FROM THE LIBRARY OF REV. LOUIS FITZGERALD BENSON. D. D. BEQUEATHED BY HIM TO THE LIBRARY OF PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ■sec Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library http://archive.org/details/miltonsknowOOspae ■"*/; -A DEC 22 1932 Milton's Knowledge of Music Its Sources and Its Significance in his Works A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of Princeton University in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy BY SIGMUND GOTTFRIED SPAETH M PRINCETON THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 1913 Accepted by the Department of English WEIMAR. — PRINTED BY R. WAGNER SOHN CONTENTS Page 1 12 28 57 81 I. English Music in the Seventeenth Century II. The Life of Milton as a Musician . . III. Milton and the Art of Music .... IV. Milton and the Theory of Music V. The Significance of Milton's Knowledge of Music Appendix I. The most important Passages in Milton's Works illustrating his Knowledge of Music 100 „ II. Milton's Friendship with Henry Lawes . 124 „ III. Leonora Baroni, the Singer . . . 129 „ IV. An Essay read in the Public Schools " On the Music of the Spheres" .... 132 „ V. The most important Sources of Milton's Knowledge of Music 137 Abbreviations of Titles 152 Glossary 154 Bibliography 175 Index 179 PREFACE A dissertation on " Milton's Knowledge of Music " requires little explanation or introduction. Every student of literature or of music knows that Milton stands alone among poets in his unerring accuracy in the use of technical terms, in the sincerity and spontaneity of his enthusiasm for music, and in his broadly idealistic adaptation of the art to his ac- customed methods of thought. In spite, however, of this general appreciation of the importance of Milton's knowledge of music, no attempts have yet been made to systematize the data at hand or to draw from them any general conclusions regarding the poet's mental habits. Editors and commentators, as a rule, have been content to give an explanation of the technical terms used by Milton, and even in this limited field many details of musical significance have been over- loked. It is the object of this dissertation, therefore, to supplement the work of these scholars by search- ing out every possible reference to music in the writings of Milton, and to focus the entire array of material upon the man himself, in the hope of cast- ing some light upon his character and personality. Such points as have already been definitely settled receive only a passing notice, and the emphasis is placed throughout upon new interpretations and con- clusions of general interest. The body of the dissertation, consisting of five chapters, represents a synthesis of all the relevant material and an exposition of the most important de- ductions therefrom. The five Appendixes and the Glossary supply the details from which these deduc- tions are drawn, and must therefore be frequently vi Preface consulted for a proper understanding of the main body of the dissertation. It should be explained that throughout this book the word " art " is used in contrast with the word " theory," as representing what is often called the " practical " side of music, that is, actual performance through instruments or the voice. This distinction must be clearly understood especially in reading the third and fourth chapters. The Bibliography indicates the chief sources of historical, biographical and critical material. The text of Masson has been followed in quotations from the Poetical Works, and of the Bohn edition for the Prose Works. Some of the material of this dissertation has already been published in an essay " On Milton's Knowledge of Music," appearing in a collection of " Haverford Essays," 1909, and an address u Milton and Music " delivered before the Convocation of Lutheran Church Musicians of America in 1908, and later published in the " Lutheran Church Review." The ideas contained in these earlier essays, however, have since been sub- ject to revision and modification. The author is indebted to all of those who have contributed to this book by their interest and helpful advice, but especially to Dr. Charles G. Osgood of Princeton University, who suggested the subject and supplied the chief inspiration for its development, and without whose untiring energy and faithful instruction the work could not possibly have been completed. Sigmund Gottfried Spaeth. New York, May 3, 19 1 3. ENGLISH MUSIC IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A great man cannot be studied apart from his natural surroundings. John Milton, as a poet, as a musician, or as a highly developed example of the alliance of both arts, fails to reveal his true significance except as he is regarded in the light of his environment and of the characteristics of his own time. Before attempting an exposition of Milton's knowledge of music, therefore, it becomes necessary to examine and interpret the general conditions of music which prevailed in his time, to analyze the popular taste, and to become acquainted with the representative composers and their style of work. As far back as the reign of Henry VIII a golden age of English music had begun. At that time there was little real musical activity on the continent, and that little was sporadic and inconstant, without order or design. The Flemings, it is true, had displayed marked ability, partic- ularly in the development of the madrigal form, but their efforts were so widely scattered, and their composers forced to cater to such a variety of tastes, that a really characteristic style was never developed. Germany pro- duced only one or two good composers. Italy, pre- occupied with her rediscovery of the ancient world, con- tributed nothing of her own to the world's music, but satisfied herself, as did most of the other continental nations, with the work of imported Flemish composers. In England alone was there a distinct native school. This was, of course, largely due to the encouragement and example of Henry VIII himself, who was a composer and 2 Milton s Knowledge of Music performer of ability. But aside from the efforts of indi- viduals, there was a national spirit and a consistency of style in English music entirely lacking in that of other countries. The English people, as a whole, seem to have acquired a definite taste earlier than the other nations, and the means of gratifying this taste were not wanting. Com- posers and performers alike were plentiful, and, while no great individual reputations were made, a national school was established which preserved its characteristics and retained its distinctiveness for more than a century. The climax of this long sustained activity in music came, as may be supposed, in the time of Elizabeth, when English music and English literature alike reached their highest level. 1 In vocal music, it is true, Italy had, by the end of the sixteenth century, taken the lead, through the work of Palestrina and his successors. But the English instru- mental music was still supreme. 2 Characteristic of the Elizabethan period was the madri- gal form, which, while adapted from the Flemish and Italian schools, attained the widest popularity in Eng- land. Madrigals were originally vocal works, written in counterpoint, without accompaniment. 3 The number of parts varied, but was commonly four or five. The words were of little importance, and frequently consisted of meaningless phrases repeated over and over. Such a 1 I make this statement with no thought of detracting in the least from the reputation of Purcell, who was beyond a doubt England's greatest musician. He was, however, an individual genius rather than the product of a school. The English music of his time was, on the whole, inferior to that which had gone before. 2 For the history of English music in the sixteenth century, see Hawkins, History of Music, vol. 3 ; Burney, History of Music, vol. 3 ; Henry Davey, History of English Music, chaps. 3, 4, 5. 8 See definition in Grove's Dictionary. English Music in the Seventeenth Century 3 style of song, it may be imagined, differed little from instrumental music. In fact, the later polyphonic in- strumental music was the direct outgrowth of the madrigal school. The same characteristics of counter- point and of complex harmonies are to be found in the sacred music of the day. The compositions of Tallis and Tye served as models for succeeding generations. For it was the sacred music of the Elizabethans that proved most worthy of enduring fame. It must not be assumed, however, that any very distinct lines were drawn between the sacred and the secular, or even between the popular and the " skilled " music. All rested upon a common foundation, the famous ecclesiastical modes of Saint Gregory, which, in turn, corresponded to the Greek scales of the diatonic genus. It will be seen that Elizabethan music was of the formal rather than of the emotional type. The mathematical formulas which had been handed down from ancient times still governed the structure of music. The test applied to a composition was not "Is it beautiful ? " but rather " Is it correct ? " and the critical conclusion usually took the form, " If it is correct, it must be beautiful," rather than " If it is beautiful, it must be correct." In spite of its apparent spontaneity Elizabethan music depended less upon natural instincts, than upon artificial laws and regulations. It would be wrong to assume, however, that this condition of affairs resulted in a musical aristocracy, composed only of the highly educated. As a matter of fact, the ordinary laws of composition were so simple as to be within the grasp of any one. Thus a formal style of music prevailed among all classes, the elements of which were the same for the popular ballad-writer, as for the severely correct composer of sacred music. 1 1 Wooldridge, in his Preface to Chappell's Old English Popular Music (p. xii), particularly emphasizes the free use of the eccles- a2 4 Milton s Knowledge of Music With a knowledge of music thus within the reach of all men, it is not surprising that, in the recognized composers of the day, versatility was of all things desirable. A typical genius of the time was William Byrd, a man who achieved astonishing success both as composer and per- former on various instruments, and who could turn his hand to every style of sacred and secular music. 1 Thomas Morley, author of A Plain and Easy Intro- duction to Practical Music, showed almost equal versatil- ity. Not only did his great work remain the standard text-book of musical theory for generations, but his madrigals and other compositions attained a wide popu- larity. 2 There were many other composers similar to these, and all were versatile, highly inventive, and prolific. The seventeenth century, therefore, received a musical heritage of the highest value, and it was not slow in putting this capital to use. For music had now become not only the most popular art in England, but a recognized and universally respected science. Never had the interest in music been so general and spontaneous. It was not iastical modes in the composition of all kinds of secular music until about the second decade of the seventeenth century. " The popular treatment of them differed in no essential respect from the eccles- iastical ; and the nameless authors of the ballad tunes, for anything their work shows to the contrary, might well have been the very men whom we know and honor as composers for the church. Even in such a matter as the choice of scales to write in, there is no differ- ence ; the modes most used and those most neglected being in both kinds of music the same." 1 Henry Peacham in his Compleat Gentleman, p. 100, eulogizes particularly the sacred music of " our Phoenix Mr. William Byrd, whom, in that kind, I know not whether any may equall, I am sure none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy, who are very sparing in the commendation of strangers, in regard of that conceipt they hold of themselves." 2 Grove's Did. s. v. Morley. English Music in the Seventeenth Century 5 a period of great composers, for under the existing condi- tions these were not necessary. It was rather a time of universal participation in music, when all men, no matter what their condition or ability, could in some way be active in the art. This fact must be understood by one who would appreciate the spirit of the seventeenth cen- tury music. Through the activity of the Elizabethans a musical atmosphere had been created in which men of all classes moved. No gentleman could claim to be well- educated unless he possessed considerable musical skill. Peacham evidently considered his requirements very modest when he said : " I desire no more in you than to sing your part sure and at the first sight ; withall, to play the same upon your Viol, or the exercise of the Lute, privately to yourself. " 1 Indeed, the ability to perform on some instrument, or at least to sing a part at sight, was taken as a matter of course. It is so regarded in the opening dialogue of Morley's treatise, in which one of the interlocutors, having been " earnestly requested to sing," says : " But when, after many excuses, I protested unfainedly that I could not, everyone began to wonder ; yea some whispered to others, demanding how I was brought up." 2 It was evidently the custom at social gatherings for the whole company to join in song. The music -books of the day were printed with the parts facing in different directions, so that the singers could gather round a table and sing all the parts from one book. 3 Various instruments, particularly the conventional " chest of viols," formed a necessary part of the furnishing of a gentleman's house- hold. It was nothing unusual for amateurs to produce 1 Compleat Gentleman, p. 100. 2 Morley, p. 1. 3 See the illustrations in Morley, pp. 254-257. 6 Milton's Knowledge of Music compositions of real merit, and the art of improvisation, both instrumental and vocal, was highly developed. The popularity of music was by no means confined to the aristocracy. As in the sixteenth century, little distinc- tion was made between "skilled" and "popular" music. The common people had not only their folk-songs and ballads, but glees, rounds, catches, and the various styles of country dance as well. There was a great demand for servants or apprentices of musical ability. 1 " Tinkers sang catches ; milkmaids sang ballads ; carters whistled ; each trade, and even the beggars, had their special songs ; the base- viol hung in the drawing-room for the amusement of waiting visitors ; and the lute, cittern, and virginals, for the amusement of waiting customers, were the neces- sary furniture of the barber's shop. They had music at dinner ; music at supper ; music at weddings ; music at funerals ; music at night ; music at dawn ; music at work ; music at play. He who felt not, in some degree, its soothing influences, was viewed as a morose unsocial being, whose converse ought to be shunned and regarded with suspicion and distrust." 2 Curiously enough, among the common people as well as in the cultured classes, music seemed to appeal rather to the ingenuity than to the emotions of men. It was the science and the theory of the structure of music rather than its mere effect on the feelings that attracted interest. To the uneducated mind, the mys- teries of a " round," with its mathematical accuracy, possessed a fascination which the most melodious of folk-songs could not equal. To a more highly developed intellect the laws of harmony, " proportion," and counter- point provided endless material for thought. Peacham 1 See the interesting note on this subject, Chappell 1. 1. 2 Chappell 1. 59. Cf. also the references which he gives on pp. 60, 61, 65-68. English Music in the Seventeenth Century 7 expresses the prevailing attitude of mind in a characteris- tic sentence : " Infinite is the sweet variety that the Theorique of Musicke exerciseth the mind withall, as the contemplation of proportion, of Concords and Dis- cords, diversity of Moods and Tones, infinitenesse of Invention, etc." * Many composers, treating music strictly as a science, occupied their time with mere ex- periments in complexity. Works were composed whose sole object seemed to be a multiplication of parts. 2 Con- formity to rules was all-important. Vocal culture was limited almost entirely to the teaching of sight-singing and the " art of descant." Little or no attention was given to the manner of producing or modifying the quality of tones. Similarly instrumental virtuosity was rare, except among the highly trained professionals. The appeal to the emotions being a secondary matter, it was important only to " play the part correctly." In view of this formalizing tendency, it is surprising to find a real melodic beauty in many of the compositions of the period. Too often, however, it was lost under a mass of harmonic complexities and artificial embellishments. But even at the beginning of the seventeenth century this rigidly formal theory of music was falling into dis- favor. Thomas Campion, now known for his poetry rather than for his music, was one of the earliest to rebel. In the preface to his Ayres, 1601, he expressed himself very strongly against the old style of music, which he called " long, intricate, bated with fugue, chained with syncopation," and attacked in particular the " harsh and dull confused Fantasy, where in a multitude of Points the harmony is quite drowned." In consequence of 1 Compleat Gentleman, p. 103. 2 An "In Nomine of forty parts," written by Milton's father, is a famous example. See Aubrey, Brief Lives 2. 62 ; E. Philips, Life, pp. 352-353 ; and below, p. 12. 8 Milton's Knowledge of Music such views as these, the contrapuntal madrigals gradually lost their popularity. English music inclined towards the monodic style, thereby gaining in dramatic value, and preparing the way for recitative and opera. Polyphony became characteristic of instrumental rather than of vocal music, for it was found that the complicated har- monies which had been produced with difficulty by un- trained voices became clear and pleasing when sounded by instruments, even in comparatively unskilled hands. The so-called " fancies " and " little consorts " for viols therefore grew to be the most popular instrumental forms, and on the vocal side the simple " ayres," with the accompaniment of the lute, took the place of the compli- cated madrigals. The development of the monodic school resulted in a most intimate connection between English music and English poetry. In the time of the madrigals words had been of minor importance, often quite meaningless, and never more than mere doggerel. But in the new order of things there was no reason why the same man should write both text and music, for each of these now had a value of its own. The composers of " ayres " were only too glad to find material in the poetry of the day, and often added to its beauty by their settings. The poets, on the other hand, realized the advantages of music as an appeal to public favor, and were not slow to express their appre- ciation of the work of the composers. 1 Thus a mutually helpful intimacy arose. The music sometimes increased the effectiveness of the words ; the words often immor- talized the music. 2 1 Harry Lawes, who seems to have been a great favorite, evoked commendatory verses not only from Milton, but from Waller and Herrick as well. 2 Cf. for example the Milton-Lawes Sweet Echo. The import of this alliance between music and poetry is clearly revealed in Mil- ton's own career, and it is therefore particularly to be emphasized. English Music in the Seventeenth Century 9 It may be objected that in thus describing the English music of the seventeenth century I have neglected to take into account the hostile Puritan influences. These must, of course, be considered, yet they are by no means so important as is now generally supposed. Through the misstatements of historians, such as Ouseley and Hullah, the Puritan hostility to music has been grossly exaggerated, and their attitude entirely misrepresented. It is true that the Puritans often objected to sacred music. There are even traditions that some of the more fanatical showed their objections by destroying cathedral organs and choir-books. 1 But it cannot be proved that secular music was ever regarded with such disfavor. In fact, statistics show that throughout the period of Puritan supremacy music was composed, publish- ed, and performed as regularly as ever before. 2 In an anonymous Short Treatise against Stage-plays (1625) 3 we find the statement that " music is a cheerful recreation to the mind that hath been blunted with serious medi- tations." It is expressly mentioned among " holy and good recreations, both comfortable and profitable." The attitude of William Prynne may well represent that of the average narrow-minded but educated Puritan. In his Histriomastix he attacks light music, it is true, but he begins the attack with the words " That Music of it- self is lawful, useful, and commendable, no man, no Christian dares deny, since the Scriptures, Fathers, and generally all Christian, all Pagan authors extant, do with one consent aver it." 4 As for the narrow-minded, un- 1 See the citations in C. F. A. Williams' Story of the Organ, 1903, pp. 109-111. 2 For these statistics, see Davey, pp. 274-275 ; Oxford History of Music 3. 208-209. 3 Reprinted in the Roxburgh Library, 1869. 4 Histriomastix 1. 5. 10. 10 Milton s Knowledge of Music educated type of Puritan, it is a well-known tradition that the soldiers of the army went into battle singing Psalms. Of the educated, broad-minded Puritans, Milton himself belongs, of course, to the finest type. But there were others also who showed a very decided love for music. Cromwell owned a valuable organ, kept a private musi- cian, and gave " State concerts." l Colonel Hutchinson, the regicide, "could," according to his wife, "dance admirably well," and " had a great love to music, and often diverted himself with a viol, on which he played masterly." 2 Finally, as representing the uneducated but liberal Puritan of later times, John Bunyan may be cited. His writings are full of the love of music, further evidence of which is given by the well-known story of the flute cut from the leg of a prison-chair. 3 Puritan England, then, was by no means unmusical. If anything, the attack upon ecclesiastical music strength- ened the interest in secular music, and its popularity increased rather than diminished. It was only through the degenerate taste of the Restoration period that English music really suffered. Of that period, however, as having had no real influence on Milton, nothing need be said here. The seventeenth century, as a whole, represents the climax and the succeeding decline of English music. It was a century which received the heritage of a musical supremacy stretching as far back as the time of Henry VIII, and reaching its highest level in the Elizabethan period. As a result of this earlier supremacy, English music in the seventeenth century commanded the widest popular interest and enthusiasm ; and this enthusiasm was felt 1 Firth, Oliver Cromwell, pp. 457-458. 2 Memoirs of the Life of Col. Hutchinson, by his Widow Lucy, H. G. Bohn, London, 1848, p. 22. 3 See Davey, p. 267. English Music in the Seventeenth Century 11 not so much for the emotional as for the formal aspect of music. Even the popular styles of composition were cal- culated to appeal to the intellect rather than to the feelings. The development of the monodic school, how- ever, brought a more intelligent appreciation of the beauty of pure melody. Moreover the increasing importance of the words in vocal music led to a close alliance with the sister art of poetry, an alliance which showed its effects in the work of most of the greater musicians and poets of the day. 1 Milton's environment, then, was distinctly musical. He lived at a time when the formalizing tendency of the Elizabethan period was still felt, but was mingled with a truer sense of proportion and a clearer recognition of values, the direct result of which was a close and mutually beneficial relationship between music and poetry. 1 Cf. Milton's own reference to the " Sphere-born harmonious sisters, Voice and Verse," 8. M . 2 ; and the sonnet To Mr. H. Lawes. II THE LIFE OF MILTON AS A MUSICIAN An account of the music of Milton's time leads naturally to a consideration of the more vital influences in the poet's life — the influences of heredity and of peculiar environ- ment. Milton's father was a musician — no mere enthusiastic amateur, but a composer of real merit, " so eminently skilled ... as to be ranked among the first masters of his time." 1 Aubrey tells us that " he was an ingenious man, delighted in musique, composed many songs now in print, especially that of Oriana." 2 Edward Philips, the poet's nephew, brings out the fact that the elder Milton, although a scrivener by trade, was not " wholly a slave to the world ; for he sometimes found vacant hours to the study (which he made his recreation) of the noble science of musick ", and that " for several songs of his composition ... he gained the reputation of a considerable master in this most charming of all the liberal sciences." 3 Aubrey and Philips both speak with admiration of an In Nomine of forty or possibly eighty parts, composed 1 Hawkins 3. 368. Cf. Burney 3. 134, where the elder Milton is called " equal in science, if not genius, to the best musicians of his age." S. v. Milton in Grove's Diet. 2 Brief Lives 2. 62. The song " of Oriana " was a madrigal for six voices published in 1601 in a collection entitled " The Triumphs of Oriana" to which such eminent composers as Wilby, Morley, and Ellis Gibbons also contributed. Milton's song, No. xviii in the collection, was called " Fair Oriana in the Morn." The words are given by Todd, Life, 1809, p. 4, n. • Life 352-353. The Life of Milton as a Musician 13 by Milton's father, for which he received a gold medal from " a Polish prince." * Aside from such personal opinions, the ability of the elder Milton is clearly proved by his place as a composer in the best of the Elizabethan music-books. 2 A first-hand comparison of these works with the recognized master- pieces of the time shows Milton to have equalled the best of his contemporaries in contrapuntal skill, and to have been above the average in melodic inventiveness. Milton's own estimate of his father as a musician is for us of the greatest interest. In his Latin Elegy Ad Patrem he builds up an elaborate defense of poetry. He urges his father's musical skill as one of the strongest arguments in favor of his own career as a poet, when he says : 1 Brief Lives 2. 62 ; E. Philips, Life 352-353. For a definition of In Nomine see Hawkins 3. 280, n., and Grove's Diet. s. v. In Nomine. 2 Four of his compositions appeared in Sir William Leighton's Tears or Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soul, 1614, namely Thou God of Might, four voices, printed in Burney 3. 139 ; Lord behold, five voices, had I Wings, five voices, printed in Hawkins 3. 369 ; // that a Sinner's Sighs, five voices. Byrd, Dowland, Wilby, and Coperario also contributed to this collection. The settings of the psalm tunes York and Norwich, appearing in Ravenscroft's Psalter, 1621, are by Milton's father. Hawkins (Hist, of Music 3. 367-368) says of "that common one called York tune" that "the tenor part of this tune is so well known, that within memory half the nurses in England were used to sing it by way of lullaby ; and the chimes of many country churches have played it six or eight times in four and twenty hours from time immemorial." A collection entitled Tristitiae Remedium, dated 1616 and probably edited by Thomas Myriell, contains six English and Latin motets by the elder Milton. Two of these, When David heard and / am the Resurrection, both for five voices, are printed in Xo. xxii, Old English Edition, from the British Museum Add. Mss. 29. 372-377. The other four, still in manuscript, are Woe is Me, five voices, Precamur sancte Domine, How doth the Holy City, and She weepeth continually, all for six voices. Christ Church, Oxford, has manuscripts of // ye love Me, four voices, and five Fancies in five and six parts. 14 Miltoris Knowledge of Music Nor thou persist, I pray thee, still to slight The sacred Nine, and to imagine vain And useless, pow'rs, by whom inspir'd, thyself Art skilful to associate verse with airs Harmonious, and to give the human voice A thousand modulations, heir by right Indisputable of Arion's fame. Now say, what wonder is it, if a son Of thine delight in verse, if so conjoin'd In close affinity, we sympathize In social arts, and kindred studies sweet ? Such distribution of himself to us Was Phoebus' choice ; thou hast thy gift, and I Mine also, and between us we receive, Father and son, the whole inspiring God. 1 With such a father to teach him the rudiments of the art it is only natural to suppose that the boy Milton was very early in life set to work at musical studies. 2 We can well imagine the musical atmosphere of the Milton household. There must have been an organ in the house, and probably there were other instruments as well, for the scrivener could afford certain luxuries. Possibly his musical friends assembled in his rooms at times. Some of the leading composers of the day may have been present at these informal gatherings. The great John Wilby, king of madrigal-writers, must have been at least an acquaintance of the Milton family. 3 Possibly the youth- ful genius, Thomas Ravenscroft, the famous Sir William Leighton, the modest but talented clergyman, Thomas 1 Ad Pair em 56-66, Cowper's translation, pp. 61-62. Quoted in Latin below, Appendix I, p. 105. 2 Aubrey says expressly, " His father instructed him " {Brief Lives 2. 67). 8 His works appear in the same volumes as those of the elder Milton. The Life of Milton as a Musician 15 Myriell, visited the house at times. 1 From such as these the child Milton may have derived his first conceptions of music — music of such excellence as to suggest to him the song of the angels themselves. We can imagine the awe with which he listened as they tried over certain madrigals or airs which they had just composed. Later, perhaps, when he had attained sufficiently " good skill," he was permitted to join in the music of these great men, to sing a part at sight, or to play it upon the organ. We are naturally curious to know what music-books were read by the young poet in these first stages, and from what sources, other than by word of mouth, he acquired his fundamental knowledge. It may be assumed that any books in which the compositions of the elder Milton appeared were always at hand ; though, without any claim upon personal interest, such a popular collection as the Triumphs ofOriana must have occupied a prominent place in every musical household. Ravenscroft's Psalter, Leigh- ton's Tears or Lamentations andMyriell's Tristitiae Remed- ium probably supplied the Milton family with sacred music. Coperario's Musical Banquet and his Funeral Tears for the Earl of Devonshire may have given the poet his first acquaintance with the monodic style of composition. On the side of theory, his earliest instruction may have come from Morley's Plain and Easy Introduction to Prac- tical Music ; and from this source he probably derived his first conceptions of " proportion," of concord and discord, and of " descant " or " measurable music." But he also showed very early a decided taste for the Greek and Latin writers, and in their pages found much on the subject of musical theory. After once delving into the mysticism of Pythagoras, as developed by Plato and the later philosophers, it is hardly likely that the 1 All these were editors of the elder Milton's compositions. 16 Milton's Knowledge of Music boy poet was satisfied with anything but the classic ori- ginals. Even Boethius and his jumble of supposedly scientific musical theory must have seemed tame in com- parison with the great thoughts of the writers whom he imitated and attempted to expound. 1 The elder Milton encouraged this taste for the classics, 2 therefore it is very probable that, even before his University days, the boy had some knowledge of the ancient style of music. At the time of his entrance into St. Paul's School, the young Milton is not only unusually proficient in his studies, but a musician of at least intelligence and appreciation, and probably of considerable skill. He plays the organ, and possibly other instruments as well. 3 He already knows something of theory and harmony. In St. Paul's Cathe- dral near by, he has an opportunity to hear the best sacred music of the day. Here he listens to the great sounds of the " pealing organ", something very different from the small instrument in his father's house. 4 The " service high and anthems clear," sung by the " full voiced quire," create in him a love of sacred music which continues throughout his life. In his seventeenth year he enters Christ's College, Cam- bridge. By this time he has " acquired a proficiency in various languages, and . . . made a considerable progress in philosophy." 5 His musical horizon has also broad- ened. He is already formulating his own theory of cosmo- 1 Aristoxenus, Aristides, Claudius Ptolemaeus, etc. 2 Ad Pattern 78 ff. 8 All biographers agree as to Milton's knowledge of the organ. Richardson, Rematks on Milton, p. v, adds the bass-viol. See also Todd, Life, p. 148, and Eatliest Life, p. 21, quoted below, p. 53, n. 4 John Tomkins was at that time organist at St. Paul's. The name of his brother, Thomas Tomkins, often appears in music- books with that of the elder Milton. It is likely that both were friends of the Milton family. Diet. Nat. Biog. s. v. Tomkins. 5 P. W. 1. 254. The Life of Milton as a Musician 17 graphy, in which the mystic element of harmony assumes an important part. 1 It is a conception which is to remain with him throughout his life — the one fixed and un- wavering point amid his constantly changing and dis- cordant surroundings. One of his first public exercises, written early in his university career, is an essay On the Music of the Spheres. 2 He shows in it a surprising knowledge of the Pythagorean system, and accuses Aristotle of misrepresenting its true meaning. His concluding words give the first indication of a thought expressed again and again in his later works : "If we bore pure, chaste, snow-clean hearts, as once Pythagoras did, then indeed our ears should resound with that sweetest music of the circling stars and be filled with it. Then all things should on the instant return as to that golden age. Then, free at last from our miseries, we should lead a life of ease, blessed and enviable even by the gods." 3 He introduces half jocular references to the same subject into his second epitaph on Hobson, the University Carrier. 4 His Vacation Exercise distinctly expresses his musical feeling, 6 and in another Prolusion, entitled Mane citus ledum fuge, there is a delicate appreciation of the music of Nature. 6 Evidently the youthful poet is beginning to look upon music more and more as a universal element. The ode On the Morn- ing of Christ's Nativity, composed during Milton's sixth year at Cambridge, is full of music. It is the expression of a most remarkable instinct for effects of sound, which is here first shown to be characteristic of the poet. 7 1 This is indicated by various allusions in his earliest poems. 2 See Appendix IV. 3 Appendix IV, p. 136. Cf. H. 125-135 ; S. M. 17-28 ; P. L. 5. 144 ff. 4 U. C. 2. 5-6. 6 V. Ex. 33-38 ; 45-52 ; 62-64. 6 Masson, Life 1. 304. 7 Cf. below, pp. 90-92. b 18 Milton's Knowledge of Music The spirit in which it is written is clearly illustrated by his letter to Diodati, in which he says, " We are engaged in singing the heavenly birth of the King of Peace . . . and the ethereal choirs of hymning angels." " You seem to be enjoying yourself rarely," he remarks, in the same letter. " Have you not music, the harp lightly touched by nimble hands, and the lute giving time to the fair ones as they dance in the old tapestried room ? " * While at Cambridge Milton undoubtedly had a chance to learn something more of the art as well as of the theory of music. There was an organ at Christ's, and he was by this time well able to use it. John Hilton, later famous as a composer of airs, graduated Bachelor of Music at Trinity College in the second year of Milton's undergraduate life, and it is likely that he took an interest in the music of a young man whose father was so well- known and highly honored in his own field. That Milton took any active part in the musical affairs of the Uni- versity, however, cannot be proved. In his later years he showed some interest in the university theatricals, but in a spirit more of contempt than of admiration. 2 With his retirement to Horton, the poet devoted him- self with increased zeal to the study of the classics. His father's influence sustained his interest in music, and he probably completed at this time his reading of the Greek writers on theory. He tells us, also, that he often went to London to learn " something new in mathematics or music." 3 The combination is a natural one. To Milton the mathematical or formal side of music always appealed through its exactness and strict adherence to law. He was fond of dwelling upon the " numbers " and the " mea- sure" of music. 4 The visits to town do not necessarily 1 E. 6. 81-85 ; 37-40. Masson's translation, Life 1. 227. 2 CI. P. W. 3. 114-115, andMasson,Li/el.220ff. 3 P. If. 1.255. 4 P. L. 3. 38 ; 580 ; 5. 150 ; P. R. 1. 170 ; 4. 255 ; A. 71. The Life of Milton as a Musician 19 indicate regular lessons. The poet was in the habit of picking up books of all kinds when he had the opportunity, and he probably took as much interest in a new collection of airs or of organ pieces as in volumes of a more serious nature. It may also be suggested that he sometimes listened, when he had the opportunity, to public perform- ances of good music, just as he occasionally patronized the theatre. We can imagine the young poet meeting on these occasions with a small circle of musical friends, either for the practice or the enjoyment of the art. It is to be assumed that the acquaintance of Milton with the composer Harry Lawes dated from the early part of the Horton period. Possibly Lawes was Milton's music teacher, although there is no real evidence to prove that such a relation existed between them. The musician was fourteen years older than the poet, yet a close friend- ship, founded upon mutual admiration, sprang up between them. When Lawes was requested to furnish a masque in honor of the aged Countess of Derby, he naturally turned to Milton for the words, himself supplied the music, and the result was the Arcades. 1 Here again the young Milton employed his conception of the music of the spheres with high poetic effect, and in so doing again clearly reflected the influence of the Greek theory of music. 2 In the year following the production of Arcades Milton and Lawes once more combined their talents to produce a masque, this time the Cornus. Lawes himself played a part, and Milton took advantage of this chance to intro- duce various subtle flatteries of his friend's musical ability. 3 1 The question whether Milton's part in the Arcades and Comus was due to Lawes has been much discussed. After all, it matters little whether both were engaged independently, or the one at the request of the other. 8 Cf. A. 62-78, and Appendix I, p. 107. 3 Cf. C. 494-496 ; 86-88, and see Appendix II, pp. 124-127. b2 20 Milton's Knowledge of Music In 1637 Lawes was permitted by Milton to publish the poem, although the author's name was concealed. The high esteem in which the musician held the attainment of his young friend is shown by his dedicatory epistle to Lord Brackley, in which he calls the masque " so lovely, and so much desired that the often copying of it hath tired my pen to give my several friends satisfaction, and brought me to a necessity of producing it to the public view. ' ' Eight years later Milton returned the compliment with a sonnet in praise of Lawes' music, which, in 1648, was prefixed, with other tributes of a similar nature, to the edition of his Choice Psalms. Whether or not we agree with the seemingly extravagant laudations of this sonnet, the sincerity of Milton's opinion cannot be doubted. 1 One more event is to be noted in the friendship of John Milton and Harry Lawes. When, in 1638, the poet planned a journey to France and Italy, he was spared the trouble of securing a passport in the regular fashion, for Lawes used his influence to procure for him a " letter from my Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports under his hand and seal, which," he said, " will be a sufficient warrant to justify your going out of the King's domin- ions." 2 In Italy Milton enters upon a new world of literature, science, art, and music. He visits the aged, blind Galileo, and possibly derives from him fresh hints regarding the mathematics of music, in which the astronomer has been particularly interested. 3 He is received with open arms 1 See the notes in Appendix II, pp. 124-128. 2 See the letter from Henry Lawes, Masson, Life 1. 736. 3 " From his father, who was an exquisite performer on the lute, he [Galileo] learnt both the theory and practice of music with such success that he is said to have excelled him in charm of style and delicacy of touch. He was taught by his father to The Life of Milton as a Musician 21 by the Florentine scholars, and made a member of the Academy of the Svogliati. Here he meets the most cultured gentlemen of the city. He takes part in the regular club meetings, reading his Latin hexameters, which are enthusiastically applauded. He enters into scholarly discussions, some of which may even deal with his favorite theory of music. 1 He continues his journey to Rome, where a similar reception awaits him. The great Cardinal Francesco Barberini, well-known as a patron of music, becomes his personal friend. He invites him to a magnificent " musical entertainment " at his palace, and receives him in person at the door. 2 It was probably on this occasion that Milton for the first time heard the famous singer, Leonora Baroni. Accompanied by her mother and her sister on theorbo and lute, she interpreted in an entrancing manner the Italian music of the time. Leonora's singing was among the few impressions of this journey which Milton thought worth recording in verse. He addressed three extravagant Latin epigrams to her. She brought again to his mind the celestial harmony, which she of all mortals seemed fit to reproduce. 3 Milton's epigrams are conventional in their extravagance ; he probably would not have wished play on the organ and on other instruments ; but the lute was his favorite instrument. He found it a pleasure in youth, and a solace in the last days of his life, when blindness was added to his other sorrows." — The Private Life of Galileo (anonymous), p. 3. See also I J. J. Fatier, Galileo, his Life and Work, p. 6 ; Ludwig Pilgrim, Galilei, p. 6. 1 A sentence in Carlo Dati's letter to Milton (1639) suggests this idea, when he refers to the poet as one " who, with astronomy as his guide, hears the harmonious sounds of the celestial spheres." — Masson, Life 1. 785. 2 See Milton's letter to Lucas Holstenius, P. W. 3. 499. 8 Cf. the three epigrams, and the notes in Appendix III. 22 Milton's Knowledge of Music his sentiments to be taken literally. Yet he had, no doubt, a sincere admiration for her musical talent, and expressed it in the poetical terms current at the time. 1 At this time, also, he may have heard the organ-playing of Frescobaldi, the most famous performer of the day on that instrument. 2 His mastery of fugue and his skill in improvising must have impressed Milton deeply. We find distinct descriptions of such a type of musician in his later writings. 3 It is hardly likely that Milton at this time came in con- tact with Cardinal Barberini's favorite, the musician Giovanni Battista Doni, who was then absent from Rome. But when Milton visited Florence a second time, they must certainly have met. Doni's name occurs in the minutes of a meeting of the Svogliati, and he is reported to have " read a scene from his Tragedy ", while Mil- ton's share in the program consisted of " various Latin poems." 4 Doni was not only an accomplished performer, but a composer of some merit and a distinguished writer on theory, 5 and we are justified in thinking that he did 1 A. Ademollo, in his pamphlet La Leonora di Milton e di Cle- mente IX., Ed. Ricordi, no. 50281, takes it for granted that Milton was in love with Leonora. Cf. also W. Hayley's note to the first epigram in his edition of Cowper's translations of Milton, 1808. There is no reason for believing that Milton regarded Leonora with personal affection, or that she was the mysterious lady of the Italian sonnets. 2 A. G. Ritter, Zur Oeschichte des Orgelspiels, p. 207, in speaking of the complex character of Frescobaldi's organ music, says : " Er ist unter alien Orgelspielern, die je gelebt haben, der einzige, der solche Aufgaben denken und losen konnte. Keine Schule hat ihm diese Fahigkeit beigebracht ; sie war bei ihm ein Wiegengeschenk, wie es die Natur jeweilig dem einzelnen mit auf den Weg gibt, zu Gunsten, oder zu Ungunsten, stets aber zu kennzeichnender Aus- pragung der Individualitat." 1 Cf. P. L. 11. 561-563. 4 See Stern, Milton und seine Zeit, vol. 2, Appendix 2. 5 See Hawkins 4. 190-203. The Life of Milton as a Musician 23 much to increase Milton's respect for contemporary Italian music. 1 Before returning home, Milton sent from Venice a number of books which he had collected in his travels, " particularly," as Edward Philips tells us, "a chest or two of choice music books of the best masters flourishing about that time in Italy — namely, Luca Marenz(i)o, Monte Verde, Horatio Vecchi, Cif(r)a, the Prince of Venosa, and several others." 2 We may well imagine how the poet on his return exhibited these newly-found treasures to his aged father and to his interested friend Harry Lawes. There is no reason to believe that his intimacy with the latter ceased even with the outbreak of the Civil War. 3 During the winter of 1639 — 40, Milton undertook the education of his two little nephews, Edward and John Philips. He made music an important part of his in- struction. Aubrey says, "He made his nephews songsters, and sing from the time they were with him." 4 The boys evidently acquired considerable skill and taste in music, for later in life they were in close touch with the best musical circles in London. 5 It was Milton's sincere conviction that music should form an important part in any scheme of education. He 1 Milton speaks of Doni in a letter to Holstenius, March 30, 1639, P. W. 3. 499. Athanasius Kircher, another favorite of Cardinal Barberini, was also in Rome at this time, and associated with Doni. His Musurgia Universalis, published in 1650, contains some strikingly Miltonic ideas. Milton may well have seen parts of the work in manuscript. 2 Philips, Life, p. 361. 3 Cf. the laudatory sonnet, published, 1648, in a volume dedicated to the captive king. * Brief Lives 2. 64. 5 Godwin emphasizes the musical ability of both brothers. Cf. Lives of Edward and John Philips, pp. 150, 327. 24 Milton s Knowledge of Music wrote in his Tractate of Education, in 1644, that in the ideal academy of learning, the intervals " before meat " should be taken up with " the solemn and divine har- monies of music, heard or learned, either whilst the skilful organist plies his grave and fancied descant in lofty fugues, or the whole symphony with artful and un- imaginable touches adorn and grace the well-studied chords of some choice composer ; sometimes the lute or soft organ-stop waiting on elegant voices, either to reli- gious, martial, or civil ditties, which, if wise men and prophets be not extremely out, have a great power over dispositions and manners, to smooth and make them gentle from rustic harshness and distempered passions. The like also would not be inexpedient after meat, to assist and cherish nature in her first concoction, and send their minds back to study in good tune and satisfaction." a But Milton's own mind can scarcely have been " in good tune " at this time. His marriage with Mary Powell in 1643 had proved unhappy. His soul failed to find the " harmony " which it demanded, and while it is possible that no violent discords arose, yet Milton's married life was anything but an " undisturbed song of pure concent." In the midst of the doubts brought upon him by the deser- tion of his wife, he began to write those pamphlets on the divorce question which raised a discordant uproar throughout all England. 2 But even though the poet failed to discover the ideal harmony which he sought, the actual harmonies of music must have continued to remain a comfort and a pleasure to him. He still had his pupils, his songs, and his organ. There is a passage in the Areopagitica (1644) showing how 1 P. W. 3. 476. See Appendix I, p. 111. * The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, 1643 ; The Judgement of Martin Bucer concerning Divorce, 1644 ; Tetrachordon, 1644-5 ; Colasterion, 1645. Cf. also Sonnets 11 and 12, 1645. The Life of Milton as a Musician 25 his mind turned most naturally to music as analogous to literature, when he speaks contemptuously of licensing musical instruments in the same manner in which books are to be licensed. 1 With the return of his wife and the removal to Barbican (1645) a more peaceful period began. The town house of the Earl of Bridge water was near by, and possibly Milton renewed his acquaintance with the Lady Alice and Mr. Thomas Egerton, who had taken part in the Comus more than ten years before. Harry Lawes was still intimate with both the Egerton and the Milton families, and his visits to Barbican must have been fre- quent. It was at this time (Feb. 9, 1645—6) that Milton wrote his extravagant sonnet in praise of Lawes. 2 Early in the same year the first edition of his poems was publish- ed. 3 The title-page reads, " Poems of Mr. John Milton, both English and Latin, compos'd at several times . . . The Songs were set in musick by Mr. Henry Lawes." From this Masson argues that Lawes set music to other works of Milton besides the Arcades and Comus. 4 It is thus evident that there was no break in the friendship between the musician and the poet, and the intimacy probably continued until Lawes' death in 1662. From this time on to the end of Milton's life, the record of his musical interests must be gathered almost entirely from the allusions in his works. Of actual facts few are recorded. His father, the aged musician-scrivener, died in 1647. Five years later, Milton's eyes, long tried by excessive study and the demands of public work, failed completely. Is it not likely that with the beginning of Milton's blindness his sense for sound increased ? Nature is commonly credited with atoning in some degree for the afflictions visited upon men. Certainly in his later 1 P. W. 2. 73. See Appendix I, p. 112. 2 See above, p. 20. 8 Jan. 2, 1645-6. * Masson, Life 3. 464. 26 Milton's Knowledge of Music poetical work^ Milton shows a decided preference for the description ol audible impressions, a love of the sounds in Nature rather than its visible beauties, a sensitiveness of hearing rather than of sight. 1 This peculiar delight in sounds had, it is true, been characteristic of Milton all through his life, yet there can be no doubt that it in- creased perceptibly and found a more decided expression in his writings after his blindness came upon him. 2 The lines of Paradise Lost are full of musical reminisc- ences. Echoes of madrigals and anthems heard long ago resound in the song of the angel choirs. Real figures of the past, Leonora singing at Rome, Frescobaldi playing the organ, are reflected again in visionary, supernatural forms. All the musical elements of the pagan cosmology are refashioned into his Christian idea of heaven, where celestial melodies, arising from the very motion of the spheres, resound unceasingly. The poet's unquenchable desire for harmony is the dominant motive. It is a longing which in his earthly experience has never been satisfied, a fixed idea which has possessed him throughout his life. In the face of the constant changes of his con- dition, of the jangle and discord of strife and quarrel ever grating upon his delicate sensibilities, this one purpose has remained fixed. 3 He has failed to discover a reli- gious, a political, or even a domestic harmony which could satisfy his soul. But from his actual experience, his knowledge of natural laws, he builds up a strong faith 1 Cf. especially the opening of the Third Book of Paradise Lost, quoted in part below, Appendix I, pp. 114-115. 2 Richardson tells an interesting story illustrating Milton's sub- stitution of hearing for sight. " Milton, hearing a lady sing finely, Now will I swear,' says he, ' this lady is handsome.' His ears now were eyes to him." Richardson, p. vi. 3 " Many of his choicest years of life were employed in wrangling, and receiving and racquetting back reproach, accusation, and Baroasm . . . Only Musick he enjoyed."— Richardson, pp. cii, ciii. The Life of Milton as a Musician 27 in a complete spiritual harmony which rr