© oe pay : WTS it 13 »V LAV Section APPLETON SERIES IN SUPERVISION AND TEACHING EDITED BY A. S. BARR AND WILLIAM H. BURTON THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION APPLETON SERIES IN SUPERVISION AND TEACHING EDITED BY A. 8S. BARR Associate Professor of Education in the University of Wis- consin; Formerly Assistant Director in Charge of Supervision in the Detroit Public Schools. WILLIAM H. BURTON | Professor of Education in the University of Chicago; Formerly | Professor of Education in the University of Cincinnati and | Director in Charge of the Supervision of Teachers in Training, Cincinnati Public Schools. VISITING THE TEACHER AT WORK—by C. J. Annrrson, Dean of the School of Education in the University of Wis- consin, A. S. Barr, and Maysett G. Busy, Supervisor of Elementary Grades in the Wisconsin State Department of Public Instruction. | THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION—DbDy A. S. Barr ; and Witi1am H. Burton. 1 THE ORGANIZATION OF SUPERVISION—By Fnren C. Ayer, Professor of Education in the University of Texas; Formerly Director of Research in the Seattle Public Schools and A. S. Barr. 1 THE SUPERVISION OF SECONDARY SUBJECTS— Edited by Witu1s L. Unt, Dean of the School of Education in tho University of Washington, and others. THE SUPERVISION OF ELEMENTARY SUBJECTS— Edited by Wit1t1am H. Burron and others. RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISION—y C. J. Anprrson. In preparation. THE NATURE AND DIRECTION OF LEARNING—by Wuiuam H. Borron. Other Volumes to Follow — THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION A GENERAL VOLUME BY A. S. BARR PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN ; ASSISTANT DIRECTOR IN CHARGE OF SUPERVISION IN TH DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND WILLIAM H. BURTON PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO; FORMERLY DIRECTOR IN CHARGE OF THE SUPERVISION OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING, CINCINNATI PUBLIC SCHOOLS D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK LONDON CopyRIGHT, 1926, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PREFACE The purpose of this volume is to present the general problems, principles, and procedures of supervision. The material included has been drawn chiefly from three sources: first the experience of the authors in teaching for several years past general introductory courses in the field of supervision and the improvement of teaching; sec- ond, the experience of the authors as supervisors and di- rectors of supervision in various places; and third, from an exhaustive and critical survey (a) of current practice in supervision, and (b) of the literature in the field of supervision. Effort has been made to present a well-bal- aneed, sound, and progressive theory, copiously supple- mented by practical case material from the field. No attempt has been made to discuss any one phase of supervision in detail. Many of the topics treated in a general way in this volume need further study and elab- oration, and this will be cared for by other volumes to follow in this series. One chapter in this volume, ‘‘ Visi- tation and Conference,’’ has already been expanded into a more comprehensive discussion under the title Visiting the Teacher at Work, by Anderson, Barr and Bush. Scientific materials have been used whenever available. Upon some topics excellent studies were found, particu- larly upon the problems of the organization of supervision, curriculum construction, and the use of tests in supervision. On many topies little or no experimental data were avail- able, and the authors have relied upon expert opinion and authority. One of the great needs of supervision is for Vv v1 : PREFACE more factual material. With the express hope of encour- aging investigations of the problems of supervision, the chapters on ‘‘The Improvement of Teaching Through Re- search and Experimentation’’ and ‘‘The Scientific Study of Supervision’’ have been included. The book is designed to be of use to superintendents, general and special supervisors, principals, teachers, and as a text for beginning and advanced classes studying su- pervision. The simple discussion of general principles and the large amount of concrete material will be of value to inexperienced supervisors and to beginning students. Ad- vaneed and technical discussions, together with suggestions for research are available for the experienced supervisor and the advanced student. It has been the policy of the authors to use quotations liberally in two respects particularly: first, in the case of controversial issues; and, second, in describing actual prac- tice in the field. Supervision is developing rapidly and in the case of certain problems no final answer can be reached at this time. No one is in a position dogmatically to lay ‘down the law. Therefore quotations have been used lib- erally in presenting all phases of such issues. In describ- ing practice in the field it was deemed better to cite actual statements from superintendents’ bulletins and circulars, rather than to write second-hand descriptions. Notwith- standing the general character of the volume, no pains have been spared to make the materials definite, specific, and conerete. The quotations used have been included through the kind permission of authors and publishers, and these per- missions are gratefully acknowledged. The list is too long to include here but credit is given to each author and publisher in the footnote accompanying the quotations. Those selections from books copyrighted by the Houghton Mifflin Co., are reprinted by permission of, and special ar- PREFACE Vii rangement with, that company. Thanks are also due to Dr. W. L. Uhl and to Mr. C. J. Anderson, who read the manuscript in its entirety and who supplied many helpful suggestions. Readers familiar with Burton’s Supervision and the Im- provement of Teaching will recognize certain passages and principles as having been carried over from that book. The present volume is, however, in no sense a revision or rewriting of the older presentation. ith de oe id ot wt ‘athe dwt a a, Hire CONTENTS PREFACE ...... Sees e, ys A cae MO ite DR pte AS ea ay a en CHAPTER 2 LE MIRED VOR RSURERVISION¢s. sa/- cists swisiee 2 sci oats Sage What teachers expect of supervision.............. What do superintendents expect of supervision? .. Whate do-~Superwisors2dg.? Os). pau wrsih adie 0 oso wip saps Sis ty ee 265 The: statistical; method ss cise! «te snafeha GRINS whe os l= 427 PIB MOU TS DOUGH a cue iten Sulerate 2) cus waste jal caaseisbotstele.s = v.0 + 427 oMOnSEPALIO Led GOIN Pie ayn lolih walteaviaatiataters. © se hie 428 Emergency demonstration .......... Et epi 2 430 Directeds OUservationt Ole teaehin Oye. dais weete ss alee « 431 PEC OCCUMICOAGIIINID', Pate eee ctetc nats incense te wie sige tne: «Pan a 432 PILAR VISILALLOU TNMs csc Ohl, nebo kly lek iyi robelet cae Sole g 43 AO TOO Te ROSONEO Oe ole ae oes Cela st binltloe) a's» a6 434 Extension courses, correspondence courses, lectures, DIMELLA SOLO! ais f'n whist se wma leo ja le ete che ete +o Sara oe 435 Bulletins, handbooks, and other printed aids ....... 436 ise S MNCS CEXNLOILS 2. aiernieis & mim 4 cielo ele 438 The rating of teachers and improvement in service.. 439 Improving the teacher in fields other than the techni- DME aE calc CotS Saat ee ale ole were AG tharahciais' a caer ats 439 XII. EVALUATING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS ............ 448 MOG PO RHE ORG TALIN Oars RAW wiahs sha os usyvin’s signin’ cajalylare « 449 PACUDITISLLALLVE PUISCS ED CRTALIUL Gray a'sl he seals tie cue c's on ti 450 Arguments advanced against rating .............. 457 BOerVIsOrvnlUsed (OLeTAtING oe nett wo fee e's ase. s.0, 2s 463 PROSE ACUSS OT STOR SL a samc se oeeuiers tie aialerdalets aa inla''s'e 466 SERS ROLGTA Ang CATAS bie eee et, ee arc re tecelate teres. =<: 468 deaching, not teachers, to be rated .........23.-6. 480 BMI TY Seeratetat ans SRO hs ete sooo in lec ae tee ene Gis x once ae 486 xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII. EVALUATING THE EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS.........- Criticisms of supervision from teachers and others. Administrative demands that supervision justify IUSOLL iw ca Sip eles ss Hens SI alts aU eisig dy emi Who then shall rate the supervisor? .......... a wate Teachers must not only contribute to supervision, but must also pass judgment pte the worth of super- VIBLOM Pais PO ass a Speco a steer tres alata eis ot ee etek What are the factors upon which teachers may be expected sto. pass jgudement:2) iti taints ie oteisigis ores Administrators must have a system of checks through which they may judge the worth of supervision. . XIV. THE TRAINING AND PERSONALITY OF SUPERVISORS ....... The / training Of/supervisOrs:=..0.t see ste ys eit sel alee General> statémentss.. 3 ese: 2 se et ee 0 elton one Reduction of these general statements to specific re- CUITEINONIS 4 hate isis es cae fa ess ee eee Guidance obtained through a study of controversies regarding supervision: 2.0’... . o/s 6. The ‘personality jof the supervisor... 2... 2/04. . oe mee Taylor’s list of desirable traits of the supervisor .. Wagner’s list of misconceived supervisory types .... Kelley’sssupervisory, types s,s 10s. ceteris gi ene A brief summary of desirable traits .............. Can personality be developed? \.) 270. vas omer XV. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SUPERVISION.... Studies of the value of supervision ......... é eer Studies of the administrative ticionagete of super- VISION .. 6. cece ce essegecccsceessostcncercreacn WIG as iaigaeinte aoe 4.473 ee oka te Analytical studies of teaching Reavis’; student-accounting j.6%. ..dicule cule ae Barr’s time-chart studies of teaching.............. Waples’ study of the initial difficulties in high- SCHOOL each ig cose ie 06 91d «oly ine clu k a Oa Some needed research in supervision .............. There are many unsolved problems in supervision... ee ecocavetin st eeu eces need oe es 02 @€ 0 6 00 © 8 8 6 a & 6 © 6 4S 6 SO 6 88 8 6 6 ee THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION ial ’ hip¥ics ARN iv, Pi tee es Wp? ' oad \ ak al - a + " “di Lt ele 7 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION CHAPTER I THE FIEL) OF SUPERVISION What is supervision? What are the specific activities which constitute the field of supervision? What are the limits within which supervisors should work? How is supervision related to administration and administrative functions and in what way is it different? Supervision, although a part of the educational program for several decades, has only recently won recognition as a specialized phase of that program. Now, however, it is recognized not only as a specialized field, but also as the foundation upon which all programs for the improvement of teaching must be built. Traditions, standards, tech- niques, and principles are being evolved, and a technically trained personnel is rapidly materializing. As supervision has developed in importance and in tech- nical expertness, definitions have also been evolved. The earliest definitions were, according to Coffman, ‘‘grimly humorous.’’ He cites the following, gathered from writers of distinction: * The business of a supervisor is to cast a genial influence over his schools, but otherwise he is not to interfere with the work. 1L. D. Coffman, ‘‘The Control of Educational Progress through School Supervision,’’ Proceedings of the National Education Associa- tion, Vol. 55, 1917, p. 187. 1 2 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Supervision is taking the broad view, the general view, and seeing the back and middle grounds as well as the foreground with its details. . . . Supervision is the vision in the old and beautiful sense of seeing things invisible. The supervisor, in relation to the scholarship of his schools, is as a traveler going into a far country to earn wages and to bring back treasures from its vast stores of wealth. In relation to the children and youth, the supervisor is as a pioneer going into a great wilderness of primeval forests to make there a home of civilization. In relation to the schools, the supervisor is as a sea captain of the medieval time upon a chartless sea. ' Later attempts have been much more to the point. In 1914, Elliott? in distinguishing between administration, supervision, and inspection, defined supervision as follows: “Supervisory control is concerned with what should be taught, and when it should be taught; to whom, by whom, how, and to what purpose.’’ In the address above quoted, Coffman acy gucee this defi- nition: The four duties—the laying out and prescribing of materials of instruction, the thinking of teachers and teaching in terms of efficiency levels, the use of standardized tests and scales, and the improvement of the teaching act through criticism of instruetion-— constitute the scope of supervision. Considerable work has been done by Dr. Ramis W. Dunn in attempting to differentiate supervision from administra- tion. She suggests as a definition of supervision the fol- lowing: ® Instructional supervision, therefore, has the large purpose of improving the quality of instruction, primarily by promoting the professional growth of all teachers, and secondarily and tempo- 2K. C. Elliott, City School Supervision (World Book Co., 1914), p. 12. 3 Fannie W. Dunn, ‘‘What Is Instructional Supervision?’’ Pro- ceedings of the National Education Association, Vol. 61, 1923, p. 763. THE FIELD OF SUPERVISION 3 rarily by correcting deficiencies of preliminary preparation for teaching by the training of teachers in service. Many other definitions of supervision could be cited to show the growing concreteness of statement, and the greater agreement upon the central functions of supervision. The betterment of the learning conditions for the pupil is the goal. This is to be accomplished by supplying the condi- tions of teacher growth. In order to show the development of a comprehensive definition, let us examine the field from all sides. We may begin with the persons supervised. What do teachers re- gard as the proper activities of supervision? What do they expect of supervision? Next, we may inquire what super- intendents and administrators regard as the work of the supervisors whom they employ. OV 09 ~] STUDYING THE TEACHER 137 . See that the standards are in the hands of all concerned. . Arrange time for a comfortable, worthwhile conference. . Establish right attitudes. . Analyze the lesson in an encouraging and helpful, but dis- criminating manner. . Commend the good, question the faulty, leave forward- looking suggestions for improvement. BIBLIOGRAPHY . AnpEeRSON, C. J., Barr, A. S., and Busu, Maybell, Visiting the Teacher at Work (D. Appleton & Co., 1925). ) LEL.) 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More stories for outside Seen s AE ERR eS RYO LEEPER PGaeereeres OMeAY te DUDS: acite bra 0 4 9 «a «ca a el ein) Gis kasi 40's More dictation drills Mars eeehs ao Aaa Yo kiniea.s sean ohete a eb e he te Definite outline in grammar for 7th and 8th high school MPOURLE LIA E. pt clale c's <6 6's'p sixpie she sie de sice a0 © Rens cer SOP pane Arrangement of course wastes time.......... Here Ley We Illustrative lessons in socialized composition.............. More definite technical work in 6th grade................. Variety of interesting letter forms....... BS TAR AEE RLM OOH ULAT VT OULU cigte ccc hiss os ois ot cc's aic.s Seg nite @ LETRA G EMSA ERTL! Sorelle Rag DP PR ie ARR es rs oP Ae More type lessons in Silent Reading (separate volume) Newer titles for oral and written composition............. PP CmMESS PRE OWT ILC LCV crate oio'n wie'S-siee cia eas.s, 12 so ois one e iets eins New index eeesevev eevee eeeeeeeeeeveee e+ @ O18 €. 66 2 ©. 2'@ 0 4 818 a4ze €. 6 e & Parts To INCLUDE No. of Teachers PEPER Mesa atts f.5. 000 sine. 0.6 6 3 Rami Piste one tis, See aya ofan, nls Pe 8G ELE oO eR IE FR gr Sa I 3 Longer list of stories (poems) for outside reading and ELM rele aie? sh ccnaain vas 0495 idk d 6.0. ¢ + vivid bos. 6 EON OIN EN (A) OTOUDS, «5 acs cc's dais sn ane 1 Methods in silent reading (‘‘C’’ group) separate a S Fos sia o Ssus av hile Avie es. «0 a ane heels eh 4 Grammar forms elaborated—larger amount......... 3 eee ee oS oly cag sata’ Sie.e ss 0 0 0' egelesnnh boas 2 Sentence sense and language games—more.......... 2 More general references.......... wis cigs sieabenk samo ied + Se eee eLOMPOIEY, WIIG Ss o's 0 sae wieie's.0% 0 = syed lems 2 MIGRATE T OU WOK toe. e's! his ees AR SSA Or ree 2 New methods in appreciation. ait ort «toe pias dt As scan buh 2 List of stories for dramatics—not infringe on audi- LTE I OMIT ohn) os in: Piste vais we aisis, alba die ole ae 1 Suggestions for issuing school paper............... 1 Teaching of alphabet, weeks, months, years, etc...... 1 Names of masterpieces children should know........ 1 247 Per Cent Onmond > Go DO Ge DS OT DO DO DO DO CY CO OT Per Cent 34.0 5.6 3 at 4 bd be NOnNmnnnnuns a be i es es 248. THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION SUGGESTIONS No IN ONG iis is truieto alalece pielelele sat ele, eoaterate ns cceustsaale a Mabel siete te os drele ie « Winter 8 Complete reorganization by grades—save time...... ola aay. uncaie te anes Have a definite course for home and literature room.......... 9 Have heading at top of each page telling grade.......... Agee A List.of stories,” poenis,’ éte:,; for special days. op. weeks ge 1 Suggestions for correlation between literature and other subjects 2 Givesnames instead of numbers Of: DOOKS 00... «eam eure en eee 2 Literature teacher has too much/to' do... ..".. 2 <.. ecw cevcteaen 1 Home room teacher has too much clerical work to do coup Daa 2 Have books called for in school libraries..... re Sage ee os i + Aids for handling newer methods—definite............... «4 oie Se Fewer sets of many books; more sets of fewer books.,....... 1 Scale for scoring composition convenient to use in 3rd and 4th 1 More; detailed Courses: vice eh aie ee 14.6 os saint e Ver ere De sian ee Reference books should include—Esssentials of English, Pearson ANA CCIrCh Wey is, «6% & eee sehldamertere lets sie sic occ het cae 1 Bulletin No. 37—Course of Study in Elementary and Secondary Schools of Washington—interesting discussion......... 6a os cin Preter, classics in :/thiand sth eradess. . sc’: «so emtatane sae oa aee Have new course bound so that material can be added......... 1 More ‘adequate ‘picture appreciation. 24). << i. 2.0 aes eee Perec. (a) Havevan initial and final dictation test... ).1.1 seen see ee 1 Like biographical sketches similar to “Riley & Freckle Re- NOVO 8 oo oa eid ace elwy weearatiadeehl cig’ vim wils hop 9 oyshe otal tale) aie ion ee a Booklet of long poems for use in 6th, 7th and 8th grades (Birds Of wKillingworth,) aici. tiie. eietele steie sie. ee eae p bib aie le steep smn! Would like poems printed in course of study.. APA. Serie Se 1 More; suggestions for enunciation... sic s.c< sess aera cee 1 Reference books no longer supplied should be ‘taken from list. . SUE EXPLANATION (X) ANSWERS Oral and Written Composition No. of Teachers Socialized method preferred—give sample lessons.......... 12 Subjects for written compositions—limited................ 2 More. dictation material) ij veisiee. thc cece es See Giese Palen Copying and testing step unnecessary in dictation.......... 1 Not enough sentence sense material..........:.....cc0ce- 13 Business letters and formal invitations taken too early...... i More paragraph work similar to ‘‘ Ant and Dove’’......... 3 Exercises in enunciation needed in upper grades........... 4 Insufficient. letter. models .\.Ps ese oe vc ee see ee eer 2 More explanation of methods in punctuation............... 1 More language games—vocabulary games...............:: 6 ‘*Methods of Correction,’’ p. 70, poor; impossible for pope 1 More formal grammar taught in ‘lower grades, 5th and 6th. 3 SUBJECT MATTER 249 No. of Teachers Begin formal grammar in B8, not in seventh; games....... Standards not satisfactory for X, Y, Z groups............ Word list is not practical—should include common words.... Material and references grouped according to seasons...... Home room teacher should have composition in 3rd and 4th Pupils dislike composition work in literature room......... Suggest more simple form for papers in lower grades: Name on first line, date on second, title on third (p. 214)...... bet be CD ed rsh EXPLANATION (X) ANSWERS Literature ear PERRIN ECS DEMIS siateteeye Micke ao s'a aia cip ls & ob 45 9 wig nares) alsa se Need more stories and poems for special days tir tre tees 4 List of stories and poems in alphabetical order............ Need standards for reproduction in first three grades...... Need more stories,(Classics) and poems for Literature class Selections for different grades unsuitable................. Need new material in first four grades.......... Ae sd) An deh. More humorous stories and poems......... pd eal Celene et mibories tOO Old. ForsGBy o..s were sles oe oe Edie Hate ohh 9 hove erates Methods—not new and too meager......cessscsccccccccees stories do not appeal to foreign children... 0.0.0. .3 ev ees Give more than one reference for each story............... Methods for checking appreciation as a result of experiment Reading in Literature room. Too much time lost in home room Winglish ¢ i056 os Biers orate Wee tps cat a lerwteqevbeneteuereue eke food 4 bo He bo bo DO DD Oo He OD 03 Oo WO OO DO More stress on Oral Reading with foreign children......... Course should contain notes on ‘‘Socialized English’’...... Amount of work is satisfactory; arrangement not......... Large platoon schools (Moore) need more copies of much- Me OPES TAGE sk leo te'5 fo be, Saleh» erate te wteig $968 bye eels! e ache Foreign pupils in 5th and 6th need stress on verb forms— eee MEE SRC facls p a\n wala gi ste cares oe Se ce UR eas Vea eis 1 Too great a difference between picture work in 44 and Or eam CAPTT CELIAC AITY CODE 31,5 9 sc ure plenlaeys siaie; ofeis New Sela, + 1 sl summary outline for judging courses of study. Some such outline as the following is proposed for the appraisal and improving of courses of study: 1. Is there a statement of aims or objectives? 2. Are the objectives listed worthy of attainment? 3. Are the objectives attainable? 4. Is there a statement of the specific activities, pupil 250 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION experiences, and content by which the various objectives are to be attained ? 5. Are the activities, pupil experiences, and content of social value? 6. Are the activities, pupil experiences, and content of vital importance? 7. Are the activities, pupil experiences, and content de- termined according to acceptable objective methods? 8. Is there a statement of the standards of attainment for each half grade? 9. Is there an adequate statement of ‘‘method’’ for each ‘‘unit of instruction’? 10. Are the ‘‘methods’’ practical and up-to-date? 11. Is there reasonable provision for the various forms of experiences, such as participation, observation, and lan- guage experiences ? 12. Is the amount of work required of each grade (mini- mum essentials) too great or too small for the time allotted ? 13. Is there adequate provision for individual differ- ences? 14. Is the material too easy or too difficult for the grades for which it is intended? 15. Are the explanations and directions to teachers ade- quate? 16. Are the directions to teachers understandable? 17. Are the references adequate? 18. Is there a teaching outline (suggestive) for the guid- ance of classroom teachers? 19. Are the drawings, pictures, diagrams, maps, etc., helpful to teachers ? 20. Are there an index, table of contents, and other de- vices to make the content of the course of study readily accessible to teachers ? 21. There is additional information—facts, dates, tables, ete.—not always accessible to classroom teachers. Is there SUBJECT MATTER 251 a concise statement of such materials (where not already available) ? 22. Are there conerete examples of how certain type les- sons should be developed? 23. Classroom teachers do not always find time to dis- cover available illustrative (visual) materials, Is there a statement of available materials? 24. Many teachers precede instruction by diagnosis. Are there sample forms and a concrete discussion of how teach- ers may use informal examinations, and other devices, to improve the effectiveness of teaching ? 25. Is there a statement of the best standard tests avail- able and an explanation of the way to use them? 26. At times teachers are at a loss to know how to pro- ceed to overcome specific shortcomings in their pupils. Is there a concrete discussion of remedial measures ? 27. Are there suggestions for the adaptation of the course of study to local conditions ? 28. Is the course of study interesting and readable? 29. Does the teacher find the material of sufficient value to make daily use of it? 30. Under classroom conditions, does the course of study actually work ? BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. AturucKrer, Margaret M., “Building the Curriculum,” Wa- tional Education Association Journal, Vol. 13, Feb., 1924, pp. 67-68. , “Notes on Curriculum Revision,” National Education Association Journal, Vol. 13, Dec., 1924, p. 344. 3. Barnes, G. I., “Underlying Principles and Modern Tenden- cies in Curriculum Making,” Kentucky School Journal, Vol. 4, Oct., 1925, pp. 10-15. Good summary of major objectives. 4, The Baltimore County Course of Study (Warwick and York, 1919). Good illustration of well-selected subject matter. 252 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION On 20. 21. Barr, A. S., “Making the Course of Study,’ Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 3, May, 1924, pp. 371-78, Part II, June, 1924, pp. 427-36. . BLAKE, Katherine D., “Revising the Elementary Curriculum,” National Education Association Journal, Vol 11, Nov., 1922, pp. 355-59. Interesting and practical treatment of content of new courses. . Bossirt, Franklin, “Summary of the Literature in Scientific Method in the Field of Curriculum Making,” Hlementary School Journal, Vol. 18, Nov., 1917, pp. 219-29. , The Curriculum (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918). , How to Make a Curriculum (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924). . Bonser, F. G., The Elementary School Curriculum (The Mac- millan Co., 1921). . Burton, W. H., Supervision and the Improvement of Teach- ing (D. Appleton & Co., 1922), Chap. XII. . CautKins, Mary W., “Types and Principles of Curricular Development,” School and Society, Vol. 17, March 21, 1923, pp. 309-16. Interesting account. . Cuarters, W. W., Curriculum, Construction (The Macmillan Co., 1923). Contains a valuable summary of the scientific studies to date. . Coss, Irvin, “A Plea for Old Cap Collier,” Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 193, July 3, 1920. Highly humorous but none the less pedagogical criticism of school readers. . Cotvin, 8. 8., An Introduction to High School Teaching (The Macmillan Co., 1918). . Cox, Philip, Curriculum, Adjustment in the Secondary School (J. B. Lippincott Co., 1925). - “Curriculum Construction,” a Series of Reports, Proceedings of the National Education Association, Vol. 65, 1925, pp. 802-38. Good account of how to go about curriculum re- vision. . Department of Superintendence, National Education <. <4... « sig cieyn ssthes ah COHDNOTARWONH As the discussion goes forward, it is hoped that the de- tails of the plan will not become bewildering. As a matter of fact, the various steps outlined are necessarily widely distributed, some to teachers, some to principals, some to the supply room, and some to the purchasing department. The responsibilities are also spread by grades, by subjects, and by buildings. In point of time the plan details the operations for an entire school year. What may seem com- plex in a general discussion of this type becomes simple enough in practice. The textbook inventory. Item 2 of Form I indicates the number of books in use in the schools. This information should be obtainable from the school inventories. In gen- eral, the school inventory should show two sets of facts: (1) the distribution of books by schools—and (2) the dis- tribution of books by titles. If there are a number of schools, there should be a separate inventory book for each school. These books can then be filed and referred to con- veniently. A workable list of items for recording information con- cerning the number of books in use in the schools follows (Form IT): THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 273 Form II 1. Title (enter titles alphabetically by subjects) ............ 2. Number on hand, 1920 (the number in the schools) ....... 3. Number received since July, 1920 (this is the number re- alm OACOTSCHOOUS it's Waereltaiire ® oi vc tals 6 os eae fee 4. Number returned to Supply Department (this is the number of books returned by each school to supply SEMI MaME Tey dy TiePare at wre head via lete cha eiateletyins ei oca elevate ale n A's 5. Number destroyed through contagious disease ........... fe eee eer se UNG BN AIG Wee 5 a cise aha a Oe aie pee cide eke ate Vo 7. Total on hand at date (books not usable should be re- eT wiumearpeLore inventory is taken) 2.002... «sks es5 es « 8. Unit total (to be filled in at business manager’s office)..... Veaeteues nuicato by ihalf ‘orades).>.% ine Caiseh ee ee. b acts 10. Standard quota (this is the standard distribution) ....... 11. Shortage (this is the schools’ estimate of the additional number needed for the next school year) ............. 12. Average (these books may be used in other schools) ...... In addition to the information about the number of books in each school there should be a further summary showing the total number of copies of each book in all of the schools. With many titles and with many schools this becomes a complicated task. The following form may prove usable. The inventory recommended is an adaptation of the classifier already familiar to statistical workers. The ini- tial or key card should carry an alphabetical list of all of the schools. Each school has a number by which it is known. The card is read as follows: School No. 29 has 37 copies of Bunnies in Toy Land, School No. 58 has 123 copies, ete. ; the total number of copies in the schools is 500. A 4X6 card file by titles would show instantly the total number of copies of a given title in use throughout the scnools at any given time. The most favorable time, everything considered, for tak- ing an inventory is near the close of the school year. Worn-out copies should be returned before inventory is. 274 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Tirte: ‘Bunnies in Toy Lanp,” Tota: 500 te ered On Dl 2h Oude ico [20 ie fo aeee ——__ | ———..§ |_ ——_ | |__| | $s | ————— | —————_ |_| — /———— |] |_q~— \——~— |—q~—|qq{~— | qq | —q_ |—\|— taken, for the inventory should show the number of usable books. Besides the books already in the schools, as shown in the inventory, there are books in the central supply room. Item 3 of Form I indicates the number of such books in stock. Items 2, 3, and 4 taken together make up the supply of books available for the ensuing year. The pur- chases referred to in Item 4 are made on the basis of the needs as indicated in Items 11 and 12 of Form II. With next year’s supply of books ascertained, budget-making for the year following may proceed. Actual budget-making can be started early in the autumn and must usually be completed before December or January. Textbook depreciation. What is the life of a book? This should be the subject of systematic research. A very small THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 275 error, however, at this point leads to strange figures in the end, for the life of a book varies with its physical make-up, with the purpose for which it is used, with the type of school, and with the type of child. A book with a good binding, everything else being equal, will outlast one with a poor binding; a reference book used monthly should last longer than a textbook used daily ; a book used in the upper erades usually lasts somewhat longer than one used in the lower grades; a book used in a platoon school may not last as long as one used in a regular school; and one used in certain districts may not last as long as one used in other districts. With these facts in mind, the approximate life of the book may be ascertained. As a matter of fact, Form I, when.used over a period of years, provides a check on itself; that is, for each yearly calculation of the percentage of depreciation, there is the corresponding June inventory showing the actual depreciation. The percentage of depre- ciation is systematically checked and eventually somewhat established. Standards of textbook distribution. The outline up to this point has dealt with the supply of books in the schools. The discussion must now turn to the procedure by which the needs of the school are ascertained. It is with this part of the procedure that special. supervisors are especially con- cerned. One of the first points in a systematic study of school needs is some scheme of textbook distribution. Such a distribution should indicate, title by title, the number of copies per pupil that will be suppled: 1 copy per pupil, 1 per two pupils, 1 per ten pupils, ete.; that is, when a book is recommended for purchase it should be accompanied by a statement showing the number of books to which each school is entitled. The distribution shown in Table I should be accompanied by a statement of the grade or grades in which the book is to be used. Book A is to be used in the eighth grade, one 276 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION TABLE [ Book Distribution | Grade LAE DR POR ee nag 155 Ba TBS Thats 1 copy per pupil VIiTl ne ee CoO ay eae ae 1 copy per room IV-VI Cee ate Sar Wee ae Ree eae Tae 1 copy per 10 pupils VI Dyker Mh cl es BD Se i ae 1 copy per pupil II-fil 1 re BA al FRE Se ee aN Zan bea 1 copy per building vV-VI TO a eon ead sete eo © ee ee 1 copy per 2 pupils Vil copy per pupil; Book B is to be used in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, one copy per room, and so on through the list. With a statistical statement of the total school enroll- ment by half grades, with a statement of the number of classes for each half grade for the school system, and with the total number of school buildings known, the exact num- ber of books needed for the ensuing year may be deter- mined. The total school enrollment is used in determining the number of books needed when the distribution is one per pupil; the total number of classes is used when the distribution is one per room or class; and the total number of schools is used when the distribution is on the building basis—one per building, five per building, ete. Allowance for increased enrollment should not be over- looked. Item 10, Form I, should show this distribution ; Item 11, the grade or grades in which the book is to be used ; and Item 12, the total needs for the ensuing year. The total of Item 9 (net available supply) subtracted from the total of Item 12 (total needs) should result in the number of books to be entered in the regular textbook budget (Item 13). The distribution (standard quota) here explained is the same as that referred to in Item 10, Form II, and issued as the basis for the actual distribution of materials to the schools. Each school is entitled to a certain definite number THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 277 of books, and this number is set forth in the standard quota or distribution. If all books were basic texts and if all texts were used uniformly throughout the system, textbook accounting would be relatively simple. But, unfortunately from the point of view of accounting, there may be two texts in a given grade and subject, each used in different schools. There may be supplementary books distributed according to some scheme of varying numbers of copies per room and school. The request for any one of the numerous supple- mentary books in a given subject and grade involves the study of the number of other supplementary books already in the school. There is also the question of which books should be regarded as basic, which should be classified as supplementary, and which should be regarded as reference material. In order .that adequate control may be estab- lished over these varying factors, there should be (1) stand- ards of relationships between the library and classrooms, and (2) minimum standards of classroom equipment. Types of textbook materials. The general scheme of rela- tionship between classroom and library may be brought out by the following classification of reading material. Text- books and reference materials are of five general types: A. Material used so repeatedly that copies must be provided for each child. B. Material used so repeatedly that copies must be kept in the classroom, but not frequently enough to warrant purchase for each child. C. Material used frequently enough to warrant a few copies being kept in the school library, but not frequently enough to be kept in the classroom, except for short periods. D. General reference material for teachers, specific enough in nature to warrant its being supplied to school libraries. EK. Material used so infrequently by either teachers or chil- dren that they should go to the public library to consult it. We are now concerned solely with Types A and B. 278 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Minimum standards of classroom equipment. Obviously standards of distribution assume some kind of a standard classroom equipment. There must be prepared a standard of classroom equipment. The statement of standards should indicate the exact equipment for each subject, grade, and type of material; that is, the administration should know the equipment subject by subject and grade by grade for each school in the system. A 3 & 5 ecard index showing the standard textbook equipment per subject, grade, and type of school should organize this information in usable form. ARITHMETIC, V A Type Function Distribution Pa Basic text 1 copy per pupil 1IB3@ Supplementary texts | 3 titles, 1 copy of each ‘ per room RES Tote cts Mie eee ore Teacher’s manual 1 copy per room PB Le USE Course of study 1 copy per room Reapine, VI B Type Function Distribution A.. Literary reader 1 copy per pupil Ie PR BAAS NN Aehiicee Technical reader 1 copy per pupil tS: Supplementary read- | 25 titles, 1 copy per ing room PDE Course of study 1 copy per room History, VII B Type Function Distribution pee Basic text 1 copy per pupil 1By. Reference material 10 titles, 1 copy per room iM see Pictures 25 titles, 1 copy per room TRS, Magazine 2 titles, 1 copy per room 1B? Course of study 1 copy per room THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 279 The information concerning arithmetic, reading, and his- tory on three cards taken from the index at random shows the plan of organization. For each grade, subject, and type of school there should be a separate card. Such an index makes it possible to ascertain instantly the exact textbook equipment of any room. ‘‘A’’ is used to indicate basic texts; ‘‘B’’ denotes supplementary or reference materials. The numerals placed before the letters indicate the number of copies of each title to be found in a given grade or room: 1B, for example, means 1 copy per room. In actual opera- tion the scheme is extremely simple and direct. A standard equipment such as that here discussed is not necessarily a uniform equipment. Instructional conditions vary from school to school. Books adapted to use in one section of the city are not always usable in another. It is therefore not desirable that a single supplementary reader be used throughout a large school system regardless of these varying conditions. The card for arithmetic provides three titles, one copy of each per room, of supplementary material. The textbook standards show not three reference books but six reference books. From this list of six books three may be selected; that is, the standardization is one of quantity rather than quality. Again, the number of books required for good instruc- tional work varies for the different types of schools. A platoon organization, for example, may require one half the number of books required by the traditional school. The standards as constructed recognize three types of schools: the regular, the regular-departmentalized, and the platoon. A different and special standard of equipment is set up for each major type of organization. In this rather extended discussion of standards, one should not lose the connection between standards of class- room equipment and budget-making. To make a budget, 280 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION one must know the number of books already in use in the schools and the needs of the schools. To know the needs of the schools, one must have recognized standards of equip- ment. The distribution per title, referred to in the earlier part of the discussion, is meaningless except as checked against accepted standards of equipment. Without stand- ards of equipment, books and distributions may be added endlessly. There must be a stopping point. Standards of equipment furnish upper and lower limits. The available supply of textbooks. With hundreds of classes and with thousands of books, how is one to know when rooms are equipped up to standard? There must be at hand three things: (1) the standards of distribution; (2) the inventories; and (38) the class report for each school showing the enrollment by classes. The titles in the inven- tory are organized by subjects. The grade in which the book is to be used is indicated. Suppose that one desires to check the supply of books in arithmetic in the third grade in School X. First check the inventory on the basic texts. For the third grade one finds forty copies of Book A and eighty copies of Book B. The standard distribution is one per pupil, but the class report shows that there are eighty pupils. There is obviously an oversupply of forty books. The supplementary material can be checked in a similar manner. Purchase and distribution of instructional supplies. The procedure recommended for the handling of supplies is similar to that already outlined for textbooks. The task of the instructional expert is twofold: (1) writing specifica- tions or standard lists, and (2) developing standards of distribution. Standards of distribution must take into ac- count the amount of money available as well as the the- oretically desirable supplies. We may first illustrate stand- ard lists of supplies for various departments. THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 281 Tue Derroir STANDARD EQUIPMENT FOR AUTO MECHANICS Pe ee pe Lo 6 Parts SHop? 1. FURNITURE AND EQUIPMENT Bench, standard wall, —— ft. (B. of E. Dept. Ind. & Manual Arts, Drawing D-5137); see specifications Bench, standard wall, —— ft. (B. of E. Dept. Ind. & Manual Arts, Drawing D-5137); see specifications Lockers (B. of E. Dept. Ind. & Manual Arts, Drawing D-5107) built in . Teachers’ chairs, standard equipment Teachers’ desk, standard equipment Tool crib (M. H. & P., Drawing 1196-1, Mk. B-1) built in Multiple blackboard, D-5110, built in Wiring stands, to be made from lumber furnished as follows, at school; 4 Pes. No. 1 Yellow Pine 8 in. X 10 ft., 0 in., D2S 8 Pes. No. 1 Yellow Pine 6 in. X 10 ft., 0 in., D2S 2 Pes. No. 1 Yellow Pine 3 in. X 3 in. X 10 ft., 0 in., D4S Wash trough for seven or eight persons, built in 2. CopED EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES First aid supplies (standard equipment) Adhesive plaster—code 3-08-116 4 oz. bottle iodine—code 3-08-122 2 oz. bottle ammonia (aromatic spirits)—code 3-08-117 2 in. bandage—code 3-08-119 14 lb. pkg. absorbent cotton—code 3-08-115 4 oz. bottle Carron oil in high schools and dom. science rooms—code 3-08-121 Waste basket—code 3-05-225 Waste cans 3. EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS For Class of 35 Ford power plants, complete with starter, 1920 model 7¥. R. Kepler, unpublished materials, Detroit Board of Education. 282 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 6 Axle assemblies, live, Ford 1 Carburetor, Rayfield 1 Carburetor, Schebler model, aux. air type 1 Carburetor, Stewart (metering pin type) cut away, 1 in. 1 Carburetor, Marvel, 1 in. 1 Carburetor, Zenith 1 Vacuum tank, Stewart complete 1 Vacuum tank, chart Electrical 100 ft. cable, Packard secondary 6 Extension cords, 25 ft. long, with plug, socket and guard 2 Hydrometer syringes, battery, Beckley-Ralston 879 1 Pocket compass, 14% in. dia. brass case and cover No. 3 Buhl 6 Wood dash connectors, two contact for lamp bulbs, flush, Edison, similar to Beckley-Ralston Co. No. 4-15011, page 83 2 Storage batteries, 6-volt, 3 cell 100 ampere hr. 6 Switches, two-pole, knife, with base, 30 amp. 1 1 Voltmeter, double scale 0-15, and 0-100, similar to Weston Portable Model, 45 100 ft. wire, stranded flexible wire No. 14, R. C. 1 Standard electrical grinder, 6 F A 14H. P. 3400 R. P. M. 8 in. wheels A. C. phase cycles, Boyer Campbell Co., No. 20, page 724 1 Auto jack, Beckley-Ralston No. 7101, stock 4 Capt chisels, 14 in. Boyer-Campbell, page 470, Fig. 1047 4 Cold chisels, straight, 94 in. Campbell, Fig. 1046 1 Chain Hoist, 44 ton capacity, differential, Yale, page 369, Boyer-Campbell 1 Drill gauge, Starrett No. 187 2 Set drills, each 14 in. to 1 in. by 1/16ths, 1% in. straight shank 1 Set drill, each No. 1-No. 60 1 Drill holder for wire drills No. 1-No. 60, Boyer-Camp- bell, page, 123, Fig. 275-8B 2 Drills, hand drill 1/16 in. to % in., Yankee No. 1445 1 Electric drill, 110 volts, 60 cycle, capacity Y in. Uni- versal or equal 12 Files, mill 10 in. 1 Gear pulley, No. 2, three-arm type Crane Wheel Pullers o 63) ke ke OHH PronNnarH PHOHEH MDH eH THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 283 —combination set (Crane Puller Company, Arlington, Mass. ) Arbor press, base attachment No. 2 Grease gun, puritan or equal Hammers, machinist’s ball pien, 12 oz. Hammers, handles, Boyer-Campbell, page 462, Fig. 1383B, Strelinger No. 28 Lead hammer mold, Fig. 1030, page 465, Boyer-Camp- bell, 4 in., 104 Motor valve set, complete, Skinner’s, Watkins and Rad- cliff Oil can, Delphos, 5 gal. Oil can, Delphos, 30 gal. Pair pliers, slip joint combination, 8 in. black finish, Boyer-Campbell, page 343, Fig. 689 Set reamers, 11/16 in. to 1 in. inclusive Screw drivers, 4 in. Serew drivers, 10 in. Serew drivers, 6 in. Serew plate, general purpose set No. 322, Boyer-Camp- bell, page 37 Screw pitch gauge, S. A. E. threaded Serew pitch gauge, U. 8S. Std. Thickness gauges, No. 642 pg. 667—Boyer-Campbell Tire pump, single acting Valve lifter, chain type, perfect handle Vises, 4 in. jaws, Reed’s No. 194 or equal Wheel puller, Ford Sets wrenches, drop-forged, A. L. A. M. 9. Each set to contain 7 wrenches as follows: 21, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, Billings & Spencer Wrenches, drop forges, A. L. A. M. No. 25 Wrenches, drop forges, A. L. A. M. No. 27 Wrenches, drop forges, A. L. A. M. No. 29 Sets Ford special wrenches, each set to contain 11 wrenches as follows: ET1620, ET5810, ET1881, ET5600, ET2418, ET6064, ET6018, ET2718, NT8, NT3, ET4564 Wrench, monkey, 18 in., knife handle, Coe’s, page 356, Boyer-Campbell, Fig. 732 Wrench, monkey, 6 in., page 990, Boyer-Campbell, Fig. 320 284 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 2 10 in. Hack saw frame, Fig. 23367A, page 550, Strelinger No. 28 2 pr. goggles, page 728, Strelinger No. 28, Fig. 281 (with mica lenses) 1 Electrical soldering iron, Fig. 1456B, page 729, Strelinger No. 28, No. 3158, 200 Watt 5 tip, American Beauty 1 pr. No. 9 snips, page 1018, Strelinger No. 28 1 Set No. 7 curved bearing scrapers, page 497, Strelinger No. 28 1 Schrader tire gauge 2 Set battery clips (snapons) The foregoing specifications are notable because they are worked out in quantitative detail. The necessity for such statements for all phases of school supply is obvious. The resultant saving of time and money more than pays for the labor of originating such lists and keeping them up to date. What is more important, the efficiency of instruction will be materially advanced. Search of the educational literature shows that few samples have found their way into print. Doubtless school systems here and there have developed and are using similar lists, and their publication would materially aid workers in other systems. Although not worked out in the detail of the foregoing illustration, the following sample specifications are given because they are representative of current thought, because they will be sug- gestive to many readers, and because they can be standard- ized very easily. Kindergarten-primary materials for experimentation, construction, and. expression. Parker and Temple present the following list of materials which they feel represent the best for purposes of stimulating the child to experiment, to construct, and to express his ideas in objective form. The list as given is the result of twenty-five years of study and experimentation : § 8S. C. Parker, and Alice Temple, Unified Kindergarten and First Grade Teaching (Ginn & Co., 1925), pp. 90-92. THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 285 A. Materials for Woodworking: Carpenter’s bench and tools? Hammers (best type is small claw hammer with a flat head —not too light) Saws (crosscut, No. 8) Nail puller Wood file Brace and bits of several sizes Vise Ruler Nails (wire with flat heads and of several sizes) Glue Sandpaper Soft wood: bass, poplar, or white pine; strips of different widths and thicknesses and odd pieces from the manual training shop, including cireular pieces for wheels Fruit crates, cigar boxes, chalk boxes, ete. B. Materials and Tools for Paper Construction: Construction paper Manila paper Bogus paper Oak tag Unprinted newspaper Crépe paper Tissue paper Gilt and silver paper Wrapping paper Corrugated paper—saved from packages Paper plates Paper napkins Paper bags—collected and brought by children Paper dolls to be dressed Ribbon bolts—suppled free by some drygoods stores 9The Bureau of Educational Experiments, New York City, rec- ommends the Sheldon bench. If it is not possible to secure a bench, an ordinary table may be used to which two or three vises are at- tached. For kindergarten children such an arrangement, with ham- mers, saws, nails, and nail-puller, glue, sandpaper, and the necessary wood, constitutes satisfactory equipment. 286 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Pasteboard boxes—collected by children and teacher Milk bottle tops Meat skewers Spools Slats—white and colored Adhesive tape Collar buttons Paste and brushes Pins Paper fasteners Thumb tacks String Scissors Conductor’s punch Paper-cutter C. Sewing and Weaving Materials: Cloth (substantial, but easily handled, and of different colors and designs) Thread Coarse needles Pins Scissors Thimbles Small dolls to dress Cotton roving Jute Strips of cloth for rag rugs Strawboard looms made by the children D. Modeling Materials: Clay Plasticene Sand table and sand toys Water colors and brushes Shellae Oilcloth or clay boards 1° Aprons 10 If these are lacking, old newspapers may be used to keep the table or floor clean. THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 287 EK. Materials for Drawing and Pamting: Crayons Water colors Fresco paints Enamel Drawing paper Manila paper Unprinted newspaper Chalk Easels and drawing boards 14 Paintbrushes of several sizes The same authors present a description ?* of a primary room evidently written by a student observer, which is of interest. It will not be quoted here but should be read by primary teachers and supervisors. Classroom equipment: the Los Angeles self-survey lst. The following list is taken from a mimeographed bulletin entitled ‘‘Los Angeles Self Survey.’’ My classrooms should contain the following equipment: for classes from first through sixth grade: American flag (silk) Cupboard (supply) Bell (desk) Desks (adjustable for pupils) Book case Desk (teacher’s) Book ends Dictionary Brackets Drawing Tables Browsing table Dustpan Dustbrush Calendar (desk) Chairs (visitors’) Inkwell Chair (teacher’s) Clock Locker (teacher’s) 11 Children do much more expressive work in painting if given a large surface, large brushes, and an easel. If easels are not avail- able, paper may be fastened to the wail or blackboard so that the pupils may work while standing. 128. C. Parker and Alice Temple, Unified Kindergarten and First Grade Teaching (Ginn & Co., 1925), pp. 84-85. 288 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Maps Mirror Pencil sharpener Pictures Punch Rubber stamp and pad Sand table Scissors (grades 1-3, 40 to each room) (grades 4-8, 20 to each room) Shades for windows Standard for flag Table for supplementary books Thermometer Transom pole Waste basket Whisk broom Window pole Yardstick Equpping the principal’s office: the Los Angeles list. From the same source as the preceding illustration, the fol- lowing list of desired equipment for a principal’s office is taken: My office should contain the following equipment: Annunciator Adding machine American flag Book case Book ends Bulletin Board Card tray Chairs (prin. and common) Clock Couch Curtains Desk (principal’s) Desk (clerk’s) Desk baskets Desk pads and blotters Dictionary District map (framed) Hlectric lights (desk lights for principal and clerk) Filing cabinets Gong (hand type for emer- gency use) Inkwell Key rack and mail box (com- bined) (Cabinet style as at Rowan) Medicine case Mimeograph (or Neostyle) Mirror Office sign Pad and pillow THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 289 Paper cutters (one for each Stick file floor in each building) Pencil sharpener Table (library) Pictures Telephone stand and extension Pyrene fire extinguisher ArTO. Thermometer Relay fire alarm system Transom pole Rocker Typewriter (16 in. carrier) Rugs Waste basket Sereen (burlap) Work organizer The illustrations just given vary from the extremes of detailed quantitative listing to rough general cataloging. Obviously the lists of equipment for rooms, offices, and laboratories must be worked out in terms of size of school, size of class, type of work desired, ete. There is much room for progress in this matter of standardizing supply lists and inventories. Standards of distribution for supplies. Good illustra- tions of such standards have been difficult to secure. The quotations below are taken from a distribution sheet in use in the Detroit public schools.?* DISTRIBUTION SHEETS Administrative Supplies for Elementary Schools Second Semester 1925-1926 and First Semester 1926-1927 (Keep these sheets in school for future reference) Please follow the directions given below when requisitioning supplies. 1. Supply requisitions and inventory sheets should be sent to the Department of Educational Expenditures by Tuesday, De- cember 1, 1925. 2. Include only the items on the attached sheets. 13 Supplied by John F. Thomas, assistant superintendent in charge of educational equipment and expenditures, Detroit Public Schools. 290 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 3. Standard List “A.” Arrange the items on the requisition in the exact order in which they appear on the list. Requisition not to exceed the quantity necessary to bring the amount of each article available for the second semester to the distribution given. Do not requisition any article if your school does not need it. 4, Standard List “B.” Arrange the items on one requisition in the exact order they appear on the list. Check in column 3, N or R., de- pending on whether the item requested is new equipment for your school or replacement of present equipment. The distribution stated after each item is the maximum quantity to be allowed your school when quantity requested is re- ceived. 5. Unless changed conditions develop, additional requisitions for any of these articles should not be made during the second semester of this year and the first semester of next year. 6. You are supposed to have sufficient forms on hand for the second semester. If, however, more are needed please requisition them at this time. AN ExtTRACT FROM A LONGER LIST Article Unit Code Distribution Per Year Books, requisition for supplies and _ books (new form).......... Each | 3-03-021 |2 or 3 per building as needed Carbon paper, 84X11 TYPE heer eee Box 3-14-018 | 1 per building Cards, fire drill.........} Each | 3-03-034 |1 per room plus 5. Re- placement only Chalk, soft enamel, 1 gross in box, for plas- TEPDOarUS: «tie es cee Box 3-03-038 | 1 per room with plaster- boards Chalk, au-du-septic, 1 gross in box). ..4. . wsad Fox 3-03-037 |1 per room with slate boards Composition books..... Each | 3-03-039 |1 per teacher and as necessary for needy pupils Erasers, type, for schools having typewriters....} Each | 3-14—051 | 1 per school having type- writer THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 291 An Extract From A LonGcer List.—Continued Article Ink, hectograph........ Ink, red, 2 oz. bottle.... Ink, mimeograph, No. 384 eoeoceerese ee ere eee eee e BCHOGIS ia. fetes 5 Paper, pel ssay sten- cil No. 3 : Paper, ight. pads... Paper tablets No. 4, ‘for indigent students.. Paper tablets No. 10, for indigent students... Remspshoast .shevic. Bek oe Pens, No. 640, 3rd, 4th, LIP TALIGR eh Samael Pens, No. 790, 6th, 7th, Sth erades e ee. Penholders, cork grip, LEachene cee ey Sess Penholders indigent OU Dliaee stra ee ecu Article Maps, paper outline, 50 to package Africa 303-162 Asia 3—03-162 Australia 3-03-164 Europe 3—03-165 Michigan 3—03-166 North America 3—03-167 South America 3—03-168 United States 3-03-169 World 3d—-03-170 Unit Bottle | 3-03-095 Code Distribution Per Year 1 per hectograph if used Bottle | 3-03-096 |4-6 per building as needed Tube | 3-03-098 }1 or 2 per building as needed Pad 3-03-239 | 2 per building Quire | 3—03-241 | 2 per building Pad 3-03-242 | 4 per teacher Pad 3-03-243 | As necessary for needy pupils Pad 303-244 | As necessary for needy pupils Bag 3-03-252 | 3 per B1 teacher if used Box 3-03-253 | 2 per 25 pupils grades 3, ,5 Box 3-03-253 | 2 per 25 pupils grades 6, (i: Each | 3-14—-158 | 1 per teacher Each | 3-03-254 | As necessary for needy pupils Unit Non-Platoon Platoon Pkg.| 2 per 5A grade rm. | 2 per home rm. 5A Pkg.| 2 per 5A grade rm. | 2 per home rm. 5A Pkg.| 2 per 5A grade rm. | 2 per home rm. 5A Pkg.| 2 per 6B grade rm. | 2 per home rm. 6B Pkg.| 2 per 4B, 4A, 6B, | 2 per home rm. 4B 6A, 7B, 7A grade | to 7A Pkg.| 2 per 5B grade rm. | 2 per home rm. 5B Pkg.| 2 per 5B grade rm. | 2 per home rm. 5B Pkg.| 2 per 4A, 6B, 6A, | 2 per home rm. 4A Pkg. 7B, 7A grade 2 per 6A grade rm. to 7A 2 per home rm. 6A 292 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Article Unit | Code Distribution Per Year Covers for Form 29. .|Each |8—03-040} 1 per teacher Date stamp rire ee Each |3—03-048) 1 per building Guides, rides sierra: 5 a Each |3—03-035| As needed for replacement Pencil sharpeners. . ....|Hach |3-04-117| 1 per 5rms. Replacement only Pitch pipes. ewe ores eae Each |3-03-256] 1 per teacher as needed Pointers, blackboard...... Each |3—03-258] As needed for replacement Stamp pad...............|Each |38—03-099| 1 per building Stylus ul es Sea eee Each |3-—03-—289) 1 per building Inkwells, teacher’s........|/Each |3—03-100| As needed for replacement Summary. It is necessary to separate the functions of selection from that of distribution in the handling of the materials of instruction. When the two functions are clearly separated, pupils should be supplied with more and better material, special supervisors will be freed’ for more important tasks, and more direct methods of accounting will be established. In the present state of affairs it is not. always possible to fix responsibility for the failure of the schools to get adequate quantities of books, supplies, and equipment of the proper quality. A division of function such as outlined in this chapter will: 1. Distinguish hogs administrative and instructional activi- - ties 2. Fix responsibility 3. Free supervisors from an immense amount of clerical work 4. Bring expert centralized buying 5. Centralize distributions and deliveries BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAattny, E. W., and Fostsr, L. F., “A Science Laboratory and Classroom for Secondary Schools,’ School Board Journal, Vol. 66, Jan., 1923, pp. 57-58. 2. Barr, A. S., “Textbook Accounting,’ Hlementary School Journal, Vol. 23, Oct., 1922, pp. 127-35. 10. re 12. 13. 14. 15. THE MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION 293 . CHALLMAN, S. A., “Rooms and Equipment for a Department of Agriculture,” School Board Journal, Vol. 66, Jan., 1923, pp. 42-43 , “Rooms and Equipment for Industrial Arts,” School Board Journal, Vol. 68, Jan., 1924, pp. 71-75. Floor plans and equipment for New York State, Michigan, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania, are given, together with critical dis- cussion. . Coorrr, E. E., “A Method for Scoring Textbooks,” Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 4, April, 1925, pp. 322 ff. . Fow.KeEs, J. G., Hvaluating School Textbooks (Silver Bur- dett & Co., 1923). Contains a statement of needs, historical development, and a form for reviewing textbooks. . FRANZEN, R. H., and Knicut, F. B., Textbook Selection (Warwick and York, 1922). An investigation into the possibilities of objective standards for judging textbooks. . Hatt-Qurest, A. L., The Textbook (The Maemillan Co., 1918). The first book devoted to texts. Chapter IV con- tains many useful score cards and outlines. A valuable source book. . Hoop, W. R., “Free Textbooks for Public School Pupils,” U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 50, 1923. Pres- ent status, arguments for and against. Horn, Ernest, “The Selection of Silent Reading Textbooks,” Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 2, Oct., 1920, pp. 615-19. Excellent analysis. Definite standards. Howarp, George, “Free Textbooks in Publie Schools,” Board of Education, Raleigh, N. C., 1924. OV Some of the uses listed are administrative, but the em- phasis here is upon their supervisory implications. The classification and promotion of pupils. Three plans have been suggested for providing for individual differ- ences: (1) ability groups; (2) differentiated assignments ; and (38) individual instruction. Intelligence tests and educational tests are used in one form or another in cach of these schemes of providing tor individual differ- ences. Ability groups. Many teachers, principals, and super- visors have attempted to provide for individual differences by grouping pupils in ability sections. These sections or groups are usually designated as A, B, C, as X, Y, and Z, or as superior, normal, and dull groups. Each group may be treated as a separate class (where there is a sufficient number of pupils in the grade to make such a procedure possible), or as groups within the class. The bases for sectioning most frequently used are scores made ~ \.) >; oe TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 319 upon intelligence tests given at the beginning of the school year, upon educational tests, upon school work, or upon a combination or composite score?® derived from the three measures. Adequate provision for individual differences demands that many measurements be made, taking into considera- tion factors of interest, of effort, of training, of maturity, of health, of intelligence, etc. Most systems of classifica- tion have not attempted to take accurate account of all of these factors. Usually classification is based, as has already been pointed out, upon some scheme of measuring educa- tional status, the rate of progress, and general maturity, the chronological age being used for the latter. Educa- tional tests such as the Thorndike-McCall Reading Seale, the Courtis Arithmetic Tests, Series B, the Ayres Spelling Seale, the Hillegas Composition Scales, the Woody Arith- metic Seales, may be used to determine educational status. The Terman Group Intelligence Test, the Haggerty In- telligence Examination, the Miller Mental Ability Test, the Otis Classification or any number of similar tests may be used to measure capacity and probable rate of progress. Some supervisors prefer educational tests; others prefer intelligence tests. But an adequate classification program must take into consideration both educational status and probable rate of progress. Differentiated assignments. A second method of provid- ing for individual differences is that of varying the assignment for individuals within the group. Where such a plan of work is pursued, the work of the course is usually broken up into units of subject matter, each unit including a major project, a problem or topic extending over a period of one to two weeks. Provision is made for the different levels of ability within each unit. A lower level of mini- 16 Wm. A. McCall, How to Measure in Education (The Macmillan Co., 1922), pp. 25-32. 320 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION mum essentials necessary to the successful comprehension of the units to follow, a second level to be undertaken upon the mastery of the minimum essentials, and a third greatly enriched level for those superior students completing levels one and two is usually provided. The class moves forward as a group from unit to unit, pupils working at dif- ferent rates within the unit. The measurements used are usually of two types: (1) the intelligence test given at the beginning of the school year to determine the probable rate ‘at which the pupil should work; and (2) unit tests given upon the completion of each unit. No statistical treatment of data is necessary inasmuch as all measurements are treated individually. Individual instruction. A third method of providing for individual differences is individual instruction. Each pupil moves forward at his own rate, and the instruction, other than that found in the pupils’ handbook of directions, is individual. The measures here again are of two kinds: (1) the intelligence test; and (2) the practice test. The intelligence test is usually given at the beginning of the school year to determine probable rates of progress, and the daily classroom work is developed on the practice test basis. Among the best tests for daily use are: The Studebaker Practice Tests in Arithmetic, the Courtis Standard Prac- tice Tests in Handwriting, the Courtis Standard Practice Tests in Arithmetic, the Branom Practice Tests in Geog- raphy, and the Courtis-Smith Picture Story Method in Reading. The measurement of instructional outcomes. One of the first uses to which tests were put was that of evaluating the efficiency of instruction. Testing and surveying devel- oped almost simultaneously. Many of the early research bureaus were established as outgrowths of the survey movement. It was hoped that they might conduct through the use of tests a kind of continuous survey of the school TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 321 system. To-day studies of the efficiency of instruction may be made either by the superintendent and his staff from within, or by a survey staff of experts from without. The purpose and procedure is much the same in either case. The purpose of survey testing. The measurement of classroom products is not an end in itself. The results ebtained from such a testing program should throw light upon the effectiveness of the curriculum, the management, the teaching, the supervision, the organization, the physical ' equipment, and the financial outlay. It is not merely a measure of results as ends that we want. It is from a study of such measures that we are able to draw important inferences about other things. If results are good or poor, then from such measures we should be able to obtain some clue as to the cause. The cause may lie with the child, or it may lie with the school, and it may or may not be removable. It does little good to say, as a result of measures, that instruc- tion is exactly so poor unless we can go further and explain whether there is reason to expect better results, and if we ean, then to point out the reason why it is poor and show what needs to be done to bring it up to standard. It does little good to bring to light given amounts of inequality in accomplishment in different schools and classes, unless we can trace the cause for the inequality back to the nature of the child or to the plan of supervision and instruction. It is of little use to count the chil- dren with weak eyes, poor hearing, diseased tonsils, and curved spines, unless we can show whether or not the school can make adjustments in the child’s work and in his management that will be of value as a remedial procedure.1? Survey tests furnish objective evidence. The super- intendent and his staff, if he has one, must keep in touch with the results attained within the school system. Monroe Baye: + 17 Jesse B. Sears, The School Survey (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1921), pp. 340-41. 18 W. §S. Monroe, The Theory of Educational Measurements (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923), pp. 263-64. 322 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION A supervisor must keep in touch with his school system. From time to time it is imperative that he make a survey of it. He needs to compare the efficiency of his system with that of other similar systems. He also needs to be informed of the relative efficiency of the units of his own system. Before standardized educational tests were available, such surveys were made by a personal visitation. Obviously they were subjective. Standard- ized objective tests afford a means for making an objective sur- vey. ; The supervisor diagnoses the school system in much the same way that the teacher diagnoses his class. The general procedure is not materially different. It has been shown that the most ef- fective method of supervising instruction is to ascertain the divisions of the school system which are below the desired stand- ard of efficiency, and to prescribe definite remedies for unde- sirable conditions that are found to exist.19 In this way the efforts of a supervisor will be directed toward the meeting of specific needs. In the absence of a diagnosis of his school system, the supervisor will frequently direct his energies in ways that are not profitable. It may be that a reorganization of the system is needed. The course of study may be lacking. The teachers may need some special training. Whatever the needs are, the supervisor will be in a better position to meet them when he is acquainted with the conditions that exist. Educational tests are not direct measures of efficiency. ‘‘Hifficiency’’ is a relative term. It expresses a relationship between achievement and working conditions. Educational tests measure only the total output. They are affected in part by the intelligence of the children taught, the physical conditions under which teachers and pupils work, the ma- terials of instruction with which teachers and pupils must work, and the teaching staff. Everything considered, a low — score for one building or one school system may represent ereater efficiency than a high score in another. The general intelligence of the pupils may be measured, and efficiency — expressed in terms of the ratio of achievement to intelli- 19S, A. Courtis, ‘‘Measuring the Efficiency of Supervision in © Geography,’’ School and Society, Vol. 10, July 19, 1919, pp. 61-70. — TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 323 gence.”° But before direct measurements of efficiency can be made, similar ratios will need to be developed for other factors of achievement. Schools or school systems should be judged only in the light of conditioning factors. McCall has listed eight fac- tors conditioning the achievement of a school system.?? Whatever conclusions are drawn concerning the efficiency of instruction, one should take into consideration these fac- tors. There are, of course, many others. . The permanency of the school population . The intelligence of the pupils The home environment . The amount of chronological retardation or acceleration . Maturity . The transfer of training from one subject to another . The distribution of teaching emphasis . The length of the school term WDNAMEwWNH Measuring the efficiency of the teacher. We may meas- ure the effectiveness of the teacher either by evaluating the instructional process or by measuring the product. The final test of efficiency is to be found in the amount and quality of service rendered—in the actual output of work. On the surface it seems that standard tests would give a wholly adequate measure of teaching efficiency. They do and they do not. In the first place, the teacher is not wholly responsible for the changes which occur in pupils. Good or poor results may follow from conditions operating in the home, the per- sonal health of the pupil, the intelligence levels, etc., the quality of teaching being only one of many factors affecting the results. Pupil A may have demonstrated unusual 20 See McCall, op. cit., pp. 36-42, for a discussion of educational age, educational quotient, mental age and intelligence quotient, pp. 149-50 for a discussion of accomplishment quotient. 21 Ibid., pp. 164-67. 324 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION mathematical ability because of assistance from an older brother. Pupil B may have failed because he was sick and could not attend school. The class with which the teacher worked may have been either unusually dull or unusually intelligent. In the second place, standardized tests are not at this time available for measuring all of the changes produced. Skills and information developed in the tool subjects are now measured with a fair degree of success. More recently attention has been turned to thought questions, reasoning and judgement. But many outcomes are as yet unmeasured. Judgment of the teacher’s efficiency must be based upon a complete inventory of results. What the test results will do is to reveal conditions and the explanation may be sought through a careful analysis of all factors affecting pupil progress. Some fundamental assumptions to be considered in the use of tests in measuring the efficiency of teaching. McCall after pointing out the dangers of misapplication of tests to the measurement of teaching efficiency, lays down certain fundamental assumptions to be taken into consideration in the use of tests in the measurement of teaching efficiency.?? 1. The pupil is the center of gravity or sun of the educational system. Teachers are satellites of this sun and super- visors are moons of the satellites. 2. All the paraphernalia of education exist for just one pur- pose, to make desirable changes in pupils. 3. The worth of these paraphernalia can be measured in just one way by determining how many desirable changes they make in pupils. 4. Hence, the only just basis for selecting and promoting teachers is the changes made in pupils. 5. Teachers are at present selected and promoted primarily on the basis of their attributes, such as intelligence, per- 22From William A. McCall, How to Measure in Education, pp. 150-53. Reprinted by permission of the Macmillan Co., publishers. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 325 sonality, physical appearance, voice, ability in penman- ship and the like. 6. No one has demonstrated just what causal relationship, if any, exists between possession of these various attributes and desirable changes in pupils. 7. Scientific measurement itself is fair only when we measure the amount of desirable change produced in pupils by a given teacher. The measurement of change requires both initial and final tests. The plan outlined below provides for these. 8. Scientific measurement is fair only when we measure amount of change produced in a standard time. This requirement can be satisfied. 9. Scientific measurement is fair only when we measure the amount of change in standard pupils. The Accomplish- ment Quotient -is included in the plan below because this is a device for converting pupils, no matter what their in- telligence, into standard pupils. 10. Scientific measurement is fair only when the measurement is complete. Absolute completeness would require a measure- ment of the amount of changes made in children’s pur- poses as well as their abilities. Absolute completeness is, of course, impossible, and is in fact not necessary; partly because a chance sampling of the changes made will be thorough enough, and partly because teachers’ skill in making desirable changes in, say, reading, is probably positively correlated with their skill in making desirable changes in, say, arithmetic. The use of measurement in teaching. An assumption underlying this discussion of the supervisory use of tests and measurements is that the supervisor in the use of measurement is interested either directly or indirectly in the improvement of teaching. He may assist through the better classification of pupils, through evaluating the effi- ciency of the school system or through the improvement of the teacher. What else can the supervisor do to assist teachers? Besides these uses of measurement already men- tioned, four uses of measurement in teaching will be briefly deseribed: (1) the setting of standards; (2) the improve- 326 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION ment of examinations; (3) the development of study Senet tions; and (4) practice tests. The setting of standards. What the teacher is to accom- plish is set forth in the course of study. It gives the stand- ards of accomplishment in terms of subject matter to be covered. This subject matter calls for differmg kinds of activities on the part of the pupils, but neither the subject matter nor the activity itself is the end. The result of the activity, the change in the learner, is the educational result desired. It is easy to write down the subject-matter re- quirements and to justify them in terms of pedagogical and psychological theory, but too much reliance in such paper requirements makes for formalism. It is also easy in a superficial way to determine what activity resulted. The exact nature and amount of the activity, however, together with its actual result upon the learner, has been neglected. Furthermore, pupils differ most materially in their natures and in their individual reactions to the same subject matter and the same teaching method. These last-named and vitally important phases of teaching are coming into their own through the use and application of standard tests. The results to be obtained are coming to be set down in terms of actual standards measurable in mathematically precise terms as age and grade scores. Not only are the standards being set up, but the derivation of them has directed attention more closely to the requirements of real life outside the schools. Very likely problems involved in determining these stand- ards will play but little part in the work of the average supervisor, the bulk of the work being done by special in- vestigators at universities or departments of educational research. The supervisor should be familiar with the re- sults obtained by the research experts and either utilize them himself or see that they are brought to the attention of his teachers. An excellent guide to the sources of litera- TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS O27 ture dealing with this phase of measurement work will be found in the Elementary School Journal for December, 1917, in an article by Rugg, ‘‘How to Keep in Touch with the Quantitative Literature of Education.’’ A good brief discussion of the statistics involved will be found in Monroe, DeVoss and Kelly, Educational Tests and Measurements, pages 273-283. The statistics involved in tabulating and interpreting the tests will be given later in this chapter. Most of the advance in this field has been made in the formal or tool subjects which admit of measurement more easily than do the content subjects. The tests available are usually equipped with tables showing age and grade accomplishment. The establishment of standards is pro- ceeding rapidly in the content subjects, and there are al- ready many scales of considerable accuracy and value. School progress can be motivated through the develop- ment of definite pupil objectives. These objectives should not only be set for the year, but also for the month and the week. An indispensable military device is a battle map showing the present status of the contending forces and the objectives of the attack. Industrial corporations have used the same device in production charts. One might, for example, give the Thorndike-McCall Reading Test at the beginning of the school year, and give to each pupil his initial score. The next step might be to set in consultation with each pupil an objective for the year. There are enough of the Thorndike-McCall Reading Seales to give one each month and to measure progress in the attainment of the final objective. Graphical methods may be introduced to keep the goals clearly before the pupils.”* The improvement of examinations. It has been pointed out that the traditional examination has numerous short- comings. Much can be done to improve teaching through 23 Ibid., pp. 143-45. 328 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION the application of the testing technique to written examina- tions. Some of the recommendations made by Monroe for the improvement of examination follow: ** 1. Supply each pupil with a typewritten or mimeographed copy of the questions. 2. Form questions with extreme care, ambiguous questions lead to variations in performance. 3. Give pupils definite instruction concerning the method of work to be employed. 4. The scoring may be made more objective by introducing “ves” and “no” questions, true-false statements, comple- tion questions, ete. 5. The objectivity of the marking of examination papers may be increased by the use of definite rules for scoring papers. 6. The objectivity of examinations may be increased by using questions which permit of only one correct answer. 7. Weights may be assigned to exercises. The unequal diffi- culty of questions is not a serious defect. 8. The content of the examination should be minimum essen- tials and recognized educational objectives. 9. The examination should be given under timed conditions, when the rate of work is a significant educational dimen- sion to be measured. 10. Objective norms may be developed for examinations. The development of study directions. There was a time when teachers used practically every class period in testing pupils. The recitation consisted primarily of an oral quiz over the work assigned. With the development of a better testing technique, the teacher no longer needs to use every recitation as a testing exercise. She may use a test one day in ten, or a test at the completion of a unit of work, or indi- vidual tests administered as needed. The improvement of the testing technique has left more time for teaching. An interesting extension of the testing technique has been the 24 W. 9. Monroe, The Theory of Educational Measurement (Hough- ton Mifflin Co., 1923), pp. 277-95. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 329 development of written study directions. Nila B. Smith, One Hundred Ways of Teaching Silent Reading, contains many exercises of this type. Completion exercises, substi- tuting words, answering fact questions, answering thought questions, fillmg blanks with words, matching headings, pairing sentences, selecting best definitions, selecting most interesting sentences, finding the main idea in a para- graph, true and false games, making word lists, cross-out puzzles, mixed-sentence puzzles, opposites puzzles, and numerous similar devices are used to make learning and teaching more effective. The aim of such exercises is to focus the pupil’s attention upon the salient facts to be learned. Space will not permit further discussion at this point. Practice tests. Reference has already been made to the use of practice tests in individualizing instruction. Chief advantages claimed are (1) that practice tests make indi- vidual instruction possible; (2) that practice tests strengthen the purpose to improve; (3) that practice tests provide a maximum amount of exercise on the part of the pupils; and (4) that practice tests facilitate diagnosis and remedial teaching. Where the learning is one of association forming or the acquisition of a skill, and where the learning is largely individual in nature, the practice test can be used to good advantage. The Courtis practice tests in reading, handwriting, and arithmetic are materials of the type here referred to. Educational diagnosis. The purpose of supervision is to surround the pupil with better learning conditions. One of the much-neglected aspects of teaching, and one on which the supervisor might well focus his attention, is educational diagnosis. Most teachers depend in their teaching upon such information concerning individual pupils as they can pick up incidentally in class or in private talks with their pupils. Most teachers have had little systematic training 330 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION in the study of their pupils. For some reason there has orown up a notion, or rather a tradition about teaching, which is to the effect that the teacher must waste no time in studying her pupils, but must teach. The practice followed by teachers is very much as if the physician should come into the sick room and begin to give medicine without look- ing at the patient. Most teachers do not take the trouble to look at the patient. Should they care to do so they have very poor training in diagnostic work. A principal who assumes responsibility for a new school or a teacher who takes charge of a new class is faced with the necessity of making two types of diagnoses: (1) a general diagnosis for the school or the class; and (2) a more specific diagnosis for the individual pupil. Measurement plays an important part in both types of diagnosis. Waples suggests that data concerning the class be obtained about the following items: 7° Useful Data How Obtained A. Special learning abilities A. By testing the class in vari- 1. Ability to select im- ous skills which progress portant facts in a in the subject demands. typical page of the 1. Give the class a short textbook unit of typical ma- terial to study for several minutes in class. Then call for written replies to about ten definite questions based on this material and varying in difficulty. Or give a simple, si- lent reading test such as Monroe’s. This requires five minutes. 25 From Douglas Waples, Procedure in High School Teaching, pp. 48-51. Reprinted by permission of The Macmillan Co., publishers. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 331 Useful Data How Obtained 2. Ability to remember 2. Repeat the test at in- these important facts 3. Ability to understand words 4. Ability to use symbols as in foreign lan- guage, mathematics, science, stenography, and other subjects to a less extent. 5. Speed in motor re- sponse 6. Ability to make cor- rect inferences from data in the given subject tervals of a few days each. 3. Call for the use and definition of any graded series of words such as is shown in the follow- ing section. 4, List a number of im- portant symbols used in your subject opposite their mean- ings. Place this key on the board. Then require the class to substitute symbols for the equivalent words in a list of ex- pressions. Record accuracy and speed. 5. Time the class on any simple mechanical operation such as the cancellation test referred to below. 6. Present any group of unrelated facts in your subject which have a definite mean- ing when they are related. Allow the class about five min- utes in which to write as clearly as they can what this meaning is. Note the differences in ability to. discover these relationships between the facts. 332 Useful Data 7. General mental ability 8. Other abilities perhaps more important in connection with your special subject B. Personal history and previ- ous experience with the subject matter you teach 1. Age, rate of promo- tion, and previous school records in your subject and re- lated subjects 2. Pupil’s opinion of for- mer teachers in your subject 3. Education of parents 4, Father’s occupation 5. Health — serious ill- nesses, sight, hear- ing, rate of growth, ete. 6. Nationality of parents 7. Language used at home THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION How Obtained 7. Give some simple in- telligence test such as the Terman Group Test of Mental Abil- ity, but regard the results merely as suggestive in the case of individual pupils. 8. By a combination of methods suggested above or by any simple test con- structed for the pur- pose. B. By question-blank, private conference, consulting of- fice records, and_ talks with former teachers. 1. Consult office records. 2. Private conference. 3. Question-blank or pri- vate conference. 4. Question-blank, if tact- fully worded. 5. Observation and pri- vate conference where necessary. 6. Question-blank. 7. Question-blank, TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 333 Useful Data 8. Part-time jobs, trav- els, ete. 9. Other items which may indicate more di- rectly what previous contacts the pupil may have had with your subject matter in his home environ- ment C. Present interests related to your subject diagnosed by such questions as: 1. What is your favorite type of reading— novels, magazine stories, magazine ar- ticles, or newspa- pers? 2. What is your favorite kind of moving pic- ture? / 3. How do you_ spend your Saturdays? 4. What do you intend to do when you leave high school? What sort of work will you do for a living? 5. What sort of work mn this subject appeals to you most? Which of your school sub- jects do you like best ? How Obtained 8. Question-blank. 9. A diagnostic test is best. If none such can be obtained, give a short test at the outset of the course on simple facts that the pupils might “happen” to know. A combina- tion of the above methods _ should cover other items not mentioned C. By the same general meth- ods as in B above. 1. Question-blank of the check-list type. 2. Question-blank. 3. Question-blank. 4, Question-blank or check-list. 5. Question-blank and conference. 3384 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Useful Data How Obtained 6. Have you ever writ- 6. Question-blank. ten a poem out of school? Have you ever made anything? Did it work ? 7. Other questions more 7. Combination of above directly related to methods. useful interests as expressed in hob- bies, games, and out- of-school activities. In general, there are seven methods by which the work of the pupil may be diagnosed: 1. Introspection or self-study on the part of the pupils. 2. Observation of the normal, every-day classroom work of the pupil. 3. Have the pupil trace the process orally. Uhl used the oral- tracing process in locating difficulties in addition and sub- traction.?® . Analysis of test results. . Secure the developmental history. . Contrast the methods of work of good and poor pupils. . The complete psychological examination.?* “10 Or The supervisor should be familiar with each of these. Educational and vocational guidance. Over and above classroom teaching the school has general responsibility for the educational and vocational progress of the pupil. The cuidance movement and the response with which it has met is evidence of the interest which school people have in the general welfare of pupils. Measurement has been 26 W. L. Uhl, ‘‘The Use of Standardized Materials in Arithmetic for Diagnosing Pupils’ Methods of Work,’’ Hlementary School Journal, Vol. 18, Nov., 1917, pp. 215-218. 27 Wm. A. McCall, How to Measure in Education (The Macmillan Co., 1922), pp. 88-111. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 339 used to secure more exact information: (1) general intelli- gence tests—within certain limits there are occupational intelligence limits; 7° (2) aptitude tests—each individual probably has, within limits, an aptitude for some one occu- pation or group of similar occupations which is more marked than for any other occupation; (8) vocational in- terest test—the purpose of such test is to determine voca- tional preference or interests; (4) trade tests—the object of these tests is to measure the individual skill for specific positions; (5) tests in the tool subjects—tests in reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic are essential to certain occupations. Research and experimentation. The pursuance of the study of education as a science is largely dependent upon the development of adequate measuring instruments. The physical sciences have made progress only as they have been able to refine their instrument of measurement. With the refinement of measurement, it is then pos- sible to study comparatively all kinds of educational prac- tices. Measurement opens the way to an objective study or possible solution to such types of questions as, ‘‘ Which of two methods is the more effective? Which of two textbooks is the more suitable for classroom use? Which of two teachers is the more efficient? ete.’’ It will be the purpose of the next chapter to discuss somewhat in detail the pro- cedure by which the problems of education may be studied more exactly. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. “Army Mental Test, Methods, Typical Results and Practical Applications,” Bulletin, War Department, Nov. 22, 1918, Washington, D. C. 28‘ Army Mental Test, Methods, Typical Results and Practical Application,’’ Bulletin, War Department, Nov. 22, 1918 (Washington, ED eOeds 336 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 2. Bossrrt, Franklin, “The Plan of Measuring Educational Eff- ciency in City,” Elementary School Journal, Vol. 18, Jan., 1918, pp. 343-56. Use of the unstandardized local test. , “The Supervision of City Schools,” Twelfth Year- book of the National Society for the Study of Education (Publie School Publishing Co., 1913). Good early discus- sion of the use of tests, pp. 11-50. 4, Breen, F. §., and Bressuicn, E. R., “Intelligence Tests and the Classification of Pupils,” School Review, Vol. 30, Jan. and March, 1922, pp. 51-66, 210-26. . . S96GG8 ¢ Se» 6: ofa. ee. 6h 0401s aie meee em exe £pspulw-uedo ous 8]T ‘9 : "Sar “** "+ corqspujydo Ajsuvs OYS SI *G a) ss lbs alana ta ogaVai ouso| exetandl aeate erate ices 1810010 JO SUOISNyo -u00 94} pian epnayaae Injjo0dsei B BABY BUS SOG ‘F “ZpaIhovss 918 BIBP VUSTOUNS [JUN JUemspnf pusd -sns 09 AYTIG’—opny}498 OYIIUIJOS B VARY OS SeOC “E Ce et ee ee 6,0 fe) e 6 WY Cae yee C) Cen 6) O60" © Je! > . she (¢ je see . . . eee eres eee ones reo ed weer eeae es TOpNjNZV [eUOIssejorg pur ogyUe!g “AI S ¥ £ z T V ad @) a a quemmI0D 9100g %F % SS % OF % SS %F LIVaL 4soUsiH 4XON PIPPITL JXON 4SoOMO'T OSBIIAB OSBIIAG oSBIIAW OZBIOAB ISBIOAB SA0Q®B IB aAoqdy AO} | MOTEG 1BT SUTHOVAT, ONILVY UOX WIVOG ALLAHOY ao Luvg EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 479 community tending to improve or stimulate its vari- ous activities. 5. Moral influence: Extent to which the teacher raises the moral tone of the pupils or of the school. Sometimes a card of this nature attempts to provide a weighting system of some sort or other. It has been shown statistically that weighted points.are not more accurate than non-weighted. A survey of the opinions of super- visors and teachers show that a non-weighted card is looked upon with more favor than a weighted one, because of the ease of administration (see sample on opposite page).?® Still another combines both the weighting and prepared answer idea: ?° SUPERVISING AND SELF-RATING ScorRE Carp (B) Pupil Activity +3 -++1 —1 —3 1. Physical attitude. active good indifferent lounging attention position position 2. Mental attitude.. alert passive indifference rebellion interest attention 3. Initiative....... much some litile none well directed 4. Expression...... fluent concise vague slangy —bad grammar 5. Loui tase). wk. complete fairly poor very bad and clear good 6. Judging values... notable some slight none 7. Organization. ... adequate fair slight none 8. Motives........ vital good slight or none good questionable 9. Behavior........ excellent good questionable bad 10. Attitude toward teacher and class. excellent fair questionable bad Example of an elaborate rating card. One of the most important contributions is a card entitled, ‘‘A Rating Seale 18 T. H. Schutte, ‘‘Schutte Scale for Rating Teachers’’ (copyright, 1923, by World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.). 19 Ellsworth Lowry, ‘‘Supervising and Self-Rating Score Card’’ (privately published). Mr. Lowry is in the State Normal School at Indiana, Pennsylvania. 480 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION for Judging Teachers in Service,’’ by Rugg,?? described in the article mentioned above. On this card the teacher’s qualities are divided into five classes, and under each head- ing are grouped definite questions, each of which is to be checked as ‘‘low,’’ ‘‘average,’’ or ‘‘high.’’ This first part of the scale was developed by means of a most careful and painstaking process in which teachers, principals, and su- perintendents participated. The second part of the scale is a device for rating by direct comparison. 91 3. Friendly, helpful, constructive criticisms .......... 71 PASCO TECLALION eet, Petite sre oa ts tee ene AT pecemonstrationienching tj. cies. Lon 0, VR R Be 30 fe Ope mboeCOUTSS OL StUCY ve °. sido a\s sons ania d bak «hao wes 32 EMEC IAET Eee ne Eo aa ge op Ao a: o1c:y aie capacannss tea eraha oh eo% 30 MAE LEO ITOUOCL LEACHING von os 5 oo sce se iale the qaieia vie 23 SPREE OMELET ISLS are se e's psc go 0 + + 0 :2,0 4,5 )01¢ 6 sie e oe oo PU RTP MIIEL NOUS (SCNCTAL) “oie csie's occ clece wits istetet tes 20 11. Outlines of work, drills and tests ..............--. 20 12. Helpful advice ........... FS tahidietee eae si Seat Lee Le 13. Grade meetings to discuss problems (general) ...... 16 14. Allowing teacher to use initiative ................ 13 15. General teachers’ meetings to discuss methods ...... 12 16. General helpfulness ..... ith PAPI wr ahah ethane 11 17. Providing books and magazines for professional 7 Pema tmmveririe cnt sbet liste Sa/sics aS e OB Tee cae. 11 18. Personal conferences 5 19. Giving comparison of work with work in the same Pe eee ea TE gi whe. Sida pb 6k dca ieee ven vas oie as as 5 20. Giving broader view of education ................ 5 4H. W. Nutt, ‘‘The Attitude of Teachers Toward Supervision,’’ Educational Research Bulletin, Ohio State University, Vol. 3, Feb. 6, 1924, pp. 59-64. 500 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Frequency 213; Help! with individual pupilsis aie cas ces ewe ae 4 22. ‘Planning /OLsworke fires isin at tess 6 one eerie ae es Zo.-Optimistice attitudes srt ai siwees cs ie tute eee 2 24. Manifestation of interest in work of children ...... ot 25. Discussion of favorable and unfavorable criticisms.. 2 26. Spirit of sincerity and fairness ............-200e. 2 27. Asking where difficulty lay in giving work and get- Tings Tesi) tig ochre se ieee is ss Sons etkeds ieee aoa cee 2 29. Correlation OL; SUDJECLS es o2 ><, s.s-olaretalviein icicle ete 1 29. No interference with actual classroom work ....... i 30; -- Absence? Most NEL Wes waits se a's 5 crete > shee e eeletaeteeane 1 51. *Moral’ supporters tices wee ears epiesere atyirk sme a). eee 1 32. Information as to difficulties to expect ........... i! Bsuharinge responsibility 1... sa. «1s. «se cere saan 1 The first seventeen items seem to be the most important and can be further reclassified under three heads: (a) im- mediate attack upon teaching problems (items 2, 3, 5, 8) mentioned in the aggregate 220 times; (b) general spirit and attitude of supervisor (items 1, 4, 7, 14, 16) mentioned 213 times; (c) indirect attack upon teaching problems (items 6, 9, 10, 11, 18, 15, 17) mentioned 134 times. The score for (0) is significant in indicating how impor- tant it is that supervisors manifest sympathy and encour- agement in order that their technical suggestions be well received. The score for (c) indicates that many general helps are actually carrying over into the practice of teachers. The total score for most helpful things is 607 points. Only fourteen teachers stated that they had received no help. Some of these were excellent experienced teachers and doubtless the supervisors were putting their time and energy elsewhere. Subtracting, however, this number from the score, the net total of helpful points is 593. These same teachers then listed the ‘‘things done by supervisors which are not helpful.’’ EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 501 TYPES OF CRITICISM Frequency 1. Sarcastic remarks to both teacher and pupils ...... Wi 2. Always finding fault with the teaching or the recita- PUUACLLLNGL DUD cme ha anne. tis cr wlacneen. 6 ol aie ay eee CGI: OL UNUM POA tat Wines vse ¢eieieieis'« seie eo eteist: i 4. Destructive criticisms that are depressing ......... a 5. Discouraging discussion of methods .............. 1 Total Oe 5 GENERAL TECHNIQUE 6. Making suggestions about the teaching in the midst OLRENOPECUILAIONS ei, Fon cis sc 'e'ca ts Scie Oe pel eleleee 1 7. Interrupting the class for points not relevant to the SEB GHGs BD LENS wise 27) erty Abie iain (or ep 51 oho ete entiate eee 1 8. Visiting and taking notes but not making comments CIRCA SW OLICS MaRS» ils is oo! ol v's aha s Made pei Dake Pate 5 9. Abrupt, noisy entrance into classroom ............ 2 10. Making unpremeditated suggestions at the last mo- ment when plans have been made and approved .. 2 11. Attempting to conduct class when not well informed 1 12. Nervous principal gets us unnecessarily disturbed .. 1 13. General supervisor just sitting there makes the DEER IROL VOUS Se ielgtcs sists lacé)s. 0 o's n'a bo ol btarels atalelaes Ge 1 14. Knowing general supervisor may come any minute... 1 The total score for these items is 20 points. Subtracting this from the net total of helpful points, 593, there still re- mains a total of 573 points favorable to supervision. The above discussion relates to ‘‘general supervision.’’ A most interesting contrast is found when the answers re- garding ‘‘special supervision’’ are examined. The tables are similar to those above and need not be reproduced here. The total score for helpful things in special supervision was 872 as compared to 607 for general. The total score for 502 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION things not helpful was 275. Compared to the total of things helpful, 372, and particularly when compared to the score for things not helpful in general supervision, 20, it is easily seen that special supervision does not at all enjoy the con- fidence of the teachers as does general supervision. Wagner has supplied us with a brief and interesting summary of the common teacher complaints about super- vision, together with a list of points in answer.° The opposition to supervision needs to be classed as opinions urged against supervision; they are not arguments. 1. Supervision destroys the individuality of the teacher. This is true of poor supervision; the poor teacher has no indi- viduality to suppress. Good supervision develops teachers by correcting the improvable work and by offering extra inducements and recognition to the original teacher. 2. Supervision expects too much of teachers. A complaint of the inert and mechanical teacher. Good supervision in- spires the best teacher most, of course, because there is most to inspire. 3. Supervision has no professional standards. This fact is being changed and rendered less true every day and year. Supervision is passing from the individual to the pro- fessional basis. 4. The supervisor tries to catch teachers unprepared. Spying is not supervision, but a base counterfeit. 5. Teachers object to supervisors’ little supervisory slips; they, too, want to write slips on the supervisors. Merely a quibble, but teachers should be recognized and their opin- ions of their work taken into consideration. Some other opposing claims are met in the opinions in favor of supervision: 1. Supervision helps the new teacher most quickly into unity and harmony with the system. 5C, A. Wagner, ‘‘The Arguments For and Against Supervision,’’ Proceedings of the National Education Association, Vol. 60, 1922, pp. 1438-39, EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 503 . Supervision helps the poorly trained teacher to become a better teacher. . Supervision induces meditation, contemplation, self-criti- cism by teachers. . New ideas, plans, procedures are brought into the system by supervision and adapted to the system. The best work of the system is used as type and model for other teachers of the system. . If rating and pay are to be based on effectiveness in work, supervision is needed. . The work of a system is unified by supervision; opportuni- ties of the children are made as nearly equal as possible in all points of the system. . Supervision is called for by the tendency to specialization in every human activity. The accumulated knowledge and the acquired skill of professionals can thus become an inexhaustible resource for system and profession. Administrative demands that supervision justify itself. At the close of the year 1922-23 Superintendent Weet of Rochester, New York, sent a letter to Miss Mabel E. Simp- son, Director of Elementary Supervision, which contained the following questions: °® 1 2 4. On . Exactly what does your department try to do that must be regarded as essential in public-school organization? What, briefly, are the typical lines of work along the line of educational administration or supervision that your de- partment carries on? Have you any facts or figures to show how many teachers were directly affected and perhaps also how many pupils were indirectly affected by the work of your department? What about the understanding as shown by the attendance facts in the supervisory methods classes for teachers new to the system, that may have been carried on in your de- partment? Is it possible for you to organize any supervisory data that would convince the laymen that in this matter of supervision we are getting what we are going after? 6“*Supervisory Activity in Rochester,’’ Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 3, Feb., 1924, p. 264. 504 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION These questions, particularly the last one, are direct and straightforward, but entirely legitimate, demands that su- pervision produce evidence of its worth. A part of Miss Simpson’s reply is as follows: Help is given to principals and teachers in problems of organi- zation, problems of equipment, problems of materials pertaining to methods of teaching, and the proper use of tests and measure- ments. Visits to teachers and demonstration lessons are ar- ranged on a definite schedule and in addition twenty-four sec- tional meetings are held by the department at the city normal school; also an institute was conducted in which thirty-five dem- onstration lessons were given by teachers from different schools in the system. Three forms of demonstration teaching are em- ployed in the schools of Rochester, namely, those in the institute, those in sectional meetings, and those in individual classrooms. Seven demonstration teachers are employed regularly in this department, and they give all their time to this work. An especially interesting feature of the supervisory plan is the schedule of visits to be made by supervisor and administrative teachers. This is so arranged that complete cooperation between the principal and teachers on the one hand and the supervisory force on the other is made possible. Who then shall rate the supervisor? This question is often asked by individuals who think to use it to point out the absurdity of attempting to rate supervisors, principals, or administrators. It is by no means a question beside the point, but an entirely serious inquiry capable of being an- swered. There is no reason why supervision and the super- visors should not be rated by those under supervision, by those over it and responsible for it, and finally by those engaged in it. Teachers must not only contribute to supervision, but must also pass judgment upon the worth of supervision. As has been pointed out several times previously in this book, supervision is a cooperative procedure. The teacher’s contribution is valuable and should be sought. The teacher EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 505 must be given opportunity to express her opinion concern- ing supervision when that opinion can be supported with definite evidence. In standing for the principle that teach- ers must not only contribute to supervision but judge of its worth, the writer is fully aware of the difficulties in the way of practical operation cf such a plan. Large numbers of graduate students studying supervision, many of them ex- perienced teachers and supervisors, express the opinion that it is not safe to evaluate or attempt to judge the work of those over you. This feeling is not without basis when we consider the arbitrary and autocratic procedures in vogue in some city and state systems. Teachers are quite fre- quently bulldozed and brow-beaten and ordered to cease discussing educational policies and to cease voicing opinions of any kind at school meetings. Teachers are dismissed very often purely because of the whim of some superior officer. In many public schools, even in normal schools and colleges, teacher tenure depends so largely on whim, caprice, or prejudice, that any attempt at originality or initiative, let alone an attempt at positive participation, would result in immediate dismissal. Nevertheless it must be reiterated that supervision is a codperative procedure in the fullest meaning of that term. The teachers’ contribu- tion is vital and essential and must be dealt with. Not only must teachers contribute to the general policy and procedure as it affects them from day to day, but they will probably be called upon soon to make spe- cific statements and judgments of supervision and super- visors. | In many situations, of course, there is a splendid spirit existing between administrators and the teaching body. There is more and more opportunity for the well-trained competent teachers to express their real opinions. Their help is solicited by many of the more progressive superin- tendents. In many situations where formal machinery for 506 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION teacher participation has not yet been established, school administrators are receptive and sensitive to the opinions of the earnest, conscientious leaders among the teaching oroup. What are the factors upon which teachers may be ex- pected to pass judgment? Judgments passed by teachers upon supervisors vary widely and include practically all phases of the supervisor’s work. Both complaint and praise are heard in regard to personal contacts, mannerisms, habits, hobbies, dress, training, professional ability, religion, ete., ete. The evidence upon which the judgments are based will vary from real tangible evidence of efficiency or ineffi- ciency to pure prejudice on the part of the teacher. Unfair, capricious criticisms are by no means confined to super- visory sources. There must be some more definite under- standing of the factors upon which teachers should pass judgment and in regard to the methods of arriving at the judgments. Teachers’ estimates of qualifications. Guidance will be obtained by referring to the discussion of the supervisor’s personality in Chapter XIV, particularly Miss Bird’s study in which are listed the qualifications for good supervisors as seen by teachers. The points listed in the order of their votes were: * Kindness or sympathy, systematic individual supervision, cooperation, executive ability, professional knowledge, progres- siveness, leadership in community, reliable judgment, broad schol- arship, flexibility of requirements, sincerity, good breeding, at- tractive personality, ability to discipline, good health, ability to make a speech, fairness, lofty ideals, the ability to smile, prompt- ness, reliability, poise, enthusiasm, moral and physical cleanli- ness, foresight, democratic spirit, resourcefulness, courage, opti- mism, sense of humor. 7G. E. Bird, ‘‘Teachers’ Estimates of Supervisors,’’? School and — Society, Vol. 5, p. 720. ae EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 507 Obviously the teachers can pass judgment better on those aspects of supervision with which they come in direct con- tact. These would include the personality of the supervisor, his ability to handle people in conference, and his efficiency in direct classroom supervision. On other factors in super- vision there are other opinions obtainable which would be more valuable than those of the teacher. Definite score cards. One or two attempts have been made to organize some scheme whereby teachers might ex- press their opinions regarding the efficiency or lack of it in their supervisors, but little information can be secured con- cerning them. \The Spokane, Washington, Grade Teachers Association devoted the April, 1921, issue of their bulletin to the discussion of supervision and expressed their confi- dence and belief in some system of supervisory rating. In their estimation a brief card was the most practicable. The following suggestions were made: ® The following points to be applied to the building principal: . Executive ability . Firmness in discipline . Progressiveness . Cultivation of initiative among teachers . Sympathy . Constructive criticism Doe wD And on the supervisors some such report as the following might be made: 1. Approachability 2. Open-mindedness 3. Firmness 4. Constructive criticism 5. Classroom instruction 8‘‘May Jones,’’ Bulletin of the Spokane Grade Teachers Asso- ciation, April, 1921, p. 10. 508 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION While this list is purposely brief, it is suggestive. The points, however, must of necessity be more clearly defined and limited. Graduate students at Washington State College some years ago evolved a list of questions to be used in analyzing the supervisors’ activity in actual classroom supervision. No attempt was made to cover all fields of work. This list focuses attention directly upon what the supervisor does and at the same time indicates to the teacher that specific evidence must be forthcoming with which to support the judgment made. It is not intended that all the questions shall be specifically answered except in crucial cases or emergencies. Teachers may, if they wish, rate the super- visors on the main headings only, using the questions to organize their thinking, to recall specific occasions, ete. Any of several adaptations of such a card would be satis- factory. The statements may be made direct instead of interrogative. They may be reduced in number and weighted if desirable, though little is gained by attempting to weight points because of the impossibility of agreement upon the scoring of such ecards. OUTLINE FOR THE DISCUSSION OF SUPERVISORY EFFICIENCY IN CLASSROOM SUPERVISION A scheme that may be used by teachers to express their judg- ment of the supervisor, or by the supervisor in self-analysis.® 1. Personal Equipment: (a) Is he of pleasing manner and address? Neat and clean in dress and appearance? (b) Does his health interfere in any way with his efficiency? (c) Is he optimistic and cheerful in the face of obstacles and difficulties? (qd) Is he a good thinker? Is his thinking constructive 9W. H. Burton, Supervision and the Improvement of Teaching (D. Appleton & Co., 1922), pp. 429-33. EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 509 and alive, or does his mind run in a rut? Has he initiative? Is he adaptable and resourceful? Is he a reliable thinker, or scatterbrained? Can he take a situation or difficulty and reason through to a logical, helpful remedy? Is he broad- and open- minded? (e) Is he good natured? Can he see a joke even when it is on himself? Is he irritable or able to maintain an even disposition? Does he carry an atmosphere of good fellowship or does he depress? (f) Has he a sense of justice? (g) Are his integrity and moral fiber unquestionable? Is he frank or evasive? (h) Is he prompt? (7) Does he inspire you toward larger fields? Has he a personality that encourages you to do your best? (7) Has he the necessary training and experience to com- mand respect? 2. Ability of the Supervisor to Assist You with the Routine De- tails of School Management, Daily Program, Discipline, ete. (a) Cite specific instances of good devices given you. Give circumstances of the problem, supervisor’s sugges- tions, results of applying same. (6) Do the same in ease of supervisor’s inability to help you. (c) In case of inability, did the supervisor frankly state that he could not help you or did he side-step the issue ? (qd) Was the supervisor available before the opening of school so that you could secure information about supplies, rules, records, etc.? 3. Ability to Assist You with Problems of Teaching Method: (a) Relate in some detail the assistance given you in regard to problems arising during the progress of such les- sons as involved reflective thought or imitation. (b) Do the same if assistance was secured in regard to set- ting up problematic aims, sources of data, organiza- tion of material into good assignments. (c) Has the supervisor been of assistance in bringing about favorable physical conditions for your study periods? In securing such material as you need for this work? (d) Is he willing to sit down and analyze study difficulties 510 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION as reported by you or that he observes while visit- ing? (e) Is he of service in suggesting new drill games and de- vices? In suggesting changes and variations of those you are using? (f) Is he skillful in assisting you to secure live topics for expression lessons? In preparing the audience sit- uation and in handling developmental presentations? (g) What suggestions has he made to you in regard to en- joyment lessons, type studies, project organizations, technique of questioning, etc.? (h) Relate in some detail any cases with which the super- visor could not help you, giving the situation, your questions, and his answers. (2) If demonstration lessons were of value, state in what ways. If you feel that they were not materially better than your own procedure, show specifically why you think so. (j) Will the supervisor give demonstrations when asked to? 4, Ability to Diagnose Individual Cases, Hither by Observation and Knowledge or by Tests and Measurements: (a) Does the supervisor manifest real interest in your diffi- culties with odd cases and individual differences? Put time and real effort into analyzing them with you? (6) Will he perform tests and interpret them for you? Does he suggest remedial methods, either along lines of teaching method, special subject-matter, special promotion or demotion, lines of interest, devices for discipline, ete.? (c) Does he use the Binet-Simon scale and at least one standard group test for intelligence? (d) Is he familiar with a reasonable number of the best known educational tests and measuring scales? (e) Will he assist you in learning to apply these scales and tests yourself? (f) Does he try to provide for special promotion or de- motion, or otherwise care for special cases? Or does he follow the line of least resistance and allow such eases to hang fire until the end of the semester or term? a EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 511 5. Ability to Assist You with the Selection of Subject-Matter and the Organization of Lesson Plans: (a) Give definite statements in regard to stories, poems, pictures, supplementary books, additional material, supplied by the supervisor in answer to your re- quests. (b) List cases in which he was unable to help you, stating your requests and his reasons for inability to help. {c) Has he been of assistance in organizing material into teachable lesson plans? Into projects? (ad) Will he pass judgment for you upon material found by you and submitted for approval? Does he give good clear-cut reasons in terms of fundamental principles when he approves or rejects? (e) Is he open-minded on the matter of subject-matter de- partures or does he stick rather closely to what has been done in the past? Cite specific cases and re- marks when approving or condemning a supervisor on this question. (f) Does he invite teachers to contribute and assist in the organization of the course of study? 6. Ability to Visit and Confer with Teacher: (a) Does the supervisor enter your room and leave it with a minimum of disturbance? Avoid unnecessary in- terruptions while in the room? (b) If not, state specifically his faults in this matter. (c) Does he avoid commenting in a disturbing way on your procedure during the course of a lesson? Avoid tak- ing the class from your hands unless asked to do so? (d) Does he ask permission to question the class or teach a part of the lesson? | (e) Is his attitude and expression while in the room com- mendatory, or at least noncommittal? Does he avoid _ expressing disapproval so plainly that the pupils see it? (f) Does he visit frequently enough? Too often? Remain long enough to get a fair idea? (g) Does he ask for and provide for conferences on his observations at such times as are suitable for you and do not unduly disturb the regular work? {h) Does he have regular office hours during which he can 512 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION be approached and consulted? Is he willing to work overtime when a teacher is, in order to accomplish a piece of work? (7) In these conferences does he commend the good work he has seen? When he indicates flaws and weak- nesses in your work does he make definite, construc- tive suggestions? (j) Do you feel free to ask further questions about his suggestions? To ask for more information? To defend yourself? Will he enter into discussion of your views cheerfully and with an open mind? (k) Does he listen carefully to your questions or dismiss your problems with cursory or facetious remarks? (1) In cases where you feel that he has been unfair or has not given due weight to your opinions, cite ex- actly what his stand was and his answers to your point of view. (m) Does he use notes or an outline in going over your work or talk at random on scattered points? Confine his efforts to a few vital points of a time? (n) Give definite statements in regard to any suggestions or remarks which you feel to have been tactless. Do the same in cases of marked tact or consideration. 7. Ability to Administer Teachers’ Meetings: (a) Are these meetings held at the most favorable time for all concerned? If not, suggest a more favorable time. (b) Do they begin on time, move forward without weari- some digression and discussion, end promptly? (c) Are the topics of interest and value to the group called together? Does he avoid calling meetings for mere routine matter, handling out materials, outlines, ete.? (dq) Were you prepared in advance by mimeographed bulle- tins or outlines? Was there definite opportunity provided to express your opinions after the lecture or demonstration? 8. Ability to Direct Teachers in Improvement Work: (a) Is he of definite assistance in suggesting reading, ex- tension and summer-school courses? (b) Does. he arrange for visiting days and opportunities to EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 513 observe special work? Does he bring to his teachers the best from other schools and systems? (c) Does he circulate mimeographed outlines or bulletins from time to time? (d) Does he keep school exhibits of pupils’ work, of supple- mentary materials and apparatus? (e) Will he arrange classes and reading circles within the system when asked to by teachers? (f) Does he himself improve in service or does he act like a cog in a system? Does he do active constructive work or merely hold his position? 9. Ability of Supervisor to Rate Teachers Fairly and Efficiently: (a) Will he give you definite, concrete statements in regard to where you stand as a teacher? (b) Does he explain the rating card and standard of judg- ment to his teachers or work it out with them in advance? (c) Does he encourage self-rating and self-analysis by teachers ? (d) Will he review and discuss with you such ratings as he gives you? Compare them with your own self- rating? ! (e) Do you feel that he is fair and impartial? Avoids personal, racial, or religious prejudice? Avoids ca- tering to social or political influence? Frankly points out good and bad to all teachers alike? (f) Is the rating system used by him as a device in im- proving his teachers or as a mere office device for purposes of record? The foregoing outline is not intended to be used as a score card, unless it is materially shortened, but rather as a basis for discussion or self-analysis, as stated above. Another illustration of score cards for supervisory rating are those worked out by graduate students at the University of Minnesota under the direction of Dr. FE. L. Whitney. One of the score cards is given here: ?° 10 Ibid., pp. 437-38. o14 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION ScorE CarD FOR GENERAL SUPERVISORY SUCCESS I. Personal Equipment (Value ...... ) Consider such matter as qualities of leadership, general intelligence, health, tact in social contacts, per- sonal appearance, ethical character, common-sense judgment, self-control under stress, broadmindedness, and initiative. II. Social Equipment (Value ...... ) Consider evidénces of leadership in school and community, of interest in community problems, of interest in and understanding of both children and teachers, of good conversational ability, of loyalty to school and com- munity of interest and skill in extra- curricular activities, of specific train- ing for social service, of ability to codperate with associates and with patrons, and of the use of diplomacy in social contacts. III. Professional Equipment (Value...... ) Consider academic and professional training, valuable experience of all types, executive ability, knowledge of men, skill in demonstration teach- ing, knowledge of the principles of teaching, skill in curriculum making, evidences of professional interest and growth, and adequate acquaintance with child nature. VP} P |M|G|VG IV. Technique of Supervision (Value ...... ) Consider as technique constructive criticism of teaching, diagnosis of teaching difficulties, professional growth of teachers furthered, demon- stration teaching, syllabi made, co- operation with and among teachers, placement of teachers, recognition of individual abilities and needs of teachers, organization of pupil groups, teaching judged objectively, capitalization for all of the best prac- tice of the entire corps, and measure- ment of the results of teaching. V. Results of Supervision (Value ...... ) Consider measurements of the prog- ress of pupils and of the growth of teachers, and the attitude of teachers and pupils, community codperation, value of syllabi made, of published contribution to education, the num- ber of hours used in classroom visita- tion, improvement in community life, good citizenship furthered, and the physical condition of the school plant. Fina Ratinea (graphic) RATING IN TERMS OF AMOUNT EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 515 ScorE Carp FoR GENERAL Supervisory Success—Continued VP} P|M|G|VG 516 BOARD OF EDUCATION OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS District SUPERINTENDENT’S REPORT ON THE RATINGS OF PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS IN CHARGE To the Superintendent of Schools THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION eS bP are ...for the school year ending... ge in Districts.... The following ratings of Principals and Teachers in Char are respectfully submitted. District Superintendent Indicate exceptional service and specific weakness by the abbreviations E. and W. respectively, and give details, on reverse side of blank, in case of unsatisfactory rating. S N for) rm ia 1 16 | | | 13 | 14/15 12 8 9 |} 10/11 7 ie) Pu 3 2 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (ssoujduroig ‘AQVINIIV) Sy1odey pue sp10d07zy (ure4skg ‘aIBD ‘eoloyO) seyddng pu syoog}zxe J, (SuolzB10O00q ‘AuIOUODT ‘ssoulpuee[D ‘siredoy) quoeurdinby pu suipiing (SuUOIsINOXY ‘SoryeyyV “e1jseqoIG, ‘quvg [OOUOG) SolyIAlqoy B1zxW (SolmesieAluuy ‘UOIZeNpBIL ‘sosloloxy Suluedg WOOISsB[O) SeslolIexyY I[qng pus A[quiessy (SSB[Q ‘soueIE JO ‘ooyog ‘oqnd) setreiqry jo esp UOIJONIYSUT JO S}]NSexy suv[g ‘uol}eyoiId104UT ‘Apnyg Jo esinogd jo uo1eoyddy (eInps001g eyo ‘surynoy ‘suluiuleiZ01g SSB[Q pus [OOGIG) UOIZVZIUBZIO stidng jo ourdrosiq siidng jo Ayyenyoung puev sduvpus}zyy stidng jo uoljoulolg puv SuIpeir (STI oly ‘Bury e[I7U9 A ‘Sulyysry ‘Suysoey ‘uoroedsuy TSOIpey) Sfidng jo Ajoyeg puv'yieeH HVIg jo Zuryey YeIGg [eozluee jo uorw1asedng (Spoyze ‘SUOTPETISIA “SUOSSO'T PEpoy, ‘suotpyoedsuy ‘seousIejuOy) Yei1g [euoissejorg jo uolstAredng HVIg [BIO pus ‘sulgovey, ‘SutstArlodng jo JusulUsZIssy oqng pus sjusIeg RIM suol}Vloy (‘ojo ‘s1ostaredng ‘spedioullg 19430 ‘serjogyny) sTeIOWJO [OOYo, WIM uOoTZBIEdQ0D diysispvey Zuttdsuy : "Q—Alopovjstyesuy G—AIOPVISIPBG :BulZVY [BIIUIy Do Not Include Senior Teachers on this blank NAME AND TITLE TOOHDS EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 517 Administrators must have a system of checks through which they may judge the worth of supervision. Not only should the administrator check up on supervision by means of intelligent teacher opinion, but he should have also a system of direct checks operated by himself. Through the use of rating cards. The use of the per- sonal rating card or one limited to classroom supervision has already been illustrated in this chapter. ‘Other types of rating cards to be applied to supervisors and principals will include, of course, both administrative and supervisory matters. We are here chiefly concerned with the supervisory activities. In an excellent study of rating elementary-school principals, McClure has sum- marized the controlling principles and present practices." His samples of rating ecards are suggestive and worthy of study. Only one is included here from his list (page 516). McClure gives the following suggestions regarding rating. Though he is discussing the principal his material is equally applicable to the supervisor.?” SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SuccessruL RATING OF PRINCIPALS IN SERVICE 1. Simplicity: Rating standards should be simply and clearly stated; the list of activities included should be mainly functional rather than personal in character; it should be limited to those which can be readily observed and correctly evaluated by the rating official. 2. Constructiveness of Aim: Component elements of the rating blank need not be weighted; in the interest of simplicity and general acceptability they should not be weighted. Exactness in determining the principal’s final “mark” is less vital than constructive criticism or commendation based upon an understanding analysis of service rendered. 11 Worth McClure, ‘‘The Rating of Elementary School Principals in Service,’’ Fourth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals, 1925, pp. 424-46. 12 Ibid., p. 446. 018 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 3. Follow-Up: If the rating plan is to be productive of their fullest returns, principals should know the official esti- mate of service. They should be made to feel the admin- istration’s appreciation of their achievements, and not only its desire for the individual’s success but its general readiness to be helpful in every possible way. 4, Cooperation and Support from the Principals’ Corps: The subject of rating in service is one which is worthy of the serious consideration of professionally-minded principals: (a) Clearer definition and wider recognition of the prin- cipal’s status are logical results of a successfully administered rating plan. (b) The support and codperation of the principals will be valuable in the formulation of practicable rating standards. Through the observation and records of certain strategic supervisory activities. Rating cards as discussed above would ideally cover all points; however, there are certain things that supervisors do which considered alone are un- usually good indications of the worth of work being e¢ar- ried on. 1. The supervisory plan or program. One of the two or three weak places in supervision in the past has been its planlessness. Coffman eriticized supervision for not fulfill- ing its promises, but he might as well have said that it made no promises. A good indication of good supervision is a carefully constructed program of work for a semester or year. Such a program lifts the supervision from the realm of the desultory and haphazard to that which might be called educational engineering. The plans should show, as set forth in Chapter IV: (a) A set of carefully determined objectives (b) An outline of the means to be used in attaining these ob- jectives (c) A statement of the checks to be used in determining progress and success EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 519 2. Curriculum-building. A second vitally important function of supervision is the making and constant revision of curriculums, the selection and organization of subject matter into courses of study. Hither alone or in conjunc- tion with his teachers the supervisor should be constantly at work upon the course of study. The evidences of this are easily cbservable. There should be apparent within the school system an organization for carrying on the work. Weekly outlines and programs of lessons from the teachers should be in evidence as indications that the staff is being stimulated by the supervisor and are coéperating in this important undertaking. Other results of the supervisor’s activity can be found by examining the course of study as it is, by noting loose-leaf additions, mimeographed material under trial, ete. 3. Tests and measurements. Supervisors can be judged in some of the subjects in much the same way that teachers are checked. The application of standard tests and meas- urements to classes that have been under supervision affords a fairly accurate index of the supervisor’s services, espe- cially when the scores are checked against those of classes that have not been under supervision. Care must be taken, of course, to give due weight and attention to other factors in the situaticn, as the previous experience of the classes, the make-up of the classes, the relative teacher abilities in- volved, ete. | The work of the supervisor in using diagnostic tests and in prescribing remedial instruction should also be carefully scrutinized. Consistent programs of remedial work based upon the situation in hand and earried forward ener- ectically are indications of good supervision. 4. Research. Supervisors must have the research atti- tude. This, of course, will be shown in the method in which they attempt the making of a program, the building of cur- riculums, the prescription of remedial work and many other 520 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION things. There should be in evidence the results of actual research in these and other fields carried on during the period. Research for its own sake should perhaps not play a part in supervision. 5. Adminstratwe relationships. The administrator will inevitably hear of any friction between supervisors or be- tween supervisor and building principal. He will note also the absence of such friction. The smooth work of line and staff together and the lack of friction in dovetailing the plans of both generalist and specialist indicate good super- vision. The absence of these things calls for the attention of the administrator. The administrator will also have cause to know from time to time the success of his supervisory staff in disseminating and earrying out his announced policies. | 6. Records and reports. The supervisor should be re- quired to keep a complete record of the number of meetings, grade, general, departmental, ete., held by him during a semester or quarter, together with a record of the amount of time used, the number of people in attendance, the topics discussed, ete. Such records are not necessarily and by themselves indications of good supervision, but when checked and compared with teacher opinion and results, they are a legitimate means of determining supervisory effi- ciency. Special attention should be paid to the supervisor’s rec- ord of room visitations and individual conferences. Such activities are an effective means of improving instruc- tion. The record should show the number of visits, the time spent, and the points discussed. If suggestions or di- rections are given to the teacher, their nature should be out- lined in the report. Demonstration lessons should be very briefly outlined. Devices for use in drill, in teaching, and in discipline that are found in use by teachers should be EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 521 passed on to others and due credit given in the report. Copies of supervisory bulletins should be filed. In addition to these records of classroom work, super- visors should doubtless be required to file rather compre- hensive semestral or annual reports. Following is an out- line used in Philadelphia for the principal’s annual report. OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT DISTRICT SIX McCall School 7th and Delancey Streets September 13, 1923 To THE PRINCIPAL: Principal’s Annual Report Below are listed a number of items concerning information which should be included in the Principal’s Annual Report. I. Professional Activities 1. Dates of general faculty meetings with statement of principal topic of discussion and amount of time devoted to its discussion 2. Dates of group meetings with statement of topic of meeting. (Indicate nature of group—for example, first and second grade teachers, and amount of time) 3. Number of conferences held with individual teachers to discuss items indicated on rating card 5. Number of visits made by teachers for purposes of observation (a) within school (b) to other schools (c) to schools in other cities 6. Principal’s observation in other schools (Indicate school and data) 7. Tests given in school other than those issued from the Central Office. (Brief statement of nature of test and use made of results) . Serial number, title, and date of exhibits forwarded to this office throughout the year ie) 522 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 9, Any other items of interest regarding the professional activities of the principal within the school 10. Brief statement of the accomplishments of the year along professional lines II. 1. Principal’s Daily Program. Indicate briefly general distribution of time in (a) office (b) building inspection (c) classroom observation (ad) professional meetings and conferences 2. Forms used in administrative work, letters, ete., other than those issued from the Central Office. Attach copies of forms used. 3. Number of classes making visits or excursions (a) historic (b) ecivie (c) geographic (d) general 4. Meetings of parents (a) date (6) nature of exercises (c) approximate attendance 5. School exhibitions, play days, ete. (a) date (b) nature of exercises (c) approximate attendance 6. School property Brief statement of physical conditions of building. Indicate (a) essential repairs and alterations (b) desirable repairs and alterations III. Additional items of interest not covered in I, II IV. Recommendations and suggestions Any recommendations, suggestions, or criticisms regarding the problem of professional work in the school or in the district Sincerely yours, Epwin W. ApAmMs Supt., District Number 6 EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 523 A typical report blank for rural supervisors is used by the State Department of Education in Alabama, and._is included here through the kind permission of Miss Cassie R. Spencer, State Supervisor of Elementary Education. State oF ALABAMA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SUPERVISOR’S MONTHLY REPORT To be made in duplicate, one copy to be filed with the county superintendent of education and one copy to be sent to the State Department of Education. IRBPORIV OR EN, 5 hace eo ayecciels SL UPERVISOR OF 03.0. cs esses County I. Statistics: These figures should be accurate. 1. Number rooms visited........ Number teachers visited 3. Number hours spent in classrooms........ (Include all time spent at school if working on teaching problems) Number hours spent on road........ 4. Wixpense for month $........... (Include total amount spent for expenses of supervision regardless of whe paid it): PAPE AVINONTSHONWCAI cif. PUL. cleis ec a ce ee RUM COTICOLVCAT 10, ae'ss & 0 nis oot ieueieta tere a fe (SSE? a A I Se PPS Pc SEAS "OUP ASEM CITES ing eae PCA GE upbeat 5. Number days spent by supervisor in preparing outlines, letters to teachers, materials for teachers’ meetings, Dae Ol GCUOO FaIT Ss OLC.: 5). 60) foih: oie Fiegs suaueint si gain ee ole 6. Name those sources of material that have been helpful to you this month, magazines, books, ete. oeeereevreev eee eereevr ee eeevreeeeveeeeeeeer eevee eee ee eeeeeeee 524 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION II. Mrretinas ATTENDED BY SUPERVISOR: 1. Teachers’ meetings. Number hours spent in teachers’ meetings during month ................ Supervisor's part in Place No. teachers present meeting 2. Community meetings attended by supervisor during month: Supervisors part in Place Kind of meeting meeting 3. Other educational meetings attended: Help received from Place Kind of meeting meatnG EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 525 III. Supervisory PROCEDURE: Select from one to three phases of classroom work upon which you have placed most emphasis during the month. Discuss your procedure under the following items: Phase of Work | Diagnosis and procedure in meeting the needs IV. MIsceELLANEOvus ITEMS: 1. Additional types of activities in which supervisor ha? engaged this month. 2. What does the supervisor regard as the most important things attempted or accomplished this month? 3. What help that could be given by the State Department is most needed at present? 4. Remarks: 5. Superintendent’s remarks regarding progress of super- vision, recommendations to the State Department, ete. DRE RE VasPa icles Site Sate ck cola c aietela eretlatela ae SUPERVISOR 526 THE SUPERVISION. OF INSTRUCTION Another brief summary of points to be reported upon is found in the following letter sent out by Albert 8. Cook, State Superintendent of Schools, Maryland: ** To the Supervising or Helping Teacher: I should like to have a typewritten report from each of you concerning your more important activities of the school year on or before July 1, 1924. It should include, among other things: (a) the number and type of teachers’ meetings which you con- ducted, or in which you participated, with sample pro- grams of each kind; comment on the relative value of each type (6) progress made in the realization of this year’s State-wide and county objectives; extent to which you used stand- ard tests this year, and what you plan to do with tests next year (c) comment on helps and handicaps in your work (d) means employed to inform the public concerning the work of the school and the function of supervision (e) possible county objectives for next year (f) summary of activities by months A copy of this report should be filed with your superintendent for presentation to the county board of education. This report should probably not contain more than five thou- sand words, exclusive of mimeographed sheets which you may wish to file with it to illustrate or supplement the report. This report is not for publication, but should be written so that it will readily be comprehended by an intelligent layman in educa- tion. The supervisor should not devote more than three days to the preparation of the report. Sincerely yours, ALBERT §. Cook State Superintendent of Schools 13‘* A Year’s Supervision of Elementary Instruction in Caroline County, 1923-1924,’’ Maryland School Bulletin, State Department of Education, Vol. 6, Jan., 1925, p. 3. EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 527 Following is the annual report of a general supervisor, submitted by Miss Eleanor Johnson, of Oklahoma City. YEARLY REporT 1923-24 Primary Department General Supervisory Objectives 1. Homogeneous grouping of all pupils in the first three grades: All teaching in each of the primary grades has been organized on a three group basis in order to meet the needs of the individual child. Between five and six thousand children have been tested with the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test. This mammoth undertak- ing has been made possible through Mr. L. D. Lacy’s outstanding work. Practically every teacher in the primary department has been enrolled in Mr. Lacy’s extension classes in the “Intelligence Testing.” Three factors have been taken into account in this grouping, namely, (a) The teacher’s judgment (b) The child’s achievement score (c) The child’s intelligence quotient The first two factors have been given primary consideration. In the larger schools where facilities permitted, each teacher has been assigned only one or sometimes two groups of the same grade. In the smaller schools the three group division has been made within each single room or grade. 2. Improvement of Instruction: The training of teachers in service and the improvement of classroom instruction, which is the chief business of the super- visor, has been carried on by numerous means as listed in Table 1. 3. Diagnosis of Individual Needs: Remedial Treatment The needs of each individual child have been studied and an effort put forth to meet these needs. Standardized tests and informal tests have been used and interpreted for diagnostic purposes. The teachers’ efforts in reading have been guided by the results obtained from the Gray Oral Reading Check Tests and the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Tests. Remedial treat- ment has been applied to meet the needs revealed by these tests. The results of the tests given in May show much improvement in 528 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION practically every grade. The technique of instruction in arith- metic and spelling has been reduced to a group and individual basis. Maximum, average, and minimum assignments of work have been made to assist in meeting the problem of individual differences. 4. Revision of the Course of Study: This work has gone forward for two years. All this material has been put out in mimeographed form. Now that it has been tried out, revised, and met the test of classroom teaching for two years, it is about ready to go into a printed course of study form. See Recom- mendations. 5. Preparation of Materials of Instruction: Complete sets of materials of instruction have been compiled by the primary teachers, duplicated on the mimeograph and sent to every building and in some cases to every teacher. Over 12,000 ecards have been put out in the following subjects: (a) History—a set of 20 to each building (b) Arithmetic—11,000 practice cards, one sent to each 2A, 3B, 3A teacher (c) Silent reading cards—several sets of 100 cards to a set to each building This is a new type of work which promises to play a very im- portant part in primary instruction-in the future. 6. Project Work Elaborated and Clarified: An entirely new course, namely, History and Community Life, has been introduced into the primary curriculum this year. Much project work has been carried out in connection with this work and through the splendid cooperation of Mrs. Jarrott in the art work. 7. Leisure Reading: A rather unusual departure from the traditional curriculum has been given a thorough trial this year. Each day a definite period is set aside at which time every child in every grade is given an opportunity to read for mere pleasure. The best books from every field of human endeavor have been secured for this leisure reading program. In the first grade the child is introduced to the best editions of Mother Goose, fairy tales and some realistic tales. EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 529 When the child reaches the fourth grade he is brought in contact with a wider, more diversified field of reading, namely, biography, science, history, fiction, travel, ete. Not only will the child’s taste be directed and guided during his six years in the elementary school, but he will also receive valuable training for leisure occupation. Recommendations 1. Provision should be made for teachers’ contributions to the improvement of instruction similar to the Detroit plan. Records should be kept of each original contribution and this should be considered when opportunity for promotion arises. Encourage- ment in the form of advancement is recommended also. 2. All teachers new in the system should be required to take an extension course under the general supervisor of her depart- ment and full credit should be given for such course. 3. The school system should be definitely organized under the respective supervisors for the production of curriculum ma- terials. 4, A new type of supervisory report is needed. Such a report should set forth the plan of supervision for the semester or year under the following or similar headings: (a) Objectives—in terms of situation you are dealing with (b) Means of achieving objectives (c) Means of checking the outcomes of these objectives 5. One of the duties of the supervisor should be to assist the superintendent in the appraisal, selection, transfer, and appoint- ment of teachers. 6. It would be of great advantage to the system financially and to the teachers individually to have a new printed course of study for the primary grades. This material is available when- ever the money is appropriated for such work. _7. In order to reduce the number of failures and in order that teachers may handle an increased enrollment more efficiently, it is recommended that special rooms be established for those pupils who cannot profit by the ordinary classroom instruction. In de- termining who shall be eligible for admission to such rooms, per- 530 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION PRIMARY SUPERVISORY YEAR Month 1] Month 2 1. Training of teachers in service (a) Teachers’ meetings—supervisor conducts teacher training in expert phases of various subjects.... 1 nf (6)* ‘Institutes ses scben ete eae er eee coe ee teen eke 1 (c) Organization of teachers for improvement of in- struction through Mr. Lacy’s extension courses— | 4 classes | each week four classes i; Ae wate cee eee eae cers (d) Intervisitation—number of teachers.............- 20 15 (e) Directed observation cf expert teaching.......... 43 ak (f) Rating of teachers—number of teachers.........- & (9g) flbecturers sci. ed ees Cee fy a ae teeeerire te (h) State Teachers’ Association—teachers participating. nite eee (2) Conference! with teachers)2.78 Pat a Let. © 75 42 (7) 7 -Glassroom SUDELVISLONG secon Lele teeters 103 42 (k) Classroom demonstration teaching.............4. 38 24 (Ove Educational exhibitsieaen me. el ee Pete 1 Bie ate (m) Using standardized tests for judging and improv- ANS CIASSFOOMINSUPUCtLOM eit oo act eerie (n) Interpretation of the measurement of results...... eek eR (0) Training of new teachers in system—meeting...... 3 4 2. Preparation of routine and instructional materials (a) Course of study (1) State—ready for publication .............. a v4 (2) City—ready for publication............... De x (6) Outlines (1) History Lhistory | 1 reading (2) Informal Tests—Reading 40 pp. (3) Spelling (4) Gardens—Birds (5) Remedial Work in Reading (6) Arithmetic (7) Routine Factors (c) Materials of Instruction History (1) History pictures—set for every building Pictures (2) Silent Reading Cards—set for every building. (3) Arithmetic Cards—set for every building (d) The Primary Exchange for the dissemination of the best practices of the system.............-.ee0+ 3. Professional Activities—participation in (a) State Teachers’ Association (>) ie Beachers’ Institutes 285 a8) onc sinh nicdedic che Mbasktae eee sw hy CLE CIty RAS ae ciate irene ee mrtiass lelatin ea ecr Gaaher ocean nea 1 (2); Gounty . ts eohiion here. ork ee epee eee if 4. Community Activities—selling instruction to Patrons’ Chub) teat Seer lee es eet hack ee ee eee bt 1 5. General Administrative Activities (a) 4 Budgets and expenditterés \jieun.2 2 aa oars es ee (6) Surveys, reports, records, schedules.............. (c) Distribution off supplies awe «cic eee (d) Selection of textbooks—distribution of same...... Beebe w 6. Supervision of colored schools same as above through colored’ supervisor. <1 oe boc. a ee ee ee eee > ir EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 531 ACTIVITIES 1923-1924 FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE Total Month 3 Month 4 |Month 5|Month 6 | Month 7 Month 8 Month 9 4 1 1 4 sa aes 1 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 144 10 147 10 8 6 4 reek, 220 113! 9 12 6 4 5 See 111 Ch ted 178 ee eae 180 358) ‘ he 1 aeeae il 4 ee 4 46 38 50 67 51 bs 422 46 38 50 67 51 53 422 15 11 9 8 7 6 118. 1 tains 2 178 classes Kate 180 358 AT 41 39 44 AG, f 171 4 3 4 4 4 3 29 xX x x x 2x ~ x x x x x xX xX x 1 spelling | 1 routine birds arithmetic 8 factors gardens remedial work in reading 2 silent reading arithmetic 3 11,000 cards 1. 1 1 3 1 1 Pn Fé d, e Aie NR ae 1 3 4 11 es 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 zh | ys of set 1 5 fe 1 5 3 x om x x < x ~ ELEANOR M. Jounson, Primary Supervisor 5382 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION haps Mr. Lacy’s department should set up the necessary tech- nique. 8. It is recommended that specially trained teachers be placed in each large building or between two smaller buildings for the purpose of diagnosing and giving remedial treatment to those children who are pathological cases in reading. Based on the cost of non-promotions in our system, the hiring of such teachers will be an economy rather than an added expense. Many of the pupil failures in grades 4, 5, 6, in arithmetic, geography and history can be traced directly to a reading disability and lack of understanding. 9. The establishment of a kindergarten-primary unit is nec- essary to the uninterrupted advancement of our pupils. Such a measure would be a decisive step forward in lowering the kinder- garten-primary mortality. 10. In order that a new type of work, namely, “experierce getting” and giving, may be carried on in the kindergarten and primary grades, it is suggested that a number of portable stere- optican lanterns and slides be purchased. Summary. Supervision, like teaching, should be evalu- ated. The principles and purposes are in each case the same. ‘‘There should be commendation of the good, condemnation of the bad, and suggestion of the better.’’ The purposes are chiefly to improve supervision, and sec- ondly to determine fitness in its relation to tenure, promo- tion, and salary. The fair-minded judgment of the majority of the teach- ing body under supervision is a very valuable source of in- formation concerning the worth of any supervisor or pro- gram of supervision. While difficult to secure this opinion, it should no+ be neglected. Not only is it valuable, but to provide for its open and honest expression will aid ma- terially in preventing the unfair, under-cover criticisms which often wreck supervision before a fair trial has been given. EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 533 Supervisors should engage in self-rating, self-analysis, and in self-improvement in the same way, and to a greater degree than teachers do. Administrators who are responsible to the public, and who must justify expenditures for all phases of educational work must of necessity have methods of determining the efficiency of the specialists whom they employ. Rating ecards may be used, or strategic supervisory activities may be scrutinized. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Birp, Grace E., “Teachers’ Estimates of Supervisors,” School and Society, Vol. 5, June 16, 1917, pp. 717-20. 2. Bossrrt, Franklin, “Mistakes Often Made by Principals,” Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, two parts, Jan. and Feb., 1920, pp. 337-46; 419-34. 3. Burton, W. H., Supervision and the Improvement of Teach- ing (D. Appleton & Co., 1922), Chap. XVITI. 4. CorrmMan, L. D., “Control of Educational Progress through Supervision,” Proceedings of the National Education As- sociation, Vol. 55, 1917, pp. 187-94. 5. Coox, A. S., Sturpson, I. Jewell, and HmAny, Katherine, “A Year’s Supervision of Elementary Instruction in Caroline County,” Maryland School Bulletin, Vol. 6, Jan., 1925. 6. Coox, Selda, “Teachers’ Idea of Helpful Supervision,” EHdu- cational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 9, Dec., 1923, pp. 554-57. Well-organized brief report. 7. CRANOR, Katherine, “A Self-Scoring Card for Supervisors as an Aid to Efficiency in School Work,” Educational Ad- ministration and Supervision, Vol. 7, Feb., 1921, pp. 91- 102. Good discussion and bibliography. One of the first eards printed for self-rating by supervisor. 8. “Economy in Educational Supervision,” School Board Jour- nal, Vol. 68, May, 1924, pp. 115-16. An article comment- ing upon supervision in several Ohio towns. Advocates that supervision be not reduced but made more effective. 9. EncetHArpDT, N. L., “Score Card of the Records and Reports of a City School System,” School Board Journal, Vol. 68, April, 1924, p. 70. 534 10. pte 12. dst 14. 15. 16. Th 18. ake? 20. 21. 22. 23. THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION Gist, A. S., and Kine, William A., “The Efficiency of the Principalship from the Standpoint of the Teacher,” Elementary School Journal, Vol. 23, Oct., 1922, pp. 120-26. Hayes, Fannie B., “Supervision from the Point of View of the Teacher,’ School Review, Vol. 33, March, 1925, pp. 220-26. Good summary of opinion but no data. Inspec- torial supervision complained of is not so prevalent as some believe. Hitz, Sallie, “Defects of Supervision and Constructive Sug- gestions Thereon,” Proceedings of the National Education Association, Vol. 57, 1919, pp. 506-09. Horrawu, A. H., “The Elementary School Principal from the Teacher’s Point of View,” Hlementary School Journal, Vol. 24, June, 1924, pp. 742-46. Howarp, George, “A Measure for County School Systems,” School Board Journal, Vol. 69, Sept., 1924, pp. 48 ff. Hugues, Hilda, “Lessons in Supervision of Rural Schools from the Indiana Experiment,’ Proceedings of the Na- tional Education Association, Vol. 65, 1925, pp. 568-76. Exeellent account showing value of supervision. Kewttry, G. H., “Types of Supervisors I Have Known,” School Board Journal, Vol. 68, June, 1924, pp. 54 ff. Dis- cusses five types. Brief but very good. Koons, Carrie E., “Supervision of Teaching: Viewpoint of the Teacher,” Pennsylvania School Journal, April, 1920, p. 438. “Lincoln, Nebraska, Supervision Forum,” Journal of Educa- tional Method, Vol. 2, April, 1923, pp. 351-52. McCuvre, Worth, “The Rating of Elementary School Prin- cipals in Service,’ Fourth Yearbook, Department of Ele- mentary School Principals, 1925, pp. 424, 446. McMorry, F. M., Hlementary School Standards (World Book Co., 1914), pp. 178-79. Miter, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life (The Macmil- lan Co., 1917), pp. 304, 339-40. Morrison, J. Cayce, “Supervision from the Teacher’s View- point,” Journal of Educational Method, Vol. I, Dee., 1921, pp. 131-38. Good on teacher evaluation of supervision. Newton, Jesse H., “Attitude of the Teacher toward Super- vision,” Proceedings of the National Education Association, | Vol. 61, 1923, pp. 548-51. EVALUATING EFFICIENCY OF SUPERVISORS 535 24. 25. 26. Ale 28. 20, 30. 31. 32. 33. 34, 35. Nort, H. W., The Supervision of Instruction (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920). Very good chapter, pp. 231-65. , “The Attitude of Teachers toward Supervision,” Educational Research Bulletin, Ohio State University, Vol. 3, Feb. 6, 1924, pp. 59-64. Excellent report of careful inquiry. Shows teachers to be very much in favor of super- vision which produces results. OxserHourzer, E. E., “The Next Step in School Supervision,” Proceedings of the National Education Association, Vol. 60, 1922, pp. 1439-45. Good. Plea for scientific study of supervision. Peters, C. C., “Improvement of Facilities for Professional Training of Superintendents,” Hducational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 6, Sept., 1920, pp. 337-45. PouiicH, R. E., “Superintendents’ Standards and Policies in the Selection, Appointment and Promotion of Elementary School Principals,” Elementary School Journal, Vol. 26, Oct., 1925, pp. 107-11. Ricu, 8S. G., “Rating of Principals and Superintendents,” Education, Vol. 42, pp. 496-500. Advocates rating of principals by teachers. Gives good simple card. Ristey, J. H., “The Superintendent’s Annual Report,” Ele- mentary School Journal, Vol. 26, Nov., 1925, pp. 186-89. Brief reference to supervisor’s report. Saunpers, M. Olga, “What the Teachers Want from the Principal in His Capacity as a Supervisor,” School Review, Vol. 33, Oct., 1925, pp. 610-15. Good analysis of the high- school situation. Spencer, P. R., “A High-School Principal’s Self-Rating Card,” School Review, Vol. 30, April, 1922, pp. 268-73. Good eard. Spokane, Wash., Grade Teachers Association, Bulletin, April, 1921, p. 10. Brief article discussing rating of supervisors by teachers. “Supervision and the Classroom Teacher,” editorial, Journal of the National Education Association, Vol. 14, March, 1925, pp. 99-100. “Supervisory Activity in Rochester (N. Y.),” Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 3, Feb., 1924, p. 264. Letter of superintendent to supervisory department indicating the need of concrete evidence concerning the worth of super- vision. Good. 586 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 36. Taytor, Joseph S., “Some Desirable Traits of the Super- visor,” Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 9, Jan., 1923, pp. 1-8. An interesting and valuable article. 37. Tipyman, W. F., “Teacher Questionnaires as a Device in Supervision,” Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 10, Dec., 1924, pp. 553-57. 38. Touton, Frank C., “Score Card for the High-School Prin- cipal’s Annual Report,” School Board Journal, Vol. 67, July, 1923, pp. 52-53. Very good. 39. Vance, W. McK., “How Shall the Superintendent Measure His Own Efficiency?” Proceedings of the National Educa- tion Association, 1914, pp. 279-83. 40. WacnrErR, C. A., “The Arguments for and against Super- vision,” Proceedings of the National Education Associa- tion, Vol. 60, 1922, pp. 1438-39. Excellent brief summary. 41, , “Some Types of Misconceived Supervision of Instrue- tion,” School Board Journal, Vol. 66, May, 1923, pp. 37 ff. Excellent characterization of supervisory types. , “How Supervisory Systems May Be Compared,” School Board Journal, Vol. 69, August, 1924, pp. 62 ff. Good listing of comparable elements. 42. GHAP TR RwGLy. {THE TRAINING AND PERSONALITY OF SUPERVISORS Probably the most important element in the whole field of supervision, the most vital factor in the success or fail- ure of any scheme of supervision, is the personnel of the supervisory staff. Leadership is difficult enough in any activity and is doubly so when the group led is made up of individuals whose social status is the same as that of the leader. Furthermore, the teaching group is possessed of traditions and training that make all the more necessary a ' type of leadership that is essentially codperative. Most of the criticisms made of individual supervisors center upon the lack of training or experience or upon weaknesses in personality. Many of the arguments directed against the theory of supervision itself will be found upon careful analysis to be based upon the same points. I. Tur TRAINING OF SUPERVISORS General statements. The chief source of guidance, of course, in outlining a program of supervisory training, is to be found in a job-analysis of supervision. Obviously, if we know what supervisors do or should do, we ean with some accuracy set forth how they should be trained. It will be recalled that an analysis of supervisory activity was presented in the first chapter of this volume. Other some- what similar analyses may be found in the periodical litera- 537 5388 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION ture.t Little has been written until recently about the train- ing necessary for the type of leadership involved in the supervision of teachers. There can be no doubt that a thor- ough mastery of the general theory and specific practices involved in the whole problem of supervision is essential, not only that the supervision may be intelligent, but that the teacher’s confidence may be gained and held. Among the answers to a questionnaire replied to by teachers, Gray found the following statement : ? Only those men and women should be appointed as supervisors who are intimately acquainted with the problems and practices of the classroom, who are intelligently critical of what they observe, who are suggestive and constructive in their discussions of teach- ing problems, who are genuinely interested in the content and methods of instruction, and who consider the activities of the classroom the most important problems in a school system for study and investigation. As Gray points out, the statement might not be accept- able in the form given, but there can be no objection to the demand that if supervisors do not already possess the quali- fications set forth above, they should continue study and training until they become intelligent, constructive critics of classroom teaching. An opinion on the same topic from another point of view is found in an article by Hosic: * Of course the leader is prepared. He was not chosen from the ranks merely because he was a good fellow, after the cheerful American manner of regarding each person as able to fill any 1A typical analysis of this type is to be found in Barr’s, ‘‘An Analysis of the Duties and Functions of Special Supervisors, a Study of the Detroit Supervisory Organization’? (University of Wisconsin Research Bulletin, 1926). 2W.S. Gray, ‘‘Methods of Improving the Technique of Teaching,’’ Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, Dec., 1919, p. 263. 3 J. F. Hosic, ‘‘The Democratization of Supervision,’’? School and Society, Vol. 2, March 20, 1920, p. 331. TRAINING AND PERSONALITY 539 office in the gift of the public merely by virtue of being a citizen, or at least a resident. He recognized the unique oppor- tunities of the supervisor and made himself master of so much of tested and tried experience in that calling as has been so far collected and made available. He knew before he took office that supervision is not identical with administration; that it requires a sound knowledge of educational method and a thorough acquaintance with the best of present school practice; that a leader in education must keep in touch with current literature and investigation; that he must be able to make intelligent use of modern statistical and experimental material as well as of the more philosophical and abstract disquisitions of the neo-scho- lasties; that circumstances and individuals are always different, and therefore, he must be always ready to discover and welcome something new; that a course of study should be more than an outline of topics, and a teachers’ meeting more than a guard- mount for general orders or a desultory talk-fest; that specific directions are better than vague theories, and good example bet- ter than either; and that if you really want to know what is going on in the classrooms of your school, you have to go and see, go often, look and listen, and stay through. The last part of the quotation is an admirable statement in general terms of some of the important phases of super- visory training. The opening sentences, however, focus at- tention upon one of the gross abuses and vital dangers in the selection of supervisors. Actually, many of the leaders are not trained. Again, while a supervisor should not be chosen merely “‘because he is a good fellow,’’ it is undoubtedly true that many are chosen because they are good friends of some ad- ministrative officer or member of the board. Teachers are justified in many of their complaints that supervisors are often appointed because of social or political ‘‘pull.’’ This situation presents one of the most difficult problems in the American schools. The only satisfactory solution will come as the result of lengthy evolutionary process. There must be an education of the public and the development of publie opinion to an intelligent understanding of the needs of the 540 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION schools and of the standards that must prevail for the train- ing and selection of teachers, administrators, and super- visors. Practically all maladministration flourishes under cover and can be cured best by bringing to bear the weight of public opinion. Revolutionary methods will cure tem- porarily sometimes but usually bring with them other evils. Nevertheless, violent methods are sometimes necessary to jar public opinion and to rebuke crooked school officers. However, teachers who criticize the supervisory system be- cause of those unfair appointments must remember that despite certificate requirements there are still a considerable number of appointments made to the teaching force itself on the same basis. There are many incompetent teachers retained in office in the same way that incompetent super- visors are—through favoritism and influence. The defect is not peculiar to supervision, and the trouble in both teach- ing and supervision will be reduced more and more as standards become better known and more rigidly enforced. Reduction of these general statements to specific re- quirements. Just how much teaching experience should be required of candidates for supervisory positions? Is normal graduation a sufficient scholastic preparation? Is college work necessary? Graduate work? What specific courses and fields of information should be included in the normal school or college work? Is there necessity for train- ing supervisors in service as there is for training teachers? While the analysis of supervisory activity has attracted considerable attention recently, there have been few at- tempts to follow it up with an outline of the training which would be inferred. Courses in the theory and practice of supervision have multiplied very rapidly, particularly at the leading universities. Only in rare instances, however, are these courses a part of a thoroughgoing, coherent pro- gram of supervisory training. The following outline is purely theoretical though every effort has been made to out- TRAINING AND PERSONALITY O41 line the theory in terms of the actual practice of super- vision. How much teaching experience is necessary? It seems fair to insist that a supervisor shall have had as a minimum five years’ teaching experience. The principle of individual differences should qualify this, of course. Less than this amount of experience will hardly give that easy familiarity with classroom procedure which is necessary, nor will it beget confidence on the part of those supervised. On the other hand, merely lengthening the term of experience does not necessarily better either teaching or supervisory ability. One of the common pleas made by older teachers is that supervisors should be appointed only from among those teachers who have taught eight or ten, even twelve or fifteen years. Sometimes the statement is even added that this should be the whole of a supervisor’s training; technical training is discounted. Such a statement is a phase of the popular fallacy, held by many teachers and school patrons alike, that the experienced teacher is necessarily the best. Again the principle of individual differences must be in- voked. Experience has no monopoly on success. Normal- school instructors, college teachers of education, and super- visory officers will testify that there are just as many poor teachers, just as many problems, among the older teachers as among the younger. There can be no doubt that long experience, coupled with an alert personality, plus training through the years, would make an ideal combination in the preparation of supervisors. The emphasis here is not against experience but against the idea that long experience is an absolute prerequisite to supervisory work. In my own classes in supervision the three poorest students ever enrolled were three people each of whom had taught over ten years. The poorest teacher I ever visited was one who had taught in the same room for fourteen years. 042 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION The amount of technical training. Ideally, graduation from both a normal school and a college would be desirable. Normal graduates who become skilled teachers and who also show marked capacity for supervisory leadership should be given every opportunity to take advanced work during the year. A leave of absence might be granted in order that special work might be taken for a year at a college or uni- versity. In some cases graduate work should be encour- aged, particularly for better positions. This insistence upon advanced work does not mean that such work neces- sarily fits one for supervision. A bachelor’s degree or a year spent in graduate study will not necessarily fit one for supervision, any more than will long experience. The col- lege provides an ideal opportunity for the study of theory and practice. More important than the length of study and number of courses is the nature and content of those courses. More important than either experience or study is the nature of the individual’s personality. The nature of the techncal traning. Obviously the su- pervisor needs to have a knowledge of the history and philosophy of education, principles of teaching method, an understanding of tests and measurements, knowledge of the modern movement in curriculum construction, ability to use scientific methods of research, some knowledge of adminis- trative problems, and of problems pertaining to school hygiene. In addition, there should be, of course, broad gen- eral education supplementing the professional. It would be difficult to make out a course of study for the prepara- tion of supervisors and be sure that it was complete and correct. The following can doubtless be improved upon by teachers, supervisors, and administrators, but it is offered as a tentative and suggestive summary. Part of the work listed is obviously in the normal-school field, part is in-— cluded in undergraduate college work, and some in graduate study. TRAINING AND PERSONALITY 543 1. Pedagogy and psychology. The supervisor must be an artistic teacher. He must be able easily and effectively to teach lessons based on the course of study under condi- tions prevailing for the regular teacher. This ability is founded in part on natural ability, of course, and is en- hanced by experience. It can be improved very materially in most eases, however, through theoretical training, through the observation of artistic teaching done by experts, and by means of special practice teaching under expert supervision. The observation and practice teaching should be followed by critical analysis of the work done. The theoretical training must include a study of the prin- ciples of method, which in turn involves a study of the principles of learning. As has been stated before, teaching method is good only as it arouses desirable pupil activity. Therefore the nature of the pupil, his interests and capaci- ties, etc., are fundamental factors and must be studied. In addition to courses in method and in genetic psychology (both child study and adolescence), there should be others in general psychology and educational psychology. The thinking process should be analyzed and discussed in terms of children’s experiences. This study of pedagogy and psychology should include as an integral part the considera- tion of experimental pedagogy, which is so often neglected in normal-school courses. Participation in experimental work would be very beneficial. In two very helpful articles Charters points out the in- adequacy of general principles alone. The supervisor must be trained in the specific application of the principles as well. Practice in supervision should be available for the supervisor in training just as practice teaching is for the 4W. W. Charters, ‘‘The Inadequacy of Principles of Teaching,’’ Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 4, April, 1918, pp. 215-21; and ‘‘The Administration of Methods of Teaching,’’ ibid., pp. 237-44. 544 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION teacher in training. The routine details of visitation should be made clear as well as the nature and technique of profes- sional criticism. The observation of expert teaching fol- lowed by thorough analytic discussion should be provided. Many teachers believe that supervisors should be chosen only from among those teachers who have taught under supervision. A better application of this argument would probably be to include in the training requirements prac- tice teaching under the critical supervision of experts, this also to be followed by detailed discussion. The related field of classroom management, routine, and discipline should be studied in connection with the teaching process. The consideration here will lead to a brief study of the planning and construction of buildings and the ad- ministration of the physical plant. The emphasis in this latter work should be upon the contacts the grade teacher will make with such things and not primarily upon the viewpoint of the administrator. The experimental data upon which the daily program is based should be touched upon. 2. Curriculum-making. In this field experimental peda- gvogy is again involved, with emphasis on ecurriculum-build- ing. The psychology of elementary-school subjects, their history in the curriculum, the arguments for and against their inclusion, should be dealt with. There should be prac- tical work in the selection of subject matter and the build- ing of curriculums. This involves practice in the analysis of social activities and needs, after the fashion set forth by Bobbitt and Charters. It involves also a careful serutiny of instructional materials and supplies, plus attempts to test them out in real situations. 3. Theory and practice of testing and measuring. Studies to determine what subject matter is most useful in real life involve the field of educational measurements as well as that of subject matter, since many of the standard TRAINING AND PERSONALITY 545 tests are based upon studies of social needs and usages. The history of the test movement, the theory underlying it, and the derivation and application of individual tests should be dealt with. This necessitates work in statistics as applied to education. The intelligence tests should be taken up historically, and a study made of the psychology underlying the different types. The theory and practice of administering the sev- eral tests must be included. The supervisor must be trained to use tests both for survey purposes and also for diagnostic use in planning remedial instruction. 4. School hygiene. Closely related to this is the consider- ation of child hygiene. All intelligence tests should be sup- plemented by a brief examination of the child’s physical condition. This examination must of necessity be somewhat brief and superficial, but the supervisor should know the average age and weight norms, chest measurement, etc., and should be able to recognize the common symptoms of trouble with the eyes, ears, nose, or throat. The easily recognizable symptoms of children’s diseases should also be familiar to him. Children should be referred to the school nurse the doctor, dentist, or oculist as circumstances demand. In attending to the hygiene of the school child the super- visor must also be competent to pass on certain aspects of the hygiene of the school building itself. Proper standards as to the heating, lighting, ventilation, sanitation, and jani- torial service are all matters which may from time to time come to the attention of the supervisor. 5. Improving teachers in service. In preparation for his activities in bringing to his teachers the best new departures and discoveries in education, the supervisor must be given opportunity to plan and hold teachers’ meetings. The tech- nique of the efficient committee and conference meeting must be worked out and applied. Definite bibliographic training should be given in practically all courses taken 546 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION during training. The supervisor must know how to keep in touch with current periodicals and new books. It might be noted in passing that most of the devices the supervisor will use to improve his teachers in service will equally well improve him at the same time. For this reason the whole field of training in service is doubly vital, and anything bearing upon it should be brought to the attention of the supervisor. The difficult problems in the field of teacher rating should be most carefully canvassed. Practice in using several types of rating cards should be given, together with a study of the derivation of such scales. Practice In making up scales will be valuable since it will focus attention upon the desirable and undesirable elements in a teacher’s train- ing, activity, and personality. 6. The general field of education. Not only will the su- pervisor’s activities be qualified by his knowledge of the aim of education, but he will often be called upon to ex- plain such things to his teachers. It is no disparagement of the average grade teacher to say that she is, more often than not, quite ignorant of the big general aim of education and unable to apply it to the smaller problems of classroom teaching. Ora more competent teacher may call into ques- tion the whole theory underlying a school subject or pro- cedure. The supervisor will need, therefore, to have ad- vanced work in the history, philosophy, principles, and sci- ence of education. He should be well read in these general fields and should also be familiar with the discussions in the periodicals that attempt to make the more abstract theories In some measure concrete. 7. Administration. It was noted that supervision and administration were at one time the functions of the same officer and that even yet the two are often confused. The supervisor occupies a strategic position between the admin- istrative officers and the teaching force. He is primarily TRAINING AND PERSONALITY 547 concerned with the betterment of teaching processes but must at times take the attitude of the administrative officer. In some cases definite administrative duties are carried by supervisors, especially in the ease of the building principal. On the other hand, the supervisor must be alert to teacher sentiment and take the position of an emissary of the teach- ing staff in presenting their views and desires to the admin- istration. Many supervisors themselves regard their work as admin- istrative and ally themselves with the powers above, despite the fact that their work is more nearly like that of the teachers. Ideally, supervisors should form a distinct group by themselves, building up standards, traditions, and a technique all their own. Could such a condition be brought about, much of the suspicion of supervisors existing among teachers would be dispelled. Likewise administrators would be able to rely more implicitly on supervisory reports of teacher sentiment if such reports were brought by indi- viduals not definitely allied with either side of a contro- versy. Expert supervisory leadership will come more quickly when it is realized that supervisors are neither ex- perienced teachers of good ability elevated to positions over their fellow, nor yet minor administrative officers in the nature of inspectors or spies. In training supervisors, therefore, attention to the field cf administration will be necessary. Phases that bear more directly upon his actual duties should be emphasized. The ¢olleetion and distribution of school money, child account- ing, the responsibility to the community, the contacts with the public, the conduct of surveys, the construction of buildings and the management of the physical plant, the keeping and filing of records, the cost and sources of sup- plies, are probably matters with which the supervisor should be reasonably familiar. Probably one of the most important duties in this field 548 THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION will be the supervisor’s participation in the work of edu- cating and molding public sentiment. School patrons need to be educated to appreciate and approve new methods of teaching, of management, to approve of experiments, of expenditures, ete., and the supervisor with his accurate knowledge and first-hand data should appear before parent- teacher associations and other similar gatherings in the continuous effort to bring about better understanding of school problems. Because of this, his training should prob- ably include some reference to public speaking and news writing. In passing it should be noted that the supervisor should not only speak at parent-teacher associations and other meetings but should take an active part in organizing and directing such organizations. 8. Training for research. Heretofore supervisors have not in general been trained in the technique and uses of research. However, it is perfectly obvious that in planning the supervisory program, in planning remedial teaching, in assisting teachers to organize experiments, and in con- stantly searching for new methods of solution for teaching problems, supervisors must make use of the research tech- nique. The very attitude of research will in itself correct many of the errors which have lessened the efficiency of supervision in the past. 9. Training other than professional. In addition to this technical and professional training there should be goodly allowance made for general education. Literature needs no argument and should be included liberally. The problems in sociology and economics are vitally related to and ma- terially condition school problems. History and philosophy should precede and accompany the history and philosophy of education. Biology, or some other science in which the evolutionary point of view can be stressed, should be in- eluded. TRAINING AND PERSONALITY 549 A most valuable item in the supervisor’s training will be the acquisition of the scientific method or attitude. For long this has been taught supposedly by means of the labo- ratory sciences. While it might be well to include some tra- ditional laboratory science in the supervisor’s experience, it is no guarantee of the scientific method because of the unsci- entific and unpsychological methods of teaching in vogue. The scientific attitude can be gained as well, if it can be gained at all, in the field of educational measurements, in experimental pedagogy, in conducting surveys and investi- gations. Wherever and whenever possible, the supervisor must learn to proceed on the basis of impartial, objective, mathematically precise, verifiable evidence gathered by ex- perts. Failing such evidence, a summary of the best expert opinion should be taken as a guide. The benefits that come from travel, from general reading, and from participation in community affairs not connected with the schools should not be overlooked. Guidance obtained, through a study of controversies re- garding supervision. i ' : ae tp a9 8 Uhre Pe -v pars ash : uy ame alyy Auny a0 Rear RM pA hae ere. i oe SE Nias 3 7 re : * 4: iy oe on it of y ny ae) * pth ere ‘ WARS : pit Ag Py ee ; as st a Ci ren +) {Rai Date Due aa | ee ' Ee, ae ; P , : r : oe ‘ ' +‘ ri é "I ad Fe j “4 j af ® Speer Libre ih eologic | | Lac) cc 2 oar) S) 3a ~ “ + oO , og ox _ > oO e > wv wy - = “vn <= ow 2 fie LB2805 .B26