. DISSERTATION PRACTICAL AND CONCILIATORY, IN THREE PARTS, INTENDED TO DEFINE, ILLUSTRATE, AND RECONCILE WITH EACH OTHER, THE FOLLOWING THREE CLASSES OF OBJECTS; 1. PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 2. POLITICS AND RELIGION. 3. PRIVATE OPINION AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. By DANIEL CHAPMAN. LONDON: HAMILTON, ADAMS, & CO., PATERNOSTER-ROW; J. Y. KNIGHT, LEEDS. MDCCCXXXVI. LEEDS: PRINTED BV ANTHONY FICKARD. DEDICATION. Though this Dissertation is avowedly intended for univer- sal circulation and permanent use, so far as it is really calculated to be of universal and practical utility ; yet the Author is not without a conviction, that it is as pre- cisely and seasonably adapted to the present, critical state of his native country in every point of view, as though it had been prepared solely and expressly for this very purpose and period. To all classes of his countrymen, therefore, and to them as representatives of the great human family, this first fruit of his long and laborious application to subjects of transcendent interest and im- portance, is, with every sentiment of gratitude and obligation to God, and with every feeling of patriotic love and devotion to the inhabitants of his native clime, dedi- cated. In performing this act of Dedication, the Author is conscious of being infinitely, eternally indebted to his Creator and Redeemer, and of owing to his species the entire consecration to their service of all that he possesses, and all that he can command : he therefore now solemnly subscribes his name, as the visible pledge of his intention to aim at the full accomplishment of whatever God shall providentially appoint, and man legitimately require. DANIEL CHAPMAN. Jatinari/, 1836. CONTENTS. PART I. ... PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. PAGE. 1. What is Philosophy .^ — What is Theology ? 4 2. What is the peculiar province, the exclusive and proper function of each ? 15 3. On what principles, and to what extent is their mutually beneficial incorporation with each other practicable and desirable ? 17 PART II. POLITICS AND RELIGION. 1. The rectitude and ameliorating influence, the turpitude and deteriorating influence, of different systems of national policy, domestic or foreign 36 2. The effects which these different systems of human policy, produce on the interests and characters of human beings, whether near or remote Ifi 3. The consequent propriety and necessity of expressing our approbation, and yielding our concurrence, or of expressing our displeasure, and engaging in the most effectual counteraction of this political agency 70 4. The spirit, manner, and measure, in which our assent or dissent, our acquiescence or resistance ought to be expressed , 86 Till. CONTENTS- PART III. PRIVATE OPINION AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. PAGE. 1. What is Private Opinion ? 153 2. To what extent are our Private Opinions capable of being subjected to our own control ? 154 3. To what extent are we responsible for our Private Opinions ? 178 4. What is Ecclesiastical Communion .^ 185 5. What are those coincidences which Ecclesiastical Commu- nion requires, and what are those differences which such Communion tolerates, in sentiment, conduct, and character, first, in all those individuals who compose each religious denomination separately, 195 and secondly, in all who collectively constitute the universal Church of God ? 222 • J. PART I. PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. B .ll ^Y„\jri.'iilY Of PR.i:;r::TOH ti£C.JUN ]bbi DISSERTATION, &c., &c. PART FIRST. PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. IS all Philosophy erroneous, contemptible, or pre- judicial ? Is it utterly incapable of being either defined with accuracy, or applied to purposes of real utility? Is there no incorrectness, is there no illiberality in denouncing all philosophers fools and knaves, enemies equally to all institutions of a religious or an ecclesiastical nature ? Is there any clear and substantial evidence in support of the position, that Philosophy is more favourable to the spread of a poisonous infidelity, than to the diffusion of orthodox Christianity? And if there could be contrary evidence adduced, sufficient to rebut the heavy charge implied in such an insinuation, is there 4 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. no link of common affinity, is there no bond of mutual friendship, by which a sound Philosophy and a correct Theology might be united in a state of most efficient subserviency to the best interests of each other, recommending each other with the greatest cordiality, and propagating each other with the greatest facility and rapidity? Properly to determine these essential points, it may not be use- less or uninteresting to enquire : 1. What is Philosophy? — what is Theology? 2. What is the peculiar province, the exclusive and i^roper function of each? 3. On what principles, and to what extent is their mutually beneficial incorporation with each other practicable and desirable ? 1. What is Philosophy, what is that celebrated science which has been so extravagantly eulogised by some, so malignantly anathematised by others, — extolled by its advocates as divine, degTaded, de- tested by its opponents as scarcely entitled to claim any other origin and epithet than infernal ? What then are, in reality, its capabilities and its functions, its objects and its characteristics? Is it capable of being precisely ascertained, circumstantially defined ? Or is it something so exceedingly airy, vague, and evasive, that any apprehension or definition of it which might be attempted, would only issue in dis- appointment and chagrin, by involving obscurity in PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 6 still greater darkness, and confusion in still greater perplexity ? And if tliere existed any rational hopes of success in attempting this description of so controverted a science, whether ought we to con- sult the moderns or the ancients as the preferable sources of information, or ought rather to decline the decision of so important an enquiry by any special reference to illustrious periods and favourite authorities, and ought impartially to determine the point by a deliberate survey and a comprehensive, comparative view of the whole ? In adopting the latter of these expedients, we discover, that the Philosophy of antiquity, endeavours to render her superiority incontestable by exhibiting a dazzling list of illustrious and venerable names, by construct- ing a stupendous monument of learned and volumi- nous treatises, and by alleging in her favour the predominance and extent of that intellectual empire which, previously to the Reformation of Religion by Luther, she had founded in almost all the most civilized, and in all the evangelized nations upon earth. Modern Philosophy, whose arrogance, though quite sufficient, yet by no means exceeds that of ancient Philosophy, justly boasts literary geniuses of still greater celebrity, accumulates volumes on the subject still more numerous and ponderous, and stretches before our vision an intellectual empire whose foundations are deeper and more solid, whose superstructure is more substantial and magnificent. 6 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. and whose extent and duration are likely to prove commensurate with all the boundaries and the revo- lutions of the globe. Philosophy has, indeed, been the subject of perpetual fluctuations. Its consti- tution and its consistency have been repeatedly altered and impaired by the boldest innovations. The novelty of theory has, in some periods of its progress, invested it with charms of the most pow- erful, ostentatious character. At other seasons, the stalest insipidity seems to have rendered its cup rather one of nausea than of delight. Popularity has, in some instances, given it an amazing imjmlse, a most rapid and extensive diffusion. In other instances, it has fallen into a degree of discredit and even contempt, from which it appeared scarcely possible that it could ever be retrieved. All these variations in its aspect and character have miques- tionably arisen, in some measure, from those egre- gious errors, senseless extravagances, perplexing intricacies, and obvious contradictions, with which the science was, in its comparative infancy, and with which it has, dming some of even the maturer stages of its existence, been justly chargeable ; and arisen also, in some measure, from those terrible alarms, groundless apprehensions, and that invete- rate antipathy, which some excellent and pious, though probably, in this respect, superficial and mistaken judges, have consequently entertained. How just soever these views and emotions might THILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 7 at one period be, the season of extreme danger, I apprehend, is passed ; and the time, I think, has arrived, at which gennine Philosophy may be ren- dered most essentially and extensively serviceable to the cause of divine truth. The reasons for this opinion are simple and obvious. Philosophy is no longer allowed to indulge in those dreams and jflights of delirious fancy which formerly gave it such an air of wildness and disorder. The bound- less extravagances of whimsical theory, have been exploded by the substitution of judicious observation and patient experiment, as the only sure test of philosophical accuracy. The principles of the sci- ence, have been accurately analysed and strictly defined ; its processes, judiciously conducted and impartially investigated ; its deductions, closely scrutinized and scientifically arranged ; its projected theories, coolly considered and dispassionately tried ; its actual residts, carefully collected and beautifully harmonised ; and its whole aspect and character, incalculably improved, and rendered incomparably more deserving of that which we consider the pro- sier definition of Philosophy : — the science of ethics and of physics, the former deduced by enlightened reason, the latter by correct observation and real experiment. If this is Philosophy, what is Theology ? what is that science which comprehends Deity with all 8 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. other spiritual agencies, and eternity with all other periods of existence, past, present, and future, within its boundless range, — that science which professes to determine infallihly, and to fix irrevo- cably, the interests of morality, and the destinies of immortality, — that science in comparison with which all others appear, in point of dignity, extent, and value, trivial and useless ? Are, then, the ideas of men on theological subjects perfectly coincident, or are they not rather infinitely diversified ? Are their most celebrated oracles of information, distinguished by extraordinary clearness and consistency? Are they not rather obscure and contradictory in the extreme? Are not the histories of all ages and nations unanimous in suggesting and corrobora- ting this fact, that of all subjects Theology is that on which men meditate most deeply, conjecture most boldly, dictate most confidently, glow most intensely, persecute most fiercely, contend most ob- stinately, and differ most irreconcileably ? Consult atheism, infidelity, idolatry, superstition, fanaticism. What discordance of theory, what contrarieties of practice, what blasphemy and absurdity, what incon- sistency and irrationality, characterise these opposing systems ! Had we no other sources of instruction and encouragement, we might justly abandon our- selves to the most reckless indifference and despair. Atheism annihilates Deity, exterminates Provi- » PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 9 dence, extinguishes immortality as the ignis fatims of a bewildered imagination, stigmatises virtue as a species of contemptible weakness, designates vice the noblest assertion of natural freedom, denounces the hopes and apprehensions of eternal retribution as the reveries of disordered fancy, adopts as faith the belief of what is totally incredible, and eulogises as the highest exercise of reason the admission of what is most egregiously irrational, namely — that effects, the most stupendous as well as the most minute, the most extraordinary as well as the most common, may exist without a cause ; — that order, universal as well as particular, intellectual as well as physical, is the result of chance ; — that beauty, which indicates the most peculiar and delicate arrangement of dissimilar parts, that harmony, which exhibits the mutual adaptation of innumerable parts to the formation of one magnificent and subservient whole, are mere casualties ; — that incipient existence, which the animal and vegetable worlds equally experience as the result of procreative influence, and that mortality or dissolution, which all the subjects of these worlds inevitably undergo as the consequence of exhausted animation, are perfectly consistent with the idea of their unoriginated exis- tence from all eternity, and their interminable succession through a boundless futurity. Atheism, therefore, treats every other species, or, rather, every species of Theology, as the effusions of dri- 10 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. veiling insanity, originating in the awful fictions of priestly avarice, and exhibiting the extreme folly of attributing supreme importance to purely imaginary existences. And were not the atheist himself, most obviously, a consummate and most impudent fool in pretending to deny his perception of what is most palpably prominent, and in audaciously con- tradicting the universal, incontestable evidence of all sense and reason, he might be considered as entitled to some degi'ee of attention, even were it merely to express our indignation at his unparalleled impiety, and our refusal to entertain even for a moment the probability of his blasphemous assump- tions. But the monument which atheism erects, instantly proves its own sepulchre; the breath which atheism breathes, instantly blasts its own ex- istence. Idolatry, by plunging into the opposite ex- treme, completely changes the scene. She multi- plies gods so prodigiously, that the whole universe swarms with her multifarious deities, demi-gods, and genii, celestial, terrestrial, and infernal, in their origin, residence, and character. Pervading all the departments of nature, and exercising their super- intendence over all the objects of creation, her divinities ripple in the stream, and wave in the foliage of the trees, and crawl in the vermin of the earth, and inhabit the forms of brutes, and glitter in the stars of heaven, and preside over the seasons THILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 11 of the year, and the alternation of day and night, and adapt their names, characters, and functions, to all the infinitely diversified objects and occur- rences of the universe. But so vague and senseless are the conjectures which she indulges, so purely ideal are the worlds of mythological existence and adventure which she calls into being, so monstrous are the absm'dities of the creed which she requires us to subscribe, so abominable is the filthiness with which she contaminates our persons and imagina- tions, so disgustingly vicious and revolting are the beings whom she requires us to adore with rites of pollution, and deeds of blood ; that virtue, alarmed at the immoral tendency of idolatry, and reason, shocked at the violence done to her plainest and most general principles and jirecepts, express their common and irreconcileable antipathy to such a system of delusion and impiety. Idolatry renders herself irrational and contemptible by the attributes and honours with which she invests the deified fictions of her prolific imagination, and by the extraordinary debasement of intellect, and magnifi- cence of rites and ceremonies, with which she ex- presses her veneration for these sacred, — cursed nonentities. Superstition and idolatry, which are essentially the same, differ chiefly in this respect : idolatry delights most in what is visible, tangible, external ; superstition manifests a stronger predilection for 12 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. what is invisible, immaterial, internal ; the former aiming at the gratification of the senses, the latter studiously endeavouring to interest the feelings and affections. Superstition divests idolatry of those circumstances which may in some instances have given her a peculiar charm, and renders the shape- less creatm'es of her own gloomy fancy horrific in the extreme, by clothing them with all the attri- butes of malevolence, secrecy, cruelty, and terror. She trembles exceedingly at the displeasure, she murderously tortures and sacrifices herself to secure the savage favour, of those deified abstractions which she has conceived solely to gratify her unac- countable propensity to venerate the terrible and inscrutable. If, therefore, there exists any differ- ence between idolatry and superstition, it consists chiefly in this, — that the latter is the least enter- taining and the most ridiculous ; and the chief difference between atheism and both these systems, consists mainly in this distinction : — atheism pro- fesses to believe there exists no God, whilst idolatry and superstition either adore gods that actually have no existence, or worship the true God in so corrupt and degraded a manner, that the supreme excellence of Jehovah, and the genuine rites of religion, are completely lost, are virtually annihilated, by their indiscriminate association, their impious amalgama- tion with other deities and objects of superstitious devotion. PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 13 Infidelity, rising a step higher than her prede- cessors, or at least affecting to treat them with indignation and contempt, spurns the absm-dities of atheism, laughs at the buffoonery of idolatry, and exposes to ridicule the errors and hoiTors of super- stition. She has, however, a favourite idol of her own, which she invests with a supremacy and a sovereignty that set all competition and contradic- tion at defiance. She exalts human reason into a divinity precisely of this character. At the shrine of this internal goddess, she sacrifices the infalli- bility, the veracity of Deity himself, — whatever she deems incomprehensible, improbable, or false; whilst she respects as infallible, and obeys as su- premely authoritative, the oracular decisions of mere reason, — of reason blinded, stupified, confounded, distracted by this species of impious self-adoration. Having, therefore, infinitely degraded the attributes of Deity by preposterously transferring them to his own erring, misguided reason, the infidel can with very little propriety consider himself as essentially different from the sottish atheist, the brutal idolater, or the superstitious devotee. Fanaticism, kindling into a violent rage at this impious prostitution of every thing sacred and excellent, demolishes, vsdth one stroke of her indig- nant fury, and scatters in the dust, all those systems of madly perverted ingenuity, of absmxlly deified rationality ; whilst she declares, as enthusiastically. 14 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. that her own internal impnlses constitute the only infallible criterion of right and wrong, of what is acceptable or offensive to the Deity; though it is perfectly obvious, that these internal impulses are of so capricious, variable, and contradictory a cha- racter, as to appear wholly undefinable, incapable of being reduced to any thing like a rational, consis- tent, systematic form. So egregiously erroneous and palpably absurd in sentiment, so harshly discordant and incoherent in principle and profession, so highly derogatory to the dignity of God and his creatures, and prejudi- cial, yea, fatal to the best interests of the human race in every situation and period of their existence, are all those systems of error in theory and prac- tice, and all those ten thousand modifications and intermixtures of these systems, which uninspired and unenlightened reason has devised to silence the clamorous accusations of a guilty conscience, to lull guilt into a state of temporary insensibility, and to evade the restrictions and sanctions of a pure and perfect morality. Nor can these absurdities and hostilities ever be expected to cease, or universal consistency and harmony be expected to prevail, until that system of religion is universally adopted which divine revelation suggests, — a system incon- trovertibly established by prophecy and miracle, by argumentation and experience, and which, therefore, PHILOSOniY AND THEOLOGY. 15 may be cliaracterised in general terms as beino- — that system of faitli, obedience, and devotion wbicli the Scriptm-es of the Old and New Testaments inculcate, and which exhibits all the attributes and resources of Deity in a state of most wonderful and glorious, mediatorially compassionate, and morally regenerative adaptation to all the circumstances and existence of man, of fallen and depraved, guilty and condemned, penitent and believing, obedient and devoted man. And as this definition of Theo- logy is perfectly coincident with that of Christianity, we shall not hesitate, should occasion require, to use these terms as synonymous, or at least suffi- ciently so to be perfectly interchangeable in the course of this discussion. 2. If these definitions of Philosophy and The- ology are correct, what is the peculiar province, the exclusive and proper function of each ? Philosophy selects the department of nature ; Theology, the department of grace ; and in both these depart- ments, moral as well as physical, Philosophy endea- vours most strenuously to ascertain the rule, and to discover the nature and extent of its violation ; Theology, having precisely ascertained these essen- tial points, manifests her chief anxiety respecting the means of expiating the transgressions commit- ted, and remedying to the full extent all the various disorders observable in the rebellious and deranged 16 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. universe of God. Philosophy, therefore, confines her contemplations chiefly to such objects and beings as are obvious, ordinary, natural, human ; Theology, in addition to these, comprises within the range of her investigation, all those objects and agencies that are invisible, spiritual, extraordinary, supernatural. Philosophy moves in a more limited and tangible ; Theology, in a more widely-extended and diversified sphere of action and research. Philosophy examines the character, attributes, and operations of Deity, and of all the various classes of created agencies, as they are obviously exhibited in the universe at large to the eye of reason and reflection ; Theology aims at a more deep, intimate, and extensive ac- quaintance with the respective natures, laws, and relations of these agencies, particularly as they are exhibited to her view in the government and super- intendence of the world by the Providence and Spirit of God, and especially in its transcendently glorious and mysterious redemption and moral renovation by the person of his co-equal, divine, incarnate Son. Philosophy and Theology, therefore, are both equally engaged in the grandest and most sublime of all contemplations, the study of God and creation : Philosophy ranging illimitably wher- ever her vision, optical or intellectual, can stretch its legitimate researches, — Theology at the same time soaring enraptured through those regions of eternity and infinity, of spirituality and immortality, PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 17 wliieli tlie volume of diviiie revelation exhibits to his view, as one boundless expanse of wisdom and goodness, of being and of love. 3. Are these kindred sciences, then, so irre- concileably hostile to each other, as to render their jmcific union and amicable intercourse, impossible? Are they so diametrically opposite, or so immea- surably distant and divergent, as to render their approximation to each other, or their concentration in some common point of object or utility, imprac- ticable ? Does the possession of the one, absolutely require the renunciation of the other? Are all proficients in Christianity fools in Philosophy ? Are all adepts in Philosophy fools in Christianity? Were Galilei, and Gassendi, and Descartes, and Bacon, and Leibnitz, atheists? Were Newton, and Boyle, and Pascal, and Locke, infidels ? Are astronomers, and geologists, and botanists, and che- mists, and naturalists, are they all unbelievers ? And if they were sucli, could it thence be clearly demonstrated, that Philosophy has a natural and an inevitable tendency to originate infidelity ? And if in any instance a tendency so deplorable has been manifested, is it not attributable solely to the depravity of human nature, which uniformly leads to the abuse or mal -appropriation of every thing intrinsically excellent, and which requires, tlierefore, the union of Theology with Philosophy to coun- c 18 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. teract this vicious propensity? Would tliei*e, in fact, be no infidelity,, were there no Philosophy? Would our knowledge of things, spiritual and divine, be increased exactly in the proportion in which our acquaintance with things, natural and human, was diminished? — yea, does not a perfect knowledge of the former, essentially include some deo-ree of philosophical acquaintance with the lat- ter ? Was ]\Ioses disqualified by his proficiency in Egyptian literature for executing his arduous com- mission ? Was Solomon incapacitated for the study of nature by his extraordinary qualifications ? Did he not employ these unparalleled, intellectual ad- vantages in examining with extreme care, and describing with equal accuracy, various portions of the animal and vegetable creation? Was the Apostle of the Gentiles rendered less serviceable to the Church, or less respectable in the eyes of his adherents and of his foes, by the vastness and perfection of his attainments in Grecian, Roman, and Jewish learning? Have the discoveries of Phi- losophy never contributed to the promotion of human comfort, sustenance, safety, or ease ? Have her weapons never been advantageously wielded in defence of human rights and interests, personal, social, civil, and religious ? Are there not avenues innumerable by which she devoutly re-conducts the careful observer, and the patient experimentalist, from infinitely diversified effects to their primeval, PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 19 uncreated Cause, — from universal harmony and order to tlie Great, First Principle of all life, and beauty, and motion ? Is not ignorance, especially on those ordinary subjects with which men ought to be most familiarly acquainted, one of the most prolific sources of human degradation, oppression, imposition, and crime ? Has God so magnificently exhibited to us the cabinet of universal nature, studded with stars, adorned with worlds, and ani- mated with countless myriads of living, immortal intelligences ; and has he at the same time pro- hibited, with the seal of his? malediction, every attempt, how judiciously soever conducted, to ac- quire more comprehensive, correct, and devotional views of his character, by studiously inspecting, systematically classifying, and justly estimating these exhaustless treasures of his wisdom, and goodness, and love ? Is there, in the whole volume of reve- lation, any anathema denounced, either directly or indirectly, against those who properly exercise their noblest faculties, who indefatigably improve their most favourable opportunities, in discovering and elucidating the laws, the connections, the utility, the variety, the glory, and the excellence of the universe ? Is it not highly probable at least, if not easily demonstrable, that the perfect attainment of this knowledge, which might with much greater propriety be designated divine than human, is one of those respects in which the intellectual supe- 20 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. riority of celestial beings now consists, and one of those in which tho superiority of our future to our present state, will ultimately and eternally consist ? Is it not, therefore, evident from the whole of this minute scrutiny, that it is false Philosophy, and not the true, or true Philosophy prostituted to the basest of passions and purposes, and not true Philo- sophy directed to its legitimate objects and designs, that has been so deplorably prejudicial to the inte- rests of society and religion in general, and to those of Christendom, and Christianity in particular, in all ages of the Church and of the world ? But if this evil is not an irremediable one, what is that most efficient remedy which this impartial consider- ation of the subject, naturally suggests ? Is it not simply this : That the species of Philosophy which is employed in illustrating theological subjects, ought to be the simplest, the purest, and the most solid imaginable, equally remote from all inextricable intricacy in reasoning, and all abstruse technicality in exjiression ? Simplicity, purity, and solidity, as opposed respectively to all intricacy and confusion, all foreign and corrupt admixture, and all wild and flimsy theory, are properties which ought ever and equally to characterise Philosophy and Theology. The native beauty and transcendent excellence, the primary design and ultimate object, the essential value and beneficial operation of both sciences, will PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 21 be most clearly perceived and most highly appre- ciated, the more prominent and predominant we render these properties in all om- philosophical and theological speculations and discussions. Since Philosophy extends her intellectual range through the boundless regions of being and of space ; since she directs her powers of investigation to the minutest equally with the most stupendous objects and complicated arrangements, — objects and arrangements manifestly infinite in number, variety, and importance : she must inevitably experience the comparative imbecility of her faculties, and acknow- ledge their total inadequacy to the task of fully comprehending, of perfectly developing the whole ; she must frequently find herself involved in con- sideralile doubt and perplexity, and subjected to the necessity of substituting theory and probability for clear, sensible, mathematical demonstration ; and she must occasionally, after all her most labo- rious and painful researches, discover, that on many subjects her knowledge is extremely presumjjtive, problematical, and imperfect. For omniscience is an attribute to which Philosophy has no kind of pretension. Restrictions and limits innumerable bound her enquiries in every possible direction. That difficulties, therefore, unavoidable and appa- rently insuperable, exist; that the theories devised for the solution of these difficulties are consequently 22 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY, in many instances merely conjectural and conve- nient ; — is a concession perfectly proper and admis- sible in Philosophy. But let not these inextricable difficulties, let not these adventurous theories, have any place whatever assigned them in explaining and illustrating, by the exercise of human reason, those subjects of Theology which come more pro- perly within the range of philosophical disquisition ; let those philosophical deductions only be applied to this purpose, which are corroborated by deep and patient, unprejudiced observation, by correct and judicious, repeated experiment, by universal and unanimous, physical and moral evidence. The- ology has her own inscrutable mysteries ; she has her own inexplicable problems; although, irrespec- tively of these, she communicates an immense mass of information easy of comprehension by the world universally, because level to the capacity of a child, clear as the light of the meridian sun, and in most instances equally instantaneous and irresistible in the spread of its illumination through the soul. And though I think it is highly probable, that the peace of the Church, her beauty, harmony, and prosperity, would be very gi-eatly facilitated ; and that the opposite evils, whicli are exceedingly de- plorable and prejudicial in Christian communities, would be proportionately diminished, were these essential mysteries of our holy religion, received with the simplest assent of the mind, as matters of PHILOSOl'HY AND THEOLOGY. 23 pure revelation incapable of liunian penetration or solution ; yet, if any metaphysical genius entertains so peculiarly high an opinion of his own powers, as to imagine himself capable of comprehending what all others have, by intuition or by actual investiga- tion, found to be incomprehensible ; let him con- duct the discussion solely on theological principles, let him confine himself strictly within the limits of' pm-ely theological demonstration, and carefully avoid rendering mystery doubly mysterious, and darkness doubly dense, by attempting to explain the acknowledged inexplicables of Theology by having recourse to the equally, if not even more impenetrable arcana of the abstrusest Philosophy. And though it w^ould imply a dishonourable suspi- cion, a conscious weakness on the part of Theo- logy, to give her sister-science a cold, distrustful reception ; yet for their mutual honour and advan- tage, let the principles of their intercourse and co- operation be clearly defined, and conscientiously observed. Purity and simplicity are so closely allied to each other, that it may perhaps appear diflficult to separate, or nicely to discriminate these analagous properties. Purity, however, alludes rather to the exclusion of what is extraneous ; simplicity, to the avoidance of what is complex or intricate. In this point of view, purity may seem not only easily applicable, but even very essential to Philosophy, 24 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. both ill its own sphere abstractedly considered, and in all the various applications of which it is capable. Indeed, when we contemplate the vastness of that range which Philosophy properly takes, and the di- versity of those objects which this range embraces, we shall perceive, that the former is sufficiently wide, and that the latter are sufficiently numerous, with- out having this sphere immeasurably extended, and these objects endlessly multiplied, by incorporating with Philosophy what is totally foreign to its nature, and directing its researches to subjects that are obviously and infinitely beyond the limits of its peculiar^ province. And yet, strange and culpable as such a perversion, or rather, prostitution of the science, may appear to be, there are great numbers of its professed adherents who, from ignorance or extravagance, from vanity or impiety, or from all these combined, are led to substitute their Philo- sophy for Theology itself, professing to derive from this foreign and scanty source, all those peculiar doctrines and precepts which the awfully altered circumstances of the human race require, and which a direct revelation from God alone could pos- sibly supply. These are the philosophical empirics, whose pompous, infidel quackery has brought them- selves, and their science, and even Theology itself into disgrace, by compelling Philosophy to attempt what it never was intended to perform, or was even capable of performing, and by subjecting religion PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 25 to a species of ordeal and deoradation to which it never can in reality be subject, and to which it never ought for a moment even in appearance to submit. Let not Christianity, therefore, have her character stamped, and her destinies decided, either favom-ably or otherwise, by this species of philoso- phical dogmatism, as though it were an infallible criterion of religious truth. Let not reason presume to exercise a dictatorial authority over revelation. Let not human fallibility preside at the tribunal of inspiration. Let not human ignorance be ex- alted to a supremacy over divine science. Let not the pride of the human heart be gTatified, and the dignity of Christianity be degraded, by any attempt to invest the Gospel with the character of an humble suppliant at the bar of human ignorance, presum])tion, or caprice. Let not Plato and Aris- totle, and the disciples of these justly celebrated masters of anticpity, be regarded as judicial censors over Jesus Christ, and the devoted followers of the despised, — incomparable Nazarene. Let not the oracles of Philosophy, either ancient or modern, be consulted with the view of having the sense and extension of Christianity determined by their magis- terial, ambiguous dicta : for the jurisdiction which Christianity exercises, is purely spiritual and divine, authorising no appeal whatever to any merely human science for the determination of her infallible ver- diet. But let Philosophy move in that sphere whicli 26 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. sound reason assigns, as exclusively appropriated to the exercise of her j^eculiar functions ; let her enjoy the full pleasure and advantage of those employ- ments in which the nature of her delightful province requires her to engage : and since Christianity is neither so supercilious as to disclaim an alliance with Philosophy, nor so inflated with a sense of self-sufficiency, as to despise any legitimate, valua- able assistance, let Philosophy cheerfully and grate- fully render every service in her power, and invaria- bly conduct herself in this auxiliary department with that modesty, fidelity, and humility, which a deej) sense of her inferiority and obligations, ought ever to inspire. Let it not be supjDosed that we are here con- founding with Philosojihy that flimsy, su^^erficial, ostentatious, pseudo-science, which has indeed most arrogantly, or rather, impudently assumed the name, though totally destitute of all the genuine charac- teristics of true Philosophy, — a sort of spurious, bal^bling, sujjercilious art, wldcli has indeed the merit of employing a most amazing and senseless volubility of sj^eech in the use of mere technical terms, though at the same time most profoundly and unblushingiy ignorant of all substances, proper- ties, and distinctions ; and which, in place of enrich- ing the minds of its votaries with a vast store of definite and useful ideas, merely inspires them with an audacious contempt of all valuable information, PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 27 and encourages tliem to pour tlieir filthy torrent of ignorance and blasjihemous impiety, witli equal virulence and deadly effect, on those subjects which true Philosophy ever approaches with the deepest veneration, and examines and discusses with feel- ings of humility and reverence proportioned to the sacredness and elevation of the theme. Of all the various kinds of prostitution and abuse to which language is liable, there is none baser or more dis- gusting than that which consists in designating, by the venerable title of Philosophy, such mere rant and cant of an insidious, contemptuous, despicable, demoralizing infidelity. To prevent so degrading a mal-appropriation of the term, let the nicest and most impartial discrimination be exercised in all enquiries and discussions that profess to be of a philosophical nature. Let all those criteria which the \\isdom of past ages, has developed and pre- scribed for the attainment of an infallible decision, be rigidly and dispassionately applied. Let not idle supposition be substituted for actual investigation, or the presumption of probability for the demon- stration of reality. Let not the dogmatical author- ity of mere names, how extensive and influential soever that celebrity may bo which some of them have acquired, be thought suflficient to stamp the deductions of mere reason infallible, and the doc- trines of divine revelation inadmissible. Let not the tone of arrogance which an infidel Pliilosopliy, 28 PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. in the midst of rash conclusions from fanciful disco- veries, frequently assumes in the first moments of its exultation, let not this breath of shallow wit and dictatorial pride, be suffered to shake for an instant, even in the minds of such as are least informed, those pillars of eternal truth on which that system of Theology is founded which God has disclosed to us in the Scriptures, and which esta- blishes the divinity of its origin by that universal control over nature which its Author exercised, and which he divinely authorised and strengthened its apostolical propagators to exercise in their miracu- lous corroboration of his sacred, life-giving message. Were these precautions observed, I should appre- hend no danger whatever, but rather anticipate the most signal advantages, from contracting an alliance between a simple, pure, and solid Philosophy, such as we have attempted to delineate, and a simple, pure, and solid Theology, such as the Scriptures clearly reveal, and such as the most ordinary capa- city may comprehend sufficiently for all doctrinal, experimental, and practical purposes. PART II. POLITICS AND RELIGION. PART SECOND. POLITICS AND RELIGION. The world wliicli we inhabit, sustains countless myriads of animal and vegetable productions ; the former consisting of rational and irrational beings, and the latter of objects equally ornamental and useful. That laws and regulations should exist, as Aarious and extensive as the multifarious interests of these innumerable classes of being require, is an inference the correctness of which, the actual state of things universally corroborates, — laAvs and regu- lations as binding on the highest as on the lowest in the scale of sentient existence, and as requisite in the merely material as in the intellectual depart- ment of creation. That man should be exempt from the operation or the observance of these laws, would be an anomaly strange in the extreme, — un- paralleled and inexplicable. To give any degree of propriety to the existence of such an anomaly, it would be requisite, that man should differ essen- tially, infinitely from all other beings in his cir- cumstances and constitution. For even the Deity 32 POLITICS AND RELIGION. himself invariably regulates his procedure by eternal and immutable, eternally and immutal^ly perfect laws. And from the Deity to the minutest of his creatures, the administration of these laws, is ob- servable in an infinite variety of aspects and adap- tations to the purposes of the Great Supreme, and the happiness and security of his dependent uni- verse. But man, so far from being anomalous in this respect, bears so close an analogy to all other orders of being, that in him personally all the laws of their diversified ranks and characters appear to be concentrated, and not merely concentrated in him as the grand, intermediate, compound link in the endless chain of being, but required to exercise their predominant influence over every part of his nature, whether mental or physical, and over every department and relation of his intercourse, whether civil or religious, political or moral. Now, the grand object of our present enquiry is simply this : Whether man governs or obeys man, whether he presides at the helm of power, or executes the orders of such a presidency, how ought he to act in his political cajjacity, in order that his religious character may not only sustain no injury, but may rise to the highest attainable degree of moral per- fection ? We have been led to this enquiry by observing, that an almost endless diversity of opi- nion and practice, prevails on the subject of esta- blishing a union between Religion and Politics in POLITICS AND RELIGION. 33 each individual character, some persons hjudly con- demning- such a connection as exceedingly improper and detrimental, and others as strenuously asserting not only the bare propriety, but the indispensable necessity of such a combination, alleging this as the only remedy for those political evils under which mankind so generally and so deeply gToan, and as the most effectual expedient for giving to Religion universal popularity, efficiency, and transcendent supremacy in the affairs of men. Were it necessary, at this early stage of the discussion, to declare which of these theories was in my own judgment the least objectionable, or the most eligible, I should decidedly express my j^reference in favour of the latter, as not only the most congenial with my own sentiments, but, of course, the most consonant with my own practice on the subject. For an irre- ligious polity, whether that irreligion consists in the total exclusion of religious principles from any system of national administration, or in the actual violation of such principles, has always appeared to me an anti-religious institution extremely demoral- izing in its tendency, and deadly in its effects on the best interests of society. And a non-politic Religion, whether that non-policy consists in a total suspension of judgment, or an indiscriminate adop- tion of every political measure that is suggested, has always appeared, in my estimation, a state of things much better adapted to the condition of a D '34 POLITICS AND RELIGION. savage, or a hemiit, or a disembodied spirit, whose respective lawlessness, seclusion, or immateriality, may be considered as exempting such a being from the ordinary necessities, dangers, and requisitions of civilized life, of congregated physical and intellec- tual intercourse. To me it appears an incontrover- tible maxim, that that system of human policy must be the best, which is the most favourable to the diffusion, the prevalence, and the predomi- nance of true Religion ; and that that system of Relifi'ion must be the best which is the most favourable to the purity, the prosperity, and the stability of human government. Entertaining these views, and acting agreeably to these convictions, the declaration of them contained in the following argument of this Discourse, will not appear either strange or premature ; and the subsequent illustra- tion and corroboration of this argument, may not be wholly uninteresting, as certainly so far from being unimportant, the subject is one which ought to engage the profoundest attention, and excite the deepest emotions, of which human beings are capable. Indolence in prosecuting the enquiry, or impatience to arrive at a conclusion, would only betray consummate ignorance of the immense, prac- tical importance of a decision founded on the infalli- ble principles of justice and of truth. Our intention to try the cause by these principles is sincere. Our consideration of errors supposed to exist in the POLITICS AND RELIGION. 35 theory or tlie practice of others shall be no less candid than impartial. And our discussion of the whole subject, shall be as brief as our ingenuity can devise, or rather, as concise as your gratification and advantage will allow. The argument is this : Christians ought To approve what is politically right. To condemn what is politically ^^Tong, To promote what is politically beneficial, To counteract what is politically injurious \— because they are bound by the strongest obligations, natural and moral, to promote their own interests and those of others, temporal as well as spiritual, to the greatest possible extent that human happi- ness admits or requires ; and because their temporal interests, generally considered, are as immediately dependent on the state and government of a nation, as their spiritual prosperity is on the state and government- of the Church. The proper examination of this argmnent, re- quires us delil3erately to consider these four parti- culars : 1. The rectitude and ameliorating influence, the turpitude and deteriorating influence, of dif- ferent systems of national policy, domestic or foreign. 2. The effects which these different systems of human policy, produce on the interests and 36 POLITICS AND RELIGION. characters of liuman bein<^s, whether near or re- mote. 3. The consequent propriety and necessity of expressing our approbation, and yiekling our con- currence, or of expressing our displeasure, and eno'ag'ino" in tlie most effectual counteraction of this political agency. 4. The spirit, manner, and measure, in which our assent or dissent, our acquiescence or resistance ought to be expressed. 1. Every national policy is a public institution. The subjects for whose benefit that institution is supposed to exist, are in some instances extremely few in number, in others vastly multitudinous. All the measures, therefore, that are adopted, ought to be of a strictly public nature ; they ought to extend to all those human beings collectively by whom that institution is recogiiised and supported as their own acknowledged system of policy. There may be various classes of society. There may be sub- ordinate interests connected with each of these classes. There may be individual cases sufficiently important to justify a particular claim of attention. Still, however, each of these classes, should be con- sidered as one branch, and only one branch of the whole community ; each of these interests should be considered as one portion, and only one portion of the common weal ; and each of these individual POLITICS AND RELIGION. 37 cases should bo considered us one unit, and only one unit in the whole nmnerical aggregate. For it would be monstrously absurd, and abominably ini- quitous, to prostitute the public interests of a whole community to the promotion of private emolument or advantage. All partial considerations, therefore, ought to be excluded. All sinister designs and clandestine operations, ought to be reprobated and abandoned. All exclusively individual interests and gratifications on the part of those to whom the government of a country is confided, ought to be patriotically sacrificed at the shrine of public utility and aggrandisement, when the attainment or enjoy- ment of them is incompatible with these higher and more general regards. Or, in other words, every general measure ought to recognise all the special interests of society ; and every special mea- sure ought to recognise the general prosperity of the whole community. It is in the observance of this principle, I conceive, that the essence of every national administration consists, every individual considering himself a part of the whole, — the whole itself being nothing more than an aggregation of such individuals. Parties that are deeply interested may be exceedingly violent in asserting their de- mands. Governments that are exceedingly dis- ordered, or weakened, or perplexed, may perhaps be compelled by circumstances to accede, and thus reluctantly become accessaries to the violation of 38 POLITICS AND RELIGION. national justice. But these are evils and disorders, which, whether tliey exist by toleration or prevail inevitably, every true patriot must deplore, and every suffering victim ^\^sll to see terminated as speedily and effectually as possible. In discussing, however, the question of political rectitude, we shall suppose the government invested with autho- rity and power sufficient to secure the execution of its purposes, whatever the moral character or the civil tendency of those purposes may be. Now, supposing that this government, of whatever nature it may be, whether patriarchal or democratic, whe- ther aristocratic or regal, is disposed to act invaria- bly on all occasions with perfect equity, what line of conduct must the authorities pursue to secure so enviable, so certainly attainable, so transcendently glorious a character ? Is it not obvious, that, for the attainment of so illustrious a rejiutation, their motives for desiring or accepting office, ought to be perfectly pure, patriotic, and generous, rather than vain, ambitious, and interested ; — that their dili- gence in discharging the functions of their respective stations, ought to be prompt, solicitous, indefatiga- ble, rather tlian constrained, reckless, incidental ; — that their conduct in personally observing all their own enactments, ought to be strict, exemplary, and conscientious, rather than loose, infamous, or con- venient ? Innumerable and almost infinitely diver- sified will be the claims on their attention, the rOLITICS AND RELIGION. 39 objects of their prosecution ; and consequently numerous and diversified in an equal degree will be the offices which they discharge, the measures which they adopt. In a multitude of instances so peculiar and complicated will these functions and measures be, that they will scarcely be reducible to any general rule, scarcely comprehensible under any general designation. Others, however, of these functions and measures are of so distinct and definite a character, that though eacli of them may contain an immense variety of particular cases, requiring extraordinary penetration, prudence, experience, and firmness, to decide their respective merits, yet are they all so prominent, so important, so frequent in their occurrence, that no difficulty whatever can exist in ascertaining their general nature, or adjudging them that degree of attention which they respec- tively deserve. Of such political duties, few or none perhaps are more o1)vious or essential than these : that all injuries should be redressed promptly, all complaints heard impartially, all punishments in- flicted equitably, all remunerations distributed con- scientiously, all improvements accelerated cheerfully, all abuses corrected fearlessly, all enactments devi- sed wisely, all vices checked resolutely, all morality promoted zealously, all supplies copiously provided, all dangers seasonably averted, all disorders judici- ously rectified, all knowledge freely communicated, all errors candidly discountenanced, all resources 40 POLITICS AND RELIGION. carefully collected, all expenditure economically regu- lated, all emergencies instantaneously considered, all degeneracy and oppression vigorously suppressed, all unanimity and co-operation strongly recommended, all foreign invasions resisted manfully, all defenceless and destitute nations protected and assisted gene- rously, all foreign contracts, political or commercial, framed justly and fulfilled righteously, and all colo- nies, allies, and neighbours, treated with aifection, in- tegrity, and esteem. To complete this enumeration were a task of no difficulty, provided the nature of a government were constantly recollected, as a public institution formed not for the elevation, emolument, or aggrandisement of a few, but for the protection, prosperity, and happiness of all. Provided this fundamental principle be acknowledged as the basis of all its institutions and operations, provided it enter as a primary ingi'edient into the composition of all its measures and designs, I see no reason whatever that should prevent us from conceding to a government so constituted and administered, the high official praise of acting with perfect rectitude. For the actual success of all its measures, no such a government can be supposed responsible. A thousand unexpected incidents and obstacles, a thousand adverse circumstances and occurrences may frustrate schemes formed with consummate wisdom, and involving in the event of their success- ful adoption and execution, blessings innumerable POLITICS AND RELIGION. 1 I and invaluable to the latest age. Omnipotently to control all these events, it would be the height of presum])tion in any human government to attempt, the height of madness in any national community to expect. In a world exhibiting such a chaos of good and evil, consummate villainy frequently suc- ceeds where honest integiity would most egregiously fail. The success of such villainy, however, is no more a vindication of its principle than the failure of such integrity is a reproach to its character, and a derogation from its excellence. And though villainy may occasionally frustrate the purposes of integrity in the early stages of its progress ; yet, ultimately, honest and persevering integrity will irresistibly prevail ; and the firmness of its final stability will be strengthened rather than weakened by the violence of the concussions to which it has been exposed. The disappointment, therefore, which the authorities and constituents of such a government may occasionally experience in the execution of their plans, fornis not the slightest imaginable objection to the propriety and excellence of that species of rectitude by which their proceed- ings are characterised. Such governments, however, are of very rare occurrence. Yea, the bare description of such rectitude may seem to jiartake more largely of romance than of reality, may seem to be a much fittiM- subject for ridicule than for serious delibera- 42 POLITICS AND RELIGION. tion, — a purely ideal fiction which never can be realized into actual existence. It is exceedingly deplorable, and a most awful reflection on human nature, that such should even appear to be the case. Such depravity is indeed no proper subject for exultation, or indifference, or condolence. Our condition, however, would have been incalculably worse than it is, had no attempt whatever been made to resist the torrent of degeneracy ; and many governments would have been incalculably better and more beneficial, had all those practical measures been adopted which we have briefly par- ticularised. Yea, there have existed, and there are now in existence, governments in which these principles have been carried to an extraordinary extent ; whilst there have been and are others in which they have been as contemptuously neglected and grossly violated. Of these last the instances of iniquity, violence, and error, are innumerable and detestable. To speak of their malversation in terms of measured respect, would be to insult reason and virtue by paying homage to folly and vice. They have trampled unceremoniously on all the rights of God and man ; and it were strange in the extreme, if such conduct were to be con- demned in silence, or mentioned in the strain either of eulogy or toleration. Wrong is wrong, by whom- soever it may be perpetrated ; and though the person of the perpetrator may be sacred, yet cursed POLITICS AND RELIGION. 43 by tlie law of God is the official criniiiiality with which he is chargeable in a station of so vast importance and responsibility, and in which the hidiest virtue ouoht to -be combined with all the native excellence of the human heart and character. Impossibilities cannot be expected. What is reason- able, however, may not only be expected but demanded. But these governments, so far from answering even ordinary expectation, have fallen infinitely short of common probity and common sense. Thev have considered their elevation as entitling them to the exercise of supreme contempt for all the inferior grades of society. The energies and the fortunes of these inferior grades, stigmatised — the lower classes in the vocabulary of human pride, they consider as nothing more than an ample provision made for their luxurious ease and wasteful profligacy of expenditure, w^lio are, forsooth, the only beings worthy of the designation — noble and immortal. The necessities, whether physical or intellectual, the disorders, whether moral or civil, the sufferings, whether bodily or mental, the cha- racters, whether virtuous or immoral, the prosperity and adversity, whether permanent or variable, the improvements and enjoyments, whether station- ary or retrograde, of this low, contemptible rabble, they consider infinitely beneath their exalted notice, their dignified consideration. Even to glance at such inferiors were an act of infinite condescension : 44 POLITICS AND RELIGION. but for such beings to expect such a glance, were an instance of intolerable presumption ; and to claim such a glance were little less than a blasphe- mous pretension to equality. To support and gra- tify this supremacy, which scarcely acknowledges even that of the Deity as co-equal, millions of these inferior beings must be recklessly slaughtered on the field of battle, to avenge some imaginary insult, some petty grievance amongst these gods of the human race, or to glut the morbid insatiableness of boundless avarice or ambition. To gratify these despicable propensities to revenge or aggrandise- ment, defenceless nations and flourishing empires must be invaded, deluged with the gore of their own inhabitants, plundered of all their liberties and possessions, and doomed to slavery, obscurity, or extinction ; contracts the most sacred must be vio- lated ; and rights and claims, inalienable and divine, trampled under foot. Panegyrists, base enough to eulogise, — poets, mean enough to celebrate, — histo- rians, mercenary enough to misrepresent or vin- dicate, or at least attempt to vindicate, such abominable dispositions and practices have been found. Cringing flattery, trembling at the menaces of that power, the principles of which it inwardly despises, prostrates itself in servile adulation at the shrine of such violent and sanguinary despo- tism. The slaves of such a tyranny, seek to emancipate themselves liy joining in the oppression POLITICS AND RELIGION. 45 of other slaves, to remedy tlieir own extreme des- titution l)y rendering others infinitely more destitute, and to procure their o^m exemption from the evils of such a dpiasty, by accumulating those evils to an incalculable extent on such as are incapable of making the slightest resistance, or obtaining the least redress. The political turpitude of such admi- nistrations, therefore, increases in a most awfully rapid ratio. The boundaries of its progress, coin- cide with the extremes of all possible iniquity. The authorities of the realm, are then nothing more than a legally constituted gang of banditti. The gems t)f the monarch's diadem, are then nothing more than the emblems of his precedency in villainy and vice. The laws of such a state, are nothing more than the deeply laid schemes of usurpation and oppression. The subjects of such a government, are nothing more than the mechanical instruments by which cmelty and violence effect their nefarious practices. The wars of such a power, whether civil or foreign, are nothing more than systematised, legalised murder. The annals of such a sovereignty, are nothing more than the records of crime, and cruelty, and death. The crown is the badge of infamy. The tribunal is the bar of violence. The dungeon is the dwelling of innocence. The gibbet is the reward of integrity. Vice loses its character and becomes a virtue : and virtue, sinking into contempt, ceases to exist. Every particle of just 46 POLITICS AND RELIGION. iidmiiiistratioii is aniiiliilated ; and the whole system, thougli organised and sanctioned by all the formal- ities of law, becomes in principle, character, and operation, totally different from what the govern- ment of every country ought manifestly to be. 2. Man is the creature of sensation and intelli- gence. He combines in his nature all the proper- ties of matter with all the qualities of mind, — of matter not merely inanimate and shapeless, but animated with a principle of perfect vitality, exhi- biting the finest mechanism endowed with the most exquisite sensibility, — and of mind not merely passive or stationary, but incessantly active and eternally progressive. By this peculiarity in his constitution, man is affected equally, by all con- siderations of a physical, and by all of an intellec- tual or spiritual nature, arising from an infinite multiplicity of connections and relations existing between liimself and those worlds of matter and of mind, of which he and the terrestrial orb which he inhabits, form integral and essential parts. Never wall his connection with matter cease, until his material and mortal frame is dissolved into dust ; never shall his connection witli spirit cease, until that spark is extinct which God has solemnly declared shall burn inextinguishably for ever. For man, therefore, to affect a total independence on terrestrial objects and occurrences so long as lie POLITICS AND RELIGION. 47 remains in this sublunary sphere, were a species of affectation equally foolish, contemptible, and cri- minal. And for man to deny the existence of an influential connection between his moral character and all those innumerable causes of a moral nature which exist in the world, and which are calculated to change or modify, to weaken or streno-then, to perfect or destroy that character, were a violation of truth as flagrant as culpable and deplorable. Every pore of the human frame is an avenue of pleasure or of pain ; and as these pores are number- less, so are the pleasures and the pangs to which he is liable from physical causes, numberless. Every faculty, every aftection of his soul, is a medium of anguish or delight ; and as these faculties and affec- tions are exceedingly Various, so are these mental agonies or ecstacies proportionately various. The man who pretends to have stoicised himself so completely as to have arrived at a total insensibility to every thing of a material or an intellectual nature, is as great a fool for making the assertion as ho is for ma- king the attempt, if, indeed, any human being could possibly be so infatuated as to deem such a virtual annihilation of his being, either practicable or desi- rable. Such stoicism is nothing more than idiotism having intelligence just sufficient to render its own folly and hypocrisy visible and contemptible. Ex- tremely squeamish and sickly sensibility is a directly opposit(^ evil and error. This multiplies liabilities 48 POLITICS 'AND RELIGION. to pain wliicli are not, in any degTee, compensated by the higher excitement of the pleasure produced. Reason is required here to exercise her sway. Na- ture is permitted here to make her own declaration. Experience and justice are allowed to decide and prescribe. For man is neither adamant nor air ; he is neither simple matter nor unconnected mind. His happiness or misery, therefore, his advancement or retrogradation, is the result of his moral and his physical condition. And his condition in these respects, is commonly determined in an incalculable degree, by the rectitude or the turpitude of that political system under wdiich he lives, and to the measures of which his temporal fortunes and his spiritual interests, his earthly comforts and his eternal destinies, are to a most extraordinary extent subjected. For by what possibility can a person evade the influence, direct or indirect, of that political insti- ^y tution within the jurisdiction of which he is com- prehended ? By what process of self-exclusion shall he retire into some recess, either real or imaginary, that shall afford him a total or even a partial exemp- tion from all the powers of such a jurisdiction? Extreme obscurity or perfect neutrality a])])ears the only alternative capable of affording such a refuge. But any expedient of this nature which a person might adopt for the complete annihilation of his political existence, even were it citlier just or POLITICS AND RELIGION. 49 tolerable, would expose him in the former instance to innumerable inconveniences which would more than balance all the ordinary evils of political mal- versation, and would in the latter instance subject him to a great variety of difficulties and perplexities from which he would find his consistent extrication difficult or impossible. Besides, any evasive scheme of this nature, would be practicable only to a very limited extent of locality and numbers. That ob- scurity must be great indeed which could escape the argus-eyed vigilance of the law. Only an organ- ised seclusion of a monastic nature, could accom- plish this object to any considerable extent. But such a system of seclusion has generally been found as detrimental to the polity at large, as it is incom- patible with the ordinary duties and enjoyments of separate individuals ; and these institutions have generally, in the progress of time, assumed a very large share, yea, in some instances, the chief share of political influence and ascendency. For there exists in the breast of man a natural, and, under proper restrictions and directions, a very laudable inclination to assist in regulating that political sys- tem in the measures of which his interests, present and future, are so deeply involved. I acknowledge that I cannot easily reconcile the prosecution of an opposite line of conduct with those ideas of pro- priety, justice, and necessity, wliicli a question of this kind naturally suggests. An absolute neutral E 50 POLITICS AND RELIGION. in the government of his country, or one who pretends at least to absokite neutrality, will gene- rally be found to be either a very weak, or a very cowardly, or a very interested being, who has not sense, or courage, or honest independence suffi- cient to exercise his inalienable right of forming and expressing an opinion respecting those national transactions in which he and his descendants are, eventually, as deeply concerned as all others and their posterity are. And it frequently happens, that some little deviation, perhaps unintentional, from his im-political policy, covers him with infamy and contempt. Are we then all to be prime mi- nisters ? Are we all to be councillors and com- manders ? Are we all to govern, and none to obey ? Are we all to prescribe, and none to exe- cute ? Are we to abandon or neglect our ordinary avocations, and consume the whole of our time in political deliberations and discussions ? Is every man to erect a monarchy, and plan a constitution of his own, and to require from all similar monar- chies and constitutions, that homage and subservi- ency to which he deems his own fanciful schemes entitled ? The well-known proverb of the cobbler and his last is, I think, very appropriate here. But let it be recollected, that when the national foot is exceedingly cramped, or when the national shoe requires to be repaired or renewed, every political cobbler in the realm, from the monarch to the pea- POLITICS AND RELIGION. 51 sant, is, in my opinion at least, entitled to a stitch and a stroke. And, if a slight departure from metaphorical accuracy may be allowed, every man, whatever that part of the national shoe may be wliich his foot occupies, should know, by reason and experience, how that shoe ought to be made so as best to suit his owti particular convenience and advantage. I have not indeed served an ap- prenticeship to the art of political shoe-making, or indeed to that of making shoes of any other description : the analogy, however, I think will be found not inappropriate on the present occasion. And the real cobblers in this department, if they deem my interference presumptuous, or my remarks irrelevant, will have the goodness to pardon the same. For,— to abandon a playful for a more seri- ous tone, every man has an interest at stake. All men have interests at stake. And to what extent these interests are either promoted by the rectitude, or injured by the turpitude of a government, will be most easily determined by enumerating those influences on liuman happiness wliich these different systems respectively exercise. Were justice, pure and impartial, universally administered, no reasonable dissatisfaction, no jus- tifiable retaliation of a private or revengeful cha- racter, could possibly exist. Were every legal claim granted, every actual injury compensated, every deserved punishment inflicted, every real 52 POLITICS AND RELIGION. demerit awarded, either all the parties concerned would be perfectly satisfied, or their dissatisfaction would be equally criminal and irremediable. No government upon earth can righteously engage to regulate its procedure by the caprice of solitary individuals, or of insulated classes of society: — the attempt would be as vain as its execution would be impracticable. Tn the present state of human nature, degenerate and disordered as it is, no form of government whatever can possibly be imagined, no, not even the government of God himself pre- siding visibly over the affairs of mortals, and audi- bly deciding their respective differences, that could inspire such a degi-ee of satisfaction as would ex- clude every possibility of murmur and chagrin. Whatever the measure adopted may be, it is fre- quently viewed in ten thousand various lights and shades, agreeably to the ten thousand varieties in the passions and interests of those whom that mea- sure concerns. Yea, the more equitable and impar- tial any government is, and the more obnoxious must it become to those whom equity displeases, and impartiahty offends. To gratify these would be a crime, equally dishonourable to the state, and injurious to the commonalty at large. The only expedient which it is necessary to adopt in reference to these dissentients, is, to prescribe such regula- tions as shall prevent their murmurs and complaints from materially disturbing the peace and harmony POLITICS AND RELIGION. 53 of society, and prevent their resistance and retalia- tion from seriously interrupting the administration of equity and mercy. But, it is presumed, that these characters do not constitute the great mass of the public, — that their views and feelings are not entertained by the majority of the commu- nity. And even if they were, I hold it an incon- testable principle, that at all hazards a just and reasonable minority ought to be gTatified, though at the expense of the pleasure of a wicked and capricious majority. But I am by no means dispo- sed to allow, already corrupted and corrupting in its influence as human nature is, that these malcon- tents form the majority of the populace under any system of righteous administration. Yea, I am the rather disposed to think that, under such a sys- tem of government, the class of dissentients would be extremely small, confined chiefly, if not exclu- sively, to the ordinary villains and vagabonds who subsist by preying on the vices, or on the vitals and property of others. These would be most highly chagrined, and exceedingly clamorous for a change. But their censure would be praise, and the most irrefragable proof of the excellence of the constitu- tution under which they lived, or rather under which they found it impossible, with their base principles and practices, to live. All the respectable part of the community, however, would be satisfied. All the justly interested classes of society, would 54 POLITICS AND RELIGION. be pleased. All denominations of the virtuous, would be gratified. All whose good opinion is desi- rable, would pronounce a favourable judgment. All whose practical concurrence was of any importance, would vigorously and unanimously co-operate. All who had any advantage to derive from the rectitude of the government, and these must invariably com- pose the major part of the population of every country, would feel their own private interests and responsibilities involved in maintaining such a go- vernment inviolable and inviolate. And even the very villains and vagabonds of society, perceiving that there was incomparably more to be gained by integrity than by dishonesty, would from sheer inte- rest, if not at all from principle, be inclined to lend their most strenuous support. For as the real decay terminating in the dissolution or destruction of a state, may generally be dated from that very period at which injustice, in its countless multitudes of forms, whether of public oppression or of private wrong, has begun to prevail, and to enjoy a species of legal countenance or toleration; so, I believe that every government which is righteously admi- nistered, contains within itself the basis of its own permanency, the materials of its own stabihty and grandeur, the ingredients of its own perennial prosperity, beauty, and felicity. And as such a government is infinitely preferable in the sight of God, so is it most obviously and eminently con- POLITICS AND RELIGION. 55 ducive to the best interests and happiness of man. But the mere administration of justice, though equally important and essential, constitutes only one of those functions which the rectitude of a govern- ment, suggests as proper and indispensable. For, as the power of the whole state, is generally sup- posed to be consolidated and concentred in the executive government of a nation, — as all the pecu- niary interests of its inhabitants, are more or less influenced by the public measures, and subjected to the control of that government, — as all the improvements of its people in every species of excellence, are eminently conducive to the promo- tion of its political glory and perfection ; ought not this power, therefore, to be vigorously and vigilantly exercised in the protection of every indi- vidual, whatever his situation in life may be, from the unjust aggression of either his domestic or his foreign foes ? — ought not these resources to be economised so as to facilitate the accomplishment of every scheme involving the national prosperity and independence, and prevent the adoption of every measure that is calculated needlessly to ex- haust the country of its wealth, and, by the imposi- tion of intolerably oppressive burdens, to paralyse its industry and commercial energies? — and ought not these improvements to be encouraged and 56 POLITICS AND RELIGION. patronised with a cordiality, and promptness of libe- rality, that should excite emulation, and secure to the truly deserving the reward of their superior application or skill? When these objects are all diligently and successfully secured, what inestimable advantages must accrue both to the government and the people ! For their obligations to each other are mutual, their interests are common. Though the contrary of this may in some peculiar instances seem to be the case, yet ultimately it will appear, that neither of these parties can injure or benefit the other without either directly or remotely injur- ing or benefitting itself to a proportionate extent. Any attempt to establish their separate indepen- dence, must inevitably issue in their common ruin. Their perfect reciprocity of interest, therefore, dic- tates the necessity of their perfect unanimity of design, their unanimous coalescence in its execu- tion : for the balance of obligation is even, the weight of dependence is mutually sustained. When, therefore, the people protect their government by extending the radii, and the circumference of their multitudinous throng, in all directions about that legally constituted centre of power and authority, they all equally derive the advantage which flows from having such a central point of delegated au- thority and power. And when that centre of power, in place of constituting itself an indepen- dent part of the great national circle, a sort of POLITICS AND RELIGION. 57 central abyss insatiably absorbing whatever comes within its reach, — re-diflflises all these collective streams of national energy agreeably to the laws of equitable and beneficial distribution ; — then, that very centre preserves its own character unchanged, and maintains the dignity and importance of its function unimpaired amidst all the revolutions, de- lightful or tremendous, controllable or inevitable, that transpire in this world of interruption, vicissi- tude, and decay. When the people of a nation, cheerfully and liberally contribute for the support of government, whatever the proper maintenance of its dignity, and the effectual execution of its plans, demand ; the people themselves reciprocally share the dignity of their rulers, and experience the beneficial operation of those plans. And when the virtue of political economy, is practised to the greatest extent that the real exigencies of a nation will permit, and its unavoidable expenditure will allow ; the government which proceeds on this eco- nomical scale, will by this means provide itself with the amplest resources that the greatest emergencies, whether sudden or gradual, can require. When the master-spirits, the leading geniuses of a nation, consecrate their superior intellect and advantages to the improvement of the country which gave them birth, the glory and stability of the government under which they live, and the general advancement and emolument of the human race ; they will them- 58 POLITICS AND RELIGION. selves shine brighter by the reflection of their own glory, and will derive from their exertions in pro- moting the welfare of others, the greater security, ease, and repose. And the government which more immediately enjoys the honour and benefit of these exertions, will feel a pleasure in justly apprecia- ting and rewarding such distinguished, individual merit. From these considerations we pass to others apparently more remote, but infinitely more impor- tant in every point of view. For whatever involves consequences that are not merely temporal and temporary, but moral in their nature, and eternal in their duration, must infinitely transcend the comparatively trivial and transient interests of the present life alone. And such are the consequen- ces, we humbly conceive, which arise unavoidably, though incidentally, from the conduct of every government, precisely as that government is favour- able to the toleration and ascendency, or to the suppression and extinction of virtue or vice. Are then the terms political and ecclesiastical syno- nymous ? Are all the oflficers of state, priests eaj officio ? Is their temporal jurisdiction nothing more than a spiritual one in disguise ? Are the ensigns of royalty, and the instruments and orna- ments of power, nothing more than the emblems and engines of a secret, ethical policy? Is there POLITICS AND RELIGION. 59 any such a transformation of character, is there any such an amalgamation of interests and offices, im- plied in this assumption of a moral aspect and influence by any human government ? Is there any thino- foreign, or chimerical, or inconsistent, in such an extension and application of the authority with which they have been invested for purposes of the highest moment ? Is there any illegal encroach- ment on the sacerdotal sphere, any unjustifiable usurpation of the sacred function, involved in giving their powerful agency such a direction ? Are they not rather culpable in the extreme, if they neglect the exercise of such an auxiliary, such a morally renovating influence ? Are they not the secret or the sworn allies of vice, if they either despise or disallow the claims of virtue on their deepest and most serious attention, and treat the human beings subjected to their control, as though they all were equally irrational and irresponsible with the brutes that perish ? . Is immorality beneficial or honour- able, is morality injurious or disgraceful to a state ? Are wicked rulers an ornament, are conscientious ones a reproach to any country ? Is the wickedness of a people, more acceptable to the righteous and Providential Governor of the universe, than the strict observance of his laws would be ? If the rulers and judges of a nation, therefore, are not inclined, spontaneously and from principle, yet ought they not to be disposed, oflftcially and from 60 POLITICS AND RELIGION. the transcendent importance of their function, to promote virtue, and discom-age vice, so far at least as virtue is politically beneficial, and vice politi- cally injurious? And in this chiefly, we conceive, exists the grand line of distinction between the sacred and the political functions. All virtue is beneficial, all vice injurious. The advantages of the one, the disadvantages of the other, are uni- versally commensurate with the extent to which they are respectively practised. Public virtue, therefore, is a national and political good ; public vice, a national and political evil. Whilst the eccle- siastic and the politician, therefore, both advocate virtue, and both condemn vice ; the former derives his approbation or censm-e chiefly from the consi- derations of moral propriety and eternity, the latter ofHcially regulates his encouragement or discounte- nance chiefly by motives of temporal expediency and necessity. The former ought, therefore, to be an essentially good man ; the latter ought so to act as practically to promote, if not invariably to exem- plify, essential goodness. But the more decidedly virtuous any government is, and, cceteris 'paribus, the more eminently advantageous and certainly suc- cessful is it likely to prove. And the more purely and intrinsically virtuous the people of any country are, and the more illustrious will be their character, the more weighty their influence, the more prosper- ous and enviable their condition. Tt is not every POLITICS AND RELIGION. 61 species of virtue or vice, however, that comes pro- perly within the range of legal jurisdiction. For though all virtue and all vice, without exception, are ultimately beneficial or prejudicial to all soci- ety; yet, those virtues and vices only can strictly be made the subjects of political enquiry which directly, obviously, and flagi-antly affect the national well-being. To search the hearts of his creatures, to scrutinise their thoughts, motives, desires, and intentions, and to approve or condemn what trans- pires in the impenetrable privacy of their own breasts or retirement, are the prerogative and pro- vince of Deity alone. To his representatives and executioners, the legal authorities of every country, has he deputed the cognizance and punishment of those crimes which come within the limits of human inspection, and admit the restraining influence of human coercion. Divine revelation attests the con-ectness of these observations. Reason and ex- perience corroborate their propriety and utility. When this part of the civil commission, there- fore, whatever that form of government may be with which it is invested, is faithfully, fearlessly, and uniformly executed, what are the consequences to society and to individuals, what is the influence exerted on their general and personal character and welfare ? Vice hides her horrid head. She shrinks from the gaze of public scrutiny. Slie conceals her otherwise frontless brow of brass, her glaring, roll- 62 POLITICS AND RELIGION. iug eyes of shameless impudence, lier distorted lips of filthy ribaldry and malicious scorn. She skulks into those infernal haunts within which alone her diabolical agencies, principles, and practices, ought ever to be strictly confined. The tinselled monster, the celestial-looking demon, no longer stalks abroad, attended by her innumerable imps and agents, poi- soning, fascmating, blasting, destroying, whatever is exposed to their fatal gaze, their pestilential breath, their deadly touch. In place of reigning, and raging, and revelling, and devastating, without restriction or distinction, she plunges into the ob- scurity of disappointment and chagrin, or groans in the darkness and chains of a dungeon, or writhes and expires ignominiously on the scaffold, or finds an asylum of horror and death in foreign climes. Her voice of blasphemy is either totally silenced, or suppressed to an inaudible whisper of impious malediction. Her torrent of infidelity is either completely stemmed, or so seasonably diverted in its course, as to become wholly dissipated and in- noxious. Her initiatory practices and instructions are either totally prevented, or at least greatly cir- cumscribed in their extent, and weakened in their deadening, damning influence. The law is her enemy. The magistrate is her foe. Infamy is her portion. Destruction is her end. Virtue, on the contrary, acquires confidence, publicity, and esteem. She no longer confines her presence, her beauty, POLITICS AND RELIGION. 63 and her influence to the more remote and obscure retreats of piety, humility, and innocence. She emerges, beautiful as the moon ; she ascends, illus- trious as the sun. Darkness vanishes as she ap- proaches. Error retires as she advances. By the music of her voice, the groans of oppression, adver- sity, and affliction, are changed into the loudest ecstacies of triumph and satisfaction. By the bene- volence of her disposition, the abodes of horror, and guilt, and death, become the habitations of j^eace, and penitence, and health. The wisdom of her counsels, defeats the projects of injustice and malice. The omnipotence of her energy, crushes the resist- ance of impiety and revenge. Brutality shrinks from her inspection. Inhumanity trembles at her frown. Cruelty perishes in her grasp. Of all the gems in the monarch's diadem, she is the brightest. Of all the plumes of nobility, she is the noblest. Her robe is the only garb of true distinction. Her smile is the highest reward of genuine ambition. When she props the throne, its stability is certain. When she presides in the cabinet, its integrity is indubi- table. When she dictates at the bar, the verdict is infallil)le. The loveliness which she exhibits, inspires love. The respectability which she main- tains, commands respect. Her assistance is courted, her power dreaded, her example imitated, her cha- racter applauded, her indignation deprecated, her arbitration solicited, her rights respected, her mis- 64 POLITICS AND RELIGION. fortunes alleviated, her prosperity promoted, her permanency secured. In the eyes of natives she is as amiable, as in those of foreigners admirable and enviable. She finally conquers, though resisted ; and though defeated, she ultimately triumphs. For victory sits on her brow. Thunder nerves her arm. Majesty moves in her gait. Nobility is depicted in her mien. Benignity smiles in her countenance. Love drops from her lips. Of all the treasures of a nation, she is the most estimable ; of all its charac- teristics, she is the most desirable. In her absence, all is anarchy and desolation ; in her presence, all is order and delight. To represent and treat her as inferior and foreign, were consummate folly, ori- ginating in the deepest ignorance and wickedness ; to invest her with supremacy in all national as well as individual counsels and transactions, were an act of the highest wisdom, consonant equally with the strictest and the most obvious justice, and with the soundest and most liberal policy. If these are the benefits resulting from poli- tical rectitude, what are the evils consequent on political turpitude? If this is the bright side of the pictm-e, what is the dark one ? Alas ! were our pencil fully equal to the task of correctly delinea- ting all the horrors of misrule, their contemplation would afford the beholder very little pleasure, but rather excite pain the most exquisite mingled with POLITICS AND RELIGION. 65 the deepest and justest abhoiTCiice of errors so prolific of liiiman inconvenience and misery, and tending so rapidly and inevitably to involve states and individuals in complete and irretrievable ruin. Were we, however, from weakness or false delicacy, to suppress all description of these evils, should we not be justly chargeable with cowardice and culpa- ble deficiency in the discharge of our duty ? Yea, if either of these opposite systems of politics, is to be exhibited with its whole train of present and future consequences, is not that the most proper for selection which is the most generally prevalent, and by the more general prevalence of which the character and destinies of the human race, are chiefly determined? And is it not an awful, a most deplorable and degrading fact, attested by almost every page of universal history, and by the direful fate of those innumerable governments which have existed, but of which countless multitudes exist no more, having been brought to desolation, and plunged into oblivion, accompanied with incon- ceivable suffering and infamy, by those very causes of a political nature which we deprecate, — is it not a fact, that the weaker classes and interests of society, have generally been sacrificed to the plea- sure and convenience, the caprice and aggrandise- ment of the strong, — that the feebler nations of the earth, as though mere prey intended to excite avarice and ambition, have generally been mcrci- F 66 POLITICS AND RELIGION. lessly crushed in the contests of the more powerful for their possession, and by the rigour of their treat- ment when possessed, — that the rich produce of human labour, though raised by the immense toil and inconvenience of the vast mass of the popu- lation, has generally been profligately expended by the degenerate few in the perpetration of every detestable vice, in the gratification of every infa- mous passion and pleasure, — that the truly deserv- ing amongst men, though their claims to attention and remuneration are pai'amount, have frequently been undervalued or despised, suspected or perse- cuted, — that the interests of virtue, though involv- ing all other interests, temporal and eternal, have been flagrantly neglected and violated, that the enormities of vice, though equally disgraceful and detrimental, have been palliated, tolerated, legal- ised, rewarded, — that anarchy and usurpation, tyranny and oppression, cruelty, blasphemy, and impiety have been practised and applauded to an almost incredible extent ? That these evils have all originated in the depravity of human nature, and that this depravity has frequently been as conspicu- ous in the populace themselves as in their rulers, are facts equally certain, and equally deplorable. That the corruption of nations, has in some instan- ces been extreme, and that their extreme corruption has frequently rendered nugatory the very wisest and best attempts at reformation, are also undeni- ** POLITICS AND RELIGION. 67 able. But is not the very existence of these facts an incontestable proof, how indispensably requisite is the rectitude of a government, and how dreadfully pernicious and criminal its turpitude must be ? For the stream of human depravity is sufficiently im- petuous without having' its cmTent accelerated, and deepened, and widened, by those very means by which its progress ought to be impeded and checked. The natural propensities of the human heart to every thing that is vile and improper are sufficiently strong, without having their tendency strengthened and sanctioned by legal enactments or license. That government, therefore, must be a curse rather than a blessing, an evil which requires to be extirpated as soon as possible, rather than a benefit which deserves to be recommended and con- tinued, which increases rather than restrains the torrent of vice, which infuriates and treats with licentious impunity, rather than assuages and pun- ishes the guilty passions and principles of men, and which accumulates beyond all calculation rather than diminishes to the greatest possible extent, the enormous mass of human evil. Culpable even in the sight of man, but abominable in the judgment of God, must every system of national policy be, which prostitutes its authority and agency to pur- poses so vile, practices so execrable, and calamities so oppressive : the gleaming splendour of its tem- poral prosperity, is nothing more than the ominous, 68 POLITICS AND RELIGION. protracted flash of that divine indignation which shall eventually burst in peals and torrents of resist- less vengeance. To enumerate the consequences of political turpitude, were httle more than historically to detail the calamities and revolutions of almost all past ages and nations, and correctly to suggest the causes of most of those evils which at present afflict the larger portion of the civilized world. If, in a great measure, we have been personally free from some of these evils, our exemption is attribu- table partly to the superlative excellence of our incomparable constitution, which contains within itself the elements and principles of its own rec- tification and conservation, — partly to the purity, variety, and multiplicity of those religious institu- tions, the boundless toleration of which exerts a most powerful and beneficial reaction on the state, — and partly, or rather chiefly, if not in some in- stances even solely, to the superintendence and care of that gracious Providence whose interposition and protection have been, for so long a series of ages, so conspicuously manifested in our preservation from a multitude of those evils with which immediately surrounding nations have been visited. That our condition might have been still better, and that this improvement would have been promoted, partially at least, by a greater degree of political rectitude, there will exist no doubt in the minds of those who recollect, that many of the pages in our national POLITICS AND RELIGION. 69 history are stained, deeply stained with deeds of violence and blood ; that many of the passages in the annals of royalty defunct, are fraught with descriptions of vice and cruelty which, for the honour of human nature, it might be wished were totally incredible; and that the manners and the intellectual character of the people have, in some periods, exhibited an aspect of ignorance, barbarity, and superstition, scarcely to be paralleled, and cer- tainly not to be exceeded, by any nation possessed of similar advantages. True patriotism is not blind or insensible to the faults and failings, any more than it is to the excellencies and glories of its country, but is anxious to detect in order that it may remedy whatever requires detection, and admits of amelioration, as well as to discover and applaud whatever merits attention, and justly deserves applause. The lynx-eye of such patriotism, how- ever, is not required for the perception of those evils which political turpitude most obviously pro- duces. For these evils are of daily occurrence, forming some of the most prominent features in the experience and character of nations. Partiality creates enmity, and that enmity generates revenge, and that revenge issues in vindictive reprisal. In- justice occasions dissatisfaction, and dissatisfaction originates complaint, and complaint frequently utters its murmurs in tones of terror and thunder, and enforces its demands in strains of resistless 70 POLITICS AND RELIGION. violence. Extreme danger inspires fear ; that fear, despair ; and that despair, a reckless resolution and effort to extricate itself from the impending destruc- tion, or to crush the apparently overwhelming opposition. Profligate expenditure exhausts its resources ; that exhaustion, if the profligacy is con- tinued, necessitates oppression ; and that oppression, when it becomes extreme, recoils in desperation and madness on the authors of its existence. Vice and irreligion in the rulers, occasion infidelity and im- morality in the people ; infidelity and immorality weaken the foundations of all society, prosperity, and happiness ; and when the foundations are thus weakened and destroyed, the whole superstructure must inevitably fall into irretrievable ruin, and either sink into merited oblivion, or its memory survive in the recollection of the historian, only that its baseness may be desecrated, and stigmatised to the latest age of time, 3. Are these momentous consequences of poli- tical systems to be viewed by us with apathy or indifference, or even totally excluded from our con- sideration? Are these mighty and tremendous movements to transpire before our eyes wdthout arresting our attention, or exciting our emotion, or eliciting our expression of approval or condemna- tion? Are we wholly unconnected with human society, wholly uninfluenced by human affairs ? Are POLITICS AND RELIGION. 71 we merely curious and uninterested, insulated spec- tators of terrestrial beings and transactions ? Does not the blood of the human race circulate through our veins? Is not the countenance of human beings stamped on our visage? Is not the shape of mortals impressed on our bodies? Is not the nature of man transfused through our constitution ? Are we not identified with man, and distinguished from all other beings by every consideration that enters into the idea of humanity ? Is not our hap- piness dependent on the same sources? Are not our miseries derived from the same origin ? Is not the relation universal, the connection indissoluble, the intimacy complete? Ought we not, therefore, to congratulate each other in prosperity, to sympa- thise with each other in adversity, to assist each other in every laudable exertion, to relieve each other in distress, to promote the universal good as involving the happiness of individuals, and advance the happiness of every individual as contributing to the completion of the universal good ? Is there any thing unjustifiable, any thing inconsistent with the laws of nature, reason, or revelation, in the exercise of such a sympathy and co-operation ? Is there not something extremely unnatural, exceed- ingly cruel, detestably criminal, something repug- nant to all justice and mercy, in declining or condemning such a sympathetic interference ? If the irrational orders of creation, are entitled to our 72 POLITICS AND RELIGION. sympathies and assistance, shall the rational be excluded ? If God exercises his compassion towards all men, shall all men be destitute of compassion towards each other ? Is there not an inviolable obligation imposed on every man to promote the happiness, and diminish the misery of his species, to the greatest extent of his ability ? And is not this obligation universally reciprocal between nations and individuals ? Is not that man virtually guilty of murder who suffers a mmxlerous stroke to de- scend which it is in his power to avert ? Is not that a cruel monster who permits those unmerited miseries to be inflicted, or augmented which it is in his power to prevent or alleviate ? Is not that state of seclusion an abominably selfish abstraction, which insulates an individual so that he can nei- ther see the sufferings, nor hear the groans, nor relieve the pangs of his fellow mortals ? Is not that man the favourite of God and man who, pos- sessing all the other qualifications that are essen- tial to the perfection of the human character, superadds this as the crowning ornament, that he considers himself as born, not merely to promote his own selfish and sensual gratification, but to advance the best interests of the whole human race, and of that portion of society in particular which comes more immediately within the range of his inspection and influence ? And is not that indivi- dual a fool who contracts his whole sphere of action POLITICS AND RELIGION. 73 and enjoyment to a single point, and considers his whole duty and gratification as centred in that point — his own exclusive pleasure and convenience, and who, by ignorantly and wickedly neglecting others, contributes all in his power to plunge both them and himself into misery and guilt ? Is it not, there- fore, evident from every view that can be taken of this subject, that we are bound by every obligation, divine and human, to form, express, and enforce a correct opinion concerning whatever involves the best interests of all nations, and of every individual in every nation ; that to do this is a virtue equally amiable and beneficial ; that to neglect or discoun- tenance this is a crime equally detestable and inju- rious ? That these interests are most deeply affected by the rectitude or turpitude of every national go- vernment, has already been clearly shown, and in my humble opinion incontrovertibly proved. If there were any thing that could possibly be supposed objectionable in our discussion, it would probably seem to consist in the use of the superlative epi- thet in designating these interests best interests, as though, perhaps, we imagined there existed none of a higher order, or of a more permanent nature. T acknowledge, that the term is exceedingly strong, startlingly so, perliaps, to those whose view of the subject, is prejudiced or superficial. T acknowledge, that if the [)ropriety of this term can be established, 74 POLITICS AND RELIGION. the subject will appear to certain persons incompa- rably more important than they ever considered it to be. I acknowledge, that if the correctness of this designation could be shown, the intensest anx- iety would frequently be felt, and the most vigilant activity exercised, where now the coldest apathy and most listless neutrality reign. I acknowledge, that if the object were universally contemplated in this point of view, the judgments and the passions of great numbers, would be much more vigorously directed to an examination of this subject, — its nature, connections, and consequences, than they have ever been. But, exclaims the representative of all these, are not the concerns of eternity infi- nitely more important than those of time? Are not the interests of the soul infinitely superior to those of the body? Is not intercourse with God infinitely more essential than intercourse with man ? In comparison with these transcendent and eternal realities, does not every thing of a merely earthly and perishable nature sink into absolute insignifi- cance or contempt? Is it not possible to realise all terrestrial enjoyments and ultimately perish, — to experience the pressure of all sublunary evils, and finally attain everlasting life? All this I admit. And I sincerely ^vish that each of these considera- tions, were indelibly engraven on the mind of every human being, and were invested with a predomi- nant influence over all his motives and exertions. POLITICS AND RELIGION. 75 Were this the case, political systems would reg-ulate themselves agreeably to laws of the highest order, and principles of universally acknowledged excel- lence. Innumerable evils of a political nature would be prevented, of which we now have just reason to complain, and innumerable benefits of a civil description conferred, which are exceedingly desirable to consummate the happiness of indivi- duals, and the amelioration of the world. But when we actually retrace all these considerations to their origin, do we not perceive that, in reality, the concerns of time are the concerns of eternity, since eternity is nothing more than a boundless period of retribution, inconceivably painful or de- lightful, agTeeably to the manner in which these concerns have been transacted? Do we not per- ceive, that the interests of the body, and those of the soul, are, during its jjresent state of incarnation, inseparably connected, and that tlieir mutual parti- cipation in each other's good or evil, is natural and inevitable? Do we not perceive, that intercourse with God is, in this embodied and social state of being, wholly inseparable from om- intercourse with man, and that either of these continually existing alone would be in the one case useless, and in the other criminal ? Do we not perceive from the very constitution of our nature, which is a constitution given by God himself, tliat freedom from all pain is as greatly to be desired, as the experience of 76 POLITICS AND RELIGION. misery of any description, is to be deprecated ? Whilst, therefore, we are careful to avoid extremes, and anxious to place every object, whether near or remote, in its true position and prominence, is it not evident, that to separate things so intimately and essentially connected as these are, or to repre- sent any of them as unimportant and insignificant, is equally a folly and a crime ? That the rectitude or the turpitude of every government, exerts a most powerful and decisive influence over all its temporal interests, and indirectly through these over all its spiritual interests and destinies, is an indisputable fact. I assert, therefore, vrith all deference and submission, that to the full extent of this influence, the best interests of society are affected by this rectitude or turpitude, beneficially in the one case, injuriously in the other. To contend obstinately for the mathematical precision of mere terms, were a species of logomachy in which it would not answer the end of this discussion to engage. Things, not words, is om* motto. This rectitude or turpitude, is, therefore, very properly, a subject on which we ought to form, express, and enforce a correct opinion. Advantages innumerable will result to the community from the adoption of such a measure. The oppressive weight of the administration, in place of being exclusively confined to a solitary few, incapable, perhaps, of sustaining the pressure alone, will be properly and POLITICS AND RELIGION. 77 justly equalised amongst the whole mass of that })opulation for whose benefit, solely or chiefly, this national bm-deii is imposed and sustained. The awfully great responsibility connected with all political movements, in place of devolving most oppressively on the constituted authorities of the realm, will be equitably transferred in a great mea- sure to those whose interests and judgments are consulted and respected. The extreme perplexities, embarrassments, and dilemmas, which must una- voidably arise in the counsels of even the wisest and the best of men, when those counsels do not comprise all the information requisite for the guid- ance of their deliberations, will be in a great mea- sure obviated by this appeal to the collective wisdom of the nation. The national prosperity, in place of being interrupted or destroyed by cro^\Tied ignorance or caprice, by sceptred avarice or ambition, by legal- ised insult and extortion, Mill be constantly exhi- bited in the most luminous and favourable point of view. The deliberative assemblies of the land, will constitute .so many foci concentrating within them- selves all the scattered rays of the national intelli- gence. The active measures of the government will mark the direction of the resistless torrent of combined, national energy. Every individual judg- ment will be felt. Every separate voice will be heard. Every distinct interest and relation will be considered. Every particle of national wisdom and 78 POLITICS AND RELIGION. feeling will be incorporated. Universal sympathy will pervade society. Simultaneous exertion will render success absolutely certain. The whole will be resolved into its parts, and each part compre- hended in the stability, and perfection, and grandeur of the whole. The pillars of the monarch's throne, will be commensurate with the number of his sub- jects, and the extent of its base coincident with the magnitude of his dominions. The wealth of the empire will be the treasure of royalty ; and the inalienable allegiance of its millions, will be the source of their homage and applause. The officers and ministers of power and justice, will be honour- ably obeyed as constituting, with the law^s and the supreme ruler or rulers of the land, so many parts of an essential administration recognising, advoca- ting, securing the rights and interests of all. Wis- dom and strength will be the elements, unity and prosperity the accompaniments, of such an adminis- tration. Temporary inconvenience may in some instances result; but, generally, permanent utility will be ultimately promoted. I am not apprehensive that any powerful or formidable argument can be adduced against the correctness of these sentiments. Different forms of government will of couree require different modifications of these principles. The principles themselves, are, however, I humbly con- ceive, equally general, fundamental, and indisputa- ble. Minor differences of judgment are of course POLITICS AND RELIGION. 79 » perfectly allowable. The great facts of the case rest I presume on an immoveable basis. It is very easy to perceive what is implied in the formation of a correct opinion on political sub- jects. The requisites essential for this purj^ose, are very obvious and very common. Extraordinary attention and abilities will seldom be required ex- ce})t on very extraordinary occasions. And those subjects of this nature on which the majority of men are incompetent to judge correctly, are ex- tremely few in number, and rare in their occur- rence, though it must be acknowledged, that there exists an almost endless diversity in their capabilities and opportunities of arriving at such a decision, and in the means and facilities afforded them for the regulation of their judgment. No government, however, can be perfectly invisible in its consulta- tions and movements. Such inviolable secrecy and impenetrable seclusion of thought and action, are totally impracticable, and inconsistent with the nature of its public functions. Intercourse of some nature or other with the great mass of society, is therefore unavoidable. Publicity, greater or less, early or late, attends all its movements. Oppor- tunities consequently arise inevitably for subjecting their measures to the test of general and individual scrutiny. And, in general, this scrutiny ought to be exercised the more deeply and intensely, the more close and reserved any government usually 80 POLITICS AND RELIGION. and needlessly is in its communications with the public. But where there exists no greater degree of secrecy or concealment, than what the strictest and most politic necessity requires, it were evidently illiberal and unfair, to entertain any dishonourable suspicion, or to deem any extraordinary depth of penetration or inquisition requisite. For that go- vernment must be infamously impudent indeed, and desperately reckless of reputation and consequences, that not merely acts a guilty part, but takes no pre- cautions whatever to conceal or palliate its guilt, or to secure any portion of the popular acquiescence and approval. Such a part is rarely, if ever acted. Some deference at least is generally shown to pub- lic opinion, and some desire generally manifested to secure public acquiescence. For on these two hinges, the whole system of government ultimately turns. But if it is necessary to giiard against all imposition and undue reserve on the one part, it is equally necessary to guard against all superficial, partial, and sinister views on the other. Every individual, whatever his rank or station may be, is only a part of the whole community ; and of such parts, the whole community may consist of a mul- titude indefinitely large. His interests are not to be promoted at the expense of theirs ; nor are theirs to be promoted at the expense of his. Such a perfectly equitable adjustment as shall embrace the minutest and most circumstantial of all imaginable POLITICS AND RELIGION. 81 claims, it is probably beyond the reach of human wisdom or ability to effect in the present state of things, so numerous are the causes that intervene and derange the best of plans. To expect this sort of unattainable perfection in any system of human policy, were therefore vain and irrational. Every man, of course, who has his own reasonable, proper share assigned, ought to rest perfectly satis- fied, and cheerfully to contribute all his energies to the support of that system of things from which he, in common with others, derives such inestimable advantages. Dissatisfaction and disaffection in such a case were a species of ingratitude and disloyalty criminal and punishable equally by the laws of God and man. Justice, therefore, adapted in all the multifarious forms of its administration to the circumstances of social and mutually dependent, human beings, and regulated by the laws of that Supreme Being on whom all are dependent, and to whom all are finally and irrevocably responsible, is the foundation of all political rectitude, whether between the monarch and his subjects, or between those subjects and each other. Every political opi- nion that harmonises with the principles of this justice, is certainly right ; and every political opi- nion that is irreconcileable with these principles, is as manifestly wrong. When a correct opinion is formed, the pro- priety of its expression follows as a matter of course. 6 ^2 POLITICS AND RELIGION. Incorrect opinions are those only which it is proper to check and deprecate, as fraught with error and injury, and calculated to deceive and destroy. The test has already been suggested. By this test, therefore, let the propagation or suppression of poli- tical sentiments, be determined. For the freedom of his thoughts, every man is directly responsible to God alone. But freedom of expression, like freedom of action, requires to be regulated by all those restrictions which are requisite to prevent it from becoming injurious. But when a con-ect opi- nion has been formed, whether that opinion is favourable or unfavourable to the established system of policy, I cannot conceive any assignable reason whatever for the suppression of that opinion. Were it favourable, silence would imply coldness and ingratitude as base and mysterious, as if unfavour- able, it would indicate a degree of selfishness or timidity contemptible and fatal. Numberless errors, theoretical and practical, on the part of government, and numberless sufferings, national and personal, on the part of the people, unquestionably arise frequently from that ignorance under which the former, in some cases, lie in reference to the real sentiments and opinions of the latter. For flagrant and overwhelming as the contempt that is some- times poured on public opinion, may occasionally be, eventually the torrent of its influence is irre- sistible. Though there may be some minds so POLITICS AND RELIGION. 83, peculiarly constmctcd, as to be capable of moulding the o])inions of the generality into almost any shape adapted to their peculiar designs ; yet, even these superior geniuses ultimately depend for their popu- lar ascendency on the numerical strength, ])hysical and intellectual, of those over whom they have acquired so amazingly great a control. Hapjiy indeed were it for themselves, for their admirers, and for society at large, did these superlative geniuses, these princes of the intellectual world, invariably employ their transcendent abilities in the detection and exposure of error and wTong, and in the propagation and confirmation of truth and equity. Unfortunately, however, their wonderful talents have frequently been prostituted to the perversion of all justice, the annihilation of all distinctions, the sophistication of all sound argu- ment, and the prosecution of measures totally unworthy of their character as men, and indelibly disgraceful to their reputation as persons endowed with unrivalled, intellectual advantages. Against the influence of such perverted intellect, every nation ought most carefully to gTiard, whilst it justly appreciates and rewards the application of such mental endowments to their legitimate and most important end. And by what means can this caution or toleration be more effectually exercised, than by throwing into the same or into the ojiposite scale the current sentiments of those other judges 84 POLITICS AND RELIGION. who, though mentally inferior, are in the majority of subjects equally competent to decide? And such judges are all those of every nation ^vhose opinions are regulated by the test which w^e have described. The golden maxim of Christian mo- rality, is of universal extent in its application to matters of a political nature. In it is recognised that principle of mutually beneficial adaptation by which the whole universe of God, in all its infinity of parts and relations, is regulated and established : every part, however stupendous or minute, having some relation to every other part, however minute or stupendous, of the immense and complicated, but equally beautiful and harmonious whole. The dissemination of truth in connection with the best interests of the human race, is the noblest exercise of the faculties of speech. But of what service is the expression of a correct opinion on practical subjects, unless that opinion is properly en- forced ? PoHtics are not mere metaphysics. Action is the soul of the former; abstraction, the funda- mental principle of the latter. The mere theory of politics may be abstractedly considered. Its princi- ples may be analytically examined. To this process partly we have subjected them in the course of this Dissertation. But every political theory, when brought into operation, is one of real, impressive, and universal action. Activity is its element. When it ceases to operate, it ceases to have any I'OLITJCS AND RELIGION. 85 other than a merely ideal existence. Theories on political subjects, therefore, may exist to an indefi- nite extent without being actually either beneficial or injurious, unless they are permitted to exert some practical influence on the real, established order of things. All tyrants are perfectly aware of this : and consequently they vigilantly suppress every indication of a disposition to theorise, con- scious that those theoretical views which are of a just nature, have only to be realised, and their revolting system of despotism and corruption is overturned, just as the darkness and horrors of night are dispelled, not by some beautiful theory on the science of optics, and the natm-e of the solar beams, but by the actual appearance, the meridian effulgence of the sun. All righteous dynasties are conscious of the same truth : and consequently they strenuously endeavour practically to introduce, and permanently to establish, the most eligible form of government, though a long succession of ages and efforts may be required to consummate their whole scheme of administration. Political theories that are impracticable, therefore, are foolish, because they exhibit a mere play of imagination on a sub- ject of pure reality and of practical importance ; — if essentially and inevitably injurious, they are impro- per, because they produce effects totally different from those which every system of national policy ought to produce : — but if naturally and perma- 86 POLITICS AND RELIGION. neiitly beneficial, they deserve every degree of attention and support, because their practical ojie- ration involves the best interests of tlio human race. Ordinary exertions will generally secure ordi- nary success. Extremities are justifiable only when extreme necessity demands. 4. The universal prevalence of Christianity, would introduce the best system of politics that could possibly exist. It is not, however, by assu- ming a decidedly political aspect, or prescribing any particular form of civil administration, that Chris- tianity would effect this object. For Christianity professedly disclaims all political pretensions and specifications of this nature, and declares tliat her jurisdiction is purely spiritual, and that the objects of her pursuit are chiefly moral and eternal. Chris- tianity, however, would obviously have been egre- giously defective, as a complete rule of life, had it contained no system of instruction deducible from its doctrines and precepts, for the regulation of our political conduct. Caprice would have exer- cised a most licentious sway in the modification of political systems, and the most momentous affairs of human life, would have been denied those signal advantages which they are capable of deriving from the salutary influence of true religion. But Christianity is not liable to the imputation of this vital defect. It is essentially, though not pro- POLITICS AND RELIGION. 87 fessedly, a system of consummate human, as well as divine policy. It is, Avhen properly investigated, found to be fraught with instructions adapted to the minutest and most circumstantial, no less than to the greatest and most extraordinary, transactions and relations of life. Its examples and its precepts are in all these respects of inestimable service. For the various personages whose history it describes, existed in almost every possible relation and posi- tion of human society ; and the character which their conduct receives in the various parts of the entire, sacred volume, is such as conveys no very indefinite idea of what our conduct in the same or similar circumstances, ought to be. The most positive injunctions are in some instances given, and connected with some of the most sublime and essential duties of devotion and morality, — a cir- cumstance which proves that political considerations are by no means incompatible with those of a more sacred nature, but that their connection with each other is one of the most intimate and essential character. It is not, however, so much by direct instnictions that Christianity inculcates political rectitude, as by a tacit or an avowed reprobation of those principles, dispositions, and measures, which are at variance with this rectitude, and conse- quently irreconcileable with her own acknowledged advocacy of perfect and universal equity. In de- scanting, therefore, briefly on the proper spirit, 88 POLITICS AND RELIGION. manner, and measure, of our political interference, we shall adapt the discussion to the genius of pure Christianity, by enumerating those improprieties which Christianity condemns in this department of life, rather than those political virtues and duties which, for the wisest of reasons, Christianity does not in all instances minutely particularise. Faith is universally reducible to one uniform standard. Christianity, therefore, erects that standard, wher- ever she plants her foot, or sounds her name. The erection of any other standard, is a direct intima- tion of hostility against the religion of Jesus Christ. Human policy, however, admits of innumerable modifications adapted to the endless diversity of human circumstances, local and personal, immediate or remote. But there are certain evils of a poli- tical nature which Christianity decidedly condemns, irrespectively of all diiferences in the circumstances of human beings. These evils we shall endeavour to enumerate and expose. To be actuated by considerations of a merely worldly nature, by motives of temporal expediency alone, is a spirit of which Christianity rightly dis- approves. She requires us to be influenced on all occasions by the most comprehensive views, and actuated by the most exalted motives. As there is nothing too great or sublime for her contem- plation, so is there nothing too minute or insigni- ficant for her inspection. She considers no object roLITICS AND RELIGION. 8.9 or being as completely insulated, but views all as intimately combined. Though, therefore, the pre- sent life has its peculiar interests, though the trans- actions of this world, have an immediate and a primary reference to things of an earthly nature ; yet, so intimately is the probationary state of man, so closely is his state of trial and responsibility, connected with all these interests and transactions, that they become in every instance occasions of good or evil, according to the light in which they are viewed, and the motives with which they are prosecuted. Let us, therefore, in all om' political transactions recollect, — that our eternity of exis- tence has already begun ; — that those objects which lie beyond the extremely narrow boundaries of this life, are as vast in their importance as they are endless in their duration; — that things of a tem- poral nature, though they sink into contemptible insig-nificance, when their evanescence is contrasted with the interminable existence of these eternal realities, yet rise to a degree of infinite importance, when it is considered, that the whole of eternity depends on time, an immortality of bliss or pain on a few transient moments of mortal being ; — that spiritual things are in this world inseparable from things temporal, and that the duties which we owe to ourselves and to each other, are essential parts and qualifications of the duties which we owe to the Supreme Being. 90 POLITICS AND RELltJION. To cherish a disaffected spirit in our political negociations, is equally repugnant to the genius of Christianity. Loyalty, perfect and permanent, is inculcated by the religion of Jesus Christ in terms the most express and absolute. The authority of our earthly rulers, is represented by the Scriptures as identical with the authority of God himself, as originating in his divine appointment, as constitu- ting a subordinate agency in his own immediate and universal government of the world, as produc- tive of signal advantages to the obedient, but fraught with the most tremendous consequences to the lawless and rebellious. This official authority, therefore, whether regal or magistratical, or both, ought not to be coldly recognised, or reluctantly obeyed, but cheerfully acknowledged, and loyally observed. If kings are not gods, they are the highest representatives of Deity in this world. If their magistracy is not supreme, it is the highest and the most sacred authority of the kind known to exist amongst men. To despise it is as criminal as it is perilous. To resist it is as impious as it is dangerous. The vilest motives and principles are implied in such contempt or resistance. Anarchy and impunity would be the result of tolerating such a contemptuous opposition. But the character of this authority is as clearly defined in Scripture, as the duties consequent on its exercise are strongly enforced. When that authority is prostituted to POLITICS AND RELIGION. 9] the violation of all divine laws and human rights, when it is transformed into an engine of deteri- oration or destruction ; it counteracts what it was designed to promote, it inciu*s the displeasure by frustrating the benign purposes of Deity. Obedi- ence to such authority is rebellion against God. Acquiescence with such government involves a participation in its guilt and ruin. The office is sacred ; but its mal-administration is cursed by God, and obnoxious to man. Of all human elevations, monarchy is the highest, the most sacred, invio- lable, and awfully responsible. Of all relative duties, allegiance to royalty, is one of the most important and indispensable. But the laws of God, as stated in the volume of inspiration, are incon- testably higher than the laws of man, and equally obligatory on all men ; and no infraction whatever of these laws, can be justified by motives of alle- giance to human authority, or by motives of tem- poral expediency. " Fear God," is a command antecedent to the injunction " Honour the king." And whilst we recollect to pray " for kings," we ought not to forget " all men," no, nor even any man, however mean his condition, or debased his intellect, or low and contracted his sphere of life. For whatever monarchs, prompted by their para- sites, may think to the contrary, they are own brothers to the meanest of their subjects. And they ought to treat all with a just and an impartial. 92 POLITICS AND RELIGION. fraternal affection. The mightiest of monarchs liave arisen from the common mass of human society : with this great mass their descendants will ultimately be undistinguishably intermixed. And death, as they successively bow to his iron sceptre, even now consigns them to the level of the countless, nameless dead. A spirit of rapacity in our political pursuits, is most highly objectionable in the estimation of Christianity. Moderation in all our views and desires, and grateful satisfaction with a competent share of influence and enjoyment, are strongly inculcated in the rehgion of Jesus ; and they were beautifully exemplified in his own conduct, and in the spirit and lives of those of his apostolical dis- ciples who most resembled their Divine Master. Tlie pinnacle of power is the summit of extreme danger, both temporal and spiritual. The slightest concussion at the base of such a pinnacle, occasions a dreadful oscillation at its vertex. Proportionate insecurity and instability are inscribed on all the intermediate degi*ees of wealth and power. The common level is the safest, if not the happiest of all. What it wants in elevation and homage, is most amply compensated by its superior comfort and more easy repose. Responsibility and toil increase in the largest ratio with every increase of authority and dignity. He who supposes that the contrarv is the case, and who, under the force POLITICS AND RELIGIOX. 93 of that delusion, strenuously aims at the highest stations of rank and influence, proves how pro- foundly ignorant he is of the laborious occupation, and the perilous dignity to which he aspires, and how sad his disappointment will be, when, having attained his object, he finds that what he supposed was tangible substance is mere shadow ; that what he supposed was a bed of roses is a couch of thorns ; that the robes of office are very little more than the disguise of restless anxiety ; and that the dia- dem which appears to sit so lightly on the brows of monarchy, is nothing more than the gilded apex of an inverted mountain of danger and care. How deep soever the sympathies of some may be with the circumstances of those fallen monarchs whom this king-making, and king-unmaking age has hurled from their lofty stations, and degTaded almost to the original level of their remotest ancestry, it is highly probable, that if these uncrowned heads could only suppress their chagTin at this painful reverse of fortune, they would experience more solid happiness in one single day of their tranquil retirement, than what they had ever realised during the brightest moments of their dazzling but uncer- tain splendour. Few, however, have the ambition to aspire to the regal elevation. The chief contest is for the inferior stations. These exist in the greater number, and lie more within the attainable limits of ordinary ambition. If any of these sta- 94 POLITICS AND RELIGION. tions lie within our reach, and appear, in the order of Providence, to be destined for our occupation ; let us not selfishly decline the opportunity of sacri- ficing our own private ease and comfort, that we may become more extensive almoners of the divine bounty, and exert a more powerful and proportion- ately a more beneficial influence over the destinies of mankind. But if, on the contrary, these higher stations appear unattainable, or attainable only with extreme difficulty, and if tliere appears to be no providential direction of our steps to these loftier and wider spheres of action, let us not be guilty of a criminal dissatisfaction wth ordinary duties and enjoyments, but let us peacefully, and loyally, and cheerfully discharge the proper functions of our proper rank in the scale of society. And if we have not the imaginary advantages, we shall not have the real inconveniences of a weightier responsibility in matters of this nature. Numerous temptations will be avoided, to which we should otherwise be exposed ; and numerous pleasures, natm-al, sub- stantial, and permanent, will be realised, to which, probably, we should otherwise be utter strangers. For all those pleasures which do not administer directly to the real comfort and improvement of man, are chiefly of a fictitious and fallacious cha- racter, depending for their existence more on the perversion of sound intellect, and the corraption of a chaste imagination, tlian on the acity, so 144 POLITICS AND RELIGION. conscientiously and consistently, that we may never be chargeable with either violation of law, or neg- lect of duty, but may incessantly here, and eternally hereafter, enjoy the inestimable blessings derived from the exhaustless plenitude of his wisdom and power, his grace and love, — tlie ineffable glories and felicities experienced in the paradise of his presence, the heaven of his beatific smiles. PART III. PRIVATE OPINION AND ECCLESIAS- TICAL COMMUNION. PART THIRD, PRIVATE OPINION AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. Man is a social being. Whatever his character, experience, or pursuits may be, he feels a natural and an irresistible propensity to mingle with his species, and to supply, by compact or combina- tion, the defects or incompetency of his individual strength, knowledge, or enjoyment. His passion for society originates chiefly in his boundless desires of information, and his extraordi- nary capacities for the acquisition, and capabilities for the communication, of universal knowledge and entertainment. His insatiable cmiosity requires to be gratified with inexhaustible novelty. All the treasures of science, human and divine, are not more than adequate to the vastness of his compre- hension, the depth of his penetration, the variety of his functions and faculties, the permanence and intensity of his relations and affections. His vigour is only increased by activity. His mind is only strengthened by expansion. His docility is only 148 PRIVATE OPINION stimulated by the variety of his attainments. His genius acquires proficiency by application. But his tongue is as capable of uttering as his mind is of conceiving ideas ; and his ear is as quick in per- ceiving as his tongue is rapid in expressing arti- culate sounds. His knowledge acquires perfection, and by communication serves innumerable purposes of the greatest utility. Whilst his intellectual faculties are engaged in the production of thought, his eyes, his lips, his gestures, all speak, fully, clearly, and delightfully, the perceptions and emo- tions of his soul. His knowledge, consequently, has no limits except those which bound the globe that he inhabits, the universe which he contem- plates, and the infinity of space with the eternity of being which his immortality emboldens him con- fidently to anticipate. This association of human beings, gives rise to an endless multiplicity of relations and engage- ments. Connections are produced which combine the whole mass of mankind in one common bond of intercourse and union. Distance vanishes. Ob- stacles disappear. Languages amalgamate. Com- plexions blend. The whole world is converted into one field of action and fruition, of which respectively all its inhabitants are the common cultivators, and of the infinitely various productions of which they all mutually ])artake. Deficiencies are supplied, inconveniences remedied, enjoyments AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 149 generalised. The savage and the sage instruct each other. The feeble and the strong employ each other. Business and pleasure are conjoined. Inte- rest and enjoyment are united. The cords of society, alternately contract and expand so as to afford an endless diversity of relation and occupa- tion to the human race. The streams of knowledge, diverge and converge in proportions and directions innumerable. By the operations of this passion, schemes the most stupendous are executed, arrange- ments the most comprehensive in time and place completed, the character and aspect of the globe morally and physically changed, the very elements and climates are, by those changes which the com- bined skill and strength of man produce, materially modified, the discoveries and improvements of all ages and nations accumulated and perfected, the occupations and concerns of life originated and regulated, and the destinies of eternity itself, as well as the issues of time, greatly influenced, or rather, principally decided. The purposes to which the social passion is applicable, are infinite in num- ber and variety. To indulge it indiscriminately, iiTationally, prejudicially, would be an egregious folly, an enormous crime. For the prevention of these dreadful evils, judgment and prudence con- summate are, in its application equally momen- tous and indispensable. Contamination or purity, iniquity or equity, degeneracy or improvement, 150 PRIVATE OPINION disgrace or distinction, misery or enjoyment, are all more or less determined by the course of conduct adopted in the social department. Selection is easy and optional ; decision is no less important than generally permanent. What therefore are the objects which we ought to propose for accomplishment by the indul- gence of the social passion ? The perfection of our nature and condition, is, most obviously, that object which this passion ought to be uniformly and uni- versally employed to promote. But this object includes a multitude of subordinate and subsidiary ones. Exactly to enumerate, and precisely to define all these, would be a task of greater length and labour than this discussion requires. The com- munication of knowledge, and the alleviation of misery, the discouragement of vice, and the pro- motion of virtue, the purification of the human heart, and the elevation of the human character, the confirmation of justice, and friendship, and truth, the reconciliation of opponents, the pacifi- cation of enemies, and the cultivation and applause of humanity, humility, and love, — these are some of those minor though all-important objects in the promotion of which this passion is an indispensable, and is capable of being rendered a most efficient auxiliary. Solitude has its peculiar demands and advantages ; but it is of too retired and exclusive AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 151 a character to be constantly sought, or perpetually enjoyed, by creatures constituted as we are. Total sequestration is productive either of the deepest melancholy, or of such a state of inactivity, both bodily and mental, as is equivalent to a virtual annihilation of its voluntary victim. The social principle indeed seems more or less to pervade the whole universe. The Deity himself is repre- sented as delighting in eternal converse with the pm-est and happiest of his created intelligences. It is the perfection of this intercom-se which ren- ders heaven the habitation of light, and bliss, and love ; and its absence or infernal prostitution which constitutes hell a dungeon of everlasting and over- whelming horror, rage, and terror. Objects directly the reverse of those which we have specified, are probably capable of being equally promoted by the perversion of this passion. For its flexibility and and its strength are not perhaps very materially affected by the nature of the objects to which it is applied. What are those rules, therefore, by which propriety, observation, and experience, require that the social passion should be regulated? These rules ought to be all equally obvious, natm-al, and easy : their excellence depends on the possession of these qualities. The following may properly be considered the fundamental rule : — That we should 152 PRIVATE OPINION associate with our superiors for the purpose of improving ourselves, and with our inferiors for the purpose of promoting their improvement ; with those who are wiser, that we may acquire know- ledge, and with those who are ignorant, that we may communicate information ; with the happy, that we may participate their enjoyment, and with the wi'etched, that we may relieve their sufferings ; with the virtuous, that we may acquire a greater degree of moral excellence, and with the vicious, only that, by guarded social intercourse, we may facilitate their reformation. The test of all social propriety, therefore, is the existence of an obvious tendency to improve ourselves or others, or to advance mutually the improvement of both parties. Every species of intercom-se that has not this ten- dency, or that has an opposite one, is manifestly improper and dangerous, or inevitably injurious, and frequently fatal. This test is perfectly simple and infallible ; it is of easy and universal appli- cation. We need not for a moment entertain the least imaginable doubt respecting the propriety and utility of its adoption. We shall therefore constitute it the basis of all our reasonings and illustrations on the subject of this most interesting and important enquiry : — To what extent is the independent exercise of Private Judgment compa- tible with the free enjoyment of Ecclesiastical Com- munion ? AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 153 The first question that naturally arises is this : To what extent are our Private Opinions capable of being subjected to our own control? But per- haps it will be no less requisite than advantageous, previously to define the term — Private Opinion. Within the limits of this term we by no means include those innumerable and undefinable fancies, those vagaries of thought, and shadowy, fleeting- images of an ideal nature, to which on every sub- ject a prolific imagination may give birth in rapid and endless succession. These evanescent, impal- pable productions of the mind, though capable of being in some degree familiarised by the frequency of their repetition, are at this time undeserving of our attention. They are merely the flickering scintillations of genius, dazzling for one moment, extinguished the next, and followed by others of equal shapelessness and evanescence. They are inca- j)able of being systematised, because they observe no regular law of origination or distribution. They serve merely for the amusement of our leisure mo- ments ; they are not worthy to occupy our serious hours. By Private Opinions, generally, w^e mean tliose views which we ourselves personally entertain on any subject to which we have given sufiicient attention, and concerning which we have received sufficient information to enable us to form a deli- berate and an impartial judgment ; and by Private Oi)inions, in matters of religion, we mean of course 154 PRIVATE OPINION. those views which, after due and competent exa- mination, we individually entertain respecting the doctrines and precepts of divine revelation. Every man who properly examines revealed religion, must have some opinions of this personal nature. For the truths of Scripture are neither indefinite nor incomprehensible. Perspicuity and precision uni- formly characterise the Sacred Writings, those instances excepted in which the Holy Spirit has, for purposes infinitely wise and important, adopted a figurative or mystical strain that requires, for the full comprehension of its meaning, the exercise of vigilance, faith, and patience, until the prediction shall be interpreted by the event, and the obscurity of the intimation or representation removed by the gradual development of its significance. The whole compass of divine revelation, however, is in our treatment of this subject, supposed to be included within the range of our examination ; all its truths, and every part of each truth, are considered equally eligible for the occupation of our thoughts. Now, the question for discussion is : To what extent are these private sentiments, these personal views, capa- ble of being subjected to our own control, of being modified or determined agreeably to our own incli- nation ? To this interrogatory, it will be necessary to give a very cautious reply. For it would seem at first sight, as thougli these private sentiments were in no measure capable of being subjected to AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 155 our own control ; and this impression would cer- tainly be correct, if man were a pure intelligence, either wholly unimpassioned, or uninfluenced by passion, either wholly unprejudiced, or incapable of being affected by prejudice. Sucli an intelli- gence God is ; such intelligences we presume angels are : — the Deity being absolutely perfect in the degree, as well as infinite in the measure of this excellence and exemption, and angels approxima- ting to the Deity in these respects in proportion to the purity of their nature, the clearness of their views, and the correctness of their deductions ; — the Deity judging infallibly at one glance, and angels arriving at a similar conclusion by progres- sive, though inconceivably rapid induction. But man is the creature of passion as well as of reason. His emotions are as strong as his perceptions are vivid ; and the workings of his passion, very greatly distm'b and interrupt, derange and weaken, con- found and neutralise, the operations of his reason. These two rival powers of the intellectual empire, though they ought ever most harmoniously to co- operate, yet seldom act in unison. Mostly, they are not only at variance with each other, but in a state of violent opposition; and the struggle for supremacy is productive of the most disastrous consequences. Reason, which ought invariably to preside, is generally tlie slave of passion ; and the slavery is not a light or an easy servitude. The 156 PRIVATE OPINION predominance of passion, is generally as complete and dictatorial, as the degradation and debasement, the servility and prostitution of reason, are infamous and extreme. Violence, anarchy, misery, are the results of these disorders and conflicts in the intel- lectual world. The question, therefore, which we have proposed, resolves itself into another : — To what extent are our passions and prejudices capable of being so controlled, that they shall not interfere with the exercise of our reason, or shall interfere with the proper discharge of its functions in a com- paratively immaterial degree? Is passion irresisti- ble ? if it is not, what is the degree of its weakness, the measure of its power ? Is prejudice irremedia- ble ? if it is not, what is the appropriate remedy, and what are the proper mode and strength of its application ? That passion is not irresistible, is evinced by numberless and glorious victories con- tinually obtained over the potent, and all but omnipotent adversary. That prejudice is not irre- mediable, is demonstrated by the innumerable transitions and favourable modifications which it constantly undergoes. Patient and imi^artial deliberation, Cautious and inflexible resolution, achieve this conquest of passion. The expansion of intellect. The extension of knowledge, and The indulgence of a just liberality, effect this AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 157 gradual abolition and final extermination of pre- judice. By the two former of these subduing and transforming agencies, the tyrant of passion is not merely dethroned, but is reduced to a state of most useful and gi*atifying subserviency ; and by the three latter, the monster of prejudice, is changed into the very being of loveliness and love. To an exa- mination of these several agencies respectively, therefore, we shall devote a share of our present attention. The ultimate attainment of our srand object, will be very greatly facilitated by the adop- tion of this preliminary caution and exactness. Precipitancy of discussion has frequently involved important subjects in confusion and indistinctness, and rendered what would otherwise have been easy of solution and advantageous, inextricable and per- nicious. Rapidity of progi*ess is only proportionate advancement in error, deviation from rectitude, unless a proper direction has been taken, and it continues to be pursued. The vaster is the edifice in its dimensions, the gi'eater the accumulation of materials in its construction, and the more speedy and dreadful will be its doTiaifall and ruin, unless the foundation laid is adequate in strength and extent to the height and weight of the structure progressively erected. It were better to be mo- tionless than to move in error. It were better 158 PRIVATE OPINION to enjoy repose, than to work only for the purpose of spoiling the materials, and prostituting the ener- gies employed. We shall endeavour, therefore, to make the foundation of our reasoning as broad and solid, as we desire its superstructure to be useful and j^ermanent. We shall endeavour to select a course as direct and infallible, as the end at which we propose to arrive, is important and delightful. And as the Rock of Eternal Truth, is preferable to every other basis ; so is the path of Eternal Ti-uth, preferable to every other course of pro- cedure. Patient and impartial deliberation, is of essen- tial service in the formation of our Private Opi- nions. Its effects are of the most admirable and beneficial description. The glow of passion cools. The ardour of desire abates. The intensity of feel- ing, relaxes into a more equable and uniform tone. The distortions of objects vanish. Confusion dis- appears. Error, trembling at the closeness of the scrutiny, drops her mask, and confesses the whole imposture. Derangement assumes the appearance of order ; intricacy, of exactness ; obscurity, of splendom' ; confusion, of accuracy ; perplexity, of ease. Mysteries become easy of comprehension. Problems of extraordinary difficulty suggest their own solution. The face and features of every object, are very greatly, sometimes entirely changed. AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 159 Discoveries multiply rapidly. Elucidations flow spontaneously. A divine tranquillity reigns in the soul. The love of truth acquires ascendency in the breast. The desire of pure, essential know- ledge, becomes itself a passion, the gratification of which involves the interminable improvement of om* intellectual faculties, the unlimited accumu- lation of our moral and scientific attainments. And is not the exercise of this patience practicable ? Is not the predominance of this impartiality attain- able ? Is not habitual impatience, is not conscious partiality inexcusably criminal ? Ought not the most strenuous exertions to be made for the purpose of preventing the occurrence or prevalence of these culpable emotions ? Are not interest and duty equally involved in effecting this determined oppo- sition or suppression? Is not the indulgence of intemperate eagerness to arrive at a decision, is not the exercise of conscious partiality for the purpose of facilitating the attainment of this final issue, manifestly inconsistent with the supposed admission of those difficulties which generally attend the acquisition of knowledge, and some of which occa- sionally appear for a time wholly insuperable? Have not ages, and centuries of ages, been required to raise the pile of human knowledge to that height which it has now attained? and are not centuries of ages more required to raise this pyramid of science to the highest summit of intellectual aSpi- 160 PRIVATE OPINION ration and exertion ? Have not these stupendous achievements been realised chiefly by patient and impartial deliberation ? and is not precisely the same kind of rational application requisite for the completion of what others have begun, for the perfection of what others have prosecuted, for the extirpation of those errors which their occasional indulgence of a less deliberate spirit, may have incorporated with their respective systems, and for the origination of those new discoveries and con- templations which may have escaped their generally and wonderfully patient, laborious, and scrutinizing inspection? Is it not possible to check, and im- pede, and overcome, this breathless and injurious haste? Is not a large portion of this precipitate and impatient exertion spent worse than in vain? Are not dignity and security, expedition and grati- fication, yea, consistency and accuracy analogous to those of infallibility itself, promoted by calmness of thought and closeness of attention, by correct- ness of motive and purity of intent, by regularity and imiformity, patience and impartiality, in our intellectual procedure ? And since the truths of religion, though incomparably excellent, are, in some instances, extremely difficult of comprehen- sion, is it not evident that patience, admirable for its temper, and impartiality, perfect in its cha- racter, are essentially requisite in all our religi- ous investigations and enquiries, controversies and AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 161 conversations ; and is it not obvious, that in pro- portion to the possibility and perfection of this patience and impartiality, the Private Opinions of every individual, will, so far as the interference of passion is concerned, be placed more or less under his own control ? But the longer some persons deliberate, and the more irresolute they grow. Their power of exertion, seems to diminish exactly in proportion to the length of their hesitation. Delay has with them a congealing, a paralysing influence. Their protracted schemes terminate in inaction. The proper season of active operation expires ; and no- thing seems to have been done, excejit an attempt made to devise a plan for doing something. Of the two extremes of precipitancy and deliberation, it is not easy perhaps to determine, which is the most improper and injurious. It is certainly easier to decline the performance of an action, than to undo it when it lias been once done. But when an act is in its nature laudable, in its tendency beneficial, in its utility indispensable, and in its obligation paramount, it is certainly better to per- form that act, sincerely though imperfectly, than to leave it wholly unattempted. For if we are to do nothing unless we can do it perfectly, taking this term in its absolute sense, it is evident that we shall have little or nothing to do. Degrees of approximation to absolute and infinite perfec- M 162 PRIVATE OPINION tion, are all that is attainable by mere creatures. Amongst finite intelligences, therefore, that only is best which is relatively better than every other of the same kind. Of Deity alone can perfec- tion, absolute, infinite, and consequently eternal, be predicated. Of all other beings and objects, the capacities and perfections are finite and relative. We are by this consideration furnished with pow- erful and eternal motives and encouragements to incessant exertion and illimitable advancement. Total quiescence is a species of indolence most highly criminal in the sight of God. It is a state of being which neither He personally, nor any per- fect specimen of his multifarious works in any part of his boundless universe, exhibits. All is action, ceaseless action. Matter and mind, when properly disposed and employed, equally exhibit the phe- nomenon of incessant and powerful activity. The proper direction of their respective energies, leads to a ceaseless exhibition of order and beauty, an endless progression of improvement and felicity. The suspension or improper direction of these ener- gies, inevitably tends to the production of the darkness, disorder, and wi'etchedness of a physical and moral chaos. The grand essentials of human excellence, therefore, are these : — to do every thing that ought to be done, and to do it at its proper time and in its proper manner. The proper time and mode of its performance, it is tlie object of AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 1 b"3 that deliberation which we have ah-eady described, to ascertain. Its total omission, or its needless pro- crastination, is that which this article so strongly deprecates. Now, on subjects of a religious nature, it is perfectly proper and indispensably requisite, that we should form an opinion. We are bound by the most sacred, solemn, and inviolable obliga- tions, to investigate these subjects with the deepest, the devoutest, and most anxious attention. Totally to neglect such an investigation, or to perform it with reluctance and indifference, indicates a reck- lessness and contempt awfully criminal and preju- dicial. God regards such conduct as an intolerable insult offered to himself, an impious and audacious disavowal of all moral obligation. For, humanly speaking, God has taken extraordinary pains and precautions to furnish the human race with a volume of instruction, complete and infallible, on all subjects of a moral and religious nature. Du- ring successive ages, he gradually revealed the biblical scheme of human redemption ; and having eventually, at the expense of the infinitely precious and sacrificial blood of his only Son, completed the propitiatory part of this most wonderful, unparal- leled scheme of mediatorial wisdom and love, he justly considers all inattention or indifference to this special provision, as an indication of desperate and incurable depravity. The difficulty of attaining at once a distinct and full com]irehension of the whole, 164 PRIVATE OPINION in place of authorising or excusing the slightest inattention or oversight, supplies one of the most powerful inducements to bring all our faculties, affections, and resources, to bear vigorously and immediately on every part of this divine, mysterious plan. Had not the revelation of it been sufficiently intelligible and comprehensible for all practical pm*- poses, it would never have been given as a complete and universal system of faith, experience, and mo- rality. Its very existence and character, therefore, afford most satisfactory proofs of the success that will attend a proper application to the development of its import. But the whole of life is not to be spent in a merely theoretical examination of its contents, in the ingenious distortion of its truths into as vast a multitude of different forms as the most rankly fertile imagination can invent. Sim- plicity in our perceptions, and consistency in our views, are the qualities chiefly requisite to enable us to disentangle every subject from the intricacies of its incidental connection, and properly to classify and compare it with all those kindred subjects which are likely to illustrate it by relation or ana- logy. Such a rational and logical exercise is equally definite and delightful. Patient and careful deli- beration, may be generally required ; yea, in most instances, it is indispensably requisite. But even such deliberation has its proper season of issue. It arrives eventually at a state of maturity sufficient AND ECCLKSIASTICAL COMMUNION. 165 for the decisive determination of opinion, and the actual commencement of operation. This, there- fore, is the critical period at which inflexible reso- lution is demanded. This is that moment which tries and decides the intellectual and moral cha- racter of the individual. If passion triumphs over resolution, the cause is lost, the labour is in vain. The conception is matiu'e, but the moral foetus is stifled in the birth, or so materially weakened and mortally mutilated by its production, as to be of little or no strength, utility, or duration. But if resolute obstinacy is possible in the one case, is not inflexible resolution practicable in the other ? and is not every man responsible to God for the degree of resolution which he exercises, no less than for the measure of deliberation which he employs ? Is it not therefore evident, that to the full extent of our capability to exercise an invincible resolution, the formation of our Private Opinions, is subject to our own control ? Passion and prejudice, though very distinct and easily distinguishable from each other, are fre- quently combined in tlie same person, and con- jointly exhibited on the same occasion. They frequently arise from the same causes, produce the same effects, and yield to the same remedies or correctives ; for the regulation of tlie one, and the removal of the other, therefore, several of the pre- 166 PRIVATE OPINION ceding observations will be found most efficiently available. Strong and violent emotion, however, which constitutes passion, may exist where the effects of a wrong education or of improper instruc- tion, which constitute prejudice, prevail only to a very limited extent ; and the latter of these, may exert a predominant influence in the comparative or total absence of the former. The remarks already made are intended chiefly to expose the essential impropriety, and counteract the injurious tendency, of inordinate and irregular passion. To render the same service in the detection and com- plete extermination of prejudice, will require us to consider the propriety, necessity, and efficiency which characterise the expansion of intellect, the extension of knowledge, and the exercise of just liberality. Though there are no ideas more simple than those of pure quantity, whether finite or infinite, yet there are none more perplexing than tliese, when any attempt is made to compare with each other things so totally incommensurable as finitude and infinity. For no possible or imaginable aggre- gation of finites, can make the least sensible approach to infinitude ; and when the aggregation or extension ' becomes to us inconceivably great, immeasurably vast, we cease of course to have any definite idea of its magnitude, or adequate AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 167 conception of its dimensions. Whatever may be the measure of our capacity or incapacity for the full comprehension of infinity and eternity, the one being boundless space, and the other bound- less existence, the real nature of these infinitudes remains unaltered, unaffected. Our ideas and descriptions of these objects, therefore, though eter- nally progressive, must eternally be finite, everlast- ingly circumscribed by perfectly distinct, though eternally diverging limits. It is the prerogative of the Great Infinite, the Great Eternal alone, literally and fully to comprehend that infinity and eternity which characterise the extent and duration of his own being, the measure and glory of his underi- ved attributes and incomparable perfections. But though absolute infinity is only partially comprehen- sible by the eternal enlargement of our finite capa- city, and eternity is only approximately conceivable by the endless progression of our existence through the countless ages of an immortal being ; yet, there is a certain species of infinity imaginable, which arises from the impossibility of fixing any extreme limits to the ceaseless expansion of finite, human intellect, and the incessant accumulation of finite wisdom and moral excellence. It is of this com- 2)aratively infinite expansion of capacity, and end- less multii)lication of attainments, that I conceive the human soul is caj^able. There never have been any impassable boundaries fixed or attained, and 168 PRIVATE OPINION I conceive there never will be. I am not aware that there is, either in the scientific or in the religious world, any indication of the remotest approach to such a final, visible extremity. To superficial observers, the reverse of this description, may appear to be more correct. But if those who have competently considered the subject, are to be believed ; that observation must be very superficial indeed which does not discover, that we have made very little progress beyond the first elements of intellectual and moral perfection. Much has been done ; but an eternity of effort and acquisition more will be required to effect the consummation. The bliss of heaven, I am apprehensive, consists chiefly in this endless expansion and progression in every species of intellectual and moral excellence. But why should we confine our attention to eternity ? For, if the expression were allowable, eternity will be to us no more than eternal time, endless day, deathless life ; and the present moment of the pre- sent day of the present life, is as real a portion of our whole existence, as any ulterior part of eternity will be. Every moment of the present life, there- fore, we are bound to occupy in improving to the greatest ]30ssible extent, all our faculties, resources, and opportunities. Of all the various duties and exercises to which these invaluable moments ougfht to be devoted, the expansion of our intellect is one of the most practicable, important, and beneficial. AND KCCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 16.0 By this expansion of intellect, we mean such a gradual development of our faculties, and progres- sive enlargement of om* capacity, as will enable us more clearly to perceive, and more fully to com- prehend, all those considerations and subjects which the formation of a correct opinion, requires us to examine. Such a development, such an enlarge- ment, will be very gi-eatly promoted, in addition to other more obvious expedients, — by widening the sphere of our observation, — by engaging in con- templations previously supposed to be too sublime or profound for our conception or penetration, — by endeavouring to regulate the force of those restrictions which early education has imposed, — by admitting, for the sake of arginnent and illus- tration, the possibility of what may appear impro- bable, and the probability of what may appear, in some points of view, absurd, — and by bringing the whole of our intellectual machinery into a state of action, of pow^erful, well-directed, and well- intended operation. The expansion of intellect, and the extension of knowledge, are, by necessity, coincident. It is scarcely possible perhaps to conceive, that either of these processes can exist without involving, in some degree, the existence of the other. Knowledge has a natural tendency to expand the mind, to sharpen and strengthen the intellectual powers, and to render them capable of exertions almost 170 PRIVATE OPINION incredibly great. This expansion of mind, widens the field of intellectual vision, and multiplies, diver- sifies, and renders agreeable to an incalculable extent, the objects of mental contemplation. The quantity of knowledge which has been already collected, and permanently recorded, is, in one point of view, immense. But immense as it is, it is constantly receiving large accessions ; and the amount to which it is capable of being eventually raised, no human being can either imagine or define. The undiscovered stores of information, are greater probably than we have any immediate reason to suspect. The latent properties of imper- fectly known objects, are in all probability very numerous. Endless diversity and delight conti- nue to reward intense application, and accurate inspection. Every development invites to deeper research ; and the more deeply we penetrate, the more are we astonished at the number and variety of the wonders continually disclosed. The mines of literature, are as inexhaustible as the mines of nature. Languages, living and the dead, — history, sacred and profane, — science, human and divine, — worlds and beings, visible and invisible — periods and circumstances, present, future, and eternal : these all simultaneously crowd our intellectual vision, and strongly urge their respective claims to distinct and patient attention. To judge, there- fore, as confidently, with a comparatively small AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 171 share of information, as though we had actually comprehended the whole range of universal know- ledge, would betray a degree of inexcusable igno- rance and intolerable presumption. For the most superficial observer cannot fail to perceive, that a comparatively limited acquaintance with any sub- ject, must be liable to the supposition of contain- ing some mistaken, erroneous, or imperfect views. Even though no such views should actually exist, even though the knowledge, so far as it extends, should possibly be perfect or complete ; yet surely it will be allowed, that a more extensive and pro- found acquaintance with the subject, would be productive of some additional, and proportionately greater advantages. No man judges so confidently, or confides so implicitly in the judgment of others, as when he is conscious of his own or of their proficiency in the subject of consideration. It is this consciousness that inspires boldness, depend- ence, and perseverance ; it is the want of this consciousness that occasions uncertainty, hesitation, versatility, and irresolution, with all the momentous evils consequent on the existence of such distraction and indecision. To one whose office is professedly to instruct others, this consciousness of proficiency is indispensable : the want of it must be an obvious and a total disqualification for the proper and effec- tual discharge of his functions. The deficiency or incompetency would expose him to the j'ust impu- 172 PRIVATE OPINION tation of consummate folly and guilt. And those whose occupation consists rather in acquiring than in communicating knowledge, will experience plea- sure and exhibit improvement exactly proportioned to the degree in which they rationally and fully confide in the competency of their teachers. The extension of our knowledge, therefore, is manifestly an object of the greatest importance and utility ; its influence in the formation of our Private Opi- nions on all subjects, especially on those of a reli- gious nature, must be incalculably great. Differ- ences in the degrees of this extension, it is highly probable, constitute that source from which almost exclusively, arise those differences of opinion which exist on every subject ; and it is equally probable, that in the proportion in which men approximate to each other in their degrees of information, they will generally approximate to each other in coin- cidence of opinion. This assertion of course is very properly qualified ; because the incidental causes of derangement and opposition, are numerous : as a general maxim, there is no doubt whatever of its correctness. It must indeed be admitted, that the opportunities and the capabilities for acquiring infor- mation, are very different and disproportionate to each other in different individuals. But it must also be admitted, that to the full extent of our capacity and opportunity, knowledge ought to be acquired : and that in proportion to the measure AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 173 of its rapid and successful acquirement, the forma- tion of our Private Opinion, will be subjected to our own control. But the efficiency of all these operations, will be very greatly modified by the temper of mind which we indulge towards those whose opinions differ, more or less, from our own. That this tem- per ought/ to be a perfectly candid and liberal one, will be rendered very evident by simply reversing the position, and considering how cruel, unjust, and censm'able in others, we deem their want of can- dour and liberality towards ourselves. The obliga- tions to cherish such a spirit are therefore mutual ; the occasions of its exercise are reciprocal ; the advantages arising- from its cultivation are equally great and desirable. Liberality has justice for its foundation, truth for its object, and peace for its reward. Its absence changes profitable discussion into angry disputation, and the search of knowledge into the excitement of hatred. Illiberality closes the avenues of the soul against the accession of knowledge from an immense variety of sources. It circumscribes exceedingly the limits of all bene- ficial intercourse, whether intellectual, social, or religious. It leaves error to extend its progress unchecked, or attempts to check its progTess by means which only accelerate its rapidity. It con- signs acknowledged excellence to neglect and obli- vion, or notices it in such a mann<*r as betrays 174 PRIVATE OPINION the rancour of the distempered soul, the virulence and hypocrisy of the pretended friendship. It distorts, discolours, and disallows every species of excellence that is not of a certain class, or name, or connection ; and it as greatly exceeds the bounds of justice in appreciating and eulogising the same species of excellence, when it does chance to be of that peculiar and favom'ite name, or class, or connection. Illiberality, therefore, weakens by dividing their force, and renders inefficient by interrupting in their operation, the energies of all the literary and religious denominations that are actuated by its malignant spirit. The points of distinction, are in some instances exceedingly tri- vial, almost imperceptibly minute, deriving their sole importance from the morbid or frenzied ima- o-inations of those who allow trifles so contemptibly to insignificant, to operate to the exclusion of each, other from unanimity of design, and unity of action, in some plan of great and common benefit. Other persons who are not immediately concerned, can perceive how truly contemptible those faint lines and shades of difference are which the parties, opposed to each other, seem agreed to regard as insuperable barriers to that intercourse the object of which is, to illumine and expand the mind, and to multiply and diversify the sources of its improvement, by gaining an easy access to all the treasures of information which others have accu- AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. ^Ji) mulated, and rewarding them for this inspection of their intellectual stores by exhibiting our own acquisitions, just as unreservedly, for their candid examination. From such a comparison of know- ledge, from such a collation of intellect, regulated by mutual and amicable confidence, and by strict and uniform integTity, the greatest advantages might justly be expected to arise. The feelings of our common nature, would be very greatly improved. The sources of our enjoyment, would be exceedingly multiplied and enlarged. The virtue of universal charity, would be uniformly exhibited. Innumera- ble impressions of a mistaken or an erroneous natm-e, would be removed. Obstacles hitherto thought to be insuperable, would vanish. The most wonderful discoveries of unsuspected excellence and moral goodness, would be made. The violation of truth and justice in our conception of the opinions, and in our judgment of the characters of others, would be prevented in ten thousand instances. The combination of intellect and effort, would be universal and irresistible. And, what is chiefly important to the precise object of our present enquiry, — by the exercise of this liberality, innu- merable errors, mistakes, oversights, and exaggera- tions, would be detected and rectified in the formation of our Private Opinions. That it is possible and proper, to exercise this liberality com- mensurately with all the demands of trutli and 176 PRIVATE OPINION justice, there will I conceive be no doubt enter- tained. To the extent of this capability and pro- priety, therefore, it is evident, that the formation of our Private Opinions, admits of being subjected to our own control. We are now, therefore, enabled to reply, in answer to the original question, that to the full extent of our ability to exercise patience and im- partiality in our deliberations, caution and firmness in our decisions, freedom in the expansion of our intellect, diligence in the acquisition of all requisite information, and candom* and liberality of senti- ment on all occasions of a personal natm-e, — that in proportion to the measure of all these capabil- ities, the formation of our Private Opinions, may be subjected to our o\mh control. The determina- tion of this point, is of considerable importance. For this general principle, which we have carefully considered, and endeavoured accm-ately to define, will be found to pervade and to affect, more or less, the greater part of this discussion. We shall not hesitate, therefore, decisively to appeal to this principle, as frequently as occasion may require, and as confidently as its conceived soundness au- thorises. The clearness and propriety of the sen- timents on which it is founded, are such, we presume, as even the most fastidious judgment can feel no disposition to doubt or deny. We calculate AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 177 with the greater confidence on this concurrence of judgment, because the sentiments embodied in this general principle, have arisen spontaneously, natu- rally, in our development of its character; there has been no conscious violence done to the subject, no ambitious desire of originating a new system entertained, no inclination to favour or establish a previous theory indulged. I felt anxious to ascer- tain by an unpremeditated, a natural process of deduction, what the sentiments and dictates of my own mind were, — assm-ed that all others whose minds were similarly constituted, and whose search of truth was similarly directed, would with equal confidence and satisfaction coincide with myself in admitting the correctness and conclusiveness of the final result. Should there be any who dissent, after adopting an equally careful and laborious process, their judgment and verdict will be entitled to equal attention and authority, though, if I mistake not, their reasons will have to be brought from very re- mote quarters and through very circuitous directions, and exhibited vdth no ordinary degree of dexterity and effect, to invalidate the few, simple arguments and illustrations which have been adduced. It is hoped, that the spirit of this remark, will not be misapprehended, or the language of its expres- sion misinterpreted ; it is confessedly intended to give distinctness and precision to our future obser- vations, and to promote this olyect by asserting N 178 PRIVATE OPINION the confidence with which we adopt the general principle that has been developed, and that may be considered as the principal basis or criterion of what we have to advance. Immediately consequent on the preceding in- vestigation, is another enquiry no less important in its nature, no less general in its application: — To what extent are we responsible for our Private Opinions ? Is man capable of altering his opinions according to his will and pleasure ? or are there not certain opinions, which, when they have been formed in a prescribed, specified manner, he finds it morally impossible to change ? If man has power absolutely to control his Private Opinions, he is evidently responsible for the manner in which he exercises this absolute agency. But if there are certain limitations to the exercise of this control, and if, in arriving at those limitations, man is free to select and pursue his own line of procedure ; he is then responsible for the use which he makes of this liberty of selection and prosecution, within the sphere which these definite limits comprise. That the human mind, when aljandoned to those influ- ences and impressions which the derangement or abuse of its powers occasions, is capable of the most shocking extravagances and irregularities, of the most criminal indecision, vascillation, and vio- lence, is an equally undoubted and lamentable fact ; AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 179 in some instances of this description, all the cha- racteristics and glories of mind appear to be almost com]i]etely annihilated, so little remains of that rationality and consistency which constitute the essence and excellence, and which ought ever to characterise the appropriation and exhibition, of its nature and functions. But we are not now endea- vouring to determine, what the greatest extremes of folly and debasement are, to which our intel- lectual powers can possibly be reduced : instances, alas ! too numerous and deplorable, are of constant occurrence. But the man who is guilty of these enormities, reduces himself below the level of rational intelligence, and, consequently, by the for- feitm'e of his distinctive character, excludes himself in the present instance from any share of our con- sideration. Om* enquiry, therefore, respecting the absoluteness or the limitedness of the control exer- cised over our Private Opinions, takes as granted, that the most proper and efficient use is uniformly made of all our faculties, resources, and opportu- nities. Now, when the question is qualified by this specification, it does appear, that the control which man exercises over his Private Opinions is not absolute, and that when he has, in the course of his investigations, arrived at a certain final point, it is morally impossible for him to pass, with equal confidence and conviction, to a different or an oppo- site point, unless he clearly discovers, accurately 180 PRIVATE OPINION demonstrates, and frankly acknowledges, that the course of ratiocination by which he arrived at that first point, was really an improper or a wrong one ; and it does also appear, that when he has passed from that first point to this second one, which is confessedly different or opposite, he must now per- manently remain at this second j)oint, unless he makes a discovery and an acknowledgment in this latter instance, similar to what he made in the former, which would bring him to the formation of no opinion at all on the subject examined ; that is, he must permanently remain at one or at the other of these points, unless either he continues in a state of constant vascillation, which, even if it were practicable, would be exceedingly dangerous and undesirable, or affirms that these two different or opposite points and directions are one and the same, which is absurd. It is evident, therefore, that when an infallibly right course is pursued, a certain limit is ultimately attainable at which that course properly terminates, — terminates as directly and infallibly, as exclusively and unalterably, as the course itself by which this limit has been attained, is believed to be direct and infallible. When man has arrived at this ultimate limit, his responsibility extends no further ; for the real, essential nature of things, is such as he cannot possibly alter by adopting any diversity or contrariety of intellectual operation, and purposely introducing it into his AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 181 examination of the objects contemplated. Truth is truth, eternally and unalterably. His responsibility, therefore, is confined chiefly if not exclusively, to the course by the adoption and prosecution of which he arrives ultimately at this extreme point, or at a limit which he sincerely believes is this final and infallible point. Now, this course is capable of being as endlessly diversified, as the legitimately exercised ingenuity of man, is exhaustless in its devices, and the proper objects to which that inge- nuity is directed, and the different aspects of those objects, are numberless. Discrimination and selec- tion are, therefore, practicable and indispensable. The right selection of the means used, and the right use of the means selected, constitute that species and department of intellectual exercise in which our responsibility consists. The whole ques- tion concerning the degree of our responsibility is, therefore, ultimately resolvable into this : To what extent are this selection and use of the means proper to be employed, subject to our own control ? The solution of this enquiry, will obviously be pre- cisely identical with that of the last ; or, in other words, it will be perceived, that the degree of responsibility which attaches to the possession and profession of our Private Opinions, is exactly pro- portionate to the measure of control which we are capable of exercising in the formation and retention of these opinions. The precise measure of this 182 PRIVATE OPINION. control, it was the special object of the last section to determine. In place, therefore, of repeating its arguments and illustrations, I shall take the liberty of subjoining what some, perhaps, would consider an unnecessary digression, but what I deem an essential part of the discussion in which we are now engaged. I am a minister of the Gospel, of that religion which exhibits Deity invested with an aspect and a character such as reason alone could never have discovered. I conceive, therefore, that it is neither foreign nor inapj^ropriate, but perfectly relevant and suitable on the present occasion, to profess my belief in the distinct existence and peculiar agency of the Holy Spirit, agreeably to the sense in which these terms are used by all reputedly orthodox classes of Christians. The indispensable assistance and illumination of this Holy Spirit, have been promised, for the purpose of omnipotently strength- ening and infallibly directing us in all our spiritual concerns. To slight or neglect this promise, is, in any professor of Christianity, an act of fatal unbe- lief or impious presumption, implying either such an approximation to infidelity as differs very little from a total renunciation of the Christian religion, or such a measure of confidence in his own insu- lated ability, such an entire dependence on his internal resom'ces, as is equivalent to a conviction and declaration, that unassisted reason is adequate AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 183 to the production of all those glorious truths whicli divine revelation alone contains. The fact is : — man frequently confounds his capacity to compre- hend the truths of revelation, vs^hen they have been actually communicated, with his ability to discover the truths themselves, previously to all divine com- munication ; whereas, no two kinds of capability, can be more chfferent or distinct than these ; they are in some instances infinitely remote from each other. Truths totally and eternally undiscoverable by uninspired man, may, when supernaturally re- vealed, appear to be of wonderfully easy compre- hension. For man to deny the necessity and reality of the inspiration, solely in consequence of the perfect facility of his subsequent apprehension, would stamp his character with the basest ingra- titude and folly. The Bible is full of such reve- lations, most of which are proverbially simple and easy, but all of whicli are so incomparably profomid and sublime, as to be manifestly worthy of that Infallible Spirit by whose inspiration they were successively communicated. Amongst these divine declarations are several which directly intimate, that though the composition of the Sacred Volume is closed, and closed for ever, and therefore it is at the extreme and eternal peril of any human being, whatever his fictitious credentials may be, to profess that he has received a new dispensation, authorising him to diminish or augment the truths 184 PRIVATE OPINION of the Sacred Records ; yet, if any man is deeply conscious of his ignorance, or of his inability fully to comprehend what is revealed, he has only sin- cerely to supplicate the superintending assistance and guidance of the Divine Spirit, and he shall be put into possession of all the spiritual knowledge that his essential requirements demand. But this assistance is not so rendered as to supersede or suspend the proper exercises of our rational facul- ties, or to stamp with the seal of absolute infal- libility all the particular results of om* separate enquiries. It is precisely such assistance as human free agency and responsibility admit. For though all requisite aid is offered, yet no violence is ex- ercised. Though the purest and most brilliant light is provided, yet no compulsive agency is exerted. The provision of a Divine and an Infal- lible Guide, however, leaves us not at liberty, presumptuously to close our eyes, or sluggishly to sink into a state of inactive quiescence. It is only on the condition of most extensively employing all our ordinary capabilities and resources, that we are taught to implore, and authorised to expect, this divine aid and guidance. The principle of this discussion, proceeds on the supposition of these two grand essentials being, in our search of truth, uniformly combined. The introduction of the Gospel into this dis- AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 185 cussion, and the assertion of its glorious doctrine respecting the Holy Spirit's auxiliary agency, lead us naturally and directly to consider that species of religious intercourse, that kind of spiritual com- munication, which we have designated — Ecclesias- tical Communion, and with the perfect enjoyment of which we have proposed, as one of the professed objects of this Dissertation, to reconcile the forma- tion and expression of Private Opinion. But what is Ecclesiastical Communion ? Is it so extensive in its range, as to embrace the largest imaginable assemblage of Christians, promiscuously and incidentally associated, or so confined in its extension, as to be capable of comprising only the very smallest number that constitutes plurality? or is it totally irrespective of all comparative, nu- merical considerations, and determinable, only or chiefly, by the nature of the principle on which its participators associate? Comparative magnitude of numbers, appears to involve no essential difficulty. For, provided the views and feelings, the disposi- tion and character of the individuals, are apparently similar or essentially the same, multitudes may be associated as easily and effectually as a few soli- tary individuals. If, in these respects, there exists no such apparent similarity or virtual identity, the principle itself of all amicable and profitable communion, has no existence. Men who totally 186 PRIVATE OPINION differ from each other in these points of view, appear to constitute not only nominally distinct, but even morally different classes of being. Their community of generic nature remains ; but their community of moral intercourse, is extinct. Prin- ciple, therefore, not numbers, is that chiefly which we have to consider on the present occasion. Having thus ascertained this point, we proceed to observe, that Ecclesiastical Communion may be considered as a peculiar, moral modification of the social passion, characterised by an expressly spiri- tual adaptation of it to purposes of a religious nature. For if man had not been endued with a natural disposition to associate, his religion, I con- ceive, would have been exclusively of a solitary character; because religion was evidently never intended to change the original constitution of the beings capable of its experience and observance. There is no doubt, therefore, that human nature was originally constituted — social, as it is, and that it was so constituted, partly at least, that religion might eternally be enjoyed in full perfection, — that its duties, which are all so many privileges and sources of gratification, might be endlessly multi- plied, — that unity and unanimity might universally reign amongst those numberless, moral intelligences who were all designed to be regulated and pre- served by its influence, — that they might move collectively in one course of perfect rectitude, and AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 187 occupy conjointly one paradise of ineffable delight. Agreeably to this representation, we find, that no one of the principles or institutes of true religion, is in the least repugnant to the proper indulgence of the social passion ; but that, on the contrary, they are all compatible with its exercise, all essen- tial to its perfection. It is irreligion, it is false religion, that strike with deadly effect at the very root of all genuine, social intercourse and enjoy- ment. Impiety separates God from his creatures ; iniquity separates men from each other. Heaven closes her gates against these spirits of discord ; hell alone opens her jaws for their reception. Devils, raging and blaspheming devils, are the only proper companions of those who have thus abandoned all moral excellences and associations. Religion and the social passion, therefore, may properly be considered, as having mutually con- tributed to render each other's existence necessa:ry, each other's character complete, and their common connection and reciprocal influence — permanent sources of inexpressible delight. If this view of the subject be connect, it is evident, that Ecclesiastical Communion consists in the spiritual -association of moral, human intelli- gences, agreeably to that exercise, direction, and influence, which true religion gives to the social passion. Though this description sufficiently dis- tinguishes such communion from every other species 188 PRIVATE OPINION of intercourse ; yet, as the definition may appear to be rather comphcated, it will not be improper to render it still more explicit and intelligible. Whatever man knows that is excellent, he has a natural desire to communicate ; whatever he feels that is right, he is as naturally and as powerfully prompted to express. By this species of communi- cation and expression, his attainments of knowledge are very greatly augmented, and his experience of pleasure is proportionately increased. Now, reli- gion stores his mind with information, equally various, vast, and invaluable ; and fills his soul with emotions equally diversified, ecstatic, and per- manent. Exclusively to confine these stores of knowledge and fruition within the limits of his own cognizance and consciousness, were next to impos- sible ; for if they did not vanish or become extinct under this unnatural confinement, their excellence would be gradually deteriorated, and their sphere continually more and more contracted, until the former was reduced to a mere nonentity, and the latter to an imperceptible point. Such an event, however, is extremely unlikely to occur. The natural constitution of the soul, renders the exer- cise of such violence, if not totally impracticable, at least so very difficult, that there exists no pro- bability of its occurrence except in very limited degrees, and in very modified instances, arising from some capricious eccentricity or deplorable AND ECCLESIASTICAL COMMUNION. 189 peculiarity in the temper or education of the indi- vidual. The social passion bursts all artificial bounds, and defies all arbitrary prescriptions. The extraordinary impulse and improvement which it receives from religious know^ledge and excitement, render its force as irrepressible, as its indulgence is purely natural and universally beneficial. The great fountain of social gi-atification, pours its con- tents impetuously through all tlie channels that are capable of their reception and conveyance ; its various currents gradually form one immense reservoir, which eventually overflows in consequence of the innumerable accessions which it constantly receives ; the pellucid streams then return by a reflux direction to their original source ; and from this source, thus replenished, and rendered by its incidental accumulations greater if possible, and more copious than before, these streams are again distributed through the same or innumerable other channels : — the whole thus incessantly ebbing and flowing, with a vastness and a regularity of which the magnitude and the tides of the ocean, can alone convey an adequate idea. It is in such a reciprocal, such an endlessly increasing interchange of religious knowledge and excitement, that Eccle- siastical Communion consists. Since Ecclesiastical Communion, therefore, consists in the social interchange of religious information and affection, it is evidently the object 4i^tearations and intentions, he will feel obliged to those friends, publislicrs, or stationers, to whom he transmits copies of this Prospectus, for any 2 suggestions or proposals wliich tliey may be disposed to submit. — A further intimation will of course be required for tlie public generally, as soon as any particular plan is finally adopted. DANIEL CHAPMAN. 2, Haywood-Street, Nottingham. Since the above Prospectus M'as published, considei-able numbers of the Author's friends, have, personally and by letter, prosecuted very kind and urgent enquiries respecting the particulars of the intended issue ; and several have with equal kindness and eagerness endeavoured to obtain some general idea of the principal object or objects which he proposes to accomplish. To all these and to all others, the Author most respectfully addresses the following unreserved statement of his motives, achievements, .and plans. The acquisition of pecuniary emolument, is not his principal object; though ■when the labour performed is of a profitable description, the labourer is worthy of his hire; and there exists no such difference between intellectual and physical exertion, as entitles the latter alone to such a species of remuneration. Pecuniaiy advantage, therefore, should any ultimately accrue, the Author has no objection to share proportionately with those to whom the typographical execution of his Works may be entrusted. Such considerations, however, and all others distinct from the intrinsic excellence and practical utility of his Publications, he regards as not only inferior, but comparatively insignificant. The consciousness of having, by the assistance of God, contributed to promote through the present and succeeding ages, the best interests of his species, temporal, spiritual, and eternal, would be to him a gratification and a recompense incomparably exceeding the pleasures of tran- sient affluence, the enjoyment of evanescent applause. The proverbial brevity and uncertainty of human life, the ordinary adequacy of the supplies derived from his sacred function, and the exhaustless copiousness of the resources possessed and dis- pensed by a bountiful Providence, are considerations which dispose the Author to regard with comparative unconcern, all results except those which affect the essential character, and the pei-manently practical influence of his Publications. Should these results prove as beneficial as his wishes are benevolent and ardent, their measure and extent will be greater than language can describe. For he solemnly and conscientiously declares, that he is wholly unconscious of being actuated by any other motives than those which tliis Prospectus developes. Should he have advanced any thing, therefore, that can be certainly demonstrated to be erroneous or prejudicial, so far from feeling or manifesting the slightest chagrin or hostility at the exposure and counteraction of this error and injuiy, he will deem it a favour conferred upon himself personally, and a contribution to that universal good which alone he is anxious to promote, to have the fallacy detected, and its consequences prevented, to have pure truth substituted, and its inestimable ad- vantages to every human being secured. This, however, he feels himself autho- rised to require of all his fraternal auxiliaries in the cause of truth, — ^for by this friendly designation he chooses to call those who may differ from himself in sentiment or opinion, rather than designate them by the frequently unjust and opprobrious epithet of rivals, opponents, or antagonists, — that these should endea- vour, previously to their condemnation and denunciation of his views, to think for themselves most deliberately and profoundly, to judge dispassionately and impartially, and then to declare their own dissent, and recommend the adoption of their own final conclusions, equally in a manner and in language suited to subjects of so sacred and transcendently important a nature. Any representations of this controversial character, he will be most happy to examine with all the prompti- tude, attention, and candour which they require ; and, if necessity demand, to reply in confession or defence. Merc strifes of words, disputatious and captious wrang- lings, he abhors as a waste of time, a prostitution of intellect, as disgraceful to rational, fatal to immortal beings. Controvei-sial discussion, judiciously and ami- cably conducted, however, he regards as perfectly compatible with the interests of truth, and the welfare of society; though to even this form of controversy he will not have recourse, unless impelled by most obvious reasons of paramount importance. The precise extent of his labours, can be determined only by the length of his life, and the measure of his ability. For so long as he is permitted to live, and to enjoy a competent share of leisure and capability, he purposes sacredly and unreservedly to consecrate his existence and powers to the glory of God, and the good of man. The subjects which he has already discussed, judging from the quantity of them which he has now existing in finished manuscript, would occupy probably five or six volumes. And all these, if the public required, the Author could with very little additional application, prepare for immediate submission to the Press. It is not, however, at present, intended to publish them all collec- tively, unless some such demand as this should be generally made, subsequently to the appearance of the single work announced in the Prospectus. For this work, though the introductory volume of the series, is yet complete in itself, and indepen- dent of all the others. It will, therefore, be published and vended separately. And the purchasers of this work, will not be considered as tlms tacitly involving themselves in any kind of responsibility or pledge to purchase future ones. If, however, any of these friends should choose to accompany their subscription for this work, with the ex])ression of a desire and an intention to take its immediate successor, or all its successors, the Author or his publisher will be most happy to receive and record the intimation. Were this done to any considerable extent, the publication of these succeeding volumes would be materially promoted and faci- litated. The work announced in tlic Prospectus, as these observations imply, will be published by subscription. The typographical execution of the volume, is intended to combine utility and elegance, and to commence as soon as five hundred subscribers have been obtained. Its price will not exceed eight shillings. The names of subscribers, addressed without loss of time, will be received with great pleasure by the Author. Perhaps it would be most conducive to economy and despatch, if each person who receives a copy of this Prospectus, were to procure as great a number of subscribers as the range of his own immediate circle, and the extent of his casual intercourse, allowed, and were then collectively to transmit to the Author the names and addresses of the respective individuals. And he is not without hopes of an early issue of tlie volume, as many of his friends in different parts of the coimtry, have kindly expressed a desire to become subscribers, and stated that they knew others who were desirous to do the same. But the principal difficulty which they have experienced, has arisen from the want of explicit, cir- cumstantial information in the first Prospectus. That infomiation, therefore, which It was the object of tlie first Prospectus to create a general desire to obtain, is now most respectfully supplied. DANIEL CHAPMAN. 2, Haywood-Street, Nottingham.