LIBRARY OF THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY PRINCETON, N.J. The George J. Finney Collection of Shaker Literature Given in Memory of His Uncle The Rev. John Clark Finney Class of 1907 ooks M vC <*•* /& — VIEWS IN ZOAU. THE COMMUNISTIC SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES; FROM PERSONAL VISIT AND OBSERVATION : INCLUDING DETAILED ACCOUNTS OF THE ECONOMISTS, ZOARITES, SHAKERS, THE AMANA, ONEIDA, BETHEL, AURORA, ICARIAN, AND OTHER EXISTING SOCIETIES, THEIR RELIGIOUS CREEDS, SOCIAL PRACTICES, NUMBERS, INDUSTRIES, AND PRESENT CONDITK IN. By CHARLES NORDHOFF, AUTHOR OP " NORTHERN CALIFORNIA, OREGON, AND THE SANDWICH ISLANDS," "CALIFORNIA: FOR HEALTH, PLEASURE, AND RESIDENCE," ETC. WITH ILL USTRA TIONS. LONDON : JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1875. All riijhts reserved. LONDON : ntlSTED BY BTOTTISWOODB AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET /\r\ TO MY FBI ENDS, DOCTOR AND MRS. JOHN DAVIS, OF CINCINNATI. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library http://www.archive.org/details/communisticsocieOO TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION 11 Subjects of the Inquiry 11 The Condition and Necessities of Labor 15 Mistake of the Trades-Unions 17 Reasons for it 18 Labor Societies, as at present managed, Mischievous 21 THE AMANA SOCIETY 25 Its History and Origin 26 Amana in 1874 31 Social Habits and Customs , 32 Religion and Literature 43 THE HARMONISTS AT ECONOMY 63 Economy in 1874 65 History of the Harmony Society 69 Its Religious Creed 85 Practical Life 81 Some Particulars of " Father Rapp " 91 THE SEPARATISTS OF ZOAR 99 Origin and History 99 Their Religious Faith 103 Practical Life and Present Condition 110 THE SHAKERS 117 " Mother Ann " 118 The Order of Life among the Shakers 135 A Visit to Mount Lebanon 151 Details of all the Shaker Societies 179 Shaker Literature 214 " Spiritual Manifestations " 232 viii Contents. Paga THE ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD PERFECTIONISTS 259 Origin and History 259 Their Religious Belief 2G8 Daily Life and Business Administration 277 Sunday at Oneida 287 " Criticism " and " Prayer-Cures " 293 THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES 305 Aurora in Oregon 305 Bethel in Missouri 324 Their History and Religious Faith 329 THE ICARIANS 333 THE BISHOP HILL COLONY 343 Its Origin and History 344 Causes of its Failure 349 THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNE 353 THE SOCIAL FREEDOM COMMUNITY 357 THREE COLONIES— NOT COMMUNISTIC 361 Anaheim, in California 361 vlneland, in new jersey 366 Silkville Prairie Home, ln Kansas 375 COMPARATIVE VIEW AND REVIEW 385 Statistical 385 Communal Politics and Political Economy 392 Character of the People 399 Influences of Communistic Life 406 Conditions and Possibilities of Communistic Living 409 BIBLIOGRAPHY 42! INDEX 435 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Views in Zoar Frontispiece. Map showing Location of Communistic Societies To face p. 22 Grace before Meat — Amana " 28 School-House — Amana " 28 Amana, a General View " 40 Church at Amana " 54 Interior View of Church " 54 Plan of the Inspirationist Villages " 54 Assembly Hall — Economy " 64 Church at Economy " 64 A Street View in Economy " 88 Father Rapp's House — Economy „ " 88 Church at Zoar " 108 School-House at Zoar " 108 A Group of Shakers " 118 The First Shaker Church, at Mount Lebanon 130 Shaker Architecture — Mount Lebanon " 134 Shaker Architecture — Enfield, N. H " 134 L f- Shaker Women at Work « 137 Shaker Costumes 141 Shaker Worship. — The Dance 144 Sisters m Every-day Costume 150 Elder Frederick W. Evans " 153 View of a Shaker Village , 154 The Herb-House — Mount Lebanon 155 Meeting-House at Mount Lebanon 156 io List of Illustrations. Papa Interior of Meeting-House at Mount Lebanon 157 Shaker Tannery — Mount Lebanon 1G1 L & Shaker Office and Store at Mount Lebanon 1G2 A Shaker Elder 165 A Group of Shaker Children TofacepAGQ Shaker Dinlng-Hall " 1GG A Shaker School " 214 Shaker Music-Hall " 214 J. H. Noyes, Founder of the Perfectionists " 2G0 Costumes at Oneida " 282 TnE Bethel Commune, Missouri " 324 Church at Bethel, Missouri. , , . . " 328 INTRODUCTION. Though it is probable that for a long time to come the mass of mankind in civilized countries will find it both nec- essary and advantageous to labor for wages, and to accept the condition of hired laborers (or, as it has absurdly become the fashion to say, employes), every thoughtful and kind-hearted person must regard with interest any device or plan which promises to enable at least the more intelligent, enterprising, and determined part of those who are not capitalists to be- come such, and to cease to labor for hire. Nor can any one doubt the great importance, both to the security of the capitalists, and to the intelligence and happiness of the non-capitalists (if I may use so awkward a word), of in- creasing the number of avenues to independence for the latter. For the character and conduct of our own population in the United States show conclusively that nothing so stimulates intelligence in the poor, and at the same time nothing so well enables them to bear the inconveniences of their lot, as a rea- sonable prospect that with industry and economy they may raise themselves out of the condition of hired laborers into that of independent employers of their own labor. Take away entirely the grounds of such a hope, and a great mass of our poorer people would gradually sink into stupidity, and a blind discontent which education would only increase, until they be- came a danger to the state ; for the greater their intelligence, the greater would be the dissatisfaction with their situation — just as we see that the dissemination of education among the i 2 Communistic Societies of the United States. English agricultural laborers (by whom, of all classes in Chris- tendom, independence is least to be hoped for), has lately aroused these sluggish beings to strikes and a struggle for a change in their condition. Hitherto, in the United States, our cheap and fertile lands have acted as an important safety-valve for the enterprise and discontent of our non-capitalist population. Every hired work- man knows that if he chooses to use economy and industry in his calling, he may without great or insurmountable difficulty establish himself in independence on the public lands; and, in fact, a large proportion of our most energetic and intelli- gent mechanics do constantly seek these lands, where with pa- tient toil they master nature and adverse circumstances, often make fortunate and honorable careers, and at the worst leave their children in an improved condition of life. I do noc doubt that the eagerness of some of our wisest public men for the acquisition of new territory has arisen from their convic- tion that this opening for the independence of laboring men was essential to the security of our future as a free and peace- ful state. For, though not one in a hundred, or even one in a thousand of our poorer and so-called laboring class may choose to actually achieve independence by taking up and tilling a portion of the public lands, it is plain that the knowledge that any one may do so makes those who do not more contented with their lot, which they thus feel to be one of choice and not of compulsion. Any circumstance, as the exhaustion of these lands, which should materially impair this opportunity for independence, would be, I believe, a serious calamity to our country ; and the spirit of the Trades-Unions and International Societies appears to me peculiarly mischievous and hateful, because they seek to eliminate from the thoughts of their adherents the hope or ex- pectation of independence. The member of a Trades-Union is taught to regard himself, and to act toward society, as a Introduction. 13 hireling for life ; and these societies are united, not as men seeking a way to exchange dependence for independence, but as hirelings, determined to remain such, and only demanding better conditions of their masters. If it were possible to in- fuse with this spirit all or the greater part of the non-capitalist class in the United States, this would, I believe, be one of the gravest calamities which could befall us as a nation ; for it would degrade the mass of our voters, and make free govern- ment here very difficult, if it did not entirely change the form of our government, and expose us to lasting disorders and at- tacks upon property. We see already that in whatever part of our country the Trades-Union leaders have succeeded in imposing themselves upon mining or manufacturing operatives, the results are — the corruption of our politics, a lowering of the standard of intel- ligence and independence among the laborers, and an unrea- soning and unreasonable discontent, which, in its extreme de- velopment, despises right, and seeks only changes degrading to its own class, at the cost of injury and loss to the general public. The Trades-Unions and International Clubs have become a formidable power in the United States and Great Britain, but so far it is a power almost entirely for evil. They have been able to disorganize labor, and to alarm capital. They have succeeded, in a comparatively few cases, in temporarily in- creasing the wages and in diminishing the hours of labor in certain branches of industry — a benefit so limited, both as to duration and amount, that it can not justly be said to have inured to the general advantage of the non-capitalist class. On the other hand, they have debased the character and lowered the moral tone of their membership by the narrow and cold-blood- ed selfishness of their spirit and doctrines, and have thus done an incalculable harm to society ; and, moreover, they have, by alarming capital, lessened the wages fund, seriously checked 14 Communistic Societies of the United States. enterprise, and thus decreased the general prosperity of their own class. For it is plain that to no one in society is the abundance of capital and its free and secure use in all kinds of enterprises so vitally important as to the laborer for wages — to the Trades-Unionist. To assert necessary and eternal enmity between labor and capital would seem to be the extreme of folly in men who have predetermined to remain laborers for wages all their lives, and who therefore mean to be peculiarly dependent on cap- ital. Nor are the Unions wiser or more reasonable toward their fellow-laborers ; for each Union aims, by limiting the number of apprentices a master may take, and by other equally selfish regulations, to protect its own members against compe- tition, forgetting apparently that if you prevent men from be- coming bricklayers, a greater number must seek to become car- penters ; and that thus, by its exclusive policy, a Union only plays what Western gamblers call a " cut-throat game " with the general laboring population. For if the system of Unions were perfect, and each were able to enforce its policy of ex- clusion, a great mass of poor creatures, driven from every de- sirable employment, would be forced to crowd into the lowest and least paid. I do not know where one could find so much ignorance, contempt for established principles, and cold-blood- ed selfishness, as among the Trades-Unions and International Societies of the United States and Great Britain — unless one should go to France. While they retain their present spirit, they might well take as their motto the brutal and stupid say- ing of a French writer, that " Mankind are engaged in a war for bread, in which every man's hand is at his brother's throat." Directly, they offer a prize to incapacity and robbery, compel- ling their ablest members to do no more than the least able, and spoiling the aggregate wealth of society by burdensome regulations restricting labor. Logically, to the Trades-Union leaders the Chicago or Boston fire seemed a more beneficial Introduction. 1 5 event than the invention of the steam-engine ; for plenty seems to them a curse, and scarcity the greatest blessing.* * Lest I should to some readers appear to use too strong language, I append here a few passages from a recent English work, Mr. Thornton's book " On Labor," where he gives an account of some of the regulations of English Trades-Unions : "A journeyman is not permitted to teach his own son his own trade, nor, if the lad managed to learn the trade by stealth, would he be per- mitted to practice it. A master, desiring out of charity to take as ap- prentice one of the eight destitute orphans of a widowed mother, has been told by his men that if he did they would strike. A bricklayer's assist- ant who by looking on has learned to lay bricks as well as his principal, is generally doomed, nevertheless, to continue a laborer for life. He will never rise to the rank of a bricklayer, if those who have already attained that dignity can help it." " Some Unions divide the country round them into districts, and will not permit the products of the trades controlled by them to be used ex- cept within the district in which they have been fabricated. ... At Man- chester this combination is particularly effective, preventing any bricks made beyond a radius of four miles from entering the city. To enforce the exclusion, paid agents are employed ; every cart of bricks coming to- ward Manchester is watched, and if the contents be found to have come from without the prescribed boundary the bricklayers at once refuse to work. . . . The vagaries of the Lancashire brickmakers are fairly paral- leled by the masons of the same county. Stone, when freshly quarried, is softer, and can be more easily cut than later : men habitually employed about any particular quarry better understand the working of its partic- ular stone than men from a distance ; there is great economy, too, in trans- porting stone dressed instead of in rough blocks. The Yorkshire masons, however, will not allow Yorkshire stone to be brought into their district if worked on more than one side. All the rest of the working, the edg- ing and jointing, they insist on doing themselves, though they thereby add thirty-five per cent, to its price. ... A Bradford contractor, requiring for a staircase some steps of hard delf-stone, a material which Bradford masons so much dislike that they often refuse employment rather than undertake it, got the steps worked at the quarry. But when they arrived ready for setting, his masons insisted on their being worked over again, at an expense of from 5s. to 10s. per sterx A master-mason at Ashton ob- tained some stone ready polished from a quarry near Macclesfield. His men, however, in obedience to the rules of their club, refused to fix it un- til the polished part had been defaced and they had polished it again by hand, though not so well as at first. ... In one or two of the northern counties, the associated plasterers and associated plasterers' laborers have come to an understanding, according to which the latter are to abstain from all plasterers' work except simple whitewashing ; and the plasterers in return are to do nothing except pure plasterers' work, that the labor- ers would like to do for them, insomuch that if a plasterer wants laths or plaster to go on with, he must not go and fetch them himself, but must send a laborer for them. In consequence of this agreement, a Mr. Booth, of Bolton, having sent one of his plasterers to bed and point a dozen win- dows, had to place a laborer with him during the whole of the four days he was engaged on the job, though any body could have brought him all 1 6 Communistic Societies of the United States. Any organization which teaches its adherents to accept as inevitable for themselves and for the mass of a nation the condition of hirelings, and to conduct their lives on that pre- mise, is not only wrong, but an injury to the community. Mr. Mill wisely says on this point, in his chapter on " The Future of the Laboring Classes :" " There can be little doubt that the status of hired laborers will gradually tend to confine itself to the description of work-people whose low moral qualities ren- der them unfit for any thing more independent ; and that the relation of masters and work-people will be gradually super- seded by partnership in one of two forms : in some cases, as- sociation of the laborers with the capitalist ; in others, and per- haps finally in all, association of laborers among themselves." I imagine that the change he speaks of will be very slow and gradual; but it is important that all doors shall be left open for it, and Trades-Unions would close every door. Professor Cairnes, in his recent contribution to Political Economy, goes further even than Mr. Mill, and argues that a change of this nature is inevitable. He remarks: "The modi- fications which occur in the distribution of capital among its several departments, as nations advance, are by no means for- tuitous, but follow on the whole a well-defined course, and move toward a determinate goal. In effect, w T hat we find is a constant growth of the national capital, accompanied with a nearly equally constant decline in the proportion of this cap- ital which goes to support productive labor. . . . Though the fund for the remuneration of mere labor, whether skilled or unskilled, must, so long as industry is progressive, ever bear a he required in half a day. ... At Liverpool, a bricklayer's laborer may legally carry as many as twelve bricks at a time. Elsewhere ten is the greatest number allowed. But at Leeds ' any brother in the Union pro- fessing to carry more than the common number, which is eight bricks, shall be fined Is.;' and any brother 'knowing the same without giving the earliest information thereof to the committee of management shall be fined the same. 1 . . . During the building of the Manchester Law Courts, the bricklayers' laborers struck because they were desired to wheel bricks instead of carrying them on their shoulders." Introduction. 1 7 constantly diminishing proportion alike to the growing wealth and growing capital, there is nothing in the nature of things which restricts the laboring population to this fund for their support. In return, indeed, for their mere labor, it is to this that they must look for their sole reward ; but they may help production otherwise than by their labor : they may save, and thus become themselves the owners of capital; and profits may thus be brought to aid the wages-fund."* Aside from systematized emigration to unsettled or thinly peopled regions, which the Trades-Unions of Europe ought to organize on a great scale, but which they have entirely neglect- ed, the other outlets for the mass of dissatisfied hand-laborers lie through co-operative or communistic efforts. Co-operative societies flourish in England and Germany. We have had a number of them in this country also, but their success has not been marked ; and I have found it impossible to get statistical returns even of their numbers. If the Trades-Unions had used a tenth of the money they have wasted in futile efforts to short- en hours of labor and excite their members to hatred, indolence, and waste, in making public the statistics and the possibilities of co-operation, they would have achieved some positive good. But while co-operative efforts have generally failed in the United States, we have here a number of successful Commu- nistic Societies, pursuing agriculture and different branches of manufacturing, and I have thought it useful to examine these, to see if their experience offers any useful hints toward the solu- tion of the labor question. Hitherto very little, indeed almost nothing definite and precise, has been made known concern- ing these societies ; and Communism remains loudly but very vaguely spoken of, by friends as well as enemies, and is com- monly a word either of terror or of contempt in the public prints. * " Some Leading Principles of Political Economy newly expounded."' By J. E. Cairnes, M.A. New York, Harper & Brothers. B 1 8 Communistic Societies of the United States. In the following pages will be found, accordingly, an ac- count of the Communistic Societies now existing in the United States, made from personal visit and careful examination ; and including for each its social customs and expedients ; its prac- tical and business methods ; its system of government; the in- dustries it pursues ; its religious creed and practices ; as well as its present numbers and condition, and its history. It appears to me an important fact that these societies, com- posed for the most part of men originally farmers or mechan- ics — people of very limited means and education — have yet suc- ceeded in accumulating considerable wealth, and at any rate a satisfactory provision for their own old age and disability, and for the education of their children or successors. In every case they have developed among their membership very re- markable business ability, considering their original station in life ; they have found among themselves leaders wise enough to rule, and skill sufficient to enable them to establish and car- ry on, not merely agricultural operations, but also manufact- ures, and to conduct successfully complicated business affairs. Some of these societies have existed fifty, some twenty-five, and some for nearly eighty years. All began with small means ; and some are now very wealthy. Moreover, while some of these communes are still living under the guidance of their founders, others, equally success- ful, have continued to prosper for many years after the death of their original leaders. Some are celibate ; but others in- culcate, or at least permit marriage. Some gather their mem- bers into a common or "unitary" dwelling; but others, with no less success, maintain the family relation and the separate household. It seemed to me that the conditions of success vary sufficient- ly among these societies to make their histories at least inter- esting, and perhaps important. I was curious, too, to ascertain if their success depended upon obscure conditions, not gener- introduction. 1 9 ally attainable, as extraordinary ability in a leader ; or unde- sirable, as religious fanaticism or an unnatural relation of the sexes; or whether it might not appear that the conditions ab- solutely necessary to success were only such as any company of carefully selected and reasonably determined men and women might hope to command. I desired also to discover how the successful Communists had met and overcome the difficulties of idleness, selfishness, and unthrift in individuals, which are commonly believed to make Communism impossible, and which are well summed up in the following passage in Mr. Mill's chapter on Com- munism : "The objection ordinarily made to a system of community of property and equal distribution of the produce, that each person would be inces- santly occupied in evading his fair share of the work, points, undoubt- edly, to a real difficulty. But those who urge this objection forget to how great an extent the same difficulty exists under the system on which nine tenths of the business of society is. now conducted. The objection supposes that honest and efficient labor is only to be had from those who are themselves individually to reap the benefit of their own exertions. But how small a part of all the labor performed in England, from the lowest paid to the highest, is done by persons working for their own benefit. From the Irish reaper or hodman to the chief justice or the minister of state, nearly all the work of society is remunerated by day wages or fixed salaries. A factory operative has less personal interest in his work than a member of a Communist association, since he is not, like him, working for a partnership of which he is himself a member. It will no doubt be said that, though the laborers themselves have not, in most cases, a personal interest in their work, they are watched and superin- tended, and their labor directed, and the mental part of the labor per- formed, by persons who have. Even this, however, is far from being uni- versally the fact. In all public, and many of the largest and most suc- cessful private undertakings, not only the labors of detail, but the control and superintendence are intrusted to salaried officers. And though the ' master's eye,' when the master is vigilant and intelligent, is of proverbial value, it must be remembered that in a Socialist farm or manufactory, each laborer would be under the eye, not of one master, but of the whole 20 Communistic Societies of the United States. community. In the extreme case of obstinate perseverance in not perform- ing the due share of work, the community would have the same resources which society now has for compelling conformity to the necessary con- ditions of the association. Dismissal, the only remedy at present, is no remedy when any other laborer who may be engaged does no better than his predecessor : the power of dismissal only enables an employer to ob- tain from his workmen the customary amount of labor, but that cus- tomary labor may be of any degree of inefficiency. Even the laborer who loses his employment by idleness or negligence has nothing worse to suffer, in the most unfavorable case, than the discipline of a work- house, and if the desire to avoid this be a sufficient motive in the one system, it would be sufficient in the other. I am not undervaluing the strength of the incitement given to labor when the whole or a large share of the benefit of extra exertion belongs to the laborer. But under the present system of industry this incitement, in the great majority of cases, does not exist. If communistic labor might be less vigorous than that of a peasant proprietor, or a workman laboring on his own account, it would probably be more energetic than that of a laborer for hire, who has no personal interest in the matter at all. The neglect by the unedu- cated classes of laborers for hire of the duties which they engage to per- form is in the present state of society most flagrant. Now it is an ad- mitted condition of the communist scheme that all shall be educated ; and this being supposed, the duties of the members of the association would doubtless be as diligently performed as those of the generality of salaried officers in the middle or higher classes ; who are not supposed to be necessarily unfaithful to their trust, because so long as they are not dismissed their pay is the same in however lax a manner their duty is fulfilled. Undoubtedly, as a general rule, remuneration by fixed salaries does not in any class of functionaries produce the maximum of zeal ; and this is as much as can be reasonably alleged against communistic labor. " That even this inferiority would necessarily exist is by no means so certain as is assumed by those who are little used to carry their minds beyond the state of things with which they are familiar. . . . "Another of the objections to Communism is similar to that so often urged against poor-laws : that if every member of the community were assured of subsistence for himself and any number of children, on the sole condition of willingness to work, prudential restraint on the multi- plication of mankind would be at an end, and population would start forward at a rate which would reduce the community through successivo Introduction. 2 1 stages of increasing discomfort to actual starvation. There would cer- tainly be much ground for this apprehension if Communism provided no motives to restraint, equivalent to those which it would take away. But Communism is precisely the state of things in which opinion might be expected to declare itself with greatest intensity against this kind of selfish intemperance. Any augmentation of numbers which diminished the comfort or increased the toil of the mass would then cause (which now it does not) immediate and unmistakable inconvenience to every in- dividual in the association — inconvenience which could not then be im- puted to the avarice of employers or the unjust privileges of the rich. In such altered circumstances opinion could not fail to reprobate, and if reprobation did not suffice, to repress by penalties of some description, this or any other culpable self-indulgence at the expense of the commu- nity. The communistic scheme, instead of being peculiarly open to the objection drawn from danger of over-population, has the recommenda- tion of tending in an especial degree to the prevention of that evil." It will be seen in the following pages that means have been found to meet these and other difficulties ; in one society even the prudential restraint upon marriage has been adopted. Finally, I wished to see what the successful Communists had made of their lives ; what was the effect of communal living upon the character of the individual man and woman ; whether the life had broadened or narrowed them ; and whether as- sured fortune and pecuniary independence had brought to them a desire for beauty of surroundings and broader intelli- gence : whether, in brief, the Communist had any where be- come something more than a comfortable and independent day-laborer, and aspired to something higher than a mere bread- and-butter existence. To make my observations I was obliged to travel from Maine in the northeast to Kentucky in the south, and Oregon in the west. I have thought it best to give at first an impartial and not unfriendly account of each commune, or organized system of communes ; and in several concluding chapters I have ana- lyzed and compared their different mstoms and practices, and 22 Communistic Societies of the United States. attempted to state what, upon the facts presented, seem to be the conditions absolutely requisite to the successful conduct of a communistic society, and also what appear to be the influ- ences, for good and evil, of such bodies upon their members and upon their neighbors. I have added some particulars of the Swedish Commune which lately existed at Bishop Hill, in Illinois, but which, after a flourishing career of seven years, has now become extinct ; and I did this to show, in a single example, what are the causes which work against harmony and success in such a society. Also I have given some particulars concerning three exam- ples of colonization, which, though they do not properly be- long to my subject, are yet important, as showing what may be accomplished by co-operative efforts in agriculture, under prudent management. It is, I suppose, hardly necessary to say that, while I have given an impartial and respectful account of the religious faith of each commune, I am not therefore to be supposed to hold with any of them. For instance, I thought it interest- ing to give some space to the very singular phenomena called "spiritual manifestations" among the Shakers; but I am not what is commonly called a " Spiritualist.' 5 THE INSPIRATIONISTS, AT AMANA, IOWA. THE AMANA COMMUNITY. I. The " True Inspiration Congregations," as they call them- selves (" Wahre I?isj>iration''s Gemeinden "), form a commu- nistic society in Iowa, seventy-four miles west of Davenport. The society has at this time 1450 members ; owns about 25,000 acres of land; lives on this land in seven different small towns ; carries on agriculture and manufactures of sev- eral kinds, and is highly prosperous. Its members are all Germans. The base of its organization is religion* fchey are pietists; and their religious head, at present a woman, is supposed by them to speak by direct inspiration of God. Hence they call themselves " Inspirationists." They came from Germany in the year 1842, and settled at first near Buffalo, on a large tract of land which they called Eben-Ezer. Here they prospered greatly; but feeling the need of more land, in 1855 they began to remove to their present home in Iowa. They have printed a great number of books — more than one hundred volumes; and in some of these the history of their peculiar religious belief is carried back to the beginning of the last century. They continue to receive from Germany accessions to their numbers, and often pay out of their com- mon treasury the expenses of poor families who recommend themselves to the society by letters, and whom their inspired leader declares to be worthy. 26 Communistic Societies of the United States. They seem to have conducted their pecuniary affairs with eminent prudence and success. II. — Historical. The " "Work of Inspiration " is said to have begun far back in the eighteenth century. I have a volume, printed in 1785, which is called the " Thirty-sixth Collection of the Inspira- tional Records," and gives an account of "Brother John Frederick Rock's journeys and visits in the year 1719, where- in are recorded numerous utterances of the Spirit by his word of mouth to the faithful in Constance, Schaffhausen, Zurich, and other places." They admit, I believe, that the "Inspiration" died out from time to time, but was revived as the congregations be- came more godly. In 1749, in 1772, and in 1776 there were especial demonstrations. Finally, in the year 1816, Michael Krausert, a tailor of Strasburg, became what they call an "instrument" (werkseug), and to him were added several others : Philip Morschel, a stocking-weaver, and a German ; Christian Metz, a carpenter; and finally, in 1818, Barbara Ileynemann, a "poor and illiterate servant-maid," an Alsa- cian (" eine arme ganz ungclehrte Dienstmagd"). Metz, who was for many years, and until his death in 1867, the spiritual head of the society, wrote an account of the so- ciety from the time he became an "instrument" until the removal to Iowa. From this, and from a volume of Barbara Ileynemann's inspired utterances, I gather that the congrega- tions did not hesitate to criticise, and very sharply, the con- duct of their spiritual leaders ; and to depose them, and even expel them for cause. Moreover, they recount in their books, without disguise, all their misunderstandings. Thus it is recorded of Barbara Ileynemann that in 1820 she was con- The Amana Community. 27 demned to expulsion from the society, and her earnest entreat- ies only sufficed to obtain consent that she should serve as a maid in the family of one of the congregation; but even then it was forbidden her to come to the meetings. Her exclusion seems, however, to have lasted but a few mouths. Metz, in his "Historical Description," relates that this trouble fell upon Barbara because she had too friendly an eye upon the young men ; and there are several notices of her desire to marry, as, for instance, under date of August, 1822, where it is related that " the Enemy " tempted her again with a desire to marry George Landmaun ; but " the Lord showed through Brother Rath, and also to her own conscience, that this step was against his holy will, and accordingly they did not marry, but did repent concerning it, and the Lord's grace was once more given her." But, like Jacob, she seems to have wrestled with the Lord, for later she did marry George Landmann, and, though they were for a while under censure, she regained her old standing as an " inspired instrument," came over to the United States with her husband, was for many years the assistant of Metz, and since his death has been the inspired oracle of Amana. In the year 1822 the congregations appear to have attracted the attention of the English Quakers, for I find a notice that in December of that year they were visited by William Allen, a Quaker minister from London, who seems to have been a man of wealth. He inquired concerning their religious faith, and told them that he and his brethren at home were also sub- ject to inspiration. He persuaded them to hold a meeting, at which by his desire they read the 14th chapter of John ; and he told them that it was probable he would be moved of the Lord to speak to them. But when they had read the chapter^ and while they waited for the Quaker's inspiration, Barbara Heynemann was moved to speak. At this Allen became im- patient and left the meeting ; and in the evening he told the 28 Communistic Societies of the United States. brethren that the Quaker inspiration was as real as their own, but that they did not write down what was spoken by their preachers ; whereto he received for reply that it was not neces- sary, for it was evident that the Quakers had not the real in- spiration, nor the proper and consecrated "instruments" to de- clare the will of the Lord ; and so the Quaker went away on his journey home, apparently not much edified. The congregations were much scattered in Germany, and it appears to have been the habit of the " inspired instru- ments " to travel from one to the other, deliver messages from on high, and inquire into the spiritual condition of the faith- ful. Under the leadership of Christian Metz and several others, between 1825 and 1839 a considerable number of their fol- lowers were brought together at a place called Armenburg, where manufactures gave them employment, and here they prospered, but fell into trouble with the government because they refused to take oaths and to send their children to the public schools, which were under the rule of the clergy. In 1842 it was revealed to Christian Metz that all the con* gregations should be gathered together, and be led far away out of their own country. Later, America was pointed out as their future home. To a meeting of the elders it was reveal- ed who should go to seek out a place for settlement ; and Metz relates in his brief history that one Peter Mook wanted to be among these pioneers, and was dissatisfied because he M r as not among those named ; and as Mook insisted on going, a message came the next day from God, in which he told them they might go or stay as they pleased, but if they remained in Ger- many it would be "at their own risk;" and as Mook was not even named in this message, he concluded to remain at home. Metz and four others sailed in September, 1842, for New York. They found their way to Buffalo ; and there, on the ad- vice of the late Mr. Dorsheimer, from whom they received much kindness, bought five thousand acres of the old Seneca GRACE BEFORE MEAT— AMANA. scnooL-nousE — am ana. The Amana Community. 29 Indian reservation at ten dollars per acre. To this they added later nearly as much more. Parts of this estate now lie within the corporate limits of Buffalo; and though they sold out and removed to the West before the land attained its present value, the purchase was a most fortunate one for them. Metz records that they had much trouble at first with the Indians ; but they overcame this and other difficulties, and by industry and ingenu- ity soon built up comfortable homes. Three hundred and fifty persons were brought out in the first year, two hundred and sev- enteen in 1844 ; and their numbers were increased rapidly, un- til they had over one thousand people in their different villages. Between 1843 and 1855, when they began to remove to Iowa, they turned their purchase at Eben-Ezer (as they called the place) into a garden. I visited the locality last year, and found there still the large, substantial houses, the factories, churches, and shops which they built. Street cars now run where they found only a dense forest ; and the eight thousand acres which they cleared are now fertile fields and market-gardens. An- other population of Germans has succeeded the Amana Socie- ty ; their churches now have steeples, and there is an occasional dram-shop; but the present residents speak of their predeces- sors with esteem and even affection, and in one of the large stores I found the products of the Iowa society regularly sold. A few of the former members still live on the old purchase. They appear to have had considerable means from the first. Among the members were several persons of wealth, who con- tributed large sums to the common stock. I was told that one person gave between fifty and sixty thousand dollars ; and others gave sums of from two to twenty thousand dollars. They were not Communists in Germany ; and did not, I was told, when they first emigrated, intend to live in community. Among those who came over in the first year were some fami- lies who had been accustomed to labor in factories. To these the agricultural life was unpleasant, and it was thought advis* C 30 Communistic Societies of the United States. able to set up a woolen factory to give them employment. This was the first difficulty which stared them in the face. They had intended to live simply as a Christian congregation or church, but the necessity which lay upon them of looking to the temporal welfare of all the members forced them pres- ently to think of putting all their means into a common stock. Seeing that some of the brethren did not take kindly to agricultural labor, and that if they insisted upon a purely ag- ricultural settlement they would lose many of their people, they determined that each should, as far as possible, have em- ployment at the work to which he was accustomed. They be- gan to build workshops, but, to carry these on successfully, they had business tact enough to see that it was necessary to do so by a general contribution of means. " We were commanded at this time, by inspiration, to put all our means together and live in community," said one to me ; " and we soon saw that we could not have got on or kept together on any other plan." Eben-Ezer is a wide plain ; and there, as now in Iowa, they settled their people in villages, which they called " Upper," " Lower," and " Middle " Eben-Ezer. From the large size of many of the houses, I imagine they had there, commonly, sev- eral families in one dwelling. At Amana each family has its own house ; otherwise their customs were similar to those still retained in Iowa, which I shall describe in their proper place. In 1854 they were " commanded by inspiration " to remove to the "West. They selected Iowa as their new home, because land was cheap there ; and in 1855, having made a purchase, they sent out a detachment to preparo the way. It is a remarkable evidence of the prudence and ability with which they conduct their business affairs, that they were able to sell out the whole of their eight-thousand-acre tract near Buffalo, with all their improvements, without loss. Usually such a sale is extremely difficult, because the buildings of a The Amana Community. 31 communistic society have peculiarities which detract from their value for individual uses. The Rappists, who sold out twice, were forced to submit to heavy loss each time. I do not doubt that several of the northern Shaker societies would have removed before this to a better soil and climate but for the difficulty of selling their possessions at a fair price. The removal from Eben-Ezer to Amana, however, required ten years. As they found purchasers in one place they sent families to the other; meantime they do not appear to have found it difficult to maintain their organization in both. III.— Amana— 1874. " The name we took out of the Bible," said one of the officers of the society to me. They put the accent on the first syllable. The name occurs in the Song of Solomon, the fourth chapter and eighth verse : " Come with me from Lebanon, my spouse, with me from Lebanon : look from the top of Amana, from the top of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' dens, from the mountains of the leopards." Amana in Iowa, however, is not a mountain, but an exten- sive plain, upon which they have built seven villages, conven- iently placed so as to command the cultivated land, and to form an irregular circle within their possessions. In these villages all the people live, and they are thus divided : Name. Popula- tion. Business. Amana. East Amana Middle Amana. Amana near the Hill. West Amana South Amana Homestead . 450 125 350 125 150 150 135 J Woolen-mill, saw and grist mill, ( and farming. Farming. Woolen-mill and fanning. Farming, saw-mill, and tannery. Grist-mill and farming. Saw-mill and farming. (Railroad station, a saw-mill, farrn- ( ing, and general depot. 32 Communistic Societies of the United States. The villages lie about a mile and a half apart, and each has a store at which the neighboring fanners trade, and a tavern or inn for the accommodation of the general public. Each village lias also its shoemakers', carpenters', tailors', and other shops, for they aim to produce and make, as far as possible, all that they use. In Middle Amana there is a printing-office, where their books are made. The villages consist usually of one straggling street, outside of which lie the barns, and the mills, factories, and work- shops. The houses are well built, of brick, stone, or wood, very plain ; each with a sufficient garden, but mostly stand- ing immediately on the street. They use no paint, believing that the wood lasts as well without. There is usually a nar- row sidewalk of boards or brick ; and the school-house and church are notable buildings only because of their greater size. Like the Quakers, they abhor "steeple-houses;" and their church architecture is of the plainest. The barns and other farm buildings are roomy and convenient. On the boundaries of a village are usually a few houses inhabited by hired laborers. Each family has a house for itself ; though when a young couple marry, they commonly go to live with the parents of one or the other for some years. As you walk through a village, you notice that at irregular intervals are houses somewhat larger than the rest. These are either cook-houses or prayer-houses. The people eat in common, but for convenience' sake they are divided, so that a certain number eat together. For Amana, which has 450 people, there are fifteen such cooking and eating houses. In these the young women are employed to work under the super- vision of matrons ; and hither when the bell rings come those who are appointed to eat at each — the sexes sitting at separate tables, and the children also by themselves. " Why do you separate men from women at table ?" I asked. The Amana Community. 33 "To prevent silly conversation and trifling conduct," was the answer. Food is distributed to the houses according to the number of persons eating in each. Meal and milk are brought to the doors; and each cooking-house is required to make its own butter and cheese. For those whom illness or the care of small children keeps at home, the food is placed in neat baskets; and it was a curious sight to see, when the dinner bell rang, a number of women walking rapidly about the streets with these baskets, each nicely packed with food. When the bell ceases ringing and all are assembled, they stand up in their places in silence for half a minute, then one says grace, and when he ends, all say, " God bless and keep us safely," and then sit down. There is but little conversation at table ; the meal is eaten rapidly, but with decorum ; and at its close, all stand up again, some one gives thanks, and there- upon they file out with quiet order and precision. They live well, after the hearty German fashion, and bake excellent bread. The table is clean, but it has no cloth. The dishes are coarse but neat ; and the houses, while well built, and possessing all that is absolutely essential to comfort ac- cording to the German peasants' idea, have not always carpets, and have often a bed in what New-Englanders would call the parlor; and in general are for use and not ornament. They breakfast between six and half-past six, according to the season, have supper between six and seven, and dinner at half-past eleven. They have besides an afternoon lunch of bread and butter and coffee, and in summer a forenoon lunch of bread, to which they add beer or wine, both home-made. They do not forbid tobacco. Each business has its foreman ; and these leaders in each village meet together every evening, to concert and arrange the labors of the following day. Thus if any department needs for an emergency an extra force, it is known, and the 34 Communistic Societies of the United States. proper persons are warned. The trustees select the temporal foremen, and give to each from time to time his proper charge, appointing him also his helpers. Thus a member showed me his "ticket," by which he was appointed to the care of the cows, with the names of those who were to assist him. In the summer, and when the work requires it, a large force is turned into the fields ; and the women labor with the men in the har- vest. The workmen in the factories are, of course, not often changed. The children are kept at school between the ages of six and thirteen ; the sexes do not sit in separate rooms. The school opens at seven o'clock, and the children study and recite until half-past nine. From that hour until eleven, when they are dismissed for dinner, they knit gloves, wristlets, or stockings. At one o'clock school reopens, and they once more attend to lessons until three, from which hour till half -past four they knit again. The teachers are men, but they are relieved by women when the labor-school begins. Boys as well as girls are required to knit. One of the teachers said to me that this work kept them quiet, gave them habits of industry, and kept them off the streets and from rude plays. They instruct the children in musical notation, but do net allow musical instruments. They give only the most element- ary instruction, the " three Rs," but give also constant drill in the Bible and in the Catechism. " Why should we let our youth study? We need no lawyers or preachers; we have al- ready three doctors. What they need is to live holy lives, to learn God's commandments out of the Bible, to learn submis- sion to his will, and to love him." The dress of the people is plain. The men wear in the winter a vest which buttons close up to the throat, coat and trousers being of the common cut. The women and young girls wear dingy colored stuffs, mostly of the society's own make, cut in the plainest style, and often The Amana Community. 35 short gowns, in the German peasant way. All, even to the very small girls, wear their hair in a kind of black cowl or cap, which covers only the hack of the head, and is tied under the chin by a black ribbon. Also al 1 , young as well as old, wear a small dark-colored shawl or handkerchief over the shoulders, and pinned very plainly across the breast. This peculiar uni- form adroitly conceals the marks of sex, and gives a singularly monotonous appearance to the women. The sex, I believe, is not highly esteemed by these people, who think it dangerous to the Christian's peace of mind. One of their most esteemed writers advises men to " fly from inter- course with women, as a very highly dangerous magnet and magical fire." Their women work hard and dress soberly; all ornaments are forbidden. To wear the hair loose is pro- hibited. Great care is used to keep the sexes apart. In their evening and other meetings, women not only sit apart from men, but they leave the room before the men break ranks. Boys are allowed to play only with boys, and girls with girls. There are no places or occasions for evening amusements, where the sexes might meet. On Sunday afternoons the boys are permitted to walk in the fields ; and so are the girls, but these must go in another direction. "Perhaps they meet in the course of the walk," said a member to me, " but it is not allowed." At meals and in their labors they are also separated. With all this care to hide the charms of the young women, to make them, as far as dress can do so, look old and ugly, and to keep the young men away from them, love, courtship, and marriage go on at Amana as elsewhere in the world. The young man " falls in love," and finds ways to make his passion known to its object; he no doubt enjoys all the delights of courtship, intensified by the difficulties which his prudent brethren put in his way ; and he marries the object of his af- fection, in spite of her black hood and her sad-colored little shawl, whenever he has reached the age of twenty-four. 36 Communistic Societies of the United States. For before that age lie may not marry, even if his parents consent. This is a merely prudential rule. " They have few cares in life, and would marry too early for their own good — food and lodging being secured them — if there were not a rule upon the subject ;" so said one of their wise men to me. Therefore, no matter how early the young people agree to marry, the wedding is deferred until the man reaches the proper age. And when at last the wedding-day comes, it is treated with a degree of solemnity which is calculated to make it a day of terror rather than of unmitigated delight. The parents of the bride and groom meet, with two or three of the elders, at the house of the bride's father. Here, after singing and prayer, that chapter of Paul's writings is read wherein, with great plainness of speech, he describes to the Ephesians and the Christian world in general the duties of husband and wife. On this chapter the elders comment " with great thoroughness " to the young people, and " for a long time," as I was told ; and after this lecture, and more singing and prayer, there is a mod- est supper, whereupon all retire quietly to their homes. The strictly pious hold that marriages should be made only by consent of God, signified through the " inspired instrument." While the married state has thus the countenance and sanc- tion of the society and its elders, matrimony is not regarded as a meritorious act. It has in it, they say, a certain large de- gree of worldliness ; it is not calculated to make them more, but rather less spiritually minded — so think they at Amana — and accordingly the religious standing of the young couple suffers and is lowered. In the Amana church there are three "classes," orders or grades, the highest consisting of those members who have manifested in their lives the greatest spirit- uality and piety. Now, if the new-married couple should have belonged for years to this highest class, their wedding would put them down into the lowest, or the " children's order," The Amana Community. ^y for a year or two, until they had won their slow way back by deepening piety. The civil or temporal government of the Amana commu- nists consists of thirteen trustees, chosen annually by the male members of the society. The president of the society is chosen by the trustees. This body manages the finances, and carries on the tem- poralities generally, but it acts only with the unanimous con- sent of its members. The trustees live in different villages, but exercise no special authority, as I understand, as individ- uals. The foremen and elders in each village carry on the work and keep the accounts. Each village keeps its own books and manages its own affairs; but all accounts are finally sent to the head-quarters at Amana, where they are inspected, and the balance of profit or loss is discovered. It is supposed that the labor of each village produces a profit ; but whether it does or not makes no difference in the supplies of the people, who receive every thing alike, as all property is held in common. All accounts are balanced once a year, and thus the produc- tiveness of every industry is ascertained. The elders are a numerous body, not necessarily old men, but presumably men of deep piety and spirituality. They are named or appointed by inspiration, and preside at religious assemblies. In every village four or five of the older and more experi- enced elders meet each morning to advise together on business. This council acts, as I understand, upon reports of those younger elders who are foremen and have charge of different affairs. These in turn meet for a few minutes every evening, and ar- range for the next day's work. Women are never members of these councils, nor do they hold, as far as I could discover, any temporal or spiritual au- thority, with the single exception of their present spiritual head, who is a woman of eighty years. Moreover, if a young a 8 Communistic Societies of the United States. man should marry out of the society, and his wife should de- sire to become a member, the husband is expelled for a year — at the end of which time both may make application to come in, if they wish. They have contrived a very simple and ingenious plan for supplying their members with clothing and other articles aside from food. To each adult male an annual allowance is made of from forty to one hundred dollars, according as his position and labor necessitates more or less clothing. For each adult female the allowance is from twenty-five to thirty dollars, and from five to ten dollars for each child. All that they need is kept in store in each village, and is sold to the members at cost and expenses. When any one re- quires an article of clothing, he goes to the store and selects the cloth, for which he is charged in a book he brings with him ; he then goes to the tailor, who makes the garment, and charges him on the book an established price. If he needs shoes, or a hat, or tobacco, or a watch, every thing is in the same way charged. As I sat in one of the shops, I noticed women com- ing in to make purchases, often bringing children with them, and each had her little book in which due entry was made. " Whatever we do not use, is so much saved against next year ; or we may give it away if we like," one explained to me ; and added that during the war, when the society contributed be- tween eighteen and twenty thousand dollars to various be- nevolent purposes, much of this was given by individual mem- bers out of the savings on their year's account. Almost every man has a watch, but they keep a strict rule over vanities of apparel, and do not allow the young girls to buy or wear ear-rings or breastpins. The young and unmarried people, if they have no parents, are divided around among the families. They have not many labor-saving contrivances; though of course the eatino- in common is both economical and labor- The Amana Community. 39 saving. There is in each village a general wash-house, where the clothing of the unmarried people is washed, but each fam- ily does its own washing. They have no libraries ; and most of their reading is in the Bible, and in their own " inspired " records, which, as I shall show further on, are quite voluminous. A few newspapers are taken, and each calling among them receives the journal which treats of its own specialty. In general they aim to with- draw themselves as much as possible from the world, and take little interest in public affairs. During the war they voted ; " but we do not now, for we do not like the turn pol- itics have taken" — which seemed to me a curious reason for refusing to vote. Their members came originally from many parts of Ger- many and Switzerland ; they have also a few " Pennsylvania Dutch." They have much trouble with applicants who desire to join the society ; and receive, the secretary told me, some- times dozens of letters in a month from persons of whom they know nothing ; and not a few of whom, it seems, write, not to ask permission to join, but to say that they are coming on at once. There have been cases where a man wrote to say that he had sold all his possessions, and was then on the way, with his family, to join the association. As they claim to be not an industrial, but a religious community, they receive new members with great care, and only after thorough investiga- tion of motives and religious faith ; and these random appli- cations are very annoying to them. Most of their new mem- bers they receive from Germany, accepting them after proper correspondence, and under the instructions of " inspiration." "Where they believe them worthy they do not inquire about their means ; and a fund is annually set apart by the trustees to pay the passage of poor families whom they have deter- mined to take in. Usually a neophyte enters on probation for two years, sign- 40 Communistic Societies of the United States. ing an obligation to labor faithfully, to conduct himself ac- cording to the society's regulations, and to demand no wages. If at the close of his probation he appears to be a proper per- son, he is admitted to full membership ; and if he has property, he is then expected to put this into the common stock ; sign- ing also the constitution, which provides that on leaving he shall have his contribution returned, but without interest. There are cases, however, where a new-comer is at once ad- mitted to full membership. This is where " inspiration " di- rects such breach of the general rule, on the ground that the applicant is already a fit person. Most of their members came from the Lutheran Church ; but they have also Catholics, and I believe several Jews. They employ about two hundred hired hands, mostly in ag- ricultural labors ; and these are all Germans, many of whom have families. For these they supply houses, and give them sometimes the privilege of raising a few cattle on their land. They are excellent farmers, and keep fine stock, which they care for with German thoroughness; stall-feeding in the winter. The members do not work hard. One of the foremen told me that three hired hands would do as much as five or six of the members. Partly this comes no doubt from the interrup- tion to steady labor caused by their frequent religious meet- ings ; but I have found it generally true that the members of communistic societies take life easy. The people are of varying degrees of intelligence ; but most of them belong to the peasant class of Germany, and were originally farmers, weavers, or mechanics. They are quiet, a little stolid, and very well satisfied with their life. Here, as in other communistic societies, the brains seem to come easily to the top. The leading men with whom I conversed appeared to me to be thoroughly trained business men in the German fashion ; men of education, too, and a good deal of intelli- The Amana Community. 41 gence. The present secretary told me that he had been dur- ing all his early life a merchant in Germany ; and he had the grave and somewhat precise air of an honest German mer- chant of the old style — prudent, with a heavy sense of respon- sibility, a little rigid, and yet kindly. At the little inn I talked with a number of the rank and file, and noticed in them great satisfaction with their method of life. They were, on the surface, the commoner kind of German laborers ; but they had evidently thought pretty thor- oughly upon the subject of communal living ; and knew how to display to me what appeared to them its advantages in their society : the absolute equality of all men — " as God made us ;" the security for their families ; the abundance of food ; and the independence of a master. It seems to me that these advantages are dearer to the Ger- mans than to almost any other nation, and hence they work more harmoniously in communistic experiments. I think I noticed at Amana, and elsewhere among the German com- munistic societies, a satisfaction in their lives, a pride in the equality which the communal system secures, and also in the conscious surrender of the individual will to the general good, which is not so clearly and satisfactorily felt among other na- tionalities. Moreover, the German peasant is fortunate in his tastes, which are frugal and well fitted for community living. He has not a great sense of or desire for beauty of surround- ings; he likes substantial living, but cares nothing for elegance. His comforts are not, like the American's, of a costly kind. I think, too, that his lower passions are more easily regu- lated or controlled, and certainly he is more easily contented to remain in one place. The innkeeper, a little to my sur- prise, when by chance I told him that I had spent a winter on the Sandwich Islands, asked me with the keenest delight and curiosity about the trees, the climate, and the life there ; and wanted to know if I had seen the place where Captain Cook, 42 Communistic Societies of the United States. " the great circumnavigator of the world," was slain. lie re- turned to the subject again and again, and evidently looked upon me as a prodigiously interesting person, because I had been fortunate enough to see what to him was classic ground. An American would not have felt one half this man's inter- est ; but he would probably have dreamed of making the same journey some day. My kindly host sat serenely in his place, and was not moved by a single wandering thought. They forbid all amusements — all cards and games what- ever, and all musical instruments ; " one might have a flute, but nothing more." Also they regard photographs and pict- ures of all kinds as tending to idol-worship, and therefore not to be allowed. They have made very substantial improvements upon their property ; among other things, in order to secure a sufficient water-power, they dug a canal six miles long, and from five to ten feet deep, leading a large body of water through Amana. On this canal they keep a steam-scow to dredge it out annually. As a precaution against fire, in Amana there is a little tower upon a house in the middle of the village, where two men keep watch all night. They buy much wool from the neighboring farmers ; and have a high reputation for integrity and simple plain-dealing among their neighbors. A farmer told me that it was not easy to cheat them ; and that they never dealt the second time with a man who had in any way wronged them ; but that they paid a fair price for all they bought, and always paid cash. In their woolen factories they make cloth enough for their own wants and to supply the demand of the country about them. Flannels and yarn, as well as woolen gloves and stock- ings, the)'' export, sending some of these products as far as New York. The gloves and stockings are made not only by the children, but by the women during the w 7 inter months, when they are otherwise unemployed. The Amana Community. At present they own about 3000 sheep, 1500 head of cattle, 200 horses, and 2500 hogs. The society has no debt, and has a considerable fund at in- terest. They lose very few of their young people. Some who leave them return after a few years in the world. Plain and dull as the life is, it appears to satisfy the youth they train up ; and no doubt it has its rewards in its regularity, peacefulness, se- curity against want, and freedom from dependence on a master. It struck me as odd that in cases of illness they use chiefly homeopathic treatment. The people live to a hale old age. They had among the members, in March, 1874, a woman aged ninety-seven, and a number of persons over eighty. They are non-resistants; but during the late war paid for substitutes in the army. " But we did wrongly there," said one to me ; " it is not right to take part in wars even in this way." To sum up : the people of Amana appeared to me a remark- ably quiet, industrious, and contented population ; honest, of good repute among their neighbors, very kindly, and with re- ligion so thoroughly and largely made a part of their lives that they may be called a religious people. IV. — Religion and Literature. " If one gives himself entirely, and in all his life, to the will of God, he will presently be possessed by the Spirit of God." "The Bible is the Word of God; each prophet or sacred writer wrote only what he received from God." "In the New Testament we read that the disciples were 'filled with the Holy Ghost.' But the same God lives now, and it is reasonable to believe that he inspires his followers now as then ; and that he will lead his people, in these days as in those, by the words of his inspiration." 44 Communistic Societies of the United States. "He leads us in spiritual matters, and in those tempoial concerns which affect our spiritual life ; but we do not look to him for inspired directions in all the minute affairs of our daily lives. Inspiration directed us to come to America, and to leave Eben-Ezer for Iowa. Inspiration sometimes directs us to admit a new-comer to full membership, and sometimes to expel an unworthy member. Inspiration discovers hidden sins in the congregation." " We have no creed except the Bible." " We ought to live retired and spiritual lives ; to keep our- selves separate from the world ; to cultivate humility, obedi- ence to 'God's will, faithfulness, and love to Christ." " Christ is our head." Such are some of the expressions of their religious belief which the pious and well-instructed at Amana gave me. They have published two Catechisms — one for the instruc- tion of children, the other for the use of older persons. From these it appears that they are Trinitarians, believe in "justifi- cation by faith," hold to the resurrection of the dead, the final judgment, but not to eternal punishment, believing rather that fire will purify the wicked in the course of time, longer or shorter according to their wickedness. They do not practice baptism, either infant or adult, hold- ing it to be a useless ceremony not commanded in the New Testament. They celebrate the Lord's Supper, not at regular periods, but only when by the words of "inspiration" God or- ders them to do so ; and then with peculiar ceremonies, which I shall describe further on. As to this word " Inspiration," I quote here from the Cate- chism their definition of it : " Question. Is it therefore the Spirit or the witness of Jesus which speaks and bears witness through the truly inspired persons ? 11 Answer. Yes ; the Holy Ghost is the Spirit of Jesus, which The Amana Community. 45 brings to light the hidden secrets of the heart, and gives wit- ness to our spirits that it is the Spirit of truth. " Q. When did the work of inspiration begin in the later times ? "-4. About the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century. About this time the Lord began the gra- cious work of inspiration in several countries (France, England, and, at last, in Germany), gathered a people by these new messengers of peace, and declared a divine sentence of pun- ishment against the fallen Christian world. " Q. How were these ' instruments' or messengers called ? "A. Inspired or new prophets. They were living trumpets of God, which shook the whole of Christendom, and awakened many out of their sleep of security. ******* " Q- What is the word of inspiration ? "A. It is the prophetic word of the New Testament, or the Spirit of prophecy in the new dispensation. " Q. What properties and marks of divine origin has this inspiration ? "A. It is accompanied by a divine power, and reveals the secrets of the heart and conscience in a way which only the all-knowing and soul-penetrating Spirit of Jesus has power to do ; it opens the ways of love and grace, of the holiness and justice of God ; and these revelations and declarations are in their proper time accurately fulfilled. " Q. Through whom is the Spirit thus poured out ? "J.. Through the vessels of grace, or 'instruments' chosen and fitted by the Lord. " Q. How must these ' instruments' be constituted ? "A. They must conform themselves in humility and child- like obedience to all the motions and directions of God within them ; without care for self or fear of men, they must walk in the fear of God, and with attentive watchfulness for the inner 46 Communistic Societies of the United States. signs of his leading ; and they must subject themselves in every way to the discipline of the Spirit." Concerning the Constitution of the Inspiration Congrega- tions or communities, the same Catechism asserts that it " is founded upon the divine revelation in the Old and New Tes- tament, connected with the divine directions, instructions, and determinations, general and special, given through the words of the true inspiration." " Question. Through or by whom are the divine ordinances carried out in the cono-reo-ations ? " Answer. By the elders and leaders, who have been chosen and nominated to this purpose by God. " Q. What are their duties ? "A. Every leader or elder of the congregation is in duty bound, by reason of his divine call, to advance, in the measure of the grace and power given him, the spiritual and temporal welfare of the congregation ; but in important and difficult, circumstances the Spirit of prophecy will give the right and correct decision. " Q. Is the divine authority to bind and loose, intrusted, according to Matt, xvi., 19, to the apostle Peter, also given to the elders of the Inspiration Congregations ? "A. It belongs to all elders and teachers of the congrega- tion of the faithful, who were called by the Lord Jesus through the power of his Holy Spirit, and who, by the authority of their divine call, and of the divine power within them, rule without abuse the consreo-ations or flocks intrusted to them. " Q- What are the duties of the members of the Inspiration Cons-relations ? "A. A pure and upright walk in the fear of God ; heartfelt love and devotion toward their brethren, and childlike obedi- ence toward God and the elders." These are the chief articles of faith of the Amaua Com- munity. The Amana Community. 47 They regard the utterances, while in the trance state, of their spiritual head as given from God ; and believe — as is as- serted in the Catechism — that evils and wrongs in the congre- gation will be thus revealed by the influence, or, as they say, the inspiration or breath of God ; that in important affairs they will thus receive the divine direction ; and that it is their duty to obey the commands thus delivered to them. There were "inspired instruments" before Christian Metz. Indeed, the present "instrument," Barbara Landmann, was accepted before him, but by reason of her marriage fell from grace for a while. It would seem that Metz also was married ; for I was told at Amana that at his death in 1867, at the age of sixty-seven, he left a daughter in the community. The words of "inspiration" are usually delivered in the public meetings, and at funerals and other solemn occasions. They have always been carefully written down by persons specially appointed to that office ; and this appears to have been done so long ago as 1719, when " Brother John Frederick Rock" made his journey through Constance, Schaffhausen, Zu- rich, etc., with " Brother J. J. Schulthes as writer, who wrote down every thing correctly, f rom day to day, and in weal or woe." "When the "instrument" "falls into inspiration," he is often severely shaken — Metz, they say, sometimes shook for an hour — and thereupon follow the utterances which are believed to proceed from God. The " instrument" sits or kneels, or walks about among the congregation. "Brother Metz used to walk about in the meeting with his eyes closed ; but he always knew to whom he was speaking, or where to turn with words of re- proof, admonition, or encouragement" — so I was told. The "inspired" words are not always addressed to the general congregation, but often to individual members; and their feelings are not spared. Thus in one case Barbara Land- mann, being " inspired," turned upon a sister with the words, 48 Communistic Societies of the United States. " But you, wretched creature, follow the true counsel of obedi- ence ;" and to another : " And you, contrary spirit, how much pain do you give to our hearts. You will fall into everlasting pain, torture, and unrest if you do not break your will and re- pent, so that you may be accepted and forgiven by those you have offended, and who have done so much for you." The warnings, prophecies, reproofs, and admonitions, thus delivered by the " inspired instrument," are all, as I have said, carefully written down, and in convenient time printed in yearly volumes, entitled " Year-Books of the True Inspiration Congregations : Witnesses of the Spirit of God, which happen- ed and were spoken in the Meetings of the Society, through the Instruments, Brother Christian Metz and Sister B. Land- raann," with the year in which they were delivered. In this country they early established a printing-press at Eben-Ezer, and after their removal also in Iowa, and have issued a con- siderable number of volumes of these records. They are read as of equal authority and almost equal importance with the Bible. Every family possesses some volumes ; and in their meetings extracts are read aloud after the reading of the Scriptures. There is commonly a brief preface to each revelation, re- counting the circumstances under which it was delivered; as for instance : "No. 10. Lower Eben-Ezer, November 7, 1853. — Monday morning the examination of the congregation was made here according to the command of the Lord. For the opening service five verses were sung of the hymn, ' Lord, give thyself to me;' the remainder of the hymn was read. After the prayer, and a brief silence, Sister Barbara Landmann fell into inspiration, and was forced to bear witness in the following gracious and impressive revival words of love." The phrase varies with the contents of the message, as, on another occasion, it is written that " both ' instruments' fell into The Amana Community. 49 inspiration, and there followed this earnest admonition to re- pentance, and words of warning ;" or, again, the words are de- scribed as " important," or " severe," or " gentle and gracious and hope inspiring." During his wanderings in Germany among the congrega- tions, Metz appears to have fallen into inspiration almost daily, not only in meetings, but during conversations, and even occa- sionally at dinner — whereupon the dinner waited. Thus it is recorded that " at the Rehmuhle, near Hambach, June 1, 1839 — this afternoon the traveling brethren with Brother Peter came hither and visited friend Matthias Bieber. After con- versation, as they were about "to sit down to eat something, Brother Christian Metz fell into inspiration, and delivered the following words to his friend, and Brother Philip Pe- ter." The inspired utterances are for the most part admonitory to a holier life ; warnings, often in the severest language, against selfishness, stubbornness, coldness of heart, pride, hatred toward God, grieving the Spirit; with threats of the wrath of God, of punishment, etc. Humility and obedience are continually inculcated. " Lukewarmness " appears to be one of the pre- vailing sins of the community. It is needless to say that to a stranger these homilies are dull reading. Concerning violations of the Ten Commandments or of the moral law, I have not found any mention here ; and I do not doubt that the members of the society live, on the whole, uncommonly blameless lives. I asked, for instance, what punishment their rules provided for drunkenness, but was told that this vice is not found among them; though, as at Economy and in other German communities, they habitually use both wine and beer. When any member offends against the rules or order of life of the society, he is admonished (ermahnt) by the elders ; and if he does not amend his ways, expulsion follows; and 50 Communistic Societies of the United States. here as elsewhere in the communities I have visited, they seem vigilantly to purge the society of improper persons. The following twenty-one " Rules for Daily Life," printed in one of their collections, and written by one of their older lead- ers, E. L. Gruber, give, I think, a tolerably accurate notion of their views of the conduct of life: " I. To obey, without reasoning, God, and through God our superiors. "II. To study quiet, or serenity, within and without. " III. Within, to rule and master your thoughts. " IV. Without, to avoid all unnecessary words, and still to study silence and quiet. " Y. To abandon self, with all its desires, knowledge, and power. " VI. Do not criticise others, either for good or evil, neither to judge nor to imitate them ; therefore contain yourself, remain at home, in the house and in your heart. " VII. Do not disturb your serenity or peace of mind — hence neither desire nor grieve. "VIII. Live in love and pity toward your neighbor, and indulge neither anger nor impatience in your spirit. " IX. Be honest, sincere, and avoid all deceit and even se- cretiveness. " X. Count every word, thought, and work as done in the im- mediate presence of God, in sleeping and waking, eating, drink- ing, etc., and give him at once an account of it, to see if all is done in his fear and love. " XL Be in all things sober, without levity or laughter ; and without vain and idle words, works, or thoughts ; much less heedless or idle. " XII. Never think or speak of God without the deepest rev- erence, fear, and love, and therefore deal reverently with all spiritual things. "XIII. Bear all inner and outward sufferings in silence, The Amana Community. 51 complaining only to God ; and accept all from him in deepest reverence and obedience. " XIV. Notice carefully all that God permits to happen to you in your inner and outward life, in order that you may not fail to comprehend his will and to be led by it. "XV. Have nothing to do with unholy, and particularly with needless business affairs. "XVI. Have no intercourse with worldly-minded men; never seek their society ; speak little with them, and never without need ; and then not without fear and trembling. " XVII. Therefore, what you have to do with such men, do in haste ; do not waste time in public places and worldly soci- ety, that you be not tempted and led away. XVIII. Fly from the society of women-kind as much as possible, as a very highly dangerous magnet and magical fire. "XIX. Avoid obeisance and the fear of men; these are dangerous ways. " XX. Dinners, weddings, feasts, avoid entirely ; at the best there is sin. "XXI. Constantly practice abstinence and temperance, so that you may be as wakeful after eating as before." These rules may, I suppose, be regarded as the ideal stand- ard toward which a pious Inspirationist looks and works. Is it not remarkable that they should have originated and found their chief adherents among peasants and poor weavers ? Their usual religious meetings are held on Wednesday, Saturday, and Sunday mornings, and every evening. On Saturday, all the people of a village assemble together in the church or meeting-house ; on other days they meet in smaller rooms, and by classes or orders. ; The society consists of three of these orders — the highest, the middle, and the lower, or children's order. In the latter fall naturally the youth of both sexes, but also those older and married persons whose religious life and experience are not 52 Communistic Societies of the United States. deep enough to make them worthy of membership in the higher orders. The evening meeting opens a little after seven o'clock. It is held in a large room specially maintained for this purpose. I accompanied one of the brethren, by permission, to these meet- ings during my stay at Amana. I found a large, low-ceiled room, dimly lighted by a single lamp placed on a small table at the head of the room, and comfortably warmed with stoves. Benches without backs were placed on each side of this cham- ber ; the floor was bare, but clean ; and hither entered, singly, or by twos or threes, the members, male and female, each go- ing to the proper place without noise. The men sat on one side, the women on the other. At the table sat an elderly man, of intelligent face and a look of some authority. Near him were two or three others. When all had entered and were seated, the old man at the table gave out a hymn, reading out one line at a time ; and after two verses were sung in this way, he read the remaining ones. Then, after a moment of decorous and not unimpres- sive silent meditation, all at a signal rose and kneeled down at their places. Hereupon the presiding officer uttered a short prayer in verse, and after him each man in his turn, be- ginning with the elders, uttered a similar verse of prayer, usually four, and sometimes six lines long. "When all the men and boys had thus prayed — and their little verses were very pleasant to listen to, the effect being of childlike simplicity — the presiding elder closed with a brief extemporary prayer, whereupon all arose. Then he read some verses from one of their inspired books, admonishing to a good life ; and also a brief homily from one of Christian Metz's inspired utterances. Thereupon all arose, and stood in their places in silence for a moment ; and then, in perfect order and silence, and with a kind of military pre- cision, benchf ul after benchf ul of people walked softly out of The Amana Community. 53 the room. The women departed first ; and each went home, I judge, without delay or tarrying in the hall, for when I got out the hall was already empty. The next night the women prayed instead of the men, the presiding officer conducting the meeting as before. I noticed that the boys and younger men had their places on the front seats ; and the whole meeting was conducted with the utmost reverence and decorum. On Wednesday and Sunday mornings the different orders meet at the same hour, each in its proper assembly-room. These are larger than those devoted to the evening meetings. The Wednesday-morning meeting began at half-past seven, and lasted until nine. There was, as in the evening meetings, a very plain deal table at the head, and benches, this time with backs, were ranged in order, the sexes sitting by themselves as before ; each person coming in with a ponderous hymn-book, and a Bible in a case. The meeting opened with the singing of six verses of a hymn, the leader reading the remaining verses. Many of their hymns have from ten to fourteen verses. Next he read some passages from one of the inspira- tional utterances of Metz ; after which followed prayer, each man, as in the evening meetings, repeating a little supplicatory verse. The women did not join in this exercise. Then the congregation got out their Bibles, the leader gave out the fifth chapter of Ephesians, and each man read a verse in his turn ; then followed a psalm ; and the women read those verses which remained after all the men had read. After this the leader read some further passages from Metz. After the reading of the New Testament chapter and the psalm, three of the leaders, who sat near the table at the head of the room, briefly spoke upon the necessity of living accord- ing to the words of God, doing good works and avoiding evft. Their exhortations were very simple, and without any attempt at eloquence, in a conversational tone. 54 Communistic Societies of the United States. Finally another hymn "was sung; the leader pronounced a blessing, and we all returned home, the men and women going about the duties of the day. On Saturday morning the general meeting is held in the church. The congregation being then more numerous, the brethren do not all pray, but only the elders ; as in the other meetings, a chapter from the New Testament is read and com- mented upon by the elders ; also passages are read from the inspired utterances of Metz or some other of their prophets ; and at this time, too, the " instrument," if moved, falls into a trance, and delivers the will of the Holy Spirit. They keep New -Year's as a holiday, and Christmas, Easter, and the Holy-week are their great religious festivals. Christ- mas is a three days' celebration, when they make a feast in the church ; there are no Christmas-trees for the children, but they receive small gifts. Most of the feast days are kept double — that is to say, during two days. During the Passion-week they have a general meeting in the church every day at noon, and on each day the chapter appropriate to it is read, and fol- lowed by prayer and appropriate hymns. The -week ends, of course, on Sunday with the ascension ; but on Easter Monday, which is also kept, the children receive colored eggs. At least once in every year there is a general and minute " Untersuchung," or inquisition of the whole community, in- cluding even the children — an examination of its spiritual con- dition. This is done by classes or orders, beginning with the elders themselves; and I judge from the relations of this cere- mony in their printed books that it lasts long, and is intended to be very thorough. Each member is expected to make con- fession of his sins, faults, and shortcomings ; and if any thing is hidden, they believe that it will be brought to light by the inspired person, who assumes on this occasion an important part, admonishing individuals very freely, and denouncing the sins and evils which exist in the congregation. At this time, CHUItCH AT AMANA. INTERIOR VIEW OF CHURCH. PLAN OF THE IXSPIRATIONIST VILLAGES. The Amana Community. 55 too, any disputes which may have occurred are brought up and healed, and an effort is made to revive religious fervor in the hearts of all. Not unfrequently the examination of a class is adjourned from day to day, because they are found to be cold and unimpressible ; and I notice that on these occa- sions the young people in particular are a cause of much grief and trouble on account of their perverse hardness of heart. The celebration of the Lord's Supper is their greatest relig- ious event. It is held only when the "inspired instrument" directs it, which may not happen once in two years ; and it is thought so solemn and important an occasion that a full ac- count of it is sometimes printed in a book. I have one such volume: "Das Liebes- und Gedcichtniszmahl des Leidens und Sterbens unsers Herrn und Ueilandes Jesu Christi, wie sol- ches von deni Herrn durch Sein Wort und zeugnisz angeJcun- digt, angeordnet und gehalten worden, in Vier Abtheilungen, zu Mittel und Nieder Eben-Ezer, iin Jahr 1855 " ("The Sup- per of Love and Remembrance of the suffering and death of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ : How it was announced, ordered, and held by his word aud witness, in four parts, in Middle and Lower Eben-Ezer, in the year 1855"). It is a neatly printed volume of 284 pages. The account begins with the announcement of the Lord's command : " Middle Eben-Ezer, April 21st, 1855, Saturday, in the general meeting, in the beginning, when the congregation was assembled, came the following gracious word and deter- mination of the Lord, through Brother Chr. Metz." There- upon, after some words of preface, the " instrument " kneeled down, the congregation also kneeling, and said: "I am com- manded humbly to reveal, according to the sacred and loving conclusion, that you are to celebrate the supper of love and remembrance in the presence of your God. The beginning and the course of it shall be as before. There will be on this 56 Communistic Societies of the United States. occasion humiliations and revelations, if in any the true Worker of righteousness and repentance has not been allowed to do his work. The Lord will make a representation of the lack of his understanding in many of you; his great love will come to light, and will light up every one." After more of this kind of address, the "instrument" said: "You are to be- gin the Lord's Supper on Ascension-day, make ready then all your hearts, clean out all filth, all that is rotten and stinks, all sins and every thing idle and useless; and cherish pious thoughts, so that you shall put down the flesh, as you are com- manded to," and so on. On a following Sunday, the " instrument " recurred to the subject, and in the course of his remarks reproved one of the elders for disobedience to the Lord and resistance to grace, and displaced him in the assembly, calling another by name to his place. At the close, he spoke thus, evidently in the name and with the voice of God : " And I leave it to you, my servants, to take out of the middle order here and there some into the first, and out of the third into the second, but not according to favor and prejudice, but according to their grace and con- duct, of which you are to take notice." A day was given to admonitions and preparation ; the "in- strument" speaking not only to the congregation in general, in the morning and afternoon meetings, but to a great many in particular — admonishing, exhorting, blaming, encouraging them by name. The next morning there was a renewal of such hortatory remarks, with singing and prayer; and in the afternoon, all being prepared, the elders washed the feet of the brethren. This is done only in the higher orders. Thereupon tables are brought in, and bread and wine are placed. After singing, the "inspired" person blesses these, and they are then received by the brethren and sisters from the hands of the elders, who pronounce the customary words of Scripture. The Amana Community. 57 This being accomplished, the assembly temporarily adjourns, and persons previously appointed for this office spread on the tables a modest supper of bread and cake, coffee, chocolate, and a few other articles of food, and to this all sit down with solemn joy. At the conclusion of this meal, a hymn is sung, and the assembly retire to their homes. When the three regular orders have gone through this cele- bration, there is a fourth, consisting of children under sixteen years, and of certain adult members who for various reasons have been thought unworthy to partake with the rest; and these also go through a thorough examination. I asked one of their leading elders whether they believed in a " prayer-cure," explaining what the Oneida communists un- derstand by this phrase. He replied, " No, we do not use prayer in this way, to cure disease. But it is possible. But if God has determined death, ten doctors can not help a man." The present inspired instrument being very aged, I asked whether another was ready to take her place. They said No, no one had yet appeared ; but they had no doubt God would call some one to the necessary office. They were willing to trust him, and gave themselves no trouble about it. It remains to speak of their literature. They have a somewhat ponderous hymnology, in two great volumes, one called " The Voice from Zion : to the Praise of the Almighty," by "John William Petersen (A.D. 1698)," printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y., in 1851, and containing 958 pages. The hymns are called Psalms, and are not in rhyme. They are to be sung in a kind of chant, as I judge from the music prefixed to them ; and are a kind of commentary on the Scripture, one part being taken up with the book of Revelation. The other volume is the hymn-book in regular use. It con- tains 1285 pages, of which 111 are music — airs to which the different hymns may be sung. The copy I have is of the third ' E 58 Communistic Societies of the United States. edition, and bears the imprint, " Amana, Iowa, 1S71." Its title is " Psalms after the manner of David, for the children of Zion." It has one peculiarity which might with advantage be introduced in other hymn-books. Occasional verses are marked with a *, and it is recommended to the reader that these be taught to the children as little prayers. In practice, I found that in their evening meetings the grown persons as well as the children recited these simple and devotional little verses as their prayers : surely a more satisfactory delivery to them and the congregation than rude and halting attempts at extemporary utterance. Many of the hymns are very long, having from twelve to twenty-four verses ; and it is usual at their meetings to sing three or four verses and then read the remainder. They do not sing well ; and their tunes — those at least which I heard — are slow, and apparently in a style of music now disused in our churches. The hymns are printed as prose, only the verses being separated. I was told that they were " all given by the Spirit of God," and that Christian Metz had a great gift of hymn-writing, very often, at home or elsewhere, writing down an entire hymn at one sitting. They are all deeply devotional in spirit, and have not unfrequently the merit of great sim- plicity and a pleasing quaintness of expression, of which I think the German language is more capable than our ruder and more stubborn English. Their writers are greatly given to rhyming. Even in the inspirational utterances I find frequently short admonitory paragraphs where rude rhymes are introduced. Among their books is one, very singular, called " Innocent Amusement " ( Li Unschuldiges Zeitvertreib"), in a number of volumes (I saw the fifth). It is a collection of verses, making pious applica- tions of many odd subjects. Among the headings I found Cooking, Rain, Milk, The Ocean, Temperance. Salve, Dinner, A Mast, Fog, A Net, Pitch, A Rainbow, A Kitchen, etc., etc. The Amana Community. 59 It is a mass of pious doggerel, founded on Scripture and with fanciful additions. Another is called " Jesus's ABC, for his scholars," and is also in rhyme. Another is entitled " Rhymes on the sufferings, death, burial, and resurrection of Christ." There are about twelve hundred pages of the ABC book. They have printed also a miniature Thomas a Kempis, " for the edification of children;" two catechisms; a little work en- titled " Treasure for those who desire God," and other works of similar character. A list, not complete, but containing all the books I have been able to collect, will be found in the Bibliography at the end of this volume. At the end of the Catechism are some pages of rules for the conduct of children, at home, in church, at school, during play hours, at meals, and in all the relations of their lives. Many of these rules are excellent, and the whole of them might well, be added to the children's catechisms in use in the churches. Piety, orderly habits, obedience, politeness, cleanliness, kind- ness to others, truthfulness, cheerfulness, etc., are all inculcated in considerable detail, with great plainness of speech, and in sixty-six short paragraphs, easily comprehended by the young- est children. The fifty-fourth rule shows the care with which they guard the intercourse of the sexes : " Have no pleasure in violent games or plays ; do not wait on the road to look at quarrels or fights; do not keep company with bad children, for there you will learn only wickedness. Also, do not play with children of the other sex." THE HARMONY SOCIETY, AT ECONOMY, IP^l. 64 Communistic Societies of the United States. ing hills behind, protecting it from cold winds in winter ; a magnificent reach of the river in view below ; and tall hills on the opposite shore to give a picturesque outlook. The town begins on the edge of the bluff ; and under the shade-trees planted there benches are arranged, where doubtless the Har- monists take their comfort on summer evenings, in view of the river below them and of the village on the opposite shore. Streets proceed at right-angles with the river's course ; and each street is lined with neat frame or brick houses, surround- ing a square in such a manner that within each household has a sufficient garden. The broad streets have neat foot-pave- ments of brick ; the houses, substantially built but unpreten- tious, are beautified by a singular arrangement of grape-vines, which are trained to espaliers fixed to cover the space between the top of the lower and the bottom of the upper windows. This manner of training vines gives the town quite a peculiar look, as though the houses had been crowned with green. As you walk through the silent streets, and pass the large As- sembly Hall, the church, and the hotel, it will occur to you that these people had, w T hen they founded their place, the ad- vantage of a sensible architect, for, while there is not the least pretense, all the building is singularly solid and honest ; and in the larger houses the roof-lines have been broken and man- aged with considerable skill, so as to produce a very pleasing and satisfactory effect. Moreover, the color of the bricks used in building has chanced to be deep and good, which is no slight advantage to the place. Neatness and a Sunday quiet are the prevailing character- istics of Economy. Once it was a busy place, for it had cot- ton, silk, and woolen factories, a brewery, and other indus- tries ; but the most important of these have now ceased ; and as you walk along the quiet, shady streets, you meet only oc- casionally some stout, little old man, in a short light-blue jacket and a tall and very broad-brimmed hat, looking amazingly ASSEMBLY IIALL — ECONOMY. i LK FREDKKK K \\". EVANS The Shakers. 1 5 , sometimes quite noisy; scrupulously neat, and much given to attend to their own business. The Sabbath quiet and stillness which prevailed I attributed to the fact that there had been a death in the family, and the funeral was to be held that morning ; but I discovered after- wards that an eternal Sabbath stillness reigns in a Shaker family — there being no noise or confusion, or hum of bus} 7 in- dustry at any time, although they are a most industrious people. While the Swedish brother was, in answer to my questions, giving me some account of himself, to us came Elder Frederick, the head of the North or Gathering Family at Mount Leb- anon, and the most noted of all the Shakers, because he, often- er than any other, has been sent out into the world to make known the society's doctrines and practice. Frederick W. Evans is an Englishman by birth, and was a " reformer " in the old times, when men in this country strove for " land reform," the rights of labor, and against the United States Bank and other monopolies of forty or fifty years ago. He is now sixty-six years of age, but looks not more than fifty ; w r as brought to this country at the age of twelve; became a socialist in early life, and, after trying life in several communi- ties which perished early, at last visited the Shakers at Mount Lebanon, and after some months of trial and examination, joined the community, and has remained in it ever since — about forty-five years. He is both a writer and a speaker; and while not college bred, has studied and read a good deal, and has such natural abilities as make him a leader among his people, and a man of force any where. He is a person of enthusiastic and aggres- sive temperament, but with a practical and logical side to his mind, and with a hobby for science as applied to health, com- fort, and the prolongation of life. In person he is tall, with a stoop as though he had overgrown his strength in early life; 154 Communistic Societies of the United States. with brown eyes, a long nose, a kindly, serious face, and an at- tractive manner. lie was dressed rigidly in the Shaker costume. VIEW OF A SHAKER VILLAGE. Mount Lebanon lies beautifully among the hills of Berk- shire, two and a half miles from Lebanon Springs, and seven miles from Pittsfield. The settlement is admirably placed on the hillside to which it clings, securing it good drainage, abun- dant water, sunshine, and the easy command of water-power. Whoever selected the spot had an excellent eye for beauty and utility in a country site. The views are lovely, broad, and varied ; the air is pure and bracing ; and, in short, a company of people desiring to seclude themselves from the world could hardly have chosen a more delightful spot. As you drive up the road from Lebanon Springs, the first building belonging to the Shaker settlement which meets your eye is the enormous barn of the North Family, said to be the largest in the three or four states which near here come to- gether, as in its interior arrangements it is one of the most The Shakers. 155 complete. This huge structure lies on a hillside, and is two hundred and ninety -six feet long by fifty wide, and five stories high, the upper story being on a level with the main road, and the lower opening on the fields behind it. Next to this lies the sisters' shop, three stories high, used for the women's in- dustries ; and next, on the same level, the family house, one hundred feet by forty, and five stories high. Behind these buildings, which all lie directly on the main road, is another set — an additional dwelling-house, in which are the visitors' room and several rooms where applicants for admission re- main while they are on trial; near this an enormous wood- shed, three stories high ; below a carriage-house, wagon sheds, the brothers' shop, where different industries are carried on, such as broom -making and putting up garden seeds; and farther on, the laundry, a saw-mill and grist-mill and other ma- chinery, and a granary, with rooms for hired men over it. The whole establishment is built on a tolerably steep hillside. THE HEKB-HOUSE, MOUNT LEBANON. A quarter of a mile farther on are the buildings of the Church Family, and also the great boiler-roofed church of the society ; and other communes or families are scattered along, each having all its interests separate, and forming a distinct 156 Communistic Societies of the United States. community, with industries of its own, and a complete organ- ization for itself. MEETING-HOUSE AT JIOCNT LEBANON. The illustrations show sufficiently the character of the dif- ferent buildings and the style of architecture, and make more detailed description needless. It need only be said that where- as on Mount Lebanon they build altogether of wood, in other settlements they use also brick and stone. But the peculiar nature of their social arrangements leads them to build very large houses. Elder Frederick came to give me notice that I was permitted to witness the funeral ceremonies of the departed sister, which were set for ten o'clock, in the assembly-room ; and thither I was accordingly conducted at the proper time by one of the brethren. The members came into the room rapidly, and ranged themselves in ranks, the men and women on opposite sides of the room, and facing each other. All stood up, there being no seats. A brief address by Elder Frederick opened the serv- The Shakers. 157 INTERIOR OF MEETINGHOUSE AT MOUNT LEBANON. ices, after which there was singing ; different brethren and sisters spoke briefly ; a call was made to the spirit of the de- parted to communicate, and in the course of the meeting a medium delivered some words supposed to be from this source ; some memorial verses were read by one of the sisters ; and then the congregation separated, after notice had been given that the body of the dead sister would be placed in the hall, where all could take a last look at her face. I, too, was asked to look; the good brother who conducted me to the plain, unpainted pine coffin remarking very sensibly that " the body is not of much importance after it is dead." Afterwards, in conversation, Elder Frederick told me that the " spiritual " manifestations were known among the Shakers many years before Kate Fox was born ; that they had had all manner of manifestations, but chiefly visions and communica- tions through mediums ; that they fell, in his mind, into three epochs : in the first the spirits laboring to convince unbelievers in the society ; in the second proving the community, the spirits relating to each member his past history, and showing up, in certain cases, the insincerity of professions ; in the third, he said, the Shakers reacted on the spirit world, and formed com- munities of Shakers there, under the instruction of living M l$S Communistic Societies of the United States. Shakers. " There are at this time," said he, " many thousands of Shakers in the spirit world." lie added that the mediums in the society had given much trouble because they imagined themselves reformers, whereas they were only the mouth-pieces of spirits, and oftenest themselves of a low order of mind. They had to teach the mediums much, after the spirits ceased to use them. In what follows I give the substance, and often the words, of many conversations with Elder Frederick and with several of the brethren, relating to details of management and to doc- trinal points and opinions, needed to fill up the sketch given in the two previous chapters. As to new members, Elder Frederick said the societies had not in recent years increased — some had decreased in numbers. But they expected large accessions in the course of the next few years, having prophecies among themselves to that effect. Religious revivals he regarded as " the hot-beds of Shakerism :" they always gain members after a " revival " in any part of the country. " Our proper dependence for increase is on the spirit and gift of God working outside. Hence we are friendly to all religious people." They had changed their policy in regard to taking children, for experience had proved that when these grew up they were oftenest discontented, anxious to gain property for themselves, curious to see the world, and therefore left the society. For these reasons they now almost always decline to take children, though there are some in every society; and for these they have schools — a boys' school in the winter and a girls' school in sum- mer — teaching all a trade as they grow up. "When men or women come to us at the age of twenty-one or twenty-two, then they make the best Shakers. The society then gets the man's or woman's best energies, and experience shows us that they have then had enough of the world to satisfy their curiosity and make them restful. Of course we like to keep up our num- The Shakers. 159 bers ; but of course we do not sacrifice our principles. You will be surprised to know that we lost most seriously during the war. A great many of our younger people went into the army; many who fought through the war have since applied to come back to us ; and where they seem to have the proper spirit, we take them. We have some applications of this kind now." A great many Revolutionary soldiers joined the societies in their early history ; these did not draw their pensions ; most of them lived to be old, and " I proved to Mr. Lincoln and Mr. Stanton once, when we were threatened with a draft," said Elder Frederick, " that our members had thus omitted to draw from the government over half a million of dollars due as pen- sions for army service." With their management, he said, they had not much difficul- ty in sloughing off persons who come with bad or low motives; and in this I should say he was right ; for the life is strictly ascetic, and has no charms for the idler or for merely senti- mental or romantic people. " If one comes with low motives, he will not be comfortable with us, and will presently go away ; if he is sincere, he may yet be here a year or two be- fore he finds himself in his right place ; but if lie has the true vocation he will gradually work in with us." He thought an order of celibates ought to exist in every Protestant community, and that its members should be self- supporting, and not beggars ; that the necessities and conscience of many in every civilized community would be relieved if there were such an order open to them. In admitting members, no property qualification is made ; and in practice those who come in singly, from time to time, hardly ever possess any thing ; but after a great revival of re- ligion, when numbers come in, usually about half bring in more or less property, and often large amounts. As to celibacy, he asserted in the most positive manner that it is healthful, and tends to prolong life ; " as we are constant- 160 Communistic Societies of the United States. ly proving." He afterward gave me a file of the Sluiker, a monthly paper, in which the deaths in all the societies are re- corded ; and I judge from its reports that the death rate is low, and the people mostly long-lived.'' " We look for a tes- timony against disease," he said ; " and even now I hold that no man who lives as we do has a right to be ill before he is sixty ; if he suffer from disease before that, he is in fault, My life has been devoted to introducing among our people a knowl- edge of true physiological laws ; and this knowledge is spread- ing among all our societies. We are not all perfect yet in these respects ; but we grow. Formerly fevers were prevalent in our houses, but now we scarcely ever have a case ; and the cholera has never yet touched a Shaker village." "The joys of the celibate life are far greater than I can make you know. They are indescribable." The Church Family at Mount Lebanon, by the way, have built and fitted up a commodious hospital, for the permanently disabled of the society there. It is empty, but ready ; and " better empty than full," said an aged member to me. Among the members they have people who were formerly clergymen, lawyers, doctors, farmers, students, mechanics, sea- captains, soldiers, and merchants ; preachers are in a much larger proportion than any of the other professions or callings. They get members from all the religious denominations ex- cept the Roman Catholic ; they have even Jews. Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Adventists furnish them the greatest proportion. They have always received colored peo- ple, and have some in several of the societies. "Every commune, to prosper, must be founded, so far as * In »ine numbers of the Shaker (year 1873), twenty-seven deaths are recorded. Of these, Abigail Munson died at Mount Lebanon, aged 101 years, 11 months, and 12 days. The ages of the remainder were 97, 93, 88, 87, 86, 82, six above 75, four above 70, 69, 65, 64, 55, 54, 49, 37, 81, and two whose aires were not given. The Shakers. 161 its industry goes, on agriculture. Only the simple labors and manners of a farming people can hold a community together. Wherever we have departed from this rule to go into manu- facturing, we have blundered." For his part, he would like to make a law for the whole country, that every man should own a piece of land and work on it. Moreover, a community, he said, should, as far as possible, make or produce all it uses. "We used to have more looms than now, but cloth is sold so cheaply that we gradually began to buy. It is a mistake ; we buy more cheaply than we can make, but our home-made cloth is much better than that we can buy ; and we have now to make three pairs of trousers, for instance, where before we made one. Thus our little looms would even now be more profitable — to say nothing of the independence we secure in working them." In the beginning, he said, the societies were desirous to own land ; and he thought °:.^z.|lg a immoderately so. They bought to the extent of _ ■"■>«*ijp their means ; being eco- - \ nomical, industrious, and JBNeT honest, they saved money rapidly, and always in- vested their surplus in % more land. Then to cul- tivate these farms they adopted children and young people. Twenty years ago the Legisla- ture of New York had before it a bill to limit SHAKER TANNERY, MOUNT LEBANON. the quantity of land the Shakers should be allowed to hold, and the number of apprentices they should take. It was in- troduced, he said, by their enemies, but they at once agreed to 1 62 Communistic Societies of the United States. it, and thereupon it was dropped ; but since then the society had come generally to favor a law limiting the quantity of land which any citizen should own to not more than one hun- dred acres. SIIAKEK OFFICE AND STOKE AT MOUNT LEBANON. He thought it a mistake in his people to own farms outside of their family limits, as now they often do. This necessitates the employment of persons not members, and this he thought impolitic. " If every out-farm were sold, the society would be better off. They are of no real advantage to us, and I believe of no pecuniary advantage either. They give us a prosperous look, because we improve them well, and they do return usu- ally a fair percentage upon the investment ; but, on the other hand, this success depends upon the assiduous labor of some of our ablest men, whose services would have been worth more at home. We ought to get on without the use of outside labor. Then we should be confined to such enterprises as are best for us. Moreover we ought not to make money. We ought to make no more than a moderate surplus over our usual living, The Shakers. 163 so as to lay by something for hard times. In fact, we do not do much more than this." Nevertheless nearly all the Shaker societies have the reputa- tion of being wealthy. In their daily lives many profess to have attained perfec- tion : these are the older people. I judge by the words I have heard in their meetings that the younger members have oc- casion to wish for improvement, and do discover faults in themselves. One of the older Shakers, a man of seventy-two years, and of more than the average intelligence, said to me, in answer to a direct question, that he had for years lived a sin- less life. " I say to any who know me, as Jesus said to the Pharisees, ' which of you convicteth me of sin.' " Where faults are committed, it is held to be the duty of the offender to con- fess to the elder, or, if it is a woman, to the eldress ; and it is for these, too, to administer reproof. " For instance, suppose one of the members to possess a hasty temper, not yet under proper curb ; suppose he or she breaks out into violent words or impatience, in a shop or elsewhere ; the rest ought to and do tell the elder, who will thereupon administer reproof. But also the offending member ought not to come to meeting be- fore having made confession of his sin to the elder, and asked pardon of those who were the subjects and witnesses of the offense." As to books and literature in general, they are not a reading- people. "Though a man should gain all the natural knowl- edge in the universe, he could not thereby gain either the knowledge or power of salvation from sin, nor redemption from a sinful nature."* Elder Frederick's library is of ex- tremely limited range, and contains but a few books, mostly concerning social problems and physiological laws. The Swed- ish brother, who had been a student, said in answer to my * >l Christ's First and Second Appearing." 1 64 Communistic Societies of the United States. question, that it did not take him long to wean himself from the habit of books ; and that now, when he felt a temptation in that direction, he knew he must examine himself, because he felt there was something wrong about him, dragging him down from his higher spiritual estate. lie did not regret his books at all. An intelligent, thoughtful old Scotchman said on the same subject that he, while still of the world, had had a hobby for chemical research, to which he would probably have de- voted his life ; that he still read much of the newest investiga- tions, but that he had found it better to turn his attention to higher matters ; and to bring the faculties which led him naturally toward chemical studies to the examination of social problems, and to use his knowledge for the benefit of the so- ciety. The same old Scotchman, now seventy-three years old, and a cheery old fellow, who had known the elder Owen, and has lived as a Shaker forty years, I asked, "Well, on the whole, reviewing your life, do you think it a success ?" He replied, clearly with the utmost sincerity : " Certainly ; I have been living out the highest aspirations my mind was capable of. The best I knew has been realized for and around me here. With my ideas of society I should have been unfit for any thing in the world, and unhappy because every thing around me would have worked contrary to my belief in the right and the best. Here I found my place and my work, and have been happy and content, seeing the realization of the highest I had dreamed of." Considering the homeliness of the buildings, which mostly have the appearance of mere factories or human hives, I ask- ed Elder Frederick whether, if they were to build anew, they would not aim at some architectural effect, some beauty of de- sign. He replied with great positiveness, " No, the beautiful, as you call it, is absurd and abnormal. It has no business with us. The divine man has no right to waste money upon what you The Shakers. 165 would call beauty, in his house or his daily life, while there are people living in misery." In building anew, he would take care to have more light, a more equal distribu- tion of heat, and a more general care for pro- tection and comfort, because these things tend to health and long life. But no beauty. He described to me amusingly the disgust he had experienced in a costly New York dwelling, where he saw carpets nailed down on the floor, " of course with piles of dust beneath, never swept away, and of which I had to breathe ;" and with heavy picture-frames hung against the walls, also the recep- tacles of dust. " You people in the world are not clean accord- ing to our Shaker notions. And what is the use of pictures 2" he added scornfully. They have paid much attention to the early Jewish policy in Palestine, and the laws concerning the distribution of land, the Sabbatical year, service, and the collection of debts, are praised by them as establishing a far better order of things for the world in general than that which obtains in the civilized world to-day. They hold strongly to the equality of women with men, and look forward to the day when women shall, in the outer world A SHAKER ELDER. 1 66 Communistic Societies of the United States. as in their own societies, hold office as well as men. " Here we find the women just as able as men in all business affairs, and far more spiritual." " Suppose a woman wanted, in your family, to be a blacksmith, would you consent?" I asked ; and he replied, " No, because this would bring men and women into relations which we do not think wise." In fact, while they call men and women equally to the rulership, they very sensibly hold that in general life the woman's work is in the house, the man's out of doors ; and there is no offer to confuse the two. Moreover, being celibates, they use proper precautions in the intercourse of the sexes. Thus Shaker men and women do not shake hands with each other ; their lives have almost no privacy, even to the elders, of whom two always room together ; the sexes even eat apart ; they labor apart ; they worship, stand- ing and marching, apart ; they visit each other only at stated intervals and according to a prescribed order; and in all tilings the sexes maintain a certain distance and reserve toward each other. " We have no scandal, no tea-parties, no gossip." Moreover, they mortify the body by early rising and by very plain living. Few, as I said before, eat meat ; and I was assured that a complete and long- continued experience had proved to them that young people maintain their health and strength fully without meat. They wear a very plain and simple dress, without ornament of any kind ; and the costume of the women does not increase their attractiveness, and makes it difficult to distinguish between youth and age. They keep no pet animals, except cats, which are maintained to destroy rats and mice. They have, of course, none of the usual rela- tions to children — and the boys and girls whom they take in are in each family put under charge of a special " care-taker," and live in separate houses, each sex by itself. Smoking tobacco is by general consent strictly prohibited. A few chew tobacco, but this is thought a weakness, to be A GROUP OF SHAKER CHILDREN. SHAKEB DINING -HALL. The Shakers. 167 left off as standing in the way of a perfect life. The follow- ing notice in the Sha/cer shows that even some very old sin- ners in this respect reform : OBITUARY. On Tuesday, Feb. 20th, 1873, Died, by the power of truth, and for the cause of Human Redemption, at the Young Believers' Order, Mt. Lebanon, in the following much-beloved Brethren, the TOBACCO-CHEWING HABIT, aged respectively, In D. S. - - 51 years' duration. In CM. - - - - - - 57^ InA.G. --.----- 15 InT.S. 3G " In Oliver Prektiss - - - - 71 " I11L.S. ...... 45 InH.C. 53 In C. K. ----- - 12 " No funeral ceremonies, no mourners, no grave-yard; but an honorable record thereof made in the Court above. Ed. Reviewing all these details, it did not surprise me when Elder Frederick remarked, " Every body is not called to the divine life." To a man or woman not thoroughly and ear- nestly in love with an ascetic life and deeply disgusted with the world, Shakerism would be unendurable ; and I believe in- sincerity to be rare among them. It is not a comfortable place for hypocrites or pretenders. The housekeeping of a Shaker family is very thoroughly and effectively done. The North Family at Mount Lebanon consists of sixty persons ; six sisters suffice to do the cooking and baking, and to manage the dining-hall ; six other sisters in half a day do the washing of the whole family. The deacon- esses give out the supplies. The men milk in bad weather, the women when it is warm. The Swedish brother told me that he was this winter taking a turn at milking — to mortify the flesh, I imagine, for he had never done this in his own home ; and he used neither milk nor butter. Many of the 1 68 Communistic Societies of the United States. brethren have not tasted meat in from twenty-five to thirty-five years. Tea and coffee are used, but very moderately. There is no servant class. " In a community, it is necessary that some one person shall always know where every body is," and it is the elder's office to have this knowledge ; thus if one does not attend a meeting, lie tells the elder the reason why. Obedience to superiors is an important part of the life of the order. Living as they do in large families compactly stowed, they have become very careful against fires, and " a real Shaker al- ways, when he has gone out of a room, returns and takes a look around to see that all is right." The floor of the assembly room was astonishingly bright and clean, so that I imagined it had been recently laid. It had, in fact, been used twenty-nine years ; and in that time had been but twice scrubbed with w T ater. But it was swept and polished daily ; and the brethren wear to the meetings shoes made particularly for those occasions, which are without nails or pegs in the soles, and of soft leather. They have invented many such tricks of housekeeping, and I could see that they acted just as a parcel of old bachelors and old maids would, any where else, in these particulars — setting much store by personal comfort, neatness, and order ; and no doubt thinking much of such minor morals. For instance, on the opposite page is a copy of verses which I found in the visitors' room in one of the Shaker families — a silent but sufficient hint to the careless and wasteful. Like the old monasteries, they are the prey of beggars, who always receive a dole of food, and often money enough to pay for a night's lodging in the neighboring village; for they do not like to take in strangers. The visiting which is done on Sunday evenings is perhaps as curious as any part of their ceremonial. Like all else in The Shakers, 169 TABLE MONITOR. GATHER UP THE FRAGMENTS THAT REMAIN, THAT NOTHING BE LOST.-Chbibt. Here then is the pattern Tho' Heaven has bless'd us Which Jesus has set ; With plenty of food : And his good example Bread, butter, and honey, We can not forget : And all that is good ; With thanks for his blessings We loathe to see mixtures His word we'll obey; Where gentle folks dine, But on this occasion Which scarcely look fit We've somewhat to say. For the poultry or swine. We wish to speak plainly We often find left, And use no deceit ; On the same china dish, We like to see fragments Meat, apple-sauce, pickle, Left wholesome and neat : Brown bread and minc'd fish; To customs and fashions Another's replenish'd We make no pretense ; With butter and cheese ; Yet think we can tell With pie, cake, and toast, What belongs to good sense. Perhaps, added to these. What we deem good order, Now if any virtue We're willing to state — In this can be shown, Eat hearty and decent, By peasant, by lawyer, And clear out our plate — Or king on the throne, Be thankful to Heaven We freely will forfeit For what we receive, Whatever we've said, And not make a mixture And call it a virtue Or compound to leave. To waste meat and bread. We find of those bounties Let none be offended Which Heaven does give, At what we here say ; That some live to eat, We candidly ask you, And that some eat to live — Is that the best way? That some think of nothing If not — lay such customs But pleasing the taste, And fashions aside, And care very little And take this Monitor How much they do waste. Henceforth for your guide. i 70 Communistic Societies of the United States. their lives, these visits are prearranged for them — a certain group of sisters visiting a certain group of brethren. The sis- ters, from four to eight in number, sit in a row on one side, in straight-backed chairs, each with her neat hood or cap, and each with a clean white handkerchief spread stiffly across her lap. The brethren, of equal number, sit opposite them, in another row, also in stiff-backed chairs, and also each with a white handkerchief smoothly laid over his knees. Thus ar- ranged, they converse upon the news of the week, events in the outer world, the farm operations, and the weather ; they sing, and in general have a pleasant reunion, not without gen- tle laughter and mild amusement. They meet at an appointed time, and at another set hour they part; and no doubt they find great satisfaction in this — the only meeting in which they fall into sets which do not include the whole family. Since these chapters were written, Ilervey Elkins's pamphlet, "Fifteen Years in the Senior Order of the Shakers," printed at Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1853, has come into my hands. Elkins gives some details out of his own experience of Shaker life which I believe to be generally correct, and which I quote here, as filling up some parts of the picture I have tried to give of the Shaker polity and life : " The spiritual orders, laws, and statutes, never to be revoked, are in substance as follows : None are admitted within the walls of Zion, as they denominate their religious sphere, but by a confession to one or more incarnate witnesses of every debasing and immoral act perpetrated by the confessor within his remembrance; also every act which, though the laws of men may sanction, may be deemed sinful in the view of that new and sublimer divinity which he has adopted. The time, the place, the motive which produced and pervaded the act, the circumstances which aggravated the case, are all to be disclosed. No stone is to be left uu- turned — no filth is suffered to remain. The temple of God, or the soul, must be carefully swept and garnished, before the new man can enter it and there make his abode. (Christ, or the Divine Intelligence which emanated from God the Father, transforms the soul into the new man spoken of in the Scriptures.) The Shakers. 1 7 1 " Those who have committed deeds cognizable by the laws of the land, shall never be admitted, until those laws have dealt with their transgres- sions and acquitted them. "Those who have in any way morally wronged a fellow -creature, shall make restitution to the satisfaction of the person injured. " Wives who have unbelieving husbands must not be admitted with- out their husbands' consent, or until they are lawfully released from the marriage contract, and vice versa. They may confess their sins, but can not enter the sacred compact. " All children admitted shall be bound by legal indentures, and shall, if refractory, be returned to their parents. u There shall exist three Orders, or degrees of progression, viz. : The No- vitiate, the Junior, and the Senior. " All adults may enter the Novitiate Order, and then may progress to a higher, by faithfulness in supporting the Gospel requirements. " When at the age of twenty-one, the Church Covenant is presented to all the young members to peruse, and to deliberate and decide whether or not they will maintain the conditions therein expressed. To older members it is presented after all legal embarrassments upon their estates are settled, and they desire to be admitted to full fellowship with those who have consecrated all. And whoever, after having escaped the servility of Egypt, shall again desire its taskmasters and flesh-pots, are unfit for the kingdom of God ; and in case of secession or apostasy shall, by their own deliberate and matured act (that .of placing their signatures and seals upon this instrument when in the full possession of all their mental powers), be debarred from legally demanding any compensation whatever for the property or services which they had dedicated to a holy pur- pose. " This instrument is legally and skillfully formed, and none are per- mitted to sign it until they have counted well the cost ; or, at least, pon- dered for a time upon its requirements. "Members also stipulate themselves by this signature to yield implicit obedience to the ministry, elders, deacons, and trustees, each in their respective departments of authority and duty. " The Shaker government, in many points, resembles that of the mili- tary. All shall look for counsel and guidance to those immediately be- fore them, and shall receive nothing from, nor make application for any thing to those but their immediate advisers. For instance : No elder in either of the subordinate bishoprics can make application for any amend- N i72 Communistic Societies of the United States. merit, any innovation, any introduction of a new system, of however trivial a nature, to the ministry of the first bishopric ; but he may desire and ask of his own ministry, and, if his proposal meet their concurrence, they will seek its sanction of those next higher. All are to regard their spiritual leaders as mediators between God and their own souls; and these links of divine communication, successively descending from Power and "Wisdom, who constitute the dual God, to their Son and Daughter, Jesus and Ann, and from them to Ann's successors of the Zion of God on earth, down to the prattling infant who may have been gathered within this ark of safety — this concatenated system of spiritual delegation is the river of life, whose salutary waters flow through the celestial sphere for the cleansing and redemption of souls. " Great humility and simplicity of life is practiced by the first ministry — two of each sex — upon whom devolves the charge of subordinate bish- oprics, besides that of their own immediate care, the societies of Kishe- yuna and Mount Lebanon. They will not even (and this is good policy) allow themselves those expensive conveniences of life which are so com- mon among the laity of their sect. But extreme neatness is the most prominent characteristic of both them and their subordinates. They speak much of the model enjoined by Jesus, that whosoever would be the greatest should be the servant of all. "A simple song, of a beautiful tune, inculcating this spirit, is often sung in their assemblies. The words are these : 'Whoever wants to be the highest Must first come down to be the lowest ; And then ascend to be the highest By keeping down to be the lowest.' '•It is common for the leaders to crowd down, by humiliation, and withdraw patronage and attention from those whom they intend to ulti- mately promote to an official station. That such may learn how it seems to be slighted and humiliated, and how to stand upon their own basis, work spiritually for their own food without being dandled upon the soft lap of affection, or fed with the milk designed for babes. That also they be not deceived by the phantoms of self-wisdom ; and that they martyr not in themselves the meek spirit of the lowly Jesus. Thus, while holding one in contemplation for an office of care and trust, they first prove him — the cause unknown to himself — to see how much he can bear, without exploding by impatience or faltering under trial. " Virtually for this purpose, but ostensibly for some other, have I known The Shakers. i 7 3 many promising young people moved to a back order, or lower grade of fellowship. By such trials the leaders think to try their souls in the furnace of affliction, withdraw them from earthly attachments, and imbue them with reliance upon God. In fact, to destroy terrestrial idols of every kind, to dispel the clouds of inordinate affection and concentrative love, which fascinatingly float around the mind and screen from its view the radiant brightness of heaven and heavenly things, is the great object of Shakerism. " Whoever yields enough to the evil tempter to gratify in the least the sensual passions — either in deed, word, or thought — shall confess honestly the same to his elders ere the sun of another day shall set to announce a day of condemnation and wrath against the guilty soul. These vile pas- sions are — fleshly lusts in every form, idolatry, selfishness, envy, wrath, malice, evil-speaking, and their kindred evils. " The Sabbath shall be kept pure and holy to that degree that no books shall be read on that day which originated among the world's people, save those scientific books which treat of propriety of diction. No idle or vain stories shall be rehearsed, no unnecessary labor shall be perform- ed — not even the cooking of food, the ablution of the body, the cutting of the hair, beard, or nails, the blacking and polishing of shoes or boots. All these things must be performed on Saturday, or postponed till the subsequent week. All fruit, eaten Upon the Sabbath, must be earned to the dwelling-house on Saturday. But the dormitories may be arranged, the cows milked, all domestic animals fed, and food and drink warmed on Sunday. No one is allowed to go to his workshop, to walk in the gardens, the orchards, or on the farms, unless immediate duty requires ; and those who of necessity go to their workshops, shall not tarry over fifteen minutes but by the direct liberty of the elders. The dwelling- house is the place for all to spend the Sabbath ; and thither all concen- trate — elders, deacons, brethren, and sisters. If any property is likely to incur loss — as hay and grain that is cut and remaining in the field, and is liable to be wet before Monday, it may be secured upon the Sab- bath. "All shall rise simultaneously every morning at the signal of the bell, and those of each room shall kneel together in silent prayer, strip from the beds the coverlets and blankets, lighten the feathers, open the win- dows to ventilate the rooms, and repair to their places of vocation. Fif- teen minutes are allowed for all to leave their sleeping apartments. In the summer the signal for rising is heard at half-past four, in the winter i 74 Communistic Societies of the United States. at half-past five. Breakfast is invariably one and a half hours after rising — in the summer at six, in the winter at seven ; dinner always at twelve ; supper at six. These rules are, however, slightly modified upon the Sab- bath. They rise and breakfast on this day half an hour later, dine light- ly at twelve, and sup at four. Every order maintains the same regularity in regard to their meals. " In the Senior Order, at the ringing of a large bell, ten minutes before meal-time, all may gather into the saloons, and retire the ten minutes be- fore the dining-hall alarm summons them to the table. All enter four doors and gently arrange themselves at their respective places at the table, then all simultaneously kneel in silent thanks for nearly a minute, then rise and seat themselves almost inaudibly at the table. No talking, laughing, whispering, or blinking are allowed while thus partaking of God's blessings. After eating, all rise together at the signal of the first elder, kneel as before, and gently retire to their places of vocation, with- out stopping in the dining-hall, loitering in the corridors and vestibules, or lounging upon the balustrades, doorways, and stairs. " The tables are long, three feet in width, highly polished, without cloth, and furnished with white ware and no tumblers. The interdict which excludes glass-ware from the table must be attributed to conservatism rather than parsimony, for in most useful improvements the Shakers strive to excel. They tremble at adopting the customs of the world. At the tables, each four have all the varieties of food served for themselves, which precludes the necessity of continual passing and reaching. " At half-past seven P.M. in the summer, and at eight in the winter, the large bell summons all of every order to their respective dwellings, there to retire, each individual in his own room, half an hour before evening worship. To retire is for the inmates of every room — generally from four to eight individuals — to dispose themselves in either one or two ranks, and sit erect, with their hands folded upon their laps, without leaning Ixick or falling asleep ; and in that position labor for a true sense of their privilege in the Zion of God — of the fact that God has prescribed a law which humbles and keeps them within the hollow of his hand, and has favored them with the blessing of worshiping him, with soul and body, unmolested, and according to the dictation of an enlightened mind and a tender and good conscience. If any chance to fall asleep while thus mentally employed, they may rise and bow four times, or gently shake, and then resume their seats. " The man who is now the archbishop of Shakerism was, when a youth, The Shakers. 175 very apt to fall into a drowsy state in retiring time ; but he broke up that habit by standing erect the half-hour before every meeting for six months. And there are many as zealous as he in supporting every order. No unnecessary walking in the corridors or passing in and out of doors are in this sacred time allowed. When the half- hour has expired, a small hand-bell summons all to the hall of worship. None are allowed to absent themselves without the elder's liberty. If any are unwell or tired, it is but a little matter to rap at the elder's door, or ask a com- panion to do it, where any one may receive liberty to retire to rest if it is expedient. All pass the stairs and corridors, and enter the hall, two abreast, upon tiptoe, bowing once as they enter, and pass directly to their place in the forming ranks. " The house, of course, is vacated through the day, except by sisters, who take turns in cooking, making beds, and sweeping. When brethren and sisters enter, they must uncover their heads, and hang their hats and bonnets in the lower corridors, and w T alk softly, and open and shut doors gently, and in the fear of God. None are allowed to carry money into sacred worship. In a word, the sanctuary and the whole house shall be kept sacred and holy unto the Lord; and all shall spend the time al- lotted to be in the house mostly in their own rooms. Three evenings in the week are set apart for worship, and three for ' union meetings.' Monday evenings all may retire to rest at the usual meeting time, an hour earlier than usual. For the union meetings the brethren remain in their rooms, and the sisters, six, eight, or ten in number, enter and sit in a rank opposite to that of the brethren's, and converse simply, often face- tiously, but rarely profoundly. In fact, to say ' agreeable things about nothing,' when conversant with the other sex, is as common there as else- where. And what of dignity or meaning could be said ? where talking of sacred subjects is not allowed, under the pretext that it scatters those blessings which should be carefully treasured up ; and bestowing much information concerning the secular plans of economy practiced by your own to the other sex is not approved ; and where to talk of literary matters would be termed bombastic pedantry and small display, and would serve to exhibit accomplishments which might be enticingly dan- gerous. Nevertheless, an hour passes away very agreeably and even rapt- urously with those who there chance to meet with an especial favorite ; succeeded soon, however, when soft words, and kind, concentrated looks become obvious to the jealous eye of a female espionage, by the agonies of a separation. For the tidings of such reciprocity, whether true or sur- i 76 Communistic Societies of the United States. raised, is sure before the lapse of many hours to reach the ears of the eld- ers ; in which case, the one or the other party would be subsequently summoned to another circle of colloquy and union. " No one is permitted to make mention of any thing said or done in any of these sittings to those who attend another, for party spirit and mischief might be the result. Twenty minutes of the union hour may be devoted to the singing of sacred songs, if desired. " All are positively forbidden ever to say aught against their brother or their sister, whatever may be their defects ; but such defects shall be made known to the elders, and to none else. ' If nothing good can be said of one, say nothing,' is a Shaker maxim. If one member is known by another to violate an ordinance of the Gospel, the witness thereto shall gently remind the transgressor, and request him to confess the deed to the elder. If he refuses, the witness shall divulge it ; if he consents, then is the witness free, as having performed his duty. " Brethren and sisters shall not visit each other's rooms unless for er- rands ; and in such cases shall tarry no more than fifteen minutes. A sister shall not go to the brethren's work places unless accompanied by another. Brethren's and sister's workshops shall not be under one or the 6ame roof; they shall not pass each other upon the stairs; nor one of each converse together unless a third person be present of more than ten years of age. They shall in no case give presents to each other, nor lend with the intention of never again receiving. If a sister desires any as- sistance, or desires any article made by the brethren, she must make ap- plication to the female deaconesses or stewards, and they will convey her wishes to the male stewards, who will provide the article or assistance requested. The converse is required of a brother; although it is more common for the brother to express his requests direct to the female stew- ard, thus excluding one link of the concatenation. In each order a brother is generally appointed to aid the sisters in doing the heavy work of the laundry, dairy, kitchen, and similar places. All are required to spend their mornings and evenings, and their leisure time, iu the per- formance of some good act. " No one shall leave the premises of the family in which he lives with- out the consent of the elders ; and he shall obtain the consent by stating the purpose or business which calls him away. This interdiction in- cludes the act of going from one family to another. But on their own grounds brethren may range at pleasure; and the families are so large that the territory included in the domain of each extends in some direc- tions for miles around. The Shakers. 177 " No conversation is allowed between members of different families, unless it be necessary, succinct, and discreet. " Before a brother enters a sister's apartment, or a sister enters a broth- er's, they shall rap and enter by permission. When they enter the apart- ment of their own sex, they may open the door and ask, ' May I come in?' " The name of a person shall never be used to designate a dumb beast. No one is allowed to play with or handle unnecessarily any beast what- ever. Brethren and sisters may not unnecessarily touch each other. If a brother shakes hands with an unbelieving woman, or a sister with an unbelieving man, they shall make known the same to the elders before they attend worship. Such salutes are admissible, for the sake of civility or custom, if the world party first present the hand — never without. All visiting of the world's people, even their own relations, is forbidden, unless there exist a prospect of making converts, or of gathering some one into the fold. All visiting of other societies of their own sect is under the im- mediate superintendence of the ministry, who prescribe the number, se- lect the persons, appoint the time, define the length of their stay, and the routes by which they may go and come. " The deacons are empowered to change the employment of an indi- vidual for an hour, a day, or a week, to perform a necessary piece of la- bor. But a permanent removal to another vocation can be required only by the elders. " No trading is to be done by any save the trustees, and those whom the trustees may license. No new literary work or new-fangled article can be admitted, unless it be first sanctioned by the ministry and elders. Trustees may purchase any thing they believe may be admissible, and present the same for the inspection of the leaders. If they disapprove it, it must be sold. The property is all legally held by trustees, who may at any time be removed by the ministry. The trustees are to supervise all financial transactions with the world and other families and societies of their own denomination, and do all by knowledge and union of the ministry and elders. There must be two trustees in every order, and they shall make their financial returns known to each other every journey they perform. An exact book account of every cent of disbursement and income shall be presented to the ministry at the close of every year. The deacons are also to keep an exact account of every thing manufactured or produced for sale in the family, and these two registers are compared by the ministry. " Not a single action of life, whether spiritual or temporal, from the 178 Communistic Societies of the United States. initiative of confession, or cleansing the habitation of Christ, to that of dressing the right side first, stepping first -with the right foot as you as- cend a flight of stairs, folding the hands with the right-hand thumb and fingers above those of the left, kneeling and rising again with the right leg first, and harnessing first the right-hand beast, but that has a rule for its perfect and strict performance. " The children, or all under the age of sixteen, unless very precocious, live, eat, work, play, sleep, and worship, accompanied only by their care- takers. Once upon the Sabbath do they worship with the adults. Their meetings are not so long, neither do they retire but fifteen minutes be- fore them. They never attend union meetings until they emerge into the adult's degree. Stubborn children are sometimes corrected with a rod ; but any child or beast that requires an extreme severity of coercion to induce them to conform, the society are not allowed to keep. The contumacious child must be returned to his parents or guardian, and the perverse beast must be sold. " Prayer, supplication, persuasion, and keen admonition constitute the only means used to incline the disposition and bend the will of those arrived to years of understanding and reason. * # # • • ■ afc * * * # * " The boys' shop, so called, is a building two stories in height. In the upper loft is a large room where the care-takers reside, and where the boys who wish to read, write, or reflect may retire from the jabbering and confusion below. "Whenever they leave their house or shop, they are required to go two abreast and keep step with each other. No loud talking was allowable in the court-yards at any time. No talking or whispering when passing through the tasteful courts to their work, their school, their meetings, or their meals ; a still, soft walk on tiptoe, and an indistinct closing of doors in the house ; a gentle, yet a more brisk move- ment in the shops ; a free and jovial conversation when by themselves in the fields ; but not a word, unless when spoken to, when other brethren than their care-takers were present — such were the orders we saw rigor- ously enforced, and the lenities we freely granted. We allowed them to indulge in the innocent sports practiced elsewhere. But wrestling and scuffling were rarely permitted. No sports were allowed in the court- yards, unless all loud talk was suppressed. We a few times permitted them to roll trucks there, but allowed no verbal communication only by whispering. " All were taught to confess all violations of their instructions, and a The Shakers. 179 portion of every Saturday was set apart for that purpose. They enter one at a time, and kneel before the care-taker ; and, after confessing their faults, the care-taker makes some necessary inquiries in relation to other boys, gives them generally some good advice, and they depart. After • eighteen years of age they are not required to kneel during the act of confession. To watch over a company of boys like these is, with a little tact, an easy task. The vigils must be incessant ; but there are in so large a number those upon whom the care-taker may rely ; and if ill con- duct or bad habits are creeping in, it may soon be detected by a shrewd observer." The contracting' of a special liking between individuals of opposite sexes is in some of the societies called " sparking." Details op the Shaker Societies. To describe particularly each of the eighteen Shaker societies would involve a great deal of unnecessary repetition. In their buildings, their customs, their worship, their religious faith, their extreme cleanliness, their costume, and in many other particulars, they are all nearly alike ; and the Shaker of Ken- tucky does not to the cursory view differ from his brother of Maine. But I have thought it necessary, to a complete view of the order, to present some particulars of each society, as to its location, numbers, the quantity of land it owns, its industries, and present and past prosperity, as also peculiarities of thought or custom ; and these details will be found below. There are two Shaker societies in Maine — one at Alfred, the other at New Gloucester. Alfred. The society is near Alfred, in York County, about thirty miles southwesterly from Portland. Its estate of eleven hundred acres lies in a pretty situation, between hills, and includes a i8o Communistic Societies of the United States. large pond and an important water-power. The land is not very fertile or easily cultivated. They sold off last year an outlying tract of timber-land for $28,000, and were glad to be rid of it. The society consists now of two families, having between sixty-five and seventy members, of whom two fifths are men and the remainder women. They are all Americans but two, of whom one is Irish and one Welsh. The society was "gathered" in 1794; there were then three families; and in 1823 it had two hundred members. Twelve years ago one of the families, being small, was drawn in to the others, and the buildings it occupied have since been let out. The decrease began to be rapid about thirty years ago, when the founders, who had become very aged, died off, and new members did not come in in sufficient numbers to take their places. Two thirds of the present members were brought into the society as children, many being brought by their parents; others, orphans, adopted. Twenty per cent, of the present membership are over fifty years of age. The two families now raise a few garden seeds, make brooms, hair sieves, dry measures, keep a tan-yard, and make besides most of their home supplies. They also farm their own land They have leased to outside people a saw-mill and grist-mill which they own. The }'Oung women make small baskets, fans, and other fancy articles, which are sold daring the sum- mer at neighboring sea-side watering-places. They hire a few outside laborers. About a quarter of the people eat no meat. They have im- proved their sanitary regulations in the last twenty years, and have almost extirpated fevers. Formerly cancer was a fre- quent disease among them, but since they ceased to eat pork this has disappeared. They take nine or ten newspapers, and encourage reading ; have a small library, and a good school, in which thirteen The Shakers. 181 children are taught. The people have been long-lived ; only a few weeks before I visited Alfred, died at the Church Fam- ily Lucy Langdon Nowell, aged ninety-eight. She was born on the 4th of July, 1776, and had lived almost all her life in the society, her father having been one of its founders, and the owner of some of the land on which the society now live. Had she lived long enough, she was to have been taken to the proposed Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. In the last ten years this society has maintained its numbers, but has not gained. They do not receive many applications for membership ; and of those who apply, not more than one in ten " makes a good Shaker." The Alfred Society desired a year or two ago to remove to a milder climate; they offered their entire property for $100,- 000, but found no purchaser at the price, and determined to remain. Their buildings are in excellent order; and they are prosperous, having, besides the income from their different in- dustries, a fund at interest. They have never had any defal- cation or loss from unfaithful agents or trustees, and they have no debt. I was told that the first circular saw ever made in the United States was invented by a Shaker at Alfred. New Gloucester. The New Gloucester Society lies in Cumberland County, about twenty-five miles northwest of Portland. It consists of two families, having together about seventy members, of whom one third are men. In 1823 it had three families, the third being gathered in 1820, and broken up in 1831. The societ} r had in 1823 one hundred and fifty members. It was " gathered " in 1794 ; its members are now all Ameri- cans except two, who are Scotch. Among them are persons who were farmers, merchants, printers, wool- weavers, and some mechanics. 1 82 Communistic Societies of the United States. The Church Family lives in a valley, the Gathering Family on a high ridge, about a mile off, and overlooking an extensive tract of country. The society has two thousand acres of land, and owns a saw-mill, grist-mill, and a very complete machine shop. The people raise garden seeds, make brooms, dry meas- ures, wire sieves, and the old-fashioned spinning-wheel, which, it seems, is still used in Maine and New Hampshire by coun- try-women to make stocking yarn. But its most profitable in- dustry is the manufacture of oak staves for molasses hogsheads, which are exported to the West Indies. One of the elders of this society, Hewitt Chandler, a man of uncommon mechanical ingenuity, and the inventor of a mowing-machine which was made here for some years, has contrived a way of bending staves without setting them up in the cask, which saves much time and labor, and makes this part of their business addition- ally profitable. They made last year also a thousand dollars' worth of pickles ; and the women make fancy articles in their spare time. They employ from fifteen to twenty laborers in their mills and other works, most of whom are boarded and lodged on the place. The meeting-house at this place was built in 1794, and the dwelling of the Church Family in the following year. Both are of wood, are still in good order, and have never been rc- shingled. The second family at this place was "gathered" in 1808, at Gorham, in Maine, and removed to its present location in 1819. It had then twenty brethren and thirty-two sisters; and has now only twenty members in all. Very few of the people here eat meat. Some drink tea, but coffee is not used. They have flower gardens, and would have an organ or melodeon if they could afford it. The young peo- ple promise well ; and they have lately received several young n en as members, sons of neighboring farmers, who had worked fur them as hired people for a number of years. The Shakers. 183 This society is less prosperous than most of the others. It has met with several severe losses by unfaithful and impru- dent agents and trustees, who in one case ran up large debts for several years, contrary to the wise rule of the Shakers to " owe no man any thing," and in another case brought loss by defalcation. The hill family have built a large stone house, but owing to losses have not been able to complete it. The buildings at New Gloucester show signs of neglect ; but the people are very industrious, and have in the last three years paid off a large sum which they owed through the default of their agents; and they will work their way out in the next two years. To prevent their being entirely crippled, the other so- cieties helped them with a subscription. At New Gloucester, also, the people are long-lived, some hav- ing died at the age of eighty-six ; and very many living beyond seventy. The societies at Alfred and New Gloucester were founded after a "revival" among the Free-will Baptists; and of the present members who came in later, there were Universalists, Baptists, Methodists, and Adventists or Millerites. There are two societies in New Hampshire, both prosperous : one at Canterbury, the other at Enfield. Canterbury. The society at Canterbury lies on high ground, about twelve miles north by east from Concord. It consists of three fam- ilies, of which, however, two only are independent ; the third, which has but fifteen members, receiving its supplies from the Church Family, which contains one hundred members. The three families have in all one hundred and forty-five mem- bers. In 1823 they had over two hundred, and forty years ago they had about three hundred. Forty of the whole number are under twenty-one ; and one 184 Communistic Societies of the United States. third are males, two thirds females. The majority are young and middle-aged people ; the oldest member is now eighty- three, and half a dozen are near seventy. The people have been generally long-lived, and one member lived to over one hundred years of age. The greater part grew up in the society ; but they have five young Scotch people, brought over by their parents. Of those who have joined in later years, the most were Adventists ; oth- ers Free-will Baptists and Methodists. They have not gained in numbers in ten years, and few applicants nowadays re- main with them. This society is prosperous. It owns three thousand acres of rather poor farming land, some of which is in wood and tim- ber. It has also a farm in Western New York, where it main- tains eight hundred sheep. Its industries are varied : they make large washing-machines and mangles for hotels and pub- lic institutions, weave woolen cloths and flannels, make sarsapa- rilla sirup, checkerberry oil, and knit woolen socks. They also make brooms, and sell hay ; have a saw-mill ; make much of what they use; and they keep excellent stock, having one enormous and admirably arranged barn. The sisters also make fancy articles, for which they have a good market from the summer visitors to the mountains, with whom the Canter- bury Shakers are justly favorites. Their buildings are very complete and in excellent order. They have a steam laundry, with mangle, and an admirably arranged ironing-room ; a fine and thoroughly fitted school- house, with a melodeon, and a special music-room ; an infirm- ary for the feeble and sick, in which there is a fearful quanti- ty of drugs ; and they take twelve or fifteen newspapers, and have a library of four hundred volumes, including history, voy- ages, travels, scientific works, and stories for children, but no novels. The Canterbury Society was " gathered " in 1792 ; the lead- The Shakers, 185 ing men owned the farm on which the buildings now stand, and gave the land to the community. The old gambrel-roofed meeting-house was built in 1792, and still stands in good order. The founders and early members were Free-will Baptists, who became Shakers after a great " revival." They had some prop- erty originally; and soon began to manufacture spinning- wheels, whips, sieves, mortars, brooms, scythe-snaths, and dry measures ; they established also a tannery. As times changed, they dropped some of these industries and took up others. One of their members invented the washing-machine which they now make, and they hold the patent-right for it. They employ six mechanics, non-members, and occasionally others. The members mostly eat meat, drink tea but not cof- fee, and a few of the aged members are indulged in the use of chewing-tobacco. They take fewer children than formerly, and prefer to take young men and women from eighteen to twenty-four. They take great pains to amuse as well as in- struct the children ; for the girls, gymnastic exercises are pro- vided as well as a flower garden ; the boys play at ball and marbles, go fishing, and have a small farm of their own, where each has his own garden plot. Once a week there is a general " exercise " meeting of the children, and they are, of course, in- cluded in the usual meetings for worship, reading, and conver- sation. The "shops" or work-rooms are all excellently fitted; in the girls' sewing-room I found a piano, and a young sister tak- ing her music-lesson. The children are trained to confess their sins to the elders, in the Shaker fashion, and this is thought to be a most impor- tant part of their discipline. In the dwelling-house and near the kitchen I noticed a great number of buckets, hung up to the beams, one for each mem- ber, and these are used to carry hot water to the rooms for bathing. The dwellings are not heated with steam. The 1 86 Communistic Societies of the United States. dining-room was ornamented with evergreens and flowers in pots. The j have no physician, but in the infirmary the sisters in charge have sufficient skill for ordinary cases of disease. The people are not great readers. The Bible, however, is much read. They are fond of music. In summer they entertain visitors at a set price, and have rooms fitted for this purpose. In the visitors' dining-room I saw this printed notice : " At the table we wish all to be as free as at home, but we dislike the wasteful habit of leaving food on the plate. No vice is with us the less ridiculous for being fashionable. "Married persons tarrying with us overnight are respect- fully notified that each sex occupy separate sleeping apartments while they remain." They had at Canterbury formerly a printing-press, and printed a now scarce edition of hymns, and several books. This press has been sold. The trustees here give once a. year an inventory and state- ment of accounts to the elders of the Church Family. In the years 1848-9 they suffered severe losses from the defalcation of an agent or trustee, but they have long ago recovered this loss, and now owe no debts. Agriculture they believe to be the true base of community life, and if their land were fertile they would be glad to leave off manufacturing entirely. But on such land as they have they can not make a living. The leading elder of the society remarked to me that, though in numbers they were less than formerly, the influence of the Canterbury Society upon the outside world was never so great as now: their Sunday meetings in summer are crowded by visitors, and they believe that often their doctrines sink deep into the hearts of these chance hearers. The Shakers. 187 Enfield, N. II The Society at Enfield lies in Grafton County, about twelve miles southeast from Dartmouth College, and two miles from Enfield Station, on the Northern New Hampshire Railroad. It is composed of three families, having altogether at this time one hundred and forty members, of whom thirty-seven are males and one hundred and three females. This preponder- ance arises chiefly, I was told, from the large number of young sisters. There are thirty-five youth under twenty-one years of age, of whom eight are boys and twenty-seven girls. In 1823 the Enfield Society had over two hundred members; thirty years ago it had three hundred and thirty members. They do not now receive many applications for membership, and of those who apply but few remain. This society was "gathered" in 1793, and consisted then of but one family or community. It arose out of a general re- vival of religion in this region. A second family was formed in 1S00, and the third, the "North Family," in 1812. They lost some members during the war of the Rebellion, young men who became soldiers, and some others who were drawn away by the general feeling of unrest which pervaded the country. They like to take children, but are more careful than formerly to ascertain the characters of their parents. "We want a good kind ; but we can't do without some children around us," I was told. The society has about three thousand acres of land, part of it being an outlying farm, ten or a dozen miles away. The buildings are remarkably substantial. The dwelling of the Church Family is of a beautiful granite, one hundred feet by sixty, and of four full and two attic stories ; some of the shops are also of granite, others of brick, and in the other families stone and brick have also been used. There is an excellently arranged infirmary, a roomy and well-furnished school-room, O 1 88 Communistic Societies of the United States. a large music-room in a separate building; and at the Church Family they have a laundry worked by water-power, and use a centrifugal dryer, instead of the common wringer. Nearly the whole of their present real estate was brought into the society as a free gift by the founders, who were farm- ers living there ; and many of the early members brought in considerable means, for those days. When they gathered into a community they began to add manufacturing to their farm- ing work, and the Enfield Shakers were among the first to put up garden seeds. Besides this, they made spinning-wheels, rakes, pitchforks, scythe-snaths, and had many looms. Until within thirty years they wove linen and cotton as well as wool- en goods, and in considerable quantities. At present they put up garden seeds, make buckets and tubs, butter-tubs, brooms, dry measures, gather and dry roots and herbs for medicinal use, make maple-sugar in the spring and apple-sauce in the winter; sew shirts for Boston, and keep sev- eral knitting-machines busy, making flannel shirts and drawers and socks. They also make several patent medicines, among which the "Shaker anodyne" is especially prized by them; and extracts, such as fluid valerian ; and in one of the families the women prepare bread, pies, and other provisions, which they sell in a neighboring manufacturing village. Finally, they own a woolen-mill and a grist-mill ; but these they have leased. One of their members has invented and patented for the so- ciety a folding pocket-stereoscope. Besides all these industries, uncommonly varied and numer- ous even for the Shakers, they have carpenter, blacksmith, tailor, and shoemaker shops, and produce or make up a great part of what they consume. Moreover, as in most of the Shaker societies, the women make up fancy articles for sale. The members of the society are almost all Americans, and the greater part of them came in as little children. Of foreign- ers, there are one Englishman, two of Irish birth, one of Welsh, The Shakers. 189 and two French Canadians. As elsewhere, Baptists, Methodists, and Millerites or Second Adventists contributed the larger part of the membership. They hire from twenty to thirty-five laborers, according to the season of the year. Most of the members are under forty, and almost all are farmers. I heard of one lawyer ; and one when he entered had been a law student. Almost all are meat eaters, and they use both tea and coffee. A few of the older men are allowed to chew tobacco. There are no fevers in the society, and their health is excellent, which arises partly I suppose from the fact that the ground upon which the buildings stand has thorough natural drainage. Some of their members have lived to the age of ninety — which is not an uncommon age, by the way, for Shakers — and on the register of deaths I found these ages : 89, 86, 86, 80, 80, 79, 76, 75, and so on. They have a library of about two hundred volumes in each family, exclusive of strictly religious books ; and almost all the younger people can read music, one of the members being a thorough teacher and good musical drill-master. They read the Bible a good deal, and sometimes pray aloud in their meetings. Once or twice a week they hold reading meetings, at which some one reads either from a book of history or biog- raphy, or extracts from newspapers. There was some years ago a defalcation in one of the socie- ties, which " came largely if not entirely through neglect of the rule not to owe money." The family which suffered in this case has not entirely recovered from the blow ; it still owes a small debt. An annual business report is now made by the trustees to the ministry who are set over this societ} 7 and that at Canter- bury. There is but one Shaker Society in Connecticut, at 190 Communistic Societies of the United States. Enfield, Conn. The Society is in Hartford County, about twelve miles from Springfield, Massachusetts. It was founded in 1792 ; and the meeting-house then built, of brick, is still standing, but is now used for other purposes. There were formerly five families, and in 1823 this society had two hundred members. At pres- ent there are but four families, one of which is small, and con- tains only a few aged people, too much attached to their old home to be removed. There are in the four families one hun- dred and fifteen persons, of whom the Church Family has sixty, and the Gathering Family twenty-five. One third are males and two thirds females ; and there are forty-three chil- dren and youth under twenty-one, of whom eighteen are boys and twenty-four girls. So late as 1848 this society numbered two hundred persons. They own about three thousand three hundred acres of land, and make their living almost entirely by farming. Before the rebellion they had built up a large trade in the Southern States in garden seeds ; but the outbreak of the war not only lost them this trade, but in bad debts they lost nearly all they had saved in thirty years. They now breed fine stock, which they sell ; and they sell some hay, but only to buy Indian corn in its stead. They are careful and excellent farmers. The women make some articles of fancy work. They employ fifteen hired men constantly. This society is prosperous. One of the families has just erected a large and, for Shakers, uncommonly stylish dwell- ing ; and all the buildings are in good repair and well paint- ed. Nevertheless they have not had an easy task to make a living. " If we have got any thing here," said an elder to me, " it is because we saved it." They have, however, the ad- vantage of an excellent farm. In the beginning they raised garden seeds, and were among the first in this country to es- The Shakers. IQI tablish this business, and at one time they made lead pipe — but the invention of machinery drove them out of that busi- ness. They eat meat, and use tea and coffee moderately ; and a few of the old members take snuff. They are mostly Americans, with a few Scotch and English, and more than half of the adult members came in when they were full-grown. About forty years ago there was in Khode Island a religious revival among a sect of Baptists who call themselves " Christians," and many of these entered the Enfield Society. They now adopt a good many children, and do not seem displeased at the result. They have a school, and are fond of music, having a cabinet- organ in their music -room, and holding a weekly singing- school for the young people. They take " a great many " news- papers and magazines, and have a variety of books, but no regular library. The elders have the selection of reading- matter, and, as in all the societies, exclude what they think in- jurious. They have been, they told me, somewhat careless of sanitary regulations, and have had typhus fever in their houses; but they are now generally healthy. They make very few articles for themselves, but buy a good deal. They make no regular business statement, and owe no debts. They once had a defalcation, but only of a trifling amount. There are four Shaker societies in Massachusetts: at Har- vard, Shirley, Tyringham, and Hancock. Harvard. The Harvard Society lies in Worcester County, about thirty miles northwest from Boston. It was fonnded in 1793 ; and had in 1823 two hundred members. It has now four fam- ilies, containing in all ninety persons, of whom sixteen are 192 Communistic Societies of the United States. children and youth under twenty-one — four boys and twelve girls. Of the seventy-four adult members, seventeen are men and fifty-seven women. The Church Family has fifty mem- bers, of whom forty-one are women and girls, and nine men and boys. It is usual among the Shakers to find more wom- en than men in a society or family, but at Harvard the- dispro- portion of the sexes is uncommonly great. The members are mainly Americans, but they have some Scotch, Germans, and Welsh. A considerable proportion of the present membership came in as adults, and these were, be- fore becoming Shakers, for the most part Adventists, some however coming from the Baptist and Methodist denomina- tions. The elder of the Gathering Family was a Baptist, and the leading minister was an English "Wesley an. The people are mostly in middle life. The health of this society has al- ways been good ; the average age at death, I was assured, ranged for a great number of years between sixty to sixty- eight. One sister died at ninety-three, and other members died at from eighty to eighty-six. Their home farm consists of about eighteen hundred acres ; and they have besides a farm in Michigan, and another in Mas- sachusetts. Their living is made almost entirely by farming; and they have drained very thoroughly a considerable piece of swamp, which yields them large crops of hay. They make brooms, have a nursery, and press and put up herbs ; and em- ploy sixteen or seventeen hired laborers. They have a small library, but " do not let books interfere with work;" there is a school, but no musical instrument; most of the people eat meat, and drink tea and coffee; and a few arc indulged in the practice of chewing tobacco. They are not very musical, but they take a great many newspapers. " Do you like to take children V I asked ; and an eldress replied, " Yes, we like to take children — but we don't like to take monkeys ;" and, in general, the Shakers have discovered The Shakers. ic^ that " blood will tell," and that they can do much better with the children of religious parents than with those whose fa- thers or mothers were dissolute or irreligious. This society has no debt, and is prosperous, though its build- ings are not all in first-rate order according to the Shaker standard, which is very high. It has suffered from one defal- cation. The ministry among the Shakers usually occupy their spare time in some manual labor, as I have explained in a previous chapter. The leading minister over Harvard and Shirley makes brooms ; his predecessor made shoes. The leading fe- male minister is a dress-maker. Shirley. The Society of Shirley lies about two miles from Shirley Station, on the Fitchburg Railroad. It was gathered in 1793, the meeting-house having been built the year before. Mother Ann Lee passed nearly two years among the people in this vi- cinity, preaching to them ; and this accounts for the early building of the meeting-house. In 1823 the Shirley Society had one hundred and fifty members. At present it has two families, numbering altogether forty-eight persons ; of these twelve are children and youth under twenty-one — eight girls and four boys. Of the adults, six are men and thirty women. Until a year ago there were three families, but decreasing numbers led them to call in one ; and they now let the build- ings formerly used by that one. Thirty-five years ago this society numbered one hundred and fifty persons ; twenty-four years ago, seventy-five ; twenty years ago it had sixty. As the old people, the founders, died off, new members did not come in. They have not now many applications for member- ship ; and of the children they adopt and bring up, not one in ten becomes a Shaker. The society owns two thousand acres of land, which in- 1 94 Communistic Societies of the United States. eludes several outlying farms. They employ nine or ten hired laborers; and their main business is to make apple-sauce, of which they sell from five to six tons every year. One family makes brooms ; and they all preserve fruit, make jellies and pickles, dry sweet corn, and in the spring make maple-sugar. The women make fancy articles for sale. Farming is also a considerable business with them, and they have good orchards. Most of the members grew up in the society, and the greater number of them are, I believe, past middle age. Like all the Shakers, they are long-lived — one sister, a colored woman, is eighty, and another eighty-eight — and their mortality rate is low. Most of the members are Americans, but they have a few Nova-Scotians. Most of them eat meat, and drink tea, but no coffee ; and they are especially fond of oatmeal. One old member both smokes and snuffs, but none others use to- bacco in any shape. They are fond of flowers, but do not cul- tivate any; have "plenty" of books and newspapers, but no regular library ; like music, but have no musical instrument ; and they are fond of the Bible. Among their meetings is one for singing. Their buildings are not so large as those of a Shaker settle- ment usually are, but they are in excellent order, and include an infirmary, a house for aged and feeble members, a nice school-room, and a laundry. They have the reputation in the neighborhood of being wealthy ; and had the enterprise once to build a large cotton factory, on the shore of a pond which they then owned. This building they have sold. It ran them into debt ; and this they did not like. They were poor at first ; have never had any defalcation ; have no debt now ; and make no regular business statement, trusting to the ministry to keep a proper oversight of their accounts. In the school at Shirley physiology was taught, and with re- markable success as it seemed to me, with the help of charts; the children seemed uncommonly intelligent and bright. Tho The Shakers. 195 school is open three months in the summer and three in the winter — two hours in the forenoon and two in the afternoon ; and the teacher, a yonng girl, was also the care-taker of the girls. Singing-school is held, for the children, in the evening. The societies at Hancock and Tyringham lie near the New York State line, among the Berkshire hills. They are small, and have no noticeable features. There are three Shaker societies in New York: at Mount Lebanon, Watervliet, and Groveland. Mount Lebanon. The Mount Lebanon Society lies in Columbia County, two miles from New Lebanon. It is the parent society among the Shakers, and its ministry has a general oversight over all the societies. It is also the most numerous. The Mount Lebanon Society was founded in 1787. In 1823 it numbered between five hundred and six hundred persons ; at this time it has three hundred and eighty-three, including forty-seven children and youth under fifteen. This society is divided into seven families; and its membership has one hun- dred and thirty-six males and two hundred and forty-seven females, including children and youth. It owns about three thousand acres of land within the State of New York, besides some farms in other states ; and several of its farms in its own neighborhood are in charge of tenants. The different families employ a considerable number of hired laborers. They raise and put up garden seeds, make brooms, dry medicinal herbs and make extracts, dry sweet corn, and make chairs and mops. The women in all the families also make mats, fans, dusters, and other fancy articles for sale ; and one of the families keep some sheep. In a previous chapter I have given so many details concern- ing the Mount Lebanon Society that I need here say nothing 196 Communistic Societies of the United States. further about it, except that it is in a highly prosperous condition. Watervliet. The society at Watervliet lies seven miles northwest from Albany, and upon the ground where Ann Lee and her follow- ers first settled when they came to America. Her body lies in the grave-yard at Watervliet. No monument is built over it. The society there has now four families, containing two hundred and thirty-five persons, of whom sixty are children and youth under twenty-one. Of the adult members, seventy- five are men and one hundred women. In 1823 it had over two hundred members; between 1837 and 1850 it had three hundred and fift} T . It has in its home estate twenty -five hundred acres of land, and owns besides about two thousand acres in the same state, and thirty thousand acres in Kentucky. Its chief industry is farming, and the families keep a large number of sheep and cattle. They shear wool enough to supply all their own need;; in cloth and flannel, but have these woven by an outside mill ; they raise large crops of broom-corn and sweet corn : the first they make into brooms, and the other they put up dry in barrels for sale ; they put up fruits and vegetables in tin can?, and also sell garden seeds. They have given np their tan-yard, which was once a source of income. Finally, they make in their own shops, for the use of the society, shoes, carpets, cloth- ing, furniture, and almost all the articles of household use they require. They hire about seventy-five laborers. Most of the members are Americans, and three quarters of them grew up from childhood in the society. Among the membership are some Germans, English, Irish, Swedes, Scotch, and two or three French people. Some among them were orig- inally clergymen, others lawyers, mechanics, and gardeners; but the greater number are farmers by occupation. Some of those The Shakers. 197 who came in as adults had been " Infidels," some Adventists, others Methodists. The society at this time contains more young than old people. Most of the people eat meat, and drink tea and coffee. Some use tobacco, but this is discouraged. They had formerly a good many colored members ; and have still some, as well as several mulattoes and quadroons. One colored sister is ninety years of age. The members here have been long-lived ; the register proves this : it shows deaths at ninety-seven, ninety-four, ninety-three, ninety, and so on. They are careful to have thorough drain- age and ventilation, and pay attention to sanitary questions. They were formerly subject to bilious fevers; but since reject- ing the use of pork, these fevers have disappeared. They take a number of newspapers, and have a library of four hundred volumes^ but the people are not great readers, and are fonder of religious books and works of popular science than of any other literature. There is a school ; and the chil- dren are now to have instruction in music, as one of the families has bought an organ, and asked a musical brother from New Hampshire to come down and give lessons. Instrumental mu- sic, however, has been opposed by the older members, and here as in some of the other societies it has been introduced only after prolonged discussion. This society has no debts, and has never suffered from the unfaithfulness of agents or trustees. It is in a very prosperous condition. Each family makes a detailed annual report to the presiding ministry, and a daily diary of events is kept. They have baths in the dwellings, and well-arranged laun- dries. The Watervliet and Mount Lebanon Societies have a num- ber of members living in the outer world, but holding to Shak- er principles, and maintaining by correspondence a connection with them. Some of these are inhabitants of cities, and " above 198 Communistic Societies of the United States. the average in wealth and culture," I was told. The Water- vliet Society has also a branch at Philadelphia, consisting of twelve colored women, who live together in one house under the leadership of an old woman, who was moved about twenty years ago to leave this society and go to Philadelphia to preach among her people. The members find employment as day serv- ants in different families, going home every night. They main- ly support themselves, and have never asked for help from the society ; but this occasionally makes them presents, and keeps a general oversight over them. Groveland. The Groveland Society lies near Sonyea, in Livingston Coun- ty, thirty -seven miles from Rochester on the Dansville and Mount Morris branch of the Erie Railway. This society was founded at Sodus Point in 1826, and removed from there to its present location in 1836. They had at that time one hun- dred and fifty members ; and were most numerous about twen- ty-five years ago, when they had two hundred members. At present they have two families, with fifty-seven members in all, of whom nine are children under twenty-one; of these last, six are girls and three boys. Of the adults, thirty are females and eighteen males. They own a home farm of two thousand acres, and an out- lying farm of two hundred and eighty acres, mostly good land, and very well placed, a canal and two railroads running through their home farm. They have a saw-mill and grist-mill, which are sources of income to them; and they raise broom-corn, make brooms, and dry apples and sweet corn. The women make fancy articles for sale. They also keep fine cattle, and sell a good deal of high-priced stock. Farming and garden- ing are their chief employments, as they have a ready sale for all they produce. They employ eight hired laborers. The members are mostly Americans, raised in the society ; The Shakers. 199 but they have French Canadians, Dutch, German, Irish, and English among them. The French Canadians were Catholics, and some of their other members were Episcopalians, Presby- terians, and Methodists. Most of those who came in as adults were farmers. They are long-lived — living to beyond seventy in a considerable number of cases. They eat meat, drink tea and coffee, and some aged mem- bers who came in late in life, with confirmed habits, are al- lowed to use tobacco. One sister smokes. They have a school, and a good miscellaneous library of about four hundred volumes, in a case in the dwelling-honse of the Church Family. They sing finely, but are opposed to the introduction of musical instruments. In some of their evening meetings they read aloud, and the last book thus read was Mr. Seward's " Journey around the World." They do not adopt as many children as formerly, and ex- perience has taught them the necessity of knowing something of the parentage of children, in order to make judicious selec- tions. " Formerly we had one or two physicians among our members, and then there was much sickness; now that we have no doctor there is but little illness, and the health of the society is good." One of the families is in debt, through an imprudent pur- chase of land made by a trustee, without the general knowl- edge of the society. Moreover they have suffered severely from fires and by a flood. Once seven of their buildings were burned down in a night. In this way a fund they had at in- terest was expended in repairs. But the society seems now to be prosperous ; its buildings are in excellent order, and the brick dwelling of the Church Family, built in 1857, is well ar- ranged and a fine structure. They have a steam laundry and a fine dairy. In their shops they carry on blacksmithing, car- pentry, tailoring, and dress-making. 200 Communistic Societies of the United States. They make a regular annual business statement to the pre- siding ministry. At intervals they send out one or two brethren to preach to the outer world upon Shakerism. There are four Shaker societies in Ohio: Union Village, near Lebanon ; North Union, near Cleveland ; Watervliet, near Dayton ; and Whitewater, near Harrison. Union Village. The society at Union Village lies four miles from Lebanon, in Warren County, Ohio. It is the oldest Shaker settlement in the West ; the three " witnesses " sent out from Mount Leb- anon in 1805 were here received by a prosperous farmer named Malehas Worley, who became a " Believer," and whose influ- ence greatly helped to spread the Shaker doctrines among his neighbors. His small dwelling still stands near the large house of one of the families, and is kept in neat repair; it lies in the heart of the society's present estate. The ministry of Union Village, while subordinate to that at Mount Lebanon, rules or has a general oversight of the western societies in Ohio and Kentucky; and in former times there has been a good deal of printing done there, a number of Shaker publications having been written and published at Union Village. The society at Union Village consists of four families, con- taining at this time two hundred and fifteen persons, of whom ninety-five are males and one hundred and twenty females. Of the whole number, forty -eight are children and youth under twenty-one, and of these twenty are bo}*s and twenty- eight girls. Between 1827 and 1830 it had six hundred mem- bers, and at that time there were six families. It had, however, about that time received sudden and considerable accessions from the dissolution of the Shaker Society in Indiana, which The Shakers. 201 left that state on account of the unhealthf ulness of the country, and whose members were divided among the Ohio societies. In the last ten years I was told there had been neither gain nor loss of numbers, taking the average of the year ; for here, as elsewhere, there is usually a swelling of the ranks in the fall, from what are called "winter Shakers." The society at Union Village was " gathered " between 1S05 and 1810. The oldest building dates from 1807, and others, of brick and still in excellent preservation, bear the dates of 1810 and 1811. All the buildings are in good order; and this society is among the most prosperous in the order. Its families own a magnificent estate of four thousand five hun- dred acres lying in the famous Miami bottom, a soil much of which is so fertile that after sixty 3-ears of cropping it will still yield from sixty to seventy bushels of corn to the acre, and without manuring. They have also some outlying farms. They have no debt, and one of the families has a fund at interest. They let much of their land to tenants, having not less than forty thus settled aud working the soil on shares. Besides this, the different families employ about thirty hired laborers. Their industries are broom-making, raising garden seeds and medicinal herbs, and preparing medicinal extracts. They also make a sirup of sarsaparilla, and one or two other patent medicines ; they have a saw and a grist mill ; the women make small fancy articles and baskets. But their most profit- able business is the growth of fine stock — thoroughbred Dur- ham cattle chiefly. They have, of course, shops in which they make and mend what they need for themselves — tailor's, shoe- maker's, blacksmith's, wagon-maker's, etc. Formerly they man- ufactured more than at present — having made at one time, for the general market, steel, leather, hollow-ware, pipes, and wool- en yarn. Prosperity has lessened their enterprise. Three of the families have very complete laundries. 202 Communistic Societies of the United States. They eat meat, but no pork ; and only a very few of the aged members use tobaceo. They have an excellent school, of which one of the ministry, an intelligent and kindly man, is the teacher. They have a small library — " not so many books as we would like;" and one of the sisters told me that she got books from a circulating library at Lebanon, and as a special indulgence was allowed to read novels sometimes, which, she remarked, she found useful to set her to sleep. They have two cabinet-organs, and believe in cultivating music. The founders of this society were mostly Presbyterians. Their successors have been Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and I found, to my surprise, several Catholics, one of whom was originally a Spanish priest. Almost all are Americans, but there are a few Germans and English. They do not care to take children unless they are accom- panied by their parents ; and refuse to take any under nine years, unless they come as part of a family. Not more than ten per cent, of the children they train up remain with them ; but they said it was not uncommon to see them return after spending some years in the world, and in such cases they often made good Shakers. During the war a number of their young men went off to become soldiers. Several of those who sur- vived returned, and are now among them. They have no provision for baths. In 1835 they suffered from the defalcation of a trustee, to the amount of between forty and fifty thousand dollars. I looked over a list of deaths during the last thirty years, and was surprised to find how many members had lived to ninety and past, and how large a proportion died at over seventy. " Are you all Spiritualists," I asked, and was answered, " Of course ;" but presently one added, " We are all Spiritualists, in a general sense ; but there are some real Spiritualists here ;" and I judge that here as in some of the other societies Spiritualism is not much thought of. I saw the " Sacred Koll and Book " The Shakers. 203 on a tabic, but was told it was not much read nowadays, but that they read the Bible a good deal. I found that for the last three years they have had here what they call a Lyceum : a kind of debating club which meets once a week, for the discussion of set questions, reading, and the criticism of essays written by the members. The last question discussed was, " Whether it is best for the Shaker so- cieties to work on cash or credit." This Lyceum has produced another meeting in the Church Family, in which, once a week, all the members — male and fe- male, young and old — are gathered to overhaul the accounts of the week, and to discuss all the industrial occupations of the family, agricultural and mechanical, as well as housekeeping and every thing relating to their practical life. These weekly meetings are found to give the younger members a greater in- terest in the society, and they were established because it was thought necessary to make efforts to keep the youth whom they bring up. " We will never change the fundamental principles and practices of Shakerism," said one of the older and official members, an uncommonly intelligent Shaker, to me. " Celibacy and the confession of sins are vital ; but in all else we ought to be changeable, and may modify our practices ; and we feel that we must do something to make home more pleasant for our young people — they want more music and more books, and shall have them; they are greatly interested in these weekly business meetings; and I am in favor of giving them just as much and as broad an education as they desire." The business meeting lasts an hour, and the " Elder Brother in the Ministry" presides. I saw some evidences that this meeting aroused thought. Any member may bring up a sub- ject for discussion ; and I heard some of the sisters say that one matter which had occupied their thoughts was the too great monotony of their own lives — they desired greater vari- ety, and thought women might do some other things besides P 204 Communistic Societies of the United States. cooking. One thought it would be an improvement to abolish the caps, and let the hair have its natural growth and appear- ance — but I am afraid she might be called a radical. The founders of Union Village were evidently men who did their work thoroughly; the dwellings and houses they built early in the century, all of brick, have a satisfactory solidity, and are not without the homely charm which good work and plain outlines give to any building. Two of these old houses in the Church Family are now used as the boys' and the girls 1 houses, and are uncommonly good specimens of early Western architecture. The whole village is a pattern of neatness, with flagged walks and pleasant grassy court-yards and shade-trees; but I noticed here and there a slackness in repairs which seemed to show the want of a deacon's sharp eyes. North Union. The North Union Shaker Society lies eight miles northeast from Cleveland. It was founded in 1S22, in what was then a thickly timbered wilderness, and the people lived for some years in log cabins. The society was most numerous about 1840, when it contained two hundred members. It is now di- vided into three families, having one hundred and two persons, of whom seventeen are children and youth under twenty-one. Of these last, six are boys and eleven girls. Of the adult members, forty-four are women and forty-one men. Their numbers have of late increased, but there was a gradual dimi- nution for fifteen years before that. About a third of the present members were brought up in the society ; of the remainder, the most were by religious con- nection Adventists, Methodists, and Baptists. They have among them persons who were weavers, whalemen, and sailors, but most of them were farmers. The greater number are Americans, but they have some Swiss, Germans, and English. They do not like to take in children unless their parents come The Shakers. 205 with them. The health of the society has been very good. Many of their people have lived to past eighty ; one sister died at ninety-eight. In the last fifty years they have buried just one hundred persons. They eat but little meat ; use tea and coffee, but moderate- ly, and "bear against tobacco," but permit its use in certain cases. But they allow no one to both smoke and chew the weed. They have a school, and like to sing, but do not allow musical instruments. Less than a quarter of the young people whom they bring up remain with them. They own 1355 acres of land in one body, and have no out- lying farms. They have a saw-mill, and make brooms, broom- handles, and stocking yarn. But their chief sources of income arise from supplying milk and vegetables to Cleveland, as well as fire-wood, and some lumber, and they keep fine stock. They used to make wooden ware. Their dairy brought them in $2300 last year. They employ nine hired men. The buildings of this society are not in as neat order as those of Groveland or others eastward. I missed the thorough cov- ering of paint, and the neatness of shops. They have no steam laundry, and make no provision for baths. But they have the usual number of "shops," among them an infirmary, or in Shaker language a " nurse-shop." They have a small library, and take two daily newspapers, the New York World and Sun. They read the Bible " when they have a gift for it," but de- pend much upon their own revelations from the spirit-land. They owe no debts, and have a fund at interest. They make a detailed annual report to the presiding ministry. They have never suffered serious loss from mismanagement and de- faulting agents or trustees. Watervliet and W/n'teivater. The two societies of Watervliet and Whitewater, in Ohio, I 2o6 Communistic Societies of the United States. did not visit. They are small, and subordinate to that of Union Village. The society at "Watervliet has two families, containing fifty- five members, of whom nineteen are males and thirty-six fe- males; and seven are under twenty-one. They own thirteen hundred acres of land, much of which they let to tenants. They have a wool-factory, which is their only manufactory. This society was founded a year after that at Union Village ; it had in 1S25 one hundred members ; and is now prosperous, pecuniarily, having no debt, and money at interest. One of its families once suffered a slight loss from a defalcation. The society at Whitewater has three families, and one hun- dred members, of whom fifteen are under twenty-one. There are forty males and sixty females. It was founded in 1827, and many among its members came from the society which broke up in Indiana. It had at one time one hundred and fifty members. It owns fifteen hundred acres of land, and has no debt, but a fund at interest in each family. The families put up garden seeds, make brooms, raise stock, and farm. There are two societies in Kentucky, one at South Union, in Logan County, on the line of the Nashville Railroad, and one at Pleasant Hill, in Mercer County, seven miles from Harrods- burg. They are both prosperous. South Union. The society at South Union was founded nearly on the scene of the wild "Kentucky revival" in the year 1S07, the gath- ering taking place in 1809. Some of the log cabins then built by the early members are still standing, and the first meeting- house, built in 1810, bears that date on its front. I judge that the early members were poor, from the fact that they lived for some time in cabins. Some who came into the society at an The Shakers. 207 early date were slaveholders; and as the Shakers have always consistently opposed slavery, these set their slaves free, but induced them to the number of forty to join them. For many years there was a colored family, with a colored elder, living upon the same terms as the whites. From time to time some of these fell away and left the society ; but I w T as told that a number became and remained "good Shakers," and died in the faith; and when the colored family became too small, the remnant of members was taken in among; the whites. There are at present several colored members. There were originally three families, but now four, one of which, however, is small. The society numbers two hundred and thirty persons, of whom one hundred are males and one hundred and thirty females, and forty of these are under twenty-one — twenty -five girls and fifteen boys. In 1S27 they were most numerous, having three hundred and forty -nine per- sons* in all the families; they had at one time but one hun- dred and seventy-five, and have risen from that in the last twenty years to their present number. For some years they have neither increased nor diminished, except by the coming and going of " winter Shakers," and " we sift pretty carefully," they told me. Most of the members are Americans, but they have some Germans and a few English, and they had at one time several French Catholics. They own nearly six thousand acres of laud, of which three thousand five hundred acres are in the home farm, the remain- der about four miles off. The South Union Shakers were early famous for fine stock, which they sold in Missouri and in the Northwestern states and territories. They still raise fine breeds of cattle, hogs, sheep, and chickens, and this is a consid- erable source of income to them. Some of their land they let * The "Millennial Church" gives their number at four hundred about 1825, but I follow the account given me at South Union. 2oS Communistic Societies of the United States. to tenants, among whom I found several colored families ; they have also extensive orchards ; the remainder they cultivate, raising — besides the pasturage of their stock — corn, wheat, rye, and oats. They have also a good grist-mill, from which they ship flour ; they own a large brick hotel at the railroad station, which, I was told, is a summer resort, there being a sulphur spring near it, also a store, both of which they rent to " world's people ;" and they make brooms, put up garden seeds — which was formerly an important business with them — and prepare canned and preserved fruits, which they sell largely in the Southern States. I saw here on the table those very sweet " pre- serves " which a quarter of a century ago were to be found on every farmer's table in New England, if he had a thrifty wife, and which, after breeding a kind of epidemic of dyspepsia, have now, I think, entirely disappeared from our Northern tables. It seems they are still served on " company occasions" in the South. They have for their home use a tannery, and shops for tai- loring, shoemaking, carpentering, and blacksmithing ; and they employ fifteen hired people, all negroes. Their buildings, which are both brick and frame, are all in excellent condition; and the large pines and Norway spruces growing near the dwellings (and " trimmed up " — or robbed of their lower branches, as the abominable fashion has too long been in this country), show that the founders provided for their de- scendants some grateful shade. Near the Church Family they showed me two line old oaks, under which Henry Clay once partook of a public dinner, while at another time James Mon- roe and Andrew Jackson stopped for a day at the country tav- ern which once stood near by, when the stage road ran near here. " Monroe," said one of the older members to me, " was a stout, thickset man, plain, and with but little to say ; Jacksun, tall and thin, with a hickory visage." Naturally, this being Ken- tucky, Clay was held to be the greatest character of the three. Here, too, as I am upon antiquities, I taw old men who in The Shakers. 209 their youth had taken part in the great "revival," and had seen the "jerks," which were so horrible a feature of that re- ligious excitement, and of which I have previously quoted some descriptions from McNemar's " Kentucky Revival." To dance, I was here told, was the cure for the " jerks ;" and men often danced until they dropped to the ground. " It was of no use to try to resist the jerks," the old men assured me. " Young men sometimes came determined to make fun of the proceed- ings, and were seized before they knew of it." Men were " flung from their horses ;" " a young fellow, famous for drinking, cursing, and violence, was leaning against a tree looking on, when he was jerked to the ground, slam bang. He swore he would not dance, and he was jerked about until it was a won- der he was not killed. At last he had to dance." "Sometimes they would be jerked about like a cock with his head off, all about the ground." The dancing I judge to have been an in- voluntary convulsive movement, which was the close of the general spasm. Of course, the people believed the whole was a " manifestation of the power of God." There is no reason to doubt that McXemar's descriptions are accurate ; from what I have heard at South Union, I imagine that his account is not complete. The South Union Shakers have no debt, and mean to obey the rule in this regard ; they have a very considerable fund at interest. They eat meat, but no pork ; drink tea and coffee, and some of them use tobacco — even the younger members. They have as their minister here a somewhat remarkable man, who studied Latin while driving an ox team as a youngster, and later in life acquired some knowledge of German, French, and Swedish while laboring successively as seed -gardener, tailor, and shoemaker. His mild face and gentle manners pleased me very much ; and I was not surprised to find him a man greatly beloved in other societies as well as at South Union. Nevertheless his example does not appear to have 2io Communistic Societies of the United States. been catching, for I was told that they have no library. They read a number of newspapers, but the average of culture is low. They have no baths ; have lately bought a piano, and had a brother from Canterbury to instruct some of the sisters in music. The singing was not so good as I have heard else- where among the Shakers. They have a school during five months of the year ; and they like to take children — " would rather have bad ones than none." They have brought children from New Orleans and from Memphis after an epidemic which had left many orphans. The young people " do tolera- bly well." The founders of this society were " New-Light Presbyteri- ans;" since then they have been reinforced by " Infidels," Spir- itualists, Methodists, and others. It is certainly to their credit that, living in a slave state, and having up to the outbreak of the war a great part of their business with the states farther south, these Shakers were al- ways anti -slavery and Union people. Formerly they hired negro laborers from their masters, which, I suppose, kept the masters quiet; it did not surprise me to hear that they always had their choice of the slave population near them. A negro knew that he would nowhere be treated so kindly as among the Shakers. During the war they suffered considerable losses. A saw-mill and grist-mill, with all their contents, were burned, causing a loss of seventy-five thousand dollars. They fed the troops of both sides, and told me that they served at least fifty thousand meals to Union and Confederate soldiers alike. There was guerrilla fighting on their own grounds, and a soldier was shot near the Church dwelling. " The war cost us over one hundred thousand dollars," said one of the elders ; and be- sides this they lost money by bad debts in the Southern States. Since the war they lost seventy-five thousand dollars in bonds, which, deposited in a bank, were stolen by one of its officers; but the greater part of this they hope to recover. The Shakers. 2 1 1 Like all the Shakers, they are long-lived. A man was pointed out to me, now eighty-seven years of age, who plowed and mowed last summer; two revolutionary soldiers died in the society aged ninety-three and ninety-four; one member died at ninety-seven ; and they have now people aged eighty- seven, eighty-five, eighty -two, eighty, and so on. During " meeting " on Sunday I saw the children, many of them small, and all clean and neat, and looking happy in their prim way. They came in, as usual, the boys by one door, the girls by another, each side with its care-taker; and took part in the marching, kneeling, and other forms of the Shaker wor- ship. After the war, the South Union elders sought out twen- ty orphans in Tennessee, whom they adopted. Last fall, when Memphis suffered so terribly from yellow fever, they tried to get fifty children from there, but were unsuccessful. Consider- ing the small number who stay with them after they are grown up, this charity is surely admirable. And though the educa- tion which children receive among the Shaker people is limit- ed, the training they get in cleanliness, orderly habits, and mor- als is undoubtedly valuable, and better than such orphans would receive in the majority of cases among the world's peo- ple. Nor must it be forgotten that the Shakers still, with great good sense, teach each boy and girl a trade, so as to fit them for earning a living. Pleasant Hill. The Pleasant Hill Society lies in Mercer County, seven miles from Ilarrodsburg, on the stage road to Nicholasville, and near the Kentucky River, which here presents some grand and magnificent scenery, deserving to be better known. They have a fine estate of rich land, lying in the midst of the famous blue-grass region of Kentucky. It consists of four thousand two hundred acres, all in one body. They have five families ; but the three Church families have their property in 2 1 2 Communistic Societies of the United States. common. Id 1S20 they had eight families, and between 1S20 and 1825 they had about four hundred and ninety members. At present the society numbers two hundred and forty-five per- sons, of whom seventy-five are children or youth under twenty- one. About one third are males and two thirds females. Pleasant Hill was founded in 1805, and "gathered into so- ciety order " in 1S09 ; at which time community of goods was established. The members are mostly Americans, but they have in one family a good many Swedes. These are the remnant of a large number whom the society brought out a number of years ago at its own expense, in the hope that they would become good Shakers. The experiment was not successful. They have also two colored members, and some English. They have among them people who were Baptists, Methodists, Ad- ventists, and Presbyterians. A considerable number of the people, however, have grown up in the society, having come in as children of the founders; and one old lady told me she was born in the society, her parents having entered three months before she came into the world. They eat meat, but no pork ; use tea and coffee, and tobacco, but "not much;" have baths in all the families; have no li- brary, except of their own publications, of which copies are put into every room, and a good supply is on hand, especially of the " Sacred Roll and Book," and the " Divine Book of Holy Wisdom," which appear to be more read here than elsewhere. They have no musical instruments, but mean to get an organ "to help the singing." They receive twenty newspapers of different kinds ; and they are Spiritualists. The buildings at Pleasant Hill are remarkably good. The dwellings have high ceilings, and large, airy rooms, -well fitted and very comfortably furnished, as are most of the Shaker houses. Most of the buildings are of stone or brick, and the stone houses in particular are well built. In most of the dwell- The Shakers. 2 1 3 ings I found two doorways, for the different sexes, as well as two staircases within. The walks connecting the buildings are here, as at South Union, Union Village, and elsewhere, laid with flagging-stones — but so narrow that two persons can not walk abreast. Agriculture, the raising of fine stock, and preserving fruit in summer are the principal industries pursued at Pleasant Hill for income. They make some brooms also, and in one of the families they put up garden seeds. They have, however, very complete shops of all kinds for their own use, as well as a saw and grist mill, and even a woolen-mill where they make their own cloth. Formerly they had also a hatter's shop; and in the early days they labored in all their shops for the public, and kept besides a carding and fulling mill, a linseed-oil mill, as well as factories of coopers' ware, brooms, shoes, dry meas- ures, etc. At present their numbers are inadequate to carry on manufactures, and their wealth makes it unnecessary. They let a good deal of their land, the renters paying half the crop ; and they employ besides fifteen or twenty hired hands, who are mostly negroes. Hired laborers among the Shakers are usually, or always so far as I know, boarded at the " office," the house of the trustees ; and this often makes a good deal of hard work for the sisters who do the cooking there. At Pleasant Hill they had two col- ored women and a little boy in the " office " kitchen, hired to help the sisters ; and this is the only place where I saw this done. They have a school for the children, which is kept during five months of the year. They do not like to take children without their parents ; and very few of those the}' take remain in the society after they are grown up. They are troubled also with " winter Shakers," whom they take "for conscience' sake," if they show even very little of the Shaker spirit, hoping to do them good. They were Union people during the war, and a few of their young men entered the army, and some of theso 2 1 4 Communistic Societies of the United States. returned after the war ended, and were reinstated in the soci : ety after examination and confession of their sins. During the war both armies foraged upon them, taking their horses and wagons; and they served thousands of meals to hungry soldiers of both sides. Their estate lies but a few miles from the field of the great battle of Perryville, and this region was for a while the scene of military operations, though not to so great an extent as the country about South Union. The Con- federate general John Morgan, who was born near here, al- ways protected them against his own troops, and they spoke feelingly of his care for them. This society has no debt, and has never suffered from a de- falcation or breach of trust. Some years ago they lost nearly ten thousand dollars from the carelessness of an aged trustee. They are long-lived, many of their members having lived to past ninety. They have one now aged ninety-eight years. Shaker Literature, Spiritualism, etc. " It should be distinctly understood that special inspired gifts have not ceased, but still continue among this people :" so reads a brief note to the Preface of " Christ's First and Second Appearing," the edition of 1854. In the "Testimonies concerning the Character and Ministry of Mother Ann Lee," a considerable number of her followers who had known her personally, being her contemporaries, re- late particulars of her teaching and conduct, and not a few give instances of so-called miraculous cures of diseases or in- juries, performed by her upon themselves or others. The hymns or "spiritual songs" they sing are said by the Shakers to be brought to them, almost without exception, from the " spirit-land ;" and the airs to which these songs are sung are believed to conic from the same source. There arc, how- A SHAKER SCHOOL. SHAKER MUSIC HALL. The Shakers. 2 1 5 ever, two collections of Hymns, to most of whose contents this origin is not attributed, though even in these some of the hymns purport to have been "given by inspiration." In the older of these collections, "A Selection of Hymns and Poems for the Use of Believers," printed at "Watervliet, in Ohio, 1833, one can trace some of the earlier trials of the societies, and the evils they had to contend with within themselves. The Western societies, for instance, appear to have early opposed the drinking of intoxicating beverages. Here is a rhyme, dated 1817, which appeals to the members in the cause of total abstinence : "From all intoxicating drink Ancient Believers did abstain ; Then say, good brethren, do yon think That such a cross was all in vain ? "Inebriation, we allow, First paved the way for am'rous deeds; Then why should poisonous spirits now Be ranked ainocg our common needs? "As an apothecary drug, Its wondrous virtues some will plead; And hence we find the stupid Slug A morning dram does often need. " Fatigue or want of appetite At noon will crave a little more, And so the same complaints at night Are just as urgent as before. "By want of sleep, and this and that, His thirst for liquor is increased ; Till he becomes a bloated sot — The very scarlet-colored beast. "Why, then, should any soul insist On such pernicious, pois'nous stuff? Malignant spirits, you're dismissed ! You have possessed us long enough." 216 Communistic Societies of the United States. As a note to this temperance rhyme, stands the follow- ing: " Ch. Rule. — All spirituous liquors should be kept under care of the nurses, that no drams in any case whatever should be dispensed to per- sons in common health, and that frivolous excuses of being unwell should not be admitted. Union Village, 1826." " Slug," in the third of the preceding verses, seems to have been a cant term among the early Shakers for a sluggard and selfish fellow, a kind of creature they have pretty thoroughly extirpated ; and presumably by such free speech as is used in the following amusing rhymes: " The depth of language I have dug To show the meaning of a Slug ; And must conclude, upon the whole, It means a stupid, lifeless soul, Whose object is to live at ease, And his own carnal nature please ; Who always has some selfish quirk, In sleeping, eating, and at work. M A lazy fellow it implies, Who in the morning hates to rise ; When all the rest are up at four, He wants to sleep a little more. When others into meeting swarm, He keeps his nest so good and warm, That sometimes when the sisters come To make the beds and sweep the room, Who do they find wrap'd up so snug? Ah ! who is it but Mr. Slug. " A little cold or aching head Will send him grunting to his bed, And he'll prcteud he's sick or sore, Just that he may indulge the more. Nor would it feel much like a crime If he should sleep one half his time. The Shakers. 217 " When he gets up, before he's dress'd He's so fatigued he has to rest; And half an hour he'll keep his chair Before he takes the morning air. He'll sit and smoke in calm repose Until the trump for breakfast blows — His breakfast-time at length is past, And he must wait another blast ; So at the sound of the last shell, He takes his seat and all is well." "Slug" at the table is thus satirized: "To save his credit, you must know That poor old Slug eats very slow; And as in justice he does hate That all the rest on him should wait, Sometimes he has to rise and kneel Before he has made out his meal. Then to make up what he has miss'd, He takes a luncheon in his fist, Or turns again unto the dish, And fully satisfies his wish ; Or, if it will not answer then, He'll make it up at half-past ten. "Again he thinks it quite too soon To eat his dinner all at noon, But as the feast is always free, He takes a snack at half-past three. He goes to supper with the rest, But, lest his stomach be oppress'd, He saves at least a piece of bread Till just before he goes to bed ; So last of all the wretched Slug Has room to drive another plug. "To fam'ly order he's not bound, But has his springs of union round ; And kitchen sisters ev'ry where Know how to please him to a hair: 2 1 8 Communistic Societies of the United States. Sometimes his errand they can guess, If not, he can his wants express ; Nor from old Slug can they get free Without a cake or dish of tea." " Slug" at work, or pretending to work, gets a fling also : "When call'd to work you'll always find The lazy fellow lags behind — He has to smoke or end his chat, Or tie bis shoes, or hunt his hat: So all the rest are busy found Before old Slug gets on the ground ; Then he must stand and take his wind Before he's ready to begin, And ev'ry time he straights his back He's sure to have some useless clack; And tho' all others hate the Slug, With folded arms himself he'll hug. "When he conceits meal-time is near, He listens oft the trump to hear; And when it sounds, it is his rule The first of all to drop his tool ; And if he's brisk in any case, It will be in his homeward pace." Here, too, is a picture of " Sing" shirking his religious duties: "In his devotions he is known To be the same poor lazy drone : The sweetest songs Believers find Make no impression on his mind ; And round the fire he'd rather nod Than labor in the works of God. " Some vain excuse he'll often plead That he from worship may be freed — He's bruis'd his heel or stump'd his toe, And can not into meeting go; And if he comes he's half asleep, That no good fruit from him we reap: The Shakers. 2 1 9 He'll labor out a song or two, And so conclude that that will do; [And, lest through weariness he fall, He'll brace himself against the wall], And well the faithful may give thanks That poor old Slug has quit the ranks. "When the spectators are address'd, Then is the time for Slug to rest — From his high lot he can't be hurl'd, To feel toward the wicked world ; So he will sit with closed eyes Until the congregation rise; And when the labor we commence, He moves with such a stupid sense — It often makes spectators stare To see so dead a creature there." The satire closes with a hit at " Sing's" devotion to tobacco: " Men of sound reason use their pipes For colics, pains, and windy gripes; And smoking's useful, we will own, To give the nerves and fluids tone; But poor old Slug has to confess He uses it to great excess. And will indulge his appetite Beyond his reason and his light. If others round him do abstain, It keeps him all the time in pain; And if a sentence should be spoke Against his much-beloved smoke, Tho 1 it be in the way of joke, He thinks his union's almost broke. In all such things he's at a loss, Because he thinks not of the cross, But yields himself a willing slave To what his meaner passions crave. " This stupid soul in all his drift Is still behind the proper gift — 2 20 Communistic Societies of the United States. With other souls he don't unite, Nor is he zealous to do right. Among Believers he's a drug, And ev'ry elder hates a Slug. "When long forbearance is the theme, A warm believer he would seem — For different tastes give gen'rous scope, And he is full of faith and hope ; But talk about some good church rule, And his high zeal you'll quickly cool. Indulge him, then, in what is wrong, And Slug will try to move along; Nor will he his own state mistrust, Until he gets so full of lust His cross he will no longer tug, Then to the world goes poor old Slug." "Hoggish nature" comes in for a share of denunciation next in these lines : " In the increasing work of the gospel we find, The old hoggish nature we will have to bind — To starve the old glutton, and leave him to shift, Till in union with heaven we eat in a gift. "What Father will teach me, I'll truly obey; I'll keep Mother's counsel, and not go astray; Then plagues and distempers they will have to cease, In all that live up to the gospel's increase. "The glutton's a seat in which evil can work, And in hoggish nature diseases will lurk : By faith and good works we can all overcome, And starve the old glutton until he is done. "But while he continues to guzzle and eat, All kinds of distempers will still find a seat — The plagues of old Egypt — the scab and the bile, At which wicked spirits and devils will smile. " Now some can despise the good porridge and soup, And by the old glutton they surely are dup'd — ^W To eat seven times in a day! what a mess! I hate the old glutton for his hoggishness. The Shakers. 221 " No wonder that plagues and distempers abound, While there is a glutton in camp to be found, To spurn at the counsel kind Heaven did give — And guzzle up all, and have nothing to save. " When glutton goes in and sits down with the rest, His hoggish old nature it grabs for the best — The cake and the custard, the crull and the pie — He cares not for others, but takes care of I. "His stomach is weak, being gorg'd on the best, He has had sev'ral pieces secret from the rest; He'll fold up his arms, at the rest he will look, Because they do eat the good porridge and soup. " Now all that are wise they will never be dup'd ; They'll feed the old glutton on porridge and soup, Until he is willing to eat like the rest, And not hunt the kitchen to find out the best. " We'll strictly observe what our good parents teach : Not pull the green apple, nor hog* in the peach ; We'll starve the old glutton, and send him adrift; Then like good Believers we'll eat in a gift." Following these verses are some reflections, concluding: "Away with the sluggard, the glutton, and beast, For none but the bee and the dove Can truly partake of this heavenly feast, Which springs from the fountains of love." Obedience to the elders and ministry also appears to have been difficult to bring about, for several verses in this collection inculcate this duty. In one, called " Gospel-virtues illustra- ted," an old man is made the speaker, in these words : " Now eighteen hundred seventeen — Where am I now? where have I been? My age about threescore and three, Then surely thankful I will be. * To cat like a hocf. 222 Communistic Societies of the United States. " I thank my parents for rny home, I thank good Elder Solomon, I thank kind Eldress Hortency, And Eldress Rachel kind and free. " Good Elder Peter with the rest — By his good works we all are blest ; His righteous works are plainly shown — I thank him kindly for my home. " From the beginning of this year, A faithful cross I mean to bear, To ev'ry order I'll subject, And all my teachers I'll respect. " With ev'ry gift I will unite — They are all good and just and right ; If mortifying they do come, I'll still be thankful for my home. " When I'm chastis'd I'll not complain, Tho' my old nature suffer pain ; Tho' it should come so sharp and hot, Even to slay me on the spot. " I will no longer use deceit, I will abhor the hypocrite ; His forged lies I now will hate — His portion is the burning lake. " My vile affections they shall die. And ev'ry lust I'll crucify ; I'll labor to be clean and pure, And to the end I will endure. " Th' adulterous eye shall now be blind — It shall not feed the carnal mind; My looks and conduct shall express That holy faith that I possess. " I will not murmur, 'tis not right, About my clothing or my diet, For surely those who have the care, Will give to each their equal share. The Shakers. 223 " I will take care and not dictate The fashion of my coat or hat; But meet the gift as it may come, And still be thankful for my home. " I will be careful and not waste That which is good for man or beast; Or any thing that we do use — No horse or ox will I abuse. " I will be simple as a child ; I'll labor to be meek and mild; In this good work my time I'll spend, And with my tongue I'll not offend." Again, in " Repentance and Confession," a sinner confesses his misdeeds in such words as these : " But still there's more crowds on my mind And blacker than the rest — They look more dark and greater crimes Than all that I've confess'd With tattling tongues and lying lips I've often bore a j)art: I frankly own I've made some slips To give a lie a start. " But worse than that I've tri'd to do, When darken'd in my mind ; I've tri'd to be a Deist too — That nothing was divine. But O, good elders, pray for me ! The worst is yet behind — I've talk'd against the ministry, With malice in my mind. " O Lord forgive ! for mercy's sake And leave me not behind ; For surely I was not awake, Else I had been consign'd. Good ministry, can you forgive, And elders one and all ? And, brethren, may I with you live, And be the least of all ?'' 224 Communistic Societies of the United States. In "A Solemn Warning" there is a caution against the wiles of Satan, who tries Believers with a spirit of discontent: " This cunning deceiver can't touch a Believer, Unless he can get them first tempted to taste Some carnal affection, or fleshly connection, And little by little their power to waste. The first thing is blinding, before undermining, Or else the discerning would shun the vile snare; — Thus Satan hath frosted and artfully blasted Some beautiful blossoms that promis'd most fair. " This wily soul-taker and final peace-breaker May take the unwary before they suspect, And get them to hearken to that which will darken, And next will induce them their faith to reject; Hell tell you subjection affords no protection — These things you've been tau't are but notions at best; Reject your protection, and break your connection, And all you call'd faith you may scorn and detest." " The Last Woe " denounces various sins of the congrega- tion : "In your actions unclean, you are openly seen, And this truth you may ever remark, That in anguish and woe, to the saints you must go, And confess what you've done in the dark. " From restraint you are free, and no danger you see, Till the sound of the trumpet comes in, Crying ' Woe to your lust — it must go to the dust, With the unfruitful pleasures of sin.' "And a woe to the liar — he is doom'd to the fire, Until all his dark lies are confessed — Till he honestly tell, what a spirit from hell Had its impious seat in his breast. "And a woe to the thief, without any relief — He is sentene'd in body and soul, To confess with his tongue, and restore cv'ry wrong, What he ever has robbed or stole. The Shakers. 225 " Tho' the sinner may plead, that it was not decreed For a man to take up a full cross, Yet in hell he must burn, or repent and return, And be sav'd from the nature of loss." In the following " Dialogue " " confession of sins " is urged and enforced : " Q. Why did you choose this way you're in, which all mankind despise ? A. It was to save my soul from sin, and gain a heav'nly prize. Q. But could you find no other way, that would have done as well ? A. Nay, any other way but this would lead me down to hell. Q. Well, tell me how did you begin to purge away your dross ? A. By honestly confessing sin, and taking up my cross. Q. Was it before the Son of man you brought your deeds to light ? A. That was the mortifying plan, and surely it was right. Q. But did you not keep something back, or did you tell the whole ? A. I told it all, however black — I fully freed my soul. Q. Do you expect to persevere, and ev'ry evil shun? A. My daily cross I mean to bear, until the work is done. Q. Well, is it now your full intent all damage to restore ? A. If any man I've wrong'd a cent, I'll freely give him four. Q. And what is now the greatest foe with which you mean to war ? A. The cursed flesh — 'tis that, you know, all faithful souls abhor. Q. Have you none of its sly deceit now lurking in your breast ? A. I say there's nothing on my mind but what I have confess'd. Q. Well, what you have proclaim'd abroad, if by your works you show, You are prepar'd to worship God, so, at, it, you, may, go." " The Steamboat " seems to me a characteristic rhyme, which no doubt came home to Believers on the western rivers, when they were plagued with doubters and cold-hearted adherents : "While our steamboat, Self-denial, Rushes up against the stream, Is it not a serious trial Of the pow'r of gospel steam ? 226 Communistic Societies of the United States. "When Self-will, and Carnal Pleasure, And Freethinker, all afloat, Come down snorting with such pressure. Right against our little boat. " Were there not some carnal creatures Mixed with the pure and clean, When we meet those gospel-haters, We might pass and not be seen; But the smell of kindred senses Brings them on us fair broadside, Then the grappling work commences — They must have a fair divide. "All who choose the tide of nature, Freely take the downward way; But the doubtful hesitater Dare not go, yet hates to stay. To the flesh still claiming kindred, And their faith still hanging to — Thus we're held and basely hiuder'd, By a double-minded few. " Wretched souls, while hesitating Where to fix your final claim, Don't you see our boiler heating, With a more effectual flame ! — When the steam comes on like thunder, And the wheels begin to play, Must you not be torn asunder, And swept off the downward way ? "Tho' Self-will and Carnal Reason, Independence, Lust, and Pride, May retard us for a season, Saint and sinner must divide ; W x hen releas'd from useless lumber — When the fleshly crew is gone — With our little faithful number, O how swiftly we'll move on !" The " Covenant Hymn " was publicly sung in some of the Western societies, " so that no room was left for any to say The Shakers. 227 that the Covenant [by which they agree to give up all property and labor for the general use] was not well understood." I quote here several verses : " You have parents in the Lord, you honor and esteem, But your equals to regard a greater cross may seem. Where the gift of God you see, Can you consent that it should reign ? Yea I can, and all that's free may jointly say — Amen. " Can you part with all you've got, and give up all concern, And be faithful in your lot, the way of God to learn ? Can you sacrifice your ease, And take your share of toil and pain ? Yea I can, and all that please may freely say — Amen. " Can you into union flow, and have your will subdu'd \ Let your time and talents go, to serve the gen'ral good ? Can you swallow such a pill — To count old Adam's loss your gain ? Yea I can, and yea I will, and all may say — Amen. " I set out to bear my cross, and this I mean to do : Let old Adam kick and toss, his days will be but few. We're devoted to the Lord, And from the flesh we will be free; Then we'll say with one accord — Amen, so let it be." It is evident from these verses that the early Shakers had among them men who at least could make the rhymes run glibly, and who besides had a gift of plain speech. Here, for instance, is a denunciation of a scandal-monger: "In the Church of Christ and Mother, Carnal feelings have no place ; Here the simple love each other, Free from ev'ry thing that's base. Therefore when the flesh is named. When impeachments fly around, Honest souls do feel ashamed — Shudder at the very sound. 228 Communistic Societies of the United States. " Ah ! thou foul and filthy stranger ! What canst thou be after here ? Thou wilt find thyself in danger, If thou dost not disappear. Vanish quick, I do advise you ! For we mean to let you know Good Believers do despise you, As a dang'rous, deadly foe. " Dare you, in the sight of heaven, Show your foul and filthy pranks ? Can a place to you be given In the bright angelic ranks? Go ! I say, thou unclean devil ! Go from this redeemed soil, If you think you can not travel Through a lake of boiling oil." In those earlier days, as in these, idle persons seem to have troubled the Shakers with the question " What would be- come of the world if all turned Shakers," to which here is a sharp reply : "The multiplication of the old creation They're sure to hold forth as a weighty command ; And what law can hinder old Adam to gender, And propagate men to replenish the land ? But truly he never obey'd the lawgiver, For when the old serpent had open'd his eyes, He sought nothing greater than just to please nature, And work like a serpent in human disguise." "Steeple houses" are as hateful to the Shakers as to the Quakers and the Inspirationists of Amana, and they are ex- cluded in an especial manner from the Shakers' Paradise : "No sin can ever enter here — Nor sinners rear a steeple; 'Tis kept by God's peculiar care, For his peculiar people. The Shakers. 229 One faith, one union, and one Lord, One int'rest all combining, Believers all, with one accord, In heav'nly concert joining. " Far as the gospel spirit reigns, Our souls are in communion; From Alfred to South Union's plains, We feel our love and union. Here we may walk in peace and love, With God and saints uniting; While angels, smiling from above, To glory are inviting." Occasionally the book from which I am quoting gives one of those lively brief verses to which the Shaker congregation marches, with clapping hands and skipping feet ; as these, for instance : "I mean to be obedient, And cross my ugly nature, And share the blessings that are sent To ev'ry honest creature; With ev'ry gift I will unite, And join in sweet devotion — To worship God is my delight, With hands and feet in motion." " Come, let us all be marching on, Into the New Jerusalem; The call is now to ev'ry one To be alive and moving. This precious call we will obey — We love to march the heav'nly way, And in it we can dance and play, And feel our spirits living." In the newer collection, entitled " Millennial Hymns, adapt- ed to the present Order of the Church," and printed at Canter- bury, New Hampshire, in 1847, a change is noticeable. The hymns are more devotional and less energetic. There are many praises of Mother Ann — such lines as these : 230 Communistic Societies of the United States. " O Mother, blest Mother ! to thee I will bow ; Thou art a kind Mother, thou dost teach us how Salvation is gained, and how to increase In purity, union, in order and peace. "I love thee, O Mother; thy praise I will sound — I'll bless thee forever for what I have found ; I'll praise and adore thee, to thee bow and bend, For Mother, dear Mother, thou art my known friend." Or these : •' I will walk in true obedience, I will be a child of love ; And in low humiliation I will praise my God above. I will love my blessed Mother, and obey her holy word, In submission to my elders, this will join me to the Lord. "I will stand when persecution doth around like billows roll; I will bow in true subjection, and my carnal will control. I will stand a firm believer in the way and work of God, Doubts and fears shall never, never in me find a safe abode. " When temptations do surround me, floods of evil ebb and flow, Then in true humiliation I will bow exceeding low. I will fear the God of heaven, I will keep his holy laws, Treasure up his blessings given in this pure and holy cause. " Tho' beset by wicked spirits, men and devils all combin'd, Yet my Mother's love will save me if in faithfulness I stand: No infernal crooked creature can destroy or harm my soul, If I keep the love of Mother and obey her holy call." Or this hymn, which is called " Parents' Blessing :" " My Father does love me, my Mother also Does send me her love, and I now feel it flew ; These heavenly Parents are kind unto me, And by their directions my soul is set free. " They fill up my vessel with power and strength — Yea, make my cross easy, my peace of great length; My joy full and perfect, my trouble but light, My gifts very many in which I delight. The Shakers. 231 " I truly feel thankful for what I receive, In each holy promise I surely believe ; They're able and willing to do all they've said, And by my kind Parents I choose to be led. "I love to feel simple, I love to feel low, I love to be kept in the path I should go ; I love to be taught by my heavenly lead, That I may be holy and perfect indeed." I add another, which has the lively, quick rhythm in which the Shakers delight. It is called " Wisdom's Path :" " I'll learn to walk in wisdom's ways, And in her path I'll spend my days; I'll learn to do what Mother says And follow her example. All pride and lust this will subdue, And every hateful passion too; This will destroy old Satan's crew That's seated in the temple. " Come, honest souls, let us unite And keep our conscience clear and white, For surely Mother does delight To own and bless her children. In Father's word let us go on, And bear our cross and do no wrong, In faith and love then we'll be strong To conquer every evil. " For love and union is our stay, We'll be strong and keep it day by day; Then we shall never go astray, Well gain more love and union. Obedience will still increase, And every evil work will cease, We'll gain a true and solid peace, We'll live in Mother's union." I make no excuse for these quotations of Shaker hymns, for the books from which they are taken have been seen by very 232 Communistic Societies of the United States. few outside of the order, and not even by all its members, as they are not now in common use. The Shakers have always professed to have intimate inter- course with the " spirit world." Elder Frederick Evans says in his autobiography that from the beginning the exercises in Shaker meetings were " singing and dancing, shaking, turning, and shouting, speaking with new tongues and prophesying." Elder Frederick himself, as he remarks, " was converted to Shakerism in 1830 by spiritual manifestations," having " vis- ions" for three weeks, which converted him, as he relates, from materialism. He adds : "In 1837 to 1844 there was an influx from the 'spirit world,' 'confirming the faith of many disciples' who had lived among Believers for years, and extending throughout all the eighteen societies, making media by the dozen, whose various exercises, not to be suppressed even in their public meetings, rendered it imperatively necessary to close them all to the world during a period of seven years, in consequence of the then unprepared state of the people, to which the whole of the manifestations, and the meetings too, would have been as un- adulterated ' foolishness,' or as inexplicable mysteries." In a recent number of the Shaker and Shaker ess (1874), Elder James S. Prescott, of the North Union Society, gave a curious account of the first appearance of this phenomenon at that place, from which I quote what follows : " It was in the year 1838, in the latter part of summer, some young sisters were walking together on the bank of the creek, not far from the hem- lock grove, west of what is called the Mill Family, where they heard some beautiful singing, which seemed to be in the air just above their heads. " They were taken by surprise, listened with admiration, and then has- tened home to report the phenomenon. Some of them afterwards were chosen mediums for the ' spirits. 1 We had been informed, by letter, that there was a marvelous work going on in some of the Eastern societies, par- ticularly at Mt. Lebanon, New York, and Watervliet, near Albany. And when it reached us in the West we should all know it, and we did know it ; The Shakers. 233 m the progress of the work, every individual, from the least to the great- est, did know that there was a heart-searching God in Israel, who ruled in the armies of heaven, and will yet rule among the inhabitants of earth. " It commenced among the little girls in the children's order, who were assembled in an upper room, the doors being shut, holding a meeting by themselves, when the invisibles began to make themselves known. It was on the Sabbath-day, while engaged in our usual exercises, that a messenger came in and informed the elders in great haste that there was something uncommon going on in the girls' department. The elders brought our meeting to a close as soon as circumstances would admit, and went over to witness the singular and strange phenomena. " When we entered the apartment, we saw that the girls were under the influence of a power not their own — they were hurried round the room, back and forth as swiftly as if driven by the wind — and no one could ctop them. If any attempts were made in that direction, it was found impossible, showing conclusively that they were under a controlling in- fluence that was irresistible. Suddenly they were prostrated upon the floor, apparently unconscious of what was going on around them. With their eyes closed, muscles strained, joints stiff, they were taken up and laid upon beds, mattresses, etc. "They then began holding converse with their guardian spirits and others, some of whom they once knew in the form, making graceful mo- tions with their hands — talking audibly, so that all in the room could hear and understand, and form some idea of their whereabouts in the spiritual realms they were exploring in the land of souls. This was only the be- ginning of a series of k spirit manifestations,' the most remarkable we ever expected to witness on the earth. One prominent feature of these mani- festations was the gift of songs, hymns, and anthems — new, heavenly, and melodious. The first inspired song we ever heard from the ' spirit world,' with words attached, was the following, sung by one of the young sisters, while in vision, with great power and demonstration of the spirit, called by the invisible 'THE SONG OF A HERALD. ' Prepare, O ye faithful, To fight the good fight ; Sing, O ye redeemed, Who walk in the light. Come low, O ye haughty, Come down, and repent, Disperse, O ye naughty, Who will not relent. It 234 Communistic Societies of the U7iitcd States. ' For Mother is coming — Oh, hear the glad sound — To comfort her children Wherever they're found ; With jewels and robes of fine linen To clothe the afflicted withal.' " Given by inspiration, at North Union, August, 1838, ten years prior to the c Rochester Eappings.' "The gifts continued increasing among the children. Among these were the gift of tongues, visiting the different cities in the ' spirit world,' holding converse with the indwellers thereof, some of whom they once knew in the body. And in going to these cities they were accompanied by their guardian angels, and appeared to be flying, using their hands and arms for wings, moving with as much velocity as the wings of a bird. " All of a sudden they stopped, and the following questions and an- swers were uttered through their vocal organism : Question — What city is this ? Answer — ' The City of Delight.' Question — Who live here ? Answer — The colored population. Question — Can we go in and see them ? Answer — Certainly. For this purpose you were conducted here. They were admitted, their countenances changed. Question — Who are all these ? Answer — They are those who were once slaves in the United States. Question — Who are those behind them? Answer — They are those who were once slaveholders. Question — What are they doing here ? Answer — Serving the slaves, as the slaves served them while in the earth life. God is just ; all wrongs have to be righted. Question — Who are those in the corner ? Answer — They are those slaveholders who were unmerci- ful, and abused their slaves in the world, and are too proud to comply with the conditions. Question — What were the conditions ? Answer — To make confession and ask forgiveness of the slaves, and right their wrongs ; and this they are too proud to do. Question — What will be done with them ? Answer — When their time expires they will be taken away and cast out, and will have to suffer until they repent ; for all wrongs must be righted, either in the form or among the disembodied spirits, before souls can be happy. And when the girls came out of vision, they would relate the same things, which corresponded with what they had previously talked out. " Now, we will leave the girls for the present and go into the boys' de- partment. Here we find them holding meetings by themselves, under The Shakers. 235 the safe guidance of their care-takers, going in vision, some boys and some girls, for the work had progressed so as to reach adults, and all were called immediately into the work whose physical organizations would possibly admit of mediumship. The peculiar gift at this time was in visiting the different cities in the ' spirit world,' and in renewing ac- quaintances with many of their departed friends and relatives, who were the blissful and happy residents therein. " But before we go any further we will let our mediums describe the first city they came to after crossing the river. Question — "What city is this ? Answer — The Blue City. Question — "Who lives here ? Answer — The Indians. Question — "What Indians ? Answer — The American Indians. Question— Why are they the first city we come to in the spirit-land, on the plane, and most accessible ? Answer — Because the Indians lived more in accordance with the law of nature in their earth life, according to their knowledge, and were the most abused class by the whites except the slaves, and many of them now are in advance of the whites in ' spiritu- ality,' and are the most powerful ministering spirits sent forth to minister to those who shall be heirs of salvation. "At another time these same mediums, fifteen in number, of both sexes, sitting on benches in the meeting-house, saw a band of Indian spirits coming from the 'Blue City' in the spirit world to unite with them in their worship, and said, 'They are coming;' and as soon as the spirits entered the door they entered the mediums, which moved them from their seats as quick as lightning. Then followed the Indian songs and dances, and speaking in the Indian tongue, which was wholly unintelligi- ble to us except by spiritual interpreters." Some of the most curious literature of the Shakers dates from this period ; and it is freely admitted by their leading men that they were in some cases misled into acts and publi- cations which they have since seen reason to regret. Their belief is that they were deceived by false spirits, and were un- able, in many cases, to distinguish the true from the false. That is to say, they hold to their faith in "spiritual commu- nications," so called; but repudiate much in which they for- merly had faith, believing this which they now reject to have come from the Evil One. Little has ever become authentically known of the so-called 236 Communistic Societies of t lie United States. "spiritual" phenomena, which so profoundly excited the Shak- er societies during seven years that, as Elder Frederick relates, they closed their doors against the world. Hervey Elkins, a person brought up in the society at Enfield, New Hampshire, in his pamphlet entitled "Fifteen Years in the Senior Order of Shakers," from which I have already quoted, gives some curious details of this period. It will be seen, from the passages I extract from Elkins, that he came under what he supposed to be "spiritual" influences himself: " In the spring succeeding the winter of which I have treated, a re- markable religious revival began among all the Shakers of the land, east and west. It was announced several months prior to its commence- ment that the holy prophet Elisha was deputized to visit the Zion of God on earth, and to bestow upon each individual those graces wdiich each needed, and to baptize with the Holy Ghost all the young who would prepare their souls for such a baptism. " The time at length arrived. No one knew the manner in which the prophet would make himself known. The people were grave and con- cerned about their spiritual standing. Two female instruments from Canterbury, N. H., were at length ushered into the sanctuary. Their eyes w r ere closed, and their faces moved in semigyrations. Their countenances were pallid, as though worn by unceasing vigils. They looked as though laden with a momentous and impending revelation. Throughout the assembly, pallid faces, tears, and trembling limbs were visible. Anxiety and excitement were felt in every mind, as all believed the instruments sacredly and superhumanly inspired. The alternate redness and pallor of every countenance revealed this anxiety. For the space of five minutes the spacious hall was as silent as the tomb. One of the mediums then advanced in the space between the ranks of brethren and sisters, and an- nounced with a clear, deep, and sonorous voice, and in sublime and au- thoritative language, the mission of the holy prophet. The ministry then bade the instruments to be free and proceed as they could answer to God ; and conferred on them plenary power to conduct the meetings as the prophet should direct. " After marching a few songs, the prophet requested the formation of two circles, one containing all the brethren, the other the sisters. The two mediums were first inclosed by the circle of brethren. They both The Shakers. 237 were young women between twenty and twenty -five years of age, and had never before been at Enfield. They had probably never heard the names of two thirds of the younger members. They moved around in these cir- cles, stopping before each one as though reading the condition of every heart. As they passed some, they evinced pleasure ; as they passed oth- ers, they bespoke grief; others, yet, an obvious contempt ; by which it seemed they looked within, and saw with delight or horror the state of all. From our knowledge of the members, we knew they passed and noticed them as their works merited. Little was said to separate indi- viduals in the first meeting. In the second, we were requested to form six circles, three of each sex, and those of a circle to be connected togeth- er by the taking hold of hands ; and in this manner to bow, bend, and dance. In this condition an influence was felt, upon which psychologists and biologists would differ. It would be needless to enumerate the many gifts, the prophecies, the extempore songs, the revelations, the sins ex- posed, and the hypocrites ejected from the society during this period of two months. But, as near as we could estimate, four hundred new songs were sung in that time, either by improvisation or inspiration, of which I have my opinion. I doubt not but that many were inspired by spirits congenial with themselves, and consequently some of the songs evinced a fatuity and simplicity peculiar to the instrument. On the other hand, many songs were given from spheres above, higher in melody, sentiment, and pathos than any originating with earth's inhabitants. " I recollect that the first spiritual gift presented to me was a ' Cup of Solemnity.' I drank the contents, and felt for a season the salutary ef- fects. During the revival I became sincerely converted. I for a time, by reason of prejudice and distrust, resisted the effect of the impressions, which at length overwhelmed me in a flood of tears, shed for joy and gladness, as I more and more turned my thoughts to the Infinite. At last a halo of heavenly glory seemed to surround me. I drank deep of the cup of the waters of life, and was lifted in mind and purpose from this world of sorrow and sin. I soared in thought to God, and enjoyed him in his attributes of purity and love. I was wafted by angels safely above the ocean of sensual enjoyment which buries so many millions, but into which I had never fallen. I explored the beauties of ineffable bliss, and caught a glimpse of that divinity which is the culmination of science and the end of the world. The adoration and solemnity of the sanctuary enveloped me as with a mantle, even when employed in manual labor and in the company of my companions. The frivolity of some of my com- 23S Communistic Societies of tJie United States. panions disgusted mc. The extreme and favorable change wrought within me in so short a time was often remarked by the elders and mem- bers of the society ; but the praise or the censure of mortals were to me like alternate winds, and of little avail. " Two years thus passed, in which my highest enjoyments and pleas- ures were an inward contemplation of the beauty, love, and holiness of God, and in the ecstatic impressions that I was in the hollow of his hand, and owned and blessed of him. Still later in life I retained and could evoke at times the same profoundly religious impressions, con- taminated, however, by other favorite objects of study and attachment. Even the expression of my countenance wore an aspect of deep, tender, and benignant gravity, which the reflection of less holy subjects could not produce. It was my delight to pray fervently and tacitly, and this I often did besides the usual time allotted for such devotion. (Vocal prayer is not admissible among the Shakers.) I loved to unite in the dance, and give myself up to the operations of spirits even, if it would not thwart my meditative communion with God and with God alone. Though in- struments or mediums were multiplied around me, dancing in imitation of the spirits of all nations, singing and conversing in unknown tongues, some evincing a truly barbarian attitude and manners, I stood in mute thanksgiving and prayer. At times I was asked by the elders if I could not unite and take ui)ou me an Indian, a Norwegian, or an Arabian spirit ? I would then strive to be impressed with their feelings, and act in con- formity thereto. But such inspiration, I found, was not the revelation of the Holy Ghost. It was not that which elevated and kept me from all trials and temptations. But my inward spontaneous devotion was the kind I needed. I informed the elders of my opinion, and they concurred in it, only they regarded the inspiration of simple and unsophisticated spirits* as a stepping-stone to a higher revelation, by virtue of removing pride, vanity, and self-will, those great barriers against the accecsion of holy infusions. " In the fall of that season this revival redoubled its energy. The gifts were similar to those of the spring previous, but less charity was shown to the hypocrite and vile pretender. It was announced that Jehovah — Power and Wisdom — the dual God, would visit the inhabitants of Zion, and bestow a blessing upon each individual as their works should merit. A time was given for us to prepare for his coming. Every building, ev- ery apartment, every lane, held, orchard, and pasture, must be cleansed of The Shakers. 239 all rubbish and needless encumbrance ; so that even a Shaker village, so notorious for neatness, wore an aspect fifty per cent, more tidy than usual. To svveep our buildings, regulate our stores, pick up and draw to a cir- cular wood-saw old bits of boards, stakes, and poles that were fit for naught but fuel, and collect into piles to be burned upon the spot all such as were unfit for that, was the order of the day. Even the sisters debouched by scores to help improve the appearance of the farm and lake shores, on which were quantities of drift-wood. Thus was passed a fort- night of pleasant autumnal weather. As the evenings approached, we set fire to the piles of old wood, which burned, the flames shooting upward, in a serene evening, like the innumerable bonfires which announce the ingress of a regal visitant to monarchical countries. Viewed from the plain below, in the gray, dim twilight of a soft and serene atmosphere, when all nature was wrapped in the unique and beautiful solemnity of an unusually prorogued autumn, these fires, emerging in the blue distance from the vast amphitheatre of hills, were picturesque in the highest de- gree. How neat ! how fascinating ! and how much like our conceptions of heaven the whole vale appeared ! And then to regard this work of cleansing and beautifying the domains of Mount Zion as that preparatory to the visitation of the Most High, is something which speaks to the heart and says : ' Dost thou appear as beautiful, as clean, and as comely in the sight of God as do these elements of an unthinking world ? Is thine heart also prepared to be searched with the candles of him from whom no unclean thing is hidden V " The following words were said to have been brought by an angel from Jehovah, and accompanied by a most beautiful tune of two airs: ' I shall march through Mount Zion, With my angelic band ; I shall pass through the city With my fan in my hand ; And around thee, O Jerusalem, My armies will encamp, While I search my Holy Temple With my bright burning lamp.' "It was during this revival that Henry, of whom I have spoken, was ejected from the society. During this, as also during the previous excite- ment, he had exhibited an aversion which often found vent in bitter taunts and jeers. Sometimes, however, a simulated unity of feeling had prevented his publicly incurring the imputation of open rebellion. He 240 Communistic Societies of the United States. had learned some scraps of the Latin language, and on the occasion of the evening worship in which he was expelled, he afterward informed us that, at the time he was arraigned for cxjjulsion, he was pretendedly uniting with those who were speaking in unknown languages by employ- ing awful oaths and profanity in the Latin tongue. A female instrument, said to be employed by the spirit of Ann Lee, approached him while thus engaged, and uttered in a low, distinct, and funereal accent a denunciation which severed him as a withered branch from the tree of life. He sud- denly bowed as if beneath the weight of a terrible destiny, smiting his breast and ejaculating, ' Pardon ! pardon ! Oh, forgive — forgive me my transgressions !' The elders strove to hush his cries, and replied that ' all forbearance is at an end. 1 His ardent vociferations now degenerated into inarticulate yells of horror and demoniacal desj)air. He rushed from the group which surrounded him, he glided like one unconscious of the presence of others from one extremity of the hall to another, he smote with clenched fists the walls of the apartment, and reeled at last in convul- sive agony, uttering the deep, hollow groan of inexorable expiation. In this situation he was hurried for the last time from the sanctuary which he had so often profaned, and from the presence of those moistened eyes and commiserative looks which he never would again behold. The con- fession of his blasphemous profanity he made at the trustees' office prior to his leaving the society, which occurred the subsecpuent morning." At another time such scenes as the following are described : " Shrieks of some one, apparently in great distress, first announced a phenomenon, which caused the excitement. The screeching proceeded from a girl of but thirteen years of age, who had previously among the Shakers been a clairvoyant, and who has since been a powerful medium for spiritual manifestation elsewhere. She soon fell upon the floor, utter- ing awful cries, similar to those we had often heard emanating from in- struments groaning under the pressure of some hidden abomination in the assembly. She plucked out entire handfuls of her hair, and wailed and shrieked like one subjected to all the conceived agonies of hell. The ministry and elders remarked that they believed that something was wrong ; something extremely heinous was covered from God's witnesses somewhere in the assembly. All were exhorted to search themselves, and see if they had nothing about them that God disowns. The meeting was coon dismissed, but the medium continued in her abnormal and deplora- ble condition. Near the middle of the succeeding night we were all The Shakers. 241 awakened by the ringing of the alarm, and summoned quickly to re- pair to the girls' apartments. We obeyed. The same medium lay upon a bed, uttering in the name of an apostate from the Shaker faith, and who was still living in New England, tremendous imprecations against himself, warning all to beware of what use they make of their privilege in Zion, telling us of his awful torments in hell, how his flesh (or the sub- stance of his spiritual body) was all to strings and ringlets torn, how ho was roasted in flames of brimstone and tar, and, finally, that all these ca- lamities were caused by his doleful corruptions and pollutions while a member, and professedly a brother to us. This, it was supposed by many, was by true revelation the anticipation of the future state of this victim of apostasy and sin. Two or three more girls were soon taken in the same manner, and became uncontrollable. They were all instruments for reprobated spirits, and breathed nothing but hatred and blasphemy to God. They railed, they cursed, they swore, they heaped the vilest epithets upon the heads of the leaders and most faithful of the members, they pulled each other's and their own hair, threw knives, forks, and the most danger- ous of missiles. When the instruments were rational, the elders entreated them to keep off such vile spirits. They would weep in anguish, and reply that, unless they spoke and acted for the spirits, they would choke them to death. They would then suddenly swoon away, and in strug- gling to resist them would choke and gasp, until they had the appear- ance of a victim strangled by a rope tightly drawn around her neck. If they would then speak, the strangulation would cease. In the mean time two females of adult age, and two male youths, were seized in the same manner. Unless confined, they would elope, and appear to all intents the victims of insanity. One of the young women eloped, fled to a lake which was covered with ice, was pursued by some of the ox teamsters, and carried back to the infirmary. Two men could with difficulty hold a woman or a child when thus influenced. To prevent mischief and elopement, we were obliged to envelop their bodies and their arms tightly in sheets, and thus sew them up and confine them until the spell was over. Such delirium generally lasted but a few hours. It would seize them at any time and at any place. "The phenomena to which we allude was the source of much facetious pleasantry with the young brethren. One of the infernal spirits had one evening declared that ' before morning they would have the deacon and Lupier.' 'Deacon' was an epithet applied to myself, as a token of fa- miliaritv. The tidings of the declaration of this infernal agent were soon 242 Communistic Societies of the United States. conveyed to me. It happened that my companion of the dormitory, a middle-aged man, had that evening gone to watch with the mediums, and I was left alone. I replied to my companions, who interrogated and sarcastically congratulated me on my prospects for the night, that ' if the corporeal influence of incarnate devils could be kept from the room, I would combat without aid all other influences and answer for my own safety.' I accordingly locked myself into my room, and enjoyed, unmo- lested for the night, except by occasional raps upon the door by my pass- ing comrades, some of whom were up all night by reason of the excite- ment, a sound and pleasant sleep. One or two instances occurred in which a superhuman agency was indubitably obvious. One of the ab- normal males lay in a building at some distance from the infirmary where the female instruments were confined. Suddenly one of the last, who had been for some time in a quiescent state and rational, was seized by one of these paroxysms, which were always accompanied by dreadful contortions and sudden twitchings of the body, and, speaking for the spirit, said that ' Old S had bound him with a surcingle, and he had left E ,' one of the male instruments. The physician instantly re- paired to the building where E lay, and he was perfectly rational. IS , the watch, informed the physician that E raved so violently a moment before that he bound his arms to his body by passing a surcingle around both, and he quickly became himself. At another time one of the females took a handful of living coals in her bare hands, and thus carried them about the room without even injuring the cuticle of the skin. "The phenomena and excitement soon dwindled away by the tre- mendous opposition directed against them ; and when afterward spoken about, were designated by the sinister phrase — ' The Devil's Visitation.' " Other ministrations and gifts, original and perfectly illustrative of the inspirations of crude and uncivilized spirits, continued as usual to ex- ist. They were truly ludicrous. I have seen female instruments in un- couth habits, and in imitation of squaws, and a few males acting as sun- eps, glide in groups on a stiffly frozen snow, shouting, dancing, yelling, and whooping, and others acting precisely the peculiar traits of a Negro, an Arab, a Chinese, an Italian, or even the polite gayety of a Frenchman. And, what is still more astoundiug, speaking the vernacular dialects of each race. Their confabulation, aided by inspired interpreters, was truly amusing and interesting. On one occasion I saw a sister, inspired by a squaw, her head mounted with an old hat of felt, cocked, jammed, and The Shakers. 243 indented in no geometrical form, rush to a pan containing a collection of the amputated legs of hens, seize a handful of the raw delicacy, and de- vour them with as much alacrity as a Yankee woman would an omelet or a doughnut." In general, Elkins relates : " I have myself seen males, but more frequently females, in a superin- duced condition, apparently unconscious of earthly things, and declaring in the name of departed spirits important and convincing revelations. Speaking in foreign tongues and prophesying were the most common gifts. In February, 1848, a medium became abstracted from earthly scenes, and announced the presence of an angel of God. The angel de- clared, through her, that he was sent on a mission to France, and that before many days we should hear of his doings in that nation. This an- nouncement was in presence of the whole family, and it was then and there noted down. France at that time was, for aught we knew, resting upon a permanent political basis ; or as nearly in that condition as she ever was. In a few days the revolution of the 24th of February precipi- tated the monarchy into an interregnum, which philanthropists hoped was bottomless. " Turning rapidly upon the toes, bowing, bending, twisting, and reel- ing like one a victim to the fumes of intoxication ; swooning and lying prostrate with limbs stiff and unyielding, like a corpse, and to all out- ward appearance the vital spark extinct ; then suddenly resuscitating — the mind still abstracted from scenes below — and rising to join in the jubilancy of the dance, in company with and in imitation of the angels around the throne of God, singing extemporaneous anthems and songs, or those learned direct of seraphs in the regions of bliss — such are the many exercises, effusions of devotion, and supernatural illapses of which I was for fifteen years at intervals an eye and ear witness. Also the ex- posure of sin, designating in some cases the transgressor, the act, and the place of perpetration, of which the accused was most generally found culpable. "More than a score of new dances were performed, with an attitude of grace and with the precision of a machine, by about twenty female clair- voyants. They said they learned them of seraphs before the throne of God. " I was doubtful of their assertions, for such things were to me novel. I however determined not to overstep the bounds of prudence, and de- clare the work an illusion, for fear that I might blaspheme a higher pow- 244 Communistic Societies of the United States. cr. I communicated my doubts to a few of my companions, and one, less cautious than myself, immediately broke forth in imprecations against it. I never was secretly opposed, but a turbulent disposition or a love for dramatic scenes, prompted by the hope of detecting either the validity or deception of such phenomena, impelled me to wiuk opposition to my reckless companion. In the devotional exercises, which served as a pre- liminary to the entrance of the mind into a superior condition, such as whirling, twisting, and reeling, we all took a part. Henry, for that was the name of the youth who was so zealous in his aspersions, united awk- wardly and derisively in these exercises. Amid so many arms, legs, and bodies, revolving, oscillating, staggering, and tripping, it is not remarka- ble that a few should be thrown prostrate (not violently, however) upon the floor. One evening, in a boy's meeting at a time of great excitement, when the spirits of some of our companions were reported to be in spir- itual spheres, and other departed spirits were careering their mortal la- dies in the graceful undulations of a celestial dance, Henry and many others, among whom I was seen, were whirling, staggering, and rolling, striving in vain, by all the humility we could assume, to be also admitted into the regions of spiritual recognition, Henry suddenly tripped and fell. One of his visionary companions instantly sprang, passed his hands with great rapidity over him, as though binding him with invisible cords, and then returned to his graceful employment. The clairvoyant's eyes were closed, as indeed were the eyes of all while in that condition. In vain Henry struggled to rise, to turn, or hardly to move. He was fettered, bound fast by invisible manacles. The brethren were summoned to wit- ness the sight. In the space of perhaps half an hour the clairvoyant re- turned, loosened his fetters, and he arose mortified and confounded. Singularly disposed, he ever after treated these gifts with virulent ridi- cule, and never was heard to utter any serious remarks concerning this transaction. The clairvoyant after this event was the butt of his satire and jests, and received them without revenge so long as Henry remained, which was about five years — a reckless, abandoned, evil-minded person, eventually severed by that same power which he strove incessantly to ridicule. All these strange operations and gifts are attributed by the Shakers to the influence of superhuman power like that manifested in the Primitive Church." Some of the hymns which date from this period have frag- ments of the "strange tongues" in which the "mediums" The SkaLcrs. 245 spoke. Here is one, dated at New Lebanon, and printed in the collection called " Millennial Hymns :" "HEAVENLY GUIDE. "Lo all vo, hark ye, dear children, and listen to me, For I am that holy Se lone' se ka' ra an ve' ; My work upon earth is holy, holy and pure, That work which will ever, forever endure. " Yea, my heavenly Father hath se-ve'-ned to you That power which is holy and that faith which is true ; O then, my beloved, why will ye delay ? O la ho' le en se' ren, now while it is day. "The holy angels in heaven their trumpets do raise, . And with saints upon earth sound endless praise. Blessed, most blessed, your day, and holy your call, O ven se' ne ven se' ne, yea every soul. " All holy se ka' ren are the free blessings given And bestowed on you from the fountain of heaven; Yea, guardian spirits from the holy Selan', Bring you heavenly love, vi' ne see', Lin' se van'. "Press ye on, my dear children, the holy Van' la hoo' Is your heavenly guide, and will safely bear you through All vo'len tribulation you meet here below ; Then be humble, dear children, be faithful and true. "For God, your holy, holy heavenly Father, will never, Never forsake his holy house of Israel on e.a.r.t.h., But the blessings of heaven will continue to flow On you, my beloved Ar' se le be low. (n-o-t-e-s.)" The most curious relics of those days are two considerable volumes, which have since fallen into discredit among the Shakers themselves, but were at the time of their issue re- garded as highly important. One of these is entitled "A Holy, Sacred, and Divine Roll and Booh, from the Lord God of Heaven to the Inhabitants of Earth : Revealed in the Unit- ed Society at New Lebanon, County of Columbia, State of 246 Communistic Societies of the United States. New York, United States of America. Received by the Church of this Communion, and published in union with the same." It is dated Canterbury, N. H., 1843 ; contains 405 pages ; and is in two parts. The first part contains the revela- tion proper; the second, various " testimonies" to its accuracy and divine origin. Of these evidences, some purport to be by the prophets Elisha, Ezekiel, Malachi, Isaiah, and others ; from Noah, St. Peter, St. John ; by " Holy and Eternal Mother Wis- dom," and a " holy and mighty angel of God," whose name was Jfa'ne Me' rah Vak'na Si'na Jah ; but the greater num- ber are by living Shakers. As a part of the revelation, the Shakers were commanded to print, " in their own society, five hundred copies" of this book, to be "given to the children of men," and " it is my requirement that they be printed before the 22d of next September. To be bound in yellow paper, with red backs ; edges yellow also." Moreover, missionary so- cieties were commanded to translate the book into foreign tongues, and I have heard that a copy was sent to every ruler or government which could be reached by mail. The body of the book is a mixture of Scripture texts and "revelations of spirits;" and the absurdity of it appears to have struck even the so-called " holy angel " who was sup- posed to have superintended the writing, as appears from the following passage : " We are four of the holy and mighty angels of God, sent from before his throne, to pass and repass through the four quarters of the earth ; and many are the holy angels that bear us company. And thus we shall visit the earth in partial silence, as this Roll goes forth, until we have marked the door-posts of all, as our God hath commanded, who shall humble themselves and repent at his word, by proclaiming a solemn fast, and cease from their awful crimes of wickedness, and turn to him in righteousness. " My name, says the angel whose quarter is eastward, and stands as fust, is HOLY ASSAN' DE LA JAH'. The second, whose part is sec- ond, and quarter westward, is MI'CHAEL VAN' CE VA' NE. The The Shakers. 247 third, whose part is third, and quarter northward, is GA' BRY VEN' DO VAS' TER REEN'. The fourth, whose part is fourth, and quarter southward, is VEN DEN' DE PA' ROL JEW LE JAH'. " These are our names in our own tongues, and we are sent on earth to prepare the way for the Most High ; and the whole human family will be convinced of this before the final event of our mission shall arrive. " And although we know that the words of this book will be consid- ered by many as being produced in the wildest of enthusiasm, madness, blasphemy, and fanaticism, and by others as solemn, sacred, and awful truths ; yet do we declare unto all flesh that this Roll and Book contains the word of the God of heaven, your Almighty Creator, sent forth direct from his eternal throne now in this your day. " And by this word shall every soul on earth be judged, in mercy or in judgment, whether they believe or disbelieve. We are not sent forth by our God to argue with mortals, but to declare his word and his work. And we furthermore declare unto all the inhabitants of earth that they have no time to lose in preparing for their God. " If there be any who can not understand to their souls' satisfaction (though the requirements are plain), yet they may apply wheresoever they believe they can be correctly informed." As a sample of the book, here is an account by one of the mediums of her " interview with a holy angel :" "It was in the evening of the twenty-second of January, eighteen hun- dred and forty-two, while I was busily employed putting all things in readiness for the close of the week, that I distinctly heard my name called very loudly, and with much earnestness. I could not go so well at that moment, and I answered, ' I will come soon,' for I supjDosed it to be some one in the adjoining room that wished to see me ; but the word was repeated three times, and I hastened to the place from whence the sound seemed to come, but there was no one present. "I soon saw in the middle of the room four very large and bright lights, or balls of fire, as they appeared to be ; they moved slowly each way, and after a little time joined together in one exceedingly large light, or pillar of fire. At this moment I heard a loud voice, which uttered many words with such mighty force that I feared to stay in the room, and attempted to go out ; but found that I had not power to move my feet. "For some time I could not understand one word that was sounded 248 Communistic Societies of the United States. forth ; but the first that I did understand were as follows : ' Hurk ! hark ! hearken, O thou child of mortality, unto the word that is and shall be sounded aloud in thine ears, agaiu and again, even until it is obeyed. '"And lo, I say a time, and a time, and a half-time shall' not pass by before my voice shall be heard, and my word sounded forth to the na- tions abroad. But in the Zion of my likeness and true righteousness shall it be received first, and from thence shall it go forth ; for thus and thus hath the God of heaven and earth declared and purposed that it should be. " ' Then why will you, O why will you, yet fear to obey ? What would you that your God would do in your presence, that you might fear hi.s power rather than that of mortal man?' " From this moment I was not sensible where I was ; and after a little time of silence the body of light, or pillar of fire, dispersed, and I saw a mighty angel coming from the east, and I heard these words: " ' Woe, woe, and many woes shall be upon the mortal that shall see and will not stop to behold.' " And so on, for a good many pages. The second work is called "The Divine Booh of Uohj and Eternal Wisdom, revealing the Word of God, out of whose mouth goeth a sharp Sword. Written by Paulina Bates, at Watervliet, 1ST. Y., United States of America ; arranged and prepared for the Press at New Lebanon, N. Y. Published by the United Society called Shakers. Printed at Canterbury, N. II., 1849." This book contains 718 pages ; and pretends also to be a series of revelations by angels and deceased persons of note. In the Preface by the editors its origin is thus described : " During a number of years past many remarkable displays of divine pow r er and heavenly gifts have been manifested among the children of Zion in all the branches of the United Society of Believers in the second appearing of Christ. Much increasing light has been revealed on many subjects which have heretofore remained as mysteries ; and many prophet- ic revelations have been brought forth, from time to time, through mes- sengers chosen and inspired by heavenly power and wisdom. "Among these it has pleased God to select a female of the United So- ciety at Wisdom's Valley (Watervliet), and indue her with the heavenly hght of revelation as an instrument of divine Wisdom, to write by divine The Shakers. 249 inspiration those solemn warnings, prophetic revelations, and heavenly instructions which will be found extensively diffused through the sacred pages of this book. " These were written in a series of communications at various times during the year 1841, '42, '43, and '44, with few exceptions, which will be seen by their several dates. But the inspired writer had no knowledge that they were designed by the Divine Spirit to be published to the world until a large portion of the work was written ; therefore, whenever she was called upon by the angel of God, she wrote whatever the angel dicta- ted at the time, without any reference to the connective order and regular arrangement of a book ; for she was not directed so to do,for reasons which were afterwards revealed to her and other witnesses then unknown to her. " Hence it was made known to be the design of the Divine Spirit that these communications should be transmitted to the Holy Mount (New Lebanon), there to be prepared for publication by agents appointed for that purpose, in union with the leading authority of the Church. Ac- cordingly they were conveyed to New Lebanon, and the subscribers were appointed as editors, to examine and arrange them in regular and con- venient order for the press, and divine instructions were given for that purpose. " Having therefore faithfully examined the manuscripts containing these communications, we have compiled them into one book, in two general divisions or volumes, agreeably to the instructions given. We have also, for convenient arrangement, divided the whole into seven parts, accord- ing to the relative connection which appeared in the different subjects. And for the convenience of the reader we have divided each part into chapters, prefixing an appropriate title to each. " Some passages and annotations have been added by The Angel of Prophetic Light, who by inspiration has frequently assisted in the prepa- ration and arrangement of the work, for the purpose of illustrating and confirming some of the original subjects by further exjilanations. A few notes have also been added by the editors for the information of the reader. These are all distinguished in their proper places from the origi- nal matter. " But although it was found necessary to transcribe the whole, in order to prepare it properly and intelligibly for the press, yet we have used great care to preserve the sense of the original in its purity; and we can testify that the substance and spirit of the work have been conscientiously preserved in full throughout the whole. S 250 Communistic Societies of the United States. " This work is called ' Holy Wisdom's Book,' because Holy and Eternal Wisdom is the Mother, or Bearing Spirit, of all the works of God ; and because it was especially revealed through the line of the female, being Wisdom's Likeness ; and she lays special claim to this woi'l; and places her seal upon it. "An Appendix is added, containing the testimonies of various divine and heavenly witnesses to the sacred truth and reality of the declarations and revelations contained in the work. The most of these were given before the inspired writers who received them had any earthly knowledge concerning the book or its contents. A testimony is also affixed to the work by the elders of the family in which the inspired writer resides, bearing witness to the honesty and uprightness of her character, and her faithfulness in the work of God." The main object of the book is to warn sinners of all kinds from the " wrath to come." Especial woes, by the way, are denounced against slaveholders and slavetraders : "Whether they be clothed in tenements of clay, or whether they be stripped of their earthly tabernacles, the same hand of Justice shall meet them whithersoever they flee." It must be remem- bered to the honor of the Shakers that they have always and every where consistently opposed human slavery. The "Divine Book of Holy Wisdom " contains the "testi- monies" of the "first man, Adam," of the "first woman, Eve," of Noah and all the patriarchs, and of a great many other ancient worthies; but, alas! what they have to say is not new, and of no interest to the unregenerate reader. These two volumes are not now, as formerly, held in honor by the Shakers. One of their elders declared to me that I ought never to have seen them, and that their best use was to burn them. But I found them on the table of the visitors' room in one or two of the Western societies, and I suppose they are still believed in by some of the people. At this day most (but not all) of the Shaker people are sin- cere believers in what is commonly called Spiritualism. At a Shaker funeral I have heard what purported to be a message The Shakers. 251 from the spirit whose body was lying in the coffin in the ad- joining hall. In one of the societies it is believed that a mag- nificent spiritual city, densely inhabited, and filled with pal- aces and fine residences, lies upon their domain, and at but a little distance from the terrestrial buildings of the Church fam- ily ; and frequent communications come from this spirit city to their neighbors. " When I was a little girl, I desired very much to have a hymn sent through me to the family from the spirit-land ; and after waiting and wishing for a long time, one day when I was little expecting it, as I was walking about, a hymn came to me thus, to my inexpressible delight" — so said a Shaker eldress to me in all seriousness. " We have frequently been visited by a tribe of Indians (spirits of Indians), who used to live in this country, and whose spirits still come back here occasionally," said another Shaker sister to me. On the other hand, when I asked one of the elders how far he believed that their hymns are inspired, he asked me whether it did not happen that I wrote with greater facility at one time than at another; and when I replied in the affirmative, he said, " In that case I should say you were inspired when your words come readily, and to that degree I suppose our hymn-writers are inspired. They have thought about the sub- ject, and the words at last come to them." I think I have before said that the Shakers do not attempt to suppress discussion of the relations of the sexes ; they do not pretend that their celibate life is without hardships or difficul- ties; but they boldly assert that they have chosen the better life, and defend their position with not a little skill against all attacks. A good many years ago Miss Charlotte Cushman, after a visit to Watervliet, wrote the following lines, which were published in the Knickerbocker Magazine : " Mysterious -worshipers ! Ave you indeed the tilings you seem to be, Of earth — yet of its iron influence free — 252 Communistic Societies of the United States. From all that stirs Our being's pulse, and gives to fleeting life What well the Hun has termed "the rapture of the strife?" "Are the gay visions gone, Those day-dreams of the mind, by fate there flung, And the fair hopes to which the soul once clung, And battled on ; Have ye outlived them ? All that must have sprung, And quicken'd into life, when ye were young ? "Does memory never roam To ties that, grown with years, ye idly sever, To the old haunts that ye have left forever — Your early homes? Your ancient creed, once faith's sustaining lever, The loved who erst prayed with you — now may never? "Has not ambition's psean Some power within your hearts to wake anew To deeds of higher emprise — worthier you, Ye monkish men, Than may be reaped from fields ? Do ye not rue The drone-like course of life ye now pursue % "The camp — the council — all That woos the soldier to the field of fame — That gives the sage his meed — the bard his name And coronal — Bidding a people's voice their praise proclaim ; Can ye forego the strife, nor own your shame '. "Have ye forgot your youth, When expectation soared on pinions high, And hope shone out on boyhood's cloudless sky, Seeming all truth — When all looked fair to fancy's ardent eye, And pleasure wore an air of sorcery ? " You, too ! What early blight Has withered your fond hopes, that ye thus stand, A group of sisters, 'mong this monkish band ? The Shakers. 253 Ye creatures bright! Eas sorrow scored your brows with demon hand. Or o'er your hopes passed treachery's burning brand? "Ye would have graced right well The bridal scene, the banquet, or the bowers Where mirth and revelry usurp the hours — Where, like a spell, Beauty is sovereign — where man owns its powers, And woman's tread is o'er a path of flowers. "Yet seem ye not as those Within whose bosoms memories vigils keep : Beneath your drooping lids no passions sleep; And your pale brows Bear not the tracery of emotion deep — Ye seem too cold and passionless to weep !" A " Shaker Girl," in one of the Kentucky societies, publish- ed soon afterward the following " Answer to Charlotte Cuah- man," which is certainly not without spirit : " We are, indeed, the things we seem to be, Of earth, and from its iron influence free : For we are they, or halt, or lame, or dumb, ' On whom the ends of this vain world are come.' We have outlived those day-dreams of the mind — Those flattering phantoms which so many bind ; All man-made creeds (your 'faith's sustaining lever') We have forsaken, and have left forever ! To plainly tell the truth, we do not rue The sober, godly course that we pursue ; But 'tis not we who live the dronish lives, But those who have their husbands or their wives ! But if by drones you mean they're lazy men, Then, Charlotte Cushman, take it back again ; For one, with half an eye, or half a mind, Can there see industry and wealth combined. If camps and councils — soldiers' 'fields of fame'— Or yet a people's praise or people's blame, 254 Communistic Societies of the United States. Is all that gives the sage or bard his name, We can ' forego the strife, nor own our shame.' What great temptations you hold up to view For men of sense or reason to pursue ! The praise of mortals! — what can it avail, When all their boasted language has to fail ? And ' sorrow hath not scored with demon hand,' Nor 'o'er our hopes pass'd treachery's burning brand;' But where the sorrows and the treachery are, I think may easily be made appear. In 'bridal scenes,' in 'banquets and in bowers!' 'Mid revelry and variegated flowers, Is where your mother Eve first felt their powers. The ' bridal scenes,' you say, ' we'd grace right well !' ' Lang syne ' there our first parents blindly fell ! — The bridal scene! Is this your end and aim? And can you this pursue, ' nor own your shame ?' If so — weak, pithy, superficial thing — Drink, silent drink the sick hymeneal spring. ' The bridal scene ! the banquet or the bowers, Or woman's [bed of thorns, or] path of flowers,' Can't all persuade our souls to turn aside To live in filthy lust or cruel pride. Alas ! your path of flowers will disappear ; E'en now a thousand thorns are pointed near; Ah ! here you find ' base treachery's burning brand,' And sorrows score the heart, nor spare the hand; But here 'Beauty's sovereign' — so say you — A thing that in one hour may lose its hue — It lies upon the surface of the skin — Aye, Beauty's self was never worth a pin ; But still it suits the superficial mind — The slight observer of the human kind ; The airy, fleety, vain, and hollow thing, That only feeds on wily flattering. ' Man owns its powers ?' And what will not man own To gain his end — to captivate — dethrone? The truth is this, whatever he may feign, You'll find your greatest loss his greatest gain; The Shakers. 255 For like the bee, he will improve the hour, And all day long he'll hunt from flower to flower, And when he sips the sweetness all away, For aught he cares, the flowers may all decay. But here, each other's virtues we partake, Where men and women all their ills forsake : True virtue spreads her bright angelic wing, While saints and seraphs praise the Almighty King. And when the matter's rightly understood, You'll find we labor for each other's good ; This, Charlotte Cushman, truly is our aim — Can you forego this strife, ' nor own your shame V Now if you would receive a modest hint, You'd surely keep your name at least from print; Nor have it hoisted, handled round and round, And echoed o'er the earth from mound to mound, As the great advocate of (Oh, the name !). Now can you think of this, ' nor own your shame V But, Charlotte, learn to take a deeper view Of what your neighbors say or neighbors do ; And when some flattering knaves around you tread, Just think of what a Shaker Girl has said." The Shaker and Shakeress, a monthly journal, edited by Elder Frederick Evans and Eldress Antoinette Doolittle, is the organ of the society ; and in its pages their views are set forth with much shrewdness and ability. It is not so generally in- teresting a journal as the Oneida Circular ', the organ of the Perfectionists, because the Shakers concern themselves almost exclusively with religious matters, and give in their paper but few details of their daily and practical life. 256 Communistic Societies of the United States. BO — 1 O O CO Pn a a W W n H o H a n o •—1 H Oh O " e. o a p. -° •S s i-O 00 O O O O O 10 I- 1- 1-. -h 01 i-i 1-1 —1 r?* j §~ * ** =;°- .9 "^ 1 s ^ = S Li O C3 C " a -E ? B « g -5 £ _rt 2 THE PERFECTIONISTS OF ONEIDA AND WALLINGFOKD. THE PERFECTIONISTS OF ONEIDA AND WALLINGFORD. I. — Historical. The Oneida and Wallingford Communists are of American origin, and their membership is almost entirely American. Their founder, who is still their head, John Humphrey Noyes, was born in Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1S11, of respect- able parentage. He graduated from Dartmouth College, began the study of the law, but turned shortly to theology; and studied first at Andover, with the intention of fitting himself to become a foreign missionary, and later in the Yale theo- logical school. At ISew Haven he came under the influence of a zealous revival preacher, and during his residence there he " landed in a new experience and new views of the way of salvation, which took the name of Perfectionism." This was in 1834. He soon returned to Putney, in Vermont, where his father's family then lived, and where his father was a banker. There he preached and printed ; and in 1838 married Harriet A. Holton, the granddaughter of a member of Congress, and a convert to his doctrines. He slowly gathered about him a small company of believers, drawn from different parts of the country, and with their help made known his new faith in various publications, with such effect that though in 1847 he had only about forty persons in his own congregation, there appear to have been small gather- ings of " Perfectionists " in other states, in correspondence with Noyes, and inclined to take him as their leader. 26o Communistic Societies of the United States. Originally Noyes was not a Communist, but when his thoughts turned in that direction he began to prepare his followers for communal life ; in 1S45 he made known to them his peculiar views of the relations of the sexes, and in 1846 the society at Putney began cautiously an experiment in communal living. Their views, which they never concealed, excited the hostil- ity of the people to such a degree that they were mobbed and driven out of the place; and in the spring of 1848 they joined some persons of like faith and practice at Oneida, in Madison County, New York. Here they began community life anew, on forty acres of land, on which stood an unpainted frame dwelling-house, an abandoned Indian hut, and an old Indian saw-mill. They owed for this property two thousand dollars. The place was neglected, without cultivation, and the people were so poor that for some time they had to sleep on the floor in the garret which was their principal sleeping-chamber. The gathering at Oneida appears to have been the signal for several attempts by followers of Noyes to establish themselves in communes. In 1849 a small society was formed in Brook- lyn, N.Y.j to which later the printing for all the societies was intrusted. In 1850 another community was begun at Walling- ford, in Connecticut. There were others, of which I find no account; but all regarded Oneida as their centre and leader; and in the course of time, and after various struggles, all were drawn into the common centre, except that at "Wallingford, which still exists in a flourishing condition, having its property and other interests in common with Oneida. The early followers of Noyes were chiefly New England farmers, the greater part of whom brought with them some means, though not in any single case a large amount. Noyes himself and several other members contributed several thou- sand dollars each, and a "Property Eegister" kept from the beginning of the community experiment showed that up to the first of January, 1857, the members of all the associated J. II. NOTES, FOUNDEB OF THE PERFECTIONISTS. The Perfectionists. 261 communes had brought in the considerable amount of one hundred and seven thousand seven hundred and six dollars. I understand, however, that this sum was not at any one time in hand, and that much of it came in several years after the settlement at Oneida in 1848 ; and it is certain that in the early days, while they were still seeking for some business which should be at the same time agreeable to them and profitable, they had sometimes short commons. They showed great cour- age and perseverance, for through all their early difficulties they maintained a printing-office and circulated a free paper. At first they looked toward agriculture and horticulture as their main-stays for income; but they began soon to unite other trades with these. Their saw-mill sawed lumber for the neighboring farmers; they set up a blacksmith shop, and here, besides other work, they began to make traps by hand, having at first no means to buy machinery, and indeed having to in- vent most of that which they now use in their extensive trap shop. Like the Shakers with their garden seeds, and all other suc- cessful communities with their products, the Perfectionists got their start by the excellence of their workmanship. Their traps attracted attention because they were more uniformly well made than others ; and thus they built up a trade which has become very large. They raised small fruits, made rustic furniture, raised farm crops, sold cattle, had at one time a sloop on the Hudson ; and Noyes himself labored as a blacksmith, farmer, and in many other employments. Working thus under difficulties, they had sunk, by Januaiy, 1857, over forty thousand dollars of their capital, but had gained valuable experience in the mean time. They had con- centrated all their people at Oneida and Wallingford ; and had set up some machinery at the former place. In January, 1857, they took their first annual inventory, and found themselves worth a little over sixty-seven thousand dollars. Their perse- 262 Communistic Societies of the United States. verance had conquered fortune, for in the next ten years the net profit of the two societies amounted to one hundred and eighty thousand five hundred and eighty dollars, according to this statement : Net earnings in 1857 $5,470 11 " " 1858 1,763 60 " " 1859 10,278 38 1860 15,611 03 1861 5,877 89 Net earnings in 1863. . . .$9,859 78 " 1863.... 44,755 30 " " 1864.... 61,382 62 " " 1865.... 12,382 81 " " 1866.... 13,198 74 During this time they made traps, traveling-bags and satch- els, mop-holders, and various other small articles, and put up preserved fruits in glass and tin. They began at Wallingford, in 1851, making match-boxes, and the manufacture of travel- ing-bags was begun in Brooklyn, and later transferred to Oneida. Trap-making was begun at Oneida in 1855 ; fruit- preserving in 1858, and in 1866 the silk manufacture was es- tablished. Meantime they bought land, until they have in 1874, near Oneida, six hundred and fifty-four acres, laid out in or- chards, vineyards, meadows, pasture and wood land, and in- cluding several valuable water-powers ; and at Wallingford tw T o hundred and forty acres, mainly devoted to grazing and the production of small fruits. They have erected in both places commodious and substantial dwellings and shops, and carry on at this time a number of industries, of which some account will be found further on. The two communities, whose members are interchangeable at will and whenever necessity arises, must be counted as one. At Oneida they have founded a third, on a part of their land, called Willow Place, but this too is but an offshoot of the cen- tral family. In February, 1874, they numbered two hundred and eighty-three persons, of whom two hundred and thirty- eight were at Oneida and Willow Place, and forty-five at Wal- lingford. Of these one hundred and thirtj'-one were males, The Perfectionists. 26 o and one hundred and fifty-two females. Of the whole num- ber, sixty-four were children and youth under twenty-one — thirty-three males and thirty-one females. Of the two hun- dred and nineteen adults, one hundred and five were over forty- five years of age — forty-four men and sixty-one women. They employ in both places from twenty to thirty-five farm laborers, according to the season, and a number of fruit-pickers in the time of small fruits. Besides, at Oneida they employ constantly two hundred and one hired laborers, of whom one hundred and three are women, seventy-five of whom work in the silk factory ; sixty-seven of the men being engaged in the trap works, foundry, and machine shops. At Wallingford the silk works give employment to thirty-five hired women and girls. Originally, and for many years, these Communists employed no outside labor in their houses ; but with increasing prosper- ity they have begun to hire servants and helpers in many branches. Thus at Oneida there are in the laundry two men and five women ; in the kitchen three men and seven women ; in the heating or furnace room two men ; in the shoemaker's shop two ; and in the tailor's shop two — all hired people. At Wallingford they hire three women and one man for their laundry. These hired people are the country neighbors of the com- mune ; and, as with the Shakers and the Harmonists, they like their employers. These pay good wages, and treat their servants kindly ; looking after their physical and intellectual well-being, building houses for such of them as have families and need to be near at hand, and in many ways showing in- terest in their welfare. The members of the two societies are for the most part Americans, though there are a few English and Canadians. There are among them lawyers, clergymen, merchants, physi- cians, teachers ; but the greater part were New England farm- ers and mechanics. Former Congregationalists and Presbyte- T 264 Communistic Societies of the United States. riaus, Episcopalians, Methodists, and Baptists are among them — but no Catholics. They have a great number of applications from persons desirous to become members. During 1873 they received over one hundred such by letter, besides a nearly equal num- ber made in person. They are not willing now to accept new members ; but I believe they are looking about for a place suitable for a new settlement, and would not be unwilling, if a number of persons with sufficient means for another colony should present themselves, to help them with teachers and guides. In the year 1873 the Oneida Community produced and sold preserved fruits to the value of $27,417; machine and sewing silk and woven goods worth $203,784 ; hardware, including traps, chucks, silk-measuring machines and silk-strength testers (the last two of their own invention), gate-hinges and foundry castings, $90,447. They raised twenty-five acres of sweet corn, six acres of tomatoes, two acres of strawberries, two of rasp- berries ; half an acre of currants, half an acre of grapes, twen- ty-two acres of apples, and three and a half acres of pears. Silk-weaving has been abandoned, as not suitable to them. At the beginning of 1874 they were worth over half a mill- ion of dollars. From the beginning, Noyes and his followers have made great use of the press. Up to the time of their settlement at Oneida they had published " Paul not Carnal ;" two series of The Perfectionist ; The Way of Holiness, the Berean, and The Witness. From Oneida they began at once to issue the Sj)iritual Magazine, and, later, the Free Church Circu- lar, which was the beginning of their present journal, the Oneida Circular. "Bible Communism" also was published at Oneida during the first year of their settlement there. They did not aim to make money by their publications, and the Cir- cular was from the first published on terms probably unlike The Perfectionists. 265 those of any other newspaper in the world. I take from an old number, of the year 1853, the following announcement, standing at the head of the first column : " The Circular is published by Communists, and for Communists. Its main object is to help the education of several confederated associations, who are practically devoted to the Pentecost principle of community of property. Nearly all of its readers outside of those associations are Com- munists in principle. It is supjjorted almost entirely by the free contri- butions of this Communist constituency. A paper with such objects and such resources can not properly be offered for sale. Freely we receive, and we freely give. Whoever wishes to read the Circular can have it without paying, ok promising to pay, by applying through the mail, or at 43 Willow Place, Brooklyn. If any one chooses to pay, he may send two dollars for the yearly volume ; but he must not require us to keep his accounts. We rely on the free gifts of the family circle for which we labor." This paper was published on these terms, at one time semi- weekly, and at another three times a week. For some years past it has appeared weekly, printed on extremely good paper, and an admirable specimen of typography ; and it has now at the head of its columns the following notice: " The Circular is sent to all applicants, whether they pay or not. It costs and is worth at least two dollars per volume. Those who want it and ought to have it are divisible into three classes, viz. : 1, those who can not afford to pay two dollars; 2, those who can afford to pay only two dollars ; and, 3, those who can afford to pay more than two dollars. The first ought to have it free; the second ought to pay the cost of it; and the third ought to pay enough more than the cost to make up the de- ficiencies of the first. This is the law of Communism. We have no means of enforcing it, and no wish to do so, except by stating it and leaving it to the good sense of those concerned. We take the risk of offering the Circular to all without price; but free subscriptions will be received only from persons making application for themselves, either directly oj by giving express authority to those who apply for them. " Foreign subscribers, except those residing in Canada, must remit with their subscriptions money to prepay the postage." 266 Communistic Societies of the United States. They print now about two thousand copies per week, and lost last year six hundred dollars in the enterprise, without reckoning what would have had to be paid in any other work of the kind for literary labor. A list of the works they have issued will be found, with the titles of works issued by other communistic societies, at the end of the volume. Aside from its religious and communistic teachings, the Cir- cular has a general interest, by reason of articles it often con- tains relating to natural history and natural scenery, which, from different pens, show that there are in the society some close observers of nature, who have also the ability to relate their observations and experiences in excellent English. In general, the style of the paper is uncommonly good, and shows that there is a degree of culture among the Oneida people which preserves them from the too common newspaper vice of fine English. Their publications deal with the utmost frankness with their own religious and social theories and practices, and I suppose it may be said that they aim to keep themselves and their doc- trines before the public. In this respect they differ from all the other Communistic societies now existing in this country. That they are not without a sense of humor in these efforts, the following, printed as advertisements in the Circular^ will show : GRAND FIRE ANNIHILATOR ! — AN INVENTION for overcom- ing Evil with Good. MEEK & LOWLY. TO JEWELERS.— A SINGLE PEARL OF GREAT PRICE ! This inestimable Jewel may be obtained by application to Jesus Christ, at the extremely low price of " all that a man hath !" TO BROKERS. TXTANTED. — Any amount of SHARES OF SECOND - COMING ' ' STOCK, bearing date A.D. 70, or thereabouts, will find a ready market and command a high premium at this office. The Perfectionists. 267 ATTENTION! SOLDIERS who claim to have " fought the fight of faith" will find it for their advantage to have their claims investigated. All who can establish said claim are entitled to a bounty land-warrant in the king- dom of Heaven, and a pension for eternity. R OOMS TO LET in the "Many Mansions" that Christ has prepared for those that love him. DIRECTIONS for cultivating the fruits of the Spirit may be obtained gratis, at MEEK & LOWLY'S, No. 1 Grace Court. Practical Reflections on Christ's Sermon on the Mount may be had also as above. LEGAL NOTICE. — Notice is hereby given that all claims issued by the old firm of Moses and Law were canceled 1800 years ago. Any requirement, therefore, to observe as a means of righteousness legal enact- ments bearing date prior to A.D. 70, is pronounced by us, on the author- ity of the New Testament, a fraud and imposition. 11HE EYES ! THE EYES ! !— It is known that many persons with two - eyes habitually " see double." To prevent stumbling and worse lia- bilities in such circumstances, an ingenious contrivance has been invented by which the whole body is filled with light. It is called the " SINGLE EYE," and may be obtained by applying to Jesus Christ. WATER-CURE ESTABLISHMENT. — I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean : from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you. A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within you : and I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you a heart of flesh. — Ezekiel xxxvi., 25, 26. PATENT SIEVES.— The series of sieves for CRITICISM having been -L thoroughly tested, are now offered to the public for general use. They are warranted to sift the tares from the wheat, and in all cases to discriminate between good and evil. A person, after having passed through this series, comes out free from the incumbrances of egotism, pride, etc., etc. All persons are invited to test them gratuitously. MAGNIFICENT RESTAURANT !— In Mount Zion will the Lord of hosts make unto all people a feast of fat things, a feast of wines on the lees ; of fat things full of marrow, of wines on the lees well refined. And he will destroy in this mountain the face of the covering cast over all people, and the veil that is spread over all nations. He will swallow up death in victory; and the Lord God will wipe away tears from off all faces ; and the rebuke of his people shall be taken away from off all the earth : for the Lord hath spoken it. — Isaiah xxv., G-8. 268 Communistic Societies of the United States. PATENT SALAMANDER SAFES. — Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal: but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal. — Matt, vi., 19, 20. This safe, having been submitted for 1800 years to the hottest fire of judgment, and having been through that time subject to constant attacks from the fiery shafts of the devil, is now offered to the public, with full confidence that it will meet with general approbation. Articles inclosed in this safe are warranted free from danger under any circumstances. TO THE AFFLICTED !— WINE and MILK for the hungry, REST for the weary and heavy-laden, CONSOLATION and BALM for the wounded and invalids of every description — may be had gratis, on appli- cation to the storehouse of the Son of God. The Circular contains each week extracts from journals kept in the two communities, and " Talks " by Noyes and oth- ers, with a variety of other matter relating to their belief and daily lives. II. — Religious Belief and Faith • Cures. They call themselves " Perfectionists." They hold to the Bible as the " text-book of the Spirit of truth ;" to " Jesus Christ as the eternal Son of God ;" to " the apostles and Primitive Church as the exponents of the ever- lasting Gospel." They believe that " the second advent of Christ took place at the period of the destruction of Jerusa- lem ;" that " at that time there was a primary resurrection and judgment in the spirit world ;" and " that the final kingdom of God then began in the heavens ; that the manifestation of that kingdom in the visible world is now approaching ; that its approach is ushering in the second and final resurrection and judgment; that a Church on earth is now rising to meet the approaching kingdom in the heavens, and to become its duplicate and representative ; that inspiration, or open com- munication with God and the heavens, involving perfect holi- ness, is the element of connection between the Church on earth The Perfectionists. 269 and the Church in the heavens, and the power by which the kingdom of God is to be established and reign in the world."* They assert, further, that " the Gospel provides for complete salvation from sin " — hence the name they assume of " Per- fectionists." "Salvation from sin," they say, "is the founda- tion needed by all other reforms." "Do you, then, claim to live sinless lives?" I asked; and received this answer : " We consider the community to be a Church, and our the- ory of a Christian Church, as constituted in the apostolic age, is that it is a school, consisting of many classes, from those who are in the lowest degree of faith to those who have attained the condition of certain and eternal salvation from sin. The only direct answer, therefore, that we can give to your question is that some of us claim to live sinless lives, and some do not. A sinless life is the standard of the community, which all be- lieve to be practicable, and to which all are taught to aspire. Yet we recognize the two general classes, which were charac- terized by Paul as the "nepiou" and the "teleioi." Our be- lief is that a Christian Church can exist only when the " teleioi" are in the ascendant and have control." In compliance with my request, the following definition of " Perfectionism " was written out for me as authoritative : " The bare doctrine of Perfectionism might be presented in a single sentence thus : " As the doctrine of temperance is total abstinence from al- coholic drinks, and the doctrine of anti-slavery is immediate abolition of human bondage, so the doctrine of Perfectionism is immediate and total cessation from sin. " But the analogy thus suggested between Perfectionism and two popular reforms is by no means to be regarded as defining the character and methods of Perfectionism. Salvation from + Statement in the Circular. 2 yo Communistic Societies of the United States. siu, as we understand it, is not a system of duty-doing under a code of dry laws, Scriptural or natural ; but is a special phase of religious experience, having for its basis spiritual intercourse with God. All religionists of the positive sort believe iii a personal God, and assume that he is a sociable being. This faith leads them to seek intercourse with him, to approach him by prayer, to give him their hearts, to live in communion with him. These exercises and the various states and changes of the inner life connected with them constitute the staple of what is commonly called religious experience. Such experi- ence, of course, has more or less effect on the character and ex- ternal conduct. We can not live in familiar intercourse with human beings without becoming better or worse under their influence ; and certainly fellowship with God must affect still more powerfully all the springs of action. Perfectionists hold that intercourse with God may proceed so far as to destroy selfishness in the heart, and so make an end of sin. This is the special phase of religious experience which we profess, and for which we are called Perfectionists." Among other matters, they hold that " the Jews are, by God's perpetual covenant, the royal nation ;" that the obligation to observe the Sabbath passed away with the Jewish dispensation, and is " adverse to the advance of man into new and true ar : rangements ;" that " the original organization instituted by Christ [the Primitive Church] is accessible to us, and that our main business as reformers is to open communication with that heavenly body ;" and they " refer all their experience to the invisible hosts who are contending over them." I must add, to explain the last sentence, that they are not Spiritualists in the sense in which that word is nowadays usual- ly employed, and in which the Shakers are Spiritualists ; but they hold that they are in a peculiar and direct manner under the guidance of God and good spirits. " Saving faith, accord- ing to the Bible, places man in such a relation to God that he The Perfectionists. 271 is authorized to ask favors of him as a child asks favors of his father. Prayer without expectation of an answer is a per- formance not sanctioned by Scripture nor by common-sense. But prayer with expectation of an answer (that is, the prayer of faith) is impossible, on the supposition that 'the age of miracles is past,' and that God no longer interferes with the regular routine of nature." Hence their belief in what they call " Faith-cures," of which I shall speak further on. Community of goods and of persons they hold to have been taught and commanded by Jesus : " Jesus Christ offers to save men from all evil — from sin and death itself ; but he always states it as a necessary condition of their accepting his help that they shall forsake all other; and particularly that they shall get rid of their private property." Communism they hold therefore to be "the social state of the resurrection." " The account on the sides of life and death arranges itself thus : APOSTASY, UNBELIEF, Obedience to Mammon, Private Property, DEATH. RESTORATION, FAITH, Obedience to Chri-% Communism, IMMORTALITY." The community system, which they thus hold to have been divinely commanded, they extend beyond property — to persons ; and thus they justify their extraordinary social system, in which there is no marriage ; or, as they put it, " complex marriage takes the place of simple." They surround this singular and, so far as I know, unprecedented combination of polygamy and polyandry with certain religious and social restraints; but affirm that there is "no intrinsic difference between prop- erty in persons and property in things; and that the same spirit which abolished exclusiveness in regard to money would 272 Communistic Societies of the United States. abolish, if circumstances allowed full scope to it, exclusiveness in regard to women and children."* It is an extraordinary evidence of the capacity of mankind for various and extreme religious beliefs, that many men have brought their wives and young daughters into the Oneida Community. They have no preaching ; do not use Baptism nor the Lord's Supper; do not observe Sunday, because they hold that with them every day is a Sabbath ; do not pray aloud ; and avoid with considerable care all set forms. They read the Bible and quote it much. They believe that the exercise of sufficient faith in prayer to God is capable of restoring the sick to health ; and assert that there have been in their experience and among their member- ship a number of such cures. In a " Free-Church Tract," dated " Oneida Reserve, 1850," there is an account of such a cure of Mrs. M. A. Hall, ill of consumption, and given up by her physi- cians. In this case J. H. Noyes and Mrs. Cragin were those whose " power of faith " was supposed to have acted ; and Mrs. Hall herself wrote, two years later : " From a helpless, bed-rid- den state, in which I was unable to move, or even to be moved without excruciating pain, I was instantly raised to a con- sciousness of perfect health. I was constrained to declare again and again that I was perfectly well. My eyes, which before could not bear the light, were opened to the blaze of day and became strong. My appetite was restored, and all pain re- moved." This is said to have taken place in June, 1847. The following case is reported in the Circular for February 9th of the present year (1874), and the description of the injury, which immediately follows, is given by Dr. Cragin — a member of the Oneida Community — whom I understand to be a regu- larly educated physician. The sufferer was a woman, Mrs. M. * " History of American Socialisms," by J. II. Noyes, p. G23. The Perfectionists. 273 " Her hand was passed between the rubber rollers of a wringing-ma- chine. The machine was new, and the rollers were screwed down so that it brought a very heavy pressure on her hand, evidently crowding the bones all out of place and stretching the ligaments, besides seriously injuring the nerves of her hand and arm. When she came here from Wallingford Community, several weeks after the accident, not only the nerves of her hand were essentially paralyzed, but the trunk nerve of her arm was para- lyzed and caused her a great deal of suffering. It was as helpless as though completely paralyzed : she had not sufficient control over her hand to bend her fingers. " That was her condition up to the time of the cure. I could not see from the time she came here to the time of the cure that there was any change for the better. I told her the first time I examined her hand that, according to the ordinary course of such things, she must not expect to get the use of it under twelve months, if she did then. At the same time I told her I would not limit the power of God. " Her general health improved, but her hand caused her the acutest suffering. It would awaken her in the night, and oblige her to get up and spend hours in rubbing it and trying to allay the pain. If any one has had a jumping toothache, he can imagine something what her suffer- ing was, only the pain extended over the whole hand and arm, instead of being confined to one small place like a tooth. I have known of strong men who had the nervous system of an arm similarly affected, who begged that their arms might be taken off, and have indeed suffered amputation rather than endure the pain. " For some time before her cure there had been considerable talk in the family about faith-cures, and persons had talked with her on the subject, and encouraged her to expect to have such a cure as Harriet Hall did. Finally Mr. Noyes's interest was aroused, and he invoked a committee for her — not so much to criticise as to comfort her, and bring to bear on her the concentrated attention and faith of the family. She was stimulated by this criticism to cheerfulness and hope, and to put herself into the social current, keeping around as much as she could where there was the most life and faith. A private criticism soon after penetrated her spirit, and separated her from a brooding influence of evil that she had come under in a heart affair. " Still she suffered with her hand as much as ever, up to the time of her sudden cure. A few evenings after this private criticism we had a very interesting meeting, and she was present in the gallery. The sub- 274 Communistic Societies of the United States. ject was the power of prayer, and there was a good deal of faith experi- ence related, and she appeared the next morning shaking hands with every body she met. Now you see her washing dishes and making beds. " Mrs. A. — The morning she was cured I was at work in the hall, when she came running toward me, saying, ' I'm cured ! I'm cured !' Then she shook hands with me, using the hand that had been so bad, and giving a hearty pressure with it. u Dr. C. — To show that the case is not one of imagination, I will say that the day before the cure she could not have it touched without suffer- ing pain. She had not been dressed for a week, but that morning she bathed and dressed herself and made her bed, and then went to Joppa. " Mr. 2V. — She came down to Joppa with her hands all free, and went out on the ice ; I don't know that she caught any fish, but she attended the ' tip-ups.' '■'■Mrs. C. — She said to me that she had attended to dieting and all the prescriptions that were given her, and got no help from them ; and she had made up her mind that if there was any thing done for her, the com- munity must take hold and do it. "TT. A. H. — Let us be united about this case ; and if it be imagination, let us have more of it ; and if it be the power of faith, let us have more faith. " C. W. U. — Was Mrs. M. conscious of any precise moment when the pain left her in the night ? "Mrs.M. [the person who was cured]. — After the meeting in which we talked about faith-cures, I went to my room and prayed to God to take the pain out of my hand, and told him if he did I would glorify him with it. The pain left me, and I could stretch out my arm farther than I had been able to since it was hurt. I went to bed, and slept until four o'clock without waking ; then I awoke and found I was not in pain, and that I could stretch out my arm and move my fingers. Then I thought — ' I am well.' I got up, took a bath, and dressed myself. After this my arm ached some, but I said, ' I am well ; I am made every whit whole.' I kept saying that to myself, and the pain left me entirely. My arm has begun to ache nearly every day since then, but I insist that I am well, and the pain ceases. That arm is not yet as strong as the other, but is im- proving daily. u M?-s. C. — I have had considerable of that kind of experience during the lust few years. For two years I raised blood a good deal, and thought The Perfectionists. 275 a great many times that I was going to die — could not get that idea out of my mind. Mrs. M. talked with me about it, and told me I must not give up to my imaginations. I was put into business two years ago, and some days my head swam so that I could hardly go about, but I did what was given me to do ; and finally I came to a point in my experience where I said, ' I don't care if I do raise blood ; I am not going to be frightened by it ; I had as soon raise blood as do any thing else.' When I got there my trouble left me." I have copied this account at some length, because it speaks in detail of a quite recent occurrence, and shows, in a charac- teristic way, their manner of dealing with disease. They profess also to have wrought cures by what they call " Criticism," of which I shall speak further on. Concerning their management of the intercourse of the sexes, so much has been written, by themselves and by others, that 1 think I need here say only that — 1st. They regard their system as part of their religion. Koyes said, in a " Home Talk," reported in the Circular, February 2, 1874: ""Woe to him who abolishes the law of the apostasy before he stands in the holiness of the resurrection. The law of the apostasy is the law of marriage ; and it is true that whoever undertakes to enter into the liberty of the resurrec- tion without the holiness of the resurrection, will get woe and not happiness. It is as important for the young now as it was for their fathers then, that they should know that holiness of heart is what they must have before they get liberty in love. They must put the first thing first, as I did and as their par- ents did ; they must be Perfectionists before they are Com- munists." He seems to see, too, that " complex marriage," as he calls it, is not without grave dangers to the community, for he added, in the same " Home Talk :" "We have got into the position of Communism, where without genuine salvation from sin our passions will overwhelm us, and nothing but confu- sion and misery can be expected. On the other hand, we have 276 Communistic Societies of the United States. got into a position where, if we do have the grace of God tri- umphant in our hearts and flowing through all our nature, there is an opportunity for harmony and happiness beyond all that imagination has conceived. So it is hell behind us, and heaven before us, and a necessity that we should march /" 2d. " Complex marriage " means, in their practice : that, within the limits of the community membership, any man and woman may and do freely cohabit, having first gained each other's consent, not by private conversation or courtship, but through the intervention of some third person or persons ; that they strongly discourage, as an evidence of sinful selfish- ness, what they call "exclusive and idolatrous attachment" of two persons for each other, and aim to break up by " criti- cism" and other means every thing of this kind in the com- munity ; that they teach the advisability of pairing persons of different ages, the young of one sex with the aged of the other, and as the matter is under the control and management of the more aged members it is thus arranged ; that " persons are not obliged, under any circumstances, to receive the attentions of those whom they do not like;" and that the propagation of children is controlled by the society, which pretends to conduct this matter on scientific principles : " Previous to about two and a half years ago we refrained from the usual rate of child- bearing, for several reasons, financial and otherwise. Since that time we have made an attempt to produce the usual num- ber of offspring to which people in the middle classes are able to afford judicious moral and spiritual care, with the advant- age of a liberal education. In this attempt twenty-four men and twenty women have been engaged, selected from among those who have most thoroughly practiced our social theory."* Finally, they find in practice a strong tendency toward what they call " selfish love " — that is to say, the attachment * " Essay on Scientific Propagation," by John Humphrey Noyes. The Perfectionists. 277 of two persons to each other, and their desire to be true to each other; and there are here and there in their publications signs that there has been suffering among their young people on this account. They rebuke this propensity, however, as selfish and sinful, and break it down rigorously III. — Daily Life and Business ADMiwisTEATioisr. The farm, or domain, as they prefer to call it, of the Oneida Community forms a part of the old Reservation of the Oneida Indians. It is a plain, the land naturally good and well wa- tered; and it has been industriously improved by the com- munists. It lies four miles from Oneida on the New York Central Railroad, and the Midland Railroad passes through it. The dwelling-house, a large brick building with some archi- tectural pretensions, but no artistic merit, stands on the middle of a pleasant lawn, near the main road. It has some exten- sions in the rear, the chief of which is a large wing contain- ing the kitchen and dining-room. The interior of the house is well arranged ; the whole is warmed by steam ; and there are baths and other conveniences. There is on the second floor a large hall, used for the evening gatherings of the com- munity, and furnished with a stage for musical and dramatic performances, and with a number of round tables, about which they gather in their meetings. On the ground floor is a parlor for visitors ; and a library-room, containing files of newspa- pers, and a miscellaneous library of about four thousand vol- umes. There are two large family rooms, one on each story, around which a considerable number of sleeping-chambers are built ; and the upper of these large rooms has two ranges of such dormitories, one above the other, the upper range being reached by a gallery. 278 Communistic Societies of the United States. All the rooms are plainly furnished, there being neither any attempt at costly or elegant furnishing, nor a striving for Shaker plainness. Above the dining-room is the printing-office, where the Cir- cular is printed, and some job printing is done. Opposite the dwelling, and across the road, are offices, a school-building, a lecture -room with a chemical laboratory, and a room for the use of the daguerreotypist of the commu- nity ; farther on to the right is a large carpenter's shop, and to the left are barns, stables, the silk-dye house, and a small factory where the children of the community at odd hours make boxes for the spool silk produced here. There is also a large and conveniently arranged laundry. Somewhat over a mile from the home place are the facto- ries of the community — consisting of trap works, silk works, a forge, and machine shops. These are thoroughly fitted with labor-saving machinery, and are extensive enough to produce three hundred thousand traps, and the value of over two hun- dred thousand dollars' worth of silk-twisj; in a year. Near these workshops is a dwelling inhabited by thirty or forty of the communists, who are particularly employed in the shops. The farm has been put in excellent order : there are exten- sive orchards of large and small fruits ; and plantations of orna- mental trees shelter the lawn about the dwelling. This lawn is in summer a favorite resort for picnic parties from a distance. As Sunday-school picnics are also brought hither, I judge that the hostility which once existed in the neighborhood to the Oneida Communists has disappeared. Indeed, at Oneida all with whom I had occasion to speak concerning the commu- nists praised them for honesty, fair dealing, a peaceable dispo- sition, and great business capacity. Their system of administration is perfect and thorough. Their book-keeping — in which women are engaged as well as men, a young woman being the chief — is so systematized that The Perfectionists. 279 they are able to know the profit or loss upon every branch of industry they pursue, as well as the cost of each part of their living. They have twenty -one standing committees: on finance; amusements; patent - rights ; location of tenant houses; arbi- tration ; rents ; baths, walks, roads, and lawns ; fire ; heating ; sanitary ; education ; clothing ; real estate and tenant houses ; water-works and their supplies ; painting ; forest ; water and steam power; photographs; hair-cutting; arcade; andJoppa — the last being an isolated spot on Oneida Lake, to which they go to bathe, fish, shoot, and otherwise ruralize. Besides these, they divide the duties of administration among forty -eight departments: Circular; publication; silk manu- facture; hardware; fruit -preserving; paper -box; printing; dyeing ; carpentry ; business office ; shoe shop ; library ; pho- tographs ; educational ; science and art ; laundry ; furniture ; legal ; subsistence ; Wallingford printing ; agriculture ; horti- culture; medical; incidentals; dentistry; real estate; music- al; amusements; quarry; housekeeping; repairs; traveling; watches ; clocks ; tin shop ; porterage ; lights ; livery ; cloth- ing; stationery; floral; water -works; children's; landscape; forests; heating; bedding; coal. At first view these many committees and departments may appear cumbrous ; but in practice they work well. Every Sunday morning a meeting is held of what is called a " Business Board." This consists of the heads of all the de- partments, and of whoever, of the whole community, chooses to attend. At this meeting the business of the past week is discussed ; and a secretary notes down briefly any action deem- ed advisable. At the Sunday-evening meeting the secretary's report is read to all, and thereupon discussed ; and whatever receives general or unanimous approval is carried out. Once a year, in the spring, there is a special meeting of the Business Board, at which the work of the year is laid out in some detail. \j 280 Communistic Societies of the United States. At the beginning of the year an inventory is taken of all the possessions of the community. Once a month the heads of the departments send in their accounts to the book-keepers, and these are then posted in the ledgers. It is a principle with them to attempt nothing without the general consent of all the people; and if there is objection made, the matter proposed is put off for further discussion. Shortly after New- Year, the Finance Committee sits and re- ceives estimates. This means that each department sends in an estimate of the money it will require for the coming year. At the same time any one who has a project in his head may propose it, with an estimate of its cost. Thereupon the Finance Committee makes the necessary appropriations, revising the es- timates in accordance with the general total which the society can afford to spend for the year. At or before this meeting the returns for the past year have been scrutinized. All appointments on committees are made for a year; but there is a committee composed of men and women whose duty it is to appoint different persons to their work ; and these may change the employments at any time. In practice, the fore- men of the manufacturing establishments are not frequently changed. In appointing the labor of the members, their tastes as well as abilities are consulted, and the aim is to make each one contented. The appointment of so many committees makes some one responsible for each department, and when any thing is need- ed, or any fault is to be found, the requisition can be directed to a particular person. AVomen, equally with men, serve on the committees. They rise in the morning between five and half-past seven ; this depending somewhat upon the business each is engaged in. The children sleep as long as they like. Breakfast is from eight to nine, and dinner from three to four ; and they The Perfectionists. 281 retire from half -past eight to half-past ten. The members do not now work very hard, as will appear from these hours ; but they are steadily industrious ; and as most of them superintend some department, and all of them work cheerfully, the neces- sary amount of labor is accomplished. Mere drudgery they nowadays put upon their hired people. A square board, placed in a gallery near the library, tells at a glance where every body is. It contains the names of the men and women at the side, and the places where they can be found at the head ; and a peg, which each one sticks in opposite his name, tells his whereabouts for the day. There is no bell or other signal for proceeding to work; but each one is expected to attend faithfully to that which is given him or her to do ; and here, as in other communities, no difficulty is found about idlers. Those who have disagreeable tasks are more frequently changed than others. Thus the women who superintend in the kitchen usually serve but a month, but sometimes two months at a time. Children are left to the care of their mothers until they are weaned ; then they are put into a general nursery, under the care of special nurses or care-takers, who are both men and women. There are two of these nurseries, one for the smaller children, the other for those above three or four years of age, and able somewhat to help themselves. These eat at the same time with the older people, and are seated at tables by them- selves in the general dining-room. The children I saw were plump, and looked sound ; but they seemed to me a little sub- dued and desolate, as though they missed the exclusive love and care of a father and mother. This, however, may have been only fancy; though I should grieve to see in the eyes of my own little ones an expression which I thought I saw in the Oneida children, difficult to describe — perhaps I might say a lack of buoyancy, or confidence and gladness. A man or woman may not find it disagreeable to be part of a great 282 Communistic Societies of the United States. machine, but I suspect it is harder for a little child. How- ever, I will not insist on this, for I may have been mistaken. T have seen, with similar misgivings, a lot of little chickens raised in an egg-hatching machine, and having a blanket for shelter instead of the wing of a mother : I thought they miss- ed the cluck and the vigilant if sometimes severe care of the old hen. But after all they grew up to be hearty chickens, as zealous and greedy, and in the end as useful as their more particularly nurtured fellows. In the dining -hall I noticed an ingenious contrivance to save trouble to those who wait on the table. The tables are round, and accommodate ten or twelve people each. There is a stationary rim, having space for the plates, cups, and saucers ; and within this is a revolving disk, on which the food is placed, and by turning this about each can help him- self. They do not eat much meat, having it served not more than twice a week. Fruits and vegetables make up the greater part of their diet. They use tea, and coffee mixed with malt, which makes an excellent beverage. They use no tobacco, nor spirituous liquors. The older people have separate sleeping - chambers ; the younger usually room two together. The men dress as people in the world do, but plainly, each one following his own fancy. The women wear a dress consisting of a bodice, loose trousers, and a short skirt fall- ing to just above the knee. Their hair is cut just below the ears, and I noticed that the younger women usually gave it a curl. The dress is no doubt extremely convenient : it ad- mits of walking in mud or snow, and allows freedom of exer- cise ; and it is entirely modest. But it was to my unaccus- tomed eyes totally and fatally lacking in grace and beauty. The present dress of women, prescribed by fashion, and par- ticularly the abominable false hair and the preposterously The Perfectionists. 283 ugly hats, are sufficiently barbarous ; but the Oneida dress, which is so scant that it forbids any graceful arrangement of drapery, seemed to me no improvement. As they have no sermons nor public prayers, so they have no peculiar mode of addressing each other. The men are called Mr., and the women Miss, except when they were married before they entered the society. It was somewhat startling to me to hear Miss speak about her baby. Even the founder is addressed or spoken of simply as Mr. Noyes. At the end of every year each person gives into the Finance Board a detailed statement of what clothing he or she requires for the coming year, and upon the aggregate sum is based the estimate for the next year for clothing. At the beginning of 1874, the women proposed a different plan, which was thus described in the Circular : " In our last woman's meeting, Mrs. C Lad a report to present for discussion and acceptance. A change of system was proposed. The plan that had been pursued for several years was to have a certain sum ap- propriated for clothing in the beginning of the year — so much for men, so much for women, and so much for children. Another sum was set aj)art for ' incidentals,' a word of very comprehensive scope. A woman of good judgment and great patience was appointed to the office of keeper and distributer of goods, and another of like qualifications was associated with a man of experience in doing the greater part of the buying. Each woman made out a list of the articles she needed, and selected them from the goods we had on hand, or sent or went for them to our neighboring merchants. This plan worked well in many respects, but it had some disadvantages. The women in charge had to be constantly adjusting and deciding little matters in order to make the wants coincide with the appropriated sum. Many unforeseen demands came in, and at the end of the year they inevitably exceeded their bounds. This year the Cloth- ing Committee, in consultation with the financiers, proposed to adopt an- other plan. It was this : To appropriate a sum in the beginning of the year large enough to cover all reasonable demands, and then, after setting aside special funds for children's clothing, traveling wardrobes, infants' 284 Communistic Societies of the United States. wardrobes and incidentals, to divide the remainder into as many equal portions as there were women in the family. Each woman then assumes for herself the responsibility of making the two ends meet at the close of the year. It was thought it would be a great advantage to each woman, and particularly to every young girl, to know what her clothing, from her hat to her shoes, costs. She would learn economy and foresight, and feel a new interest in the question of cost and payment. The plan, too, allows of great variations in the way of making presents and helping one another when there is a surplus, or, when there is no need, leaving it untouched in the treasury. After due explanations and discussions, the women voted unanimously to try the new plan." It may interest some readers to know that the sum thus set aside for each woman's dress during the year, including shoes and hats, was thirty-three dollars. A member writes in ex- planation : "Minus the superfluities and waste of fashion, we find thirty-three dol- lars a year jjlenty enough to keep us in good dresses, two or three for each season, summer, winter, fall, and spring (the fabrics are not velvets and satins, of course — they are flannels and merinos, the lighter kinds of worst- ed, various kinds of prints, and Japanese silk) ; to fill our drawers with the best of under-linen, to furnish us with hoods and sun-bonnets, beaver and broadcloth sacks, and a variety of shawls and shoulder-gear, lighter and pleasanter to wear, if not so ingrained with the degradation of toil as the costly Cashmere. 1 ' When a man needs a suit of clothes, he goes to the tailor and is measured, choosing at the same time the stuff and the style or cut. There is a person called familiarly " Incidentals." To him is intrusted a fund for incidental and unforeseen expenses; and when a young woman wants a breast-pin — the only orna- ment worn — she applies to " Incidentals." When any one needs a watch, he makes his need known to the committee on watches. For the children they have a sufficiently good school, in which the Bible takes a prominent part as a text-book. The The Perfectionists. 285 young people arc encouraged to continue their studies, and they have two or three classes in history, one in grammar, and several in French, Latin, geology, etc. These study and re- cite at odd times; and it is their policy not to permit the young men and women to labor too constantly. The Educa- tional Committee superintends the evening classes. They also cultivate vocal and instrumental music; and have several times sent one or two of their young women to New York to receive special musical instruction. Also for some years they have kept several of their young men in the Yale scientific school, and in other departments of that uni- versity. Thus they have educated two of their members to be physicians; two in the law; one in mechanical engineering; one in architecture; and others in other pursuits. Usually these have been young men from twenty-two to twenty-five years of age, who had prepared themselves practically before- hand. It is their habit to change their young people from one em- ployment to another, and thus make each master of several trades. The young women are not excluded from this variety; and they have now several girls learning the machinists' trade, in a building appropriated to this purpose ; and their instructor told me they were especially valuable for the finer and more delicate kinds of lathe-work. A young man whom they sent to the Sheffield scientific school to study mechanical engineer- ing had been for a year or two in the machine shop before he went to Yale ; he is now at the head of the silk works. Their student in architecture had in the same way prepared himself in their carpenter's shop. No one who visits a communistic society which has been for some time in existence can fail to be struck with the amount of ingenuity, inventive skill, and business talent devel- oped among men from whom, in the outer world, one would not expect such qualities. This is true, too, of the Oneida 286 Communistic Societies of the United States. Communists. They contrived all the machinery they use for making traps — one very ingenious piece making the links for the chains. They had no sooner begun to work in silk than they invented a little toy which measures the silk thread as it is wound on spools, and accurately gauges the number of yards; and another which tests the strength of silk; and these have come into such general use that they already make them for sale. So, too, when they determined to begin the silk manufacture, they sent one of their young men and two women to work as 1 lands in a well-managed factory. In six months these re- turned, having sufficiently mastered the business to undertake the employment and instruction of hired operatives. Of the machinery they use, they bought one set and made all the re- mainder upon its pattern, in their own foundry and shops. A young man who had studied chemistry was sent out to a dye- house, and in a few months made himself a competent dyer. In all this complicated enterprise they made so few mistakes that in six months after they began to produce silk-twist their factory had a secure reputation in the market. It is their custom to employ their people, where they have responsible places, in couples. Thus there are two house stewards, two foremen in a factory, etc. ; both having equal knowledge, and one always ready to take the other's place if he finds the work wearing upon him. They seemed to me to have an almost fanatical horror of forms. Thus they change their avocations frequently ; they remove from Oneida to Willow Place, or to Wallingford, on slight excuses ; they change the order of their evening meet- ings and amusements with much care ; and have changed even their meal hours. One said to me, "We used to eat three meals a day — now we eat but two ; but we may be eating five six months from now." Very few of their young people have left them ; and some The Perfectionists. 287 who have gone out have sought to return. They have expelled but one person since the community was organized. While they received members, they exacted no probationary period, but used great care before admission. Mr. Noyes said on this subject : " There has been a very great amount of discrimination and vigilance exercised by the Oneida Community from first to last in regard to our fellowships, and yet it seems to me it is one of the greatest miracles that this community has succeeded as it has. Notwithstanding our discrim- ination and determination to wait on God in regard to those we receive, we scarcely have been saved." New members sign a paper containing the creed, and also an agreement to claim no wages or other reward for their labor while in the community. III. — Sunday at the Oneida Community, with some Account of "Criticism." I was permitted to spend several days at the Oneida Com- munity, among which was a Sunday. The people are kind, polite to each other and to strangers, cheerful, and industrious. There is no confusion, and for so large a number very little noise. Where two hundred people live together in one house, order, system, and punc- tuality are necessary ; and loud voices would soon become a nuisance. I was shown the house, the kitchen and heating arrange- ments, the barns with their fine stock, the various manufactur- ing operations ; and in the evening was taken to their daily gathering, at which instrumental music, singing, and conversa- tion engage them for an hour, after which they disperse to the private parlors to amuse themselves with dominoes or dancing, 288 Communistic Societies of the United States. or to the library to read or write letters. Cards arc prohibited: The questions I asked were freely answered ; and all the peo- ple in one way or another came under my eye. Some of them have the hard features of toil-worn New England farmers ; others look like the average business-men of our country towns or inland cities ; others are students, and there are a number of college-bred men in the community. A fine collection of birds in a cabinet, skillfully stuffed and mounted, showed me that there is in the society a lively love of natural history. The collection is, I should think, almost complete for the birds of the region about Oneida. The people seem contented, and pleased with their success, as well they may be, for it is remarkable. They use good lan- guage, and the standard of education among them is consider- ably above the average. No doubt the training they get in their evening discussions, and in the habit of writing for a paper whose English is pretty carefully watched, has benefited them. They struck me as matter-of-fact, with no nonsense or romance about them, by no means overworked, and with a certain, perhaps for their place in life high average of culture. I should say that the women are inferior to the men : examin- ing the faces at an evening meeting, this was the impression I carried away. If I should add that the predominant impression made upon me was that it was a common-place company, I might give offense ; but, after all, what else but this could be the expression of people whose lives are removed from need, and narrowly bounded by their community ; whose religious theory calls for no internal struggles, and, once within the community, very little self-denial ; who are well-fed and sufficiently amused, and not overworked, and have no future to fear ? The greater pas- sions are not stirred in such a life. If these are once thorough- ly awakened, the individual leaves the community. On Sunday the first work is to sort and send away to the The Perfectionists. 289 laundry the soiled clothing of the week. After this comes the regular weekly meeting of the Business Board ; and thereafter meetings for criticism, conducted in rooms apart. The institution of Criticism, a description of which I have reserved for this place, is a most important and ingenious de- vice, which Noyes and his followers rightly regard as the cor- ner-stone of their practical community life. It is in fact their main instrument of government ; and it is useful as a means of eliminating uncongenial elements, and also to train those who remain into harmony with the general system and order. I am told that it was first used by Mr. Noyes while he was a divinity student at Andover, where certain members of his class were accustomed to meet too;ether to criticise each other. The person to suffer criticism sits in silence, while the rest of the company, each in turn, tell him his faults, with, I judge, an astonishing and often exasperating plainness of speech. Here is the account given by Mr. Noyes himself: " The measures relied upon for good government in these community families are, first, daily evening meetings, which all are expected to attend. In these meetings, religious, social, and business matters are freely dis- cussed, and opportunity given for exhortation and reproof. Secondly, the system of mutual criticism. This system takes the place of backbiting in ordinary society, and is regarded as one of the greatest means of im- provement and fellowship. All of the members are accustomed to vol- untarily invite the benefit of this ordinance from time to time. Some- times persons are criticised by the entire family ; at other times by a com- mittee of six, eight, twelve, or more, selected by themselves from among those best acquainted with them, and best able to do justice to their character. In these criticisms the most perfect sincerity is expected ; and in practical experience it is found best for the subject to receive his criti- cism without replying. There is little danger that the general verdict in respect to his character will be unjust. This ordinance is far from agree- able to those whose egotism and vanity are stronger than their love of truth. It is an ordeal which reveals insincerity and selfishness ; but it also often takes the form of commendation, and reveals hidden virtues as well as secret faults. It is always acceptable to those who wish to see themselves as others see them. 290 Communistic Societies of the United States. " These two agencies — daily evening meetings and criticism — are found quite adequate to the maintenance of good order and government in the communities. Those who join the communities understanding their principles, and afterward prove refractory and inharmonic, and also those who come into the communities in childhood, and afterward develop characters antagonistic to the general spirit, and refuse to yield to the governmental agencies mentioned, either voluntarily withdraw or are expelled. Only one case of expulsion is, however, recorded." They depend upon criticism to cure whatever they regard as faults in the character of a member ; for instance, idleness, disorderly habits, impoliteness, selfishness, a love of novel-read- ing, " selfish love," conceit, pride, stubbornness, a grumbling spirit — for every vice, petty or great, criticism is held to be a remedy. They have even a " criticism-cure," and hold that this is almost as effective as their " prayer-cure." On Sunday afternoon, by the kindness of a young man who had offered himself for criticism, I was permitted to be pres- ent. Fifteen persons besides myself, about half women, and about half young people under thirty, were seated in a room, mostly on benches placed against the wall. Among them was Mr. Noyes himself, who sat in a large rocking-chair. The young man to be criticised, whom I will call Charles, sat in- conspicuously in the midst of the company. When the doors were closed, he was asked by the leader (not Mr. Noyes) wheth- er he desired to say any thing. Retaining his seat, he said that lie had suffered for some time past from certain intellectual difficulties and doubts — a leaning especially toward positivism, and lack of faith ; being drawn away from God ; a tendency to think religion of small moment. But that he was combat- ing the evil spirit within him, and hoped he had gained some- what; and so on. Hereupon a man being called on to speak, remarked that he thought Charles had been somewhat hardened by too great good-fortune ; that his success in certain enterprises had some- what spoiled him ; if he had not succeeded so well, he would The Perfectionists. 291 have been a better man; that he was somewhat wise in his own esteem ; not given to consult with others, or to seek or take advice. One or two other men agreed generally with the previous remarks, had noticed these faults in Charles, and that they made him disagreeable ; and gave examples to show his faults. Another concurred in the general testimony, but add- ed that he thought Charles had lately made efforts to correct some of his faults, though there was still much room for im- provement. A young woman next remarked that Charles was haughty and supercilious, and thought himself better than others with whom he was brought into contact ; that he was needlessly curt sometimes to those with whom he had to speak. Another young woman added that Charles was a respecter of persons ; that he showed his liking for certain individuals too plainly by calling them pet names before people ; that he seemed to forget that such tilings were disagreeable and wrong. Another woman said that Charles was often careless in his language ; sometimes used slang words, and was apt to give a bad impression to strangers. Also that he did not always con- duct himself at table, especially before visitors, with careful politeness and good manners. A man concurred in this, and remarked that he had heard Charles condemn the beefsteak on a certain occasion as tough; and had made other unnecessary remarks about the food on the table while he was eating. A woman remarked that she had on several occasions found Charles a respecter of persons. Another said that Charles, though industrious and faithful in all temporalities, and a very able man, was not religious at all. A man remarked that Charles was, as others had said, some- what spoiled by his own success, but that it was a mistake for him to be so, for he was certain that Charles's success came 292 Communistic Societies of the United States. mainly from the wisdom and care with which the society had surrounded him with good advisers, who had guided him ; and that Charles ought therefore to be humble, instead of proud and haughty, as one who ought to look outside of himself for the real sources of his success. Finally, two or three remarked that he had been in a certain transaction insincere toward another young man, saying one thing to his face and another to others; and in this one or two women concurred. Amid all this very plain speaking, which I have consider- ably condensed, giving only the general charges, Charles sat speechless, looking before him ; but as the accusations multi- plied, his face grew paler, and drops of perspiration began to stand on his forehead. The remarks I have reported took up about half an hour ; and now, each one in the circle having spoken, Mr. Noyes summed up. He said that Charles had some serious faults ; that he had watched him with some care ; and that he thought the young man was earnestly trying to cure himself. He spoke in gen- eral praise of his ability, his good character, and of certain temptations he had resisted in the course of his life. He thought he saw signs that Charles was making a real and ear- nest attempt to conquer his faults ; and as one evidence of this he remarked that Charles had lately come to him to consult him upon a difficult case in which he had had a severe struggle, but had in the end succeeded in doing right. " In the course of what we call stirpiculture," said Noyes, " Charles, as you know, is in the situation of one who is by and by to become a father. Under these circumstances, he has fallen under the too common temptation of selfish love, and a desire to wait upon and cultivate an exclusive intimacy with the woman who was to bear a child through him. This is an insidious tempta- tion, very apt to attack people under such circumstances ; but it must nevertheless be struggled against." Charles, he went The Perfectionists. 293 on to say, had come to him for advice in this case, and he (Noyes) had at first refused to tell him any thing, but had asked him what he thought he ought to do ; that after some conversation, Charles had determined, and he agreed with him, that he ought to isolate himself entirely from the woman, and let another man take his place at her side; and this Charles had accordingly done, with a most praiseworthy spirit of self- sacrifice. Charles had indeed still further taken up his cross, as he had noticed with pleasure, by going to sleep with the smaller children, to take charge of them during the night. Taking all this in view, he thought Charles was in a fair way to become a better man, and had manifested a sincere desire to improve, and to rid himself of all selfish faults. Thereupon the meeting was dismissed. All that I have recited was said by practiced tongues. The people knew very well how to express themselves. There was no vagueness, no uncertainty. Every point was made ; every sentence was a hit — a stab I was going to say, but as the suf- ferer was a volunteer, I suppose this would be too strong a word. I could see, however, that while Charles might be bene- fited by the "criticism," those who spoke of him would per- haps also be the better for their speech ; for if there had been bitterness in any of their hearts before, this was likely to be dissipated by the free utterance. Concerning the closing re- marks of Noyes, which disclose so strange and horrible a view of morals and duty, I need say nothing. Here are a few specimens of criticisms which have been printed in the Circular. The first concerns a young woman : " What God has done for U. is wonderful ; her natural gifts and attrac- tions are uncommon ; but she has added very little to them. She is spoil- ing them by indolence and vanity. The gifts we have by nature do not belong to us. We shall have to give account for them to God as his property. All that we can expect any reward for is what we add to that which he gives us." X 294 Communistic Societies of the United States. The next seems to point at troubles of a kind to which the community is, I suppose, more or less subject : " I wish I could entirely change public opinion among us in regard to the matter of keeping secrets. The fact that a person is of such a charac- ter that others associated with him are afraid that he will finally expose their wrong-doing is the highest credit to him. I would earnestly ex- hort all lovers of every degree, young and old, and especially the young, to consider the absolute impossibility of permanently keeping secrets. It is not for us to say whether we will keep other folks' secrets or not. It is for God to say. We are in his hands, and he will make us tell the truth even though we say we won't. He has certainly made it his programme and eternal purpose that every secret thing shall come to light. "What is done in darkness shall be published on the house-top. This is sure to come, because it is God's policy, and it is vain for us to seek to evade and thwart it. Two persons get together with shameful secrets, and promise and protest and pledge themselves never to turn on each other. What is the use ? It is not for them to say what they will do. They will finally turn on one another. It is a mercy to them that they must. The best thing to be said of them is that they are likely to turn on one another and betray their secrets. They will, if there is any honesty or true purpose in them. This keeping secrets that are dishonest, profane, and infernal, and regarding them as sacred, is all wrong. It is the rule of friendship and honor in the world, but to let the daylight in on every thing is the rule for those who want to please God." What follows relates to a man who was cast down because of criticism, and whose fault Xoyes says is excessive sensitiveness: " Excessive sensitiveness is a great fault. Every one should strive to get where he can judge himself, look at himself truthfully by the grace of God, and cultivate what may be called the superior consciousness, look- ing at his own fault as he would at another person's, and feeling no more pain in dissecting his own character than he would that of any one else. This superior consciousness takes us into fellowship with God and his judgment; and in that condition it is possible to rejoice in pulling to pieces our own works. Paul says : ' Other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ. Now if any man build upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble, every man's work shall be made manifest — for the day shall declare it, because it shall be revealed by fire ; and the fire shall try every man's work, of what sort The Perfectionists. 295 it is. If any man's work abide which he hath built thereupon, he shall receive a reward. If any man's work shall be burned, he shall suffer loss ; but he himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire.' There is a great amount of poor building upon that good foundation ; a great number of struct- ures that are wood, hay, and stubble, and which in the day of fire will be burned up. The main point to be gained by those who have thus built is to get into such sympathy with God that they can stand by when the day of fire comes, and help on the destruction — poke the wood, hay, and stubble into the flame, rejoicing that they have a good foundation, and are to be saved not only from the fire, but by the fire." Finally, they use criticism as a remedy for diseases. I take this example from the Circular for June 4, 1853 : " S. P., having a bad cold and symptoms of a run of fever, tried the crit- icism-cure, and was immediately relieved. She was on the bed in a state of pain and restlessness, when a friend mentioned to her the above rem- edy as having been successfully applied in similar cases. Having some faith in it, she arose immediately and made her wishes known to the fam- ily physician, that is, to the /«??*%, who kindly administered the remedy without delay. The operation was not particularly agreeable — there is no method of cure that is ; but it was short and speedily efficacious. One secret of its efficacy is, it stops the flow of thought toward the seat of dif- ficulty, and so tends directly to reduce inflammation. At the same time it has a very bracing, invigorating effect. In the present case, it went right to the cause of the disease, which was discovered to be a spirit of fear, throwing open the pores and predisposing the subject to the attack. S. P. had been brought up in a bad habit in this respect, expecting with every exposure to take cold — and then expecting to have it go on to a serious cough, and so on — fear realizing itself. Criticism stopped this false action, and not only made her well in the first instance, but by break- ing up this fear it has given her comparative security against future at- tacks. It requires some fortitude and self-denial in the patient, when he thinks he needs sympathy and nursing, to take criticism instead ; but it is well known that to rouse the will to strong exertion is more than half a cure. The criticism remedy professes to be universal, and is recommend- ed for trial to all the afflicted." The Circular for December, 1863, reports : " It is a common custom here for every one who may be attacked with any disorder to apply this remedy by sending for a committee of six or 296 Communistic Societies of the United States. eight persons, in whose faith and spiritual judgment he has confidence, to come and criticise him. The result, when administered sincerely, is almost universally to throw the patient into a sweat, or to bring on a re- action of his life against disease, breaking it up, and restoring him soon to usual health. We have seen this result produced without any other agency except the use of ice, in perhaps twenty cases of sore throat within a few weeks. "We have seen it take effect at an advanced stage of chronic disease, and raise a person up apparently from death's door. It seems a somewhat heroic method of treatment when a person is suffering in body to apply a castigation to the character through the spiritual or moral part ; but this is precisely the thing needed to cleanse and purify the system from disease. We have tried it, and found it to be invaluable. To all who have faith in Christ as a physician we can commend this pre- scription as a medium for conveying his healing life. If you are sick, seek for some one to tell you your faults, to find out your weakest spot in character or conduct; let them put their finger on the very sore that you would best like to keep hid. Depend upon it, there is the avenue through which disease gets access to you. And if the sincerity which points this out and opens it to the light hurts, and is mortifying for the time being, it is only a sign that the remedy is applied at the right place and is taking effect." In a recent number of the Circular (1874) a "criticism of a sick man " is reported in full. It is too long to give here ; but I quote a few of the remarks, to show the style of attack in such cases. The report opens with this statement : " [L. has been quite prostrate for months with some kind of spinal af- fection, complicated with chills and fever. In presenting himself for criticism, he was invited, as the subject generally is, to open his own case. He said he was under a spirit of depression and discouragement, particu- larly about his health. He thought he should be better off if he did not know so much about his disease. Dr. Pope had pronounced it incur- abla]" W. said : " I think that L. is troubled with false imaginations, and that he has inherited this tendency. His father was subject to the hypo — always a prey to imaginations. I question whether the root of L.'s whole difficulty does not lie in his imagination. I don't doubt but that he feels what he The Perfectionists. 297 thinks he does, but imagination has terrible power to make us feel. Christ can cast down imaginations, and every high thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge of God." J. said : " He talks a great deal about his symptoms. If he would talk on the side of faith, I think he would be a well man right off. He is as well as any body when he is well, and there is no reason why he should not be well all the time. He is a very valuable member of the community, and I don't like to see him lie on his back so much. " M. — I have thought that his knowledge of physiology, as he uses it, is really a hinderance to him : he knows too much about his case. "C. — I thought I had the heart disease when I was about nineteen years of age. My heart would beat so when I went up stairs that I had to sit down at the top. I remember that I said to my aunt one day I was sure that I had got that disease, because my heart had such times of beating. ' O la !' she answered, ' I guess you would not live long if it did not beat.' "N. [probably Mr. Noyes]— I have good reason to believe that a great many diseases which doctors pronounce incurable are so so far as their powers are concerned, and yet can be cured by exorcism. Doctors do not believe in possession by the devil, and of course have no means of curing diseases of that nature. They accordingly pronounce some diseases in- curable. Yet these diseases are not incurable by persons who understand the nature of them, and that they are spiritual obsessions. I do not care what the doctors say about L.'s back. It is very likely incurable so far as they know, and yet it may be very easily curable to any body who knows about the doctrine of the possession of the devil. There is a range of science beyond the routine of the doctors which we must take into the account in all this dealing with disease. Just look at the case of Harriet Hall, and see what incurable diseases she had. Two doctors certified that she ought to be dead twenty years ago, and here she is alive and waiting on her father. Those doctors are dead, and she is trotting around. " E. — I have been associated a good deal with L. in business and now in this sickness. I have studied his case some. His attitude toward dis- ease is veiy much like his attitude in business. When he has been well and able to do his best, he has been in the past an autocrat in our busi- nesses. If he said a thing would not go, or would go, his dictum was al- ways accepted. He has a good deal of pride in having what he predicts turn out to be true. I have sometimes thought that he was willing to 298 Communistic Societies of the United States. have things break down in order to demonstrate bis infallibility as an or- acle. He shows the same trait in regard to disease. If he has a symp- tom, and makes up his mind that he is going to have a certain disease. he notifies his friends of it, and seems bound to have his prophecy come true any way. " N. — He would rather have a good chill, I suppose, than have his pre- diction prove false. " E. — I think he really knows but very little about his case. He lost his health, and took up the study of medicine to find out what ailed him. It may seem paradoxical, but I think that he is suffering for want of work ; his brain is suffering for want of some healthy action. If he would use his brain about something for only half an hour a day, he would find himself improving right along. " A. — I remember L. had the reputation of being an ingenious boy ; but he used to seem old even then — he had the rheumatism or some such complaint. In thinking about him, it seems to me that the instinct of his life is to find a soft place in the world : he is hunting up cushions and soft things to surround himself with. His bent is rather scientific than religious. A man that is an oracle surrounds himself with something soft in having people defer to him. I must say I think he is too oracular about disease, considering the amount of study he has given to the science of medicine. He went into the study of medicine in a sort of self-cod- dling way, to find out what the matter was with himself. I have realized that it is not good for a man in this world to hunt for a soft spot." And so on. Mr. Noyes closed the session with this remark : " iV, — Christ's words, ' Because I live ye shall live also,' may be thrust in the face of all incurable diseases. There is no answer to that. No in- curable disease can stand against it." I do not know whether L. recovered or not. On Sunday evening, about half -past six o'clock, there was a gathering in the large hall to hear some pieces of music from the orchestra. Afcer half an hour's intermission, the people again assembled, this time for a longer session. A considera- ble number of round tables were scattered about the large hall ; on these were lamps ; and around them sat most of the women, old and young, with sewing or knitting, with which they busied The Perfectionists. 299 themselves during the meeting. Others sat on benches and chairs, irregularly ranged abont. After the singing of a hymn, a man rose and read the report of the business meeting held that morning, the appointment of some committees, and so on ; and this was then put to vote and accepted, having elicited no discussion, and very little interest apparently. Next a man, who sat near Mr. Noyes in the mid- dle of the room, read some extracts from newspapers, which had been marked and sent in to him by different members for that purpose. Some of these were mere drolleries, and raised laughter. Others concerned practical matters. To this reading, which was brief, followed a discussion of the power of healing disease by prayer. It was asserted to be " necessary to regard Christ as powerful to-day over diseases of the body as well as of the spirit." When several had spoken very briefly upon this subject, and the conversation was evi- dently closed, a considerable number of the people concurred in what had been said by short ejaculations, as "I confess the power of Christ in my heart ;" " I confess the power of heal- ing;" "I confess to a tender conscience;" "I confess Christ;" " I confess a love for all good people," and so on. Next a hymn was sung relating to community life, whjch. I copy here as a curiosity : "Let us sing, brothers, sing, In the Eden of heart-love— Where the fruits of life spring, And no death e'er can part love; Where the pure currents flow From all gushing hearts together, And the wedding of the Lamb Is the feast of joy forever. Let us sing, brothers, sing. ""We have built us a dome On our beautiful plantation. And we all have one home, And one family relation; 300 Communistic Societies of the United States. We have battled with the wiles Of the dark world of Mammon, And returned with its spoils To the home of our dear ones. Let us sing, brothers, sing. •• When the rude winds of wrath Idly rave round our dwelling. And the slanderer's breath Like a simoon was swelling. Then so merrily we sung. As the storm blustered o'er us. Till the very heavens rung With our hearts' joyful chorus. Let us go, brothers, go. •• So love's sunshine begun : Now the spirit-flowers are blooming. And the feeling that we're one All our hearts is perfuming: Toward one home we have all Set our faces together. Where true love doth dwell In peace and joy forever. Let us sing, brothers, sing." This was presently followed by another song peculiar to the Oneida people. A man sang, looking at a woman near him: •• I love you. O my sister. But the love of God is better; Y 3, the love of God is better — O the love of God is best." To this she replied : ■• I love you, my brother. But the love of God is better: Yes. the love of God is better — O the love of God is best." Then came the chorus, in which a number of voices joined : The Perfectionists. 301 " Yes, the love of God is better, O the love of God is better ; Hallelujah, Hallelujah — Yes, the love of God is best." Soon after the meeting broke up ; but there was more sing- ing, later, in the private parlors, which I did not attend. Thus ended Sunday at the Oneida Community ; and with this picture of their daily life I may conclude my account of these people. THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES. THE AURORA AND BETHEL COMMUNES. Twenty-nine miles south of Portland, on the Oregon and California Railroad, lies the village of Aurora, more commonly known along the road as " Dutchtown." As you approach it on the train, you will notice on an eminence to the left a large wooden church; in the deep ravine which is spanned by a railroad-bridge, a saw-mill ; and, scattered irregularly over the neighboring country, a number of houses, most of them differ- ing from usual village dwellings in the United States, mainly because of their uncommon size, and the entire absence of or- nament. They are three stories high, sometimes nearly a hun- dred feet deep, and look like factories. Opposite the railroad station, upon elevated ground, stands one of these houses, which is called the hotel, and is an excel- lent, clean country inn, famous all over Oregon for good living. "When I mentioned to an acquaintance in Portland my purpose to spend some days at Aurora, he replied, " Oh, yes — Dutch- town ; you'll feed better there than any where else in the state ;" and on further inquiry I found that I might expect to see there also the best orchards in Oregon, the most ingenious expedients for drying fruits, and an excellent system of agri- culture. Beyond these practical points, and the further state- ment that " these Dutch are a queer people," information about them is not general among Oregonians. The inn, or " hotel," however, at Aurora, is used as a summer resort by res- idents of Portland ; the Aurora band is employed at festivities in Portland ; the pleasure-grounds of the community are open- 306 Communistic Societies of the United States. ed to Sunday-school and other picnics from the city in summer and fall; and at the State Agricultural Fair, held at Salem, the Aurora Community controls and manages the restaurant, and owns the buildings in which food is prepared and sold. In these ways it comes into direct communication with the outside world. I found the hotel a plainly furnished but scrupulously neat and clean house, at which I was received with very little cere- mony. Nor did any one volunteer to guide me about or give me information concerning the society : curiosity does not seem to be a vice of the place. A note of introduction to that mem- ber of the society who acts as its purchasing agent, with which fortunately I was provided, secured me his attention after I had found him. He was just then at work as a carpenter, put- ting up a small house for a newly married couple. The Aurora Commune is an offshoot of a society formed upon the same principles in Bethel, Shelby County, Missouri. Dr. Keil, the President of Aurora, was the founder of Bethel, and still rules botli communities. He removed from Missouri to Oregon because he imagined that there would be a larger field for his efforts in a new state ; and also, I imagine, because of an innate restlessness of disposition. Dr. Keil is a Prussian, born in 1811 ; and was a man-milli- ner in Germany. lie became a mystic, and he seems to have dealt also in magnetism, and used this as a curative agent for diseases. After living for some time in New York, he came to Pittsburgh, where he gave himself out as a physician, and showed, it is said, some knowledge of botany. He professed also to be the owner of a mysterious volume, written with hu- man blood, and containing receipts for medicines which en- abled him, as he professed, to cure various diseases. Presently he became a Methodist, and thereupon burned this book with certain awe-inspiring formalities. He seems to have been a The Aurora and Bethel Communes. 307 fanatic in religious matters, for he soon left the Methodists to form a sect of his own ; and it is related that he gathered a number of Germans about him, to whom he gave himself out as a being to be worshiped, and later as one of the two wit- nesses in the Book of Revelation ; and in this capacity he gave public notice that on a certain day, after a fast of forty days, he would be slain in the presence of his followers. While he was thus engaged in forming a following for him- self among the ignorant and simple-minded Germans, the rogue who called himself Count Leon came over and joined Bapp's colony at Economy; and when Leon, after quarreling with Bapp and removing to Phillipsburg, ran away from there to Louisiana, Keil managed to secure some of Leon's people as his adherents, and thereupon began to plan a communistic set- tlement, somewhat upon the plan of Bapp's, but with the celi- bate principle left out. In the year 1S44, his followers, among whom were by good luck some of the seceders from Economy, began a settlement in accordance with these plans in Missouri. They were all either Germans or " Pennsylvania Dutch," and people of limited means. It is probable that Keil had noth- ing, for he appears for some years previously to have followed no regular business or profession. They removed to Bethel, a point forty-eight miles from Hannibal, in Missouri, and thir- ty-six miles from Quincy; and began in very humble style. Not all the colonists came out at once. He took with him at first two families and a number of young people. These broke ground in the new settlement, and others followed as they sold their property at home. Shelby County, Missouri, was then a new country. The col- onists took up four sections, or two thousand five hundred and sixty acres of land, to which they added from time to time until they possessed four thousand acres. Upon a part of this estate they gradually established a distillery, grist-mill, saw- mill, carding machinery, a woolen-mill, and all the mechanical 308 Communistic Societies of the United States. trades needed by the farmers in their neighborhood, and thus they made a town. As soon as they were able they set up a general store, and a post-office was of course established by the government. Among their first buildings was a church ; for Dr. Keil was their spiritual as well as temporal head. At Bethel they prospered ; and there four hundred of these Communists still live. I shall give an account of them later. Keil's ideas grew with the increasing wealth of the people ; and his unrestf ul spirit longed for a new and broader field of labor. lie imagined that on the Pacific coast he might found a larger communistic society upon a broader domain ; and he did not find it difficult to persuade his people that the attempt ought to be made. In 1855, accordingly, Dr. Keil set out with ten or twelve families, eighty persons in all, across the plains, carrying along household utensils and some cattle. A few families started later, and crossed the Isthmus ; and all gathered at Shoalwater Bay, north of the mouth of the Columbia River, and in Wash- ington Territory. There a few families belonging to Aurora still live, managing farms of the community; but in June, 1856, the main body of the society removed to Aurora, and began there, with tedious and severe labor, a clearing among the firs. The upper part of the "Willamette Valley is a broad, open plain, easy to till, and inviting to the farmer. Dr. Keil and his companions avoided this plain : they chose to settle in a region pretty densely grown over with timber. I asked him why he did so. He replied that, meaning to establish a saw- mill, they wished to use the trees cut down in clearing the land to make into lumber for houses and fences. There was at that time no railroad, and lumber in the open prairie was expensive. " The end proved that we were right," said he ; "for, though we had hard work at first, and got ahead slowly, we were soon able to buy out the prairie farmers, who had got The Aurora and Bethel Communes. 309 into debt and were shiftless, while we prudent Germans were building our place." lie added a characteristic story of their early days — that when they first settled at Aurora, having no fruit of their own, he used to buy summer apples for his peo- ple from the nearest farmers for a dollar a bushel. These were eaten in the families ; but he taught them to save the apple-parings, and make them into vinegar, which he then sold to the wives of his American farming neighbors at a dollar and a half per gallon. In order to make intelligible the means as well as the ways of their success, I must here explain what are the social prin- ciples to which they agree, and in accordance with which they have worked since 1844. They are remarkable chiefly for their simplicity. Dr. Keil teaches, and they hold that — 1st. All government should be parental, to imitate, as they say, the parental government of God. 2d. That therefore societies should be formed upon the model of the family, having all interests and all property absolutely in common ; all the members laboring faithfully for the gen- eral welfare and support, and drawing the means of living from the general treasury. 3d. That, however, neither religion nor the harmony of nat- ure teaches community in any thing farther than property and labor. Hence the family life is strictly maintained ; and the Aurora Communists marry and are given in marriage, and raise and train children precisely as do their neighbors the Pike farmers. They reject absolutely all sexual irregularities, and inculcate marriage and support the family relation as re- ligious duties, as the outside world does. Each family has its own house, or separate apartments in one of the large build- ings. 4th. Dr. Keil, who is not only their president, but also their preacher, holds the fundamental truth of Christianity to be, "Love one another," and interprets this in so broad and literal Y 310 Communistic Societies of the United States. a sense as requires a community of goods and effects. His sermons are exhortations and illustrations of this principle, and warnings against " selfishness " and praise of self-sacrifice. Service is held in a very commodious and well-built church twice a month, and after the Lutheran style : opening with singing, prayer, and reading of the Scriptures ; after which the president preaches from a chosen text. To me he spoke with some vehemence against sects and creeds as anti-Christian. Sunday is usually a day of recreation and quiet amusement, with music and visiting among the people. 5th. The children of the community are sent to school, there being at Aurora a common or free school, in which an old man, a member of the society, who bears a remarkable resem- blance to the late Horace Greeley, is teacher. The school is supported as other free schools of the state are ; but it is open all the year round, which is not the case generally with coun- try schools. They aim to teach only the rudimentary studies — reading, writing, and arithmetic. 6th. The system of government is as simple as possible. Dr. Keil, the founder, is president of the community, and autocrat, lie has for his advisers four of the older members, who are selected by himself. In the management of affairs he con- sults these, whose opinions, I imagine, usually agree with his. When any vitally important change or experiment is contem- plated, the matter is discussed by the whole community, and nothing is done then without a general assent. 7th. Every man is expected to labor for the general good, but there are no established hours of work, nor is any one compelled to labor at any special pursuit. 8th. Plain living and rigid economy are inculcated as duties from each to the whole ; and to labor regularly, and to waste nothing, are important parts of the "whole duty of man." 9th. Each workshop has its foreman, who comes, it would The Aurora and Bethel Communes. 31 1 seem, by natural selection. That is to say, here, as elsewhere, the fittest man comes to the front. But it is a principle of their polity that men shall not be confined to one kind of labor. If brickmakers are needed, and shoemakers are not busy, the shoe shop is closed, and the shoemakers go out and make brick. During the spring and summer months a large propor- tion of the people are engaged in the cultivation of crops. After harvest these are drawn into the town, and find winter employment in the saw-mill and the different shops. It is to accommodate these temporary sojourners that the large houses are built. Here they have apartments allotted to them, and the young people board with the different families, the young girls being employed chiefly in household duties. These are the extremely simple principles and practical rules which guide the Aurora Community. Their further applica- tion I will show in detail hereafter. I wish first to show the dollar-and-cent results. Coming to Aurora in 1856, they have held together, with some outside gains, and some additions from the Bethel So- ciety, until there are now nearly four hundred people in the settlement, who own about eighteen thousand acres of land, scattered over several counties. They have established a saw- mill, a tan-yard, and cabinet-maker's, blacksmith's, wagon-mak- er's, tailor's, shoemaker's, carpenter's, and tin shops. Also a grist-mill, carding machinery, some looms for weaving wool ; drying houses for fruit; and there is a supply store for the community, a drug store kept by the doctor of the society, and a general country store, at which the neighboring farmers, not Communists, deal for cash. They have besides the most extensive orchards in the state, in which are apples, pears of all kinds, plums, prunes, which do admirably here, and all the commoner large and small fruits. There is also a large vegetable garden, for the use of those who have none at their houses. The orchards are in fine 3 1 2 Communistic Societies of the United States. order, and were laden with fruit when I saw them in June, 1873. Near the orchard is a large, neatly kept house, in which the people gather during the fruit-harvest to prepare it for market, and to pare that which is to be dried. Beyond the orchard is a public ground of a dozen acres, for Sunday assem- blies ; and here, too, are houses for eating and dancing, with a kitchen and bake-ovens commodious enough to cook a meal for the whole settlement, or for a large picnic party. Thus far they have brought their affairs in seventeen years, without any peculiar religious belief, any interference with the marriage or family relation, without a peculiar dress, or any other habit to mark them as Separatists, or " Come-outers," to use a New England phrase. It must be admitted also that they have achieved thus much without long or exhausting or enforced labor. Their living is extremely plain. The houses and apartments are without carpets ; the women wear calico on Sunday as well as during the week, and the sun-bonnet is their head-covering. The men wear ready-made clothing of no particular style. Cleanliness is, so far as I saw, a conspicuous virtue of the society. Dr. Keil, the president, was the only person with whom I came in contact who was not very neat. He is a snuff-taker; and he walked over the orchard with me in an untidy pair of carpet slippers. They appear to be people of few ceremonies. On a Sunday I attended a wedding ; the marriage took place in the school- house, and was witnessed by a small congregation of young people, friends of the bride and groom. The young girls came to the wedding in clean calico dresses and sun-bonnets ; and I noticed that even the bride wore only a very plain woolen dress, with a bit of bright ribbon around her neck. The cere- mony was performed by the schoolmaster, who is also a justice of the peace ; when it was over, the company quietly and some- what shyly walked up to congratulate the newly married, some The Aurora a^d Bethel Communes. 313 of the young women kissing the bride. Then there was an immediate adjournment to the house of the bride's father, a mile off in the country. I was hospitably invited to go to the feast ; and found a small log cabin, with kitchen and bedroom below, and a loft above, standing near a deep ravine, and with a neat garden and small orchard back of it. In front a bower had been formed of the boughs of ever- greens, beneath which were two or three tables, which were presently spread with a plain but wholesome and bountiful feast, to which the strangers present and the older people were first invited to sit down, the younger ones waiting on the table, and with laughter and joking taking their places afterward. Meantime the village band played ; after dinner we all walked into the garden, and in a pretty little summer-house discussed orchards, bees, and other country living, and by and by return- ed to the village. The young people were to have some danc- ing, and altogether it was a very pretty, rather quiet country wedding. It struck me that the young women were under- sized, and did not look robust or strong ; there were no rosy cheeks, and there was a very subdued air upon all the congre- gation. The poor little bride looked pale and scared ; but the bridegroom, a stout young fellow, looked proud and happy, as was proper. Dr. Keil was not present, but drove out in a very plain country wagon as the weddingers entered the school- room. The community occasionally employs outside laborers ; and when a man or woman applies to join the society, he or she is at first employed at wages, and at some trade. " We will em- ploy and pay you as long as we need your labor," the council says in such a case ; " if after a while you are thoroughly sat- isfied that this is the best life, and if we approve of you, we will take you in." It is not necessary that the new-comer should bring money with him ; but if he has means, he is required to put them into the common treasury, for he must believe that 314 Communistic Societies of the United States. " all selfish accumulation is wrong, contrary to God's law and to natural laws." Occasionally, I was told, they have had as members idle or drunken men. Such are admonished of their wrong courses; and if they are incorrigible, they always, I was assured, leave the place. " An idler or dissolute person has not the sympathies of our people ; he has no connection with the industries of the society ; as he does not work, he can hardly be so brazen as to ask for supplies. The practical result is that presently he dis- appears from among us." "Do you have no disagreements from envy or jealousy among you," I asked Dr.Keil ; who replied," Very seldom now ; the people have been too long and too thoroughly trained ; they are too well satisfied of the wisdom of our plan of life ; they are practiced in self-sacrifice, and know that selfishness is evil and the source of unhappiness. In the early days we used sometimes to have trouble. Thus a man would say, ' I brought money into the society, and this other man brought none ; why should he have as much as I ;' but my reply was, ' Here is your money — take it ; it is not necessary ; but while you remain, re- member that you are no better than he.' Again, another might say, ' My labor brings one thousand dollars a year to the society, his only two hundred and fifty ;' but my answer was, ' Thank God that he made you so much abler, stronger, to help your brother; but take care lest your poorer brother do not some day have to help you, when you are crippled, or ill, or dis- abled.'" The children who have in these years, since 1844, grown up in the community generally remain. I spoke with a number of men who had thus passed all but their earliest years in the society, and who were content. Men sometimes return, repent- ant, after leaving the society. " The boys and girls know that they can leave at any time ; there is no compulsion upon any one ; hence no one cares to go. But they generally see that The Aurora and Bethel Communes. 315 this is the best place. We are as prosperous and as happy as any one ; we have here all we need." As all work for the common good, so all are supplied from the common stores. I asked the purchasing agent about the book-keeping of the place; he replied, " As there is no trading, few accounts are needed. Much of what we raise is consumed on the place, and of what the people use no account is kept. Thus, if a family needs flour, it goes freely to the mill and gets what it requires. If butter, it goes to the store in the same way. We need only to keep account of what we sell of our own products, and of what we buy from abroad, and these ac- counts check each other. When we make money, we invest it in land." Further, I was told that tea, coffee, and sugar are roughly allowanced to each family. Each family has either a house, or apartments in one of the large houses. Each has a garden patch, and keeps chickens ; and every year a number of pigs are set apart for each house- hold, according to its number. These are fed with the leav- ings of the table, and are fattened and killed in the winter, and salted down. Fresh beef is not commonly used. If any one needs vegetables, he can get them in the large garden. There seemed to be an abundance of good plain food every where. Originally, and until 1872, all the property stood in Dr. Keil's name ; but in that year he, finding himself growing old, and urged too, I imagine, by some of the leading men, made a division of the whole estate, and gave a title-deed to each head of a family of a suitable piece of property — to a farm- er a farm, to a carpenter a house and shop, and so on. If there was any heart-burning over this division, I could not hear of it ; and it appears to have made no difference in the conduct of the society, which labors on as before for the com- mon welfare. I asked, " What, then, if you have divided all the property, will you do for the young people as they grow up ?" 3 1 6 Communistic Societies of the United States. Dr. Keil replied, "Dear me ! — in the beginning we bad noth- ing, now we bave a good deal : where did it all come from \ We earned and saved it. Very well; w r e are working just the same — we shall go on earning money and laying it by for those who are growing up ; we shall have enough for all." I give below some further details, which I elicited from Dr. Keil, preferring to give them in the form of questions and answers : Question. I have noticed that when young girls grow up they usually manifest a taste for ribbons and finery. How do you manage with such cases % Answer. Well, they get what they want. They have only to ask at the supply store ; only if they go too far — if it amounts to vanity — they are admonished that they are not acting ac- cording to the principles of love and temperance ; they are putting undue expense on the society ; they are making them- selves different from their neighbors. It is not necessary to say this, however, for our people are now all trained in sound principles, and there is but little need for admonition. Q. But suppose such a warning as you speak of were not taken ? A. Well, then they have leave to go into the world. If they want to be like the world, that is the place for them. And don't you see that if they are so headstrong and full of vanity they would not stay with us anyhow ? They would not feel at home with us. Q. Suppose one of your young men has the curiosity to see the world, as young men often have ? A. We give him money ; he has only to ask the council. We say to him : " You want to live in the world ; well, you must earn your own living there ; here is money, however, for your journey." And we give him according to his character and worth in the society. Q. Suppose a young man wanted to go to college? The Aurora and Bethel Communities. 3 1 7 A. If any one of our people wanted to train himself in some practical knowledge or skill for the service of the com- munity, and if he were a proper person in stability of character and capacity, we would send him, and support him while he was learning. This we have repeatedly done. In such cases our experience is that when such young men return to us they bring back, not only all the money we have advanced for their support, but generally more besides. Suppose, for instance, one wanted to learn how to dye woolens ; we would give him sufficient means to learn his calling thoroughly. But he would probably soon be receiving wages; and, as our people are economical, he would lay aside from his wages most likely more even than we had advanced him ; and this he would be proud to bring into the common treasury on his return. [Dr. Keilgave me several instances of such conduct; and then pro- ceeded, with a contemptuous air.] But if a young man wants to study languages, he may do so here, as much as he likes — no one will object ; but if he wanted to go to college for that — well, we don't labor here to support persons in such under- takings, which have no bearing on the general welfare of the society. In fact there is little room for poetry or for the imagination in the life of Aurora. What is not directly useful is sternly left out. There are no carpets, even in Dr. Keil's house ; no sofas or easy chairs, but hard wooden settles ; an immense kitchen, in which women were laboring, with short gowns tucked up ; a big common room, where apparently the Doctor lives with the dozen unmarried old men who form part of his household ; a wide hall full of provision safes, flour- bins, barrels, etc.; but no books, except a Bible and hymn-book, and a few medical works ; no pictures — nothing to please the taste ; no pretty out- look, for the house lies somewhat low down. Such was the house of the founder and president of the community; and the other houses were neither better nor much worse. There 31 8 Communistic Societies of the United States. is evidently plenty of scrubbing in-doors, plenty of plain cook- ing, plenty of every thing that is absolutely necessary to sup- port life — and nothing superfluous. When I remarked upon this to some of the men, and urged them to lay out the village in a somewhat picturesque style, to which the ground would readily lend itself, and explained that a cottage might be plain and yet not ugly, the reply invariably came : " We have all that is necessary now ; by and by, if we are able and want them, we may have luxuries." " For the present," said one, " we have duties to do : we must support our widows, our orphans, our old people who can no longer produce. No man is allowed to want here amongst us; we all work for the helpless." It was a droll illustration of their devotion to the useful, to find in the borders of the garden, where flowers had been planted, these flowers alternating with lettuce, radishes, and other small vegetables. Dr. Keil is a short, burly man, with blue eyes, whitish hair, and white beard. I took him to be a Swiss from his appear- ance, but his language — he spoke German with me — showed him to be a Prussian. He seemed excitable and somewhat sus- picious ; gave no tokens whatever of having studied any book but the Bible, and that only as it helped him to enforce his own philosophy. He was very quick to turn every thought toward the one subject of community life ; took his illustra- tions mostly from the New Testament; and evidently laid much stress on the parental character of God. As he discuss- ed, his eyes lighted up with a somewhat fierce fire ; and I thought I could perceive a fanatic, certainly a person of a very determined, imperious will, united to a narrow creed. As to that creed : He said it was desirable and needful so to arrange our lives as to bring them into harmony with natu- ral laws and with God's laws ; that we must all trust in Him for strength and wisdom ; that we all needed his protection — and as he thus spoke we turned suddenly into a little inclosure The Aurora and Bethel Communities. 319 where I saw an uncommon sight, five graves close together, as sometimes children's are made ; but these were evidently the graves of grown persons. " Here," he said, " lie my chil- dren — all I had, five ; they all died after they were men and women, between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one. One after the other I laid them here. It was hard to bear ; but now I can thank God for that too. He gave them, and I thanked him ; he took them, and now I can thank him too." Then, after a minute's silence, he turned upon me with sombre eyes and said : " To bear all that comes upon us in silence, in quiet, without noise, or outcry, or excitement, or useless repin- ing — that is to be a man, and that we can do only with God's help." As we walked along through, the vegetable garden and vine- yard, I saw some elderly women hoeing the vines and clearing the ground of weeds. I must not forget to say that the culture of their orchards, vineyards, and gardens is thorough and ad- mirable. Dr. Keil said, nodding to the women, " They like this work; it is their choice to spend the afternoon thus. If I should tell them to go and put on fine clothes and lounge around, they would be very much aggrieved." The members are all Germans or Pennsylvanians. They are of several Protestant sects ; and there is even one Jew, but no Roman Catholics. The band played on Sunday evening for an hour or more, but did not attract many people. Boys were playing ball in the street at the same time. Some bought tobacco ; which led me to ask again about the use of money. The question was not in any case satisfactorily answered ; but I have reason to believe that a little selfish earning of private spending money is winked at. For instance, the man whose daughter's wed- ding I attended kept a few hives of bees ; and in answer to a question I was told he did not turn their honey into the gen- eral treasury ; what he did not consume he was allowed to sell. 320 Communistic Societies of the United States. " In such ways we get a little finery for our daughters," said one. Again, when apples are very abundant, and a sufficient supply has been dried for market, the remainder of the crop is divided among the householders, with the understanding that they may eat or sell them as they prefer. There is an air of untidyness about the streets of the settle- ment which is unpleasing. There is a piece of water, which might easily be made very pretty, but it is allowed to turn into a quagmire. But few of the door-yards are neatly kept. The village seems to have been laid out at haphazard. Moreover, their stock is of poor breeds ; the pigs especially being wretch- ed razor-backed creatures. As to the people — there can be no doubt that they are happy and contented. In a country where labor is scarce and highly paid, and where the rewards of patient industry in any calling are sure and large, it is not to be supposed that such a society as Aurora would have held together nineteen years if its mem- bers were not in every way satisfied with their plan of life, and with the results they have attained under it. What puzzled me was to find a considerable number of peo- ple in the United States satisfied with so little. "What they have secured is neighbors, sufficient food probably of a better kind than is enjoyed by the ordinary Oregon farmer, and a distinct and certain provision for their old age, or for helpless- ness. The last seemed, in all their minds, a source of great comfort. Pecuniarily their success has not been brilliant, for if the property were sold out and the money divided, the eighty or ninety families would not receive more than three thousand or thirty-five hundred dollars each ; and a farmer in Oregon must have been a very unfortunate man, who, coming here nineteen years ago with nothing, should not be worth more than this sum now, if he had labored as steadily and indus- triously, and lived as economically as the Aurora people have. The Aurora and Bethel Communities. 321 It is probable, however, that in the minds of most of them, the value of united action, the value to each of the example of the others, and the security against absolute poverty and helplessness in the first years of hard struggle, as well as the comfort of social ties, has counted for a great deal. Nor ought I to forget the moral advantages, which appear to me immense and not to be underrated. Since the founda- tion of the colony, it has not had a criminal among its num- bers ; it has sent no man to jail ; it has not had a lawsuit, neither among the members nor with outside people; it has not an insane person, nor one blind or deaf and dumb ; nor has there been any case of deformity. It has no poor ; and the support of its own helpless persons is a part of its plan. This means that the Aurora community has not once in nineteen years of its existence used the courts, the jails, or the asylums of the state; that it has contributed nothing to the criminal or the pauper parts of the population. This result in a newly settled state, and among a rude so- ciety, will appear not less remarkable when I add that the community has no library ; that its members, so far as I could see, lack even the most common and moderate literary culture, aspiring to nothing further than the ability to read, write, and cipher; that from the president down it is absolute- ly without intellectual life. Moreover, it has very few amuse- ments. Dancing is very little practiced ; there is so little so- cial life that there is not even a hall for public meetings in the village ; apple-parings and occasional picnics in the sum- mer, the playing of a band, a sermon twice a month, and vis- iting among the families, are the chief, indeed the only excite- ments in their monotonous lives. With all this there is sin- gularly little merely animal enjoyment among them : they do not drink liquor ; the majority, I was told, do not even smoke tobacco ; there is no gayety among the people. Doubtless the winter, which brings them all together in the village, leads to 322 Communistic Societies of the United States. some amusements; but I could hear of nothing set, or looked forward to, or elaborately planned. " The women talk, more or less," said one man to me, when I asked if there were never disagreements and family jars; "but we have learned to bear that, and it makes no trouble." It seemed to me that I saw in the faces and forms of the people the results of this too monotonous existence. The young women are mostly pale, flat-chested, and somewhat thin. The young men look good-natured, but aimless. The older women and men are slow in their movements, placid, very quiet, and apparently satisfied with their lives. I suppose the lack of smart dress and finery among the young people on Sunday, and at the wedding, gave a some- what monotonous and dreary impression of the assemblage. This was probably strengthened in my mind by the fact that the somewhat shabby appearance of the people was only of a piece with the shabby and neglected look of their village, so that the whole conveyed an impression of carelessness and de- cay. Nineteen years of steady labor ought to have brought them, I could not but think, a little further : ought to have given them tastefully ornamented grounds, pretty houses, a public bath, a library and assembly-room, and neat Sunday clothing. It appeared to me that the stern repression of the whole intellectual side of life by their leader had borne this evil fruit. But it may be that the people themselves were to blame : they are Gernlans of a low class, and " Pennsylvania Dutch" — people, too often, who do not aim high. Then, too, it must be admitted that farm-life in Oregon is not, in gen- eral, above the plane of Aurora. Dutchtown is an Oregonian paradise ; and the Aurora people are commonly said to " have every thing very nice about them." Moreover, I could see that such a community must, unless it has for its head a person of strong intellectual life, advance more slowly and with greater difficulty than its members The Aurora and Bethel Communities. 323 might, if they were living in the great world and thrown upon their individual resources. Economically, I think there is no doubt that in the clearing up of their land, and the establishment of orchards and other productive industries, these Communists had a decided and important advantage over farmers undertaking similar enter- prises with the help of laborers to whom they must have paid wages. For, though the wages of a day-laborer nowhere yield much more than his support and that of his family, they yield this in an uneconomical manner, a part of the sum earned be- ing dropped on the way to middlemen, and a part going for whisky, sprees, blue Mondays, and illness arising out of bad situation, improper food, etc. The Aurora colonists labored without money wages ; they could economize to the last pos- sible degree in order to tide over a difficult place ; they at all times measured their outlay by their means on hand ; and I do not doubt that they made Aurora, with its orchards and other valuable improvements, for half what it would have cost by individual effort. Nor can it be safely asserted that there is no higher future for Aurora. Dr. Keil can not carry them further — but he is sixty-four years old ; if, when he dies, the presidency should fall into the hands of a person who, with tact enough to keep the people together, should have also intellectual culture enough to desire to lift them up to a higher plane of living, I can see nothing to prevent his success. The difficulty is that Dr. Keil's system produces no such man. Moses was brought up at Pharaoh's court, and not among the Israelites whom he liberated, and who made his whole life miserable for him. 324 Communistic Societies of the United States. II. — Bethel. Bethel is, of course, the older community ; I describe it here after Aurora, because my visit to it was made after I had seen the Oregon community, and also because here is shown to what Aurora tends. The two societies are still one, having their efforts in common ; and I was told that if the people at Bethel could sell their property, they would all remove to Oregon. The Bethel Community now owns about four thousand acres of good land, exclusive of a tract of thirteen hundred acres at Nineveh, in the neighboring county of Adair, where six fam- ilies of the community live, who are engaged chiefly in farm- ing, having, however, also an old saw-mill and a tannery, and a shoemaker's and a blacksmith's shop. These families were removed thither twenty-five years ago, because it was thought the land there had a valuable water-power. Bethel has now above two hundred members, and about twenty-five families. There are fifty children in the school, I was told. They have a saw-mill and grist-mill, a tannery, a few looms, a general store, and a drug-store, and shops for carpenters, blacksmiths, coopers, tinners, tailors, shoemakers, and hatters, all on a small scale, but sufficient to supply not only themselves but the neighboring farmers. They had formerly a distillery, but that and a woolen factory were burned down a few years ago. They mean to rebuild the last. All the people are Germans, and I found here many relatives of persons I had met at Aurora. The town has much the same characteristic features as Au- rora, except that it has not the exceptionally large and factory- like dwellings. It has one main street, poorly kept, and in parts even without a sidewalk ; cattle and pigs were straying z The Aurora and Bethel Com?nu?tes. 325 about it, too, and altogether it did not look very prosperous. But the brick dwellings which lined the street were substan- tially built, and the saw and grist mill which lies at the lower end is a well-constructed building of brick. Half-way up the main street was a drug-store, large enough I should have said to accommodate with purges and cathartics a town of twenty- five hundred inhabitants ; and on a cross-street was another. Besides the chief store, I was surprised to see two other smaller shops ; and still more surprised to be told that they belonged to and were kept by persons who had left the community, but who remained here in its midst. Of these I shall have some- thing to say by and by. At the head of the street stands the tavern or hotel, kept in the German or Pennsylvania Dutch way — with a bed in the large common room, and meals served in the kitchen. The German cooking was substantial and good. To the right of the hotel, at some distance, stands the church, placed in the middle of a young grove of trees planted much too thickly ever to prosper. The church has a floor of large red tiles; a narrow pulpit at one end ; a place railed off at the other end, where the band plays on high festivals, and two doors for the entrance of the sexes, who sit on separate sides of the house. From the tower I had a view of the greater part of the com- munity's territory, which lies finely, and is evidently a well-se- lected and valuable tract of land. As in Aurora, they have preaching here every other Sun- day, and no week-day meetings or assemblages of any kind. They told me, however, that they have a Sunday-school for the children, where they are instructed in the Bible. The preacher and head of this society is a Mr. Giese, ap- pointed by Dr. Keil ; he keeps also the drug-store, where I was sorry to see liquor sold to laboring men and others, but in a very quiet way. The Bethel Society has six trustees, chosen by the members, 326 Communistic Societies of the United States. but holding office during good behavior. As in Aurora, no business report is made to the society. Giese is cashier and book-keeper, and the trustees examine his accounts once a year. The real estate in Bethel is held upon a very extraordinary tenure. It appears that — the settlement having begun in 1844: — by 1847 there were in the society some dissatisfied persons, •who clamored for a partition of the property. Dr. Keil there- upon determined to divide it, and to each member or house- holder a certain part was made over as his own. Out of the gains of the community in the three years was reserved suffi- cient to support the aged and infirm, and I believe the mills were also kept as part of the common stock. Thereupon some dissatisfied persons sold their shares and went off. The re- mainder lived on in common, and without changing their re- lations. To each person a deed was given of his share ; but those who remained in the society were told — so the matter was explained to me by two of the trustees — not to put their deeds on record ; and later a deed of the whole property of the community, including the individual holdings, was made out in the name of the president, Mr. Giese. I did not see this document, but presume, of course, that it gave him a title only in trust for all. " "Why did you partition the property ?" I asked, curiously ; and was answered, " In order to let every one be absolutely free, and to see who were inclined to a selfish life, and who for the community or unselfish life." Moreover, I was assured that any one who wished might at any time put his deed on record, and its validity would be acknowledged. Now among the persons who left the society, six families were allowed to retain their property, and of these several at this day live in the midst of the village. One is a mechanic, who pursues his trade for wages ; and two others keep small shops. This appeared to me a really extraordinary instance of The Aurora and Bethel Communes. 327 liberality or carelessness ; but no one of the community seemed to think it strange. There are also one or two farmers, not members ; with one of these, a young man, I rode into Shel- bina. He told me that he had grown up in the society ; that he had gone into the army, where he served during the war ; and when he returned he had got tired of community life. He had also got some business notions into his head, and thought the community affairs were too loosely managed. The members, he thought, had not sufficient knowledge of business ; in which I agreed with him. But his house stood at the end of the village, and the relations between him and his former associates were at least so far amicable that one of the trustees took me to him to engage my passage to the rail- road station. The society was strongest before Dr. Keil went to Oregon ; he drew away, between 1854 and 1863, about four hundred of the six hundred and fifty persons who were gathered in Bethel in 1855 ; and among these were, it seems, a large number of young men who did not want to serve in the war, the society being non-resistants, and slipped off to Oregon to avoid the draft. There are no accessions from outside, or at any rate so few as to count for nothing. But, on the other hand, they as- sured me that they keep most of their young people. When one of the younger generation — for whom no prop- erty has been set apart — wishes to leave, a sum of money is given. While I was there a young girl was about to sever her connection with the society, and she received, besides her cloth- ing, twenty-five dollars in money. If she had been older she would have received more, on the ground that she would have earned more by her labor, beyond the cost to the society of her care from childhood. Some years ago they were subjected to a troublesome law- suit, brought by a seceding member to recover both wages and the property of his parents. Thereupon, for the first time, 328 Communistic Societies of the United States. they drew up a Constitution, which all signed, and which binds them to claim no wages. Clothing is served to all the members alike from a common store. As to food: as at Aurora, each family receives pigs enough for meat, and cows enough for milk and butter ; and adjoining each house is a garden of from a quarter to half an acre, in which the women work to raise vegetables for the home supply — the men helping at odd hours. But it is plainly understood that each may, and indeed is expected to raise a surplus of chickens, eggs, vegetables, fruits, etc., which is sold at the store for such luxuries as coffee, sugar, and articles of food brought from a distance. The calves are raised for the community. I found that one member was a silversmith and photographer ; and all that he sold to his fellow-members of course they paid for with the surplus products of their small holdings. Flour and meal they take from the mill as they please, and no account is kept of it. The trustees are also foremen, and lay out the work. The people rise with the sun, and have three meals a day. Before every house, neatly piled up in the street, I noticed large sup- plies of fire-wood, sawed and split. They hire a few laborers to cut wood for them ; it is then drawn into town and to each man's door by the community teams; and thereupon each family is expected to saw and split its own supplies. In fact, they make a general effort, and with singing and much merri- ment the wood-piles are properly prepared. This certainly is a convenience which the backwood's farmer's wife is often without ; but the untidy look of a great wood-pile before each house vexed my eyes. The older men complained to me that the emigration to Oregon of so many of their young people had crippled them ; and, indeed, I saw many signs of neglect — buildings in want of repair, and a lack of tidiness. But still they appear to be making money ; for they have recently rebuilt their grist-mill, The Aurora and Bethel Co?nmunes. 329 and have also within a few years paid off a debt of between three and four thousand dollars. The religious belief of the Bethel Communists is, of course, the same with their Aurora brethren. They venerate Dr. Keil as the wisest of mankind, and abhor all ceremonies and sects. I was told that they celebrate the Lord's Supper at irregular intervals, and then by a regular supper, held either in the church or in a private house. The people, like those of Aurora, are simple Germans of the lower class, and they live comfortably after their fashion. They have no library, and read few books except the Bible. They have never printed any thing. In many of the houses I noticed two beds in one room, and that the principal sitting- room of the family. Dr. Giese, the president, has living with him most of the young men who are without family connec- tions in the society. There are usually no carpets in the houses. But every thing is clean; the beds are neat; and it is only out of doors that litter is to be found. The people have but little ingenuity ; there is a lack of la- bor-saving devices ; indeed, the only thing of the kind I saw was a wash-house, through which the hot water from the boiler of the mill is led; but the house itself was badly arranged and comfortless. The young people have a band of music, but no other amusement that I could hear of. Tobacco they use freely, and strong drink is allowed; but they have no drunkards. As their future is secure, the people marry young, and this probably does much to bind them to the place. No restriction is placed upon marriage, except that if one marries out of the community, he must leave it. The extraordinary feature of the Bethel and Aurora com- munities is the looseness of the bond which keeps the people together. They might break up at any time ; but they have remained in community for thirty years. Their religious be- 330 Communistic Societies of the United States. lief is extremely simple, and yet it seems to suffice to hold them. They have not had among them any good business- men, yet they have managed to make a reasonably fair busi- ness success ; for though, as I remarked concerning Aurora, almost any farmer industrious and economical as they are would have been pecuniarily better off after so many years, still these people, but for their determination to have their goods in common, would for the most part to-day have been day -laborers. In weighing results, one should not forget the character of those who have achieved them ; and considering what these people are, it can not be denied that they have lived better in community than they would have lived by individual effort. THE ICARIANS, NEAR CORNING, IOWA.. THE ICARIANS. Etienne Cabet had a pretty dream ; this dream took hold of his mind, and he spent sixteen years of his life in trying to turn it into real life. One can not help respecting the handful of men and women who, in the wilderness of Iowa, have for more than twenty years faithfully endeavored to work out the problem of Com- munism according to the system he left them ; but Cabet's own writings persuade me that he was little more than a vain dreamer, without the grim patience and steadfast unselfishness which must rule the nature of one who wishes to found a suc- cessful communistic society. Cabet was born at Dijon, in France, in 1788. He was edu- cated for the bar, but became a politician and writer. He was a leader of the Carbonari ; was a member of the French Leg- islature ; wrote a history of the French Revolution of July ; established a newspaper ; was condemned to two years' im- prisonment for an article in it, but evaded his sentence by flying to London ; in 1839 returned to France, and published a history of the French Revolution in four volumes ; and the next year issued a book somewhat famous in its day — the voy- age to Icaria. In this romance he described a communistic Utopia, whose terms he had dreamed out ; and he began at once to try to realize his dream. He framed a constitution for an actual Icaria ; sought for means and members to estab- lish it ; selected Texas as its field of operations, and early in 1848 actually persuaded a number of persons to set sail for the Red River country. 334 Communistic Societies of the United States. Sixty-nine persons formed the advance guard of his Utopia. They were attacked by yellow fever, and suffered greatly ; and by the time next year when Cabet arrived at New Orleans with a second band, the first was already disorganized. He heard, on his arrival, that the Mormons had been driven from Nau- voo, in Illinois, leaving their town deserted ; and in May, 1850, he established his followers there. They bought at Nauvoo houses sufficient to accommodate them, but very little land, renting such farms as they needed. They lived there on a communal system, and ate in a great dining-room. But Cabet, I have been told, did not intend to form his colony permanently there, but regarded Nauvoo only as a rendezvous for those who should join the community, in- tending to draft them thence to the real settlements, which he wished to found in Iowa. If Cabet had been a leader of the right temper, he might, I believe, have succeeded ; for he appears to have secured the only element indispensable to success — a large number of fol- lowers. He had at Nauvoo at one time not less than fifteen hundred people. "With so many members, a wise leader with business skill ought to be able to accomplish very much in a single year ; in ten years his commune, if he could keep it to- gether, ought to be wealthy. The Icarians labored and planted with success at Nauvoo ; they established trades of different kinds, as well as manufact- ures ; and Cabet set up a printing-office, and issued a num- ber of books and pamphlets in French and German, intend- ed to attract attention to the community. Among these, a pamphlet of twelve pages, entitled, "Wenn ich $500,000 hatte" ("If I had half a million dollars"), which bears date Nauvoo, 1854, gives in some detail his plans and desires. It is a statement of what he could and would achieve for a com- mune if some one would start him with a capital of half a million; and the fact that four years after he came to Nan- The Icarians. 335 voo he should still have spent his time in such an impractica- ble dream, shows, I think, that he was not a fit leader for the enterprise. For nothing appears to me more certain than that a communistic society, to be successful, needs above all things to have the training, mental and physical, which comes out of a life of privation, spent in the patient accumulation of prop- erty by the labors of the members. Moreover, in Cabet's first paragraph he shows contempt for one of the vital principles of a communistic society. " If I had five hundred thousand dollars," he writes, " this would open to us an immense credit, and in this way vastly increase our means." But it is absolutely certain that debt is the bane of such societies; and the remnant of Icarians who have so tenaciously and bravely held together in Iowa would be the first to confess this, for they suffered hardships for years be- cause of debt. If he had half a million, Cabet goes on to say, he would be able to establish his commune upon a broad and generous scale ; and he draws a pretty picture of dwellings supplied with gas and hot aud cold water ; of factories fitted up on the largest scale ; of fertile farms under the best culture ; of schools, high and elementary ; of theatres, and other places of amusement ; of elegantly kept pleasure-grounds, and so on. Alas for the dreams of a dreamer ! I turned over the leaves of his pamphlet while wandering through the muddy lanes of the present Icaria, on one chilly Sunday in March, with a keen sense of pain at the contrast between the comfort and elegance he so glowingly described and the dreary poverty of the life which a few determined men and women have there chosen to follow, for the sake of principles which they hold both true and valuable. I have heard that Cabet developed at Nauvoo a dictatorial spirit, and that this produced in time a split in the society. The leader and his adherents went off to St. Louis, where he 336 Communistic Societies of the United States. died in 1856. Meantime some of the members were already settled in Iowa, and those who remained at Nauvoo after Ca- bet's desertion or flight dispersed ; the property was sold, and the Illinois colony came to an end. The greater part of the members went off, more or less disappointed. Between fifty and sixty settled npon the Iowa estate, and here began life, very poor and with a debt of twenty thousand dollars in some way fixed upon their land. Their narrow means allowed them to build at first only the meanest mud hovels. They thought themselves prosperous when they were able to build log-cabins, though these were so wretched that comfort must have been unknown among them for years. They were obliged to raise all that they consumed ; and they lived, and indeed still live, in the narrowest way. The Icarian Commune lies about four miles from Corn- ing, a station on the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, in Iowa. They began here with four thousand acres of land, pretty well selected, and twenty thousand dollars of debt. After some years of struggle they gave up the land to their creditors, with the condition that they might redeem one half of it within a certain stipulated time. This they were able to do by hard work and pinching economy ; and they own at present one thousand nine hundred and thirty-six acres, part of which is in timber, and valuable on that account. There are in all sixty-five members, and eleven families. The families are not large, for there are twenty children and only twenty-three voters in the community. They possess a saw-mill and grist-mill, built out of their savings within five years, and now a source of income. They cultivate three hundred and fifty acres of land, and have one hundred and twenty head of cattle, five hundred head of sheep, two hundred and fifty hogs, and thirty horses. Until within three years the settlement contained only log-cabins, and these very small, and not comrnodiously arranged. Since then they The Icarians. 337 have got entirely out of debt, and have begun to build frame houses. The most conspicuous of these is a two-story build- ing, sixty by twenty-four feet in dimensions, which contains the common dining-room, kitchen, a provision cellar, and up stairs a room for a library, and apartments for a family. In the spring of 1874 they had nearly a dozen frame houses, which included the dining-hall, a wash-house, dairv, and school- house. All the dwellings are small and very cheaply built. They have small shops for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon- making, and shoemaking ; and they make, as far as possible, all they use. Most of the people are French, and this is the language mainly spoken, though I found that German was also under- stood. Besides the French, there are among the members one American, one Swiss, a Swede, and a Spaniard, and two Ger- mans. The children look remarkably healthy, and on Sunday were dressed with great taste. The living is still of the plain- est. In the common dining-hall they assemble in groups at the tables, which were without a cloth, and they drink out of tin cups, and pour their water from tin cans. "It is very plain," said one to me ; " but we are independent — no man's servants — and we are content." They sell about two thousand five hundred pounds of wool each year, and a. certain number of cattle and hogs ; and these, with the earnings of their mills, are the sources of their income. Their number does not increase, though four or five years ago they were reduced to thirty members ; but since then seven who went off have returned. I should say that they had passed over the hardest times, and that a moderate degree of prosperity is possible to them now ; but they have waited long for it. I judge that they had but poor skill in management and no business talent ; but certainly they had abundant cour- age and determination. They live under a somewhat elaborate constitution, made Aa 338 Communistic Societies of the United States. for them by Cabet, which lays down with great care the equal- ity and brotherhood of mankind, and the duty of holding all things in common ; abolishes servitude and service (or serv- ants) ; commands marriage, under penalties ; provides for edu- cation ; and requires that the majority shall rule. In practice they elect a president once a year, who is the executive offi- cer, but whose powers are strictly limited to carrying out the commands of the society. " He could not even sell a bushel of corn without instructions," said one to me. Every Saturday evening they hold a meeting of all the adults, women as well as men, for the discussion of business and other affairs. Offi- cers are chosen at every meeting to preside and keep the rec- ords ; the president may present subjects for discussion ; and women may speak, but have no vote. The conclusions of the meeting are to rale the president during the next week. All accounts are made up monthly, and presented to the society for discussion and criticism. Besides the president, there are four directors — of agriculture, clothing, general industry, and building. These carry on' the necessary work, and direct the other members. They buy at wholesale twice a year, and just before these purchases are made each member in public meet- ing makes his or her wants known. Luxury is prohibited in the constitution, but they have not been much tempted in that direction so far. They use tobacco, however. . They have no religious observances. Sunday is a day of rest from labor, when the young men go out with guns, and the society sometimes lias theatrical representations, or music, or some kind of amusement. The principle is to let each one do as he pleases. They employ two or three hired men to chop wood and la- bor on the farm. They have a school for the children, the president being teacher. The people are opposed to what is called a " unitary home," and prefer to have a separate dwelling for each family. The Icarians. 339 The children are kept in school until they are sixteen ; and the people lamented their poverty, which prevented them from providing better education for them. Members are received by a three-fourths' majority. This is Icaria. It is the least prosperous of all the commu- nities I have visited ; and I could not help feeling pity, if not for the men, yet for the women and children of the settlement, who have lived through all the penury and hardship of these many years. A gentleman who knew of my visit there writes me : " Please deal gently and cautiously with Icaria. The man who sees only the chaotic village and the wooden shoes, and only chronicles those, will commit a serious error. In that vil- lage are buried fortunes, noble hopes, and the aspirations of good and great men like Cabet. Fertilized by these deaths, a great and beneficent growth yet awaits Icaria. It has an eventful and extremely interesting history, but its future is des- tined to be still more interesting. It, and it alone, represents in America a great idea — rational democratic communism." I am far from belittling the effort of the men of Icaria. They have shown, as I have said, astonishing courage and per- severance. They have proved their faith in the communistic idea by labors and sufferings which seem to me pitiful. In fact, communism is their religion. But their long siege at for- tune's door only shows how important, and indeed indispen- sable to the success of such an effort, it is to have an able lead- er, and to give to him almost unlimited power and absolute obedience. THE BISHOP HILL COMMUNE. THE BISHOP HILL COMMUNE. I have determined to give a brief account of the Swedish colony at Bishop Hill, in Henry County, Illinois, because, though it has now ceased to exist as a communistic society, its story yields some instructive lessons in the creation and main- tenance of such associations. These Swedes began in abject poverty, and in the course of a few years built up a prosper- ous town and settlement. They rashly went into debt: debt brought lawsuits and disputes into the society, and all three broke it up. The people of Bishop Hill came from the region of Helsing- land, in Sweden. In their own country they were Pietists, and Separatists from the State Church, mostly farmers, scattered over a considerable district, but united by their peculiar doc- trines, and by the efforts of their preachers. I am told that they came into existence as a sect about 1830 ; in 1843 their chief preacher was a man of some energy, Eric Janson by name ; and he taught them the duty of living after the manner of the Primitive Christian Church, inculcating humble and prayerful lives, equality of conditions, and community of prop- erty. Their refusal to attend church, and to submit themselves to its ordinances, excited the attention of the government, which, probably also alarmed at the phrase "community of goods," began to persecute them with fines and imprisonment. Police officers were sent to break up their congregations ; they imag- ined themselves threatened with confiscation ; and in 1845 they sent one of their number, Olaf Olson, to the United States, 344 Communistic Societies of tJie United States. to see if they could not here find land on which to live in peace and freedom. Olson's inquiries led him to Illinois ; he selected Ileniy County as a favorable situation ; and in 1S46, on his re- port, the people determined to emigrate in a body, the few wealthy agreeing to pay the expenses of the poor. They say that when they were ready to embark, they were refused per- mission to leave their country, and Jonas Olson, one of their leaders, had to go to the king, who, on his prayer, finally al- lowed them to depart. The first ship-load left Galfa in the summer of 1846, and ar- rived at Bishop Hill in October of that year. Others followed, until by the summer of 1848 they had eight hundred people on this spot — which they named from an eminence in their own country. They appear to have spent most of their means in the emi- gration, for they were able during the first year to buy only forty acres of land, and for eighteen months they lived in ex- treme poverty — in holes in the ground, and under sheds built against hillsides; and ground their corn for bread in hand- mills, often laboring at this task by turns all night, to provide meal for the next day. A tent made of linen cloth was their church during this time ; and they worked the land of neigh- boring farmers on shares to gain a subsistence. Living on the prairie, fever and ague attacked them and added to their wretchedness. By 1848 they had acquired two hundred acres of land, but were $1800 in debt, which they had borrowed to keep them from starving ; but in this year they built a brick church, and they now worked a good deal of land on shares. In 1849 they began to build a very long brick house, still standing, which served them as kitchen and dining-hall. In the same year Jo- nas Olson, a preacher, took eight young men, and with the con- sent of the society went to California to dig gold for the com- mon interest. He returned after a year, unsuccessful. The Bishop Hill Colony. 345 In 1850 Eric Jaiison, their leader, was shot in the Henry County court-house, while attending a trial in which a young man, not a member of the community, claimed his wife, a girl who was a member, and whom he wished to take away. 1 do not know the merits of the case, nor is it important here. Dur- ing this year Olaf Janson returned from Sweden with several thousand dollars which he had been sent to collect — being debts due some of the members ; and this money, which enabled them to buy land, appears to have given them their first fair start. At this time, though they were still poor, they had built a number of brick dwellings, had set up shops for carpentry, blacksmithing, wagon-making, etc. ; were raising flax, selling the seed, and making the fibre into linen, some of which they sold; and they had a few cattle, and a worn-out saw-mill. They had set up a school, even while they lived " in the caves," and now hired an American teacher. In 1853 they got an act of incorporation from the Illinois Legislature, which enabled them to hold land and transact busi- ness as an association, and in the name of trustees ; until that time all they owned was held in the name of individual mem- bers. In the same year they made a contract to raise, during two years, seven hundred acres of broom-corn, for which they received in cash on delivery fifty dollars a ton. As yet they had no railroad, and had to haul their corn fifty miles. At this time, too, they began to improve their breeds of cattle ; paid high prices for one or two short-horn bulls, and were soon famous in their region for the excellence of their stock. They also made wagons for the neighboring farmers, and established a grist-mill. In 1854-5 they took a contract to grade a part of the Chica- go, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad line, and to build some bridges ; and as they were able to put a considerable body of their young men upon this work, it brought them in a good deal of money. They now began to erect brick dwellings, a 346 Communistic Societies of the United States. town-hall, and a large hotel, where they for a while did a good business. They made excellent brick, and all their houses are very solidly built, plain, but of pleasing exteriors. The most remarkable one is the long dining-hall and kitchen, with a bakery and brewery adjoining. In the upper story of this building a considerable number of families lived ; in the lower story all the people — to the number of a thousand at one time — ate three times a day. They were now prospering. In 1859 they owned ten thou- sand acres of land, and had it all neatly fenced and in excel- lent order. They had the finest cattle in the state ; and their shops and mills earned money from the neighboring farmers. The families lived separately, but all ate together. They re- ceived their clothing supplies at a common storehouse as they needed them, and labored under the direction of foremen. Their business organization was always loose. They had no president or single head. A body of trustees transacted busi- ness, and made reports to the society, not regularly, but at ir- regular intervals. There seems, too, to have been a speculative spirit among them, for while in 1859 they owned ten thousand acres of land and a town, which must have been worth at least three hundred thousand dollars, as the land was all fenced and improved, and the town w r as uncommonly well built,* they owed at that time, or in 1860, between eighty and one hundred thousand dollars. Their religious life was very simple. They had no paid preacher, but expected their leaders to labor during the w r eek with the rest. On Sunday they had two services in the church — at ten in the morning, and between six and seven in the even- ing. At these, after singing and prayer, the preacher read the Bible, and commented on what he read. On every week-day * Between four and five hundred thousand dollars was their own valu- ation ; and in 1860 a report given in one of the briefs of a lawsuit gives their assets at $804,000, and their debts at less than $100,000. The Bishop Hill Colony. 347 evening, unless the weather was bad, they held a similar meet- ing, which lasted an hour and a half. They had no library, and encouraged no reading except in the Bible, teaching that the most important matter for every man was to get a thorough understanding of the commandments of God. They had for a little while a newspaper, and they printed at the neighbor- ing town of Galva, which was their business centre, an edition of their hymn-book.* They discouraged amusements, as tend- ing to worldliness; and though they appear to have lived happily and without disputes, about 1859 they discovered that their young people, who had grown up in the society, were discon- tented, found the community life dull, did not care for the religious views of the society, and were ready to break up the organization. When this discontent arose, the looseness of the organization was fatal. With a more compact and energetic administration, either the dissatisfied elements would have been eliminated quietly, or the causes of dissatisfaction, mainly, as far as I could understand, the dullness of the life and the lack of amuse- ments, would have been removed. But with a loose organiza- tion there appears to have been, what is not unnatural, rigidity of discipline. There was no power any where to make changes. " The discontented ones wanted a change, but no change was possible : it was often discussed." The young people persuaded some of the older ones to be of their mind, and thus two par- ties were formed; and after many meetings, in which I im- agine there were sometimes bitter words, it was determined in the spring of 1860 to divide the property, the Olson party, as it was called, including two thirds of the membership, determin- ing with their share to continue the community, while the Jan- son party determined on individual effort. Hereupon two thirds of the real and personal property was * " Nagra Sanger, saint Boner. Forfatade af Erik Janson. Forenadu Staterna, Galva, Ills. S. Cronsioe, 1857." 348 Communistic Societies of the United States. set apart for the Olson party, but for a whole year the two par- ties lived together at Bishop Hill. In 1861 the Janson party divided their share among the families composing it; and in the same year the disorganization proceeded another step. The Olson party fell into three divisions. In 1862, finally, all the property was divided, and the commune ceased to exist. In 1860 a receiver had been appointed. In 1861 Olaf Jan- son was appointed attorney in fact. This became necessary, because, besides the property, there were debts ; and when the trustees were removed and a receiver was appointed, the ques- tion necessarily came up how the debts should be met. The division of the property was made by a committee of the soci- ety, who took a complete inventory, including even the small- est household articles; and at the time there seems to have been no complaint of unfairness. The whole was divided into shares, of which each man received one, and women and chil- dren fractional shares. A part of the property was set off, suf- ficient, as it was then believed, to pay off the indebtedness ; but it proved insufficient, and finally each farm given to a mem- ber in the partition was saddled with a share of indebtedness ; and as there was poor management after the disorganization began, and as the debt constantly increased by the non-pay- ment of interest, there are now, thirteen years after the final partition, heavy lawsuits still pending in the courts against the colony and its trustees. In 1861 the community raised a company of soldiers for the Union army, furnishing both privates and officers. These fought through the war, and one of the younger members after the war was, for meritorious conduct and promising intellect, taken as a scholar at West Point, where he was graduated with honor. At present Bishop Hill is slowly falling into decay. The houses are still mostly inhabited ; there are several shops and stores ; but the larger buildings are out of repair ; and busi- The Bishop Hill Colony. 349 ness lias centred at Galva, five or six miles distant. Most of the former communists live happily on their small farms. A Methodist church has been built in the village, and has some attendants, but a good many of the older members have adopted the Adventist or Millerite faith, which appears to revive after every failure of prediction, especially in the West, where peo- ple seem to look forward with a quite singular pleasure to the fiery end of all things. On the whole, it is a melancholy story. It shows both what can be achieved by combined industry, and what trifles can destroy such an organization as a communistic society. It shows the extreme importance of a central authority, wisely administered but also implicitly obeyed ; able therefore to yield, as well as to act, promptly. The history of these Bishop Hill Communists also shows the necessity of great caution in all financial affairs in a commune, which ought to avoid debt like the plague, and to live financially as though it might break up at any moment. Not only were debt and the speculative spirit out of which debt arose the causes of the colony's failure, but they have brought great trouble on the people since. Had there been no debt, the commune could have divided its property among the members at any time, without loss or trouble ; and I suspect that the possibility of such an immediate division might have induced the people to keep together. At any rate, the story of Bishop Hill shows how important it would be to a community agreeing to labor and produce in common for a limited time to keep free from debt. THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNITY. THE CEDAR VALE COMMUNITY. At Cedar Vale, in Howard County, Kansas, a communistic society has been founded, which, though its small numbers might make it insignificant, is remarkable by reason of the nationality of some of its members. It was begun three years ago, and the purpose of its project- ors was " to achieve both communism and individual freedom, or to lead persons of all kinds of opinions to labor together for their common welfare. If there was to be any law, it should be only for the regulation of industry or hours of work." I quote this from the letter of a gentleman who is familiar with this society, and who has been kind enough to send me its constitution, and to give me the following particulars : " It is now three years since the founders of the society settled in this domain, coming here entirely destitute, and building tirst as a residence a covered burrow in a hillside. Two of them had left affluence and position in Russia, and subjected themselves to this poverty for the sake of their principles. Of course they suffered here from fever, from insufficient food, and cold, and were not able to make much improvement on the place. The practical condition now, though insignificant from the common point of view, compared with what has been, is very satisfactory. There are at least comfortable shelter and enough to eat, and this year sufficient land will be fenced and planted to leave a surplus. " The propaganda has been made among two essentially dif- fering classes of socialists — the Russian Materialists and the Bb 354 Communistic Societies of the United States. American Spiritualists. Both these classes are represented in the community, and thus far seem to live in harmony. There are here a ' hygienic doctor' and a ' reformed clergyman,' both Spiritualists, and a Russian sculptor of considerable fame, a Russian astronomer, and a very pretty and devoted and won- derfully industrious Russian woman." The printed statement made by the community I copy here, as a sufficient account of its numbers and possessions in April, 1S74 : " The Progressive Community is located near Cedar Vale, Howard County, Kansas, has three hundred and twenty acres of choice prairie land, with abundance of stock, water, and with all advantages for suc- cessful farming, stock and fruit raising. " The nearest railroad station is Independence, Montgomery County, Kansas, fifty miles east from the place. " The community was established in January, 1871. It is out of debt now, and has a fair prospect for success in the future. " The business of the community consists chiefly in farming. " Number of members : four males ; three females ; one child. Per- sons on probation : two males ; one female ; one child. " Improvements : frame house ; stable ; forty acres under fence ; four acres of orchard and vines. " Live stock and implements : four horses ; four oxen ; three cows and calves. " The co-operation of earnest communists is wanted for the better reali- zation of a true home based on Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. " No fee is required from those who visit the community, but their work for the community is regarded as equivalent to their current ex- penses. " The principles and organization of the community can be seen from the following constitution. "PKEAMBLE. " Whereas, we believe that man is not only an individual having rights as such, but also owing social duties to others, and that strict justice re- quires us to help each other, and that our highest happiness and devel- opment can only be attained by a union and co-operation of interests and efforts ; Therefore, we pledge ourselves to live The Cedar Vale Community. 355 'For the cause that lacks assistance, For the "wrong that needs resistance, For the future in the distance, And the good that we can do.' " And we, whose names are annexed, hereby organize ourselves under the name of the Progressive Community, and agree to devote our labor and means, to the full extent of our ability, to carry out the following "CONSTITUTION. " ARTICLE I. " Sec. 1. — The community shall be considered as a family. The mem- bers shall unite in their labor and business, hold their property in com- mon for the use of all, and dwell together in a unitary home. " Sec. 2. — Each member shall be free to hold whatever opinions his conscience may dictate ; and the community shall make no restriction or regulation interfering with the freedom of any, except when his actions conflict with the rights of others. " Sec 3. — All shall be alike responsible for the strict observance of this constitution. Equal rights and privileges shall be accorded to all mem- bers ; but the community may temporarily withhold from a member the right to vote by the unanimous consent of the rest. " ARTICLE II. " Sec. 1. — All matters concerning the welfare of the community shall be decided by the members at their meetings, which shall be of the fol- lowing kinds : (1) Daily business meetings for the decision of daily work ; (2) Weekly meetings for the discussion of business questions, and for re- marks on the general interests and welfare of the community. " Sec 2. — All decisions, except as herein otherwise provided for, shall be by a majority of three fourths of all the members. " Sec 3. — Debts may be contracted, or credit given, only by the unani- mous vote of the community. " Sec 4. — The officers of the community shall consist of a president, secretary, treasurer, and managers. They shall be elected at the end of each year, and enter on the duties of their offices on the first of January following, being subject to removal at any time. " Sec 5. — The president shall preside at all meetings, shall see that the decisions of the community are carried out, and make temporary ar- rangements for the business of the day when necessary. " Sec G. — The secretary shall record the proceedings of all the meet- 356 Communistic Societies of the United States. ings of the community, attend to all its correspondence, and preserve all the valuable documents thereof. "Sec. 7. — The treasurer shall hold the fund of the community, and keep an accurate account of all money received or expended ; but no money shall be paid out except as appropriated by the community. He shall make a report at each business meeting. " Sec. 8. — The managers shall control the different departments to which they are elected, decide all details of business, if not previously acted upon by the community, aud make reports at each business meet- ing- " ARTICLE III. " Sec. 1. — Any person, after having lived in the community, and having become thoroughly acquainted with its members and the community life, may become a member by subscribing to this constitution ; provided he is accepted by the unanimous vote of the community. " Sec 2. — All property which members may have, or may receive from any source or at any time, shall be given to the community without res- ervation or return. " Sec 3. — The members shall be furnished with food, clothing, and lodg- ing, care and attention in sickness, misfortune, infancy, or old age, and the means and opportunity for a complete integral education, and for such other necessary requirements as the community can afford ; and these benefits shall be guaranteed by the whole resources of the com- munity. " Sec 4. — A withdrawing member shall not bring any claim against the community on account of any labor, services, or property given thereto ; but his current expenses and the advantages of the community life shall be considered as an equivalent therefor. He shall be allowed to take from the common property only what may be decided upon by the com- munity at the time of withdrawal. " Sec 5. — Children of the members, or those which may be adopted by the community, shall be considered as members thereof; they shall have equal rights as herein specified, except voting, to which privilege they shall be admitted when the community by unanimous consent shall think best, and after signing their names to this constitution. " ARTICLE IV. " Any amendments, additions to, or interpretations of this constitution may be made at any time by unanimous vote of the community." THE SOCIAL FREEDOM COMMU- NITY. This is a communistic society, established in the beginning of the year 1874 in Chesterfield County, Virginia. It has as "full members" two women, one man, and three boys, with four women and five men as " probationary members." They have a farm of three hundred and thirty-three acres, unencum- bered with debt, and with a water-power on it; and are at- tempting general farming, the raising of medicinal herbs, saw- ing lumber and staves, coopering, and the grinding of grain. The members are all Americans. They hold, the secretary writes me, to " unity of interests, and political, religious, and social freedom ; and believe that every individual should have absolute control of herself or himself, and that, so long as they respect the same freedom in others, no one has a right to infringe on that individuality." The secretary further writes : " We have no constitution or by- laws ; ignore the idea of man's total depravity ; and believe that all who are actuated by a love of truth and a desire to progress (and we will knowingly accept no others), can be bet- ter governed by love and moral suasion than by any arbitrary laws. Our government consists in free criticism. We have a unitary home." COLONIES WHICH ARE NOT COMMUNISTIC. COLONIES-NOT COMMUNISTIC. I have noticed that not unfrequently Vineland, in New- Jersey, and Anaheim, in California, are classed with Commu- nistic Societies. They are nothing of the kind ; and only one of the two — Anaheim, namely — was in the beginning even co-operative. As, however, both these settlements were founded under peculiar circumstances, and as both show what can be achieved in a short time by men of narrow means, acting more or less in concert for certain purposes, I have determined to give here a brief history of the two places. Anaheim. Anaheim, the oldest of these two " colonies," lies in Los Angeles County, in Southern California, about thirty miles from the town of Los Angeles, and ten or twelve miles from the ocean, upon a fertile and well- watered plain. In its settle- ment it was strictly a co-operative enterprise. In 1857 several Germans in San Francisco proposed to cer- tain of their countrymen to purchase by a united effort a tract of land in the southern part of the state, cause it to be sub- divided into small farms, and procure these to be fenced, planted with grape-vines and trees, and otherwise prepared for the settlement of the owners. After some deliberation, fifty men set their names to an agreement to buy eleven hundred and sixty -five acres of land, at two dollars per acre ; securing water-rights for irrigation w r ith the purchase, because in that region the dry summers necessitate artificial watering. 362 Communistic Societies of the United States. The originator of the enterprise, Mr. Hansen, of Los Ange- les, a German lawyer and civil engineer, a man of culture, was appointed by his associates to select and secure the land ; and eventually he became the manager of the whole enterprise, up to the point where it lost its co-operative features and the members took possession of their farms. The Anaheim associates consisted in the main of mechanics, and they had not a farmer among them. They were all Ger- mans. There were several carpenters, a gunsmith, an engraver, three watch-makers, four blacksmiths, a brewer, a teacher, a shoemaker, a miller, a hatter, a hotel - keeper, a bookbinder, four or five musicians, a poet (of course), several merchants, and some teamsters. It was a very heterogeneous assembly; they had but one thing in common : they were all, with one or two exceptions, poor. Very few had more than a few dol- lars saved ; most of them had neither cash nor credit enough to buy even a twenty-acre farm ; and none of them were in circumstances which promised them more than a decent liv- ing. The plan of the society was to buy the land, and thereupon to cause it to be subdivided and improved as I have said by monthly contributions from the members, who were meantime to go on with their usual employments in San Francisco. It was agreed to divide the eleven hundred and sixty-five acres into fifty twenty-acre tracts, and fifty village lots, the village to stand in the centre of the purchase. Fourteen lots were also set aside for school-houses and other public buildings. With the first contribution the land was bought. The fifty associates had to pay about fifty dollars each for this purpose. This done, they appointed Mr. Hansen their agent to make the projected improvements; and they, it may be supposed, worked a little more steadily and lived a little more frugally in San Francisco. lie employed Spaniards and Indians as laborers ; and what he did was to dig a ditch seven miles lung Colonies — Not Communistic. 363 to lead water out of the Santa Anna River, with four hundred and fifty miles of subsidiary ditches and twenty-five miles of feeders to lead the water over every twenty-acre lot. This done, he planted on every farm eight acres of grapes and some fruit-trees ; and on the whole place over five miles of outside willow fencing and thirty-five miles of inside fencing. Willows grow rapidly in that region, and make a very close fence, yielding also fire-wood sufficient for the farmer's use. All this had to be done gradually, so that the payments for labor should not exceed the monthly contributions of the as- sociates, for they had no credit to use in the beginning, and contracted no debts. When the planting was done, the superintendent cultivated and pruned the grape-vines and trees, and took care of the place ; and it was only when the vines were old enough to bear, and thus to yield an income at once, that the proprietors took possession. At the end of three years the whole of this labor had been performed and paid for ; the vines were ready to bear a crop, and the division of lots took place. Each shareholder had at this time paid in all twelve hundred dollars ; a few, I have been told, fell behind somewhat, but were helped by some of their associates who were in better circumstances. If we sup- pose that most of the members had no money laid by at the beginning of the enterprise, it would appear that during three years they saved, over and above their living, somewhat less than eight dollars a week — a considerable sum, but easily pos- sible at that time in California to a good and steady mechanic. It was inevitable that some of the small farms should be more valuable than others ; and there was naturally a differ- ence, too, in the village lots. To make the division fairly, all the places were viewed, and a schedule was made of them, on which each was assessed at a certain price, varying from six hundred to fourteen hundred dollars, according to its situation, 364 Communistic Societies of the United States. the excellence of its fruit, etc. They were then distributed by a kind of lottery, with the condition that if the farm drawn was valued in the schedule over twelve hundred dol- lars, he who drew it should pay into the general treasury the surplus ; if it was valued at less, he who drew it received from the common fund a sum which, added to the value of his farm, equaled twelve hundred dollars. Thus A, who drew a fourteen-hundred-dollar lot, paid two hundred dollars; B, who drew a six-hundred-dollar lot, received six hundred dol- lars additional in cash. The property was by this, time in such a state of improve- ment that money could readily be borrowed on the security of these small farms. Moreover, when the drawing was com- pleted, there was a sale of the effects of the company — horses, tools, etc. ; and ou closing all the accounts and balancing the books, it was found that there remained a sum of money in the general treasury sufficient to give each of the fifty shareholders a hundred dollars in cash as a final dividend. When this was done, the co-operative feature of the enter- prise disappeared. The members, each in his own good time, settled on their farms. Lumber was bought at wholesale, and they began to build their houses. Fifty families make a little town in any of our Western States, sufiiicently important to attract traders. The village lots at once acquired a value, and some were sold to shopkeepers. A school was quickly established ; mechanics of different kinds came down to Ana- heim to work for wages; and the colonists in fact gathered about them at once many conveniences which, if they had settled singly, they could not have commanded for some years. They were still poor, however. But few of them were able even to build the slight house needed in that climate without running into debt. For borrowed money they had to pay from two to three per cent, per month interest. Moreover, none of them were farmers; and they had to learn to cultivate, Colonics — Not Communistic. 365 prune, and take care of their vines, to make wine, and to make a vegetable garden. They had from the first to raise and sell enough for their own support, and to pay at least the heavy interest on their debts. It resulted that for some years longer they had a struggle with a burden of debt, and had to live with great economy. But the people told me that they had always enough to eat, a good school for their children, and the immense satisfaction of being their own employers. "We had music and dancing in those days; and, though we were very poor, I look back to those times as the happiest in all our lives," said one man to me. And they gradually got out of debt. Not one failed. The sheriff has never sold out any one in Anaheim ; and only one of the original settlers had left the place when I saw it in 1872. They have no destitute people. Their vineyards give them an annual clear income of from two hundred and fifty to one thousand dollars over and above their living expenses ; their children have enjoyed the advantages of a social life and a fairly good school. And, finally, the property which origi- nally cost them an average of one thousand and eighty dollars for each, is now worth from five to ten thousand dollars. They live well, and feel themselves as independent as though they were millionaires. Now this was an enterprise which any company of prudent mechanics, with a steadfast purpose, might easily imitate. The founders of Anaheim were not picked men. I have been told that they were not without jealousies and suspicions of each other and of their manager, which made his life often uncomfortable, and threatened the life of the undertaking. They had grumblers, fault-finders, and wiseacres in their com- pany, as probably there will be among any company of fifty men ; and I have heard that Mr. Hansen, who was their able and honest manager, declared that he would rather starve than conduct another such enterprise. 366 Communistic Societies of the United States. They were extremely fortunate to have for their manager an honest, patient, and sufficiently able man ; and such a leader is indeed the corner-stone of an undertaking of this kind. Granted a man sufficiently wise and honest, in whom his asso- ciates can have confidence, and there needs only moderate pa- tience, perseverance, and economy, in the body of the company, to achieve success. Nor could I help noticing, when I was at Anaheim, that the experience and training which men gain in carrying to success — no matter through what struggles of pov- erty, self-denial, and debt — such an enterprise, has an admirable effect on their characters. The men of Anaheim were origi- nally a very common class of mechanics ; they have stepped up to a higher plane of life — they are masters of their own lives. This result — namely, the training of families in the hardier virtues, their elevation to a higher moral as well as physical standard — is certainly not to be overlooked by any thoughtful man. Vineland. Vineland was not a co-operative enterprise. It is the land- speculation of a long-headed, kind-hearted man, who believed that he could form a settlement profitable and advantageous to many people, and with pecuniary benefit to himself. Until the year 1S61, the southern part of New Jersey contained a large region known as " the Barrens," and very sparsely settled with a rude and unthrifty population. The light soil was sup- posed to be unfit for profitable agriculture ; and the country for miles was covered with scrub pine and small oak timber, used chiefly for charcoal, and as fuel for some glass factories at Millville and Glassborough. Much of this land was owned in large tracts, and brought in but a small revenue. When the West Jersey Railroad, connecting Cape May with Philadelphia, was completed, it ran through many miles of these " Barrens,'' and some of the owners, tired of a property which in their hands had little value, were ready to sell out. Colonies — Not Communistic. 367 Charles K. Landis had conceived the idea of forming a col- ony, upon certain plans which he had matured in his own mind. His attention was attracted to this region, and after examining the soil and the general character of the region, he bought sixteen thousand acres in one parcel. To this he add- ed, soon after, another purchase of fourteen thousand acres, making thirty thousand in all. He has bought lately (in 1874) twenty-three thousand acres more. The country is a rolling plain, densely overgrown with small wood, with one or two streams running through it ; with wa- ter obtainable at from fifteen to thirty feet every where, and perfectly healthy. Mr. Landis took possession in August, 1861, and at once began to develop the land according to his own ideas. He laid out, first, the town site of Yineland, in the centre of the tract ; next had the adjacent plain surveyed, and laid out into tracts of ten, twenty, and fifty acres ; laid out and opened roads, so as to make these small parcels accessible ; and then he began to advertise for settlers. His offer was to sell the land, lying within thirty-four miles of Philadelphia by railroad, in tracts of from ten to forty or sixty acres, at twenty-five dollars per acre, guaranteeing a clear title, and giving reasonable credit, but requiring the purchas- ers to make certain improvements within a year after buying. These consisted of a house — which need not be costly — the clearing of some acres of ground, and the planting of shade- trees along the road-side, and sowing a strip of this road-side with some kind of grass. It was also stipulated that if the owner, in after -years, neglected his road -side adornment, it should be kept in order by the town at his cost. Mr. Landis had procured the passage of a law prohibiting the straying of cattle within the limits of the township in which his estate lay ; and consequently the new settlers were not obliged to build fences. This was an immense saving to the people, who came in mostly with small means. Vineland 3 68 Communistic Societies of the United States. has to-day between eleven thousand and twelve thousand peo- ple ; it has about one hundred and eighty miles of roads ; and it is probable that the " no fence " regulation, as it is called, has saved the inhabitants at least a million and a half of dollars. He prevented in the beginning, with the most solicitous care, the establishment of bar-rooms or dram-shops on the tract ; the Legislature gave permission to the people of the township, by an annual vote, to decide whether the sale of liquor at retail should be allowed or forbidden, and they have constantly for- bidden it, to their immense advantage. He endeavored as soon as possible to establish factories in the village, and succeeded so well in this that there has long been a local market for a part of the products of the place. He founded and encouraged library, horticultural, and other societies, helped in the building of churches, and paid particu- lar attention to obtaining for the people facilities for market- ing their products advantageously. In all these concerns he sought the advantage of the settlers on his lands, knowing that their prosperity would make him also prosperous. But one other part of his plan appears to me to have been of extraordinary importance, though usually it is not men- tioned in descriptions of Vineland. Mr. Landis established the price of his own uncultivated lands at twenty-five dollars per acre. At that price he sold to the first settler ; and that price he did not increase for many years. Any one could, within two or three years, buy wild land on the Vineland tract at twenty -five dollars per acre. This means that he did not spec- ulate upon the improvements of the settlers. He gave to them the advantage of their labors. It resulted that many poor men bought, cleared, and planted places in Vineland on pur- pose to sell them, certain that they could, if they wished, buy more land at the same price of twenty-five dollars per acre which they originally paid. Colonics — Not Communistic. 369 In my judgment, this feature of the Vineland enterprise, more than any other, changed it from a merely selfish speculation to one of a higher order, in which the settlers, to a large extent, have a common interest with the proprietor of the land. He might have done all the rest — might have laid out roads, pro- claimed a "no fence" law, prevented the establishment of dram-shops, helped on educational and other enterprises — and still, had he raised the price of his wild lands as the settlers increased, he would have been a mere land speculator, and I doubt if his scheme would have obtained more than a very moderate and short-lived success. But the undertaking to sell his wild land always at the one fixed price, not only gave later comers an advantage which attracted them with a constantly increasing force, but it gave the poorer settlers an occupation from which many of them gained handsomely — the improve- ment of places to sell to new-comers with capital. The result showed Mr. Landis's wisdom. Improved property, cleared and planted in fruit, has always borne a high price in Vineland, and has almost always had a ready sale, but there has never been any feverish land speculation there. In twelve years the founder of Vineland was able to collect upon his tract — which had not a single inhabitant in 1861 — about eleven thousand people. Most of these have improved their condition in life materially by settling there. Many of them came without sufficient capital, and no doubt suffered from want in the early days of their Vineland life. But if they persevered, two or three years of effort made them com- fortable. Meantime they had, what our American farmers have not in general, easy access to good schools for their chil- dren, to churches and an intelligent society, and the possibility of good laws regarding the sale of liquor. Vineland was settled largely by New England people. They are more restless and changeable than the Germans of Ana^ heim: less easily contented with mere comfort. The New- Gc 370 Communistic Societies of the United States. Englander seems to me to like change, often, for its own sake ; the German too frequently goes to the other extreme, and so greatly abhors change that he does without conveniences which he might well afford. Anaheim and Vineland differ in these respects, as the character of their inhabitants differs. But in both, no one can doubt that the people have been greatly ben- efited by the colonizing experiment ; that they not merely live better, but have a higher standard of thinking as well, and are thus better citizens than they would have been had they re- mained in their original employments and abodes. Some of the striking practical and moral results of the Vine- land plan of colonization were set forth by Mr. Landis in a speech before the Legislature of New Jersey last year; and the following extracts from this address are of interest in this place. He said : " When I first projected the colony, in 1861, what is now Vineland lay before me an unbroken wilderness. Nothing was to be heard but the song of birds to break the silence, which at times was oppressive. It was necessary that the fifty square miles of territory should be suddenly, thor- oughly, and permanently improved. The land was in good part to be paid for out of the proceeds of sale. One hundred and seventy miles of public roads and other improvements were to be made, and the improve- ments were to be such as to insure the prosperity of the colonist in future years, as my outlay was hi the early start of the settlement, and my returns were not to be realized for years to come. If the settlement should not be prosperous in these years to come, I could never realize my reward, and besides, ruin, involving character and fortune, stared me in the face. It was by no temporary efforts or expedients that I could succeed, but by fixing upon certain principles, calculated to be creative, healthful, and per- manent in their influences — principles which, while they benefited each colonist day by day, would have a growing influence in developing the prosperity of the colony. What were these principles ? " 1. That no land should be sold to speculators who would not improve, but only to persons who would agree to improve in a specified time, and also to plant shade-trees in front of their places, and seed the road-sides to grass for purposes of public utility and ornamentation. " 2. That no man should be compelled to erect fences, that his neighbor's Colonies — Not Communistic. 371 cattle might roam at large ; but that the old and shiftless and wasteful system should be done away with. " 3. That the public sale of intoxicating drinks should be prohibited, and that this prohibition should be obtained by leaving it to a vote of the people. " By the first principle, the continual improvement of the land was secured. Employment was furnished to laborers at remunerative prices. The value of the land was increased by the mutual effort of the colonists. The value of my land was also enhanced, and it was made more and more marketable. " By the second principle, a vast and constant expense was saved — greater than the cost and annual interest upon all the railroads of the United States. Stock was improved, the cultivation of root crops was encouraged, and the economizing of fertilizers. " By the third principle, the money, the health, and the industry of the people were conserved, that they might all be devoted to the work be- fore them. " I am in candor compelled to say that I did not introduce the local- option principle into Vineland from any motives of philanthropy. I am not a temperance man in the total-abstinence sense. I introduced the principle because in cool, abstract thought I conceived it to be of vital importance to the success of my colony. If in this thought I had seen that liquor made men more industrious, more skillful, more economical, and more aesthetic in their tastes, I certainly should then have made liquor- selling one of the main principles of my project. " The question then came up as to how I could give such direction to public opinion as would regulate this difficulty. Many persons had the idea that no place could prosper without taverns — that to attract busi- ness and strangers taverns were necessary. I could not accomplish my object by the influence of total-abstinence men, as they were too few in numbers in proportion to the whole community. I had long perceived that there was no such thing as reaching the result by the moral influ- ence brought to bear on single individuals — that to benefit an entire community, the law or regulation would have to extend to the entire community. In examining the evil, I found also that the moderate use of liquor was not the difficulty to contend against, but it was the immoder- ate use of it. " The question, then, was to bring the reform to bear upon what led to 372 Communistic Societies of the United States. the immoderate use of it. I found that few or none ever became intoxi- cated in their own families, in the presence of their wives and children, but that the drunkards were made in the taverns and saloons. After this conclusion was reached, the way appeared clear. It was not necessary to make a temperance man of each individual — it was not necessary to abridge the right or privilege that people might desire to have of keeping liquor in their own houses, but to get their consent to prevent the public sale of it by the small — that people in bartering would not be subject to the cus- tom of drinking — that they would not have the opportunity of drinking in bar-rooms, away from all home restraint or influence ; in short, I be- lieved that if the public sale of liquor was stopped either in taverns or beer saloons, the knife would reach the root of the evil. The nest thing to do was to deal with settlers personally as they bought land, and to counsel with them as to the best thing to be done. In conversation with them I never treated it as a moral question — I explained to them that I was not a total-abstinence man myself, but that on account of the liability of liquor to abuse when placed in seductive forms at every street corner, and as is the usual custom that followed our barbarous law that it incited to crime, and made men unfortunate who would otherwise succeed ; that most of the settlers had little money to begin with, sums varying from two hundred to one thousand dollars, which, if added to a man's labor, would be enough in many cases to obtain him a home, but which taken to the tavern would melt away like snow before a spring sun ; that new places were liable to have this abuse to a more terrible extent than old places, as men were removed from the restraints of old associations, and in the midst of the excitement of forming new acquaintances ; and that it was a notorious fact that liquor-drinking did not add to the inclina- tion for physical labor. I then asked them — for the sake of their sons, brothers, friends — to help establish the new system, as I believed it to be the foundation-stone of our future prosperity. " To these self-evident facts they would almost all accede. Many of them had witnessed the result of liquor-selling in the new settlements of the Far West, and were anxious to escape from it. The Local-Option Law of Vineland was not established, therefore, by temperance men or total- abstinence men only, but by the citizens generally, upon broad social and public principles. It has since been maintained in the same way. Prob- ably not one tenth of the number of voters in Vineland are what may be called total-abstinence men. I explain this point to show that this re- form was not the result of mere fanaticism, but the sense of the people Colonies — Not Communistic. 373 generally, and that the people who succeed under it are such people a9 almost all communities are composed of. This law has been practically in operation since the beginning of the settlement in the autumn of 1861, though the act of the Legislature empowering the people of Landis Town- ship to vote upon license or no license was not passed until 1863. The vote has always stood against license by overwhelming majorities, there being generally only from two to nine votes in favor of liquor-selling. The population of the Vineland tract is about ten thousand five hundred people, consisting of manufacturers and business people upon the town plot in the centre, and, around this centre, of farmers and fruit-growers. The most of the tract is in Landis Township. I will now give statistics of police and poor expenses of this township for the past six years : POLICE EXPENSES. POOB EXPENSES. 1867 $50 00 1868 50 00 1869 75 00 1870 75 00 1871 150 00 1872 25 00 1867 $400 00 1868 425 00 1869 425 00 1870 350 00 1871 400 00 1872 350 00 " These figures speak for themselves, but they are not all. There is a material and industrial prosperity existing in Vineland which, though I say it myself, is unexampled in the history of colonization, and must be due to more than ordinary causes. The influence of temperance upon the health and industry of her people is no doubt the principal of these causes. Started when the country was plunged in civil war, its progress was continually onward. Young as the settlement was, it sent its quota of men to the field, and has paid over $60,000 of war debts. The settle- ment has built twenty fine school-houses, ten churches, and kept up one of the finest systems of road improvements, covering one hundred and seventy-eight miles, in this country. There are now some fifteen manu- facturing establishments on the Vineland tract, and they are constantly increasing in number. Her stores in extent and building will rival any other place in South Jersey. There are four post-offices on the tract. The central one did a business last year of $4800 mail matter, and a mon- ey-order business of $78,922. "Out of seventy-seven townships in the state, by the census of 1869 Landis Township ranked the fourth from the highest in the agricultural value of its productions. There are seventeen miles of railroad ui^on the tract, embracing six railway stations. 374 Communistic Societies of the United States. " The result of my project as a land enterprise has been to the interest of the colonists as well as my own. Town lots that I sold for $150 have been resold for from $500 to $1500, exclusive of improvements. Land that I sold for $25 per acre has much of it been resold at from $200 to $500 per acre. This rule will hold good for miles of the territory- all resulting from the great increase of population and the prosperity of the people. " Were licenses for saloons and taverns obtainable with the same ease as in New York, Philadelphia, and many country districts, Vineland would probably have, according to its population, from one to two hun- dred such places. Counting them at one hundred, this would with- draw from the pursuits of productive industry about one hundred fami- lies, which would give a population of six hundred people. Each of these places would sell about $3000 worth of beer and liquor per annum, making $300,000 worth of stimulants a year. I include beer saloons, as liquor can be obtained in them all as a general thing, and in the electric- al climate of America beer leads to similar results as spirits. Think of the effect of $300,000 worth of stimulants upon the health, the minds, and the industry of our people. Think of the increase of crime and pauper- ism — the average would be fully equal to other places in which liquor is sold. Instead of having a police expense of $50, and poor expenses of $400 per annum, the amount would be swollen to thousands. Homes that are now happy would be made desolate, and, instead of peace reign- ing in our midst, we should have war — the same war that is now carried on throughout the length and breadth of the land in the conflict that is waged with crime, where blood is daily shed, where houses are daily fired, where helpless people are daily robbed, and the darkest of crimes daily perpetrated. Concentrate the work of this war that is carried on through- out the land for one day, and you will have as many people killed and wounded, houses fired or plundered, as in the sack of a city. 41 The results in Vineland have convinced me — " 1. That temperance does conserve the industry of the people. " 2. That temperance is conducive to a refined and pesthetical taste. " 3. That temperance can be sufficiently secured in a community by suppressing all the taverns and saloons, to protect it from the abuse of ex- cessive liquor-drinking. Here is a community where crime and pauper- ism are almost unknown, where taxes are nominal, where night is not made hideous by the vilest of noises, where a man's children are not con- taminated by the evil language and influence of drunkards.'" Colonies — Not Communistic. 375 The following letter from the deputy sheriff of Vineland gives the practical result of the Vineland system of moral co- operation, as it may be called : " Vineland, December 4, 1873. "Dear Sir, — The poor tax in this township amounts to about Jive cents to each inhabitant per annum, and our special expense for police matters, when any body happens to be engaged on an emergence, amounts to an average expense of about one half cent each. In fact, it may be said we have little or no crime or breach of the peace ; and, though I am no total- abstinence man, I ascribe this state of things to the absence of liquor shops, and on this account have always voted against licensing. Before I came here I acted as constable in Massachusetts, and have been deputy sheriff and overseer of the poor for five years, and I know from actual ob- servation that more happiness is secured to men themselves, to their wives and children, and more peace to the home, than by any other cause in the world, not excepting all the churches — so help me God ! " Yours respectfully, T. T. Coetis, Deputy Sheriff." In the journal from which I take this letter it is stated that the poor and police expenses of Perth Amboy, also in New Jersey, amount in the same year to two dollars per head ! The figures need no comment. Prairie Home. The Prairie Home Colony, in Franklin County, Kansas, was established by a French gentleman, E. V. Boissiere. He owns three thousand acres of land, and has been engaged during the last three years in putting it in order for settlement, upon a plan to which he gives the title, "Association and Co-opera- tion, based on Attractive Industry." So far as the details of his plan are developed, it appears that he wishes to secure to colonists constant employment at reasonable wages, and to en- able them to live in an economical manner. It is evident from what follows that he does not intend to establish a benevolent institution, and that at Prairie Home there will be no accom- modations for idlers. I reprint here a circular, which is is- 3/6 Communistic Societies of the United States. sued by Mr. Boissiere, and parts of a private note from him, in which, in March, 1874, he gave me some particulars of the progress of his enterprise : " A domain of more than three thousand acres, purchased about four years ago, and then called the ' Kansas Co-operative Farm,' but since named ' Silkville, 1 from the fact that the weaving of silk-velvet ribbons is one of its branches of industry, and silk-culture is contemplated, for ■which ten thousand mulberry-trees are now thriftily growing, having had two hundred and fifty acres subjected to cultivation, and several prelim- inary buildings erected upon it, it is now thought expedient to inform those who wish to take part in the associative enterprise for which the purchase was made, that the subscribers, as its projectors, will be pre- pared to receive persons the ensuing spring, with a view to their becom- ing associated for that purpose. " A leading feature of the enterprise is to establish the ' Combined Household ' of Fourier — that is, a single large residence for all the asso- ciates. Its principal aim is to organize labor, the source of all wealth, first, on the basis of remuneration 'proportioned to production, and, second, in such manner as to make it both efficient and attractive. Guarantees of education and subsistence to all, and of help to those who need it, are in- dispensable conditions, to be provided as soon as the organization shall be sufficiently advanced to render them practicable. " A spacious edifice, sufficient for the accommodation of eighty to one hundred persons, will be erected the ensuing season, its walls and princi- pal partitions, which are to be of stone, being already contracted for, to be completed by the 1st of October. But the buildings already erected will furnish accommodations — less eligible, but perfectly comfortable ex- cept in severely cold weather — for at least an equal number. " It is not, however, expected that the operations of the ensuing year will be any thing more than preparative ; they will be limited probably to collecting a few persons to form a nucleus of the institution to be grad- ually developed in the future. But, from the first, facilities will be fur- nished for industry on the principle of remuneration proportioned to produc- tion, by means of which, or otherwise, each candidate will be required to provide for his own support, and for that of such other persons as are admitted at his request as members of his family or other dependents. " The means of support at present available for those who come to re- side on the domain will be, as they may be stated in a general way, op- Colonies — Not Communistic. $77 portunities to engage, on liberal terms, in as many varieties as possible of productive industry ; but, more particularly, first, an ample area of fer- tile land to cultivate ; and, secondly, facilities for such mechanical work as can be executed with hand-tools, especially the making of clothes, boots and shoes, and other articles of universal consumption, not exclud- ing, however, any article whatever for which a market, either internal or external, can be found. But, as far as income depends upon earnings, the most reliable resource will be agricultural and horticultural industry, as most of the mechanical work likely to be required for some time should perhaps be reserved for weather not suitable to out-door employments. Employment for wages at customary rates will be furnished to some ex- tent to those who desire it for a part of their time, but can not be relia- bly promised. Steam-power will be provided as soon as warranted by a sufficient number of associates, and by the. prospect of being applied to profitable production. " Having provided the associates and candidates with these facilities for industry, and made them responsible each for his own support, and, at first, for that of his dependents, the projectors propose to have them distribute themselves into organizations for industrial operations, and se- lect or invent their own kinds and mode of cultivation and other prac- tical processes, under regulations prescribed by themselves. They will be indulged with the largest liberty, consistent with the protection of rights and the preservation of order, in choosing their own employments, and their own industrial and social companions ; in appointing, concur- rently with those with whom they are immediately associated, their own hours of labor, recreation, and repose ; and, generally, in directing their activity in such manner and to such purposes as their taste or interest may induce them to prefer. "We hope thus to demonstrate that interfer- ence with individual choice is necessary only to restrain people from transgressing their own proper sphere and encroaching upon that of oth- ers, and that restraints, even for that purpose, will seldom be required, and not at all except during the rudimentary stage, of industrial organi- zation. " No efforts, therefore, will be made to select persons of similar views or beliefs, or to mould them afterward to any uniform pattern. That unanimity which is not expected in regard to practical operations, is much less expected in regard to those subjects transcending the sphere of hu- man experience about which opinions are now so irreconcilably conflict- ing. All that will be required is that each shall accord to others as much 378 Communistic Societies of the United States. freedom of thought and action as he enjoys himself, and shall respect the rights and interests of others as he desires his own to be respected by tli em. " The apprehension that our experiment might be greatly embarrassed by admitting the totally destitute to participate in it, compels us to say that such can not at present be received. The means applicable to our purpose, considerable as they are, might become inadequate if subjected to the burden of maintaining objects of charity ; while but few could be thus relieved, even if all the means at command were devoted to that single object. Our system, if we do not misapprehend it, will, in its ma- turity, provide abundantly for all. "But though we insist that the first participators in our enterprise shall not be pecuniarily destitute, the amount insisted upon is not large. So much, however, as is required must be amply secured by the follow- ing cash advances : " First : rent of rooms and board paid two months in advance for each person admitted to reside on the domain, including each member of the applicant's family ; and at the end of the first month, payment of these items for another month, so that they shall again be paid two months in advance, and so from month to month indefinitely. " Rent of rooms will be reasonable, and board will be finally settled for at its cost, as near as may be ; but in computing it for advance pay- ment, it will be rated rather above than below its exjiected cost, to pro- vide against contingencies. If too much is advanced, the excess, when ascertained, will either be repaid or otherwise duly accounted for. " Facilities for cheap boarding, and for tables graduated to suit differ- ent tastes and circumstances, will be limited at first, and until associates become numerous enough to form messes and board themselves. " Second : each person so admitted will be required to deposit, as may be directed, the sum of one hundred dollars for himself, and an equal sum for every other person admitted with him at his request, on which interest will be allowed at the rate of six per cent, per annum. This de- posit is expected to be kept unimpaired until the projectors think it may safely be dispensed with, but will be repaid, or so much thereof as is sub- ject to no charges or offsets, whenever the person on whose account it was made withdraws from the enterprise and ceases to reside on the do- main ; as will also any unexpended residue of the amount advanced for rooms and board. " This deposit, besides furnishing a guarantee against the destitution Colonies — Not Communistic. 379 of the person making it, is recommended by another consideration not less important — it secures him, in case he wishes to retire from the enter- prise, because he can find no satisfactory position in it, or for any other reason, against retiring empty-handed, or remaining longer than he wishes for want of means to go elsewhere. " In addition to these cash advances, each person admitted as an as- sociate or candidate will be required to provide furniture for his room, and all other articles needed for his personal use, including, generally, the hand-tools with which he works. But some of these articles may, in certain cases, be rented or sold on credit to persons of good industrial cajmcity who have complied with the other conditions. " We should esteem, as especially useful, a class of residents who, hav- ing an income, independent of their earnings, adequate to their frugal support at least, can devote themselves as freely as they please to attract- ive occupations which are not remunerative, it being such occupations probably that will furnish the first good examples of a true industrial or- ganization. Nest to be preferred are those having an independent in- come which, though not adequate to their entire support, is sufficient to relieve them from any considerable anxiety concerning it ; for they can, to a greater or less extent, yield to the impulses of attraction with compara- tive indifference to the pecuniary results of their industry. " It is hoped and expected that the style of living, at least in the early stages of the experiment, will be frugal and inexpensive. Neatness and good taste, and even modest elegance, will be approved and encouraged; but the projectors disapprove of superfluous personal decorations, and of all expense incurred for mere show without utility, and in this sentiment they hope to be sustained by the associates. " As a general rule, applicants who comply with the pecuniary con- ditions will be admitted on trial as candidates, to the extent of our ac- commodations, without formal inquisition of other particulars ; but each applicant should state his age and occupation, and the ages and industri- al capacities of others, if any, whom he desires to have admitted with him, and whether any of them are permanently infirm. References are also requested, and photographs if possible. " The cardinal object of our enterprise being, as has been said, to or- ganize labor on the basis of rewarding it according to the value of its product, and in such manner as to divest it of the repugnance inseparable from it as now prosecuted, the policy to which recourse will first be had to effect this object will be to throw upon the associates the chief respou- 380 Communistic Societies cf the United States. BJbility of selecting functions and devising processes, as well as of mar- shaling themselves into efficient industrial organizations. Freedom to select their preferred occupations and modes of proceeding is proposed, with the expectation that a diversity of preferences will be developed in both, the respective partisans of which will vie with each other to dem- onstrate the superior excellence of their chosen specialties. Among the numerous merits which recommend this policy, not the least important is that it will, as is believed, give full play to all varieties of taste and ca- pacity, and secure a more perfect correspondence of functions with apti- tudes than exists in the present system of labor. But we are not so com- mitted to any policy as to persist in it, if, after being fairly tested, it fails of its purpose. In that event new expedients will be resorted to, and others again, if necessary, for we should not abandon our enterprise, though our first efforts should prove unsuccessful. The failure of any particular policy, therefore, does not involve a final failure, of which in- deed the danger, if any, is remote, inasmuch as care will be taken not to exhaust the means applicable to our main purpose in a first trial, or in a second, or even any number of trials. But we have great confidence that not many trials will be necessary to construct a system of industry and of social life far in advance of any form of either now prevailing in the world. " The lowest degree of success — we will not say with which we shall be satisfied, but to which we can be reconciled — is that the experiment shall be self-sustaining. By this we mean that the associates, aided by the facilities furnished them, shall produce enough not only to supply their own consumption, including education for children and subsistence for all, and to repair the waste, wear, and decay of tools, machines, and other property used, but enough also to reasonably compensate those who fur- nish the capital for the use of it. Less production than this implies a waning experiment, which must, sooner or later, terminate adversely. But even though this low degree of success should be delayed, the domain is indestructible, and being dedicated forever to associative purposes, must remain unimpaired for repeated trials. "An ample sufficiency of land will be conveyed to trustees in such manner as to secure the perpetual use of it to the associates and their suc- cessors. The land to be thus appropriated has on it a large peach or- chard now in full bearing, which yielded last season a large crop of ex- cellent peaches ; 400 selected apple-trees, which have four years' thrifty growth from the nursery, and a considerable number of other fruit-trees; Colonies — Not Communistic. 381 •and a vineyard of about 1200 young grape-vines. A library of 1200 vol- umes in English, besides a large number in French and other languages, is now here, intended for the use of future associates and residents. " No fund is set apart for the gratuitous entertainment of visitors. Those not guests of some one here who will be chargeable for them, will be ex- pected to pay a reasonable price for such plain and cheap accommoda- tions as can be afforded them. " For a more extended explanation of the principles and aim of our en- terprise, and of some of the details of the mode of proceeding, persons in- terested are referred to a treatise on ' Co-operation and Attractive Indus- try,' published under the auspices of the departed and lamented Hor- ace Greeley, for which send fifty cents to the Tribune, New York, or to either of the subscribers. " [Note. — It should be understood that the foregoing exposition of principles and policy, though the best that our present knowledge ena- bles us to make, is provisional only, and liable to be modified from time to time as experience makes us wiser.] E. V. BOISSIERE. " Williamsburg P. O., Franklin Co., Kansas." On the Lack of the circular is the following description of Silkville's position and other particulars : " Silkville, at which ' The Prairie Home ' is located, is near the south- west corner of Franklin County, Kansas, three miles south of Williams- burg, at present the nearest post-office ; about twelve miles nearly west of Princeton, on the L. L. and G. Railroad, the nearest railroad station ; and about twenty miles southwest of Ottawa, the county seat. An open wagon, which carries passengers and the mail between Williamsburg and Princeton, connects with the cars at the latter place every Monday, Wed- nesday, and Friday, at about 2 o'clock P. M., which (by special arrange- ment) will carry passengers with ordinary baggage between Princeton and Silkville for sixty-five cents each. Fare from Ottawa to Princeton, nine miles, fifty cents. Persons coming here frequently hire a private conveyance from Ottawa. " Through tickets to Kansas City and Lawrence (and perhaps to Otta- wa) can be purchased at the principal railroad stations. Fare from Kan- sas City to Ottawa, fifty-three miles, $2 90 ; from Lawrence to Ottawa, twenty-seven miles, $1 60." Under date of March 30, 1S74, Mr. Boissiere writes me: 382 Communistic Societies of the United States. " The unitary building is complete so far as masonry and carpenter work goes, but the plastering and painting will require two months to complete. Our neighborhood has not settled as fast as I expected, and will not afford a market for small industries. I would not invite associ- ates to come on until I establish more firmly the silk business and some other industries. The country has not yet learned what crops will pay best. Farmers are now trying the castor-bean and flax for seed, with some promise of success. I had information about an oil-mill, but find it gives occupation to only a very few operators. I think now of a fac- tory for working the flax-tow into twine and rope, bagging, or mats. " I have plenty of patience, having lived a farmer's life ; and I like bet- ter to go surely than too fast. We have plenty of good coal around us, selling at fourteen cents per bushel of eighty pounds. "We had the pros- pect of a railroad crossing our grounds from Ottawa to Burlington, but the hard times prevent it. Yours, E. V. BOISSIERE." It is difficult to foretell what will be the outcome of Mr. Boissiere's effort. The offer he makes to " associates " is not very promising. Land and employment outside of the great cities are both so plentiful in this country that men who have capital enough to make the deposit required by Mr. Boissiere are mere likely to settle upon public land under the homestead act, and carve out their own future. A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES OF THE AMERICAN COMMUNES. COMPARATIVE VIEW. I. — Statistical. Though brief accounts are given in the preceding pages of several recently established communistic societies, it is evident that only those which have been in practical operation during a term of years are useful for purposes of comparison, and to show the actually accomplished results of communistic ef- fort in the United States, as well as the means by which these results have been achieved. The societies which may thus be properly used as illustra- tions of successful communism in this country are the Shakers, established in the Eastern States in 1794, and in the West about 1808 ; the Rappists, established in 1805 ; the Baumelers, or Zoaeites, established in 1817; the Eben-Ezers, or Amana Communists, established in 1814 ; the Bethel Commune, es- tablished in 1844 ; the Oneida Perfectionists, established in 1848 ; the Icarians, who date from 1849 ; and the Aurora Commune, from 1852. Though in name there are thus but eight societies, these con- sist in fact of not less than seventy-two communes : the Shakers having fifty-eight of these ; the Amana Society seven ; and the Perfectionists two. The remaining societies consist of but a single commune for each. It will be seen that the oldest of these communes have exist- ed for eighty years; the youngest cited here for review has been founded twenty-two years. Of all, only two societies re- main under the guidance of their founders ; though it may be Dd 386 Communistic Societies of the United States. said that the Ainana Communes have still the advantage of the presence among them of some of the original leading mem- bers. The common assertion that a commune must break up on the death of its founder would thus appear to be erroneous. These seventy-two communes make but little noise in the world ; they live quiet and peaceful lives, and do not like to admit strangers to their privacy. They numbered in 1874 about five thousand persons, including children, and were then scattered through thirteen states, in which they own over one hundred and fifty thousand acres of land — probably nearer one hundred and eighty thousand, for the more prosperous fre- quently own farms at a distance, and the exact amount of their holdings is not easily ascertained. As they have sometimes been accused of being land monopolists, it is curious to see that even at the highest amount I have given they would own only about thirty-six acres per head, which is, for this country, a comparatively small holding of land. It is probably a low estimate of the wealth of the seventy- two communes to place it at twelve millions of dollars. This wealth is not equally divided, some of the older societies hold- ing the larger share. But if it were, the members would be worth over two thousand dollars per head, counting men, wom- en, and children. It is not an exaggeration to say that almost the whole of this wealth has been created by the patient in- dustry and strict economy and honesty of its owners, without a positive or eager desire on their part to accumulate riches, and without painful toil. Moreover — and this is another important consideration — I am satisfied that during its accumulation the Communists en- joyed a greater amount of comfort, and vastly greater security against want and demoralization, than were attained by their neighbors or the surrounding population, with better schools and opportunities of training for their children, and far less exposure for the women, and the aged and infirm. Comparative View. 387 In origin the Icarians are French; the Shakers and Per- fectionists Americans ; the others are Germans ; and these out- number all the American communists. In fact, the Germans make better communists than any other people — unless the Chinese should some day turn their attention to communistic attempts. What I have seen of these people in California and the Sandwich Islands leads me to believe that they are well calculated for communistic experiments. All the communes under consideration have as their bond of union some form of religious belief. It is asserted by some writers who theorize about communism that a commune can not exist long without some fanatical religious thought as its cementing force; while others assert with equal positiveness that it is possible to maintain a commune in which the mem- bers shall have diverse and diverging beliefs in religious mat- ters. It seems to me that both these theories are wrong ; but that it is true that a commune to exist harmoniously, must be composed of persons who are of one mind upon some question which to them shall appear so important as to take the place of a religion, if it is not essentially religious ; though it need not be fanatically held. Thus the Icarians reject Christianity ; but they have adopt- ed the communistic idea as their religion. This any one will see who speaks with them. But devotion to this idea has sup- ported them under the most deplorable poverty and long-con- tinued hardships for twenty years. Again, the Bethel and Aurora Communes, whose members make singularly little of outward religious observances, are held together by their belief that the essence of all religion, and of Christianity, is unselfishness, and that this requires com- munity of goods. I do not think that any of these people can be justly called fanatics. On the other hand, the Shakers, Rappists, Baumelers, Eben- 388 Communistic Societies of the United States. Ezers, and Perfectionists have each a very positive and deep- ly rooted religious faith ; but none of them can properly be called fanatics, except by a person who holds every body to be a fanatic who believes differently from himself. For none of these people believe that they are alone good or alone right ; all admit freely that there is room in the world for various and varying religious beliefs; and that neither wisdom nor righteousness ends with them. It is also commonly said that all the communistic societies in this country oppose the family-life, and that in general they advocate some abnormal relation of the sexes, which they make a fundamental part of their communistic plan. This, too, is an error. Of all the communes I am now considering, only the Perfectionists of Oneida and Wallingford have es- tablished what can be fairly called unnatural sexual relations. At Icaria, Amaua, Aurora, Bethel, and Zoar the family re- lation is held in honor, and each family has its own separate household. The Icarians even forbid celibacy. None of these live societies maintain what is called a " unitary household ;" and in only two, Icaria and Amana, do the people eat in com- mon dining-halls. The Shakers and Rappists are celibates; and it is often said by the Shakers that communism can not be successful except where celibacy is a part of the system. It is not un- natural that they should think so ; but the success of those societies which maintain the family relation would seem to prove the Shakers mistaken. And it is useful to remember that even the Rappists were successful before they determined, under deep religious influences, to give up marriage, and adopt celibacy. Moreover, the Rappists have never used the " uni- tary home" or the common dining-hall ; they have always lived in small " families," composed of men, women, and children. It seems to me a fair deduction from the facts, that neither religious fanaticism nor an unnatural sexual relation (unless Comparative View. 389 voluntary celibacy is so called) is necessary to the successful prosecution of a communistic experiment. What is required I shall try to set forth in another chapter. The Eben-Ezers and the Perfectionists are the only com- munes which are at this time increasing in numbers. At Ica- ria, Bethel, Aurora, and Zoar, they hold their own ; but they, too, have lost strength during the last twenty years. The Shakers and Kappists, the only celibate communists, are de- creasing, and have lost during a number of years ; and this in spite of their benevolent custom of adopting and training orphan children, to whom they devote money and care with surprising and creditable liberality. The Eben-Ezers get the greater part of their accessions from among the brethren of their faith in Germany; and they live in Iowa in such rigor- ous seclusion, and so entirely conceal themselves and their faith and plan from the general public, that it is evident they do not wish to recruit their membership from the surrounding population. The Perfectionists publish a weekly journal, send this and their pamphlets to all who wish them, and have al- ways used the press freely. Their peculiar doctrines are widely known, and they receive constantly applications from persons desirous to join their communes. I believe the greater num- ber of these applicants are men; find I do not doubt that the peculiar sexual relations existing at Oneida and "Wallingford are an element of attraction to a considerable proportion of the persons who apply for membership, and who are almost without exception rejected ; for it is right that I should here prevent a misconception by saying that the Perfectionists are sincerely and almost fanatically attached to their peculiar faith, and accept new members only with gr$at care and many pre- cautions. The Perfectionists are essentially manufacturers, using agri- culture only as a subsidiary branch of business. All the other societies have agriculture as their industrial base, and many of 390 Communistic Societies of the United States. them manufacture but little, though all have some branch of manufacture. Also, it is the aim of all to produce and make, as far as possible, every thing they consume. To limit the expenditures and increase the income is the evident road to wealth, as they have all discovered. Much ingenuity has been exercised by all these communists in establishing profitable branches of manufacture; and they have had the good sense and courage in whatever they undertook to make only a good article, and secure trade by rigid honesty. Thus the Shaker garden seeds have for nearly three quarters of a century been accepted as the best all over the United States ; the Oneida Perfectionists established the reputation of their silk-twist in the market by giving accurate weight and sound material ; the woolen stuffs of Amana command a con- stant market, because they are well and honestly made ; and in general I have found that the communists have a reputation for honesty and fair dealing among their neighbors, and where- ever their products are bought and sold, which must be very valuable to them. Saw and grist mills, machine shops for the manufacture and repair of agricultural implements, and woolen factories, are the principal large manufacturing enterprises in which they are engaged ; to these must be added the preserving of fruits, broom and basket making, the preparation of medicinal ex- tracts, and the gathering and drying of herbs, garden seeds, and sweet corn, chair-making, and a few other small indus- tries. One Shaker community manufactures washing-ma- chines and mangles on a large scale, and another makes staves for molasses hogsheads. Indeed, the Shakers have shown more skill in contriving new trades than any of the other societies, and have among their members a good deal of me- chanical ingenuity. All the communes maintain shops for making their own clothing, shoes, and often hats; as well as for carpentry, Comparative View. 391 blacksmithing, wagon -making, painting, coopering, etc., and have the reputation among their neighbors of keeping excel- lent breeds of cattle. The small shops and the improved cattle are important advantages to their country neighbors ; and a farmer who lives within half a dozen miles of a commune is fortunate in many ways, for he gains a market for some of his produce, and he has the advantage of all their mechanical skill. I did not specially investigate the question, but I have reason to believe that land in the neighborhood of a commu- nistic society is always more valuable for these reasons ; and I know of some instances in which the existence of a commune has added very considerably to the price of real estate near its boundaries. Almost without exception the communists are careful and thorough farmers. Their barns and other farm-buildings are usually models for convenience, labor-saving contrivances, and arrangements for the comfort of animals. Their tillage is clean and deep ; and in their orchards one always finds the best varieties of fruits. In their houses they enjoy all the comforts to which they are accustomed or which they desire, and this to a greater degree than their neighbors on the same plane of life ; and, especially, they are always clean. The women of a commune have, without exception, I think, far less burdensome lives than women of the same class elsewhere. This comes partly because the men are more regular in their hours and habits, and waste no time in dram-shops or other and less harmful places of dissipation ; partly, too, be- cause all the industries of a commune are systematized, and what Yankees call " chores," the small duties of the household, such as preparing and storing firewood, providing water, etc., which on our farms are often neglected by the men, and cause the women much unnecessary hardship and toil, are in a com- mune brought into the general plan of work, and thoroughly attended to 392 Communistic Societies of the United States. Of course, the permanence of a commune adds much to the comfort of the women, for it encourages the men in pro- viding many small conveniences which the migratory farmer's wife sighs for in vain. A commune is a fixture ; its people build and arrange for all time ; and if they have an ideal of comfort they work up to it. II. — Communal Politics and Political Economy. Nothing surprised me more, in my investigations of the communistic societies, than to discover — 1st. The amount and variety of business and mechanical skill which is found in every commune, no matter what is the character or intelligence of its members; and, 2d. The ease and certainty with which the brains come to the top. Of course this last is a transcendent merit in any system of government. The fundamental principle of communal life is the subor- dination of the individual's will to the general interest or the general will : practically, this takes the shape of unquestioning obedience by the members toward the leaders, elders, or chiefs of their society. But as the leaders take no important step without the unan- imous consent of the membership ; and as it is a part of the communal policy to set each member to that work which he can do best, and so far as possible to please all ; and as the communist- takes life easily, and does not toil as severely as the individualist- — so, given a general assent to the principle of obedience, and practically little hardship occurs. The political system of the Icarians appears to me the worst, or most faulty, and that of the Shakers, Rappists, and Amana Communists the best and most successful, among all the soci- eties. Comparative View. 393 The Icarian system is as nearly as possible a pure democracy. The president, elected for a year, is simply an executive officer to do the will of the majority, which is expressed or ascertained every Saturday night, and is his rule of conduct for the fol- lowing week. " The president could not sell a bushel of corn without instructions from the meeting of the people," said an Icarian to me — and thereby seemed to me to condemn the system of which he was evidently proud. At Amana, and among the Shaker communes, the " leading characters," as the Shakers quaintly call them, are selected by the highest spiritual authority, are seldom changed, and have almost, but not quite, unlimited power and authority. The limitations are that they shall so manage as to preserve har- mony, and that they shall act within the general rules of the societies — shall not contract debts, for instance, or enter upon speculative or hazardous enterprises. The democracy which exists at Oneida and Wallingford is held in check by the overshadowing conservative influence of their leader, ISToyes ; it remains to be seen how it will work aft- er his death. But it differs from the Icarian system in this important respect, that it does give large powers to leaders and executive officers. Moreover, the members of these two Per- fectionist communes are almost all overseers of hired laborers; and Oneida is in reality more a large and prosperous manufact- uring corporation, with a great number of partners all active- ly engaged in the work, than a commune in the common sense of the word. At Economy the chiefs have always been appointed by the spiritual head, and for life ; and the people, as among the Shakers and Eben-Ezers, trouble themselves but little about the management. The same is true of Zoar and Bethel, practical- ly, though the Baumelers elect trustees. Aurora is still under the rule of its founder. Aside from the religious bond, and I believe of equal strength 394 Communistic Societies of the United States. with that in the minds of most communists, is the fact that in a commune there is absolute equality. The leader is only the chief servant ; his food and lodgings are no better than those of the members. At Economy, the people, to be sure, built a larger house for Rapp, but this was when he had become old, and when he had to entertain strangers — visitors. But even there the garden which adjoins the house is frequented by the whole society — is, in fact, its pleasure-ground ; and the present leaders live in the old house as simply and plainly as the hum- blest members in theirs. At Zoar, Baumeler occupied a com- modious dwelling, but it was used also as a storehouse. At Aurora, Dr. Keifs house accommodates a dozen or twenty of the older unmarried people, who live in common with him. At Amana, the houses of the leaders are so inconspicuous and plain that they are not distinguishable from the rest. A Shaker elder sits at the head of the table of his family or commune, and even the highest elder or bishop of the so- ciety has not a room to himself, and is expected to work at some manual occupation when not employed in spiritual du- ties. In a commune no member is a servant ; if any servants are kept, they are hired from among the world's people. "When the Kentucky Shakers organized, they not only liberated their slaves, but such of them as became Shakers were established in an independent commune or family by their former mas- ters. They " ceased to be servants, and became brethren in the Lord." Any one who has felt the oppressive burden of even the highest and best-paid kinds of service will see that independ- ence and equality are great boons, for which many a man willingly sacrifices much else. Moreover, the security against want and misfortune, the sure provision for old age and inability, which the communal system offers — is no doubt an inducement with a great many Comparative View. 395 to whom the struggle for existence appears difficult and beset by terrible chances. I do not mean here to undervalue the higher motives which lead men and women into religious communities, and which control the leaders, and no doubt a considerable part of the membership in such communes ; but not all. For even among the most spiritual societies there are, and must be, members controlled by lower motives, and looking mainly to sufficient bread and butter, a regular and healthful life, easy tasks, and equality of condition. Finally, the communal life secures order and system — cer- tainly at the expense of variety and amusement ; but a man or woman born with what the Shakers would call a gift of order, finds, I imagine, a singular charm in the precision, method, regularity, and perfect system of a communal village. An eternal Sabbath seems to reign in a Shaker settlement, or at Economy, or Amana. There is no hurly-burly. This sys- tematic arrangement of life, combined with the cleanliness which is a conspicuous feature in every commune which I have visited, gives a decency and dignity to humble life which in general society is too often without. " How do you manage with the lazy people ?" I asked in many places ; but there are no idlers in a commune. I con- clude that men are not naturally idle. Even the " winter Shakers" — the shiftless fellows who, as cold weather approach- es, take refuge in Shaker and other communes, professing a de- sire to become members ; who come at the beginning of win- ter, as a Shaker elder said to me, " with empty stomachs and empty trunks, and go off with both full as soon as the roses begin to bloom" — even these poor creatures succumb to the systematic and orderly rules of the place, and do their share of work without shirking, until the mild spring sun tempts them to a freer life. 396 Communistic Societies of the United States. The character of the leaders in a commune is of the great- est importance. It affects, in the most obvious manner, the development of the society over which they rule. The " lead- ing character" is sure to be a man of force and ability, and he forms the habits, not only of daily life, but even of thought, of those whom he governs — just as the father forms the character of his children in a family, or would if lie did not give his whole life to " business." But origin, nationality, and previous social condition are, of course, still greater powers. Thus the German communists in the United States, who came for the most part from the peasant class in their country, retain their peculiar habits of life, which are often singular, and sometimes repulsive to an American. They enjoy doubtless more abundant food than in their old homes ; but it is of the same kind, and served in the same homely style to which they were used. Their dwellings may be more substantial ; but they see nothing disagreeable in two or three families occupying the same house. At Icaria I saw French sabots, or wooden shoes, standing at the doors of the houses; and at dinner the water was poured from a a vessel of tin — not, I imagine, because they were too poor to afford a pitcher, but because this was the custom at home. So, too, among the American societies there are great differ- ences. To the outer eye one Shaker is much like another; but the New Hampshire and Kentucky Shakers are as differ- ent from each other as the general population of one state is from that of the other, both in intellectual character and habits of life ; and the New York Shaker differs again from both. Climate, by the habits it compels, makes trivial but still conspicuous differences; it is not possible that the Kentucky Shaker, who hears the mocking-bird sing in his pines on every sunny day the winter through, and in whose woods the blue-jay is a constant resident, should be the same being as his brother in Maine or New Hampshire, who sees the mercury fall to Comparative View. 397 twenty degrees below zero, and stores his winter's firewood in a house as big as an ordinary factory or as his own meeting- house. I was much struck with the simplicity of the book-keeping in most of the communities, which often made it difficult for me to procure such simple statistics as I have given in previous pages. Sometimes, as at Zoar, Aurora, and Bethel, it was with great trouble that I could get even approximate figures ; and this not entirely because they were unwilling to give the in- formation, but because it was nowhere accessible in a con- densed and accurate shape. "If a man owes no money — if he pays and receives cash — he needs to keep but few ac- counts," said a leading man at Aurora to me. In most of the communes there is no annual or other busi- ness statement made to the members ; and this plan, which at first seems to be absurdly insecure and unbusiness-like, w T orks well in practice. Among the Shakers, the ministry, whenever they wish to, and usually once a year, overhaul the accounts of the trustees. The extensive business affairs of the Rappists have always been carried on by two leading men, without supervision, and without loss or defalcation. At Amana it is the same, as well as at Zoar, Bethel, and Aurora. The fixed rule of the communes, not to run in debt, is a wholesome check on trustees ; and though defalcations have occurred in several of the Shaker communes, they remain satisfied that their plan of account-keeping is the best. At Oneida they have a very thorough system of book-keep- ing — more complete than would be found, I suspect, in most large manufacturing establishments ; and there I received def- inite and accurate statistical information with but little delay. But the Perfectionists have a more keenly mercantile spirit than any of the other communal societies ; they are, as I said before, essentially a manufacturing corporation. It is an important part of the commune's economies in liv- 39$ Communistic Societies of the United States. ing that it buys its supplies at wholesale. Oddly enough, a person at Buffalo, with whom I spoke of the Eben-Ezer people, remarked that they were disliked in the city, because, while they sold their products there, they bought their supplies at wholesale in New York. The retailer and middle- man ap- pear to have vested rights nowadays. People seem to have thought in Buffalo that they obliged the Eben-Ezer men by buying their vegetables. I have heard the same objection made in other states to the Shaker societies : " They are of no use to the country, for they buy every thing in the city at wholesale." As though they did not pay taxes, besides setting an excellent example of virtuous and moderate living to their neighbors. The simplicity of dress usual among communists works also an economy not only in means, but what is of equal impor- tance, and might be of greater, a saving of time and trouble and vexation of spirit to the women. I think it a pity that all the societies have not a uniform dress; the Shakers and Bap- pists have, and it is an advantage in point of neatness. The slop-made coats and trousers worn in many societies quickly turn shabby, and give a slouchy appearance to the men, which is disagreeable to the eye, and must be more or less demor- alizing to the wearers. The blue jacket of the Rappist is a very suitable and comfortable working garment ; and the long coat of the Shaker always looks decent and tidy. As to the dress of the women — in Amana, and also among the Shakers, the intention seems to be to provide a style which shall conceal their beaut} 7 , and make them less attractive to male eyes; and this is successfully achieved. At Economy no such precautions are taken ; the women wear the honest dress of German peasants, with a kind of Norman cap, and the dress is sensible, convenient, and by no means uncomely. At Oneida the short dress, with trousers, and the clipped locks, though convenient, are certainly ugly. Elsewhere dress is not Comparative View. 399 much thought of. But in all the societies stuffs of good qual- ity are used ; and none are the slaves of fashion. I need not point out how much time and trouble are saved to women by this alone. The societies have generally as good schools as the average of the common schools in their neighborhoods, and often bet- ter. None but the Oneida and Wallingford Communists favor a "liberal" or extended education; these, however, have sent a number of their young men to the Sheffield scientific school at New Haven. The Shakers and Rappists teach musical no- tation to the children ; and all the communes, except of course Icaria, give pretty careful religious instruction to the young. But, besides the " schooling," they have all preserved the wholesome old custom of teaching the boys a trade, and the girls to sew, cook, and wash. " Our boys learn as much, per- haps more than the farmer's or village boys, in our schools; and we make them also good farmers, and give them thorough knowledge of some useful trade :" this was often said to me — and it seemed to me a good account to give of the training of youth. III. — Character of the People ; Influences of Communistic Life. I remark, in the first place, that all the successful com- munes are composed of what are customarily called " common people." You look in vain for highly educated, refined, cultivated, or elegant men or women. They profess no exalted views of hu- manity or destiny ; they are not enthusiasts ; they do not speak much of the Beautiful with a big B. They are utilitarians. Some do not even like flowers ; some reject instrumental music. They build solidly, often of stone ; but they care nothing for 400 Communistic Societies of the United States. architectural effects. Art is not known among them ; mere beauty and grace are undervalued, even despised. Amuse- ments, too, they do not value ; only a few communes have gen- eral libraries, and even these are of very limited extent, except perhaps the library at Oneida, which is well supplied with new books and newspapers. The Perfectionists also encour- age musical and theatrical entertainments, and make amuse- ment so large a part of their lives that they have nearly half a dozen committees to devise and superintend them. At Amana and Economy, as well as among the Shakers, re- ligious meetings are the principal recreations ; though the Shaker union meetings, where the members of a family visit each other in small groups, may be called a kind of diversion. At Economy, in the summer, the people enjoy themselves in flower-gardens, where they gather to be entertained by the music of a band. 2. The communists do not toil severely. Usually they rise early — among the Shakers at half-past four in the summer, and five in winter ; and in most of the other communes before or about sunrise. They labor industriously, but not exhaust- ingly, all the day ; and in such ways as to make their toil com- fortable and pleasant. "Two hired workmen would do as much as three of our people," said a Shaker to me ; and at Amana they told me that three hired men would do the work of five or even six of their members. " We aim to make work not a pain, but a pleasure," I was told ; and I think they suc- ceed. The workshops are usually very comfortably arranged, thoroughly warmed and ventilated, and in this they all dis- play a nice care. 3. They are all very cleanly. Even in those communes, as at Aurora, where the German peasant appears to have changed but very little most of his habits, cleanliness is a conspicuous virtue. The Shaker neatness is proverbial ; at Economy every thing looks as though it had been cleaned up for a Sunday ex- Comparative View. 401 animation. In the other German communes the neatness is as conspicuous within the houses, but it does not extend to the streets and spaces out of doors. The people do not appear to be offended at the sight of mud in winter, and, like most of our "Western farmers, do not know what good roads are. The Perfectionists pay a little attention to landscape-gardening, and have laid out their grounds very tastefully. 4. The communists are honest. They like thorough and good work; and value their reputation for honesty and fair dealing. Their neighbors always speak highly of them in this respect. 5. They are humane and charitable. In Kentucky, during the slavery period, the Shakers always had their pick of negroes to be hired, because they were known to treat them well. At New Lebanon I was told that a farm-hand was thought fortunate who was engaged by the Mount Lebanon Shakers. At Amana and at Economy the hired people value their situations so highly that they willingly conform to the peculiarities of the commune, so far as it is demanded. At Oneida, where a large number of men and women are em- ployed in the factories, they speak very highly of their em- ployers, though these are the objects of prejudice on account of their social system. So, too, the animals of a commune are always better lodged and more carefully attended than is usual among its neighbors. 6. The communist's life is full of devices for personal ease and comfort. At Icaria, owing to their poverty, comfort was, until within a year or two, out of the question — but they did what they could. Among the other and more prosperous communes, a good deal of thought is given to the conveniences of life. One sees very perfectly fitted laundries ; covered ways by which to pass from house to outhouses in stormy weather ; ingenious contrivances for ventilation, and against drafts, etc. 7. They all live well, according to their different tastes. Ee ' 402 Communistic Societies of the United States. Food is abundant, and well cooked. In some Shaker com- munes a part of the family eat no meat, and special provision is made for these. Fruit is every where very abundant, and forms a large part of their diet ; and this no doubt helps to keep them healthy. They take a pride in their store-rooms and kitchens, universally eat good bread and butter, and live much more wholesomely than the average farmer among their neighbors. 8. They are usually healthy, though in some communes they have a habit of doctoring themselves for fancied diseases. In almost all the Shaker communes I found hospitals, or " nurse- shops," as they call them, but oftenest they were empty. In the other societies I saw no such special provision for serious or chronic diseases. 9. I have no doubt that the communists are the most long- lived of our population. This is natural ; they eat regularly and well, rise and retire early, and do not use ardent spirits; they are entirely relieved of the care and worry which in in- dividual life beset every one who must provide by the labor of hand or head for a family ; they are tenderly cared for when ill ; and in old age their lives are made very easy and pleas- ant. They live a great deal in the open air also. Moreover, among the American communists, health and longevity are made objects of special study; and the so-called health jour- nals are read with great interest. It results that eighty is not an uncommon age for a communist ; and in every society, ex- cept perhaps in Icaria, I saw or heard of people over ninety, and still hale and active. 10. They are temperate in the use of wine or spirits, and drunkenness is unknown in all the communes, although among the Germans the use of wine and beer is universal. The American communes do not use either at all. But at Econ- omy or Amana or Zoar the people receive either beer or wine daily, and especially in harvest-time, when they think Comparative View. 403 these more wholesome than water. At Economy they have very large, substantially built wine-cellars, where some excel- lent wine is stored. Is it not possible that the general moderation with which life is pursued in a commune, the quiet, absence of exciting or worrying cares, regularity of habit and easy work, by keeping their blood cool, decrease the tendency to misuse alcoholic bev- erages ? There is no doubt that in the German communes wine and beer are used, and have been for many years, in a way which would be thought dangerous by our temperance people ; but I have reason to believe without the occurrence of any case of habitual intemperance. Possibly scientific ad- vocates of temperance may hereafter urge a more temperate and sensible pursuit of wealth and happiness, a less eager life and greater contentment, as more conducive to what we nar- rowly call "temperance" than all the total-abstinence pledges. 11. It is a fixed principle in all the communes to keep out of debt, and to avoid all speculative and hazardous enterprises. They are content with small gains, and in an old-fashioned way study rather to moderate their outlays than to increase their profits. Naturally — as they own in common — they are not in haste to be rich. Those of them who have suffered from debt feel it to be both a danger and a curse. None of the communes make the acquisition of wealth a leading object of life. They have greater regard to independence and comfort. Their surplus capital they invest in land or in the best securi- ties, such as United States bonds. 12. In those communes where the family relation is upheld, as the people are prosperous, they marry young. At Amana they do not permit the young men to marry before they reach the age of twenty-four. In the celibate societies a number of precautions are used to keep the sexes apart. Among the Shakers, especially, there are usually separate doors and stairways in the dwelling-houses; 404 Communistic Societies of the United States. the workshops of the sexes are in different buildings ; they eat at separate tables; and in their meetings men and women are ranged on opposite sides of the hall. Moreover, no one is lodged alone, even the elders and ministry sharing the sleep- ing-room with some other brother. It is not even permitted that a man and woman shall stand and talk together on the public walk. In most of their schools the sexes are also sep- arated. In some of their dwellings, where but a single stair- case exists, there is a rule that two persons of opposite sexes shall not pass each other on the stairs. They are not allowed to keep pet animals; nor to enter the room of another sex without knocking and receiving permission; nor to visit, ex- cept by appointment of the elders or ministry ; nor to make presents to each other ; nor to visit the shops of the other sex alone. At Economy there are separate entrance-ways to the dwellings for the two sexes. It is not pretended in the celibate communes that the celi- bate life is easy ; they confess it to be a sacrifice ; but as they are moved to it by their religious faith, they rigorously main- tain their rule. I am satisfied that very few cases of sexual irregularity have occurred among them, and they rigorously expel all those who transgress their rules. It is natural that they should assert that celibacy is health- ful ; and, indeed, they point to the long life and general good health of their members in proof ; and the fresh and fair com- plexions of a great number of their middle-aged people might be cited as another proof. Tet I have been told that the women are apt to suffer in health, particularly at the critical period of life. I must add, however, that I could hear of no cases of insanity or idiocy traceable to the celibate condition. Of course there is no force used to keep members in a com- mune ; and those who are uncomfortable leave and go out into the world. The celibate communes keep very few of the young people whom they train up. Comparative View. 405 13. The communal life appears to be, at first view, inexora- bly dull and dreary ; and the surprise was the greater to a vis- itor like myself to find the people every where cheerful, merry in their quiet way, and with a sufficient number and variety of healthful interests in life. But, after all, the life of the communist has much more varied interests and excitements than that of the farmer or his family ; for a commune is a vil- lage, and usually forms a tolerably densely crowded aggrega- tion of people — more like a small section cut out of a city than like even a village. There is also a wholesome variety of oc- cupations ; and country life, to those who love it, presents an infinite fund of amusement and healthful work. That this is a correct view is shown by the curious fact that at Amana, when the farmers of the surrounding country bring in their wool, which they sell to the society, they bring with them their wives and children, who find enjoyment in a stay at the little inn ; at Zoar the commune's hotel is a favorite re- sort of the country people ; the neighbors of the Icarians come from miles around to attend the school exhibitions and other diversions of these communists ; and about Aurora, in Oregon, the farmers speak of the commune's life as admirably ar- ranged for amusement and variety. 14. Several of the societies have contrived ingenious me- chanical means for securing harmony and eliminating with- out violence improper or rather uncongenial members ; and these appear to me to be of high importance. The Shakers use what they call " Confession of sins to the elders ;" the Amana people have an annual " ' untersucfiung" or inquiry into the sins and the spiritual condition of the members; the Perfectionists use what they rightly call " Criticism " — perhaps the most effective of all, as in it the subject is not left to tell his own tale, but sits at the oyer of his sins and disagreeable conduct, being judge rather than witness. But all these de- vices are meritorious, because by their means petty disputes 406 Communistic Societies of the United States. are quieted, grievances are aired and thus dispersed, and har- mony is maintained ; while to one not in general agreement with the commune either is unbearable, and will drive him off. As I have described these practices in detail, under their proper heads, I need not here do more than mention them. In judging of the quality of the communal life, I have found myself constantly falling into the error of comparing it with my own, or with the life of men and women in pleasant circumstances in our great cities. Even when thus studied it has merits — for the commune gives its members serenity of spirit, and relieves them from many of the follies to which even the most sensible men and women nowadays are reluctantly compelled to submit; not to speak of the petty and lowering- cares which these follies and the general spirit of society bring- to almost every one. It is undoubtedly an advantage to live simply, not to be the slave of fashion or of the opinion of others, and to keep the body under control. But to be fairly judged, the communal life, as I have seen and tried to report it, must be compared with that of the me- chanic and laborer in our cities, and of the farmer in the country ; and when thus put in judgment, I do not hesitate to say that it is in many ways — and in almost all ways — a higher and better, and also a pleasanter life. It provides a greater variety of employment for each indi- vidual, and thus increases the dexterity and broadens the fac- ulties of men. It offers a wider range of wholesome enjoy- ments, and also greater restraints against debasing pleasures. It gives independence, and inculcates prudence and frugality. It demands self-sacrifice, and restrains selfishness and greed ; and thus increases the happiness which comes from the moral side of human nature. Finally, it relieves the individual's life from a great mass of carking cares, from the necessity of over- severe and exhausting toil, from the dread of misfortune or exposure in old age. Comparative View. 407 If the communal life did not offer such or equivalent re- wards, no commune could exist. For though in almost all of those I have described a religious thought and theory enter in, it may nevertheless be justly said that all arose out of a deep- seated dissatisfaction with society as it is constituted — a feel- ing which is well-nigh universal, and affects men and women more the more thoughtful they are ; that they continue only because this want of something better is gratified ; but that a commune could not long continue whose members had not, in the first place, by adverse circumstances, oppression, or wrong, been made to feel very keenly the need of something better. Hence it is that the German peasant or weaver makes so good a communist ; and hence, too, the numerous failures of communistic experiments in this country, begun by people of culture and means, with a sincere desire to live the " bet- ter life." J. H. Noyes, the founder of the Perfectionist com- munes, gives, in his book on " American Socialisms," brief ac- counts of not less than forty-seven failures,* many of them experiments which promised well at first, and whose founders were high-minded, highly cultivated men and women, with sufficient means, one would think, to achieve success. Now, why these successes in the face of so many failures? Certainly there was not among the Shakers, the Rappists, the Baumelers, the Eben-Ezers, the Perfectionists, greater business * Here is a list of titles, which I take from Noyes : The Alphadelphia Phalanx, Hopedale Community, Leroysville Phalanx, Bloomfield Asso- ciation, Blue Springs Community, North American Phalanx, Ohio Pha- lanx, Brook Farm, Bureau County Phalanx, Raritan Bay Union, "Wiscon- sin Phalanx ; the Clarkson, Clermont, Columbian, Coxsackie, Skanea- teles, Integral, Iowa Pioneer, Jefferson County, La Grange, Turnbull, Sodus Bay, and Washtenaw Phalanxes; the Forrestville, Franklin, Gar- den Grove, Goose Pond, Haverstraw, Kendall, One Mentian, and Yellow Springs Communities ; the Marlborough, McKean County, Mixville, North- ampton, Spring Farm, and Sylvania Associations ; the Moorehouse and the Ontario Unions; the Prairie Home; New Harmony, Nashoba, NeW Lanark, the Social Reform Unity, and the Peace Union Settlement. 4o8 Communistic Societies of the United States. ability or more powerful leadership ? Greater wealth there was not* for most of the successful societies began poor. If education or intellectual culture are important forces, the unsuccessful societies had these, the successful ones had them not. Mr. Noyes believes that religion must be the base of a suc- cessful commune. Mr. Greeley agreed with him. I believe that religion must be the foundation of every human society which is to be orderly, virtuous, and therefore self-denying, and so far I do not doubt that they are right. But if it is meant, as I understand them, that in order to success there must be some peculiar religious faith, fanatically held, I do not believe it at all. I believe that success depends — together with a general agreement in religious faith, and a real and spiritual religion leavening the mass — upon another sentiment — upon a feeling of the unbearableness of the circumstances in which they find themselves. The general feeling of modern society is blindly right at bottom: communism is a mutiny against society. Only, whether the communist shall lebel with a bludgeon and a petroleum torch, or with a plow and a church, depends upon whether he has not or has faith in God — whether he is a religious being or not. If priestcraft and tyranny have sapped his faith and debauched his moral sense, then he will attack society as the French commune recently attacked Paris — ani- mated by a furious envy of his more fortunate fellow-creat- ures, and an undiscriininating hatred toward every thing which reminds him of his oppressors, or of the social system from which he has or imagines he has suffered wrong. If, on the contrary, he believes in God, he finds hope and comfort in the social theory which Jesus propounded ; and he will seek an- other way out, as did the Rappists, the Eben-Ezers, the Jan- senists, the Zoarites, and not less the Shakers and the Perfec- tionists, each giving his own interpretation to that brief nar- Comparative View. 409 rative of Luke in which he describes the primitive Christian Church : " And all that believed were together, and had all things in common ; and sold their possessions and goods ; and parted them to all men as every man had need." These words have had a singular power over men in all ages since they were written. They form the charter of every communistic society of which I have spoken — for even the Icarians recall them. IV. — Conditions and Possibilities of Communistic Living. Eeviewing what I have seen and written, these questions occur : I. On what terms, if at all, could a carefully selected and homogeneous company of men and women hope to establish themselves as a commune ? II. Would they improve their lives and condition ? III. Have the existino; societies brought communal life to its highest point ; or is a higher and more intellectual life com- patible with that degree of pecuniary success and harmonious living which is absolutely indispensable ? I. I doubt if men and women in good circumstances, or given to an intellectual life, can hope to succeed in such an experiment. In the beginning, the members of a commune must expect to work hard ; and, to be successful, they ought always to retain the frugal habits, the early hours, and the pa- tient industry and contentment with manual labor which belong to what we call the working class. Men can not play at com- munism. It is not amateur work. It requires patience, sub- mission ; self-sacrifice, often in little matters where self-sacrifice 4io Communistic Societies of the United States. is peculiarly irksome; faith in a leader; pleasure in plain liv- ing and healthful hours and occupations. "Do you have no grumblers?" I asked Elder Frederick Evans at Mount Lebanon ; and he replied, " Yes, of course — and they grumble at the elder. That is what he is for. It is necessary to have some one man to grumble at, for that avoids confusion." " Do you have no scandal ?" I asked at Aurora, and they said, " Oh yes — women will talk ; but we have learned not to mind it." "Are you not troubled sometimes with disagreeable mem- bers?" I asked at Oneida; and they answered, "Yes; but what we can not criticise out of them we bear with. That is part of our life." "Bear ye one another *s burdens" might well be written over the gates of every commune. Some things the communist must surrender ; and the most precious of these is solitude. The man to whom at intervals the faces and voices of his kind become hateful, whose bitterest need it is to be some- times alone — this man need not try communism. For in a well-ordered commune there is hardly the possibility of pri- vacy. You are part of a great family, all whose interests and all whose life must necessarily be in common. At Oneida, when a man leaves the house he sticks a peg in a board, to tell all his little world where he is to be found. In a Shaker fam- ily, the elder is expected to know where every man is at all hours of the day. Moses, wandering over the desert with his great commune, occasionally went up into a mountain ; but he never returned to the dead level of his Israelites without find- ing his heart fill with rage and despair. Nor is this surprising ; for in the commune there must be absolute equality; there can be no special privileges ; and when the great Leader, resting his spirit on the mountain, and enjoying the luxury of solitude Comparative View. 411 and retirement from the hateful sight and sounds of human kind, " delayed to come down," his fellow-communists began at once to murmur, " As for this Moses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we wot not what is become of him." Fortunately — else there would be no communes — to the greater part of mankind the faces and voices of their kind are necessary. A company of fifty, or even of twenty -five families, well known to each other, belonging to the same Christian Church, or at least united upon some one form of religious faith, com- posed of farmers or mechanics, or both, and strongly desirous to better their circumstances, and to live a life of greater in- dependence and of greater social advantages than is attainable to the majority of farmers and mechanics, could, I believe, if they were so fortunate as to possess a leader of sufficient wis- dom and unselfishness, in whom all would implicitly trust, make an attempt at communistic living with strong hopes of success ; and they would undoubtedly, if they maintained their experiment only ten years, materially improve their condition ; and, what to me seems more important, the life would affect their characters and those of their children in many ways beneficially. I think it would be a mistake in such a company of people to live in a "unitary home." They should be numerous enough to form a village ; they should begin with means suf- ficient to own a considerable tract of land, sufficient to supply themselves with food, and to keep as much stock as they re- quired for their own use. They should so locate their village as to make it central to their agricultural land. They should determine, as the Eappists did, upon a uniform and simple dress and house, and upon absolute equality of living. They should place all the power in the hands of their leader, and solemnly promise him unhesitating trust and obedience ; spec- 412 Communistic Societies of the United States. ifying only that lie should contract no debts, should attempt no new enterprise without unanimous consent, and should at all times open his purposes and his acts to the whole society. Finally, they should expect in the beginning to live econom- ically — very economically, perhaps ; and in every case within their income. They would, of course, adopt rules as to hours of labor and of meals ; but if they had the spirit which alone can give suc- cess, these matters would be easily settled — for in a community men are more apt to over -work than to be idle. The lazy men, who are the bugbears of speculative communists, are not, so far as I have heard, to be found in the existing com- munes, and I have often and in different places been told, especially of the early days : " We worked late and early, each trying how much he could accomplish, and singing at our work." In a commune, which is only a large family, I think it a great point gained for success to give the women equal rights in every respect with the men. They should take part in the business discussions, and their consent should be as essential as that of the men in all the affairs of the society. This gives them, I have noticed, contentment of mind, as well as enlarged views and pleasure in self-denial. Moreover, women have a conservative spirit, which is of great value in a communistic society, as in a family ; and their influence is always toward a higher life. Servants are inadmissible in a commune ; but it may and ought to possess conveniences which make servants, with plain living, needless. For instance, a common laundry, a common butcher's shop, a general barn and dairy, are contrivances which almost every commune possesses, but which hardly any village in the country has. A clean, hard road within the communal village limits, and dry side-walks, would be attain- able with ease. A church and a school-house ousrht to be Comparative View. 413 the first buildings erected ; and both being centrally placed, either could be used for such evening meetings as are essential to happy and successful community living. Finally, there should be some way to bring to the light the dissatisfaction which must exist where a number of people attempt to live together, either in a commune or in the usual life, but which in a commune needs to be wisely managed. For this purpose I know of no better means than that which the Perfectionists call "criticism" — telling a member to his face, in regular and formal meeting, what is the opinion of his fellows about him — which he or she, of course, ought to re- ceive in silence. Those who can not bear this ordeal are un- fit for community life, and ought not to attempt it. But, in fact, this " criticism," kindly and conscientiously used, would be an excellent means of discipline in most families, and would in almost all cases abolish scolding and grumbling. A commune is but a larger family, and its members ought to meet each other as frequently as possible. The only ad- vantage of a unitary home lies in this, that the members may easily assemble in a common room every evening for an hour, not with any set or foreordained purpose, but for that inter- change of thought and experience which makes up, or should, a large and important part of family life. Hence every com- mune ought to have a pleasantly arranged and conveniently accessible meeting-room, to which books and newspapers, mu- sic, and cheap, harmless amusements should draw the people — women and children as well as men — two or three times a week. Nor is such meeting a hardship in a commune, where plain living, early hours, and good order and system make the work light, and leave both time and strength for amusement. Tobacco, spirituous liquors, and cards ought to be prohibited in every commune, as wasteful of money, strength, and time. The trainins; of children in strict obedience and in good habits would be insisted on by a wise leader as absolutely 414 Communistic Societies of the United States. necessary to concord in the society; and the school-teacher ought to have great authority. Moreover, the training of even little children, during some hours of every day, in some manual occupation, like knitting — as is done at Amana — is useful in several ways. Regular and patient industry, not exhausting toil, is the way to wealth in a commune ; and children — who are indeed in general but too proud to be usefully employed, and to have the sense of accomplishing something — can not be brought into this habit of industry too early. What now might the members of such a community expect to gain by their experiment ? Would they, to answer the sec- ond question above, improve their lives and condition? Pecuniarily, they would begin at once a vast economy and saving of waste, which could hardly help but make them pros- perous, and in time wealthy. A commune pays no wages ; its members " work for their board and clothes," as the phrase is ; and these supplies are either cheaply produced or bought at wholesale. A commune has no blue Mondays, or idle periods whatever; every thing is systematized, and there is useful em- ployment for all in all kinds of weather and at all seasons of the year. A commune wastes no time in "going to town," for it lias its own shops of all kinds. It totally abolishes the middle- man of every kind, and saves all the large percentage of gain on which the " store-keepers" live and grow rich elsewhere. It spends neither time nor money in dram-shops or other places of common resort. It secures, by plain living and freedom from low cares, good health in all, and thus saves " doctors' bills." It does not heed the changes in fashion, and thus saves time and strength to its women. Finally, the commu- nal life is so systematized that every thing is done well, at the right time, and thus comes another important saving of time and material. The communal wood-house is always full of well-seasoned firewood: here is a saving of time and temper which almost every Western farmer's wife will appreciate. Comparative View. 415 If you consider well these different economies, it will cease to be surprising that communistic societies become wealthy ; and this without severe or exhausting toil. The Zoarites acknowledge that they could not have paid for their land had they not formed themselves into a commune ; the Amana Inspirationists confess that they could not have maintained themselves near Buffalo had they not adopted the communal system. I have said nothing about the gain of the commune by the thorough culture it is able and likely to give to land ; its ability to command at any moment a large laboring force for an emergency, and its advantage in producing the best, and selling its surplus consequently at the highest market price. But these are not slight advantages. I should say that the reputation for honesty and for always selling a good article is worth to the Shakers, the Amana and other communes, at least ten per cent, over their competitors. On the moral side the gain is evidently great. In a society so intimately bound together, if there are slight tendencies to evil in any member, they are checked and controlled by the prevailing public sentiment. The possibility of providing with ease and without the expenditure of money good train- ing and education for children, is an immense advantage for the commune over the individualist who is a farmer or mechanic in a new country. The social advantages are very great and evident. Finally, the effect of the communal life upon the character of the individual is good. Diversity of employments, as I have noticed in another chapter, broadens the men's faculties. Ingenuity and mechanical dexterity are developed to a surprising degree in a commune, as well as business skill. The constant necessity of living in intimate association with others, and taking into consideration their prejudices and weaknesses, makes the communist somewhat a man of the world ; teaches him self-restraint ; gives him a lib- 4-i6 Communistic Societies of the United States. eral and tolerant spirit ; makes him an amiable being. Why are all communists remarkably cleanly ? I imagine largely because filth or carelessness would be unendurable in so large a family, and because system and method are absolutely nec- essary to existence. But, to come to my third question, the communes I have visited do not appear to me to make nearly as much of their lives as they might. Most of them are ascetics, who avoid the beautiful as tending to sin ; and most of them, moreover, out of the force of old habits, and a conservative spirit which dreads change, rigidly maintain the old ways. In the beginning, a commune must live with great economy, and deny itself many things desirable and proper. It is an advantage that it should have to do this, just as it is undoubt- edly an advantage to a young couple just starting out in life to be compelled by narrow circumstances to frugal living and self-denial. It gives unselfishness and a wholesome develop- ment of character. But I can not see why a prosperous com- mune should not own the best books ; why it should not have music; why it should not hear the most eloquent lecturers; why it should not have pleasant pleasure-grounds, and devote some means to the highest form of material art— fine architect- ure. It seems to me that in these respects the communes I have visited have failed of their proper and just development; and I believe this inattention to the higher and intellectual wants of men to be the main reason of their generally failing numbers. They keep their lives on the plane of the common farmer's life out of which most of the older members were gathered — and their young people leave them, just as the farmers of our country complain that their boys run off to the cities. The individual farmer or country mechanic can not control this; he can not greatly beautify his life, or make it intellectually richer. But to the commune, once well estab- lished and prosperous, all needful things are possible, so far as Comparative View. 4 1 7 money cost is concerned ; and it is my belief that neither books nor music, nor eloquence nor flowers, nor finely kept pleasure- grounds nor good architecture would be dangerous to the suc- cess of a commune. In another respect, the communistic societies fall short of what they ought to be and do. The permanence of their es- tablishments gives them extraordinary advantages for observ- ing the phenomena of climate and nature ; and it would add greatly to the interest of their lives did they busy and interest themselves with observations of temperature, and of the vari- ous natural phenomena which depend upon or denote climate : the arrival and departure of birds ; the first and last frosts ; the blossoming of flowers and trees. A Shaker family ought to produce records of this kind of great value and interest ; and I wonder that such a book as White's "Selborne" has not tempted some communist to such observations. But I nowhere, except at Oneida, found more than a very superficial interest in natural phenomena. It is easy to see that here is a field of innocent and health- ful amusement which, with the abundant leisure the members of a prosperous commune enjoy, could be worked so as to give a new and ever-fresh interest to the lives of young and old. I find fault also with the isolation in which communal so- cieties live. They would be the better if they communicated fully and frequently among each other, and interchanged thoughts and experiences. Not only do the different societies hold aloof from each other, but among the Shakers even fam- ilies do not communicate or advise with others living at a dis- tance. But I believe this is to be remedied. Finally, I repeat that one can not play at communism. It is earnest work, and requires perseverance, patience, and all other manly qualities. But if I compare the life in a con- tented and prosperous, that is to say a successful commune, with the life of an ordinary farmer or mechanic even in our Ff 4it> Communistic Societies of the United States. prosperous country, and more especially with the lives of the working-men and their families in our great cities, I must con- fess that the communist life is so much freer from care and risk, so much easier, so much better in many ways, and in all material aspects, that I sincerely wish it might have a farther development in the United States. With this wish I conclude a work which has interested me extremely — the record of an investigation which was certainly the strangest and most remarkable I ever made, and which forced me to take some views of the nature and capacities of the average man which I had not before. That communistic societies will rapidly increase in this or any other country, I do not believe. The chances are always great against the success of any newly formed society of this kind. But that men and women can, if they will, live pleas- antly and prosperously in a communal society is, I think, proved beyond a doubt ; and thus we have a right to count this another way by which the dissatisfied laborer may, if he chooses, better his condition. This seems to me a matter of some importance, and justifies, to myself at least, the trouble I have taken in this investigation. BIBLIOGRAPHY. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following list does not pretend to be a complete bibli- ography of Socialism or Communism. It contains the titles of all the works which have fallen under my own observation re- lating to the Communistic Societies now existing in the United States, and referred to in this book. Most of these are in my own collection ; a few I found in the Congressional Library or in the hands of friends. To a few of the titles I have ap- pended remarks explanatory of their contents. 1. A Brief Account of a Religious Scheme taught and propagated by a number of Europeans who lately lived in a place called Nisqueunia, in the State of New York, but now residing in Harvard, Commonwealth of Mas- sachusetts, commonly called Shaking Quakers. By Valentine Rathbone, Minister of the Gospel. To which is added a Dialogue between George the Third of Great Britain and his Minister, giving an account of the late London mob, and the original of the Sect called Shakers. The whole be- ing a discovery of the wicked machinations of the principal enemies of America. Worcester, 1782. [This is the earliest printed mention I have found of the Shakers. The pam- phlet is in the Congressional Library, and came from the Force Collection. It9 intention was to make the Shakers odious as British spies ; and in the " Dialogue " between the king and his minister, "Lord Germain" is made to comfort the king with an account of " the persons who were sent to propagate a new religious scheme in America," whose accounts, he says, are " very flattering," and upou whom he depends to mislead the ignorant Americans into opposition to the "reb- els." The " Dialogue " pretends to have been " printed Loudon ; reprinted Wor- cester, 1782."] 2. Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing, exemplified by the Princi- ples and Practice of the Church of Christ. History of the Progressive Work of God, extending from the Creation of Man to the Harvest, com- prising the Four Great Dispensations now consummating in the Millennial Church. Antichrist's Kingdom or Churches, contrasted with the Church 422 Communistic Societies of the United States. of Christ's First and Second Appearing, the Kingdom of the God of Heaven. Published by the United Society called Shakers. No date. (The Preface to the first edition is dated " Lebanon, O., 1808." Of the fourth, " Watervliet, N. Y., 1854 ;" pp. 632.) 3. Autobiography of a Shaker, and Revelation of the Apocalypse, with an Appendix. By Frederick W. Evans. New York, American News Company, 1869, pp. 162. 4. The Same. London, J. Burns, 1871, with a photographic portrait of the author. 5. Shaker's Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Government and Doctrines of the United Society of Christ's Second Appearing, with Biographies of Ann Lee, William Lee, James Whittaker, J. Hocknell, J. Meacham, and Lucy Wright. By F. W. Evans. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1859, pp. 189. 6. The Nature and Character of the True Church of Christ proved by Plain Evidences, and showing whereby it may be known and distin- guished from all others. Being Extracts from the Writings of John Dun- lavy. New York, printed by George W. Wood, 1850, pp. 93. 7. The Kentucky Revival ; or a Short History of the late Extraordinary Outpouring of the Spirit of God in the Western States of America, agree- ably to Scripture Promises and Prophecies concerning the Latter Day, with a Brief Account of the Entrance and Purposes of what the World call Shakerism, among the Subjects of the late Revival in Ohio and Kentucky. Presented to the True Zion Traveler as a Memorial of the Wilderness Jour- ney. By Richard McNemar. New York. Reprinted by Edward O. Jenkins, 1846. pp. 156. (The Preface is dated " Turtle Creek, 1807.") 8. The Same. Press of John W. Brown, Liberty Hall, Cincinnati, 1807. 9. The Same. Albany, 1808. 10. A Short Treatise on the Second Appearing of Christ in and through, the Order of the Female. By F. W. Evans, New Lebanon, N. Y. Boston, 1853, pp. 24. 11. A Brief Exposition of the Established Principles and Regulations of the United Society of Believers called Shakers. New York, 1851, pp. 30. 12. The Same. Watervliet, Ohio, 1832. 13. The Same. Canterbury, N. H., 1843. 14. Shaker Communism ; or Tests of Divine Inspiration. The Sec- ond Christian or Gentile Pentecostal Church, as exemplified by Seventy Communities of Shakers in America. By F. W. Evans. London, James Burns, 1871, pp. 120. Bibliography. 423 15. Religious Communism. A Lecture by F. W. Evans (Shaker), of Mount Lebanon, Columbia Co., New York, U. S. A., delivered in St. George's Hall, London, Sunday evening, August 6th, 1871 ; with Intro- ductory Remarks by the Chairman of the Meeting, Mr. Hepworth Dixon. Also some Account of the Extent of the Shaker Communities, and a Nar- rative of the Visit of Elder Evans to England. An abstract of a Lecture by Rev. J. M. Peebles, and his Testimony in regard to the Shakers. 16. Plain Talks upon Practical Religion. Being Candid Answers to Earnest Inquirers. By Geo. Albert Lomas, Shaker. (Watervliet), N. Y., 1873, pp. 24. 17. Ann Lee, the Founder of the Shakers. A Biography, with Me- moirs of her Companions. Also a Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Government and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing. By F. W. Evans. London, J. Burns. (The same as No. 5.) 18. The Shaker and Shakeress. A monthly paper. Published by the United Society, Mount Lebanon, N. Y. F. W. Evans, Editor. 19. Social Gathering Dialogue between Six Sisters of the North Fam- ily of Shakers, Mount Lebanon, N. Y. Albany, 1873, pp. 18. 20. Shakerism, the Possibility of the Race. Being Letters of A. B. B. and Elder F. "W. Evans. Office of the Shaker, 1872, pp. 14. 21. The Universal Church. By F. W. Evans. Office of the Shaker, 1872, pp. 16. 22. Catalogue of Medicinal Plants, Barks, Roots, Seeds, Flowers, and Se- lect Powders, with their Therapeutic Qualities and Botanical Names ; also Pure Vegetable Extracts, prepared in vacuo; Ointments, Inspissated Juices, Essential Oils, Double-distilled and Fragrant Waters, etc., raised, prepared, and put up in the most careful manner by the United Society of Shakers at Mount Lebanon, N.Y. First established in 1800, being the oldest of the kind in the country. Albany, N. Y., 1873, pp. 58. 23. Plain Evidences by which the Nature and Character of the True Church of Christ may be known and distinguished from all others. Tak- en from a work entitled, " The Manifesto, or a Declaration of the Doc- trines and Practice of the Church of Christ." Published at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky, 1818. By John Dunlavy. Printed by Hoffman & "White, Al- bany, 1834, pp. 120. 24. A Collection of Millennial Hymns, adapted to the present Order of the Church. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H, 1847, pp. 200. 424 Communistic Societies of the United States. 25. A Sacred Repository of Anthems and Hymns, for devotional Wor- ship and Praise. Canterbury, N. H., 1852, pp. 222. 26. Testimonies concerning the Character and Ministry of Mother Ann Lee and the First Witnesses of the Gospel of Christ's Second Appear- ing, given by some of the aged Brethren and Sisters of the United So- ciety ; including a few Sketches of their own Religious Experiences. Approved by the Church. Albany, printed by Packard & Van Ben- thuysen, 1827, pp. 178. 27. Familiar Dialogues on Shakerism ; in which the Principles of the United Society are illustrated and defended. By Fayette Mace. Port- land, Charles Day & Co., Printers, 1838, pp. 120. 28. The Same. Concord, 1838. 29. A Discourse of the Order and Propriety of Divine Inspiration and Revelation, showing the Necessity thereof in all Ages to know the Will of God. Also, a Discourse on the Second Appearing of Christ in and through the Order of the Female. And a Discourse on the Propriety and Necessity of a United Inheritance in all Things in order to Support a true Christian Community. By William Leonard. Harvard (Mass.), published by the United Society, 1853, pp. 88. 30. A Brief Illustration of the Principles of War and Peace, showing the ruinous Policy of the former, and the superior Efficacy of the latter, for National Protection and Defense ; clearly manifested by their prac- tical Operations and opposite Effects upon Nations, Kingdoms, and Peo- ple. By Philanthropos. Albany, printed by Packard & Van Benthuy- sen, 1831, pp. 112. 31. Some Lines in Verse about Shakers, not Published by Authority of the Society so called. New York, William Taylor & Co., No. 2 Astor House, 1846, pp. 56. 32. A Concise Answer to the General Inquiry who or what are the Shakers. First printed at Union Village, Ohio, 1823. Reprinted at En- field, N. H., 1825. Albion Chase, Printer, pp. 14. 33. The Life of Christ is the End of the World. By George Albert Lomas. Watervliet, 1869, pp. 16. 34. The Higher Law of Spiritual Progression. Albany, 1868, pp. 32. 35. The Social Evil. By James J. Prescott. North Union (Ohio), 1870, pp. 14. 36. A Shaker's Answer to the oft-repeated Question " What would be- come of the World if all should become Shakers ?" Orders supplied by John Whiteley, Shirley Village, Massachusetts. Boston, 1874, pp. 32. Bibliography. 425 37. The Same. By R, W. Pelhain. Cincinnati, 1868, pp. 32. 38. Shakers : A Correspondence between Mary F. C, of Mount Holly City, and a Shaker Sister, Sarah L., of Union Village. Edited by R. W. Pelham. Union Village, Ohio, 1868, pp. 24. 39. Respect and Veneration due from Youth to Age. New Bedford, 1870, pp. 15. 40. The Universal Church. By F. W. Evans. Office of the Shaker. Shakers, N. Y., 1872, pp. 10. 41. Improved Shaker Washing-machine, etc. Manufactured and for sale by the United Society of Shakers, at Shaker Village, N. H., pp. 12. 42. The Divine Book of Holy and Eternal "Wisdom, revealing the Word of God, out of whose Mouth goeth a sharp Sword. "Written by Paulina Bates, at Watervliet, New York, United States of North America ; includ- ing other Illustrations and Testimonies. Arranged and prepared for the Press at New Lebanon, N. Y. Published by the United Society called Shakers. Printed at Canterbury, N. H., 1849, pp. 718. 43. A Holy, Sacred, and Divine Roll and Book, from the Lord God of Heaven to the Inhabitants of Earth. Revealed in the United Society at New Lebanon, County of Columbia, State of New York, United States of America. Received by the Church of this Communion, and published in Union with the same. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H., 1843, pp. 412. 44. A Summary View of the Millennial Church, or United Society of Believers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of the So- ciety, together with the general Principles of their Faith and Testimony, 1823. (2d edition, revised and improved) republished by the United Society with the approbation of the Ministry. Albany, printed by C. Van Benthuysen, 1848, pp. 384. 45. The Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing ; containing a gen- eral Statement of all Things pertaining to the Faith and Practice of the Church of God in this Latter Day. Published in Union by Order of the Ministry. Lebanon, Ohio, from the Press of John M'Clean, office of the Western Star, 1808, pp. 618. 46. The Same. 2d edition, corrected and improved. Albany, 1810, pp. 660. 47. The Same. 3d edition, corrected and improved. Union Village, Ohio. B. Fisher & A. Burnett, Printers, 1823, pp. 621. 48. Account of some of the Proceedings of the Legislatures of the States of Kentucky and New Hampshire, 1828, etc., in Relation to the People called Shakers. . Reprinted, New York, 1846, pp. 103. 426 Communistic Societies of the United States. 49. A Selection of Hymns and Poems for the Use of Believers ; collected from sundry Authors. By Philos - Harmonige. Watervliet, Ohio, 1833, pp. 186. 50. The Constitution of the United Society of Believers called Shak- ers ; containing sundry Covenants and Articles of Agreement definitive of the Legal Grounds of the Institution. Watervliet, Ohio, 1833, pp. 16. [Contains several forms of the Church Covenant, from 1810 down to 1833.] 51. Condition of Society and its only Hope in obeying the Everlasting Gospel, as now developing among Believers in Christ's Second Appear- ing. Printed and published at the Day Star Office, Union Village, Ohio, 1847, pp. 121. 52. A Juvenile Guide, or Manual of Good Manners, consisting of Coun- sels, Instructions, and Rules of Deportment for the Young, by Lovers of Youth. In Two Parts. Printed in the United Society, Canterbury, N. H., 1844, pp. 137. 53. Shakerism Detected, a Pamphlet published by Col. James Smith, of Kentucky, Examined and Confuted in Five Propositions. Published at Lebanon, Ohio, and Lexington, Kentucky, 1811, by Richard McNe- mar. Reprinted by Request. Watervliet, Ohio, May 2, 1833, pp. 12. 54. General Rules of the United Society, and Summary Articles of Mu- tual Agreement and Release, Ratified and Confirmed by the Society at Watervliet, Montgomery County, Ohio, January, 1833. Union Office, 1833, pp.7. [Contains the signatures of members.] 55. The Shakers : Speech of Robert Wickliffe in the Senate of Ken- tucky, January, 1831, on a Bill to Repeal an Act of the General Assem- bly of the State of Kentucky, entitled an Act to Regulate Civil Pro- ceedings against certain Communities having Property in Common. Frankfort, Ky., 1832. pp. 32. 56. A Memorial Remonstrating against a certain Act of the Legislature of Kentucky entitled an Act to Regulate Civil Proceedings against cer- tain Communities having Property in Common, and declaring that it shall and may be lawful to commence and prosecute suits, obtain decrees, and have execution against any of the Communities of People called Shakers, without naming or designating the individuals, or serving process on them otherwise than by fixing a Subpoena on the door of their Meeting- house, etc. Union Office, Harrodsburg, Ky., 1830, pp. 8. 57. An Address to the State of Ohio, Protesting against a certain Clause Bibliography. 427 of the Militia Law enacted by the Legislature. Lebanon, Ohio, Office of the Farmer, 1818, pp. 24. 58. Investigator; or a Defense of the Order, Government, and Econo- my of the United Society called Shakers against sundry Charges and Legislative Proceedings. Addressed to the Political World by the Soci- ety of Believers at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky. Lexington, Ky., Smith & Palmer, 1828, pp. 57. 59. A Brief Statement of the Sufferings of Mary Dyer, occasioned by the Society called Shakers. Written by Herself. To which is added Af- fidavits and Certificates ; also a Declaration from their own Publication. Concord, N. H., 1818, pp. 35. 60. A Compendious Narrative, Elucidating the Character, Disposition, and Conduct of Mary Dyer, from the Time of her Marriage, in 1799, till she left the Society called Shakers in 1815, etc. By her Husband, Joseph Dyer. To which is annexed a Remonstrance against the Testimony and Application of the said Mary for Legislative Interference. Concord, by Isaac Hill, for the Author, 1818, pp. 90. 61. The Memorial of the Society of People of Canterbury, in the Coun- ty of Rockingham, and Enfield, in the County of Grafton, commonly called Shakers. (No date — but about 1818), pp. 13. 62. Tests of Divine Inspiration, or the Rudimental Principles by which True and False Revelation in all Eras of the World can be Unerringly Discriminated. By F. W. Evans. New Lebanon, 1853, pp. 128. 63. Public Discourses delivered in Substance at Union Village, Ohio, August, 1823, pp. 36. 64. A Revision and Confirmation of the Social Compact of the United Society called Shakers, at Pleasant Hill, Kentucky. Published by Order of the Church. Harrodsburg, Ky., 1830, pp. 12. 65. A Short Abridgment of the Rules of Music, with Lessons for Ex- ercise, and a few Observations for New Beginners. New Lebanon, 1843 ; reprinted 1846, pp. 40. 66. Sixteen Years in the Senior Order of Shakers, a Narrative of Facts concerning that singular People. By Hervey Elkins. Hanover, N. II., 1853, pp. 136. 67. The Shaker Society against Gass & Banta. (Brief of a case in Ken- tucky.) No date, pp. 8. 68. Catalogue of Medicinal Plants, Extracts, Essential Oils, etc., pre- pared and for sale by the United Society of Shakers at Union Village, Ohio. 428 Communistic Societies of the United States. 69. Shakerism Unmasked, or a History of the Shakers. By William J. Haskett. Pittsfield, 1828. 70. Two Years' Experience among the Shakers : A Condensed View of Shakerism as it is. By David R. Lamsen. West Boylston, 1848. 71. The Rise and Progress of the Serpent, from the Garden of Eden to the Present Day, with a Disclosure of Shakerism, etc. ; also the Life and Sufferings of the Author, who was Mary Dyer, but now is Mary Marshall. Concord, N. H., 1847. 72. An Account of the People called Shakers — their Faith, Doctrines, and Practice. By Thomas Brown, of Cornwall, Orange County, N. Y. Troy, 1812. 73. History of American Socialisms. By John Humphrey Noyes. Phila- delphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1870, pp. 678. 74. Oneida Community Cooking, or a Dinner without Meat. By Har- riet H. Skinner. Oneida, N. Y., 1873, pp. 51. 75. Essay on Scientific Propagation. By John Humphrey Noyes, with an Appendix containing a Health Report of the Oneida Community. By Theodore R. Noyes, M.D. Published by the Oneida Community, Oneida, N. Y. (No date— about 1873), pp. 32. 76. Male Continence. By John Humphrey Noyes. Published by the Oneida Community, Office of the Circular, Oneida, N Y., 1872, pp. 24. 77. Hand-book of the Oneida Community, containing a Brief Sketch of its Present Condition, Internal Economy, and Leading Principles. Pub- lished by the Oneida Community, N. Y., 1871, pp. 64. 78. Salvation from Sin the End of Christian Faith. By J. H. Noyes. Published by the Oneida Community, Mount Tom Printing-house, Wal- lingford Community, Conn., 1869, pp. 48. 79. Dixon and his Copyists : A Criticism of the Accounts of the Onei- da Community in " New America," " Spiritual Wives," and kindred Pub- lications. By John Humphrey Noyes. Published by the Oneida Com- munity, 1871, pp. 40. 80. Faith Facts ; or a Confession of the Kingdom of God and the Age of Miracles. Edited by George Cragin. Oneida Reserve, N. Y., 1850, pp. 40. 81. Favorite Hymns for Community Singing, 1855, pp. 32. (Oneida Communists.) 82. The Way of Holiness ; a Series of Papers published in the Perfection- ist, New Haven. By J. H. Noyes. Printed by J. II. Noyes & Co., 1838. [The company consisted of himself, his wife, brother, uiid two sisters.] Bibliography. 429 83. Paul not Carnal. New Haven, 1834. 84. The Perfectionist. New Haven, 1834. 85. The Way of Holiness. Putney, Vt., 1838. 86. The Witness. Ithaca, N. Y., and Putney, Vt., 1838-43. 87. The Perfectionist. Putney, Vt., 1843-46. 88. The Spiritual Magazine. Oneida, 1848-50. 89. The Free Church Circular. Oneida, 1850-51. 90. The Circular. Oneida, 1854-74. 91. First Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1849. 92. Faith Facts. Oneida, 1850. 93. Second Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1850. 94. Third Annual Report of the Oneida Association. Oneida, 1851. 95. Bible Communism. Brooklyn, 1853. 96. The Trapper's Guide. Wallingford, 1867. 97. Die Wahre Separation, oder die Wiedergeburt, dargestellt in geist- reichen und erbaulichen Versammlung's Reden und Betrachtungen, be- sonders auf das gegenwartige Zeitalter anwendbar. Gehalten an die Gemeinde in Zoar im Jahre 1830. Gedruckt in Zoar, O., 1856. (The True Separation, or the Second Birth, presented in Spiritual and Devo- tional Discourses and Lectures, applicable particularly to the Present Time. Delivered to the Congregation at Zoar in 1830. Printed at Zoar, 1856.) Three volumes quarto, pp. 2574. [These are by Baumeler, the founder of the Zoar Community ; and contain a great many curious theories of life, present and future.] 98. Sammlung Auserlesener geistlicher Lieder, zum Gemeinschaftlichen Gesang und eigenen Gebrauch in Christlichen Familien. Zoar, Ohio, 1867. (Collection of Selected Sacred Hymns, for the use of Churches and Indi- viduals in Christian Families.) pp. 169. [Baumeler's Collection, now in use at Zoar. This is the " second and improved edition."] 99. Jahrbucher der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinden, oder Bezeugun- gen des Geistes des Herrn. Gedruckt zu Eben-Ezer bei Buffalo. (Year- books of the True Inspiration's Congregations, or Witnesses of the Spirit of the Lord. Printed at Eben-Ezer, near Buffalo.) [This is a series of volumes, containing the utterances of the " Inspired Instru- ments " of the Amana Society. They publish a volume for each year, but are now in arrears.] 100. Historische Beschreibung der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinschaft, wie sic bestanden und sich forrgepfianzt hat, und was von den wichtig- 430 Communistic Societies of the U?iited States. sten Ereignissen nocli ausgefunclen werden kann, besonders wie sie in den Jahren 1817 nnd 1818 und so fort wieder durch den Geist Gottes in neuen Werkzeugen aufgeweckt worden, und was seit der Zeit in und mit dieser Gemeinde und deren herzugekoinmenen Gliedern wichtiges vorge- fallen. Aufgeschrieben von Christian Metz. (Historical Description of the True Inspiration's Community, etc.) It is written by the Spiritual Head of the Amana Community. 101. J. J. J. Exegetische Reimen-Probe, uber die Letzte Rede unsers Herrn Jesu Christi an Seine Wahrhaftige Jiinger, etc., begriflFen, abge- fasset und mitgetheilet in Einfaltigem Liebes Gehorsam. Neu aufgelegt im Jahr 1860. Eben-Ezer, bei Buffalo, N. Y. (Exegetical Rhymes con- cerning the Last Address of our Lord Jesus Christ to his True Disciples, etc., conceived, written down, and imparted by Simple, Loving Obedience. Newly printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y., 1860.) [It is in several volumes, and is a rhymed rendering, with numerous reflections, of several chapters of John, beginning with the 14th. The author was an old Mystic, E. L. Gruber. The first volume, the only one I have, has 437 pages. I do not know why this and other volumes have J. J. J. prefixed to the title.] 102. B. cum D ! Die XXXVI. Sammlung, Das ist die Zweite Fortsetz- ung von Br. Johann Friederich Rock's Reise und Besuch im Jahr 1719, etc. Gedruckt im Jahr 1785. (The 36th Collection — that is, the Second Continuation of Brother John Frederick Rock's Journey and Visits in the year 1719. Printed in the year 1785.) pp. 145. [This is one of the more ancient journals of the Inspirationists, and recounts the visions of Rock, one of their early prophets. I do not know what mystery lies in "B. cum D!"] 103. Das Liebes und Gedachtniszmahl des Leidens und Sterbens unsers Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi, etc. (The Supper of Love and Remem- brance of the Sufferings and Death of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ ; how it was announced, ordered, and celebrated by his Word and "Wit- ness in four parts, at Middle and Lower Eben-Ezer, in the year 1855. Eben-Ezer, N.Y., 1859, pp. 284.) [I have given an account of this book in the description of Amana.] 104. Stimmen aus Zion, zum Lobe des Allmachtigen im Geist gesungen, von Johann Wilhelm Petersen, Dr. (A.D. 1698). (Voices from Zion, sung in the Spirit to the Praise of the Almighty, by John William Petersen, D.D.) Newly printed at Eben-Ezer, N. Y, 1851, pp. 456. 105. Davidisches Psalter Spiel der Kinder Zions, etc. (Psalms after the manner of David, for the Children of Zion : a Collection of old and newly Bibliography. 431 selected Spiritual Songs, brought together for the Use of all Souls desirous of Healing, and Sucklings of Wisdom ; but particularly for the Congrega- tions of the Lord.) Third Edition, Amana, Iowa, 1871, pp. 1285, of -which 111 are music. [This is the hymn-book at present in use at Amana.] 106. J. J. J. Erster Beytrag zur Fortsetzung der Wahren Inspiration's Gemeinschaft, etc. (First Records of the Continuation of the True Inspi- ration's Congregations.) Biidingen, 1822. [This volume contains the earliest utterances of Barbara Heyneman, the present Spiritual Head of Amana, and also " Four-and-twenty Rules of True Godliness," by J. A. Gruber, and " One-and-twenty Rules for the Examination of our Daily Lives," by E. L. Gruber.] 107. Die Schule der Weiszheit, als das Hoch-Teutsche ABC, vor Schil- ler und Meister in Israel. (The School of Wisdom, and High-German ABC, for Scholars and Masters in Israel.) 1748, pp. 128. 108. J. J. J. Catechetischer Unterricht von der Lehre des Heils, etc. (Catechism.) Printed at Eben-Ezer, 1857, and at Amana, 1872, "for the use and blessing of the Inspiration's Congregations." [There are two volumes, pp. 96 and 84. The first for youth, the second for members in general.] 109. Der Kleine Kempis, oder Kurze Spruche und Gebete, etc. (The Little Kempis, or Short Sayings and Prayers, from the Works of Thomas a; Kempis, for the Edification of Children. Eben-Ezer, 1856, pp. 382. 110. Seelen Schatz der Gott Begierigen, etc. (Treasure of those who desire God ; showing how a man should die to sin, hate his Adamic life, deny himself, and live in Christ, in order that he may attain to the com- plete love of God and his neighbor, and achieve a part in Everlasting Salvation.) Eben-Ezer, N. Y., 1851, pp. 243. 111. Lebenserfahrungen von Carl G. Koch, Prediger des Evangeliums. (Experiences of Charles G. Koch, Preacher of the Gospel.) Cleveland, Ohio, 1871, pp. 411. [This contains curious details of Count Leon's transactions at Economy, and of Keil, the head of the Aurora Community in Oregon.] 112. Hirten-Brief an die Wahren und Achten Freymaurer Alten Sys- tems. Neue Auflage, 5785. (Episcopal Letter addressed to the True and Faithful Freemasons of the Ancient System. New Edition, 5785.) Print- ed at Pittsburgh, 1855, pp. 288. [This is a mystical work much prized by the Harmonists.] 43 2 Communistic Societies of the United States. 113. The Harmony Society at Economy, Pennsylvania. Founded by George Rapp, A.D. 1805. With an Appendix. By Aaron Williams, D.D., Pittsburgh, 1866, pp. 182. 114. The Bishop Hill Colony Case. Answer of the Defendants. Galva, 111., 1868, pp. 94. [Contains accounts of the Growth and Decay of the Bishop Hill Community.] 115. The Bishop Hill Colony Case — Statement of the Plaintiffs, Eric U. Norberg and others. 116. Nagra Sanger, Samt Boner. Forfatlade af Erik Janson. Galva, 111., 1857. [This is the hymn-book prepared by Eric Janson for the use of the Bishop Hill Commune.] 117. Constitution der Ikarischen Giiter Gemeinschaft, etc. (Constitu- tion of the Icarian Commune, unanimously adopted on the 21st of Feb- ruary, 1850; and, after revision, again adopted 4th of May, 1851.) Nau- voo, 111. Icarian Printing-office, August, 1844, pp. 27. 118. Wenn ich $500,000 hatte ! (If I had Half a Million Dollars !) By E. Cabet, President of the Icarian Commune. Nauvoo, 111., November, 1854. T N D E X. (i (.. INDEX. Administration, at Amana, 393 ; Au- rora, 310; Bishop Hill, 347; Cedar Vale, 354 ; Economy, 393 ; Icaria, 333, 393 ; Oneida, 277, 393 ; Prairie Home, 377; Shaker, 139, 171 ; Zoar, 106, 393. Agriculture, excellent, of the Commu- nists, 41 j. Alfred, Shakers at, 179. Amana Society, the, 26 ; derivation of, 31; population of, 31; industries of, 31. Amiability, a communal virtue, 416. Amusements, 400 ; at Amana, 42. Anaheim, 3G1 ; plan of, 362; cultiva- tion of, 3G3. Ann Lee. (See Mother Ann.) Architecture, communal, 400. Armenburg, Inspirationists gathered at, 28. Aurora, 305; appearance of the people of, 321. B. Baker, Eapp's successor, S5, 94. Baumeler, Joseph, 101 ; his teaching, 113. Bethel, 324. Bishop Hill, 343 ; settlement made at, 314; disorganization at, 318; divis- ion of property at, 319. Boissiere, E. V., letter from, 370. Book-keeping, communal, 397. Books at Bethel, 329. Brains come easily to the top, 392. Business management, at Amana, 34, 37 ; at Oneida, 279 ; among the Shak- ers, 149. 161. Business statement, 397. C. Cabet, Etienne, 333. Canterbury, Shakers at, 183. Cards prohibited, 413. Catechism, Amana, 44. Cedar Vale, 353. Celibacy, discountenanced, 388 ; said to be healthful, 74, 100. Celibate Communes, 389 ; life, 404. Celibates, the Harmonists become, 72. Ceremonies, Aurora, 312; horror of, at Oneida, 286 ; no, at Oneida, 272. Character, intellectual, of Communists, 399 ; of members at Amana, 41 ; of people at Anaheim, 3G5 ; of Oneida people, 288. Children, at Aurora, 314 ; at Oneida, 281 ; training of, 413; training of, at Amana, 59 ; taught manual labor, 414. Children's houses, Zoar, 108. Circular, Oneida, 265. Clairvoyants, 243. Cleanliness, 400; among the Shakers, 136. Clothing allowance, Amana, 3S ; Onei- da, 280. ( lothing distribution, Bethel, 328. Clothing, Economy, 89. Comfort, contrivances for, 1 52 ; in com- munes, 401. Communal life, advantages of the, 414. Commune, economy of the, 414; a mu- tiny against society, 408. Communes, land owned by, 386 ; barren lives in, 416; what they might do, 416 ; wealth of, 386 ; origin of, 387 ; number of, 385 ; needless isolation of, 417; which have failed, 407. 436 Index. Communism, when begun, at Zoar, 101 ; not amateur work, 417. Confession, dialogue on Shaker, 225 ; of sins, 128; of sins, Amana, 54. Constitution of Harmonists, 81 ; at Zoar, 105. Cooking-houses, at Amana, 32 ; Bishop Hill, 346. Co-operative plan of Anaheim, 361. Costume, at Amana, 35 ; at Oneida, 282 ; among the Shakers, 150. ( ovenant hymn, Shaker, 227. Criticism, 413. "Criticism," account of a, 290; how used at Oneida, 289. "Criticism-cure," 290, 295. Cup of Solemnity, Shaker, 237. Cushman, Miss Charlotte, 251. D. Daily life, at Economy, 88 ; among the Shakers, 139; at Zoar, 111 ; Gruber's Bales of, 50. Dances, 243. Debt, hostility to, 403. Debts, to be avoided, 412. Defalcation among the Shakers, ISO, 182, 189, 191, 193, 202. Devil's Visitation, 242. Divine Book of Wisdom, 248. Dram-shops, prevention of, 3G8. Dress, simplicity of, 398. Dullness of communal life, 405. "Dutch town," 305. £. Eben-Ezers (see also Amana), 20 ; re- move to Iowa, 29, 30. Economy, 63 ; neatness of, G4 ; hotel at, 65 ; in 1 820, 78 ; tramps at, GG. Education at Amana, 34. Employment, at Amana, 40 ; at Auro- ra, 311; at Cedar Vale, 353; at Economy, 88 ; at Oneida, 2G3, 280 ; Shaker, 180, 182, 184, 188, 190, 192, 194, 195, 19G, 198, 201, 205, 206, '-•os, 213. (See also Industries.) Enfield (Conn.), Shakers at, 190; (N. 11.). Shakers at, 1*7. Enthusiasts, communists not, 399. Equality, as a bond, 394 ; of living, 411." Evans, F. W., appearance of, 153 ; con- versation of, 158; on cleanliness, 163. Evening meetings at Oneida, 289. Faith-cures, 272. Family, a Shaker, 136. Family life at Aurora, 309 ; in Com- munes, 388 ; at Oneida, 278. Fanatics, 387. Farmers benefited by neighboring com- munes, 391. Fences, no, at Vineland, 308. Food, distribution of, at Amana, 33 ; at Aurora, 315; among the Shakers, 141. Funeral, a Shaker, 15G. G. German communists, 396 ; peasants, 41. Germans settle Anaheim, 362. Gloucester, Shakers at, 181. "Gospel Virtues," set forth in rhymes, 222. Groveland, Shakers at, 198. Grumblers, 410. H. Hansen, projector of Anaheim, 3G2. Harmonists, their appearance, 68. Harmony, means for securing, 405. Harmony, New, Ind., 74. Harmony, Pa., 71. Harmony Society, formed, 71 ; articles of association of, 81. Harvard, Shakers at, 191. Henrici, J., 85, 94. Heyneman, Barbara, her origin, 27; falls into disgrace, 27. "Hoggish Nature," rhymes against, 220. Holidays, Amana, 54. Honesty in communes, 401. Household economy of the Shakers, 187. Housekeeping, Economy, 89. Hymnology, Amana, 57. Index. 437 Hymns, Oneida, 299; Shaker, 121, Longevity, in communes, 402 ; Shaker, 231. 181, 183, 184, 189, 197, 199, 202, I. 21 1, 214. (See also Old Age.) Icarians, the, 333. Lord's Supper, the, at Amana, 55. Industries, at Amana, 31 ; at Aurora, 311 ; at Bethel, 324 ; at Bishop Hill, M. 344 ; at Icaria, 33G ; at Oneida, 262 ; Manufactures at Harmony, 72. of the Communes, 390. (See also Marching-songs, Shaker, 229. Employments.) Marriage, age for, 403 ; at Amana, 36 ; Inquisition, religious, at Amana, 54. at early age, Bethel, 329 ; complex, Inspiration, among the Shakers, 214, 275 ; not helpful in communism, 251 ; definition of, 43; members re- 108 ; tends to worldliness, 36 ; when ceived by, 39 ; utterances, 49. allowed at Zoar, 102. Inspiration Society, origin of, 27. Meal-hours, at Amana, 33 ; at Oneida, Inspirationists, the, 26 ; settle near 282 ; among the Shakers, 140. Buffalo, 29. Mechanical skill in communes, 392. Integrity of administration at Econo- Meetings, evening, Amana, 52; at Ica- my, 93. ria, 338 ; evening, at Oneida, 299 ; re- Inventive skill at Oneida, 286. ligious, Amana, 53. Membership, conditions of, Amana, 40 ; J. at Aurora, 311; at Oneida, 287 ; con- Jnnson, Eric, 344. dition of among the Shakers, 1 45. Jerks, the, 209. Metz, Christian, 27 ; goes to America, Jokes, pious, 266. 28 ; his historical description, 27. Ministry, Shaker, 137. K. Miraculous cures, 127. Keil, Dr., 306; appearance of, 318; Moses, 323, 411. founds Bethel, 307 ; goes to Oregon, Mother Ann, 119, 125; dies, 128; emi- 308; his house, 317. grates to the United States, 126 : her Kentucky revival, the, 131 ; scenes at, appearance, 129; her sayings, 129; 209. hymns to, 230 ; performs miracles, Kindness to laborers, 401. 127; on confession, 128. (See also Ann Lee.) L. Mount Lebanon, 151, 195. Labor, hours of, 412. Land tenure at Bethel, 326. N. Landis, Charles K., 306; his account Nativity of Amana people, 39. of Vineland, 370. Xauvoo, the Icaiiaus at, 334. Laundries, 401. New Harmony, 75. Lawsuits against the Harmonists, 93. New Lebanon, 127. Lazy people, none, 395. Niskeyuna, Shakers at, 126. Leaders, value of character in, 1 10. North Union, Shnkers at, 204. Lenz, Jonathan, 94. Noyes, J. II., 259 ; on criticism, 289. Leon, Count de, 79 ; death of, 80. Nurse-shops, 402. Libraries, 400. Life, manner of, at Bethel, 325. 0. Literature, Amana, 48, 58 ; Perfection- Old age, at Amana, 43 ; at Economy, ist, 264 , Shaker, 250. 90 ; at Zoar, 112; provisions for, 39 1. Local-option law, good effect of, 373. Oneida, LOO. 43« IlldiX. Orderly life, 395. Orders, social, Amana. 51 ; Shaker, 135. Original sin, its nature, 119. Owen bins New Harmony, 70. Pecuniary success, Harmony, 75, 81. Perfectionists, the, 257. Pet animals forbidden, 166. Pleasant Hill, Shakers at, 21 1. Police at Vineland, low cost of, 3 7 J. Poor, feeding the, 65. Poor tax, small, at Vineland, 37;}. Population, Amana, 31. Pork, believed to cause bilious fevers, 197; believed to cause cancer, 180. Prairie Home, 375 ; location of, 382 ; singular plan of life at, 377. Prayer-houses at Amana, 32. Precautions in regard to sexes, 404. Primitive Church, the, 409. Private incomes at Aurora, 319. Progressive Community, the, 354. Propagation, scientific, so-called, 276. Property at Aurora, 312. Property register at Oneida, 260. Q. Quakers, charitable to Zoarites, 100 ; visit the lnspirationists, 27. E. Rapp, Frederick, 78, 84 ; George, founder of Economy, 69, 88, 90; appearance and character of, 91 ; ms doctrines, 69 ; sails for Baltimore, 70; on riches, 76; Miss Gertrude, 68, 72. Religions faith, at Aurora. 309 ; at Bish- op Hill, 346; at Economy, 85; at Icaria, 338; at Oneida, 268 ; Shaker, 132; at Zoar, 102. Religious meetings, 400; at Amana, 51 ; at Economy, 87; among the Shakers, 142; at Zoar, 111. Religious observances, 387. Roads, good, 412. Reck, John Frederick, 27. Roll and Book, the Sacred, 245. Russian materialists, 351. Satan personates Adam, 122. Scandal, 410. School, at Amana, 34 ; at icaria, 339 : at Oneida, 284 ; at Zoar, 109. Schools, 399. Separatists, 69, 99 ; Swedish, 343. Servants, inadmissible, 412; none in a commune, 394. Sex, no, in heaven, 108. Sexes, kept apart, Amana, 59 ; rules lor keeping apart the, 176. Sexual relation, unnatural, 388. silkville, 375 ; location of, 382. Sinner, repentance of a, in verse, 223. Shaker and Shakeress, The, 255. Shakers, colored, society of, at Philadel- phia, 198 ; Northern and Southern, 396; number ofcommunesof, 1 17; sum- mary of Shaker faith, 118; when found- ed, 117, 118; who make the best. 1 58 : societies, Western, when formed, 132. Shaking Quakers, 119. Shirley, Shakers at, 193. Shops, Shaker, 136. Slavery, Shakers opposed to, 210. "Slug'' exposed, 216. Social Freedom Commune, 357. South Union, Shakers at, 206. Spirit world, Shaker relations to the, 232. Spiritual manifestations. Shaker, 157. Spiritualism, among the Shakers, 232, ic'oo, 240, 250. Spirituous liquors. Shaker rule about, 2 16. Steamboat Self-denial, verses on the, 225. Steeple houses, 228. Subordination in communal life, 392. Success, pecuniary, at Aurora, 320. Sunday, among the Shakers, 173; at Oneida. 287. Systematized life, 395. Table Monitor, the, 169. Temperance, 402: at Vineland, ."'7.".; hymn, Shaker, 215. Index. 439 Texas, Cabet's attempt there, .'534. Tobacco forbidden, 1G6, 41.">. Toil in communes not severe, 400. Tongues, strange, 245. Trades, teaching, 391). U. Unanimous consent, 392. Unitary home, 411. Union Village, Shakers at, 200. V. Vineland, 360 ; plan of settling, 3G7. Vineyards, Anaheim, 3G3. W. War, Shaker losses in the, 210. Watervliet (N. Y.), Shakers at, 12G, 196; (Ohio), Shakers at, 206. Wealth, not desired, 403 ; of Oneida Communists, 2G1. Wedding, a, at Aurora, 312 ; at Zoar, 108. Wedding-day at Amana, 36. Whitewater, Ohio, Shakers at, 20G. Whittaker, Elder James, 130. Willamette Valley, the, 308. Winter Shakers, 395. Women, allowance for dress of, at Onei- da, 283 ; among the Shakers, 1G5 ; at Amana, 35 ; a magical fire, 51 ; dress of, 398; in communes, 392; rights of, 412; vote in Zoar, 10G; will talk, 410. Woolen factories, 42. Wright, Lucy, 130. Year-books, Inspirationist, 48. Zoar, 99; character of people,! 10; origin ofpeople, 109; purchase of land at, 101. LOS l»>\ : lie I N I EED BY SPOTT IS WOODS ami CO., NEW-ST1IBET SQrARB ami I'AUUAJIEXT MKI.Ll ;