical work, 
 145,146,179-183; miscellaneous, 146 ; no good 
 remedy, 146, 147; effect on spiritual life, 147, 
 372, 373 ; effect on evangelistic work, 220, 
 221. 
 
 Secundra Orphanage : its publications, 308. 
 
 Self-governing power: discussed. Chapter 
 XXIII — see Contents ; a great end of mis- 
 sions, 148, 149, 261. 262, 310, 311, 358. 
 
 Self-support, in a financial sense : discussed. 
 Chapter XXVI — see Contents; its rarity in 
 mission fields, 311, 312, 315-316; examples of, 
 311 ; its present impossibility in U. P. field, 
 315-324 ; duty to hasten it, and in what way, 
 328-331 ; aided by giving ecclesiastical courts 
 more power, 344 ; how helped by melas, 274 ; 
 how far to be a basis of self-governing power, 
 348. 
 
 Semipelatinsk, in Siberia, 20. 
 
 Separation of families : the great cross of mis- 
 sion life, 60, 61. 
 
 5t'// explained, 235. 
 
 Serais, or native inns, described, 81, 152 ; used 
 in mission work, 152, 192 ; ills., 182. 
 
 Serampur translations of the Bible, 300, 302. 
 
 Seifdom of Chuhra agriculturists, 243, 244. 
 
 Sermons in India, described, 156, 157, 265, 198, 
 
 199. 37°- 
 
 Serpent Charmers, tils., 211. 
 
 Servants in India: kept by missionaries, 59, 60, 
 372; their faults, 59, 60; why kept, 59, 60; 
 their cost, 60 ; a sphere for evangelism, 150, 151 ; 
 cook, 60 ; viilitar, 60 ; gardener, 60 ; bihishti, 
 190 ; groom, 227 ; cJiaukidar, 189, 255; ayah, 
 150; are Christian servants worthless? 252, 
 
 253- 
 
 Sessions, Church : described, 130, 136, 333; rela- 
 tion to panchayats, 271 ; relation to 'I'he Mis- 
 sion, 299 ; training schools, through co-opera- 
 tion, 299 ; defective number in U. P. Mission, 
 333~33^> 337 ■' allusion, 273. 
 
 Settlements, agricultural ; discussed, 324, 327. 
 See Villages. Christian. 
 
 Seventy Disciples : an example for us, or not, 
 206, 210. 
 
 Shady Side; described, 50, 56; ills., 49. 
 
 Shnh Hamadan Mosque, ills., 36. 
 
 Shahbaz, Rev. I. D. : his liberality, 315; his 
 work as a poet, 303, 304. 
 
 Shahpur District, described, 100. 
 
 Shahpur village, of Kangra valley, 75. 
 
 Shal, Raja : founded Sialkot, 103. 
 
 Shamianic, preaching tent, described, 188. 
 
 Shana : his liberality, 255. 
 
 Shanars : a low caste, 245. 
 
 Shastras, Hindu ; sacred books, 35, 355. 
 
 Shawls of Kashmir: original pattern in the 
 windings of the Jheliim, ills., 86. 
 
 Shckhopura : its ruins, 104. 
 
 Sher Singh : his battle at Ramnagar, 104, 105. 
 
 Shere Ali, of .Afghanistan, 25. 
 
 Shiahs : found in U. P. field, 121. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 409 
 
 Shigrams : described, So; found at Bombay, 15. 
 
 Shikasta, or broken hand-writing, 26S. 
 
 Ships, His., 13, 14, 17, 183, 242, 372, 382. 
 
 Shiva. See Shhi. 
 
 Shk'alas, defined, iii. 
 
 Shonie, J. C, iM. A., in favor of fakirism, 323. 
 
 Shrines: of Sitala, iii ; of Sans Mai, 118; at 
 Kotla, 353. 
 
 Shurman, Rev. J. X. : Bible translator, 300. 
 
 Sialkot cantonment, pronounced i^a.n-ioon-mcnX. 
 in India: 31, 105; telegr.iph, 84; executive 
 engineer, 280. 
 
 Sialkot Church : self-sustaining for some years, 
 315 ; supported partly by missionaries, 312 ; its 
 liberality, 253 ; gift to. the Chinese Relief 
 Fund, 315. 
 
 Sialkot City : founded by Raja Shal, 103 ; gar- 
 risoned by Muhammad Ghori, 104; connected 
 with Sikh rule, 104; Sikhs now there, 121; 
 connected with the mutiny, 105; rain at, 42; 
 lieat at, 41 ; railway to, 76; shrine of Baba 
 Nanak, 104; high-spired temple, 104; Baisakhi 
 festival, i6j ; special manufictures, 106; non- 
 Christians of, 237 : U. P. Church — see Sial- 
 kot Church ; bazar preaching, 90, 282 ; bazar 
 chapel, 228 ; book shop, 157, 184 ; summer 
 school and conference, 90; zenana work af- 
 fected by Amritsar debate, 199 ; conversion of 
 a Moslem lady, 231 ; persecution, 225, 226, 
 228, 231 ; municipal grants-in-aid, 181 ; Scotch 
 Mission there also, 90 ; their settlement for 
 Christians, 274, 325; their orphanage, 284 ; U. 
 P. institutions at — see Theological Seminary, 
 Girls' Boarding School, Christian Training 
 Institute, High School, Women's Memorial 
 Hospital, Dispensary, Girls' Schools, &c. ; 
 allusions, 170, 182, 226, 227, 232, 278, 279, 285, 
 289, 294, 325. 
 
 Sialkot Civil IDistrict : population, 46 ; density of 
 population, 103; death rate in 1890, 46; castes 
 in, 116 ; melas there, 160 ; special manufactures, 
 106 ; Gazetteer consulted, 116 ; its deputy com- 
 missioner mentioned, 226, 228, 279 ; grants-in- 
 aid from District Committee, iSi : Missions 
 laboring there, 98, 99, loi ; Mission boundaries 
 within, adjusted, loi, 102 ; success of the gos- 
 pel there, 241, 242. See also Raya, Pasrur, 
 Zafariual , Sialkot City, Map. &c. 
 
 Sialkot Mission. See United Presbyterian 
 Mission. 
 
 Sialkot Mission District: limits — see Map; 
 institutions — see Sialkot City; Zafarvval and 
 Marali formerly in it, 242 ; success of gospel 
 in, 241, 242, 386. 
 
 Sialkot Presbytery : its formation, 336 ; consti- 
 tution, 130; powers, 130, 136; controlled the 
 C. T. I., 278: manages the Theo. Seminary, 
 288; its committees, 315, 336,337. See also 
 Presbyteries and Ecclesiastical Courts. 
 
 Sialkot Theological Seminary. See Theological 
 Seminary. 
 
 Siani, 21. 
 
 Siberia, conquered, 23. 
 
 Siberian railway and route, 20, 24. 
 
 Sibi, route via, 19. 
 
 Sicily passed, 13. 
 
 Sighting Land, ills., 13. 
 
 Sikhs: history and character, 112, 113; number, 
 no; increasing, 352; percentage in Punjab, 
 no; favorite tongue, 302 ; sacred book, 112; 
 among Chuhras, 118; Mazhabi, 113; pe- 
 cidiarities, 120 ; non-use of tobacco, 113 ; cos- 
 tume, 113; fakirs, 204 ; caste. 116; conquered, 
 98; loyalty, 113; connection with Dhulip 
 Singh, 22, 23 ; connection with U. P. field, 
 104, 105, 121 ; tank at Eminabad, 104 ; not 
 
 Sikhs — Continued. 
 
 highly educated, 113, 121 ; in schools, 195, 
 
 267 ; in hospitals, 181 ; their fair, i6o. 
 Sikkim expedition, 22. 
 Silver agitation in U. S. Congress, 73. 
 Silversmith, ills., 325. 
 Simla: summer capital of India, 50; fashionable, 
 
 54 ; Mission there, 99 ; ills., 283 ; allusion, 53. 
 Sinaitic group of mountains, visible, 14. 
 Sind Peshin Railway, 19. 
 Sind Sagar Railway, 76, joo. 
 Sine tittilo, without charge, 130. 
 Singh, lion : origin of the title, 112, 113. 
 Singing in worship, 265. 
 Sitala, goddess of smallpox, in. 
 Sites for mission buildings. See Real Estate. 
 Siva, or Shiva: one of the Tri-murli, in; 
 
 temples of, in. 
 Siwalik Range, 51. 
 Skepticism. See under Infidelity. 
 Skobel«ff conquers the Turkomans, 23. 
 Slavery abolished by Russia, 24. 
 Sliding scale of church aid, 314. 
 Smallpox goddess, in ; smallpox in the Punjab, 
 
 45-47- 
 
 Smith, George, LL. D. : his life of Henry Mar- 
 tyn, 301. 
 
 Smith's " Short History of Missions," 339. 
 
 Snakes: death from, 44, 45; experiences with, 
 45 ; worshiped, 112 ; ills., 45, 211, 379. 
 
 Snow : at hill station, 43 ; at Rawal Pindi, 40. 
 
 Social Conditions of mission life in India : de- 
 scribed. Chapter VI, 51, 52, 137, 176-178, 263, 
 367, 376; effect on evangelism, 151, 152; effect 
 on missionaries, 57, 63-68, 137, 367, 372,376; 
 effect on native Christians, 66, 67, 274, 342-344. 
 See Recreations, Missionaries and Christians. 
 
 Social Intercourse : between missionaries and 
 native Christians, 66, 67 ; between mission- 
 aries and Anglo-Indians, 57, 63-65, 137, 367, 
 372,376; between Anglo-Indians and natives, 
 66-68; a means of evangelism, 151, 152. 
 
 Social Evil in India : regulated by the Govern- 
 i"snt, 33, 38, 39 ; very great, 124-126, 219, 252. 
 See Public Morals. 
 
 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, or S. 
 P. G. : history and progress, 312 ; enters India, 
 94, 95 ; fields, 97 ; publications, 308. 
 
 Somali divers at Aden. 15. 
 
 Sophia: on Constantinople route, 18. 
 
 Sounaghar, or Sonaghar : ills., in. 
 
 Southern Cross seen, 15. 
 
 Spain, passed, 13. 
 
 Special objects : gifts for, 69, 70. 
 
 Sf'ectator , of London, quoted, 352. 
 
 Spinning-wheel, 263. 
 
 Spirit, Holy : proofs of his working in U. P. 
 Mission, 251-260. 
 
 Spirituality: how affected by mission work, 147, 
 368-378 — see Piety; an aid to evangelism, 
 196, 197. 
 
 Spiti : Buddhists of, 114. 
 
 Spleen, in the Punjab, 46. 
 
 Squirrels, ills., 250. 
 
 Straddha, or worships of ancestors, 112. 
 
 Srinagar : described, 53; ills., 36. 
 
 Staff of Administration, 29. See British Rule. 
 
 Stage. See Dak gari, Tonga, &c. 
 
 Stages of missionarj' work, 148, 149, 161. 
 
 Stag's Head, ills., 338. 
 
 States. See Native States. 
 
 Statesman, on the Outlook, 360. 
 
 Statesmanship, needed in missions. 313, 378. 
 
 "Statistical Tables" of Protestant Missions in 
 India, referred to, or quoted, 241, 339, 351, 384, 
 
410 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 Statistics : their value, 239, 240. 
 Statistics of C. M. S., 312. 
 
 Statistics of India : area, 95 ; Army, 30 ; British 
 territory, 28 ; Chaplains, 36 ; Cholera, 46, 54 ; 
 Civil Service, 29, 30; Colleges, 121, 122, 163; 
 death-rate from wild animals and disease, 44- 
 46, 48, 128 ; density of population, 109 ; dis- 
 eases, 46 ; ecclesiastical establishment, 36 ; fa- 
 kirs, 206 ; female mortality, 128 ; English- 
 speaking natives, 86 ; fevers, 46 ; heat, 41 ; 
 length of service of missionaries, 385 ; low- 
 caste people, 355,356; male mortality, 128; 
 mortality. 44-46, 48, 128; Native States, 28, 
 98; Police, 30; population, 95, 109; popula- 
 tion by sects, 110, 119, 120 ; postal service, 82 ; 
 Punjab, 96; railways, 76; rainfall, 42, 43; 
 rainy season, 42; schools generally, 122,163, 
 ^67, 175, 385 ; religions, non-Christian, no, 
 352 ; telegraphs, 84 ; University Examinations, 
 121. 
 
 Statistics of India Missions: General, 95, 241, 
 351, 352, 384, 385 ; of Punjab Missions and 
 Christians, 119, 120, 241, 384, 385; of the 
 Viirious Provinces, 351, 352, 384, 385 ; of the 
 various ecclesiastical families, 384, 385; of the 
 C. M. S., 312 ; of the M. E. ^lissions, 241 ; of 
 Protestants and R. Catholics, 215 ; medical 
 missions, 179 ; vernacular literature, 308, 309; 
 longevity of missionaries, 364, 365, 385. 
 
 Statistics of Madagascar Mission, 311. 
 
 Statistics of U. P. field and Mission : General, 
 240-243, 316, 320, 322, 333, 334, 386 ; area, 102, 
 103; castes of Sialkot, 116; Christian Train- 
 ing Institute, 284; classes, or religions, 121; 
 educated native Christians, 294, 295 ; Girls' 
 Boarding School, 284, 28S ; liberality, 331, 332; 
 ministry, 338, 339 ; Mission Districts, 241, 242, 
 386 ; mortality among missionaries, 48 ; pop- 
 ulation. 103, 121, 240, 241 ; Primary Schools, 
 267; Rawal Pindi and Hazara, 102; S.' 
 Schools, 266; Schools, 267, 386. 
 
 Steamers : first and second classes on, compared, 
 II. 
 
 Stewart, Archibald, Esq.: his legacy to missions, 
 70; use in building the C. T. I., 71, 279; rest 
 available for other similar purposes, 71, 289. 
 
 Stewart, Sir Donald: Commander-in- chief, 30. 
 
 Stewart, Robert, the writer of this book : visit 
 to India, 237: superintendent C. T. I., 278, 
 282; principal Theo. Seminary, 289; experi- 
 ence with an enquirer, 203 ; translation work, 
 185, 306, 307; building work, 144, 279, 280; 
 farewell address 10,280; his article in the /. E. 
 Revievi, quoted from, 290, 291; experience 
 v.'ith snakes, 45. 
 
 Stewart, Mrs. Robert: work in the Institute, 
 282. 
 
 Stipend System : Oriental or not, 206, 208. 
 
 Stou?hton's " Religion in England," 215. 
 
 Stratford on Avon, 13. 
 
 Streams, sometimes dangerous, 75, 76. 
 
 Street preaching in India, 154-158. See Bazar 
 Preaching. 
 
 Streets of villages, 263. 
 
 Strife hurtful to mission work, 95, 96, 219-223, 
 358, 373. See Conflicts. 
 
 Studies of missionaries, 86, 140, 141, 365, 366, 
 
 37°- 
 Sub-superintendents of missions : who they are, 
 
 and what they do, 271, 272. 
 Suez Canal : when opened, 9 ; going through, 
 
 13, 14- 
 Suez City : en route, 14, 17. 
 Suez, Gulf of : described, 14. 
 Suez Isthmus: crossed, 9, 13, 14. 
 Sugar : made at Sujanpur, 106. 
 
 Sujanpur : noted for sugars, 106. 
 
 Sultan : Victoria's ally, 24. 
 
 Summer School for workers, described, 298 ; co- 
 operation in, 90. 
 
 Sun, or sola, hats : needed in India, 15, 41 ; ills., 
 141, 161. 
 
 Sun ni sect of Muhammadans, 121. 
 
 Sunny Side at Dharmsala : described, 50; 
 double-storied, 56; ills., 49. 
 
 Superintendents of mission work : how ap- 
 pointed, 137 ; natives eligible, 347 ; of schools, 
 282, 286 ; of missions — what they do, 134, 136, 
 138, 272, 273. See Sub-superintendents . 
 
 Superstitions of India people, in, 112, 116. 
 
 Surat : on road to the Punjab, 16 ; Parsees there, 
 115 ; rainfall at, 42. 
 
 Surgeons in India, 35, 47, 48. See Doctors. 
 
 Surgical operations : enumerated, 182. 
 
 Suspicion, habit of: engendered among the 
 heathen, 371. 
 
 Sutlej : one of the " five rivers," 96; crossed by 
 Presbyterians, 98. 
 
 Suttee, or widow-burning : made unlawful, 35 ; 
 inclination to, 354. See Sati-Chaunra. 
 
 Swan : ills., 260. 
 
 Swedish Mission, 97. 
 
 Sweepers: See Chuhras ; ills., sweeper children, 
 124. 
 
 Sweetmeat vender, tils., 124. 
 
 Swift, Rev. E. P.: once in " The Mission," 131; 
 his debate with Saraswati, 201 ; quoted, 233. 
 
 Swine: abominated by Sikhs as well as Moslems, 
 112. 
 
 Sympathy : its drain on the nervous system, 
 
 363- 
 
 Synod of the Punjab : organized, 130, 288, 336; 
 what Presbyteries in it, 336; its Permanent 
 Committees. 337; controls the Theo. Semi- 
 nary, 288, 289 ; defects, 337, 349 ; allusion, 273. 
 See also Ecclesiastical Cow ts. 
 
 Syria : its Arabic, 87 ; Moslem architecture in, 
 116. 
 
 Syrian Christians, of India : alluded to, 122. 
 
 Tahsil : explained, 96, 100 ; tahsil town, or head 
 
 centre, 182. 
 Tailor bird and nest, ills., 93. 
 Taki: now Asarur. 103. 
 Takkas: founded Taxila and Asarur, 103. 
 Talang, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 
 Talents needed by a missionary, 378-380. 
 " Talim ul Iman," a useful book, 307. 
 Tamasha, defined, 192. 
 Tarun, a mountain near Dharmsala, 51. 
 Tashkend reached by railway, 19. 
 Tatti: of a town, described, 109 ; Dogri, near 
 
 Gujranwala, 242. 
 Tawi, near Jamil, 76. 
 Taxila : described, 103 ; its ruins, 105. 
 Taylor, Bishop : his self-sacrificing methods, 
 
 206. 
 Taylor, Canon : on native Christians, 249 ; on 
 
 the growth of Islam, 352, 353. 
 Taylor, Rev. W., M. D., of Japan : article on 
 
 ill-health, 364. 
 Tea plantations of Kangra, 51. 
 Teachers : in village schools, 267, 268; in all 
 
 schools, many non-Christian, 146, 168, 170, 
 
 172, 268, 286, 296, 297 ; some Christian, 318, 386 ; 
 
 wages of such, 267, 268, 316, 318. 
 Teaching Christianity in villages, 264; in schools, 
 
 163, 172, 281, 286, 289, 290 ; in zenanas, 176- 
 
 179. 
 Teaching ; secular work of, 44, 45. 
 Teeth-cleaning among natives of India, 120, 
 
 122. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 411 
 
 Teetotalism of American Missions, 222. 
 
 Tej Singh, Kaju, 104. 
 
 Telegraphs of India : described, 84 ; ills., 238. 
 
 Telephones in India, 84. 
 
 Telugus, alluded to, 245. 
 
 Temper of missionaries : affected by climate 
 and disease, 368, 369. 
 
 Temperance : of natives, 122 ; a condition of 
 church membership, 222. 
 
 Temperature of the Punjab, 40, 41, 368; at 
 Dharmkot, 54. 
 
 Temples, Hindu: common, in; of Siva, in; 
 of the Sikhs, 112; new ones erected, 353; 
 ills., 17, III, 124, 141, 159, 214. 
 
 Tea commandments : should candidates for bap- 
 tism know them? 219, 220. 
 
 Tennessee : compared with U. P. field, 103. 
 
 Tents: with their furniture, described, 178, 1S8 ; 
 ills., 186. 
 
 Territorial division of mission field desirable, 95, 
 96. 
 
 Testimony : of the Indian Government regard- 
 ing missions, 36, 37; of Sir Charles Elliott, 36, 
 37 ; of various persons regarding native Chris- 
 tians, 249,254-260; regarding churches, 254; 
 regarding the work generally, 256; official, of 
 the Mission, 257. 
 
 Testimony-bearing as an evangelistic agency, 
 197. 
 
 Thackwell, Rev. Reese : at Rawal Pindi, 102. 
 
 Thakur Das, Rev. G. L. : his style of living, 
 66; his ministerial grade, 339; Theo. profes- 
 sor, 288, 289, 347 ; sup't missions, 348; trans- 
 lates Book of Discipline, 308; publications in 
 general, 185 ; leaves the Mission, but may re- 
 turn, 315. 
 
 Thana to Bombay : first railway in India, 76. 
 
 Thebaw's overthrow, 21. 
 
 Theological Seminaries : fruits not confined to 
 the Missions sustaining them, 90. 
 
 Theological Seminary, Sialkot: origin, 288; lo- 
 cation, 289 ; control, 288 ; support, 288 ; build- 
 ing, 289 : library, 289 ; professors, 288, 289, 
 347; aim, 289; standard of admission, 292; 
 curriculum of study, 289, 290 ; text books 
 scarce, 292 ; some books mentioned, 307; com- 
 pared with American Seminaries, 290; Greek 
 and Hebrew should be taught, 289-291 ; stu- 
 dents from C. T. I., 284; why so few, 339, 
 340 ; drawbacks to, 292 ; results, 293 ; allusion, 
 278. 
 
 Theological students, portraits, 342. 
 
 Theological works in Urdu, 300 to 309, especially 
 
 307- 
 
 Thibet, separated by a barrier from India, 21. 
 
 Third class railway accommodations : in Eng- 
 land, 13 ; in India, 77. 
 
 Thomas, John : a surgeon, and pioneer mission- 
 ary, 94. 
 
 Thomas, M. A. : position in the Institute, 282. 
 
 Thumb mirror, ills., 174. 
 
 Tiflis, on northern route, 18, 19. 
 
 Tiger : ills., 39, 74, 238. 
 
 Tigris river, 17, 20. 
 
 Tika : described, 120 ; on Vaishnavas and Sai- 
 vas, 120. 
 
 Times, of London, quoted, 36. 
 
 Timothy, First : 3 : 2, referred to, 222. 
 
 Titarna, a peak near Dharmsala, 51. 
 
 Tithe system of giving in India : discussed. 320- 
 322 ; followed by missionaries, 71, 72, 377. 
 
 Tobacco, not used by Sikhs and others, 113, 122. 
 
 Tombs and saints reverenced by Moslems, 116. 
 
 Tomsk founded, 23. 
 
 Tonga, described, 80 ; at Pathankot, 54, 75 ; 
 used in carrying mails, 82 ; allusion, 78. 
 
 Topi and helmet, ills., 141, 161. 
 Toral peak, near Dharmsala, 51. 
 Torches, ills., i6i. 
 
 Tours of missionaries, 185-195, 272, 273. 
 Towers of Silence, at Bombay, 15. 
 Towns and cities : described, io8, 109 ; some- 
 times of different religions, 109. 
 Tracts used in mission work, 306. 
 Tradition of the Chuhras, about Gugga, 118, 
 
 119 ; about Balisha, 246, 247. 
 Training Christians: lower. Chapter XXIII 
 
 — see Contents ; higher, Chapters XXIV, 
 
 XXV — see Contents ; by missionaries, 191 ; 
 
 what training includes, 262 ; its necessity, 277; 
 
 training high castes, 262 : low castes, 262, &c. ; 
 
 results, 276, 349; crowding out evangelization, 
 
 195, 220, 221. See Chiistians. Con7>etts. &c. 
 Training elders: 271, 335 and Chapter XXVIII. 
 Training missionaries : at home, 299 ; in the 
 
 field. Chapter IX, 136, 140, 141. See also 
 
 Missionaries and Quulifications . 
 Training native ministry : XXIV, XXV and 
 
 XXVIII— see Contents. See also Ministry,. 
 
 Theological Seminary, and Ecclesiastical 
 
 Courts. 
 Tramway, or street railway, in Bombay, ills.., 
 
 375- 
 Tranquebar, entered by the Danes, 94. 
 Transcaspian railway : 18-20. 
 Trai'slation of various books, 185, 300-309. See 
 
 also Literature and Bible Translation. 
 Transmigration of souls : believed by Hindus, 
 
 III ; by Sikhs, 112 ; by Aryans, 114; rejected 
 
 by Chamars, 118; allusion, 353. 
 Travel : a great means of intelligence, 365. 
 Travel in India : 15, 16, Chapter VIII, i86, 187; 
 
 outfit, 81. 82. See Itinerating Work. 
 Travelers in the Punjab : few, 64, 65. 
 Treasurers, general and sub- : their work, 136, 
 
 137. 141-144- 
 Trees : worship of, 112; ills., 248. 
 Tri-murti, or Hindu trinity, in. 
 Trip to India : described, 12-17; ''^ cost, 12. 
 Truth : its self-evidencing power, 198, 199 ; better 
 
 than controversy, 198-201. See Controversy. 
 Tum-tums : described, 81, 186, 187; ills., 186. 
 Turbans: when worn, 264; ills., 108, 117, 155, 
 
 159, 342. See Pagri. 
 Turkestan conquered, 23. 
 Turkish Government : its obstructiveness, 18. 
 Turkomans conquered, 23, 
 
 Turnpikes, or metaled roads, in U. P. field, 75. 
 Tyndale's English Translation, 302. 
 Types of Punjabies, ills., 124. 
 
 Uganda : Rev. R. P. Ashe, of, 312. 
 
 Ullmann, Rev. J. F., at Rawal Pindi, 102. 
 
 Uinr Bakhsh, overseer, 280. 
 
 Under Full Sail, ills., 242. 
 
 Underworkers. See Workers and Village 
 Underiuorkers . 
 
 Union in mission work, 89-93; Presbyterian, 91, 
 92 ; in S. S. movements, 267. See Co-opera- 
 tion, S. S. Union, &c. 
 
 United Presbyterian Board. See Board of 
 Foreign Missions. 
 
 U. P. Church in America : her formation, 71, 99 ; 
 Q. C. Fund, 71 ; her attitude towards native 
 Church of India, 317 ; regarded by the latter 
 as a loving mother, 346 ; her growing liber- 
 ality, 69 ; gratitude of non-Chrisiians towards, 
 237 ; length of the ministry of her clergymen, 
 364 ; number of elders in her sessions, 333. 
 See Home Church. 
 
 U. P. Church in India. See Church, V. P., in 
 India. 
 
412 
 
 TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 U. p. General Assembly. See General As- 
 sembly. 
 
 U. P. Mission in India, as an organized body : 
 called often " The Sialkot Mission," or " The 
 Mission," 131 ; general description, 129-139 ; 
 its organization, 131 ; changes of membership, 
 131, 132; admission of women, 131, 132 ; Man- 
 ual, 132 ; relations to the Board of F. M., 132 ; 
 Annual Meeting, 133, 134, 136,137; business 
 by Circular, 134; powers, 132-139; holds 
 money power, 299, 300; appointments, 137, 
 138; autocratic methods, 138, 139, 273; ref- 
 lations to ecclesiastic.il couits, 134-136, 299, 
 300; relation to native ministry and workers, 
 138, 139, 347 ; policy regarding fakirism, 208- 
 217; policy legarding educational evangelism, 
 170-173 ; policy regarding Church self-support, 
 314, 316, 347; takes charge of the Institute, 
 278 ; its relation to the Theo. Seminary, 288 ; 
 opposes prayers of memorialists, 347; but 
 mjkes concessions to native brethren, 347 ; an 
 anomaly, 139. 346, 347 ; should as soon as pos- 
 sible be abolished, 346, 347; allusion, 344; 
 its mode of reporting communicants, 333, 334. 
 See next two objects — also Church, U. P., in 
 India^ Policy, Ministers and Missionaries. 
 
 U. P. Mission in India — in a broad sense: its 
 controlling powers, Chapter XIII — see also the 
 precedmg subject; its field, 99-106; people, 
 Chapter XII; foreign l.iborers — see Mission- 
 aries: native laborers — see Workers and 
 Ministers: methods — s>z& Evangelistic Work 
 and Trainitig : machinery complicated and 
 autocratic, 273; obstructions, Chapter XX; 
 success. Chapters XXI, XXII, 337, 349, 350 ; 
 secular work, Chapter XIV; statistics, .see 
 Statistics: deficient in Church organization 
 and ecclesiastical maturity. Chapters XXVI 
 to XXVIII ; especially, 314, 316, 337, 349, 
 350; contributions, 315, 316; number of 
 families, 320, 322; educated people, 294-297; 
 baptized adults, 333 ; institutions, 170, 182, 
 278. See also subordinate subjects. 
 
 U. P. Mission field: described. 96-106; addi- 
 tions of Jhang and Bhera, 99, 100; boundaries 
 settled, roi, 102; addition of Rawal Pindi, 
 loi, 102 ; present size and population, 102, 
 103 ; points of historical interest, 103-105 ; 
 ruins, 105; geographic features, 105, 106; 
 manufacturers, 106; map, see Frontispiece; 
 people. Chapter XII. See Statistics, &c. 
 
 U. P. Mission (Scotch), 97. 
 
 United States of America : climate, 362 ; min- 
 isterial longevity, 364 ; compared with other 
 countries, 367, 368 : effects of silver legislation 
 by Congress, 73 ; President's salary, 30. 
 
 Universities of India : named, 163, 164; their 
 controlling power, 164, 165, 166 ; examinations 
 of 1891. 121, 122; statistics of examinations 
 in Mission Schools, 384. 
 
 Unmarried lady missionaries : not celibates, 212 ; 
 relation to "The Mission," 131, 132 ; relation 
 to local Churches, 130. See also Lady Mis- 
 sionaries. 
 
 Upper Primary Grade : defined, 164 ; in our 
 higher schools for Christians, 278, 288 ; a 
 standard proposed for theologues, 292. 
 
 Urdu tongue: described, 85, 86, 268-270; by 
 whom used most, 85, 268; taught in schools, 
 85, 268 ; studied by missionaries, 86; alphabet, 
 268; characters used, 268, 269: moderately 
 hard, 88, 140, 268, 269 ; Christian literature 
 in, 184, 185, 300-309; commentaries in, needed, 
 306 ; allusion, 370. 
 
 Usury in India : common, 37, 38, 84, 127; not 
 allowed to Muhammadans, 123. See Banya. 
 
 Uzun Ada : reached by railway, 19; route p/a, 20. 
 
 Vaccination : its use and dangers of, 46, 47. 
 
 Vaishnavas : described, 113 ; their tika, 120. 
 
 Vaishnavism ; described, in. 
 
 Vancouver, on western route to India, 17. 
 
 Vedas : Hindu sacred books, 114, 117 ; respected 
 by Aryans, 114; the professed basis of re- 
 ligious reform, 114, 355, 356. 
 
 Vegetables of the Punjab, also imported, 57. 
 
 Veiled ladies. See Pardah and Pardah-Nishin. 
 
 Verandas : common in houses of India, 55, 56, 66, 
 176; ills., 144, 278. 368. 
 
 Vermin and other nui>ances, 58, 59 ; in villages 
 and schools, 286, 287. 
 
 "Via Media" mode of living: described, 205; 
 undesirable for missionaries, 208-217. 
 
 Viceroys : their appointment, powers, assistants 
 and salary, 28-30 ; their style of living, 204 ; 
 an account of four, 31-33 ; the grave of one, 
 52 ; allusion to, 21. 
 
 Victoria, Queen : a hindrance to the Czar, 24. 
 
 Village Chiistian schools: described, 145, 170, 
 267-270 ; village school, ills., 184. See Pri- 
 mary Schools. 
 
 Village life in India, 108, 109. 243, 263. 
 
 Village missionary work : 190, 191, 262-274 ; ills., 
 186, 194. 
 
 Village pond : ills., 184. See Chhappars. 
 
 Village underworker's duties, 201, 202, 262-267. 
 
 Villages of India : described, 108, 109, 263 ; their 
 officers, i8q, 190; Christian work in them, 190, 
 191, 26.^-274, and its success, 243 ; number in 
 U. P. field containing Christians, 243, 316, 386. 
 
 Villages, Christian : their value and success, 274, 
 275. See Settlements. 
 
 Violence : deaths by, 44, 45. 
 
 Vishnu, one of the Tri murti, 111. 
 
 Visits paid us by home friends, 64, 65. 
 
 Vladikavkaz, on northern route. 18, ig. 
 
 Vladivostok, on the Pacific, 20. 
 
 Voluntary work by native Christians, 251, 253, 
 254, 195, 196, 281, 2S2. 
 
 Wadhawa's wife's Christian feeling, 255. 
 
 Wages of Punjabies, 109. 
 
 Wahabies, a Sloslem sect, 121. 
 
 Waldenses mentioned. 206. 
 
 Wards, or Mahallas, of cities, 158, 159. 
 
 Warren's " Hebrew Grammar," 307. 
 
 Washermen, Native, ills., 214. 
 
 Watchman. See Chaukidar ^.tiA 189. 
 
 Water-carrier. See Bihishti. 
 
 Water fowl, wild, 187. 
 
 Wazirabad : turnpike to, 75; railway from, 76 ; 
 occupied by the Scotch Mission, 99, 101. 
 
 Wealth of converts in India. See Converts and 
 Christians. 
 
 Weaver Birds and Nest, ills., 350. 
 
 Weavers of Zafarwal, 325. 
 
 Weitbrecht's " Urdu Christian Literature," 308. 
 
 Wells for irrigation : ills., 9, 153. 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, 97. 
 
 Wesleyan Chaplains, 36. 
 
 Wesleyan Missionary Society ; entered India, 94, 
 97 ; fields, 97. 
 
 West, Miss : her literary style, 367. 
 
 Westminster Assembly's Shorter Catechism, 
 translated, 306. 
 
 Westward Bound, ills., 382. 
 
 Wherry's translation of Moffit's History, 307. 
 
 White Ants: their depredations, 59 ; their hills, 
 ills., 59. 
 
 White man's presence : as an influence in evan- 
 gelism, 156. 
 
 White, Maria, M. D. : medical work, 181-183. 
 
TOPICAL INDEX 
 
 413 
 
 White, Sir George, Commander-in-chief of the 
 Indian Army, 30. 
 
 Whitney, Prof. W. D., on the Urdu tongue, 85. 
 
 Widows, Hindu : cannot remarry, 125 ; reform 
 regarding, 355. 
 
 Wilson, Miss C. E. : her girls' schools, 172 ; in 
 a zenana, 227 ; her biographical skrlch of 
 native Christians, 257-260. 
 
 Wilson, Rev. James, Bible translator, 300. 
 
 Windings of the Jhelum, ills., 86. 
 
 Wine used in tlie Lord's Supper, 266. 
 
 Witness, Indian : a help to us, 92. 
 
 Wolves : heard in itinerating, 191 ; ills., 225. 
 
 Women generally: how viewed by natives of 
 India, 125, 126, 287 ; as viewed by Hindus and 
 Hinduism, 125, 126 ; as viewed by Moslems, 
 68, 125, 126; publicly discoursing, 150, 178 
 179, 265. 
 
 Women of India : their ignorance, illiteracy and 
 seclusion, 174, 175, 287 ; their influence in the 
 zenana, 175 ; bigotry, 48, 112 ; standing among 
 Hindus, 125, 126 : among Moslems, 68, 125, 
 126; have few avenues of business, 287 ; early 
 marriage, 175; excluded from bazar crowds, 
 157: importance of evangelizing them, 174, 175 ; 
 methods of doing so. Chapter XVII, 150, 157, 
 f59; at bazar preaching, 157: at >nahalla 
 preaching, 159 ; harder to evangelize them 
 than men, 243; some anxious to learn, 176, 
 252 ; their clothing, no, 121, 342, &c. ; their 
 jewelry, ills., 174, 228, &c. ; habit in riding, 
 187 ; in a common court, ills., 359 ; ills., 65, 
 i53> i55> i77> 180, 228, 252, &c. See also 
 Hindus, Muhaininadans, Piinjabies, &c. 
 
 Women, Christian, of India: in School, ills., 
 298; eating, ills., 288; clothing, 288, 298, &c., 
 accessible to male workers, 272. See also 
 Christiiins and Converts. 
 
 Women, missionary : See Lady Missionaries 
 and Missionaries. 
 
 Women's Board : help from, 70, 71. 
 
 Women's Department, C. T. I. : described, 282; 
 ills., 298. 
 
 Women's Memorial Hospital, Sialkot : its erec- 
 tion and work, 182, 183; helped by the Govern- 
 ment, 73; getting land for it, 226, 227. 
 
 Women's Missionary Magazine, quoted, 296. 
 
 Women's Missionary Societies in U. P. Mission 
 field : their organization, 131 ; their number 
 and importance, 271 ; Presbyterial, 131 ; at 
 Zafarwal, 252. 
 
 Women's Societies in India : their S. Schools, 
 385. See Lady Missionaries. 
 
 Wood, Sir Charles : his famous school despatch, 
 163, 164. 
 
 Work in Missions. See Alission Work. Village 
 Missionary Work. Evangelistic Work, &c. 
 
 Workers, Native Christian : in great demand 
 and command good wages, 318, 319 ; should 
 be trained by each Mission for itself, 278 ; how 
 trained in the U. P. field. Chapters XXIV, 
 XXV and under Training; from the Insti- 
 tute, 282 ; their selection in villages, 201, 202 ; 
 their style of living, 65, 66, 205, 263 ; social 
 customs, 66 ; intercourse with missionaries, 
 66,67; direction by them, 67, 138, 139; their 
 special work, 196, 202, 262, &c. ; the help they 
 
 Workers, Native Christian — Continued. 
 give, 146, 147, 195, 196, 254 ; monthly meet- 
 ings of, 273; imperfect, 220, 221, 275; com- 
 plained of by missionaries and charges against 
 missionaries, 297, 342-344 ; ills., 252, 278, 305, 
 342. See also under Christians and Ministers. 
 
 Worldliness : not a besetting sin of missionaries, 
 377- 
 
 Worldly influences not used in mission work, 
 although charged against it, 201-203. 
 
 Worldly motives : sometimes manifested by con- 
 verts, 202, 203 ; diminished, some say, by 
 fakirism, 207, 208. 
 
 Worry : its effect on the nerves, 363 ; much 
 found in mission work, 264 ; in home fields 
 also, 364 ; effect on the temper, 369. 
 
 Worship : forms and exercises of, in U. P. field, 
 264-266. 
 
 Yakub Khan, 1^. 
 
 Yarmak begins Russian progress in Asia, 23. 
 
 Yokahama, on Western route to India, 17. 
 
 J'oKz'and Linga, in. 
 
 Youngson's "Greek Grammar," 307. 
 
 i'ug, or yug, defined, 247. 
 
 " Zabur aur Git" : used in worship, 302. 
 
 Zafarwal : btginning of work there, 242 ; 
 Christian weavers of, 325 ; Brahman convert 
 of, 239; its W, M. S., 252 : Christian village 
 near it, 274; incident in 1883, 161; Piyara's 
 baptism , 233 ; originally in the Sialkot Mission 
 District, 242. 
 
 Zafarwal Mission District: its extent — see Map 
 in frontispiece; number of Christians there, 
 241 ; progress made and statistics, 386 ; referred 
 to, 242. 
 
 Zaildar : defined, 226; persecution by one at 
 Sabzkot, 226. 
 
 Zamindars (farmers) : opposed to low-castes 
 becoming Christians, 232, 233 ; what they say 
 against Christianity, 233 ; among Christians, 
 243. 244- 
 
 Zamindari schools : defined, ?68 ; established, 
 • 65. 
 
 Zeal for the salvation of others among native 
 Christians, 195, 196, 254. 
 
 Zenana : meaning of the word, 176; described, 
 176. 
 
 Zenana work: discussed. Chapter XVII; its 
 importance, 174, 175, 328, 331 ; appointments 
 to, 137; number of zenanas open to mission- 
 aries, 176 ; methods of work, 176-178 ; disad- 
 vantages, 178; obstructions, 219, 227-229; 
 men occasionally met with, 178; affected by 
 Amir Bibi's baptism, 229 ; affected by a pub- 
 lic debate, 199; advantages, 178: its results, 
 178: some zenana women anxious to learn, 
 176,252: varied experiences, 177, 178; speci- 
 mens of, 227 ; broader sense of the term zenana 
 tvork, 178, 179. See Women and Workers, 
 Christian. 
 
 Zenana workers among Christians, 272, 273. 
 
 Zhob valley war, 21. 
 
 Ziegenbalg arrives in India, 94. 
 
 Zoroastriaiis of India — that is, Parsees. See 
 Parsees. 
 
^ 
 

 Date Due 
 
 
 r^i>l!la*iisi^?ii 
 
 P-' 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iwppmm 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (S 
 
 PRINTED 
 
 IN U. S. A. 
 
 
ffl^flLn. 
 
 iiliiii 
 
 mm' 
 
 BW7509 .S85 
 
 Life and work in India ; an account of 
 
 Princeton Theological Semmary-Speer Library 
 
 1 1012 00043 6719