^N OF PR,^ ^^e, .'n.'O 7 1359 ^^OG/CAL StVrA^ OR, / V THE ART OF X"^. SCRIPTURE INTERPRETATION. FROM THE GERMAN OF GEORGE FREDERIC SEILER, D.D. PRO^^BHEOL. IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ERLANGEN, ETC. WITH NOTES, STRICTURES, AND SUPPLEMENTS FROM THE DUTCH OF J. HERINGA, D.D. \ PROF. THEOL. IN THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAECHT. TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINALS, S12Iit]^ ^trlrtttonal jS-otes and ^beerbations, BY THE REV. WILLIAM WRIGHT, LL.D. OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. LONDON: FREDERICK WESTLEY AND A. H. DAVIS, stationers' hall court. 1835. CONTENTS. The Translator's Preface . p. xiii. Memoir of Seiler p, xviii Dr. Heringa's Preface p. xxiii The Author's Preface pp. 1 — 22. INTRODUCTION. Preliminary Observations. The signs of ideas in general, and the means of discovering their signification. The art of signification. The art of interpretation in general, §§ 1 — 8. Definition of Hermeneutics. Its necessity and use, §§ 9 — 12. pp.23 — 30. PART I. general rules for the interpretation of the bible. CHAPTER I. Principles and General Rules, prescribed by Reason to the Interpreter. ?Iermeneutics point out the right use of reason in the discovery and exhibition of the sense of Holy Scripture, §§ 13, 14. In- terpretation must be agreeable to the usage of words, the peculiar mode of thinking, the idioms, manners, sentiments, and relations of an author, §§ 15 — 21, The occasion of a b VI CONTENTS. work, the time, place, and circumstances, both the main end collateral designs of a speaker or writer, are to be attended to, and the state of mind in which he has spoken or written, as well as the condition, modes of thinking, and opinions, of his contemporaries, for whom he wrote, §§ 22 — 29. Here on the necessary adaptation to their modes of thinking in general, § 31. Some general Rules of interpretation in regard to sub- jects and predicates ; the use which the interpreter should make of the context, parallel passages, &c. §§32 — 40. pp. 31 — 44. i CHAPTER II. Principles and Rules of Interpretation by means of the signification and use of words, and tlieir combination ; of the various species of Words. Introduction p. 45. Sect. I. Of the proper and improper sense of words. Of the literal or grammatico-liistorical sense of words, or their proper signification, §§41 — 40. Of the improper signification, or of the various kinds of Tropes, §§ 47 — 49. How it is to be ascertained whether a word is to be understood properly or improperly, and how Tropes are to be treated, §§ 50 — 53. pp. 46 — 55. Sect. II. Of Anthropomorphitic words and phrases in the Bible, §§ 54—64 pp. 56—61. Sect. III. Of some of the other properties of words, chiefly of Emphasis, §§ 65—70 pp. 62—66. CHAPTER III. Of the Real Sense. Special signification of the Things, Persons, and Actions de- scribed, § 71 p. 67. Tliis includes — Allegories and Parables, §§ 72 — 74. ]\Iythi or Myths, § 75. Types, § 76. Other Figures in Rhetoric, §77. Paronomasia, §78 pp. 67 — 73. CONTENTS. Vll CHAPTER IV. Of the treatment and explanation of whole Periods, Parts, and Books, §§ 79—86 pp. 74—79. APPENDIX. Of Versions, Paraphrases, and Free Translations . pp. 80 — 82. Translator's note on §§ 50—66 pp. 82—86. PART II. Application of the General Rules to the Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures p. 87. CHAPTER I. Principles and Rules for the Intei'pretation of the Old Testament in general. Introduction p. 89. Sect. I. Of the investigation of the true sense by means of Philology p. 90. This includes — 1. Etymology, §§ 87, 88. 2. The usage of words, {usus loquendi), §§ 89—93. 3. The Context, §94. 4. Paral- lelism, §§ 95 — 100. 5. Semitic dialects, §§ 101—111. 6. Versions, §§112, 113. 7. Lexicons, Grammars, and Con- cordances, § 114. 8. Scholia and Commentaries, § 115. Editions of the Bible, § 116. . . . . . . pp. 90—127. Translator's note — On the Latin Vulgate . . pp. 127 — 132. Sect. II. Of the aids to the necessary knowledge of things. p. 132. Vlll CONTENTS. Introduction p. 132. Antiquities, Oriental manners and customs, §117. Geography, § 118. Natural History, § 119. Theological, moral, and superstitious sentiments of antient nations, § 120. History, § 121. Medicine, Chronology, &c. § 122 . . pp. 133—144. Bibliographical Appendix to Part II. Chap. I. By the Trans- lator pp. 145—152. CHAPTER II. Principles adapted to the Interpretation of the separate Parts and Books of the Old Testament. Introduction p. 153. Sect. I. Of the necessary critical labour which should precede interpretation, §§ 123— 127 pp. 154— 162. Sect. II. Of the explanation of the historical parts of the Bible, §§ 128—145 pp. 162—176. Appendix. Of the Chronology in the Books of the Old Testa- ment pp. 177—179. Sect. III. Of the explanation of the dogmas, morals, and or- dinances contained in the Old Testament, §§ 146 — 156, pp. 180—199. Appendix — showing some of the most useful works in which the historical books of the Old Testament are explained, pp. 200, 201. Sect. IV. Of the Interpretation of the Poetical Books and Pas- sages of the Old Testament, §§ 157—182 . pp. 202—239. Additional Notes, containing some observations on the Philoso- phical Books of the Old Testament. By the Translator. pp. 240—248. Supplementary List of Works on the Poetical Books of Scripture. pp. 249, 250. Appendix. Of Fables, Parables, Allegories, &c. § 183. pp. 251 — 253. CONTENTS. IX Sect. V. Of the interpretation of the Prophetical Books, §§ 184—212 pp. 254—306. Translator's remarks on the Book of Jonah, — Jebb's Sacred Literature pp. 300 — 302. Sect. VI. On the explanation of the Apocryphal Books of the Old Testament, §§ 213— 218 pp. 307— 318. CHAPTER III. Of the Interpretation of the New Testament in general. Sect. I. Historical Introduction to the knowledee of the orisin of new religious and moral sentiments, sects, and errors among the Jews, §§ 219 — 228 pp. 319—332. Sect. II. General Introduction to the knowledge most essential to the criticism of the New Testament, §§ 229 — 235, pp. 333—349. This includes— verbal and real criticism and Introductions, § 229 — Recensions, with a particular account of Griesbach's system, §§ 230 — 235. Translator's note on ditto, pp. 348, 349. Appendix. By the Translator. On Scholz's system of re- censions pp. 350 — 360. Additional note on the same. By the Translator . . p. 403. Sect. III. General Rules and Principles for investigating the sense of the books of the New Testament by means of Philology, or the knowledge of languages p. 361. I. On the origin and peculiar state of the Greek of the New Testament, and of the aids to be derived from thence towards its explanation, §§ 236 — 239 pp. 361 — 366. II. Investigation of the grammatico-historical sense, through the medium of Philology, §§ 240 — 251 . . pp.366 — 384. III. Of other aids, as Parallelism, &c., as the means of deter- mining both the usage and the true sense of words, §§ 252 — 254, pp. 384-390. X CONTENTS. Parallelism, §§252 — 254. The context, § 255 ; and the scope, § 256. Antient versions, §257. (See note, p. 651.) Modem versions, § 258. Paraphrases, § 259 pp. 384 — 400. Additional works pp. 400 — 402. Translator's Note on Scholz's edition of the Greek Testament, and on the Gothic and Syriac versions and editions, pp. 402—404. Translator's notes on the Latin Vulgate, chiefly in reference to Mr. Home's last edition of his Introduction . pp.404 — 407. Sect. IV. Principles for investigating the sense of the writings of the New Testament from the knowledge of the things treated of p. 408. I. Of the interpretation of the doctrines of faith contained in the New Testament, § 260. The sources of interpretation ; gene- ral principles of ditto, §§ 261 , 262. Especially of the adaptation [or accommodation] of Jesus and the Apostles to the opinions and errors of their contemporaries, §§ 263 — 276, pp. 408—438, 611. Appendix. Of the citation of the prophecies of the Old Testa- ment in the New, and their fulfilment, §§ 277 — 280. Dis- tinction between the application of a prophecy and its fulfil- ment, §§281 pp. 439—446. Sect. V. Of the Explanation of the morality of the New Tes- tament, § 282—291 pp. 447—454. Of moral interpretations, § 292 pp.454 — 457. Appendix. On the province of Reason in the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures ; and on the moral interpretation of the Bible. (From the 6th vol. of Eichhorn's General Library of Biblical Literature) pp. 458 — 464. CHAPTER IV. Principles for the interpretation of separate parts of the New Testament p. 465 CONTENTS. XI Sect. I. Of the interpretation of the historical writings of the New Testament. Helps thereto, as, History, § 293; Geo- graphy, § 294 ; Antiquities, § 295 ; Special Rules for the treatment of the New Testament history, §§ 296 — 299 ; prin- cipally of the miraculous and extraordinary parts, §§ 300, 301. Harmony of the Evangelists, §§ 302,303. Matthew's Gospel. § 304 ; Mark's ditto, § 305 ; Luke's, § 306, and John's, § 307. The Gospels collectively, § 308. The Acts of the Apostles, § 309 pp. 465—500. Sect. II. On the interpretation of the Apostolical Epistles. Introduction, a Supplement by Dr. Heringa, pp. 501 — 513. Paul's Epistles, § 310. Sketch of his system, §§ 311 — 313. The Epistles of Peter, § 314 ; and of John, p. 545. Of James, §315. OfJude, §316 pp. 514— 553. Sect. III. Of the Apocalypse, §§ 317 — 319. pp. 554—575. Note — the late Mr. Coleridge p. 504. Bibliographical notices, with a Supplement by Dr. Heringa, § 320 pp. 575—597. Sect. IV. On the contradictions in the Bible, and the labours of Harmonists, §§ 321-327 pp. 598— 611. Additional works in opposition to the Accommodation theory, omitted in p. 438 p. 611. Appendix, by the Translator, on 1 John v. 6, 7, 8. pp. 613 — 650. Translator's note on Latin and Syriac manuscripts. (See p. 394.) p. 651. PREFACE. BY THE TRANSLATOR. As my principal object in presenting the follow- ing work to the eye of the Enghsh reader is utility, I am not ashamed to appear before the public in the humble capacity of a translator. And so far from deeming any apology necessary for the task which I have undertaken, I rather join in regretting that a work so generally prized by biblical scholars as the Hermeneutics of Dr. Seller, and which still retains its high character in the Universities of Germany and Holland, should have hitherto been veiled from the English reader beneath the garb of a foreign tongue. " It is much to be regretted," says an accomplished divine, " that the writings of that distinguished man [Ur. Seller] are so little, or scarcely at all, known in this country. This can only be attributed to a fact, which I hope will not always remain to our disadvantage and discredit, that the theological students of Great Britain have paid so little attention to the cultivation of the German language."* The duty of supplying, in * Dr. Pye Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, 2(1 ed. Vol. IJI. p. 414. London, 1829. XIV THE TRANSLATORS PREFACE. some measure, this desideratum, has devolved upon me ; it is for others to judge how far the execution of the task has equalled the anxious care and the fidelity with which it has been pursued. I might here close these remarks, but as a translator justly incurs a large share of the responsibility of the work to which he may be supposed to give his individual sanction, I shall add a few words on the character which the present publication main- tains among persons who, from their peculiar opportunities and experience, must be considered the most competent judges. For this the two following testimonies will perhaps be sufficient. Although it is now thirty years since the pious and venerable Dr. Heringa, who still fills, with undiminished reputation, the theological chair of the University of Utrecht, published and com- mented on his Dutch translation of Seller's Herme- neutics, which he then pronounced to be the most excellent guide extant to the interpretation of tlie holy Scriptures ; * — an equally high testimony to its paramount merits has been recently awarded to it by the present distinguished Professor Clarisse of Leyden, who, in addition to his other testimonies to the value of the work in general,f observes, that * See Dr. Heringa's Preface, p. xxiv, infra. f Encyclopaedia Theologica, pp. 198, 212, 22G, 357, 471. " Aliosque phires ut mittam, Seileri {Bihl. Hermeneutik, — Bel- gice Ihjhelschc Uitlcgk., et, ad lianc versionem, Jodoei Hennf/a) passim, v. c. Append, ad P. II., c. ii.. Sect. 3, p. 185, et c. iv., pp. 405 — '195, (imprimis Append. Hcringcv, pp.496 — 520, ciijus THE TRANSLATORS PREFACE. XV the Hermeneutics of Dr. Seller, with the additions of Professor Heringa (with which I have enriched the present edition) have left " scarcely any thing further to be desired " in one of the most important departments of theology. While I cannot add to the value of these com- mendations, such authority may have the effect of consoling me in the event of my receiving any censure from my countrymen for giving currency to a work, which, notwithstanding its merits, has not a few passages of such a nature as to have required the strictures which the reader will observe it has received from its revered anno- tator, and to which my limits alone have prevented me from adding many others : for it cannot be denied that this work is liable to its share of the mild censure which the Author's writings in general have also received from the judicious writer whom I have already quoted ; '* Occasionally we meet with expressions which may appear not perfectly in ac- cordance with the propriety of some evangelical doctrines ; but if the tendency of the whole be considered, and a close attention be paid to the apparently designed meaning of particular phrases, I think that the objection will be at least much diminished."* With this caution, I hope that the opera vix quicquam, quod ad N. T. libros, ainplius desiderandum reliquit." Encyclopaedia Theol. p. 221. * Dr. Pye Smith's Scripture Testimony, Vol. III. p. 415. c 2 XVI THE TRANSLATORS PREFACE. work may be safely entrusted to the perusal of the advanced and well prepared student, as well as the judicious portion of the rehgious and thinking public, into whose hands I commit it, not indeed without diffidence, but with the earnest hope that it may lead to an increasing study and sound un- derstanding of the sacred oracles, and tend to pro- mote the glory of God, and the edification of His church. Although I have chiefly at heart, in the present pubhcation, the instruction of the theological stu- dents of that pure and apostolic branch of the Catholic Church of Christ, of which I am an humble minister, I do not think there is an ex- pression used by the amiable Author, nor, I trust, by myself, which can operate against its being equally acceptable to the Professor, or the Student, of any denomination of Christians ; and I believe I may appeal with safety to the work itself to prove that those from whom I conscientiously differ in opinion, would find in me not only a fair and can- did opponent where I thought them in error, but their first and most zealous defender where I had reason to believe them wronged. In the form of the work, 1 have generally, but not invariably, followed Professor Heringa's ar- rangement of the Chapters and Sections, which slightly differ from those of the original. Any additions of my own to the text are inclosed in THE TRANSLATORS PREFACE. XVll brackets, and I have distinguished Dr. Heringa's notes and additions from mine by affixing to the former his name or initial, and to the latter the word Translator, or Tr. The shorter notes will be found at the foot of the page, but where the remarks have extended to any considerable length, I have for greater convenience placed them at the end of the chapter or section to which they be- longed. I have prefixed a brief Memoir of the Author, and have added an Appendix, in which I have en- deavoured to supply the most recent information on the controverted passage in 1 John v. To Dr. Pye Smith, Mr. Hartwell Home, and all others who have encouraged or assisted me in my present undertaking, I take this opportunity of returning my grateful acknowledgments, and at the same time of observing, that I alone am responsible for the character of the work, the selection of which, whether good or evil, is entirely my own. WILLIAM WRIGHT. London, January 1, 1835. MEMOIR OF SEILER. George Frederick Seiler* was one of those benefactors to humanity, whose whole lives have been a continued course of exertions to do good. He was born near Baireuth, and from an original condition of depression and difficulty, he rose, by the force of character and talents, to distinguished emi- nence as a writer for all ranks of society ; as an ardent pro- moter of all liberal knowledge ; as a divine, a preacher, and a university professor. His writings were exceedingly numerous ; but all had the great end in view of promoting useful literature in combination with piety. He wrote for infants and school-boys, as well as for students in the universities, for professed theolo- gians, for men of science, and for persons of rank. His earliest publication was a poem, intended, like the De Ratione Studii of Fortius Ringelbergius, to inspire young persons, such as he then was, with the unquenchable ardour for literary and scientific improvement. He became more extensively known by a trans- lation of Robertson's History of Scotland, which he enriched with valuable Notes. The rest of his publications were chiefly theological ; and they are distinguished by their candid and luminous method of examining evidence and discussing difficul- ties, by their spirit of practical piety, and by their tendency to show the harmony which ever subsists between the highest exer- tions of reason in all the improvements of science and literature, and the pure religion of the Bible. In 1770, Dr. Seiler was appointed Ordinary Professor of Divinity at Erlangen ; in 1772, Preacher to the University ; and in 1778, Minister of the principal Church, and Superintendent of the district or diocese, according to the constitution of the Lutheran Church. He died May 13, 1807, aged 74. * For this notice of Dr. Seiler, I am principally indebted to Dr. Pyc Smith's Scripture Testimony, and to that gentleman's private communications, of all which he has kindly permitted me to make such use as I thought proper. I regret that my present limits have prevented me from placing them more fully before the reader. MEMOIR OF SEILER. XIX The following are the latest editions of some of his principal works, of which the greater number are written in German : — Ad morum eorumdemque doctrinae historiam animadversiones Theologicas. Erlangen, 1771. 4to. An Apology for Chris- tianity. Ditto, 1779. 8vo. Attempt at a Christian Evangelical Liturgy. Ditto, 1782. 1st. Appendix — Prayers for Sundays and Feast Days. Ditto, 1783. 2d. Ditto — Considerations on the History of the Passion. Ditto, 1785. A general collection of the liturgical formularies of the Lutheran Church. Ditto, 1797—1804. 3 vols. 4to. Liturgical Magazine. 1784 — 1786. 2 vols. 8vo. Ditto. Thoughts on Prayer and Communion for true practical Christians. Ditto, 1827. The same adapted to [Roman] Catholics. By M. Friederich. Ditto, 1827. The bib- lical history of the Old and New Testament, with short explana- tory thoughts and prayers. Ditto, 1828. 2 vols. Useful reflections on religion, morals, and the improvement of the human race. Ditto, 1776 — 1800. Theologico-critical reflec- tions— a Supplement to the former. The Bible, with explanatory Notes, and 20 copper-plate engravings. Ditto, 1782. A Prac- tical and Devotional Exposition of the Bible [das grossere biblische Erbauungsbuch.] 17 vols. gr. 8vo. (Price 12 Rix-dollars — 18 groschen. Sold at 18 groschen. See pp. 576, 586.) Ditto, 1816. The same, enlarged. 17 vols. 8vo. An Abridgment of the same. 1816. 2 vols. 8vo. The same, for [Roman] Catholics. Is the pardon of sin possible ? Is it attainable from the grace of God through Christ. Ditto, 1798. The Spirit and Power of the Bible. Ditto, 1800. 2 vols. 8vo. Rational Belief in the truth of Christianity, established on the Grounds of History and Moral Argument. Ditto, 1814. Translation of Isaiah, with Notes. Ditto, 1783. Brief View of Religion, according to Reason and the Bible. Ditto, 1799. A general hymn book. 1812. The Ethics of Reason and the Bible. 1799. 8vo. Opuscula Theo- logica. Ditto, 1793. Translation of the Psalms, with Notes. 1788. Svo. The Religion of Reason and the Bible. 1798. 8vo. The Old Testament, adapted to the use of Schools. 1815. 3 vols. New Testament, ditto. 1800—1806. 3 vols. Svo. On the nature, design, and effects of the miracles of Jesus and the Apostles, with Notes by J. G. Rosenmiiller. 1810. On Divine Revelations. 1796-7. 2 vols. 8vo. Translation of the New Testament, with explanations of obscure and difficult passages. 1820. 2 vols. XX MEMOIR OF SEILER. 8vo. On Prophecy and its fulfilment. 1814. Svo. The doc- trine of the religion and happiness derived from the Bible. 1828. The same, for [Roman] Catholics, Ad morum eorumque doc- trinam historicam animadversiones theolog. 1771. 8vo. Initia doctrinae Christ, lat. redd. A. S. Gessner. 1780. Theses Theo- logise dogmaticse. 1820. Theologia dogmatico-polemica. 1820. System of evangelic faith and morals. 1829. Conversations between a Father and Son on the first principles of the Christian religion. 1823. Short Tabular View of the History of the New Testament Church. 1803. fol. History of the Christian Religion, with maps and plates. 1820. 8vo. On the Atonement ; or the Expiatory Death of Jesus. 1782. 2 vols. Principles for the formation of future teachers of the people and of youth. 1786. On the relation of Idealism to Religion. 1799. 8vo. The Spirit and Sentiments of rational Christianity. 1792. 2 vols. Sermons for Confirmation in faith and holiness. Baireuth, 1798. 3 vols. 8vo. A Comprehensive View of Christianity. Marburg, 1781. The Essentials of Christianity. Ditto, 1783. 8vo. The age of the harmony of Reason and the religion of the Bible. Leipz. 1802. 8vo. Catechetical Method-Book. 1795. 8vo. On the Deity of Christ.* Leipzig, 1775. 8vo. Short Description of all sorts of Arts and Manufactures. 1803. 8vo. Modern Pri- mer and Reading Book, with the first Rudiments of Human Knowledge. 1812. 8vo. On Early Religious Instruction ; addressed to Parents and Teachers. 1805. 8vo. A Hornbook for Children. 1823. Brief History of the Church and the Refor- mation. 1818. 8vo. Biblical History of the Israelites. 1827. The Geography of Palestine. Ditto. 1827. Svo. The Life and Doctrine of Jesus, according to the four Evangelists. Ditto. Short Historical Catechism. Ditto. Leipzig, 1823. Guide for the in- struction of Catechumens. Ditto. 1818. The shorter Catechism. Ditto. 1812. Dialogues concerning God and Jesus. A Collection of Proverbs. Ditto. 181 G. System of Evangelic Faith and Morals. Ditto. 1808. Instructions in Morals and Rules of Prudence for Youth of both Sexes. Last Ed. 1826. Svo. Dissertationes de tempore et ordine quibus tria Evangelia priora canonica scripta * See a copious extract from this work translated in Dr. Pye Smith's Scripture Testimony, Vol. III. pp. 417 — 443. MEMOIR OF SEILER. XXI sunt. Erlangen, 1805-6. 4to * Biblical Hermeneutics. Ditto, 1800. 8vo. Some expressions contained in the present work relating to the Person of Christ, and which seemed to me easily liable to mis- construction, have made me anxious to ascertain Dr. Seiler's real views on this fundamental doctrine of our religion. It is evident from the present volume that the Author held the catholic doctrine respecting the proper Deity of our Lord ; and when he speaks of the degree and extent of the revelations which Jesus had received from the Deity, as well as of his office and commis- sion, it is therefore evident that he refers to our Lord in his human nature, and to the preternatural communications made to his human mind, which Dr. Seiler observes that Jesus faithfully de- livered, exactly as they were made known to himself. (See Obs. p. 269, &c.). In Dr. Seiler's work on the Deity of Christ, he maintains the great doctrine whole and undefiled, and defends it, seriatim, not only against Arians and Socinians, but also against those who maintain that the Sonship of the Saviour is merely an appellation of him as the Mediator. His work, De Difficultatibus Arianismi, which was published in 1776, is di- rected against the peculiar views of Dr. Samuel Clarke. It is but fair, however, to observe, that he is stated by Bretschneider,-]- Dr. Hahn,;}; and after them by Mr. Leonard Woods,§ the pious and erudite translator of Knapp's Lectures on Theology, to have favoured the views of the Sabellians 1 1 or Modalists, in a work * Seiler's hypothesis is that Mark translated into Greek and enlarged the Syro-Chaldaic Gospel of Matthew ; that this Syro- Chaldaic Gospel, enlarged in many places, either by Matthew himself, or by other men worthy of credit, was subsequently translated into Greek either by Matthew himself, or some other person, and that the Greek translator consulted the Gospel of Mark. See pp. 486, 604, infra. f Handbuch, 2d ed. Vol. I. pp. 566, 567. Leipz. 1825. 8vo. J Lehrbuch, § 57. Anm. 3, a, and § 58. Anm. 2. f. Leipzig, 1828. 8vo. § Vol. I. p. 320, 321. II Dr. Knapp had observed that " among the Arminians, and even among the Puritans of England, there had been always many who were inclined towards Sabellianism," an error which, XXU MEMOIR OF SEILER. published by him in 1765, containing Considerations on a publi- cation of the same year by G. F. Meier, who agreed in the views of those who substitute for the Persons of the Deity three distinct Powers or Attributes. This work of Dr, Seiler's I am not acquainted with, but I have seen enough of the work on the Deity of Christ (which is the first on Dr. Knapp's list of books on this subject,) to satisfy me that at the period of its publi- cation, he was " strictly and judiciously orthodox."* In this work he expressly rejects the hypothesis of Sabellius, and in a communication which I have just received from Dr. Pye Smith, that gentleman, in reference to Dr. Knapp's recommendation of Dr. Seiler's work on the Deity of Christ, and his silence on this particular question, observes, " Now Knapp was a man very much of the serious, practical, biblical spirit of Seller, and if the latter had belonged to the Modalist class, he was extremely likely to have known, and to have mentioned it." The great length to which the ensuing work extends, compels me to come to a close ; I shall therefore only observe that some of Dr. Seiler's writings for the instruction of youth went to fourteen, and even seventeen editions, and that the Roman Catholic Bishop of Wiirzburg directed them to be used in his diocese. "I" his translator adds, " has always proved more seductive than any other to mystics and pietists, and persons who have mingled feeling and imagination with philosophical investigation." Ypey, the ecclesiastical historian, classes Dr. Doddridge among those inclined towards Sabellianism. * See Ueber die Gottheit Christi, pp. 9,), 110, 118, 119 ; and the extract in Dr. Smith's Scripture Testimony, Vol. III. p. 309. 2d ed. Programma de diflicultatibus Arianismi subtilioris, im- primis Clarkiani. Erlang. 1776. 4to ; and Considerations on Meiers new philosophical view of the doctrine of the Trinity, or a solution of the question — Are the three persons in the Godhead Substances or Accidents, or neither? Bresl. 1765. 8vo. By G. F. Seller. ■\ Conversations lexicon, last cd. Leipzig, 1830. DR HERINGA'S PREFACE DUTCH TRANSLATION. The venerable Dr. Seiler has been long and de- servedly classed among those divines and commen- tators, who still plead in Germany for the pure doctrines of the Gospel. As many of the other writings, Latin as well as German, of this learned and industrious theologian, have been favourably received in Holland, the work, of which a transla- tion is now presented, has equally commended itself to the regard of many of the most distinguished of our countrymen. This work was first published at Erlangen in the year 1800, with the following title : " BibHsche Hermeneutik, oder Grunsatze und Regeln zur Erkiarung der heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments." It was this high character which induced the Publisher, Mr. Honkoop, to announce a Dutch translation more than two years since. But before he was able to procure a translator, he happened to intro- duce the subject to me in the course of conver- sation. I then gave him to understand that I also XXIV DR. HERINGA S PREFACE. highly approved of Seiler's Hermeneutics, which I considered the best work extant on the subject ; but that it was a work, at the same time, which required notes of a fundamental character, and which appeared to me to be necessary in a Dutch edition. I had a view to those passages, especially, (of which I pointed out some which I immediately recollected,) wherein the Author appeared to me to incline to, or make too many concessions in favour of, those methods of interpreting the Holy Scriptures, which are now, alas! so prevalent in Germany, and against which he has himself not only entered his protest in his former writings, but given most appropriate warnings in some passages of the present work. This conversation subse- quently led to kind and repeated solicitations on the part of my friend, Mr. Honkoop, urging me to undertake the translation, and the supplying of the notes which the work required. This was the occasion of the present work. In regard to my own notes and additions, which are enclosed in brackets, either in the text or at the foot of the page, I shall only premise one or two observations. As my principal object was to put the Dutch reader on his guard against the dangerous errors so prevalent in Germany, I have in my notes confined myself to such pas- sages as appeared to me to have this dangerous tendency, without always expressing my own opinions, when they happen to differ from those of the writer in matters of less moment. However, DR. HERINGA S PREFACE. XXV I have thought it necessary to make some supple- mental additions at the end of the volume. I have especially taken pains to point out the writers with whose works I was acquainted, whom I con- sidered worthy the attention of those who wish to pursue their studies upon any of the subjects referred to. I would willingly have done more, but the Publisher's interest required that the work should not continue longer in hand. I now commit it, in its present state, to the Dutch reader. Happy shall I be, if any of our learned countrymen present us with a Manual requiring fewer notes than that of Seiler ; in the mean time it is my wish that the use of this book may answer the laudable design of the Author. May the Almighty bless his labours, as well as my efforts to promote the knowledge and belief of the contents of that Book, which, however misunderstood in our days by some, we still continue to reverence as surpass- ing all others, as alone Divine. J. HERINGA, Eliza's Son. Ulrechf, nthDrccmher, 1804. ERRATA. Page 17. line 7. n. /«)• Worterbueh re^rf Wbrteibuch. 2. from bottom, Jor AI{;enieine read AUgemeine. 18. ... 9. for Pfeif'er read Pfeitier. 28. for Professor Stewart read Professor Stuart. 20. ... 4. from bottom, /or Also (Torf See also. 33. ... 11, &c. /or universal and particular rcarf general and special. 73. ... 21. /or Stewart's rcarf Stuart's. S.'). ... 2. /or Corpus, meum rt'0(/ Corpus meum. 91. ... 6. Obs. /or Hetzel rcorf Hezel. 137. ... 3. /or Naach read Nacii. 141. ... 5 from bottom, Jor Gescbicbitc read Gescbichte. 32(). ... 5. from bottom, for in read on. 393. ... 19. /or Palestine rcivrf Palestinian. 394. note, for tenth read sixtb, and refer to the note, p. (i.jl. 407. ... 2. from bottom, for Wathiii read Mattliiii, or Mattbaei. 426. ... 8. for exalted read glorified. 47G. last line, n. add Meringa. 527. line 15. for du Romeinem read do Romeinen. 557. ... fi. from bottom, n. for genera rend general. 558. ... 25. for Kerchengescliicbte read Kirchengescliichte. 570 ... 10. for yur read zur. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. PART I. CONTAINING PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL RULES FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT. THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE, CONTAINING A BRIEF HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. Independently of all consideration of its religious advantages, no book has conduced more than the Bible to the high cultivation and moral advance- ment of the human mind. The labour bestowed by so many of the learned upon the just inter- pretation of this inestimable book is of itself an attestation of its worth, and gives countenance to the supposition that Divine Providence has ap- pointed it for the attainment of great designs. So long as the professors of that religion, whose doctrine and morals are contained in the Bible, apply themselves, as they have hitherto done, to explain its contents, the learning of Christians will be eminently conspicuous. Nay, a well- grounded system of Biblical Interpretation pre- supposes no shght degree of knowledge, and almost compels the instructors of the rising clergy to apply themselves closely to literary pursuits. I AUTHORS PREFACE. in order to acquire a knowledge of tlie ancient oriental languages, — of the most celebrated works of the Greeks and Romans, — of ancient history, — and of many sciences for which the constant exercise of the power of thinking is required. It cannot, indeed, be denied that the interpreters of Holy Scripture, both Jews and Christians, have often swerved from the truth, and introduced error, superstition, and prejudice, instead of a sound knowledge of religion and ethics. But it was pre- cisely the want of a well-regulated and systematic Scheme of Interpretation which produced such dis- orders of a fanatical imagination, or, to say the least, such palpable aberrations of the understand- ing. As even with the possession of much know- ledge, both philological and philosophical, numerous and long-continued errors have been mixed up with the important work of Biblical Interpretation, it is evident that a System of Interpretation, founded on sound principles of reason — on philology, grammar, and history, is in the highest degree necessary for future teachers of religion. I trust, then, that a brief sketch of the history of Biblical Interpretation, however imperfect, will have the effect of exciting many divines and theological students to devote all the powers of their mind to acquire such a knowledge of languages, of philo- sophy, and history, as will prepare them to expound the most important of books agreeably to sound and judicious rules. In order to excite and strengthen such aspirations after truth, I shall here. HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 3 by way of Preface, give a brief history of Her- meneutics. But, as the history of the actual progress of Bibhcal Interpretation cannot be well separated from the history of its Science, the object will be best attained by combining a brief sketch of both. Students in theology can, by means of their tutors, or from the books referred to in the sequel, acquire more extensive information. This history may be divided into three periods : — first, from the time of Christ to the fourth century ; second, from the fifth century to the Reformation ; third, from the latter period to our own times. FIRST PERIOD. FROM CHRIST TO THE FOURTH CENTURY. 1. It will be shown in the sequel, § 227, how the Jewish teachers treated the Scriptures of the Old Testament, Their perverted and singular modes of interpretation will be best learned partly from the Chaldee Targums and from the Talmud, and also in part from the later Rabbinical writings. 2. How Jesus in some measure adapted himself to their modes, but at the same time opposed their errors, will be shown in the sequel, § 263, and the following paragraphs. He revealed the true sense of the ancient prophets, and restored the genuine interpretation of the law. 3. The Apostles adhered in the main to the interpretation which they learned from Jesus, B 2 4 author's preface. and had further discovered through their own reflection, under the guidance of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. ii. 9—14; 1 Pet. i. 11, 12; 2 Pet. i. 19.) 4. The successors of the apostles were partly Jewish, partly Gentile, Christians. (1.) The learned converts from Judaism to the acknowledgment of Jesus as the Christ, did not .adhere to the simple method of interpretation made use of by Jesus and the Apostles ; they introduced much that was irrelevant into Christianity from Jewish literature, and they were particularly de- voted to the practice of allegorizing, of which we have an example in the Shepherd of Hermas. (2.) Those Christians who had formerly been Gentile teachers brought with them the mode of interpretation which was made use of by the com- mentators on the Greek poets, particularly Homer. The most ancient of the Fathers were in the habit of straining and torturing the words of Holy Scripture, so as to make them available for their immediate object, although they contained nothing of that meaning which they wished to extract by their recondite and far-fetched applications. This was called the interpretation /car' olkovo^iuw, [or the economical method of interpretation.] Tatian and Athenagoras afford many specimens of it. The practice of allegonzing was introduced at a very early period into Alexandria. Clement of Alex- andria was somewhat moderate in its use, but Origen quite extravagant. The labour, notwith- HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. O standing, which this great man devoted to the study of the Bible has been of the highest value, both with respect to sacred criticism in general, and to the discovery of the literal sense of Scrip- ture in particular. Next to Origen, Chrysostom has best unfolded the literal sense, and has, besides, avoided the forced and recondite allegory of Origen. Jerome, a close follower of Origen, whom he kept perpetually in view, is unquestionably next to him the most skilful interpreter, as he has proved both by his own Bibhcal works, and by his improve- ment and revision of the Vulgate. This improved Vulgate was the foundation of Scriptural Inter- pretation throughout the whole Western Church. By the aid of this Version it was that Luther was enabled so admirably to translate the Old and New Testament from the original text, without the pos- session of such philological knowledge as would have otherwise been required for so difficult a task. With the exception of Ephrem the Syrian, the Eastern Church, at this period, produced no good commentator on the Scriptures whose writings have survived. SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE FIFTH CENTURY TO THE REFORMATION. 1. In the Greek church, Theodoret made a good collection of Scriptural comments, chiefly from the writings of Chrysostom. He has also de- rived from Origen much that is useful, while, like 6 author's preface. Chrysostom, he avoided that Father's allegorical method of interpreting. Theophylact, Euthymius Zigabenus, and QEcumenius laboured in the same department ; they made compilations from the old Greek Fathers, on which account their com- ments are not devoid of value. Shorter collections were made by Olympiodorus in the seventh cen- tury, by Procopius of Gaza in the sixth, and by Nicetas (Serronius) at Constantinople in the eleventh. Such extracts from the old commentators were called cTriro^tai ep/nTjvHMv, and after the twelfth century, Catenae Patrum. 2. In the Latin church Augustine was the precursor in the exposition of the Scriptures, as well as in theology in general. For, although his o-cquaintance with the original languages was ex- tremely defective, he was a man of uncommon genius, and his deep knowledge of human nature frequently supplied the want of learning. The Venerable Bede has, in his ' Commentarii in Libros Sacros,' made compilations from Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and other Fathers of the Latin church. Of any peculiar instructions in aid of the inter- pretation of the Holy Scriptures, nothing solid or useful is to be found in either of these periods. Nay, what Tichonius has written in the fourth century, Hadrian in the fifth, and Cassiodorus in the sixth, scarcely deserve to be named, except as matter of history. Although Augustine has, in the third book of his ' Christian Doctrine,' shown the HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 7 teachers of Christianity how to make a proper use of Holy Scripture in popular instruction, we find nowhere in his writings any sound rules for the discovery of the historico-grammatical sense. So much time was taken up in the Greek and Latin churches in refuting the Nestorians, Eutychians, and other heretics (so called), that the critical study of the Holy Scriptures was neglected. Few, if any, new investigations were attempted. Men were content to refute their adversary by the most forced interpretations of some passage in the Scriptures ; if any of their interpretations had the semblance of an authority in its favour, and was but supported by tradition, it carried the day. During the time of the Schoolmen there were few Latin divines who were even moderately acquainted with Greek, to say nothing of Hebrew. When an error had crept into the Vulgate, which was every day becoming more and more corrupted, all who used this version were led to adopt the same error. THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME. The light of Greek and Latin literature burst upon Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies. The desire of acquiring a knowledge of the ancient languages became general. Need I name Ficini, Reuchhn, Erasmus? — or Luther, who, by b AUTHORS PREFACE. his translation of the Bible, contributed so much to a better mode of scriptural interpretation ? By what a smooth and easy path did Melanchthon lead his hearers to the interpretation of the New Testament, in his explanation of the old profane writers ! Matthew Flacius, however, was the first to whom we are indebted for the idea of a peculiar system of interpretation. His ' Clavis Scripturas Sacrse' is still, in many respects, a useful book. What the Ancient Fathers had said on the inter- pretation of Scripture, Flacius abridged, examined the principal parts of their comments, pointed out the way to the investigation of the true sense, and thereby rendered great service to the clergy. It is to be lamented that the theologians and commentators who succeeded him did not follow in the steps of their able precursor. Theological disputes ensued ; the Lutheran doc- trines were reduced to a system, which, con- trary to the design of the founders, — at least of a Chemnitz, was abused so as to close the door against new investigations. Men of the greatest talents were continually dividing, and joining the teachers of erroneous doctrines, as in the fifth and sixth centuries. Subsequently the disputes between the Roman Catholics and the Lutherans, after the rise of the order of Jesuits, gained the ascendency. The members of this order applied themselves but little to the study of Exegesis, with the solitary exception of John Maldonado, in the middle of the seventeenth century, who compiled commentaries HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 9 on the greater part of the Holy Scriptures from the more ancient Expositors. Even the Protest- ants began to slacken in their scriptural studies ; indeed there were at that time too few helps to a better method of interpretation. These were first provided for them in other countries of Europe. Among the most important and essential were the Polyglots. Cardinal Ximenes conceived the first plan of a work of this kind, and completed it at a muni- ficent expense. Benedict Arias Montanus, Xantes Pagnini, G. Michael Le Jay, and his learned coad- jutors, have left an everlasting memorial of them- selves through their praiseworthy industry ; and have thereby conduced to give the Bible a celebrity above all other books. The Germans made too late a use of these important works ; nevertheless, by their industry in the seventeenth century, they overcame many diflficulties which lay in the way of a better interpretation of the Scriptures. One of the most renowned men of this period was Solomon Glass : his ' Philologia Sacra,' which first came out in 1623, was for more than a century a guide to the interpreters of the Bible. The other peculiar Systems, which were written in and after that time, to about the year 1720, have now lost all their usefulness, although they were the best which then existed for the interpretation of the Bible. The names of all these writers will be found in J. G. Walch's ' Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta,' Vol. IV. p. 209 and the following pages. I shall now mention the names only of J. Gerard, 10 author's preface. J. Oleavius, J. C, Dannhauer, and superior to these, Augustus PfeifFer, who introduced a more improved method in his * Hermeneutica/ and especially in his 'Critica Sacra;' as did J. Benj. Carpzov, — and also Val. Er. Loescher, both in his work, ' De Causis Linguae Hebr.,' and in his ' Breviarium Theologiae Exegeticae.' The writings of the last named individual were directed against the school of Halle, or rather that of Frank ; these con- troversies were conducted indeed with a little too much asperity, for Frank and Lang had excited hundreds of young men, in Halle and elsewhere, to devote themselves to the study of the Bible, and to take philosophy less as their guide than was then usual in such labours, which should derive their light from history and philology. It cannot be denied that Franke and his followers often endeavoured to ehcit more from the words of the Bible, and especially the New Testament, than they actually contained ; but this practice did not long continue. The same school produced a Rambach, a disciple of Buddeus. The Lectures which came out after his death on his * Exercitationes Hermeneuticas' exhibit an original thinker, who had firmly determined to shake off the trammels of the then prevaiUng prejudices in regard to the interpretation of the Scriptures. Recken- berg, in his ' Tractatus de Studio sacras Hermeneu- ticae,' made good use of the groundwork laid by Rambach; and in 1736, in his 'Nexus Canonum Exegeticorum Naturalis, &c.' brought to light the merits of this divine in the art of interpretation. HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 11 Sigismund James Baumgarten has, in his * Unter- richt von Auslegung der Heih'ge Schrift,' 1742, pubhshed systematic rules for the art of interpre- tation, which may be seen in the ' Ausfuhrhchen Vortrag uber die BibHsche Hermeneutik/ pubhshed by Bertram in 1769. While these things were doing in Germany, another mode of interpretation was invented in Holland. John Koch (Cocceius) had, with all his learning, most far-fetched notions as to the true manner of expounding the Scriptures. He and his coadjutors fell into the mystical and alle- gorical method of interpretation, and his system of Covenant-theology* misled him to the adop- tion of many false notions : notwithstanding this, his ' Lexicon et Comment. Sermonis Hebraici' was the best dictionary of the time. A more judicious course was pursued by Vitringa, as is shown in his ample Commentary on Isaiah. But the leader and guide of commentators in every branch of sacred criticism, and principally that of the New Testament, was the celebrated Hugh de Groot (Grotius), who shone above all the interpreters of * The Cocceians imagined that they could not give a more sublime and engaging aspect to the christian religion than by representing it under the garb and analogy of a covenant entered into between God and men. See Mosheim's Eecl. Hist. Vol. III. pp. 456 and 491. Translated by James Murdock, D.D., 1832. Their straining of this scriptural metaphor led them into many chimerical conceits. Another remarkable error of the Cocceians, consisted in their system of interpretation, built on a plurality of signification in words, or a manifold interpretation of Scripture. — Translator. 12 AUTHORS PREFACE. his day, in knowledge of the ancient languages, good taste in the art of interpretation, an uncommon genius, and a noble gift of elucidating the obscure and penetrating into the sense of the Holy Scriptures. The theory of Scriptural Interpretation was attended to by Rivet in Holland, and by John Alphonsus Turretin in Switzerland. The work of the last writer, * De Sacr^ Scripturae In- terpretandge Methodo,' which was first published in 1 728, was so highly esteemed by Teller, that he published a new edition of it with additions. New and important helps to the interpretation of the Old Testament were provided by one of the greatest of oriental scholars, Samuel Bochart, in 1663, in his ' Hierozoicon,' and his 'Geographia Sa- cra.' A still clearer light was thrown on its interpre- tation in Holland, after the commencement of the eighteenth century : Albert Schultens, the founder of a new and better mode of treating the Holy Scrip- tures, in his ' Origines Hebraga3,' 1723, examined the books of the Old Testament from a new point of view, and laid the foundation for their better inter- pretation, chiefly from the Arabic and other Semitic dialects. His * Institutiones ad Fundamenta Linguas HebraiccE,' followed in 1737. Schroeder continued with the happiest results the work begun by Schultens. The immortal John David Michaelis, with his successors in Germany, not only made use of the new discoveries and treasures of oriental literature, which have reached us from Holland, — i HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 13 as well as from England, France, and Italy, through the labours of a Kennicott, a Houbigant, and a De Rossi, — but by new investigations con- tinued them with as much acuteness as industry. How much have the ' Orientalische Bibliothek' of Michaelis, the excellent treatises of an Eichhorn and his coadjutors, in the ' Repertorium fiir Biblische iind Morgenlandsche Litteratur,' and in the ' Al- gemeinen Bibliothek der Bibhschen Litteratur,' with the writings of a Doederlein, a Dathe, a Storr, a Schnurrer, a Paulus, a Bauer, an E. F. K. Rosenmiiller, and others, contributed to a more just and systematic explanation of the Old Tes- tament ! Glass has been as it were new created, and advantageously re-modelled by Dathe and Bauer. We have, within the last thirty years, obtained new Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee grammars ; many excellent philological tracts, re- lating to the dialects and their use ; the LXX, and its value and use in the explanation of the Old Testament, — such as those of Fischer and others ; and how industrious have been our modern oriental scholars in publishing new, and, in some respects, improved editions of the works of the older ones, such as Bochart, Cocceius, and Walton ! In regard to the interpretation of the New Tes- tament, the Germans have attained the highest eminence without much foreign aid, except that derived from polyglots and various readings. John Solomon Semler led the way, in his ' Vor- bereitung zur Theologische Hermeneutik,' 1 vol. 14 author's preface. Halle, 1760, of which three other volumes followed to 1767 : — he had strengthened his natural genius by critical inquiries, and by investigating the history of the text of the Bible, in the va- luable works of Richard Simon, J. Clericus, and J. Morinus ; and being a man of strong mind, and resolute and independent spirit, he hazarded many sentiments which none, before his time, had ven- tured to express. In 1761 appeared the ' Institutio Interpretis N. T.' of the immortal Ernesti. Both these learned men devoted all their exertions to bring into vogue the grammatical and historical mode of interpretation. Mill, Bengel, and Wetstein had already published their critical works ; and Semler selected the most useful in order to commu- nicate them to other theologians, in two treatises, viz. ' J. J. Wetstenii Libelli ad Crisin atque Inter- pretationem N. T. pertinentes,' &c. 1766; and * Apparatus ad liberalem N. T.' as well as 'Ad V. T. Interpretationem,' Halle, 1767 and 1773. To this succeeded his ' Neuer Versuch zur gemein- niizigen Auslegung des N. T.' 1786 ; and ' Zur beforderung der Kirchlichen Hermeneutik,' 1788. In the mean time Ernesti laboured in his ' Theo- logische Bibliothek' at every opportunity, to promote improvements in the true mode of interpretation. He was the precursor of one of whom Germany may boast, who has never been equalled in the criticism of the New Testament, — the immortal Griesbach ; — and for the interpretation of Scripture she has produced a Noesselt, a Doeder- HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 15 lein, a Knapp, a Dathe, a Storr, a Morus, a John George RosenmUller, a Schleusner, and many others. The Introductions to the Scriptures of the New Testament by Michaehs (with the elucidations of Herbert Marsh), and by Haenlein, have contributed still further to promote systematic Interpretations. It is needless to mention what light has been thrown on the just interpretation of many passages by the WUrterbuch (Dictionary) of Teller. The Translation of the New Testament, with the notes of Michaelis, together with some other good versions of the whole New Testament, as well as of separate portions, have promoted the just ex- pression of the Greek original in our vernacular tongue [German]. The study of the art of interpretation itself has gradually assumed a new form. To this Eichhorn has contributed not a little in his works already referred to, particularly by two pieces in the ' Algem. BibHoth. der Bibhschen Litteratur,' B. IV. st. 2 ; and B. VI. St. 1. Dr. Ammon has produced a new edition of Ernesti, with valuable additions.* The Lectures of the immortal Morus on the same work * I do not deny that the additions of Ammon are now and then valuable ; but they are of much less utility in promoting the use of Ernesti s work than might have been expected from a new ed,tor._ Many of the notes, moreover, are of little importance- some irrelevant; others abound with palpable errors. The reader, m order to observe this, has only to refer to the Prole- gomena, § 3, 6, 8, 12. Parti. Sect. I. cap. I. S o 3 ^ , 1 cap. 11. § 12. Sect. 11. cap. V. § 3. Part III. c;p.'i;§ 6* -P- 11. § 1, 2. cap. III. § 4. cap. IV. § G. cap. V. § 3 16 AUTHORS PREFACE. were continued by Professor Eichstadt, and adapted to our times by valuable augmentations. But Doctor Plank, in his ' Einleitung in die Theo- logischen Wissenschaften/ (Introduction to Theo- logical Sciences,) Vol. II. Part iii. sect. 1, has laid down such just principles of Hermeneutics, and so applicable to these times, that they may with safety be recommended to future Interpreters. G. W. Meyer, of Gottingen, a genuine pupil of Eichhorn, has published the first volume of a * Hermeneutik des A. T.' which is very copious, and at the same time eminently solid. [The second volume was published at Lubeck, in 1800. — H.] The pleasure which I feel at the increasing fame of Germany, and the pleasing expectations of the great benefits to be derived from the works of so many learned men, in the confirmation of truth, have encouraged me to be more diffuse than I had at first proposed.* May these expectations not be frustrated ! and may the rash and licentious cap. VI. § 18. cap. IX. § 31, 45, 47, 50. cap. X. § 21, 22.— Heringa. The reader may consult the English translation of Amnion's edition of Ernesti in the Biblical Cabinet, where are some excellent additional remarks by the Translator ; who, however, does not seem in every instance to be perfectly acquainted with Ammon's views, owing to the concise way in which that writer expresses himself, and his not giving examples in proof of his assertions. — Translator. * This may be pardoned to the learned German ; but I cannot help thinking the praise rather too unlimited. Since the death of Ernesti, the inconsiderate zeal of numbers who imdertook the reading and investigation of Scripture, with the so called HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION. 17 attempts at hazardous interpretations, and the sub- tilty of a (so called) higher criticism, which cuts into higher criticism, — many rash hypotheses, — and systems of the ' Critical Philosophy' [Kant's], — this same Germany, which bore such excellent fruits, produced also abundance of weeds. The ' Worterbuch ' of Teller has no doubt its merits, but it has also great defects ; and I would advise no young man to attempt to make use ofit unless he compares it with Lang's work, ' Zur beforderung des niitzlichen gebrauches des Tellerischen Worterbuch s [For promoting the profitable use of Teller's Dictionar}']. The ' Library,'* too, of Eichhom, now closed, — (supplanted, it seems, by the vastly inferior ' Journal' of Gabler,) — furnishes too many proofs of that laxity and licentiousness in the treatment of the Holy Scriptures which our author proceeds with so much justice to lament. — Heringa. In order to form a just estimate of the writings of Semler, Eichhom, and other modern divines, so deservedly commended by Seller, it should be observed, that while it is impossible to appreciate too highly many of their labours in the general criticism and interpretation of the Scriptures, several of their writings have tended, in no slight degree, to undermine the Divine authority of the sacred records. They have been herein opposed, in Germany and Holland, by some of the ablest divines in those countries. In order to acquire full information on this subject, I would recommend the perusal of an inte- resting treatise by Heringa, published in the Dutch language, among the tracts of the Hague Society for the Vindication of the Christian Religion, entitled ' Yertoog over het recht gebruik en hedendaagsch misbniik der Kritiek in de behandeling der heilige Schriften ' (Essay on the L^se and modem Abuse of Criticism in the treatment of the Holy Scriptures), Amsterdam, 1793, in which the works of these and other celebrated German divines are carefully examined, their excellences duly appreciated, and the student put on his guard against their errors and abuses. See also Ypey's excellent ' Ecclesiastical History of the Eighteenth Century,' in the same language, 12 vols. 8vo. — Translator. * The ' Algemeine Bibliothek der Biblische Litteratur,' or L^niver&al Library of Biblical Literature. — Tramslaxor. C 18 author's preface. the very life blood of Christianity, not have the effect of introducing a scepticism into the investi- gation of Scripture more dangerous than the dreams of Mystics and Allegorists — nay, than even igno- rance itself! The following are the peculiar modern Systems of Interpretation, since the year 1770, according to the order of time in which they were written : — JoACH. Ehren. Pfeifer, Institutiones Hermeneuticoe Sacr7)fx,a, which occnr sometimes in a good, sometimes in a bad sense ; the former in order to express something noble and honourable ; the latter to express something ignoble and less honourable : For example, " visit," Luke vii. 16. Lam. iv. 22. The Latin word plebs signifies sometimes the third State of the Roman citizens, at other times the common people. Observation. — See ' Ernesti Institut. Interp. N. T.' Part I. sect. 1. cap. ii. § 15; and what Morus has said upon this subject, ' Hermeneut. N. T.,' Vol. I. p. 321, &c. § 67. Besides the principal idea which is usually contained in a word, it obtains through its com- bination with others an accompanying idea, which instantly disappears as soon as the word is removed from its connection and considered by itself. § 68. Emphasis consists in the augmentation of the signification of a /word, which arises from its combination with other words. In such cases, it is said that a word or phrase has altogether a peculiar emphasis. If many such phrases occur in a com- position written in a state of mental agitation, the composition is termed emphatic. Emphasis arises principally from a peculiar position, combination, or repetition of certain words, by which more is said and expressed than the words otherwise signify by themselves, and in other combinations. § 69. When it is assumed that there is any thing emphatic in a proposition, this must be proved. 64 BIBLICAL IIERMENEUTICS. [PART I. as such expressions deviate from the common phraseology. In order to conduct this proof, inquiry should be made : — 1. If it be the design of the speaker or writer in this passage to say more than the words at other times convey of themselves. This object may be to excite attention ; to give its due weight to an important proposition; to express mental agitation; to imprint a truth deeply ; to say much in a few words ; or to give additional elegance to his discourse ; 2. Whether the words, taken by themselves, or placed in another connection, have the same force ; 3. If the emphasis cease, when the same thing is expressed in other words; — as by a. periphrasis ; 4. If the speech does not give a feeble and in- appropriate sense, unless it be admitted that the speaker or writer meant to say more than the words of themselves express. § 70. As commentators have hitherto, under the guidance of erroneous principles, sought for em- phatic phrases in many passages of the Bible where they do not exist, Ernesti, Michaelis, and other men of great learning, have laboured to oppose this error, and have attempted to fix with greater accu- racy when an emphasis is to be acknowledged in the Bible. The following are the important rules which should be observed in this inquiry : — 1. No word is in itself emphatic, but becomes so by a pecuhar use of it. CHAP. ir. S. III.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. (J5 2. Emphatic words should be carefully distin- guished from such as have a comprehensive sense. For example, the word Philosophy, — how much it includes! Regeneration, &c. 3. An emphatic should be distinguished from: a subHme expression, which is contained as well in the things as in the words. 4. No emphases are to be deduced from etymo- logy. 5. Not every uncommon Hebrew or Greek phrase is emphatic. 6. It would be a prejudging of tlie case to find an emphasis in all compound Greek words throuo-hout the New Testament. (In some such cases, in- deed, this emphatic sense cannot be denied, as virepv-^^wae, Philippians ii. 9.) 7. Neither is there always an emphasis when an abstract term is put for a concrete. (Ernesti, Institut. P. I. S. 1. cap. ii. § 16, &c., and Mori Hermeneut. N. T., Vol. I. p. 324.) 8. Finally, an emphasis should not be looked for in prepositions, particles, numbers, or in every tro- pical expression. Observation. — Ernesti and Moms divide emphases into tem- porary and constant. The first rest on the arbitrary choice of every speaker or writer ; the last are fixed by the introduction of some peculiar usage [usus loquendi]. For example, Jesus is called, The Son of Man, The Messiah; Homer is called by the Greeks simply The Poet; Melanchthon is called Preceptor Germaniae. It is manifest that these names are no other than univocal terms, or commmia ah uno. There are other Preceptores Germaniae, but Melanchthon was such in an eminent sense. Of all the Apostles, John alone is named F 66 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART I. eto\6yoc, the Divine. This term is, therefore, in respect to him univocal. Morus has treated of this matter fully and fundamentally in his Hermeneut. N. T., Vol. 1. pp. 321—336. To which Eichstadt has added some excellent supplementary observa- tions. I CHAP, lll.l BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 67 CHAPTER III. OF THE REAL SENSE. §7L In the words and phrases of the Holy Scripture, there is indeed no more than a single historico-grammatical sense to be found ; but in many passages propositions are to be met with, in which not the words themselves alone, but also the things, persons, and actions described by the words, have a signification. These are — Allegories, Para- bles and Fables, Mythi and Types. Compare F. N. Mortjs, ' De Discrimine Sensus et Significationis in Interpretando ' and ' Quibus Causis AUegoriarum Interpre- tatio notatur.' Both treatises are published in the Sammliing der Diss. Theol. et Philol. Lips. 1787, 8vo. [An English translation of the former excellent work, entitled ' A Disser- tation on the Difference between the Sense and the Signification of Words and Phrases,' by Professor Torrey, of the University of Vermont, is published in the ' Biblical Repository,' Vol. IV. pp. 61 — 89, Andover, Massachusetts, 1834, — Translator,] § 72. An Allegory is a lengthened or continued trope, and must therefore be treated agreeably to the same rules which are applicable to the expla- nation of tropes. The most usual allegories are continued or extended metaphors. For example ; John XV. 1 — 5. Eph. vi. 11. Isaiah xi. 6, 7. Ezek. xiii, 10, and following verses. Rom. xi. 16, &c. F 2 ()S BIBLICAL HERMENKUTICS. [I'ART 1. § 73. A Parable is an historical fiction, in which sometimes a truth is taught, sometimes an error refuted, and occasionally something future predicted. Parables are therefore divided into Dogmatic, Polemic, and Prophetic. 2 Sam. xii. 1. 2 Kings xiv. 9, 10. Matt. xiii. § 74. In the explanation of allegories and parables, the following rules should be generally observed : — 1. Let the literal sense be accurately unfolded. 2. Let the signification of the things be traced. To this it is required (1.) that the main argument or subject of the allegory and parable, and that which is predicated of it, be well observed ; (2.) that the annexed circumstances which do not apper- tain to the essentials of the image or history, be separated ; (3.) that then the contents of the sepa- rate propositions be expressed; and, finally, (4.) that it be shown what was the object of the author ; why he chose precisely those images to express the truth ; why he supphed these annexed circum- stances, and made use of these embellishments, and this pecuhar dress. The beauty of the style, its sententiousness, ele- gance, and other characteristics, should not be over- looked ; but no peculiar signification is to be looked for in those properties and parts, which do not apper- tain to the substance of the allegory or parable. Observation, — ;Fablesmay be easily distinguished from para- bles ; but Avhen the word is used in the general sense, as the Hebrew word ^It'D, the word Truim^oXi} expresses tlic meaning CHAP. III.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 69 of the Hebrew, and has therefore a most comprehensive sense. But if the fable is to be distinguished from the parable, it may- be thus done ; The parable is, in its peculiar sense, or according to the most limited signification, a historical fiction, in which human beings are introduced speaking and acting. In the fable, on the other hand, the speakers and actors are irrational or inanimate beings. No special rules are here given for the explanation oi fables ; as the most essential of them will be found in what has been already said in the explanation of Allegories and Parables. § 75. A Myth us is a species of fable and alle- gory, or generally a historic fiction ; but some Mythi are distinguished from both, by containing something of, or at least being based upon, true history. Mythi may therefore be divided into : — 1. The poetical, which contain nothing properly historical, but are pure fictions ; 2. The histori- cal, which are founded on real events ; and, 3. The theologico-philosophical, which contain doctrinal or moral instruction, or are intended to serve the purpose of solving a question, which could not be otherwise answered, — such as the origin of evil ; which last sort of Mythi are also in our times called Philosophemas. The neces- sary instructions on this subject shall be given in Part II., in laying down the principles and rules for the explanation of the several parts of the Old Testament. <§ 130—138.* § 76. Types are no other than instructive images, which are used as means to describe and * The reader is requested to refer to the note there on the subject of Mythi, — Translatou. 70 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS- [PART I. make known a thing not already known, by some- thing of the same sort which is known. Types, in the Holy Scripture, are specially ap- pointed by Divine Providence, and distinctly referred to by Jesus himself and the Evangelists; for ex- ample, Malachi iv. 1, compared with Matt. xi. 24, and Mai. iv. [5, 6 with] Luke i. 17. There is a manifest resemblance between the rehgious economy of the Old and New Testaments. Both being equally the institution of Divine Pro- vidence, the Apostles were able to propound the persons, actions, and things occurring in the former Levitical religion, as images and shadows of the far higher and more glorious objects of the new religious economy, and to use them with the best results as instructive images. Many persons and events appear throughout the writings of Moses and the Prophets, which, as being well known to the Jews, and having a great resemblance to certain persons and events in the institution which Jesus and his Apostles were about to found, were used by them as images of in- struction. For example ; David ; Jonah ; Elijah ; the Delivery of the Israelites from Egypt ; the Manna ; the Water from the Rock, 1 Cor. x. 1, &c. This is the true divine typification, which has its foundation in the very economy of mankind. It should not, however, be here supposed that such events occurring in the Old Testament were permitted or ordained by God o?iI?/ for the purpose of shadowing and typifying certain things to come ; neither must it be presumed that the CHAP. 111.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 71 Israelites had already, in those ancient times, themselves foreseen what use would one day be made of these objects and events in the instruction of mankind. Observation. — John David Michaelis' Entwurf der Typiscli Theologie (Sketch of Typical Theology), Bremen, 1769, [of which an edition vi^as published in the Dutch language, at Utrecht, 1773. — H.], contains too many antiquated and far-fetched opinions concerning Typology : more precise notions on the subject will be found in the Freymiithigen Untersuchung iiber der Typologie (Free Inquiry into Typology) by D. J. W. Rau, Erlangen, 1784, 8vo.* § 77. In order to penetrate as far as possible into the sense of a discourse, and clearly to ex- press all its force, it is also necessary carefully * The 'Untersuchung' of the Erlangen Doctor [Rau] has been opposed by Professor Blasche of Jena, in his ' De Mosaisch Typologie' [Mosaic Typology]. Jena, 1789. It is no doubt consonant to Divine Wisdom, to suppose that in the ancient economy some truths and future events were prospectively re- presented by means of certain persons, actions, events, and such like. Nothing was more usual among the ancient Prophets than, in making important oral propositions, revelations, promises, and threatenings, to add certain emblematical actions, or to point to certain persons and things present, in order thereby to give addi- tional strength to their oral propositions, to imprint them in the memory, and to make them easier of recollection. This was quite agreeable to the Divine ordinance in the gradual instruction and moral education of mankind. It cannot then surprise us that Divine Wisdom should also in some measure prefigure the future redemption by Jesus Christ, which was the sum and substance of all the ancient predictions, by persons, events, and actions, during that period of expectation, which preceded the wished-for times of vision ; and it is thus spoken of in the New Testament, particularly in the Epistle to the Hebrews. See Heb. ix. 8. — Heringa. 72 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PAKT 1. to mark the Figures of Rhetoric, inasmuch as from them, when they occur in a speech or writing, conclusions may be drawn as to the state of mind as well as the design of the speaker or writer ; and the entire force of his expressions may be thence arrived at ; 1. Many questions heaped upon each other, sometimes show that the speaker has a lively con- viction of his subject, — at other times, that what he requires of his hearers is a manifest, equitable, or most important duty ; 2. Exclamations occurring in the discourse ex- hibit sometimes great joy or sorrow ; sometimes wonder and astonishment ; at other times grief and sympathy ; 3. The repetition of the same words, {subjuuciio, eiTL^ev^cs,) expresses the importance of a subject or of a requisition ; 4. When men ascend by steps from lesser to greater degrees of energy, (gradatio, K\iiu.a^,) the increased force of expression in the last words should be well attended to. Other figures of rhetoric are principally intended to be merely ornamental, and appertain to the beauty, but have no influence on the sense, of the discourse. It was therefore one of the faults of the old interpreters, constantly to deduce from these an augmentation of the sense and emphasis. § 78. There occur also in the Bible, principally in tlie writings of the Old Testament, certain plays CliAP. III.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 73 upon words, which are comprehended under the general name of Paronomasia, but which usually disappear in translation, in which case their signifi- cation must be left to the commentator to explain. They served among the ancients, partly to excite attention, partly to assist the memory. Examples may be found in Jer. i. 11, 12. Gen. iv. 25; V. 29. Of such allusions of one word to another, and such ingenious applications of a noun or verb, more should not be made than what they really are, namely, well-employed and apposite strokes of wit, which were much used among the ancients, — and occasionally the expression of a good sentiment, which served as a token of remembrance, by which an individual was reminded of something useful to him, or excited to gratitude towards God. On the other hand, such plays upon words should not be censured, inasmuch as they were customary in those times, and employed to effect some good object. Compare 1 Chron. xxii. 9 ; Jer. vi. 1.; xlviii. 2. [For further examples, see Stewart's Hebrew Grammar. — Translator.] There have been, moreover, a few inconsi- derable objections made against the style of the Bible, which the interpreter should notice, but without dwelling upon them. To these appertain Solecisms and Barbarisms, which are to be found in the Bible, particularly Hebraisms and Syriasms, as well as the Latinisms of the New Testament, which shall be noticed in the second part of this work. CHAPTER IV. OF THE TREATMENT OF WHOLE PERIODS, PARTS, AND BOOKS. § 79. There are certain general laws, according to which every one, without any instruction, is accustomed to regulate his thoughts. The inter- preter should in every circumstance follow these laws of the human understanding. Something is first conceived, whether it be spiritual or corporeal, man or irrational animal, the act of doing or suf- fering. Something is thought of this subject or object, which happens to it or not, which it has done or suffered. The natural order of ideas in each proposition is accordingly fixed by the form of the laws of human thoughts. Hence, then, the rule of interpretation : — In every proposition first seek the subject, then the predicate, afterwards the copula, and point out the relation in which the two former stand to each other. § 80. As all simple periods should be explained agreeably to this natural law, so should also the compounded. But, inasmuch as the last named I CHAP. IV.] BIBLICAL HEllMENEUTICS. 75 consist of several parts, and these not seldom at one time divided from each other by intervening words, at other times artificially involved, it will be necessary here to deliver some separate rules for their elucidation. 1. In the order of the words the natural and regular position should be preferred to the un- common and irregular ; unless the writer has been already known to delight in involved periods. The unusual position of the words should have the pre- ference, only when the natural order either affords no correct sense, or one irrelevant to the design of the writer; for example, Heb. ii. 10. 2. The words which are placed nearest each other should, in explanation, be left in this con- nection until it be manifest that their separation will produce a construction easier, more natural, and more agreeable to the style and design of the writer. 3. Sometimes also the interpreter should attend to the causes of this involved construction, in order to show that he is justified in altering the order of the words. Many of the writers of the books in the Bible, as being unlearned men, were, in expressing their thoughts, easily led to adopt a transposition of words which was inconsistent with the rules of our grammar and rhetoric. Sometimes the writer or speaker was hurried by mental excitement into a close union and compression of a variety of con- ceptions, which were designedly crowded together, and which the interpreter should separate from each other. 76 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART I. § 81. This unfolding and dividing of separate phrases and propositions is the more necessary when parentheses occur in compounded periods. The most suitable way of treating these is to consider them as detached sentences, by dividing them from what precedes and follows, and commencing their explanation, after that of the preceding and fol- lowing words is completed. Incidental propositions should be treated in like manner.* Observation. — Among the sacred writers, none has made such frequent use of parentheses, nor extended them to such length, as Paul. For example, Eph. iii. 2 — 13. § 82. Ellipses and Pleonasms should not be ac- knowledged without proof, and only when the words afford no rational sense without admitting them ; or when they are conformable to the writer's usual style ; or when it is a general usage in any language to omit a certain word occasionally, or to supply one which is superfluous. § 83. Periods also are sometimes without the appropriate form, so that an apposite sense cannot be found when the parts remain in their present connection. It is then above all things necessary, first, to give the appropriate form to the words. * The interpreter should also, in treating of parentheses, not neglect to observe what gave occasion to such interruption ; and he should sometimes show how the writer resumed the discourse M'here it was broken off, and connected it with the former part. — Heringa. 1 CHAP. IV.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 77 according to the rules of grammar and rhetoric ; then to inquire into the signification of separate propositions ; and finally to exhibit the sum of the entire sense. Rom. ix. 22, 23. Here the chief atten- tion should be fixed on the usual character of the writer ; on the state of mind in which he wrote ; on the importance of the thing which he meant to ex- press, and on which account he paid the less atten- tion to the form of his periods. § 84. Certain phrases and propositions, however brief, consist nevertheless of two other propositions, inasmuch as it is shown in them, not only that a certain predicate agrees with a certain subject, but also how, and why, and under what conditions ; — inasmuch as it is not only made known that some- thing is, or has happened, but also at the same time defined, how, in what way and manner, &c. These are called exponible propositions. The most remarkable of these are the modal, the exclusive, the comparative, the exldhitive, the inchoative, and the continuative. In all these modes of speaking, in order to make the case clear, the chief proposition should first be alone expressed, and then the nearest definition of the thing should be first exhibited; for example, the proposition, '' Mercy is better than sacrifice," contains three several propositions : (1), " Mercy is good ; (2), sacrifice is also good ; (3), but mercy is better — it is at all times a universal obhgation, more conducive to the happiness of man, and more pleasing to God." 78 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART I. § 85. In like manner we should, in compounded periods, not only in a general way, separate the component parts from each other, but also accu- rately mark the words which give additional limita- tions to the sense, particularly the adverbs and conjunctions, in order that nothing may be over- looked which can serve to express the full sense of a passage in other words, in any language chosen for that purpose. Nothing whatever of the original should be lost ; each variety of shade, every touch however minute, should be perceptible, at least in some degree, in the copy. § 86. When a whole book, or at least a pretty large portion of it, is to be systematically explained, the following cautions should be attended to. The whole part to be explained should be accurately read over at least three times, and studied thoroughly. 1, At the first reading, attention should be paid principally to the critical, grammatical, and philo- gical interpretation, to the whole form of the style of the writer, to the manner in which he exhibits his thoughts, and above all to his idioms. Difficult passages should not be dwelt on, but merely noted, in order to direct the attention to them at a subsequent period. 2. At the second reading, the matter and con- tents should be chiefly attended to. The principal persons and the important subjects to which the remainder of the book relates, should be accu- rately observed from the proper point of view, the CHAP. IV.J BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 79 characters, the most remarkable events, the noble and pleasing actions and sentiments of the persons intro- duced, and whatever else is most prominent, should be noted and retained in the memory, in order to be constantly before the mind of the interpreter in the explanation of the book. 3. Those who thus act will be at the third read- ing in a state, (1.) to examine the whole book in its connection, (2.) to analyze it in its chief divisions, (3.) to separate these grand divisions into smaller parts. The interpreter thus divides the whole book as well as the smaller parts, without attending to the common divisions into chapters and verses in the printed Bibles, which are not in the original, and are often inaccurate ; but according to their various contents, in a natural manner, so that he may arrange the whole systematically before him. (4.^ Finally, he should seek to avail himself of the ne- cessary AIDS for the explanation of the whole and of the several parts of the book ; but he should be careful, at the same time, to adhere to a few good and eminently useful books, that he may not dis- tract himself too much, and may learn to think for himself, rather than be a mere follower of others. k APPENDIX. OF VERSIONS, PARAPHRASES, AND FREE TRANSLATIONS. 1. Versions are of two kinds. (1.) The first species commonly precedes the ex- planation and interpretation, and should generally be altogether verbal or literal, inasmuch as from the true sense of each separate word and phrase, and afterwards from their connection, the whole import of a period is to be ascertained, and then exhibited in words and phrases of equivalent signification in another language. (2.) The other kind of version commences when the interpretation of the passage is concluded. To this kind of translation it is requisite that not merely the principal ideas be made in some measure suf- ficiently intelligible in another language, — but that a faithful picture be given of the original, which will impart to others, in the same shape and form, with the same images, the same limitations, and so far as possible with the same colourings, a copy which may pass for the original itself. The less the writing is observed to be a translation, and the more the reader is inclined to consider it as the original, the nearer it approaches to perfection. In such a version nothing of the original is to bo held as of trifling consideration, and not even a particle, no collateral signification of a word how- ever minute, no designed position and connection CHAP. IV.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 81 thereof, — no beauty, — and nothing characteristic of the style of the writer, should be suffered to be lost. 2. Paraphrases, if in other respects appropriate to their object, should also exhibit every thing which a faithful translation contains ; but, inas- much as it is frequently the case, that certain words of the original language cannot be ex- pressed in single words of equivalent import in another tongue, the interpreter is under the neces- sity of using a greater number of words, in order to give the reader or hearer the whole contents, the richness, the strength, and the full force of the sentiment of the original, in another language. It may easily happen in this case, that the para- phrast will choose words which express more or less than the original ; that he will make additions which have no foundation in the text, or, at least, that he may here and there mix with it additional matter, which will obscure, and sometimes give a wrong turn to the real sense, so that no clear and full view of the subject matter can be obtained. It is therefore a most commendable rule of pre- caution, to render the paraphrase as concise as possible, to omit every thing superfluous, and to approach as near as possible to a translation. For first beginners in the practice of Exegesis, para- phrases are not the best aids to the necessary exercise in the art of interpretation. Good trans- lations will be found more beneficial ; after which, those brief elucidations of the text, which are G 82 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART I. called Scholia ; or the more enlarged expositions, called Commentaries, of which notice shall be taken in the sequel. 3. Versions and paraphrases should be distin- guished from FREE TRANSLATIONS. In works of this kind, it is not required that there be so close and servile an adherence to the usual phrases and turns of the original. It is allowable to make slight additions, in order to make the sense perfectly clear. The labour in this department is not that of an artist, who copies the entire original to the very minutest touch, but of a teacher, who faith- fully communicates, in other expressions, the same truths which he finds in the original. Compare Henke, ' Neues Magazin fiir Religions-pliilosophie, Exegese und Kirchengeschichte,' [New Magazine of the Phi- losophy of Religion, of Exegesis, and Ecclesiastical History,] Vol. II. Part I. p. 1, &c. Note on § 50. 6. (3.) page 53. This rule, viz. In laivs and ordinances the prince or legislator in accustomed to use dejinite and proper (i. e. not figurative) expressions, has been considered to he liable to exceptions. Dr. Heringa observes that " the celebrated Ernesti made an unfortu- nate application of it to the institution of the eucharist ; parti- cularly in regard to the words of the institution, this is my body ; " which that Lutheran divine, agreeably to this rule, had main- tained should be interpreted literally. See ' Ernesti's Institutes,' Part I. sect. II. cap. iv. §10. And Dr. Ammon maintains, that Ernesti's interj^retation rests upon grounds rather dogmatic than hermeneutical : he adds, however, that " we must not fail to observe that the copula e(TTi, on which the proper sense ought to depend, was not used by our Saviour in the institution of the eucharist." The learned translator of Ernesti, in the Biblical Cabinet, remarks, ihat "the reader maybe surprised at finding CHAP. IV.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 83 the Protestant Ernesti so anxious to maintain the proper sense of the form of eucharistic institution. But it must be remembered that he was a Lutheran, and, as such, bound to support the doc- trine of consubstantiation, which he does by the same arguments and texts as Jahn, a Romanist, uses for the support of transub- stantiation." The translator adds his reasons, to which I beg to refer the reader, for shewing, " upon exegetical principles common to Protestants and Roman Catholics," why the expression is to be interpreted " not in a proper, but in a tropical sense." See his note, p. 147. As it is contrary to the design of the present work to introduce dogmatical arguments, I shall only observe, that Ernesti's rule, which is also adopted by Dr. Seller, may be applied equally to the doctrine of the Church of England respect- ing the eucharist ; for the question is not so much of the manner of Christ's presence in the sacrament, as of its reality, in contra- distinction to its being a mere sign, which is positively denied in the Church of England article, wherein it is maintained that the body of Christ is given, taken and eaten, — only after a heavenly and spiritual manner; see XXVIIIth Article : and words to the same effect, and if possible stronger, are used in the Church Cate- chism, by which it would seem that the reformers of the Anglican Church, while they equally rejected the appellations and definitions of the Church of Rome and of Luther, applied a different rule to the interpretation of the institution of a religious rite, from that which they would have done to the explanation of a parable. And I cannot avoid thinking, that the rationalist Dr. Ammon, is at least as likely to be influenced by dogmatic grounds as the sober and dispassionate Ernesti, or the singularly candid and impartial Professor Jahn.* Indeed, Dr. Ammon, it must be conceded, seems anxious to take the case altogether out of the rule, by his so po- sitively asserting that Jesus did not, in pronouncing the words of * It seems to me to savour strongly of dogmatical predilec- tions, when men depart from their own rule as soon as it seems to clash with their preconceived opinions. Not that I think that either the Lutherans or Roman Catholics would gain much in favour of their peculiar dogmas by a strict application of the rule in question to all the terms of the proposition ; for there is a wide departure from the literal sense of the word body, when it becomes necessary to define it as a substance without accidents. G 2 84 BIBLICAL IIKIlMEiNEUTICS. [I'ART I. institution in the Syro-Chaldaic language, use the copula eer-i, which appears in the Greek translation of the words of Christ. If this, indeed, could be proved, it would, by thus cutting the knot, tend materially, beyond many former hypotheses, to give a new form to the controversy on this vcxata quccstio. The trans- lator of Ernesti proceeds to say, that " what Ammon means by saying that the copula eari was not used, is quite incom- prehensible ; as it must have been either expressed or implied in the original Syriac expression, for otherwise there could have been no proposition, either proper or tropical." But there is certainly no copula in the parallel passage in the Hebrew of the Old Testament, Exodus xii. 11. 27; and Avhether the omission would alter or affect the sense of the proposition, must depend altogether on the idiom and usus loquendi of the language. Instead of entering further into this subject at present, which would be inconsistent with the plan of the work, as it would lead me necessarily into the field of polemics, I think it may be satis- factory to the reader to lay before him a translation of Kuinoel's note on the subject of this controversy. " TovTO tffTL TO (TcjjAa fiov, t/iis Is my body, for ovrog 6 uprog, this bread, for the article is also joined to the attribute. See Glass. Philologia Sacra, 1, 2, 4, p. 142. The explanations of these celebrated words in the dogmatical works of the three great Christian families, are known to all. The Papists (Pontificii) understand the word ean, so as to affirm that the wine is changed into the blood, and the bread into the body of Christ. See Ernesti's Antimuratorius, in his Opuscula Theologica, p. 1 . ss. Lips. 1792, 8vo. The Lutherans urge the Avord lan, and teach that the body and blood of Christ are so united with the bread and wine, that the body of Christ is received into the mouth with the bread, and his blood with the wine. Finally, the Calvinists are of opinion that the bread and wine are taken into the mouth, and the body and blood of Christ received mentally ; and they explain eoTL to mean signifies, — is a sign or symbol of; — and in proof of this they refer to Gen. xli. 26, 27. Ezek. xxxvii. 11. Matt. xiii. 37, et seq. John xv. 1, et seq. ; also to Gen. xvii. 10. and Exod. xii. 11, where the verb uvai is applied in this sense to the sacraments of the Old Testament. See also Wolfii Curas and the Analecta of Koocherius. That Jesus, speaking in the Syro-Chaldaic language, did not use the copula, has been I CHAP. IV.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 85 frequently remarked ; so that in this case, the words of institution may be rendered En ! corpus, meum ! en ! sanguis meus. See •Bolten's [German] Translation of the New Testament,' Marc, p. 231, et seq. Ammon's ' Biblische Theologie.' B. 2, p. 399. Stolz's ' Erlauterungen,' Heft 1, p. 236.— Eichhorn '(Allge- meine Bibliothek der Biblische Litteratur,' B. G. p. 659, sqq.) is of opinion, that when Jesus solemnly instituted his last supper, he had respect to the institution of the paschal supper of the Hebrews, and that, as the Jews used the words j^^.^n riDSi Exod. xii. 11. 27, Jesus said, in like manner, j^j^n '>~1tt72 tovto ean TO (Tiofj-a fiov, and '^^-[ S^H tovto ecrri to alfia jjov. The ellip- tical form which was used by the Jews, comprised as much as njp S^n HDQ This is the lamb of the passover; hence, that the formula used by Jesus, is an elliptical expression for >-iit?3 DhI? 'IH tovto etTTt 6 apTOQ Tov o-iojuctT-oc juou, This is the bread of my body. And nilD S^rt or >)2"7 3^> TOVTO EGTl TO TTOTtipiOV, OV O OlVOq TOV a'tj-UlTOQ /.(OV, this is the cup or the wine of my blood. It is then observed, that a'lfxu XpitTTov, the blood of Christ, and ircjjjia Xpiarov, the body of Christ, are equivalent to X(3t(7-oe eaTuvpovfjierog, Christ cruci- fied, and apTOQ i^ai oivoq XpitTTov eaTuvpovjitvov, — the bread and wine of Christ crucified, — to, the bread and wine of that supper, in- stituted by Christ who died ; hence that apTog tov (ruficiTog fiov and iroTqpioy tov a'ljxaToc fjov, the bread of my body and the cup of my blood, are the same as if he had said ap-oc Km TroTrjpwy ttjq cia- drjKrig Sia tov t^ov QavaTOv EyKaiyKTdrjfTOjjierric, the bread and cup of the covenant renewed through my death — the bread and wine of my religious supper — the supper of that religion which is established by my death. Compare Acts xx. 28. Eph. v. 25, et seq." This view of the subject is no doubt ingenious. — It should also be borne in mind, that the Peschito, or ancient Syriac version, although confessedly a translation from the Greek, omits the copula in the sentence in question i_«f._a OJOl this— my body, and ^,Vj;, QjCT this — my blood. Having alluded to the late Professor Jahn's application of this rule to the doctrine of his Church, viz. that of Rome, on this sub- ject, I shall here subjoin a translation of his words : " In laws, plain narrations of events, and precise doctrinal expositions, un- common and bold figures are not generally used, but only such as are of common occurrence ; therefore, what has been said before of the bold figures of the orientals, is not applicable to the institution 86 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART I. of the Eucharist, in which the predicate does not indeed seem pro- perly to agree with the subject ; but a trope would be altogether too bold and unusual in this simple exposition, and the less to be ex- pected on this occasion, as the Jews were accustomed to understand properly — the Mood of the covenant; Exod. xxiv. 8, compared with Hebrews ix. 20. There is, however, a manifest trope in the word TTorripiov [cup], which is used by Luke (xxii. 20), for the wine contained in the cup, and 1 Cor. xi. 25, [where this cup is the new covenant in my blood, is used] for, this cup is the con- firmation of the covenant," &c. See Jahn's Enchiridion Herme- neuticse, §37.111. p. 110. I beg here to refer the reader to an interesting controversy on the true sense of the Syriac phrase, between two eminent oriental scholars, the Rev. N. Wiseman, Pro-Rector of the English Col- lege at Rome, in his valuable Horse Syriacse, Roma^, 1828, gr. Svo. Vol. I. ; and the Rev. Samuel Lee, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Cambridge. See his erudite Pro- legomena to Bagster's Polyglott Bible, Part III. § 4. p. 31. London, 1831, fol. and 4to. For the necessity of conducting such controversies on principles common to both parties, see Dr. Plank's Introduction to Theo- logical Literature, referred to already by Dr. Seller, Preface, p. 16, and Observation, § 14. p. 32. A translation of the part of Dr. Plank's work there referred to, has been lately published in America, with the following title : Introduction to Sacred Philology and Interpretation, by G. J. Plank. Translated by H. Turner, D.D. New York, 1834. Translator. END OF PART 1. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. PART II. APPLICATION OF THE GENERAL RULES TO THE INTERPRETATION OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. PART 11. CLOSER APPLICATION OF THE GENERAL RULES TO THE INTERPRETATION OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. CHAPTER I. PRINCIPLES AND RULES FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN GENERAL. INTRODUCTION. There are certain rules and aids which may be applied to the explanation of the whole of the Old Testament. These have respect either to the explanation of words and phrases, or to the things, persons, and events which occur in the Old Tes- tament. This guide to the explanation of the Old Testament must consequently be divided into two sections, containing; 1 . Rules and principles for the discovery of the true sense of the Holy Scripture through the medium of philology. 90 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. 2. The investigation of the sense of the Sacred Writings, by the use of other aids, or of the know- ledge of things; for example, of History, Geo- graphy, Antiquities, Chronology, &c. SECTION I. Of the Investigation of the true Sense, by means of Philology. The following are the obvious media for the investigation of the true sense of Holy Scripture by the use of philology. 1. Etymology, § 87, 88. 2. The Usage of Words, {iisus loqnendi), § 89 — 92. 3. The Context, § 93. 4. Parallehsm, § 94—100. 5. Semitic Dialects, §101 — 111. 6. Versions, §112,113. 7. Lexicons, § 114. 8. Scholia and Commentaries,* § 115. § 87. Etymology traces the original signification of words, and points out how they have, from time * These divisions arc not logically arranged. The Semitic dialects (5), as being helps to the knowledge of etymology (1), should have been placed third in order. The context (3) should then occupy the fourth, and parallelism (2) the fifth place. Fi- nally, Versions, Lexicons, Scholia, and Commentaries should have been placed last, as being subsidiary to the former five, although it must be at the same time acknowledged, that the subsidiary aids, especially Scholia and Commentaries, are most appropriately treated of among the helps in the second section, et seq. — Heringa. CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 91 to time, acquired a new sense ; or how, when com- bined with other words, they have been used to denote new objects. It shows how the signification of words has been augmented or diminished, by their various forms and conformations, by the dupHcation of letters, by abridgment, &c. From this it is manifest, that the study of etymo- logy is essential to the future interpreter. Indeed, every derivative word carries with it something of the signification of its parent stock. Of com- pound words, each retains something of its original meaning, and a third signification arises. Words which consist of four radical letters, often retain but one of them from another word. Even each separate conjugation among the Hebrews makes an alteration in the meaning of a word. How much, then, is to be expected from well directed etymological inquiries ! Observation. — We here presuppose the requisite grammatical knowledge. Scripture interpreters should recollect, that besides the grammars which they have at first made use of to learn the rudiments of the language, they should also study one of a more comprehensive character. For this purpose, the works of Schultens, Schroeder, Hetzel, Michaelis, and PfeifFer will be found available ; but especially the ' Ebraische Sprachlehre' of John Severin Vater. Leipsic, 1797, 8vo. § 88. In all cases it will be necessary to attend in the first place, and principally, to etymology, if the grammatical interpretation is to be regularly proceeded with ; — but, as the books of the Old Tes- tament have been written at various times during a period of nine hundred years, the signification of 92 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. words has, in many cases, undergone considerable alteration. Many are often used to denominate more than one object ; many, which w^re at first applied to denote physical objects, have been trans- ferred to spiritual things, and to changes and operations of the mind. Many are taken, some- times in a good, sometimes in a bad sense ; and not a few have obtained by custom a variety of significations. Hence follows the rule : Etymology is not always a certain help to the discovery of the signification of words. Usage must, in doubtful cases, take precedence of etymology. Observation. — In every cultivated language, a genealogy may be traced in the signification of words. The primitive signifi- cation is generally that of something physical, something relat- ing to plants, animals, human bodies and members, and corpo- real operations ; the same word was first used in a tropical sense, and the trope obtained by degrees a proper sense. So the derivative signification arose from the other, and this took place the more frequently in proportion to the increase of poets and orators among a people. It will be of uncommonly great use to future interpreters to pay considerable attention to this etymological genealogy of words, and to exercise them- selves herein with the help of correct lexicons. Ebraische Sprachlehre [Hebrew Grammar], by J, S. V^atek; es- pecially the chapter, Von der Wortbildung, [Of the Formation of Words], § 2;)— 29. G. W. Meyer, Versuch einer Ilermeneutik des A. T. [Essay on the Ilermencutics of the Old Testament], Lubeck, Xldd. Of Etymological Analyzation, Vol. I. § 22 — 29, The singular hypotheses which Jacob Gousset and Caspar Neumann, Herman von der Hardt, and, before him, John Avenarius, have attempted to apply to the fixing of the sense of Hebrew words, may be found briefly, but at the same time amply CHAP. I. S.I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 93 exhibited, and reviewed upon solid grounds, in Solomon Glass's ' Philologia Sacra,' edited by George Laurence Bauer, Tom. II. p. 14—18. § 89. With the alteration in the signification of single words, there was in this manner a some- what altered usage of words introduced from time to time, in respect to many appellations and phrases. Three periods of this usage of words may be distinguished in the Old Testament; (1.) from Moses* to Solomon; (2.) from Solomon's time to the Babylonian exile ; (3.) the period in and after the exile. Although many alterations thus took place in the usage of words among the Hebrews, the * In the writings of Moses, chiefly in the beginning of Genesis, there occur documents of much higher antiquity than Moses' own writings. The language of these very ancient documents is also less polished than that of Moses. The first period should, there- fore, have been denominated — that ending with Moses. Seller himself agrees in this, § 92. The language had become, in Solomon's time, polished, enriched, and altered ; but the circum- stances which had this influence on the language, had begun to operate under David's reign; and should there not be also a new period reckoned from the time of Samuel, whose institution of schools promoted, in some measure, with the increase of know- ledge, the cultivation and enrichment of the language ? — Heringa. Dr. Heringa refers, in this passage, to the original documents from which Moses has been by many learned men, commencino- with Vitringa* and Astruc.-j- and including Eichhorn, Ilgen, * Observationes Sacrse. L. I. Dis. 1. C. iv. § iv. seq. ■\ Conjectures sur les Memoires Originaux, dont il paroit que Moyse s'est servi pour composer le livre de la Genese. Bruxelles, 1753. 94 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. signification of most words, during all these periods, remained unchanged. The cause of this is to be sought in the circumstance, that as the laws and writings of Moses still remained as the groundwork of religion and civil polity, the tribe of Levi, at all times, continued to study the writings of Moses, and all the prophets, in the subsequent periods, constantly drew from and made use of his writings. On this account, the signification of very many words, although occurring in books written during and after the exile, may, notwithstanding, be ex- plained by means of the usage of earlier periods. § 90. In order to investigate systematically the sense of diflScult passages, by means of the usus loquendi of the Old Testament, the interpreter should, 1. Call to his aid the usage of words in those times in which each book was composed. If the Bertholdt, Jahn,* Schultens,+ Doederlein,;}; Jerusalem, § Pa- reaujjl &c.&c., supposed to have compiled the book of Genesis. The subject is copiously treated of in the Introductions of Eich- horn and Jahn, already referred to, where the evidence, which is al- together internal, in favour of the early existence of these ancient (supposed) fragments, will be found fully stated. — Translator. * Einleitung, — and Introductio in Lib. Sac. §§ 20, 21, pp. 210—214. ■j- Opusc. Bremse, 1774. % Institutio Theol. Christ, p. 113, seq. § Letters, p. 80. II Institutio Interpret. V.T. P. III. S. T. C. II. § 2. p. 359. I I CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 95 author has written more books or treatises, he is the best interpreter of his own words. 2. Subsequently those books should be made use of, which were composed shortly before or after the period in which the author lived. As, however, much of the ancient usage of words was preserved among the Israelites through the writings of Moses, these must be considered as the sources from which the interpreter should draw, in order to explain with precision the Bible from itself. § 91. When the interpreter has once discovered the general acceptation which a word may have, he should next apply himself to discover what signification it 7nust have in its peculiar position and connection. This will be learned by the con- text, and the application of grammatical rules. The principal queries occurring here, are, (1.) which word is the subject ; (2.) which the predicate; (3.) what is the form of the verb ? Is it active or passive ? is the signification general, or limited, so as to bring about a secondary meaning, or to give quite a different sense to the phrase, (as the form in Pihel, Hithpael, &c.) ? Is the verb regular or anomalous in its form ? How is the sense of the nouns and verbs hmited by the annexed particles ? Sometimes the conformation of the cognate dialects must be attended to, especially the Chaldee and Syriac. Compare Meyer, Versuch einer Hermeneutik, des A. T. Th. 1. Abschn. 2, Kap. 1. 96 BIBLICAL HEIIMENEUTICS. [PART II. § 92. The above rules, according to which the common usage of words, at different periods, must be consulted, in order to explain a passage, should now be suitably applied to the interpretation of the books of the Old Testament, according to the peculiar state of these writings, and their various ages. The signification of Hebrew words must have undergone, in the course of time, some altera- tions. Now as the books in the Bible, from the time of Moses to Ezra, were written at various periods, during a course of several centuries; so the same usage of words, which prevailed in the earliest or the intermediate periods, is not always to be found in the later books. According as the Jews were more enhghtened, many words obtained a more spiritual and a nobler sense : the increasing inter- course with foreigners, must also have had its influence on the language. The interpreter of scripture should, therefore, distinguish chiefly the three grand periods ; (I.) from the commencement of Genesis; (2.) from Moses to Solomon; (3.) from Solomon to and after the exile : and he should explain each passage, principally from the usage of words which prevailed at the period of its composition. § 93. This should not however, be so under- stood, as if the sense of the Hebrew words which occur in the Bible were so altered, that, for instance, in explaining a book written after the Captivity, no use can be made of the writings of Moses. CHAP. I.S.I. ] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 97 Nay, although Malachi, for example, wrote almost nine hundred years after Moses, a usage of words is to be found in the writings of this prophet, which bears a strong resemblance to the phraseology of Moses. The cause of this agreement arises from the fact, that Moses, as the chief of the prophets, was always held in the first estimation ; that his writings always continued to be the standard of the religion of the Israelites ; and that all the sacred poets and prophets bor- rowed from them many objects, events, images, and phrases. Hence arises this general rule : The Hebrew books of the Old Testament must be chiefly explained from the usage of words in the Old Testament itself. How separate books are to be explained, prin- cipally, and first of all, from the peculiar usage of the period to which they belong, shall be more particularly shown in the sequel. § 94. The CONTEXT is, in the interpretation of the Old Testament, as well as all other writings, one of the first means of discovering the true sense. Many books, however, and separate passages of the Old Testament have this peculiarity, that the style is often abrupt ; that sudden transitions from one person to another are of frequent occur- rence; that in the poetical and prophetical writings, the force of imagination in the inspired writers, produced a rapid succession of ideas. Hence it is, that some books and passages consist of short H 98 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. unconnected sentences, and that sometimes di- vers short fragments are joined together, which, nevertheless, produce no consecutive discourse or writing. There is, for instance, between the first and second chapters of Genesis a similarity of object, and a resemblance, but, at the same time, no connection. The same observation will apply to many passages of the prophet Zacharias, whose book seems to be made up of a multiplicity of fragments. § 95. The rules according to which verbal pa- rallelism should be used for the discovery of the signification of words, are to be applied here as they have been already generally stated, (§ 35.) But as the books of the Old Testament were written during the course of a period of nearly a thousand years ; and, as during that long period, the signification of many words was necessarily altered, the following rules should be particularly observed, in respect to the Old Testament. 1. In explaining an obscure passage, parallel passages should be chiefly sought for in those books which were written at, or not long before or after, the same period. 2. When the sense of a word is to be sought, which occurs in a passage treating of laws and sacrificial rites, or of ancient history prior to the time of Moses, the best parallel passages will be found principally in the Mosaical writings. CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 99 3. In poetical works, certain words have fre- quently a signification altogether peculiar ; for in- stance, the word rock, when applied to God. In such cases, parallel passages are to be looked for in the writings of the poets. 4. The prophets have, in like manner, their peculiar language. They, therefore, best serve mutually to explain each other, in passages where such idiomatic expressions occur. As the prevailing usage of words may be ascer- tained with the greatest certainty from contempo- raneous parallel passages (§ 81) ; so should the preference be given to that signification of a word which is confirmed by such parallel passages, beyond that which the word may derive from an etymological source. § 96. Real parallelism, or the parallelism of things, in the sacred writings, is founded in the position, that there is contained in the Bible but one and the same religion, the fundamental triiths of which are combined with a multitude of additional precepts, and presented under various images adapted to each period, and also variously expressed, according to the comprehension of man- kind, in various successive times. § 97. From the harmony of these fundamental religious truths, there arises a harmony of the Holy Scripture with itself; consequently an analogy, or a constant similarity of religious truths agreeing with h2 100 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. each other, which may be denomhiated the analogy of Scripture doctrine. § 99. This ANALOGY OF ScRIPTURE DOCTRINE is 0116 of the most important aids to interpretation. Many truths are but briefly touched on in the writings of the Prophets, Evangehsts, and Apostles, — at one time, cursorily glanced at, and at another, inti- mated by obscure images, and therefore expressed imperfectly, if not ambiguously, — a circumstance which did not present any impediment to the understanding of such passages by the original readers, as they were already acquainted with the objects. The speakers and writers have also, at times, so fixed their entire attention on the principal matter, as barely to touch on certain collateral incidents. Hence follows the important rule : Real parallelism, or the parallelism of things, and the analogy of Scripture, are to be consulted in all cases in which certain truths are expressed briefly, obscurely, imperfectly, or ambiguonsly. § 99. But the various species of real parallelism may be distinguished from each other, according to the contents or subject-matter which each passage embraces. These are either didactic, or historical, truths. The first are either dog?natic or moral. Both together produce the didactic parallelism. The other is named the historical parallelism. From this must be distinguished that kind of parallelism wliich arises from the harmony of the CHAP. I. S. r.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 101 members of a verse, or of a moral apophthegm, which shall be spoken of when we come to describe the Hebrew poetry. One and the same object is thereby often examined from divers points of view. § 100. The following precautionary rules should be observed in regard to the use of the two first- named species of parallel passages : — 1. Such passages ought not to be referred to without necessity. This unnecessary citation takes place, when the thing which occurs in the pas- sage to be explained is either of itself easy to be understood, or, at least, clearly and distinctly expressed by the author. 2. It would be only labour in vain to compare a parallel passage with one which is itself more ob- scure and difficult than the passage which it is intended to elucidate. 3. The best passages to cite, are those wherein a matter is copiously treated of by the author him- self, in accordance with his peculiar design. 4. When the same sacred writer has treated of the same thing in another passage, he ought, first of all, to be compared with himself And, when one and the same thing is treated of in the Bible by different authors, both passages tend mutually to elucidate each other. This is chiefly the case with respect to historical passages, in which one and the same event is described ; for example, the books of Kings and Chronicles, as well as the writings of 102 BIBLICAL llERMENEUTICS. [PAllT II. the four Evangelists in the New Testament, as also, in some measure, the Acts of the Apostles and the Apostolical Epistles, where they introduce historical circumstances. § 101. The languages which are derived from a common parent, are called cognate or kindred languages. The more nearly they agree, both in words and in pronunciation, as also in their various inflections and combinations, as well as their sig- nification, the more close is their affinity ; the more, on the other hand, they recede from one another in these points, their affinity is proportion- ally less. The languages which bear to each other an affinity, more or less remote, and are deduced from a common source, are denominated dialects of that original. § 102. As the DIALECTS, principally those of cog- nate languages, have retained at least the greater part of the significations of the words of the original language, so works written in one dialect will assist in explaining the difficult passages of another. So often, therefore, as a passage of Scripture is obscure or ambiguous to such a degree that no adequate means can be found in the same language for fixing the true sense, it is reasonable to call in the aid of other dialects. An interpretation which has already a seeming probability, may be confirmed by the aid of a dialect. And in explaining words CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 103 which occur seldom, or but once, the necessary proof for their interpretation may be adduced from writings in a dialect of the same language. § 103. In the interpretation of the writings of the Old Testament, it is on many accounts ab- solutely necessary to call in the aid of dialects. Indeed, (1.) there is no book extant, except the Bible, written in the same pure Hebrew which Moses and the prophets used. (2.) Many words occur but once in the whole of the Old Testament ; there are many others which occur but seldom. (3.) In many passages they may be understood in two or more significations, if we adhere only to the usage of words in biblical Hebrew. It is only by means of dialects that we can in such cases arrive at any certainty. (4.) Many objects in the Old Testament are but briefly stated, so that some words seem involved in impenetrable obscurity. By means of a cognate language only can the necessary light be thrown on such words. See the Works on this subject cited by Meyer, p. 213. Albert Schultens, Vetus et Regia via Hebraizandi. Lugd. Bat. (Leyden), 1738. 4to. John David Miciiaelis, Beurtheilung der Mittel, die ausgestor- bene Hebraische Sprache zu erlernen. [On the best Means of learning the ancient Hebrew.] Gottingen, 1757. ^ 104. The family of Noah naturally spoke but one language, which was propagated among all those nations which were derived from him. 104 15IBLICAL HEIIMENEUTICS. [PAKT II. Heber was a descendant of his son Shem. The Semitic language thus prevailed in that part of Asia, in which hither Cappadocia, Assyria, Babylonia, Aramsea, Syria, Phoenicia, and Arabia, were situated; but the pronunciation was altered by time among many of Noah's posterity. Hence, but few of the posterity of Shem retained their original language in such purity that one could be explained by the other. The cognate languages, therefore, which are of use in explaining the writings of the Old Testament, may be divided into two classes. Some of these have a closer, others a more remote affinity to the Hebrew. The Arabic, Syriac, Chaldaic, or rather Babylonian, and also the Samaritan, pertain to the first class. The second embraces principally the Ethiopic, — which others, however, place among the first. Compare Hetzel, Geschichte der Heb. Sprache. Halle, 1776. Observation. — Although future ministers, and teachers in the lower schools have neither time nor opportunity to learn these languages, but must be content with a knowledge of Hebrew, it will, nevertheless, be important to them to know how these dialects have been hitherto, and may still be, used by philo- logcrs and men of information in assisting the explanation of Biblical Hebrew ; for, otherwise, they arc not in a state to judge of the correctness or incorrectness of many explanations of pas- sages in the sacred writings; besides which it is also of import- ance that they should observe the influence which the increasing study of the ancient languages has had on the more just inter- pretation of the Bible, and how Divine Providence has provided, by various methods, that the true sense of the most important of all ancient books should be every day, in proportion as learning advances, ascertained wi'li increasing degrees of perfection. CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 105 § 105. The dialects should be first had recourse to, only when those means of discovering the sense have been already tried, which are contained in the nature of the Hebrew language and in the Hebrew Bible. If, by this means, historical certainty can be attained, a circumstance which may easily take place by the aid of the words and phrases which frequently occur in the Old Testament, it will not be necessary to have recourse to dialects : this would be to light a lamp in the noonday. But if the matter still remains uncertain, if there still be a doubt whether any particular word in a passage has, in reality, its usual signification or not, the dialects should be then consulted, partly in order to discover the true signification, partly in order to confirm, by the concurrence of their testimony, a meaning already discovered. § 106. The closer is the affinity of any dialect with the Hebrew, the more probability is there of its throwing light upon, and giving certainty to, obscure and doubtful passages. The Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee, are the next in affinity to the Hebrew. The remoter dialects should be had recourse to, only when the former three afford no certain result. § 107. Those who would study Hebrew as philologists, and attain a high degree of know- ledge in the language, should compare all its other dialects, if not at every word, at least as often as 106 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. it seems necessary. In the Semitic dialects, those words which agree in sound, have, for the most part, one and the same signification. Hence, the comparison of various dialects is an uncommonly useful practice ; for the more numerous the tes- timonies in favour of a signification which is either the subject of inquiry, or already discovered, the greater the certainty that the given explanation is the correct one. Observation. — As Albert Schultens, Reiske, and other oriental- ists, were not only extravagant in the use which they made of the dialects in explaining the Hebrew, but many of them have misused them in no slight degree, future learned interpreters must be reminded that they ought to proceed with great caution in this respect ; that they should not lightly deduce new significations of Hebrew words from words of like sound in the dialects ; that they should not lose sight of the usual mutations of letters in those dialects ; that they should not lightly take for granted the existence of a transposition of letters in the dialects, or the Hebrew ; and, above all, that they carefully avoid all forced attempts in this respect. Compare Meyer, Versuch einer Hermeneutik, § 80 — 84. § 108. The Arabic language is, in external appearance, very different from the Hebrew ; it abounds much more in consonants, and has, on that account, a very different pronunciation ; besides which it has other inflections, an almost incredible number of nouns and other parts of speech, which are not to be found in Hebrew, and many pecu- liarities, by which it is distinguished from that lan- guage ; but if the essentials be separated from the CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 107 non-essentials of the language, and new words, which denote arts, sciences, warlike transactions, and such objects, be divided from the more ancient words which the Arabic language may have ori- ginally possessed ; its agreement with the Hebrew is such, that it has hitherto been, as the result has shown, and still remains, an excellent help to the removing of exegetical difficulties, and to the elu- cidation of many important but obscure passages. Observation. — Many consonants in the Hebrew are commuted for others in the Arabic: as this is the cause of much difficulty to beginners, it will be necessary to have comparative tables of both ; these are to be found, partly in Arabic Grammars ; partly in Meyer's ' Hermeneutik des A.T.,' p. 248; partly also in Professor Bauer's ' Hermeneutica Sacra,' § 23. One of the most important aids to the discovering of the relations of the Arabic to the Hebrew, is the ' Clavis Dialectorum' of Albert Schultens. The easiest for beginners is Joseph Frederick Schelling's ' Abhandlung von dem Gebrauch der Arabischen Sprache zu einer endlichen Einsicht in die Ebraische.' Stuttgard, 1771 [On the Use of the Arabic to a complete Knowledge of Hebrew]. The other works of Schultens, principally his ' Origines He- brseae;' also of Schroeder, Scheidius, and others, are sufficiently known to scholars and orientalists, but are too difficult for those who are not familiar with the Arabic. [The following will be found the best introductions to the know- ledge of Arabic. Grammaire Arabe, a I'Usage des Eleves de I'Ecole speciale de Langues orientales vivantes, par Silvestre de Sacy. Paris, 1810. Last and improved edition, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo. It is impossible to speak too highly of this admirable work ; besides being the best Arabic grammar extant, it will be found one of the very best helps to a thorough knowledge of the Hebrew. The exercises and examples are calculated to lead the learner, by easy and agreeable paths, to a fundamental acquaint- ance with the Arabic language. 108 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART IL Institutiones ad Fundamenta Linguae Arabicae : accedunt Sententiae et Narrationes Arabicse, una cum Glossario Arabico Latino. Auctore F. C. Rosenmullero. Leips. 1818, 4to. This is considered the best grammar of the Arabic written in the Latin language. See Mr. Home's 'Introduction,' Vol. IL The best lexicon of the Arabic Language is, beyond comparison, the accurate ' Lexicon Arabico-Latinum' of Jacob Golius, first published at Leyden, in 1653. A new edition, with im- portant additions, has been prepared by Professor Freytag of Bonn, in 3 vols. 4to. two of which have been published, 1831-3. An Arabic and Latin Lexicon has also been published by the dis- tinguished Professor Jahn of Vienna, 1802, 2 vols. 8vo. — Translator.] § 109. The Syriac language is of as much, if not more use than that of the Arabic, in elucidating dif- ficult passages in the writings of the Old Testament. The pronunciation of many words, and especially of the vowels, does not indeed accord with that of the Hebrew, as, in place of the [Italian] A, it has adopted the sound of O for the first letter of the alphabet, and in place of 0 uses Au ; but, on the other hand, the Syriac language is much more simple than the Arabic, and herein more resembles the Hebrew. The significations of ancient original words in this language have not altered or multi- phed to so great a degree, nor are there so many new words added, as in the Arabic. The form- ation of the words, and their combination or con- struction, have a great similarity in both languages. Neither has the Syriac so many new letters as the Arabic ; so that both languages, viz. the Syriac and the Hebrew, may be reckoned as almost the same in respect to the consonants, and may thus often CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 109 serve as a mutual help to the explanation of the difficult words in each. Some difficulties, nevertheless, arise in this com- parison, from the frequent commutation of letters, which, however, is in general tolerably uniform. A slight attention to such commutations will make the use of the Syriac extremely convenient in the learning of Hebrew. Compare MicHAELis, Syriac Grammar ; Meyer, Versuch einer Hermeneutik, § 21 ; Bauer, Hermeneut. S. §57. [An Introduction to the Syriac Language. By the Rev. Frederick Nolan. London, 1821. 12mo. A. Th. Hoffmann, Grammaticas Syriacse, Libri Tres. Halle, 1823, 4to. This is reckoned decidedly the best Syriac Grammar. The most approved Syriac Lexicons are those of Castell and Schaaf. The former w^as first published in the Heptaglott Lexicon, designed as a Companion to Walton's Polyglott, and republished separately at Gottingen, by J. D. Michaelis, with additions, in 1788, 1 vol. 4to. The latter yv&s published at Leyden, as a Companion to Leusden and Schaaf's Syriac New Testament. 1709. — Translator.] § 110. What is commonly called the Chaldee language, is properly the Babylonian. Michaelis has called it the Eastern Aramaic dialect, and has thus distinguished it from the Western Aramaic, or Syriac. The Chaldeans were a northern barbarous nation, and spoke a language totally different from the Babylonian : it in some measure resembled the Persian, Turkish and Median languages. But after 110 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. the Chaldean princes had overturned the throne and kingdom of Babylon, the ancient Babylonian tongue obtained the name of the Chaldee. This language bears a still greater resemblance than the Syriac to the Hebrew, not only in the words them- selves, but in their conformation, compounds, and other alterations. Both, however, are, in the pro- nunciation of single words, as well as in verbs and nouns, and in many other peculiarities, different from each other, as may be easily observed by comparing the Chaldee passages which occur in the books of Daniel and Ezra. As, however, there are but a few fragments remaining of this ancient and pure Baby- lonian dialect, and it has been much corrupted from time to time, since the return of the Jews from Babylon ; * so the Chaldee does not seem to contribute much to the explanation of the Hebrew. §111. The Talmudical language bears a great resemblance to this dialect. Properly speaking, this was a corruption of the ancient Hebrew, with a subsequent admixture of the Syriac and Chaldee tongues, so that almost a new language was thus formed, which was that most probably spoken in the time of Jesus, and by Jesus himself. This language is still found in the Talmud, and in a few other remains of the ancient Rabbinical writings. * Since this time, a dialect altogether peculiar was formed in Judea, which has been usually called the Jerusalem-Chaldee. The Jerusalem Targum is written in this language. CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. Ill But the advantage derived from the knowledge of the Talmud, tovv^ards the explanation of the Biblical 'Hebrew, would not be great, if there had not been so many of the laws of Moses eluci- dated in it. Superstition, however, has prevented many passages of the Talmud from being adduced to explain the laws of Moses. [See Winer's Grammatik des Biblischen und Targumischen Chaldaismus. (Grammar of the Chaldee Language of ihe Bible and Targum). Lips. 1824. Also Jahn's, Adler's, and Harris's Chaldee Grammars.] — Trans- lator. Observation 1. — It was hoped, that since the time of Ludolf much benefit would have been derived from the Ethiopic lan- guage, in the explanation of the Old Testament. But this hope has not been realized. The helps in these countries are too few to furnish an extensive knowledge of this language. Observation 2. — The Samaritan has been also for some time regarded, particularly with respect to the Pentateuch, as a very- useful aid in the elucidation of important passages ; but, as the Samaritan Pentateuch is no other than the Hebrew written in Samaritan letters, and the translation of this Pentateuch a much later work, made in a language composed of the Babylonian, Hebrew, and Syro-Chaldean, but intermixed with many foreign words ; so, notwithstanding all the labours of the learned, but little has been hitherto gained from the use of this language, for the explanation of the Bible. Observation 3. — The Rabbins, who wrote during and after the tenth century, did not speak the Hebrew as their vernacular tongue, but acquired it as a learned language, and consequently can be but seldom competent witnesses of an ancient significa- tion. Notwithstanding all this, however, they have elucidated many difficult passages, by the aids to which they had at that time had access. Such as first begin to study the oriental languages, with the k 112 BIBLICAL HERI\.ENEUTICS. [PART II. design of acquiring a fundamental knowledge of them for the explanation of the Bible, ought principally to read the work of Michaelis, already referred to, p. 103, — ' Beurtheilung der Mittel,' &c. Gottingen, 1757. Good examples of a suitable use of the dialects will be found in the ' Opera Minora' of A. Sciiultens, in the ' Sylloge Disser- tationum Philologico-Exerreticarum sub Schultensiiset Schroe- dero defens. ;' and in the ' Critisches Collegium iiber die drey wichtigsten Psalmen,' &c. [Critical Lecture on the three most important Psalms, &c.] of Michaelis ; as well as in Schnur- rer's 'Dissert. Philol. Crit.' Gott. et Amster. 1790, 8vo. [On the Samaritan, and the cognate languages in general, see par- ticularly the following eminent work : Gulielmi Gesenii et J. S. Hoffmannii Rudimenta Orientalia ; seu Tabulae Verborum, Nominum, et Pronominum, Hebr. et Chald, Syr. Samar. Rabbin. jEthiop. cum brevi Institutione Gram. Par. 1. Lips. 1825. 4to. The Phcenician, or Punic language, will also be found interesting to the Biblical scholar, as will also, though less, if at all, allied to the Hebrew, the Coptic or Egyptian, (for wliich see the work of H. A. Hamaker.) Of the latter, there are three principal dialects : (1.) the Memphitic, (2.) the Sahidic, and (3.) the Ammonian or Bashmuric. They are, however, parti- cularly interesting, in consequence of the number of fragments of the ancient Coptic and Sahidic versions of the New Testament which have been published in modern times. Wilkins, La Croze, and Jablonski, were chief labourers in this department in the earlier part of the last century. Dr. Woide also gave great assistance, in the publication of Scholtz and La Croze's Grammar and Lexicon of the Sahidic, wnth an account of the recent discoveries in Egyptian literature. A new edition of this has been announced by Mr. Tattam, the author of the following work : A Compendious Grammar of the Egyptian Language, both of the Coptic or Memphitic, and Sahidic dialects, with Obser- vations on the Bashmuric ; together with the Alphabets of the Hieroglyphic and Demotic, or Enchorial Characters, and CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 113 a few Explanatory Observations. By the Rev. Henry Tat- TAM, M. A. , with an Appendix, &c. by Thomas Young, M.D. London, 1830, 8vo.*]. — Translator. § 112. Ancient and modern versions must be reckoned among the most important aids to the explanation of the Old and New Testaments. As, however, future clergymen can have an opportunity of comparing but some of those with the text, in order to assist the labour of interpretation, since they cannot all be expected to possess the old transla- tions, viz. the Syriac, Arabic, &c. or the ability rightly to apply them for the discovery of the true sense of Hebrew words, it will be sufficient here briefly to describe a few of the ancient and modern versions of the entire Old Testament, and to men- tion their use, and to notice the others, only as far as is absolutely necessary, in the Observations. * The Armenian language deserves the particular attention of the Biblical student, chiefly in consequence of the ancient version of the New Testament preserved in that language, as well as many other valuable works, of which the entire Chronicon of Eusebius was published in Milan and Venice in 1818. Schroeder's Thesaurus and La Croze's Lexicon, are the classical woi'ks in this department. I can safely say, from experience, that the former is one of the best and most complete helps to the acqui- sition of a language that it has ever been my lot to meet with. I shall conclude with naming the Persic language, into which the Pentateuch and the Gospels were translated at a very early period. Much philological knowledge on these subjects will be found in Schultz's ' Orientalischer und Occidentalischer Sprachmeister,' and Adelung's ' Mithridates,' the publication of which commenced at Berlin, in 1 806, and was continued after the author's death by the learned J. S. Vater in 1809, 1812, and 1813, 3 vols. 8vo.— Translator. I 114 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. The Vulgate deserves to be ranked above all other ancient versions of the Old Testament. It was originally made, not from the Hebrew text, but from the Greek of the Septuagint ; but Jerome so im- proved the older Latin version, that it came much nearer the Hebrew, and finally attained such esti- mation in the Church, that it was universally re- ceived, confirmed by the popes, used in all kinds of theological and ecclesiastical instruction, and, there- fore, denominated the Vulgate or common Version. Luther has also availed himself of it throughout, in his German translation. This he might with pro- priety do, as it faithfully expresses the Hebrew in many passages, and, indeed, almost follows it with such scrupulous servility, that it may be considered, in some measure, as a perpetual lexicon of the Old Testament. But this translation cannot at all times be followed with perfect confidence, as it has been corrupted beyond measure by the blunders of faulty transcribers and unquahfied correctors. Compare Humphry Hody, De Bibliorum Textibus Originalibiis, cap. iv. Far superior is the Latin translation, which Jerome made from the original Hebrew text, and published after the year 388. For, although this Father examined and compared for his work the Greek translations of the Old Testament, as well the Alexandrian as the versions of Aquila, Sym- machus, and Theodotion, he had acquired from the Jews such a knowledge of the Hebrew language, that he was enabled to make a critical CHAP I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 115 use of those translations, and thereby improve his own in many passages.* Compare Eichhorn's Einleitung ins Alten Testament [Introduc- tion to the Old Testament] Vol. I. pp. 582—612. [319—338 of Hamelsveld's Dutch translation. — Heringa.] Hieronymus Stridoniensis, Interpres, Criticus, Exegeta, Apolo- geta, Historicus, Doctor, Monachus. Auct. L. Engelstoft. Hafn. 1797, Svo. p. 115, et seq. If beginners would lighten their task, they may make use of some good modern translation along with the Vulgate. Bathe's is the best modern Latin version. The German translation of the Bible by Michaelis, although sometimes deficient in elegance and strength of expression, is nevertheless de- servedly esteemed for its faithfulness. [The Dutch authorized version retains a high degree of value for its fidelity and its marginal references ; but the more recent translations of Van Vloten and Hamelsveld, may be still of much service, by reason of the use made by them of modern discoveries in aid of the explanation of the Holy Scriptures ; — that by Hamelsveld particularly for the unlearned, in consequence of its ease and fluency.] — HERiNGA.f * See the note at the end of this Section, p. 127. — Translator. ■f Since the above remarks of Dr. Heringa, Dr. Van der Palm published his admirable Dutch translation of the Bible, 4to. Six Parts, Antwerp, 1822, which is now the most esteemed version in Holland, both for the fidelity and elegance of the text, and the valuable notes with which it is accompanied. It is probably the best modern translation of the Bible in existence. — Translator. i2 116 BIBLICAL IIERMENEUTICS. [PART II. [The excellence and fidelity of our own autho- rized version remain unrivalled. But we have not equalled our neighbours, the Dutch, in producing a modern translation, which gives a faithful picture of the original, adapted to our own times. For, notwithstanding the light that has been thrown on the original languages, and the various helps with which the learned have been abundantly furnished since the last revision of our translation in the time of James I. ; it still continues as a whole to supersede all others, and to preserve the suffrages of the learned, not only of our own church, but of other denomi- nations of Christians, both in this country and in America. The labours of Newcome, Lowth, Geddes, Boothroyd, Good, Scott, and many others in this important department, have, indeed, con- siderably facihtated the design of a revised version ; and a modern translation of the best corrected text of the Old Testament, retaining the dignity and simplicity of the original, literal without being idiomatic, accomplished with good taste, and speci- ally guarding against the retaining or omitting of a reading or rendering, on any but pure critical and philological principles, and which would thus recommend itself to the learned by its critical use, and to all Christians by its fidelity, would no doubt be hailed by every unprejudiced person, who reverenced the genuine word of God, as a great accession to biblical learning.* — Translator.] * The reader will observe that I have in the preceding remarks specially alluded to the Old Testament, as this portion of the CHAP. I. S. 1.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 117 § 113. Nothing is so necessary for future theo- logians as a close acquaintance with the Greek translation of the Old Testament, as it is un- deniably a much older version of the Bible than any other now extant. On this account, the Alex- andrian must be considered as the second best help to the explanation of the Old Testament; the more so, as the manuscripts from which this trans- lation was made, must have been of uncommonly high antiquity, and as the Fathers of the Greek church have often conformed thereto. It is, besides, exceedingly literal in most passages, and the proper signification of Hebrew words can, therefore, be better learned from this than from a more free translation ; but it must be admitted to be, on this very account, in many passages unin- work only relates thereto. The translation of the Bible used in this country by the Roman Catholics, is made from the Latin Vulgate, and is consequently of no use to the interpreter; the New Testament was originally published at Rheims in 1582, and the Old at Douay in 1609 ; but it has been altered and improved at various times in England and Ireland by the Roman Catholic prelates; many of these alterations have been made in con- formity with the Authorized Version, even in passages where that Version had been charged with falsehood by some polemical writers of the church of Rome ; such as Ward, in his ' Errata of the Protestant Bible.' — The * Improved Version ' of the Unitarians is only of the New Testament ; this work is sup- posed to be founded on Archbishop Newcome's translation from Griesbach's text, but it recedes from the Archbishop's translation in some most important passages, in which the translators seem to have been actuated more by dogmatical than philological principles. — Translator, 118 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [I'ART II. telligible, and in others to give a false or perverted sense. In some books of the Old Testament, particularly the Psalms and Prophets, the trans- lation is a servile imitation of the text. We should have been ignorant of the signification of many words, if we had not possessed this transla- tion ; we should have been uncertain of the mean- ing of others, if we had not this to direct our judgment. As the Greek of the New Testament has its origin chiefly from the Alexandrian translation, and the use made of it in rehgious instruction, an intimate acquaintance with this important work is the more necessary for the future in- terpreter. Compare Eichhorn's Einleitung [Introduction], 161. 183. [The theological student should be provided, for the interpretation of the Greek version of the Old Testament, with Schleusners Lexicon to the Septuagint, § 114. — Translator.] Observation 1. — The Fragments of the translation of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, are for critics and experienced interpreters a desirable help to the discovery of the true sense, but beginners should adhere to what is most essential. On this account, nothing but what is absolutely necessary is said in the following remarks relative to their use, as also respecting the advantage to be derived from the Syriac and Arabic versions, and other ancient translations, as well as the Chaldee paraphrases, in the interpretation of Scrip- ture. [Compare Eichhorn's Introduction, §§ ISl, 301. — Hf.ringa.] CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 119 Observation 2. — The most caccurate of the translations of the Bible in the oriental languages, or Semitic dialects, is the Syriac. It is a faithful witness of the readings of those times, and adheres so closely to the original, that, in many passages, the identical words are found which exist in the Hebrew; but, on this acconnt, many passages which are obscure in the original Hebrew, are equally so in the Syriac version. [This faithful version was most probably written at the close of the first, cer- tainly before the end of the second, century. See Jahn's In- troduction.— Translator.] Observation 3. — The Chaldee paraphrases are of various de- grees of value. Onkelos, the translator of the Pentateuch, expresses the Hebrew text very correctly, and elucidates many passages by a short explanation or gloss. Jonathan, the paraphrast of the Prophets, is very diffuse, adds much which the original does not contain, and explains many passages according to the preconceived opinions of his time. Notwithstanding this, his work is, in other passages, an excellent help to the interpreter. The other Chaldee paraphrases are by later authors. The Psalms are intermixed with a multiplicity of explanations — many of them strange ones. The books of Chronicles were translated at a much later period. A succinct but most accurate description of all the Targums is to be found in Bauer's * Critica Sacra,' § 59 — 81. [The Chaldee paraphrases were written at various times, from the first to the ninth centuries. — Translator.] Observation 4. — There are some parts of the Old Testament translated immediately from the Hebrew into Arabic, by Rabbi Saadias Gaon, of Egypt. His Pentateuch was first published [in 1546]; and in 1790 and 1791 Professor Paulus gave his Isaiah to the world. Saadias flourished about the 10th centuryj was master of both languages, and a man of great learning. In his- torical passages he adheres closely to the text ; but in the more difficult and the poetical parts, he generally has recourse to the practice of paraphrasing. This is also the case in Isaiah, where he acts as a commentator in many passages. The other Arabic versions are from the Greek [or Syriac. — H.]. See Eichhorn's Introduction. Vol. I. p. 490. 120 BIBLICAL IIERMENEUTICS. [PART II. C. F. ScHNURKER, De Pentateucho Arab. Polyglotto. Tubingae, 1780, 4to. R. Saadi/e Phijumensis Versio Jesaiae Arabica, cum aliis Speciminibus Arab. Bibl. Ed. H. E. G. Paulus. Fasciculi II. Jena;, 1790, 1791, 8vo. Observation 5. — The Polyglott Bibles contain several trans- lations besides tlie text. Although larger works of this kind can be made use of by but few, every one who makes the least pretension to theological learning ought to have, at least, a general knowledge of them. The principal are the four fol- lowing : 1. The CoMPLUTENSiAN BiBLE, in 6 vols, folio, published at Alcala or Complu turn, in Spain, 1514-1517, under the direc- tion and at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes. Besides the text, it contains the Chaldee paraphrase of Onkelos, the Alex- andrian or Septuagint version, and the Vulgate. 2. The RoYAi, Polyglott Bible, by Christian Blandin, pub- lished at Antwerp, in 7 vols, folio, 1569-1572, at the expense of Philip II. king of Spain, thence called the Royal. The labour of preparing this great work was chiefly undertaken by Benedict Arias Montanus. The Hebrew is accompanied by the very literal Latin interlinear version of Santis Pagnini, re- vised by Arias Montanus and others. This edition contains also the Chaldee paraphrases, the Septuagint, and the Latin Vulgate. 3. The Paris Polyglott, published in 1G45, in 10 vols. fol. by- Guy Michael de Jay. Besides the Chaldee, Greek, and Latin versions, it contains the Syriac and Arabic, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. The celebrated John Morinus, Gabriel Sionita, and other men of distinguished learning, were the editors. 4. TheLoNDONPoLYGLOTT,publishedby Bryan\Valton,in 1657, in 6 vols, folio, together with two other volumes in 1657, con- taining the Heptaglott Lexicon of Edmund Castell. Besides the Hebrew text, it contains the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Chaldee, (.hcek, Samaritan, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, CHAP. 1. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 121 and Latin Vulgate versions, with Latin translations of the original, and of the oriental versions. Compare Eichhorn's Introduction, Vol. L §393 and 397. To these may be now added, Bagster's Polyglott 5ible — for which, see Appendix to this Chapter, p. 146 infra. § 114. Although, before applying to the interpre- tation of the Bible, it is necessary to be acquainted with the first principles of Hebrew grammar, the interpreter should steadily continue his grammatical studies. The forms of a language should be accu- rately known by those who would explain the books written in it. All the parts of speech, their inflec- tions, their relations to each other, the influence which the smallest particles have on the contents of a period, and all the modifications of nouns and verbs, should be constantly before the mind of the interpreter, in order that he may accurately know the sense of a passage. It is therefore necessary for him not only frequently to consult his grammar, but also many other philological writings, especially such as take a philosophical view of the language; as the works of Schultens (1), Hezel(2), Vater (3), Storr (4), &c. 1. A. ScHULTENs's Institutiones ad Fundamenta Linguae He- braese. Leyden, 1756, 4to. 2. Hezel's Ausfiihrliche Hebraische Sprachlehre (Compre- hensive Hebrew Grammar). Halle, 1778, 8vo. 3. Vater's Hebraische Sprachlehre (Hebrew Grammar). Leip- sic, 1797 : and kleinere Hebraische Sprachlehre [Shorter ditto]. Leipsic 1798, 8vo. 4. Storr's Obscrvationes ad Analogiam et Syntaxin Hebraicam pertincntcs. Tub. 1779. 122 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. [The following Hebrew Grammars, with those mentioned in the Appendix to this Chapter, are those most approved of in this country : — Grammaticas Linguae Hebraica^. Auctore Joiianne Jaiin. Vienna?, 1809, 8vo. A Hebrew Grammar, with a copious Syntax and Praxis. By Moses Stuart, Professor of Sacred Literature in the Theo- logical Seminary at Andover (Massachusetts), 1821. 4th Ed. much improved, 1831, 8vo. reprinted at Oxford. Professor Stuart's work is, deservedly, becoming every day better known, and more highly esteemed, in this country. A Grammar of the Hebrew Language, comprised in a series of Lectures, compiled from the best Authorities, and augmented with much original matter, drawn principally from oriental sources; designed for the use of Students in the Universi- ties. By the Rev. Samuel Lee, A.M. (nowD.D.) Pro- fessor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. London, 1827, 8vo. 2d Ed. 1831. Hebrew Grammar, &c. with the principal Rules, compiled from some of the most considerable Hebrew Grammars. By Thomas Yeates. London, 1812, &c. A Comprehensive Hebrew Grammar, wherein the Principles of the Language are simply and briefly explained. By George Jones, A.M. Dublin, 182G, 8vo. Composed for the use of Students in the University of Dublin. For a high character of this Grammar, see the ' Christian Examiner and Church of Ireland Magazine' for February, 1827. A Hebrew Grammar in the English Language. By Joseph Samuel C. Frey. London, 1813, 8vo. A new edition, with corrections and additions, by George Downes, A.M. London, 1823, 8vo. This Grammar is highly commended in the ' Monthly Review,' (N. S.) Vol. LVIII. p. 5.5 ; and in Mr. Hartwell Home's ' Intro- duction,' Vol. II. Bibliographical Appendix, p. 1H2, in which the character of the above-named and other Hebrew grammars arc amply given. — Much information, conveyed in a popular CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 123 form, on the character of the Semitic dialects in general, will be found in the following useful compendium : — An Elementary Course of Lectures on the Criticism, Interpre- tation, and leading Doctrines of the Bible, delivered at Bristol College in the years 1832, 1833. To the critical or philological part is appended an Essay on the General Gram- matical Principles of the Semitic Languages. By W. D. CoNYBEARE, M.A. Rector of Sully, Visitor of the College. Lond. 1834. — Translator.] Without the aid of Lexicons, no beginner can make any progress in translation and interpretation. The latest and best Hebrew Lexicons are the fol- lowing : — J. SiMONis, Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum. Halle, 1793. Recensuit et emendavit John Gottlieb Eich- horn. Halle, 1793. [Post J. G. Eichhomii curas denuo re- censuit, emendavit, auxit Dr. George Benjamin Winer. Lips. 1826, 8vo.] Lexicon et Commentarius Sermonis Hebraici et Chaldaici, post Joii. Hen. Maium, correctius et emendatius edidit Jo. Christ. Frid. Schultz. Lips. 1777, 2 vols. Svo. J. D. MicHAELis, Supplementa ad Lexica Hebraica. Gott. 1784-1792, 6 vols. 4to. [These Hebrew Lexicons are now generally superseded in this country as well as on the continent by the following : — GuLiELMi Gesenit Thesaurus Philologico-Criticus Linguae He- brseae et Chaldseas Veteris Testamenta. Editio altera se- cundum radices digesta, priori Germanica longe auctior et emendatior. Lipsiae, 1827, Pars 1. 4to. et folio. (This work is beautifully printed.) A Hebrew Lexicon to the Books of the Old Testament ; including the Geogi'aphical Names and Chaldaic Words in Daniel, Ezra, &c. By D. Wilhelm Gesenius, Doctor and 124 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. Professor of Theology at the University of Halle. Trans- lated from the German by Christopher Leo, Teacher of Hebrew and German in the University of Cambridge, and late Professor of German at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. Cambridge, at the University Press, 1825-28, 2 vols, royal 4to. A Hebrew and English Lexicon to the Old Testament, inclu- ding the Biblical Chaldee, from the German Works of Pro- fessor W. Gesenius. By Josiah W. Gibes, A.M., Andover, 1824, royal 8vo. Last edition, (revised). London 1833, 8vo. Robertson's Clavis Pentateuchi. Edinburgh, 1770, et Norvici, 1824, 8vo. ; and Bytiiner's Lyra Prophetica. London, 1G50, and 1823, 8vo., are too well known to beginners to need com- mendation here. Keyworth and Jones's Principia Hebraica is also highly commended as an elementary treatise. See ' Eclectic Review,' Nov. 1818, and Mr. Home's Introduction, Vol. II. Part II. 1834, p. 193, seq. Bibliog. Appendix, 7th Ed. Concordances are of especial use in facilitating the investigation of the sense of words, and their various significations. For example : Fred. Lankisch, German, Hebrew, and Greek Concordance. Leipsic, 1718, fol. Mari/e de Calasio, Concordantise Bibliorum Hebraicorum et Latinorum. Roma?, 1G21, 4 vols. fol. London, edited by William Romayne, 1747. JoHANNis Buxtorfii, Coucordantisc Hebraicae et Chaldaicae. Basil, 1G32, fol. GoTT. JoACH. WiciiMAN, Biblischc Handconcordanz. Dessau, 1782. CiiRisTiANi NoLDii ConcordantijB, &c. Jense, 1734, 4to The last editions contain an Appendix, by John David Michaelis. The Hebrew Concordance, adapted to the English Bible, disposed after the manner of Buxtorf. By John Taylor, D.D., of Norwich. The larger works of this kind arc, however, too expensive for the CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 125 generality of Biblical scholars ; and the same remark applies to larger Concordances to the Septuagint, such as Abrahami Trommii Concordantiae Graecas. Amsterdam, 1718, 2 vols. fol. CoNEADi KiRCHERi Concordantise V. T. Grsecse, Ebraciis Vocibus respondentes. Francfort, 1607, 2 torn. 4to. But the following works are easier obtained : JoH. Christ. Biel, Novus Thesaurus Philologicus sive Lexicon in LXX. et alios Interpretes et Scriptores Apocryphos V. T. Hagae, 1779-80, 3 vols. 8vo. [This work, with its continuations by Schleusner and Bretschneider, is now superseded by the following, which is indispensable to the Biblical student : — Novus Thesaurus Philologico Criticus sive Lexicon in LXX. et reliquos interpretes Grsecos, ac Scriptores Apocryphos Veteris Testamenti ; post Bielium et alios viros Doctos, congessit et edidit Johannes Friedericus Schleusner. Lipsise, 1820-21. 5 vols. 8vo. Glasgow and London, 1822. 3 vols. 8vo. The last is beyond comparison the best edition. — Translator.] § 115. For want of both time and means, but few clergymen and students in theology can make use of the larger commentaries on the whole Bible. Good scholia are, therefore, the aids which they must have recourse to, together with faithful ver- sions. The best on the Old Testament are those of Schulz and Bauer (1) ; the next those of Rosen- mUller (2). 1. J. Christ. Fred. Schulzii und Georg. Baueri, Scholia in Vetus Testamentum. Norimbergae, 1783 — 1797, 10 vols. 8vo. 2. Ernest Fred. Car. Rosenmuller, Scholia in Vetus Tes- tamentum. Lipsiae, 1788 — 1798, 4 vols. 8vo. [3d Ed. sic ab auctore recognita, emendata et aucta, ut novum opus videri potest. 1821 — 1826. 18 vols. 8vo.] The candour with which this learned scholiast has altered some of his lax and dangerous comments, has been warmly com- 126 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. rilended by Dr. J. Pye Smith, ' Scripture Testimony,' Vol. I. p. 252. 2d Ed. A still more accessible work to the generality of students is Rosenmiiller's Abridgment of Ids greater work, by J. C. S. Lechner, but finally submitted to his own revision, Vol I. — V. containing the Pentateuch, Psalms, Job, and Eze- kiel. Lips. 1828-33. 8vo.] HuGONis Grotii Annotationes in V. T. [published in his ' Opera Theologica,' and transferred into the ' Biblia Critica;' afterwards published separately. — H.] By George John Ludov. Vogel. Halle, 3 vols. 1775, 1776 ; and the Poetical Books, with the Supplements of Doederlein. 1779. Observation. — The works necessary for the explanation of tlie separate parts and books of the Old Testament, will be named in the sequel, in the introductions to the interpretation of these books. § 116. A good EDITION of the Bible will con- siderably facilitate the labours of the interpreter. It will, therefore, be advisable for beginners to pro- vide themselves, as soon as possible, with an edition which is provided with variations and critical remarks. Such are the editions of John Henry Michaelis, printed at Halle, in 1720, Svo. ; and of Everard Van Der Hooght, Amsterdam and Utrecht, 1705, and above all the following : Biblia Hebraica cum variis Lectionibus ex ingenti Codicum copia a Kcnnicotto et de Rossi collatorum ediderunt Jo. Christ. Doederlein et J. H. Meisner. Lips. 1793, Svo. [Second Edition, with a Preface, by Dr. Knapp. Halle, 1818. To which the following editions may be now added ; Biblia Hebraica. Digessit et graviores Lectiomnn Varietates adjecit Johannes Jahn. Vienna, 1808. 4 vols. 8vo. CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 127 This is, perhaps, the best and completest edition of the Hebrew Bible. The text is that of Van Der Hooght; the poetical parts are metrically arranged, and the most important various readings are sub- joined. For a much more full account of this, as well as the two following works, see Mr. Home's Introduction, Vol. H. p. 9. Bibliogr. Appendix, 7th Ed. Biblia Hebraica, accompanied with English notes, critical, philological, and explanatory. By B. Bootli- royd, D.D. Pontefract and London, 1 816, 2 vols. 4to. Biblia Hebraica a Juda D'AUemand, Linguae Sanctse Doctori. London, 1822, 1833, 8vo. This cheap, correct, and beautiful edition, is stereotyped. — Translator.] More copious accounts of the writings which appertain to the criticism of the Old Testament, described with as much industry as accuracy, will be found in the ' Handbuch fiir die Literatur der Biblis- chen Kritik und Exegese' [Manual of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis], by Ernst Frederic Karl Rosenmuller. Gott. 1797, 1798, 2 vols. Note to § 112 supra, p. 115, on the Latin Vulgate. There seems to be some confusion in Seiler's account of the Vulgate Version. The present authorized Latin Version of the Church of Rome is, so far as regards the Old Testament, the same, but much corrupted, which Jerome made directly from the original Hebrew, and which subsequently received the sanction of Pope Gregory the Great, at the end of the sixth century. Of Jerome's first correction of the old Italic Version by the Sep- tuagint, only two books have descended to our times, viz. the 128 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. Psalms and the Book of Job, Indeed, the only parts ever pub- lished by Jerome were these two books, with the Chronicles, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, or Song of Solomon. The manuscripts of the remainder, as Jerome informs Augustine in his 64th Epistle, were fraudulently destroyed or secreted ; and it w^as this treachery which induced Jerome, in defiance of the invec- tives of his friend and admirer, Augustine, who seemed to think that the cause of Christianity itself would be affected by the innovation, to undertake the noble and difficult task of a trans- lation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew. In this translation, which was undertaken by Jerome partly for the purpose of confuting the Jews, and partly to gratify his private friends, he does not invariably adhere strictly to the Hebrew, but sometimes follows the ancient Greek translators, even where he knew they were in error, lest he might offend his readers by too much novelty ; but he supplies his own trans- lation in his comments. In some instances, Jerome's version is not so correct as the more ancient one ; but it exceeds beyond comparison, as a whole, all former translations, and would have been still better, had he not translated with too much haste. (See his Preface to the Books of Solomon and Tobit.) This great and admirable work was much opposed in his own times, of which he bitterly complains ; and it was left to the more correct judgment of posterity to appreciate the work, which gradually obtained the approbation of the Latin Church at the close of the sixth cen- tury, and in the seventh was generally received. Jerome's translation was made at Bethlehem, in Judea, where he had fixed his residence in order to obtain the assistance of learned Jews in acquiring a knowledge of the Hebrew, which he succeeded in doing at a considerable expense. The books of the Bible were finished in the following order. The books of Samuel, Kings, and Job, about the year 393 ; after which the books of the Prophets, Psalms, and the writings of Solomon. Ezra and Genesis were finished in 394 ; Chronicles, 390. The remainder of the Pentateuch before the year 404. Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Esther, in the year 405. He also translated the book of Tobit from the Chaldee language. It will not, I trust, be deemed superfluous here to add the following brief history of the text of the Vulgate. Copies soon multiplied, and in proportion to their numbers, abounded in CHAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 129 errors and various readings ; alterations were introduced by transcribers from the old Italic, from Liturgical books, and even from Josephus.* In the eighth century, or the commencement of the ninth, it was corrected from beginning to end, by Alcuin, at the order of Charlemagne, from the most ancient sources ; that is, according to Hody ( de Textibus), from the Hebrew. This, however, has been controverted by many learned men, includ- ing Porson (Letters to Travis), who maintains that the ancient sources used by Alcuin, were ancient manuscripts of the Vulgate. This recension of Alcuin was soon again replete with errors from the same causes, when it was again amended by Lanfranc, arch- bishop of Canterbury, in the year 1089. Again, in the middle of the twelfth century. Cardinal Nicolaus found as many varying transcripts as there were manuscripts, and procured a new and corrected recension. About the same period, the Paris theologians commenced their Correctoria. Then followed those by Hugo de St. Caro, continued by the Dominicans from the year 1240, some of which, however, were disapproved of by Roger Bacon, in the year 1264-8, in his letters to Clement IV. These manu- scripts contain a greater number of various readings than the more modern ones. Things continued in this state till the invention of printing, when some editions of the Vulgate were printed, but without any date or name. The first editions which bear a date, are those printed at Mayentz in Germany, in 1462; Rome, 1471; Venice, 1475; and Naples, 1476. In the commencement of the sixteenth century, Adrian Gummelli, Albert Castellanus, and the editors of the Com- plutensian Polyglott, had published corrected editions, and Robert Stephens published his edition in 1523, and another in 1540, which Hentenius compared withmany manuscripts and editions, and published his own in 1547, at Louvain, which was republished, with many amendments, at Antwerp, in 1580 and 1585. In the mean time, viz. in 1569, the celebrated Council of Trent having declared the Vulgate to be the authentic version, but without fixing on any text, either manuscript or printed, Pius IV. ordered a new edition to be published, the care of which he committed to the most learned Roman theologians, who collected the best manuscripts for that purpose. This work was continued by his * Jahn's Introduction. K 130 BIBLICAL HERMKNEUTICS. [PART II. successor, Pius V,, and compared with the original text. During the pontificate of Gregory XIII. no progress was made ; but the work was resumed and completed by Sixtus V. in 1590, by whom it was confirmed by a perpetual constitution, and enjoined on the whole Latin church, with a prohibition against the adoption of various readings which had been supplied in former editions. After the death of Sixtus, his successor, Clement, found this edition to abound with errors, the blame of which was, by the ingenuity of Cardinal Bellarmine (who wrote the Preface), in order to preserve the honour of the apostolic see, laid upon the printer. This Preface led to the Cardinal's Beatification.* The Clementine edition was amended in 2000 passages from manuscripts. Fathers, and the original text, but chiefly from the Louvain edition. This edition of Clement was published in 1592. Some passages in this edition were very improperly altered in conformity with the original text then existing, the editors not considering that there were manuscripts of much greater antiquity existing in the time of Jerome ; and that their labours ought therefore to have been confined to the investigation of the most ancient manuscripts of the Vulgate. It w-as, however, in general edited according to just critical canons. A purer edition of Jerome's version is that published by Martianay at Paris in 1G93. The Psalter of the present printed Vulgate, as well as the books of Baruch,Ecclesiastes, Wisdom, and Maccabees, are from the old Italic version. It has been much disputed, both by Protestant and Roman Catholic writers, what the session of the Council of Trent intended by declaring the Vulgate to be the * authentic' version : some on each side maintaining that it was intended to give it an authority above that of the original text ; while others, among whom, on this occasion, singularly enough, is Cardinal Bellarmine, contend that it was merely intended thereby to declare it the only authentic Latin translation, of which there were many at that time in use. Indeed, many of the more intelligent writers of the Church of Rome are far from considering it immaculate. Nay, Isidore Clarius,f a * Hug's Introduction. f Jahn's Introduction, where it is 80,000, probably a mis- print ; this error is repeated in Dr. Turner's translation. — Translator. CriAP. I. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 131 learned divine of that church, acknowledges to have discovered in it eight thousand errors. The term, 'authentic,' does not seem in this view to differ much from our own term, ' authorized,' applied to the received English version in this country ; nor have some of the more learned divines of the church of Rome considered that this de- cree applied to any, unless those who were ignorant of the languages of the original text; and those portions of the Greek and other ori- ental churches, which are in communion with the church of Rome, still use their own versions. The former uses the Septuagint or Alexandrian version, the Syro-Roman church uses the Syriac. Those Arabians and Armenians who acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope use the Arabic and Armenian versions. The church of Rome, however, has not given its sanction to any text of either Greek or Hebrew, and it is certain that the Syriac, Arabic, Ar- menian, and other versions, used by those who acknowledge the Pope, have been altered, in many passages, so as to make them correspond with the printed Vulgate. This was done by the Portuguese in India, in the case of the Syriac manuscripts used by those Syrian Christians, whom they compelled to join their commu- nion.— See La Croze * Christianisme des Indes,' — the Acts of the Synod of Diamper, and Buchanan's Researches, p. 141, 9th ed. All modern translations of the Bible in the church of Rome are, moreover, made immediately from the Vulgate. The various readings of the Greek manuscripts, collected by Mill, Wetstein, &c., have been by some Roman Catholic writers in this country contrasted with the uniformity of the Vulgate, in order to advance the authority of the latter ; but although the authority of the Vulgate in sacred criticism is deservedly high, yet this character is not derived from its uniformity, which has regard only to the printed text. The manuscripts of the Vulgate abound, like all other manuscripts, in various readings, in pro- portion to their number, or, to use the words of Pope Sixtus V., " Variis lectionibus in plures quodam modo distracta videbatur. Quarum licet nonnullas, aut veterum Codicum, aut sanctorum Patrum invexisset auctoritas, plurimae nihilominus vel ex injuria temporum, vel ex librariorum incuria, vel ex impressorum imperitia, vel ex temere emendantium licentia, Szc tantam autem labes ne adhuc ulterius serperet, sensimque in vulgatam editionem nostram manaret, sapienter eadem OEcumenica Synodus K 2 132 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. Tridentina decrevit ut lijec ipsa Vetus et Vulgata editio quam emendatissime imprimeretur." And after stating that twenty- two years had now elapsed since the decree of the council, he adds, that he had corrected the text with his own hand : " Ut Vulgata Vetus, ex Tridentinae Synodi pi*aescripto, emendatissima, pristinseque suae puritati, qualis primum ab ipsius interpretis manu styloque prodierat, quoad ejus fieri potest, restituta impri- matur." See his decree, dated at Rome, 1589. I may observe here, that Jerome made no new translation of the New Testament, but compared and corrected the various Latin versions which existed in his time. See Hodius de Textibus, and Jahn's and Hug's Introductions. — Translator. SECTION II. Of the Aids to the necessary Knowledge of Things. INTRODUCTION. In order to investigate and ascertain the true sense of the books of the Old Testament, it is ne- cessary to be acquainted with certain historical and other sources of knowledge, for attaining which the best helps will be here pointed out; and, at the same time, some cautions in the use of them imparted. The most important of these are : — 1. Hebrew antiquities, and some general know- ledge of the oriental nations ; for example, their ancient manners and customs, kc. 2. The ancient geography of Palestine, and other Asiatic countries. 3. The theological and superstitious sentiments CHAP. I. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 133 of the heathen nations who are mentioned in the Bible. 4. The essential parts of the history of those nations who were connected by intercourse with the Jews ; also ancient chronology. § 11 7. As every writing must be explained agreeably to the manners and common modes of thinking, — the degree of knowledge and civili- zation,^— of the people among whom and for whom the same was in the first instance composed ; and as every nation has its peculiar modes of acquiring and disposing of property, its occupations, marriage rites, domestic economy, &c., so must the interpreter of the Bible explain many passages in Scripture from the antiquities of the Hebrews and other nations connected with them. Hence, therefore, in the first place, it follows, That he should investigate the sources from which knowledge of this kind is to be drawn ; 2. That he should not, without sufficient grounds, have recourse to antiquities in order to explain a passage of the Old Testament, which can be elucidated from the nature of the subject and the signification of the words ; 3. That he will not without necessity have recourse to the antiquities of foreign nations, when a passage may be explained from Hebrew antiqui- ties alone ; 4. That he should take especial care not to con- found the different periods of history, by ascribing 134 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. manners, customs, or modes of acting, to the older Hebrews, which are pecuHar only to the later Israelites, or to modern Jews. 5. Also that he will not follow the example of those who have invented antiquities, in order to explain an obscure passage by their aid. The most essential books on this subject are : — Flavius Josephus' Antiquitates Judaicje. Amst, 1726, fol. [London, translated by Whiston, in 1737; of which there are various editions.] Hadr. Relandi, Antiquit. Sacr. Vet. Hebr. recensuit et animad- versionibus Ugolianis-Ravianis auxit Ge. Jo. Ludov. Vogel. Halle, 1769, 8vo. The following works will be found to assist the study of Reland's Antiquities : — John Simonis, Vorlesungen uber die Jud. Alterthiimer nach An- leitung Hadr. Relandi Antiq. Sacr. Vet. Hebr. [Lectures on Jewish Antiquities, after Reland]. Republished by S. Mursinna. Halle, 1769. Con. Ikenii Antiquitat. Hebr. Bremae, 1742, 8vo. More copious and more worthy of attention is the following larger work : JoH. LuNDius, Joodsche oudheden. Amst. 1726, 2 vols, folio. Translated into German, and enlarged by Henry Muhl, and afterwards by J. C. Wolf. Hamb. 1738, fol. John Babor, Alterthiimer der Hebraer [Hebrew Antiquities]. Wien, 1794, 8vo. [An eminently good work on this subject is the Biblische Archseo- logie of John Jahn. Wien, 1796, 5 vols. gr. 8vo. — H.] — [Also the Archajologia Biblica in Compendium Redacta, by the same writer. Viennae, 1814, Svo. This has been translated into English, with additions, from Jahn's German work and other sources, by Thomas C. Upham. Andover, 1823 and 1832. An expurgated edition of this work was published at Vienna in 1S26, by Professor Ackcrmann, in consequence of Jahn's CHAP. I. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 135 works having been put in the Index Expurgatorius, and pro- hibited by the Pope in 1822. See Mr. Home's Introduction, Vol. II. pp. 148. 346. 7th Ed.— Bibliog. Appendix.— Tr.] Those who can only purchase smaller works, will find excellent information in H. C. Warnekros, de Joodsche (Hebraischen) Oudheden ont- vouwd en opgehelderd. Uit het Hoogduitch [Jewish Anti- quities, from the German]. Leyden, 1804. [Also the smaller work of Jahn or of Ackermann, mentioned above, or Mr. Upham's Translation. JoHANNis Pareau, Antiquitas Hebraica Breviter Delineata. Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1817. Second edition, 1824, 8vo. — Translator.] One of the best books, and which embraces all sorts of real know- ledge necessary for the explanation of the Bible, is, Handbuch der Biblischen Litteratur (Manual of Biblical Litera- tm-e), von Joh. Frederick Bellermann, Erfurt, 1787; the first vol. of which contains Archaeology or Antiquities. Of peculiar works of this kind, which treat of distinct subjects, such as agriculture, the breeding of cattle, weights and measures, the Hebrew calen- dar, and music, a good account will be found, partly in Warnekros, partly in Noesselt's ' Anwei- sung zur Kenntniss der besten Allgemeinen Bucher in alien Theilen der Theologie' [Introduction to the Knowledge of the most generally useful Books in all departments of Theology,] § 77, e^ seq. As many of the ancient manners, customs, and usages in the manner of living and occupations of the ancient Orientals have continued unaltered to the present day in Palestine, Arabia, Syria, and other countries, it will be necessary to be acquainted 136 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. with the descriptions given by travellers of these countries. The best works are : — Thomas Harmer, Observations on divers Passages of Scrip- ture, placing many of them in a light altogether nevsr, &c., by means of Circumstances mentioned in Books of Voyages and Travels into the East. Best edition, London, 1816, 4 vols. 8vo. Translated into German, w^ith Notes, by John Ernst. Faber, and into Dutch, with additional observations. Utrecht, 1774. Thomas Shaw's Travels, or Observations relating to various parts of Barbary and the Levant. Oxford, 1738, fol. ; London, 1757, 4to. Supplement, 1746. Translated into Dutch, by P. Boddart, with the notes of Saxe, Rau, Tydeman, and the Translator. Utrecht and Amsterdam, 1771—1774. Richard Pococke [Bishop of Ossory], A Description of the East and other Countries. London, 1743-5, 2 vols, folio. Translated into Dutch, with Notes, by William Cramer, with a Preface, &c. Rotterdam, 1776, and Amsterdam, 1786. Henry Maundrel, Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, at Easter, 1697, with an Account of the Author's Journey to the Banks of the Euphrates at Beer, and to the country of Mesopotamia. London, 1696 — 1697, 4to. Oxford, 1703 —1714; 1732— 1740, 8vo. D'Arvieux, (Laurent), Voyage fait par ordre du Roy Louis XIV. dans la Palestine, vers le grand Emir, chef de Princes Arabes du Desert. Paris, 1717, 12mo. [Translated into English, with the following title : ' Travels in Arabia the Desart. Done into English by an eminent hand. London, 1718, 8vo. Also D'Arvieux (Laurent), Memoires, conte- nant ses Voyages a Constantinople ; dans I'Asie, la Syrie, la Palestine, I'Egypte, et la Barbaric ; recueilles de les originaux par J. B. Labat. Paris, 1735, 6 vols. 12mo. The Chevalier D'Arvieux was French Consul at Aleppo, Algiers, and Tripoli. He died 1702. He has most faith- fully described the manners of the Nomadic Arabs. — Tr.] Caksten NiiiBUHR, Beschreibunscn von Arabicn (Description of CHAP. I. S. IT.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 137 Arabia), Kopenhagen, 1772, 4to. A French translation was published in 1773. Carsten Niebuhr, Naach Arabienundandernumliegendenlan- dern Reisebeschreibung [Travels in Arabia and the adjacent Countries. Copenhagen, 1774 — 8. A French translation was published 1776.] C. F. VoLNEY, Voyage en Syria et en Egypte pendant les annees 1783, 1784, et 1785. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1787. [Second edition, 2 vols. 4to. Paris. A German and a Dutch translation were published in 1788 and 1792.] Sammlung der merkwiirdigsten Reisen in der Orient: in Uebersetzungen und Auszugen, mit Einleitungen, Anmer- kungen, und Registern, herausgegeben, von H. E. G. Paulus, 5 vols. Jena, 1792 — 17U9. [Collection of the . most remarkable Travels in the East, &c.] Hamelsveld has given a critical View of Ancient and Modern Travels in his Aardrykskunde des Bybels [Geography of the Bible], vol. 1 pp. 97—127. § 118. There are, both in the historical parts of the Old Testament, and also in the Psalms, the Prophets, and even in the Apocryphal books, in- numerable passages, which cannot be explained without a geographical knowledge not only of Palestine and the adjoining countries, but also of the more remote kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Persia and Media, &c. The interpreter must, therefore, first of all, seek to obtain an accurate knowledge of Palestine in its three different con- ditions : first, in the most ancient times ; then from the time of Joshua to that of the Kings and the partition of the kingdom ; and finally, in the latest times of the Jewish commonwealth. As to the 138 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. geography of other countries, it will be sufficient merely to attend to those periods during which the Israelites and later Jews were somewhat connected with the inhabitants of those countries. The helps thereto will be found in the following works : — Hadriani Relandi Palaestina ex veteribus monumentis illus- trata. Ultraj. 2d Ed. 1714 ; and 1716, 4to. with plates. Samuelis Bocharti Geographia Sacra. Edit. nov. Leyden, 1707 and 1712, 3 vols. fol. John David Michaelis, Spicilegium Geographise Hebraeorum exteraspostBochartum. Two Parts. Go tt. 1768 — 1780, 4to. Edward Wells, D.D., An Historical Geography of the Old and New Testament, 1^64, 4 vols. 8vo. ; new edition (improved) 1804, BuscHiNG (Anton. Fred.) Neue Erdbeschreibung [Modern Geography]. Hamburg, 1771, 8vo. Olf Dapper, Beschryving van gantsch Syrie an Palestyn of Heilige Lant, behelsente de gewesten van Fenicie, Celesyrie, &c. Deutsch von Jak. von Mourison. Amst. 1681, fol. mit. K. Nurnberg, 1689. Will. Alb. Bachienne, Heilige Geographic of Aardrykskun- dige beschryving van alle landen in de heilige Schrift voor- komende, [Sacred Geography ; or, a Description of all Countries occurring in the Scriptures], 4 vols. 1776. [Ysbrand van Hamelsveld, Aardrykskunde desBibels (Geo- graphy of the Bible), 6 vols. Amst. 1790— 1798.— H.] In what relates to the geography of the other nations connected with the Israelites, it will be, in the first place, sufficient to make use of the fol- lowing works : — Christophori Cellarii, Notitia orbis antiqui. 2 vols. Lips. CHAP. I. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 139 1701 — 1706, in 4to. The latest and best edition is that printed at Leipsic, 1773 — 1776, 2 vols. 4to. D'Anville, Geographie Ancienne. Paris, 1768, 3 vols. gr. 12mo. Handbucli der Alten Erdbeschreibung zum Gebrauch der eilf D'Anvillischen Landcharten, aus den hasten Quellen verfaszt (A Manual of Ancient Geography, adapted to the use of D'Anville's Maps ; from the best Sources). Nuremb. 1785, 1786. By Professor Bruns, Professor Ditmar, Rector Hommel, and K. R. Stroth. The following deserves peculiar commendation : — Geographie der Griechen und Romer (Geography of the Greeks and Romans), von M. Konr. Mannert. Vol. VI. Part I. containing the Geography of Arabia, Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, &c. §119. In the books of the Old Testament, men- tion is often made of trees, shrubs, plants, animals, &c. inhabiting the land and the water ; insects, minerals, precious stones, and many other objects of natural history. Many things of this sort have a different character in oriental, from that which they possess in our western countries. Many species of animals mentioned in Scripture are not found in the west, or at least have, such as the jackal, only some resemblance to those which are natives of these countries. Thus, it is not advisable to be entirely guided by the names of animate and inanimate things which we find in our translations, parti- cularly the Latin Vulgate, and Luther's German version ; but rather to consult, if there be an oppor- tunity, other ancient translations, and above all, endeavour, by books of travels, and other helps, to 140 BIBLICAL HERME^'EUTICS. [PART II. acquire just notions of these objects. We have the good fortune to be provided with excellent pre- cursors in this department of our labours, such as — Sam. Bocharti Hierozoicon, s. de animalibus S. S. Lugd. Bat. fol. Recudi curavit et notis auxit E. F. C. Rosenmiiller. Lips. 1793—1796, 3 vols. 4to. Olai Celsii Hierobotanicon. Upsal. 1745 — 1747. Two Parts, 8vo. J. J. ScHEUcHZER (Physica Sacra) en S. G. Donat, Bybel der Natuur, mit Anmerkungen von Dr. A. F. Busching. Uit het Hoogduitch met Toegiften en Aanmerkingen van Laur. Meyer. Amst. 1784—1792, 12 vols. John David Mich ae lis, Fragen an eine Gesellschaft Gelehrter Manner, die nach Arabien reisen. Frankfort, 1762, 4to. (Questions to a Society of Learned Men, who were about to travel to Arabia.) Sam. Oedmann, Vermischte Sammlungen aus der Naturkunde zur Eriauterung der heil Schrift. Erstes Heft. Rostock, 1780 — 1795. (Miscellaneous Collections from Natural His- tory, in elucidation of the Holy Scriptures.) [A more copious account of works on this subject, will be found in the Preface of L. Meyer to the 1st Vol. of the 'Bybel der Natuur.' Add also ' Physiologus Syrus, s. Historia Aniraalium XXXII, in S.S. memoratorum, Syriac. e cod. Bib- liothec. Vatican, nunc primum edidit, verdit et illustravit Ol. Gert. Tyschen. Rostock, 1795. — H.] § 120. The nations round Palestine, as well as those among whom the Israelites were dispersed, had many peculiar opinions and prejudices, chiefly in respect to religion ; for example, concerning gods, demons, &c. Many, however, had a good insight into the knowledge of moral truths, and surpassed the Jews in respect to their ideas of the CHAP. I. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 141 soul, and a state of future recompense. By inter- course and association with such nations, a mutual intercliange and communication of sentiments took place between them and the Jews, which had no slight influence in altering their modes of thinking and acting. From hence it is easy to perceive how necessary it is to the interpreter to study the theology and demonology of the heathen nations, — and particularly the Egyptian and Asiatic religious ceremonies ; to make himself acquainted with the modes of thinking of the heathens, with their religious exercises, sacrifices, and purifica- tions ; also with the errors and prejudices of the nations which were closely connected with the Israelites, but at the same time not to overlook the more enlightened acquirements of these nations in matters of religion and the knowledge of the soul (Psychologie). John Selden, de Diis Syris Syntagmata II. additamentis locu- pletata opera Andreae Beyeri. Ams. 1680, 8vo. Pauli Ern. Jablonski, Pantheon Egyptiorum. Francof. ad Viadr. 1750—1752, 3 vols. 8vo. Frid. Sam. de Schmit, Diss, de Sacerdotibus et Sacrificiis -S^gyptiorum. Tubing. 1768, 8vo. C. Meiners, Grundriss der Geschichte aller Religionen. Lemgo, 2d edition, 1787, 8vo. (Sketch of the History of all Reli- gions). J. G. LtNDEMANN, Geschichite der Meinungen alterer und neuerer Volker, von Gott, Religion und Priesterthum. Stendal, 1784—1795, 7 vols. 8vo. (History of the Opi- nions of Ancient and Modem Nations, concerning God, Religion, and Priesthood.) 142 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PAllT II. The history of the literary, and particularly of the philosophical knowledge of ancient nations, will be found in — Jac. Bruckeri, Historia Critica Philosophias a mundi incuna- bulis ad nostram usque aetatem deducta. 2d Ed. Lips. 1767, Vol. I. Ralph Cudwortii, The true Intellectual System of the Uni- verse. London, 1G78, fol. (Translated into Latin, with Notes, by John Laurence Mosheim. Leyden, 1773.) New Ed. 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1820. By Thomas Birch, M. A. § 121. The same will be required in regard to the history of the heathen nations. The inter- preter of Scripture should make himself fundamen- tally acquainted, at least with the principal changes and most important events which occurred in these states and countries, from David's time to that of the Maccabees, in order to be prepared accurately to explain the passages of Scripture which relate thereto. This is the more necessary, as it is often requisite to show the connection of the history occurring in the Bible with that of pro- fane writers. Humfhrey Prideaux, The Old and New Testament connected, in the History of the Jews and neighbouring Nations, from the Declension of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Time of Christ. London, 1749. 4 vols. 8vo. 20th Ed. 1831. 3 vols. 8vo. The Dutch Edition of Prideaux is enriched with the observations of John Dierberge. Sam. Shuckford, The Sacred and Profane History of the World, connected from the Creation of the World to the Dis- solution of the Assyrian Empire. 1743. 4 vols. 8vo. Vcrsuch einer Harmonic der Heiligen und Profanscribenten in den Geschichten der Welt, von Casi'. Gottl. Langen (Essay CHAP. I. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 143 on the Harmony of Sacred and Profane Writers). Bay- reuth, 1775—1780. 3 vols. 4to. [The Connection of Sacred and Profane History, from the Death of Joshua until the Decline of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; intended to complete the Works of Shuckford and Prideaux. By the Rev. M. Russell, LL.D. London, 1827. Vols. I. and II. 8vo. (See the Eclectic Review for June, 1834, for an account of this work.) — Translator.] § 122. As all sorts of literature which sharpen the understanding and teach men to think cor- rectly, assist also in facilitating the interpretation of the Bible, so the several branches thereof may serve to explain many particular passages of Scrip- ture. In proof of this, it is sufficient to add, that some learned men have, from the treasures of their knowledge, explained not a few passages of the Bible better than had been hitherto done by others, or at least have rendered it an easier matter to the interpreter to determine the exact sense of many passages. To this appertain mathematical, medical, chronological, and other sciences. That eminent Biblical antiquarian, J. D. Michaehs, has collected a large fund of knowledge of the most useful kind on this subject, in his notes to his Ger- man translation of the Bible. To this subject also appertain the following works. F. Simeon Lindinger, de Ebraeorum Veterum arte Medica, de Dsemone et Daemoniacis. Servestae et Leucorese, 1774. 8vo. Natur-und Grossenlehre in ihrer Anwendung zu Rechtferti- gung der heil. Schrift, von John Ernst. Bas. Wiedeburg. Nurenb. 1783. 8vo. Medicinisch-Hermeneutische Untersuchung der in der Bibel Vorkommenden Krankengeschichten (A Medico-Hermeneu- 144 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. tical Inquiry into the History of the Diseases which occur in the Bible). Lips, 1794. 8vo. The best works for understanding the ancient computation of time will be given in the following Section, when we come to treat of Biblical Chro- nology. Those who wish to devote peculiar atten- tion to this branch of study, for more accurate knowledge in the explanation of the Old Testa- ment, may consult Noesselt's ' Anweisung zur Kenntniss der Besten Allgem. Biicher in alien Theilen der Theologie.' [Instructions in the Knowledge of the most generally useful Books in every department of Theology.] § 72, &c. Those who are without means of providing themselves with a good supply of the books named in the preceding Section, may obtain correct infor- mation, in respect to most of the objects here named, in some Theological Dictionaries,* such as the following : — Biblisches Real-Lexicon (A Dictionary of the things which occur in the Bible, &c.) Leip. 1783—1785. 3 Ben. 4. Biblisch-Exegetische Encyclopsedie, Src. Goth. 1793—1798. 4 vols. 4to. [Winer's Biblische Real-VVorterbuch. Third edition, gr. 8vo. Berlin, 1834. Vol. I. This improved edition of Professor Winer's excellent Biblical Encyclopaedia, of which only the first volume is yet published, is beautifully printed in the Roman character. — Translator.] * Works of this kind are, however, by no means to be substi- tuted, unless in cases of extreme necessity. They are neces- sarily imperfect, and no theological student who is possessed of a zeal for professional knowledge and accurate information, will find complete satisfaction in them. — Translator. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I. PART II. CONTAINING NOTICES OF ADDITIONAL WORKS ON THE SUBJECTS THERE REFERRED TO. By the Translator. Hebrew Grammars. Those wlio wish for further information on this subject will find in the ' Quarterly Journal of Education,' Nos. VIII. X. and XI. a masterly review of the principal Hebrew Grammars and Lexicons, from which the following notices of them are selected. " The Hebrew Grammars of Professor Stuart follow the works of Gesenius; they are, however, not mere translations from the German originals, but rather eclectic imitations, by which he has given a new impulse to the study of Hebrew among the Anglo- Germanic tribes on both sides of the Atlantic." The following work is employed in the College at Belfast : — A Grammar of the Hebrew Language, by Edward Hincks, D.D. " This work is a pleasing proof that in Ireland also the study of Hebrew is now cultivated on better principles." — " Hincks's Grammar contains less learning than that of Stuart, but seems to be more intelligible for a beginner." " The various typographical helps to the acquisition of Hebrew, invented during centuries past by Arius Montanus, Elias H utter, and others, have been lately offered to the British public, collected in a thin folio volume, under the following title : — An Easy Introduction to the Hebrew Language, on the prin- ciples of Pestalozzi. By Parens. (John Synge, Esq."* London, 1831." L ]46 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [_PART II. Dr. George IIeinricii August Ewald, Kritische Grammatik der Ilebraische Sprache Ausfurlich Bearbeitet. Leipsig, 1827. Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache des A. T. in vollstan- digcr Kurze, neu Bearbeitet von Georg Heinricii August Ewald, Leipsig, 1832. (A Condensed Abridgment of Ewald's Grammar, by the Author.) " An ingenious novelty occurs in everj'^ P^ge. In scientific arrangement and the explanation of anomalies he is perhaps un- rivalled. Many facts which are faithfully and clearly stated sinqulatim by Gesenius, are exhibited by Ewald in a chain of philological relations, which at once removes the appearance of capriciousness from each, and helps the memory to retain them all." — Philadelphia Biblical Repertory, cited by Mr. Home, Vol. II. Bib. Ap. p. 187. For a full account of the excellencies and peculiarities of Pro- fessor Lee's Grammar I must refer the reader to the ' Quarterly Journal,' No. XII. rOLYGLOT. In addition to the Polyglots mentioned by Dr. Seller, we can now add the following beautifully executed work, from the press of Mr, Bagster : — Biblia Sacra Polyglotta, Textus Archetypes, Versionesque proecipuas, ab Ecclesia Antiquitus Receptas Complectentia. Accedunt Prolegomena in eorundem crisin literalem, auc- tore Samuel Lee, S. T. B. Londini, 1831. 4t6, et folio. The quarto edition contains the Hebrew Text of Vander Hooght, the Samaritan Pentateuch of Dr. Kennicott (in an Appendix), the Septuagint from Bos's edition of the Vatican text ; with their various readings and the Masoretic notes termed Keri and Ketib. The New Testament contains Mill's edition of what is generally called the Textus Receptus, or Elzevir's Greek text; with an Appendix, containing the principal various readings of Griesbach's7?;'s< edition; — the Peschito, or old Syriac version, from Widmanstadt's edition of 1555, collated with Professor Lee's edition, published by the Bible Society, in 181G, but printed in this Polyglot in Hebrew letters ; with the Apocalypse and re- maining parts from the Philoxcnian version; — and the Clementine CHAP. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 147 edition of the Latin Vulgate. It is accompanied throughout by the English authorized version and parallel texts. The folio edition contains, in addition to these, Luther's German, Diodati's Italian, Ostervald's French, and Scio's Spanish versions of the whole Bible. The entire of these languages are exhibited on one page, and the w^ork is beautifully executed ; but the print is, from its small size, extremely trying to the eyes. The text also, of all the languages except the Hebrew, instead of being printed in a continued form, with Athias' and Stephens' figures (which were intended to mark the references to an index) trans- ferred to the margin, is, according to the absurd practice which has prevailed in our common printed Bibles, divided into those short sentences or separate verses, which, to use the words of Bishop Marsh's Michaelis, " appear to the eyes of the learned and to the minds of the unlearned as so many detached sentences." Most modern editors have judiciously deviated from this practice. The Prolegomena, which contain a literary history of the Text, and of the several versions in Bagster's Polyglot, have been already referred to (p. 86). These are by the learned Dr. Samuel Lee, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Cambridge. The Prolegomena may be had separately, at a low price ; but a complete copy of the quarto edition cannot be procured, as the impression of two parts was destroyed by fire. ANCIENT VERSIONS. In addition to the Syriac Bibles in the Polyglots, the following edition deserves the particular attention of the theological stu- dent : — Vetus Testamentum Syriace, eos tantum Libros sistens, qui in Canone Hebraico habentur, ordine vero, quoad fieri potuit, apud Syros usitato dispositos. In usum Ecclesiae Syrorum Malabarensium, jussu Societatis Biblicae recognovit, ad fidem Codicum Manuscriptorum emendavit, edidit Samuel Lee, A.M. Londini, 1823, 4to. In addition to the venerable manuscript presented by the Syrian metropolitan to Dr. Buchanan in 1807, two others were collated for this work ; one belonging to Dr. Adam Clarke, and one of the Pentateuch, found by Dr. Lee in the Library at Oxford. — See ' Report of the Church Missionary Society for L 2 148 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. 1817-18;' Mr, Home's ' Introduction;' and Buchanan's 'Chris- tian Researches,' p. 141, 9th Ed. Codex Syriaco-Hexaplaris. Edidit Henricus Middeldorpf. Berolini, 1831. 1> torn. 4to. Coptic. Quinque Libri Moysis Prophetae in Lingua ^gyptiaca. Ex MSS. Vaticano, Parisiensi, et Bodleiano, descripsit ac Latine vertit David WiLKiNs. Londini, 1731. 4to. The Psalter in this language was published at Rome in 1744 and 1749 ; the New Testament at Oxford by Wilkins, in 1716 ; and a fragment of Lamentations and Baruch, with learned notes, by M, Quatremere, at Paris, in 1804. Bashmuric. Fragmenta Basmuro-Coptica Veteris et Novi Testamenti, quae in Museo Borgiano Velitris asservantur, cum Reliquis Versionibus ^gyptiis contulit, Latine vertit, necnon criticis et philologicis adnotationibus illustravit W. F. Engel- BRETH. Hafniae, 181G. 4to. This contains fragments of Isaiah, of John's Gospel, and the Epistles to the Ephesians, Thessalonians, Hebrews, and Philemon, in the Bashmuric, Thebaic, and Memphitic dialects, with a literal Latin version. The Bashmuric dialect was that spoken in Bashmour, a province of the Delta. See Hug's Introduction. Armenian. The first edition of the Bible in this language was printed at Amsterdam in KiGO, but the text was altered so as to correspond with the Latin Vulgate. A more valuable edition was printed at Constantinople in 170.5. In the year 1805, Dr. Zohrab, a learned Armenian divine, in communion with the church of Rome, who had edited the New Testament printed at Venice in 1789, published a critical edition of the entire Bible, for which he made use of sixty-nine manuscripts. He added the various readings in tlie inner margin, with the authorities by which tluy were CHAP. 1.] BIBLICAL HKRMENEUTICS. 149 supported, and a few critical explanations ; and altogether ex- punged 1 John V. 7, which was unsupported by a single manu- script in the Armenian language. In his former edition he had only marked it with an asterisk. Ethiopic. The only parts of the Old Testament published in this language are the Psalms and Canticles, printed at Rome, in 1513. These appear to have been made immediately from the Septuagint, and were probably executed about the fourth century ; but there has been a manuscript of the Ethiopic Scriptures on vellum, in fine preservation, brought to this country, having been purchased by the Committee of the Church Missionary Society (^see Eighteenth Report.) It contains the first eight books of the Old Testament and the entire of the New. This MS. does not seem to be above 300 years old. The New Testament was printed in London from this MS. in 1826. Ludolph's Grammar and Lexicons were printed at Frankfort in 1698 and 1702, in folio. The New Tes- tament of the London Polyglot is from the Roman edition of 1548. There is a beautiful copy of this edition, which is now extremely rare, in the library of the Duke of Sussex, printed on vellum. GEOGRAPHICAL WORKS, BOOKS OF TRAVELS, NATURAL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES, &C. Carolus Frid Kloden, Landeskunde von Palaestina. Bero- lini, 1817. [Geography of Palestine.] Svo. J. F. Champollion (the younger), L'Egypte sousles Pharaons, ou Recherches sur le Geographic, la Religion, la Langues, les Ecritures, et I'Histoire de I'Egypte, avant 1' Invasion de Cambyse. Paris, 1814. 2 vols. 8vo. Jo. FridRohr, Palestina oder Historisch-Geograph. Beschreib. des Judischen Landes zus zeit Jesu. (Historico-Geogra- phical Description of Palestine at the time of Jesus. 5th Ed. improved. Zeitz, 1829. 8vo.) A Scripture Gazetteer, &c. By J. S. Mansford. London, 1829. Svo. Rev. S. Burder's Oriental Customs ; or, an Illustration of the Sacred Scriptures, by an Explanatory Application of the 150 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. Customs and Manners of the Eastern Nations. 6th Ed. 1822. 2 vols. 8vo. Translated into German, with much additional Matter, by E. F. C. Rosenmuller. Leipsic, 1819. 4 vols. 8vo. Dr. Rosenmiiller's additions are inserted in the last English edition. To this should be added the following work by the same author :^ Oriental Literature, applied to the Illustration of the Sacred Scriptures ; especially with reference to Antiquities, Tra- ditions, and Manners: collected from the most celebrated Writers and Travellers, both ancient and modem. Designed as a Sequel to Oriental Customs. London, 1822. 2 vols. 8vo. The following work consists chiefly of selections from the two former : — Oriental Customs, applied to the Illustration of the Sacred Scriptures. By Samuel Burder, M.A. London, 1831. 12mo. Illustrations of the Holy Scriptures : in three Parts. By the Rev. George Paxton. Edinburgh, 1825. 2d Ed. 3 vols. 8vo. Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures, collected from the Customs, Manners, Rites, Superstitions, Traditions, Para- bolical and Proverbial Forms of Speech, Climate, Works of Art, and Literature of the Hindoos, during a residence in the East of nearly fourteen years. By the Rev. Joseph Roberts, Corresponding Member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. London, 1834. 8vo. This work is brought oiit under the auspices of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, and is now announced for publication. See Mr. Home's Introduction, Bibliographical Index, p. 361, 7th Ed. where the reader will find a full account of this and several of the works referred to in this Appendix, including the following Essay : — Kssai sur le Systeme Hieroglyphique de M. Champollion le Jeunc, ct sur les Avantages qu'il oflVe a la Critique Sacr^e. CHAP. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 151 Par J. G. H. Greppo, Vicar-General de Bellay. Paris, 1829. 8vo. In the first part of his volume, Mr. G. gives an outline of Champollion's Hieroglyphic System ; and in the second part he applies it to the elucidation of various passages of the Old Tes- tament, historical, chronological, and geographical. An English translation was published at Boston, in 1830, in 8vo. by Isaac Stuart, son of the Professor. William Rae Wilson, Travels in Egypt and the Holy Land. London, 1823. 8vo. With a Journey through Turkey, Greece, &c. London, 1824. John Louis Burkhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, 1822. Translated into German, with Annotations, by W. Gesenius. Venarice, 1823. Travels in Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land. By the Rev. E.D.Clarke. London, 1816. 4 vols. 8vo. Toliffe's Letters from Palestine, 1820. 8vo. Hon. Captain Keppel's Narrative of a Journey from India to England. London, 1827. 2 vols. 8vo. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia. Also, the Travels of Brown, Sir John Malcolm, Messrs. J. S.Buckingham, Came, Caillaud, Berggren, &c. &c. A. L. C. Coquerel, Lettre sur le Systeme Hieroglyphique de M. ChampoUion, considere dans ses Rapports avec I'Ecriture Saint. Amsterdam, 1825. Salt's Essay on Dr. Young and M. Champollion's Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics, &c. 8vo. London, 1825. Handbuch der Biblischen Alterthumskunde (Manual of Biblical Antiquities). By E. F. K. RosenmUller. 1823—1827. 4 vols. 8vo. Belzoni's Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia. London, 1830. 4to. See particularly pp. 242, 243. 152 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [^ART II. A Dictionary of the Natural History of the Bible, or a Descrip- tion of all the Quadrupeds, Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, and Insects, Trees, Plants, Flowers, Gums, and Precious Stones, mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. By Thadeus Mason Harris, D.D. New Ed. London, 1833. This is a convenient and excellent compendium of the most useful information on the natural history of the Bible. An Analysis of Chronology. By the Rev. William Hales, D.D. 2d Ed. London, 1830. 4 vols. 8vo. A new Concordance to the Hebrew Scriptures, by George WiGRAM, Esq., edited by my much esteemed and learned friend, Dr. Bialloblotzky, has been lately announced for publication. The following is extracted from the Prospectus : — " A desire to remove hindrances to the study of Hebrew, now happily becoming general in England, first led (about three years since) to this arduous undertaking. The Hebrew Concordance, adapted to the English Bible by J. Taylor, W, Romaine's edition of that by Marius de Calasio, and Noldius on the Particles, have been the chief aids employed. Long and wearisome has been the labour, and great the expense ; for there was needed — 1st, An entirely new arrangement of references, on a more simple principle than that of any former work ; — 2dly, A rough copy in English ; — 3dly, The verification of each and every quotation, first, with the English, and, secondly, with the Hebrew text. Throughout these and many accidental difficulties, God has vouchsafed patience and perseverance ; and the manuscript is now in a state to be sent within a few weeks to press." There has been a beautiful edition of the Jeu's' text of the Hebrew Bible published for the use of the Jews, by the London Society for promoting Christianity among them. London, 1828, large 12mo. Its text is taken from the second edition of Athias, printed in 1667. The Jews dislike Van der Hooght's and other editions, as having Roman letters and figures, and the mark (-j-), which has the appearance of a cross, which is used as a mark of reference to the notes. This does not apply to the more learned of that body. CHAP. II. PRINCIPLES ADAPTED TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE SEPA- RATE PARTS AND BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. INTRODUCTION. What has been thus far stated with respect to the principles, rules, and helps for the explanation of the books of the Old Testament, must now not only be applied to each book generally, but there must be also some special rules observed, and separate helps made use of, suited to the form and the matter of the several books in particular, and their various parts. The preliminary critical questions in respect to each are — 1. Is the book or the passage about to be ex- plained, genuine ? 2. Is the reading correct ? After this, some separate hermeneutical rules and methods must be observed in regard to, 1. The contents of the books. These include, (1.) History ; (2.) Dogmas ; (3.) Morals; (4.) Positive institutions ; and. 154 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. (5.) Divine promises and threatenings. 2. In regard to the form and dress of these materials. (1.) Prose; (2.) Poetry ; (3.) A style resembling poetical-prose. SECTION I. Of the necessary Critical Labour which should precede Interpre- tation. § 123. Before an interpreter of the Holy Scrip- tures proceeds to explain the contents of a book, and the sense of a passage, he should endeavour to satisfy himself and his readers of the genuineness and authenticity of the book, and of the purity of the text, in the passage which he is about to ex- plain. The necessary investigations concerning the genuineness of the books of the Old Testament, and the separate, but principally the larger, passages thereof, will be found in the introductions to those books. This branch is called by some the higher, historical, or real criticism. The investigation of the genuineness and uncorrupted state of the readings is called special or common, and verbal criticism. This last is also called therapeutics, because its effect is to amend and restore a cor- rupted text. The knowledge necessary for future interpreters in respect to the real criticism of the Old Testament, will be found in the Introduction CHAP. II. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 155 to that work, begun, but not finished, by Mi- chaeHs, and that admirably executed by Eichhorn, and considerably enlarged in his third edition. Be- ginners will derive much advantage from Pro- fessor Bauer's Compendium of an Introduction to the Old Testament.* § 124. The VERBAL criticism of the Old Testa- ment is employed in judging of the accuracy and the requisite amendment of the text of the Bible, according to fixed canons. In every passage which is presumed to require correction, it must be first shewn that the text is corrupted, and next, how the ancient genuine reading is to be restored. § 125. The multiplicity of errors which are to be found in the manuscripts of the Old Testament, * I must here repeat, what has already heen said (p. 16), with a view of assigning limits to the praise given to Eichhorn, and other bold critics. His sceptical conjectures in regard to the authen- ticity of some books and large portions of the Old Testament have been partly refuted in the remarks of Professor Van Hamelsveld, in his additions to the Dutch translation of Eichhorn's Introduction. The same has been done by Klinkenberg, Van Vloten, and the learned Professor just named, in their Introduc- tions, and Observations on some controverted books and passages. There is a tract by Beckhaus, in the Transactions of the ' Society for the Defence of the Christian Religion,' for the year 1793, in vindication of the genuineness of the prophetical writings. I have also introduced some strictures upon Eichhorn on this subject in my Vertoog over het Gebruik en Misbruik der Kritik in de Beliandeling der Heilige Schriften [Essay on the Use and Modern Abuse of Sacred Criticism], chap. v. § 19 — 26. — Heringa. 156 BIBLICAL HERMENllUTICS. [PART II. and still more in the printed editions, have prin- cipally originated from the following sources: — 1. Transcribers often saw incorrectly, or, when the text was dictated by others, heard imperfectly, and wrote accordingly. 2. The revisers and correctors of manuscripts often made them worse than they originally were, particularly they who compared many manuscripts with each other. 3. The similarity of many of the Hebrew letters easily caused one letter to be mistaken or com- muted for another. 4. When the Hebrew ceased to be the language of common life, those helps to the reading called matres lectionis, as well as the vowel points, were invented, from which alterations were easily introduced into the text. 5. Numerals were written in divers manners by the Hebrews ; sometimes with letters, at other times with words. 6. When the Masorites attempted to improve the text, and introduced the Keri and Ketib, some- times one, and sometimes the other, was adopted into the text ; hereby was occasioned a new variation. 7. Copies were partly taken from the Western Recension, or the Codices of Ben Ascher; partly from the eastern, according to the original of Ben Naphthali. 8. The more learned a transcriber was, the more likely he was to hazard an arbitrary treatment of doubtful passages, and the receiving into the text CHAP. II. S. I.] BIBLICAL HKRMENEUTICS. 157 of what appeared to himself the most probable reading. § 126. The chief aids to the restoration of the true reading are : — 1. Parallel passages from the books of the Old Testament, 2. The Masora, and the Talmudical writings on the Old Testament. 3. The ancient versions, principally the Syriac, the Greek, and the Latin of Jerome. 4. Also the most ancient manuscripts. 5. The best information on the subject will be found in the collections of various readings by Kennicott, De Rossi, J. H. Michaelis, Lilienthal,&c. § 127. As those students in theology who are des- tined to become teachers in churches, or in schools and colleges, are seldom provided with sufficient time and apparatus for obtaining a fundamental and extensive knowledge of the criticism of the Old Tes- tament, it will be sufficient for them to be acquainted with the most general rules, and the most essential works on the subject, from which they may, by their subsequent progress in hterary acquirements, be able to attain more extensive information. The rules which have hitherto stood the test of experience among sound critics for the restoration of the genuine readings are the following :— I. General rules. 158 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. 1. The first and chief inquiry is, whether a suspected reading is really a false one, inasmuch as many bold critics, such as Houbigant and the like, have brought good readings into doubt by groundless conjectures. 2. The reading which has the most important and most credible testimonies in its favour, and is also good in itself, deserves the preference above all others. The most important testimonies are those which exceed others in antiquity, and in accuracy of transcription. The highest antiquity is possessed by the oldest versions of the books in the Bible, and by the Tal- mudical and Masoretic writings. A reading is good i?i itself, when it agrees with the author's style, — with the parallelism, the con- text, and the scope of the writer. II. Special rules. 1. That reading is not always the best, which has most testimonies in its favour. 2. When two readings have each credible testi- monies in their favour, that deserves the preference which is good in itself. If they are both good, the preference is to be given to that which best agrees with the rules of grammar, with the context, and other circumstances of the passage to be explained. 3. A reading good in itself, which has but one or two important testimonies in its favour, deserves the preference above that which is less good in CHAP. II. S. I.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 159 itself, although supported by a greater number of testimonies. 4. A reading, which has testimonies of less weight in its favour, but is good in itself, is to be preferred to one which is not so good in itself. 5. When in a poetical or prophetical book a reading agrees with the parallelism of both members of a verse, it deserves to be preferred to all others. 6. The same rule applies to a reading which accords with the usual style of the author. 7. On the other hand, that reading cannot be genuine which does not harmonize with the context, or the scope of the writer, or is inconsistent there- with. 8. That reading must be rejected which can be shown to have evidently originated in error. 9. A reading which is difficult, obscure, and uncommon, is to be preferred to one which is more easy, clear, and frequent. III. In addition to the preceding rules, the fol- lowing critical principles and cautions should be attended to : — 1. As the Hebrew vowel points and accents are an invention of the Masorites, the interpreter is at full liberty to recede from them, even without adducing any testimony to confirm the reading which he adopts, if only the circumstances and state of the text require it. 2. Transcribers have often joined words together, which should have been written separately; they have also, without reason, divided single words into 160 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART II. two. The critic is therefore at hberty, in urgent cases, where the object and style of the writer require it, or the contents of a passage, and its connexion with what precedes and follows, furnish grounds for it, to divide or reunite words which present such impediments. 3. Marks of distinction and punctuation, sections, the divisions into chapters and verses which we find in translations of the Bible, also the other Masoretic divisions of the printed Hebrew Bibles, are all modern inventions. The interpreter is, there- fore, at liberty to choose or make such as his own judgment may point out. 4. An interpreter, who can compare ancient versions, should accurately examine the Alex- andrian, and the fragments of the other Greek translations, but particularly the Syriac version, in order to determine the true reading. 5. When all the aids thus far supplied do not appear sufficient to restore the ancient reading, it is then, but not before, allowable to have recourse to critical conjecture. The critic who should call in the aid of this before all other means fail, would incur the risk of introducing false readings into the Bible. Observations. — These principles of criticism are propounded and elucidated with as much clearness as solidity by Bauer, in his Critica Sacra V. T. §§ 138, 139. Those who wish for more copious instruction in the criticism of the Old Testament, should make use of the following excel- lent works : — Brian Walton, Prolegomena in Biblia Polyglotta, Praefatus est Joh. Aug. Dathe. Lips. 1777. gr. 8vo. CHAP. II. S. I.] BIBLICAL IIERMENEUTICS. 161 Kennicott, Dissertatio Generalis in V. T. Hebraicum. Reciidi curavit et notas adjecit P. J. Bruns. Brunov. 1782. gr. 8vo. Car. Franc. Houbigantii Notae Criticse in Universos V. T. Libros cum integris ejusdera Prolegomenis recusae. Francf. ad Moen. 1777. 2 vols. gr. Svo. Richard Simon, Histoire Critique du Vieux Test. Rotter- dam, 1685. The other older works, such as Carpzovii ' Critica Sacra V. T.' and also the works of Morinus and Lud. Capel, are omitted here, in order to introduce the latest and best on the subject. Varise Lectiones Veteris Testamenti, Opera ac Studio Joh. Bernh. de Rossi. Parmae, 1784 — 1788, 4 vols. gr. 4to. 4 Supplementa, 1 vol. 1798. The following are useful for beginners : — John Dav. Michaelis, Kritisches Collegium iiber die drey wichtigsten Psalmen von Christo. [Critical Lecture on the three most important Psalms relating to Christ.] Francf. 1759. gr. Svo. Also, Joh. Aug. Dathe, Prolusio de Difficultate Rei Critical in V.T. caute dijudicanda. Lips. 1762. In order to acquire some knowledge of the manuscript Codices, the following works are worthy of peculiar regard ; viz. John Gottlieb Eichhorn's Introduction to the Old Testa- ment, 2d Ed. improved, Leipsic, 1787, which will lead to a further use of the works of John Henry and John David Michaelis, Lilienthal, Vogel, Teller, Schelling, &c. The following are adapted to more general use : — Bibliotheca Sacra post Le Long et Boernerum a G. Masch edlta, Halse, 1784 — 1795. J. Ch. Wolfii Bibliotheca Hebraica. Rosenmuller, Handbuch fiir Biblische Litteratur. fiir die Kritik und Exegese, above referred to. [Manual of Biblical Literature, Criticism, and Exegesis.] M 162 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PART IK The writings which have been published from 1787 to 1797> relating to oriental literature in general, and the explanation of the Old Testament in particular, will be found fully examined in Eichhorn's * Allgemeiner Bibliothek der Biblischen Lit- teratur.' [General Library of Biblical Literature.] In the eighth vol. St. 4 — 6, a collection will be found of all the works which pertain to the accurate knowledge of the oriental literature of this period. SECTION II. Of the Explanation of the Historical Parts of the Bible. § 128. The HISTORICAL parts of the Bible, generally considered, are to be explained according to no other rules than those which are applied to the explanation of profane history. As, however, the bibhcal history goes back to the very origin of the human race, and comprises family traditions of peculiar importance, intermingled and closely linked with historical facts, supported by written docu- ments, and confirmed by eye-witnesses, — these various species of narration are to be elucidated according to various rules of interpretation. § 129. The historical parts of the Old Testa- ment may be conveniently divided into three grand periods. 1. The Primitive history, from Adam to Abraham ;; 2. The Family history, from Abraham to Moses ; CHAP. II. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 163 3. The National history, from Moses to the end of the Maccabees. § 130. The first period embraces two descriptions of narrative: — (1.) Statements which resemble mythical narrations ; and, (2.) Historical accounts. But both are founded upon ancient traditions con- cerning the origin of the earth and its inhabitants, as well as of the primitive condition of the human race, especially the Semitic family. [Observation. — The author here gives rules for the understand- ing of that species of fable or allegory, called Mythus, which he had defined, § 75, and which he assumes to be contained in the earlier parts of the Mosaic history, beyond which, however, he does not acknowledge its existence. Muntinghe, Knapp, and other decided advocates of the divine origin of the sacred writings, and of the reality of the miracles recorded in the Old and New Testament, have, it must be con- ceded, taken similar views, although with different limitations. Mutinghe, indeed, adopts this hypothesis in a very slight degree ; but others, of a different school, have applied the same to the accounts of supernatural events, wherever recorded, throughout the whole of the Old and New Testament. These latter have met with such successful refutations, that they have but few advocates among the learned, even in Germany ; and the hypothesis adopted by Seller (which limits the existence of such mythi to the narratives in the beginning of Genesis) has been opposed by many able divines, including Professor Jahn, who denies altogether the existence of this description of fable in any portion of the sacred writings, the character of which he maintains to be inconsistent with the age of the early documents preserved in the Mosaic records of the creation, the fall, the deluge, &c. But the most complete refutation of the mythical interpretation of Scripture is that of the late John Henry Pareau, Professor of Oriental Literature in the University of Utrecht, which will be found in his ' Institutio Interpretis M 2 1C4 BIBMCAI, HEKMENEUTICS. [PART I. Veteris Testamenti (P, HI. S. 1. C. iii.);' already referred to in the Preface to this work, p. 20 ; and in tlie following separate work on the same subject : — Disputatio de Mythica Sacri Codicis Interpretatione. Auctore Joanne Henrico Pareau, Liter. Orient. Prof, in Academ. Rheno-Trajectina. Editio Altera, Additamento et Indicibus Aucta; Trajecti ad Rhenum. 1824. — Translator.] § 131. The writings which have this mythical appearance are, most probably, historical hymns, which were sung at the sacrificial offerings, and also employed in the instruction of youth. Others contain genealogical, and partly geographical, de- scriptions. All are precious relics of primeval history, which were originally, under the direction of God, committed to writing by Moses for the benefit of his nation, but served, according to the general scheme of Divine Providence, to confirm ])osterity in the belief of one God, and in the opposing of idolatry and of the deification of nature. In order to facilitate the interpretation of these ancient biblical mythi, and to lead the futm-e inter- preter of Scripture by a safe path in this occupation, the following rules are submitted.* * Our author here proceeds to deliver his views concerning the viythi, which he supposes to exist in the Old Testament, and which have been already alluded to, § 75. I shall here add my own observations on this subject. What the venerable Seller has here stated is a moderate adop- tion of those views on the subject which have been advanced in our days by other learned Germans, bnt generally with less reverence for the sacred records of the Old Testament than that which characterises our author. Eichhorn has been here their chief precursor, in the second edition of his Introduction to CHAP. II. S. II.] BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 165 § 132. The biblical mythi are not to be placed in the same class with the mythology of heathen the Old Testament, as well as in his ' Primeval History,' afterwards published with notes and additions by Gabler. Herder has also recommended this hypothesis by the brilliancy of his genius, in liis otherwise beautiful work, ' On the Spirit of Hebrew Poetry.'* Meyer followed in the same track, in his ' Versuch einer Herme- neutik;' and Bauer, first in his Hermeneutica Sacra, and afterwards in his German work, entitled, * Hebrew Mythology of the Old and New Testament, with Parallel Statements from the Mythology of other Nations, principally the Greeks and Romans,' Leipsic, 1802. 2 vols. Thus, in accordance with modern taste, not only are the ancient documents preserved by Moses, but many other of the historical portions of the Old and New Testaments, resolved into this hypothesis, as a number of treatises, published both separately, and in the larger collections of Eichhorn, Paulus, Ammon, Gabler, Henke, and others, abundantly shew. But such rash conjectures can never be approved by any one who is satisfied, upon good grounds, of the credibility of the biblical history. Such a person can never place Moses and the prophets in the same rank of credibility with Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, or Plato. Extraordinary and miraculous accounts, or such as surpass human comprehension, will not have the effect, in his mind, of bringing the truth of the sacred histories into suspicion. He will much rather acknowledge therein the wise condescension of the Deity to the condition and wants of mankind, Nay, who can imagine a history of creation without a miracle ? If, then, he finds an occasional circumstance in this venerable temple of hoary antiquity, the utility and design of which he does not apprehend, he will carefully guard against casting it away as superfluous. If he discovers any thing which seems to him to be misplaced, or disfigured by a later hand, he will rather leave it untouched than pull down the whole fabric ; more particularly as he must be * A portion of this work was published in this country, with the title of ' Oriental Dialogues ;' and a translation of the whole is about to issue from tlie American press. See also a review of this work in the Monthly Review, Old Scries, Vol, LXXX. p. 642, scq. — Tr. 1G6 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. [PAllT II. nations. Both, indeed, have many points of re- semblance ; but there is, notwithstanding, a marked distinction between them. 1. They resemble each other, in being both, for the most part, based on truth, which is wrapped up and presented in the garb of poetical or rather of fabulous narrations. 2. But the biblical mythi are distinguished from those of the heathens in the following points : — (1.) In the religious mythi of the heathens there is a constant reference to the gods ; in those of the Bible, mention is made of but one God. (2.) In the former there is little or no agreement with the nature of things. In Genesis, chap. i. ii. and iii., the accounts harmonize with the nature of things, the earth, mankind, &c. (3.) The heathen mythi contain much that is impure and ridiculous, and even licentious ; those in the Bible are characterised by gravity and purity of manners and sentiments. (4.) The former are frequently devoid of any important design ; the main object of the biblical mythi is ever the promotion of morality. aware tliat it is tlic only one which has withstood the ravages of time, and that we are destitute of materials to erect such another. Young persons should be put on their guard against sus])icions of this sort concerning ancient history, by reading such works as Hess's History of the Israelites, and Library of Sacred History, especially the second volume, p. l;]o, cl, seq., Jerusalem's Tracts on the principal Truths of llcligiun, and IMuatinghe's History