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VATA ir tk ok ie ny sane hi ba td hile ai j44 rh et ie ti a if suit a a ih Pan H _ sett ih ahh a Ha ait oat nt i! Saree 2sREi: PT mi oe Fae chanyencet peel hd pare if fe ot afi tate ek ae a i iN r s( vat ie 2) lp§h oe 4h) yh _ — ; 3 a it tf 4 _ iyi ea hah ae a ndniit jeeeit abe Piped ey i} ofajobae Tah ¥ bees ie ae w Phe it se Ltd h LP eer Lhe y Ml “4 ah set 3 4 Hal coe if i faite iy HHS NMetabated ah + He aprer ere 3 th wey) ‘ah hii at Thiet eka 4 i pe ha ae rm ish pont rf eb aja’ we nh isha tebe we Habe id bt. eoteeuedatel a ¥ bee oe ej rde Hee Deve eves vel jgaytieehela 7 Laveynrepaeveenss Obeethey ii Aby Reh prin teehee errant jada oval haba abe “ Chee ADELE fe cree eee hi bat byt ren Tt ete reenter’ at " ' athod <3 Wa ‘ a ah . enient +t Heine ts ‘ bi ee oe ait i Ih ass ser et stain ‘pe _ Tact (enor bt fa ia! Pita ie hey, sNahopai shah uv +) iit ie it he ty ct jehst in iB a AE Hee Aa HY hh ee ofa) fa eet inet vit Me + Y tht siti i ata pil Henn babel rite i bet tel He re belgie at ae pert eryenew end Ww y P Yay, a i rr i” uu 7 4 i } ‘! EA " : » @ j 7 ve r ; ’ q Ay i ir 7 i vé | iTS if Hel ‘ ¢ im 7 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION CONDUCTED BY THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN CLASSICAL LEAGUE PART ONE GENERAL REPORT A Summary of Results with Recommendations for the Organization of the Course in Secondary Latin and for Improvement in Methods of Teaching Princeton UNIversiry PREss PRINCETON 1924 Copyright 1924 The American Classical League PREFACE In presenting this General Report as Part L of the classical in- vestigation, our hearty thanks are due to the General Educa- tion Board for its liberal help which made the investigation possible ; to universities, colleges and schools which gave facili- ties for the work; to public, professional, scientific, literary and business men who have encouraged the enterprise; to the many classical professors and teachers who have served on the various committees; to the many professors of education and psychology who have been our collaborators and critics ; to leading scholars and educational officers in England and France for very valuable counsel; to the American University Union and the American Library in Paris for help in securing French articles and records; to the United States Bureau of Education, the College Entrance Examination Board and the Department of Education of the State of New York for their extensive and indispensable statistical contributions; to our State Superintendents of Education for important informa- tion; to practically all the classical associations, local, State or regional; to the journals and newspapers which have pub- lished for us studies, reviews and other articles; to many indi- vidual helpers and especially to the more than eight thousand self-sacrificing teachers of Latin and Greek, English, French and history who have given their time and labor freely to help- ing in the investigation. The work has taken over three years thus far and has ex- tended to all parts of our country. Our purpose has been to ‘improve the teaching of the classics. We trust that the methods used and the conclusions reached will commend themselves to all who care for American education. The Advisory Committee of the AmeErRiIcAN CrassicaLu LEsacuE September, 1924 CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER I. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION CHAPTER II. STATISTICAL STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK Section 1. Introduction Section 2. Secondary Schools Section 3. Colleges Section 4. State Departments of Education CHAPTER III. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES IN THE TEACHING OF SECONDARY LATIN Section 1. Introduction Section 2. Procedure in Determining the Validity of Ultimate Objectives Section 3. The Evaluation of Ultimate Objectives i. Instrumental and Application Objectives ii. Disciplinary Objectives i. Cultural Objectives Section 4. An Analysis of the Opinions of Present and Former Students of Latin as to Certain Values Arising from the Study of Latin Section 5. The Relative Emphasis to Be Attached Year by Year to All Objectives Determined upon as Valid CHAPTER IV. THE CONTENT OF THE COURSE IN SECONDARY LATIN Section 1. Introduction Section 2. Procedure Section 3. Examination of the Present Content of the Course Section 4. General Recommendations in Regard to the Content of the Course Section 5. Criteria for the Selection of Reading Content, Vocabulary, Syntax and Forms Section 6. Specific Recommendations in Regard to the Content of the Course Section 7. College Entrance Requirements 85 123 124 144 162 CHAPTER V. METHODS OF TEACHING SECONDARY LATIN Section 1. Introduction Section 2. Procedure Section 3. Examination of Present Methods Section 4. General Principles Determining the Selection of Methods of Teaching Secondary Latin Section 5. Specific Recommendations in Regard to Methods Section 6. The Direct Method CHAPTER VI. COMPARATIVE RECORDS OF CLASSICAL AND NON-CLASSICAL PUPILS Section 1. Introduction Section 2. Certain College Board Records over a Ten-Year Period Section 3. An Analysis of the College Board Records of 10,000 Candidates Section 4. Extent to Which the Superiority of These Latin Students Is Due to the Study of Latin CHAPTER VII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS Section 1. 'The Situation in Latin Section 2. Present State of Greek in the Schools Section 3. Greek for Latin Teachers Section 4. Combined Teaching of English, Latin and Greek Section 5. Combined Teaching of Classical and Modern Foreign Languages Section 6. The Six-Year Latin Course Section 7. The Six-Year Secondary School Section 8. The Classics in England, France, Germany and Italy since the World War APPENDIX A. TABLES I-XIII ILLUSTRATING CHAPTER II APPENDIX B. QUOTATIONS ON METHODS OF TEACHING THE COMPREHENSION OF LATIN INDEX 169 169 170 171 18] 188 233 236 236 237 238 239 QT 247 252 255 256 257 Q57 260 262 269 288 303 CHAPTER Brier Hisrory or THE CuassicaL INVESTIGATION N May, 1920, the General Education Board indicated to the American Classical League its willingness to finance an investigation of the classics in American secondary schools. In June, 1920, the American Classical League took the fol- lowing action: ‘Whereas a full and accurate inquiry into the status of the classics in our secondary schools is very desirable, “And whereas the American Classical League is informed that the General Education Board is favorable to the under- taking of such an inquiry and is also favorable to defraying the reasonable expenses of such an inquiry, “And whereas the American Classical League is the only national body representing all the leading classical associa- tions of the United States, ‘Resolved that the President of the American Classical League is hereby authorized to appoint a special committee which shall have complete power to negotiate this matter with the General Education Board and to select an Advisory Com- mittee and expert investigators to conduct the inquiry, “And be it further resolved that the said Special Commit- tee is also empowered to take whatever other steps may in their judgment seem advisable in connection with the pro- posed inquiry.” After two preliminary conferences and much correspond- ence the following plan for the proposed investigation was adopted by the Special Committee of the American Classical League, in January, 1921, for presentation to the General Education Board: : THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Programme of Investigation I. The investigation will naturally have three stages: tf a A careful inquiry into the relevant facts so that the existing situation may be clearly known. Then an analysis and an impartial criticism of the as- certained facts. . Finally, and most important of all, the preparation of a progressive constructive plan for the teaching of the classics in the secondary schools of the United States. II. The subjects to be considered under these aspects are the Or following: . Existing administrative policies and their eHheCh on secondary school study of the classics. . The present provision for Latin instruction. . The recent and present enrolment and record of Latin pupils. . The secondary course of study in its present general arrangement and varying adaptations in relation to the study of Latin. . The all-important question of the spirit and method of the teaching. Early development of the pupil’s ready use of the language and of reading power. In- troduction to Latin through English. . The better training of classical teachers and prac- ticable agencies for securing the same. . Arrangement of the Latin courses of study to secure a better adaptation of content and method to the age and ability of the pupil. . The relation of the completed school course in Latin to college entrance requirements. . Consideration of the place and value of vocational 10. Aili: 12. 13. BRIEF HISTORY 3 Latin, use of translations and of the newer helps, such as Latin phrase-books, songs and plays, charts, pic- tures of domestic and public life, ancient coins, in- scriptions, works of art and other illustrative ma- terial. The relation of Latin to other secondary school studies. The status of Greek by itself and in relation to Latin and other subjects. The new situation in secondary education. The move- ment for securing a longer secondary school course by beginning earlier, thus saving the present waste in the elementary schools. Great importance of this for solving the problem of the place of the classics in the schools. The Junior High School. Its advantages and defects in this connection. Consideration of identical or closely similar questions now emerging in Great Britain, France and Germany in view of the lessons taught by the World War. II. The method proposed is: Li 2. 3. 5. Formulation of the plan of investigation by a general advisory committee, assisted by regional committees. Carrying out the plan of investigation by experts. Regular conferences of committees to consider re- ports of experts and for whatever other purpose de- liberation is needed. . Preparation by the general advisory committee of a complete report embodying the results of the investi- gation. Publication and distribution of this report. In February, 1921, the General Education Board accepted the plan and made an appropriation for the expense of its prosecution. Additional appropriations were also subsequent- 4 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION ly made. In March, 1921, the Special Committee elected the following Advisory Committee of fifteen members to have charge of the investigation: Andrew F. West, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J., Chairman M. Julia Bentley, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio A. L. Bondurant, University of Mississippi, University, Miss. W. L. Carr, formerly of Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio; now of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Roy C. Flickinger, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Mason D. Gray, East High School, Rochester, N.Y. Richard M. Gummere, William Penn Charter School, Phila- delphia, Pa. Gonzalez Lodge, Teachers College, Columbia Peiciae New York City W. V. McDuffee, Central High School, Springfield, Mass. F. J. Miller, University of Chicago, Chicago, II. ‘Henry Pennypacker, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Frances E. Sabin, formerly of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; now of Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, New York City Julius Sachs, New York City A. 'T. Walker, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. W. R. Webb, Jr., Webb School, Bell Buckle, Tenn. The following were chosen to serve as the Special Investi- gating Committee: Andrew F. West, Princeton, N.J., Chairman W. L. Carr, Oberlin, Ohio Mason D. Gray, Rochester, N.Y. W. V. McDuffee, Springfield, Mass. A central office for the investigation was established in Princeton together with three other offices in Oberlin, Roches- ter and Springfield. BRIEF HISTORY 5 The summer of 1921 was needed to complete organization of the eight Regional Committees. Their membership, con- sisting of fifty-five persons in all, is as follows: 1. New England Alfred E. Stearns, Principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., Chairman W. V. McDuffee, Central High School, Springfield, Mass., Secretary Samuel E. Bassett, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Ruth A. Finberg, Deerfield Academy, Deerfield, Mass. Paul Nixon, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine Margaret C. Waites,* Mount Holyoke College, South Had- ley, Mass. : 2. Middle Atlantic States (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia) Elmer E. Bogart, Principal of Morris High School, New York City, Chairman Jessie E. Allen, Girls’ High School, Philadelphia, Pa. S. Dwight Arms, State Department of Education, Albany, Nay: Charles H. Breed, East Providence, R.I. Mildred Dean, Central High School, Washington, D.C. Arthur W. Howes, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. George D. Kellogg, Union College, Schenectady, N.Y. Anna P. MacVay, Wadleigh High School, New York City Evan T. Sage, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 3. The South (All states south of the Ohio and Potomac and east of the Mississippi Rivers, not including Louisiana) R. G. Peoples, Battle Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., Chairman Olive B. Catlin, Girls’? High School, Louisville, Ky. 1 Died March 15, 1923. G THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION George Howe, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C; Catherine Torrance, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, Ga. Carter Waiker, Woodberry Forest, Va. C. B. Wallace, University School, Nashville, Tenn. Julius Wright, Mobile, Ala. 4, Central West (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin) ~ Lillian Gay Berry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., Chairman | Harriet Bouldin, High School, Springfield, Ill. Anna Claybaugh, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Ind, Kenneth Culbertson, Austin High School, Chicago, Il. Benjamin L. D’Ooge, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Harry F. Scott, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio Leta Wilson, High School, Madison, Wis. 5. Southwest (Louisiana, ‘Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Ari- Zona ) | William James Battle, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, Chairman C. A. Ives, State High School Inspector, Baton Rouge, La. Lourania Miller, Forest Avenue High School, Dallas, Texas W. J. Moyes, South End Junior High School, Houston, ‘Texas G. A. Simmons, Hendrix College, Conway, Ark. Ruby Terrill, Kast Texas State Normal College, Commerce, ‘Texas Maude 'T. Lourey, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. 6. Northwest (Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Da- kota, South Dakota) B. L. Ullman, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, Chairman BRIEF HISTORY 7 T.. Jennie Green, State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. W. L. Holtz, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. Jessie B. Jury, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Neb. Kdgar A. Menk, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND: D. S. White, formerly of Central High School, Minneapolis, Minn., now of High School, Ann Arbor, Mich. Nellie E. Wilson, North High School, Des Moines, Iowa. 7. The Rockies (Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada) Milo G. Derham, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., Chairman — Charles C. Mierow, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo., Secretary Harold L. Axtell, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho Ralph S. Pitts, East Side High School, Denver, Colo. Alice E. Rowe, Salt Lake City, Utah 8. Pacific Coast (California, Oregon, Washington) Clinton C. Conrad, University High School, Oakland, Cal., Chairman Clara Edith Bailey, Technical High School, Oakland, Cal. S. F. Dunn, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. Jefferson Elmore, Leland Stanford University, Cal. Arthur P. McKinlay, University of California, Southern Branch, Los Angeles, Cal. Mrs. E. L. Maddox, Sacramento, Cal. Francis O. Mower, Oakland, Cal. These are the classical committees, with seventy members in all, which have codperated in the investigation. The follow- ing meetings have been held: I. Preliminary Conferences: 1. Special Committee of the American Classical League, New York City, January 8, 1921, 8 2. THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Special Committee of the American Classical EBRNs New York City, March 12, 1921. II. Meetings of the Advisory Committee: Il. LY. ifs 2. 6. New York City, April 9, 1921. Philadelphia, Pa., July 6, 1921. (Chairmen of Re- gional Committees included.) . Boston, Mass., July 1, 1922. (Chairmen of Regional Committees included.) . New York City, May 19, 1923. . Ann Arbor, Mich., June 29, 1923. (Chairmen of Re- gional Committees included.) New York City, April 14, 15 and 16, 1924. (Chair- men of Regional Committees included.) Meetings of the Regional Committees :* 1. 6. ie Regional Committees of the Central West and of the Northwest, Chicago, Ill., November 26, 1921. . Regional Committees of New England and of the Mid- dle Atlantic States, New York City, January 7, 1922. . Regional Committee of the Rockies, Denver, Colo., February 4, 1922. . Regional Committee of the Pacific Coast, Berkeley, Cal., February 18, 1922. . Regional Committee of the Southwest, Dallas, Texas, March 4, 1922. Regional Committee of the South, Atlanta, Ga., April 29, 1922. Regional Committee of the Pacific Coast, San Fran- cisco, Cal., July 5, 1923. Meetings of the Special Investigating Committee (some- times occupying two or three days) : tA 2. Preceding each meeting of the Advisory Committee. Preceding the joint meeting of the Regional Com- 2 One or more members of the Special Investigating Committee have been present at each meeting of a Regional Committee. BRIEF HISTORY 9 mittees of the Central West and of the Northwest and the joint meeting of the Regional Committees of New England and of the Middle Atlantic States. 3. Three other meetings at Princeton, N.J., and Roches- ter, N.Y. V. Mention should also be made of many occasions on which the character and: progress of the investigation were explained by members of the Advisory, Regional or Special Investigating Committees at meetings of local, state or regional classical associations. In addition, the collaboration and criticism of forty-eight leading professors of education and psychology has been se- cured and has proved very valuable. These professors have given their time and effort freely and have helped to clarify the investigation and to divest it of any bias that might pos- sibly be attributed to it in case it were conducted solely by teachers of the classics. The following nineteen have been our principal collaborators: Thomas H. Briggs, Professor of Secondary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Leo J. Brueckner, Associate Professor of Education, Univer- sity of Minnesota, and Director of Tests and Measure- ments of Minneapolis, Minn. B. R. Buckingham, Professor of Education and Director of the Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State Univer- sity, Columbus, Ohio W. W. Charters, Professor of Education and Director of Research Bureau, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Sturgis B. Davis, Head of the Department of Educational Administration, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. V. A. C. Henmon, Professor of Education and Director of the School of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madi- son, Wis. 10 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Milo B. Hillegas, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Arthur J. Jones, Professor of Secondary Education, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Thomas J. Kirby, Professor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, lowa S. A. Leonard, Professor of the Teaching of English, Uni- versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. William A. McCall, Associate Professor of Education, ‘Teach- ers College, Columbia University, New York City M. V. O’Shea, Professor of ‘Education, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wis. Luella W. Pressey, Instructor in Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Sidney L. Pressey, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio H. Lester Smith, Dean of the School of Education and Di- rector of the Bureau of Co6dperative Research, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. P. R. Stevenson, Research Associate of the Bureau of Edu- cational Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio Edward L. Thorndike, Professor of Educational Psychology and Director of the Institute of Educational Research, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City W. L. Uhl, Associate Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Clifford Woody, Professor of Education and Director of the Bureau of Educational Reference and Research, Univer- sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. From time to time, as occasion arose, valuable advice and criticism on various parts of the investigation were also re- ceived from the following twenty-nine other professors of education and psychology: BRIEF HISTORY 11 William C. Bagley, Professor of Education, ‘Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York City W. V. Bingham, Professor of Psychology, Psychological Di- vision, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. Franklin Bobbitt, Professor of Secondary Education, Uni- versity of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Carl Brigham, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. J. C. Chapman, Professor of MKducation, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. H. S. Childs, Professor of Secondary Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. S. S. Colvin,* Professor of Education, Teachers College, Col- umbia University, New York City Calvin O. Davis, Professor of Secondary Education, Univer- sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. I. N. Freeman, Professor of Education, University of Chi- cago, Chicago, Ill. . S.C. Garrison, Professor of Educational Psychology, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. James M. Glass, State Director of Junior High Schools, De- partment of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education for New York, Albany, N.Y. Melvin E. Haggerty, Dean of the Department of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Ernest Horn, Professor of Education, State University of Towa, Iowa City, lowa Alexander J. Inglis,* Professor of Education, Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, Mass. Charles H. Judd, Professor of Education and Director of the 3 Died July 15, 1923. 4 Died April 12, 1924, 12 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Truman L. Kelly, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford University, Cal. Leroy A. King, Assistant Professor of Educational Admin- istration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. F. B. Knight, Professor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, lowa Leonard V. Koos, Professor of Secondary Education, Uni- versity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. E. A. Miller, Professor of Education, Oberlin College, Ober- lin, Ohio Louis A. Pechstein, Professor of Education, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio S. J. Phelps, Professor of School Administration, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. R. H. Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio L. L. Thurstone, Professor of Psychology, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. Marion Rex Trabue, Professor of Education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. Harlan Updegraff, formerly Professor of Educational Ad- ministration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., now President of Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa Guy M. Whipple, Professor of Experimental Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. A. Duncan Yocum, Professor of Educational Theory and Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Another invaluable codperating agency is the United States Bureau of Education, which under the superinten- dency of Hon. John J. Tigert, United States Commissioner of Education, has made an elaborate statistical inquiry into the status of the classical languages since the World War in all American secondary schools and has also obtained statis- BRIEF HISTORY 13 tics showing the status of the modern languages for the same period. The facts are now made available for the first time, and in authoritative form. The State Department of Edu- cation for New York placed its records at our disposal through the authorization of Commissioner Frank P. Graves and thus made possible the extensive study conducted by S. Dwight Arms, Elmer E. Bogart and J. Cayce Morrison. The College Entrance Examination Board also placed its records at our disposal and greatly facilitated our work. Mention should likewise be made of important help given by the Classical Association of New England and by other clas- sical societies. Through the agency of the eight Regional Committees, and by special personal inquiry also, it has been our great good fortune to secure the voluntary unremuner- ated help of 8,595 teachers, mostly teachers of the classics, together with many teachers of English, French and history, who have given much. time to marking, checking and account- ing for the experimental work in all parts of the country. Such a free-will offering is unmatched in the history of any educational inquiry thus far conducted in our land. The in- vestigation has been carried on throughout the two academic years 1921-1922 and 1922-1923 in every State in the Union. A great deal of travelling has been necessary. About a year and a half more has been taken in preparing for the investi- gation and in collecting and summarizing its results. The total number of secondary schools enlisted in the investiga- tion is 1,313° and the total number of pupils tested is ap- proximately 150,000. The total number of individual tests given is approximately 750,000. With the time and money available it was not possible to investigate every matter proposed in the comprehensive pro- 5 If the 990 schools included in the special New York State survey are included, the grand total of schools, after deducting New York schools already included in the total of 1,313, will exceed 2,000. 14 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION gramme which was adopted at the start, nor to give any large ~ attention to Greek. Nor was it necessary to do so. The rea- | sons will be explained later. But the most important facts needing investigation have been studied and the plan of pro- cedure has been adhered to rigorously; namely, first to find the facts, then to make an analysis and impartial criticism of the facts, and finally to prepare a progressive constructive programme for the teaching of the classics in our secondary schools. It is clear to us that there are human values involved in learning the classics which are not measurable in mechan- ical terms and that there are also certain processes and re- sults which can be so measured with fairly close accuracy. We have endeavored to test these processes and results by definite scientific experiment. ‘he many tests and controlled experiments employed for this purpose have been devised with the utmost care on the basis of the most recent improved methods of measurement. The statistical and historical studies and the collections of expert opinion have been made with equal care. The results of the investigation, including our specific recommendations, are detailed and grouped in their natural order in the successive chapters of this volume and our gen- eral conclusions are stated in the closing chapter. The var- ious tests, experiments, projects, statistical and historical — studies and collections of expert opinion which constitute the material on which this Report is based will be presented more fully in five additional volumes, which will be prepared for publication as rapidly as is practicable. The six Parts of the Report are as follows: Part I. General Report. Part II. Documentary Evidence for the General Report. Part III. The Classics in England, France and Germany. | Part IV. English Word-Count and Latin Word-List. BRIEF HISTORY 15 Part V. Latin Word-Count. A special lexicon based on frequency of use in school and college Latin. Part VI. Derivative Lexicon, Latin and Greek. Based on a word-count of the entire English language as recorded in the Oxford New English Diction- ary. Arrangements for publishing and distributing Part I and Part III have already been made. In case it is found imprac- ticable, because of the large mass of documents, to secure the publication of Part II, the documents will be kept for in- spection. CHAPTER II “ STATISTICAL STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK Section 1. Introduction Tuis chapter contains statistical information from the secondary schools and colleges of the country. The codperat- ing agencies which have made possible the compilation of the facts herein presented are the United States Bureau of Edu- cation, the principals and Latin teachers of over 10,000 sec- ondary schools, the registrars or other officials of practically every college in the country, all the state superintendents of public instruction and many other persons. The information gathered from the sources mentioned above is given in three sections, followed by tables (in Ap- pendix A) showing certain facts in detail. The more im- portant points may be summarized as follows: 1. The total enrolment in Latin in the secondary schools of the country for the year 1923-1924 is estimated by the United States Bureau of Education at 940,000, slightly in excess of the combined enrolment in all other foreign lan- guages. It is approximately 27.5% of the total enrolment of pupils in all secondary schools, including the seventh and eighth grades of junior high schools, or 30% if these grades are not included. The enrolment in Greek is only about 11,000, but shows some signs of increase. In the pub- lic high schools nearly one-half of the Latin enrolment is in the ninth grade or below, while only one-fifteenth is in the twelfth grade. About one-half of this decrease is due to the corresponding decrease in total enrolment.’ About 83% 1This makes no allowance for the appreciable number of pupils who begin Latin in the second year or later. EE ———— STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 17 of the 20,500 secondary schools of the country offer in- struction in one or more foreign languages. Of this num- ber 94% offer Latin, a slightly larger percentage than in the case of all other foreign languages combined. The number offering four years of Latin is more than double the number offering three years of French, four years be- ing the ordinary maximum time given to Latin and three years the ordinary maximum time given to French. 2. There are approximately 22,500 teachers of Latin in the secondary schools of the country. More than 25% of these teachers have had less than eight years of schooling be- yond the elementary grades, almost exactly 25% have not studied Latin beyond the secondary-school stage and only slightly over 25% have studied Greek,—half of this num- ber not beyond the secondary-school stage. 3. The Latin enrolment in the colleges of the country in 1923-1924 was approximately 40,000 and the Greek en- rolment about 16,000. There are many signs in the col- leges of an increasing interest in both Latin and Greek. Re- cent extensive studies show that there is a strong voluntary tendency to offer Latin for college entrance and that al- though “‘the largest specific (foreign) language require- ment is in Latin,” the average offerings of Latin presented by candidates for college entrance amount to “more than three times the prescription.’” 4. Of the 609 colleges in the United States listed by the United States Bureau of Education in 1922-1923, 234 of- fer courses in beginning Latin, 470 in beginning Greek, 237 give teacher-training courses in Latin and 214 require two to four years of Latin for admission to the A.B. course. 5. Apparently only five states have a definite requirement that one must have studied Latin (or Greek) in college in 2Report of Clyde Furst, Association of American Colleges, 111 Fifth Avenue, New York. Vol. X, No. 3 (Bulletin of May, 1924), pp. 200, 201. 18 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION order to teach the subject in the public high schools of the state, and only one state requires any previous teachers’ training work in the language. 6. Thirty-nine of the forty-eight state superintendents of public instruction state that their attitude toward Latin is sympathetic or distinctly friendly. Seven express them-— selves as neutral and two as unsympathetic or distinctly © unfriendly. As regards Greek, eight are sympathetic or — distinctly friendly, twenty-four are neutral and sixteen are unsympathetic or distinctly unfriendly. Section 2. Secondary Schools 1. Enrolment in Latin, Greek and modern languages in 1925- 1924. Table I, given in Appendix A at the end of this book,’ gives the estimated enrolment in foreign languages in all public and private secondary schools of the continental United States in 1923-1924. The formulas used in arriving at these estimates were worked out by the United States Bureau of Kducation. The exact estimates thus obtained have been used for Latin, Greek and French, but have been somewhat in- creased for German and decreased for Spanish, as there is evidence to show that these corrections should be made. It is probable also that the figures for Latin should be at least slightly larger, but in the absence of definite proof they have been left unchanged. It will be noticed that the Latin enrolment is not only much larger than has been commonly thought to be the case, but is also a little larger than the combined enrolment in all other foreign languages. On the other hand the Greek enrolment, especially in the public high schools, is so small as to cause deep concern to all friends of classical education. 8Tables I-XIII, mentioned in Sections 1 and 2 of this chapter, are put together in Appendix A at the end of this book, STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 19 Tables II and III show the actual foreign language enrol- ment by states in 1921-1922 in approximately 76% of the secondary schools of the country, not including pupils in the seventh and eighth grades of the junior high schools. These tables, together with an estimate of the schools not reporting and of the changes in enrolment between 1921-1922 and 1928- 1924, served as the basis for the formulas used in computing the figures in Table I. In Tables II and III also the Latin en- rolment is greater than in the other foreign languages com- bined. Table IV gives the facts of Tables II and III in terms of percentage of total enrolment. Table V gives the percentage of pupils enrolled in Latin in the various groups of schools in 1921-1922. ‘Table VI shows the gain or loss by percentages in foreign- language enrolment in 1921-1922 (on the basis of Tables I and III) as compared with 1914-1915, the last time such general statistics were compiled by the United States Bureau of Education. The decreased percentage in Latin enrolment as compared with the total enrolment in the public high schools during these seven years was to be expected. This decreased per- centage, which is only slightly larger than the decreased per- centage in the combined modern foreign languages, is ac- counted for by the enormous increase in the total enrolment of these schools. This has resulted in the presence in our public high schools of hosts of students who even ten years ago would not have thought of a secondary education. The great majority of these students do not care for the study of foreign languages, classical or modern, and very many of them are in schools of the agricultural, technical or commer- cial type, where Latin is not often taught. Tables IIJ-VI do not include enrolment below the ninth grade. 20 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 2. Distribution of foreign languages by years in 1923-1924. Tables VII and VIII show the estimated distribution by grades of the enrolment as given in Table I. These estimates are based upon the returns to a special questionnaire sent out by the United States Bureau of Education. The returns to the questionnaire gave the exact distribution figures for about two-thirds of the schools included in these tables. The small enrolment of postgraduates is disregarded. The striking feature in these tables is the decrease in Latin enrolment in the third and fourth years of the public high schools. It will be noticed that about one-half of this decrease is accounted for by the corresponding decrease in total enrolment in these years. This situation, however, is not satisfactory, especially in view of the character of the third and fourth years in Latin and of the fact that pupils like Vergil better than any other author read in the secondary course.* The decrease in Latin enrolment in the third and fourth years of the private schools is much smaller. 3. Number of schools offering work in the various foreign languages in 1922-1923 and the amount of Latin offered in these schools. There are approximately 20,500 secondary schools in the United States,—18,000 public and 2,500 private. About 837%, or 17,000, offer work in one or more foreign languages, Table IX shows the situation in 10,177 of these 17,000 schools in 1922-1923 as to the number of schools offering work in the various languages. The table is based upon the returns to the special questionnaire already mentioned, which was sent out by the United States Bureau of Education. In this table Latin is subdivided so as to show the number of 4It is to be remembered that some pupils who are taking Latin in the third and fourth years are not taking third- and fourth-year Latin, be- cause they do not begin the subject until the second year or later. There are other pupils who begin Latin in the junior high school and continue it for three years or longer. STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 21 schools offering it for one year, two years, three years and four years or more. For purposes of comparison French, the other leading foreign language, is also subdivided to the ex- tent of showing how many schools offer three years or more. Table X gives the facts of Table IX on a basis of percent- age, separating the schools into groups. These percentages will undoubtedly hold good approximately, within their re- spective groups, for the 17,000 schools referred to above. The table is particularly interesting in view of the fact that in some quarters one of the chief arguments against the requirement of Latin (especially four years of it) for en- trance to the A.B. course is that such requirement keeps out many students who are not able to get Latin in their second- ary schools. The table shows not merely that the percentage of schools offering Latin is greater than the percentage of schools offering any or all other foreign languages—as would be expected from Tables J-I1I—but that the percent- age of schools offering four years of Latin is double the per- centage of schools offering three years of French, the next leading foreign language in enrolment. This table, in connection with Table I, is also of interest to prospective teachers. The two tables clearly show the en- tire lack of foundation for the advice frequently given to such students not to specialize in Latin on the ground that there is no strong demand for Latin teachers. The fact that Spanish is offered in thirty times as many public high schools as offer Greek is another point of inter- est, especially in view of the common argument against Greek that under present-day conditions time ought not to be given to this study because of the large provision which should be made for the more “practical”? subjects. The whole Greek-German-Spanish situation, as revealed by this table, offers food for serious thought on the part of those who are in educational administrative positions. 22 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 4, Educational qualifications of Latin teachers. It is estimated that there are approximately 22,500 teach- ers of Latin in the secondary schools of the country. This estimate, made by the Bureau of Education for this investi- gation, gives for the first time a reliable statement of the approximate total number of Latin teachers in the country. The number is much larger than has been generally sup- posed, but it is to be remembered that many teachers of Latin, perhaps half of them, teach one or more other subjects in conection with Latin. Table XI gives certain information as to the educational qualification of 10,439 of these teachers—about 46% of the total number. The table is based upon returns to the special questionnaire already referred to. It is believed that the per- centages there given will hold good approximately for the en- tire 22,500. So far as general education and the number of years spent in the study of Latin before beginning to teach Latin are con- cerned, it will be seen that conditions are not particularly un- satisfactory except in public high schools in places with a population of under 2,500, where nearly 40% of the Latin teachers have never gone beyond the secondary-school stage in their own study of the language and where almost as many are not college graduates. These small schools include over three-fourths of the public high schools of the country and about three-eighths of the public high school Latin enrolment, —a fact, incidentally, which complicates the problems of this investigation. Furthermore, in view of known tendencies operating in the selection of teachers in small communities there is reason to believe that this group of small high schools furnishes considerably more than its proportionate number of future teachers. In regard to the number of Latin teachers who have studied Greek the situation is bad in all the groups of schools and has STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 23 probably been getting worse rather than better during the past few years. Conditions are also distinctly bad in the matter of definite training in Latin for prospective teachers of Latin, although in this respect there has been an appre- ciable improvement during the last few years. It is evident that this matter of the qualifications of teach- ers lies at the very foundation of the main question under dis- cussion in this report, namely, how to improve the teaching of Latin and Greek. The causes of the weaknesses which exist are complex, though often obvious. The remedies should be studied with great care and applied with skill and patience; and it is not to be forgotten that some of the most necessary of these remedies are frequently of an economic nature. Section 3. Colleges 1. Enrolment in Latin, Greek and modern languages. Table XII shows by states the enrolment for 1922-1923 in Latin, Greek and the leading modern languages in 539 of _ the 609 colleges in the continental United States listed in the educational directory of the Bureau of Education for 1922- 1923, as reported by these colleges to the investigating com- mittee. Many of the colleges report an increasing interest in the two classical languages; several state that these lan- guages are being introduced into the course of study for the first time and others that they are being reintroduced after an absence of some years. On the basis of this table, after making allowance for the colleges not reporting, the number of Latin students in the colleges of the country in 1923-1924 is estimated at ap- preciably over 40,000, 12,500 of these being found in courses of secondary grade, and the number of Greek students at more than 16,000, 5,500 of these being found in courses of second- ary grade. These figures do not include the enrolment in high school or preparatory departments of colleges. Q4 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION As in the case of the secondary schools, the Greek-German- Spanish situation as revealed in Table XII is one of peculiar interest. , 2. Certain other facts as to the position of Latin and Greek in the colleges. Table XIII contains reports from all the 609 colleges of the country, showing the number which offer courses in be- ginning Latin or beginning Greek, and training courses in Latin or Greek for prospective teachers; also the number which require Latin for admission to the A.B. course and the number which offer Latin or Greek courses in English. This last item means the study of Latin or Greek literature in translation, or the study of those associated facts which are usually obtained, in part at least, from a study of these lan- guages in the original. It does not include such subjects as Greek or Roman history, archaeology and the fine arts. The enrolment in these Latin-English and Greek-English courses is not included in Table XII. While no comparative figures are available, there is reason to believe that there has been in recent years a marked in- crease in the effort to give those who enter college without Latin or Greek an opportunity to study these languages, or at least to get indirectly some knowledge of the literatures and civilizations they represent. Section 4. State Departments of Education The following paragraphs contain the summary of replies to a questionnaire sent out to the 48 state superintendents of public instruction. Replies were received from all the states. To the question “What regulation, if any, has your de- partment. concerning the special preparation of Latin and Greek teachers?”, 40 replied “none”; 2 stated that the mat- ter is under the control of the state university, and 5 that the subjects must have been studied in college. Only one state STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 25 has a definite requirement that in order to teach Latin in the secondary schools of the state the applicant must have taken teacher-training work in Latin in college. In reply to a question as to facilities for the training of Latin and Greek teachers in the state university, state normal schools or other institutions, 38 answers ranged from ‘‘ade- quate” to “excellent”; 6 answered ‘‘some” and 4 answered “none.” | In reply to a question as to the attitude of the state de- partment of education toward the study of Latin and Greek in the secondary schools of the state, the answers were as follows: LATIN GREEK Distinctly friendly Q4 4 Sympathetic 15 4 Neutral qi 24 Unsympathetic ft 8 Distinctly unfriendly 1 8 The 39 state superintendents rated as distinctly friendly or sympathetic toward Latin represent states with a popu- lation of approximately 85,000,000, the 7 rated as neutral represent states with a population of approximately 11,000,- 000, and the 2 rated as unsympathetic or distinctly unfriend- ly represent states with a population of approximately 9,000,000. The 8 state superintendents rated as distinctly friendly or sympathetic toward Greek represent states with a population of approximately $2,000,000, the 24 rated as neutral represent states with a population of approximately 44,000,000, and the 16 rated as unsympathetic or distinctly unfriendly rep- resent states with a population of approximately 29,000,000. Twenty-eight state superintendents state that the atti- 26 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION tude of the department has no effect on the enrolment in these subjects, while 20 state that so far as Latin is concerned the departmeut’s attitude does have an appreciable effect—ap- parently in 15 cases to increase and in 5 cases to decrease the enrolment. The following are some of the more significant replies to a question as to the reasons for the attitude of the department : ‘“, . 1s in the main an agricultural state and needs devel- opment. The traditional and aristocratic type of education we used to have has been a serious obstacle to our develop- ment. Although I have been a Latin specialist, I cannot be reasonable and at the same time try to promote in this state a type of education which does not fit 95% of our communi- ties and seems to have little value for 90% of our young people.” “T believe that for most students some study of Latin can be made of great value. The first condition would be teachers who have the intelligence to break away from some of the deadly, dull and orthodox methods. In view of the fact that one-third of all the pupils in this state who study Latin at all study it for two years only, I have a very definite and strong opinion that we ought to make what might be described as revolutionary modifications in the work which we call upon these young people to do in these two years in the study of Latin.” ‘TY have mourned that the publicity given Charles Francis Adams’ Phi Beta Kappa address attacking the study of Greek was never given to his retraction of fifteen years later. I consider it a real misfortune that so few young people these days are studying Greek.” “The department has prescribed Latin as the only for- eign language in high schools of three teachers or fewer, be- cause it is the best single foreign language for high-school pupils to study.” STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 27 “We believe that in the hands of competent teachers and with well organized material Latin offers very much of value to the high-school student in connection with his English training and general culture.” ‘“‘Where Latin is taught so as to mean something in educa- tion of the present-day American boys and girls, I am ‘dis- tinctly friendly’; where it is being done to death by mediocre people or by people of narrow view, or those who teach it for traditional reasons or for formal discipline, I would rather see something substituted that means helpfulness in living during the next fifty years.” “We believe in Latin and Greek as integral parts of a cul- tural course in liberal arts.” “My slogan with reference to Latin is: ‘Offer it to every- one; require it of no one.’ ” “The department is inclined to hold the view that justifica- tion for the large proportion of high-school pupils at present studying foreign languages cannot be made on the basis of direct and utilitarian values, except for a very select few. The comfort to be found in the transfer values and the indi- rect usefulness is somewhat meagre. When weighed against other subjects which may be placed in the curriculum, the claims of foreign languages seem relatively weak in the light of fundamental objectives.” “The Commissioner holds that the high school should offer an opportunity for youth to pursue the classical studies, and that it is a serious error to exclude Latin and Greek and to close to youth the entrance to the studies the influence of which is essentially paramount in literature. He is not un- friendly to the modern development of science and art depart- ments, nor to vocational courses, but on the other hand he has not forgotten the significant contributions made to edu- cation by the classical scholarship of all ages.” “The department considers Latin of very great importance 28 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION as a basis for sound scholarship, especially for such students as are to pursue a college course. The peculiar values of con- tent and intellectual drill furnished by Latin (and Greek) are not to be found elsewhere.” CHAPTER Ul AIMS OR OBJECTIVES IN THE TEACHING OF SECONDARY LATIN Section 1. Introduction In the preceding chapter it was shown that there were in 1923-1924 approximately 940,000 pupils studying Latin in the secondary schools of the United States. It is a slightly larger number than the total number studying any or all other foreign languages. A grave responsibility rests upon the teachers of any subject which takes the time and energy of so large a number of pupils. It rests in even greater measure upon those charged with the organization and administration of courses of study in that subject.* The classical investigation was undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining definitely the present status of Latin and Greek and of preparing a constructive programme of recom- mendations for improving the teaching of Latin and Greek in the secondary schools of the United States.’ In formulat- ing our plans it has been assumed that Latin will continue to be taught as an instrument in the general education of a very large number of boys and girls in the secondary schools, that the results being secured in the teaching of Latin are not all they should be and that these results could be improved. There has been little criticism or complaint regarding the teaching of Greek and consequently little need for an examination of that subject. Evidently the first thing to do was to ascertain 1See Analysis of the General Questionnaire, Part II, Chapter III, Sec- tion 2. 2“The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, XVII (October, 1921), p. 16. 30 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION the facts, good and bad, internal and external, by every means available and then to make recommendations on the basis of these findings.*® In organizing a course of study in Latin, or in any other subject, the aims or objectives of the course should first be clearly ascertained and then the content and method should be so chosen as to provide conditions most favorable for full attainment of the objectives determined upon as valid.* The present chapter is devoted mainly to the fundamental question of aims or objectives, and the two succeeding chap- ters discuss chiefly the question of content and method. While the problems of objectives, content and method are treated for convenience in separate chapters, these problems are not independent of one another. They are clearly interdependent, and evidences of their close interrelation will appear in the treatment of almost every topic. | The encouraging tendency to begin the secondary per- iod of education two years earlier through the establish- ment of junior high schools or of six-year secondary schools seems likely to become general. This may open the way for the desirable earlier introduction of Latin, with a resultant six-year course in Latin or in some cases a five-year course. However, a glance at the statistics of enrolment and distribu- tion in Chapter IT shows that at the present time the study of Latin in most secondary schools begins in the first year of a four-year course and continues for a maximum of four years. Accordingly in this discussion the present four-year Latin course is taken as the basis and the five-year and six-year courses are treated as modified extensions of the four-year course, The problem of determining the objectives of the teaching 8“The Classical Investigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), p. 548. 4“The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, XVII (October, 1921), pp. 16-27. a) | ; ; 1 s F t . ‘ AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 31 of Latin in the secondary schools is complicated by the fact that, on the basis of the present distribution, out of every hundred pupils who study Latin in the first year of the four- year secondary schools, 69 study it for two years, 31 for three years and 14 for four years or longer. Thus Latin is a one-year course for 31 pupils, a two-year course for 38, a three-year course for 17, and a four-year course for 14, Fur- thermore, the relation existing between secondary Latin and college Latin for the country as a whole is indicated by the fact that of these 14 pupils completing the four-year Latin course in the secondary school scarcely 5 may be expected under present conditions to continue the study of Latin in college. i While the course should be so organized as to secure the full cumulative results for four-year pupils, it must be borne in mind that under present conditions 69% of all the pupils who begin Latin in the secondary schools study Latin for one or two years only, and that such pupils must secure their re- turns during that period, if at all. The work of each year, therefore, beginning with the first, should be so organized as to be worth while in itself,’ whether or not the pupil is to go further in the study of Latin. Moreover, we are convinced that a course so organized will furnish a better preparation for continuing the study beyond the first two years.°® It is also reasonable to expect that with fuller appreciation on the part of pupils of the values secured from the study of Latin and with better adaptation of the content of the course to the ability and interests of the pupils, a larger proportion of those who begin Latin will pursue the study throughout the secondary school and continue it in college.’ 5See Analysis of General Questionnaire, Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 6 See Analysis of General Questionnaire, Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 7™W. L. Uhl, “How Much Time for Latin?”’, The Classical Journal, XIX (January, 1924), pp. 215-221, and “The Time Element in High Schools,” The School Review, XXXII (February, 1924), pp. 105-121. 32 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION In discussing the objectives of the study of Latin it is necessary at the outset to emphasize the important distinc- tion between ultimate and immediate objectives. By ultimate objectives are meant those which involve educational values upon which the justification of Latin as an instrument in sec- ondary education must depend, namely, those abilities, knowl- edges, attitudes and habits which continue to function after the school study of Latin has ceased; for example, the ability to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar English word de- rived from Latin, the habit of sustained attention, or an ap- preciation of the influence of Roman civilization on the course of western civilization. By immediate objectives are meant those indispensable aims in which progressive achievement is necessary to ensure the attainment of the ultimate objectives, but which may cease to function after the school study of Latin has ceased; for example, the ability to conjugate a Latin verb or to translate a passage from Caesar.* The indispensable primary immediate objective in the study of Latin is progressive development of ability to read and understand Latin.*® Without this it is not to be expected that the ultimate objectives will be obtained. In the attain- ment of this primary immediate objective several secondary objectives are involved, such as the ability to pronounce Latin, sufficient knowledge of Latin vocabulary, syntax and forms, and the ability to translate Latin into English and English into Latin. What is meant precisely by reading Latin and what is the relation of the other immediate objectives to the development of this ability will be discussed in the chap- ters on content and method. 8“The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, XVII (October, 1921), pp. 18, 22. See also Hare, “An Evaluation of the | Objectives in Latin,’ The Classical Journal, XTX (December, 1923), pp. | 155-165. | 9“The Classical Investigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The | Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 561, 567, | AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 33 Except where the contrary is specified, it should be under- stood that any objective under discussion in the present chapter is being analyzed for the purpose of determining its validity as an ultimate objective, capable of functioning out- side the Latin class-room and after the school study of Latin has ceased. Section 2. Procedure in Determining the Validity of Ultimate Objectives As a first step in the determination of ultimate objectives valid for the secondary course in Latin, a tentative list*® de- rived from an examination of the literature of the subject was set up for examination. This list, somewhat modified during the progress of the investigation, is as follows: Instrumental and application objectives: 1. Ability to read new Latin after the study of the language in school or college has ceased. 2. Increased ability to understand Latin words, phrases, abbreviations and quotations occurring in English. 8. Increased ability to understand the exact meaning of Knglish words derived directly or indirectly from Latin, and increased accuracy in their use. 4. Increased ability to read English with correct under- standing. Or . Increased ability to speak and write correct and effective English through training in adequate translation. 6. Increased ability to spell English words of Latin deriva- tion. 7. Increased knowledge of the principles of English gram- mar, and a consequently increased ability to speak and write English grammatically correct. 8. Increased ability to learn the technical and semi-tech- /10°The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, XVII (October, 1921), pp. 22-25, 34 9. THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION nical terms of Latin origin employed in other school studies and in professions and vocations. Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. Disciplinary objectives : i 4. The development of certain desirable habits and ideals which are subject to spread, such as habits of sustained attention, orderly procedure, overcoming obstacles, per- severance; ideals of achievement, accuracy and thor- oughness; and the cultivation of certain general atti- tudes, such as dissatisfaction with failure or with partial success. . The development of the habit of discovering identical elements in different situations and experiences, and of making true generalizations. . The development of correct habits of reflective thinking applicable to the mastery of other subjects of study and to the solution of analogous problems in daily life. Increased ability to make formal logical analyses, Cultural objectives: 1. The development of an historical perspective and of a general cultural background through an _ increased knowledge of facts relating to the life, history, institu- tions, mythology and religion of the Romans; an in- creased appreciation of the influence of their civilization on the course of western civilization; and a broader un- derstanding of social and political problems of today. . Increased ability to understand and appreciate refer- ences and allusions to the mythology, traditions and his- tory of the Greeks and Romans. . The development of right attitudes toward social situa- tions. . A better acquaintance through the study of their writ- ings with some of the chief personal characteristics of the authors read. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 35 5. Development of an appreciation of the literary qualities of Latin authors read, and development of a capacity for such appreciation in the literatures of other lan- guages. 6. A greater appreciation of the elements of literary tech- nique employed in prose and verse. 7. Improvement in the literary quality of the pupil’s writ- ten English. 8. An elementary knowledge of the general principles of language structure. These objectives are listed and discussed in three groups. It should not be inferred, however, that they are in actual practice so definitely separable as this classification might suggest. For example, an objective treated for convenience in the instrumental-application group may also have cultural aspects. In practice they are found to be blended. It is not implied that the list given above exhausts all the possible values to be secured from the study of Latin. We believe, however, that it is amply sufficient to provide a basis for estimating most of the values commonly ascribed to the study of Latin in the secondary school so far as these lend themselves to definite statement as objectives, that is, as aims to be consciously sought in the teaching of secondary Latin. It should also be understood that the objectives here ex- amined have been defined in as concrete and specific a manner as possible in order better to measure their attainment under present conditions and also to indicate the content and method by which their attainment may be most effectually. secured. For example, since the general contribution which the study of Latin may make to English includes several dis- tinct elements, each of these elements has been evaluated as a separate objective in order to determine the relation of specific activities connected with the study of Latin to the attainment of each one of these objectives. 36 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Many of these objectives contain implications of much wider scope and suggest values for which the foundations may be laid in the secondary school, but which may be expected to develop largely only in the case of those who continue the subject in college; for example, an appreciation of writers of English prose and poetry whose works are markedly clas- sical in spirit, theme or form.”* The validity of each objective has been estimated in the light of all the evidence which could be collected with the resources available and within the time set for the investigation. Two principal means have been employed in securing these data: (1) scientific studies,*” including tests and measurements*® and (2) analysis of expert opinion. As far as possible we have sought to determine on the basis of objective data the edu- cational value of certain abilities, knowledges, attitudes and habits which may be developed through the study of Latin, and to measure the extent to which they are developed under present conditions or are developed under more favorable conditions such as were provided in the controlled experi- ments. In addition to using these scientific studies we have sought to discover and analyze the opinions of a considerable body of experienced teachers in the fields of psychology, edu- cation and Latin. The chief methods used in securing an ex- pression of opinion have been: (1) A comprehensive general questionnaire filled out by 1150 experienced secondary teachers of Latin and 11 See Report of Committee on Ancient Languages, of the Commission of the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 12“The Progress of the Classical Investigation,” The Classical Journal, XVII (February, 1922), pp. 265-270, and “Report of Progress in a Num- ber of Special Projects Connected with the Classical Investigation,” The Classical Weekly, XV (April 17, 1922), pp. 170-172, 18“The Testing Programme Involved in the Classical Investigation Now | Under Way,” The Classical Weekly, XV (November 14, 1921), pp. 41-43. | AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 37 covering the entire field of objectives, content and method for the secondary course as a whole.** (2) A special score card for the relative evaluation of ob- jectives year by year filled out by over three hundred teachers in various parts of the country.*° (3) A symposium on the disciplinary aims of Latin to which nearly seventy leading professors of education and psychology contributed.*® On the basis of evidence secured from objective data and from analyses of opinion we have sought to answer the fol- lowing questions about each objective in the list: 1. For what Latin pupils and for what proportion of Latin pupils is this objective of value, if attained? . To what extent are there elements common to the study of Latin and to the more general field or fields with which this objective is concerned? . To what extent is this objective attained or attainable through the study of Latin? . What content and methods are found to be most effec- tive in attaining this objective? . What constructive measures should be taken in reorgan- izing content and method to insure a fuller attainment of this objective? The evidence secured in answer to Questions 1, 2 and 3 above is presented in this chapter. Questions 4 and 5 are dis- cussed in the two succeeding chapters on content and method, 14 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2, 15 Hare, “An Evaluation of Objectives in the Teaching of Latin,’ The Classical Journal, XIX (December, 1923), pp. 155-165. See also Part IT, Chapter III, Section 3. 16 “The Classical Investigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 556-558. See also Part II, Chapter ITI, Section 4, 17*The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, XVII (October, 1921), pp. 18, 26. 38 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Section 8. The Evaluation of Ultimate Objectives I. Instrumental and Application Objectives By instrumental objectives are meant those which involve the direct use of the ability to read and understand Latin, and by application objectives are meant those which involve the use of facts or methods acquired in the study of Latin in the acquisition of other facts in the linguistic experience of the pupil outside the immediate field of Latin. 1. Ability to read new Latin after the study of the language in school or college has ceased. This ultimate objective is not to be confused with the pri- mary immediate teaching objective, namely, a progressive development of power to read and understand Latin, which is indispensable for the attainment of the other objectives of the study of Latin. ) In determining the validity of this objective, the first ques- tion to be asked in accordance with the plan outlined above is: For what Latin pupils and for what proportion of Latin pupils is this objective of value, if attained? The O’Shea study,’* based upon information secured through the exten- sive use of questionnaires sent to high school and college graduates, shows that of those college graduates who had studied" Latin for one, two or three years in school and had studied no Latin in college, one-fourth of one per cent had 18 Part II, Chapter III, Section 7. 19 The replies of those college graduates who are or have been teachers of Latin were excluded from these calculations, inasmuch as the object of the inquiry was to determine the effect of the study of Latin, not the effect of teaching the subject. It is interesting to compare the percentages given above, based on the replies of college graduates who had not taught Latin, with percentages based on the replies of those who had reported that they were or had been teachers of Latin. Of those graduates who had studied Latin five years or more and had taught Latin four years or more, 19 per cent had during the preceding year read Latin not previously read “AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 39 read during the preceding year some Latin not previously read; that of those who had studied Latin for four years in high school and none in college, 2% had read some new Latin; that of those who had studied Latin four years in high school and one or more additional years in college, 4% had read some new Latin. The amount read ranged from “‘short para- graphs in research” and “a few poems” to “the Institutes of Justinian” and “several hundred pages of medieval Latin.” An analysis of the present enrolment and distribution of students of Latin in the secondary schools and colleges shows that 860 of every thousand pupils who begin the study of Latin in high school discontinue the subject at the end of one, two or three years, 90 at the end of four years, and that the remaining 50 continue the subject in college. A compari- son of these facts with the percentages given above indicates that under present conditions two out of each of these three groups or a total of six of every 1000 who begin the study of Latin in high school may be expected in any one year in after life to read some new Latin. As will be shown, practic- ally all of these college graduates who answered the second questionnaire indicated their belief that they had secured very important indirect values from the study of the subject in high school and 86% answered “Yes” to the question: “If you had a son or daughter entering high school next year, would you advise him or her to take up the study of Latin?” by them. The average number of years which those comprising this 19 per cent had taught Latin was seven; the average number of years they had studied Latin was seven. Of those graduates who had studied Latin for five years or more in high school or college and had taught Latin less than four years 9 per cent had read Latin not previously read by them. The average number of years which those comprising this 9 per cent had studied Latin was seven. Of those graduates who are now teachers of Latin 30 per cent had read Latin not previously read by them. Clearly one way of improving the teaching of Latin would be to secure the wider read- ing of Latin literature by teachers of Latin. 40 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION In the general questionnaire, in which teachers of Latin were asked to indicate which of the nineteen objectives listed they regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole, this objective received the smallest number of votes, only 39% indicating that they regarded this objective valid for the secondary school course. In the score card in which teach- ers were asked to indicate their judgment as to the relative importance of these objectives, this objective was ranked lowest for the course as a whole. The next question to be asked in regard to this objective is: T’o what extent is this objective attained? As the O’Shea study deals only with those who had actually read some new Latin, it does not show whether or not there are also others who could have read new Latin had they wished to do so. The Ullman study,”” based upon measurements in succes- sive years of the secondary course, shows a progressive devel- opment of power to answer questions on the thought content of Latin of ordinary difficulty, but does not furnish evidence as to the extent to which ability to read Latin without the aid of vocabulary and notes is under present conditions devel- oped within the period of secondary education. In the general questionnaire the teachers were also asked to indicate with what degree of success they believed the ob- jectives which they regarded as valid were being attained in their individual schools. Of those teachers who regarded this objective as valid for the course as a whole 19% considered that the results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. In view of the evidence given above we believe that this ob- jective is not valid for most pupils in the secondary course and it is therefore omitted from the list of ultimate objec- tives recommended. 20See Part II, Chapter I, Sectian 2. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 41 2. Increased ability to understand Latin words, phrases, ab- breviations and quotations occurring in English. The Walker study,”* based upon an examination of the reading material contained in leading newspapers and popu- lar magazines, shows that pupils who progress beyond the ele- mentary stage in their reading of English will encounter much material of this sort. In the reading material examined 997 different Latin words were found, exclusive of 499 Latin words naturalized as English, with a total number of occur- rences amounting to 4,513. Thirty-eight different Latin ab- breviations were found, some of which have been naturalized as English, with a total number of occurrences amounting to 11,245. The plurals of 81 different Latin words were found, with a total number of occurrences amounting to 1,391. This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole by 94% of the teachers filling out the gen- eral questionnaire. In the score card this objective, somewhat differently stated, was ranked eighth for the first year, eleventh for the second year, fourteenth for the third year, and thirteenth for the fourth year of the secondary course. The Henmon study,” based on the results of tests run with several thousand Latin and non-Latin pupils in each of the various years of the secondary course, shows that Latin pu- pils are distinctly superior to non-Latin pupils in their abil- ity to interpret these Latin elements in English reading. How- ever, we agree with Professor Henmon that this objective, involving as it does a more or less direct use of Latin, should be attained in a far higher degree than is the case at present, and recommendations to that end will be made in the chapters dealing with content and method. 211, V. Walker, “The Latin of Current Periodicals and Newspapers,” a doctor’s dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 8. 22See Part II, Chapter I, Section 14. 42 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated that they regarded this objective as valid, 60% considered that results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. In view of the total results of the tests mentioned above, this judgment should be regarded as too favorable. 3. Increased ability to understand the exact meaning of Eng- lish words derived directly or indirectly from Latin, and increased accuracy im their use. Obviously this ability is of great value** for every pupil who carries his formal or informal education beyond the most elementary stage. The Thorndike-Grinstead study,”* based upon a count of over 7,000,000 running words, shows that 52% of the 17,308 English words most commonly occurring in the reading material examined are of Latin origin, Adding the words derived from Greek, largely through Latin, the total number of those English words of classical origin is 63%. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 98% of the teachers filling out the general question- naire. In the score card it was ranked respectively third, first, fourth and sixth for the successive years of the four- year secondary course. The Thorndike-Ruger studies,** based on results of the Carr test, run with several thousand Latin and non-Latin pupils and covering a period of two years, show that pupils who had studied Latin for two semesters made an average growth in their knowledge of English words derived directly 23 In so far as these words are already familiar to the pupil, a knowledge of their derivation is chiefly of cultural value through the vision which Latin gives of their origin and the insight frequently afforded by a knowledge of derivation into significant phases of human history. 24 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 2. 25K, L. Thorndike and G. J. Ruger, “The Effect of First-Year Latin upon a Knowledge of English Words of Latin Derivation,” School and Society, XVIII (September 1, 1923), pp. 260-270, and XVIII (October 6, 1923), pp. 417-418; and “The Effect of Two Years of Latin upon Knowledge of English Words of Latin Derivation,” Part II, Chapter I, Section 9. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 43 from Latin two and one-half times greater than that made by their non-Latin classmates of the same initial ability, and that those pupils who had studied Latin for four semesters made an average superior growth in their knowledge of these words several times greater than that made by non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability. This superior growth of the Latin pupils is more noticeable in the first semester than in any succeeding semester of the two years covered by the tests. These tests are designed to measure growth in pas- sive, that is, in reading and hearing vocabulary ; but since the test requires the pupil to choose between five different words offered as interpretations of each of the test words, it is also in a sense a test of the pupil’s active, that is, his speaking and writing vocabulary. It may be assumed, moreover, that an increase in a pupil’s passive vocabulary ultimately results in an increase in his active vocabulary. The superior growth of Latin pupils is not uniform throughout the schools tested. The average growth by schools varies from practically noth- ing to almost the entire amount possible within the limits of the tests used. The Grinstead study”** shows that this varia- bility in growth bears a direct relation to the extent to which this objective has been kept in mind in the teaching of the Latin course. The studies*’ of Hamblen and Haskell, based on results secured in the Philadelphia controlled experiment 26 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 9. 27 A. A. Hamblen, “A Statistical Study to Determine the Amount of Automatic Transfer from a Study of Latin to a Knowledge of English Derivatives, and to Determine the Extent to which this Amount May Be Increased by Conscious Adaptation of Content and Method to the At- tainment of this Objective,” a doctor’s dissertation at the University of Pennsylvania, 1924. See also R. I. Haskell, “A Statistical Study of the Comparative Results Produced by Teaching Derivation in the Ninth- Grade Latin Classroom and in the Ninth-Grade English Classroom to Non-Latin Pupils,” a doctor’s dissertation at the University of Pennsyl- vania, 1924, See also “The Philadelphia Controlled Experiment in Teach- ing English Derivatives from Latin,” School and Society, XVI (July 8, 1922). See also Part II, Chapter II, Section 2. 44 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION in teaching English derivatives, show that by the conscious adaptation of material and method to the attainment of this objective a superior gain can be secured over that made by non-Latin, pupils three times greater than is the case when no special effort is directed to the attainment of this objec-_ tive. These studies show furthermore that the classes which made this superior growth in knowledge of English vocabu- lary also made higher scores in the Latin comprehension tests than did the classes which made no special effort to con- nect Latin with English. Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated that they regarded this objective as valid, 66% considered that results in their own schools were satisfactory. 4. Increased ability to read English with correct understand- ing. The fullest development of this ability is of fundamental importance for every boy and girl. Increased ability to read Kinglish is obviously dependent in part upon growth in Eng- lish vocabulary. The relationship between growth in English vocabulary and the study of Latin was pointed out in the dis- cussion of the preceding objective. An important problem awaiting further study is the determination of the extent to which the various mental processes employed in learning to read Latin may be expected to increase the pupil’s power to read English of increasing difficulty. This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole by 88% of the teachers who filled out the general questionnaire. In the score card the objective was ranked respectively sixth, fifth, third and fourth for the four years of the course. The Thorndike studies, based upon results of tests run 28K. L. Thorndike, “The Influence of First-Year Latin upon Ability to Read English,” School and Society, XVII (February 10, 1923), pp. 165- 168. See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 11. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 45 with Latin and non-Latin pupils through a period of two years, show that Latin pupils made a slightly superior growth in the ability to read English over that made by non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability. In certain schools this su- perior growth of Latin pupils was very marked, and the rela- tion between methods employed in these schools and superior results secured will be discussed in the chapter on method. Of those teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire that they regarded this objective as valid, 57% considered that the results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 5. Increased ability to speak and write correct and effective English through training in adequate translation. Since language is an instrument not only for the expres- sion of thought but also for thinking itself, improved efli- ciency in the use of the mother tongue for these two inter- dependent functions is of unquestionable value to every pupil. Because of the synthetic character of the Latin language as contrasted with English and modern foreign languages and because of the relatively remote aspect of the ideas expressed in the material read in Latin when compared with those in- volved in the every-day activities with which English is com- monly associated, we believe that the process of translating Latin into adequate English provides a peculiarly valuable in- strument for developing the power of thinking and of express- ing thought “‘by increasing the extent of vocabulary, by ren- dering vocabulary more precise and accurate as an intellect- ual instrument, and by aiding the development of the habit of interrelating words so as to facilitate consecutive thinking and consecutive thought.” This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 29 A. J. Inglis, Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 472-473, See also the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Sec- ondary Education, 46 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION course as a whole by 90% of the teachers answering the gen- eral questionnaire. In the score card, where the definition of this objective included the development of the power of think- ing as well.as of expressing thought, it was ranked fifth for the first year, fourth for the second year, and first for the third | and fourth years of the course. Not enough schools participated in the English composi- tion tests, which were planned as a part of the national test- ing programme, to provide data for determining the extent to which this objective is at present attained through the study of Latin. Objective studies are needed to determine the extent to which the various mental processes involved in trans- lating Latin into English may be made to contribute to the attainment of this objective. One important element in an increased ability to speak and write correct and effective English is the possession of an enlarged and refined vocabulary. The contribution which the study of Latin may make to a knowledge of English words derived from Latin has already been discussed. The Thorndike-Ruger studies*® show that in the non-Latin words of the Carr test Latin pupils during the first and second semesters made no gain over the non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability, but that during the second year, when the translation of continuous discourse commonly becomes a prominent element in the study of Latin, the Latin pupils made a somewhat greater growth in their knowledge of non- Latin words than did non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability. The Thorndike studies based upon results of the Thorndike Test of Word Knowledge, which consists of words of less average difficulty than those in the Carr test, show 30K, L. Thorndike and G. J. Ruger, “The Effect of First-Year Latin upon Knowledge of English Words of Latin Derivation,” School and Society, XVIII (September 1, 1923), pp. 260-270, and XVIII (October 6, 1923), pp. 417-418. See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 9. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES AT that the Latin pupils made a slightly greater growth than that made by non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability, but that the difference in growth by semesters is too slight to warrant a conclusion as to the cause of the superiority. In emphasizing the value of translation as a means of in- creasing the pupil’s ability to speak and write English it is assumed that translation involves the expression in English of a thought already comprehended in Latin, and not a mere exchange of verbal symbols. The extent to which translation contributes to the attainment of this objective depends there- fore not only upon comprehension of the thought in the Latin, but also upon the adequacy of the English employed in translating the thought comprehended. Ninety-six per cent of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed the opinion that pupils should be regularly required to translate prepared assignments into idiomatic English. Data are available to show the extent to which idiomatic English is actually secured in class-room translation of prepared assignments. In connection with the preparation of the Leonard translation scales** written trans- lations of passages from Caesar, Cicero and Vergil were se- cured from several thousand pupils. These translations were written in class with the aid of vocabulary and notes, after the passages had been assigned for outside preparation. Fully 46% of the 1,288 Caesar passages translated by fourth- semester pupils were rated by a jury of Latin teachers as below the standard of acceptability as English. In the Miller- Briggs study*’ of class-room translations of Cicero it was found that 34% of the translations showed complete failure to comprehend the thought of the passage and that an addi- 815. A. Leonard, “Scales for Improving the Quality of Translation,” Part II, Chapter IV, Section 7. 82S. R. Miller and T. H. Briggs, “The Effect of Latin Translation on English,” School Review, XXXI (December, 1923), pp. 756-762. 48 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION tional 40% fell below the standard of acceptable English. This showing is so poor that it is obvious that new methods of teaching which will cause improvement are highly desir- able. It should be remembered, however, that the power of ex- pression in English is very low among high school students generally. For example, the standard for eleventh-grade pupils on the Nassau English Composition Scale is only 7 out of a possible 26. Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated that they regarded this objective as valid, 42% considered that satisfactory results were being secured in their own schools. The need for raising the standard of class-room translation is evident, and recommendations to that end will be found in the chapters on content and method. 6. Increased ability to spell English words of Latin dertva- tion. The universal value of this ability is unquestioned, The Lawler study,** based on an analysis of 982,800 spellings made by seventh-, eighth- and ninth-grade pupils, shows that of the 2,977 different words in the list chosen, 49% are of Latin origin, and that approximately 70% of the mis- spellings occurring two or more times in these Latin-derived words are remediable through the study of Latin. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 887% of the teachers filling out the general question- naire. In the score card this objective was ranked respectively fourth, sixth, sixteenth and seventeenth for the first, second, third and fourth years of the course. The Coxe study,** based on tests run with several thousand 331, B. Lawler, “The Remediability of Errors in English Spelling through the Study of First-Year Latin,” a doctor’s dissertation at the State Uni- versity of Iowa, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 6. 34 W, W. Coxe, “The Influence of Latin on the Spelling of English Words,” a doctor’s dissertation at the Ohio State University, 1923 (Publie School Publishing Co.). See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 13. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 49 pupils through a period of one year, shows that first-year Latin pupils made a growth in ability to spell English words of Latin origin one and one-half times greater than that made by their non-Latin classmates of the same initial ability, and on the basis of results secured in the Columbus-Rochester controlled experiment in the teaching of English spelling, it also shows that by the use of methods consciously adapted to the attainment of this objective a gain can be secured three times greater than is the case when no special effort is di- rected to the attainment of this objective. This controlled experiment also shows that the study of Latin interferes slightly with the spelling of words of non-Latin origin, but that this interference may be eliminated by the use of proper methods. Of those teachers who in the general questionnaire indi- cated that they regarded this objective as valid, 51% con- sidered that satisfactory results were secured in their own schools, 7. Increased knowledge of the principles of English grammar and a consequently increased ability to speak and write grammatically correct English. The high value of the ability to speak and write gram- matically correct English is not questioned, but it is often questioned whether this ability is dependent upon knowledge of the principles of English grammar. The Kirby study,” based on the results of the Kirby English Grammar ‘Test, shows that the coefficient of correlation between ability to choose the correct grammatical form and ability to choose the grammatical principle involved is .65. The Charters- Ullman study of 25,000 language errors shows that 22% of the errors made were due to failure to understand or to apply syntactical principles common to Latin and English, and 35'T. J, Kirby, in a study not yet published. 50 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION that an additional 73% of these errors are of such a anes that they are remediable through the study of Latin.*° : This objective, so stated as to be susceptible to a somewhat broader itterpretation, was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 97% of the teachers filling out the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked first for the first and second years, eighth for the third year, and sixteerith for the fourth year. The Thorndike study,*’ based on the results of tests run through a period of one year, shows that pupils who had studied Latin for two semesters made a growth both in abil- ity to use the correct English form and in ability to state the principle governing the correct usage ten per cent greater than that made by their non-Latin classmates of the same initial ability. The Bates study,** based on the results of the Iowa controlled experiment, shows that Latin pupils made a greater gain than non-Latin pupils in a series of grammar tests, and that by a conscious adaptation of method to the attainment of this objective a gain can be secured more than double the gain resulting when no special effort is made to attain this objective. Of the teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire that they regarded this objective as valid, 72% considered that satisfactory results were being secured in their own schools. The difference between the judgment of teachers as to the degree of attainment of this objective and the conclu- sions drawn from the tests is due in part to the lack of defin- ite standards of achievement and of satisfactory instruments for measuring growth of Latin pupils in this field, and in 86 See Part II, Appendix E. 37 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 12. 38 F, Bates, “A Controlled Experiment in the Teaching of English Gram- mar through Latin,” a master’s dissertation at the State University of Iowa, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter II, Section 4. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 51 part to the lack of definite material for class-room use in applying the principles of Latin grammar to the correction of grammatical errors in English speech. 8. Increased ability to learn the technical and semi-technical terms of Latin origin employed in other school studies and in professions and vocations. The Scheck study*® shows that of 10,435 pupils who en- tered high school in 1914, 1915, 1916 and 1917 and began the study of Latin, 22% studied physical geography during their high school course, 0% general science, 33% chemis- try, 88% physics, 50% biology, 98% mathematics, 6% gen- eral history, 81% ancient history, 30% medieval history, 35% modern history, 55% American history and 27% var- ious commercial subjects. The percentages of pupils who ulti- mately study certain of these subjects would be increased if information were available regarding the subjects they stud- ied later in college. | The Enlow study*® of the technical and semi-technical words occurring in the most commonly used text-books in general science, biology, physics and chemistry shows that 49.77% of these words are of Latin origin and 38.8% are of Greek origin, or 88.5% in all. The Pressey study** of the vocabularies of commonly used high school text-books in mathematics, the sciences, history and the languages shows that of the words presumably un- familiar (including: technical and_ semi-technical terms) over 50% are of Latin origin. 39C. C. Scheck, “The Validity of Certain Objectives in the Teaching of Latin,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Rochester, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 11. 40 G, L. Enlow, “An Analysis of the Technical and Semi-Technical Vocab- ularies of High School] Text-Books,” a master’s dissertation at the State University of Iowa, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 5. 41L. C. Pressey, The Vocabularies of High School Subjects, Public School Publishing Co., 1924. See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 5. 52 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole by 81% of the teachers who answered the general questionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respectively eleventh, thirteenth, eighteenth and nine- teenth for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 44% con- sidered that satisfactory results were being secured in their own schools. The bearing of this objective upon the distribu- tion of emphasis in the teaching of Latin vocabulary will be discussed in the chapters on content and method. 9. Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. The Scheck study shows that of 10,435 pupils who entered high school in 1914, 1915, 1916 and 1917 and began the study of Latin, 42% studied French, 18% Spanish, and 26% Ger- man during their high school course. Other available data indicate that the great decrease in the study of German dur- ing the war was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the study of French and Spanish. Furthermore, if informa- tion were available concerning the number of the pupils who ultimately began the study of one or more of these languages in college, these percentages would be somewhat increased. While the most important single element common to Latin and French is found in vocabulary, the McGorey study** shows that many principles and details of Latin grammar apply also to French. This objective was considered valid for the course as a whole by 91% of the teachers answering the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively eighth, tenth, twelfth, and thirteenth for the four years of the course. The Henmon study,** based on tests in vocabulary and sen- tence translation, run with several thousand Latin and non- 42See Part II, Chapter II, Section 6, and Appendix D, 43 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 15, AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 53 Latin pupils at the end of their first year of French, shows that when the scores of Latin and non-Latin pupils are com- pared without reference to the general ability of the two groups the average score of Latin pupils is markedly higher, put that when Latin pupils are compared with non-Latin pupils on the basis of equal general scholarship the larger part of the superiority of the Latin pupils disappears. The superiority remaining, though measurable, is small, amount- ng in the vocabulary test of 50 words to .56 words for two- semester Latin pupils, increasing to 2.10 words for four- semester Latin pupils and to 4.58 words for six-semester Latin pupils. In the translation test consisting of twelve sen- ences the superiority of Latin pupils on a paired basis is .41 sentences for two-semester Latin pupils, and .40 sentences for our-semester Latin pupils, increasing to 1.03 sentences for ix-semester Latin pupils. The results of tests run with the ame pupils at the end of their second year of French, show hat the superiority of Latin pupils observable at the end of he first year of French is not apparent at the end of the second year. , The Kirby study,** based on the records of students at the State University of Iowa, shows that under present condi- ions of teaching Latin and French the student’s chances of success in first-year French in college are slightly increased n proportion to the number of years he has studied Latin in school. The Hill study, made under the direction of Pro- essor Kirby and with his full approval, shows that ‘Latin yursued in the high school has a significant positive cor- 4T,. J. Kirby, “Latin as a Preparation for French,” School and So- iety, XVIII (November 10, 1923), pp. 563-569, See also Part II, Chap- er IV, Section 12. J. L. Hill, “The Relation of the Amount of Latin Pursued in High School to Success in First-Semester French in the Uni- ersity of Iowa,” a master’s dissertation, 1924. I, F. Heald, “Relation yetween the Study of Latin in High School and First-Year College ‘rench,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Iowa, 1923. 54 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION relation with success in first-semester French in the Univer- sity of Iowa.” This is specially notable in the case of stu- dents who offered three or four years, instead of two years, of Latin for college entrance. The sum of the author’s con- clusions is that ‘“‘the correlation between intelligence and grades in French was very little greater than the correlation between study in Latin and grades in French. This means that, given the intelligence necessary for college entrance, Latin study is about as important a factor for success in French as superior intelligence” is.** The general results of the Hill study confirm the results found in the Heald study.** The Cole study,* based on the records of students at Oberlin College, shows that the student’s chances of success in first-year French or Spanish in college are slightly in- creased in proportion to the number of years he has studied Latin in school. The results of the Cleveland controlled ex- periment*® show that by better correlation in the teaching of Latin and French in school the amount of Latin-French transfer can be very greatly increased.*’ Much of the re- sponsibility for using advantageously the correlation between Latin and the Romance languages rests upon teachers of the latter languages. Romance text-books and methods which take into account the fact that many students of these lan- guages have previously studied Latin naturally lead to richer results. Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated that they regarded this objective as valid, 77% considered that satisfactory results were being secured in their own schools. Here it seems probable that the judgment of the teachers is too favorable. 451. E. Cole, “Latin as a Preparation for French and Spanish,” School and Society, XIX (May 24, 1924), pp. 618-622. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 12. 46 See Part II, Chapter IT, Section 6. 47 See also Table IT, p. 244. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 55 Il. Disciplinary Objectives In the foregoing analyses of the instrumental and applica- tion objectives we were able in most cases to secure objective data as to their educational value, if attained, and to measure the extent to which they were being attained. This was pos- sible because of the greater tangibility of these objectives as compared with the disciplinary and cultural objectives and because of their correspondingly greater susceptibility to statistical treatment. The factors involved in experiments and measurements dealing with disciplinary objectives*® are so numerous and so complicated that in the present state of development of experimental technique it was found impossible to secure the cooperation necessary to carry out conclusive scientific studies in this field within the time limits set for the investiga- tion. Accordingly the evaluation of the disciplinary objec- tives has been limited mainly to an analysis of opinions se- cured from recognized authorities in the fields of education and psychology and from experienced teachers of Latin. Use has also been made of the results of other investigations in this field. 1. The development of certain desirable habits and ideals which are subject to spread, such as habits of sustained attention, orderly procedure, overcoming obstacles, per- severance; ideals of achievement, accuracy and thorough- ness; and the cultivation of certain general attitudes such as dissatisfaction with failure or with partial success. It is obvious that the development of these mental traits 48 The problem of transfer, so far as it is related to the carry-over of con- tent-elements common to the linguistic experiences of the pupils, has already ‘been discussed in connection with the application objectives in the attainment of which such transfer is involved. The disciplinary objec- tives here discussed are concerned not with the carry-over of common content-elements, but with the transfer of general habits, ideals and at- titudes. 56 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION is not the province of Latin alone, but should be sought in every sub ject in the curriculum. This fact, however, does not absolve teachers of Latin from the responsibility of so organ- izing the.content and method of the Latin course that the study of Latin shall make its greatest possible contribution to the attainment of this common objective. If these mental traits can be developed through the study of Latin and if their spread to other situations and expert- ences can be effected, then the importance of this objective for all pupils who are studying Latin is evident. Practically all the psychologists who contributed to the symposium on disciplinary objectives in the study of Latin expressed the opinion that these traits, if developed in the study of Latin, are subject to spread.** This indicates a very marked change in the opinion of psychologists during the last twenty years. The majority of these psychologists expressed the opinion that the transfer of these mental traits to other fields is auto- matic only to a slight extent, if at all.°° 49'The question was as follows: “Do you consider that these traits, if de- veloped in the study of Latin, are subject to spread in fields outside of Latin?” Of the sixty-two psychologists answering this question, thirty- eight answered unqualifiedly in the affirmative; fourteen express the view that transfer occurs under definite conditions and to a limited extent; five believe that the transfer is very slight; two do not believe that any transfer takes place; while three are doubtful. See Part II, Chapter ITI, Section 4. See also “The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education,” p. 98, where it is shown that 87 per cent of the psychologists answering the questionnaire sent out by the National Committee on Mathematical Requirements expressed the opinion that transfer of training is an established fact. 50'The form of the question was: “To what extent and amount is this spread in your judgment automatic, i.e., occurring without conscious adaptation of content and method to this end?” Of the fifty-nine psycholo- gists answering this question thirty-three express the opinion that no automatic transfer occurs at all or that it is slight or negligible; one be- lieves that transfer is at first conscious and tends to become automatic; three believe that automatic transfer occurs only to the extent to which common elements are present or when the applications are so nearly iden- AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 57 Practically all these psychologists, including those who be- lieve that there is some automatic transfer, are agreed that the extent and amount of this transfer can be increased in proportion to the extent to which favorable conditions as to method are provided.”* Of these over 70% expressed the view that conscious generalization is essential or desirable.°’ This means that to guarantee a considerable transfer the common element to be transferred must be brought specifically to the pupil’s attention and generalized into a principle, and the application of the principle to other fields made clear. The standard set for the preparation of the regular Latin work should then be set up as an end worth striving for, not only in Latin but in all subjects. “The real problem of transfer is a problem of so organizing the method of training that it will carry over in the minds of the students to other fields.”* This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 938% of the teachers answering the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- tively second, first, second and fifth for the four years of the course. tical that they are matters of course; three believe that the amount of spread is dependent upon the teacher or pupil; five are doubtful; five believe that transfer is to some extent automatic; four that there is con- siderable automatic transfer and five that transfer is largely or almost entirely automatic. See Part II, Chapter III, Section 4. 51 The form of question was: “Can the extent and amount of this spread be increased by providing more favorable conditions as to method?” Of the fifty-nine psychologists answering this question fifty-seven replied in the affirmative and two in the negative. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- tion 4, 52 The form of the question was: “What methods would in your judgment provide the conditions most favorable to the development of these mental traits? Is it essential, for example, that a particular trait be consciously generalized?” Of the fifty-six psychologists answering this question, forty answered the last half of the question in the affirmative. See Part II, Chapter III, Section 4. 53C, H. Judd in The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Edu- cation, p. 99, 58 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION It is evident, however, that habits, ideals and attitudes will not be transferred unless they are actually developed in the original training. The Brueckner study,” based upon the results of tests given throughout the country, shows wide variability in the extent to which these mental traits have been exemplified in the mastering of Latin itself. The Cra- 54a thorne study’*” shows that the correlation in the marks se- cured. by pupils in sequential courses in Latin is higher than in the case of any other sequential high school sub- ject. This means that successive courses in Latin exhibit a very close inner relationship and therefore are more effec- tive for the cumulative development of habits essential to the successful study of Latin. A supplementary study®® by Cra- thorne shows, furthermore, that there:is a higher correlation between marks in first-year Latin and marks in other sub- jects in the three years following than is true of any other first-year subject. Experimental studies are needed to deter- mine whether this relatively close relation between the study of first-year Latin and the study of succeeding subjects is due to the presence of common content-elements, to a transfer of general habits acquired through the study of Latin, to the fact that Latin selects pupils of a higher average ability, or to two or all of these factors working together. Of those teachers who in the general questionnaire indi- cated that they regarded this objective as valid, 56% con- sidered that results being secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 541. J. Brueckner, “The Status of Certain Basic Latin Skills,’ Journal of Educational Research, 1X (May, 1924), pp. 390-402, 548 A, R. Crathorne, “The Theory of Correlation Applied to School Grades,” in The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education, pp. 105-128. 55 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 18. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 59 2. Development of the habit of discovering identical elements in different situations and experiences, and of making true generalizations. The study of Latin offers peculiarly favorable conditions for the development of this habit because of the numerous con- tacts it affords with the other linguistic experiences of the pupil, as was pointed out in the analyses of the instrumental and application objectives. The development of this general habit is the function of the specific training in recognizing and utilizing the elements common to Latin and to the various linguistic experiences with which the application objectives are concerned. — Even more important than the direct specific gain from the application to other fields of facts and methods of pro- cedure acquired in Latin is the development of the general habit of recognizing identical elements in diverse experiences, singling them out and making true generalizations. When this habit has been consciously developed it constitutes the com- mon element that will be found in many situations and exper- iences outside the particular fields in which the pupil has been given specific training in recognizing and relating common content-elements. Unless this general habit is developed, the specific transfers, while eminently valuable in themselves, will naturally be limited in operation to those fields within which they were orginally developed. Furthermore, the devel- opment of such a general habit gives unity, coherence and an ultimate common goal to the various types of application discussed above. Suggestions will be given in the chapter on method for developing in the pupils this general habit in con- nection with the study of vocabulary, syntax, forms and the comprehension and translation of the Latin sentence. 60 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 3. The development of correct habits of reflective thinking applicable to the mastery of other subjects of study and to the solution of analogous problems in daily life. Reflective thinking may be defined as that mental opera- tion in which present facts suggest other facts in such a way as to induce belief in the latter on the basis of the former.”® It includes the observation of pertinent facts, suspense of judgment pending examination of the facts, comparison of the facts observed to discover significant relations, the relat- ing of cause and effect, the making of a final inference or judgment, and the use of a conclusion thus reached in the solution of analogous problems. Everyone has constant need of drawing such inferences ; for the reasoning process involved is essentially the same, whether it concerns a carefully worked out scientific experiment or the ordinary affairs of daily life. If Latin is so taught that the drawing of such infer- ences becomes an integral part of the pupil’s method of study and is so taught that the habit thus established carries over into fields outside of Latin, it is obvious that this objective becomes of vital importance to every Latin pupil. The most noteworthy recent study in this field is that of Thorndike. This study,°" based on results of a test in certain aspects of relational thinking given to several thousand tenth-grade pupils, shows that the amount of growth produced by certain school subjects in the ability measured by this test varies so slightly that no definite conclusions can be drawn therefrom. The answers of teachers to questions in that section of the general questionnaire which is devoted to methods” reveal a practically unanimous opinion that the methods commonly 56 Dewey, How We Think, p. 8. 67 KE, L. Thorndike, “Mental Discipline in High School Studies,” Journal of Educational Psychology, XV (January, 1924), pp. 1-22; ibid., XV (February, 1924), pp. 83-98. 58 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 61 used at present in studying the various elements of Latin should be so modified as to meet the two conditions stated above. It is a significant fact that methods recommended by teachers in the general questionnaire as most valuable for the study of vocabulary, syntax, forms and the comprehension and translation of the Latin sentence for the sake of progress in Latin itself are precisely those which involve the drawing of such inferences, and which were accordingly recommended by the teachers as most likely to lead to the attainment of this objective. This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole by 91% of the teachers answering the gen- eral questionnaire. In the score card, where this objective had been so stated as to have a more limited scope, it was ranked respectively tenth, ninth, sixth and eighth for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated that they regarded this objective as valid, 51% considered that results in their own schools were satisfactory. 4. Increased ability to make formal logical analyses. The term logical is here used in its stricter sense, referring only to that which follows necessarily from premises which are definite in meaning and which have been previously as- sumed or proved to be true. It is clear from evidence furnished by the general ques- tionnaire and the pupil’s question-blank that teachers of Latin at present give much time to syntactical analysis in connection with translation and prose composition, and that to a large extent this practice is directed to the attainment of this objective. The process of classifying grammatical con- structions and referring them to rules is in essence a deductive syllogism, and it furnishes a type of training analogous to that received in the study of formal logic. It is also more con- crete and consequently more comprehensible by younger 62 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION minds. It therefore has a use more readily recognizable and more applicable than they would find in abstract deductive logic, which is not suited to their early stage of development. These first dawnings of logical reasoning may be trusted to develop of themselves under good teaching of Latin, but we are of the opinion that ability to make formal logical analyses is not a suitable conscious objective of the school course in Latin. The extent to which syntactical analysis is justified by the direct or indirect assistance which it affords the pupil in solving actual difficulties in comprehending the thought of a Latin sentence will be discussed in the chapter on method. Ill. Cultural Objectives By cultural objectives are meant those concerned with in- creasing the pupil’s fund of information, developing his ca- pacity for appreciation, extending his intellectual horizon, and broadening his sympathies by direct contact, through the study of their language and literature, with the mind of a people remote in time and place. 1. Development of an historical perspective and of a general cultural background through an increased knowledge of facts relating to the life, history, institutions, mythology and religion of the Romans; an increased appreciation of the influence of their civilization on the course of western civilization; and a broader understanding of social and political problems of today. It is generally agreed that the solution of present-day social, political and economic problems will be aided by an intelligent knowledge of the experience of the race, and that some knowledge of the early history of our civilization is a desirable element in the training for intelligent American citizenship. The unique value of Roman history for this pur- pose is due not only to the immense direct contribution which AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 63 Roman civilization has made to our modern world, but also to the fact that through Rome we have received rich inheritances from other and older civilizations.”° We believe that the best key to a direct and intimate un- derstanding of the Romans and of their civilization is a first- hand contact with their language and literature. A pupil who has learned to comprehend the thought of a Latin sentence in the original has to that extent thought as a Roman and has come into direct contact with the genius of the Roman mind in the medium which is the most perfect embodiment of that genius, the Latin language.” 59 “Ancient history is the key to all history, not to political history only, but to the record also of the changing thoughts and beliefs of races and peoples.” James Bryce, Fortnightly Review, Vol. 107 (April, 1917), p. 562. “We are learning that European history, from its first glimmerings to our own day, is one unbroken drama, no part of which can be rightly un- derstood without reference to the other parts which come before and after it. We are learning that of this great drama Rome is the centre, the point to which all roads lead, and from which all roads lead no less, It is the vast lake in which all the streams of earlier history lose themselves, and from which all the streams of later history flow forth again.” E. A. Freeman, Comparative Politics: The Unity of History (London, 1874), p. 306. “It is just because here (i.e., in antiquity) the development has come to an end, because ancient history is finished and gone, and lies before our eye complete and entire, that we may put questions to it and derive les- sons from it such as are possible in no other part of history.” Eduard Meyer, Kleine Schriften (Halle, 1910), p. 217. 60“The study of Latin is a genuine speech experience; and this is pri- marily a form of participation in the social inheritance. As reading Eng- lish is sharing the experience of those who speak and write English so reading Latin is sharing the experience of those who spoke and wrote Latin. At the beginning, it is true, the pupil’s activity is based largely on a play interest coupled with curiosity as to the meaning of the new words and as to the novel structure of the strange tongue. This language-interest should from the first be joined with a study of other aspects of Roman life. As control over the language grows, the pupil’s interest should be increasingly directed to the larger meaning of what he reads. With an appreciation of this comes an expansion of intellectual and emotional life, The pupil may enter, at least in some measure, into the spirit of the great people whose literature he reads. According to his ability and opportunity 64 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION We further believe that if the reading content of the Latin course is organized with this objective clearly in view, a suffi- ciently close contact may be established with important social and political aspects of Roman life to insure an appreciable contribution to the pupil’s fund of actual knowledge, and to give him a point of view and an interest which will result both in a more extensive reading in English concerning Roman life and history and in a more intelligent appreciation of the significance of what he reads. The study of Latin and of Roman history should therefore be kept in close relation to each other. This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole by 94% of the teachers answering the gen- eral questionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respectively twelfth, eighth, fifth and seventh for the four years of the course. We were able in the testing programme to examine only a small portion of the field included in this objective. The re- sults of a test in classical references and allusions will be discussed in connection with the analysis of the next objec- tive. The two other tests concerned with this objective were limited in their scope to the content and some of the historical implications of the authors commonly read in the second and third years of the course. The results of the Davis-Hicks true-false test,°* run with Latin and non-Latin pupils who were completing their third year’s work in high school without having studied ancient history, show a marked superiority of three-year Latin pupils over non-Latin pupils of the same general scholastic ability he may be a partaker in the heritage that this people has bequeathed.” From the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Com- mission of the National Education Association for the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 61 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 16. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 65 in their knowledge of outstanding historical facts connected with the content and background of Caesar’s Gallic War and of the orations of Cicero commonly read. ‘The superiority of two-year Latin pupils over non-Latin pupils in that sec- tion of the test concerned with the content and background of Caesar’s Gallic War was somewhat less marked. The degree of attainment of the three-year and two-year Latin pupils as compared with the non-Latin pupils of the same general scholastic ability was found to be nearly the same in the case of those third-year high school pupils who had studied ancient history. Results of the Davis-Hicks test®’ on the con- tent and background of Caesar’s Gallic War, run with Latin and non-Latin pupils who were completing their second year in high school, show an average superiority on the part of two-year Latin pupils over non-Latin pupils, although this superiority is very shght in those portions of the test con- cerned with the larger historical implications of the text. A study of the methods used in teaching the various classes tested shows a close relation between the amount of emphasis placed on the historical content and background of the text read and the class median scores. The Hicks study,°* based upon the Pittsburgh controlled experiment, shows that with a more discriminating emphasis upon the important historical implications of the text read a much better grasp of the historical content and background can be secured than was found to be the case in the country as a whole. Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 41% con- sidered that satisfactory results were being secured in their 62 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 17. 63 EH, EK, Hicks, “Controlled Experiment in the Teaching of the Historical Content and Background of Caesar’s Gallic War,” a doctor’s dissertation at the University of Pittsburgh. See also Part II, Chapter I, section 17. 66 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION own schools. There is evident need of better adaptation of the content and methods to the attainment of this objective, and recommendations to that end will be found in Chapters IV and V. . 2. Increased ability to understand and appreciate references and allusions to the mythology, traditions and history of the Greeks and Romans. The studies** of King and Bunyan, based on an examination of the reading material found in books commonly read by high school pupils and in contemporary magazines and news- papers, show that pupils who progress beyond the most ele- mentary stage in their reading will encounter many refer- ences and allusions of this sort. In the material examined there were found 5,242 definite references to characters, places, events and ideas connected with the history, mythol- ogy and life of the Greeks and Romans. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 94% of the teachers who answered the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- tively thirteenth, fifteenth, fourteenth and second for the four years of the course. The Clark study,’ based upon the results of 4,000 tests run with Latin and non-Latin pupils at the end of the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades, shows that from the end of the eighth to the end of the ninth grade and from the end of the ninth to the end of the tenth grade the median of the Latin pupils rose less than the median of the non-Latin pupils, but that from the end of the 64R. B. King, “Classical Allusions in Certain. Newspapers and Maga- zines,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, 1922; and M. F. Bunyan, “Classical Allusions in the English Reading of High School Pupils,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, 1922. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 9. 65 G, W. Clark, “The Relative Ability of Latin over Non-Latin Pupils to Explain Classical References,” a master’s dissertation at the State Uni- versity of Iowa, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 18, AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 67 tenth to the end of the twelfth grade the median of Latin pupils rose 877% while that of the non-Latin pupils fell 8%. The significance of the fact that Latin pupils make so little growth in this ability during the first two years, though mak- ing so large a gain in the last two years, will be discussed in the chapter on content. Of the teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire that they regarded this objective as valid, 61% considered that satisfactory results were being secured in their own schools. 3. The development of right attitudes toward social situa- tions. It will be agreed that the characteristic Roman virtues, such as patriotism, honor and self-sacrifice, reveal standards which should be kept before American boys and girls today. We believe that these make a more real and vivid appeal to the pupils when they are presented in their original utterance, that is, in the language of the characters whose virtues are described. The development of such attitudes through the study of Latin is largely contingent upon the use and sympa- thetic interpretation throughout the course of appropriate reading material illustrating these traits. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 71% of the teachers who answered the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- tively sixteenth, seventeenth, eleventh and eleventh for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated that they regarded this objective as valid, only 25% were of opinion that the results being secured in their own schools were satisfactory. It is clear that marked improvement is needed here. 4. A better acquaintance through the study of their writings with some of the chief personal characteristics of the au- thors read. 68 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION The validity of this objective depends upon the historical and literary importance of the authors selected for reading, upon the extent to which the characters of the authors are revealed through selections chosen, and upon the extent to which a more intimate acquaintance is obtained through reading their works in the language in which they were written than is obtained through reading them in translations. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 74% of the teachers who answered the questionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively nineteenth, eleventh, ninth and twelfth for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 55% were of opinion that results secured in their own schools were satis- factory. 5. The development of an appreciation of the literary quali- ties in the Latin authors read and development of a capa- city for such appreciation in the literature of other lan- guages. The development of literary appreciation during the sec- ondary school period through direct contact with outstand- ing works of literature, whether in English or in foreign lan- guages, is obviously a desirable objective. The extent to which this objective is valid for Latin is contingent upon the extent to which pupils are able to secure a truer apprecia- tion of the aesthetic qualities of the authors read through the original than is possible through translations. From a literary and artistic point of view it will scarcely be disputed that there is very rarely such a thing as an adequate transla- tion of a literary masterpiece. ‘In its happiest efforts trans- lation is but an approximation and its efforts are not always happy.”*° A full appreciation of the literary qualities of Ver- gil’s Aeneid, for example, is to be developed, if at all, through 66 G, H. Lewes, Life of Goethe, Vol. Il, p. 229. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 69 direct contact with the poem in the language in which it is written. The practical question here involved is to what ex- tent secondary school pupils through a reading of the Aeneid in the original can develop a capacity for appreciating the metrical and other aesthetic qualities of the poem. Evidence of the development of this capacity may be limited for the ordinary young pupil to an increased ability to recognize the losses involved in the translation of a passage of Latin into English, whether that translation is his own or another’s, to distinguish between degrees of inadequacy in such trans- lations, and to respond to a particularly happy rendering. The Brown. scales,’ analogous to the Abbott-Trabue scales,°* have been prepared for the purpose of testing the effect of a year’s study of Vergil upon the development of general literary appreciation. These scales could not be com- pleted in time for use in the investigation. They will be avail- able, however, for teachers who are interested in measuring the attainment of this objective in their own classes. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 67% of the teachers who answered the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively eigh- teenth, sixteenth, seventh and second for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 26% con- sidered that results secured in their own schools were satis- factory. The Hahn study,’ made as a preliminary step to the con- struction of the scales mentioned above, shows that 92% of 67 K. Brown, Scales for Measuring Growth in the Appreciation of English Poetry through the Study of Vergil. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Sec- tion 19, 68 A. Abbott and M. R. Trabue, 4 Measurement of Ability to Judge Poetry, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College. 69 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 70 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION the teachers of Vergil whose opinions were secured considered this objective valid in the teaching of Vergil. Of these teach- ers 20% were satisfied with the results secured in their own schools. The two chief reasons given for the failure to secure satisfactory results were “lack of time” and “lack of cultural background on the part of the pupils.”” The Uhl study” shows that at the present time fourth-year Latin requires of the pupils more time for study than is required by any other sub- ject in any year of the secondary course. The significance of these facts will be discussed in the chapter on content. 6. A greater appreciation of the elements of literary tech- mique employed in prose and verse. The cultivation of this appreciation through the study of Latin will depend upon the extent to which the pupil can be brought to recognize the use Latin authors make of literary technique in securing artistic effects and to attempt to secure similar effects in his translation of these authors. This in- volves the acquisition of some detailed knowledge of the ele- ments which constitute this technique, such as diction, rhythm and figures of speech. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 42% of the teachers who answered the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- tively seventeenth, nineteenth, twelfth and ninth for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 26% con- sidered that results being secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 7. Improvement wm the literary quality of the pupil’s written English. This objective is closely connected with the two objectives 70 W. L. Uhl, “How Much Time for Latin?”, The Classical Journal, X1X (January, 1924), pp, 215-221. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 14, AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 71 last discussed. The cultivation of this ability through the study of Latin will depend upon the extent to which pupils in their oral and written translation recognize and employ the elements of literary style mentioned above and seek to secure similar effects in their own writing. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 64% of the teachers who answered the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked. respectively four- teenth, fourteenth, tenth and tenth for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who regarded this objective as valid, 95% considered that results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 8. An elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles of language structure. Some knowledge of the simpler general principles of lan- scuage structure as exhibited in the Indo-European languages and some appreciation of the universality of grammatical ideas have educational value, apart from any immediately practical application of these principles to the learning of a foreign language or to a better understanding of English. The study of Latin grammar for the mastery of Latin itself, because of the fact that difference of function is regularly indicated in Latin by difference in form and the relation of form and function is thereby made clear, provides a pecu- iarly valuable basis for developing an appreciation of the extent to which all the languages commonly studied exhibit 3 fundamental unity of structure. The extent to which the study of Latin grammar actually contributes to a knowledge of general language structure depends upon the extent to which pupils form the habit of recognizing the identity of crammatical principles common to Latin and English and of recognizing these same principles when they appear in the study of other languages. Every such identification furnishes 72 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION a fresh object lesson in the historical relationship of Indo- European peoples. Furthermore, grammatical ideas when viewed in their universal aspect furnish tangible evidence of the ultimate unity of the human race. The extent to which pupils gain this conception through Latin depends upon the extent to which stress is laid in the teaching of Latin gram- mar upon the logical and therefore universal character of grammatical ideas. This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 51% of the teachers who answered the general ques- tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively seventh, seventh, sixteenth and seventeenth for the four years of the course. Of those teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire that they regarded this objective as valid, 40% considered that results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. Section 4. An Analysis of the Opinions of Present and Former Students of Latin as to Certain Values Arising from the Study of Latin The data employed in the evaluation of objectives in the preceding section included analyses of opinions expressed by teachers of Latin, education and psychology. Additional data have been secured bearing on the evaluation of certain of these objectives through the use of questionnaires sent to present and former students of Latin as follows: 1. To fourth-year secondary school pupils who were com- pleting their fourth year of Latin. 2.'T'o college freshmen who had.completed four years of Latin in school and were continuing the subject in col- lege. 3.'To college graduates who replied to the O’Shea ques- tionnaire, and who had studied Latin for from one to eight years in school and college. In these questionnaires technical phases of the discussion AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 73 were avoided and those addressed were asked simply to indi- cate the values which they believed they had secured from their study of Latin. The Grise study,’ based upon the answers returned by 3,600 fourth-year high school pupils, contains a list of all the reasons assigned by these pupils for having continued the study of Latin for four years. In so far as the reasons here given relate to educational values they are also signifi- cant for the evaluation of the objectives concerned. The fol- lowing list includes the reasons given by the pupils as being chiefly responsible for their continuing the study of Latin for four years and the percentage of pupils who gave each of these reasons: I had to have Latin for college entrance......... 47 Yo Leen atin oe ped timetaN lish 3, 05. s0is « candi ts ray Ae: 11% Teachers or principal advised it ............... 22% I found it helped in acquiring good habits of study 21% 71, C. Grise, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a doctor’s dissertation at the George Peabody College for Teachers, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter III, Section 6, 74 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Parents' or; guardian insistedy:.). <& wiih). see ae 19% Latin was easier than some other subjects........ 16% I had to have it for graduation from school...... 12% My special friends were taking Latin ........... 9% I expected: toiteach fatiniy. 1). 202 Mate aeons 6% Latin was my easiest subject...............8..%- A% Other reasons (ul sie. eta iw seca eee 5% The pupils were also asked to give the chief reasons why some of their friends who began the study of Latin with them had not continued the subject. The four chief reasons given were: They found atin too deneult <". 2. 97 eee 557% They did not like Latinoita..). ......) sos.) 24% Latin took too muchitimeisn.. »« «.. <1. 4. 2scehe eee 18% They considered Latin of little or no value....... 14% In the Swan study,” based upon answers returned by 505 college freshmen from 24 colleges who were studying Latin for the fifth year, the reasons given and percentages are as follows: Pliked.. Latin’ os ih a ee RNs 57% Especially: -Vergil 4iscivie4 s/n eee 35 Yo “ Ciceros4 vate. tte eee 1% ZS Caesar:.4 diag i.e yee 3% I found at-helpful in ‘Englishes. «ie ae ee eee 48 Yo Especiallyinvocabulary.4....7. ae ee 24% < Cy Braemar ty) Vee OS aire 10% 4 * sliterature ¢)). 41.2 ee 3% ¢ Sie pellinm ¢°-- 24! eae ae 2% a * yhetorid Al eee py eer 1% I had to have it for college entrance ............ 45 Jo 72 R. Swan, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a master’s dis- sertation at Indiana University, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter III, Sec- tion 6, AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 75 I found it helped me in the study of other languages 40% Mnceldiuy iis E renchavan.) ci Git een) at 26 7o i As Si an UR Mme sted Walger std sia sis 8% Hs i Greckame i tbyis at Ata ts Win «3 2% :, sve, (FPA IMUM. wie pitah teen. nba ld sey Q% Pree cbed! Ue Lea. Clr duatiterete atc! ects ch- &oncp pain oie 2 Te enCMerararmerincipaliamrised, Lb ict. bis bial ol sens ce Q4:%o Latin was easier for me than some other subjects... 24% Parente OP PUArCialy Misisted she. sg elec etstg a « 21% I had to have it for graduation from school....... 1 eG, The four chief reasons given as responsible for the fact that some of their friends who began the study of Latin with them had -not continued the subject were: ENevetoundiuatin TOodeioultytisiih.\ hile iinwk. 707 ie veL nous DMs TIL NOG PraChiCal «4/52 ey. le ti tue 27 Yo Ais hooks LOOsMiUChAtIMCs WO LOsakih. fara he | Q4% Mine vedio Ou like Tahiti ay. sles Si cere SO Lee 20% The college graduates to whom the special questionnaire was sent were asked to indicate those values which they be- lieved they had actually secured from the study of high school Latin. There were 763 replies received. The values indicated and the percentages of those noting each of these values are: Value for the understanding and use of English Poricmierimedtrome matin .).)0 OME LUPIN 2A: 93% Value for the understanding of Latin words, phrases, abbreviations and quotations occurring in Cs mT Tee tHe RODE oe TAD Lia, 88% Value for the development of an historical perspec- tive and of a cultural background resulting from a knowledge of the facts relating to the life, litera- ture, history, institutions, mythology and religion Oop OCS UM eC ous U0 GU) CREE RE es NE oe a ea 65% 76 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Value for learning other foreign languages ...... 64% Value for an understanding of English grammar, and of language structure in general ....../.... 63% Value for the spelling of English words derived from Tea Cr ea ess 0S ol rx ee ee 60% Value for general discipline resulting from the culti- vation of habits of accuracy, thoroughness, orderly procedure, perseverence and achievement ....... 55% Value for the understanding and use of actual Latin and of technical terms derived from Latin employed in the professions and vocations’ .)00. . am AUn 48 Yo Value for speaking and writing correct and effective Bnghishiyis hii. lolitas eens cso area sere 47 Yo Value for reading English of more than ordinary difficulty 20). Ee 3 Ee — 42% Value for general discipline resulting from training in logical analysis, in refiective thinking, and in the formation of correct. judgements, «:.\. 4 eae 36% Value for the appreciation of literary form and style in the Latin authors read, and in the literature of other languages, including English .......... 35% Those filling out the questionnaire were also asked to indi- cate those values which had proved especially important in their own experience. The seven values receiving the highest number of votes are in order: Value for the understanding and use of English words de- rived from Latin. Value for an understanding of English grammar, and of language structure in general. Value for the understanding of Latin words, phrases, ab- breviations and quotations occurring in English. Value for the development of an historical perspective and AIMS OR OBJECTIVES ral of a general cultural background resulting from a knowl- edge of the facts relating to the life, literature, history, in- stitutions, mythology and religion of the Romans. Value for learning other foreign languages. Value for general discipline resulting from the cultivation of habits of accuracy, thoroughness, orderly procedure, perseverance and achievement. Value for the understanding and use of actual Latin and of technical terms derived from Latin employed in the pro- fessions and vocations. Those filling out the questionnaire were also asked to an- swer the question: “If you had a son or daughter entering high school next year, would you advise him or her to take up the study of Latin?” The answers given and the percent- ages are as follows: i oe R eee ee ang ow ote stele re, eam ia. ene 83% YEN TAT yao Beier aches, at 6 coh Canwest te ica 37% NT) ORIEN, Gee ee ESTAS iE PRU, PORN Zo Ayuia lifted @nOLy sits mene ree ih mere rhe haar A ete FTE, 2% ere Eee 216 Wa REE 8A Pel Oa Eee eR eee ras DRT 5% Those filling out this questionnaire were asked to comment freely on any changes in the teaching of high school Latin which they believed would make the course more valuable in any of the ways listed. The changes suggested are analyzed in the chapter on method. Section 5. The Relative Emphasis To Be Attached Year by Year to All Objectives Determined upon as Valid On the basis of the evidence presented in the preceding sec- tion, it is our opinion that most of the ultimate objectives examined are valid for all or a large proportion of the pupils who study Latin. Certain of the objectives are in the nature of the case valid only in the later years of the course and 78 two THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION of the objectives are in our opinion not valid for the secondary course.’* It is evident that the relative emphasis to be placed on the different objectives regarded as valid will vary in successive years of the school course. For practical purposes it has seemed desirable at this stage of our inquiry to present in simpler and more compact form a list of all the objectives, immediate and ultimate, which we consider valid for the secondary course as a whole. Accordingly related specific objectives have been combined into more general objectives. The list thus simplified follows: ite aS) OX Increased ability to read and understand Latin (Pri- mary Immediate Objective). . Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin (Instrumental and Applica- tion Objectives 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8). . Increased ability to read, speak and write icin (In- strumental and Application Objectives 4 and 5). . Increased ability to learn other foreign languages (In- strumental and Application Objective 9). . Development of correct mental habits (Disciplinary Objectives 1, 2 and 3). . Development of an historical and cultural background (Cultural Objectives 1, 2 and 4). . Development of right attitudes toward social situations (Cultural Objective 3). . Development of literary appreciation (Cultural Ob- jectives 5 and 6). . Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles of language structure (Cultural Objective 8). 73 As may be noted in the previous pages, the ultimate objectives we do not consider valid for the secondary course are: 1. Ability to read new Latin after the study of the language in school or college has ceased. 2. Increased ability to make formal logical analyses. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 19 10. Improvement in the literary quality of the pupil’s writ- ten English (Cultural Objective 7). THE FOUR-YEAR COURSE I. Immediate Objective The indispensable primary immediate objective which un- lerlies the entire process for each year of the course is pro- rressive development of power to read and understand Latin. Chis involves an increasing mastery of the elements of the lan- ruage, namely, vocabulary, forms and syntax. The relative mphasis to be attached to these elements year by year will lepend upon the contribution which they may make to the ibility to read and understand Latin or to the attainment of ‘ertain of the ultimate objectives. The application of this »rinciple will be discussed in detail in the chapters on con- sent and method. II. Ultimate Objectives The following lists give the ultimate objectives we regard as valid for each successive year of the four-year course. The relative emphasis ordinarily to be attached to these ulti- mate objectives is indicated by the order in which they are given. First Year. 1. Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. . Development of an historical and cultural background. . Development of correct mental habits. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. _Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. ID oS . Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles of language structure. 80 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Second Year. . Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. . Increased ability to read, speak and write English. . Development of an historical and cultural background. Development of correct mental habits. . Development of right attitudes toward social situations. . Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. . Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles of language structure. Third Year. is . Development of an historical and cultural background. © Increased ability to read, speak and write English. . Development of correct mental habits. . Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. . Development of right attitudes toward social situations. . Development of literary appreciation. . Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. Fourth Year. . Increased ability to read, speak and write English. . Development of an historical and cultural background, . Development of correct mental habits. . Development of literary appreciation. . Development of right attitudes toward social situations. . Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. . Improvement in the literary style of the pupil’s written English. THE FIVE-YEAR COURSE The type of school we have in mind in making these recom- mendations is one in which the study of Latin is begun one AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 81 rear earlier than in the present four-year secondary school ‘course. I. Immediate Objective Sce statement regarding the primary immediate objective inder The Four-Year Course. II. Ultimate Objectives First Year. 1. Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. 2. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 3. Development of an historical and cultural background, > . Development of correct mental habits. Cr . Development of right attitudes toward social situations. Sec ond, Third, Fourth and Fifth Years. See ultimate objectives listed under the first, second, third and fourth vears of The Four-Year Course. y THE SIX-YEAR COURSE The type of school we have in mind in making these recom- mendations is one in which the study of Latin is begun two years earlier than in the present four-year secondary school course. I. Immediate Objective See statement regarding the primary immediate objective under The Four-Year Course. II. Ultimate Objectives First Year. 1. Increased understanding of those elements in English which are related to Latin. 2. Development of an historical and cultural background. 8. Development of correct mental habits. 4. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 82 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Second Year. 1. Increased understanding of those elements in Englisl which are related to Latin. 2. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 3. Development of an historical and cultural background. 4. Development of correct mental habits. 5. Development of right attitudes toward social situations Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Years. See objectives listed under the first, second, third anc fourth years of The Four-Year Course. CHAPTER IV Tue CoNTENT OF THE CouRSE IN SECONDARY LATIN Section 1. Introduction In the preceding chapter the immediate and ultimate objec- tives we regard as valid have been stated, and the extent to which these objectives are commonly attained under present conditions or are attainable under more favorable conditions of content and method has been indicated. This chapter is concerned with the problem of determining what content provides the most effectual means for the pro- gressive development of power to read and understand Latin’ and for attaining the ultimate objectives regarded as valid for the various years of the course. These two fundamental aims, namely, attainment of the immediate and ultimate objectives, should be concurrent and mutually supporting throughout the course from the very beginning of Latin all the way to the end. Without doubt Latin has been frequently so taught as to involve a conflict of ‘interest between these two aims and a partial or even complete sacrifice of one for the supposed advantage of the other. Such an advantage, however, is in our opinion only apparent. Con- ‘current development of both aims will result in a fuller attain- ment of each, while supposedly necessary exclusive attention 1For the purpose of the present discussion it should be understood that by the reading of Latin is meant the comprehension of the thought in Latin, whether or not this is accompanied or followed by translation into English. While translation into adequate English of the thought com- _prehended has a special function in the development of ability to speak and write correct and effective English as an ultimate objective, it is our opinion that the contribution which translation makes to the comprehen- sion of Latin as Latin is slight under methods commonly used at present. 84 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION to one will result in serious injury to both. Attainment of the immediate objectives is indispensable for attainment of the ultimate objectives, and attainment of the ultimate objec- tives furnishes the chief permanently valid motive as well as a sound basis for attainment of the immediate objectives.’ The continual interdependence of these two aims should be explicitly recognized in the content of the course and in the methods of instruction employed. For example, the reading material selected should be of such character as to provide the best basis for developing progressive power to read and un- derstand Latin and at the same time to make the largest possible contribution to attainment of those objectives which depend primarily on the thought-content, such as develop- ment of a general historical background and development of literary appreciation. Again, the vocabulary and syntax to be included and emphasized in the reading material for the earlier period should be such as to contribute directly to pro- gressive power to read and understand Latin and at the same time to furnish an adequate basis for a better understanding of related elements in English and for the learning of modern languages. Similarly, the methods employed in the comprehen- sion of the Latin sentence should be such as to contribute also to development of correct habits of reflective thinking, and the methods employed in the learning of vocabulary, forms and syntax should be such as are valid for the mastering of Latin itself, and for developing correct mental habits gener- ally. 2It was shown, for example, in the Philadelphia controlled experiment, that classes which devoted the greater amount of time and attention to the development of certain ultimate objectives also made the highest scores in the Latin comprehension test. The greater interest aroused in the pupils and practice in associating Latin with English and English with Latin seem to have reacted favorably upon the mastering of Latin itself. CONTENT 85 Section 2. Procedure The problem of framing recommendations regarding the content of the secondary course in Latin resolves itself into two complementary questions: 1. What content appears to provide conditions most fav- orable for the fullest attainment of the objectives de- termined upon as valid? 9. What reorganization of the present content should be made to ensure the fullest attainment of these objectives ? In securing data bearing on the problems of content we have generally used the same sources of information as were employed in the evaluation of objectives, namely, scientific studies, including tests and measurements, and analysis of opinion. Many of the special studies described in the preceding chapter provide data not only for evaluation of objectives but also for determination of content. The studies undertaken to discover the extent to which there are elements common to the study of Latin and to the various fields with which the ultimate objectives are concerned have provided material for the content of the course by furnishing definite informa- tion as to what those common elements are. For example, the Thorndike-Grinstead word count, which provides one basis for determining whether the study of English derivatives is a valid objective for Latin pupils, has also produced a defin- ite list of the words derived from Latin most frequently oc- curring in English and a list of the Latin words most import- ant for the interpretation of these English derivatives. The bearing of such data upon the question of content is direct and important. The results of the tests which were given for the purpose of measuring the extent to which certain ultimate objectives are commonly attained under present conditions of content 86 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION were discussed in the preceding chapter. The results of the tests given for the purpose of measuring the degree to which pupils show progressive ability to read and understand Latin and gain progressive mastery of the elements of Latin under present conditions of content will be analyzed in this and the following chapter.*® All schools participating in any of the tests were asked to fill out special blanks with descriptions of the content and methods employed in teaching the pupils who were tested.* A study of the relation between results secured in the indi- vidual schools or classes and the content of the course in those schools has yielded very valuable information in regard to the most effective means of attaining the various objec- tives. Important data bearing on the content of the course are furnished by a study of the relations between scores made by the same pupils in tests given to measure proficiency in . the elements of Latin and in tests given to measure ability to comprehend or to translate Latin.’ Other similar studies show the relation between ability to comprehend Latin and the degree to which certain of the ultimate objectives are attained.°® In addition to the data secured from the tests and special studies we have sought to discover and analyze the opinion of a large body of experienced teachers of Latin as to what changes in the content of the course they regard as desirable. The chief sources used in securing this information have been: 1. Part II of the comprehensive general questionnaire, to which repeated reference was made in the preceding chapter.’ 8See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 2. 4See Part II, Chapter I, Section 19. >See Part II, Chapter I, Section 8, 6 See Part IT, Chapter I, Section 19. 7 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. CONTENT 87 aS) _ A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- tent of the Latin course, filled out by 115 teachers of sec- ondary Latin.* 3. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- tent of the Latin course, filled out by 107 students en- rolled in courses in the teaching of secondary Latin during the summer of 1923. Those comprising this group have in the main had less teaching experience than those in the preceding group.” 4. A questionnaire on the present reading content of the Latin course and on changes desired in the reading con- tent, filled out by 166 teachers of secondary Latin in New England.” 5. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- tent of the Latin course, filled out by 109 teachers of secondary Latin who were members of the Classical As- sociation of the Atlantic States.” 6. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- tent of the Latin course, filled out by 71 teachers of secondary Latin in Nebraska.” — . A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- tent of the Latin course, filled out by 157 teachers of secondary Latin in Ilinois.** 8. Ballots on changes desired in the reading content of the &See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. See also “The Classical Investiga- tion: The Work of the First Two Years,” The Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 564-565. 9See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 10“Jatin in the Secondary Schools of New England,” a special report submitted by H. E. Burton, Chairman of the Curriculum Committee of the New England Classical Association. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- tion 5. 11 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 12 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 13 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 88 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Latin course, taken at six meetings of classical teachers held during the school year 1922-1923," 9. Reports of round-table discussions on changes desired in the reading content of the Latin course at nine meet- ings of classical teachers held during the school year 1922-1923. Teachers of both college and secondary Latin participated in these round-table discussions. 10. A question blank on content and method, filled out by 3600 students who were completing their fourth year of 15 Latin in secondary schools,*® and by 505 students who had studied Latin for four years in secondary schools and were studying freshman Latin in college.*® 11. A questionnaire on the content of college courses in ele- mentary Latin and on changes recommended in the con- tent of secondary Latin, filled out by 75 instructors in these courses." In order to secure further information with reference to the present content of the course in secondary Latin, we have made use of the following additional sources: 1. Preliminary information given in the comprehensive general questionnaire.*® 2. The Colthurst’® and Jones* studies, based on returns 14 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 15 F, C. Grise, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a doctor’s dissertation at the George Peabody College for Teachers, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter ITI, Section 6. 16 R, Swan, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a master’s dis- sertation at Indiana University, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter ITI, Section 6. 17 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 18 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 19 See C. Colthurst, “The Content of Latin Courses in a Number of North Central States,’ a master’s dissertation at the University of Chicago, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter III, Section 5, and “The Classical In- vestigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The Classical Journal XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 562-563. 20 A, R, Jones, “The Amount and Kind of Latin Read in the Secondary CONTENT 89 from questionnaires on the reading content of the Latin course in 445 schools in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Mis- souri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Ohio and Pennsylvania. 3. A study of the content of the Latin course in grades be- low the ninth in 40 schools.* 4. A detailed questionnaire on the content of the Latin course in 14 selected junior high schools, prepared in co- operation with an investigation being conducted for the Commonwealth Fund under the direction of James M. Glass of the State Department of Education, Harris- pune ba...) _ A questionnaire on the reading content of the course in Latin in 36 schools in England of the type most nearly comparable to the four-year secondary schools of the United States.” 6. The Adams study, based on returns from a question- naire filled out by 178 colleges on the minimum reading content required for 1, 2, 3 and 4 units of entrance credit in Latin.™ 4. The Pound and Helle study, based on an analysis of 273 local examinations (question papers) in Latin secured OX from typical secondary schools.” Schools of Pennsylvania and Ohio in 1921-1922,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Pittsburgh, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter III, Sec- tion 5. 21See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 20. 22 J, M. Glass, Curriculum Practices in the Junior High School. 22 See “The Classics in England,” a special report by I. L. Kandel, Part m1, Chapter I. 24See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 251. G. Pound and R. H. Helle, “An Investigation of the Objectives in the Teaching of Latin,” a joint masters’ dissertation at the Ohio State University, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 13. BOs THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Section 3. Examination of the Present Content of the Course in Relation to the Attainment of the Objectives Determined upon as Valid The evidence furnished by the tests and special studies and confirmed by the judgment of teachers indicates that the present content of the four-year Latin course as commonly found in the schools is too extensive in amount or too difficult in kind, or both, to provide a suitable medium for the satis- factory attainment of the objectives which were determined upon in the preceding chapter as valid for the course in sec- ondary Latin. The Uhl studies,*® based upon reports from 85,000 pupils distributed through all four years of the course, show that the average daily amount of time outside the class now de- voted by Latin pupils to the preparation of their lessons is considerably greater in each year of the course than is re- quired for any other subject in the secondary school, and that even first-year Latin requires more time for preparation than any other subject in any year of the course. The Grise and Swan studies*’ show an even greater average daily ex- penditure of time than that shown in the Uhl studies. The Uhl studies show further that the proportion of pupils whe devote daily an average of an hour and a half or more to the preparation of a Latin lesson is greater than in the case of any other college preparatory subject, and that this pro- portion increases with each year’s study of Latin. Even with this expenditure of time there is ample evidence that really satisfactory results are not at present being 26 W. H. Uhl, “How Much Time for Latin?” The Classical Journal, XIX (January, 1924), pp. 215-221; “The Time Element in High Schools,’ School Review, XXXII (February, 1924), pp. 105-121. See also Part II Chapter IV, Section 14. 27 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. CONTENT 91 secured in the attainment of either the immediate or the ulti- mate objectives. Cumulative evidence from many different sources indicates that this situation is largely due to con- gestion arising from introduction into the course of too many formal elements, especially during the first year, too early introduction of the first classical author to be read, failure to include in the course abundant easy reading material for the purpose of developing early the pupil’s ability to read Latin as Latin, prescription of too large an amount of clas- sical Latin to be read intensively, lack of sufficient variety in the choice of reading material, and failure to give adequate emphasis to attainment of the ultimate objectives. Evidence as to the extent to which the immediate objectives are being attained is furnished by the results of the Latin tests which were run with thousands of pupils in each year of the course to measure progress in certain fundamental Latin attainments, in ability to translate Latin sentences and to answer questions on the thought-content of Latin para- graphs. The tests in Latin vocabulary, verb-forms and syntax re- quired a knowledge of only the vocabulary, forms and syntax commonly included in the first year’s work in Latin.* Fur- thermore, three of the four tests on forms and syntax involved a functional and not a formal knowledge of these elements, while the fourth involved a formal knowledge of the rules of syntax. The Brueckner study” is based on these tests, namely, the Henmon Vocabulary Test, the Tyler-Pressey Test in Verb-Forms, the Pressey Test in Latin Syntax along with the Godsey Diagnostic Test in Latin Composition, and the Henmon Test in Sentence Translation scored on the unit- 28 See Part II, Chapter I, Sections 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. 291... J. Brueckner, “The Status of Certain Basic Latin Skills,’ Journal of Educational Research, 1X (May, 1924), pp. 390-402, 92 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION credit basis of the author and also on the partial-credit basis devised by the Investigating Committee.*° The average per- centages of attainment for the country as a whole are given in the following table. While they show an almost unbroken improvement from semester to semester, the averages attained during the first two years on first-year material are low. FROM THE BRUECKNER STUDY Percentages of attainment made at the end of each semester for seven successive semesters of the high school course SEMESTERS TESTS Tr i). TO ov: aa ve Latin Vocabulary (Henmon) 66.5 | 77.5 | 84.0 | 88.5 | 91.1 | 93.2 | 93.1. Verb-Forms (Tyler-Pressey) 51.3 | 58.4 | 59.5 | 65.3 |75.3 | 83.7 | 82.0. Syntax (Pressey) “47.1 | 48.6 | 59.8 | 61.2 | 72.4 | 75.6 | 79.5 _ Composition (Godsey) 41.2 | 47.5 | 56.3 59.7 71.2 69.0 | 77.5 . Rules of Syntax (Godsey) 55.7 | 63.6 | 73.0 | 78.7 | 85.0 | 84.4 | 90.4 | Sentence Translation (unit-credit) 25.5 | 32.5 | 39.0 | 47.5 | 52.0 | 58.0 | 56.5 © Sentence Translation (partial-credit) || 41.5 | 54.2 | 64.8 | 73.0 | 78.4 | 83.3 82.0 On such of these tests as were also used in special state sur- : veys conducted in Iowa,** Michigan* and Mississippi** the | medians reported are slightly lower than those established | for the country as a whole. A study of the correlation between the scores made by pupils who took all these Latin tests indicates that for these pupils no significant relation is discovered to exist be- 30D, S. White, “Partial Credit vs. Unit Credit in Scoring a Translation Test,’ Part II, Chapter I, Section 3. . 811, Byrne, “Latin Tests in Iowa High Schools,” University of Iowa Ex- tension Bulletin No. 92 (July 1, 1923). 32C. Woody, “The Ullman-Kirby and Godsey Latin Tests, and the Carr English Vocabulary Tests,” Bulletin No, 56 (May 21, 1923) and “Report of Latin Investigation in Various High Schools of Michigan,” Bulletin No. 64 (March 31, 1924), of the Bureau of Educational Reference and Research of the University of Michigan. 83 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 1. CONTENT 93 tween knowledge of the rules and ability to translate, while a high correlation is found between the scores made by the same pupils in the tests on functional syntax and on sentence translation.** The Ullman-Kirby test,®® which was run with several thou- sand Latin pupils in each year of the course, was designed to test the ability of pupils to answer questions on the thought- content of Latin paragraphs increasing in difficulty and con- forming to the vocabulary and style of the authors com- monly read in successive years of the course. The rise in median scores from semester to semester indicates a steady growth in this ability. There is no way, however, of determin- ing whether or not the pupils taking the test arrived at the answers they gave by reading the Latin as Latin. The question of the manner in which pupils attack a Latin sentence is primarily one of method. However, the question also has a direct bearing on the determination of content. If the development of power to read Latin as Latin is regarded as a valid objective, one of the most important criteria to be employed in the selection of content is the potential capacity of any particular content to serve as a medium for develop- ing this power. We have repeatedly stated our conviction that the primary immediate objective in the teaching of Latin is the progres- sive development of power to read and understand Latin. This means training the pupil from the first to get the thought in the Latin order and directly from the Latin itself instead of backwards and indirectly through the translation. This definition of reading has long been generally accepted, at least in theory, and has found expression in the reports of 341, J. Brueckner, “The Status of Certain Basic Latin Skills,” Journal of Educational Research, 1X (May, 1924), pp. 390-402. 85See Part II, Chapter I, Section 2. 94 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION various competent bodies.*° The following statement, taken from the Report of the Commission on College Entrance Re- quirements,”’ appears in the regular announcements of the College Eittrance Examination Board** and in many college catalogues: “From the outset particular attention should be given to developing the ability to take in the meaning of each word, —and so, gradually, of the whole sentence,—just as it stands; the sentence should be read and understood in the order of the original, with full appreciation of the force of each word as it comes, so far as this can be known or inferred from that which has preceded and from the form and the posi- tion of the word itself.” That this view is in general accepted also by secondary teachers is indicated by the fact that about 75% of the teach- ers who filled out the general questionnaire recommended the use of methods directed to developing the pupil’s ability to take in the thought of the Latin sentence as it stands, while about 25% recommended training the pupil in purely analy- tical methods of procedure. 36 For example, in the Report of the Committee of Twelve, published in the Proceedings of the American Philological Association, XXX (1899) v: “The student should be carefully trained to take in the meaning of the sentence in the order in which it stands, and before translating.” On this point see also the Report of the Committee of Ten of the National Education Association (1894), 70-71: “The student should be taught to regard translation not as a means of finding out what his author has said, but as, on the one hand, a way of making it clear to his instructor that he has understood and, on the other, an exercise in expression,—a literary exercise,—in his own tongue. And finally it should be shown him that, even on the most practical grounds, to attempt to find out the meaning of a Latin sentence through translating it (as the common way is) is an operation almost sure to miscarry.” 87 See Proceedings of the American Philological Association, XLI (1910), exxxVii-cxi, 38See “Suggestions concerning Preparation” in Document 101 of the — College Entrance Examination Board (August 1, 1921), p. 27. CONTENT 95 That an analytical process is actually followed by the majority of Latin students in secondary schools and colleges is shown in the Grise and Swan studies.*®? More than 60% of the fourth- and fifth-year students reporting on this question indicate that in their attack upon a Latin sentence they use some such method as this: “I look first for the subject, and translate that; then for the verb, and translate that; then for the object, and translate that; and then fit in the rest of the sentence,” while less than 20% indicate that they use some such method as this: “I read each sentence completely through in Latin, trying to grasp the meaning of each word- group in the Latin order, and then translate the sentence as a whole,” and about 10% indicate that they try to read the Latin for the thought without any attempt to translate it. Judd and Buswell conclude from their investigation,* based upon a photographic study of eye-movements of four- teen pupils, that “analytical types of reading are universal and of such an order as to make it evident throughout that these students have not learned to read Latin” (page 126). To quote further: “Latin students are not taught to read. They are trained only to look at words. Not only so but they are so trained to look at words that it is quite impossible to find any system in their looking. There seem to be no mental devices in their experience for disentangling a complex of Latin words” (page 187). The fourteen pupils whose eye- movements were registered in this study were selected as the best third-year Latin pupils from seven high schools in and near Chicago, and the material they were asked to read consisted of fairly simple passages from Eutropius and Cae- sar. While it may be doubted whether evidence based on a 89See Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. 40C, H. Judd and G. T. Buswell, “Silent Reading: A Study of Various Types,” Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 23, University of Chicago Press (1922). 96 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION particular test of such a small number of pupils warrants so sweeping a conclusion as to Latin students generally, the evi- dence should be accepted as valid within the limits of the ex- periment. ! . ! The entire available evidence from various sources seems to be fairly conclusive that pupils studying Latin in secondary schools have not succeeded in developing proper methods of reading Latin as Latin. It is our opinion that the common ten- dency on the part of the pupils to follow the line of least resistance in their attack upon a Latin sentence is largely due to our failure to provide early in the course for sufficient practice with easy reading material and to emphasize the functional rather than the formal aspect of the elements of the language.** The results of the tests to measure progress in attainment of the ultimate objectives analyzed in the preceding chapter show in general a less degree of attainment than is secured in the case of the immediate objectives. That these results can be improved through the study of Latin and that failure to develop them is mainly or wholly due to the lack of time and attention definitely devoted to their attainment is clearly 41“With respect to the organization of materials and methods of teach- ing the Committee desires to emphasize the importance of making actual experience rather than formal memory the primary basis of the pupil’s learning. In particular this means: (1) that in the learning of vocabulary, inflection and syntax, far greater emphasis be placed on practice in ap- plication and less emphasis on the formal study of words, paradigms and rules; (2) that in the organization of materials, especially during the earlier stages, far more time and energy be devoted to practice in the use of vocabulary, inflectional forms and principles of syntax, and less time and energy to the formal study of those elements. This second recommendation should mean a great reduction in the formal study of inflections and syntax in the first year of Latin study, but a great in- crease in the relative amount of practice in use.” From the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National Education Association for the Reorganization of Secondary Education. CONTENT 97 shown by the results of the controlled experiments. In each of the controlled experiments those groups of pupils which were given definite training in applying to other fields the facts, processes, methods and habits developed in the study of Latin showed a marked superior growth over the groups to which no such training was given. Attention has already been called to the low standard of English accepted in class-room translations and to its rela- tion to the development of ability to speak and write correct and effective English. It is our opinion that this low stand- ard of class-room English is due in part to the attempt to cover too much ground and in part to the common class-room practice of using translation as the chief if not the only method of discovering whether pupils have prepared their assignments in reading. However high their own standards of class-room translation may be, most teachers find it a prac- tical impossibility to secure generally from their pupils a “good, idiomatic English version” of the ordinary daily reading assignment. Bad English is common enough in all our school studies, but it is not therefore tolerable for use in translating Latin. The evidence drawn from the tests and special studies with respect to the degree of success with which the various objec- tives are attained is confirmed by the judgment of teachers. But as has already been pointed out, the estimates of teach- ers on this point are to be regarded as on the whole too favorable. Thus, for example, only 21% of the teachers*’ filling out the general questionnaire regarded as unsatisfac- tory the results secured in the progressive development of power to read Latin. Yet a majority of the teachers expressed 42 Not all of the 1150 teachers who filled out the general questionnaire answered every question. The percentages given in this chapter are based in each case upon the number answering the particular question under discussion. 98 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION dissatisfaction with the extent to which most of the ultimate objectives were being attained. Thus 75% regarded as un- satisfactory the results secured in developing literary appre- ciation; about 60% regarded as unsatisfactory the results in developing an historical and cultural background, in develop- ing good English through adequate translation, and in devel- oping a knowledge of general language structure. From 437% to 50% regarded as unsatisfactory the results secured in developing desirable mental habits and in the ability to read English; 40% considered that neither a knowledge of clas- sical allusions nor an understanding of the actual Latin oc- curring in English was being satisfactorily developed ; while from 23% to 35% were dissatisfied with the ability of pupils to apply Latin to the learning of the elements of English or to the mastering of foreign languages. The evidence drawn from results of the tests is particularly conclusive in the case of this last mentioned ability. It indicates that the results actually secured in this field are not as great as has been commonly believed. The evidence from all sources indicates that the great- est need for reorganization of content is in the historical, cultural and appreciative fields. For example, the teachers of Vergil whose pupils, as has already been shown, are de- voting an amount of time to the preparation of their lessons greater than is given to any other subject in any year, while practically unanimous in their opinion that literary apprecia- tion is a valid and attainable objective in the fourth year of the course, say that they cannot find sufficient time to devote to the attainment of this objective.** Furthermore, 93% of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed the belief that the Latin reading material should be so taught as to contribute to the attainment of the historical-cultural objectives, although 85% expressed the opinion that the 43 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. CONTENT 99 present reading content of the course does not provide suffi- ciently for this purpose, and 967 expressed the opinion that, with present amount and kind of content, supplementary material in English should be included in the course.™ The general conclusions we have reached as to the relative degree to which certain objectives of the study of Latin are attained in the country as a whole are confirmed by the results of a special state survey conducted in the State of New York. The Arms-Bogart-Morrison study,*® based upon the answer papers written by 15,364 second-year Latin pupils in the Regents examination given in the secondary schools in June, 1922, shows that of the immediate objectives a knowledge of the elements: ranks lowest in attainment,*® while translation at sight ranks slightly higher than translation of passages prescribed in the syllabus.*” The study also shows that of the two ultimate objectives explicitly recognized in the exami- nation (the understanding of derivatives and a knowledge of the historical background), the first was attained to a rea- sonably satisfactory degree, while the average made on those questions relating to the second was the lowest for any im- mediate or ultimate objective represented in the examination questions.*® It should be noted in this connection that the 44 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 45S, D. Arms, E. E. Bogart and J. C. Morrison, “Results in Latin: First Two Years,” Bulletin No. 773 of the University of the State of New York (January 1, 1923). 46 The average percentile mark on vocabulary was 57.2, on forms 57.4, and on syntax 57.16. 47The average mark on sight translation was 74,13 and on prescribed translation was 72.66. Three possible explanations are offered by the authors of the report for the higher score on sight translation, namely: growth in the ability of pupils to get the thought from a connected Latin text; the selection of passages for sight translation relatively easier than the passages from the prescribed text; and greater leniency in the rating of sight passages. 48 The average mark on derivatives was 73.5 and on historical back- ground was 51.6. 100 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Latin syllabus of the State of New York contains specific prescriptions for the teaching of English derivatives through- out the first two years. The contrast in the averages secured in these two portions of the examination confirms our convic- tion that adequate attainment of any objective depends upon the introduction of definite material and methods appropriate for the attainment of that objective. The desirability of in- cluding in each year of the course material both in Latin and in English which will contribute definitely to the pupil’s knowledge of historical background seems clear.*® Entirely in harmony with this evidence is the general judg- ment of psychologists that automatic realization of the values implicit in Latin cannot be counted on to any large extent and that time must be found for the introduction of appropriate material and the use of appropriate methods in order to secure the satisfactory attainment of any of the ultimate objectives. It is our opinion that if pupils are to make adequate pro- gress in development of power to read Latin, the too great relative emphasis now placed upon the formal study of these elements of Latin must be replaced by practice in applying these elements directly in the reading of fairly easy well- graded material. It is also our opinion that if the majority of one-year, two-year and three-year Latin pupils are to realize values commensurate with the time devoted to the study of Latin, time must be provided early in the course for 49“Further, from the first, the reading lessons should, as far as possible, deal with themes distinctly classical, especially Roman legends, biogra- phies, anecdotes and historic events. A knowledge of some of the great personages and dramatic events in Roman history ought to be required of all our pupils. A course of reading in English on such themes should be outlined, and the reading should be exacted of the pupils. The reading of appropriate poems, stories, etc., in English should be encouraged.” From the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Com- mission of the National Education Association for the Reorganization of Secondary Education. CONTENT 101 the introduction of specific material upon which to base the definite training of Latin pupils in applying to related fields the facts, processes, methods and habits acquired in Latin. The conclusion drawn from results of the tests as to the necessity for changes is confirmed by the specific recom- mendations of teachers. Seventy-five per cent of the teachers answering the general questionnaire expressed the opinion that defective organization of the Latin course is mainly responsi- ble for failure to secure satisfactory attainment of the objec- tives regarded as valid, while only 19% ascribed the unsatis- factory results to the lack of a clear definition of objectives :n the minds of the teachers.°° Eighty-four per cent of the teachers expressed the opinion that, if they were free to do so, they would modify the present course. Of those expressing this opinion 97% indicated their belief that the course so modified would provide an adequate basis for continued read- ing of Latin in college, and 84% expressed the belief that the present college entrance requirements should be correspond- ingly modified. Of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire 91% would read some easy or “made” Latin before taking up the first classical author, and 97% of these would have this ma- terial deal mainly with classical themes. Of the teachers who expressed a preference for Caesar as the first classical author to be read in the course, as most of them did, 54% would begin Caesar in the fourth semester or later, while 427 would begin Caesar in the third semester, and 4% in the sec- ond semester.® Eighty per cent of these teachers state that they would read less Caesar than they do at present. Of the 50See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 51“The Committee believes that better results will be gained if the con- tinuous reading of the unmodified text of Caesar is postponed to the be- ginning of the fourth half-year.” From the report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National Education Asso- ciation for the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 102 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION teachers who would include Cicero and Vergil in the course, as most of them would, 56% would read less Cicero than they do at present, while 52% would during the fourth year read Latin somewhat less in amount than six books of Vergil. Of the teachers filling out the special questionnaire’ on changes desired in the reading content of the Latin course, 93% stated that, if they were free to do so, they would make changes in the kind, amount or order of the material read in the present standard course. Ninety-six per cent would read a considerable amount of easy Latin before taking up the first classical author, 15% would begin the reading of the first classical author at the beginning of the third semester or earlier, 80% about the middle or end of the third semester, and 55% at the beginning of the fourth semester or later. Sixty-five per cent of these teachers would reduce the amount of classical Latin reading material included in the present standard course. A tabulation of results of the questionnaire” on reading content, which was filled out during the summer of 1923 by teachers and students taking courses in the teaching of Latin, shows that 88% would make some changes in reading content of the present Latin course; 90% would read a considerable amount of easy Latin before taking up the first classical author; 19% would take up the first classical author at the beginning of the third semester or earlier, 38% at about the middle or end of the third semester, and 43% at the beginning of the fourth. Sixty-nine per cent would read less Caesar, 387 would read less Cicero, and 29% would read less Vergil. An analysis of 71 replies to a questionnaire®® sent out to teachers of secondary Latin in Nebraska shows that 96% of those answering would make changes, if they felt free to do so, in the kind, amount or order of the material read in the 52See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5, 53 See Part LI, Chapter III, Section 5. CONTENT 103 present Latin course; that 62% would reduce the minimum reading requirements; that of those who would read Caesar 16% would take up Caesar in the third semester, and 8476 in the fourth semester or later. The results of a ballot®* taken at the meeting of the Classi- cal Section of the New York Teachers’ Association held November 30, 1922, show that 97% of the teachers voting would make changes, if they felt free to do so, in their present course ;°° that 84% would reduce the amount of reading re- quired in the second year; 10% the amount in the third year, and 3% the amount in the fourth year; that of those who would read Caesar 26% would begin the reading in the third semester and 74% in the fourth semester; that 877% would read a considerable amount of easy Latin before taking up the first classical author; and that 88% believe that three semesters should be devoted to the forms and syntax usually included in a first-year book. The results of a ballot®’ taken at a meeting of the New Jersey Classical Association held October 28, 1922, show that 95% of the teachers voting would make changes, if they felt free to do so, in their present Latin course; that 787% would reduce their present minimum reading requirements ; that of those who would read Caesar 14% would begin the reading in the third semester and 86% in the fourth semes- ter; and that "9% favor simplification of the college entrance examination in Latin composition. An analysis of the answers returned by 109 teachers of secondary Latin to a questionnaire sent to the members of the 54See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 55 For the content of the present course see the New York State Syllabus for Ancient Languages (1919). 86 The New York State syllabus prescribes an amount of required read- ing in the third year equivalent to five orations of Cicero, and in the fourth year the equivalent of five books of Vergil’s Aeneid. 37 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 104 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION Classical Association of the Atlantic States™ shows that 89% desire some change in the standard course; 48% would reduce the amount of reading, 86% would read ‘‘easy Latin” before taking up the first classical author; 48% would take up the first classical author at the beginning of the third semester or earlier, 833% at about the middle or end of the third semes- ter, and 18% at the beginning of the fourth semester or later.”® : The Burton study,” based upon replies to a questionnaire sent to the teachers of secondary Latin in New England, shows that 42% of the teachers replying believe that they would secure better results if the college entrance require- ments should be changed so as to place the emphasis upon the time to be given to the study of Latin rather than upon the amount of Latin read. Of the 58% favoring a prescription as to amount many teachers think the present amount is exces- sive. The report adds: “With a smaller requirement more time could be given to drill, to sight reading, and to literary values.”” They especially regard the requirement for the sec- ond and fourth years as excessive; for the second year, be- cause the pupils ‘fare not ready for Caesar.” To quote again from this report: ‘One gets the impression that few teachers, except those in schools having four and a half-, five- or six- 58 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 59 The form of the initial question asked was: “Do you desire any changes in the Standard Course (Beginners’ Book: Caesar B.G., 1-4; Cicero, Cat. 1-4, Archias, Manilian Law; Aeneid, 1-6)?” This question differed in one important particular from the question asked in the general question- naire and the other special questionnaires and ballots analyzed above, all of which contained the clause, “If you were free from limitations imposed by college entrance requirements, scholarship examinations, official courses of study, text-book adoptions and like considerations.” 60“Tatin in the Secondary Schools of New England,” a special report submitted by H. E. Burton, Chairman of the Curriculum Committee of the New England Classical Association. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- tion 5. CONTENT 105 year courses, believe that the average pupil is ready to begin the reading of Caesar when the reading of Caesar 1s begun.”’ Slightly over 50% of the teachers answering the New Eng- land questionnaire expressed the belief that examination in advanced composition for admission to college should be omitted. A summary” of replies received from 157 teachers of sec- ondary Latin in Illinois shows that of those who would read Caesar 3% would take up Caesar at the beginning of the third semester, 4% during the third semester, and 93% at the be- ginning of the fourth semester ; that 94% would reduce the amount of reading included in the present standard course for the second year, 89% the amount for the third year, and 88% the amount for the fourth year. With reference to the amount of emphasis to be placed upon the technical phases of instruction the judgment of teachers is equally clear. Eighty per cent of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire think that the technical aspects of the study of Latin in secondary schools are commonly over- emphasized to the neglect of the cultural aspects. Seventy- five per cent believe that too much syntax is commonly in- cluded in the first year’s work, and of these 99% recommend the postponement of some rules and principles until the sec- ond year, 83% until the third year and 55% until the fourth year, while 50% would omit from the secondary course en- tirely some rules and principles now commonly included in the first year’s work.” Similarly, 63% of the teachers filling out 61See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 62 On this point compare the following statement from the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Education: “Too many things are crowded at present into the first year of Latin study, especially in the field of syntax. As a result, there is not time for the requisite drill, especially toward the close of the year. New syntactical subjects crowd so rapidly upon the pupil’s attention that no one subject 106 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION the general questionnaire believe that too many forms are : commonly included in the first year’s work, and all of them | would postpone some of these forms until the second year, 63% until the third year and 37% until the fourth year, while 41% would omit from the secondary course entirely some forms now commonly included in the first year’s work. Stenographic reports of round-table discussions conducted at the meetings of the Classical Association of New England, the Kentucky Classical Association, the Southern Section of the Classical Association of the Middle West and South, and the Classical Association of Maryland show a general trend of positive opinion in favor of the following points: (1) sim- plification of the work of the first year; (2) provision for abundant reading of suitably graded material before the first classical author is taken up; (3) postponement of the first classical author until the fourth semester; and (4) reduc- tion in the amount of reading prescribed and in general less emphasis upon quantity and more attention to quality. Thus, the Kentucky Classical Association recommended a reduc- tion of amount in the second and third years. At the meeting of the Southern Section of the Classical Association of the Middle West and South reductions were urged in every year ef the course. At the meeting of the New England Classical Association a large majority favored a proposed change in college entrance requirements which would involve the study of Latin five hours a week for four years, and admission to college through the comprehensive examination or by certi- ficate. At the meeting of the Classical Association of Mary- land reduction in amount was urged by every speaker who participated in the discussion. | Summarized reports of round-table discussions conducted is fixed firmly in mind. It would be better to prolong the period of in- fancy, so to speak, through the first three half-years, in order to gain needed time for real mastery of the essentials.” CONTENT 107 at meetings of the Latin Section of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association, the Classical Section of the Kentucky State Teachers’ Association, the Classical Section of the Bay Sec- tion California State Teachers’ Association, and the New Jersey Classical Association indicate the same general ten- dencies as those shown in the stenographic reports. No stenographic report was received for the round-table discussion conducted at the meeting of the Classical Associa- tion of the Atlantic States held at Wilmington, Delaware, December 2, 1922. The report of this meeting published by the Secretary states that “it was plainly the sense of the gathering that the present curriculum in Latin for the Pre- paratory Schools is not excessive in its demands.”®* In the stenographic reports of round-table discussions re- ferred to above there is frequent reference to various devices to which teachers feel they must resort in order to “cover” the prescribed amount of reading. One teacher said: “In try- ing to cover the required amount of Latin I am sure that in very many cases subterfuges are employed that none of us exactly approve.” Another teacher said: “We have no trouble in covering the course as it is; one oration of Cicero and one book of Vergil is usually read to the class by the teacher.” It is clear that in many schools a part of the prescribed read- ing for each year is done by special assignments. Others frankly admitted that they have abandoned the attempt to read intensively the required amount. One teacher said, for example: “It is just impossible in the time we have at the present day to cover all the material we should like to cover, that is, the four books of Caesar, Cicero and Vergil. The teachers worry about the necessity of covering the re- quirements, make the mistake of striving to cover them, and soon pupil and teacher come to despair. The method used 63 See “Classical Association of the Atlantic States: Fourth Annual Fall Meeting,” The Classical Weekly, XVI (January 15, 1923), p. 31. 108 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION | by me is not to try to cover the ground, but to enable the atu dent to be able to go on.” | : An analysis of replies to a questionnaire” sent to college instructofs giving courses in elementary Latin which are. accepted by their institutions as the equivalent of two units of Latin for entrance credit shows that 47% of those report- ing read classical Latin less in amount than two books of Caesar, 22% read more than two books but less than four, and 31% read four books. Of those who report having read less than two books of Caesar more than half read no classical Latin at all or at most not more than ten pages. It is evident that many colleges have felt free to reduce the amount of the reading content of their elementary courses in Latin considerably below that required of secondary school pupils who apply for the same amount of credit. Many of these in- structors, basing their comments upon their experience in teaching elementary Latin in college, contributed valuable suggestions concerning the kind and amount of reading ma- terial to be included in the work of the first two years in the secondary schools. The general pressure for time now felt throughout the sec- ondary course in Latin, some of it due to the shortened time allotted to the class period of instruction, is further indicated by the fact that the general tendency to organize Latin clubs has been to a considerable extent the result of a desire to find the additional time necessary to develop those values of the study of Latin which are regarded by teachers as legitimate, but which, because of insufficient amount of time, cannot be given adequate attention in the regular class period.® The 64 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 65'Thus in the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commissicn of the National Education Association on the Reorganiza- tion of Secondary Education the need of additional time outside the class period is recognized and much stress is laid upon the utilization of Latin clubs to supplement class-room instruction: “Some of these topics CONTENT 109 ressure for time is also indicated by the fact that 457 of he teachers filling out the general questionnaire report that hey find it necessary to devote one or more hours a week utside of the class period to preparing pupils to take the Sollege Entrance Board examinations. That the remedy for the present congestion in the course s to be found in part in a reduction of the content is further ndicated by the fact that an increasing number of individual chools are attempting to meet the situation by reading an smount of classical Latin considerably less than that pre- ccribed in the standard course. The Jones study,°* based upon nformation from 261 representative schools in Ohio and Pennsylvania, shows that 297 of the schools reporting on this question read in 1921-1922 less than four books of Caesar’s Gallic War; that 20% read less than six orations of Cicero and that 17% read less than six books of the Aeneid. The Colthurst study®? shows that a similar situation exists in the schools of Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne- braska, North Dakota and South Dakota. In these seven states 29% of the schools reporting on this question read less than four books of Caesar, 11% less than six orations of Cicero, and 23% less than six books of the Aeneid. From in- formation furnished by teachers filling out the general ques- tionnaire it is clear that the situation reported above is of wide extent. , The demand for reduction in the amount of classical Latin to be read in the secondary course has met with official sanc- tion in the announcements of many colleges. The Adams study,”* based on definite statements secured from the ad- will properly be included in the regular assignments of the class-room; but many of them will serve as subjects for investigation and report at meetings of the Latin Club.” 66 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 67 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 68A, W. Adams, dn Analysis of College Entrance Requirements. See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 110 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION mission officers of 178 colleges and universities, shows that 47% of these institutions accept for four units of entrance credit the reading of classical Latin less in amount than that prescribed in the standard course. The reading of less than the standard amount of classical Latin has the official sanction of several state departments of education. The New York State Syllabus for Ancient Lan- guages (1919) provides for the substitution of Ritchie’s Argonauts for an equal amount of Caesar. The reduction in the amount of reading required by the New York State Syl- labus in the third and fourth years has already been men- tioned. The Pennsylvania State Course of Study (1923) makes provision for the reading of easy Latin for the first three months of the second year and for a corresponding reduction in the amount of classical Latin to be read in that year. The same tendency appears in several other recently is- sued state or local courses of study in Latin. For example, the Maryland State Syllabus for Latin (1921), while requir- ing an amount of reading equivalent to that contained in the standard course, states that the equivalent of one book of Caesar, two of Cicero’s orations, and two books of the Aeneid may be read at sight, and the Latin Syllabus for the High Schools of Chicago (1922) requires an amount of reading in each year approximately one-fifth less than that contained in the standard course. Despite the practical difficulties which tend to discourage independent action, some individual schools and school sys- tems have already further sought to relieve the congestion, especially in the first year of the course, by providing for a longer approach to the first classical author and by post- poning to the third semester, or later, a part of the gram- matical material included in the usual type of beginners’ CONTENT 111 ook. The Jones and Colthurst studies® show that 21% of he 353 schools reporting on this question read some easy atin in the third semester before beginning the reading of he first classical author. These studies show further that 8% of these schools continued the use of the beginners’ book hroughout the whole or a part of the third semester. Further evidence that the general demand for a reduction n the amount of work to be done during the first two years is easonable is disclosed by a comparison of the reading con- ent of the Latin courses in the secondary schools of the Jnited States with the reading content of corresponding courses in the schools of Germany and of England. It is clear shat pupils in American high schools are expected, on the pasis of the present standard course, to read with the same sxpenditure of time a much larger amount than is required of pupils in European schools. In the recently developed reformgymnasiwm of Germany” pupils begin the study of Latin at from twelve to thirteen years of age. Their initial equipment is much superior to that of the average American pupil when he begins the study of Latin. These German pupils have studied German grammar carefully for the three preceding years, have read selected stories from the mythology and heroic legends of Greece and Rome, have studied a modern foreign language for three years, and have had a year’s course in Greek and Roman history. Even with this initial equipment pupils devote ten fifty-minute periods a week during the first year to elementary Latin, including the reading of approximately seventy pages of easy Latin, before beginning the first classical author, which is usually Caesar. This is more than double the time 69 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 70See “The Teaching of Classics in Secondary Schools in Germany,” in a Special Report on Educational Subjects published for the Board of Education by Wyman and Sons, London (1910), Volume 20, pp. 123, 126-7. 112 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION allotted to first-year Latin in American high schools. N until the middle of his third year has the American pupi spent in the Latin class-room the same total amount of tina a German pupil has spent before he begins his first classica author. Even with this thorough preparation German pupils ar not expected during the first half of the second year to trans late any Caesar independently. During this time all the ad vanced assignments in translation are worked out in class.‘ The time allotment during the second year is eight fifty minute periods a week, double the amount of time availabl in American schools. Under these conditions about five book of Caesar and 700 lines of Ovid are read in the second year An examination of the Latin programmes” of thirty-st secondary schools in England of the type in which pupil begin Latin at approximately twelve years of age and con tinue it for four years reveals several general tendencies. Th reading of easy Latin is begun early in the course and th “reader” forms the basis for the study of the vocabulary syntax and forms. In twenty-one of the thirty-six school whose programmes were examined a classical author is begu in the second year. This author is usually Caesar, althoug! Ovid is often read and occasionally Eutropius or selection 71“Yet even for a boy of 13-14 years, who has an average aptitude fo languages, the first plunge into Caesar is hard; the Germans recogniz frankly that many of the difficulties he presents are greater than the can expect boys to solve for themselves, and therefore to set a boy dow to Caesar with no hint or help except a dictionary is either to make hir despair or practically to drive him to the use of subterfuges which wil make possible the impossible. Every teacher recognizes that the use o ‘cribs’ depraves both mind and morals, and therefore his first duty is t train the boy, who means honestly by his work, to feel that he can d without them. It is like teaching a boy to swim,—one must hold up hi chin until he begins to feel that he can go by himself. Accordingly, dur ing the first half of Caesar all preparation is done in class with th teacher, and all the boy has to do at home is to revise carefully what ha been so prepared.” Jbid., p. 38. 72See Part III, Chapter I. CONTENT 113 ‘om various authors. The average amount of classical Latin ad intensively in these twenty-one schools during the second ear is approximately equivalent to one book, or at the most , two books of Caesar. In fourteen of the thirty-six schools ie reading of a classical author is not begun until the third ear. The postponement of the reading of the first classical uthor until the third year is recommended in the recent re- ort of the committee appointed by the Prime Minister to in- wire into the position of the classics in the educational system f England.” There is a considerable variety of reading aterial in the third year of the course, the following authors ppearing: Caesar, Sallust, Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Ovid, Vergil nd Horace. The same authors furnish the material for read- ig in the fourth year. There is also practice in reading and ranslating “unseens.” The amount of classical Latin read ntensively during the third and fourth years is about one- hird of that included in the present standard course of merican schools. The amount of time each week usually given o Latin varies from four to five periods of forty-five minutes ach with assignments for each lesson to be prepared outside f class.™ It has already been pointed out that one of the criteria thich should be employed in determining the reading content s its suitability for contributing to the appreciation of the listorical-cultural values and that these objectives are not iow being satisfactorily attained. It is important to consider vhether the results could be improved by a wiser choice of reading material. There is considerable difference of opinion among teachers as to whether the content of the present standard course constitutes the best medium which Latin 3 See The Classics in English Education, H. M. Stationery Office, London, England (1921). 741t must be remembered, however, that pupils in these English and Ger- man schools begin the study of Latin two years younger than American pupils begin Latin in our standard four-year secondary school course. ’ 114 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION literature affords for attaining these objectives so far as they are attainable within the period of secondary education and there is pressing need for a careful appraisement of th present course from this point of view and for an equally careful appraisement of all the resources of Latin literature in order to discover the material which will best satisfy the criterion proposed and at the same time constitute a suitable medium for progressive development of power to read Latin. The selection of material which will encourage the teacher to develop and the pupil to realize the cultural and historical values, meet the needs of different types of schools and satisfy the varying interests of teachers involves both the searching out of much hitherto unused material and the free opportun- ity for teachers to put such material to the test of class- room use. Accordingly, if such new material is to be EE ee our recommendations concerning reading content must be char- acterized by considerable freedom and the standard course must be so defined as to encourage teachers to use this free- dom in selecting the reading content which in their judg- ment will best serve for the attainment of the historical- cultural objectives they consider valid for their pupils. A freer range of reading has long been generally recog- nized as desirable in the Latin course for secondary schools. It has been strongly recommended at various times in the last thirty years by all committees which have investigated the question.” 75 Report of Committee of Ten on Secondary School Subjects. National Education Association (1893), pp. 63-64. . Report of Committee of Twelve. In Proceedings of the American Phil- ological Association, XXX (1899), cii. Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements. In Proceed- ings of the American Philological Association, XLI (1910). Report of Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Edu- cation. CONTENT 115 There is clear evidence that most teachers of secondary Latin desire greater freedom of choice as to the Latin au- thors to be read. Information from many sources indicates that, while teachers are practically unanimous in their opin- ion that the secondary course should include reading from Caesar, Cicero and Vergil, only a very small minority favor restricting the reading solely to these three authors, or at any rate to those parts of these authors prescribed in the present standard course. 7 One question in the questionnaire sent to members of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States’ reads: “If you would make no omissions in quantity, would you make sub- stitutions (in the present standard course) ?” Eighty-seven per cent of the secondary teachers answering this question returned an unqualified “yes.” The substitutes most com- monly recommended were: selections from Nepos or from Caesar’s Gallic War V-VII for parts of Books I-IV, some of Cicero’s letters or essays, selections from Ovid for one or more of Cicero’s orations, and selections from Ovid for one or more books of Vergil’s Aeneid. A similar desire for a wider range of choice is expressed by the teachers who answered the general questionnaire and the special questionnaires on reading content, and by many who took part in the round-table discussions. We may now consider to what extent this freedom of choice recommended by various committees and clearly desired by the majority of teachers has found expression in the regula- tions of the College Entrance Examination Board and in college entrance requirements ; and then to ascertain to what 76See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 77A number of teachers evidently understood that the question included the possible substitution of non-classical Latin for a part of Caesar, The most commonly mentioned substitutes of this type of reading were Ritchie’s Fabulae Faciles and Lhomond’s Viri Romae. 116 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION extent teachers of Latin have availed themselves of any free dom of choice allowed by the Board or the colleges. The regulations of the College Entrance Examination Board with reference to the amount and range of reading re- quired are: 1. The Latin reading, without regard to the prescription of particular authors and works, shall not be less in amount than Caesar, Gallic War, I-IV; Cicero, the orations against Catiline, for the Manilian Law, and for Archias: Vergil, Aeneid, I-VI. 2. The amount of reading specified above shall be lect by the schools from the following authors and works Caesar (Gallic War and Civil War) and Nepos (Lives) ; Cicero (orations, letters and De Senectute) and Sallust (Catiline and Jugurthine War) ; Vergil (Bucolics, Geor- gics and Aeneid) and Ovid (Metamorphoses, Fasti anc Tristia). The Adams study” shows that most of the colleges which make prescriptions as to the kind and amount of Latin to be offered for college entrance accept the modification in kind described in paragraph 2 above and that 17% of the colleges included in the study place no limitations whatever on the authors or works to be read. Nevertheless, the information gathered from a large num- ber of schools in various parts of the country indicates that comparatively few schools in actual practice deviate to any considerable extent from the present standard course in the selections read. The Colthurst study,*° which includes rep- resentative schools in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota and South Dakota, shows that of 78 See Document 101 (August 1, 1919) of the College Entrance Examina- tion Board. 79 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 80 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. CONTENT VET the schools which reported having read an amount equivalent to that prescribed in the standard course, 83% read during the second year the first four books of the Gallic War only and in order, and that the remaining 17% read selections from the Gallic War only. No school reported reading selec- tions from Nepos or from Caesar’s Civil War. The same study shows that of the schools which reported having read during the third year an amount equivalent to that contained in the standard course, 68% read Cicero’s Catilines I-IV, the Mani- lian Law and Archias, while 23% read selections from other works of Cicero and 10% read selections from Ovid. This study also shows that of those schools reporting that the amount of reading done during the fourth year was equiva- lent in amount to six books of Vergil, 98% read the Aeneid I-VI only, while 2% substituted selections from Ovid for a part of the Aencid. The Jones study,” giving similar infor- mation for the schools of Ohio and Pennsylvania, shows that of the schools which report having read in the second, third and fourth years an amount equivalent to the standard course, 86% read precisely the content of the present stand- ard course during the second year, 83% during the third year and 95% during the fourth year. The replies of the teachers who in the general questionnaire reported reading during the second, third and fourth years an amount equivalent to the standard course, give further evidence concerning the actual practice of the schools. Of the 365 schools which reported that they read in the second year the equivalent of the standard course, 83% read Caesar’s Gallic War I-IV, 8% read selections from Caesar’s Gallic War I-VII, 1% read selections from Nepos, while 1 school read selections from Caesar’s Civil War, 1 school read selec- tions from Ovid, and no school read selections from any other author. Of the 376 schools which reported that they read in 81See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 118 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION the third year the equivalent of the standard course, 837 read Cicero’s Catilines, Manilian Law and Archias, 7% read other orations of Cicero or selections from other orations, 3% read Selections from the letters of Cicero, 3% read selec- tions from Ovid, and 7% read selections from other authors (Sallust, Caesar or Vergil). Of the 245 schools which re- ported that they read in the fourth year the equivalent of the standard course, 63% read Vergil’s Aeneid I-VI, 33% read selections from Ovid, 2% read selections from Aeneid I-XII, and 4% read selections from other authors. Of the teachers answering the general questionnaire who reported that they read Ovid during the second, third or fourth years, 70% reported having read those selections from Ovid which are contained in the prescriptions of the College Entrance Examination Board for 1923, 1924 and 1925, while 14% reported reading more and 15% reported reading less than this amount. Of teachers reporting that they read Ovid in the fourth year, 75% stated that Ovid had been substituted for an equivalent amount of Vergil. It is a fair inference from these facts that the reading of Ovid in the majority of schools is not at present an expres- sion of freedom of choice, but rather the result of a definite prescription both in kind and amount, and that under present conditions the majority of teachers may be expected to deviate from the present standard course only under influence from some external source, such as the College Entrance Ex- amination Board. It is clear that the practice of the majority of schools in the matter of variety in books and authors read is not in har- mony either with the expressed wishes of teachers or with the definite recommendations of previous committees as embodied in present college entrance requirements and in the prescrip- tions of the College Entrance Examination Board. While it CONTENT LS is true that those prescriptions set a very definite limit to the amount of freedom which teachers may exercise in their choice of reading material, only a comparatively small number of secondary teachers seem to have taken advantage of the free- dom actually provided. The question immediately arises as to why the freedom apparently available has not been exercised. The opinions of teachers are quite definite as to the causes which restrain their freedom of choice. One question in the questionnaire sent to members of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States was concerned directly with the individual teacher’s freedom of choice in the matter of reading material. To the question, “Have teachers of Latin in secondary schools had in fact any freedom in the choice of reading material, that is, any oppor- tunity to shape their own courses?”, 57% of the 88 secondary ‘teachers answering this question returned an unqualified “‘no” ; 24% said “yes,” but indicated that this freedom was limited in range to that allowed by the College Entrance Examination Board, college entrance requirements, state courses of study, or prescribed text-books ; 1076 returned an unqualified ‘“‘yes”’ ; and 8% said “yes, to some extent.” Of those who returned a negative answer 80% mentioned college entrance requirements and the entrance examinations among the causes of this lack of freedom, 12% mentioned text-book adoptions, and 127 mentioned lack of suitable text-books containing desirable material other than that found in the present standard course. A special ballot®* taken at a mecting of the Ohio Classical Conference November 17, 1923, shows that of 47 secondary teachers voting 68% believed that teachers of Latin in the secondary schools have not in fact had any freedom in the choice of reading material. The limitations on this freedom most frequently mentioned are college entrance requirements, 82See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 120 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION local or state courses of study, text-book adoptions, and teachers’ familiarity with text-books which follow the stand- ard course. It is evident, therefore, that either there are factors pres- ent in the college entrance requirements which in actual prac- tice inhibit the freedom of choice apparently granted in these requirements or that there are certain external influences which inhibit freedom or that teachers themselves have been at fault in not using the freedom available. Accordingly, it is necessary, first, to discover any causes which have actually restrained the freedom of choice now apparently provided and thus have prevented teachers from making free use of it, and second, to make such recommendations as will enable the present theoretical freedom to become effective in fact and will also encourage teachers to exercise the freedom of choice recommended in this report. We believe that the failure of teachers to use the freedom theoretically permitted is largely due to the amount of in- tensive reading required in the present standard course. As has been pointed out, teachers generally consider the present amount excessive and have much difficulty in completing it. There is evidence from many sources to show that many teachers feel that since the présent standard course fully satisfies college requirements both in kind and amount, they are more certain to get over the amount of ground if they confine themselves to the present standard course, contain- ing, as it does, the reading with which they are most familiar and which, because of their repeated experience in teaching it, they can get over more rapidly than they could in teaching relatively unfamiliar material. Customary means and meth- ods, employed as a result of long experience with the familiar content of the standard course, would not be so immediately effective if new material were used. Hence there has developed a natural and obviously general tendency to “play safe” and CONTENT 121 to read only the authors and selections included in the stand- ard course. This is natural and often excusable in the present situation; but the situation needs to be changed. Our inter- pretation is supported by the fact that of those schools re- porting having read during the second and third years an amount less than that contained in the standard course, 237 read in the second year and 27% read in the third year ma- terial not included in the present standard course. These per- centages indicate a larger variety in the choice of books read than was found in schools reading in the second and third years amounts equivalent to the present standard course. It is of interest to note in this connection that the Latin courses in English schools which require the careful reading of much less classical Latin than is required in American schools are characterized by a large variety in the reading. In our opinion the tendency to follow the present standard course is further strengthened by the fact that the definition of both the amount and the kind of material to be read is almost universally stated in terms of the present course. This form of statement inevitably suggests to teachers that the simplest and surest method of meeting college entrance re- quirements is by conforming to the standard course in kind as well as in amount. The failure to state the definition of re- quirements in some less sharply restricted form puts an actual premium upon inertia, inasmuch as it places upon the teacher the entire pressure of deciding just what is “equivalent in kind and amount” to any part of the standard course for which he may desire to find a substitute. Teachers thus un- fairly deterred from leaving the beaten path may naturally come to regard Caesar’s Gallic War I-IV, for example, as its own most easily discovered “equivalent” in kind as well as in amount. It further appears that the various forces tending to pro- . duce conformity to the standard course are particularly 122 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION potent in the second year. Here especially the theoretica. freedom of choice afforded by college entrance requirements is largely illusory. A choice between Caesar’s Gallic War anc Civil Wat has not presented itself to teachers as constituting any real choice at all. Not enough variety of style, theme o1 personality is involved, and an extensive study of school pro- grammes shows that substitutions of the Civil War for the Gallic War are very rare. For a different reason the alterna- tive presented by Nepos’ Lives has also proved generally un- acceptable. Teachers who have tried reading the Lives gen- erally agree that Nepos is more difficult than Caesar. Thus freedom of choice in the second year has been practically lim- ited to the first four books of Caesar or to selections from the whole seven books equivalent in amount. Teachers further indicate that they are handicapped in their desire to depart from the standard course by the un- deniable fact that books based upon this course are on the whole better organized than those involving deviations from it. This operates to strengthen the tendency of teachers te keep on using the same material. | Many teachers admit that part of the responsibility for this tendency falls upon themselves. Lack of initiative and failure to take note of what the college requirements actually permit are the specific things admitted by teachers. The heavy teaching load and extra-curriculum duties are also mentioned as contributing factors. A lack of acquaintance on the part of many teachers with a wide range of Latin literature and the temptation to restrict their own reading of Latin to the con- tent required for class-room work are other factors men- tioned. In the O’Shea study referred to in the previous chap- ter it was found that only 30% of the teachers reporting had in the preceding twelve months read any Latin not previously read by them. Other potent factors which in the opinion of teachers encourage literal conformity to the standard course CONTENT 123 are state and local courses of study, prescribed text-books, and the desire or practical necessity for uniformity within a given school system. All these retarding influences have strengthened and ex- tended a practice which had developed in this country pre- vious to the action of any national committee on the subject, and the reading of the first four books of Caesar, the four Catilines, the Manilian Law and Archias, and the first six books of the Aeneid has become a firmly fixed tradition in the minds of school administrators, of parents, and even of pu- pils. This definiteness is in one way an element of strength, but its invariability is an element of weakness. Section 4. General Recommendations in Regard to the Content of the Course On the basis of the evidence considered in the foregoing pages we make the following recommendations with refer- ence to the reorganization of the content of the four-year secondary school course in Latin: 1. That the formal study of the elements of language during the first year be reduced by the postponement of many forms and principles of syntax until later in the course; that the formal study of some of these forms and prin- ciples be omitted entirely from the secondary course; and that in general the functional rather than the for- mal knowledge of these elements be emphasized through- out the course. 2. That the vocabulary, forms and principles of syntax to be learned in each successive year of the course be se- lected in such a way as to provide conditions most fav- orable for developing progressive power to read and understand Latin and for attaining the ultimate objec- tives which teachers regard as valid for their pupils. 3. That not less than 80 pages of easy, well-graduated and % 124 Or -—~t THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION attractive Latin reading material be introduced into the course, beginning at the earliest possible point and con- tinuing at least through the third semester. . That this easy reading material should be such as to contribute both to the progressive development of power to read and understand Latin and to the attainment of the historical-cultural objectives which teachers regard as valid for their pupils. . That practice in writing Latin be continued throughout the first, second and third years. It may well be omitted from the work of the fourth year in order to allow full time for the reading. . That the amount of classical Latin authors to be read in the standard four-year course shall be not less than 35 pages of Teubner text in the second year, 60 pages in the third year, and 100 pages in the fourth year.*® . That there be enough freedom of choice in the Latin authors to be read to make it easily practicable for teachers to select the reading material which in their judgment will provide the best medium for attaining during the secondary course the historical-cultural ob- jectives which they regard as valid for their pupils. . That such additional material of instruction be intro- duced into the course as will provide for fuller attain- ment of various ultimate objectives of the study of. . | Latin. Section 5. Criteria for the Selection of Reading Content, Vocabulary, Syntax and Forms A. READING CONTENT The reading of continuous Latin should begin at the ear- 83 In terms of Teubner text (37 lines to the page) the classical Latin in the present standard course amounts to 80 pages of Caesar, 82 pages of | Cicero and 128 pages of Vergil. CONTENT 125 liest possible moment consistent with whatever method may be employed in the introductory stages of the study of Latin. We believe that for at least the first three semesters a large amount of simple well-graded easy Latin should be included in the course and'that the first classical author should not be introduced, at least in unmodified form, before the beginning of the fourth semester. 1. Easy Latin The Latin to be read before the first classical author is taken up should be such as to provide the most favorable conditions for progressive development of power to read Latin. and for attainment of the historical-cultural objectives which teachers consider valid for their pupils and which de- pend in large part upon the presence of an appropriate con- tent in the Latin reading material. We have already defined the reading of Latin as the com- prehension of thought directly through the Latin as it stands, whether or not this comprehension is followed by translation into English. Attention has also been called to the fact that while this definition has been generally accepted in theory, attainment of the ability to read Latin in this sense has not been generally realized in the schools. It is clear that if actual practice is to be made consistent with the accepted theory, a much more vigorous and persistent effort must be made to develop in the pupil the ability to read Latin as Latin, mean- ing thereby Latin as it stands in its Latin order, and that this effort must express itself first of all in the selection of reading material appropriate both in kind and amount to the development of this ability. Reading Latin as Latin of course implies that at the start of his Latin study the pupil must acquire a small initial stock of words before he can pass on to reading and understanding Latin phrases and sentences. One or more of the following 126 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION ways of doing this will be found serviceable according to cir- cumstances: 1. Developing this initial stock of words from Latin words already familiar to pupils from their English reading. 2. Developing this initial stock through oral practice. 3. Giving the pupils the meaning of these words. When this earliest start has been made and even a small num- ber of Latin words is understood, the pupil should at once begin to form the habit of inferring the probable meanings of new Latin words in the manner described in Chapter V (on method). In this way his consciousness of Latin as Latin will begin to expand and with it his power to use Latin as Latin. The most plausible explanation of the contradiction be- tween theory and practice seems to lie in the fact that many teachers believe the present required reading can be covered more rapidly if the pupil is allowed to attack the Latin sen- tence by the analytical method (1.e., by looking first for the subject and translating that, then for the verb and translat- ing that, etc.) than if he is first carefully trained to take in the thought of the Latin phrase or sentence in the Latin order before translating it into English. By recommending a longer approach to the first classical author and a reduction in the amount of classical Latin to be read intensively we have sought to relieve the pressure for time which is believed to be largely responsible for the present tendency to follow the line of least resistance. We also believe that if the pupil through extended practice with easy reading material has once acquired proper habits of reading, he will be able to read the classical Latin included in the secondary course with much greater appreciation and pleasure than the ordinary pupil does under methods commonly used at present. Furthermore, if methods other than translation are more generally employed by teachers for testing the pupil’s un- derstanding of what he has read and if practice in translating CONTENT 127 into English is limited to selected portions of the text studied, it will then be possible to insist upon a better quality of Kng- lish both in oral and in written translation. We are convinced that as a result of the modifications suggested above a much larger proportion of pupils will continue the study of Latin through the four years of the secondary course and come up to college with a greater desire to continue the subject and with an ability to read Latin with much greater facility than is the case under present methods. Accordingly, the first criterion to be employed in the selec- tion of easy reading material is its relative value as a medium for developing the power to read Latin. This reading material should be abundant, repetitious, simple and varied in form, attractive in its content, and carefully adapted to the capac- ity of young boys and girls. Furthermore, the character of this easy Latin should be suitable for developing power to read the best classical Latin authors. It should, therefore, from the beginning conform to the genius of the Latin language, should illustrate the syn- thetical character of Latin, and should embody the essential problems of Latin word order and suspense of thought. It should be true Latin, even when taken from outside the clas- sical period. Anglicized Latin will not provide a suitable medium for developing power to read Latin. Finally, the gradual development of the sentence as a whole should receive careful treatment. The first brief sentences should advance not merely in length, but in complexity, slowly approaching the structure of the developed periodic Latin sentence. If pupils are led by easy stages, with abundance of material at each stage, finally to apprehend well developed sentences analogous to those found in the best classical authors, we believe that much of the painful floundering now frequently characterizing the first attempt to read a classical author will be obviated. Moreover, if there is from the start full oral 128 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION practice in reading this easy Latin aloud, first slowly and then a little faster, it will go far to dispel early the auditional dread of saying or reading Latin aloud, now so much in evidence. — The second criterion for the selection of easy reading ma- terial is that the subject matter should from the first deal mainly with themes readily adaptable to the attainment of the historical-cultural objectives. In our opinion the reading content should include the following kinds of material: Classical mythology. Roman traditions and dramatic events in Roman history. Biographical sketches. Home life of the Romans. Ideas of the Romans about their environment. Examples of Roman wit and wisdom. Anecdotes and fables illustrative of Roman life and thought, particularly those which have a moral and embody the characteristic virtues of the Romans. Legends and stories heroic in character, such as were used by the Romans themselves to inculcate true standards of conduct, which because of their heroic quality appeal to the imagination of youth. Stories on ancient themes which have a human appeal anal- ogous to that found in stories used im teaching modern foreign languages. By a careful selection of reading material of this sort a most valuable contribution may be made through the medium of the reading of the first two years to the pupil’s acquaint-_ ance with at least a few important historical characters and with some of the most inspiring incidents in Roman history, to his general fund of information about the history, myth- ology, ideas and customs of the Greeks and Romans, and to his appreciation of the immense influence of Roman civiliza- tion. CONTENT 129 We realize that because of the common custom of taking up Caesar at the beginning of the third semester and the consequent lack of any widespread demand for an abundant supply of easy “made” or adapted Latin, a supply of well- graded reading material sufficiently large to encourage care- ful selection by teachers on the basis of the criteria proposed above has not yet been produced in this country and made easily available. However, authors of several first-year and second-year books recently published in this country have emphasized the importance of reading continuous easy Latin, and have included in their books a considerable amount of “made” or adapted Latin. In England, where easy reading material has long supplied the basis for instruction in Latin for the earlier years of the course, a large and varied supply of books has appeared containing very suitable reading of this sort. We believe that from these various sources a supply of easy reading material sufficient for three or four semesters can be obtained.** Furthermore, we are satisfied that with wider encouragement given to the use of such material and conse- quent growth in the demand for it, the production and pub- lication of an abundant supply of easy and varied reading material suitable to the needs of American schools may be confidently expected. 2. Classical Authors In selecting the classical authors to be included in the course the same two criteria should be employed as in the selection of easy Latin reading, that is, the suitability of the Latin as a medium for the progressive development of power to read and understand Latin and the suitability of the con- 84 A list of books containing easy reading material, together with a brief description of the character of the material, will be found on pages 144- 150. 130 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION tent for the development of the historical-cultural objectives. It has been shown that the majority of teachers at the pres- ent time wish to begin the first classical author at the begin- ning of the fourth semester. A considerable minority wish to begin the first classical author earlier, and a smaller minority wish to postpone the first classical author to the fifth semes- ter. It is altogether desirable that there should be reasonable freedom of action in this matter as well as in the choice of au- thors to be read. The decisive consideration, which determines the time at which the first Latin author should be taken up by any given class, is not an arbitrary number of semesters, but the attainment by the pupils of actual power to read the easier Latin with some degree of facility. With some classes this will come earlier and with others later. In making recom- mendations for a standard four-year course we assume that the reading of the first classical author will not ordinarily be — taken up before the beginning of the fourth semester. The following factors, which relate to the first criterion mentioned above, are in the judgment of the teachers who filled out the general questionnaire the most important in the selection of reading material to be included in the secondary course: The extent to which the material is adapted in difficulty.to the ability of the pupil. The suitability of the thought-content to the intra of the pupil. The suitability of the material for creating in the pupil a sense of progress in the mastery of the language. The attractiveness of the material to the pupil. The importance of selecting reading appropriate to the attainment of the historical-cultural objectives has been re- peatedly pointed out earlier in this chapter. Over 75% of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed the. CONTENT 131 opinion that the content of the Latin material included in the present course does not provide adequately for the study of topics relating to these objectives. While collateral reading in English, which is recommended by practically all the teach- ers as needed to supplement the Latin texts, will be desirable in any case, we believe that teachers should be free to select from Latin literature as a whole the material they believe will make the greatest direct contribution to the attainment of the historical-cultural objectives which they pays as valid for their pupils. Among the general topics which should be developed through reading material from classical authors adaptable to this end are the following: The attainments of the Romans in government, politics, law, commerce, economics, literature and art. Religious ideas and practical philosophy of the Romans. Characteristic Roman virtues. Private and public life of the Romans. History and traditions of the Romans, including selections from narrative, oratorical, poetic and biographical litera- ture. The continuity of Graeco-Roman civilization and its influ- ence upon western civilization. Significance of Rome as a whole, especially as a govern- ing state and a consequent stimulus to the imagination of mankind. The selection from available classical literature of material suitable both for the progressive development of power to read Latin and for the full attainment of the historical- cultural objectives detailed above will ultimately involve a considerable departure from the present common practice of restricting the pupil’s acquaintance with Latin literature to particular works of three authors. Of course it is probable 1382 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION ‘that the greater part of the material will naturally be taken from a small number of authors, and that Caesar, Cicero and Vergil will continue to form a substantial nucleus of the sec- ondary course. We strongly recommend that in choosing the material from these or other authors every effort be made to select for intensive reading such portions as provide the best medium for developing the general topics mentioned above. It is obvious, furthermore, that any given author presents peculiar opportunities for emphasis upon special aspects of Roman life and thought. Care should therefore be taken, first, to determine which of the aspects presented by a given author should be emphasized in actual teaching and, second, to make such selections from that author as will provide the best op- portunity for this emphasis. If, for example, Ovid is taken as one of the authors, we recommend that in addition to the gen- eral topics mentioned above an important criterion in select- ing the portions to be read is suitability for developing such special topics as the following: ‘he Roman point of view with reference to the gods and to religious and moral questions in general. Roman and Greek myths which have become part of the common stock of modern thought and expression. The influence of the ancient myth upon English literature and upon medieval and modern art. The influence of Greece upon Roman ideas. Or, again, if the author being read is Caesar, the portions selected for reading should be those which best illustrate such special topics as: | The personality of Caesar as revealed in his writing, The German invasions as types of westward migration. ) The civilization of the early Gauls, Germans and Britons. The political significance of the Gallic campaigns. Ancient methods of warfare. CONTENT 133 3. Collateral Reading in English The desirability of making collateral reading in English an integral part of the course has already been mentioned. Ninety-six per cent of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed the opinion that supplementary ma- terial in English should be included in the course for the pur- pose of developing more effectively the historical-cultural values of Latin. Such reading should develop naturally from the contacts established through the content of the Latin reading material itself. The topics to be emphasized at any stage of the pupil’s progress should therefore be identical in large measure with the topics to be included in the Latin reading content as outlined in the two preceding sections. B. VOCABULARY The vocabulary to be thoroughly mastered during each year of the course should be selected for the purpose of pro- viding the conditions most favorable both for the progressive development of power to read and understand Latin and for attainment of the ultimate objectives which teachers con- sider valid for their pupils and which depend for their attain- ment upon vocabulary content. For the purpose of developing power to read Latin fre- quency of occurrence in the Latin to be read is the most im- portant factor in the selection of the vocabulary to be em- phasized.*’ Another important factor is suitability for oral use in the class-room. : The extent to which the various ultimate objectives will affect the selection of the most important vocabulary to be mastered will depend upon the relative importance attached to these objectives; and this will vary in different years, and 85 See Part V, Latin Word-Count, based upon frequency of occurrence in classical Latin authors commonly read in high school and college. See also Lodge’s Vocabulary of High School Latin, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College (1907). 154 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION with individual schools and teachers. ‘There is, however, gen- eral agreement that the one most important ultimate objec- tive which is dependent upon vocabulary for attainment is increasea ‘ability to understand the exact meaning of English words derived directly or indirectly from Latin and increased accuracy in their use. The Thorndike-Grinstead word-count will provide teachers with a list of English words derived from Latin arranged according to frequency of occurrence in Eng- lish reading and with a list of Latin words which are most serviceable for interpreting these words.*® Other ultimate objectives which should be considered in the selection of vo- cabulary are: Increased ability to understand Latin words, phrases, ab- breviations and quotations occurring in English.*’ | Increased ability to spell English words of Latin deriva- tion.** Increased ability to learn other foreign languages, espe- cially French, Spanish and Italian.*® Increased ability to learn the technical and semi-technical terms of Latin origin employed in other school studies and in the arts, sciences and professions.” 86 See Part IV, the Grinstead-Thorndike Derivative Lexicon, based on frequency of occurrence in English. See also Part VI, the Smalley De- rivative Greek and Latin Lexicon, based on an etymological analysis of Murray’s New English Dictionary. 87 For a list of Latin words, phrases, etc., most commonly occurring in English, and for a list of Latin words most important for an under- standing of them see Part IT, Appendix C. 88 For a list of English words the spelling of which may be helped by a knowledge of Latin and for a list of Latin words which have the great- est capacity to assist in the spelling of these English words see Part II, Appendix B. 89 For a list of French words most commonly occurring in French read- ing and for a list of Latin words which have the greatest capacity to assist in the learning of these French words see Part II, Appendix D. 90 For a list of technical and semi-technical terms used in various school subjects and for a list of Latin words which give the most help in learn- ing these technical terms see Part II, Appendix A. CONTENT 135 Our recommendations with regard to the reading content of the first two semesters involve a reading experience with a larger vocabulary than is commonly included in the lesson yocabularies and in the accompanying exercises of the typical beginners’ book.®*” This is inevitable, unless the reading con- tent is to be so meager as to fail to supply pupils with a genuine reading experience and so restricted in range as to be neither attractive nor instructive. However, it is not to be expected that any greater proportion of these words will be included among those to be thoroughly mastered than is true ofthe new words met in the later reading of classical authors. The words which a pupil meets in his reading of Latin at any stage fall roughly into three groups: (1) words which occur but rarely and the meaning of which must be determined merely for the purpose of interpreting the particular pas- sages in which they occur, but without an attempt to retain them permanently ; (2) words which occur rather frequently and which should be made a part of the pupil’s passive or reading vocabulary ; and (3) words which are sufficiently im- portant to demand a thorough mastery, because of their fre- quent use in Latin or because of their serviceability for appli- cation to English or other languages. C. SYNTAX The principles of syntax to be taught during the succes- sive stages of the course should be selected and distributed so as to provide conditions most favorable for attainment of progressive power to read and understand Latin and for attainment of the ultimate objectives which teachers consider 91 The desirability of introducing a wider reading vocabulary into begin- ners’ books is now widely recognized. An examination of the five most re- cently published beginners’ books, each of which contains a considerable amount of connected Latin reading, shows an average total reading vo- eabulary of about 1500 words, although the number of words set for Memorization does not in any of these books exceed 600. 136 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION valid for their pupils and which are dependent for their at- tainment upon a knowledge of particular principles of syntax We believe the application of the first criterion involves a considerable reduction in the number of syntactical principles to be included in the work of the first two semesters and an emphasis upon functional rather than upon formal knowledge of the principles taught. In our judgment the conscious iden- tification and labeling of constructions is of value for the de- velopment of ability to read Latin only in so far as it demon- strably assists pupils to comprehend the thought of the Latin sentence being read. The syntactical constructions occurring in the material read at any stage need not be limited to those principles which have been formally taught. A working knowledge of the general principles of agreement and of a few fundamental noun and verb constructions will provide the pupil with sufficient syntactical equipment for a considerable reading experience. With the careful guidance of the teacher in an observant use of the context the pupil can in many cases see how to solve the difficulties presented by an unfami- lar case or mood construction, and in such instances the progress of the pupil through the Latin sentence is apt to be hindered rather than aided by an interruption of the current thought for the sake of syntactical analysis. When, however, a difficulty arises in the interpretation of the sentence which cannot be solved without an understanding of the syntactical principle involved, the emerging practical difficulty of inter- preting the sentence furnishes an immediate incentive for an explanation of the principle, and thus a readier and surer grasp of the principle is likely to result than is the case when the principle is presented without immediate need for its use, but apparently alone and for its own suke and before the pupil has had a reading experience sufficient to serve as a background for discovering the use of the principle involved. We believe that the proposed reduction in the number of CONTENT 137 syntactical principles to be mastered in the work of the first two semesters and an emphasis upon functional rather than formal knowledge will result both in greater ability to make practical use of the principles considered essential and in a better grasp of the principles themselves than is commonly secured at present. An analysis of the results of the Pressey test® shows at the end of the second semester for the country as a whole the fol- lowing averages in a functional knowledge®*® of the noun, pro- noun and adjective constructions’ commonly included in the work of the first year. Accusative of places to which with ad....--.--- 11% Ablative of manner with cwm ....-+-5+ee eee? 69% Ablative of accompaniment with cwm .....+++-: 66% Accusative of direct object.....-----++e++e: 65% Genitive of the whole (partitive) .......-+-++-- 63% Dative of indirect object .....------eeeee ee: 62% DVB LIVerOL Gade ne 3370 Nominative in the predicate with factus est .... 287% Ablative’ of COMIPaisoi i, ». «ssc he se ee 27% Dative with adjectives (similis)... 0... 700% 271 %o Dative with special verbs (perswadeo and credo) 26% Dative of; possessnoni tape nas Newcome study, 239 OBJECTIVE, immediate, 32, 78, 79, 81, 99. objectives, cultural, 34, 62-72; disciplinary, 34, 55-62; dis- tinction between, 32; evalua- tion of, 36-72; instrumental, 33, 38; relative emphasis on, 77-82; tentative list of, 33-5; the two interdependent, 83- 4; valid, 36, 78, 79-82 O’Shea study, 38, 122 Pounp-Hetre study, 89, 171, 178, 216 power to read and understand, 83, 93-4, 169 preparation, time given to, 90, 98 Pressey study, 51, 137-8 programme of investigation, 2-3 READING, Collateral in English, 151-6, 204-6; Latin, 38-40, 83 (Note), 94-6, 124-33, 144-51, 188-201 reflective thinking, 60-1 Regional Committees, meetings of, 8; personnel of, 5-7 requirements, college entrance, 162-8; recommended, 167-8 Roman virtues, 67 Romance languages, 215, 228 Romans, better appreciation of, 62-6 Scurck study, 51, 52 seeing relations, habit of, 217 six-year course, 81-2, 257-62 social institutions, attitude to- ward, 67-8 Spanish, 21, 54, 254 Special Committee, 4 Special Investigating Commit- tee, meetings of, 8-9; person- nel of, 4 INDEX 305 students, former and present, opinions of, 72-7 superintendents, attitude of, 18, 25-8 Swan study, 74-7 syntax, 135-40, 157-60, 217-28 TEACHERS, 17, 21, 25, 251; quali- fications of, 22-3; recommen- dations of, 101-23 teaching, changes suggested in, 180-1; combined, 256-7; gen- eral principles, 181-8; present methods of, 171-9; recom- mendations, 188-233 technical phases, 105 Thorndike studies, 44, 46, 50, 60 Thorndike-Grinstead study, 42, 85 Thorndike-Ruger studies, 42, 46 time element, 107-113 transfer, automatic, 56-8; of training, 183-8 translation, function of, 201 Tyler-Pressey test, 142 Unt studies, 70, 90 Ullman study, 40 Ullman-Kirby test, 93, 194 Vatues, 72-7 vocabulary, 133-5, 157, 206-10 Warker study, 41 O 8 597 4233 | | ii ‘ as ay iB}, Uni ae Ou ner apt a ar ; ve ut Pate yee Phd bd hg yape pet be alk he adie t aelelh dele) tae iteenea > cease 1 Lhe cows Wi ay) ats Vida. pees bs hea 8 hat tty ’ veut bs wy re ma} \ tet nlah Aa aig Acie eh tached ia helt eearie wpe pe Miki ps maytelcte Hotty af. 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