‘ if “rh isfy i a © a ¢ pee Nal as Gabcid ah oe We jatar eee WM age os Ro ME ESET WROTE ae, SERA Ser? rt] ies fates is Saty ee Het a as WN OF PRINS cM > aM AK 30. i927 Py [ - rea 5 “-£ oi ie 4 6 : ‘ he 7 => 5 i % Ir ; we ; : at 4 r ‘ee ; F J Pt } We | iw oo Ue a DB Oho Beanies ¢ mi Pruckle, Bertram 3S. a | Funeral customs | ay, th 4 hot mu aA a es Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2022 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library a https://archive.org/details/funeralcustomsthOOpuck FUNERAL CUSTOMS THEIR ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ‘(SUIMPIP P[O Ue WOT) _.HOVOO DNINUNOW ,, AHL AO AdALOLONd AHL +) FUNERAL CUSTOMS THEIR ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT BY BERTRAM 6. THE LAST VOYAGE NEW YORK FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY PUBLISHERS uk h AG aden noe PRINTED IN pees heigny sh tn NORTHUMBERLAND PRESS LIMITED Peay raaig mekive TYNE P ’ ’ J , I by 3 ' Wop ie a iy i td af i eae ; bt hae eA j fi I f 44 j Ag iy Dh j > Nee Oe omy : ey i ’ ‘ “ay sn ; P | a ERDAS DPA fate ' Tia Sade : APY RS La Le 1 av ety ; Pip sig ; sell aly fi } ¢ ea nts rudy Ae ee: ’ Ai? ‘ 5 i I re AYN an i¥ ww oe > , ay ¥ N "i on \ a i407 0 eS | i Pen ae be ATe. ee FOREWORD An exhaustive treatise on funeral customs, ancient and modern, has yet to be written. Leaving to the theologian and philosopher the thankless task of assigning the mystery of death its proper place and functions in the scheme of creation, the writer has confined himself to a general survey of those practices which surround the physical fact of death, a subject which is as immense as it is fascinating. Whilst investigation shows that almost all our present usages have their origin in stupid pagan superstitions, they have none the less an interest of their own to record. It is a wholesome sign that a more enlightened public is slowly releasing death from much of its ugly trappings, for—* Death, beautiful in itself, is only made terrible by groans and convulsions and a discoloured face, and friends weeping and blacks and obsequies.” So wrote Bacon three hundred years ago in his “ Essay on Death.” “ But above all, believe me,” he concludes, “the sweetest canticle is Nunc Dimittis.” BERTRAM S. PUCKLE. RICHMOND, August 30th, 1926. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Tue Author wishes to express his sincere thanks to many friends who have helped him with this book. In particular, he would mention the following public bodies, firms and individuals who have lent pictures for repro- duction: Messrs. J. D. Field & Son (for some particu- larly interesting material, including the 1824 funeral cost account), Messrs. J. Lyons & Co. Ltd., Messrs. Odhams Press Ltd., the Trustees of the British Museum, the Cremation Society of England, Mr. Emery Walker, Mr. John Tussaud, Mr. W. R. Leech, Mr. W. Edgel, Mr. Francis J. Bigger and Mr. Edward Good. CHAP. CONTENTS FOREWORD THE PROVISIONS OF NATURE DEATH WARNINGS—WHEN DOES DEATH TAKE PLACE? PREPARATION FOR BURIAL, COFFINS, ‘“GRAVE-GOODS,” SUTTEE WAKES, MUTES, WAILERS, SIN-EATING, TOTEMISM, DEATH.-TAXES BELLS, MOURNING . FUNERAL FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS EARLY BURIAL-PLACES CHURCHYARDS, CEMETERIES, ORIENTA- TION AND OTHER BURIAL CUSTOMS TREES, FLOWERS, BODY-SNATCHING PLAGUE STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS CREMATION, EMBALMING IN MEMORIAM MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS AND MOURNING CARDS ie Be, Ce , 129 139 168 182 191 209 232 2538 279 Wee as uh oa vr +4 a he | 7. +. ue A ¥ AY | \ i 4 ¥ } ; | " ‘ Ti ‘{ we 4 4 ay " ve, '*) {' i “ar | ete Bees q apse) 4 oh. Pd sh ae " Race “ Sih es os > ; hy * a2 “a 5 i d 1 i f i j ¢ Ww A | ‘we i / vA ' ; M35 an ; ¥ t c cee fs ‘ us OP AGD GS ay (Nae , 7h ‘ “ ‘S Hoa ayy \ nts et r, Al, at iy { N Diii fj ui eae is i> 7 ¥ | uy : : ty ayy fej F 9 Wie & Set Mik i yr rh ‘ y ey ‘I a ite BONA LA Dslr tn Reyna He RR ‘ i Oe Nie Naa BMS) re mi i aN Te eA SNe i 4 2 ' ey) h eed a ’ il fs A ee By ‘a, . oy ver i , ; F on a ee ei a a pt TO, Cy, Mas i : 4) ' ; ; y ; ( “at atid Te dy sa . < ik ce | , we .' yy nie Balt i it Ved f ane yy \ ye \ i ‘ iy mil ; ; iy rh ra Ge a4 ar ; in ¥ ey He oi ve i ag ay AM vin is 4 ve ae 4 1 als hy bis al My Af i) Wh hy » Yi Mi, ae A Cy) ty) es 7 A ae aug SA ar Rate be ti te, a ANG i eve MA Brita aie unt ut i By 4 it tea ae | cds aap tane yay : Ha PON LSE Be I se aa a Rae a, Bi { , j Ah hy } + ‘i Al s TUL La fe . ; UD BS i Cae ae DATE as PLA ED OW Oe TU Be, alt Me ‘Ow pe ia by Cy Paget ‘ 43 se rn p U I ; 2 , ‘ JS RCN ian 28 URN ER RUA ENG nA USE sein le ¥ wh i i i MM ae Ba Mes. ’ Py i WY Ay i S ALS De ee: 0 tae) ed ea) auf in Fy A F Ty ‘ v is hi (i ees “s ae COARY vs en! 4 ae t) ay iy f vu ® an 4 { Piel xe we LAY de ‘ ; ay, i, a a oy, ! bite “e i eS ay ne | Ki ay v3 r % tye vis PRED >t fA a ee aia eh lay: ah hy he oar is : ro . Lag Vluhy 4 i J aw ¥ oi v, i wn ee i. ee a WAY (hie pee ye ae i SUCTE NC)? AGE AUNT a Rs aD ar Re 19 ae Wi i shh iG iM et Aen Hie j Le es trey : oh) Sieg } j a tus ' whe oy ‘ Li) a ’ vl dy Oe : “4 j me Iba iy Pi, ji " i> > + Ti tt < bee 1 1 i row ie ba \ i J. Hewat McKenzie, ‘‘ Spirit Intercourse.’’ 78 FUNERAL CUSTOMS That our forefathers held the funeral light as a very important matter we shall see from many old customs. Symbolically, the lighted torch has ever been an emblem of life—and extinguished—as of death. Poets have compared its flame, blown hither and thither by the adverse winds of fate, to the uncertainty of human life. The American Indian, mourning for one of his tribe, will kindle a torch from “holy fire” and brandishing it three times round his head, extinguish its flame in water, in-token of death, a custom which reminds us of the Roman usage of extinguish- ing the lighted flambeaux carried in the funeral procession of the mourners in the earth which would presently cover the remains. One of the principal tributes which it was customary to pay to rank and position was a great burning of candles, and the more wax consumed the greater the honour it was considered had been paid to the dead. The amount of wax required for the use of the Church was very considerable, as its consumption was not necessary for ceremonial purposes only, but also for lighting the edifice. This was met by a charge, and like many other contributions in the past, it was paid in kind. Twice a year “waxcot” was collected; the word is derived from the Saxon “sceat” which means a contribution, thus waxceat, corrupted in course of time to “ wax- cot,” was a contribution in kind to the Church for the altar and other lights. We meet the word again in the expression “scot” (or sceat) free— signifying tax or contribution free. In addition to this imposition it was also customary for a person to leave a sum of money by will to provide candles for use at their funeral, and to be placed round — WAKES, MUTES, ETC. 79 the tomb on the anniversary of the death. Not infrequently a hive of bees would be offered for the same purpose, or for some other specified use. Dr. Gasquet quotes the following example: “ At Bromley, Margaret White, widow, who died in 1538, by her will gave one hive of bees to support the light of All Hallows, and one hive to support the light of the sepulchre, and a third to the light of St. Anthony.” ? The composition of the materials for church candles is stipulated and rigidly adhered to. Bees-wax is specially used in the manufacture of the dark yellow candles connected with the services of the dead, and during one of the ceremonies which the Catholic Church performs during Holy Week, a special prayer is said for the bees, whose industry provides the lights for the ensuing year. Whilst on the subject, we may call to the mind the curious custom of “telling” the bees of a death in the family. If this precaution should be neglected it has been thought that they would at once abandon their hives—never to return. The proper method of procedure 1s to knock at the hive with the door key of the house, an instrument we shall find used by the “bidder” in giving invitations to a funeral. The hive is then tied round with a band of crape, whilst the little inmates are solemnly informed of the catastrophe.’ Good tidings were also told to the bees, as Kipling reminds us:° “ Marriage, birth or buryin’, News across the seas, All your sad or merryin’, You must tell the bees.”’ 1 Dr. Gasquet, ‘‘ Parish Life in Medizval England.’’ *Canon Atkinson, ‘‘ Forty Years in a Moorland Parish.”’ 5 Rudyard Kipling, ‘‘ The Bee-boy’s Song.’’ 80 FUNERAL CUSTOMS In addition to “waxcot” various other con- tributions were exacted in pre-Reformation days of the nature of the tithe which is still levied. Harassed during life by taxes and assessments of various kinds, even death did not bring a relief from their responsibilities. _ When our forefathers stepped for a moment from the dull course of their daily routine in satisfaction of some human necessity, they called attention in so doing to their otherwise neglected existence, and at once someone would demand a tax. At marriage the “ merchet” was paid to the lord of the manor, who would be down again on his unfortunate tenant for the collection of “heriot” at his death, when to the Church “mortuary ” would also be due. Heriot was originally a due under the feudal system, and consisted of the return to the feudal lord of the horse and military equipment with which the vassal had been provided, in order that he might serve his master in battle or private feud. It was one of the many “good old customs” sanctified by age, and retained for the sake of revenue, long after any excuse for its existence could be claimed; when war horses and armour no longer provided were obviously not there to be seized, a farm horse or a cow would be demanded from the relatives, who were reckless enough to enjoy the luxury of having the head of the house taken from them by death. In the fourteenth century the lord of the manor claimed the best possession of a deceased tenant, whatever it might be, and so long as he left not less than three head of live stock the Church was allowed to take what was judged to be his second best possession.’ Capes gives an instance from Sudshot, showing 1G. C. Coulton, ‘‘ Chaucer and His Times.”’ WAKES, MUTES, ETC. 81 that in the early fourteenth century the heriot had sunk to a hen and two pence, because the deceased had no animals at all.’ Mortuary was paid to the Church at death, and it was supposed amongst other things to make reparation for anything due to the Church, which had either been overlooked or wilfully neglected. The matter was, however, regulated by an Act in 1529, which forbade the toll on the goods of a deceased person when their total value did not exceed ten marks. A sliding scale of charges upon the property of the dead was fixed for goods of a value over that amount. In its last stages the mortuary became associated with a charge made for a funeral sermon, and this imposition ceased altogether at the end of the eighteenth century. 1 Capés’ *‘ Rural Life in Hampshire.’’ GHAPTE ROY BELLS, MOURNING THE “ passing bell” is the herald of death, but the custom of ringing it has largely been abandoned in this country. Its object was to call attention to the fact that a soul was “passing” into the next world, and asked your prayers. More than this, it was believed that the ringing of the bell frightened the ever-present evil spirits, who would be making a special effort at the moment of death to obtain possession of the soul. It was at one time a common practice to ring the church bells during a thunderstorm, for Wagner (quoting Jurandus) says, “It is said that the wicked spirits that be in the region of the air fear much when they hear the bells, and this is why the bells be aringing when it thundereth, to the end that the foul fiend and wicked spirits should be abashed and flee, and cease from moving of the tempest.” * A special bell was reserved for this purpose, known in Scotland as a “ mort-bell,” and another called the “ soul-bell” tolled after death had taken place. It was possible to tell by the sound of the “soul-bell” if it was rung for an adult, or for a child, for in the former case the tenor was sounded and in the latter, the treble. It was, moreover, customary to distinguish the sex, by tolling three 1 Leopold Wagner, ‘‘ Manners, Customs and Observances.”’ 82 BELLS, MOURNING 83 times for a man and twice for a woman, followed, after a pause, by a stroke for each year corres- ponding to the age of the deceased. Nowadays a bell is sometimes tolled twenty-four hours after a death, but is seldom heard till the procession is in sight of the church, when its solemn note at minute intervals denotes the arrival of the body for burial. Amongst other old customs, the practice is recorded of ringing three times before the grave- digger disturbed the burial ground for a new grave,’ whilst Howlett speaks of “ ringing home the dead,” for he tells us that in Shropshire the bells chimed | till the procession reached the church, when the minute bell was tolled, and at Hatherleigh in Devonshire a lively peal was rung after the funeral, as elsewhere is usual for a wedding.* In this, we are reminded of the cheerful strains of the military band which plays the soldiers home from the funeral of a comrade. The will of a lady who recently died in London contained the following provision. After stating that her body was to be buried at Burford, Salop, it read: “I direct that when my coffin enters the churchyard there, the church bells shall ring in a joyful peal, according to an old Salop custom.” ° The earlier practice is a relic of the days of communal life in village or hamlet, where the joys and sorrows of the individual were commonly shared—where the parish church was, moreover, the common centre of all activities, a place of record, law and order, as well as of worship, to which, in time of stress or rejoicing, all thoughts were turned. 1M. A. Courtney, ‘‘ Cornish Folklore.”’ 2England Howlett, F.S.A., ‘* Burial Customs’’ (Curious Church Customs and Cognate subjects). Edited by W. N. Andrews. 5 The Star Newspaper, July 7th, 1917. 84 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Modern life, tending to separateness, has done much to destroy this feeling of kinship, and many old customs have been lost in consequence. To-day, it is true that the passing bell might toll unheeded—if it could be heard at all, above the hooting of motors or the grinding of machinery— and few would stay a moment at work or pleasure to “ wing” a kindly thought to a soul passing to Eternity. Gasquet, writing of the times of the old Trade Guilds, speaks of their employing a bellman to announce not only the death and burial of a departed craftsman, but his anniversary. He quotes the following, “The Sacrist was reminded to send the bellman round about the city, to proclaim the ‘ obit-day’ of one Richard Chapman, and every year his will. At each street he was instructed to ring his bell and say, ‘ For the sowles of Richard Chapman and Alys his wyf, brother, syster of Corpus Christi Gylde to-morne (i.e., to-morrow) shall be theyre yereday” for which service he was to receive one penny. His object was to call the various members of the fraternities and societies to attend funeral and anniversary masses, and pray for the soul of the brethren. The hand-bell used was called the Rogation bell, from its use in calling people to church. It was rung in funeral processions, from the house of mourning to the church. The ancient Romans also made use of a bellman to announce death.* In some country villages in England and Scotland an official known as the Bidder may still be met with, whose duty it is to “ bid ” to the local funerals by knocking at the house doors with a key; in the towns he would ring his bell. Murray, quoting a statistical account of Scotland 1 Dr. Gasquet, ‘‘ Parish Life in Medieval England.”’ BELLS, MOURNING 85 compiled at the end of the eighteenth century, thus gives the form of his announcement, “ You are desired to come to such a one’s burial to-morrow against ten hours.” No person was invited by letter in those days, and although the mourners assembled “against ten of the clock” the corpse was never interred till the evening, so little did they value time. The prescribed form of announcement by the parish beadle, perambulating the streets with his bell, was as follows: “ All brethren and sisters, I let ye to wit there is a brother departed at the pleasure of the Almighty—here he would lift his hat—called All those that come to the burial come at o'clock. The corpse is at #3 In the funeral procession the beadle walked before the corpse, ringing his bell. Almost all the quaint customs, traces of which we shall discover in many countries, will be found in Brittany generally garnished with picturesque additions of its own. De Braz gives the following account of the method adopted by the good people of Pol-de-Leon in “ bidding” to a burial. ‘“ Should the deceased be a man, then four old men, or if a woman, four old women from an almshouse make a circuit of the town, in either case preceded by two bare- footed orphans, ringing a bell. Here and there at a point of vantage—the bell having ceased—the children in doleful voices recited these words, “ We recommend to your pious prayers who has died to-day and whom we shall bury to-morrow. Take notice therefore, such of you as are faithful, to pray for his soul.” This oration was concluded by the usual ejaculation, “May he rest in peace. We can hardly imagine in these strenuous days, 1 De Braz, ‘‘ La Légende de la Mort chez les Bretons.’’ 86 FUNERAL CUSTOMS how it was possible, not only for relatives and personal friends, but for the neighbours generally, to leave their work, sometimes for days at a time, to take part in these funeral celebrations. At the summons of the “ bidder ” they flocked to the house of mourning, in many cases bearing with them certain specified contributions to the funeral feast. To-day, when we telegraph our condolences and telephone to the florist for a “ wreath,” we are clinging tenaciously to the principle if not observing the actual customs of other times, but in nothing are we more conservative than in our ludicrous persistence in wearing mourning “ weeds.” In the same way that we have found the word “corpse” to have originally signified the body of the living, now used to denote the dead; so the word “weeds” at one time accepted as applying to garments generally, is now used to describe the ceremonial dress of mourners, in particular that worn by the widow. ‘“ A hapless pilgrim moaning his abide, Poor in his view, ungentle in his weed,”’ is an illustration of this.’ Mourning clothes were also known as “ doole,” a word equivalent to “ dole” expressing a “ portion ” or “pittance.” Derived from the Latin “doleo ” to grieve, it therefore carries a double meaning which very well expresses the sense in which the word “ doole” was accepted as “something given away in relation to grief,” for we find that it was > the custom for the relatives of the deceased to present mourning garments to their relations, to the clergyman who conducted the burial service, also to intimate friends, and, by way of charity to 1 Thomas Chatterton, ‘‘ An Excelente Balade of Charitie.”’ BELLS, MOURNING 87 certain poor retainers and others who attended the funeral. The following verse of Ben Jonson’s, quoted by Ditchfield, in an admirable book which throws rather a fierce light on “ The Old-time Parson,” * shows that “ doole”’ was one of the many pickings which fell to the parson’s lot, and gives more than a hint at some others. ce . . . draws all the parish wills, Designs the legacies and strokes the gills Of the chief mourner; and whoever lacks Of all the kindred, he has first his blacks.” ° A few years ago, the writer was shown a drawerful of wide black scarves, presented to the Vicar of a Yorkshire country parish on _ the occasion of many funerals at which he had ofhciated. This is a survival of the custom of giving “ doole.” The expense of providing mourning must have been very considerable, but a foolish display of wealth to uphold the family honour is a very old human failing, particularly at the time of death. What is merely a vulgarity in the rich is apt to have serious consequences when indulged in by the needy, whose natural love of ostentation and display is carefully nurtured by the “ Dismal cage... The mourning garment was originally a sort of loose black cloak, very much the same as that worn by nuns. It was designed to entirely cover the ordinary attire, and would be made up in a few general sizes, as it would have been obviously impossible to produce garments to f/ a variety of persons at short notice. Evelyn wrote in 1695: “I saw the Queen 1 P. H. Ditchfield, ‘‘ The Old-time Parson.”’ 2 Ben Jonson, ‘‘ The Magnetic Lady.”’ 88 FUNERAL CUSTOMS (Mary) lie in state,” and continued, “ Never was so universal a mourning. All the Parliament-men had cloaks given them, and four hundred poor women,” etc.* We learn that over nine hundred black gowns were distributed at the funeral of the Earl of Oxford, who had been heavily fined by Henry VII for an excessive display of power and wealth, as exhibited by the rank and number of his retainers. Froude, writing of Edward VI’s reign, gives some interesting particulars of an attempt to restrict extravagance in the matter of “doole” at the funeral of Lady Seymour. For reasons of State, a great public funeral was thought to be inadvisable. The matter being put before the Lords the following pious conclusions were arrived at. “The Lords weighed with themselves that the wearing of ‘doole’ and such outward demon- stration of mourning not only did not profit the dead, but served to induce the living to have a diffidence of the better life to come, to the departed in God, by changing of this transitory life, yea, and divers other ways did move and cause scruple of coldness in faith unto the weak.” They further reflected, “besides, that many of the wiser sort, weighing the impertinent charges bestowed upon black cloth and other instruments of those funeral pomps, might worthily find fault with the expense thereupon bestowed. Considering, therefore, how at present the observation of the time of outward mourning and wearing of the ‘doole’ was far shortened and omitted, even amongst mean persons, from that it was wonted to be; considering further how private men should reserve their private sorrows to their own houses, and not diminish the presence of their Prince with doleful tokens—the 1 Evelyn’s Diary. BELLS, MOURNING 89 Council dispenses the Duke (of Somerset) for wearing of ‘doole’ either upon himself or upon any of his family, or the continuing of other personal observances, such as heretofore were had in solemn use€, as serving rather to pomp than to any edifying.” Froude justly remarks, “that if these injunc- tions were sincere, they were hastily adopted, and as soon forgotten, for in the following March, Wentworth, the Lord Chamberlain, was interred in Westminster Abbey where there was great “doole’ and a great company.” * Mourning in the days of the Stuarts was a serious business and lasted for a very long time. Lady Fanshawe, in her will, requested that her son and daughter should wear it for three years after her decease, an injunction from which they could only hope to escape by marriage. Even in this period of rigorous etiquette, there were those of better disposition, for we learn that Lady Sussex, despite the fact that she had spent four hundred pounds (worth very considerably more in those days) on her husband’s funeral to express her “love and valy of him,” declined to accept “doole” from her relatives at the decease of a member of the family, as she was living in retirement and saw no one.’ In view of the sacred association of man and wife as expressed by the bond of marriage, con- sidered as it was as indissoluble and sacramental, we shall expect to find the mourning of a widow for her husband as bound by special conventions, and this especially so in days when the thought of a second marriage for the woman would be looked upon with great disfavour and suspicion. It was for this reason that we find it a common practice for the widow to retire to a convent or to become 1 James Anthony Froude, ‘‘ The Reign of Edward VI.” 2 Elizabeth Godfrey, ‘‘ Home Life Under the Stuarts.’’ 90 FUNERAL CUSTOMS what was known as a “vowess” living in strict seclusion, and devoting the remainder of her days to prayer and good works, both of which in her happier state may have been neglected—and enshrining in her heart the memory of such admir- able qualities as her husband may have possessed. Putting all finery aside, the widow adopted the sombre habit and veil of anun. It was the custom for a dowager of position to retire to the dower- house. “ Dower,” it should be explained, is that portion of a husband’s estate which falls to his widow (the dowager) at-his death, passing at her death to his heirs. Hence the wealthy widow became a dowager or person so endowed, and it was a common practice for a family of position to provide a special house on the estate for her residence, leaving the ancestral home to the heir, as'a\ cradle for, the next) cénerations a eltines unquestioning acceptance of self-effacement as a natural consequence of her widowhood, we see the shadow at least of the horrible practices of earlier times, which might well have condemned her to be actually sacrificed, and her body buried with that of her lord and master, for his comfort in a future state, a sentence commuted in more enlightened times to a form of lifelong imprisonment. To the old-time widow, except perhaps in the case of a very young woman, the thought of a second marriage would be repugnant. ‘To-day it is not uncommon to meet with people who have “a feeling ” that second marriages are in the nature of ungodliness. In the sixteenth century, regulations were made, restricting the use of mourning as to quantity and dictating also the quality of the materials, and the exact manner in which the garments were to be fashioned. BELLS, MOURNING 91 The chief point of interest in the mourning habits of woman in the Middle Ages was the wear- ing of the barbe, a long pleated arrangement, often represented on memorial brasses. For those above the rank of Baroness the barbe was worn above the chin, and in the lower estates it was fastened below the throat. It consisted of a piece of fine linen." The term is derived from the Latin “barba” or beard. It is to the convent also that we must look for the origin of the widow’s cap, and particularly for the veil or “streamers,” the survival of the veil once covering the face, but now thrown back and diminished in size. The grotesque widow’s bonnet is still sometimes seen with a shortened veil covering the face, the lower part of which it conceals, beneath the deep hem of double crape. In the windows of certain small shops in the Jewish quarter of any city may be found curious brown matted wigs which are sold to the orthodox Jewish matron, who still cuts off her hair when she marries, in order to render herself no longer attractive to men in general. In Egypt, Greece and Rome, both men and women cut off their hair as a sign of mourning, in which circumstances the men wore wigs and the women caps. So, too, in “taking the veil,” the nun sacrifices her tresses—the symbol of her personal vanities—a custom followed by the widow, but at a later period she adopted the widow’s cap, closely covering her head to disguise the fact that whilst she admitted the principle, she was no longer prepared to part with her hair. ‘The wearing of white cuffs probably also came from the convent. Webb says, in referring to the matter, “ The white cuffs of the widow recall those of the nurse, 1 Ashdown, ‘‘ British Costumes of the Fourteenth Century.’’ 92 FUNERAL CUSTOMS and similar ones are used by some members of the legal profession as part of their mourning.” ? A black crape “ weeper” was worn at one time by men, as a token of mourning, bound round their hats and hanging down their backs. At the funeral of a child or a young girl, white took the place of black as an emblem of purity. The “ Trade” still carries on the tradition when “extras” are provided. _ The origin of the custom has a significance of its Own. Wagner attributes it to a survival of the “Liripipe,” a long-tailed tippet depending from the hood worn by men in this country during the Plantagenet period. In the reign of Henry VIII the hood was exchanged for the hat, but the tippet was retained in the form of the hat-band.’ Of late years the mourning “ weeper ” was shorn of its tails and width which a few years ago reached within an inch of the top of the silk hat, became gradually reduced, til! it ceased to have any special significance. The following custom was very general in Switzerland thirty years ago. ‘The men mourners in the funeral procession carried their hats under the left arm. Round the hat a “weeper” was tied, two yards in length. Over the brim a deeply bordered handkerchief was spread in the centre of which reposed a lemon, which was eventually placed ceremoniously in the grave, presumably as a token of the sharpness of grief. A curious old French custom insisted that men should wear long black coats and a special form of headgear to which a kind of coif was attached which partly hid the face; whilst their women-folk 1 Wilfred Mark Webb, ‘‘ The Heritage of Dress.’’ 2 Leopold Wagner, ‘‘ Manners, Customs and Observances.’’ BELLS, MOURNING 98 used a covering for the head and neck, made in two pieces of material, the widow of the lower classes retaining it till her death unless she married again. In common with so many of our funeral customs, the use of black for mourning garments is connected with the deep-rooted dread of the return of the dead. It was believed that when cloaked or veiled in sable hue human beings were invisible to the spirits and thus free from any possibility of molestation. Whilst black has been generally used for the purposes of mourning, it is not universal. Symbolical of night, the absence of colour seemed best fitted to express a soul abandoned to grief, the most respectful, and therefore the safest attitude for the living to adopt towards their dead, whom they wished above all things to propitiate. In the year 1498 Anne, Queen of Charles VIII of France, dressed herself and surrounded her coat of arms with black on the death of her husband. This was considered an innovation, as white had previously been used by the French Queens. It could hardly have shocked the rigid etiquette of the Court as much as the action of Louis XI, who, a few years previously, forsook the customary purple of mourning for a hunting suit, half red and half white for the sake of simplicity. So absurd were the restrictions before the fifteenth century that a widowed queen was not allowed to leave her apartments, which were heavily draped in black, till a year or more after the death of her royal spouse. The order of mourning was revised by Mary, Queen of Scots, who was known as the White Queen, because she mourned in white the death of her husband, Lord Darnley. White weeds were 94 FUNERAL CUSTOMS also used by the ladies of ancient Rome in China and Japan. In the Stuart period, beds draped entirely in black, with bedclothes to match, were considered as a proper accompaniment of mourning. This gruesome paraphernalia was lent to relatives and friends when they had need of it. At the death of Lord Sussex, Sir Ralph Verney sent a black bed and hangings to the widow, but later, she announced her betrothal to her third husband, the Earl of Warwick, and in so doing, asked what she should do with the now inappropriate piece of furniture, which she seemed anxious to be rid of, in view of her altered circumstances. When Sir Ralph was left a widower the family bed was unobtainable, for he was travelling about at the time; he, there- fore, had to content himself with such solace as he might obtain from a black nightcap, a black brush and comb, black velvet slippers, etc.’ Amongst the colours used to express grief, perhaps yellow, a symbol of decay, is the most common. It was used by the Egyptians amongst others. With it, the native of Central Africa paints his body as a sign of mourning, as the Australian paints himself white and the American Indian with black. In Brittany the widow’s cap was of yellow or a light brown—the hue of withered leaves—which is also the prevailing colour in Persia. Blue or violet is the “doole” of the Turk, the former being used in France and Belgium in con- nection with the death of a child, as representing not only the celestial blue of the heavens, but also the traditional colour worn by the “ Mother of the Saviour” at Golgotha. Violet or purple, with which the Roman soldiers clothed the Saviour as 1 Elizabeth Godfrey, ‘‘Home Life Under the Stuarts.’’ BELLS, MOURNING 95 “ King of the Jews,” is the colour adopted by the Christian Church as a sign of penance and mourn- ing, and with which the pictures and ornaments of the Catholic Church are veiled from Passion Sunday till Easter. Black vestments are, however, used in masses for the dead, and on Good Friday. In the more remote English country villages, we may often see special mourning and wedding garments—a weird assortment of past fashions, which are only brought to light on the occasions of family ceremony from the press where they lay embalmed for generations in camphor or lavender. The sight is surely not relatively more ridiculous than the orthodox frock-coat or “ cut-away ” worn in conjunction with a pair of evening dress trousers. Knowing the value set on ostentatious displays of grief, we are not surprised to find the black bordered handkerchief still in use, particularly during the funeral procession, and at the grave, where it is calculated to produce an effect which is an apology for the absence of the historical “wailing women.” It is in the highest, and again in the lowest grades of the social scale (always the last to be touched by the tide of progress) that mourning is insisted on with a rigour which 1s simply fanatical. In the case of the poor one is left wondering where the money comes from to pay for the luxury of grief. When the cold hand of death is laid on the small wage-earner whose family has subsisted from week to week on his slender takings, often enough the last shilling in the house has been gone to provide some urgent necessity during his illness. Hardly is the toil-worn body cold when the whole family, as if by some miracle, appear in new black dresses, and the widow is swathed in the 96 FUNERAL CUSTOMS customary crape. How is it done, we ask in astonishment, in view of the fact, that to refit any one member of the family in ordinary circum- stances at a short notice would be considered as a financial problem quite outside the scope of their resources. Well, it zs done, somehow. You may see the “impossible” performed a hundred times a year in any poor neighbourhood. Of course there are burial clubs (as there were in Ancient Rome), and there are pawnshops, ready-made clothes and cheap materials, but insurance is too often an impulse in times of comparative prosperity and subscriptions are allowed to lapse during the first period of adversity. [he pawnshop has already absorbed anything pawnable, else how could the family have lived through the expensive days when the wage-earner was “ off sick.” Knowing the proverbial generosity of the needy, it may be supposed that some kindly neighbour has come to the rescue, but this source of supply will be resorted to only as a last desperate expedient, for according to the fierce code of honour prevailing in the district, this is a time for display, not for borrowing, and who knows better than the widow that a score of coldly criticizing eyes are watching events through broken Venetian blinds and dirty Nottingham lace curtains, which screen something yet more sordid, in order to see how the Joneses or the Williamses come through the ordeal. What will the Church do for Widow Jones—the Church that married her—and has not seen her since? If we add to such a situation real grief, real despair and much untutored sentimentality, we have a pretty problem, and one that has to be faced quickly, for you can’t keep a corpse waiting too long. Well, it rests between the moneylenders ‘JIIAISI. 847 puv—suojyeg ‘SpueAA ‘Soynf ‘SlopljnO ‘seseq-19y}eayq oY} 9JON ‘svaey ypm e1ouny uIspour y ‘dvad dul ONIYNONOH ce d+” BELLS, MOURNING 97 at a penny a week interest on the shilling, and such terms as may be made with various branches of the “ Dismal Trade.” Go down into the slums and see how generously this folly is catered for—a question of business, perhaps—of supply and demand. If there be any consolation to be gained in this sorry matter, it is in the contemplation of certain promises made to those who “do business” with widows—and to those who “ grind the face of the poor.” Many instances might be given to show how hard it is for an enlightened individual to stand up against the weight of conventional ignorance at a time when affliction has rendered resistance most difficult. The following are two instances from personal experience. A superior servant, a mere girl, married a house painter. Within a year of the event, the husband fell from a ladder and was killed. The poor little widow bought a cheap black dress and a very simple black straw hat to wear at the funeral. Her former employer, who had much commended this modest outlay, met the girl a few days later swathed in crape, her poor little face only half visible under a hideous widow’s bonnet complete with streamers and a veil. Asked why she had made these purchases she explained that her neighbours and relations had made her life unbearable because she did not want to wear widow’s weeds, and at last she had to give in. “They said that if I would not wear a bonnet, it proved we were never married,” she sobbed. In other stations of life many a brave attempt to break down these horrid conventions has been over-ridden by some ghoulish relations on a plea of want of respect to the dead. G 98 FUNERAL CUSTOMS The scene of the following incident was a house in one of the “best parts ” of a well-known London suburb. A death had taken place in the family, and it had fallen to the lot of the eldest daughter to make the arrangements for the funeral. She asked for a plain elm coffin without any ornaments. “Elm,” said the horrified undertaker, ‘but you can’t have anything but polished oak iz a road like this.” CHARPER “VI FUNERAL FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS WE have seen that certain parts of the body have been eaten in the belief that by this means such special virtues as the dead may possess would be transferred to those who thus participated; and we must bear this ceremonious cannibalism in mind in considering the funeral feast proper, for there was originally a connection. We must also remember the important fact that food has been offered from the earliest times at the grave, for the sustenance of the dead in their spiritual state. Superficially it would strike us as incomprehensible that even the most untutored mind could have supposed that the food so thoughtfully provided was actually consumed by the departed shade, in view of the fact that it still remained to moulder on the grave. This is a misconception of a point of view. Wallis Budge mentions that in many places in the Sudan to-day, meat and drink are still brought to, and laid on the graves, that the dead may partake of them at their pleasure, but he reminds us that the ceremonies performed by their priests are believed to change the material substance of the offerings into a spiritual form, and of ¢his the dead partake, leaving the material elements to be consumed by the priest and the relations, by which means they are brought into communication with their dead.’ 1E, A. Wallis Budge, M.A., ‘‘ Liturgy of Funeral Offerings.”’ 99 100 FUNERAL CUSTOMS It is probable that the earlier funeral feasts were nothing more than a distribution of the food offered to the dead, after they had obtained—as it was supposed—supernatural nourishment from it. Some echo of this may be traced in the Bulgarian custom of feasting in the cemeteries on Palm Sunday, when the remains of the good things provided are left on the graves for the dead. The most ancient Egyptian ceremonies were connected with offerings to the dead; wine, sweet beer, cakes of various kinds, fruit, scented oils, the heads of bulls and a variety of ceremonial garments were used for the purpose: so too by the Romans, whilst to-day the Chinese and the older civiliza- tions hold fast in one form or another to the belief that the spirit needs some form of nourishment. Once again in this practice we shall find the old terror of being haunted by the ghost asserting itself. The Bodo of India carry the dead man’s share of food and drink to the grave, saying, “Take and eat, heretofore you have eaten and drunk with us, you can do so no more; you were one of us, you can be so no longer; we come no more to you—come you not to us.’ After this recital, in order to make the changed position still more definite, each mourner throws on the grave a thread bracelet, which he breaks off his wrist, saying, “ Take that, the tie between the dead and the living is snapped.” A similar ceremony is performed at the funeral feast in the Solomon Islands, where a portion of food is thrown into the fire, and the dead are thus invoked, “ This is for you,” and even at the daily meal a certain portion is set apart for their use.* Pagan usage, sanctified by Christian interpreta- tion, has frequently been carried forward to our 1 Edward Clodd, ‘‘ The Story of Primitive Man.”’ FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS 101 times, and it is interesting to note that when the Trappist monk is taken by death from the Community, his meals are still served for him in the refectory for thirty days after his decease; being given afterwards to the poor. To the superstitious mind, a food offering should properly be served at the burial-place, otherwise a danger would be incurred by inducing the soul to wander back to its former haunts—a thing above all which mankind has sought to avoid by many a childish subterfuge. In countries where the sacrifice of animals formed part of the religious rites, it frequently took place where the dead were buried, in order that they might have their part in the consumption of the meat thus provided. Where the belief exists, as in China, that the dead have a duality of souls, one of which remains in the grave in order to receive the offerings of the living, the importance of the food supply is seen, for it is imagined that the soul would starve if not regularly nourished, in which case, of course, it would not fail to make its appreciation of the fact unpleasantly patent to the careless relatives. In ancient Egypt, a regular portion of each man’s estate was set apart for the use of the dead.* For the purpose of feeding the dead, a tube or channel was sometimes used, connected with the mouth of the corpse, through which food was passed. Such practices throw some light on ancestor worship, and the severe test of enduring affection it imposed on those who had not only to reverence their parents during their life but also after their decease, the latter being considered as 1E, A. Wallis Budge, M.A., ‘‘ Liturgy of Funeral Offerings.” 102 FUNERAL CUSTOMS a higher virtue, and the supreme test of filial affection, as being the more difficult of accomplish- ment. In this country, at least as late as the days of the Stuarts, it was a common practice for the mourners to drink wine from a cup placed for the purpose on the coffin, and in so doing to enter into a kind of communion with the dead. In the obsequies of all times, some form of feasting stands out prominently as an important and necessary part of the ceremonies. ‘There are always so many excuses to be found for celebrating any special occasion by eating and drinking that we may easily overlook the fundamental idea in accepting the practice as an ordinary form of hospitality. At first sight it does not seem unreasonable to account for the provision of a repast for the mourners as being a natural courtesy shown to friends and relations gathered together in order to take a last farewell of the departed. Knowing as we do that in days gone by travelling was not only a very difficult, but often a costly and even dangerous undertaking, it would appear rational enough that a substantial meal should be provided for the necessities of the guests. Before the introduction of such conveniences as post or telegraph, several days might well elapse before those relations living at a distance could be advised of the death, and several more days would be taken in travelling to the house of mourning, so that relations might have to be entertained for some considerable time before the family could be assembled, and the burial take place. Much as it may have been contributed to the continuation of the usage, hospitality was certainly not the origin of the funeral feast. The special object of the gathering was largely FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS — 108 for the purpose of offering prayers for the soul, in the actual presence of the body, till the burial. Even if we credit the early Christians with enlightened motives in adopting Jewish and pagan customs such as shrouding the corpse with scented oils and spices, which much annoyed the pagan mind, it is significant to note that in the fourth century the charge was levelled at them that “ ye appease the dead with wine and meals,’ which even now hardly ceases to be true. Whilst the wake or watching was closely associated with special prayers for the dead, it had a further significance. We know in our own time how frequently the question of the manner in which the dead may have disposed of their possessions becomes a matter of excited interest, and we know also how old feuds which have smouldered for a generation or longer, may be fanned into flame by the unexpected turn of events, and especially so when by a sudden illness, or as the result of an accident, the natural order of the older generation dying off before the younger, is rudely broken. In such cases, priority of claim or complicated legal issues suddenly appear in a new light, strengthening hopes of inheritance, which had but a few hours previously seemed but very remote, or destroying anticipations, which, humanly speaking, had been held for long years to be certainties. If such is the case in these more or less moral and law-abiding times, when the factor of foul play is practically eliminated, we must realize that in the past, when family quarrels were considered as honourably settled by deeds of violence, when the sacredness of human life was not allowed to stand too often in the way of illegitimate desires, in such circumstances the house of mourning might 104. FUNERAL CUSTOMS well become a pretty bear-garden, and the gathering of the clans the prelude to a furious faction fight. In those rough times, we should find death (especially if it came unexpectedly) looked upon by one side of the family, with ill-disguised suspicion. Thus the ceremonious viewing of the body by friends and relations before the burial—a custom to which we still unthinkingly subscribe—was originally an obligation, in order that those who were present at the death might clear themselves of any suspicion of complicity in foul play. Those who attended the funeral came quite as much with a view to satisfying themselves that murder had not been committed, and that the estate should be faithfully divided, as from any pious interest in the spiritual welfare of the deceased. There is yet another purpose for the funeral gathering which must not be overlooked. The funeral repast was at one time known as the “averil ” at which a special form of crisp bread pr cake and ale was provided. This was of the nature of the simnel cake, or the “ soul bread,” still used in Belgium at the funerals. The word averil or arvel means “ heir ale” or succession ale, from which we see that the feast was once considered not so much as a commemoration of the dead but as a banquet to welcome the new heir to the title or property—“ The King is dead, long live the King ”—or in lesser measure, the Squire is dead, let us welcome the young master who succeeds him. As we have seen in other instances, the Christian mind in adopting the funeral repast puts its own interpretation on the custom, and distributes food and drink freely on such occasions in the larger spirit of hospitality, giving at the same time alms as well as provender to the poor, and to those who were in need of support. FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS 105 Considerable sums of money were often left by will to be spent in this manner at death amongst relations and dependents, on the expressed or implied condition that the pious prayers of all who participated should be offered for the repose of the departed soul. Whilst the rich might well purchase prayers in this manner in exchange for a liberal hospitality, the poor were not behind in such measure of display as they could afford, but they might well experience difficulties in provisioning their larders to meet so large a call upon their humble resources, so we find that in many countries it has been a usage for the mourners invited to bring with them an offering of food to augment the feast. Now this gift of the guest to the house of mourning where it still exists, is generally in some form or symbol as is also the gift of the house of mourning to those attending the burial. The averil as a rule was (to put it plainly) an unrestricted “gorge,” wherein the honour of the bereaved family was thought to depend much upon the quality and above all upon the quantity of the good things provided, both liquid and solid, which is very much the view held at the present time in the lower orders of society. It was sometimes the custom for the women to eat separately from the men, who were inclined at the promptings of the liquor to forget their grief and become amorous over their cups. Even the beast in the stable was not forgotten, which had contributed its labour in bringing the guests many weary miles to the feast, for it was against the canon of etiquette that the guest should carry with him the necessary fodder; the provision of which entailed another considerable expense on the host. In the days when travelling by road was 106 FUNERAL CUSTOMS inevitable, the stabling capacity in such an event would be taxed to the uttermost. Some interesting details as to the consumption of food on such an occasion is quoted by Capes from a record of 1309, when the provisions were as follows: “ One and a half butts of cider—five pigs—one hare—five sheep—thirteen hens—nineteen geese— one and a half gallons of oysters—two hogs—nine capons—one and a half carcases of beef—four ‘bacons’ besides wine, ale, eggs, bread given to the poor and friends, and a fee of sixty-six shillings and eightpence to the Chaplain. Fifty pounds of wax was also used—presumably for candles.” * At the funeral of one Oliver Heywood of Thoresby (seventeenth century), the averil consisted of cold posset, stewed prunes, cake and cheese. An averil in 1673, which was considered as “ rather shabby ” according to the notions of those times, provided “nothing but a bit of cheese, a draught of wine, a piece of rosemary and a pair of gloves.” Amongst the poor, the mourners only expected to be provided with a special roll of bread, baked for the occasion, whilst the cost of the liquors consumed—trum, ale; or a mixture of both, known as “ dogs nose ’’—was defrayed by a fund collected on a plate placed for the purpose in the middle of the table, to which all present contributed. At the averil of one Charnock, things were done fairly well; eighty people were bidden to the feast, which cost four shillings and sixpence per head. The bill, we are told, was “ defrayed by a friend.” Fights were frequent in these rough days, and we read that “gourging,’ “pawsing” and biting were common methods of settling family disputes 1 Capes, ‘‘ Rural Life in Hampshire.’’ FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS _ 107 when the liquor had roused the mourners to a sense of injustice. Mrs. Gaskell, in her “Life of Charlotte Bronté,” in describing the Yorkshire villages at the period, tells us that “ the custom of averils was as prevalent as ever, and that after the burial had taken place, the sexton standing at the foot of the Open grave, announced that the averil would be held at the ‘Black Bull’ or some other local hostelry where the mourners and friends repaired.” ' Andrews, writing of Scotland in the last century, tells us that “there was a lamentable amount of ale and whisky drinking before and after the funeral. The company began to assemble two hours before the time appointed for the corpse to be carried from the house. If the deceased was a farmer, each of the guests was offered a glass of whisky at the gate of the farmyard and another on crossing the threshold. On entering the guest- room, a portion of shortbread and another glass of whisky were handed to him, a reverential silence being observed for a time, after which, conversation was carried on in whispers. When all the guests were assembled, the minister came, and a religious service was held, which lasted about three-quarters of an hour. This was followed by handing round cheese, oatcake and whisky, and afterwards shortbread and more whisky. Then the coffin was carried out, followed by all those who were sufficiently sober to walk straight.” ” Most of the accounts of state and official funerals met with in old records make much of the uality of the fare provided, in some such terms as “and this (the burial) done—to the place where there was a grete diner.” 1Mrs. Gaskell, ‘‘ Life of Charlotte Bronté.”’ 2W. M. Andrews, ‘‘ Bygone Church Life in Scotland.’’ 108 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Prunes have been mentioned as an averil dish. They are accepted for the purpose on account of their black skins, which give a note of mourning appropriate to the occasion. In Belgium, where we still find many survivals of the funeral orgie, the cakes are coated with a dark coloured chocolate icing, and are served on black paper mats with fretted “cut out” edges, whilst custom dictates that only white wine shall be served in order to avoid the introduction of colour. It has been stated that the Jewish religion discourages any form of funeral display, and in contrast to the lavish hospitality of the averil, the guest of the orthodox Jew is only offered such cold comfort as may be obtained from hard-boiled eggs and salt. Apart from its sustaining properties, the ‘egg; like our “ Easter ego,” is ‘used “asva symbol of regeneration, whilst the salt as a very ancient token of incorruptibility, has been very frequently used at Christian burials. An interesting survival is mentioned by Howlett, who states that, “in Cumberland, the mourners are each presented with a piece of rich cake, wrapped in white paper and sealed, a ceremony which takes place before the ‘ lifting of the corpse,’ when each visitor selects his packet and carries it home with him unopened, and in some parts of Yorkshire, a paper bag of biscuits, together with a card bearing the name of the deceased, is sent to the friends.” * In this we clearly trace the custom alluded to, of obtaining prayers in exchange for a material consideration, whilst the more substantial gift of a flagon of ale and a cake given to the officiating minister in the 1 England Howlett, F.S.A., ‘‘ Burial Customs ’’ (Curious Church Customs and Cognate Subjects). Edited by Wm Andrews. FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS 109 church porch (the priests’ lodging was frequently built over the porch in olden days) would be considered as partly in payment for services rendered and probably also for the merit of his special prayers. In the Greek Church (Macedonia) the “ Pappa ” or priest, who conducts the funeral service, receives a present of a dish of corn, cooked in a particular manner with sugar. This delicacy of corn symbolizing resurrection, and sugar the symbol of heavenly bliss, is made and presented to the priest by the women of the house of mourning on the third, eighth and thirtieth days after the death, and again on the first and third anniversaries, in order that the departed soul should be remembered in his prayers. In Norway the guests bring with them an iced cake on the sugary coating of which the initials of the deceased are inscribed. These cakes are carried in painted wooden baskets and presented to the widow or nearest relative, who sits in state at the entrance of the house to receive the offerings. In return the guests are regaled with wine and coffee in token of welcome—a huge feast follows.* The Chinese offer “helps” both of food and clothing, etc., of substantial value, and the same practice is common amongst African tribes. We need go no farther than Ireland in order to see a wake, which still retains the character of what was at one time common in this country. It is particularly reminiscent inasmuch as it has for its purpose the calling together of friends and relations to pray for the soul of the departed. The wake is as of old, the meeting-place where half-forgotten family dissensions are apt to come to light. It is an opportunity for a lavish display of hospitality, often far above available means, in 1 Beatrice Harraden, ‘‘ Katherine Frenshaw.”’ 110 FUNERAL CUSTOMS order that the honour of the family, however tarnished in other respects, may be publicly upheld. The wake appeals to the Irish peasant as an opportunity to indulge in a “good time,” when whisky, snuff and tobacco will be pressed upon the guest, in return for a prayer for the departed; in fact, for the time being, the house of mourning has all the advantages, and none of the disadvantages, of an inn. That drunken riots may take place in such circumstances we may well believe, though as a popular gibe in fiction, perhaps something has been added to the Irish wake by way of picturesque embellishment. Excesses, it might be mentioned, are strongly discountenanced by the Church, whose priests are forbidden to attend a wake where drinking is likely to take place, and as a further measure to restrict abuses, the body is ordered to be buried much sooner than is the case in this country. Whilst in England to-day the formal funeral feast is frequently to be met with in country districts, it has become, generally speaking, an uncertain event, but there yet exists even amongst more enlightened people, an uneasy “ feeling ” that something of the kind is expected of them, and that wine and some sort of light refreshment should be provided on the day of the burial. Let it be said for their assurance that beyond the reasonable necessities of some hungry relation, the funeral feast is one of a series of degraded superstitions which follow in natural sequence after death, and that where it is retained, it is in ignorant fear of committing some milder form of sacrilege. Enough has perhaps been said for us to realize how our funeral repast, ranging from a matter of wine and biscuits to a good square meal, is only a survival of all kinds of pagan practices, FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS | 111 which have no place whatever in modern life— another bogie which we carry along with us, fearing to let it drop lest it should rise up again and mow at us, or that our revengeful dead will rise to haunt us for showing a want of respect to their memory. There are various customs connected with food and the dead, not necessarily in the sense of the feast. In the seventeenth century in Scotland any milk, onions or butter which happened to be in the house at the time of death were thrown away, as it was thought that in some manner the spirit would enter and corrupt them. In Brittany, butter was purposely placed on the table when a person had died from cancer, in the belief that the disease would enter the butter which was afterwards taken outside and_ buried. In Brittany, milk might remain in a room with the dead, but water standing in a jug must be removed, lest the wandering spirit should be drowned in it. The opposite view was taken in other places, when water was purposely left in the death chamber, in order that the spirit might wash and purify itself and thus leave the milk alone—a very important matter at the farm. Water also played a part in the obsequies of the Greeks, who placed a supply in a jug on the grave of an unmarried man, to show that he had not had the nuptial washing—marriage ceremony—as also to indicate that he left no heir. In the funeral procession the jug was carried by a youth.’ On the Continent we may sometimes find a cup-like receptacle on the grave in which holy water is now placed. This is a direct survival of 1 Guichard, ‘f Funérailles.’’ 112 FUNERAL CUSTOMS that used on early graves for the purpose of food offerings being made.’ Let us conclude our consideration of the funeral feast with a story which comes to mind of a country funeral, where the undertaker’s mutes were pressed into service to act as waiters during the inevitable repast. One of the guests, a local magistrate, whose sense of duty had led him to join a rather mixed company, was startled during a pause in the dull conversation—which had been carried on in hushed tones round the table—by the mournful voice of a mute, who whispered in his ear, “ Excuse me, sir, the corpse’s brother takes wine with you.” The procession conducting the body to the grave has always offered a welcomed opportunity for the display of pomp, circumstance and ostentatious grief, so prized by vulgar minds. The average man or woman can claim public attention only at marriage and burial, and on each of these occasions a nonentity becomes the centre of attraction in a ceremonial procession to and from the church. The Roman citizen dearly loved to garnish the funeral cortege with all kinds of theatrical embellishments, and once again we can trace in the custom the old dread of the return of the avengeful spirit, should anything be left undone which might give honour to the susceptibility of the dead. That retribution would follow, as a natural consequence of neglect, was the one certainty recognized by a people whose gods were so numerous and religion so involved that only their priests knew anything about either. Marshalled by the Dismal Trader of the period, 1 Ed. Clodd, ‘‘ The Story of Primitive Man.’’ Pog e vor) f9¢e oot H} 3 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM GRECIAN POTTERY. Fig. 1.—Note method of constructing funeral pyre. hy (Fe Q i) .—Note wailing women, uncoffined body carried on bier. W . are 4 an s : ar ao (net - - ae ‘St ee 4 ed : mA Ja te ve cae j “ y Paes <5 7 t —_ % > is ‘4 x< aap wage) “RO jaa eiies REST a i? ON Ce FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS _ 118 who was appropriately dressed in black, the body was conducted from the house on the third day after death. The corpse had been washed, anointed and dressed in the ceremonial toga and placed without pall or shroud on a bier, around which incense was burning. In the case of a citizen of rank, the servants of the household acted as bearers. Wailing women were in the procession, giving vent to professional emotion, as a foil to the studied calm of the mourners, whilst the mimes followed after, wearing the ancestral marks described elsewhere. The relatives were placed in strict order of pre- cedence, the heir walking immediately behind the bier, his hair dishevelled, the folds of the dark grey or black toga which he wore held before his face in the approved manner of the old tragedian (who learnt the trick from him)—for the rest, there were the musicians, torchbearers and lictors. At some public place the procession would halt for the funeral oration, which was considered as a most important part of the proceedings, and from thence it wended its way outside the city walls to the pyre. The special prominence given to the servants of the household is a relic of the days when they were slaughtered at the graveside. In China they walk in front of the body, and are sacrificed in figure by the burning of paper efhgies. The wax masks used by the Romans remind us of the curious wax figures which are familiar to those who have visited Westminster Abbey, where the “ragged regiment ”—as it is called—forms a feature of much interest to sightseers. These now dilapidated portrait models represented at their funerals—Queen Elizabeth, Charles II, William III and Mary, Queen Anne, John Sheffield, the H 114 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Duke of Buckingham, the Duchess of Richmond, William Pitt, the Earl of Chatham and Lord Nelson. They were either placed on the coffin or carried in the procession, a custom which was introduced towards the end of the fourteenth century in the case of royal or noble persons. The figures were left after the burial to mark the place of interment, till such time as a monument could be erected over the vault. In the Chinese funeral procession a banner is borne before the body inscribed with the name and titles of the deceased, whilst the insignia and arms of those of position are carried on a cushion, a practice common in all countries. In England, in the Middle Ages, the horse and armour of the knight preceded the corpse, the horse afterwards being claimed as a “ mortuary ” due to the church where the funeral mass was celebrated. The armour was either given to the next-of-kin or placed over the tomb, as in the case of Edward, the Black Prince, whose surcoat, shield and helmet, which were carried in the funeral procession, according to the instructions in his will, repose in his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral. The sword, helmet and baton in the case of a Field-Marshal, are to-day placed on the coffin of the warrior, whilst his orders and medals are carried, as a rule, on a cushion in the procession. Even in modern Italy we still find traces of medieval processions, such as Lady Dorothy Nevill describes as having seen in Verona, which recalls something of the old Roman pageantry. Passing through the streets one day she met the coffn of a poor man’s child being carried to the church; it was attended by a number of little boys bearing torches—a remnant of the days when FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS = 115 burials took place at night, and retained, as we have seen, by reason of the flickering torch being an accepted symbol of the uncertainties of life. Following this humble procession was the funeral of a child of wealthy parents, the deep notes of the bassoon accompanying the singing of a hymn. The body was followed by a long train of white- robed priests and their assistants, and the usual complement of torchbearers and mourners; by the side of the bier “four little boys were walking, wearing helmets decked with gaudy plumes, and each had a pair of immense wings flapping at his back.” * In this we see the old idea expressed of the angels taking charge of the little soul to conduct it into the spirit world, as the ancestors, represented by the masked mimes, were supposed to materialize for the same purpose. “The coffin was covered by a rich pall of green and gold, and upon it were wreaths of artificial flowers.” Originally the pall was the pallium or cloak with which the corpse was covered on its way to burial. When the use of coffins became general the pall ceased to be necessary for the original purpose, and it was then used for draping the cofin. This was probably an excuse to retain the services of the pall-bearer, for pall-bearing had come to be looked upon as a duty of honour and a mark of rank and esteem. In earlier times the pall, and sometimes the bier, was carried by those of the same rank as the deceased; as at Wellington’s funeral, when the pall was borne by officers who had shared the hardships of many campaigns by his side. In the case of a man who was of no particular estate, if married the bearers would be his married friends, 1 Lady Dorothy Nevill, ‘‘ My Own Times,”’ 116 FUNERAL CUSTOMS or if single his bachelor friends performed the task; nor was the matter always left to any chance arrangement, for a dying person frequently decided who should officiate at his funeral—who should carry his bier, pall and torches. In the case of Royalty the pall is generally supported by princes or the nobility. In Scotland the pall was called a “ mort-cloth,” and in the year 1598 it was decreed at the Kirk Session of Glasgow, that a “black cloth was to be laid on the corpse of the poor,” a custom continued for two hundred years after, the “ mort-cloth ” being taken to the house where the body awaited burial and laid over it. The general assembly of Scotland decreed in the year 1563 “that a bier should be made in every country parish to carry the dead corpse of the poor to the burial place, and that those of the villages or houses next adjacent to the house where the dead corpse lieth, or a certain number out of every house shall convey the dead corpse to the burial place and bury it six feet under the earth.” * In country funerals, it is customary for the tenants or servants to undertake the office of bearers, as a mark of special esteem. The bier or “bear” was originally a very simple affair, of the nature of a stretcher, on which the uncoffined body was carried to the grave; at a later period it bore the coffin also. To-day, the bier is seldom used, something much more ornate being considered necessary to the dignity of the proceedings. The origin of a word is often helpful in tracing the origin of a custom, so we shall find that “ herse” is a French word signifying a harrow. The form of the French harrow was triangular—an iron ¢ 1Wm. Andrews, ‘Bygone Church Life in Scotland.”’ FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS | 117 framework to which the spikes were attached. The hearse of the fifteenth century was a simple iron stand on the lines of the French harrow, with the spikes or prickets adapted as candle holders (the original candle-stick was a spiked stick, on which the candle was impaled). A contrivance of this sort was used, partly as a means of obtaining a considerable light, and partly for ceremonial purposes, particularly at funerals. In course of time, the funeral hearse became a very magnificent affair, and a great deal of fine craftsmanship was expended on its construction, It was sometimes made of brass and a blaze of wax candles flickered on the prickets. From each extremity of the triangle, supports were raised, meeting at the top, thus forming a framework, over which black cloth was draped. Fringes and various Ornaments were added, and often wax images and garlands served as further decoration, whilst verses and glowing epitaphs were pinned to the material by the mourners. Starkie Gardner describes the hearse-light at Osnabriick as a structure seven feet high, its massive tripod foot and moulded stem supports two spandrel-shaped brackets, fitted with tracery. On two sides of the triangle is a step-like arrangement of scrolls and spikes for fifteen candles, and on the foot are rings by which it can be moved. The hearse-light was planned to carry very large quantities of tapers to enhance the grandeur of great religious ceremonials, when the number of lights were so vast as to be compared with the stars descended from the firmament.’ Eventually the funeral hearse was made in such a form as to permit of the coffin being placed on the summit. 1 J. Starkie Gardner, F.S.A., ‘‘ Ironwork from Earliest Times to the End of the Medizval Period.’’ 118 FUNERAL CUSTOMS In the case of the burial of a person of quality, it also carried the arms or hatchment of the deceased ; the whole structure was surrounded by a rail. After interment the hearse remained for a considerable time in the choir of the church, votive candles being burned in memory of the dead, and it became in this form a cenotaph or memorial to one buried elsewhere. The modern catafalque on which the coffin reposes during the service in the church was originally a temporary erection over the tomb, and was not intended to take the place of the hearse proper, as it does now. In Roman Catholic churches to-day a metal framework is commonly found, often of a triangular form, on which votive candles are lighted, and this is a remnant of the earlier structure described; it is still called a hearse. As has been stated, the hearse was by no means a funeral property only. The term was originally used to describe any kind of barbed grille or protection, such, for instance, as the portcullis—a strong framing of timber, vesembling a harrow, which was suspended above the gateway of the medizval castle, to bar the entrance in case of a surprise attack. In this sense the word here is still used in heraldry. As a screen of highly ornamental ironwork with a formidable row of spikes or prickets, it surmounted the tombs of the great in the Middle Ages, and on the anniversary of the death would be ablaze with candles. One of the finest examples is the Eleanor grille or hearse in Westminster Abbey, which was made in the year 1294. Cases are on record of these hearses being removed from the tomb over which they were originally erected, and resold at a considerable profit to furnish later requirements. FEASTS AND PROCKSSIONS _ 119 A pall or hanging of rich tapestry was used to deck the tomb on anniversary and feast days, of which the altar frontal, commonly used at festivals in Protestant and Catholic churches, is a survival, for it should be remembered that Mass was originally said at the tomb, which thus became the altar. Dr. Gasquet quotes the following from the will of Thomas Wood of Hull, draper, sheriff and mayor, who bequeathed to Trinity Church at his death, “one of my best beds of arrys work, upon condition that after my decease I will that the said bed shall yearly cover my grave at my ‘dirge’ and masse.” * When the public health became a matter of serious inquiry and new burial grounds were laid out at some distance from the more thickly populated districts, the old method of carrying the body, “chested” or otherwise on a hand bier, became much more difficult, and some sort of horse-drawn vehicle was found to be necessary. In country places a farm wagon was used for the purpose, draped in some simple manner, in order to add dignity to the procession. In the rural villages of Brittany, a pretty custom once prevailed. The body was carried to the grave on a wagon, used in the ordinary way fomcatry, corm. or farm», produce:~) Tiedy tothe uprights supporting the sides of the vehicle, branches cut from the willow tree (symbolizing resurrection) were bent into arches over the body, thus making a framework across which a white sheet was placed, forming a canopy. The wagon was drawn by a team of oxen and the priest followed the cortége on horseback.’ In like manner the body of the poet-craftsman, 1 Dr. Gasquet, ‘’ Parish Life in Medizval England.’’ 2 De Braz, ‘‘ La Légende de la Mort.”’ 120 FUNERAL CUSTOMS William Morris, was carried from Kelmscott one autumn day in 1896 to burial. The farm wagon, which bore the unpolished coffin, resplendent with red wheels and yellow body, was drawn by a sleek roan mare, led by a Kelmscott carter. Wreathed by vines and strewn with the traditional willow boughs, this “ hearse ” must have been a shock to many narrow minds, and the despair of the local undertaker." In the “ good old days ” when the roads (where roads existed) were so bad as to be almost impassable for the greater part of the year, four, or more generally six.horses were found necessary to draw the wagon on which the body would be placed, in conveying it to more or less remote places for interment. As, for instance, when a country gentleman called on business, or for reasons of state, to the capital, may have died there, his relatives insisting—as was customary in such circumstances—that his body should be removed for burial to the ancestral vault in his own parish. Collier, describing travelling in England in the time of the Stuarts, says, “ the roads were so bad, that travelling was very difficult. In bad weather, there was generally only a slight ridge in the centre of the road between two channels of deep mud. Instead of sloping gradually, the roads went right up and down the hills—rich men travelled in their own coaches, but they were obliged to have six horses to pull them through the mud.” * Conditions were so bad, that the experience described by the poet Gay was by no means uncommon. 1«« The Life of William Morris.”’ 2 Collier’s ‘* British Empire.’’ FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS 121 ‘‘ In the wide gulf the shattered coach o’erthrown, Sinks with the snorting steeds; the reins are broke And from the crackling axle flies the spoke.”’ In the seventeenth century when the King went to Parliament, faggots were thrown into the ruts in the streets, so that it was possible for the State coach to drive over the uneven surface. Evelyn gives an account of such a journey. “I caused her corpse to be embalmed, wrapped in lead and a brass plate soldered on, with an inscription and other circumstances due to her worth.” The body was thus taken to Cornwall. “She was accordingly carried to Godolphin in Cornwall in a hearse with six horses, attended by two coaches of as many, with about thirty of her relations and servants. The corpse was ordered to be taken out of the hearse every night and decently placed in the house, with tapers about it, and her servants attending to Cornwall.” * We are hardly surprised to learn that the funeral of this lady cost not much less than £1,000. Evelyn also tells us that he “went to Mr. Cowley’s funeral, where the corpse lay at Wallingford House, and was thence conveyed to Westminster Abbey, in a hearse with six horses, and all funeral decency, near a hundred coaches of noblemen and persons of quality following, etc.” The roads of Sussex were notoriously bad, and in winter often impassable. It was no uncommon thing for provision to be made in a will, by a clause, that the body was to be buried at a certain place “if the state of the roads permitted,” otherwise at a more convenient place, the selection of which would be left to the discretion of the executors. 1 Evelyn’s Diary. 2 [oid 122 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Costly as the conveyance of the dead by road must have been, in the old days the funeral procession was allowed certain privileges which the ordinary travellers could not claim. The “toll,” for instance, frequently demanded on the road, was not allowed to be imposed on _ the mourners, and on a long journey, this was a concession of some importance. On the other hand, the clerk and sexton of a parish through which the cortége passed were wont to demand a fee, which they would otherwise have earned, had the corpse been buried there, instead of passing on to some more distant burial ground; this imposition, it may be added, was wholly illegal, though no doubt in an age when the majority of people were quite illiterate, they would easily be frightened into paying a ,demand, apparently backed by the authority of the Church, for the clerk was a comparatively important person. In Scotland he was even allowed to conduct the burial service. Yet another illegal practice was “arresting ” the corpse of a debtor and withholding it from proper burial, till the debt was satisfied. Some extraordinary notions exist to-day in parts of Yorkshire concerning the legal rights of mourners in carrying a body to burial, and it is still believed that no trespass is committed, in passing through a private estate, if in so doing they are taking the coffin by the most direct route to the burial place appointed. Very possibly such a practice existed long enough to constitute a “ right ” as a relic of the days when the roads were impassable. The practice must have presented serious difficulties to the landowner, for it was also the belief that if once a funeral procession was allowed to make use of a private road, it was for ever after open for the general use of the public. FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS _ 1238 Howlett, writing on the matter, tells us that it was a eaag for the undertakers to stick pins in each gate as the corpse was carried through, as payment of a toll to the landowner, thus preserving his rights.’ As it has already been stated, the ancient Roman law allowed no one who might purchase land to exclude from it access to such burial places as it might contain. In the Hebrides the peasants prevented by force any attempts to close the short cuts from the burial grounds to the sea, which the dead were supposed to use when they went to bathe. In Brittany in the old days, rough tracks were made from the outlying farms to the villages, so that the people might go on Sunday to the church or to visit their dead in the graveyard. In the course of time, proper roads were constructed, and the old tracks were only used for funeral processions. It was indeed considered sacrilege to conduct the dead by any other way than that by which their ancestors had gone before them. Unhappy the landlord who attempted to prevent a funeral passing by the sacred route. Many other curious beliefs have existed at one time or another affecting the conveyance of the body to the grave. It was considered a very dangerous thing to take the corpse twice across a bridge from the house where the death had taken place—to the church and back again to the burial place, for instance. If this rule should be transgressed, it was thought that the bridge would break, so in order to avoid such a catastrophe, chapels were frequently built on the bridge itself. The origin of this superstition is not very clear, 1 England Howlett, F.S.A., ‘‘ Burial Customs’’ (Curious Church Customs and Cognate Subjects). Edited by Wm. Andrews. 124 FUNERAL CUSTOMS though the crossing of water has been held as a prevention against the return of the wandering spirit. - Qne is also reminded of the fact that when troops are crossing a bridge the order is given to “break step” to obviate a supposed danger to the structure, caused by the rhythm of their tread; the band ceases to play to discourage a unison of movement. So also in the case of the funeral procession (often followed by a multitude of people) custom forbade singing or the playing of musical instruments whilst on the bridge. “Bumping” the coffin is another remarkable practice, considered to be necessary at the pedestal of every wayside cross passed on the journey, and also on the walls of the church, when the corpse was removed after the funeral service. This ceremony was performed by the bearers, anticipat- ing the desire of the departed to bid a farewell in this inarticulate manner, and also to serve as a reminder to Saint Peter to open the gates of Heaven in order to receive the soul of the deceased. In Ireland, should the cortege pass a church on its way to the cemetery, it was thought necessary for the “ socraid ” to proceed three times round the building with their burden before continuing its way to the grave. Traditional usages are worth conserving only in so far as they are beautiful from an artistic standpoint, or of value as symbols of some greater truth to which we subscribe. Consideration of these old customs will enable us to see in our modern funeral procession only a number of dilapidated survivals—and much that is reminiscent of the travelling circus. The modern hearse retains in a meaningless and degraded form certain features of the earlier FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS — 125 shrine for burning “votive candles ”—for it was little else in its original purpose. The roof still exhibits something of the canopy form—fringes and trimmings are much in evidence, whilst a cresting of cast iron spikes or prickets on the roof and a rail running on either side of the coffin are quite unmistakable in their origin. The elaborate funeral car which bore the body of the Duke of Wellington to Saint Paul’s is a good example of the transitional stage between the hearse erected in the church and the sort of travelling shop window to display the handiwork of the undertaker, which we meet in the streets to-day. The addition of glass sides, often embossed with crude floral patterns (the passion flower predominating) in the manner of the public house door, is a further modern vulgarity. According to what you are prepared, or can be induced, to spend, so you will get more or less of the “ Dismal Trader’s ” sable horrors, plumes, palls, pinkings and furnishings, with anything from two to six of his flat flanked Belgian apologies for horse flesh, whose crimpy manes and swaying tails are so dear to his ghoul-like heart. The origin of the over-horsed vehicle we have traced to a necessity when travelling was difficult, having become an excuse for mere stupid display. With many painful memories of traffic held up for a funeral procession crawling along a crowded street at ceremonial pace, we are reminded that the traditional rate of progress is dictated by the one- time invariable practice of heading the procession by a cross-bearer; the pace was thus restricted by his stride, and that of the bearers who carried the bier. On the other hand, it is rather a vigorous swing of the pendulum to hear of a (motor) hearse travelling at the rate of thirty-three miles an hour 126 FUNERAL CUSTOMS —for which offence a Glasgow undertaker was fined the sum of £3. For the defence it was urged that being delayed in Glasgow he feared that the cemetery would not be reached before the gates were closed. Of course the motor hearse was bound to come; it is now more frequently to be seen, but is mostly used for long distance journeys. Too deep-rooted is the love of the old “ Charon- of-the-road” for his nightmare paraphernalia to readily adjust his mind to anything so obvious and decent. The first motor hearse the writer met with, some twenty years ago, was (symbolically enough) standing outside a public-house in a northern country town. There, sure enough, as might be expected, was modern mechanism tricked up with the traditional emblems dragged forward in a debased form, into yet another century. Let it be said here and now, that justice may be done, that conveyances, some more or less, and others entirely freed from the shackles of conven- tion, are occasionally to be met with in the streets to-day. Well designed on a consideration of first principles of fitness and utility, there is an increasing demand for the motor carriage as a conveyance for the dead—that it is profitable to the “ live” undertaker goes without saying. The stuffy funeral “ coach,” in whose grief-laden atmosphere we are still invited to ride, dates back with little alteration in design to the days when the family coach was requisitioned for the purpose. In the days of the Stuarts black coaches were used, not only on the occasion of the funeral but for a year or more after death. It was considered impossible to travel in any other vehicle, FEASTS AND PROCESSIONS — 127 Many of our customs of “Court mourning ” dated from this period, when even riding saddles were covered with black cloth. The conservative mind still continues the practice of clothing liveried servants in mourning and placing black rosettes on the horses’ bridles. To send a coach for the funeral procession was a recognized mark of respect in the days when there was nothing between the stage coach and the private conveyance. Thus it became a test as to the number and quality of your friends if the cortege contained few or many such vehicles. The hired mourners’ coach, so prominent a feature in the undertaker’s outfit, is still considered in some orders of society as indicative of the social position of the bereaved family, whilst in country places the doctor’s carriage (with or without the doctor) is lent by custom in order to swell the procession. Describing the burial of his daughter, Evelyn, that sturdy old champion of the funeral “ decencies,”’ writes: “ She was interred in the vault, east end of the church at Deptford.” “ Divers noble persons honoured her funeral in person, others sending their coaches, of which there were six or seven with six horses.” * The velvet trappings of the funeral horse are similar to, and doubtless derived from the equip- ment of the pageant horse in the days of chivalry. The saddle cloth bears the crest or monogram of a personage of importance, as that of the officer’s charger is embroidered with the regimental crest. Even horse cloths and carriage rugs are decorated in this manner. The subject of the hearse must not be left without some mention of the funeral plumes. In } Evelyn’s Diary. 128 FUNERAL CUSTOMS those districts where this “luxury” can least be afforded, and where its appearance is, if only for this reason, the more incongruous, the sable plumes of death are sometimes seen. The roof of the hearse is covered with a forest of these forbidding ornaments and a sort of sweep’s brush nods from the horses’ heads—white in the case of the burial of a child. Thus do the uninformed love to do honour to their dead. As a symbol of estate the use of plumes is a very old one, whether carried in the helm of the knight, or on the dainty head of the débutante. Its use at obsequies is intended to denote the rank and social position of the deceased. On the plea that the use of plumes on horses’ heads caused “unnecessary suffering” to the animals, the British Undertakers’ Association urged “the trade” to discontinue the practice as from January rst, 1914. This decision was arrived at after “protracted inquiries,” surely a hopeful sign of “salvation coming from within.” We earnestly recommend that further “ protracted inquiries” into other funeral customs should be made by the same august body assembled. Yet another matter we may note before leaving the funeral procession is the ceremonial staff or “baton ” used by the Roman Master of Ceremonies, and still carried by the undertaker. It is in the nature of the Field-Marshal’s baton, which was originally a box, in which his authority was sealed. Wands are sometimes carried, as borne in royal processions by the dignitary known as “White Wand” who still breaks his symbol of office over the grave of the departed sovereign, to signify that his duty of attendance on his royal master is ended by death. THE’ DISMAL TRADE” "IN COUNCIL: (from an old print). , Sign of the now extinct ‘““ Company of Undertakers.’ AN EARLY FORM OF THE MODERN HEARSE. CEUA Deleon Vala EARLY BURIAL-PLACES THE earth is one vast burial ground. Even the chalk deposits favoured by the early cave dwellers are composed of countless millions of primitive forms of life deposited in the dark morning of creation. [hese caves made by the natural course of water percolating through the cracks and crannies, provided shelter for the living and a sepulture for the dead. Here flint was found in abundance, from which rude tools were shaped. A number of such caves are known to exist— some of which are even inhabited to-day. The excellent state of preservation in which so many of the remains are found, is due not only to the fact that subterranean work generally is less liable to disturbance than surface work, but the even temperature is also a great factor in the preservation of deposits. Baring-Gould describes a custom at once practical and ingenious, which was adopted by the ancient Gauls and Britons for the disposal of refuse of various kinds. | Bottle-shaped shafts were cut in the chalk and everything that was not required was shot down the aperture, till the receptacle was full, when a tree was planted on the top, and another hole opened up in like manner. These shafts were used as common graves for slaves, and are found 129 I 130 FUNERAL CUSTOMS in France and also in the chalk downs of England. Several such pits were discovered in Nottingham —one containing a rusty slave-chain.* Little wonder that we find in the caves and catacombs an endless field for the investigation of burial customs, for not only do they contain remnants of the period at which they were first occupied, but of successive periods and peoples. When one of these primitive homes ceased to be used by the living, it was at once appropriated for the dead. The old fear of ghosts caused the living to seek shelter elsewhere: to this day Kaffirs burn down the hut in which a death has taken place. The alternative was to find some new abode for the corpse, and so reserve the caves for a more useful purpose. This led to the construction of the Dolmen (Dol=a table, men=a stone, Celtic) which gives an adequate idea of the forms adopted—a rude imitation of the cave which had been deserted, built up of cairns or heaps of stones. Later, earth burial became general, and the barrows or cumuli were commonly used. These were placed conveniently near to the villages or settlements, but sufficiently remote to avoid a dreaded proximity to the dead. Thus we trace both the origin of the tomb and the cemetery. From the earliest times the barrow was regarded as sacred ground, and near it the pagan temple was erected. When we look at our country churches, surrounded by rows of grass-covered mounds, we see a type of the olden practice very little altered, indeed, for the Christian Church was often built on the actual foundations of the pagan 1S. Baring-Gould, ‘ Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings of Europe.’’ EARLY BURIAL-PLACES 131 temple standing guardian over the dead. The present custom of piling turf over the grave, though it may have some reason in allowing the disturbed ground to “ settle,’ owes quite as much to the barrow formation. The earliest burying grounds may be recognized by an irregular formation of grass-covered mounds, but must be distinguished from somewhat similar earthworks, which are of military origin. Johnson mentions the well-known tumulus at Taplow in Buckinghamshire. The remains of a church were cleared away in 1833, when it was found in removing the masonry that its foundation passed through an ancient ditch, for it had been erected at the eastern end of an enclosed barrow. Further, it occupied high ground known as “ bury fields.” Fragments of pottery, British, Roman and Saxon, and well worked flints, had been collected near or from the graveyards. It was evident that the tumulus had been intentionally enclosed when the boundary of the churchyard was first fixed. The same writer mentions the graveyard of a very early church at St. John’s Point, Co. Down, Ireland, where numerous pagan graves were dis- covered, arranged in a semi-circle, within which was another ring of smaller graves, the common centre being marked by a stone pillar. This admirable arrangement modern cemeteries might do well to copy. By arrangement with the owner of some property at Aston Upthorpe, members of the Reading University College recently made excava- tions and discovered Saxon interments in close connection with signs of the Roman occupation. Here they unearthed seventy-two coins, a bronze 1 Walter Johnson, F.G.S., ‘‘ Byways in British Archeology.” 132 FUNERAL CUSTOMS signet ring, an iron dagger and some spear-heads, together with numerous fragments of bronze and iron of uncertain era. There were also found several pieces of plain and decorated Samian ware, and coarse pottery. But the most important find was an undisturbed Saxon interment. The skeleton lay on its back, with its head to the south; on the right of the remains lay fragments of a bronze bowl and a bone comb. In a leather covered wooden case an iron sword, three feet and one inch in length, lay on the breast with the point towards the feet. A little above the head was an iron ring. A tinned-bronze stud was found beneath the left knee, which had probably decorated the shaft of the sword. There were also a pair of iron shears, and the remains of an iron buckle.’ Very many such finds could be mentioned which are interesting as intimately connected with the study of the early practice of interments, but fascinating as they are, they lead too far from our subject, forming a separate study, on which a great deal has been written. Much also has been written about the greatest of all earth’s burial-places—the Pyramids of Egypt, in which the Pharaohs were laid. Yet no sketch, however slight, on the subject of funeral practices would be complete without a glance at these stupendous monuments of the dead. They still hold secrets which have foiled the patient and exhaustive labours of many archeologists of various nationalities who have sought to unravel their mysteries. Three large pyramids were constructed by the Egyptian kings of the Fourth Dynasty for the preservation of their royal remains. The great Pyramid of Cheops which took 1 Reading University College Review, 1913. EARLY BURIAL-PLACES 133 twenty years to complete was the work of many thousand slaves, who toiled ceaselessly on its construction. It is supposed that the stones of which it is composed were dragged from the Nile to the site on a track prepared for the purpose, and that they were placed in position by means of inclined planes of sand. Donnelly gives the measurements of the great Pyramid as 450 ft. in height and 746 ft. square. Some idea of its magnitude can be gathered from the fact that it covers between 13 and 14 acres of ground. Most careful measurements have been taken of the passages and chambers in the interior, the proportions of which are held to have a symbolic significance. A passage 49 ft. long and 11 ft. high leads to the sepulchre chamber. It is connected with other ways leading to various parts of the Pyramid. It is supposed that the Pyramids in their original state were covered by slabs of a smooth shining white cement, and the apex probably gilded. The Pyramids stand with their sides to the cardinal points, and are considered by the ancients as marking the centre of the earth. Believing that the soul remains in the mummified body, early Egyptians took elaborate precautions to ensure the preservation of the remains of the dead, and the Pyramids were built to protect the kings from the much dreaded despoliation of the tomb. Several less important Pyramids near the ancient city of Memphis contained the bodies of other important Egyptians of rank. Here also the priests made sacrifices and held various rites in the interests of the dead. Donnelly says, “ There can be no doubt that 134. FUNERAL CUSTOMS the Pyramid was a developed and perfected mound, and that the present form of their common structure is to be found in Silsbury Hill (Avebury), and in the mounds of earth of Central America and the Mississippi Valley.” The Silsbury Hill referred to is an artificial mound 170 ft. high, connected with ramparts, avenues, circular ditches and stone circles almost identical with those found in the Mississippi.’ In the early days of Christianity when persecu- tion was the lot of those who embraced the new faith, the Roman catacombs were used by the Christian community for the purposes of sanctuary and burial, for they well knew that the superstitious dread which the Romans had in common with the Jews for places of burial, rendered the laby- rinths comparatively secure, where they might even meet to worship with a minimum risk of disaster. That this was not always a safe harbour of refuge we know by the number of Christians who were actually martyred in the catacombs them- selves. Here in these underground vaults they buried their dead during the first four centuries of the Christian era. It must not be supposed that this form of sepulture was used by the Christians only. The Jews who shared the Oriental custom of interment in subterranean chambers instead of earth burial, also used the catacombs. The Jewish tombs are easily discovered by the symbols of the old dispensation, the Ark and the branched candlestick with which they are marked. The tombs of the Martyrs were the first altars upon which the Christians solemnized the rites of 1Tgnatius Donnelly, ‘‘ The Antediluvian World.”’ EARLY BURIAL-PLACES 135 their faith. So it was that when the bodies of those who had been put to death were removed from the impending plundering of the Saracens and Lombards in the eighth and ninth centuries, their relics were placed within the walls of the city (a privilege previously forbidden by Roman law), and churches were built over them. In this manner the tomb became the temple. The practice of placing several altars in a Christian church, which some have supposed a pagan survival of the “Many altars to many Deities,” is in reality a continuance of the primitive custom of celebrating Mass on the actual tombs of the Apostles and Martyrs. When with the growth of the Faith, churches became scattered all over the world, the “sepul- chrum” was adopted—a receptacle cut into the altar stone in which relics of the martyrs were deposited—a practice still continued in Roman Catholic churches throughout the world. The more wealthy Christians held title to certain plots of land for burial purposes, which later they shared with those of their faith. Thus, till such time as the Church could establish her claim to consideration, the common burial-places were extensions of these private properties. These burial grounds were much like our own, they were surrounded by hedges or stone walls, cypress trees were planted and memorial chapels or sarcophagi were built on the spot. The dead were from quite early periods interred in graves dug from the surface of the ground, and as many as ten bodies laid one above the other, each separated only from the next by a slab of stone.* Such a method would not be tolerated by the Jews who 1Chas. N. Read, ‘‘ Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities.”’ 136 FUNERAL CUSTOMS are forbidden to place one body above another, either on shelves, in the sepulchre, or in the ground. From this period the catacombs were guarded and preserved, and many of the mural paintings were executed, which are still in a wonderful state of preservation, and throw some valuable light upon many of the rites and ceremonies of the early Christians. Frothingham says, “A considerable amount of the subterranean art was produced, the cata- combs still being used for the burial of the dead as well as the veneration of the relics of the martyrs.” The fourth century brought forth the public use of Christian art during an age of mutual toleration under Constantine. In order to give some idea of the length and many ramifications of the catacombs, he adds that “if they were continued in a line, it is computed that they would stretch the entire length of the Italian Peninsula, but they do not extend farther than the third milestone from the city of Rome. In these labyrinths the graves are placed one above the other like bunks in a cabin, and in each reposed one or more bodies. Here and there the sequence is broken by a cross passage that leads to a small chamber, the sides of which are per- forated with graves. These were originally closed by slabs of marble or tiles.” He continues: “This is about the only distinction between the graves of the rich and those of the poor, of the slave from his master. Those who desired to dis- tinguish it from those around, either had the name engraved upon the slab or rudely scratched with the sharp end of a trowel in the mortar by which the slab was secured, or else a bit of ornamental EARLY BURIAL-PLACES 137 glass or a ring or coin was impressed in the mortar whilst it was still wet.” ? It is not generally realized that a great number of catacombs exist other than those of Rome. Burials in catacombs took place generally where disused quarries or excavations presented the Opportunity, or where the soil was of a nature to render mining easy. Those of Paris are of considerable interest. They were formerly quarries which largely under- mined the city. As the capital extended its boundaries many of the once outlying cemeteries were surrounded, and in such cases the bodies they contained were exhumed and reburied in the catacombs, which it is estimated contain the remains of at least three million people. In the year 1784 the old burial-place of the “Innocents” was cleared by order of the Council of State, and the quarries which undermined the city and from which much of the early building material had been obtained, were cleared to receive the bones disturbed fram the city cemeteries. A shaft was sunk in the neighbourhood of a house known as “La Tombe Issiore” from a famous robber, who with a dangerous gang once infested the district. The cavities were propped up and enlarged and recesses provided to receive the remains of the dead. These catacombs were consecrated by the Archbishop of Paris in 1786. The work of trans- ferring the bones was done at night. They were reverently removed in funeral cars covered with a pall, and followed by priests chanting the service of the dead. In contrast with this respectful treatment it is 1A. L. Frothingham, ‘‘ The Monuments of Christian Rome.’’ 138 FUNERAL CUSTOMS somewhat amusing to learn that at the end of their journey the bones were shot unceremoniously down the shaft into the depths below. The old tombstones were arranged in some sort of order in an adjoining field. During these removals, the lead coffin con- taining the remains of the notorious Madame Pompadour was brought to light, but it was destroyed three years later during the Revolution of 1789. The catacombs of Paris contain the bodies of those who perished in the various revolutions and massacres, for which the “Gay City” has been notorious. A certain Monsieur Hericast de Thury, an architect, arranged the relics in a systematic way. He also provided proper access to the catacombs by means of steps, and further helped matters by drawing off the considerable volume of water that had accumulated there. In the spirit of the Grotto the skulls and larger bones were set out in geometrical and patterned effect. Chapels were later arranged in memory of those who had fallen victims in the various social upheavals, which received such names as “ Tom- beaux des Victime,” “ Tombeau de la Revolu- tion,” etc. F RNNOSXXV. inner Vina (Reproduced by kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum). Locult (HORIZONTAL RECTANGULAR NICHES) IN THE ROMAN CATACOMBS, VAULT IN CATACOMBS OF ROME. (decorated by a craftsman in human remains), ae 4 ' “4 °« J > | : A a Wis | ‘ibe Ne ' ws 4 s I. ae i 7 nd i a 4 ily y. . bd Ul 464 4 17 Oa i.” Nay ; bones, Gn a ‘ a 2 Syit Fae } is hat 4) ' ; wer a Lt Pe. iy el s ht We Ty. ‘ a! 4 fe en A = i "4 Wirt * Stan ae , y ts @i ‘ " : Nerd Pole cei ye “4 oe had 4 . 7 ’ ; 1 4 ‘er j ware 2 ; ' ry \ e : 14 ' ; é ¢* & > ‘ > if 4 , 74 ' : = ~ ‘ "4 it 4 No 4 f é : F . y i ve 5 ' | ; a | ae me the My | i : r i s = 7 * 3 q 1 ed) 7 ae! _ a, A 4 bs i / iy. ; 7 ual ‘ = - a i ‘ { H oP Pie i S af . La iF ae } - ’ Lae ‘Ar -_ =* ; i , v j 2 =} = ’ ru 5 an ee 7) ion ©. Gripe br RW VITT CHURCHYARDS, CEMETERIES, ORIENTATION AND OTHER BURIAL CUSTOMS WE have already seen that the pagan burial-places were considered as something sacred and set apart, and how the early Christians inherited the guardian- ship of the dead, and erected their first places of worship on the actual site of the pagan temple. In course of time the substantial buildings we know as parish churches took the place of the poor edifices of wattle and mud. Cemeteries and churchyards were under the immediate control of the Church, and the clergy were largely dependent upon the fees charged for interment, in return for which they exercised a general control, and took the responsibility of seeing that burials were conducted with reverence and decency, and that the bodies left in their charge remained inviolate. More than this, it was their duty to satisfy themselves that the body brought for burial was not the victim of foul play, no light responsibility in days when the guilt of blood was deemed of small consequence. Even to-day, when civil law assumes all responsibilities, the Church has at least a nominal authority over our dead, for she it is who receives the body at the entrance to the burial-place, demanding an assurance that the cause of death has been investigated before conducting the remains to the grave prepared for its reception and safe- keeping till the day of Resurrection. 139 140 FUNERAL CUSTOMS If we consider the vicissitudes through which the ages have passed, the ferce contentions for every yard of land, waves of unbelief, rebellion, wars and factions, we must admit that on the whole she has remained faithful to her charge. In this she has undoubtedly been aided by the superstitious fear of disturbing the dead, which, in lawless times has made even the most callous hesitate to take liberties with the burial-places for fear of incurring the wrath of supernatural powers, not the least terrible because they were undefined. In reopened pagan barrows the early Christians buried their dead, and we shall understand this practice better if we realize that the Christian was not necessarily an importation, but for the most part a pagan, converted to a new teaching, largely because it amplified his spiritual aspirations—such as they were—and in no instance more so than in the special reverence for the dead. It would be very natural then, that the pagan should wish to be buried with his forefathers, and especially so, since he had accepted the primary Christian doctrine of a general Resurrection. It was not till the ninth century that the consecration of cemeteries became customary. In ancient times, burial always took place in the fields outside the walls of the cities and towns, for before the advent of Christianity, it was not lawful to bury the dead within the city. In the year 752, Saint Cuthbert obtained leave of the Pope to have churchyards added to the church, as places suitable for the burial of the dead. Consecration necessitated a definite boundary being fixed for the enclosure of the graves, and we find many instances where it was insisted that consecrated ground should be isolated by walls or BURIAL CUSTOMS 141 other means, and that special care should be taken that the ground so enclosed should not become neglected. At the consecration of a burial ground, the bishop walks in solemn procession round _ its boundaries, expelling by special prayers, all evil influences which might disturb the dead. Even in times of national crisis, such as the plague, this was carried out in the case where new ground was required for the burial of the dead. It is interesting to note what the modern “ psychic.” has to say on this ancient practice. “To the bishop also is restricted the power of consecrating a church or a churchyard, and the occult side of this is a really pretty sight. It is very interesting to watch the growth of the sort of fortification which the officiant builds up as he marches round, uttering the prescribed prayers and verses to note the expulsion of any ordinary thought forms which may happen to have been there, and the substitution for them, of the ordinary and devotional forms.” * In the year 1267, Bishop Quevil ordered that all cemeteries in his diocese should be securely enclosed, and that no animal should be allowed to graze on the grass which grew there. Even the clergy were warned of the impropriety of allowing their cattle to graze “in the holy places, which both civil and canon law ordered to be respected,” for this reason the Bishop continues, “ All churches and cemeteries must be guarded from all defilement, both because they are holy (in themselves), and because they are made holy by the relics of the Saints ane In 1348, Bishop Edyndon wrote “that the 1C,. W. Leadbeater, The Theosophist, June, 1911. 2 Dr. Gasquet, ‘‘ Parish Life in Medieval England.”’ 142 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Catholic Church believes in the resurrection of the body of the dead. Sanctified by the reception of the Sacraments, it is consequently not buried in pagan places, but in specially consecrated cemeteries, or in churches, where with due reverence they are kept like the relics of the Saints, till the day of resurrection.” The custom of churchyard burial seems to have been suggested by the practice of the monastic orders, who desired to have the bodies of those of their community as near to them as possible, for they were considered in an exceptional sense, as very closely united to. the living of their order. Once started, it very quickly spread. The most honoured of the flock received the special privilege of sepulture in the immediate proximity of the church, but this, like most concessions, presently became a general rule. It was a nice question as to where to draw the line between those who were worthy, and the lesser kind. This wider tolerance had its sequel, for the saints were in course of time so elbowed by the sinners, that they sought seclusion in the sacred edifice itself. The pressure must have been great, for it was entirely against the spirit of the Early Church to enshrine a body under its roof unless that of a saint or martyr, for the corpse was considered as an unclean thing. Even as late as 1682, the practice gave offence to the orthodox mind. Evelyn writing in that year of the death of his father-in-law says, “ By a special clause in his will, he ordered that his body should be buried in the churchyard under the south-east window of the chancel adjoining to the burying places of his ancestors, since they came out of Essex into Sayes Court, he being much offended by the novel custom of burying everyone within the body of the church BURIAL CUSTOMS 148 and chancel, that being a favour heretofore granted to the martyrs and great persons, this excess of making churches charnel-houses being of ill and irreverent example and prejudicial to the health of the living, besides the continual disturbance of the pavement and seats, and several other indecencies. Dr. Hall, the pious Bishop of Norwich, would also be so interred, as may be read in his testament. Dr. Compton, Bishop of London, had also said, ‘The churchyard for the dead—the church for the living.’ ” * In 1566, the “Assembly of Scotland” had prohibited burials within the church, and those who contravened the ordinance, were suspended from the privileges of the church. Such _ burials continued, however, despite the edict, with families of rank, who demanded to be buried apart from the common herd. Even to her own children, the Church has in special circumstances refused burial in the church- yard, not only to unbaptized children, suicides and lunatics (the latter being possibly possessed by a devil), but in particular to those, who, for one reason or another had been excommunicated; a whole parish was liable to excommunication for various periods for disregarding ecclesiastical law, during which time burials in consecrated ground were forbidden. In such circumstances it often happened that the body would be secretly buried in the night within the coveted spot, which if discovered, brought further penalties on the offender. So great a horror have the Jews for the burial of the dead anywhere except in the earth, that the Chief Rabbi of England absented himself from the occasion of a State National Thanksgiving, at 1 Evelyn’s Diary. 144 FUNERAL CUSTOMS which his official position entitled him to be present, not because it was held in St. Paul’s Cathedral, but because the Cathedral was a place of sepulture for the dead. At the entrance to most churchyards will be found a roofed timber erection known as a lich- gate. The term is derived from the German “leiche,” a corpse, for here it was that the corpse rested whilst the first part of the burial service was read in the days when it was not thought to be a fitting thing for the church to be used for the purpose. A lichgate is often added without reason to the modern burying ground, probably for its decorative qualities, and it may be met with even in domestic architecture. On an exagger- ated scale this now meaningless structure often forms the entrance to the “Limited Liability Cemetery” with its mock Gothic cast-iron palisade and other atrocities. In the days when the parish church was the centre of village life, to which all would repair as a matter of course on festivals and holidays, the churchyard was looked upon as the meeting place or playground of the village. Here, after the miracle plays were ejected from the church itself, they were performed till such time as the extra licence which their new surroundings afforded them caused them to be moved off again, this time into the market-place, where they still further degenerated; and finally ceased to be. We can readily understand how the graveyard was liable to desecration by the boisterous churls, who played their rough games, dancing, fighting and drinking on the hallowed spot. How rough their games could be we are reminded by the frequent entries in the parish registers of deaths resulting from the participation in such rude BURIAL CUSTOMS 145 pastimes. That the services in the church were often disturbed, and serious damage done to the graves by the erection of booths and the like, we can well believe, but before we condemn this coarse conduct as necessarily irreverent, we must remember that the bond between the living and the dead was in those days something quite different to what we conceive it to be in our country at the present time. The untutored mind very often exhibits a depth of faith which is disconcerting in its simplicity and refreshingly contrasts with the pious veneer with which modern Christianity overlays its doubts. The following true story illustrates the point. An English priest travelling in Italy was invited to say Mass in a country church. Being very much disturbed by the noisy behaviour of some members of the congregation who were apparently discussing their private affairs very audibly, he spoke to the offenders, who were much astonished that he should be annoyed, “ For are we not,” they said simply, “in our Father’s house.” We may suppose that it was in some such spirit as that the people of the Middle Ages thought of their dead as very near to them, and probably glad to hear the noise of their merry makings. Very different indeed was familiarity with the departed of these honest boors, to the disgraceful neglect of the burial grounds, which was such a scandal in the eighteenth century. Several instances could be quoted to show that the belief still exists that the corpse is interested to know what is going on in the world. In Norway a space 1s sometimes enclosed over the grave, about three yards square, surrounded by a low iron railing, in the centre of which a seat is placed to hold two or three people. Here, at K 146 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Christmas and on other special occasions, the relatives meet and discuss family affairs and matters of local interest for some hours, in order that the dead may be kept posted with what is going on in the world in which they once played their part. In other countries this principle has the widest recognition. At the time of the war between Russia and Japan, the Mikado sent a special functionary with a retinue to the tomb of his illustrious ancestors to inform them of his victories. At the Reformation, when certain doctrines were abandoned which- had served in a special way to link the living with the dead, some changes are readily marked which had far reaching effects. The Post-Reformation inscription on the headstone ceased to supplicate your prayers, and the old-time peeray for the soul of John Bull,” or the even simpler “ Jesu Mercy,” became a panegyric, setting forth the titles and virtues of the deceased as a trusty friend, loving husband and devoted father and the like, till it is little wonder that the infant, taken for the first time to the cemetery, wanted to know “ where the bad people were buried.” In the reign of the Stuarts, the social status of the clergy in this country had sunk to a very low ebb, and both church and churchyard suffered in consequence. Collier says that “even if they got a parish, they lived and worked like peasants, their sons were ploughmen, and their daughters in service.”* Of the churchyard, Evelyn writes, “I observed that most of the churchyards (though some were large enough) were filled up with earth, or rather the congestion of dead bodies one above the other, to the very top of the walls, and some above the walls, so that the churches seemed to be 1 Collier, ‘‘ History of the British Empire.’’ BURIAL CUSTOMS 147 built in pits... The fabric of the churches was allowed to go to ruin, and they were commonly used as barns or for other irregular purposes. If this was true of the church, the state of the churchyard may be imagined. But it was in Georgian days that things ecclesiastical touched bottom—the days of the hunting parson. Epitaphs of this period are often extremely coarse and profane. Ditchfield says, in showing the general state of neglect into which things had gradually sunk, “Services in county churches were not very frequent, and in London during the early part of the eighteenth century, when people did attend, they behaved badly. The poor Vicar of Codrington, in 1862, found people playing cards on the communion table, and when they chose the churchwardens, they used to sit in the sanctuary smoking and drinking, the clerk gravely saying—with a pipe in his mouth —that such had been the custom for the last sixty Vearsue bie) calls attention) to. the; tact. that) the churchyard in Gray’s Elegy is described as “ This neglected spot,’ and also quotes from Webb’s Collection of Epitaphs, published in 1775. ‘* Here nauseous weeds each pile surround, And things obscene bestrew the ground; Sculls, bones, in moulding fragments lie, All dreadful emblems of mortality.’’ ? This was the period when in order to protect the grave from the ravages of man and beast, those who could afford it erected heavy iron palisades round their tombs, which were sealed with huge slabs of stone often devoid of any Christian symbol. What would our forefathers—so jealous of the guardianship of the dead—think of such neglect where “ bodies are buried within a few inches of the 1 Evelyn’s Diary. 2P. H. Ditchfield, ‘‘ The Old-time Parson,”’ 148 FUNERAL CUSTOMS surface, and the dogs eat human remains, and bones are everywhere? ” Lovers of that critic of social abuses—Charles Dickens—will remember that haunting pen-picture of a neglected graveyard such as he had no doubt himself witnessed, which may serve to sum up anything further which need be said on the subject of neglected burial grounds. “ By many devious ways, reeking with offence of many kinds, they came to the tunnel of a court and to the gas-lamp (now lighted) and to the iron gate. ‘He was put there,’ says Joe, holding to the bars and looking in. ‘Where?’ Oh, what a scene of horror! ‘There!’ says Joe, panting, ‘over yinder, among them piles of bones, and close to the kitchen winder, they put them werry nigh the top. They were obliged to stamp upon it to get itin. I could unkiver it for you with my broom if the gate was open; that’s why they docks it, I spose,’ giving it a shake. ‘It’s always locked. Look at the rat,’ he cries, excited. |’. Hi, “look!\. There he 'eoes: Ho! into the ground.’ ” * The observant will have noticed two peculiar things in connection with the dispositions of graves in the churchyards. The first of which is that they are arranged in such a manner that the bodies may lie with their heads to the West and their feet to the East, or “ oriented ” as we should say. Occasionally, limitations of space may over- ride this general principle, but only as an exception to a very old custom. Johnson mentions a cemetery at Charvaise belonging to the earliest iron age, and containing more than seventy graves. “ All but two or three were so oriented that the head lay at the west end.” ” 1 Charles Dickens, ‘‘ Bleak House.”’ 4 Walter Johnson, F.G.S., ‘‘ Byways in British Archzology.”’ ; rea 00 nn He aN } H My f 3 We ox? ro a a oa a so uy LG ee : 4 | (Reproduced by kind permission of Messrs. Joseph Lyons and Co., Ltd.). OLD LONDON BURIAL GROUND (ot. Olaves, Harr street): This graveyard is typical of many of the old London burial-places—protected by heavy iron gates and railings as a very necessary precaution against the activities of the “‘ Body Snatchers.’”’ In most cases the earth is heaped up to the top of the surrounding walls, with the remains of the many thousand victims of the Plague. The continued use, and abuse, of these graveyards was a Crying scandal during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. BURIAL CUSTOMS 149 It would seem that orientation is not primely of Christian origin, but a relic of the rites of the early sun-worshippers. We shall see the same practice in the orientation of Christian churches that governed the erection also of their pagan temples, the altar in each case arranged in relation to the rising sun. We may connect the matter even more closely than this, for many of our churches are built, not only in the eastward direction, but towards that point in the east from which the sun would rise on the feast day of the Saint to which the particular church is dedicated. In the sense that “ Christ came not to destroy, but to fulfil the law of the Prophets ” we shall find this and many other pagan beliefs carried forward as a Christian practice which probably contained the germ of some far-reaching truth. “° Infinitely older than the Church everywhere,” as St. Thomas a Kempis says of the Cross. To the Christian the burial of bodies with their faces to the East is the outcome of the belief not only of the resurrection of the body, but also that from the East shall come the final summons to Judgment. Hence in Wales the east wind is known as the “ wind of the dead man’s feet.” We shall find other funerary customs dictated by this doctrine, such as the burial in an upright or in a kneeling position, even upside down in view of the supposed upheaval at the last day. The second interesting point to note in the churchyard is, that whilst south, east and west of the church the gravestones are packed as closely as space will allow, on the orth very often no headstones are to be seen. In some cases we may find that additions to the structure of the church have been made on this side only, for the simple reason that there were no graves to disturb, thus 150 FUNERAL CUSTOMS leaving the ground free for building operations. Why is this? If you look carefully on the north side, you may solve the problem, for one or two stone labels overgrown with rank grass and moss may have escaped your notice, and the village gossip will gladly tell you who lies buried there, isolated from the rest of the little community, a half- forgotten tale of blood and crime or maybe of suicide. Here, then, they bury their outcasts, the murderer on the north, his victim in a place of honour, east, west or south. In order to understand the matter we must know that the north or-left-hand side of the altar which is, of course, in the chancel at the east end of the church, is known as the Gospel side, whilst the right or south side of the altar is called the Epistle side. In the Roman Catholic church the Epistle is read on the south or Epistle side of the altar, and the Gospel at the north or Gospel side. Before the Reformation, this country necessarily conformed to this Catholic practice. The under- lying idea of this is that the Gospel was preached to “call not the righteous, but sinners to repentance.” Hence the side from which the Gospel is read was delegated to those who, having committed crimes, were in greater need of salvation, and those so buried were said to be “out of sanctuary.” If it is thought that this treatment of the social outcast was too severe, what will be said of the earlier custom which denied him even so favoured a position? The body of the suicide has in all times been subject to some sort of penal measures. The Romans, who held cremation as the honourable means of the disposal of the body, buried the suicide and murderer, whilst the parricide, held in especial horror by a nation of BURIAL CUSTOMS 151 ancestor worshippers, had the further indignity of having a cock—the emblem of impiety—sewn up in the sack in which the body was interred.’ Apart from the orientation of the body, there have been other superstitions in relation to the position in which the body is buried. To place the corpse face downwards has a special significance. An old superstition has it that an infant buried in this manner—if a first-born child—will prevent any further additions to the family. This mode of burial was also held to be a means of preventing trouble from a witch after death. On the occasion of a serious epidemic of cholera which raged in a village in Hungary, it was supposed that the visitation was due to the maledictions of a certain witch. Her body was therefore exhumed in haste and buried again face downwards, in order that the plague might be stayed. Astonished that this time-honoured remedy was of no avail, the villagers dug the body up again and after having turned the grave clothes inside-out, buried it once more. Even this did not have the desired effect, so once again the offending corpse was dragged to the surface, this time for the removal of the heart, which after being cut into four pieces, the quarters were burnt at each corner of of the village.” The separate burial of the heart from the body was once a common practice, particularly in relation to the funeral of kings and warriors. In this country it was the custom for many generations to bury the blood-guilty at the cross- roads, a practice which was not abolished till the 1 Leopold Wagner, ‘‘ Manners, Customs and Observances.”’ 2Rev. W. Henry Jones and Lewis L. Kropf, ‘‘ Folk-tales of the Magyars.”’ 152 FUNERAL CUSTOMS year 1823, when an act was passed insisting that such should be buried in unconsecrated ground which was provided by law in all burial-places, the hours for such burial being specified as between nine and twelve at night. So great was the horror of the suicide that even the passing of the body on its way to burial was a matter for special legislation. In 1582 the Kirk Sessions of Perth refused to allow the corpse of a man who had committed suicide by drowning to be “brought through the town in daylight, neither yet to be buried among the Faithful "—“ but in the little inch (island) within the water.” To trace the matter still further, we find it laid down by the canons under Egbert, of A.D. 740, that Christian burial was to be denied to those who laid violent hands upon themselves, and who thus act by any fault, so excluding those who may commit the deed in a state of frenzy. Not unfrequently the suicide was buried in the spirit of charity, without ceremony in the unconsecrated ground in the churchyard as we have seen, but the earlier practice was to take the body away from human habitation and bury it where four roads met. Various reasons for this strange custom have been given; knowing as we do, that one of the prominent features of the treatment of the dead is the terror which all ages and all peoples have shown at the possibility of the return of a revenge- ful spirit, we are justified in thinking that the real object was to confuse the mind of the departed as to the direction of his former home, and the fact that it was a common practice to anchor the body down by driving a wooden stake through the heart tends to support this theory. We see the same attempt to “ maze ” the dead in a sense of direction BURIAL CUSTOMS 153 in another custom, for it was once considered necessary for the funeral procession to return from the graveside a different way to that by which the corpse had been carried, in order to render it more difficult for the departed shade to return if it had any intention of haunting the relatives. Some have supposed that the fact that a preaching cross was often erected at the meeting of ways, and used by itinerant clergy when the churches were few and far between, hallowed the ground to some extent, and in the shadow of the cross kindly hands might lay the poor outcast when the Church herself had refused him sanctuary. Wagner denies this in saying that “the true reason is that Teutonic nations always set up their altars at such places, and as criminals were sacrificed to their gods, the place of execution was there also, and it was for this reason that in Christian times the felon was buried at the cross- roads at night, a Roman custom intended to give the impression of a heathen burial. Many of these unhallowed places once removed from populated districts, spots avoided by the traveller—especially after dark—have now been embraced by the ever-widening boundaries of the towns. Who, for instance, gives a passing thought as he rattles through prosaic St. John’s Wood on a bus, by the little triangle of green opposite St. John’s Chapel and Lord’s Cricket Ground, where lies buried at the cross-roads, with a stake through his heart, John Mortland, who in 1823 murdered Sir Warwick Bampfylde in Montague Square, and afterwards died by his own hand.* ‘This was probably the last case of cross- road burial, as the Act prohibiting the practice 1 Leopold Wagner, ‘‘ Manners, Customs and Observances.’’ 2A, Montgomery Eyre, ‘‘ St. John’s Wood.”’ 154 FUNERAL CUSTOMS was passed the same year. Not only were murderers and suicides buried “ out of sanctuary,” but others, who for one reason or another were not considered fit to lie with the elect, were buried apart. To-day if an actor achieves a place of honour in his art, he stands a reasonable chance of sepulture in Westminster Abbey, though his fame may scarce survive the generation which so honours him; yet in France it was not till the Revolution that stage players were even allowed the common right of burial in consecrated ground. The graveyards were divided into various parts; suicides, strangers, the unbaptized, and women who died in childbirth all had their separate allotments. In Tyrone there is a male burial ground which women are not even allowed to enter, for it is supposed that the dead are very jealous about the company they keep, and would rise from their graves, if necessary, to eject a stranger.’ In Brittany in the Cemetery of Lanrevoare, 7,727 ° oaints” are said to be buried; into\this holy place you may not enter without first removing your boots, or it is feared that you may share the horrible fate of the stranger, who disregarding the injunction, “fell backwards so that his entrails came out and spread around him.” We have been inclined to suppose that whatever disadvantage death may bring, it would have certain advantages, not the least of these being a final freedom from all kinds of social obligations and class distinctions, and we may be surprised to find that this commonplace thought has by no means been generally accepted. The following advertisement appeared in The Times (1914). “A family vault for sale (under 1 Lady Wilde, ‘‘ Ancient Legends of Ireland.’’ BURIAL CUSTOMS 155 cost) in the best part of Highgate Cemetery.” * And we have seen with what indecent haste privileged places of burial have been sought by those who insisted even in the face of the law, to separate their dust from that of the common herd. Closed in their walled domain, subdivided into distinctions of consecrated and _ unconsecrated ground, these communities of the dead have to the superstitious mind been associated with the functions of the living, and all sorts of queer beliefs have at various times been accepted. It was, for instance, a tradition in many countries that the last person buried had to act as a watchman over the graveyard till relieved of his office by a newcomer, and in certain parts of Ireland, the gravedigger would leave a pipe and tobacco for the solace of the ghost during his hours of vigil, a special box being kept on the grave for the purpose. In Brittany also, the latest arrival is commanded by the old guard to get up and take over his duties.* Naturally the post was unpopular and one to be avoided if possible, thus when two bodies arrived for interment at the same time, a rush was made by the friends of the deceased in order to avoid the corpse they carried being “ last man in.” This led to words, and words to blows, the corpse being left while the mourners fought the matter to a finish. That those who are newly dead suffer from thirst has been very generally accepted, as shown by the old custom of placing a basin of water after the funeral in the room where the body had lain. The duty of quenching the thirst of the dead was added in Ireland to the functions of the watchman. 1The Times, November 6th, 1914. 7 De Braz, ‘‘ La Légende de la Mort chez les Bretons.”’ 156 FUNERAL CUSTOMS At Kilmurry the last person to be buried has to moisten the lips of the souls in purgatory, and in the cemetery at Kilranelach a well is provided to supply the water, with wooden bowls for the purpose, which for some reason not very clear, are presented to the cemetery by those who bury children under five years of age; here the soul of the last person buried must offer a bowl of water to each of his predecessors till he is relieved of his office by a newcomer." We meet with a variation of this belief in Brittany, where the last man to die in the year in each parish becomes the “ Ankow” of that parish for the year that follows. The “Ankow” is Death personified, who summons in various ways the souls of those who are about to die.’ Various means have been adopted to dispose of the dead other than those of burial or incineration in the generally accepted form; of such, perhaps, the best known is practised by the Parsees, who place the corpse on a tower or on the tree-tops, there to be devoured by the vultures. At first sight this might seem a callous and inhuman practice, but the motive underlying it is not without beauty. It arises from the belief that the elements are sacred, therefore to bury the body is to defile the earth; to burn it would defile the five, and to cast it adrift on the viver, as some people have done in order that it might float out to sea, is held as defiling the water. This, then, is the reason why the bodies are exposed on the walls of the tower, where the vultures having removed the flesh, the sun-bleached bones are swept into the depths of the structure by an attendant, in order to make room for others to be treated in a like manner. 1K. L. Pyne, ‘‘ Burial Superstitions in County Cork.’’ * Arthur Ransome, The English Review, October, 1914. BURIAL CUSTOMS 157 Holding such religious views, we may surely admit that the process—however little it may com- mend itself to us—is at least a reasonably sanitary manner of overcoming a difficult problem, and we may well acquit the Parsees of any wilful irrever- ence towards their dead. ‘There is even a side to the matter which should appeal to a liberal Christian view, and that is in the thought that whatever the social position of the deceased, no difference is made in the final disposal of the body. Whatever barriers of wealth or birth may have separated individuals during life, naked and side by side they face the last ordeal in the spirit of common brotherhood. The celebrated Towers of Silence on the Hill of Malabar are objects of great curiosity to visitors, as from the beautiful gardens which surround the buildings, they view with morbid interest the great birds of prey which hover over the spot. The Parsees are not alone in leaving the dead to be devoured by birds or beasts. Certain of the Kaffir tribes purposely abandon the body to the tender consideration of the jackals, so do the nomads of the plains of Central Asia, who first cut the body into small pieces, and leave it in the open for the wild beasts to devour. Packs of dogs were once kept for the purpose in the villages, the rich having the privilege of owning their own “undertakers.” In Asiatic Siberia, the flesh was given to the dogs, the bones being preserved and religiously treasured. The Persians have a great horror of all burial grounds, the poetical trend of their minds leading them to look upon the light of the sun and the purity of the air as a birthright from which, even in death, they refuse to be separated. The thought of walling up the body, or placing it in the dark depths of the earth, holds a special terror to 158 FUNERAL CUSTOMS their minds. They believe that the sun demands from each individual when death takes place, a return of those life-giving elements with which it has endowed the body during its physical existence. What is decomposition, the Persian argues, but the natural process by which the material elements are given back to the sun, the author of all forms of life? For this reason, the corpse with its feet to the East, is placed on a slab of jasper, which is then deposited on the top of a high column, in order that it may be secure from the attention of unclean beasts. For several days the remains are thus left undis- turbed, during which time the heat of the sun, attracted by the polished surface of the marble slab, dries up the fluids. When this state has been reached, the birds of prey—which have been wheel- ing round the body—now settle to consume the dried flesh, a sign to the mourners who are watching, that the debt due to the sun has been satisfied, and that the birds have come to bear away the soul to the place of spiritual bliss which awaits it on the summit of the sacred mountains. It is from the pages of the ancient Sagas that we learn how the dead Norseman was sent out to sea in his Viking ship, wrapped in a pall of flames, as befits a chief—with all his personal belongings about him. ‘This practice of sending the body to sea (a symbol of the source of life) is to be met with in many parts of the world. ‘The natives of Borneo have a similar custom, whilst the placing of the dead in the sacred river Ganges has been held to account in a large measure for the spread of cholera in India. Drying and preserving the corpse, and keeping it uncofhined, is another method of which we have many examples. Sometimes the remains are smoke-cured or partially burnt. In the Hayti Islands, the body so treated is dressed in its best BURIAL CUSTOMS 159 apparel, when it is either suspended from or lodged against the walls of the house of its relatives. At the Monastery of Krewzberg at Bonn, and also in that of the Capucine at Palermo, the mum- mified bodies of the defunct brethren, dressed in habit of their order, are arranged in rows, in various life-like attitudes in the vaults; forming a horribly fascinating exhibition which never fails to interest the privileged tourist. Burials other than in the churchyard or cemetery have been common in all ages, when excommunica- tion or other causes rendered it necessary. The body of the victim of an accident is often buried by the roadside where the death took place, the spot being marked by a cross. Reference has already been made to burial at cross-roads, when for one reason or another, the Church has refused burial in consecrated ground—or in those cases where churchyard burial was not desired, bodies were frequently laid to rest in gardens or orchards. This method of disposal was at one time quite common; Wagner, it will be remembered, prepared a grave during his lifetime in his own garden, and loved to introduce the subject of death to his guests at the dinner-table, taking them into the garden to see his last resting-place, and back again to finish their meal with what appetite they might have left. Sometimes consecrated ground is not available, as in the scattered hamlets in the mountainous regions of Norway, where the body has to be removed to the valley for burial, it is impossible, owing to the narrow and slippery mountain tracks, to carry it in a coffin. In these circumstances the corpse is strapped on a pack saddle as the body of the Corsican chief is tied to his horse, and the procession with its strange load winds its way down 160 FUNERAL CUSTOMS the zigzag paths to the plains below. It may happen that the body has the further advantage of crossing the fiords in a canoe to where the church is situated. There are occasions, however, where burial in consecrated ground is out of the question owing to the widely scattered habitations, and in such cases the body is reverently laid to rest without any ceremony—except, maybe, the singing of a hymn— at some spot selected in the fields. A piece of wood is placed over the grave, to mark the place of interment. Sooner or later, perhaps after the lapse of several weeks, the Pastor will find this simple monument; he knows quite well what it means, and dismounting from his sturdy pony, he reads the liturgical prayers which circumstances denied to the dead when the grave was opened.’ Like all people who live very near to nature in its wilder moods, the Scandinavians have very little fear of death. Many centuries ago, they had a horrible custom, which was probably the outcome of their frank acceptance of death as a physical fact of no great importance. In those days, when it so happened that a serf or dependent had a greater number of children than his labours enabled him to support, his feudal lord had them all placed in an open grave, where they were heartlessly left to perish. Naturally the stronger and more vigorous of the unhappy children would survive the ordeal longer than those who were weaker, and therefore of less value to their master. ‘By this crude test, the strongest child was selected, being dragged from the grave in which brother and sister had succumbed from want and exposure. . Perpendicular burial, common in the East, is * Paul Bureau, Norwegian Social Science (trans.). BURIAL CUSTOMS 161 not unknown in this country. Ben Johnson was buried in this manner in Westminster Abbey. The reason in this instance would seem to have been an economy of space. It was at one time supposed that the small stone covering his remains had led to this tradition. In order to settle the matter, a faculty was granted for the opening of the tomb, when it was found that the body was upstanding, as it had been supposed. An eccentric person named Richard Hull 1s buried beneath the curious stone tower which stands as a landmark on Leith Hill. Hull was buried on horseback upside down, in order that he might have the advantage of position on the Day of Judgment, when according to a once popular notion, the world would be reversed. Thomas Cooke, who died in 1752, “stands” in Morden College, Blackheath, and one Clement Spelman of Nottingham is immured in a pillar of Nasburgh Church. Burial at sea, for such reasons of sentiment as Kipling relates in “The Voyage of the Mary Gloucester,” * or the scattering of the ashes at sea, are methods of disposal which have always appealed to certain types of mind. Such practices—except in the case of necessity —are strongly discouraged by law, for apart from the possibility of the body being eventually washed up on the shore it might very well aid criminal purposes. The Jews have their own ideas on the subject of the burial-places which they call by the beautiful name of “House of Life.” To them the family vault is forbidden, for it is against their doctrines to rest a body on a shelf; nor do they permit that one coffin should be placed above another in the earth. 1 Rudyard Kipling. 162 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Sanctuary was extended from the church to the churchyard, a privilege which one of the Articles of the Constitution of Claredon sought to repeal as far as goods were concerned.* ‘The actual soil of the burial-place has always been held to be sacred in a special sense, as consisting of, or containing the remains of the dead. It was used for various purposes of magic and sorcery, and many curious beliefs were connected with it. In Brittany it was believed that the dead were obliged to eat as much of it as they had wasted bread during their lifetime, whilst in Ireland a handful of earth taken from under your right foot and thrown on the funeral procession was accounted as a certain cure for warts. An old Irish custom also directed that the priest should bless and sprinkle a handful of earth on the corpse before burial, as it was believed that should this ceremony be omitted, in the case of a suicide, trouble might be expected from the other occupants of the churchyard.’ The otherwise non-Catholic usage of sprinkling earth on the coffin, as observed by Protestants generally, is reminiscent of the Roman custom of thus covering a body found unburied with “at least three handfuls of earth” whilst saying the prescribed ceremonious farewell. It was instituted in this country by a rubric in the year 1542 as part of the duty of the officiating clergy, and later it was allowed to be done by “one standing by.” The Jews placed a bag of earth in the coffin, each mourner present at the interment helping to fill in the grave. 1J. R. Green, ‘‘ A Short History of the English People.’’ 2 Lady Wilde, ‘‘ Customs of Ireland.”’ CEA Bal Bar ils TREES, FLOWERS, BODY-SNATCHING INSEPARABLE from the picture which the mind presents at the thought of an old grave, is the yew tree. Often of great size and antiquity, it stands as a land-mark, overhanging with extended arms the tombstone it shelters. Here we shall probably find the weeping willow dear to the heart of the sentimental poet, perhaps also box and cypress trees. The question arises, are they planted in these places for any particular reason? which seems to be answered by the fact that even in the newest cemeteries the custom is continued. To seek the origin, we must go back to very early times, and consider ancient rites, which have, like so many of our modern funerary practices, long ceased to hold any special significance. Abraham, it will be remembered, bought a field on the death of Sarah for a burial ground, but he was not satisfied till “the cave that was therein and all the ¢vees that were in the fields and in all the borders round about were made sure.” * Trees, we know, were at one time objects of extreme veneration and worship. To the primitive mind, movement was inseparable from the idea of life, thus the ripple of the stream or the whisper of the wind, or the creaking of the branches lashed by the storm, left 1 Genesis xxlll. 17. 163 164 FUNERAL CUSTOMS the impression of some subtle animation dwelling in natural objects, very powerful for good or evil: and as such necessary to be propitiated, thus, from the earliest times, we find trees worshipped in one form or another. The early Christian missionaries had struggle enough to shake this deep-rooted notion out of the minds of our tree-worshipping forefathers, and in the end, it would seem that they were not altogether successful, and that their contentions ended up b something of a compromise, for we find holly still taking the honoured place at Christmas-tide that it held in the days when the Druids distributed it amongst the people at the great December festival, and if box and evergreen, banned by the Church, have crept into the sacred edifice, mistletoe is still out of sanctuary. Even the Greek philosophers gave souls to the trees, and the gods of the ancients had special trees allotted to them; Phyllis weeping for Demophon, is turned by the gods into an almond tree. To the oak supreme honours were paid, and the ash was but little less esteemed. ‘“‘ Pat as a sum in division goes, Every planet had a star bespoke. Who but Venus should govern the rose, Who but Jupiter owned the oak? ’’ + The oak and the ash are trees particularly English, about which a number of superstitions and customs cling. The rowan tree or mountain ash was believed to possess special powers against evil spirits, and bundles of its twigs were hung over the farmhouse and cottage doors to avert the dreaded powers of witchcraft. Canon Mahé of Morbihan, writing of the year 1 Rudyard Kipling, ‘‘ Our Fathers of Old.’’ BODY-SNATCHING 165 1825, mentions “ Our Lady of the Oak” in Anjon and “ Our Lady of the Oak” near Orthe in Maine, as the seats of famous pilgrimages. The “clipping” festival at which the yew in the churchyard was trimmed, is still observed at Painswick, Cradly and other places. The subject of tree worship is a large one, and we must not be tempted to consider it farther than is necessary, in order to trace its connection with the almost universal custom of planting certain trees in the churchyard and cemetery. Various other theories have been put forward by those who do not like to admit pagan practices in Christian ages—but surely evidence is against them. Some believe, for instance, that the presence of the yew tree on hallowed ground served the purpose of providing the wood for the bows of the archers, and that by making the churchyard an arsenal as it were, this valuable and slow growing wood might the better be preserved from destructive or indiscriminate “clipping ”’; that the “ clipping ” festival, indeed, might have been a day set apart for the public distribution of branches suitable for the purpose. It is of course possible that the tree was so used, but it does not necessarily prove that it was planted for that purpose. In the days when the bow was the general weapon of protection and the chase, the local yew would have been hard put to it to provide anything like enough wood of a suitable growth for the archers. Others held that the great size of the tree protected the fabric of the church from the force of the tempest, and provided shelter for the worshippers. 166 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Dr. Gasquet, writing on the subject, tells us that in the thirteenth century the guardianship of the churchyard was in the hands of the clergy, and that the trees growing there might be used for the repairs of the church, otherwise “as they had been planted to protect the church from gales, they were to be left for this purpose.” The duty of keeping the churchyard in order was the parishioners’, but that which grew on holy ground was holy, and the clergy had the right to the trees, grass or anything which grew there; further, the clergy were reminded that the trees served to ornament and frvotect God’s house, and must not be cut without due reason.’ Anyway, there were times when the matter seems to have been a fruitful source of dispute between the priest and his flock. | Sometimes an old custom when examined in the light of modern experience will be found to contain the germ of a scientific fact, and one is left wondering if the truth thus disclosed, was happened on by chance, or born of a knowledge with which we should hesitate to credit our forefathers. The architect who plans our modern garden cities knows well enough the value of trees as purifiers of air contaminated by the decay of organic matter, for the mission of the leaves is to turn harmful gasses into pure, life-giving oxygen. ‘Then from their breathing souls the sweets repair, To scent the skies and purge the unwholesome air.”’ Was this common scientific fact known and made use of in the ancient days? Was this at least one of the reasons why these trees were planted in the crowded burial grounds, to cleanse the air from the poison arising from the ground? Whatever the origin, no doubt the continuance 1 Dr, Gasquet, ‘‘ Parish Life in Medizval England,’’ BODY-SNATCHING 167 of the custom of planting certain kinds of trees in graveyards has been due to their appearance, suggesting by the force of associated ideas their use as symbols of grief immutable, and the like. By some it was believed that the roots of the yew tree found their way to the mouths of the dead. The weeping willow, by reason of its form trailing and bowed in grief, as its name suggests, caused it to be frequently planted in such a position where it might overhang a favoured tomb, like some perpetual mourner. ‘* All round my hat I wear a weeping willow, All round my hat for a fortnight and a day. If any of you ask me the reason why I do it, Tell them that my true love is far, far away.’’ ? But the willow has yet another claim to a place in the burial ground, for it properly derives its source of life from the stream, and is generally to be found on the banks of the river, or in damp and marshy places. For this reason it is the accepted symbol of resurrection, and its branches are borne by mourners at a masonic funeral. The value of a thirsty tree, in places where the gravedigger is troubled by water, as is frequently the case, will be obvious. Myrtle, besides its sombre appearance, is a symbol of resurrection by the fact that it is evergreen. ‘The myrtle, laurel and bay stand for Victory. The maple for Authority.”’ Various kinds of fir trees are also planted as recognized symbols of death; for unlike other trees, the life goes out of them directly they are cut. SOmioong, 168 FUNERAL CUSTOMS The cypress has held the place of honour throughout the ages, in connection with death. The Romans placed its branches in the vestibule as long as the body was there, to signify that it was a house of mourning, and it was also carried in the funeral procession. “Rosemary,” says Ophelia, “that’s for remembrance,’ and in comparatively recent times, the mourners held sprigs of box and rosemary at the burial, and deposited them on the coffin before leaving. Medicinally, rosemary was held to be good for improving the sight and the memory. The sprigs were arranged in a bowl on a table in the entrance hall of the house where the friends and relatives were assembled, to whom they were distributed. In Japan, branches of sakaki are carried and used in part of the final ceremony—flowers also in abundance.* We must not forget the palm, the symbol of victory over death, which the Christian festival of Palm Sunday reminds us was used at the “ entry into Jerusalem,” and which is associated by the Church with her martyrs. It is often to be found engraved on the Roman tombs. A very curious superstition is worth noting in connection with the mandrake, a plant similar to belladonna, and credited with having a personality, or if growing in a graveyard, attached to the spirit of the dead. There seems to be no _ better foundation for this belief than that it roughly resembled the human form, having two taproots of equal length which suggested the lower limbs. When pulled from the ground, the small fibres breaking, a sound is produced which was readily translated by the imaginative into a “ shriek.” 1 Mrs. Hugh Fraser, ‘‘ A Diplomatist’s Wife in Japan.’’ BODY-SNATCHING 169 The Germans made the mandrake into dolls, dressing them with care and respect, and keeping them in caskets. Midnight was the correct time to dig them up, when all kinds of absurd rites were practised, a “black dog” being employed to drag them from the earth. Amongst other magical properties, they were supposed to be efficacious in the case of a barren woman, and are mentioned in the Bible in this connection.’ If trees have a close association with death, so too have flowers, and never more so than at the present time. The writer recently attended a funeral at which the value of the floral “ offerings’ could not have been less than seventy or eighty pounds, and this is not anything very exceptional. The fact that white flowers are almost exclusively used for the purpose reminds us that they are a special token of purity. It was the practice of the Primitive Church to crown the heads of virgins with flowers. In Corsica, when a young girl dies, the body is dressed in her best clothes, the feet tied with a white silk ribbon (to prevent the spirit from wandering on earth) and her head crowned with a chaplet of flowers by her friends, who thus address her, “ We your companions, in bringing you lilies and roses, bring you your wedding garland.” ? Besant mentions as a recent custom in Yorkshire, the hanging of a garland of flowers in the chancel of the church when a girl dies unmarried. The fact that the wreath was placed in the chancel, and that it was considered unlucky to carry away a piece of the ribbon with which the 1 Bible, Genesis xxx. 14. 2 J. E. Rossi, ‘* Les Corses.’’ 170 FUNERAL CUSTOMS blossoms were tied, and the still more significant fact, that as the wreath decayed, the pieces were reverently buried in the churchyard, indicates that it was looked upon as an offering to the dead, rather than a sign of condolence with the living.’ Sometimes a white glove was attached to the wreath on which the name and age of the maiden would be inscribed.” The white glove, like the white veil with which the Greek Church bury their dead women, has generally been used as a token of innocence. The white glove signifies a “clean hand,” and it is still the custom to present a pair to the Judge when there are no criminal charges to come before him, or, as at an earlier period, it was hoisted in the market-place on high days and holidays, a truce to those who were “wanted ” for various crimes, who might venture forth from their hiding places to join in the festivities only as long as they were so protected. From what we have seen of the matter, it would seem that the funeral wreath of white flowers signifies virginal purity, and if this is so, we must admit that it is singularly out of place for general distribution. Were we to ask the “mourner” why he purchased those wire-tortured exotics almost identical with a dozen others, which would arrive at the house of mourning at the same time, his first surprise overcome that anyone should question so universal a custom, he would probably say that he did it as a “ mark of respect.” Pressed a little further if his patience stood the strain (for people who are asked why they do things which they have never thought about, often seek refuge in 1 Sir Walter Besant, ‘‘ London in the Time of the Stuarts.’’ 2England Howlett, F.S.A., ‘‘ Burial Customs’? (Curious Church Customs and Cognate Subjects). Edited by Wm. Andrews. BODY-SNATCHING 171 righteous anger), he might admit that he was not sure if he had intended to please the living or honour the dead; on the whole—since you question it—he would be inclined to think that his intention had been to show sympathy with the relatives, since the black-bordered card supplied by the florist contained an expression of his “deep sympathy and condolences.” If quite candid, he would be forced to admit that it was nothing more to him than the fulfilment of a social obligation, and that the half sovereign he paid for it saved him from the mental exercise of composing a suitable letter of condolence, which would have presented many problems, ranging from a struggle with the unaccustomed use of the third person singular, to the scratching up of suitable scriptural quotations from a rusted mind. The fact is that the funeral wreath is a survival of the belief that it is necessary to provide comforts for the use or delectation of the departed spirit; more than this, we may see it in at least an implied sense of sacrifice, for flowers were strewn to be crushed by the feet of the victor, as they are to-day thrown by children before sacramental processions, or used to line the grave. In the Highlands the grave is lined with heather. A story is told of a soldier visiting the spot where a fallen comrade was buried in a foreign country for the purpose of placing flowers on his grave. On his way he met a native carrying a food offering to the ancestral tomb. Amused by this superstitious absurdity, he asked him when his ancestor would come up from the tomb, as he would like to see him enjoy his meal. “ About the same time as your friend comes up to smell your flowers,” was the unexpected rejoinder. To-day, if we are spared the task of admiring 172 FUNERAL CUSTOMS the tranquillity of the corpse (a treat which no one in the lower orders of society would miss) we are, at least, called upon to express a rapturous surprise at the beauty of the floral offerings sent by friends. “Aren't they lovely,” you say, in hushed whispers (for even to-day you are afraid of waking the sleeping corpse). Had we the courage of our opinions, or if we gauged the matter by the same standard of taste we use in testing any other beautiful things, we should find the funeral wreath neither necessary nor beautiful, but a foolish custom kept alive, and sedulously fostered for profit. White flowers, which as individual blossoms are charming enough, if one can disassociate their waxy perfection and sickly odour from morbid thought, gain nothing but monotony in quantity. Strung into the forms of harps, anchors, broken columns, etc., they are frankly vulgarized; and if this much may be said of natural flowers, how can we describe the “immortelle” in its glass case, with the added horrors of sugary doves and clasped hands—the despair of those whose duties it is to regulate the decencies of the churchyard. And how we long for the day when it will no longer be necessary to advertise “ No flowers by request.” “ May the grave of your ancestors be defiled! ” Of the endless variety of Oriental curses this is the most dreaded. Life, which the Eastern mind values cheaply, and looks upon philosophically as a fleeting and uncertain thing, holds no terrors half as fearsome as the thought of the spirit wandering as an outcast from the rifled tomb. To laugh at the childish precautions taken by people of all times and countries to prevent the dead from wandering from the place of sepulture, is to underestimate the terror which haunted them BODY-SNATCHING 173 of being disturbed after death; and the certainty of retaliation, swift and terrible, which would assuredly overtake those who were rash enough to dishonour their remains. Nor was it necessary to remove the bones to incur the full force of supernatural wrath—a ceremony forgotten, an honour due, unpaid, neglect of any kind was certain to bring disaster upon a careless relative. Fear of the dead is the origin of almost every funeral custom which has come down to us to-day; from the pomp of the procession to the laudatory epitaph on the tombstone, to propitiate the acute sensibility of the departed. So sacred was the grave to the Roman mind that even when it was necessary by force of some extraordinary circumstances to sell the land on which a tomb was placed, the law forbade that the sacred spot should even be considered as part of the contract, nor might anything be done which Had@ethes elect (or jexcludino’ the relatives in perpetuity from the right of access to their dead. It would indeed be an endless task to chronicle the special precautions taken by all nations and peoples to preserve the dead from any form of disrespect; that the tomb itself should be rifled and the bones scattered was an unpardonable crime. The well-known injunction sheltering the remains of the immortal Shakespeare is a type of many to be found in this country. ‘* Good friend, for Jesu’s sake forbear, To dig the dust incloséd here. ; Blest be the man that spares these stones, And curst be he that moves my bones.”’ Whether the gravedigger bears a charmed life, 174 FUNERAL CUSTOMS or the maledictions of the departed shade are really less potent than was supposed, it would be difficult to determine, but the fact remains that this humble and necessary official has constantly been called upon to disturb the resting-place of the dead, and to remove the bones in order to accommodate the bodies of a later generation. As hamlets became villages, and villages grew into towns, many old burial-places had to be rearranged and provision made against over- crowding. In order to meet this necessity it became a common practice to provide a charnel house or “ossuary” in connection with the cemetery to which the bones of the dead might be removed after a reasonable number of years had elapsed to allow for complete decomposition. This was done for the most part reverently enough, and was often accompanied by some form of religious ceremony. In some cases this custom, dictated by necessity, has even come to be looked upon as a virtue. In the Breton churchyards the “ossuary” 1s considered of great importance, frequently with sculptured figures, and surmounted by a “ Calvary.” Murray says in his handbook, “ To allow the rude forefathers of the village to repose in the grave is opposed to the ideas of purity and affection in these rude people; after a certain number of years the survivors are required to show their remembrance and respect for their parents and relatives by removing the skull and bones from the coffin and placing them in the “ ossuary,” where the former are arranged on shelves open to the view of all, each with the name or initial in black painted across the fleshless brow.” The removal of the bones is done by the priest, and a municipal official has also to be present in BODY-SNATCHING 175 order to certify that the matter has been carried out in due order; as in our country, an official sanction has to be obtained before exhumation can take place. The wealthy Bretons enclose the skull in a small box made in the form of a miniature church, the roof of which is surmounted by a cross. Through the open door the skull may be seen. The door or peephole is made, as a rule, in the shape of a heart, over which is an inscription asking for prayers for the departed soul. These curious skull boxes which are carried in procession on the feasts of the dead, at other times repose in niches, or are in some cases nailed to the walls of the church. With the exception of those rare occasions when it is necessary in the interests of justice to exhume a body in a case where foul play is suspected, we have considered all the circumstances in which we are justified in disturbing a body after burial; unfortunately there are many records of wilful pillage from motives of plunder, ransom or revenge. The foolish custom of burying jewellery or money with the body has undoubtedly been the cause of desecration in the majority of such cases, and the practice is by no means uncommon to-day. Apart from motives of personal vanity which induces the courtesan or the professional beauty to be sumptuously arrayed and decked with the costly toys from which, even in death, she would not be parted, it is the custom even now for the symbol of office to be buried with those who have held positions of state, signet rings and official badges of all sorts, which offer a tempting bait to the rifler of tombs. Sometimes a sentimental attachment is held as 176 FUNERAL CUSTOMS sufficient reason for the interment of valuables with the body. The following is an extract from a will which was proved in 1916: “I wish to be buried in my wedding ring, and two medals taken from those I always wear put on a piece of white or blue ribbon and tied round my neck.” Evelyn, writing in 1685, says: “The King showed me a golden cross and chain taken out of the coffin of St. Edward the Confessor at Westminster by one of the singing-men, who as the scaffolds were taken down after his Majesty’s Coronation, espying a hole in the tomb and some- thing glisten, put his hand in and brought it to the Dean, and he to the King.” “It was of gold, about three inches long, having on one side a crucifix enamelled and embossed, the rest was graven and garnished with goldsmith’s work, and two pretty broad table amethysts (as I perceived), and at the bottom a pendant pearl; within was enclosed a little fragment, as it was thought, of the true cross, and a Latin inscription in gold and Roman letters.” * Even richer spoil than this was discovered in the time of Pope Paul III, when the marble tomb of the Empress Mary, wife of Honosius, was opened, where over and above the gold, forty pounds in weight, were curious vessels of crystal and agate, and many jewels. How far it is justifiable to rifle the tomb for purposes of archeological interest may be an open question, but even the most hardened delver must have had some doubts on the subject, as he gazed on the newly opened grave where the peaceful form of some long forgotten mortal lay, surrounded by toys or tools which, centuries ago, ministered to his needs. 1 Evelyn’s Diary. BODY-SNATCHING 177 That the fastnesses of the Pyramids should be broken after thousands of years’ security, and the bodies of kings, to whom countless peoples had bowed the knee, removed from the place they had prepared with so much thought for security seems sacrilege enough, but that these royal bodies should be exhibited and ticketed for the idle curiosity of the British Cockney, opens up a question which happily it is not within our province to decide. If the opening of tombs for purposes of scientific research is questionable, what shall be said when it is done to satisfy the lowest motives of greed or revenge? There have been times of social upheaval when the public conscience was so blunted that the value of the lead from the coffins was thought sufficient excuse to justify the crime. At the time of the French Revolution the republicans ordered that lead coffins should be despoiled and melted down for bullets. In one of these orgies a workman tried to save the body of Marguerite of Lorraine, whose holy life and work amongst the poor had caused her to be venerated. He offered to make a new coffin of wood by his own labour, but was not allowed to do so, and with the rest, the remains held in such esteem were shot out of the broken end into the city ditch.1 Unfortunately the history of our own country will furnish instances of this kind where even the value set on the lead coffins could not be put forward as a cloak to malice. The body of Oliver Cromwell, with those of Bradshaw and Ireton, were torn from their resting- place in Westminster Abbey to be hung on the cibbet at Tyburn; a fate shared by the Puritan, Steven Marshall. 1 Percy Dearmer, ‘‘ Highways and Byways in Normandy.”’ M 178 FUNERAL CUSTOMS In 1642 the soldiers under Sir William Waller pillaged the tombs of the Saxon kings at Winchester. Breaking open the coffins, they threw the bones at the painted windows which were mostly destroyed. The tomb of William of Wykeham was saved, it is said, by one Cuff, a rebel officer, who having been educated at the college, risked his life in order to protect the remains of the munificent founder from the plunderers. If we may well turn our thoughts with disgust from such scenes as these, the acts of a frenzied mob, how shall we excuse the cold and calculating brutality of Leopold of Vienna, who in 1670 extorted from the Jews a sum of four thousand florins under threat of a vindictive desecration of their burial-places. In the early years of the nineteenth century, when religious life in this country was at its lowest ebb, and scientific research in the ascendant, a great scandal presented itself. The body-snatchers, or resurrection men as they were called, finding that good prices were paid by the anatomists for the bodies of those recently dead, opened up a nefarious traffic with the schools, which assumed the most disgraceful proportions before any severe measures were adopted to stamp out the evil. At this time the demand for bodies far exceeded the supply. The grant of four felons each year to the Barber Surgeon’s Company had been supplemented by the bodies of all criminals whose offences brought them to the gallows; good prices were paid for additional “subjects,” and no awkward questions asked, a fact which so encouraged despoilers of the dead, that it became necessary to set a guard to protect the newly interred whose remains were much coveted de . - _ (Reproduced by kind permission of Odhams Press, Ltd.). BURKE AND HARE, Two notorious “ Resurrection Men.’’ They flourished in Scot- land, their speciality being murder for the sake of the bodies, for which they found a ready and apparently unquestioning market at the Anatomical Schools. Sixteen murders were proved against this enterprising pair before they were brought to justice. They were convicted at Edinburgh in the year 1828. on Wemory of FRANK axD MARTHA TAYLOR (Aged respectively 39 and 35- Fears), And their Children—Maggie (13), Annie (11), Florrie (7), Freddie (5), Willie (3), and Georgie (20 Months)— Whose throats were all cut by the Father, duriny a period of temporary in- sanity produced by religious mania and influenza on a constitution weakened by hardship consequent on the great frost of 1895, about half-past five o’clock at 12, Fountain Road, Tooting, on the morning of THURSDAY, MARCH 7th, 1895; The only survivor of the Family being the son FRANK, aged 15, who was a witness of most of this terrible scene, and was left for dead by his father. The Eight Victims were interred on Wednesday, March 13th, at St. Nicholas Church-yard, Tooting-Graveney, S.W., by The Rev. Evelyn H.. Morton, M.A., Rector of Tooting-Graveney. 9n Beath they were not dibided” DIPROSE, PRINTER AND BOOKBINDER, UPPER TOOTING, EXAMPLE OF A BALLAD-CARD Sold by streetvendors to commemorate a sensational crime, ow ; hy n- e , { an i AP Paw A ee hd a rite me f - wae Veto 2h het eye ee 4 ‘ ‘ 1 '" ne ee! 7 |i . ad ; a) ‘ . J J i sel ify ee sie 3 : j < ‘pea! 3 > 1 : iM bytes ¢, ' :* (4 i cain : A) s f “ i ¥ Fj v2 ed f ; iw ¢ iif i ie | ry ’ ’ A oa | A24 é - 14 + AT 1 oe i] \ wi aa 1. i * 7 Lf | i iy 4 P ’ ae ht tek 5s 4 7 i 8 an f ; J ‘ f - ‘i ‘ : : wh! \ ° P ‘* y { “¢é @ Ng , 5 7 7 = , wry a . Ad ih i ‘ — a? ’ V8 ies ‘2 Le a ite lon ¥: —? F j , ar x = i > i . ri c . .e »- he L ‘@ * 7 rie Py . ~ 4 ‘ ' ‘ rm? ' : ~ " ay, ad te = i] } ' ‘ ‘ a 1¢ Fy coe | = \ r ' | 4 1 j A } Fy 7] hb j Ay ‘a 7 yes : ahi ; 1 U } ) i So) ® ' : a J ot , : ‘ i 4 ’ ' as a ot | ' r i ; o 4 j L. = b Ay Ai. ot I i ' d | ’ A r ry ' vw * 7 ‘ : i ry 7 i? 5 > f Ve Pin Rie i \ ce | j ‘7 : \ i 49 i , 5 * : ' 7 ' Ly “4 ¢ ey ‘¢ Mt eee : yi 4 Fs A 4° : : wo ine WS i ee ak wf H ; j . rae ; 7 eras yq" ’ s > ," i nl rt 5 < @ ' ; . wi J ; i vk s ? / P i \ La " 4 , De i i PD ¥ é j ar ’ dv 4 * - é con Te? ol (re 1 ee 4: ye $ ' f 7 h ) ay re ‘ » ox 7 - a. | - apy 4 4 ri y Ay 7) A et a abd ~~ Ht a0 f i ‘ bG y 3 @ As » Oy, ven ” ovr hit : en i Pet , t 7 i) a j 7 -* rn 7 . BODY-SNATCHING 179 for the purpose mentioned. Foiled by these means of doing business in the churchyards, it became a common practice for these rufhans to waylay and murder in the dimly lighted streets, any poor wanderer they encountered, with the sole object of making profit not by his purse, but by his person. After allowing this sort of thing to go on for a long time, at last the law rose to a sense of its responsi- bilities, and a system of licence was devised which did much to check the abuse; but the problem of supplying the schools remained unsolved, and remains so to the present day. There is no doubt about it that the pauper was exploited when his need brought him to accept the charity of the nation, and even to-day, we find amongst the poor a horror of institutions generally, born of such malpractices which were regulated by the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1844. Perhaps even more profitable than the sale of a corpse to the anatomical schools, if not so common, was the practice of stealing and holding the body of a wealthy person as hostage for the payment of ransom. A celebrated case of this kind was that of Charles Souter, sentenced in 1882 to five years penal servitude, whose romantic career was recently recalled by his death. He was found guilty of complicity in the theft of the body of the twenty-fifth Earl of Crawford from the family vault at Dunecht (near Aberdeen). The mystery was never completely solved. The family tomb of the Balcarres’ family was of massive granite, built under the private chapel adjoining Dunecht House. The last Earl died in Florence in 1881; his body was embalmed and taken to Scotland, where it was interred: three coffins were used—a leaden shell, 1 Daily Express, January 6th, 1914. 180 FUNERAL CUSTOMS an inner case of wood, and the outer coffin of carved wood, richly mounted in silver. Some time after the funeral, a visitor to the chapel noticed that the slab sealing the entrance to the vault had been tampered with, but no importance was attached to this at the time. Later, an anonymous letter was received, stating that the vault had been entered and the body removed. This letter was also treated as a hoax. Some months later, part of the railing surrounding the tomb was found removed, and the entrance slab now lifted away and placed against the wall. The police were then summoned and the vault entered. They found that the coffin had been removed from the shelf on which it had rested, the outer case unscrewed, the inner coffin forced open and the lead shell had the end cut away, from which the body had been pulled out by the feet. The fact that the valuable silver fittings remained intact showed that this was not the work of a common thief, and it was decided that the object of the out- rage was to obtain a sum of money as ransom. Any hopes of this sort that the despoilers may have cherished were dispelled by a public announcement made by the family, that in no circumstances would they offer a reward for the recovery of the body. Meanwhile, many clues were followed by the police without success; even “psychic ” means were tried. Some spiritualists from London visited the place and declared that they had “ seex” the body carried from the vault to a house on the estate, from whence it was afterwards removed to a “field that slopes towards a wood.” Less vague was the light thrown upon the matter four months later by the man Souter, who in a drunken confidence offered to show his companions where the body of the Earl was concealed; when sober, he appeared BODY-SNATCHING 181 to be frightened by his indiscretion, and on his arrest he made a statement to which he stoutly adhered. He swore that whilst poaching on the estate at night, he was detected by a gang of men engaged in burying some object, and that he only escaped with his life on swearing that he would keep their Secret. He was presently taken to the spot he indicated, where the body was found wrapped in a blanket, five hundred yards from the mansion, and covered with a few inches of soil. If he had accomplices, he never divulged their names and he died protesting his innocence. GH EAE Rais PLAGUE It is to be hoped, that with all that modern science has done towards the better ordering of our sanitary arrangements and the scientific treatment of the refuse of the cities, we, in this country, may never again experience such a devastating scourge as the plague which swept over this land in earlier centuries. Even now in India, China and other countries the mortalities from these awful visitations exceed anything we can imagine in our comparative security. There, despite organized relief, the death roll from plague and its fearsome companion famine, wiped out in the affected districts hundreds of thousands of human lives, and we cannot pretend to have dealt with the subject of death without consideration of the provisions made in such calamities to dispose of great numbers of bodies mown down like corn under the sickle. The Indian famine commission of 1898 reported that in the year 1877 no less than five million of the natives perished, and that during the forty years between 1860 and 1900, no less then ten wide- spread famines devastated India.* In the progress of the human race, as scattered eR. GC. Dutt? indian | veamine,’7 182 PLAGUE 183 tribes became nations herding together in com- munities, for one reason or another, they became subject to periodical ravages of plague in various forms, fostered by uncleanliness, which claims a full measure of the natural increase of the population. Far exceeding all visitations of the kind in Europe, stands out the Black Death of the four- teenth century and the Great Plague of the seventeenth century. The Black Death which appeared in London in 1348, started in China and rapidly spread from country to country, leaving an appalling devasta- tion in its wake. Green says, “Of the three or four millions who then formed the population of England, more than one half were swept away in its repeated visitations.” * The Black Death left its mark on all phases of national life for a hundred and fifty years. Whilst no accurate estimate could be expected, the total death-roll is probably not over-estimated as having claimed twenty millions of victims. In attempting to relieve the most urgent necessities; of ‘the; ‘sick, the). great) religious institutions, which in the Middle Ages represented sanctuary, shelter and such medical care as they could offer to the people, were quickly over- whelmed and rendered powerless by the losses which they themselves sustained by infection, when tending the bodily and spiritual needs of the sick and dying. The reader who may wish to learn more of this matter will study the great authority on the subject, Dr. Gasquet.’ The outstanding feature of the Black Death 1J. R. Green, ‘‘ A Short History of the English People.’’ 2 Dr. Gasquet, ‘‘ The Black Death.”’ 184 FUNERAL CUSTOMS was the great rapidity with which it spread, proving fatal to every kind of life that it touched. It was brought to this country by traders at the ports of the eastern shores of the Black Sea. It spread along the trade routes from Bagdad to the southern ports of Asiatic Turkey. So sudden and violent was its attack, that the victims unhesitatingly abandoned all hopes of recovery at the first symptoms of the disease, thus rendering themselves unfitted to fight against the sickness. There is an old story which so well illustrates the effects of the terror it caused, that it is worth recalling. A pilgrim making te way to Bagdad was over- taken on his journey by a grisly figure. “ Who are you?” asked the pilgrim. “Iam the Plague,” was the response, “and I am going to Bagdad to kill a thousand people.” On his return journey the pilgrim overtook the spectre and stopping him said: “Why did you tell me that you were only going to kill a thousand people in Bagdad, whereas I found ten thousand of your victims in the city? ” “T spoke truly,” said the Plague, “I killed but one thousand, the remainder died from fright.” However, our present interest is not in the slaying, but in slain. Dr. Gasquet, speaking of the ravages of the Black Death, says, “ There was no time for Christian burial. The corpse was hurried to the nearest church, where it was con- signed to the tomb without the least attempt at ceremony.” Consecrated ground was quickly filled to over- flowing, and it became necessary to dig trenches into which the bodies were placed in hundreds, layer upon layer, with but a little earth sprinkled in between till the pit was full to the top. Where the Charter House now stands in London more PLAGUE 185 than fifty thousand corpses are said to have been buried. The same wholesale interments were found all that it was possible to give in other countries also. “ Help us!” they cry in Pisa, “ to bear the body to the pit so that we in our turn may deserve to find someone to carry us.” Di Tura at Sienna, a contemporary chronicler, writes: “ And I, Agniolo di Tura, carried with my own hands my five little sons to the pit, and what I did many others did likewise.” So great was the labour of burying the dead, little wonder that fear seized the stoutest hearts, and the people dreading infection ran into the houses as the corpses were carried past. No outside help could be had for love or money. The “passing bell” tolled continuously that the clerk and the sexton might gain their fees, rather than to urge the living to pray for the dead, and perhaps they might be excused, with food at famine prices and all sources of supply cut off.’ As the churchyards were filled new cemeteries were hastily consecrated. In all this stress of circumstances it should be noted that no thought was given to the cremation of bodies; surely proof enough that the practice was repugnant to the people, who even in such circumstances as these refused to adopt the pagan practice as_ being against the usage of the Christian Church. The historian Stowe gives the following picture of London in these dark times. “The pestilence increased so sore that from want of room in churchyards to bury the dead of the city and suburbs, one John Corey, clerk, purchased of Nicholas Prior of The Holy Trinity, 1 Dr. Gasquet, ‘‘ The Black Death.’’ 186 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Aldgage, one ‘loft’ of ground near unto East Smithfield for the burial of those that died, with condition that it might be called the ‘Churchyard of The Holy Trinity,’ which ground he caused by the aid of divers devout citizens to be enclosed by a wall of stone. Robert Elsing, son of William Elsing, gave £5 thereunto, and the same was dedicated by Ralph Stratford, Bishop of London, where innumerable bodies of the dead were after- wards buried, and a chapel built in the same place to the honour of God.” | From the same source we gather that the said Bishop of London “bought a piece of land called ‘No-man’s-land,’ which be enclosed by a wall of brick and dedicated to the burial of the dead, building thereon a proper chapel which is now (1598) enlarged and made a dwelling-house, and the burying plot is become a fair garden retaining the old name of Pardon Churchyard.” After this, in the year 1349, Walter Manner- ing, “in respect of a plague and infection, pur- chased thirteen acres and a rood of adjoining the said ‘ No-man’s-land,’ and lying in a place called ‘Spittle Croft’ because it belonged to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.” “ Since then,” he con- tinued, “in this plot of ground (also consecrated by the Bishop of London) there were (in that year) more than fifty thousand persons buried, as I have read in the Charters of Edward III.” It will be noted that the good bishop at least played Azs part in the great drama; and how careful he was even in such difficult times to see the cemeteries enclosed with “ walls of brick or stone” (no light matter), and duly consecrated in accord- ance with Christian custom. Little attempt seems to have been made to stay the course of the Black Death, and it may well PLAGUE 187 be supposed that to bury its victims was as much as could be coped with, but Collier mentions the following curious incident. “A set of enthusiasts called Flagellants came from Hungary and passed through the country, lashing themselves till the blood ran down their shoulders that the plague might be stayed.” As to what effect this self-imposed penance had he leaves us uninstructed.* Between the visitation of the Black Plague in the fourteenth century, and the “ Great Plague” of the seventeenth century, a “sweating sickness” ravished England in the year 1551. It was peculiar inasmuch as it seemed to select its victims exclusively from the natives of these Isles. . Froude, writing of that visitation, remarks: “If it broke out in a foreign town it picked out the English residents with undeviating accuracy. The sufferers were generally men between thirty and forty years of age, and the stouter and healthier they were the more readily they caught the infection. “The symptoms were a sudden perspiration accompanied by faintness and drowsiness. Those who were taken with full stomachs died immediately, and those who caught cold ‘shivered into dis- solution in a few hours.’ “ The disease produced on the victim an intense desire to sleep, which, if yielded to, quickly proved fatal. So rapid was the disorder that of seven householders who supped together in the City of London, six before morning were corpses.” The cure advocated for this strange malady seems rather at variance with the necessity of keeping awake. The sufferer was advised “to 1 Collier’s ‘‘ British Empire.”’ 188 FUNERAL CUSTOMS keep close in a moderate air,” and to drink “ posset ale and such-like ” for ¢hivty hours, when the patient was supposed to be out of danger.* “It was a terrible time,” says Stowe; “men lost their friends by the sweat.” In London alone, eight hundred men died in one week in July. In the seventeenth century no less than four plagues swept over the country. When we realize the comparatively spare population compared with our own times, the following death toll is simply appalling : 1603... 30,578 LO 25 Maer a seks 7 TOO tah er LO en TG05 7 BOO. 400 or a total sacrifice of 144,991 lives. As these figures will show, the mortality of the “Great Plague,” as it was called, far exceeded them all. The authorities seem to have learned little from these repeated experiences. By a remarkable dispensation of Providence, a year later, the fire of London burnt out the foulness which had so long accumulated. Every sort of filthiness had soaked into the very foundations of the houses, which, together with the churchyards into which bodies had been hastily packed away in thousands, were cleansed and purified by the intensity of the heat. That goods placed for safe storage by the merchants in the crypts of the churches should have been destroyed indicates the thorough way in which the great conflagration did its work. At the first alarm of the plague the rich merchants of London fled to the country districts 1 James Anthony Froude, ‘‘ The Reign of Edward VI.”’ PLAGUE 189 to avoid infection, leaving their poorer brethren to face the coming storm. Some sort of organization seems to have existed with a view to stamping out the epidemic, for the city was divided into districts each with nurses, watchers and gravediggers. The women who tended the sick carried a red staff in their hands that those whom they met might avoid them. The infected houses were marked with a cross and a prayer—a cry to Heaven when nothing more could be expected of material assistance. The warning cry “bring out your dead” and the rumble of the “dead-carts” disturbed the stillness of the night, all too short for the collection of the bodies from the streets and houses. Besant also quotes the following regulations, drawn up by the City Fathers in their hopeless efforts to stay the ravages of the plague. “That burial of the dead by this visitation be at most convenient hours always, either before sunrise or before sunsetting, with the privity of the churchwardens or constable, and not otherwise, and that no neighbours or friends be suffered to accompany the corpse to church, or to enter the house visited, upon pain of having his house shut up or be imprisoned, and that no corpse dying of infection shall be buried, or remain in any church in time of common prayer, sermon, or lecture; and that no children be suffered at time of burial of any corpse in any church, churchyard, or burying place, to come near the corpse, coffin or grave, and that all the graves be at least six feet deep; and further, all public assemblies at other burials are to be forborne during the continuance of the visitation.” The regulations further enjoined that the houses which the plague had visited were to be marked with a 190 FUNERAL CUSTOMS red cross on the middle of the door one foot in length, and the words “ Lord have mercy on us” to be also inscribed.’ ‘“ Yes, when the crosses were chalked on the door, (Yes, when the terrible ‘ death-cart ’ rolled), Excellent courage our Fathers bore, Excellent hearts had our Fathers of old.’’ ? In view of the regulation that none might follow to the grave, the corpse was hurried out of the house at night, wrapped in any sort of an improvised shroud, to be committed to the pits, with, or more likely without, a muttered prayer from the labourer already accustomed to the sickening sight of whole- sale slaughter. Liberal libations of beer and tobacco and good pay were the only consolations of a sorely tried official, who, from force of circumstances, or some sense of duty, was pressed into this service. Whatever the efforts made it was certainly not science that finally overcame a national calamity which, nurtured in a hot-bed of filth, would, once it had started, have sorely taxed our most earnest efforts to-day. All that we have to remind us of this last of a series of plagues is the old burial grounds, over the entrance to which may be seen the sculptured representation of skull and cross-bones distinguish- ing the sites of the plague cemeteries. In the Brompton Road, once far removed from habitation, a row of empty houses stood for many years, which none would occupy. ‘They were built on the spot where many thousands of victims of the plague lay buried. 1 Sir Walter Besant, ‘‘ London in the Time of the Stuarts.’’ 2 Rudyard Kipling, ‘‘ Our Fathers of Old.’’ CHAR EER Axl STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS A pEAD lion may be a more impressive sight than a dead mouse, yet with the hand of death heavy upon them there is little to be said for any difference between the two, and even less when Nature has finished her task. As to the value of popular esteem and hero-worship even our own history shows us countries stifling their yawns at the death-bed of kings when the inevitable moment of dissolution seemed unreasonably delayed, and thinking only of their chances of ingratiating them- selves in the favour of the successor to the throne. Deserted, save by such, and perhaps a few staunch and simple souls, the last moments of many a monarch has little enough to recommend it. Few sovereigns have received a larger measure of popular devotion than Queen Elizabeth, yet the closing scene of her life was sad enough. Of all our kings and queens the death of William the Conqueror was perhaps the most dramatic. Feared rather than honoured the fierce old king died in Rouen. Long before the body was cold his followers deserted him, leaving his corpse to the care of his servants, who, after stealing everything that was of value from his person and from the house where he lay, followed the example of their betters. Alone and dis- IQI 192 FUNERAL CUSTOMS honoured the clergy found him when they came to offer the last consolation of religion. ‘The body was taken by water to Caen in the charge of the monks of St. Benedict, and with them walked Anselm, the Abbot of Bec, who had risen from a _ bed of sickness in order to hear the last confession of the Conqueror—but too late. “In the midst of the solemn pomp there arose a cry of terror, flames burst from a house by which the procession was passing; it was unsafe to proceed as the whole quarter was threatened with destruction. Once more the body of the unloved Duke was deserted, only the monks followed it to the convent.” Even the actual burial at St. Etienne was attended by dramatic events. As the Bishop of Evreux ascended the pulpit to pronounce a funeral discourse, a rich burgher of Caen, who was present with a formidable body of sympathizers, demanded a hearing. “I forbid you to cover the body of the robber with my soil or to bury it in my heritage,” he shouted—the ground on which the chapel stood, having been wrested from him by force. The commotion that ensued may well be imagined; peace was only restored when the Bishop handed sixty sous as an instalment of his claim and promised that the remainder of the price he demanded for the rights of interment should be made good to him. This episode was surely dramatic enough, but the final scene was full of horror. “ The coffin was not large enough, or strong enough, and all the strength of incense smoke could not prevent the congregation from hurrying out of the church, leaving the terror-struck monks to finish the service as best they could, and then retire all trembling to their cells.” Many years later the Calvinistic mob broke STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 193 into the tomb and took all the bones of the king. These, with the exception of the thigh-bone, were given to a monk, but were lost when the Abbey was a little later sacked. The thigh-bone, which passed into private hands, was brought back and is now all that remains of William the Conqueror.* A somewhat similar incident to that which scattered the mourners at the Conqueror’s funeral occurred at the burial of Mademoiselle de Mont- pensier (first cousin to Louis XIV). In accordance with an old custom the heart had been removed for separate burial. Owing to imperfect sealing of the casket containing the relic, which was placed on the credence table, it burst in the middle of the service with a loud report. ‘The intolerable odours sent priests and many eminent mourners flying from the church (of St. Denis). The Bourbons were buried in the vaults of St. Denis, and it was customary for their bodies to be opened and the more perishable parts removed and embalmed. Many instances are on record of this once common practice of burying the heart apart from the corpse. The tradition is still carried out by they Saxon royal family... Directly death is assured the body is opened and the heart and entrails removed. The heart is enclosed in a casket and placed on a white satin cushion on one side of the coffin, and the entrails in a white satin- covered jar on the other side. When the coffin is deposited in the vault these unpleasant objects repose on a bracket beside it.’ The heart as the legendary seat of the emotions has often been buried in some favoured spot to ’ Percy Dearmer, ‘‘ Highways and Byways in Normandy.” _ 2 “ My Own Story,’’ Louisa of Tuscany (Ex-Crown Princess of Saxony). N 194 FUNERAL CUSTOMS which it has been impossible to remove the body. The usage is also connected with the desire that premature burial would thus be avoided. In the year 1838 the heart of Richard I, “The Lion-hearted,” was discovered in Rouen, enclosed in a case of lead, in which it had been placed at his death in 1199. His body was buried at Fontevand. Other royal hearts were thus disposed of: that of Henry III in Normandy; Eleanor, Queen of Edward I, in.Lincoln; Louis: TX, X11] sands oGby in Paris. An interesting story is told of the heart of Robert Bruce, which he desired should be buried in the Church- of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. It was entrusted to Douglas, who carried it enclosed in a silver casket, which was suspended from his neck. On his journey he became involved in a fight with the Spaniards against the Moors, in which he was killed. ‘The treasure was recovered and brought to Scotland, where it found a resting- place in Melrose Abbey. Another “ wandering heart” was that of James, the Marquis of Montrose, who was executed in the year 1650. Enclosed in a steel box it was sent to the exiled Duke of Montrose. The casket was stolen on the journey and was eventually discovered in an obscure shop in Flanders. Later it was taken to India by one of the family, where it was stolen by a native; finally it reached Europe once more, only to disappear at the time of the French Revolution. The separate burial of the heart was forbidden by Pope Boniface VIII in 1294, but Benedict XI withdrew the prohibition. The practice was common from the twelfth to the eighteenth century. The heart of the poet Shelley, it will be remembered, was snatched from Chsqy ‘pnossny uyof fo uorssiutaagd pury Aq paonposdry) ‘AUNCIS AUNAH UIS 40 LUVAH AHL GANIVINOO AONO “IO9UIWIIMS PpoIeIds : IT’ Pe ; ‘ peyeiqe[eo ay} ‘qqo\y ureyde) WOASAW HSILINA AHL NI MON ‘LAMSVO LUVAH SIHL ASVW HLVAd Car are ; < iA 4 ‘Lage ; ets pe} t< avt' - n ry eT i. a ds 4.5 - 5°) . ALAS Sig v LAVA wy Ce a se 4 i Wass is FA : ¥ ie ic J - = . a q oe , i} ij a i oh a 7 how 7 To v's j ‘lly ia ey, were ck : AP ‘te had i pe , | vu Lal o : 7 #3, “ , ake. ah 5*,9 : 7 . whe “oh ; Y 7 ° ae oe a oO f ey wns) ‘< i! iy 7 7 elk ’ r Mat oA ; ‘ere Eup) _ ’ r ede hei NPS aces te | » a a1 eg vin y ate’ AY dj 1 Udder 17 ) t " 1 . > . > ‘‘> ai wis & vs a 7 ¢ 7 os Pay ee ee) ke Oe ) Ie ( m e4 a : f j vy" ® 7 7 ~~ > > std i aT ‘ = 7 a} ih i § ' * é Pi ah? i : is ' u : + f y 8 wr ivAm ' a, . I s) ee A, ' ’ cmt 4 6) - Z eit. i: me ey y Va ey a y . 5 "4 vie a: = ml Nee Gee a ee 7 ies i? V4 ne Oe. k_, ty ae Ay Ace J é ; Caer a 7 4 J pa ve 4 ay Pe 9 i; art 4 ) *\ os v . é 7 :« i ( ‘ vi ve ae Y 1 7 ie r : , ‘ai oe Aa \ ae 4 - - ~ ( ; “ 7 ' ; ‘4 : A wo Se ; h ) yyiee v ' A, ud Fai 4 “A ry i eh , . ph vi iy rt, : * A Aen", r. Ls An » ‘ 4 : A 7 S : . Q Pa n We) ‘ ae =e ih st . ; To ie eas PY af , ey ~~ * 1 1\ y exit iw i hy a o ’ , 7 As of A ‘ ¢ ‘ thy: * ¥ « . mee oN hy Why v! 4 . P. ° . i ae u. ry] i , Fi i ion ' t ' , iy . Md f 1 ; 4 i ” j ' By . ; ; we | Ve 4 ‘Af \ rat Lage i ’ s : : =| i. s%, vt » ’ ) - iy ‘ ’ i ip - ba ek ’ —- ' he . ‘ i. ‘ ‘ } ‘ : ” : uy a “~~ f 4 i F 4 ' : | st, b. =a! ae "3 4 ‘ * ‘ ie \" Moe i § i 4 The : - A , i? ' i rae lawn | 4 ‘ by - 2 i \ i ° ‘ ; a 7 Me é a A a "Ws 4 "4 . ant i ; A Rs; ‘ Py v i bg > = ois } + st j + : i. { | ow, ” d : 2. ‘ 4 7 vr 2) 1 . - 1 j j =% ' : '

“ll vA i . TT | ‘ \ +4 F - ; : Hi site i iy ee : : A] : ae: rat Ai a . ; at i 1 - ; 4 if ' Yo i) : tel vl asf ‘ Sacer: i «* : a »? P : ie i ; P i iy f i * 4 ‘i f i 7 I { a *, ne ‘ } =. ~s ret! Y yh aes ba : ? b ry } . eo ; ALS aI ; ihe at a4 7 j j ' re U ‘ 6 a i | aay “y a : , 5, ' y ’ 1¢ i a ' hdl ‘4 ini : i pr Py re ; ie 4 a ‘ el 1 ae) i f y a? p : \ 4 at 9 ; \f a eee 4a _ ‘J 1 y | 7 - m : ; ® : ne 7 Ls = 4 é _% mi, pei bY i ai a rT “¥ i : Ban } vi : 7 a JA i] 7 >> a *¥ at J .. 7 7 > au , STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 195 the funeral pyre by his friend, Trelawney, and sent to England. An account of the funeral of Henry VII will give some idea of the scale of magnificence considered appropriate to royal obsequies during the Tudor period. The body of the King was brought from Richmond and was met at St. George’s Bar, Southwark, by the Mayor and Aldermen, accompanied by a body of commoners on horse- back, appropriately dressed in black. The streets were lined by members of the various “ companies ” carrying torches, the lower crafts occupying the ireomaces Alter) themeitreemen vol Stheay-City came the “Strangers,” FEasterlings, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Venetians, Genoese, Florentines and Lukeneres on horseback and on foot, also carrying torches. In Cornhill the lower crafts were so marshalled that the “ most worshipful crafts stood Me aio ouePauls.¢ On the day following the shrouded but uncofined body of the King was taken from St. Paul’s to Westminster. “The lowest craft ” was placed nearest to the Cathedral and the “ Most Worshipful ” next to Temple Bar, where the civic escort terminated. The Mayor and Aldermen proceeded to Westminster by water to attend “Masse and offering.” The Mayor with his mace in his hand made his offering next after the Lord Chamberlain, those Aldermen who had passed the chain offered next after Knights of the Garter.’ It must have been a well ordered and imposing spectacle at which the crafts were honoured, an element strangely lacking in these days when royal processions are for the most part confined to a military display. 1 Sir Walter Besant, ‘‘ London in the Time of the Tudors.”’ 196 FUNERAL CUSTOMS The chapel of Henry VII, containing his beautiful tomb by the Florentine artist Torrigiano, also enshrines the body of his consort, Elizabeth of York. Here, too, we are reminded of a much less pompous ceremony. For reasons of state the body of Charles II, which lies in a vault beneath the chapel, was buried with only the barest formalities “and soon forgotten after all this vanity,” Evelyn tells’ us.*)...) Here, |, too;:; lies ) the’ oreat Dieu Marlborough, the magnificent pall which covered his remains—rightly the perquisite of the Dean of Westminster—being stolen after the funeral. The city guilds of craftsmen loved to honour their dead with imposing processions. Describing a civic funeral, Machyn says, “ First the company to which the deceased belonged appeared in their livery. The company of clerks attended the funeral of the better class and sang over the graves; black gowns were given to as many poor men and women as the condition of the deceased permitted.” When a great citizen died like Master Husee Squire and Gutt Marchand Vintorer, of Muskovia, and haberdasher, he was followed by a hundred mourners, he had five pennons of arms and a “cotte armur,’ and two heralds of arms, etc. “He was attended by the choir of St. Paul’s and by the company of clerks. He-was buried at St. Martin’s, Ludgate Hill, the church hung with black and with escutcheons of arms; the Reader of St. Paul’s preached both days.” ? | The funeral oration or “funeral” as it was at one time called—denoted the obsequies generally, but more particularly the sermon. Webster, in his dictionary, gives examples of 1 Evelyn’s Diary. 2 Sir Walter Besant, ‘‘ London in the Time of the Tudors.”’ STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 197 the word used in both senses. “King James's ‘funerals’ were performed very solemnly in the Collegiate Church at Westminster »—also “ Mr. Giles Lawrence preached his ‘ funerals.’ ” The ancient Greeks and Romans employed their finest orators for this purpose, the procession generally stopping on its way to the pyre in some important public place to listen to a lengthy panegyric on the virtues of the dead.’ In this country it was a common practice to leave by will a specified sum of money to defray the cost of a funeral sermon. In later days the “mortuary”—a charge levied on the estate of a deceased person by the Church—became associated with the post-mortem oration. Master Flammock, who died in 1560, was apparently a Puritan; many gowns were bestowed by his executors. He was taken to the church without singing or clerks, and was buried with a Psalm “After Genevay,” and a sermon. Master Hulson Scrivener was one of the masters in Bridewell, so the masters of Bridewell attended his funeral with green staves in their hands, and all their children, “‘ and there was great syngyng as ever was heard.” ” Such elaborate functions nearly always finished with a repast, “and all dune, to the place fir there was a great diner.” With much pomp and civic honours the City Fathers loved to bury their dead, especially the members of their own Guilds. The bearing of torches on these occasions reminds us that burial by night—a custom which added very considerably to the dramatic effect of the proceeding—was con- 1 See as example ‘‘ Pericles Funeral Oration,’’ translated by Richard Crawley. ‘‘ Thucydidis Peloponnesian War,’’ published in the Temple Classics. 2 Sir Walter Besant, ‘‘ London in the Time of the Tudors.’’ 198 FUNERAL CUSTOMS sidered as a special honour to persons of rank or distinction. Those of the Aldermen of London who had passed the chair were thus interred. The practice gradually fell into disuse, partly because of the opportunity it afforded for riotous behaviour on the part of the sightseers; it was prohibited in the time of Charles I. The prohibition was, how- ever, frequently disregarded, the tradition being retained by some families and in certain districts. The last English king to be buried by torchlight was George I. Something of the cost of great public funerals may be gathered from the following extract from Evelyn’s’ Diary (1695). He ‘says; ~ li) sawithe Queen (Mary) lie in state—the Marquis of Normanby told me King Charles had a design to buy all King Street and build it nobly, it being the street leading to Westminster.” “This,” he adds, “might have been done but for the expense of the Queen’s funeral, which was fifty thousand pounds— against her desire.” After the burial a paper was found expressing a wish that her body might not be opened, and that no expense might be incurred at her funeral. Macaulay gives a picturesque account of this funeral : “While the Queen’s remains lay in state at Whitehall the neighbouring streets were filled every day from sunrise to sunset by crowds, which made all traffic impossible; the two Houses with their Maces followed the hearse—the Lords robed in scarlet and ermine, the Commons in long black mantles. No preceding sovereign had ever been attended to the grave by a Parliament, for till then, the Parliament had always expired with the sovereign. The banners of England and France, STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 199 Scotland and Ireland were carried by great nobles before the Courts. The pall was borne by the chiefs of the illustrious houses of Howard, Seymour, Grey and Stanley. On the gorgeous coffin of purple and gold were laid the crown and sceptre of the realm. The sky was dark and troubled, and a few ghostly flakes of snow fell on the black plumes of the funeral car. Within the Abbey, nave, transept and choir were ablaze with innumer- able wax lights. The body was deposited under a sumptuous canopy in the body of the church, while the Primate (Tenison) preached. Through the whole ceremony the distant booming of canon was heard every minute from the batteries of the Tower. It was rumoured at the time that a robin which had taken refuge from the cold in the same building was observed to perch incessantly, and, as it were, affectionately and sadly upon the Queen’s hearse, a touching incident greatly appreciated by the spectators.” As in the case of Queen Mary elaborate obsequies are often given in honour of a person who has previously expressed a desire to be buried in a simple and decent manner, and much of the vulgar ostentation of the modern survivals is for the aggrandizement of relatives rather than the honour of the departed. Such was the fate of the great Italian composer, Verdi, who gave the most strict and definite instructions to his friends that his body was to be laid to rest without any sort of public display whatever. Despite this, he was buried in Milan in IQOI, in an ornate marble tomb, and it was com- puted that no less than a hundred thousand people lined the streets to witness the procession. We can hardly conceive that the elaborate 200 FUNERAL CUSTOMS funeral ceremonies afforded to Oliver Cromwell were such as would have been desired by a man of such simple and unostentatious habits. Whilst his body was being embalmed his effigy was exhibited to the public, decked with royal robes, crown and regalia. His remains were after- wards removed from Somerset House on a state bed of velvet, drawn by six horses, the pall being borne by various noblemen. Knights and heralds, guards of honour, and a noble procession of notable persons accompanied him to Westminster Abbey. Evelyn describes the event as “the joy- fullest funeral I ever saw, for there were none that cried but dogs, which the soldiers hooted away with a barbarous noise, drinking and taking tobacco in the street as they went ’”—a description which, if it gives something in the way of local colour, is clearly prejudiced. The same chronicler, who never missed any public occasion of interest, particularly a funeral, in describing the obsequies of Ireton under date March 6th, 1652, writes: “Saw the magnificent funeral of that arch rebel Ireton carried in pomp from Somerset House to Westminster, with divers regiments of soldiers, horse and foot, then marched the mourners, General Cromwell (his father-in- law), his mock Parliament men, officers and forty- four men in gowns; three led horses in housings of black cloth, two led in black velvet and his charging horse all covered over with embroidery and gold on crimson velvet: then the Guidons, ensigns, four heralds carrying the arms of state (as they called it), namely the red cross, and Ireland with the casque wreath, sword and spurs, etc., next a chariot canopied of black velvet and six horses, in which was the corpse. The pall held up by mourners on foot, the mace and sword, with other STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 201 marks of his charge in Ireland (where he died of the plague), carried before it in black scarves. “Thus in a grave pace—drum covered with cloth, soldiers reversing arms—they proceeded through the streets in a very solemn manner.” Attempts were made at various times to curtail by law extravagance at public funerals, but with very little result. In the year 1681 the Scottish Parliament restricted the number of persons who might attend the funeral of a person of rank to one hundred, prohibiting at the same time the using or carrying of branches, banners and other honours at church except “the eight branches to be upon the pall or upon the coffin where there is no pall.” The funeral sermon was also condemned. Despite this Act the funeral of Sir William Hamilton, who died in 1707, was so costly that it dissipated the sum equal to two years of his salary as a judge. Whilst, especially in modern times, it has been customary to accompany the funerals of kings and those of exalted rank with a display of military, rather than civic honours, this has been more reasonably done in the case of famous military leaders. The burial of Napoleon occurs at once as an example. The Warrior-Emperor died at St. Helena on May 5th, 1821. He had previously selected a beautiful spot on the island, where he desired that his body should be interred in the event of permission being refused to take it to France. Here, in the presence of a few faithful friends who had cheered his exile, and the military authorities on the island, his body was carried by British Grenadiers on May 8th. He was clothed in the dress he had worn during his many campaigns —his head covered by his historical three-cornered 202 FUNERAL CUSTOMS hat—volleys were fired over his grave, and a huge stone was afterwards placed to mark the deserted spot where the remains of the great soldier lay. It was not till the year 1840 that the British administration restored the relics of Napoleon to the French. Before being placed in the frigate Belle Poule, the coffin was opened, when it was found that the body was not decayed and the features were still recognizable. All that remained of the great Napoleon was thus conveyed to the scene of his former triumphs, to be interred in the company of other illustrious warriors in the church of the Invalides. Though it was winter time, and bitterly cold (December 15th, 1840), some six hundred thousand persons assembled in the streets of Paris to do honour to Napoleon. Louis Philippe was present at the service, which was the occasion of much pomp and magnificence; a touching tribute to the memory of a great leader, and one which was not witnessed without the deepest emotion, was the appearance of a guard of honour composed of war- scarred veterans, who had fought by his side in many a famous battle. Napoleon’s favourite charger also followed the body to its final resting- place. The funeral of Wellington was hardly less magnificent than that of the vanquished Emperor. It took place on November 18th, 1852. The body was interred by the side of Nelson in St. Paul’s Cathedral. During the procession the streets presented a remarkable sight; enormous crowds were assembled many hours before the ceremony, and every possible point of vantage had been occupied where even a distant glimpse of the cortege might be expected. Both rich and poor were dressed in deep mourn- ing. Whatever the popular feeling might have om Dey ge. GRILLE Of tht! TE Hele ‘fd, LEI GYD Sah C (es Yi; Ce Whe G \ ABP dedeol Nifeh Coes Ga bal: INVITATION TO THE FUNERAL OF THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON AT ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, LORD NELSON’S FUNERAL CAR. This pageant-car was designed on the lines of his historic ship, the Victory. pape be ee * ae 7 he aah rh, ; he ~~ ey ath? ; a U ; ' VF A on sah 4 : -#) j 4. ihe Be ‘i i 7 2 — Thea) 2 v¢ J - ‘ 4 Fs he Aden ‘, : é AY ~ ’ ; if r ' - if A P 1] A 4s in t 1 ny ) } « : ma ‘4 i+ | 7 " : ' i m na i i 7; =i sb , - (ee) ; + > ‘Bint yee ee oh Pee ™ ; y™ i ; 7. “ a f) ak 2 id P 4 = De} - if 4 y vr 7 vey oye : Rs te, aire ? | i { mt ius i : +" ‘ } 4 » ‘ ; - A! 4 ui be ea big r i ee | ’ < r \ - : J ae tag yi ay e j r ; vt ( 4 ‘is * 7 , vq . a % vs : 7 be é os . oF ha] LEY gee , y i , y ? i P M4 ' $ I ' tant \ Le Mi 4 Vy } , an i 4 —% - ‘ E ite wo i a q ‘ li, 1G AY *” ad > amb, 7 4 am : 4 7 ‘ q i » aye ‘ ee » i's —- : why f ; oe ; : on i ; ~~ o | ei ow ‘) fl : e \ 4 y f ) 3 a i 3 Sa? 4 é i : i ‘ 40 > : | eee My 7 , th ’ re? | A 4 ' ' ‘ A “et oe oA: it - ‘ ot ; ete Ol aka : : a . i ay ’ 4 ¢ ve » ee = > ns 1 re ad ed ent: 4 LPoust “J ‘ ( fe 4 ‘ j i ag i j rs 10h Me i ; . I rv, he 5 : 4 " J ae! i | a j Pret i “Fi “J a » | a 1 p i ‘A ‘i { bese i A ; ro i: ,eiovg | a \ 4 7 ‘ i ei i - . ’ . i i Te 7 ion = ; — 1 "% war, uv ‘ a 6 } ae | : ¢ { % —2 ay‘) § 7 ay F . j - ‘ a” Me 4) : ; re a es ‘ @ i on , i i % € Tt viy ot a " ale 5 J +! : i i : PS ; ; BES ea rs eT rOF eae se a @ 4° ’ s ot a reers, “7 i 1% Ty y % fs ‘ye } - ; ' ype Me ua ) ed é i, =f aa ' 1 i (; y * bf. heh } n Le j . 7] ; Oe y t ’ ' nf ; # ; ; ; ef. } ‘ HA Ve ‘ “% a) ur 7 ’ J : iy TaD 8 c}' ! ray f » bani d alee eB Sd tee, + wt 7c. Z ») : ‘a Tae wey GL ; a 7 > H \ ; Aa “Defi } aa a | “4 ’ af a i . {4 : i vn Cs a J aa Lan " 7 - =e a vy 8 Waa) i _ ar sd if a 7 7 a a vy ; @ 4 ? e a ‘. : nes = n YAP ’ ere L¢ bd ers M “a bee me vy ( ee ‘ “heat ae * a) f ‘ abe’ A SETS my 2 ove aa! ae: b>@, NM oo . re NO Ge bwin ia. STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 203 been at some periods of the life of Wellington, there can be no doubt that at his death a generous and heartfelt sorrow was displayed. With great military ceremony, arms reversed and drums muffled, the enormous structure on which the body was carried rumbled through the streets to the sound of the “ Dead March.” This funeral car is interesting as it resembled the later examples of the hearse proper. Mounted on a substantial wagon, the enormous superstruc- ture, decorated with banners and weapons, bore an altar-like erection covered by a magnificent velvet pall. On the top rested the coffin, on which the Duke’s celebrated “ cheese-cutter ” hat reposed with the other insignia of his rank. Over the whole car a canopy was erected, supported by four orna- mented poles. A large team of horses was required to drag the heavy structure, all of which wore nodding plumes on their heads whilst velvet saddle- cloths covered their flanks in the orthodox manner. Large bodies of troops representing all the picked regiments in the British army lined the route or followed in the procession. Not only in this country, but abroad, on the day of his funeral honour was accorded to the “Saviour of Europe,” as Wellington was called. In Austria a grand parade of the whole army was ordered, at which the Emperor was present in person to direct the salute of artillery. In all the ceremonies which accompany the soldier to his grave, whether he be a general of renown or a trooper of humble rank, we see much the same forms resorted to, which we shall find presuppose that he has been slain and is to be buried on the field of battle. Even in modern warfare, where conditions are so widely changed from the old order of things, 204 FUNERAL CUSTOMS the earliest practices are still in vogue. The identity disc may take the place of the tattoo mark, but the purpose is the same. The art of tattooing—if it be art—was used, if not originated, for the purpose of identification of the dead and the wounded on the battlefield. By this means did Edith the Swan Neck discover the body of Harold on the field of Hastings. William of Malmesbury (1066) says, “ The English adorned themselves with punctured designs.” Kingsley says, “May not our sailors and soldiers fashion of tattooing the arms and chest with strange devices be a remnant of the very fashion kept up if not originated by the desire that the corpse be recognized after death.” * The forms prescribed for the burial of soldiers are set down with military punctiliousness and regard for detail. The uniformity of the proceed- ings and such enforced simplicity as burial on the field of battle dictates, adds a dignity to all things based on essential principles which never fails to awaken the sympathetic interest of the observer. The regulations provide for different escorts according to the rank of the deceased, but other- wise the same honours are paid irrespective of degree. The “firing party” consists of a sergeant, corporal and twelve privates. To those selected as pall-bearers falls the duty of seeing that the flag which covers the body, and the headdress and accoutrements are tied on the coffin in such a manner as will prevent their falling off when the coffin is “shouldered.” The arms of the escort are reversed, that is to say, the muzzle of the rifle is directed to the rear under the soldier’s left arm, the right hand holding it in position behind his body. * Chas. Kingsley, ‘‘ Hereward the Wake ’’ (Preface). STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 205 The coffin is placed on a gun-carriage prepared for the purpose (that used on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s funeral may be seen in the London Museum). The procession moves off at the slow march, followed by the riderless charger in appropriate circumstances, with his master’s boots reversed in the stirrups. The firing party leads the cortége, followed by the band and drummers. After the gun-carriage march the bearers in attendance, the mourners following. The band plays the “Dead March,” and when it ceases the pace is quickened till the burial ground is within sight, when the slow march is resorted to again. At the entrance to the cemetery the firing party leading, halt and open out, in order that the procession may pass between them as they stand with heads bent and arms reversed. The coffin is then lifted from the gun-carriage by the bearers and carried feet foremost to the grave, where the firing party follow, remaining with covered heads. The ceremony is concluded by the firing of three volleys, and the sounding of the bugle call known as the “Last Post.” A lively march is played by the band on the way home. Such a scene as this is a common enough incident in any garrison town, but it never becomes commonplace, for it has history behind it. The use of the gun-carriage as an improvised hearse has an obvious origin in the time of war. The reversed arms were once a recognized signal to the enemy that a truce was called whilst the dead were buried. The three volleys fired over the grave announce that the ceremony is over, and that the burial party is prepared to accept battle again. The wailing notes of the “ Last Post” is the sound that nightly lulls the camp to rest. The use of the flag as a pall is an obvious 206 FUNERAL CUSTOMS makeshift in circumstances where coffins are unobtainable. As we have noted in a previous chapter, the custom of leading the warrior’s horse to the grave is a remnant of the days when it was considered necessary to slaughter the animal there in order that its master might have a charger in the spirit world to carry him to fresh fields of victory. The hoisting of a flag half-mast high, though a common usage, is essentially of military origin. It typifies the victory of death over life, the _victor’s flag being at one time flown over the flag of the vanquished, which was lowered for this purpose. Of naval funerals there is little to tell. When they take place on land, they follow the military custom—at sea, the uncofhned body is commonly sewn in a hammock or in sailcloth, to which shot or a weight is attached, in order that it may sink in the deep waters to which it is committed. We cannot claim to have dealt even briefly with the subject of public funerals without making some mention of the burial of the murderer or his victims. Morbid curiosity and an inherent and ghoulish love of tragedy renders such occasions dear to vulgar minds. Thousands will gaze with intense interest at the shabby ending to a squalid drama. In comparatively modern times, when the public execution of criminals took place outside Newgate Prison, long hours before the condemned man was brought out in the chill morning air to be hanged, dense crowds of the lowest elements of society swarmed in thousands from the slums of the city to gloat over the horrid sight which the execution afforded. Even in these enlightened days, when an execution takes place a crowd assembles outside the prison walls in order to enjoy—we can use no STATE AND PUBLIC FUNERALS 207 other word—the sound of the tolling bell, and to see the black flag hoisted. The prison officials who receive the unhappy victim of passion and take his life, are also responsible for the disposal of his body. With a haunting suggestiveness Wilde tells the sordid story in the “ Ballade of Reading Gaol.” ‘“ Only a stretch of mud and sand By hideous prison wall, And a little heap of burning lime, That the man should have a pall.”’ Whilst at the present time there undoubtedly exists a growing strength of public opinion against the death-penalty, the cause of the murderer often on the slightest pretext has very generally been supported. “Release unto us Barabbas” 1s a cry not confined by any means to the ancient Jews. A remarkable case of this kind occurred in the year 1815. A girl named Eliza Fenning was accused of attempting to poison the family with whom she was employed as a servant. Her innocence was supported by one of those curious waves of intense popular feeling which arise in some such cases. Amongst the advocates of her cause were numbered many celebrated people of the day. The girl’s character—if one may judge it from the evidence given at the trial—was anything but blameless. Despite numerous petitions and the serious reconsideration of the facts at the last moment by the Lord Chancellor and other officials, she paid the full penalty of the crime which she was said to have committed. A public funeral was accorded to her, the body being handed over to her relatives for the purpose. ‘The streets through which the procession passed were thronged with sightseers 208 FUNERAL CUSTOMS the whole day. A strong body of guards was on duty to keep the peace. The pall was borne by girls dressed in white, as a symbol of her innocence, the relatives walking behind the hearse. Difficulty was experienced in forcing a way for the procession to the cemetery through the dense crowds of people. It is remarkable that the name of this woman of very humble origin appears, with detailed particulars of the event, in the Dictionary of National Biography. Reference has been made to the custom of burying murderers at the cross-roads. Many curious beliefs have been held in this relation. Jewish law forbade the cutting down of a body which had been hanged, for at least a day after the execution, in order that the ground might not be rendered “ unclean.” Hanging in this country was only substituted for burning alive as late as the year 1790. At Portsmouth in 1784, Mary Bayley, who murdered her husband, was drawn to the place of execution on a hurdle and was then burnt alive. If special precautions were considered necessary in order that the spirit of the dead might not annoy the living, certainly the dread of the ghost of a murderer or his victim presented special horrors to the superstitious mind. For this reason, a stake was driven through the heart of the criminal, and other means adopted to prevent unpleasant reappearances. Webb records the fact that during the Arran murder case in 1889, it transpired that the boots of the murdered man had been removed by the local constable, who according to tradition buried them on the sea-shore “between high and low water level” to prevent this ghost from walking. CHAR PE Re 2Old CREMATION, EMBALMING WHATEVER may be said for or against cremation as a method of disposing of the bodies of the dead, frequent controversy on the subject in recent years has been the means of inducing people to give some thought to the whole matter of funeral reform. Under a protecting cloud of sanctity, our funeral observances have been handed down unquestioned from generation to generation till the introduction of scientific cremation opened up a healthy discussion and forced the average mind to consider such things from the point of view of essentials. We cannot give even a few moments of serious thought to cremation as opposed to earth-burial without being forced to define our veal beliefs con- cerning an existence after death. Even orthodox minds may be surprised to discover how little assurance they have, when faced with the possibilities of a conscious sacrifice of their bodies to the flames. Those who have but a tolerant smile for the orthodox beliefs in a spiritual existence are apt to hesitate when they contemplate the destruction of their physical bodies by a process of incineration, however scientifically it may be carried out. “Why run any risks in so serious an experi- ment?” we may ask ourselves, when the grave, despite its obvious drawbacks, seems to offer, by contrast, some comparatively definite attractions. 209 O 210 FUNERAL CUSTOMS In vain will the advocates of cremation argue the larger question of the welfare of the public health with those who have the smallest lingering doubts. A natural horror of fire is the first obstacle to be overcome if cremation is to become a general practice. Even “advanced” people dwelling in a certain garden suburb near London have been seen to cast uneasy glances at the tall chimney of the “grill room” as the crematorium is playfully called, which has been erected so conveniently at the entrance to their sylvan retreat. The controversy between the advocates of the two methods of disposal is an old one. At the death-bed of Gurca-Nanak, the founder of the Sikh’s religion, the question arose as to whether his body should be buried—as was the custom of the Mussulmans—or cremated according to the practice of the Hindus. Knowing their minds, Nanak ordered that flowers should be placed by the Hindus on the tight of his body, and by their adversaries on the left. He promised that those offerings which remained fresh in the morning should have the disposal of his remains. After death had taken place the body was covered by a sheet. In the morning, when this was removed, xothing was found beneath it but the flowers, all of which were as fresh as when they were gathered.* It is a beautiful story, but it leaves matters pretty much where they are to-day. Looking backwards over the ages we find the method of the disposal of the dead in the following order: 1. Burial. 2. A period of both burial and cremation or a partial burning of the body. 1 Dorothy Field, ‘‘ The Religion of the Sikhs.”’ CREMATION, EMBALMING 211 3. Cremation gradually becoming obsolete, and earth burial the general practice.’ The Greeks and Romans originally buried their dead, but later cremation became customary. Incineration was the general practice of the ancient world, with the exception of Egypt, which embalmed. Judea, which learnt its embalming and other practices from the Egyptians, buried in the sepulchre, and China in the earth (in accordance with the doctrine of Feng-Shin). The Romans had so great a respect for all burial-places that the Christians were allowed to inter their dead undisturbed, whilst otherwise persecuted. The Greeks continued both methods with a decided bias towards cremation. What was the reason underlying these preferences? Clodd tells us “ the well-nigh common practice of burning the dead in the Bronze Age was probably resorted to, as a yet more effective way of getting rid of the ghost than by the burial of the body.” ” Once again we shall note the primitive dread of being haunted, which plays so large a part in all our funeral customs. Even the placing of weights on the body, and the construction of a ring-fence round it seems to have been considered as less efficacious, for to burn was to annihilate. Clodd adds “that it would be specially adopted by nomadic peoples, who, leaving their dead behind, would be unable to make provision for appeasing offerings at their graves. Hence the burning of the body to prevent the neglected ghost from following and harassing the living.” With the growth of Christianity cremation, which ‘ Walter Johnson, ‘‘ Byways in British Archzology.’’ Ed. Clodd, ‘‘ The Story of Primitive Man.’’ 212 FUNERAL CUSTOMS was generally practised, received a check, for, from the earliest times, the Christian Church put all the weight of her increasing influence against cremation and strictly forbade it to her converts; nor has she ever altered her attitude towards this form of disposal. “The Christians execrated funeral pyres and condemned the sepultures of flames,’ Minucius Felix wrote in the third century, a statement which he thus qualified, “ Nor do we fear, as you may suppose, any harm from this mode of sepulture, but we adhere to the old and better custom.” * In considering cremation we must distinguish between the funeral pyre of the ancients and of primitive peoples, and the modern methods of scientific incineration. The earliest pyre was merely a heap of wood upon which the body was placed, and in most cases only half destroyed, for it is no easy matter to reduce to ashes a body containing a large percentage of fluid matter. This altar-like erection must have been very nearly related to the pagan sacrifice of human and animal offerings to the gods, and may have had something to do with the Christian attitude. Pine or other resinous wood was selected, and some light combustible materials added such as dried grass and twigs, in order to set the pyre alight. Oak and hard woods generally, that resist the flames, take twice as long in producing the same results. With these materials oil, pitch, etc., were in later use, adding much to the heat and effectiveness of the flames. Christianity found the Romans building their pyres of pine logs constructed altar-wise. The interstices were stuffed with pitch and brushwood 1 Minucius Felix, ‘‘ Dialogues Octavius.’’ CREMATION, EMBALMING 213 to which sweet-smelling gums were added, the structure being decorated with the symbolic branches of cypress. When all was prepared the uncoffined body was placed in position, and the chief mourner, with head averted, set fire to the pyre with a torch. When the whole was reduced to ashes, wine was poured on the embers to cool them. The bones were then reverently collected, washed with milk and placed with perfume in a cinerary urn.’ The poor who were unable to do things on such a lavish scale had to rest contented with cheaper and less effective methods; as an alternative they could bury their dead in the catacombs, or cast them with the slaves into a common pit. These cruder forms of destroying the body by fire are still to be met with in certain parts of the world. In Siam the ceremony of cremating a king is, or was, conducted with an elaborate ritual. The body was placed in a sitting posture in a special form of chair, beneath which reposed a golden vessel. A quantity of mercury having been poured down the throat to dry up the body, a golden mask was put over the face of the dead ruler. A grand procession of state visited the body each day and ceremoniously emptied the fluid from the jar into the river. When the body was sufficiently dried it was placed in a large urn, where it remained for about a year. Meanwhile preparations were made for the final ceremony. Logs of the finest sandal wood were collected in the forests to form a catafalque some three hundred feet in height, to which the body was presently brought by a procession of great 4 a G. Tucker, ‘‘ Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. a ei 214 FUNERAL CUSTOMS magnificence to be deposited on the summit of the pyre. For seven days public games took place in honour of the occasion, as the Romans honoured their dead by gladiator shows. The final act was the ceremonial lighting of the pyre by the heir to the throne. After the flames had done their work the ashes were collected, mixed with clay and distributed as souvenirs amongst the people. In the times of plague or war cremation has sometimes been excused by those who were otherwise opposed to the practice. We have a curious instance of its use as a precautionary measure in the romantic circum- stances attending the cremation of the body of the poet Shelley. Many of those to whom the picture depicting the event is familiar (the original hangs in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool) might suppose that the method of disposal was chosen in this instance by the poet as a dramatic ending to a romantic career; or it might be thought that Byron, who was present, was responsible for the unusual arrange- ments. The facts are worth recalling. Shelley and his friend Williams were travelling in Italy when they were both drowned. A good deal of mystery surrounded the accident, it having been suggested that their boat was purposely capsized. The bodies were not recovered for some ten days after the catastrophe, when they were washed up in different parts of the shore at Via Reggio. Here they were temporarily buried in the sand whilst the authorities made the necessary arrangements for their cremation. The fact is that there was no option in the matter, for, according to Italian law, anything washed up from the sea must be burnt on the ROMAN FUNERAL PYRE.—Livy. The illustration depicts the traditional “‘ gladiator show,’ the lighting of the pyre with face averted, and the use of the toga as a veil indicating the heir or chief; mourner. PLAQUE REPRESENTING AN EARLY FORM OF HORSE-DRAWN BIER. 1. ¥ ’ SOD irk ut Ya, ant Die on” 4 Oe, Yor pane). Ga ; ue ie 2 ; bs +? a cor’ wh i ‘we 7, Ss Poa) 7 : bd ~*~ 7 SO a Dili Nes Bebe as rea GS. 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DT i 7 | i ‘ io <1 an é sé Fy , ' a 18%, est yi +" slog? ci, ¢ 20 ; g i> ee : a PT osu Oe ° or a TS esa ; y | ai? oo : 7 ’ uM, at es Vo : i" 4 : iu PAL Le: Cor | ' 4 ’ if 14 ; < i 13 i y ee i «4 \, - ae | ’ ab Oy ; PY ye vis ‘eye! Me ¥ j wes Ae A | Ph is | Tal’ rt a 7, : bovsl Aad 4 , : = ’ ie! j ‘ irr? Bi a , ' ir) ‘ i iP ; i : ¥ y ¢-> j i 7 ; r *.4¥ é a | § : Og 54 : . i ; { ’ rt hj ‘ , im Ci , i i= a aw a 7 di ey | } le t ; ar a “vé i i. 4 @ te oa ; » Aa ts 7 i. ; ) ‘ ft . : 7 bis rt 4 I ‘ = iy ; ‘ : ® on ol AN iy ; a ‘ J j ; ; mi . ri ns i. oa y e 7 : * ‘ jhe 7 iv eh ’ , : q ret pi ih tana ne ene aa j i J '% 4 a = Jy ; : ‘ ( 7 ; i é ¢ ne 4 . ; sg Ne ) y ‘4 \ - of : ONuse Prey ‘ 7 oP” Pa a a ~~ ; ’ ; tae, ; A ue Pee g i, 7 ' h . in : ; it “ve a aa : a] e : i -¢ ! *? as A> 7 4 y i? os Seer 4 m2 =" ify te if a 7 7 tae ae (ede oe eos ¢ CREMATION, EMBALMING 221 those who had died of smallpox. The first building erected disgusted the art-loving Parisian who likened it to a “dust destructor” or “ sewage farm,” for it certainly compared very unfavourably with the English efforts at Woking. In the early forms of incineration, the body placed on the pyre was literally roasted by the flames, and reduced to a cinder. The first scientific efforts were in the direction of the forming of a wall of flame, covering but not touching the body. In its perfected state, a light pine shell is provided in which the body reposes wrapped in a flannel shroud. The coffin is placed on a platform during the funeral service, at the conclusion of which, mechanism set in motion by a lever in the chapel, carries the coffin out of sight of those present on its way to the furnace, where coffin and body are soon reduced to ashes by the intensity of the heat. To burn a special form of furnace-coke in a forced draught is a very different and much less costly matter than the old method of burning wood, as used by the ancients. If a sufficient demand existed to keep the modern type of furnace at the proper temperature, the cost of a cremation need not exceed half a crown. The first cremation at Woking took place on March 26th, 1885, the “Gorini” furnace being used. The first “ subject ” was a woman, a fact which appears to have been overlooked by the leaders of the “Woman’s Movement,’ for purposes of propaganda, and to whom the writer respectfully commends it. Three years later, nearly a hundred bodies had been dealt with, and the accommodation was improved by the erection of further buildings. 222 FUNERAL CUSTOMS The necessary funds in the early days of the movement in England were subscribed by a few ardent reformers, amongst whom the Dukes of Bedford and Westminster took a large share of the financial responsibilities. The Duke of Bedford provided a private crematorium for the exclusive use of his family, which was first used at his own death in 1891. In France, any person of age has the right to dispose of his or her body by will to be either buried or cremated as they may desire. These instructions are legally binding on the executors, who render themselves liable to a considerable fine in the event of non-compliance. This opens up an interesting point, for very strong views are commonly held on the matter. In this country a person ceases to have any legal control of his body at the moment of death, so that one wishing to be cremated or buried as the case may be, whose relatives are likely to take an opposite view of the matter, must resort to a trick. Property should be left in these circumstances to those responsible for the disposal of the body, conditionally upon the wishes expressed being faithfully fulfilled. A good story illustrating the point was told by the late Sir Benjamin Richardson—one of the early advocates of cremation. An old gentleman called on Sir Benjamin one day. He stated that he had been so much impressed by what he had read on the subject that he most earnestly desired that his body should be cremated at his death, but his family would not hear of such a thing. In these circumstances he begged Sir Benjamin to consent to act as executor in order that his wishes might be carried out. Sir Benjamin explained the legal position, and CREMATION, EMBALMING 223 suggested his visitor should leave a large sum of money to the cremation society in the event of objections being raised by his daughter, who would otherwise receive his fortune. Shortly after this interview the old gentleman died. Almost immediately Sir Benjamin received a visit from a clergyman, who said he had heard of his father-in-law’s peculiar desire to be cremated, but he was sorry to say he could not allow this to take place as both he and his wife held very strong | views on the subject. Sir Benjamin Richardson observed “that of course if it was really against the wishes of the family he could do nothing to prevent them disposing of the body by burial, but,” he added, “as a matter of fact, ’m jolly glad, for in that case my society will benefit to the extent of something like ten thousand pounds.” This unexpected announcement produced the desired effect. On the following day Sir Benjamin received a letter from the clergyman, who wrote that after due consideration the family had decided that as it would be a greater sin to allow the money to go to the society they withdrew all opposition to the cremation of their relative’s remains.’ It has been stated that from the earliest times to.the present the voice of the Christian Church has ever been emphatically raised against any form of cremation. It is true that since its introduction into this country less than fifty years ago a number of the laity and even the clergy of the Established Church, as also those of various other Protestant bodies, have submitted to this form of disposal, but they have done so as a matter of individual preference and on the strength of a personal opinion. They have ignored, not 1The Observer, October i5th, 1916. 224 FUNERAL CUSTOMS denied, what history makes so perfectly and indisputably clear, that since the inception of Christianity it has been not only a non-Christian practice but one that was strictly forbidden. In dealing with the Christian standpoint we must therefore differentiate, without making any invidious distinction, between those who without denying a tradition hold an individual opinion, and act as their private inclination dictates, and those who place the Christian tradition before their individual preferences. Generally speaking, however, the advocates and supporters of the modern crematorium are those who, for want of\,a, better term; ,may ‘be ;describedias hysaee thinkers.” Superficially, the reason why the Early Church objected to the funeral pyre is that the body of its Founder was buried, but this in itself can hardly be called a logical reason. ‘Traditionally, the body was not buried in the earth, as we bury, but walled up in a sepulchre, according to the manner of the Jews. We have considered reasons given by early Christian writers for such common funeral practices as the ceremonious washing of the dead, “because this was done to the body of our Lord.” In view of the fact that these were customs of Jewish origin we must trace them further back than the Christian era if we wish to know something more about them. The Jews notoriously acted in all matters affecting personal cleanliness and hygiene with an extraordinary discernment. How great was the horror of cremation among the Jews is clear from the fact that the burning of the body was added to the death penalty as a final indignity, much in the same manner as a felon was condemned at one time by the laws of our CREMATION, EMBALMING 225 own country, first to be hanged, then drawn and quartered. | The burning of the body of Saul might seem to be a remarkable exception to the rule, but the immediate circumstances must be taken into account. In the first place, Saul died by his own hand, and secondly, his mutilated remains were secured only by a dangerous expedient from the victorious Philistines.* In this case, if we follow the narrative, we shall find a strong supposition that the remains were thus destroyed by fire as the only means of saving them from greater indignities. The matter is still further elucidated by the fact that the burning of the body was held to account for the three years of famine in the time of David. Modern orthodox Jews oppose cremation as “not in consonance with the spirit of Judaism.” Dr. Herman Adler, the Chief Rabbi of Great Britain, pronounced it “a violation of Jewish laws.” More liberal minds have held that it is the duty of a Rabbi to officiate if asked to do so at the funeral of a co-religionist, rather than to refuse on the grounds that cremation is an anti-Jewish practice. Others would give their services as ministers of religion, but retire before the actual cremation. Such instances are, however, quite modern and notable as exceptions only. The Jews, believing that the stages of decay in the grave were experienced as physical pain by the deceased as an atonement for sins, might very well hesitate to commit their remains to the flames.* A Jew recently deceased, left a remarkably unorthodox provision in his will, insisting amongst Seam tel Sexi 124i 2 « Jewish Encyclopedia. 226 FUNERAL CUSTOMS other things that he should be cremated and the ashes cast to the winds without any religious ceremony or memorial. A representative of the Daily News, wishing to learn the attitude of the Jewish community on the matter, approached the Chevra Kadisha, one of the leading Jewish societies connected with the rites of the dead. Here he learned that “the Society has on several occasions deprecated cremation as opposed to the sentiment and spirit of Judaism.” . It would seem, therefore, that whether the Christian merely adopted the Jewish custom because it was Jewish, and despised cremation because it was pagan—or if they disposed of the body of their Founder in the Jewish manner for some separate reason—the fact remains that neither Jews nor Christians can be cremated without violating the most ancient and sacred traditions of their respective beliefs. That such reasons will not deter many professing either faith from so disposing of their bodies goes without saying. The revival of psychic investigation came much into vogue about the same time as_ scientific cremation. The growth of this cult has been very remarkable, and it may be interesting to note what the modern occultist has to say about the matter. Amongst a lot of contradictory experi- ences we gather that it is generally held that the spiritual counterpart or personality does not leave the body for a considerable time after death, and that it is attached meanwhile to the seats of the emotions by a cord visible to those who are psychic. Any violent interruption of the slow processes of nature is therefore harmful. In this connection it is interesting to remember that the Jews did not seal the sepulchre after the dead had CREMATION, EMBALMING 227 been deposited there till three days after death had taken place, during which time the relatives constantly visited the tomb hoping that signs of returning life might be manifested. In the ancient world the Egyptians are credited with a very special knowledge of occult matters, and they performed very many most elaborate rites for the dead, with which the Israelites became familiar, having learnt embalming from them. To this nation incineration was utterly opposed to their traditional practices. Without any attempt to dogmatize on a subject about which really very little is defined, even a superficial study of the question of crema- tion will show us that this method of disposal is certainly not a zecessity from the sanitary point of view. That it introduced a certain element of danger in the hands of the criminal, and that it is directly opposed to western practice and tradition. It may be said in favour of cremation that it is both quick and cleanly, and that it dispenses with the necessity of burial grounds. In its place we have the “columbary” or dove-cot, so called from the niches or pigeon holes it provides for the cinerary urns containing the ashes. These receptacles, which may be hired for a term of years, take up so little space that it would be difficult to spend any large sums of money on their adornment. In this matter they certainly have an advantage over the grave. As a rule a marble lining and a bronze erille enclosing the aperture is the sum total of extravagance. Needless to add that in most cases the vulgarity and shoddy ugliness peculiar to the undertaker’s works has left its impress on the urn and casket. The inscription 228 FUNERAL CUSTOMS is invariably lettered in the worst possible style, or perhaps more correctly in no style at all. Here and there, as the eye wanders over row upon row of niches, an exception may be found, designed perhaps by an artist, and not selected from the catalogue of the trader. With such exceptions, by far the best receptacles are those which are either actual replicas of, or designs based on the ancient Greek or Roman examples found in the catacombs and elsewhere. Undoubtedly the revival of cremation has necessitated the reconsideration of many funeral practices, and it might be reasonably hoped that “ grave goods ” would-have been abolished amongst other things. This unfortunately is not the case, for it is quite common to find in the niches sentimental offerings for the solace of the departed spirit—if for any other purpose what is the object of placing it in or near the urn, photographs of relations, artificial flowers, favoured volumes of poetry and other personal trifles? In view of the fact that the Dismal Trader has been responsible for conserving from one generation to another the rags and tatters of pagan survivals, it may be interesting to inquire what are the views of the modern undertaker on the subject of cremation, but let him speak for him- self. The following is an extract from a letter written by an undertaker to the editor of the Undertakers Journal: “Has the undertaker considered the value of cremation from the commercial point of view? Looking it straight in the face, I think if it became more general the undertakers would not be required to supply much in the way of ‘deautiful caskets,’ CREMATION, EMBALMING ~— 229 and possibly at times the crudest and cheapest form of coffin would be used to convey the body to the crematorium. If such is the case,” he continues, “the undertakers are acting in a most noble and unselfish manner in advocating crema- tion, or they have failed to realize the importance from this point and possibly have never considered the value of embalming.” Here, then, we have a frank and unvarnished admission of a fact that cannot be too widely recognized, namely, that the undertaker is a trades- man, and as such we must expect him to “push” the line which brings in most grist to his mill, and as long as the public is foolish enough to be gulled by his “pinkings and prickets” he is going to provide them—naturally ! Before leaving the subject of cremation there is one little matter which seems worth attention. When the dramatic moment arrives for the cofhn to pass from the sight of the mourners on its way to destruction, and before it goes forward to its fiery ordeal, the undertaker “behind the scenes” is given an opportunity to remove the “beautiful furniture” with which the coffin is provided. The writer was informed by an undertaker that it was “generally hired,” a fact which no doubt is always made gwite clear to the distressed relatives when the funeral arrangements are made. But there seems a possibility of this little matter being forgotten as a case reported recently in the daily press seems to indicate. A lady saw a coffin-plate bearing her husband’s name exhibited as an advertisement in the window of an undertaker, whom she promptly and successfully sued. This leads one to wonder what happens to the coffin 230 FUNERAL CUSTOMS or casket in similar circumstances. Cannot one imagine as the great craftsman contemplates the labour and artistry of his craft about to be ruth- lessly and even needlessly committed to the flames, that he may desire to “snatch” from the burning, so to speak, the child of his creation, not overlook- ing, of course, to deduct its second-hand value from the bill. We have seen the ancient practice of embalm- ing recommended to the trade as a more profitable matter than cremation. If we know anything at all of the activities of the modern undertaker we must have noted that the study of scientific embalming is receiving at the present time the greatest attention from all progressive members of the trade. Even Canada has its “ Embalmers’ Associa- tion,’ and we find their annual convention being “opened with prayer,” for prayer is, of course, more or less connected with the business, and the undertaker generally, and particularly the embalmer is a great stickler for niceties, as the following quotations will show. A gentleman described as a Professor,’ in speaking on the subject of embalming, urges the necessity of a close attention to detail. For instance, he advises that “the body should be laid in a comfortable position in the casket.” “ Every- thing just exactly as you would like to have it done for one of your own family,” he advises. In order to demonstrate the point he gives us an instance within his own experience of neglect in such matters. It appears that a young friend of the Professor had died unexpectedly “in the East,” the body being embalmed and forwarded to him, presumably for burial. The embalming seems to 1 The Undertakers’ Journal, October 15th, 1913. @ FE. eralitry Fc MSG y ¢ aches (eves Hl se / y hve, Lh (a ye wot hers manticned Ww" Grinly (fin Ve UNDERTAKER’S SIGN AND ADVERTISEMENT (Eighteenth century). CREMATION, EMBALMING - 281 have satisfied an expert examination, but other things were most irregular. “ They had put a suit on him,” we are told, “but the trousers were turned up ”—evidently not the permanent turn up so often recommended by the tailor, “for straw and stuff ” were disclosed in the folds. Moreover, the clothes had not been brushed, “ Fortunately,” says the Professor, “the body came to my establishment, but suppose it had gone home first!” There were other marks of carelessness exhibited in this particular instance, which were, no doubt, put right with a generous hand. “TI don’t object to spraying the casket and lining with some nice perfume in order to get the odour of flowers instead of the odour of death,” he continues, and one cannot help wondering if there must be an odour of some kind, if the honest and homely smell of carbolic or some other clean disinfectant would not be preferable to a choice blend of corpse and camellias recommended by the Professor. What is there to be said for or against embalming? From the point of view of the trade it has no doubt very much to commend it, for you can sell your richest, most beautiful casket and obtain in addition a liberal fee for embalming. In cases where a body is brought from a distance, certainly some such sanitary methods might be usefully employed, but we have still to be convinced that there is any circumstance or combination of circumstances where the removal of a body from the place where death occurs is either necessary or advisable. CHAPTER’ XItl IN MEMORIAM ‘“* They shall not grow old, as we that are left grow old, Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn At the going down of the sun, and in the morning We will remember them.” —Lawrence Binyon.* In dealing with the subject of this chapter, important as it is, to some extent it is outside the general purpose of this book, which properly ends with the consideration of burial. The writer claims and hopes to have demonstrated the fact that the funeral traditions to which we unreasonably and tenaciously cling are not dictated by our religious beliefs, and only approach them in those cases where obviously pagan or Jewish customs have been made use of by the churches, as a means of expressing a Christian sentiment. From the earliest times, and by people widely divided in their mode of life and their beliefs in a future spiritual existence, the special care for the well-being of the soul after death has been a primary consideration. What is generally referred to as the “ worship of the dead” is one of the primitive instincts. To speak of worship in this sense, is, however, misleading, for it is possible to correctly place a variety of widely different interpretations on the 1 Lawrence Binyon, ‘‘ For the Fallen.”’ 232 VTA GES a © Ee) EV AD a GENIE REN aN ares VA BASIN, SE) aed Vi Tey } 4 DE PARIS AT WEYBRIDGE. FUNERAL OF THE COMTE , “Y nt ee Div > hen ae ae? J, Lire ot “= ew - = ui) hal An b Ly” = ‘ f » 1 ; 7 Vi wae a ‘ ad : j 4 Wy 5 i ” y ' 7 ay Ss NY ? To. a ay : ies : A ‘ 7 4 Pane Wr is 4; ial hs Va 4 igret ; ) { ' , pS}. be as We Vi eee : 5 ‘ 1 ie , : > pea h § 4 ap ii nt ‘ sa a an" 4 Or RT a” de te | mG OP oy a ae % a, i e a baat “ La ve > a) ' i be ‘ 7 - , : * i ry sn he au ; aN rt Ayal ; . 5 NM q ‘ posi " ‘— I beady ' ’ ‘ ; s , i @ 4 f ‘ % ' ; " (y *7 x ay 8 ' = ~ ok a" , ‘ ait ay; a — i ' j , ¥ iP | F 4 ie | J Li ia a a y * J . | ; A RE AG ; > \ } 4 = BY wr te Ty . ioe # ‘ ; ; q i i 4 " ¢ i =" 4 ie I : 7 i ¥ ¢ ' <1 : ¥ ‘ ' i ov i) i Ae : i mI , i A : ' j ; ' punt ' = . ‘ j j é ' 5 Ay ! } ¥ x i oe : 5 ; . be” é f yak te ; ‘ } A ah Port 3 \ é Hh ak hr $ Wag ' 1 i 7 Ts 7 ’ , i a f is _ 7 4 é yf : ‘ : 7 4 ; ‘oa i ; i? . i ’ is { : is i ty lia’ 7 . ei A oe i ) ‘ ity ’ ¥ 6 H 7 > a f : ; } 4 2 w, } r Oren: ae We | q 3 4 aS q P tee. we wy 4 } wt iy} ve ’ A ? bs ‘ . j \ ito f, ‘ . I vi vi eal om a 7 j ‘v res 4 4 ; WA t , a? , 7 *2 ‘ a 4 a { ‘ > # et eTT H * 7 4 ’ ‘ ‘ , y 4 ei : t ‘ ly of Ay aif? 5 4 ‘ ' : 4 ae | . a 6 ? . ; ‘ a At va) ‘ " aa 1 i gX ‘ sf - ® i’? ‘ j i . : F ve i ; } - : ’ f ¥/ y x a 7 ’ " oi 1 i) 7: ih a i 4 my wil oi ® : atl ioe ye Wie Bre! Ne ’ a a ’ ' °°. aM uy > ~ ¢ ’ $ ‘ wa: a?) P is LI , ? 4 od Ae O 4 : ee Pe j : eX WV = ys . >! é _, ae ae eee Td h ‘ £ : r {* 4 i i ,--4 f a, : y - a { I J ‘ 1 f? : a) r 1 4 j iy a : ro “ ) : : .s f i é ee ‘ : re i \ ; ‘ : a ; eu ‘ are inog j u t ] wd - f ' \ ‘ A ¢ a 0 vt Ay, ‘ +f as ‘ oof § i a’ a 7, it hy ; ae? © f . s ® " ne aN <9) ‘ : 7 7 ' rT, ( . vt “ »e ‘o* : ole i 7 P uf y i ae Pes 7 i srs . = DP ov a ee? nf Via IN MEMORIAM 233 word, which expresses anything from the “ pay- ing of divine honours” to “treating with civzl reverence.” What is the sense of the word in the marriage service, for instance, “with my body I thee worship?” History offers many examples of the “ worship of the dead” in either of these senses, and in various shades of intermediate reasoning. The ancient cult of ancestor worship gave a special significance to the virtues of family life, for it placed a serious load of responsibility upon the children of the future generation, to carry forward not only the traditions of the family to which they belonged, but also to tend lovingly and faithfully in varying fortune the spiritual and even temporal necessities of those who had gone before them. Ancestor worship is, moreover, directly associated with the special privileges and responsi- bilities of the first-born son, who assumed with his inheritance certain definite duties, nor were these duties a pledge of sentiment only. Further, it alone explains many of our present-day notions concerning succession. It was the duty of the first-born son to tend and protect the graves of his ancestors, supplying food and performing many elaborate ceremonies. In another chapter we have dealt with food offer- ings and sacrifices founded on the belief that the spiritual counterpart at least of the material substance offered was necessary in order to protect the soul from actual starvation. The practice is still general in the East to-day, whilst the enlightened West continues the super- stition as long as it 1s content to sacrifice “ offer- ings ” of costly exotic flowers to wither and perish with a few hours’ exposure at the graveside. What we have chiefly to consider now is the 234 FUNERAL CUSTOMS offering of prayers for the welfare of the departed souls, and to trace the history of this very general usage. The first thing that must strike an unpre- judiced mind is the fact that like the Eastern food offerings, either prayers are—or they are not— absolutely necessary to the departed spirits. Was the welfare or the existence of the soul imperilled, whose children neglected to provide the food offering? Either it starved or it did not, there could be no half measures. Does the soul whose relatives neglect or refuse prayers for its repose and spiritual welfare suffer in any way as a direct consequence of this neglect? Either it does or it does not—once again, there can be no half measures. When we study the special festivals for the commemoration of the dead we shall find a strange counterpart of the feasts of “ All Souls” and “ All Saints,” and moreover, timed in the same month, and frequently on the same day as the Christian festivals. Haliburton tells us that the festival of the dead or feast of ancestors is now, or was formerly observed at or near the beginning of November by the Peruvians, the Hindus, the Pacific Islanders, the people of the Tonga Islands, the Australians, the ancient Persians, the ancient Egyptians and the northern nations of Europe, and continued for three days amongst the Japanese, the Hindus, the Australians, ancient Romans and the ancient Egyptians. ‘The month of November was formerly called in Persia “ the month of the Angel of Death.” With regard to the Peruvian festivities of the dead, he writes: “The month in which it occurs, says Rivers, is called Aya Marca, from Aya a corpse, and Marca ‘carrying in arms,’ because IN MEMORIAM 235 they celebrated the solemn festival of the dead with tears and lugubrious songs and plaintive music, and it was customary to visit the tombs of relations and to leave food and drink, and this on the same day as the Christian festival (November 2nd). In Mexico the festival of the dead was held on November 17th, and a human victim was offered up to avert the dread calamity believed to be impending over the human race.” * The Corsicans slaughtered oxen at the grave, giving the meat to their neighbours in honour of the dead. Bread, wine and meat were thus dis- tributed, whilst in modern times bread and wine are served to the poor in this manner on the anniversary of the death of those who can afford to do so, and particularly on the feast of the dead, November ist.” Garnier says that “in Rome the festival of the dead, or Feralia (called Dit Manes or ‘The day of the spirits of the dead’), commenced on February 17th, corresponding also to the 17th day of the second month.” * Many other instances could be quoted. In some countries it is believed that on the special day set apart in honour of the dead, the spirits return for the occasion in order to be once more with their friends. In Japan on this festival, little boats made of straw and paper are placed on the water in order that the souls may thus be conveyed to their relations. In Brittany a plate of pancakes is provided for their entertainment, but the ghostly visitors must not linger too long over their meal, for they . G. Haliburton, ‘‘ The Year of the Pleiades.’’ nye Rossi, ‘‘ Les Corses.’ . Garnier, ‘‘ Worship of ih Dead.”’ 236 FUNERAL CUSTOMS are bound to return to the spirit world before cockcrow.* The Serbians give their dead a special enter- tainment on the occasion of the Feast of their Patron Saint George (May 6th, orthodox calendar). It is a time of much rejoicing, and is accompanied by a great slaughtering of animals, which are roasted on spits in the open air. The graves are decked with flowers in profusion, whilst the choicest dainties are also placed there for the delectation of the honoured dead. This is an ancient pagan ceremony of ancestor worship which, since Christian times, has been respectably hidden beneath the cloak of St. George. What is the fate, we may ask, of those unfortunate souls who by disaster or mischance have failed to secure a resting-place in the burial grounds, and are therefore likely to be left out in the cold in these annual rejoicings—the patriot, for instance, dying for his country on some foreign field of battle—how is he to be provided with material or spiritual refreshment? Such a fate was more dreaded by the ancients than the most violent means of death. It was even used as a form of final insult and degradation after the worst that could be inflicted on the poor wretch’s body had been done. It was a revenge more horrible than the “drawing and quartering” of the body which once expressed the last word in contempt and hatred in this country. An Act passed as a result of the rising in Scotland in the year 1745, and not repealed till 1772, necessitated the taking of a very binding oath against the carrying of arms. It is interest- ing as showing the horror expressed at ¢hat time 1A, Mauricet, ‘‘ L’isle aux moines ses meceurs et ses habetants.”’ IN MEMORIAM 237 of the thought of a non-Christian burial. “If I do so (carry arms, etc.), may I be cursed in my undertakings, family and property—may I| never see my wife and children, father, mother or relations—may I be killed in battle as a coward, and lie without Christian burial in a strange land, far from the graves of my forefathers and kindred —may all this come across me if I break my oath.” * The cenotaph or empty tomb of which many of our memorials are a remnant, was erected when the body lay elsewhere, in order that due honours might be paid to the dead. We are reminded how the vanquished Hector begged upon his knees—not for his life—but that his body might not be given to the dogs. “Take the gold my father will offer you,” he supplicates, “that I may have honour at the funeral pyre.” The thought that his body should be chopped and hewn by “ The Seller-of-the-Dead” and weighed against its weight in gold held no terrors to his mind compared with a dishonoured sepulture. First in the pagan mind was the apprehension of an endless torment, of neglect at the tomb, hunger, thirst and helplessness. How touching, too, is the old story of the parents of the dead Athenian soldiers, who, dressed in mourning garments, clamoured before the Council—and not in vain—for the execution of the victorious general, despite the fact that he had returned a victor—had indeed saved Athens from the spoilers—in his haste to claim his laurels he had left the dead unburned on the field of battle. To appreciate the story we must remember that the Greeks committed the bodies of the slain to the flames of the funeral pyre oz the battlefield, the bones being collected and brought back to 1 Alfred Mark Webb, ‘‘ The Heritage of Dress.”’ 238 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Athens with the utmost reverence, where with much solemnity, orations and processions they were provided with a fitting tomb. Again we may ask what of the sailor who dies at sea? The fisherfolk of Brittany have a picturesque custom to keep alive the memory of those poor fishermen of whom the sea yearly takes its heavy toll. On receiving the news that a sailor had been drowned, the parents or nearest relatives constructed a cross of wood which they placed on the empty bed or on the family table; candles were lighted and placed round the-cross, whilst the friends and relatives of the deceased were summoned to spend the night in the house, where prayers were said for his soul exactly as if the body were present. On the following day a procession was formed and the cross carried to where Mass was said. At an earlier period the cross which reposed on the altar during the ceremony was afterwards buried, but in more recent times it was deposited in an urn and left in the church till several other crosses were collected, when the whole were buried. On All Saints’ Day the womenfolk make a trip in the boats, and having sailed a certain distance from the shore they solemnly recite the “De Profundis” for their husbands, sons and brothers who have been drowned in earning a scanty livelihood, and whose bodies have not been recovered. We cannot go very deeply into the custom of offering of prayers for the welfare of the dead without realizing that the practice presupposes some state other than the states of bliss, or of final condemnation. As far as the Christian standpoint is concerned it brings us to the highly controversial IN MEMORIAM 289 question of the existence or non-existence of the intermediary realms of purgatory, where it is believed by the Greek and Roman Churches that the souls of the departed work out the results of their misdoings during their life upon earth, and here—and here only—can be helped by the intercession of their friends and relatives. In the “Zuna” or holy book of the Moors (Mohammedan) we read that when a man dies two angels visit his grave, one bearing a rake and another a heavy iron weight. Presently a third angel appears and begins to question the dead man as to his mode of life. Did he give alms to the needy? Did he observe the various rites in connection with his religion? If these questions were answered to the satisfaction of the inquisitor then two attendants were summoned who were in robes of dazzling whiteness; one of these took the head of the corpse and the other the feet, and so lifting it from the grave they hold it in this manner till the Day of Judgment. If, on the other hand, the inquisitors were not satisfied with the replies to their questions, or had reason to suppose that the truth was being withheld, then he called to the angel who bore the iron weight with which the corpse was crushed back again into the grave “seven forearms deep.” When this had been done the angel with the rake proceeded to drag the body up again, and so this unrestful process continues without cessation till the Judgment Day. This crude conception of a _ purgatory necessitated a special form of tomb in which a tiled space was provided so that the corpse could kneel during its interrogation. It was further provided that the grave clothes were not fastened in such a manner as might restrict the movements of the body. Attached to the shroud was a letter 240 FUNERAL CUSTOMS written with saffron and salt water, by means of which an appeal was made to the Angel of Justice that the corpse might altogether escape or at least have a speedy release from the purgatorial pains.* The ancient Egyptians preserved the body in the belief that in a space of three or four thousand years the soul would return to inhabit its earthly form once more. In the meantime it was thought to wander through a series of incarnations in the shape of the lower animals, which for this reason are not killed for food. In view of the fact that the early Christians adopted such Jewish. customs as the anointing of the body because this was done traditionally with the body of their Founder, it is interesting, before examining the Christian tradition, to ascertain if the Jews themselves believed that prayers for the dead were effective or necessary. “As the well-known passage in the second book of Machabeus (2 Mach. x11. 44-46) abundantly proves,” says Thurston, “the idea of a resurrection and the belief that the time of that resurrection might be accelerated by the intercession of the living was present to the minds of some at least of the Jews in the first or second century before the Christian era.” The sacred writer states in unmistakable terms that, “ If he (Judas Machabeus) had not hoped that they that were slain should rise again it would have seemed superfluous and vain to pray for the dead. .. . It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead that they may be loosed from their sins.” “It may be said that the prayer known as the Kaddish is now commonly considered by the Jews to have the power of releasing the soul 1 Guichard, ‘* Funérailles.’’ IN MEMORIAM 241 of the deceased from punishment in the next world.” A curious case came before the Whitechapel County Court (1916). A Jew, whose aunt had lent the sum of 447 to a builder, sued him for the repayment of the loan on which a few instalments had been returned before the death of the lender. The defence was put forward that it had been agreed that in the event of death any balance of the loan then due was to be cancelled on the understanding that the borrower should say prayers for the repose of her soul. This unique agreement was said to have been made in the presence of witnesses, who “ crossed hands ” over the covenant. For the plaintiff it was claimed that prayers purchased were not considered as of value by the Jews, and that the builder in order to cover his debt, would have had to pray for nearly a year. This incident, however, clearly shows that praying for the dead is still a Jewish custom. Thurston gives some interesting particulars of early Christian practices. He says: “The earliest unmistakable example of Christian prayers for the dead is probably that afforded by the famous Abercius monument, discovered some years ago at Hieropolos, in Upper Phrygia, by Sir William Ramsay. ‘The significant part of the inscription which alludes allegorically to many of the most distinctive mysteries of the Christian faith, terminates with the line—‘ That the fellow-believer who understands these words, pray for Abercius.’ ” * Here is another of the ¢hizvd century. The broken slab containing it is now in the Christian Museum of the Lateran. 1 Herbert Thurston, S.J., ‘‘ The Memory of our Dead.”’ Q 24.2 FUNERAL CUSTOMS ‘“ To sweet Lucifera, my wife all sweetness, To her husband nought remains but deepest grief, But ane has surely merited to have an epitaph set up to en That whoso of the Brotherhood who read it may pray to God That he take to Himself her holy and innocent soul.’”’ ? It should be remembered that whilst the early Christians made a special point of celebrating the anniversaries and the festivals of the Saints and the departed generally, they did not think it necessary to mark the actual year of the decease, so that it is often rendered very difficult to trace the period. There seems to be abundant evidence that from the earliest days of Christianity prayers for the dead were a common practice, as they are to-day, in the Roman, Greek and other Churches throughout the world. In our own country, the Established Church definitely repudiates the existence of the spiritual state of purgatory or place of purification, and therefore also the value of prayer as helpful to the dead. The authoritative decrees of the various denominations merely denote the position of each. The Catholic view was defined by the Council of Trent, viz., “That there is a purgatory and that the souls there detained are assisted by the suffrages of the Faithful, but ‘especially by the most acceptable sacrifice at the altar’” (1.e., the Mass). In pre-Reformation days this doctrine was responsible for the erection of many churches, the foundations of many charities and the support of the chantry and the chantry priest. The chantry 1 Herbert Thurston, S.J., ‘‘ The Memory of our Dead.”’ IN MEMORIAM 243 chapels were built as a memorial of the founder, where the priest frequently said various offices for the dead and celebrated a special Mass on the anniversaries of the founder and his family, and distributed alms to the poor. Ditchfield says, “ There were in England about two thousand chantries, founded chiefly in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, which were all despoiled by Henry VIII and Edward VI at the Reformation, on the grounds that they were devoted to ‘superstitious’ purposes. Much of the wealth was the property of the poor left to them by pious benefactors.” * The Established Church holds that purgatory and therefore prayers for the dead cannot be supported by the Scriptures. This position is defined in the twenty-second Article of Faith, to which all her clergy subscribe, which reads, “ The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God.” However, there appears to be a _ tendency amongst a certain section of the clergy of the Church of England to-day to fall into line with the rest of Christendom in the belief not only of the existence of purgatory, but in the practice of praying for the souls of the departed. At the Westminster Assembly of Divines in the year 1647 the Presbyterians put on record their belief in this matter, which may be held to be that of the Free Churches generally. Dealing with “the state of man after death” they assent in the belief of heaven and hell, and conclude, ‘besides these two places for souls separated from their bodies, the Scriptures acknowledge none.” 1P. H. Ditchfield, ‘The Old-time Parson.” 244 FUNERAL CUSTOMS In the year 1645 the “ Directory for the Public Worship of God ” decreed “ concerning the burial of the dead, and because the custom of kneeling down and praying by or towards the dead corpse, and other such usages in the place where it les, before it be carried to burial, are superstitions, and for that praying, reading and singing, both in going to and at the grave, have been grossly abused and are in no way beneficial to the living, therefore let all such things be laid aside.” At the time of the Reformation the “ Directory ” made the further unmistakable protest to the older custom, “when any person departs this life, let the body be decently attended from the house to the place appointed for public burial and there immediately interred without any ceremony.” Let us now look at the festivals of All Saints and All Souls, which, as we have noted, appear in the Christian calendar at much the same time as they are celebrated by non-Christian peoples in various parts of the world. All Saints’ Day, November rst, known also as All-Hallows’ Day, was instituted in the year 837 by Pope Gregory IV to take the place of the much earlier festival of the Peace of the Martyrs. All Souls’ Day is said to have been instituted in the year 1048 by St. Odilo of Cluny. It is celebrated on November 2nd in addition to the feast of All Saints by the Roman and Greek Churches, for the special memory of the souls in purgatory. All-Hallows’ Eve is still observed in many families by games and superstitions which are a relic of pre-Reformation times, when the eve of the festival of All Souls was welcomed by a great burning of fires on the hills, to attract the wandering spirits, and the ringing of bells. In some parts of England the occasion is kept gx Alfectionate Remembrance of MARY ANN SIMPSON, The beloved wife of James Tarr, Whe departed this life Mayed 25th, 1876, : IN HER 834TH YEAR. Yea, though I walk in death’s dark vale, Yet will [ fear no ill; Por Thon art with me, and Thy rod And staff me comfort still. oe + FI A, In Afectionate Bemobrance oe NS tk MARY HANNAH IVEY, Who Departed this Life Octeber 25th, 1876, AGED 12 YEARS 10 MONTHS | Interred in the East London Cemetery, Grave No, 1913 errant 1 heard the voleo of Jesus say, Come unto Me and reat, Lay down thou weary one lay down Thy head apon my breast, MEMORIAL CARDS. IN MEMORIAM 245 in mind by the children who sing from house to house, as they sing the Christmas carols: “Soul, soul for a souling cake, I pray you, good missus, for a souling cake, Go down in your cellars and see what you can find, Your apples or your pears or your good red wine; If you ain’t got a penny, a ha’penny will do, If you ain’t got a ha’penny, then God bless you.”’ This request is followed by the customary “bang” of the knocker, as a reminder that a gift of some kind is expected. Needless to say, the modern child is simply “out for spoil,” but in the old days the poor seriously collected in this manner the wherewithal to celebrate the feast of All Souls which was kept on the following day in good earnest, with a great consumption of cakes and “wassail”’ (a concoction of apples, sugar and spiced ale). “Soul-cakes” were baked for this occasion similar to the “soul-cakes” of Belgium, which are distributed to-day at the funeral repast. The connection between this feast and the eating of apples calls to mind an interesting ceremony which was at one time common in Brittany, where the cult of the dead has ever been rigorously observed. On All Souls’ Day in every parish several houses would be opened for the purposes of the festival, which was celebrated in the following manner : A cake of bread was baked and placed on the kitchen table, which was covered with a “ fair white cloth.” Planted in the centre of the bread was a little tree, from the end of whose branches red apples were suspended. The whole was covered by a serviette. The neighbours being assembled round the tree, the master of the house proceeded to recite 246 FUNERAL CUSTOMS the special prayers for the repose of the souls of the dead, to which the people made the customary responses. At the conclusion of the prayers, the serviette was lifted and the bread was cut into as many pieces as there were persons present to receive it. Each, as he took his portion, was expected to make a small payment. Should anyone withhold his money, it was believed that he would shortly meet with the greatest misfortunes, brought about by the revengeful spirits of his parents. The money so collected was given to the church in order that Masses might be said for the repose of the souls in purgatory. At night, the tree which had graced the ceremony was carried away with great respect by the person selected to act as host on the next anniversary. “The apples might be eaten, but the tree was a sacred trust, to be tended with care till the following year, when a fresh supply of apples was provided.* In the West of England, cider making commenced on All Saints’ Day and for the reason that it was connected with the pagan autumn or fruit festival, for which the Christian Church substitutes the feast of the dead. Under the name of “La Mas Ubhal,” or ‘Apple Mass,” it was at one time recognized in Ireland. We may also trace a connection in the custom, which is hardly extinct in this country, for the farmer to give a supper to his men on All Saints’ Day to mark the end of the wheat sowing. Tusser thus refers to the practice: ‘‘ Wife, sometime this week if ye weather hold clere, And end of wheate sowing we make for the yeare, Remember ye therefore, though I do not, The seed cake, the pastries, the furmety pot.’’ ? 1De Braz, ‘‘ La Légende de la Mort chez les Bretons.’’ 2 Tusser, ‘* All Saints.”’ IN MEMORIAM 247 Let us see what traces exist in modern times of the ancient cult of ancestor worship. In France, to-day, we still find the light-hearted Parisian lunching at the cemetery each year, on the occasion of the feast of the dead, and decorating the graves of his ancestors. A Catholic country and a Catholic practice, it may be said, yet we find the Welsh—staunch Protestants as they are— decorating their graves with flowers at the great November festival. The “memorial card” still holds its own in this country as a necessary part of the funeral observances, though its original function, as a reminder to pray for the soul of the departed, may _ have been forgotten. It sometimes happens on the Continent at carnival time that the gorgeous procession of fantastic revellers is confronted by a procession of quite another character—a passing funeral. At once a respectful silence hushes the noisy laughter. Instantly a hundred silly headgears are doffed, whilst with bent heads a prayer is muttered for the repose of the soul of the departed. In our own streets, the roughest wayfarer— more often than men of other classes—pulls off his cap—perhaps a little self-consciously—when he meets the dead. Ask him why he does so, and he cannot tell you—* out of respect ” he may answer, after thinking the matter over, possibly for the first time, for he is all unconscious that he is merely obeying a traditional impulse which has its roots in pre-Reformation piety. The writer witnessed the following incident in a crowded London street. Four soldiers, one a Belgian and_ three Englishmen, were standing on the kerb when a funeral passed by. The English Tommies gazed 248 FUNERAL CUSTOMS at the commonplace sight disinterestedly and continued to smoke; directly the Belgian caught » sight of the procession, he clicked his heels and came smartly to attention, raising his hand to the “salute,” and keeping it so till the hearse had passed. The English soldiers watched the little Belgian for a moment and first one, then two, followed by a hesitating third, cigarette dropped half-finished into the gutter. Perhaps no more remarkable example could be found of the deeply rooted belief in the service due from the living to the dead, than the custom of erecting “war shrines” in the streets—a practice which became very general throughout the country after the war. Not content with the “roll of honour” which might reasonably be disassociated from any charge of worship, these “shrines” as they are commonly called (Nuttall defines a shrine as “a case, a reliquary, a tomb, a sacred place ”) are to be found as a rule outside a place of Protestant worship, where they have been erected by loving hands. A Crucifix is generally placed over the shrine, which is decorated with floral offerings. Lest we should misjudge the intention, let us take an extract from the daily press, which is largely responsible for the movement. In an article in the Evening News, we read: “Even now, many people may have but a hazy idea of what a ‘war shrine’ is. A ‘war shrine’ is a roll of honour, on the tablets of which the names of those who have gone from the street in which the shrine stands into the navy and the army, and those who have died for their country, are written. The frame contains a form of prayer for the men. There is a canopy of flags, and the whole is ornamented by flowers, laid fresh upon IN MEMORIAM 24.9 the shrine by the wives and children, sisters and sweethearts who stand in silent prayer for the heroes for a few moments every day.” * To suggest that these war shrines are a public rejection of the Protestant doctrine on the subject of prayer for the dead would be to overstate the case, nor is there necessarily any intention shown in this surely very beautiful innovation to return to Catholic and pre-Reformation practices, but that it points to a deeply inherent desire to bridge the gulf, which has in this country separated the living from the dead, is equally incontestable. The “war shrines” would certainly have shocked the narrow views held even one_ generation ago. Every year adds to the number of those who for one reason or another prefer to remain outside the sphere of the generally recognized Christian denominations, but who by no means accept the views of the materialist. It is always interesting to follow the trend of their inquiries, and we shall do well to study their views where we find them definitely expressed. What, for instance, have they to say who are unbound by traditional doctrine on such a subject as the utility or other- wise of prayers for the dead? From an article on the subject contributed to the /xternational Psychic Gazette, we quote the following : “Side by side with the enlarged views of life advanced by the new theology, we have ever multiplying instances of the ability of some gifted persons to act as mediums for communicating with the unseen world. Everything of this nature must 1 Evening News, October 6th, 1916, 250 FUNERAL CUSTOMS tend to raise the question—can we by our sympathy and prayers do anything to help departed souls along the path of progress we believe it is their destiny to tread? Will our prayers for them avail to bring them the help they need? I have not the slightest hesitation in answering these questions in the affirmative, for my own experiences leave me without a shadow of doubt.” The writer of the article then proceeds to relate personal experiences resulting from a mission he was called upon to undertake “from the Unseen,” to help “unprogressed souls in the Unseen” who were dvought to him for the purpose. He describes the state after death where he tells us all souls progressed, or unprogressed, make a stay according to their individual necessities, in which they learn the lessons they should have learned on earth before going on to a higher existence, and he adds “it is these unprogressed ones who want all the sympathy and help their friends on earth can give them.” Further, he quotes a story said to have been related to him “by one of the clergy of St. Peter's, London Docks, of a woman who had recently passed away appearing to reproach a district visitor for a for- gotten promise to pray for her soul, a fact afterwards verified by notes.” * Not only at the time of death, but on the anniversary of the event, and on special festivals and occasions of family importance, it has been the custom to honour the dead in various ways. The anniversary has always been celebrated with certain formalities, a curious method being the “chime-barrel,” the prototype of the barrel 1 Thomas Atwood, ‘ Prayers for the Departed,’”’ /nxternational Psychic Gazette, November, 1913. IN MEMORIAM 251 organ, on which a dirge is played from street to street in order that the neighbours might not forget to offer their prayers for the repose of the soul of those whose memory was thus kept green. In Brittany even the betrothal ceremony was blessed by the departed ancestral spirits, an instance of the intimate relations which tied the “ quick and the dead.” It was the proper thing for the lover to send a message to plead the cause with the father of his beloved. This was done in verse, which after setting forth the qualifications of the suitor and the depths of his passionate devotion to the lady, ended thus: “the benediction of the dead of your family I cannot ask, because in so doing I should render sad the many loving hearts; better is it, therefore, to pray for their souls, and I beg of you to join me in saying a song for their repose.” The song having been said, the “ De Profundis” was recited, after which the parents would give or withhold their consent to the union as circum- stances might dictate. It was believed that if this ceremony should be omitted the spirits of the slighted ancestors would surely avenge them- selves on the bride. Whilst on the subject of marriage we are reminded of a present-day custom. In the Roman Catholic church a coin, the symbol of worldly possession, with which the bridegroom promises to “thee endow,” is afterwards treasured all her life by the bride in order that it may eventually be given back to the church for Masses to be said for whoever dies first, the husband or the wife. To hold that the question of the value of prayers for the dead is merely one of personal opinion seems unreasonable, for the intercession of the living is either of vital importance or 252 FUNERAL CUSTOMS superstitious and useless. It is, however, a matter in which each must act according to his lights, and perhaps the brief outline which is all that it has been possible to give in considering the whole aspect of our funeral customs, may serve at least to remind those who have never given any thought to the matter of the importance of this controversial problem. CELA. PAs Ray, MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS AND MOURNING CARDS AT a time when a lavish expenditure on “memorials” of various kinds has taken place, we shall do well if we consider the origin of a very old custom. When we have stripped any one of our funeral observances of its crape and tinsel—those grave- clothes of convention in which they have been preserved and embalmed—we shall find very little that is worthy of continuance. Any excessive manifestation of grief is the outcome of self-pity and disbelief in a spiritual existence. The wearing of “doole,” the funeral procession and other such ceremonial observances, have their origin in a vulgar pride of estate and an inherited dread of revengeful spirits. So, too, we shall find that a passion for erecting memorials to all and sundry has little more to commend it. In the early days of commercial prosperity in this country we have seen how the successful trader hustled his spiritual or social superior in the graveyard to such an extent that he fled for sanctuary into the neighbouring churches; nor was he allowed to remain long in this favoured position before the wealthy merchant bought “is way in also. 253 254 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Pushed to extremity with the trader in full cry, a chase ensued round the walls of the church to the final place of privilege at the very steps of the altar, where saint and sinner could do no more than mingle their dust. Yet there was a further opportunity for self-aggrandizement, and we may be assured that it was not neglected. Competition started in the erection of elaborate memorials. Every degree of society went one better than its predecessors, whilst those who remained crowded out in the burying places, not to be outdone in their desire for a public recognition of the achievements of their dead, gradually left the simple green mounds which had sufficiently covered the more worthy remains of their ancestors, and on a rising tide of prosperity advanced step by step from wood to stone, and from stone to marble, building monuments larger and more vulgar and ostenta- tious each time that Nature provided them with the opportunity of exalting the family name. To see this madness at its climax we have to go no farther than the nearest cemetery, packed with columns, pillars, crosses, urns and railings, as Closely as the bristles on the back of a hedgehog. For paucity of invention, vulgarity of concep- tion and feeble craftsmanship—for lack of effect, collective or individual, for unsuitability and costli- ness—it cannot be outdone. Perhaps there is nothing which we shall hand down to future generations more utterly damning to our intelli- gence or artistic pretensions than the enduring monuments we have erected to our dead. We find the early Christian Church building shrines in which to preserve the venerated remains of her saints and martyrs, and we may be sure that the saints and the martyrs would be the very last to make provision for any such memorial to their MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 255 own honour. At the most they would have desired a small stone, asking for the prayers of the faithful. The object that the Church had in view was to perpetuate the memory of those of her community whose life was recognized as full of virtues, and as such, worthy of emulation. In like manner the Romans perpetuated the memory of their great warriors and citizens. This was all very admirable as long as it was regulated by an authority competent to judge to whom posthumous honours should be paid. The King inherits with his office the power to confer titles, and to raise the commoner to the ranks of nobility. We can well imagine if the right to confer such honours was common to all who considered that the dignity of their family justified the distinction, then, in a very short time, we should all be lords or dukes, and such titles would cease to have any special significance. The abuse of the once honourable title of esquire is an example. In this manner the erection of a memorial for the perpetuation of a name without any authority, stands for nothing more than the personal and biased opinion of an individual who has enough money to gratify the pretensions of his family. In pre-Reformation days we find large sums of money spent to keep green the memory of the dead, but in a spirit of humility rather than of self- advertisement. Those, indeed, who had committed some out- rage on society were often the first to lavish money on memorials of one sort or another, in order to gain the prayers of such as would benefit by their liberality. “Pray for the soul of 3) is the perpetual 256 FUNERAL CUSTOMS form of inscription in stone or brass on the tomb- stones in the Middle Ages. Munificence in the provision of mourning garments, jewellery, gifts of money, food and the foundation and endowment of churches, chapels and charitable institutions was at one time very common, for it claimed as a first consideration the assurance of a lasting memory, and a place in the prayers of future generations. Such of these institutions as have escaped the greed of those who often used sectarian differences as an excuse for robbery, still celebrate their “founder’s day.” If this annual festival is not kept exactly in the spirit in which the patron would have desired, some thoughts of affection at least must go outwards if not upwards to those who made such good use of the riches with which they had been entrusted. “A great man’s memory may outlive his life by half a year, but byr Lady he must build churches then,” says Hamlet. Three separate reasons have impelled the erection of monuments to the dead. First, a belief that the body dwells or sleeps in the place prepared for it. Secondly, to mark the spot where a person of some special attainments has been buried, in which case a suitable inscription is pro- vided, setting forth the claims of the deceased to public recognition for the edification of future generations. Thirdly, the provision of a stone or tablet asking the prayers of co-religionists for a departed soul. We have examples of all these methods in this country. Many of the ancient barrows offer ample evidence of the once common practice of making food offerings to the dead. The pagan (as well as the Christian) mode of honouring the great by MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 257 a recital of their claims as pattern lives is well illustrated by various Roman remains which still exist in this country, notably at Colchester, where there is a finely sculptured stone bearing the effigy of a Roman centurion, clad in richly decorated armour, and holding a staff. (the symbol of his authority) in his hand. Beneath this figure the following inscription is engraved: “Marcus Favonius, the good natured (or courteous) son of Marcus of the Tribe of Pollia, a centurion of the twentieth legion. Verecundus and Novicas, his freedmen, placed this (memorial). He lies here.” The work has been pronounced by Hubner to be probably of the age of Vespian.* Despite the ruthless iconoclast many examples yet remain of the pre-Reformation memorial. What of the modern graveyard on which we spend countless thousands of pounds yearly? Surely it is optimistic to suppose that our present standard of moral excellence is so high that all these labyrinths of stone commemorate lives so noble and deeds so worthy, that for the public edification they should be thus immortalized. Were we to do so unusual a thing as to walk in a cemetery for the purpose of gathering lessons from the deeds of the dead, we might be deeply impressed by the recital of their sanctity—of indulgent husbands, loving fathers and _ saintly children buried there, apparently leaving behind them a world broken and desolated by the tragedy of their departure. We are reminded of a certain pious individual, whose expression was likened to a hymn—so that people who saw it on week-days wondered what it looked like on Sunday. Conversely we may ruminate on the solid and unexpected virtues 1A. Clifton Kelway, ‘‘ Memorials of Old Essex.’ R 258 FUNERAL CUSTOMS ce of our fellow citizens “as advertised,’ and wonder what they were like on a week-day, but it is hard to believe with so much yeast of perfection, the whole lump of humanity has not long since been leavened. It will not surprise us to find the religious sentiments of a generation expressed by the inscriptions on their tombstones. Several admirable books have been written on epitaphs, but only so far as they are useful as types shall we quote from the almost inexhaustible sources in our churches and burial-places, which anyone with a little interest in the matter may easily collect? The following epitaph well illustrates the pre- Reformation idea of giving to charity or supplying the needs of the Church with a view to being remembered after death. It comes from Holm- next-the-Sea, Norfolk (early fourteenth century). ‘‘ Henry Notyngham and hys wyffe lyne here Yat maden this chirche stepull and quere Two vestments and belles they made also Christ hem save therefore ffro wo Ande to bringe hem soules to Chris at heven Sayth Pater and ave with Mylde Steven.’’ The constant formula, “Pray for the soul of r “Jesu Mercy” of the pre-Reformation inscription, was forsaken after that event in favour of a much more confident style, which remains more or less the pattern which we follow to-day. The following, taken from an inscription in the parish church of Rye, Sussex, is only one of endless examples which might be quoted. “ Here lyeth the body of Thomas Proctor, who died November 27th, 1775, aged 73 years. MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 259 ‘* Trust to his word, a friend sincere, From every vicious folly clear, In all his dealings what he gained Was truly honestly obtained. __ He ne’er through life the poor did grind, Nor any owing him confined ; Peace he maintained with all his neighbours, And well paid all men for their labours. Do as he did, God will you save, And cause you happy from the grave.’’ These claims are far reaching, but perhaps not so inclusive as those expressed on another stone to be seen in the same place: “Sacred to the memory of Ann Maria Stonham, Who died September 2oth, 1846, aged 63. Ye that would learn her worth who sleeps below, Read Virtue’s pages through from end to end, Leave not a word unmarked, and thou will know, The virtues that adorned a valued friend.”’ Sometimes the virtues of the deceased are commemorated with rather curious frankness. The following appears on a tomb in Bunhill Fields: To Dame Mary PAGE, Wife of Sir Gregory Page, Bart., died March 11th, 1728, in her 56th year. In 67 months she was tapped 66 times 240 gallons of water drawn without ever repining at her case or ever fearing the operation. In the eighteenth century, when religion in this country had sunk to the lowest possible ebb, we shall naturally find the effect upon the tombstone. From the pompous recital of personal qualities and achievements we have epitaphs which vary from the jocular to the frankly obscene. 260 FUNERAL CUSTOMS On the spot where the hideous statue of William IV now stands, facing London Bridge (which he opened), once stood a celebrated hostel known as The Boar’s Head Tavern. Here it was that one John Preston served as a potman, and we select the inscription on his vine-covered tombstone in the churchyard of St. Magnus, the Martyr, as typical of the doggerel of that period (1730). ““ ROBERT PRESTON Late ‘ Drawer’ at The Boar’s Head Tavern Bacchus to give this toping world surprise Produced one sober son and here he lies Though nursed amongst full hogsheads, he defyd The charms of wine-and every vice besides Oh, reader, if to justice thou’rt inclined Keep honest Preston daily in thy mind. He drew good wine, took care to fill his pots Had sundry virtues that outweighed his faults You who on Bacchus have the like dependence, Pray copy Bob in measure and attendance.”’ A favourite form of epitaph about this time was one which played on the name of the deceased. An amusing example of this is contained in the story told of Jerrold the wit, who expressed an opinion that a good epitaph should contain no more than two words, including the name of the deceased. Charles Knight, who was present when the remark was made, at once handed Jerrold a pencil and a piece of paper, and asked him to write his (Knight’s epitaph) with these limitations. Jerrold took the paper and wrote, “Good night.” Sometimes the humour is not intentiorial, as in the case of the widow, who after much thought and consultation with her friends, caused the following to be engraved on her husband’s tomb: ‘* Rest in peace-—until we meet again.”’ ‘MALUVN AHL SANDVW ‘LS AO ‘Gaiund OSTV SI NVANOAY NHOL AYHHM GuvVAHOUNHO AHL NI NOLSHYd LYAAOU AO HdVIIdH AHL ‘SGTHIA TIIHNOGD NI AOKAHC TAINVG AO ANOLSANOL 7 hi L% Parvin id - a: D lal a) ae > o) Lagbl Vhaeiiet 3 cae ’ 6. a?) a hy ‘aay |e ae MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 261 It is not without significance that the eighteenth century tombstone very rarely bore any cross or other Christian symbol. The skull and cross- bones, urns and fat cherubs were the motives generally employed. On the other hand, the shape of the stone was often very admirable, and the carving, and especially the lettering, infinitely better than anything produced to-day. We have been considering the epitaphs of the orthodox Christian types, but if it be true that the religious sentiments of any period are reflected by the inscriptions in the graveyard, it will also follow that the free-thinker, the materialist and the philosopher will express their particular views by the same means. Some of these are very beautiful, freed as they are from the shackles of convention. Perhaps the best known comes from Hull. ‘* Here lie I, Master Elginbrod, Have mercy on my soul, O God.”’ So far it might be one of the ordinary pious expressions of pre-Reformation date, were it not for the dramatic challenge of the concluding lines: ‘* As I would have if I were God, And thou were Master Elginbrod.”’ The frequent allusion to “sleep,” which is a common form, is worth some little investigation. W. J. Locke quotes the following from a German churchyard, which is beautiful in its frank acknowledgment of human frailty: “I will awake, Oh Christ, when thou callest me, but let me sleep awhile—for I am very weary.” * This is quoted because it says honestly and in bold words what so many other inscriptions hesitatingly suggest, namely, that the dead are 1W. J. Locke, ‘‘ The Morals of Marcus Ordeyne.’’ 262 FUNERAL CUSTOMS sleeping in a physical sense in their graves. We have noted that it was a very general superstition amongst various peoples, that the body confined to the ground remained there in a state of semi- consciousness, even suffering as the Jews believed, the actual pains of dissolution as a punishment for sins committed. The ancient Greeks believed that in a material sense their dead were at rest. “ Here sleeps so- and-so”’ they wrote over the grave. Have we not acquired from them something more of this superstition than is shown by our adoption of the word “cemetery.” The Greek equivalent of this signified “to lull to sleep.” How do we behave in the presence of the dead? The sleep-like appearance of the body is undoubtedly the reason why we converse in hushed whispers, lest we should disturb the sleeper whilst one of the most popular hymns frequently sung in the church or at the grave-side expresses the same thought, “ Leave we now thy servant sleeping.” Of course it could be argued that whilst such terms are admitted and some reference to sleep is made on every other tombstone, the word is not intended to express actual sleep, but repose in a state of bliss which the Established Church, together with other Protestant bodies, believes the soul has attained, without the intermediary state of purgatory to which the Roman and Greek Churches subscribe. That the letters R.I.P stand for something more material than a state of spiritual refreshment to the average mind, cannot, however, be honestly contradicted. It is a popular belief that the erection of some sort of monument is a necessary finishing touch to the funeral ceremonies, and trading on this absurd MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 2638 conviction we shall find the marble mason’s emporium exhibiting the horrors of his craft at the very gates of the cemeteries of any pretensions. “Strike while the iron is hot,’ says an old adage, a truth which the Dismal Trader has learnt well enough to profit by, for well he knows that if a reasonable time were allowed for sentimental false values to adjust themselves, the greater part of his living would be gone. What is true of the private funeral is not less true of the public funeral. Almost before the breath is out of the body, some well-meaning friend or relation starts a subscription list for the purpose of a “ suitable ” memorial, and according to the sum collected so a more or less expensive monument is erected. Subscriptions in such cases are largely made up of sums given for business or social reasons, and seldom represent, even at the time, any spontaneous offering. Not only is this sort of thing unjust to the living, but equally unjust to the memory of the dead, for after the wave of sentiment has passed the pretensions of the dead are judged not by the weight or costliness of the tomb which covers their remains, but rather by what they have done to further the cause of humanity. The son of a self-made man erects a memorial at great cost at the death of his father, selecting for the purpose the finest position in the town where his wealth has been accumulated, honestly or otherwise. By such means are we burdened with inartistic memorials erected to nobodies, which endure long after the reputation of those they represent has found its true level. Our churches and cathedrals suffer from exactly the same sort of thing, subscription tombs and monuments of forgotten politicians, painters whose pictures, once popular, 264. FUNERAL CUSTOMS now hardly fetch the price of their frames, poets whose work nobody reads. To distinguish between the various forms of memorials, we must remember that some were erected over the place of sepulture, whilst others took the form either of a cenotaph or empty tomb, or merely a commemorative stone or tablet. The tombstone took the place of the ancient obelisk or menhir (derived from the Celtic words signifying a “high stone”), the tomb itself was generally in the form of the Dolmen altar or table tomb. A memorial stone or cross was at one time commonly placed where the coffin of a distinguished pert had rested on its way to burial. At the oot of these crosses, all other coffins which passed that way, rested also. The Elinor (Queen of Edward I) crosses are an instance of this. Twelve were erected, of which but three remain. Charing Cross is a copy of the cross at Waltham. Incidentally, it is interesting to note that Charing Cross does not necessarily derive its name from the memorial, as is popularly supposed. The word Charing is said to be derived from the Saxon word, Cerran, which means a sharp turn or angle, and is thought to refer to the peculiar twist which the river takes at this point, which renders navigation very difficult to the larger crafts.’ We have inherited from past ages very few things which excite so great and general an interest as the monuments found in so many of our churches preserved from the time of the Crusaders. It has been generally believed that from the crossing of the warrior’s legs could be seen the number of wars in which the Crusader had taken 1 Burns, ‘‘ Journal of the London Society.”’ KNIGHT S A fF ey Z beaoyrd 3 $, Secrme eiilecy Ue : 3 % eK £ £ * ~ ENSYS) (Oj Bred Be Bo OY WITH CROSSED LEG MEMORIAL BR CARD OF INVITATION TO A FUNERAL DATED 1779. MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 265 part, or, as others supposed, it signified the taking of a vow to proceed to the Holy Land, and that the action often noted of the sword of the knight in the act of being sheathed represented the accomplishment of his purpose. Unfortunately, this interesting supposition does not always accord with historical facts; as Clinch points out, this view 1s not now generally held, and that the cross- legged attitude was merely a convenient and conventional manner of dealing with the limbs.’ The addition of a lion or a dog at the feet of the Crusader was a symbol of courage in the case of the lion and faithfulness in the case of the dog. It is little wonder that the churches and cemeteries contain so many examples of neglected and decaying tombstones which it has ceased to be anybody’s business or interest to repair, a matter which reminds us of that remarkable person Robert Peterson, from whom Sir Walter Scott took the character of “Old Mortality.” Peterson was born in Hawick, Scotland, and was brought up as a stone mason. He was a man of deeply religious convictions, and belonged to an austere sect known as the Cameronians. At an early date he deserted his wife and family and devoted the remaining forty years of his life to the erection and repair of the tombs of the Covenanters who had suffered persecution in the reign of Charles II. He wandered from church- yard to churchyard, his sole companion being an ancient shaggy white pony which lived on the rank grass growing round the neglected graves. He died in the year 1801, a statue being erected to his memory which shows him engaged in his labour of love. A society was founded in 1889 called The 1 George Clinch, ‘‘ English Costume.’’ 266 FUNERAL CUSTOMS Association for the Preservation of the Memorials of the Dead. This otherwise solitary instance of a mission in the service of the dead is in striking contrast to the damage and destruction of tombs of which we find so many instances throughout the pages of history. In the latter years of the reign of Henry VIII the destruction of tombs was an_ obsession. Elizabeth, when she came into power, issued a special mandate against such vandalism, despite which, ruthless despoliation still continued. Tombs were hacked to pieces, and the marble of which they were composed was used for various secular purposes. Those especially suffered which bore the typical inscription of the old faith. It is said that Robert, Earl of Sussex, paved his larder and kitchen with the marble gravestones of his ancestors, to obtain which he did not hesitate to demolish the choir of Atlebrugh Church (Norfolk). Perhaps nothing suffered more at the hands of the destroyers than the memorial brasses, which richly embellished the majority of the churches at that period. No doubt this vandalism originated in a sort of religious frenzy, but it was certainly continued for the sake of profiting by the sale of the materials thus obtained. Brass, which always fetched a ready price, was easily removed, and the theft covered by melting down the metal into ingots or moulding it in the form of weights or other articles. In some instances memorial brasses were torn from the tombs for sheer mischief, and found their way more or less undamaged into lumber rooms and odd corners, from which they were later recovered and replaced in their original positions. These simple and beautiful memorials followed the earlier forms of incised slate or stone. They MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 267 came into vogue in Henry VIII’s reign. Originally used as a coffin plate, they were frequently richly enamelled by the Flemish, who brought the custom to this country, but the art died out, later examples being of brass only. The best brasses are very fine in workmanship, the engraved lines being clear and simple. Gradually an attempt to obtain effects by shading with cross-hatched lines vulgarized the work, till it ceased to be of any artistic merit. As in the case of the marble tombs, the brasses which bore the inscription “orate pro anima” were the first to suffer. It is not uncommon to find traces of still earlier workmanship on the reverse side of these memorials, which had been purchased as scrap brass from those who had stolen them, and later were worked up again for other purposes. Occasionally memorial brasses are used to-day, but generally in commemoration of the clergy, whose robes or vestments lend themselves to a decorative and conventional treatment. It is an amusing comment on the ugliness of modern costume, which admits of no literal artistic representation, but our newly acquired sense of humour refused to submit to the substitution of the “ toga,” which was not long since a common expedient. The coffin “ furniture,” dear to the undertaker’s heart, is otherwise all that is left of the memorial brass. Anything more degraded in design and execution it would be impossible to describe. A glance through the catalogue of the wholesale firms who sell this rubbish to the trade will show a fearful collection of “ new art” and other debased designs, if one may call them so, largely savouring of German origin. [he cheaper variety were made before the war, by that enterprising nation, out of old tins and cans stamped under pressure and brass-plated. The now abandoned custom of presenting 268 FUNERAL CUSTOMS mourning jewellery in memory of the dead, was once a very general practice. Many of the old jewellers’ trade cards show as an important part of the design a tomb on which an inscription was engraved, advertising all kinds of memorial rings and jewellery. In the Middle Ages, and later, “ mourning rings” were frequently mentioned in wills, a certain sum of money being set apart for the purchase and distribution of these mementoes to the relations and friends of the family. Sometimes attendants and officials received their share also, as a curious extract dated 1719 reminds us. Itis taken from the records of the [ronmongers’ Company, and shows the Dismal Trade of the period in an unfavourable light. “ The master acquainted the Court that one John Turney, an undertaker for funerals, had lately buried one Mrs. Mason, from the Hall, but had refused the Master Warder and the Clerk each a ring, etc., according to his agreement, the persons invited being served with gloves, hatbands and rings.” Anne of Cleves left by will several mourning rings of various values for distribution at her death. In Shakespeare’s will (1616) sums of money were mentioned for the purchase of rings for several of his friends, three of which were for “‘ My fellows” as he affectionately calls his brother actors, Hemynge, Burbage and Cundell. Izaak Walton in 1683 willed rings as “a friend’s farewell,” the cost of which he specified as 13s. 4d. each. For his wife and daughter he desired rings to be made and to be inscribed “‘ Love my memory,” whilst to the Bishop of Winchester he presented one on which MOURNING JEWELLERY. ce Brooches with Painted Memorial Miniatures and ‘“ Lockets,”’ i.e. cases con- taining “‘ locks ’’ of human hair. (From jewellery kindly lent by Edwin Good, Esq.) ro ele et "a 5 vs Opes } nt TS) kh aD Fy a ¢ , y a , ’ ba ms : ' HY R A : i} yy fo , 7 ,™ ; get ‘ fi s ’ ( ") i , ’ ; ‘ ad ar i yaa mt Nay is we : L ’ ¥ oh hy tas : ri bn AP Oe fi «i ( Ris “ han}! y" . M Lae ay, uf : bs 9 y as 7 Li y ‘i J - - ; 4 rear hs 1 : i i] y | a? ) 7 4 ya © ae ~ : i Am | 1 i ; . ‘ Jib me" we Arkh i © hi is Mie ae ’ i | . FN Oe ane wlan puny . 7 4 ’ - t. 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Pee Wy * : : 4 - ofa . md A a yn Ut. ei ; a - (sie) ee = hy »—) ALT Ps MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 269 were engraved the words, “a mite for a million,” I. W. obit. In Pepys’ Diary in the appendix appears a list of a number of persons to whom mortuary jewellery was to be presented at his death, which took place in 1703. Forty-six rings were to cost twenty shillings, sixty-two were to be of the value of fifteen shillings, and twenty of the value of ten shillings each.* We may be certain that Evelyn, who so dearly loved to uphold the “funeral decencies,” would not be behind in the matter of rings. His child died in 1658, when he writes : “I caused his body to be coffined in lead and deposited on the 30th at eight o’clock that night in the church at Deptford, accompanied with divers of my relations and neighbours, among whom I distributed rings, with the motto, ‘ Domincus abstutit.’ ” For the burial of Charles I seven rings were made, containing a miniature of the King’s head behind a death’s head, and a motto, “ Prepared be to follow me.” A sentimental attachment to locks of hair is of very old origin. The Greeks cut the first hair of a child, the beard of a youth, and the tresses of a maiden, these they offered to the gods. On the death of a parent the hair of the children, cut off as a token of grief, was placed with the body. Some- thing of this practice was carried forward in the custom of preserving the hair of a deceased person in a special receptacle in memorial rings, brooches, lockets, etc. The hair was woven or twisted in various ways, 1 Wm. Jones, F.S.A., ‘‘ Finger Ring Lore.’’ 270 FUNERAL CUSTOMS and formed quite a feature of the mortuary jewellery a generation since. The use of black enamel in rings was much in vogue in England, white enamel being frequently substituted in the case of a child or young person. Some of the brooches of the eighteenth century are very fine in workmanship. ‘They frequently contain as part of the design a miniature painted on ivory, representing an urn with a figure (sometimes a portrait of a bereaved husband or wife) weeping over a tombstone, with the usual accompaniment of willows and the like. Small seed pearls were very often introduced as an enrichment, and for the value of their symbol of tears. Most of the brooches were so formed as to pivot on their frames, disclosing a miniature, or in later days, a daguerreotype of the deceased. The habit of burying jewels with the dead has been largely responsible for many acts of sacrilege. There have been many curious superstitions in relation to the wearing of rings. The inhabitants of some of the Greek Islands believed that the soul could not leave the body as long as a ring remained on the finger. This rendered it necessary for those who watched over the dying to hastily remove the rings on the first symptoms that death had taken place, in order to allow the soul to escape from the body.’ Superstition still maintains that the turquoise is affected by the ill-health of a person wearing it, and that it remains dull and leaden in appearance after death, till worn by a person in good health, when it is said to regain the peculiar colour for which it is noted. If these mortuary jewels were as a whole very ugly, what shall be said of the hideous lumps of 1 E. C. Woodward, The Englishwoman, June, to1t. MOURNING JEWELLERY. Inlaid jet ear-rings, brooches, and gold and enamel (From jewellery kindly lent by Edwin Good, Esq.) rings. ’ Ne. i ae: 4 MEMORIALS, EPITAPHS, RINGS 271 crudely manufactured jet which it is still considered by some classes of society to be necessary to wear when “in mourning,” or the even more preposterous “half-mourning” sets of ear-rings and the like, in which a little silver is introduced to lighten the effect. Whitby, which for centuries has been the seat of the jet industry, still carries on a trade on these ghoulish appendages, impervious alike to enlightenment or ridicule. F-ven so sketchy a chapter on the subject of memorials must not be closed without mention of the still popular mourning card. Here again, we find that in its original use, it was intended as a reminder of the departed, in order that the recipient might offer prayers for the repose of his soul. In its present form the mourning card is a modest affair, printed in black and silver, and exhibiting all that elementary lack of taste which is so marked a feature of everything connected with our funeral customs. It contains, as a rule, in addition to the name and age of the deceased, some symbol of the Christian faith, sufficiently obscured by a wreath of lilies or ivy, in order to render it acceptable to all shades of religious opinion. A verse selected from some popular hymn expressing a pious aspiration, preferably in relation to “sleep,” is added, but avoiding, of course, all the pitfalls, either definite or dogmatic. In most family Bibles, earlier examples of the mourning card will be found. These are for the most part embossed in a white relief on a black background. The pierced or fretted variety was once very popular; these were most elaborate, and contained the usual symbols of grief—urns, weep- ing angels and willow trees. Various degrees of black-bordered note-paper 272 FUNERAL CUSTOMS and envelopes are still in use. Some few years ago, a revolutionary mind introduced an innovation which consisted of a black corner to the envelope in place of the sable border. Needless to say, this departure from orthodoxy had but a short life, and was soon overcome by the unwritten laws of funeral tradition. The old-fashioned tradesman, on whose house- hold death had laid a heavy hand, was wont to put up the shutters of his shop as a token of mourning. The consequent loss of business, in days of keener competition, suggested a modification, which took the form of a simple black-painted board in place of the shutters, a custom which is still to be met with. EXTRACT FROM AN OLD LEDGER An interesting record of the cost of various items supplied for a funeral in the year 1824. OY vi ern ahaa fae Her tha Sutermetuk of Medi Martha Warley ah Utangpirr Miyaw, tafe’ OLhe Bi faery SEE ot darng wrth wits tathiw ge aa atl fille -- ~~ SIH — Bald - tothe tathw- ---- 9 @ - i. T-, he LA of dame tefl — ee Mo as nt eae Ma Spl ors en UO, SON ms -Y¥- ating He tame--- - ttc oo ne PR Pie ei hb oca CaN iatian pane Me gb ee LL 0 - 3 TS pe cecaternaise aaa anton AN NET 3 US Sen aC (2le ut PA A he folunce of test Clack: Jthrich ( fl0 - fte<- : MA Naira ig eee Geviy yee eae Btu pi Be ahh — Gryace -— - JO We 2-4 Lukes of Crag - ----~---- FOUaS FP -4 J is thiflaubl opel tuck dl terval 72 12 ~ $6. /4— CB oa Zz 10-13 O 273 S GF [he — 2. --—- 4 Cb LL Poked CLA 4br& -4 Peal ‘ Cts tharved Jer A ELLA ai gy re a Se ee A ee ree + le «/b~ Yifn np etek: Sh vin Lhbaks Qtetbdel blethewts thes our a4 - CO Ages beck dees so---- fa ld -— #2 As ep pnhe wisn Neo e gt soot lak Veena Velocd : _—_—— — = ers /|hewt Crafee Pr b five ; tupe~Ltinew Merictack beat Ina... Je te—2 flatiauhs Eyer G?----- Js mem BEZEL nee A Lr hes Hh Waitara VY S21 of Siowed | Mek Lelhitearg Eh tland a Aad Baten CLG; hte rf carced WaT Wtatuamew SL tk hha Gort) 99 —A# f f tie Mn bs 274 9 fisate Bhat bt Wotbanc peg, ee 7 GLB 13S (3G /é@ -- -6) LB 40g. 4-6 Wreught fren SY/ te 3S ofenb Chon, Cl iudlxices ; en aa es it heb tH Cong P ene SP a: ME et Ee [P+ — 0 LL Wathands Vl fuss Clover — J @ - ie Oe IER hl) ea ike te al) main “HK 4 — 27) -) vi 4S ae yy ‘St iy a ar A 5 ul pip yl Way ied ¢ irs i, gp) alten hd WA De Ne | 8. 4 yi da un ae 5 Di 9 ' v) te ‘ i 4 f ss Ate ee ,) e eye wh, ee a Ul eet ares % oan fy j f 4) ‘ f Ube s : ‘ { . MH at a . 5 7 : n - ere Ls | oa . ' aye) TA “¢ 7 r Nie | ¢ * hh 7 ‘ ptr bie 3 Peer ete i ‘ 2 t ty reve ye 4 ‘ . ‘ a) hs Be ay al he Ls Wey a t a ” . 4 ‘ ; Oe Sr ‘ trl tee a Pe ( ’ i ti wy A 1 . i : i ‘ , i, Mw raya t 4 f i” i ‘ 4 ' : 9 Pat | " y ' . ¥ ‘ ‘ 1 ” i -§ ns ; , ' ot ¥ ih a re ha ; ‘ : ' ‘ a t ¢ : ‘ Pu: | yet , ~% F ' } Ves nee ee | { oe \i | : ® t 1A oor ba Ls ie 4 ‘ ¥ : ‘s al re ~ . a ‘ re) iy % id 4 H ‘ A a Py ' =f \ / i. Py ‘ : a j i ‘ oer tae: ; > , f ‘ = e ” \ { i ¥ ‘, t i . - i j ' ' f is ) yi a it if, j re | “a Py; * iv At iee aed HEARSE OF WrouGHT Iron. (Spanish. 14th cent.) The hearse took many forms, but was always sur- mounted by a forest of prickets or spikes on which candles were impaled. These were lighted during the, funeral ceremonies, and afterwards on special feast days, particularly at the anniversary of death. Tra- ditionarily, they were triangular in form. Fic. 2 illustrates a modern votive-candle stand, and as such is to be found in most Catholic Churches to-day, it is worthy of note that these stands are still known as ‘‘Hearses.’? They are directly descended from the medieval wrought iron ‘*Hearse’’ or ** Hearse light.’’ 277 INDEX ALL HALLOWS EVE, 244, 245 All Saints, feast of, 234, 238, 244 All Souls, feast of, 234-6 Altars, origin of, 135 Ancestor worship, 101, 251 Animals, slaughter of, 50, 60, 206, 235 Animism, 71 Ankow, 156 Anniversaries, 70, 84, gas, 240, 242, 251 Ants, 13, 14 Arms, reversed, 204 Apples, 245, 246 Mass, 246 Associated ideas, 17 Averil, arvel, 104 Aya Marca, 234 233; 109, BANSHEE, 21 Barbe, oI! Barrows, 131, 140 Baton, 128 Beds, 94 Bees, 14, 79 Belgium, 104, 108 Bellman, 84 Bell, mort, 82 ——— passing, 82, 185 ——, Rogation, 84 eeSOUL, 62,03 Bells, 27, 53 Bidder, 84, 85 Bier, 35, f15, 116, 119 Black death, 183, 184 —— magic, 63, 71, 73 Body, burning, 208 ——, disposal of, 222 ——, disturbing, 173-5 ” snatching, 176-81 Bones, removal of, 137, 174 Boots, reversed, 205 Breathing test, 23 Bridges, 123 1735 Brittany, 64, 65, 94, 123; 154, 155, 162, 474, 175, 235 Bronze Age, 21! Brouardel, Dr., 23, 29, 220 Brunetti, 220 Bulgarian, 100 Bumping coffin, 124 Bunhill Fields, 259 Burial, cave, 43 : chested, 42, 43 clubs, 96 , congested, 146 costume, 39 ——, cross-roads, 153 extravagance, 96, 97 _.—, face down, 151 garden, 150 grounds, 120, 62, 218 intants2 47441 est kneeling, 239 naked, 37 night, 152 north, 149 responsibility for, 31, 137, 139- —_—_—— —_- v_ we we he we 32 wSECTEL, LAS shafts, 129 , times for, 30 —, ’ unconsecrated, 152 come UID LIV tI. 161 versus cremation, 210 , virgins’, 169, 170 ——, water level, 208 CANDLES, 117, 125 Cannibals, 47, 70, 99 Cat, phantom, 21 Catacombs, 134-8, 213 Paris, 137, 138 Catafalque, 118, 213 Catholic Church, regulations, 32, 33, 55 Cemeteries, Christian, 43, 130, 151, 247, 257 Cenotaph, 237 279 280 Ceremonious anointing, 36 dress, 35, 36, 200 washing, 34, 213, 224 Certificates, 37 Chantry, 242 priest, 243 Charm, curative, 74 Charon, 51 Chevra Kadisha, 226 Chief, 15 Chinese, 36, 48, 51, 52, 211 child burial, 37, 41 coffin, 48 customs, 58, 73 plague, 182 Chrisom, 40 | Christian practice, 30, 33, 34, 47, 95, 110, 134, 137, 140, LAO, 150; 212; 223; 224,) 240 sentiment, 51, 77, 104 Church, burial in, 254, 255 Greek, 109 — guardianship, 166 neglect, 166 —— yards, 139-63 Cider, 18 Clipping festival, 165 Coaches, 121, 126 Cock. 151 Cockcrow, 236 Coffins, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48 , furniture, 44, 267 ——, preservation, 45, 46, 47 , wood, 45 Coins, 51, 52 Common Prayer, 41, 42 Confirmation band, 40 Congo, 55 Consecration, 140, 184, 185 Coque-morts, 66, 67 Corn, 54, 109 Cornwall, 20, 75 Corpse, arresting, 122 , ceremonious viewing, 104 derivation, 31 ——, food, 1o1 , lifting, 108 Corrosives, 46 Corsica, 68, 159, 169, 235 Crape, 92, 96 Cremation,. 33,1200)" 231, .214 , scientific, 216-21 society, 222, 223 Crime, detection of, 46, 220 Cross-roads, burial, 153 Crusader, 264, 265 INDEX Curse, 164 DEAD, worship of, 66, 232, POD aa , kissing, 75 March, 205 Death hamper, 43 Decapitation, 23 Devon, 18 Defilement, 141 Dickens, Chas., 18, 148 Dii Manes, 235 Dirge, 119, 250 Dolmen, 130 Doole, 86-92 Douglas, 194 Dowager, 90 Drawing and quartering, 236 Dreams, 18 Dresden, 21 Drowning, 19, 238 Druids, 164 Drying body, 158 EARTH eating, 162 Earth in coffin, 162 Earth, thrown, 162 Egyptian, 53, 54, 58, 101; 211,234, 240 Embalming, 46, 74, 209-31 Epitaph, 173, 241, 242, 253- 72 Excesses, 110 100, | Execution, 25, 73, 206, 207 FACTION fights, 104 Feast, funeral, 33, 99-116 Fees, 122 , interment, 139 Feralia, 235 Feudal, 160 Feuds, 103 Firing party, 205 Flag, 205 » black, 207 , half-mast, 206 Flowers, 86, 168-74, 210, 233 , heather, 171 , ** immortelles,” 172 Food offering, 99, 102, 172 Foul play, 103 France, 30, 41, 66, 93, 220, 247 Free Churches, 243 Funerals, civic, 196, 197, 199 , conventions, 97 ——, Mass, 114, 119 INDEX Funerals, naval, 206, 238 —., processions, 99-128 —, public, 191-208 ——, State, 88, 89 GERMAN, 30, 217, 220 Ghosts, 21, 77 , Taising, 62, 63 Gipsy customs, 42, 52 Gladiators, 214 Gloves, 106 , white, 170 Good Friday, 19 Gorini furnace, 220 Gowns, black, 88 Gravedigger, 173 Grave goods 31, 49, 50, 55, $52,°375,-176 rave, pagan, 131 Greece, 51,, 2115) 2373-244, 270 Gun-carriage, 205 HAIR, 269, 270 Hammer, 50, 52 Harrow, 117 Hatchment, 75, 118 Hearse, 116, 118, 203 » Aight, +117 ——, modern, 124, 125 -anOtor, (125, 126 Heart beating, 23 burial, 151, 193, 194 sae forbidden, 194 , stake though, 208 Heirs, 233 Helps, 36 Henry I, 41 Heriot, 80 Hohenzollern, 20 Horses, 125, 161 Hour-glass, 54 ‘* House of Life,’’ 161 INDIA, 56, 57, 58, 210, 234 fakir, 25 — plague, 182-90 Infection, 29, 218 Innocents, Parisyir37 Insignia, 114 Ireland, 39, 52, 64, 77, 100, 124 Italy, 36, 145, 214, 220 JAPAN, 146, 234, 235 Jewellery, mourning, 268-71 (pene customs, 33, 34, 39; 176, 281 46; 50; 61, 62, 66,°.68, 02; 108, 134, 144, 161, 178, 224, 225, 226, 240, 241 Johnson, Ben, 161 Judea, 211 Jury, 28 KADAVAR UTILIZATION, 217 Kaddish, 240 Karlsruche, 20 Kattafin, 66 Keats, 215 LACERATION, 68 Lanhadron Park, 20 Last Post, 205 Leigh Hunt, 215 Lichgate, 144 Liripipe, 92 Looking-glass, 53 Louis XI, 93 Louisa of Saxony, 21 Lunatics, 143 MANDRAKE, 168, 169 Marini, 219 Martin, Saint, 34 Martyrs, 36, 142, 254 Mary, Queen of Scots, 93 Masks, 113, 213 Mazing the dead, 152 Memorial, 253-72 brasses, 40, 267 cards;(247;°271) 272 Mexico, 56 Military, 114, 127, 151, 237 charger, 59, 80, 203, 206 Milk, 111 Mime, 66 Mirror, 19 Mohammedan, 239 Monks, 35, 47, 142 , Capucine, 159 , Trappist, 101 Montpensier, Mlle., 193 Mortalities, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188 Mort-cloth, 116 Mortuary, 27, 28, 11 chapel, 29 tax, 80-1 Mourning, 87-98 Murderer, 151 Mussulman, 210 Mutes, 61, 65, 66, 67 as waiters, 112 201-6, 282 NAILS, coffin, 39 Napoleon, 20, 201, 202 Nature, I! Necrophorus mortuorum, iI New Guinea, 72 Nomads, 211 No-man’s-land, 186 Norway, 39, 109, 145, 159 OINTMENT, precious, 36, 113 ‘¢ Old Mortality,’’ 265 Oliver Cromwell, 177 Onions, III Orientation, 148, 150 Ossuary, 174 PACE, ceremonial, 125 Pawan; i237 Paurecaqtisy 125 , flag as, 205 Pancakes, 64, 235 Paper trade, 38 Parsees, 156, 157 Perfume, 36, 231 Persians, 157, 234 Peruvians, 234 Peterson, Robert, 265 Pillage, 178 Pinkings, 125 Plague, 182-90 ,» Black, 182-6 ——, Great, 188, 189, 190 —— pits, 189, 190 precautions, 215 Plays, 63, 144 Plumes, 128 Pompadour, Mlle., 138 Portugal, 30 Prayers, 103, 240, 242 for dead, 250, 251, 255 Premature burial, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27 Preston, Robert, 260 Prickets, 117,41 25 Processions, 48, 153 Prophet Elm, 20 Prunes, 108 Psychic investigation, 141, 226, 240; 250 Purgatory, 52, 230, 242, 243, 244, 262 Pyramids, 132, 133, 134 Pyres119// 212-5, . 237 105, 100, 234, RAGGED REGIMENT, 113 Raven, 17 INDEX Registers, church, 38 Resurrection, 35, 39, 44 men, 178, 179, 180 Right of way, 122, 123 Roads, 120-3 Roman burial customs, 33; 41, 66, 78, 84, 112, 113, 123, 160; 17S eT Romanoff, 21 Royalty, 20, 48, 74, 88, 93, 94, 127, 151, '170,.)4077;) arene IQI-202, 208, 213, 214 Russian certificates, 54 SACRIFICE, IOI, 235, 236 Sacrilege, 256, 266 Saddle cloth, 127 Sailors, 18, 206, 238 St. Chrysostom, 34 St. George, 236 St. Martin, 34 St. Odilo of Cluny, 244 St. John’s Wood, 153 Salt, $3,106 Sanctuary, 130, 1 sarerea Sarcophagi, 135 Scarab beetle, 54, 55 Scotland,» 18,)42f*62,9 7a, seme 84, 88) 107,.1110,-023e coe 236 , Assembly of, 143 Serbians, 236 Sermon, funeral, 107, 113, 192 Sexton beetle, 11 Shakespeare, 268 Shelley, 194, 214 Shrine, war, 248, 249 Shroud, 39, 42 , woollen, 37 Shutters, black, 272 Siberian dogs, 157 Sin-eater, 69, 70 Skulls, 174 Skull boxes, 175 Slave burial, 136 Slave, slaughter of, 55, 56, 59 Sleeping, 256, 262 Solomon Islands, 100 Sorcerer, 72, 73 Soul bread, 104, 245 duality, 101 leaving body, 26 Souter, Charles, 179, 180, 181 Spain, 30 Spirits, 15 Spiritualist, 26 Starvation, 234 INDEX State control, 139 State supervision, 28, 30 Stockings, 39 Stones, memorial, 265 Stuart, 94, 102, 146 Suicides, 150, 152 Sun worship, 158 Superstitions, 17 i Suttee,’’ 50,157, 59 Sweating sickness, 187, 188 Switzerland, 92 254, 263, TABOO, 71 Tattooing, 204 Taxes, 80, 81 Thirst, 155, 156 Thompson, Sir Henry, 215 Toads, 26 Woul 132 Tomb, access to, 173 ‘* Tombe Issiore,’’ 137 Torches, 76, 78, 115 Tower of Silence, 157 i OV > cypress, fir, 167 holly, 164 myrtle, 167 oak, 164-212 palm, 168 rosemary, 168 rowan, 164 sakaki, 168 willow, 163 worship of, » yew, 163 Turkish h, 50 163} (213 I) a Wi ol” Se NO oe ea Se 85 wy wwe 163, 164 2838 Tyburn, 177 UNBAPTIZED CHILDREN, 143 Undertaker, 11, 30, 44, 75; 97, 98, 220, 231 Urns, cinerary, 227 VAULTS, decorated, 159 Verdi, 199 Viking, 158 Violet, 94, 95 Volley-firing, 205 Vowess, 90 Vultures, 156 WAGON, I19 Wagner, 159 Wailers, 66, 67 ,» women, 113 Wakes, 61-81, 109 Wales, 21, 149, 247 Wands, 12 Warnings, death, 17 Waste, 45 Watching, 61 Watchman, 155 Water, III ROLY DELL Spirits, 20 Waxcot, 78, 80 Weeds, 86, 94 Weeper, 92 Wellington, 202, 203 ‘¢ White Lady,”’ 20 Widows, 58, 59, 76, 86, 89, 90, gI-4, Q7 William the Conqueror, Wills, 22 Witch-doctor, 14, 72 Witches, 21, 151 Woking, 221 Wreath, 171 191-3 ZUNA MOHAMMEDAN, 239 an hin ay ee 4G 4 : i? > ¢ an ne ’ at 4 isi f i be becasue ae y + i ‘a5 4 i u le" 1 ibis at all, ao ee y iene se : , Gc‘ yer ey wary is, ae, ce ne, | , ’ pian & » i re Olas i } * ® ae \ he 3 tah ohh Wi TS ‘ ’ i x nr Ne wet ‘ 7 il Ba . i ae { 1? : mt DER! 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