nm ia AA OF PPG NOV «1924 f. j . ey % MX osica sews — tare: ti, ° My Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2022 with funding from Princeton Theological Seminary Library httos://archive.org/details/writingsofnewtesOOvoll The Writings of the New Testament In Their Historical Setting BY PHILIP VOLLMER, Ph.D. THE WRITINGS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT in Their Historical Setting. Cloth, $1.50. NEW TESTAMENT SOCIOLOGY. Cloth, $2.25. THE MODERN STUDENT'S LIFE OF CHRIST. Cloth, $1.50, The Writings of the New Testament In Their Historical Setting An Outline Guide for the Study of the New Testament By PHILIP VOLLMER, Ph.D., D.D. Professor in Eden Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Ao. Author of ‘The Modern Student's Life of Christ,”’ “New Testament Sociology,’’ ‘‘Fohn Calvin,” “The Reformation a Liberating Force,’ etc. NEw YORK CHICAGO Fleming H. Revell Company LONDON AND EDINBURGH Copyright, 1924, by FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY Printed in the United States of America New York: 158 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave. London: 21 Paternoster Square Edinburgh: 75 Princes Street Foreword Tuts book is intended as a help in the study of the New Testament books from the historical point of view, and its aim is to assist in promoting more thorough Bible knowledge. It has been primarily arranged for the use of advanced Bible work in higher institutions of learn- ing, adult Sunday School classes, Teacher Train- ing institutes and similar groups of Bible students. But by omitting Parts I and IV, and condensing some other parts, the book will also serve as a safe guide for more elementary studies of the sub- jects treated therein. In order to encourage self-activity on the part of the student, the material has been set forth in syllabus form, calling for further explanations, side-reading, papers and discussions. In view of the general lack of accurate Bible knowledge among modern Christians, we would advise devoting most of the available time to the reading of each N. T. book itself, in the order studied, and to the writing of original sum- maries of its main contents, rather than to the intricacies of critical theories about the book. Critical questions are therefore discussed only where a real problem presents itself, Students in- 5 6 Foreword clined to specialize in N. T. criticism, will find in the book copious references to reliable literature on all phases of the subject. PHILIP VOLLMER. Eden Theological Seminary, St. Lous, Mo. VI. Contents PART I Historical Introduction to the New Testament aoe Introduction Geography of the World “of Jesus al the Apostolic Church . : al The Political World of loa ad the Apor tolic Church The Intellectual and Cuong World of Christ and His Apostles The Religious World of Jesus and "he Apostles Social and Moral Gbeaan in the First Century PART II General Introduction to the New Testament VII. Vill. XIII. Character, Name and Classification of the New Testament Writings Original Language and Form of the New ‘Testament ‘ : New Testament Tested ee Higher Criticism of the New Testament The New Testament Canon Translations and Circulation of He pet Testament The Interpretation of the Nee Toten 7 8 Contents PART III Special Introduction to the New Testament ALS General Aspects of the Four Gospels XV. The Three Synoptic Gospels and the a noptic Problem . ° XVI. John’s Gospel and the Book of ee : XVII. General Aspects of the New ‘Testament Epistles : : : XVIII. = Life and Work of St. Paul XIX, The First aaa a Group of Paul’ Epistles . : ; XX, The Second Chronological Sane of Paul’ $ Epistles : XXI. The Third Chronological Grosp of Paul's Epistles XXII. The Fourth Chronological Group of Paul's 8 Epistles XXIII. The Epistle to the Herons XXIV. The Seven General Epistles XXV. The Prophetic Book of Revelation . PART IV Variety in the Unity of the New Testament Writings XXVI. Difference Between New Testament and Systematic Theology : XXVIT. Description of the New Testament hie of Teaching ; . XXVIII. History, Value and Method of Ms New Testament Theology . XXIX. Historical Roots of the New Testhinent Teaching . ; : ° ° lol 107 118 125 130 se, Lae 164 - 171 iT} 181 io 20! 206 212 217 Lovee tae ted hott Historical Introduction to The New Testament Writings CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Literature: Schaff-Herzog, “ New Encyclopedia,” II, 178. Schaff, “ Theological Propzdeutics,” pp. 93, 151. Bassermann, “ Wie Studiert Man Theologie,’ pp. 21-79. Lemme, “ Theological Encyclopedie,” p. 68. Buechsel, “ Wie studiert Man das Neue Testament.” DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT The scientific term of the subject discussed in this book is New Testament Introduction, by which is understood that subdivision of exegetical the- ology which treats of the history of the N. T. literature. Note:—The place of New Testament Introduction in the organism of the various theological departments may be learned from the following general survey of the theological science as a whole: I. Exegetical Theology. 1. Biblical Philology. 2. Biblical Archeology. (Description of Bible lands and people, ) 3. Old and New Testament Introduction and Criticism. 4. Biblical Hermeneutics. (Laws of interpretation and exposition of text.) s. Bible History. (O. T. H.; Life of Christ; and Ap. ge.) 9 10 The Writings of the New Testament 6. Biblical Theology. (Summary of results of exegesis.) 7. Biblical Sociology of the Old and New Testaments. Il. Historical Theology. 1. General Church History. (From the end of the Ap- - ostolic Age.) 2. History of Missions. 3. History of Dogma. (His. of development of the doctrines, as e. g., the deity of Christ; the Lord’s Supper; Justification, etc.) Ill. Systematical Theology. 1. Theo. Encyclopedia. (A general survey of all theo- logical branches.) 2. Apologetics. (Theory of defense of Christianity.) 3. Dogmatics. (Science of the Christian Religion.) 4, Symbolics. (Comparison of the chief official creeds of Christendom, either in an irenic or a polemic spirit.) 5. Christian Ethics. (Theory of Christian morality.) IV. Practical Theology. 1. Religious Education, including catechetics. (Prin- ciples and theory of instruction in the Christian Faith.) 2. Homiletics. (Theory of Preaching.) 3. Liturgics. (Theory of Christian Worship.) 4. Poimenics or Pastoral Theology. (Survey of the work of the minister as pastor.) 5. Guberneutics. (Church Government.) It is proposed to treat N. T. Introduction under the following four headings: I. Historical Introduction to the N. T.—The books of the N. T., like all other writings, are products of their own times, containing frequent allusions to the geographical, historical, cultural, social, moral and religious conditions of the times and places in which they originated. ‘They cannot therefore be adequately understood without some knowledge of their historical setting. Hence, a general survey of the historical background will lighten up the contents of the New Testament Introduction 11 collection as a whole as well as each individual book and its separate passages. Il. General Introduction, which treats of the N. T. viewed as a whole: of its name, divisions, language, sources, criticism, canon and interpreta- tion. Ill. Spectal Introduciton, which treats of each book separately: of its authorship, credibility, in- tegrity, sources, purpose, readers, time and place of composition, analysis, etc. Note—The modern name for general and special introduc- tion is “ Biblical Criticism,’ which will be further explained in Parts I] and III of this book. IV. Theological Introduction, which aims to exhibit the variety in the unity of N. T. teaching: the different types and individual manner in which the various authors give expression to the one Gospel fundamental to all of them. Note—We repeat that Part III constitutes the chief sub- ject of this book; so that in case time is lacking, any of the other parts may be entirely omitted or assigned for rapid perusal. (See “ Foreword.’) A WorKING LIBRARY In addition to the books recommended in the different chapters, special attention is here called to some of the best reference works which contain reliable information in condensed and therefore money- and time-saving form on every subject treated in this syllabus. (1) Bible Dictionaries in one volume—by Davis, Hastings, Smith, Shailer Mathews, Guthe (“ Kurzes Bibelworter- buch a and others. 12 The Writings of the New Testament (2) Larger Bible dictionaries and encyclopaedias, such as: sna “Dictionary of the Bible” (4 vols. and supple- ment). Heelan “Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels” (2 vols.). Hastings, “ Dictionary of the Apostolic Church” (2 vols.). aint “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics” (12 vols.). “International Standard Bible Dictionary” (5 vols.). “ Encyclopedia Bibliea” (4 vols.). The New Schaff-Herzog “Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge” (13 vols.). Hauck-Herzog, “ Realencyclopedie ftir prot. Theologie und Kirche” (22 vols.). (3) Bible Concordances, by Cruden, Young, Calwer Bibelkonkordanz, Hazard (Concordance to the American Standard Bible). CHAPTER II GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD OF JESUS AND pH APOSTOLIC, CHURCH 1. Geography of Palestine Literature: A map of Palestine should be carefully studied, or better, drawn by the student himself. Consult a Bible dictionary on the various places. Smith, W. W., “The Student’s Historical Geography of the Holy Land.” General Aspects of Palestine. The physical world in which Jesus lived was Palestine. (1) Names: Canaan, before it became the home of Israel (Gen. 16:3; 17:8); Israel, from the Conquest till the Babylonian Captivity (2 Kings 5:2); Judea, after the Babylonian Captivity (Neh. 5:14; Mark 1:5); Palestine (from Philistia), since the days of Christ. Other designations: © The Land ot )Promise”.) (Heb. 11:9), The Holy Land” (Zech. 2:12). (2) Antiquity. It is older than Greece and Rome. Abraham dwelt at Sychar 2,000 years before Christ rested at its well. Joshua conquered it 200 years before Troy fell. Solomon was dead 200 years before Romu- lus founded Rome in 754 3B. c. Gideon and Achilles, Elijah and Homer were contemporaries. (3) Location: In Western Asia, bounded by Syria, Arabia, Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. (4) Extent: In shape and size it is much like the state of New Hampshire. Including Perea, it contains 13 14 The Writings of the New Testament 12,000 square miles; without it, about 9,000. Its seacoast from Tyre to Gaza is 140 miles long; its Jordan line, from Mt. Hermon to the south end of the Dead Sea is 156 miles. It is from 25 to 70 miles wide. (5) Roads: Four great highways, linking Asia, Europe and Africa, cross it. Up and down the coast road the great armies of the nations passed. Sennacherib, the Assyrian, Alexander of Macedon, Pompey, Titus, Saladin, Napoleon, generals during the World War, 1914—1918,—all led their armies over this high- way. (6) Fertility: It was a land “ flowing with milk and honey,” and was cultivated like a garden to the very tops of the mountains. No modern land has been made to support so dense a popula- tion. Wheat, barley, the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly. (7) Climate: Palestine is semi-trop- ical, the heat being tempered by its mountains. Snow is rare and the winters are short. Physical Divisions. (1) Along the Mediter- ranean lies the seacoast plain, two or three miles wide at the north, but widening as it goes south- ward, to nearly twenty miles at Gaza. (2) Cross- ing this are the Shephelah or foot hills; a terrace of low hills from 800 to 500 feet high. (8) As- cending these, we reach the mountain region, a range of mountains broken by ravines, varying from 2,500 to 3,000 feet in height. This region was the home of the Israelites in all their history. The plains and valleys were mainly foreign and heathen in their population. (4) Crossing the Geography of the World of Jesus 15 mountains, we descend to the Jordan Valley, lower than the sea level, and from five to twenty miles wide. (5) Beyond the valley rises the Eastern Table-land with higher mountains but more level summits, and broken by fewer valleys. The mountains gradually decline to the great Syrian desert on the east. Sacred Mountains. (1) Quarantania, the tra- ditional mount of temptation, in the wilderness between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. (2) Mount of Beatitudes (Horns of Hattin), the scene of the Sermon on the Mount, just west of the Sea of Galilee. (8) Mount Tabor, the traditional Mount of Transfiguration. (4) Mount Hermon, prob- ably the real Mount of Transfiguration, thirty miles north of the Sea of Galilee. (5) Calvary, the place of the crucifixion, probably to the north of ancient Jerusalem. The Gospels simply call it “a place,” not a mount. sacred Waters. (1) The Jordan, rising in Mount Hermon, flowing south, 1380 miles, through Lake Merom, and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, narrow, swift, with occasional fords. (2) The Sea of Galilee, thirteen miles long and eight wide, encircled by a dense population. The only navigable water in Palestine. (Luke 5: 1—*“‘ Sea of Gennesaret ”; John 6: 1—‘‘ Sea of Tiberias.” ) (3) The Brook Kedron, flowing between the Tem- ple and the Mount of Olives, dry most of the year. (4) The Pools of Siloam and Bethesda, on the south and east of Jerusalem. 16 The Writings of the New 'Testament Political Divisions. In Christ’s time Pales- tine was divided into three provinces, each having several subdivisions, some of the latter standing out rather prominently in the New Testament. (1) Judea, the southernmost province. Being the largest province and the special home of the Jewish people it often gave its name to the whole land; as in Mark 1:5; Luke 7: 17, Acts 10:07. Places mentioned in the N. T.: — Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Bethany, Jericho.—The northern part of Judea is known as Samaria, which was not a separate province with a political organization, but only a district around the cities of Shechem and Samaria, extending neither to the Jordan nor to the Mediterranean, and of uncertain limits; gov- erned from Judea, and inhabited by a composite people, partly Israelites, partly heathen in their origin. Prominent places:—-Samaria, Sychar, Jacob’s Well—The southern part of Judea was Idumea, a narrow belt of rugged highlands, 100 miles long by 20 wide, stretching from the south- east of the Dead Sea, to the eastern arm of the Red Sea. It was the land of the Edomites, descendants of Esau.—The territory of Judea east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea is called in the N. T. “the borders of Judea, beyond the Jordan” (Matt. 19:1; Mark 10:1), from which our name for it, “ Perea” (meaning “ beyond”) is derived. Prominent places: Bethany (A. V. Bethabara) and the fortress of Machezrus. (2) Galilee, north of Judea and west of the Geography of the World of Jesus 17 Jordan (from the Hebrew “ galil,” “ circle,” or district), divided into Lower and Upper Galilee; inhabited by a brave, simple-hearted people, mainly Jews, but with many Gentiles among them. Hence ealleds., Galilee, of the \Gentiles”’).(Isa,. 9? 1-2; Matt. 4: 15, 16), hence also the contempt in which it was held at Jerusalem (John 7:41, 52). Prominent places: Capernaum, Nazareth, Nain, West Bethsaida, Cana, Magdala, Tiberias. (3) Philip’s Tetrarchy, in the northeast, em- bracing five sections: Gaulanitis, Auranites, Trach- onites, Batanea (Luke 3:1). Prominent places: Bethsaida Julias, Ceesarea Philippi. (4) Scattered throughout this province was Decapolis (Mark 7:31), a league of ten Greek cities. According to Pliny, their names were Scythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia, Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Damascus, and Raphana. 2. Geography of the Apostolic Church Literature: Study a map of the Apostolic Age. Consult a Bible dictionary on the various subjects. Ramsey, “ Historical Geography of Asia Minor.” Case, “ Environment of Early Christianity,” p. 48, on “ The Mediterranean World in New Testament Times.” Harnack, “ Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries,” II, p. 97. Implicitly every one of the three continents, known to the ancients—Asia, Europe and Africa— is alluded to in the New Testament. Of the important seas four are mentioned: (1) The Mediterranean Sea. Voyages on it are 18 The Writings of the New Testament referred to in Acts 9: 30; 18:4; 21: 1, 2; 27: 3. (2) The Black Sea, north of Asia Minor. (3) The A®gean Sea, between Asia Minor and Greece. Voyages upon it in Acts 6: 11; 18: 18; 20: 13-15. (4) The Adriatic Sea, between Greece and Italy (Acts 27: 27). Five islands are named: (1) Cyprus, in the northeast corner of the Mediterranean (Acts 4: 386; 18:4). (2) Crete, south of the A’gean Sea, between Asia Minor and Greece (Acts 27: 7; Titus 1:5). (8) Patmos, in the A’gean Sea, not far from Ephesus (Rev. 1:9). (4) Sicily, south- west of Italy (Acts 28:12). (5) Melita, now Malta, south of Italy (Acts 28: 1). The different provinces mentioned may be arranged in four groups: (a) Those on the conti- nent of Europe are: (1) Thrace, (2) Macedonia (Acts 14: 9, 10;20: 1-3). (8) Greece, also called Achaia (Acts 18:12; 20:3). (4) Illyricum or Dalmatia (Rom.15:'19 29 (oy italy CActs 2ie a (6) Spain. (b) Those on the continent of Africa are: (1) Africa Proper. (2) Libya (Acts 2: 10). (3) Egypt (Matt. 2:13). (c) Those on the continent of Asia, exclusive of Asia Minor, are: (1) Arabia, perhaps referring to the desert region, southeast of Palestine (Gal. 1:17). (2) Judea, the Jewish name for all Palestine, in the New Testament period (Luke 1:5). (8) Pheenicia (Mark 7:24; Acts 15:3; 21:2). (4) Syria, north of Palestine (Acts 15: 41; 20: 3). The fourteen provinces in Asia Minor, so Geography of the World of Jesus 19 frequently mentioned in the Acts and Epistles, may be divided into four groups: (a) Three on the Black Sea, beginning on the east: (1) Pontus (Acts 18:2). (2) Paphlagonia. (38) Bithynia (I Peter 1:1). (0) Three on the A’gean Sea, beginning on the north. (4) Mysia (Acts 16: 17). (5) Lydia. (6) Caria. These three provinces together formed the important province known as MeAstany (Acts), 27.9.5 2050). (6) Three on the Mediterranean Sea, beginning on the west: (7) Lycia (Acts 27:5). (8) Pamphylia (Acts 13: ag) ( Oy Cilicia OActs 1247130). (0) Shiver in the interior: (10) On the north: Galatia (Gal. 1:2). (11) On the east, Cappadocia (Acts 2: 9). (12) On the southeast, Lycaonia (Acts 14:6). (13) On the southwest, Pisidia (Acts 13:14). (14) On the west: Phrygia (Acts 16: 6). CHAPTER III THE POLITICAL WORLD OF JESUS AND THEVAPOSTOLIG (COU RCE Literature: Bible Dictionaries on the various subjects. Riggs, “A History of the Jewish People.” Farrar, “ Early Days of Christianity,” Med 27, 29 (Jew- Mathews, S., “A History of the N. T. Times.” Schiirer, “ The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ.” Holtzmann, “ Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte.” Josephus, “Antiquities,’ XX and XIII (Greek-Macedonian period). pears Philip, “The Modern Student’s Life of Christ,” Pp Read the O. T. books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther; also Books I and II Maccabees of the O. T. Apocrypha. The Ancient Jews under Foreign Rule. When Christ was born, the Jews had been living under foreign rule for about seven hundred years, since 722 and 588 B. C., in the following succes- sion. (1) In 722 3. c. the Assyrians destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel and carried the ten tribes into the Assyrian captivity, where they were “lost,” that is, assimilated with the heathen nations of the East, while in their former homeland there developed a people from the intermarriage between Jews and immigrant Gentiles, known as the Samaritans. (2) The Babylonian Rule, about 50 years (588- 20 The Political World of Jesus 21 586 B. c.), from the Babylonian Captivity of the southern kingdom of Judea, to the Fall of Babylon through Cyrus. Jerusalem lay in ruins, and the godly Jews were homesick (Ps. 137). (3) The Persian Rule, about 200 years (B. c. 536 to 830). Cyrus, the Persian, overthrew the Babylonian Empire and in 586 B. c. allowed the Jews to return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusa- lem. Only 42,360 Jews returned under Zerub- babel and Joshua, and laid the foundations of the Temple (Ezra 1: 64; 3: 10-13). The Samaritans offered to help, but were refused. Thereupon they accused the Jews of treason at the Persian court, which led to a cessation of the work for twelve years. In 516 the Temple was finally completed. In 458 Ezra was sent from Persia to Jerusalem, and in 445 came Nehemiah. Both men reorgan- ized the national life (See their books in the Oreilt.) | (4) Greek-Macedonian Rule.—Nine years, 830- 321 B. c. Alexander the Great destroyed the Per- sian Empire and ruled Palestine about nine years. He sent from Tyre to Jerusalem and demanded submission. When the Jews refused he marched against the city, but was pacified by a procession of priests coming to greet him. He treated the Jews with great kindness. After Alexander’s death, Palestine became the bone of contention between Syria and Egypt. (5) Egyptian Rule, 120 years (B. c. 321-198). Alexandria became the centre of Jewish influence. 22 The Writings of the New Testament In 285 occurred the translation of the O. T. into Greek, called the Septuagint (LXX). (6) Syrian Rule, about 40 years (198-166 B. c.). King Antiochus Epiphanes (“ The Il!lus- trious,” some called him, Epimanes—‘“ The Mad- man’), oppressed the Jews most cruelly.. His object was to extirpate the Jewish religion and force upon them Greek religion and culture. Jerusalem was twice sacked, the Temple desecrated by sacrificing swine on its altars, and finally closed. This treatment drove the Jews to revolt (168). After a two years’ struggle, led by the priest Mattathias and his five sons, especially Judas Mac- cabeeus (“hammer ’’), they gained their independ- ence in B. c. 166. (7) Maccabean Independence, 126 years (B. C. 166-40). Civil war, treachery, bloodshed and anarchy characterized this period of Asmonean rule (from “ Hashman’”’ the ancestor of Maccabzeus). John Hyrcanus (185-105 B. c.) destroyed the Samaritan temple and forced the Idumeans to be- come Jews in religion. Roman Rule Over Palestine. This came on gradually and was at first indirect. Antipater, an Idumean officer of wealth, influence and ability, acquired complete control over the feeble Macca- bean priest-king, Hyrcanus II. When the latter and his brother Aristobulus could not agree on the succession, they appealed to the Roman general Pompey, who had just completed his victory over Syria and Pontus. In 63 B. c., Pompey came to The Political World of Jesus 23 Jerusalem and decided for Hyrcanus. After the death of Pompey, Antipater saw that his advan- tage lay in supporting Julius Caesar (Pompey’s enemy) in his eastern campaign. In consequence, the latter conferred upon Antipater Roman citizen- ship and confirmed Hyrcanus in the high priest- hood. Antipater made his son Herod governor of Galilee. In 48 B. c. Antipater was poisoned. In order to ally himself with the reigning Maccabean House, Herod married Mariamne, the grand- daughter of Hyrcanus. Rule of Herod the Great. In 40 B. c. the Roman senate appointed Herod king of Palestine. The Jews resisted desperately and it took Herod three years to capture Jerusalem, after which he killed Antigonus, the last of the Maccabean priest- kings, 45 of his most prominent opponents, includ- ing every member of the Sanhedrin but two, and several members of his own family. He was bit- terly hated by the Jews for his cruelty, oppression and the introduction of pagan customs, erecting a theatre within, and an amphitheatre without the walls of Jerusalem, instituting games, and even gladiatorial combats with wild animals. From love of splendor, he enlarged and greatly beautified the Jewish Temple. He died in March, 4 B. c. (750 Asati =C..) ' Rule of the Herodian Princes and Roman Governors in Palestine (4B. c.-101 a.p.). Dur- ing this period, the various sections of Palestine were governed by five Herodian princes and a num- 24 'The Writings of the New Testament ber of Roman governors, in the following succes- sion: (1) Judea, including Samaria and Idumea, by Archelaus, son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2: 22), 4 Bp. c.-—6 A. D.3; by Roman governors, of whom Pilate was the fifth, 6-44 a. D.; by Agrippa I, grandson of Herod (Acts 12:1, 21), 41-44; by Roman governors, 44-70:—Felix, 52-60 (Acts 23: 25) and Festus, 60-62 (Acts 24: 27). (2) Galilee and Perea.—Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, 4 B. c.-39 a. D. (Luke 3:1; 18: 32; 23:7); Agrippa I, 89-44; the Roman gov- ernors of Judea, 44—70. (3) Northeastern Territory.—Philip the Tet- rarch, son of Herod the Great, 4 B. c.-33 A. D. (Luke 8:1); the Roman governor of Syria, 33- 37; Agrippa I, 37-44; the Roman governor of Judea, 44-49; Agrippa II, son of Agrippa I (Acts 25:13), 49-101. Note—Besides the six Herodian rulers, representing four generations, the following additional members of the Hero- dian family are also mentioned in the N. T.:—Philip, a son of Herod the Great, residing in Rome (Matt. 14:3), Bernice, the oldest and Drusilla, the youngest daughter of Agrippa I, and sisters of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13; 24:24). Method of Government and Taxation. ‘The rule of the Romans and the Herodians was harsh and taxation oppressive. Usually the Romans farmed out the revenues of a district or on a cer- tain article to a collector, called “ publican,” and the extortion resorted to by most of these con- tractors was only limited by the victim’s ability to The Political World of Jesus 25 pay. A Jew who held such a position was treated as a social outcast; first, because paying taxes of any amount to a heathen power was considered treason to Jehovah, their invisible King; second, because most of them were personally dishonest (Luke 15: 1-2). Divisions, Names and Language. The Jew- ish nation was divided into two sections: The Jews in Palestine, and the Jews of the Dispersion. (1) The Jews living in Palestine enjoyed a consider- able measure of home-rule, the amount of which was increased or diminished according to men and circumstances. This power lay in the hands of the high priest and the general or local Sanhedrins. The former was composed of seventy elders with the high priest as president, the Pharisees having the majority, while the Sadducees held the offices. They are called “ Hebrews,’ though the real Hebrew language was not generally understood any more, the Aramaic being the language of the land. Greek was used by most Palestinian Jews, including Christ and his Apostles—(2) In the Apostolic Age the majority of the Jews were living outside of Palestine. They were called the “ dis- persion,” because they were scattered all over the Roman empire (John 7:35; Acts 2:10; James 1:1; I Peter 1:1). ‘There were four sections of the Dispersion: (1) the original dispersion in Babylon; (2) in Syria and Asia Minor (Antioch) ; (3) in Egypt (Alexandria); (4) in the West (Rome). Because they used the Greek language 26 The Writings of the New Testament ‘chiefly and adopted to some extent Greek customs and culture, they are known as “ Hellenists.” | The Destruction of Jerusalem and the Tém- ple. Back of many passages in the N. ‘Ty lies the dark foreboding of the destruction of Jerusa- lem (Luke 19: 48-44; Rev. 11: 1-2). For many years the Jews were in a chronic state of concealed rebellion, and when Rome, in 44 a. p., took the government of the whole of Palestine directly in its own hands, dissatisfaction rose to such fervor that matters drifted slowly but surely into open rebellion, which finally broke out in 66 a. D. It took the Roman legions four years to suppress it. By the spring of A. pb. 70, Vespasian had conquered the whole country, except Jerusalem. This city he now turned over to his son, Titus, having mean- while been proclaimed emperor. After a siege in which the frantic defenders endured unparalleled sufferings, the city was captured, razed to the ground, the Temple destroyed, the wretched sur- vivors slain or sold into slavery, and the ruins oc- cupied by a Roman garrison. Under Emperor Hadrian, in 183-135, another unsuccessful rebel- lion broke out under the leadership of Bar-Cochbar, and this time the Jewish state was completely de- stroyed and Jerusalem was razed to the ground. History of the Roman Empire in the First Century. Though the name appears only twice in the Gospels (John 11: 48; 19: 20), Rome and the Romans formed a strong background to the action of the leading figures in the life of Christ The Political World of Jesus 27 and the Apostolic Church, as is shown by numer- ous references (Matt. 22:17; Mark 12:14; huke 224; 8:15 20: 225.238: 2; John 19: 12; Acts 18:23 25:12; Rev, 13). A brief.sketch of the Roman emperors will therefore be of great aid to the Bible student, the more so, as the exact stc- cession and the years of their reign have in some cases a decisive bearing on the correct interpreta- tion of passages like Revelation 17: 8, and others. CE eUOEstINS, 431 Bec, LO VIA AY De el uke) 27:7). The Temple of Janus was closed which was an indication that universal peace reigned throughout the world, when Jesus the “ Prince of Peace” was born. The defeat of the Roman legions by Herrmann, 9 A. D., in the Teutoburg Forest, was the last serious attempt of ‘the Romans to subjugate the Germans beyond the Rhine. He rebuilt and beautified Rome. (2) Tiberius, 14-37 (Luke 3:1), a great military commander and at first an able ruler. By degrees, owing to dissensions with his wife, he became gloomy and suspicious and ended his life as a cruel and revengeful tyrant. He spent the last eight years of his life on the beautiful island of Capri. Under his reign Jesus died, and it is said that Pilate sent him a report of the trial. Of the people he said, “ Let them hate me, provided they respect me.” (3) Caligula, 37-41. His actions indicate insanity. He demanded divine honors, delighted in bloodshed, wished the Roman people might have only one neck so that he might cut it off with a single stroke, had his favorite horse appointed a Consul, built a bridge from the Capitoline hill to the Palatine in order to be nearer to the temple of Jupiter, whose equal he considered himself to be. His motto was, “Let the people hate me, provided they fear me.” He drove the Jews to desperation by demanding that his statue be put into the Temple at Jerusalem. (4) Clawdius, 41-54, a man of learning, but weak and the slave of his two wicked wives, the second of which poisoned him. Under him Britain was conquered, the great aqueducts at Rome completed, and the Jews expelled from Rome (Acts 18:2). He laid down the significant principle: “It is right that men should live in the religion of their country.” He instituted humane laws in behalf of slaves. For the first time in the history of Rome the killing 28 ‘The Writings of the New Testament of a slave by his master was branded as a capital offense. (5) Nero, 54-68. He came to the throne at the age of seventeen years, as the result of the intrigues of his mother, Agrippina. For the first eight years of his reign he left the administration of affairs in the hands of the famous Burrus, the prefect of the Pretorian guard, and of his teacher Sen- eca, the Stoic philosopher, and matters went well. After the death of Burrus, in 62 A. pD., Nero took hold of the government himself. He compelled Seneca to commit suicide and during the entire period following proved himself a knave beyond comparison, killing his mother, wife and brother. In 64, he set fire to Rome and put the blame on the Christians. This charge led to the first persecution of the Christians in 64-67, in which according to tradition Peter was crucified and Paul beheaded. When a revolution in the armies of Gaul, Spain and Germany broke out against him, he committed suicide, his last words being, ‘‘ What a great artist dies with me.” (Read “Quo Vadis.”)—During the anarchy following Nero’s suicide four emperors were crowned in quick succession (68-69). Concerning three of them: (6) Galba, (7) Otho, (8) Vitellius (69), interpreters are not agreed whether they should be counted in the enu- meration implied in Rev. 17:8, because they were elected and deposed by corruption. (9) Vespasian, 69-79. He was the general in the war against the Jews at the time he was elected. He succeeded in restoring peace to the empire and in reorganizing the government, by curtailing the prerog- atives of the old Roman nobles and giving representation in the Senate to the provinces and cities. He also built the famous Colosseum. (10) Titus, 79-81, the son of Vespasian, won all hearts by his justice and humanity. “I have lost a day,” he would say, when he had passed a day without hav- ing done an act of kindness. The eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, destroying Herculaneum and Pompeii, occurred during his reign. (11) Domitian, 81-96, brother of Titus, a scholar expressing high moral sentiments, but nevertheless a tyrant of the worst type. He cited the relatives of Jesus to appear before him, because he had a suspicion that they might re- vive the claims of Jesus to the throne of David. During his reign the second of the ten great persecutions of the Chris- tians occurred, during which he is said to have banished the Apostle John to Patmos. CHAPTER IV THE INTELLECTUAL AND CULTURAL WORLD OF CHRIST AND HIS AROSTLUES Literature: Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the va- rious subjects. Bennett, “ Old Testament Introduction.” Davidson, “ Theology of the Old Testament.” Charles, “Apocrypha and Pseudepiprapha of the Old Testa- ment” (2 vol.). Kautsch, “Die Apocryphen und Apocalyptiker des Alt. Wesinw.(2 VOL). Angus, “ Environment of Early Christianity.” Case, “ Evolution of Early Christianity,’ Chap. 3. Vollmer, Philip, “ The Dialectical Method of Socrates.” Ueberweg, “ History of Philosophy,” (2 vol.). CHRISTIANITY arose in a highly developed intel- lectual age. The lands around the Mediterranean Sea had for millenniums been occupied successively by a variety of civilizations, by the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Hittites, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Jews, Greeks and Macedonians, Alexander the Great (336-323 B. c.) had diffused Greek civiliza- tion with its matchless language, literature, art, philosophy, and science all over the civilized world, so that in his day Greek culture had reached its highest point. History shows plainly that while God used the Jews as His instrument to furnish the substance of Christianity (John 4: 22), Greek- 29 30 The Writings of the New Testament Roman paganism, in the providence of God, con- tributed largely to its form. Without this codpera- tion Christianity would never have risen to the place of the universal world religion, but would have degenerated into a mere Jewish sect. The historical merit of. Alexander the Great was that he attempted to unify all the cultural elements and establish a universal world culture, by a process of fusion, instead of following the method of ancient and modern conquerors of trying to destroy the civilization he found and impose his own upon the conquered people. Rome continued this process of unification and extended its results. The new type of culture is commonly called “ Hellenistic,” because Greek achievements formed its foundation. The individual contributions of each of the three most important nations then holding sway, to this common world-culture may be briefly sketched as follows. 1. The Contribution of the Jews to World Culture Jewish Type of Culture-——The Jews possessed, as the Talmud and the Old Testament show, a great mass of valid technical and general knowl- edge, but they lacked the power of logical abstrac- tion. ‘This showed itself in two ways: they could not frame definitions of objects but only gave de- scriptions, neither had they the right conception of law, but meant by law merely the precepts of a ruler. Consequently they had no real science and Intellectual and Cultural World = 31 philosophy and very little art; the latter being discouraged by the 2nd commandment. Pre-Christian Judaism had developed two chief types of theology and philosophy: (1) Pharisaic scribism in Palestine and east of it—conservative and narrow. It was strenuously opposed to the spread of Greek culture, and some Rabbis pro- nounced a ban on all who studied “ Greek wisdom.” (2) Hellenism or Alexandrianism, which term denotes Judaism under the influence of Greek philosophy. The great leaders of this movement, Philo and others, made the ambitious attempt to show that there exists an entire harmony between the Old Testament Scriptures and Greek philoso- phy, making use of the allegorical method of inter- pretation. This Alexandrian type of teaching dif- fered materially from Pharisaic rabbinism as to subject, general spirit and broad-mindedness. Angelology was highly developed, a hierarchy of angels being conceived of as the mediators between God and man, administering the world and cul- minating finally in a Logos. But Philo’s Logos was nothing more than an adaptation to Jewish conceptions of Plato’s “ ideas ” and the “ imminent reason” of the Stoics. Jewish Interature-—The specific Jewish con- tribution to world culture consisted mainly in their rich literature which falls into five classes:—(1) The Old Testament canon, which was probably collected and closed by Ezra and other scribes. About 285 3B. c. these books were translated into 82 ‘The Writings of the New Testament Greek and are known as the Septuagint (LXX).— (2) The Apocrypha (“ hidden,” referring to sus- pected authorship, but generally meaning only extra-canonical), form a group of 14 or 17 books written in the Greek language between 200 B. c. and the time of Christ. They are the product of the Hellenistic Jews, incorporated into the LXX, but excluded from the Hebrew Canon. Their titles are I & II Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Jeremy, Song of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manassas and I to IV Macca- bees —(3) The Apocalyptic books (“ uncover,’ ) the most important of which are the book of Enoch, Secrets of Enoch, Book of Jubilees, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Psalms of Solomon, Sibylline Oracles, Assumption of Moses. Their common characteristics are: the vision form, expressed in symbolical figures, phantastic beasts and mystic numbers, a highly developed angelology, pseudonymity (False name of au- thors), a “pessimistic optimism,’ peculiar the- ological ideas on sin, the Messiah, resurrection, judgment, punishment, reward, restoration of the world. The influence of these books on the N. T. is shown in the form of whole N. T. books, (Rev.), or of parts (Matt. 24; II Thess. 2: 2-12); in prominent phrases, as “Son of Man,” (Dan. 7: 13), “day of judgment ’’; in quotations (Jude 14, from Enoch; Jude 9, from Ass. of Moses). some of their subject-matter is freely adopted Intellectual and Cultural World 383 and spiritualized in the N. T.—(4) General Jewish Iiterature.—(1) Philo’s works (20 B. c.-53 A.D.), who was the most prominent exponent of Alex- andrianism. His aim was to show the perfect harmony between Old Testament religion and Greek philosophy by the use of the allegorical method of interpretation which enabled him to ex- plain away whatever seemed to obstruct the attain- ment of his object. John’s Gospel may have bor- rowed from him the general idea of the logos (John 1:1). (2) Josephus (87-103 a. D.), a Jewish priest, first a general of the Jewish rebels in Galilee, later a protégé of Titus. He wrote: 1. Antiquities, the History of the Jews, 2. Jewish War, 38. Against Apion, and 4. An Autobiography. He wrote in Greek and Aramaic and his works serve the N. T. student greatly with reference to names, dates and the historical background in general—(5) The Talmud (“ doctrine,’ from the Hebrew “lamad”—he has learned) is an enor- mous collection of all kinds of Jewish traditions, divided into (1) the Talmud of Jerusalem and (2) the Talmud of Babylon. Each collection is di- vided into (1) the Mishna, or second law, consist- ing of Rabbinical interpretations of the Mosaic law and other traditions, and (2) the Gemara, being comments by rabbis on the text of the Mishna. (For selections, see Edersheim, “In the Days of Christ,” 309.) 34 The Writings of the New Testament 2. Greek Contributions to World Culture Greece contributed to civilization a most beauti- ful, pliable language as a means of world com- munication and thus greatly facilitated the spread of the Gospel. Greek art, literature and philosophy ruled the world in which Christ lived absolutely, as they still do ours to a large extent. Especially in their philosophy and theology they grappled with the three never dying problems of ontology, epistemol- ogy and of ethics, raising the important questions: What are the ultimate factors that account for the origin of the world and its continuance; what is truth; is it mere opinion; can man acquire a knowl- edge of ultimate reality; are our senses trust- worthy; and if they are, how may the many dif- ferences of opinion on the same subject be ex- plained ; what is the summum bonum; how may we get rid of tradition and breathe the purer air of liberty as to ethical standards? The three most influential schools of philosophy in the first century were the Epicureans, the Cynics and the Stoics—(1) The Epicureans were free thinking scientists, holding that matter was the only ultimate reality and that the senses were the only guides to be trusted in the quest for truth. All the current superstitions they unhesitatingly threw overboard. ‘They were ready to grant that the gods existed, but not that they exerted any direct influence on the life of men. The crowning virtue of the Epicureans was their sturdy loyalty Intellectual and Cultural World 35 to facts as they saw them. Their philosophy, how- ever, was cold, entirely devoid of higher inspira- tion. (Paul at Athens).—(2) Cynicism, whose founder was a pupil of Socrates, aimed to teach men how to live true to nature. This ideal was often carried to crude extremes. The Cynic philosophers were sincerely devoted to the interests of the masses. Most of them lived lives of noble self-sacrifice and undoubtedly exerted a great in- fluence on the people. (3) A very popular philos- ophy was Stoicism. It taught that the ultimate reality in the universe was not matter but reason, and that the final source of reason was God. It is the Logos, or divine Reason, which binds men to God. All men, therefore, are divine in so far as that divine Reason enters into them and they fol- low its guidance. Like Christ, they taught that the supreme task in life was to do the divine will, and that the will of God is done by living a virtu- ous life in the service of man. In theory at least, Stoicism was democratic, for it taught that all men possessed the divine Reason. They believed that pain and suffering possess a positive value in de- veloping the individual and that therefore they should be patiently and joyously borne. In dealing with the old mythologies they, like the Jews of the dispersion, employed the allegorical method of in- terpretation. Stoics advocated the retention of the older forms of religion, as long as they were helpful in developing the individual. Regarding man’s future immortality, their teachings, espe- 86 The Writings of the New Testament cially in the first Christian century, were vague and uncertain. Note—These philosophies, especially Stoicism, prepared the Greco-Roman world for Christianity: (1) negatively. The denial by the Epicureans and Academics of objective truth and the immortality of the soul, making pleasure the end of life, led to a frightful debasement of morals. Greek philosophy had exhausted the possibilities of the uninspired human mind, and the world was sadly in need of one who could say “I am the way and the truth and the life.” (2) positively. ‘The belief of the Stoics and others, that all men were children of God, that communication between him and them was possible and that the end of existence was to do God’s will by living a virtuous and self-sacrificing life pre- pared men for accepting Christianity which, as to its essence, is most certainly a religion of practical piety and holiness of life. The doctrine of the Logos, or Divine Reason, as the bond between God and man was also destined to exert a powerful influence upon certain phases of Christian thinking, finding acceptance in the opening verses of John’s Gospel. 3. Roman Contribution to World Culture In philosophy, art and science the Romans were greatly dependent on the Greeks, but in working out principles of government, and in the capacity for organizing human affairs they are still in part the teachers of the world. By them the whole civilized world was welded into an organic whole in which law and order were enforced. By the ex- tension of Roman citizenship throughout the prov- inces, life was protected. Rome proved to be a civilizing influence of first quality by ruthlessly enforcing the “pax Romana,” upon the peoples encircling the Mediterranean; by breaking down many political and racial barriers, thus preparing the nations for the idea of a world citizenship; by Intellectual and Cultural World 37 the building of the famous Roman highways over valleys, mountains and rivers, admired and used to this day, thus making travel easier and more rapid; by its imperial postal service which promoted inter- course and commerce. Moreover, Christ’s time was the “ golden age” of Roman literature, made illustrious by a large group of writers in prose and poetry. Its splendor and activity in art was such as had seldom existed in the history of the human race. Architectural works. Cesar Augustus himself built twelve temples, repaired 82 which had fallen into decay, laid out the new Forum Julium, completed the large Basilica Julia, constructed a mausoleum for himself. He could say “I have found a Rome of brick and left it one of marble.” oman art. The arch was developed into the dome as employed in the Pantheon. Greek art, especially the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian style of architecture, was in- troduced. Literature—Poets: Virgil died in 19 B. C., wrote the A‘neid; Horace, died 8 A. D., is the model of lyric poetry. His odes, satires and epistles are models of wisdom. Ovid, died 17 a. D., wrote Metamorphoses. Prose writers: Sallust, Livy, the greatest of Roman historians, Nepos, Julius Cesar. Maecenes, a chosen counsellor of Augustus, was a munificent patron of literature, encouraging men like Horace and Virgil. States- men and orators: Cicero. Philosophers: Seneca, Cicero, Epictetus. CHAPTER V THE RELIGIOUS WORLD OF JESUS AND HIS APOSTLES Literature: Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the va- rious subjects. Riggs, “ History of the Jewish People, Pe Paoee S., “History of N. T. Times,” Chap. XIII on “ Messianic Hope.” bP 105-116 and 215- WueEn the Apostles offered the world a new religion they did not find virgin soil to cultivate, but rather a field occupied by many formidable competitors. Paul’s clever “captatio benevo- lentiz ’’ at Athens (Acts 17: 22) was literally true of the whole world. 1. The Religious Life of the Jews The majority of the Jews in Christ’s time, in Palestine and in the diaspora, were intensely relig- ious, even to fanaticism. Some of the bright fea- tures of Jewish religious life were its glowing Messianic hopes its rich literature throbbing with high ideals; its missionary zeal; its religious re- vivals at the reunions on the great feasts; its Bible study in the synagogues; its strength to produce martyrs; its pious characters, such as Zacharias and Elizabeth, Mary, Simeon, Nicodemus, Hillel, Gamaliel. The dark side of first century Judaism 38 Religious World of Jesus 39 appears in its religious factionalism, its external- ization of religion, its perversion of the Messianic ideal ; its bigotry and political fanaticism. Religious Parties, There were three religious sects among the Jews, the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes, which may be generally characterized as the conservative formalists, the advanced free thinkers and the mystical pietists or monks. (1) The Pharisees (from the Hebrew parash, “separated,” that is, people who by their superior holiness distinguished themselves from the multi- tude) numbered about 6,000 in the time of Christ. They were the popular party, narrow in their orthodoxy, anti-foreign, and had the majority in the Sanhedrin. Besides the written law, they held to an “oral law” which was a digest of Jewish traditions, now a part of the Talmud. At Christ’s time it was esteemed higher than the written law, but was condemned by him as a source of great error. They believed in the resurrection of the dead, and in Divine providence acting side by side with the free will of man. In the time of Christ they were divided doctrinally into several schools, among which those of Hillel (liberal) and Shamai (conservative) are most noted. As a class they represented the best morality; many were ascetics. Josephus compares them to the Stoics. Some in- dividuals were very good men (Nicodemus, Joseph of Arimathea, Gamaliel, Hillel, Shamai and St. Paul). Large numbers later joined the Christian church. As a class, they were opposed to Christ, 40 The Writings of the New Testament because of his humble origin and lack of higher education (Matt. 13:55; John 7: 15); because of the company he kept (Luke 15: 2); and because he opposed ceremonialism and their wrong idea of the Sabbath. Christ opposed them because of their perversion of the Messianic ideal, national narrow- ness, religious formalism and _ self-righteousness. Their influence on the Apostolic Church is seen in the attitude of the Judaizers who imsisted on cir- cumcision as a condition of salvation. (2) The Sadducees derive their name from Zadoc, the priest who declared in favor of Solomon when Abiathar took the part of Adonijah (1 Kings 13: 32-45), or from the Hebrew word “ tsadik,” righteous. They constituted a kind of sacerdotal aristocracy, counting among their adherents the families of the governing class under Herod (Acts 5:17). The Sadducees denied the leading beliefs of the Pharisees, and especially the authority of the oral law, the resurrection, future punishment and reward. Christ seldom came in contact with them, while the Apostles did. The Essenes (probably meaning “seer” or the “silent,” the “mysterious ”’) were an ascetic sect, which aspired to ideal purity and divine commu- nion. They were communists living in isolated set- tlements, the best known of which was on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea. ‘They are not mentioned in the New Testament, and the prob- ability is that the Lord never came in contact with any of them. ‘Their ceremonial washings and the Religious World of Jesus 41 reverence paid to the sun, point to Persian influ- ence, while their asceticism and the community of goods have a Pythagorian cast. ‘They wore white garments. Professions and Factions. (1) The Scribes (identical with the “ lawyers ’’) were copyists, cus- todians and interpreters of the Old Testament Scriptures. As formalists, worshipping the mere letter of the law, they called forth some of the sharpest rebukes of Jesus (Matt. 5: 20; 23: 2, 3, etc.). Asa class they belonged to the Pharisaic party—(2) The Zealots shared the sentiments of the Pharisees, but they were “ direct actionists,” insisting on war against Rome. Their agitation at last brought on the great Jewish war (A. D. 66-70), with its terrible result. (8) The Herodians were a political faction which supported the house of Herod and the Romans. (4) The Proselytes were Gentile worshippers of Jehovah. Large numbers of high-minded Gentiles were attracted by the purer faith and higher morality of the Jews. Their number in Christ’s time is estimated as high as 700,000. There were two classes of them: (a) Proselytes of the Gate, which may mean that they went as far as to the gate of full Judaism, which is circumcision, or that they were permitted to pro- ceed only to a certain gate in the Temple beyond which the uncircumcised were warned not to pro- ceed under penalty of death. They bound them- selves to avoid blasphemy, idolatry, uncleanness, theft, etc. They are also called, “ God-fearing 42 The Writings of the New Testament 39 men.” Most of the proselytes belonged to this class. (Cornelius.) (0) Proselytes of Right- eousness, who fulfilled “ all righteousness,” that is, they were circumcised, and kept the law. Religious Services and Sacred Building. The Jews had two systems of religious service, the Temple system, which was hierarchical, formal and exclusive, and the Synagogue system, which was popular and free. (1) The Temple Area at Jerusalem in Christ’s time was bounded by a wall with seven gates. Inside were three quadrangular “ Courts,” rising one above another, separated by walls of partition, and encircled by marble cloisters. The outer was, “ The Court of Gentiles.” Within and above this, entered through nine gates, 60 feet high, overlaid with gold and silver, was the “ Court of Israel”? for the Jews only, the eastern half being set apart as the “ Court of Women,” the limit of approach for Jewish women. On a higher terrace was the “Court of the Priests.” The Temple Proper, 120 feet long, stood on a yet higher level at the western end of the ‘‘ Priests Court,” opposite the Brazen Altar. Its front was a porch 180 feet high, covered with gold and precious stones. Be- hind it was the Holy Place, opening through the great veil into the Holy of Holies. Inthe Temple services 20,000 priests, assisted by twice as many Levites, in 24 courses, each serving one week in turn, were in charge. The Levites were guards, porters, musicians, etc. Only priests could sacri- Religious World of Jesus 43 fice or burn incense. Two daily public services were held at 9 A. M. and 3 P. M. (2) The Synagogue. (1) Origin. During the Captivity where no Temple Service was possi- ble—(2) Universality. Wherever ten heads of families could be found, there a Synagogue would be established, in and outside of Palestine. In Jerusalem were 460, and every nationality had its own (Acts 6:9).—(8) Arrangements of the Building: Oblong in shape, it contained an “ ark ” —a chest for the sacred rolls—at the end of the building looking toward Jerusalem, a platform and a reading desk. The seats were carefully graded according. to tank. The “chief seats’’ for the elders and leading men were elevated, around the “ark.” Gentile visitors were allowed near the door. A lattice gallery where women could wor- ship without being seen—(4) Officers: Three rulers of the Synagogue (one of whom was the ruler), who conducted the worship and possessed limited judicial authority. The “servant,” (Luke 4: 20), who united the functions of sexton, school- master and constable, to pass judgment on offend- ers.—(5) Services: Held on Saturday, Monday and Thursday. They consisted of prayer, reading and remarks. ‘The selections were from the Law and the Prophets, according to an appointed order (Acts 15: 21), called Parashim and Haphtharim, like our church pericopes. The Sacred Year. ‘The Jews of Christ’s time observed seven solemnities, six of them feasts, and 44 The Writings of the New Testament one a fast; only the first five were appointed by the Law of Moses. Trumpets and Purim are not mentioned in the New Testament. ‘Their order in the Jewish calendar is as follows: Name Time Event Commemorated Passover, 14 Nisan—April, Exodus. Pentecost, Sivan—May, Harvest Home and Giving of the Law. Trumpets, 1 Tizri—Sep- tember, New Year. Atonement, 10 Tizri—Octo- ber, Repentance. Tabernacles, 15 Tizri—Octo- ber, Life in the Desert. Dedication, Chisleu 25—De- Rededication of the cember, Temple. Purim, 14 Adar—March Plot of Haman. The Religion of the Samaritans. This people was a mixed race which sprang up in Northern Israel after the fall of the Kingdom of Israel, in B. C. 722, as a result of the intermarriage of the heathen Assyrian colonists (II Kings 17: 24-41) with the remnants of the Israelites left in the land. On this account they were bitterly hated by the Jews (John 4:9) and their offer to assist in the rebuilding of the second Temple was rejected (Ezra 4). Upon this they built their own temple on Mount Gerizim, where they conducted a sort of Jehovah worship (II Kings 17:25). Of the Jewish canon they accepted only the Pentateuch. They observed the Passover and still do so. They Religious World of Jesus 45 expected the Messiah, not as a king, but to teach them all things (Deut. 18: 15; John 4: 25). 2. Pagan Religious Conditions Literature: Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the various subjects. lover, “ The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Angus, “Environment of Early Christianity,” 74, 85, 108, 133-134. Case, “ Evolution of Early Christianity,” 210, 284, 308, 331. Kennedy, ' ‘St. Paul and the Mystery Religions.” Sheldon, “ The Mystery Religions and the New Testa- ment.” Hatch, “ The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages Upon the Christian Church.” Dark and Bright Aspects. Here also we should distinguish between a dark and a bright side. Usually the first is overemphasized, but the new science of comparative religions enables truth- loving scholars to see the other side also. The dark side is well known. At the time of Christ, disbelief in popular religion had become very gen- eral among the educated class, who despised cur- rent mythology. But the same people became the ready dupes of all kinds of quacks and foreign cults, being imposed upon by Oriental priests, sor- cerers, soothsayers and astrologers, like Apollonius of Tyana (3 B. c. to 96 a. D.). The practice of deifying and worshipping the emperors exerted a most degrading influence on the religious life. Harlots, like Poppzea, Nero’s wife, were deified, and sacrifices were offered for the preservation of 46 The Writings of the New Testament “Nero's divine voice.’ But there was also a bright side. Religion was far from being dead. It was a subject of very general interest, being discussed by poets, philosophers and even states- men. ‘The very criticism of traditional religion by educated men evinces interest in the subject. Au- gustus strove to restore religion to its former posi- tion, and even assumed personally the office of Pontifex Maximus. Many pagans, to satisfy their religious cravings, embraced Judaism; (“ prose- lytes”). Moreover, satirists like Juvenal and Lucian who are usually quoted by Christian writers to prove the complete decadence of pagan religion, have been proven to be perverters of the real facts. As 1s the case in our own days, it did not suit the purpose of these humorists to portray in their true colors—if indeed they had the ability to appreciate —the deeper current of religious life among their people. Four systems of pagan religion in Christ’s time may be distinguished: (1) the traditional re- ligion; (2) the religion of the philosophers; (3) the Emperor-Worship; (4) the Mystery Cults. (1) In the popular religion, long before the first century, the gods of Greece had been merged in thought into those of ancient Rome in such a way that a regular Pantheon developed, consisting of a great variety of gods, some purely Greek, like Apollo, some purely Roman, like Janus. Gradu- ally a kind of theology was worked out to bring some uniformity into the contradictory beliefs Religious World of Jesus V6 of the people, but this endeavor was as little successful as similar attempts by Christian the- ologians. The poems of Homer were still the Bible of traditional pagan religion and the stand- ard of orthodoxy. The more grotesque and im- moral features of the Homeric gods were ex- plained away by the allegorical method of inter- pretation. (2) By the Religion of Philosophy we under- stand the more clarified and elevated religious ideas held by the educated class in the Greco-Roman world. It showed many varieties, corresponding to the different types of philosophy then current. Their attitude toward popular religion was one of criticism. They expressed, e. g., strong dissent from many of the more grotesque features of con- temporaneous polytheism, especially to the scandal- ous immoralities attributed to the gods by Homer. “ Self-respecting men would never act so disgrace- fully, much less would real gods thus deport them- selves,” says Cicero in his De Nat. Deorum. As to the origin of the idea of gods, Democritus anticipated Schopenhauer and other modern phi- losophers in tracing the beliefs in gods to the fear which the more terrible phenomena of nature— thunder, lightning, earthquakes, eclipses—awak- ened in men. Others held that beings considered as gods were merely deified heroes. Pantheism, the belief that the universe itself was god, was strongly advocated by many Greeks and Orientals. This view resulted in the defication, not only of 48 'The Writings of the New Testament the heavenly bodies but also of the elements—fire, air, water, and earth, as well as the phenomena of time—seasons, months, weeks, days, hours. Radi- cal philosophers advocated a religion of fatalism. For example, Demetrius, in the fourth century B. C., considered mere chance, fortune (réyy), the cause of all that happens. By far the larger number of the educated classes in the first century leaned more and more toward what is called syncretism, which denotes a system of merging the different religions, in the belief that the gods of the various national religions were only different names for the same being. It is still polytheistic. For ex- ample, it was an act of syncretism when the Romans identified their Minerva with the Greek Athena and their Jupiter with the Greek Zeus. This growing sentiment accounts for the tolerant attitude of Rome toward foreign religions. Em- peror Severus (third century) is said to have placed in his private sanctuary even the busts of Moses and Jesus beside those of Jupiter and Apollos. (3) Emperor Worship——From hoary antiquity priests and rulers succeeded in making the people believe that kings were divine beings. In ancient Egypt and Babylon they were believed to be divine through an incarnation, and were credited with preéxistence and miraculous, divine conception. In Greece and Rome the ruler was believed to be a man who by heroic deeds exalted himself to be a god. In the Roman empire this Emperor-Wor- Religious World of Jesus 49 ship became increasingly popular, because it served the need of a unifying principle in this diversified empire. The mode of worship usually consisted in burning incense before the bust of the emperor, erected in public places. This was considered a test of patriotism and loyalty and the refusal was punished as treason to the state. This Emperor cult throws light on several otherwise dark pas- sages of the New Testament, such as Rev. 13: 16; it also explains the reasons for the bloody persecu- tions of the Church until 311 a. D. and in subse- quent ages. The Christians were charged with treason because they preached the kingship of Jesus (Acts 17: 7) and refused to worship the Emperor ON BEDE (4) The Mystery Cults——The word stands for a religious system the ideas and rites of which must be closely guarded by those possessing them, the “initiated.” Among the large number of mystery religions, the “ Eleusinian Mysteries” were the most famous.—Features common to all of these mysteries are the following: (1) All are in essence nature-worship, the deities being merely personifications of nature and its processes: the female deity representing the principle of fertility and the male god that of redemption and both symbolizing the sterility of nature in winter and the returning life in spring. (2) All claim to satisfy the deep craving in man for individual sal- vation which in its primitive expression is as old as the race. (3) All are “ Saviour-religions,” that 50 The Writings of the New Testament is, they offer help coming from outside of man, through a god, instead of “ Attainment-Religions,” according to which man himself must work out his own salvation, as Stoicism insisted. (4) All hold out as the chief blessing to the initiated a blessed immortality in the presence of the gods. (5) Most of these cults also promised present salvation, in the form of moral improvement, by means of a mystical union between the deity and the initiated. (6) All tried to meet man’s craving for socia- bility. They were “brotherhoods,” “ lodges,” “churches,” if you please. (7) All prescribed an elaborate ritual. (8) All rites were calculated to work chiefly on the emotions, to impress rather than indoctrinate. Note—Some knowledge of these mystery cults will be of assistance in the study of the New Testament, (1) because terms and allusions to these “ mysteries” are found through- out the New Testament, especially in Paul’s writings (1 Cor. 2:6, 7; Col. 2:21). (2) These cults show that Christianity was neither the first nor the only religion which offered “salvation” in the first century. Neither the concept nor the name originated with the Church. (3) But the survival of Christianity in spite of these most tremendous conflicts, carried on with physical as well as intellectual attacks, proves conclusively that the Gospel is in a special sense the power of God unto salvation, and that Christianity did not originate as one of these many “ Saviour-religions,” as some radical scholars, like Jensen, Drew and Smith hold. (4) These saviour religions, however, furnished the preachers of the true “Saviour religion” a most excellent approach (Acts 17:23). It is a psychological truth confirmed by experience that religious progress is exceedingly difficult with minds which are tabula rasa. CHAPTER VI SOCIAL AND MORAL CONDITIONS IN THE BURST CERN TORY Literature: Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the different subjects. Edersheim, “In the Days of Christ. , Delitzsch, “ Jewish Artisan Life.” “ Quo Vadis, Bi Chapy13) deed ‘Environment of Early Christianity,” pp. 37, 44, 50, 52, 55, 66 Lecky, ‘History of European Morals.” Clement, “Rome the Eternal City” (2 vol.). Gilbert, « Jesus,” pp. 87-114 (“ The World of Jesus”). Davis, “ The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome.” Farrar, Early Days of Christianity,” pp. 1-52. p tucker, * ‘Life in the Roman World of Nero and St aul Uhlhorn, “Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism” (Chaps. XI and XV). 1. Social and Moral Conditions Among the Jews As a nation, the Jews in Palestine as well as in the Diaspora, stood higher in morality than the heathen world; but Christ’s frequent denunciations of divorce, the oppression by the rich, the hypoc- risy and the corruption of the religious leaders, as well as Romans, Chap. 2, show that even the Jews fell far below the ideal. 2. Social Classes in the Grzeco-Roman World Society in the first century was greatly diversified 51 52 The Writings of the New Testament both because of the mixture of nationalities and on account of wide differences between individuals as to their stations in life. ‘There were four social classes then, as now. (1) Court life was almost wholly bad. The conduct of the emperors and of most of the known “ court-ladies”’ prove it. Old Roman simplicity had long ago made room for Oriental ideas, customs and adornments. (2) The class of the very rich comprised the office- holders, the landlords, and the military officers. These two classes combined to rule the people, whatever form of government obtained. (3) A fairly prosperous middle class, the “ bourgeoisie.” They were the traders, and peace, order and good roads encouraged commerce. This class was, how- ever, small, for labor was considered a disgrace. Among the 1,200,000 inhabitants of Rome at Christ’s time’ (Cie. De Off) 1112) there ayers scarcely 2,000 proprietors. (4) The largest class consisted of “free” laborers and slaves. Many of the latter were skilled workingmen, tradesmen and educators. 3. Slavery in Christ’s Time The population of the entire Roman empire was 120 millions. Of these 40 millions were in Europe, 7 millions in Italy. Of the 120 millions, 60 millions were slaves, 40 millions tributaries and freedmen, and only 20 millions citizens. The army numbered 400,000, the navy 50,000. The number of slaves increased with Roman conquests. In Italy there Social Conditions in the First Century 53 were 1,300,000, and in the whole empire, 6,000,- 000. They were harshly treated, sometimes thrown into ponds to sweeten the meat of the fishes. A law was advocated by which, when a master was murdered, all his slaves (as being considered under suspicion) should be put to death. Slaves were frequently liberated by their masters (“ freedmen ” or “ Libertines,’ Acts 6:9). But in such cases most of these merely swelled the numbers of the dependent proletariat, who eked out a living with difficulty in the overcrowded centers of population. For survival of the fittest in society does not mean elimination but rather distress for the unfit; for they remain with us. This class became so large and sometimes so threatening that even the rulers concerned themselves with the situation, from political, if not from humane motives. For the enormous wealth in the hands of a few created a sense of insecurity and terror. The slave insurrec- tion led by Spartacus was one of the bloodiest. ‘To prevent such clashes, wealthy men and the govern- “ment distributed corn, while the Cynic-Stoic preachers of morality tried to administer temporary relief by teaching men to endure hardship unfal- teringly. 4, Moral Conditions in Christ’s Time The moral degradation of the period when Christ lived has rarely been equalled and perhaps never exceeded in the annals of mankind. It may be judged from the following facts: (1) Paul’s 54 The Writings of the New Testament dark picture of pagan wickedness in Rom, 1: 18- 32, which should not be regarded as a judgment from too lofty a moral standpoint, for all that he says is confirmed by pagan authors. (2) The excavated objects of Pompeii give us a faint glimpse of the horrible nature of the vice and crime at this period as a testimony to the fruit of heathen- ism. (3) The bare mention of the names of the emperors condemns a people which endured them. (4) Luxury passed all bounds and was too horrible for description. Among the rich, the disgusting practice was in vogue to prepare for dinner by taking an emetic. Emperor Vitellius, in less than eight months, spent several millions on feasts. Games on the most lavish scale continued for weeks and months. (5) The very rites of religion were used to satisfy unnatural lust. (6) Family life among the Romans had once been a sacred thing, and for 520 years divorce had been unknown. But under the Empire marriage was regarded with disfavor. Women, says Seneca, married in order to be divorced and were divorced in order to marry. ‘They counted the years, not by the Con- . suls, but by the number of their divorces. Chil- dren were regarded as a burden, and their educa- tion handed over to slaves. The exposure of in- fants and the practice of abortion was general. Tacitus wrote his Germania as a “ tendency book,” intended for the purpose of holding up before his educated, but demoralized, countrymen a people, uncivilized, but possessing great virtues. In it he Social Conditions in the First Century 55 says of Rome: “ Currumpere et corrumpi saeculum est”’ (to corrupt and be corrupted is the spirit of the times). But it must be added that high ideals and persons of noble lives were not wanting entirely. Note—The above six chapters give a faint idea of the environment (the “ Umwelt”) of the N. T. writings and a careful study of them will furnish a background which will greatly assist the student in understanding the N. T. books as a whole as well as individual passages. Chronology of the Apostolic Age The following chart may serve the student of the following chapters for quick orientation and reference, though in the nature of the case most of the dates are only of approximate value. (See, Robertson, “Syllabus for N. T. Studies,’ VII- XII.) The Life of Christ Bir One OWN tUe) DADLISh, wie ss eicteigalaeeas oe June 25,B.¢C 5 MEL OA OSS GeLTISt Rc Pace yee ot se 6 ek December 25, B. Cc. 5 RPIECUINCISION +S Gh) CSIIS ae oe ous v'els's aie'e's cays January I, B. Cc. 4 Presentation in the Temple...... Biraideta et February 2, B. C. 4 Pye p Lage he Hg ba UCD Oo 8 By gS tan iN a Ia MOL A SRD B. C. 4-3 The Boy Jesus at the Temple.............. April 8, a. vp. 8 Beginning of John the Baptist’s Ministry..Summer, A. D. 26 pening ofo@brist's) Ministry... sls vs ee 3 8 January, A. D. 27 MeatwOr Onn. the baptist sidacey ety cee es March, A. D. 29 Entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday...... April 2, A. D. 30 Institution of the Lord’s Supper, Thursday, April 6, a. D. 30 Cruciteciom, and Burials soc 0... Friday, April 7, A. D. 30 Pe SILUPEGUOI: pou ake ails sige vibe oh Sunday, April 9, A. D. 30 PRALELISIC eric is dette te eal, ahs Thursday, May 18, A. D. 30 The Apostolic Church MUTILOCUSE MAT SIU hi id came parce oles Sunday, May 28, a. D. 30 Mme rMOTeOte tenella. cvs s fadyGes ne woven ctenes A. D. 35 RrereiCHMO Le PAn lu ewe n P Loe ah Aye pen Nn A. D. 30 56 ‘The Writings of the New Testament Paulin ArabiatandJerusalemiyie vies se casees A. D. 36-39 Six ¥ ears, 01) Silence in Paul's Life ies csc tsme tale 30-45 Mattyr's Death of James the tidery)..)..tbtecs see ees be 44 Ranls one lyear s work ati Antioch yya uy. «ste senaas PAUL SW RILSte WiissiOnaLy h) OULUEVE ny amen nats a Cee ie 46-49 The Apostolic Council at: Jerusalem.) os... 0.02. 383 50 Paulisiisecond) Missionary, OUrney ie wea pee eee 51-54 Pads’) nird Missionary JOURNEY se seu oeics Soe welts ne 54-58 Paul’s Imprisonment at-Jerusalem and Cesarea.......58-60 Pals Voyare toiRomeusiy ee chee sun ee Ue omen 60-01 Paul's (First: Roman (Imprisonment) tuoi. os eek eee 61-63 Deathiot) James, the Lords! Brother, oe pe eer ay 62 Panlspeourths Missionary: JOurneyis ue ee a ae aaa 63-05 Paul’s Second Roman Imprisonment and Deaths. = 66-67 Peter s(Death oats a Whol een Gur nnn Aeon Utd vem ORLA ee 67 Westruchon! Oly ereSalem: wer oo wa aa Rone ene August, 70 Last Years of the Apostle John............cescccece 70-100 General Review of Part I 1. Geography.—Names, physical and political divisions of Palestine—Name important provinces and islands of the Roman empire 2. History—Name foreign nations ruling Palestine since 722 B. C—Rule of Herod the Great and the rulers of the Palestinian provinces after Herod’s death.—An account of the Jewish war and the revolt under Hadrian—The two branches of the Jews and the method of taxation——The Roman emperors of the first century. 3. Culture and Civilization —Jewish contribution: the five classes of Jewish literature—Greek contribution: Greek lan- guage; the principal schools of Greek philosophy.—Roman contribution, 4. Religious Conditions.—The three Jewish sects; Jewish factions; the two systems of Jewish worship; the Jewish sacred year.—The Samaritan religion The four systems of Greco-Roman religion. 5. Social and Moral Conditions.—Different social classes; moral life of Jews and Gentiles :—family, children. PeACn ie LI General Introduction to The New ‘Testament CHAPTER VII CHARACTER, NAME AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE N. T. WRITINGS Literature: ; Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the different subjects. Souter, “Text and Canon of the N. T.,” pp. 156-158. Gregory, “Canon and Text of the N. T.,” p. 467. General Introduction treats of the N. T. as a whole, as a collection of books:—of its character, name, classification, form, language, canon, criti- cism, interpretation, etc. Note—As in Special Introduction, in Part III, frequent references will occur to the language, the manuscripts, the canon, etc., of the New Testament, it will facilitate our work to have General Introduction precede Special Introduction. Character of the N. T. Literature The N. T. is not one logically connected book, but a loose collection of twenty-seven pamphlets and leaflets—a small and very diversified library, each part being written independently of the others, within a period of about forty years, for a definite purpose and with no thought of being or becoming a part of a larger whole. 37 58 The Writings of the New Testament The Collective Name, “ New Testament” The title of the N. T. collection in the Greek manuscripts is H KAINH AIA@HKH (“ He Kaine Diatheke’’), which is taken from the words of Christ in Luke 22: 20 and I Cor. 11: 25. The Greek term. “‘ Diatheke’’ is derived from the verb dcaréinu:, and its exact meaning in classical Greek, and probably also in Heb. 9:16, 17, is, therefore, “ disposition,” or “ arrangement,’ and hence, “the last will and testament ”’ of a person. The Latin Church Fathers translated the Greek title in this sense: ‘“‘Novum ‘Testamentum ” (‘New Testament”), and their translation has been adopted by subsequent translators into all other languages.—But in the LXX, and in the text of the N. T. books, é:a%jey is used in the sense of the Hebrew “berith,’ and the Greek cédvdney (“syntheke’’), which denotes a covenant between God and man, a mutual agreement, not a one-sided arrangement, like a “ will.” (Jer. 31: 31; Lukewt: 72; Gal. 3: 15.) —The American Standard Bible of 1900 has therefore rendered a distinct service to exact Bible study by adding this meaning to the time-honored title. (Look it up!) In all but one of the N. T. passages, the term applies to the transaction itself; only in II Cor. 3: 14, and very generally since the second century, it also signifies the documents, witnessing to the transaction and containing the terms of the cove- nant. ‘To-day we use the word in both senses. When and by whom the name “ The New Cove- Character, Name and Classification 59 nant’ was first attached to the collection of these 27 books is not known. By way of contrast, the ancient Church named the canonical books of the Jews, “‘ Old Covenant ” (II Cor. 8:14). The Jews themselves called their sacred books “ Scriptures” (II Peter 3: 16). Classification of the N. T. Books The N. T. books may be differently grouped, according to one’s object in view: (1) According to the general character of their contents they fall into three classes:—Five his- torical, twenty-one doctrinal, and one prophetic books. (Memorize them in this order!) Note—This threefold division is found in all Greek edi- tions and translations. But the order of the writings within these divisions differs in the various editions. In some Greek N. T. the order of the Gospels varies and in most of them the seven general epistles come immediately after Acts, followed by the Pauline epistles, while in all modern trans- lations the order of these two epistle groups is reversed.—In the English N. T. the order among the general epistles is: Hebrews, James, I and II Peter, I, II and III John, Jude, while in the German N. T. the order is: I and II Peter, I, II and Il] John, Hebrews, James, Jude. (2) According to Time of Composition:— (1) The oldest N. T. book is James’ letter....... 45-50 A. D. ee SEE UT UP CTHSTIES Li seine cote e trial ce Wlalgoieis ewed ;53-66 (3) The General epistles, Revelation and Hebrews, 60-75 (4) The synoptic Gospels and Acts.............. 66-75 Pe PLOUUEGIOSNGL hy eer a piete tac wis co Here eee about 90 More exact dates will be discussed in Special In- troduction. (8) According to Authorship.—Name the nine 60 'The Writings of the New Testament authors, giving in each case the books he has writ- ten. Four of these authors were Apostles (which?); two were companions of Apostles (which?); two were natural brothers of Jesus (which?) ; one was a Gentile by descent (which ?). (4) According to Critical Opinion regarding their authorship. (a) Universally accepted:—Synoptists, Acts, I and II Cor., Galatians, Romans, I Peter, I John. (b) Slightly disputed:—I and II Thess., the Imprisonment Epistles, James, Jude, Revelation, II and III John, Hebrews. (c) Seriously disputed:—Fourth Gospel, Paul’s Pastoral Epistles, II Peter. (Details will be discussed in Special Introduc- tion. ) (5) According to the progressive development of teaching, stressing the various types of doc- trine:— (a) Books recording Christ’s teaching, in its two types:—Synoptic Gospels and John’s Gospel. (b) Books containing the Apostolic primitive teaching:—Acts Chaps. 1-12; James, I and II Peter, and Jude. (c) Books containing Paul’s teaching:—Acts, Chaps. 18-28 and his thirteen epistles. (d) Books containing John’s type of Christian teaching:—The five books of John. Note—For intelligent Bible study a combination of No. 2 and 5 will give the best results. CHAPTER VIII ORIGINAL LANGUAGE AND FORM OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 1. Original Language of the New Testament Literature: Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the various subjects. Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” pp. 98-131. Schaff, “ Companion of the Greek N. T.,” pp. 1-80, 609. Milligan, “ Here and There Among the Papyri.” Angus, “ Environment of Early Christianity,” p. 209. Schaff-Herzog’s “ Encyclopedia,” V, 212. For elementary study of N. T. Greek:— Green, “ Brief Introduction to N. T. Greek”; Huddilston, “Essentials of N. T. Greek”; Robertson, “ Short Grammar of the Greek N. T.”; Machen, “N. T. Greek for Beginners.” THE Greek language being the intellectual bond of the civilized world in the Apostolic Age, the books of the N. T. were all written in that lan- guage. The supposition that some of them, like Matthew, John, James, and others, may first have been written in Aramaic and then translated, is quite plausible in view of the bilingual preaching of the Apostles, but definite proof is wanting. The N. T. Greek is known as Hellenistic Greek. Recent discoveries of papyri manuscripts in Egypt have disproved the old view that this was a dialect developed by the Jews alone, a “ Jewish Greek.” It was rather the common Greek of the first cen- 61 62 The Writings of the New Testament tury, spoken by all who used that language, modi- fied only to the extent of providing terms to ex- press the new religious ideas of Judaism and Christianity. It differed from the common Greek only as our “ pulpit English” differs from ordi- nary English. “ Note—The N. T. Greek differs from the popular Greek as follows: (1) In using Hebrew or Aramaic words, such as Abba, amen, mammon, manna, pascha, rabbi, rabbuni, sabbath, satan ; (2) In Hebraistic phrases and modes of construction: to taste death, to accept the face or person (partial); son of (belonging to) ; by two and two (pairwise) ; (3) In greater simplicity of style and construction of sentences by way of succession and parallelism rather than logical sequence. (Sermon on Mount, and Parables) ; (4) In putting into old Greek words Christian meanings: angel, apostle, flesh, gospel, faith, love, hope, mercy, peace, light, life, repentance, conversion, regeneration, redemption, justification, grace, Kingdom of heaven, Church. (5) The N. T. contains about 31 Latinisms, mostly terms of war, politics and business, chiefly in Mark, but also in Luke and Matthew. Ex.:—centurion, legion, pretorium, colony, census, denarius (penny, 16 cents) and many proper names, 2. The Externals of the Greek New Testament Literature: Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the various subjects. Souter, “ Text and Canon of the N. T.,” -9. Gregory, ‘ ‘Canon and Text of the N. 7. a PP. 207-383; 407-478. Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” pp. 3-88. Schaff-Herzog, “ Encyclopedia,’ Vol. II, pp. 100-102; 113-114. The writing material used by the N. 'T. authors Original Language 63 was papyrus (paper), made from the bark of an Egyptian tree, and therefore of slight durability. This and their frequent handling account for the fact that the autographs have perished, though recently a large number of papyri from the first century were discovered in Egypt. In the fourth century vellum and parchment (from “ Per- gamus”) and about the 8th century paper made of cotton, and later of linen, came into use. Note—The high cost of vellum and parchment led occa- sionally to the erasing of the N. T. text in order to use the material for copying other writings, as in the case of the “Codex Ephraim.” Such copies are called “ palimpsests,” or rescriptus, 7. é., “ written over” (Souter, 25). The form of the papyri manuscripts was the roll. With the parchment the book form came into use, with sheets of four double leaves all of which were usually bound together in a volume, with the writ- ing in three or four columns; later the continuous mode of writing over the entire width of the page appears. The instrument of writing was a reed pen (cal- amus, II John 12; III John 13). Goose quills and steel pens came into use about the 6th century. The ink was made of lamp-black mixed with gum and dissolved in water. Not long ago, a receptacle with ink was discovered near Haltern in Westphalia, Germany, where 11 B. c. the Roman general Drusus had his camp, and the chemists believe that the ink dates from that time. Its main ingredient was soot. Two styles of Letters:—(a) The oldest extant 64 The Writings of the New Testament manuscripts are written in uncials (Latin: “uncia” inch): stiff, unconnected letters, placed at equal distances apart, without spacing between the words or clauses, without accents, breathings and iota subscript. But few traces of marking paragraphs and aspiration signs are found in these manu- scripts. In Latin type the text would appear like this, only worse: IAMTHETRUTH.—(b) In the 9th century the uncial writing gradually merged into the cursives, and this became prevalent in the tenth, uncials being confined to copies of special value. Accents and iota subscript now came into general use. Punctuation Marks.—Our present system of punctuation for separating clauses and sentences was introduced into Latin books in the latter part of the fifteenth century by Manutius, a Venetian printer, who is also responsible for our full stop, colon, semi-colon, comma, marks of interrogation and exclamation, parenthesis and dash, hyphen, apostrophe and quotation marks. With some changes this system has been introduced into our present Greek texts, Note—The Greek poet Aristophanes, before Christ, and the German Emperor, Charles the Great, 800 a. p., had invented similar systems, but they soon fell into disuse. Divisions into Chapters and Verses.—The first to divide the Gospels into sections for the purpose of easy reference was Eusebius (4 cent.). The present division of chapters dates from Hugo a Sacto Caro, in the 18th century, and was trans- Original Language 65 ferred from the Vulgate into the first printed edi- tions of the Greek text. Robert Stavens, the printer, made the present division into verses in his edition of 1551. In some cases these divisions are incorrect, in- terfering with the logical connection of the sec- wonscucomills Lele CorierL): CHAPTER IX NEW TESTAMENT TEXTUAL CRITICISM Literature: | Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the dif- ferent subjects. Souter, ‘ Text and Canon,” pp. 111-145. Schaff, “ Companion to the Greek N. T.,” pp. 225-287; 497-525. Gregory, “ Canon and Text,” pp. 437-466. Vollmer, Philip, ‘The Reformation a Liberating Force,” p. 12. The Two Kinds of Biblical Criticism Biblical Criticism is a method of Bible Study _ with the sole object of ascertaining the truth with reference to the origin of the Bible. It is divided into :— (1) Textual Criticism, the aim of which is to restore the text of the originals; also called “Lower Criticism,” because it prepares the basis for literary or historical criticism, which latter is therefore called “ higher ” criticism. (2) Higher Criticism, which deals with the origin of each N. T. book separately. (See next chapter. ) Note 1:—The term “criticism,” from the Greek, zpiva, to sift, separate, examine, means careful examination, and must not be confused with its colloquial use of “ fault- finding.” ‘To criticise means to distinguish between the true and the false, between the correct and the incorrect, between the well-founded and the ill- founded, between things that 66 Textual Criticism 67 are facts and things that are not facts. Criticism is a quest for the truth. It also shows the excellencies of a work. Note 2:—As to its materials, both kinds of criticism are as old as Bible study itself, but as separate theological dis- ciplines they are children of modern research and the tendency to specialization. Need and Aim of Textual Criticism Its need arises: (1) From the loss of the origi- nals. ‘These originals, so Eusebius tells us, were burned when the Christian Churches were de- stroyed in the days of Diocletian and other per- secutors. This also explains why our oldest MSS. go no farther back than the fourth century. (2) From the vast variety of readings in extant manu- scripts, which necessitates an inquiry into the material from which our present Greek text is de- rived, and a decision on the rival claims of the various readings.—The sole aim of Textual Crit- icism is therefore to restore the text of the origi- nals, to ascertain what the Bible authors actually did write. Sectarian notions and private opinions, as to what they might or ought to have written, are out of the question. Number, Value and Origin of Variations The highest estimate of variations in the large number of the N. T. MSS. is only 150,000, while e. g., the few copies of the Roman author ‘Terence alone show no less than 30,000 variations. As to the value of these variations, at least 19 out of 20 are analogous to trifling errors in printed books, such as differences in the order of words, in 68 The Writings of the New Testament spelling, and hence of no consequence whatever. Of the remaining 20th no more than about 400 affect the meaning; and of these less than 100 in- volve any doctrinal or ethical teaching, without, however, invalidating any doctrine or moral duty, but only reducing the number of proof-texts for an important article of faith which is sufficiently sustained by other undoubted passages. There are three causes of these variations: (1) Omissions, caused by the eye or ear of the copyist. These are very few and occur mostly in cases of similarity of ending, 7. e., where a line or sentence closes with the same word as the preced- ing one, when the eye would glide from the first to the third line, omitting the second (I John 2: 23). (2) Additions, taken from parallel passages, O. T. quotations, lectionaries, liturgies, marginal notes, oral tradition. Ex.:—Doxology in the Lord’s Prayer (Matt. 6: 13); the note about the pool of Bethesda, John 5: 3-4; the woman taken in adultery, John 7: 53; the three witnesses in heaven, I John 5:7. (Examine every one!) (3) Misunderstandings, due to the similarity of Greek letters, the habit of using abbreviations, the resemblance of words in spelling or pronunciation, or to the aim of harmonizing. Ex.:—I John 1: 18: THeos or Utos;—Luke 2:14: Eupoxia or Eupoxias;—Rom. 5:1; Acts 20: 28: THrovu or Kuriou ;—I Tim. 3:18: THros or Os. (Look up every one!) Textual Criticism 69 History of N. T. Criticism As early as the third century attempts were made to eliminate the differences in the text of the various codices and to establish a uniform text, but with no lasting results. During the Middle Ages little was done toward establishing a purer Greek text: (1) because a real science of textual criticism was unknown; (2) the Church did not rely on the written word as exclusively as later Protestantism ; (8) uniformity of the wording in the N. T. was not considered essential; (4) a “critical apparatus ” was impossible; (5) a large part of the Greek- speaking Church was destroyed by Mohammedan- ism, while the rest was fighting for its very life; (6) the Roman Church regarded the Latin Vul- gate as its standard and few of her doctors under- stood Greek or Hebrew. The revival of learning in West-Europe (Renaissance or Humanism), which was greatly stimulated by the fall of Con- stantinople in 1453, as it occasioned the flight of Greek scholars to the West, greatly encouraged the study of Greek, and this again resulted in the scrutinizing of the Greek text of the N. T. The first printed Greek New Testament—the Complu- tensian Polyglot—was printed in 1514, but not published before 1521. So the edition of Eras- mus, published 1516 at Basel, is considered the first. Other editions followed, but all were based on that of Erasmus which, with few changes, thus became the “ Received Text” (“Textus Recep- tus,” abbrev. “ T. R.”), for over 200 years. Being 70 The Writings of the New Testament made before the most important MSS. were available and the science of textual criticism was developed, the T. R. is very inferior. During the 18. and 19. cent. some of the most important MSS. (‘ Vaticanus ’’) became available ; new MSS. were found (“ Sinaiticus”), and textual criticism developed into a real science. Since then the combined critical labors of specialists, like Wettstein, Griesbach, Lachmann, ‘Tischendorf, Westcott, Hort, Nestle and others have given us a purified and revised Greek text which in all es- sential points may be supposed to agree with the originals. The Sources for the Restoration of the Original Text Literature: Souter, “ Text and Canon,” pp. 10-93. Schaff, “ Companion to the Greek Testament,” pp. 84-141, 171-224. Consult the Bible Dictionaries and encyclopedias on the different subjects. Gregory, “Canon and Text of the N. T.,” pp. 329-436; 479-528. Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” PP. 432-528. Koenig, “ Deutsche Literaturgeschichte.” There are three kinds of sources for restoring the original text:—-Greek MSS.; ancient transla- tions and quotations in the books of the older Church Fathers. The first is the most important source. 1. Greek Copies of the N. T. The Greek MSS. are divided into “ Uncials” and “Cursives.” The uncials are older, dating from Textual Criticism 71 the 4. cent., and therefore the most valuable.— Their number found so far amounts to about 110; most of them are fragmentary; only one, the Codex Sinaiticus, is complete-—For brevity’s sake they are usually quoted by the capital letters of the Latin alphabet with the addition of Greek and Hebrew letters. The oldest and most important uncials are the following:— (1) Codex Sinatticus, known as codex ¥, dis- covered 1859 by Tischendorf in the Convent of St. Catherine at Mt. Sinai, now in the Imperial library of Leninegrad, published 1862. Dates from the age of Constantine the Great, about 330, writ- ten on fine parchment, four columns to a page. (Schaff, Companion, 103-311). (2) Codex Alexandrinus (A), of the fifth cen- tury, presented by Cyril Lucar of Constantinople to King Charles I of England in 1628, preserved in the British museum, published in photographic facsimile 1879. It has several gaps. The first 24 chapters of Matthew, two chapters of John, and 8 chapters of II Cor. being missing. It contains the epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians (defective) and a fragment of some homily: (3) Codex Vaticanus (B), from the age of Constantine; as old as the Sinaiticus and more carefully written, on very thin vellum, in clear neat uncial letters, in three volumes. Preserved in the Vatican library, for a long time almost inaccessible, but at last published in photographic facsimile in 1889. It breaks off at Heb. 9: 14 in the middle 72 The Writings of the New Testament of the verse with the word KatTuHariel. The last chapter of Hebrews, the Pastoral epistles, Philemon, and the Apocalypse are missing. Asa whole a most valuable MS. (Schaff, Comp. 1138). (4) Codex Ephraim (C), a codex rescriptus, the works of Ephraim (died 873) being written over it, dating from the 5th century, hardly legible and very defective, preserved in the National Library of Paris and edited by Tischendorf, 1845 (Schaff’s Comp. 120). (5) Codex Bezae (D), once in the possession of Beza, the successor to Calvin, presented by him to the Uniyersity of Cambridge. It dates from the 6th century, contains only the Gospels and Acts in a Latin Version, and is full of errors, eccentricities and bold interpolations (Comp. 122). The extant cursives are written on cotton or linen paper; they date from the 9th to the middle of the 15th centuries, when the art of printing was invented. They are designated by Arabic figures and their number amounted in 1890, if we include 1201 Lectionaries, to about 3553. ‘They present a more harmonious text which after the 5th century, had assumed a more stereotyped form. Discoveries of ancient MSS. of parts of the N. T. are still being made, but they are very brief and have not been proved to antedate our oldest extant and complete MSS. (See Souter, 19.) Textual Criticism 78 2. Ancient Translations Ancient translations are indirect sources for ascertaining the original text. To be of value for such a purpose they must antedate our oldest MSS. ‘The most important are: (1) the “ Jtala” (supply: “ versio”), the oldest Latin translation, from 2nd century, known only from quotations contained in the books of the early Latin Fathers (Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Augus- tine); full of errors and variations. (2) The Vulgate (“versio”), a revision of the Itala made by Jerome, in 383-405, (8) The Peshito (“ The Simple,” 7. e., popular), in the old Syrian language, dates in its present form from the 3rd or 4th cen- tury, called the ‘ Queen of ancient Versions,” for its faithfulness and idiomatic character. (4) The Gothic Version, the oldest German translation, by Bishop Ulfilas, made in the 4th century, known as the Codex Argenteus, at Upsala, Sweden, a MS. of the 5th or 6th century. 3. Patristic Quotations from the N. T. Contained in the writings of the Church Fathers. Of value because the writings of Irenzeus, Clem- ent of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and other ante-Nicene Fathers are older than our oldest MSS.—The Greek Fathers are more important than the Latin, since they quote the original Greek. There are three drawbacks to the use of these quotations:—Only small portions are quoted, often 74 'The Writings of the New Testament from memory and the text of their writings was liable to the same corruption as the N. T. MSS. and has in many places been changed from the original of its author to conform to the text in common use at the time from which our extant copies of their works date. Their value is there- fore mainly corroborative. The Method of Textual Criticism The method consists in recording, classifying, comparing and weighing, (1) all available MSS. and (2) the variations found. These materials are called the “ Critical Apparatus.” The critic is guided by certain rules based on psychological laws and experience, some of which are:— (1) The consensus of the primary uncials, & B, C, and A (especially 8 and B), if sustained by other ancient uncials, first-class cursives, ancient versions and ante-Nicene citations (before 325) outweighs all later authorities and gives us pre- sumably the original text. (2) The older reading is preferable to the later, but mere antiquity is no certain test of superiority, since the corruption of the text began at a very early date. (3) Authorities must be weighed rather than numbered. One independent MS. may be worth more than a hundred copies which are derived from the same original. (4) The shorter reading is preferable to the Textual Criticism 75 longer, because additions are more natural than abbreviations. (5) The more difficult reading is preferable to the easier, for transcribers would not intentionally substitute an unusual reading for one that was un- objectionable. (6) That reading is preferable which shows no doctrinal bias, whether orthodox or heretical. CHAPTER X HIGHER CRITICISM OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Literature: ; Consult Bible Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and other books on the various subjects, especially: Schaff-Herzog’s Encyc. II, 170-177. Zenos, “ The Elements of Higher Criticism.” Nash, “ History of N. T.. Higher Criticism.” Christlieb, “ Modern Doubt and Christian Belief,’ p. 504. Conception and Aim of Higher Criticism HIGHER criticism deals with each single book of the N. T. separately and in detail, seeking to ascer- tain its authorship, credibility, integrity, etc. It is the modern name for “ Special Introduction,” a term coined by the German theologian Eichhorn (1752-1827), yet used almost exclusively by American and British critics. The comparative “higher” is not used in the sense of superiority, but in contrast to ‘‘ lower,” 7. e., textual criticism. The sole object of H. C. is to ascertain the real facts as to the history of each N. T. book:—its authorship, credibility, integrity, occasion, purpose, first readers, time and place of composition, literary form, sources, analysis, etc. It tests the value of traditional opinions and may result in the over- throw or the confirmation or modification of them. Its aim is constructive. ‘To reach this aim, H. C. 76 Higher Criticism 77 often results in destruction of false views. But if it destroys unfounded traditions, it is destructive in a good sense. For thus it prepares the ground for construction and the gain from it is ultimately much greater than the apparent loss. Details of the Critical Process. H. C. seeks to establish: (1) The authorship of abook. As to the name of the author, the N. T. contains three classes of writings:—(a) books which contain the name of the author in the body of the writing (Paul’s, Peter’s, James’ letters)—-(b) books to which tradition has attached a definite name as author (Gospels, Acts)—(c) a book whose author has al- ways been in doubt (Hebrews). The authorship of a book may be ascertained by two kinds of evidences:—(a) by external evidence: historical testimony, reliable tradition; (b) by internal evidence, consisting in allusions to definite facts, general conditions and style, the latter being less conclusive, since the same author may vary his style at different periods of life or according to difference of subject (Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, Carlyle, Goethe). Note—The most important of the early witnesses to N. T. writings which are constantly mentioned in critical discus- sions are the following: Clement of Rome, Ep. to the Corinthians...... A.D. 95 PSHE OTe BATTADAS! o. cate ae vest oie sated s Semele 96-120 Didache, the Teaching of the 12 Apostles.......... 90-100 PPG NeEDHeEUcOLreeVerinias,.. sates gtoan os wage agi sate wie 130-160 Seven epistles of Ignatius of Antioch.............. 109 CAnOneOneMAtriOnuon, PONS, Pea sce de coder teenies 144 78 The Writings of the New Testament Polycarp of Smyrna, Ep. to Philippians BSG Wraps oy sesh A" 155 Papias, “ Oracles of the Lord,” in fragments....... 150 Justin Martyr, Tvand U1) Apology (ssc .cthe sees vases 155 Diatesseron of Tatian, the Assyrian......s..6s0b% 0s 160-170 Irenzeus of Gaul, Against THIELeSis icine sce eaves 180 Muratorian Canon, or Fragment ASE UOT s Ss eels ether 170 Clement of Alexandria, ‘S PaedacOeus:: vic gs aie sinecere 190 Origen of Alexandria, the greatest Greek Exegete...220 VPertullian sor North Astricay allawyen. yo oo eae 225 Peshitio:, Syriac version (oly Noe be ei vie sleep one 160 [ala rold atin verston oti Leas Olgas, tances g 150 Busebius,: of Ceesaréa; Eccles.) History. 225 vescc cee: 325 (See Souter, “Text and Canon of the N. T.,” 160.) (2) The credibility of a book,—whether a book is trustworthy in regard to its contents. A book may be genuine as to authorship and yet unworthy of belief, or serious doubt may rest on its author- ship, while its contents may impress the reader as entitled to confidence. (3) The integrity, completeness and unity of each book—whether we have the book in exactly the same form which the author gave it, or whether changes have been made by later hands (Mark 16: 9-20; John 7: 53-8: 11; Rom. 15 and 16). (4) Sources—whether original or derived, Jew- ish or pagan. (5) Readers, time, place and purpose of writing. (6) Literary character,— whether prose or poetry, (lyrics, drama, allegory, parable). (7) Analysis of contents. (8) Value (historical, religious and practical). Equipment and Qualifications of the Higher Critic (1) Concentration of mind, because this kind of Higher Criticism 79 work belongs to the category of specialization, which is a deliberate concentration of a man’s best powers on a single object, aiming to know every- thing about something. (2) Familiarity with the method of induction which is the method of all modern sciences, pro- ceeding by the three steps of observation, collection and classification of facts. When enough facts are known to warrant it, a hypothesis (‘a research guess”) may be formed, which, when demon- strated, is called a scientific theory. (8) Philological, psychological, philosophical and historical training. (4) Freedom from prejudice and from dogmatic prepossessions (“ Voraussetzungslosigkeit”’), either of a negative and anti-dogmatic or of a positive and dogmatic character. (5) The historic sense, t. ¢., the capacity of understanding a past age from its extant litera- ture. Historical Sketch of Higher Criticism The method did not originate with Bible scholars, but was first applied to the study of an- cient MSS. of profane literature. The Church Fathers, schoolmen and Reformers, firmly believ- ing in the Divine inspiration of the Bible, cared little about its human authorship or literary form; though some of them discussed the questions summed up under the term of Biblical criticism with great freedom. The Deists of England and 80 The Writings of the New Testament the Rationalists of Germany developed this hap- hazard Biblical criticism into a science, and their endeavor reached its culmination in the Tuebingen school of N. ‘I. Criticism, founded by Ferd. Chr. Baur (1792-1860). He reconstructed the history of the Apostolic Age according to Hegel’s theory of historical development, of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Note 1—Baur maintained that the Apostolic Church passed through a long period of doctrinal dissension in which Paul and Peter antagonized one another; that Paulin- ism was liberal and Petrinism was narrow; that only five books of the T. T. were genuine—I and II Cor., Rom. and Gal. on Paul’s side, and Revelation by the Petrine party; that these writings were campaign literature; that the long struggle was brought to an end at last by the expediency of various compromises, and that all the other books, especially Acts, were written in the second century as “tendency” literature with the object of insinuating that perfect unity prevailed in the Apostolic age. For over two generations this controversy kept the theological world in a turmoil, but to-day no New ‘Testament scholar of note can be found sharing Baur’s peculiar reconstruction ideas, brilliant as they seemed. Many permanent results, however, came from the tremendous research work of the Tuebingen School and its opponents, two of which are: saner ideas as to the inspira- tion of the Bible and a general acceptance of the view that the New Testament contains different types of teaching. The leading N. T. critics of to-day are: Harnack, Moffat, Peake (lib.), Pfleiderer (radic.) and Theod. Zahn (consery.). Note 2—Literature on the Tuebingen School. Schaff-Herzog, Encyc., and Hauck-Herzog, Realencycl. under “ Baur,” and “ Tuebingen School.’ Vollmer, Philip, “The Inspirational Value of Church History.” Peake, “Crit. Introduction to the N. T.,” p 2. Case, “ Evolution of Early Christianity,” Dp. 90. Zenos, “Elements of Higher Criticism,’ pp. 109, 234. Higher Criticism 81 Beneficial Results of Higher Criticism (1) An immense amount of new knowledge of antiquity has been made accessible, as the ever increasing number of Bible Dictionaries shows. This has put Christianity upon a historical basis far more defensible than ever before. (2) The overthrow of the extravagance of the Tuebingen School of N. T. criticism and the re- affirmation of the principal positions of tradition as to the authorship and the dates of most of the N. T. books. (See Part III.) (3) Demonstration of the progressive develop- ment of Divine revelation and of man’s apprehen- sion of truth. In the O. T., the moral difficulties, the vindictive Psalms, the acts of savagery com- mitted by the alleged order of God; and in the N. T., the divergent presentation of truth, are no longer stumbling blocks to the educated Bible student of modern times. (4) The vicious “ proof-text”’ method has been discredited and a firmer foundation for sound exegesis established. The fact is now much clearer that the Bible is not like a mass of building blocks out of which one might construct a structure of any shape. All these “blocks”? were formerly sup- posed to be of uniform size and shape; that is, Biblical passages were deemed of equal importance, whether taken from Job, the Proverbs and Esther or from the Gospels and Romans. H. C. enables us to see that the Bible should not be treated as a mass of isolated texts, but as a collection of books; 82 The Writings of the New Testament that each book has its peculiar setting, its special purpose and its suitable form for that setting and purpose. (5) By limiting the Bible to its peculiar sphere, regarding it as a record of Divine revelation of religious truths rather than as a text-book on every- thing under the sun. ‘Thus, H. C. has made it possible for men under the influence of the modern scientific spirit to accept the Bible as the source of religion. Some of these good results of H. C. are so as- sured as to be now universally accepted; others are still in dispute. ‘The light thrown on the O. T. is strongest because there the field is larger and the darkness had been denser. All these gains have resulted in a higher appre- ciation of the Bible. Therefore, as Marcus Dods said, “If God had not raised up critics to do this work for us, we should undoubtedly be under the necessity of appointing men for the task.” For these reasons, the H. C. method has been accepted by all types of Bible students. Dr. Greene (a strong conservative) says: “H. C. is a critical inquiry into the authorship, time, cir- cumstances and design of the sacred writings.” According to Zenos (progressive), H. C. is “an inquiry into the origin, literary form and value of the Biblical writings.” According to Dr. Briggs (a strong liberal), it is “an inquiry into the in- tegrity, authenticity, style and credibility of our sacred books.” Higher Criticism 83 Reasons for Opposition What then causes the wide-spread opposition to H. C., if it is such a good and necessary method of Bible study? (1) Ignorance of the whole subject. Some Bible students are possessed by such a deep-seated prejudice that they even refuse to give the science enough of a hearing to become thoroughly ac- quainted with its methods and results. (2) Confusion of the method and its real aim with some “ postulates” and “results” of radical critics. While the method is right, the results de- pend to a large extent upon the man using it:—his personal faith, moral training, surroundings, teach- ers, temperament, etc. Hence the difference in results with men of equal talent, and using the same method. (Zahn and Harnack; Green and Briggs. ) (3) Its name in English awakens prejudice, as in the popular mind “ criticism ”’ means fault-find- ing, and “ higher’ conveys the idea of superiority to the Bible itself. (4) The deepest cause of opposition to H. C. is found in the unwillingness of average human nature to part with customary views, in all things, but especially in religion. Note—Advice to Bible Teachers: (1) Study the subject of sane criticism and don’t call people names if you cannot agree with them. To call some “ destructive critics,” or “ rationalists,’ or ‘“‘ naturalists,” or “ anti-supernaturalists,’ and others, “blind traditionalists,” or “reactionaries,” etc., and to charge them with hostility to 84 The Writings of the New Testament the Bible or Christianity for no other reason than that their conclusions are distasteful to you, is to deny to them the rights that ought to be accorded to all seekers after truth. (2) Keep controversial subjects out of the pulpit, because the people are not trained to follow. It also leads to nega- tive preaching, while the people expect nourishing spiritual food, Give them all the good results of reverent criticism without talking much about the method and the views which you consider not tenablé any more. CHAPTER XI THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON Literature: Schaff-Herzog, Encyc. II, pp. 393-307 (by Th. Zahn). “ Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,’ Vol. II, pp. 576- 579 Gregory, “Canon and Text of the N. T.,” pp. 1-205. Schaff, Pe eeniF to the Greek New Testament,” pp. 225-287 ; 497-525 Vollmer, Philip, ‘ ‘The Reformation a Liberating Force,” PP. 34-38. Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” p. 333. Ferris, “ Foundation of the New Testament.” Ewald, “Der Kanon des N. 7.” (in “ Zeitfragen’’). Bestmann, “ Zur Geschichte des N. T. Kanons.” Conception of the Canon THE name of authority given to the 27 N. T. books is “ ‘The N. T. Canon,” because they are con- sidered the rule or standard for the belief and moral conduct of those who accept them. ‘This is the “ formal principle ” of the Reformation. Note r—The term is derived from Galatians 6:16 and Philippians 3:16, where it means, however, a rule of faith and practice, and not a collection of sacred writings. Note 2—In Greek, the word “‘kanon” means, (1) a meas- uring rod or lines; (2) anything that serves to regulate other things, a principle or a leading thought. (Latin: reg- ula, norma).—In the Catholic Church the word canon de- notes the rule of faith and practice; a collection of inspired writings; the disciplinary decrees of councils; the catalogue of martyrs and saints (to canonize—to enroll). 85 86 The Writings of the New Testament The necessity for a N. T. canon, besides the QO. T. canon, soon became apparent for the follow- ing reasons: (1) every organization must have some rules of guidance; (2) to determine which of the various writings should be used in public wor- ship, and (3) to which books appeal should be made in disputed questions, since heretics, like Marcion, had set up their own canons. Note—Many ancient Christian writings, not now in the N. T., were held in such high esteem in various Churches that they were publicly read and appealed to and are even included in some of the oldest Greek N. T. manuscripts, such as, the Didache, the letters of Barnabas, of Polycarp to the Philippians, of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, of Ignatius, the Shepherd of Hermas, etc. The canonicity of a N. T. book was determined under the guidance of two principles:—(1) ex- ternally, by Apostolic authorship and acceptance in the oldest and principal churches; (2) internally, by the power by which the several books authenti- cated themselves as inspired. The Roman Church emphasizes the first, the Protestants, the second, but each Church accepts both principles. The N. T. Canon was not determined by any one man (the pope), or by a definite body of men (Councils), or at a certain date, but it rather grew under the influence of the Holy Spirit during three centuries. The church was feeling its way toward the canon. All that individuals and Councils had to do with the final determination was to officially recognize the result of a long development. (In a similar way the “classicalness ” of other litera- The Canon 87 ¢ ture’ is determined, not by the “critics,” nor by “authority,” but by the readers themselves. ) The N. T. Canon is the same in the Greek, Roman and Protestant churches. Hence there are neither “ Protestant” nor ‘“‘ Catholic” Bibles, though there are translations showing sectarian bias. History of the N. T. Canon Four periods may be distinguished in the grad- ual formation of the N. T. canon: I. The Gradual Collection of the N. T. writ- ings, developed during 50-170 a. p.—(1) Small roots of a N. T. canon are found in the N. T. Meelite) i hessaros 2 cu vand, Col.w4:-16)" Paul suggests the circulation of his letters in other Churches, thus intimating general authority for their contents. Some hold that Ephesians was sent out as a circular letter. Very early, accord- ing to II Peter 3: 16, a collection of some or all of Paul’s letters, and their authority as ‘‘ Scriptures ”’ is intimated.—. (2) In the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, before 150, such as the Didache, the let- ters of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Ignatius and in Papias, quotations from and illu- sions to N. T. books are found, but no clear trace of a fixed collection.—(3) But in the latter half of the second century, we not only find most of the N. T. books in public use and quoted by Irenzus, Tertullian, Origen, and others, but also several clear testimonies to the existence of a widely recognized 88 The Writings of the New Testament collection of most of our N. T. books, such as the Muratorian Canon, of 160 (4 Gos., 16 ep., Rev.); | the Itala, and the Peshitto, of 150; Tatian’s Dia- | tessaron, of 170, using our four Gospels; Marcion’s | canon of 150, (a Gos. and 10 ep.). Il. The Gradual Separation (170-800). This period marks the gradual separation of the N. T. books from other religious literature.—In the 4th century Eusebius, the church historian (d, 340), reports a fourfold classification of sacred books in use:—(1) Homologoumena, such as were universally acknowledged,—_4 Gosp., Acts, 14 Pauline Epis., I Pet., I John, Rev.—(2), Antt- legomena, disputed books: James, Jude, II Pet., I] and IIT John; —(3) Spurious books: Acts of Paul and Thekla, Rev. of Peter. Shepherd of Hermas, Epistle of Barnabas, Didache, Gospel according to the Hebrews. (4) Heretical books: Gospel of Peter, of Thomas, of Mathias; the Acts of An- drew, of John and of other Apostles—These dis- tinctions show the caution with which the early Church scrutinized the origin and value of the N. T. writings. , Ill. The Period of Universal Acceptance (300- 367). The N. T. canon in its present form was finally recognized by the provincial Councils at Laodicea, in 863 (which omits Rev.) ; at Hippo, in 393, and at Carthage, in 397; the latter two under the com- manding influence of St. Augustine. Since then the N. ‘T. canon in its present form has been gen- The Canon 89 erally accepted by all the churches.—None of the first seven Ecumenical Councils made any deliver- ance on the N. T. canon. IV. Later History of the N. T. Canon. (1) The Reformers claimed the critical freedom of the ante-Nicene Church and revived the old doubts on several antilegomena. Luther uttered bold and unwise opinions on James, Hebrews and Rev.; Zwingli showed little appreciation for Rev., “‘ denn es nit ein biblisch Buch ist’; Calvin refused to write a Com. on “ Rev.,”’ denied the Pauline au- thority of Hebr. and doubted the genuineness of II Peter. (2) In the 17th century unscriptural views on in- spiration became rampant, while in the 18th century Deism and Rationalism went to the other extreme. Modern Protestant scholarship insists on the principle of the Reformation, the right of private judgment in matters of religion and of freedom of research. But no Protestant has proposed any change in the canon. Note 1—The Roman Church, at the Council of Trent, in 1545, reaffirmed the canon in its present form, but insisted on three far-reaching equalizations:—(1) The : apocryphal books are equal in authority to the canonical; (2) The Latin Vulgate is equal in authority to the original pace text; (3) Tradition is equal in authority to the 1p1le. Note 2—As to the O. T. Apocrypha—14 or 16 Jewish books written between 300-100 B. c., Protestants are unani- mous in refusing canonicity to them; but while the Luther- ans and Episcopalians permit their inclusion within the Bible as “ good and useful to read,” other Protestant bodies refuse them this privilege. CHAPTER XII TRANSLATIONS AND CIRCULATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Literature: Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopzedias on the va- rious subjects. Preface to the American Standard Bible. Schaff-Herzog, “ Encyclopedia,” Vol. II, pp. 137-139. aa “ Companion to the Greek N. A hes Chaps. VII and VI Smyth, “How We Got Our Bible,” PP. 47-139. Oettle, “ Revidierte Lutherbibel.” Risch, “Die Deutsche Bibel in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung.” TueE Bible as a whole or in parts has been trans- lated into about 700 languages and has always been the most widely circulated book in the world. The reason for the constantly increasing number of Bible translations is to be found in the principle of Protestantism that the Bible is the basis of the Christian religion and should therefore be given to the people in the language which each person best understands.—For the same reason the old trans- lations are being from time to time revised and corrected because Protestantism considers it a mat- ter of conscience to have all the people enjoy the results of consecrated Bible scholarship. Four groups of Bible translations and revisions may be distinguished:—(1) Ancient versions (Pe- go Translations and Circulation 91 shitto, Itala, the Gothic), which have already been discussed ;—(2) Versions in the Reformation period, of which the English and the German in- terest us most;—(3) Recent revisions, more or less official;—(4) Private translations in modern speech. , The English Bible was first translated by Wyck- liff, in 1383, from the Latin Vulgate. In 1525, Tyndale translated the N. T. from the Greek, pub- lished at Worms, Germany, 1526. This was fol- lowed by the Coverdale translation, in 1535; the Great Bible, in 1539; the Geneva Bible, in 1557; the Bishop’s Bible, in 1568; the King James or Authorized version, in 1611 which is still used by a majority of English-speaking Protestants.—The British-American Revision of the N. T. was pub- lished in 1881, and the American Standard Bible, in 1900.—Some of the best known translations in Modern English are: Moffat, New Translation of the New Testament; Weymouth, The Modern Speech N. T.; The Twentieth Century N. T. (Revell) ; Goodspeed, The N. T., an American Translation. The German Bible was translated by Luther, the N. T. in 1521 and the whole Bible, in 1534.—The revised Luther Bible was published in 1883.— Translations in modern German:—by H. Wiese (Am. Tract Soc.); by Weizaecker (Mohr in Tuebingen) ; by Stage (Reclam, Leipzig). Roman Catholic translations :—the Douay trans- lation (Engl.); by Kistemacher (German). 92 The Writings of the New Testament he Bible in America:—The first Bible printed in America was John Eliot’s translation into the Native Indian dialect, at Cambridge, Mass., in 1663; the second was Luther's German Bible, at Germantown, Pa., in 1748; the third was the Eng- lish Bible at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1782. Dissemination of the New Testament To make the Bible accessible to all the people, Bible societies have been organized. One of the oldest is the Canstein B. Soc., at Halle, Germany, founded by Baron Canstein, in 1710; the largest is the British and Foreign Bible Society, founded in 1804; the second largest is the American Bible Society in New York, founded in 1816. CHAPTER XIII THE INTERPRETATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Literature: Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the various subjects. 4 A “A Short History of the Interpretation of the 1 “A Guide to the Study of the Christian Religion,” p. 200. Farrar, “ History of Interpretation.” Briggs, “General Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures.” Clarke, “ The Use of the Scriptures in Theology.” tears “Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Verstandniss des Bacon, B. W., “ He Opened to Us the Scriptures.” Robertson, A. T., “The Minister and His Greek New Testament.” Abbott-Smith, “A Manual Greek Lexicon of the N. T.” “The Analytical Greek Lexicon.” Perry; Base Trench, “N. T. Synonyms.’ Vollmer, Philip, “ Sound exegesis the Basis of Effective Preaching,” I. Definition of Interpretation INTERPRETATION, or exegesis is the art of ascer- taining and unfolding the true meaning of the in- spired writers, according to established hermeneu- tical principles, without adding to it, subtracting from it or changing it in any way; in other words, without forcing upon the authors a meaning in harmony with preconceived opinions, 93 94 The Writings of the New Testament Note 1—The process is to be exegesis, (from the Greek 8&nyéopuat, to lead out), not eisegesis (to put in) ; eposition (from the Latin expono), not imposition; auslegen, not ‘hineinlegen. ‘The Latin term expressing the same idea is ” interpretation,” derived from inter, between, and the obso- lete “preto,’ speak; hence, one speaking between two, to make the words of the one plain to the other. Note 2—The name of the science giving the rules of in- terpreting the Bible is “ Hermeneutics,” from “ hermeneuo,” probably from the Greek god Hermes, the interpreter of the will of the gods to men. II. Qualifications of the Interpreter 1. Intellectual and Educational Qualifications.— (a) Common sense, sound judgment and imagina- tion which will enable the student to realize the historical situation and penetrate into the writer’s state of mind—(b) Knowledge of the author’s language. Translations are no adequate substitutes to one who aims at scientific (1. e., thoro) interpre- tation ;—(c) Knowledge of Bible lands and peo- ples. 2. Moral and Spiritual Qualifications—(a) Regard for the truth to which all preconceived notions must be sacrificed. A great deal of pre- tended exegesis does not deserve that name.—(b) Sympathy with the spirit and subject of the writer. No amount of learning can compensate for the want of spiritual affinity. (Read I Cor. 2: 14-15; and Matt. 5: 8.) III. Three Degrees of Interpretation (1) Translations—a simple transfer from the original into another language. ‘Two kinds: (a) The Interpretation 95 for scholarly use, with exclusive regard for accu- racy; (b) for popular use, giving an idiomatic reproduction, so as to appeal to the reader with much of the power of the original. (2) Paraphrases—an explanatory and extended translation. Clearer terms are substituted for obscure ones and made part of the text. Words and phrases are inserted, connecting links supplied. (3) Commentarties—explanations of the text, distinct from the text itself—either brief or ex- haustive. There are three kinds of commentaries: philological, theological, practical Some com- mentaries combine all the above features in one and the same treatise. IV. Defective Methods of Interpretation (1) The allegorical method (from the Greek, ALLOS, Other, and AGOREO, to speak in the assem- bly) ; hence, to make the author say something else than his words plainly indicate, 7. e., to find a deeper sense under the literal meaning. Note 1—The allegorical method originated with Stoic and Platonic philosophers who applied it to Greek mythology to get rid of its absurdities and immoralities. The Hellenistic Jews borrowed it in the period of the Apocrypha, and Philo (d. A. D. 30), applied it in his endeavor to harmonize the O. T. with Greek philosophy by distinguishing between the literal or historical sense and the spiritual or mystical mean- ing. Even Paul used it occasionally (Gal. 4:24). The Church Fathers (Clement and Origen) applied it to the N. T. To the literal and mystical, Origen added a “moral” sense, corresponding to the three elements in man: body, soul, and spirit. Later a logical sense was added and Bonaventura increased it to seven (symbolical, synecdoch- ical, hyperbolic sense, etc.). This method ruled exegesis for 96 The Writings of the New Testament I500 years and is not quite dead yet. The result of this method was that men read into the text whatever they desired to find there,—to turn it like a nose of wax. Luther called it a “monkey-game” (Affenspiel). For examples, Schaff, “ Propaed.,”’ p. 208; Sheldon, “ N. T. Theol.,” p. 22. (2) The dogmatical method approaches the Bible, consciously or unintentionally, with ready- made dogmas or definite preconceptions, consider- ing these as standards to which the interpretation of the Bible is forced to conform. In this way, dogma dominates exegesis, while the reverse is evidently the only correct way for leading the Church into the truth—This dogmatism may be traditional-orthodox, based on creeds; or rational- istic, based on scientific or philosophical beliefs. Both methods often do violence to the evident meaning of the text by forcing it into a ‘ Procus- tean bed.” (For examples of Rationalistic exegesis, see Christlieb, ‘Modern Doubt,” p. 346.) (3) The one-sided practical and devotional method which disregards the historical sense of a passage, confusing application with interpretation. V. The Grammatical-Historical Method Because this is the method based on induction which all sciences in modern times employ, it is also known as the scientific method of exegesis to distinguish it from the defective methods. 1. Its sole aim is to get at the exact and evi- dent meaning of the text. Over against the alle- gorical method, it insists on one sense only, even in The Interpretation 97 Messianic prophecies. Over against the dogmatical method, it insists that nothing outside the text (be it creed or philosophy) must be allowed to fetter the text. Nothing must be carried into the text. The text must be allowed to speak for itself. Over against the practical and homiletical method, the sharp distinction between interpretation and ap- plication must be kept in sight. 2. This method seeks an answer to three ques- tions: What does the Bible or any part of it (1) say, (2) mean, (3) teach. (1) The first step in this exegetical process— what does the text say—includes the derivation and exact meaning of words, phrases, idioms and synonyms; their relation in the sentence, what part of speech they form; the logical thought of a sentence or passage in its continuity. Missing links must often be supplied in order to understand the continuous current of thought. In the English Bible such necessary additions are printed in italics (gags Kom. 5:18). (2) The second step in exegesis—what does a text mean—includes: (a) a study of the context (text surrounding the one under consideration). This sometimes extends to the entire chapter, and the whole book (I Cor. 7: 1, comp. v. 26).—(06) an inquiry into the literary character: Is it prose, poetry, drama, prophecy, or parable? (Gen. 1-3; Matt. 4, 1-11).—(c) Investigation of the his- torical surroundings—the political, social, moral and religious conditions of the times; its chron- 98 'The Writings of the New Testament ological, ethnological and geographical relations; also the writer’s psychology, external conditions and view-points. A writing cannot be understood if forced out of its literary connection and con- sidered apart from the age whence it came, for each book is a product of history. The method of this investigation is called Higher Criticism. (See Chap. 10.)—-The final product of the exegetical process is Biblical Theology. (3) The third question asks:—What does the text teach?—-What principles of faith or morality may be deduced from the Bible as a whole or any of its parts as useful to present conditions? This is dogmatical, practical or homiletical exegesis. (Demonstrate this method on several texts. ) Note 1—These principles of sound interpretation hold good whatever part of the Bible we may study. The following practice will yield great gains in every way.—(1) Work hard and continuously to gain a general familiarity with the N. T. as a whole, its stories and words. Learn to locate its great chapters and passages. ‘To this end, (2) Study the N. T. by books, including introduction, careful analysis, the key- words and chief conceptions.—(3) Study N. T. by chapters, single or in groups, bringing out principal subject, leading lesson, best verse, prominent person. (For ex., Matt. 5-7; John 17; I Cor. 14.)—(4) Study N. T. by topics:— prayer, love, meekness, limited to a book, or extended to the whole N. T. or the entire Bible—(5) Pursue word-studies:—God, Christ, grace, sanctification. (“ Word Studies in the N. T.” by M. R. Vincent.)—(6) Study N. T. by periods:—Life of Chr., Ap. Church—(7) Study the parables and miracles of our Lord in groups.—(8) Study the Bible by biographies. Note 2—The Value of Bible Reading and Study. (1) The chief end and aim of Bible reading is the gen- eral enrichment of human life. ‘The Bible belongs to the class of books called “literature of power.’ Its abounding wealth of ethical and religious teaching in forms of The Interpretation 99 biography, exhortation, etc., has inspired untold millions to lead a higher life and to develop a good character by lessons learned from the good and the bad characters portrayed in it. (2) Valuable by-products of Bible reading are: perfec- tion of literary style; historical, literary, philosophical, re- ligious and archeological information. The Bible presents in popular and attractive form the history of a developing Divine revelation through human experience. (3) The Bible is the richest storehouse of material for preaching and teaching. As in the past, so in the future men will come to this powerhouse for strength and suggestions to lift up their fellowmen, because the problems with which Jesus and Paul dealt are perennial, and the principles for solution laid down in the N. T. will assume larger impor- tance as men progress in intelligence and goodness. (4) To gain all these blessings, preachers and teachers should derive the Christian truth chiefly from the New Testament, remembering that of the Old Testament only so much is binding on the Christian as agrees with the higher revelation in the N. T. (Matt. 5: 27-48; Heb. 1:1; 8:13; Rom. 10:4). And this material should be taken directly from the N. T. In many creeds, systems and books, the pure gold of Christ’s Gospel is buried from sight by in- numerable layers of traditional dust and theological rubbish. General Review of Part II 1. Name and explain the four chief divisions of the science of theology. 2. Give accurate definitions of (a) N. T. Introduction; (b) General Introduction; (c) Special Introduction. 3. Collective names of the 27 books in Greek, Latin, and English; origin and literal meaning of Greek name. 4. Fivefold classification of the 27 N. T. books. 5. State name and characteristics of the original language of the N. T. 6. Matefials of writing, form of ancient codices, two kinds of letters, origin of chapter divisions, punctuation, etc. 7. Name and describe the three sources for restoring the original text; name and describe the two most important uncials; what is a palimpsest? 8. State aim, need and rules of textual criticism. De- scribe origin, name and value of the “ Textus Receptus.” g. Aim and beneficial results of Higher Criticism. 100 The Writings of the New Testament 10. As to the N. T. canon, explain name, necessity, rules, for determining reception of books, and sketch history. II. Sketch history of the English translation from Wickliff to the American Standard Bible. 12, Explain literal meaning of the terms: hermeneutics, exegesis, interpretation. 13. Enumerate (a) intellectual and (6) moral qualifica- tions of a successful interpreter. Explain the three degrees of interpretation. 14. Describe in detail the three steps of the scientific method of interpretation. PART III Special Introduction to The New Testament THE FIVE HISTORICAL BOOKS The Four Gospels and the Book of Acts CHAPTER XIV GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE FOUR GOSPELS Literature: Reliable information on all N. T. books may be found in great variety in the works on N. T. Introduction, on the Life of Christ, on the Apostolic Age, on N. T. Theology, in commentaries, in encyclopedias, and especially in the various dictionaries of the Bible. We call special attention to the following books : Adeney, ' ‘New Testament Introduction.” Moffat, “An Introduction to the Literature of the N. T.” Peake, “ Critical Introduction to the N. T.” Salmon, “Tntroduction to the N. T.” Farrar, “ The Messages of the Book.” Dod, “ Introduction to the N. T.” Ramsay, “The Bearing of Recent Discoveries on the Trustworthiness of the N. T.” Barth, “ Einleitung in das N. T.” Feine, ‘ ‘Einleitung in das N. ‘T.” Hastings’ “Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels,” Vol. I, Pp. 659-063 and 670. Hastings’ ‘ ‘ Dictionary of the Bible,” Vol. II, pp. 233-249. Snowden, * ‘The Making and Meaning of the New Testa- ment.” Scott, E. T., “The New Testament To-day.” for 102 The Writings of the New Testament Commentaries on the Entire N. T. One volume commentaries on the entire Bible by Dumme- low and by Peake. Clarke, ‘People’s Commentary” (6 vol.). “ Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges: ” 19 volumes based on the Greek Text, and 19 volumes based on the English text. Moorehead, “ Outline Studies of the N. T.” (6 vol.). “ Expositor’s Bible” (21 vol.). “The Expositor’s Greek Testament” (5 vol.). “International Critical Commentary.” Lange, “Commentary” (German and English). hoe “Commentary on the N. T.” (German and Eng- ish). Bousset, “ Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments.” Holtzmann, “ Kommentar zum N, 7.” Harmonies of the Gospels. Stevens and Burton, “A Harmony of the Gospels.” Robertson, A. T., “A Harmony of the Gospels.” Heinle, “ Synopse der drei ersten Evangelien und des Johannes.” Johnson, ‘“ Quotations of the N. T. from the Old.” Burton, “ Records and Epistles of the Apost. Age.” The American Standard Bible. (1) THE method of spreading the Gospel in the Apostolic Age was chiefly by word of mouth, For almost a generation (30-50 a. D.) this method was employed exclusively, and when later the 27 books of the New Testament were written one by one, it did not imply an intentional change of method since these writings were called forth by special occasions. Note r—Nothing in writing from Jesus has come down to us. The letter he is said to have written to King Abgarus of Edessa is a forgery of the third century (John 12: 20-22). Note 2—How early the Logia, the original Mark (“Source Q” or Ur-Markus), or the early attempts at Gospel writing referred to in Luke 1: 1-4 appeared, no one knows. General Aspects of the Four Gospels 103 Note 3—The “Scriptures” to which Christ and the Apostles constantly appealed, was the Old Testament in a Christian interpretation (Matt. 21:42; 22:29; 26:54, 56; Bukewed 272 ACtsSI1732, 1sel Corads: 33..1 Vim: 3: 15.16), (2) In all collections of the 27 N. T. books, the four Gospels stand at the head, although all of them were written later than most of the epistles. The reasons for this order are as follows: (1) Christianity is a historical religion basing its doc- trines not on speculations but on the facts in the life of Christ; (2) because our four Gospels rest on oral and written traditions (Luke 1: 1-4) which are older than the epistles. Note—The present order of the four Gospels in our Bibles does not mean to imply certainty of chronological succession. Some ancient manuscripts group together the Gospels by the two Apostles (Matthew and John), followed by the books of the two disciples of Apostles (Mark and Luke).—Some modern translations place Mark first, fol- lowed by Matthew, Luke and John. (3) The literal meaning in the N. T. of the Greek term sdayyéitov (euangelion) and of the English word “ Gospel” is “ good news,” from «cv —“good” and ayyédtov —“ spel,’ which is an obsolete English word, meaning ‘“ news.” Note—In classical Greek and in some passages of the Greek Old Testament, (I,XX) the word signifies the reward or thankoffering for good news (II Sam. 4:10). Later it was limited to the “good news” itself (Isa. 61:1; 52:7; quoted in Rom. to: Wo eeaini the oN T. the word “ Gospel” is exclusively used in the sense of a message (Luke 2: 10; Matt. 4:23; Mark 1:15).—Only since Justin Martyr (about 150 A. D.), it is also applied to the record containing the message.—To-day we use it in both senses. (4) The meaning of the term “ Gospel” being 104 The Writings of the New Testament : neutral, various explanatory phrases are frequently added to it in the N. T., such as “the Gospel of the kingdom” (Luke 8:1), “the G. of Christ” (Rom. 15: 19), “the G. of our Salvation ” (Eph. 1: 13), all three stressing its contents; “the G. of God” (Rom. 1:1), denoting its author; “my Gospel” (Rom. 2:16), expressing a special type; “the Gospel according to” emphasizing the unity of the message. As there could be only one Gos- pel, the four narratives were regarded as so many accounts or versions of the one message. Note—The titles were not given to the four Gospels by their authors, but were furnished quite late by some un- known source. (5) As to the selections from the facts in the public ministry of Christ, we find that all four evan- gelists place the emphasis on the closing events, more than one-half of all the material describing events of the last year, and of this more than one- third is devoted to the few weeks of Christ’s suf- ferings, death and resurrection. (Examine each Gospel and also a Harmony of all four Gospels. ) (6) In our four Gospels we find a distinct variety in their unity. ‘They fall into two groups, the first comprising Matt., Mark, and Luke, char- acterized as “ synoptics,” because they are very similar as to general outline, contents, language and teaching; called by the ancients also the “bodily Gospels,” because they lay stress on the external facts of the earthly life of Christ. ‘The second group consists of John’s Gospel, known as General Aspects of the Four Gospels 105 the “spiritual Gospel,” because it emphasizes the heavenly origin of Christ and his unique and inti- mate relation to the Father, being written with the self-avowed purpose to prove that Jesus is the Son of God and to persuade men to believe in Him (20: 81).—Also of the Synoptists each one has an individuality of its own, as to selections, grouping and purpose. Matthew stresses the prophetic work of Christ giving long discourses; Mark pictures Christ as a great hero performing many miracles; Luke stresses the humane and universalistic fea- tures of Jesus. Note—Because of these differences, the fancy of the ancients saw in the fourfold Gospel a realization of the four-visaged cherubin in Ezek. 1: 3-21, assigning to Matt. the figure of a man (humanity); to Mark that of a lion (strength) ; to Luke that of an ox (sacrifice) ; and to John that of an eagle, piercing into the heavenly mystery of Christ’s person. (7) Written Gospels before our four Gospels are mentioned in Luke 1: 1-4, but the time and character of their composition cannot be deter- mined. They must, however, have been unsatis- factory, as they were superseded by our four Gos- pels on the principle that the fittest survive. (8) Gospels were written also after our four Gospels, most of them in the second century, known as Apocryphal (non-canonical). These contain chiefly legends connected with the birth and early days of Jesus, his death and resurrection, written in order to gratify idle curiosity or to spread false teachings. Most of them are crude and childish 106 The Writings of the New Testament tales. Harnack has constructed a list of sixteen such gospels, the most important of which are: the Gospel of the Hebrews, of the Twelve Apostles, of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, of Philip, of Eve, of the Infancy, the Acts of Pilate, the Protevan- gelium of James, and of Marcion. (Hast., D. of Chr. and the Gospels, I, 671.) (9) The genuineness of the Synoptic Gospels is at present almost universally conceded, and as the Johannine problem will be discussed in its proper place, no time need be spent here discussing the exploded hypotheses of Gospel criticism. Note—The testimony of the Muratorian Canon (170), Tatian’s Diatessaron, (170), Irenzus quotations, etc., prove that about the middle of the second century all of our four Gospels were accepted in Rome, Gaul, Asia Minor, Syria, etc.—Still older writings, such as the Didache, Papias, the epistle of Barnabas, etc., quote from the “ Gospel,” but it is difficult to determine whether these writings refer to our four Gospels, or to oral tradition. (10) The great value of our four Gospels has been emphasized in all ages, not only by theologians but also by great men and women, such as Goethe, Renan, and others. Two methods of studying our four Gospels:— (1) From the literary standpoint, as separate books, each one from its own point of view, allow- ing each one to tell its own story in its own way, bringing out the distinct individuality of each Gospel.—(2) As a synopsis, with the aim of dis- cerning the harmony of the four accounts and for the purpose of constructing a harmonized life of Christ. CHAPTER XV THE THREE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS AND THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEM Literature: Consult the bibliography in Chapters 1 and 14. The Gospel According to Matthew The Author:—Matthew (“gift of God,” also known as Levi, Mark 2:14, 15 and Matt. 9:9, 10), the son of Alphzus, a tax collector at Caper- naum, called by Jesus from his work. He gave a farewell feast in honor of Jesus to which he in- vited his fellow publicans. Nothing else is re- corded of him in the Gospels. Tradition says that he worked for fifteen years in Judea and after- wards in Parthia and Ethiopia. Origin and Language of the Book:—Matthew seems to have written two books: (@) The Logia, a collection of “sayings”’ of our Lord, containing no historical narratives, written in Aramaic. This islostto us. (b) Our Gospel, which is not a mere translation of the Logia, but a work originally composed in Greek by Matthew or an assistant, into which all, or the larger part of the Logia was interwoven. The Original Readers:—Very probably Greek- 107 108 The Writings of the New Testament speaking Jews, for he finds it necessary to interpret Hebrew words like ‘ Immanuel” (1: 23), “ Gol- gotha” (27: 33), and Christ’s Prayer (27: 46). Date and Place :—-It was probably written before A. D. 70, for there are indications in it that Jeru- salem had not yet been destroyed (4:5; 5: 35), and an allusion to the approach of the crisis: “ Let him that readeth understand” (Matt. 24:15). It was probably written in Palestine, city unknown. Characteristics:—(a) More Hebraistic than the others, using Hebrew idioms (“Kingdom of Heaven” from the Jewish reluctance to use the name of God) ; Old T. quotations not found in the parallel Gospels are made from the Hebrew and not from the LXX; (b) Standpoint and atmos- phere is Jewish: he commences the genealogy with Abraham, quotes about sixty O. T. prophecies which he sees fulfilled in Christ. (c) But he is no opponent of the Gentiles, for he alone records the visit of the Magi, and the Great Commission. (d) A large place is assigned to the words of Jesus, which often are arranged in systematic form. Contents:—Matthew is divided into twenty- eight chapters. The general arrangement is topical, and chronological only in its general out- lines, especially in the second part. - I. Preparation for Christ's Public Ministry, 1: 1-4: 11. 1. Genealogy, announcement to Joseph, birth of Christ, visit of the Wise Men, flight to, and return from Egypt (Chapters 1 and 2). 2. Ministry of John the Baptist, baptism and temptation of Jesus (3:1-4:11). Three Synoptic Gospels 109 II. Christ’s Ministry in Galilee, 4: 12-18: 35. I. 2. 3 Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, recall of dis- ciples, widespread fame (4: 12-25). Sermon on the Mount (on piece 5, 6 and 7). A group of events illustrating the authority claimed in the Sermon on the Mount: healing of the leper, the centurion’s servant and Peter’s wife’s mother ; stilling of the tempest; cure of the Gadarene de- moniac and the paralytic; call of Matthew, raising of Jairus’ daughter; cure of a woman, of two blind men and a demoniac man (8: I-9: 34). Christ’s compassion for the people; names and preach- ing journey of the Twelve (9: 35-10: 42). Events showing the attitude of various groups toward the Gospel; message from John, woes against cities, criticism of the Pharisees for plucking corn and heal- ing on the Sabbath, warning against blasphemy, the true kindred of Christ (Chapters 11 and 12). A group of parables concerning the growth of the kingdom of God (13: 1-52). Increased oppositions; second rejection at Nazareth, the Baptist’s death, feeding of the 5000, walking on the sea of Galilee, eating with unwashed hands and break with the Pharisees (13: 53-15: 20). III. Retirement to Northern Galilee, 15: 21-18 : 35. i. 2. Ss. Journey to Tyre:—the Canaanitish woman, feeding of the 4000, a sign demanded (15: 20-16: 12), Journey to Cesarea Philippi—Peter’s Confession, predicting his death, transfiguration, cure of the epileptic boy (16: 13-17: 23). Return to Capernaum, paying the temple tax, dis- course on humility and forgiveness (17: 24-18: 35). IV. Ministry in Perea and Judea, Chapters 19 and 20. I. 2. Forbidding divorce, blessing children, the rich ruler and the peril of wealth (Chapter 19). Parable of the laborers in the vineyard, foretelling his death, ambition of James and John, cure of the blind man at Jericho (Chapter 20). V. The Last Week of Christ at Jerusalem, Chapters 21-28. Triumphal entry on Palm Sunday, controversies, passover, death and resurrection. The Gospel According to Mark The Author:—John Mark, the son of a Mary i 110 The Writings of the New Testament (Acts 12:12) and probably of the master of the house where the Last Supper was held (Mark 14: 13). He probably was the young man in Geth- semane mentioned in Mark 14:51, 52. He was a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4: 10), with whom he came from Jerusalem to Antioch, the helper on Paul’s first missionary journey (Acts 13: 5, 13; 15: 387), later again with Paul (Col. 4: 10, Phile- mon 24), and with Peter (I Pet. 5:18, “My son”). InIl Tim. 4: 11, Paul expresses a strong desire to see him. Sources of the Book:—According to ancient tradition Mark received his material from Peter whom he accompanied to Rome as “ interpreter,” translating Peter’s Aramaic sermons into Greek. Later, according to the “elder ” quoted by Papias, he “ wrote down accurately everything that he re- membered.” Justin Martyr therefore calls Mark’s Gospel, “ Memoirs of Peter.” Date and Place of Wmntimg:—Before 65, in Rome; 7. e., after Peter’s death and before the destruction of Jerusalem. The reason for this date is the same as in Matthew. | Original Readers:—Probably Roman Christians of Gentile extraction. This would explain the Latinisms, the mention of Rufus (15: 21), iden- tical with the Roman Christian of Rom. 16: 18, the absence of Christ’s genealogy, the few O. T. quota- tions, his preference for Christ’s miracles (18, and only 4 parables); his explanations of Hebrew words—boanerges, talitha kumi, corban—as well Three Synoptic Gospels 111 as of Jewish customs and modes of thought (7: 2, Deo). Characteristics:—Style and diction are graphic, concrete, animated, colorful, picturesque, empha- sizing the powerful deeds of Jesus which would appeal to the Romans, laying stress on details as to persons, numbers, and places, dwelling on the gestures and looks of Jesus. Integrity :—As verses 16: 9-20 are absent from the two oldest and most important manuscripts (Aleph and B); and differ greatly from the rest of the book in the use of words, etc., they are very generally regarded as a later addition. Contents :—Mark’s Gospel is the shortest of the four, comprising only 16 chapters. I. Preparation for Christ's Public Ministry, 1: 1-13. Introduction, message of the Baptist, baptism and temptation of Jesus. Il. Christ's Galilean Ministry, 1: 14-7: 23. 1. Early Ministry in Galilee:—Removal to Capernaum, recall of the disciples, a Sabbath in Capernaum and first preaching journey (1: 14~45). 2. Successive grounds of offense; cure of the paralytic and claim to forgive sin, call of Levi, disregard of ‘seis ee grain and healing on the Sabbath 2: 1-3:6). 3. More advanced Galilean Ministry : widespread fame, choosing of the Twelve, warning against the “ eternal sin,’ Christ’s true kindred (3: 7-35). 4. A group of parables about the growth of the kingdom of God (4: 1-34). 5. Various manifestations of Christ’s power :—stilling of the tempest, cure of the Gadarene demoniac and a woman, raising of Jairus’ daughter (4: 35-5: 34). 6. Preaching j journey, rejection at Nazareth, sending out of the Twelve, death of the Baptist (6: I-29). 7. Retirement to a desert, feeding of the 5000, walking 112 The Writings of the New Testament on the sea, many healings, eating with unwashed hands (6: 30-7: 23). Ill. Withdrawal to Northern Galilee, 7:24-9:50. 1. Journey to Tyre. Syrophcenician woman, cure of a deaf and dumb person, feeding of the 4000, a sign demanded, a blind man healed at Bethsaida (7: 24- 8:20). 2. Journey to Cesarea Philippi:—Confession of Peter, transfiguration, the cure of the dumb boy, foretelling his death (8: 27-32). 3. Return to Capernaum. ‘Teaching on humility and tolerance (8: 33-9: 50). IV. The Perean Ministry, Chapter to. Forbidding divorce, blessing children, the rich ruler, ambition of James and John, cure of Blind Barti- meus at Jericho. V. Last Week at Jerusalem, Chapters 11-16. Triumphal entry, controversies, passover, death and resurrection The Gospel According to Luke Literature: Consult ean under Chapters 1 and 14 Robertson, A. “Luke the Historian in ie Light of Research.” Harnack, “ Luke the Physician, the Author of the Third Gospel and Acts.” Godet, “ Commentary on Luke.” The Author :—Luke, the only Gentile among the Biblical writers (Col. 4: 14 omits him from the list of “ those of the circumcision ”), probably a Greek from Antioch, a physician (Col. 4: 14), and, ac- cording to an old tradition a painter. The “we” sections in Acts show that he was with Paul from Troas to Philippi (Acts 16: 16-17). He remains at Philippi and after six years accompanies Paul to Jerusalem (20: 5 to 21: 18), and on the voyage to Rome (Acts 27 and 28). During Paul’s first Roman imprisonment, he was one of his co-work- Three Synoptic Gospels 118 ers (Philemon 24), and during Paul’s second Roman imprisonment, Luke was his only faithful attendant (II Tim. 4:11). Sources and Method:—In a preface (1: 1-4), he states his object and method. (1) He de- sires to confirm the faith of a “ Theophilus,” and as none of the existing Gospels suited him he writes one himself. (2) His method is very thorough: (a) He collects documents, (Db) examines eye-wit- nesses, (c) employs critical canons in sifting the material, and (d) aims at writing a complete biography, in distinction from the fragments be- fore him. (3) That Paul influenced the spirit of Luke’s Gospel is beyond controversy; but he may also have furnished him with material from the tradition in possession of Paul (I Cor. 15: 1-9). Place and Date:—Probably at Philippi, about 75 A. D., that is, after the destruction of Jerusalem, for, in place of the general language in Matthew and Mark, Luke 21: 20 and 24 gives a clear de- scription of the siege and its issue; and while in Matthew and Mark the final judgment is closely associated with the doom of Jerusalem, in Luke it is distinguished from the local event and an in- terval is placed between the two (22: 24). Characteristics:—(a) Better Greek, except in the “Hymns” in Chapters 1 and 2, which are thoroughly Hebraistic and point to a Hebrew document; (b) the longest account of the infancy, probably derived from the Virgin and others; (c) a long account (Chaps. 9-19) of the Perean period, 114 The Writings of the New Testament not found in the other Gospels; (d) traces of his medical training may be found in his stressing Christ’s healings, and in using technical terms for some of the diseases (4: 88; 5: 12; 6: 19; 22: 44). Luke illustrates Paul’s teaching of the universality of the Gospel, stressing Christ’s humane feelings and far-reaching sympathies (Good Samaritan, the parables of “The lost found,” the great sinner, toleration (9: 51-56, etc.). Contents:—Luke’s Gospel contains twenty-four chapters. I. Literary Preface, 1: 1-4. II. Annunciations, birth and childhood of the Baptist and Jesus, interspersed with five hymns (1: 5-2: 52). Ill. Preparation for Christ’s Public Ministry, 3: 1-4: 13. Message of the Baptist, baptism, genealogy and temp- tation of Jesus. IV. Galilean Ministry, 4:14-9:50. 1. Rejection at Nazareth, removal to Capernaum, cure of a demoniac, Peter’s wife’s mother and many others (4: 14-43). 2. Preaching journey in Galilee, recall of the disciples, cure of a leper (4: 44-5: 16). 3. Grounds of offense; cure of the paralytic and claim to forgive sins, call of Levi, neglect of fasting, plucking grain and healing on the Sabbath (5: 17- 6:11). 4. Organization of the kingdom by choosing the Twelve, sermon in the plain (6: 12-49). 5. Work at Capernaum and on a preaching journey; cure of Centurion servant, raising of the young man at Nain, message from the Baptist, anointing at Simon’s house, a group of parables, the tempest stilled, the Gadarene healed and Jairus’ daughter raised (7: 1-8:56). 6. Sending out of the Twelve, feeding the 5000, Peter’s confession, the transfiguration, ambition of James and John (9: 1-50). V. The Perean Ministry, 9: 51-19: 28. 1. From Galilee to Bethany (9: 51-10: 42). Three Synoptic Gospels . 115 Final departure from Galilee, rejection by the Samaritans, three would-be disciples, mission of the seventy, parable of the Good Samaritan, visit at Bethany. 2, Work in Perea (11: I-17: 10). The Lord’s Prayer, Beelzebub, sign of Jonah, woes against the Pharisees, the rich fool, Galileans slain by Pilate, warning against Herod, parables of the lost-found, the unjust steward, the rich man and Lazarus. 3. Final journey to Jerusalem (17: 12-19: 28). The ten lepers, when cometh the kingdom, Pharisees and Publican, blessing children, the rich ruler, blind man and Zaccheus at Jericho. IV. The Last Week at Jerusalem, Chapters 20-24. The triumphal! entry, teaching, passover, death and resurrection. The Synoptic Problem Literature: Vollmer, Philip, “ The Modern Student’s Life of Christ.” Consult the literature in Chapters 1 and 14. The first three Gospels are called Synoptists (syn-opsis, 2. e., “a common view”), because they view the life of Christ from a common standpoint, in contrast to John’s altogether different treatment. (1) The resemblances among the three Gospels are, (a) a common plan (infancy,—the forerun- ner, baptism and temptation,—ministry in Galilee —passion); (b) a common selection of incidents. Of 88 incidents, they have 71 in common, and only 17 exclusive (Matt. 5, Mark 3, Luke 9); (c) sam- war groups of scenes (death of John is introduced parenthetically by all three to explain Herod’s ter- ror). (d) Verbal agreements, not only in sayings of Jesus, which might be due to tradition, but also in narrative passages. 116 The Writings of the New Testament (2) The differences among the three gospels are:—(a) Accounts of different events—about 17; (b) differences in several accounts of the same events (order of temptations in Matt. and Luke, blind men at Jericho). (c) Verbal differences, (3) The Synoptic-Problem is to find a theory which will account for the resemblances and dif- ferences in these Gospels, and thus answer the ques- tion: how did the first three Gospels originate? (4) Proposed Solutions of the Synoptic Prob- lem:—(a) Theory of oral tradition. ‘The rabbin- ical method of teaching by constant repetition of the same forms had fixed these forms so thoroughly in the minds of the early disciples that when later they began to write their Gospels inde- pendently, each one naturally used these stereo- typed phrases.—(b) Theory of mutual dependence. Matthew’s Gospel is based on “ oral tradition ”; Mark abbreviated Matthew, and Luke used both. The order may also be reversed.—(c) Theory of original documents, such as referred to in Luke 1: 1-4. Two are usually mentioned: Matthew’s Logia, containing sayings of Christ, and a primitive Mark (Ur-Markus), known as source “Q,” still simpler than our Mark, for the narrative. Besides these each had independent sources, as, e. g., for the infancy, the Perean period and the resurrection. Note—Acts 1:22 and 2:42 seem to suggest that very early a definite “ course of Christian instruction” had gained currency in the primitive Church, the contents of which were, according to Jewish methods of teaching, committed to memory by dint of frequent repetition. Probably frag- Three Synoptic Gospels 117 ments of this “course” were soon committed to writing and later some of these records may have been used in constructing our four Gospels (Luke I: 1-4). (5) The “ original document theory” is the one generally accepted at present as furnishing the most scientific answer to the question: How did our present first three Gospels originate? CHAPTER XVI JOHN’S GOSPEL AND THE BOOK OF ACTS The Gospel According to John Literature: Consult literature in Chapters 1 and 14, especially “ Hast- ings’ B. D.,” Vol. II, pp. 680-728. Godet, ‘Commentary on John” (2 vol.). Zahn, “ Das Evangelium Johannes.” The Author:—John, the son of Zebedee and Salome, brother of James the elder, called by Jesus at the Jordan after the temptation. Later banished to Patmos, died at Ephesus about 100. Author of five New Testament books. (Which?) Authenticity of the Book:—(a) External evi- dence. As early as 125, verses from this Gospel are quoted by Basilides, although he does not mention the author. ‘The first one to mention John as the author is Theophilus of Antioch in 170.— (b) Internal evidence. 'The Gospel shows, (1) that it was written by a Jew (not a Gentile Gnostic), for he quotes the O. T. from LXX and the Hebrew, and his style and spirit are Hebraistic. (2) A Palestinian, for he is familiar with the minute topography (Cana, Jacob’s Well, places in Jerusalem). (38) A contemporary with the events described. He knows that the Samaritans expect the Messiah. He makes no reference to Gnosti- 118 John’s Gospel and Acts 119 cism of the 2nd century. (4) He was an eye- witness. ‘Three times he claims this: 1:14; 19: 85; 21: 24. The vivid details of the Gospel sug- gest the same. Objections to John’s Authorship:—(a) Incon- sistency with the character of John. In the synop- tists he is a “Son of Thunder,” passionate, but in John he is “the beloved disciple.” Answer: Cannot both go together ?—(0) Inconsistency with the book of Revelation in style, tone and teaching. The Gospel is in good Greek, but Revelation is faulty; the Gospel is liberal, Revelation, narrow. Answer: Revelation was written earlier (in 69) and the Gospel in his riper old age, when his lan- guage, views and experience had undergone changes. (c) Inconsistency with the S‘ynoptists. The Synoptists speak mostly of Christ’s work in Galilee, John of that in Judea; the Synoptists give one year, as the duration of Christ’s ministry, but John three. Answer: Luke 13: 34 shows that even the Synoptists indicate more than one passover and one visit to Jerusalem. Contains no parables and little about the kingdom of God. Solution of the Admitted Difficulties:—(a) The Synoptists are more objective chronicles, while in the fourth Gospel the teaching of Christ went through the crucible of John’s personality, and is a reproduction and interpretation of Christ’s life and teaching in John’s own language and in contempo- rary forms of thought. Hence the similarities in the sayings of Christ and the Baptist’s to John’s 120 The Writings of the New Testament own. (0b) John’s Gospel is avowedly an argument (20: 380, 81). Its selection of material is con- fessedly partial, its aim being to confirm the faith of the Christians. Many of the best histories are written from this standpoint (Sallust). Date and Place:—Between 85 and 90, probably at Ephesus; hence it is the latest of the New Testa- ment books. Characteristics: Clement of Alexandria called it the “ Spiritual Gospel” (See Chap. 14). Christ is the manifestation in human form of a Divine Being and the only source of life and light (1: 1- 18). It touches only slightly on the return of Christ in visible form, while his coming in the spirit is strongly stressed (Chaps. 14-17). Contents:—John’s Gospel contains twenty-one chapters. I. The Prologue (Preface) of the Gospel, expressing the central doctrine of the book in terms of current thought (1: 1-18). Il. Christs Early Mintstry, 1: 19-4: 54. 1. In Judea—vTestimony of the Baptist to the Pharisees, the people and the first disciples of Jesus (1: 19-51). 2. In Galilee—First miracle at Cana and short visit at Capernaum (2: I-12). 3. In Jerusalem and Judea—First cleansing of the tem- ple, discourse with Nicodemus, preaching in northern Judea and the Baptist’s testimony of Christ’s superi- ority (2: 13-3: 36). 4. In Samaria.—Self-revelation to the Samaritan woman, preaching in Samaria (4: I-42). 5. In Galilee—Favorable reception and at Cana, cure of the nobleman’s son (4: 43-54). III. Central Period of Christ’s Ministry, Chapters 5-12. I. In Judea—Cure of the infirm man at Bethesda, leading to a controversy on the Sabbath question (Chap. 5). John’s Gospel and Acts 121 2. In Galilee—Feeding of the 5000, leading to a con- troversy on the bread of life and the crisis at Caper- naum (Chap. 6). 3. In Judea—At the Feast of Tabernacles Jesus defends healing on the Sabbath, claims to be the Messiah, the light of the world, the source of true liberty and to have preéxisted before Abraham (Chapters 7 and 8). 4. In Judea.—At the Feast of Dedication, cure on a Sabbath of the man born blind, claiming to be the good shepherd, resulting in an attempt to stone him (Chapters 9 and Io). 5. From Perea to Bethany.—Raising of Lazarus and retirement to Ephraim (Chapter 11). IV. Last Week in Jerusalem, Chapters 12-21. 1. Anointing of Jesus, triumphant entry, visit of Greeks and final departure from the Temple (Chapter 12). 2. Passover, farewell conversations and highpriestly prayer (Chapters 13-17). 2 ey trial, death and resurrection (Chapters 18- 20). 4. Appendix to the Gospel, recording Peter’s reinstate- ment at the Sea of Tiberias (Chapter 21). The Book of Acts Literature: Consult bibliography in Chapters 1 and 14. Hill, W. B., “ The Apostolic Age.” Ropes, J. H., “ The Apostolic Age in the Light of Modern Criticism.” Norton, “ The Rise of Christianity.” Burton, “ Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age.” Scott, “ Beginnings of the Church.” Dobschutz, “ Christian Life in the Primitive Church.” Books on the Ap. Age by McGiffert, Purves, Bartlet, etc. Hayes, “The Gift of Speaking with "Tongues, : Mosiman, “ Das Zungenreden.” The Author:—Luke, the writer of the third Gospel, as appears from the reference to the “former treatise,” the mention of “ Theophilus,” from the similarity of style, and the quality of the Greek. That the author must have been a friend 122 The Writings of the New Testament of Paul is evidenced by the Pauline spirit and viewpoint of the book, by the undesigned coinct- dences between Paul’s epistles and Acts, by the large space Paul’s life occupies, and by the “ we”’ sections (16: 10-18; 20: 5-21: 17; 27: 1-28: 16) which must have been written by an eye-witness.— Copious external evidence in favor of the origin of Acts in the Apostolic Age and of Luke’s author- ship is found in Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Poly- carp, Irenzeus, the Muratorian Canon, the Acts of St. Paul and Thekla, the Peshitto, the Itala, etc. The “tendency theory” of the Baur-Tuebingen School of N. T. Criticism has been totally dis- proved. Source of Material :—For the first part (Chaps. 1-12) Luke no doubt followed the same method as in writing his Gospel (Luke 1: 1-4). For the second part, he drew on his experiences as an eye- witness and on Paul (e. g., for Chap. 15). The Historicity and Credibility of Acts has been questioned on the following points:—(1) Acts records three early visits of Paul to Jerusalem, in 9:26; 11:30; and 15:4, while Paul himself in Galatians 1: 18; 2:1 mentions only two, and on such a personal matter, Paul’s own statement must be considered decisive.—Answer: Luke writes as a historian giving a full record, while Paul in Ga- latians aims to prove an argument and therefore mentions only such visits as were necessary to sus- tain his point.—(2) Acts 5: 36, 37 quotes Gama- liel to the effect that the insurrection of Theudas John’s Gospel and Acts 123 preceded that of Judas, while Josephus (Ant. 20, 5, 1) reports that it took place ten years after the one by Judas. Answer:—Either Luke or Josephus made a mistake; or either referred to different men by the same name, as there were so many upheavals in those times. Luke’s great precision in giv- ing the titles of officials, geographical allusions and nautical expressions, etc., prove him to be a very trustworthy historian. Aim and Design of Acts is stated in 1: 8. It is a history of the planting and extension of the Church, both among Jews and Gentiles, by the gradual establishment of radiating centres of in- fluence at certain salient points throughout a large part of the empire, beginning at Jerusalem and ending at Rome. The ancient title, ‘‘ Acts of the Apostles ” is therefore misleading. Date and Place of Writing:—About 75-80, at Philippi or Antioch. Contents:—Acts contains twenty-eight chapters. I. The Church in Jerusalem, 1: 1-8: 1. 1. Introduction—Renewed Apostolic commission, Ascen- sion and choice of Mathias (Chapter 1). 2. Growth of the Church.—Coming of the Spirit, first imprisonment, sin of Ananias, second imprisonment, choosing of the deacons (2: 1-6: a). 2) CO LESSUG teaching—Stephen’s martyr’s death (6: Ta). II. The ¢ aieen in Transition, 8: 16-12: 25. 1. Philip in Samaria and conversion of the Ethiopian (8: 1b—40). 2. Paul’s Conversion, first preaching and visit at Jeru- salem (9: I-31). 3. Peter at Joppa, Lydda, Cesarea and defense at Jeru- salem (9: 32-11: 18). 124 The Writings of the New Testament Spread of the Gospel in Phcenicia, Cyprus and Antioch in Syria (11: 19-30). Martyr’s death of James, third imprisonment, and flight of Peter, death of Herod Agrippa I (Chapter 12). III. The Church Among the Gentiles, Chapters 13-28. I. Paul’s first missionary journey. Appointment, Cy- prus, Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe and return to Antioch in Syria (Chapters 13 and 14). The Council at Jerusalem about the Judaistic con- troversy (15: I-35). Paul’s second missionary journey.—Revisit of Churches, Troas, Philippi, ‘Thessalonica, Bercea, Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, Cesarea, Jerusalem, An- tioch in Syria (15: 36-18: 22). Paul’s Third Missionary Journey.—Revisiting Churches, Ephesus, Macedonia, Corinth, ‘Troas, Miletus, Tyre, Cesarea, Jerusalem (18: 23-21: 16). are ey Imprisonment and work at Rome (21: 17- 2 (a) Precene the Church at Jerusalem, arrest in the Temple, speech to the Jews, defense before the Council (21: 17-23: 10). (b) Two years’ imprisonment at Czsarea, defense before Felix, Festus, appeal to Cesar, defense before Herod Agrippa II (23: 11-26: 32). Voyage to Rome and shipwreck at Melita, journey to Rome, first Roman imprisonment and preaching in Rome (Chapters 27 and 28). The Twenty-one Didactic Books of the New Testament CHAPTER XVII GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT EPISTLES Literature: Consult the bibliography in Chaps. 1 and 14 on the various subjects. Character and Dates One of the literary characteristics of the N. T., as compared with other sacred books, is the epistolary character of a large part of its contents. The adjective “ didactic ” suggests that the Gospel teaching in these 21 letters is presented chiefly in the form of doctrinal statements, instead of in the form of history, poetry or philosophy, as in the Old Testament, the Gospels, and the Acts. Note 1—Letter-writing, official as well as private, has been a very ancient practice and was very common in the first century (II Sam. 11:14, 15; I Kings 21:8, 9; II Kings 5:5; Acts 9:2; 15:22, 23; Babylonian—Assyrian tablets, the Egyptian papyri, Cicero, Seneca, etc.). Note 2—The two words used interchangeably for these twenty-one writings: “epistle’ (from the Greek) and “letter” (from the Latin), are synonymous; but modern specialists draw a distinction between them, using “epistle” for a def- inite type of literary production, an essay or a discussion set in letter form; and “letter” which is to denote an actual, personal communication between two parties (Hastings’ B. D., Vol. I, p. 730; Deissmann, “ New Light from the 125 126 The Writings of the New Testament East,” pp. 143-246; Kent, “ Apost. Age,” p. 125). By this test all the twenty-one didactic writings of the N. T. are “letters,’ even those most systematically and orderly ar- ranged, like Romans, I Corinthians and Hebrews. Classification (1) According ta authorship the twenty-one N. T. epistles fall into three groups:—Thirteen by Paul (which?) ; Hebrews, by an unknown author; seven general or “catholic” epistles, the adjective referring to the more general character of their contents and destination (which?). (2) According to destination:—six are ad- dressed to individuals (which?); ten to local Churches (which?); five to groups of Churches (which?). (8) According to time of writing. The dates set for most of the epistles can claim only approxi- mate accuracy. The following is a provisional table of dates. A more specific discussion of this subject will follow later in connection with the study of each particular letter. Epistle of James.—Before 50 A. D. Paul’s thirteen Letters.—53-67 A. D. Peter’s and Jude’s Letters.—63—64 a. D. Epistle to the Hebrews.—75 A. D. John’s three Letters.—90 a. p. (Compare “ Chronological Table” in Chap. 6.) Value and Importance The N. T. epistles differ greatly in value. Some of them are, as to quantity and quality, elaborate Aspects New Testament Epistles 127 and argumentative treatises on most important subjects (which?); while others are little more than private notes (which?).—Although most of the epistles were written earlier than our four Gos- pels, they contain a more advanced stage of the- ological teaching than the Gospels, because they represent the fruit of 10-30 years reflection and experience regarding the great events recorded in the Gospels, such as the significance of the person and work of Christ, justification by faith, etc. Lost and Spurious Epistles It is generally believed that some genuine letters written by the Apostles and other leaders of the Apostolic Church are lost to us. This is very probable, for it is unlikely that men engaged in lifelong, extended evangelistic activities like Paul, Peter, John, James, and others should have written only 1-18 letters. In the case of Paul such losses are definitely implied in his extant epistles. (See next chapter. ) A number of spurious letters, attributed to Barnabas, Diognetius, Polycarp, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, etc., were so popular among the early Christians that some of them are found incor- porated with our canonical epistles in our oldest and most important Greek manuscripts. Advantages of the Epistolary Form of Literature (1) Christian teaching conveyed by personal 128 The Writings of the New Testament communications touching real life on a great va- riety of subjects makes a deeper impression than when cast in the form of treatises or abstract defi- nitions.—(2) In a letter, being a direct communi- cation, the personality of the writer stands before us more prominently, showing his interest and pouring out his very soul in unrestrained expres- sions of his various feelings.—(3) By a combina- tion of both characteristics a true photograph of the actual circumstances of the individual con- gregation as well as of the general condition of Apostolic Christianity is presented, saving us from too great idealization (Corinthians, James, etc.). Disadvantages of the Epistolary Form of Literature (1) An absence of a more comprehensive treat- ment of fundamental theological and ethical doc- trines, and of fuller information on the conditions of the Churches; (2) Points which even at the time of writing were of merely local interest (be- havior of women), are treated with fulness, while theological and ethical subjects which proved per- plexing problems even then and which have exer- cised the minds of thinking persons in all ages (nature of Christ, the Trinity, slavery, property), are only slightly touched upon or are entirely absent, making subsequent ages dependent on mere inferences. Genuineness of the Epistles After the long sustained and severe attacks on Aspects New Testament Epistles 129 the genuineness of most of the epistles by the Baur- Tuebingen school of N. T. criticism, modern scholarship, both conservative and liberal, has come, almost unanimously, to the conclusion that all of the 21 epistles were written in the first cen- tury by the traditional authors, with the possible exception of Paul’s Pastoral epistles and II Peter. (See “ Foreword” and the following chapters. ) CHAPTER XVIII LIFE AND WORK OF ST. PAUL Literature: From the great mass of literature on Paul, only a few books can be mentioned. Book of Acts: 7:58-8:33; 9:1-30; II: 19-20; 12:25; Chaps. 13-28. Epistle to the Galatians, 1: 11-2: 21;—II Cor. 11: 32-33. Consult the bibliography in Chaps 1 and 14. Gilbert, “ Student’s Life of Paul.” Robertson, “ Epochs in the Life of Paul.” Peabody, “The Apostle Paul and the Modern World.” Lag Matte “The Religion of Jesus and the Faith of au ects “Fundamentals of Christianity,” Chaps. 6, 7, 8 an Mees ian “The Ethics of Paul.” Hausleiter, “ Paulus.” Smith, “ Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul.” Knope, “ Paulus.” Ramsay, “et. Paul, the Traveler and Roman Citizen.” Gardner, ‘ ‘Religious Experiences of Pau Thackery, ‘ ‘The Relation of Paul to Canennor es Jewish Thought.” Matheson, “ The Spiritual Development of Paul.” Pfleiderer, “ Christian Origins,’ pp. 155-281. For an adequate understanding of Paul’s epistles which will be next in order in our studies, a sketch of the life of their author is essential, be- cause his great personality lies back of them, is in- terwoven with them and is expressed through them. Birth, Family and Name. Paul was probably born in 7 A. D., at Tarsus in Asia Minor, and was therefore a “ Hellenist.”—Of his parents nothing 130 Life and Work of St. Paul 131 is known, except that his father was a “‘ Hebrew ” (Phil. 3:5), 2. e., a Jew maintaining the Hebrew language and customs in his family. Paul had at least one sister and a nephew (Acts 23:6). In Romans 16: 7, 11, 21, he sends greetings to “ kins- men ”—Junias, Herodian, Jason.—His Jewish name was Saul (The Desired) and his Roman name, Paul (“The Small’), both of which he very likely received in his infancy, as was the case with other Jews (John Mark).—Through his father he inherited Roman citizenship. He was also a citizen of Tarsus (Acts 21: 39). Education. Paul was bilingual, having very probably received a Greek education at Tarsus, for he shows extensive knowledge of the Greek lan- guage, history, and philosophy (Rom. 1: 18-32; I Cor. 1-3; Acts 17: 22); he quotes from three Greek poets: Menander (I Cor. 15: 33) ; Epimeni- des (Tit. 1:12) and Aratus (Acts 17:28). In Jerusalem, he probably entered the Scribal College after his confirmation, one of his teachers being the famous Gamaliel. That he was a gifted and industrious student is inferred from Gal. 1: 14.— Though Acts 26: 4, 5 implies continuous residence, yet he is silent about having seen the Lord.—As the rabbis were expected to teach gratuitously, he learned the trade of tent-maker (Acts 18: 3). The Pharisee and Persecutor. He belonged to the sect of the Pharisees (Acts 23:6) and as such became a most bitter enemy of the new Church. Acts 8:1 and 26: 10 may imply that he 182 The Writings of the New Testament was a member of the Jewish Council. Acts 8:3 and 26: 12 shows that Paul was an officially dele- gated inquisitor for the Sanhedrin, with the power to arrest Jews even outside of Palestine-—In perse- cuting the Church his motives were pure; but just because he was a conscientious fanatic, he was the more dangerous. Conversion and Private Evangelism. About 36 A. D. Paul was suddenly converted to Christ at Damascus and baptized. After this his movements were as follows: Preaching Christ in Damascus; persecution and three years retirement to Arabia (36-39); return to Damascus, preaching, persecu- tion and flight to Jerusalem; fifteen days’ visit with Peter; vision in the Temple and retirement to Syria, followed by about six years of silence (39-45), during which the churches mentioned in Acts 15: 41 may have been founded; about 46 A. p. call to the new Church at Antioch and one year’s work, during which he carried alms to Jerusalem (Acts 11: 30). The Appointed Foreign Missionary, for about 20 years, 46-66 A. D. Draw a map tracing Paul’s several missionary journeys with different colors. First Missionary Journey, 46—49.—Read Acts Chaps. 13 and 14. Appointment at Antioch, Cyprus, Perga, Antioch in Pisidia (first recorded address), Iconium (escaped stoning), Lystra (first deified, then stoned), Derbe, return to Antioch in Syria. — Life and Work of St. Paul 133 Council at Jerusalem concerning the obligation of the Mosaic Law, 50 a. p.—dActs 15: 1-85; Gal. 2: 1-21. Second Missionary Journey, 51-54 A. p.—Acts 15: 36-18: 22a. Dissension between Paul and Barnabas, visit of Churches in Syria and Cilicia, Lystra (call of Timothy), Galatia, Troas, Philippi, Thessalonica, Bercea, Athens, Corinth (18 months, writing of I and II Thess.), Ephesus, Ceesarea, Jerusalem and Antioch. . Third Missionary Journey, 54-58 a. D.—Acts 18: 23-21: 6. Galatia, Ephesus (8 years, writing of I Cor.), Troas, Macedonia (writing of II Cor.), probably Illyricum (Rom. 15:19), Corinth (38 months; writing of Romans and Galatians), return to Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Tyre (7 days), Ptolemais (one day), Ceesarea, Jerusalem. Prisoner and Martyr, 58-67 a. p.—Acts 21: 17-28: 31. Short Imprisonment at Jerusalem—arrest, ad- dress to the people, trial before the Sanhedrin, plot and removal to Czsarea. Two Years’ Imprisonment at Cesarea—hearing before Felix, Drusilla, Festus, appeal to Cesar, hearing before Agrippa IJ, sent to Rome. Imprisonment on the Mediterranean—at Melita (8 months), and on the journey to Rome. Two Years’ Imprisonment at Rome—writing of 1384 The Writings of the New Testament Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians and Philippians; release in 63. Fourth Missionary Journey—probably to Eph- esus, Miletus, Troas, Macedonia, Corinth, Nicop- olis, Crete, Spain; writing of I Tim. and Titus. Second Roman Imprisonment—writing of II Tim. and martyr’s death, about 67 a. p. Personality of Paul Paul’s outward appearance is supposed to have been unpretentious (II Cor. 10: 10; but not Acts 14:12). ‘The apocryphal “ Acts of St. Paul and Thekla ”’ describes him as “a man little of stature, bald, short-legged, corpulent, with eyebrows meet- ing and a prominent nose.’’—In several places he complains of ill health (II Cor. 12: 17; Gal. 4: 13), the nature of which is variously explained: (1) an eye-disease; (2) epilepsy; (8) nervous prostra- tion; (4) sudden attacks of cramps; (5) malaria fever causing severe headaches.—But judging from his arduous, long-continued, successful work and his many persecutions, he must have had on the whole a strong constitution. As to vigor of mind and education, Paul may be placed alongside the greatest intellects of history. In Paul were combined much of the results of the three civilizations of that time: Jewish religion, Greek culture and Roman citizenship. Paul’s emotional life was highly developed. He had the choleric temperament and a strong capacity for making and holding friends—I Cor. 7: 7, 8 Life and Work of St. Paul 135 implies that Paul was not married at the time. As verse 7 speaks of this state as a “ gift,” it is assumed that he never had been married. Did he remain unmarried from lack of sexual affinity, or from ascetic principles, or from missionary policy, or because he believed the return of Christ to be near at hand? The language in I Cor. 7, how- ever, would be suitable also for a widower. Hence, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Luther and others believed that he had been married in his younger years. Paul was possessed of unusual will power and determination, manifesting itself in self-denying labor and great moral as well as physical courage. Thus Paul in his inner life shows three char- acteristics rarely found united: vigor of intellect, liveliness of feeling, great will power. Paul’s Advantages for Leadership (1) He was a Jew. As a Jew he would have a training in Bible knowledge, and in the faith of a coming Messiah such as no Gentile could possess. Moreover, the work in nearly all the places must begin in the synagogue, and only a Jew could take part in its services——(2) He was a trained and recognized rabli, 7. e., an accredited teacher of the law, “a college man” with the prestige of scholar- ship. Such a teacher would be welcome in any synagogue.—(3) He was a Hellenist, i. e., a Jew of the Dispersion, who on account of environment were broader than the Jews of Palestine. He was 186 The Writings of the New Testament a traveler acquainted with the world, speaking Greek as fluently as Hebrew, an absolute necessity for preaching to the Gentiles (Acts 21: 387, 40). He spoke to the Greek philosophers in their own tongue and after their own manner.—(4) He was by birth a Roman-citizgen (Acts 16: 87; 22: 25- 28). This privilege undoubtedly saved Paul more than once from torture and death—(5) He was a divinely-called Apostle, speaking with authority (Gal. i: 1; I Cor. 9: 1).—(6) He possessed rare natural endowments for his work. (a) He wasa man of sympathy, warm-hearted and tender, mak- ing strong friendships. (b) He was a preacher of great power, and people would always listen to him with the deepest interest (Acts 17: 22-81; 22: 1, 2; 26: 1-26). (c) He wasa theologian. Under the guidance of the Spirit he formulated a system of doctrine (Gal. 1:11, 12), which he sometimes called “my Gospel” (Rom. 2: 16; II Tim. 2: 8). This ‘“‘ Gospel according to Paul” came to be the theology of the Church. (d) He possessed rare tact in dealing with men; knew how to adapt his methods to the people of varied races and views. (e) He was a natural leader of men; ready to take responsibilities, quick to decide, yet thoughtful of others, not imperious and self-willed. (f) He was a tireless worker; undiscouraged by hardship (II Cor. 11: 23-28), although he seems to have been delicate in health. Life and Work of St. Paul 137 Paul’s Methods of Work These varied greatly according to circumstances, but in all of them we may note certain principles: —(1) He took fellow workers with him (name some of his companions on the various journeys). This method supplied mutual encouragement, for Paul was social, loved companionship and was sometimes melancholy when alone (Acts 17: 15, Oe Corse 3) 13 yl Cor: 7215;'6).” Moreover there was power in such cooperation and a chance for training younger workers (Mark, Timothy, Titus ).—(2) He chose the cities, and of these the most important centers of population:—Antioch, Thessalonica, Corinth, Ephesus, Rome.—(8) He supported himself by his trade (Acts 18:3; I Cor. 4: 12; I Thess. 2:9; Acts 21: 34).—-(4) He began preaching in the synagogue, in which Paul could speak as an accepted rabbi (Acts 13: 5; Acts 14: 1; Acts 17:1; Acts 18:4, 19). This method gave him access also to the thoughtful, serious Gen- tiles who were seeking after God. At Antioch in Pisidia he addressed both these classes (Acts 13: 16).—(5) He formed acquaintance with rulers and influential men in many places (Acts 13: 7; Acts 17: 34; Rom. 16: 23; Acts 19: 31; Acts 28: 7). These friendships were often of great service to Paul, especially when opposed by his own peo- ple—(6) He strengthened his work by frequently revisiting his churches.—(7) He used the pen as well as the voice. He wrote many letters, not so much to spread the Gospel as to strengthen and in- 188 The Writings of the New Testament struct the Church which he had planted. Of these we will now speak in detail. Paul the Author Literature: Peabody, “The Apostle Paul and the Modern World,” Chap 3. Albrecht, L., “ Briefe des N. T.” Four Chronological Groups. Of Paul’s let- ters thirteen are extant, written within a period of about 14 years, 53-67 a. Db. All the dates are only approximate, but when once a general scherne of chronology of the Apostolic Age has been ac- cepted, they fall into their places with sufficient accuracy with not more than about a year’s varia- tion forward or backward. ‘Their date and prob- able sequence may be stated as follows: First Chronological Group, written on the sec- ond missionary journey.— I Thessalonians, A. p. 58, from Corinth. II Thessalonians, a. D. 58, from Corinth. Second Chronological Group, during the third missionary journey.— I Corinthians, 57, from Ephesus. II Corinthians, 58, from Macedonia. Romans, 58, from Corinth. Galatians, 58, from Corinth. Third Chronological Group, during the first Roman Imprisonment. Colossians, 62, from Rome. Philemon, 62, from Rome. Ephesians, 63, from Rome. Philippians, 63, from Rome. Life and Work of St. Paul 139 Fourth Chronological Group, during the closing years of Paul’s life. I Timothy, 65, place unknown. Titus, 65, place unknown. II Timothy, 66, Second Roman Imprison- ment. Note 1—The statements appended to the several letters in some Greek manuscripts and the Authorized version, pro- fessing to give information concerning the place of writing and the persons through whom the letters were transmitted, did not originate with Paul, are worded diversely in the various Greek manuscripts, are in many cases erroneous, and were therefore omitted in the American Standard Bible. Note 2—The order of Paul’s letters in the N. T. are meaningless, the earliest and latest standing closely together. This order may have been determined either by relative bulk, or by the comparative rank of the Churches to which they were addressed, or in which they were used, or by the sup- posed importance of their contents. The chronological order is the most helpful for intelligent study, as it enables us to trace the progressive development of the Apostle’s ideas and of the development of the Churches. Next to date, the oc- casion which evoked an epistle and the object in writing it will assist in a thorough understanding of its contents. Without knowledge of these points, many of the passages lose their true significance. Lost Letters of Paul The belief that Paul must have written more than thirteen letters is forced upon the student by the following considerations: —(1) References and allusions to non-extant letters in II Thess. 3: 17; Coren 79 salu Cor, 10::9,.10) Colt4016; 0b ph: 8:3; Phil. 3: 18.—(2) Intimations that he received messages by letters and persons which would call for an answer and no doubt were answered, in I finesse oO-s1L. bhessy O11? b Corey ite Tabs 140 The Writings of the New Testament 16: S20 0l) Gore: Lt Romi ale8 Coles 4:16, 18. According to II Cor. 10: 10 Paul had written several letters to the Corinthians, but only one is extant of a date prior to the use of that language.—-(3) Rom. Chap. 16; II Cor. Chaps. 1- 9; 6: 14-7: 1; Chaps. 10-13 are by many scholars considered as fragments of complete letters —(4) The fact that Paul’s earliest extant epistle dates from a. D. 53, that is, fifteen years after his con- version and that intervals of four and five years occur between some of the extant letters is difficult to harmonize with Paul’s warm interest and care for the churches scattered throughout the Roman empire which could be exercised only by frequent correspondence (II Cor. 11: 28).—(5) Yet, it is very unlikely that any important epistle has been lost, for such a letter would in all probability have left traces in early Church literature, whereas all the quotations found in the ancient writers are taken from our extant epistles. Literary Characteristics of Paul’s Letters All of Paul’s epistles are real letters, that is personal communications called forth by definite occasions and circumstances of the people to whom they were sent, seven being addressed to single Churches (which?); two, to groups of Churches (which?) ; three, to Church officials (which?) ; one to an individual on a private matter (which?). The letters addressed to the Churches were to be publicly read to all the members (I Thess. 5: 27). Life and Work of St. Paul | 141 The usual structure of Paul’s letters is similar to that of the letters of Greeks and Romans of the time:—(1) Name of the writer, often associating his travelling companions with himself (I Thess. 1:1; I Cor. 1:1, etc.);—(2) Address in the phraseology of the time, but enriched with deeper meaning ;—(38) Greetings;—(4) Thanksgiving and commendation ;—(5) A doctrinal part on sub- jects required by the condition of the Churches ;— (6) A practical section on moral and social duties; —(7) Personal messages ;—(8) Salutations to and from individuals ;—(9) Benediction, often in auto- graph, serving as an authentication. As a rule, Paul dictated his letters (with the probable exception of Philemon), either from some defect of eyesight, or from an inability to write easily, or from custom and convenience. Rom. 16: 22 discloses the name of the secretary; in other cases we may guess at one of his associates men- nonuea? (leCoret ss Ti Cor. 1: 1). Being written by another person, some kind of authentication seemed necessary, especially as for- geries were circulating (II Thess. 2:2). Evidently not being accustomed to the use of a regular seal, the authentication usually consisted in adding a few words by his own hand, written probably in a peculiar manner (II Thess. 3:17, 18; I Cor. 16: 21-24; Col. 4:18; Rom. 16: 23, 24; Eph. 6: 25- 27; Phil. 4: 21-23; II Cor. 18: 12-14; I Tim. 6: 20, 21). Paul’s style and diction is logical, vigorous, 142 The Writings of the New Testament strong, rapid, and rugged; often rhythmical (1 Cor. 15: 42-44) ; full of climaxes (I Cor. 15: 53- 55); frequently epigrammatical (I Cor. 3:6) and of lyric beauty, as I Cor. 13, of which the Greek scholar Von Norden says: “Since the Hymn of Cleanthes, nothing. at once so heartfelt and magnificent has been written in the Greek lan- guage.”’—The fact that Paul’s letters were spoken may account for the broken grammar, the abrupt introduction of new thoughts and for the rapidity of style, which the personal use of the pen would have regulated. Paul’s letters derive their permanent value from the powerful personality back of them, his devo- tion to a great cause revealed in them, the warm affection for his readers pervading them and from the fact that they are the oldest extant records of incidents in the life of Christ and of the faith of the primitive Church (I Cor. 15:1-9). Their value was speedily recognized by making an early collection of them and by their general use in the Churches (II Pet. 3: 16 and Marcion’s Canon). Present N. T. criticism almost unanimously favors the genuineness of Paul’s letters, with the exception of the Pastoral epistles which will be dis- cussed later. I and II Cor., Romans and Galatians were recognized even by the Baur-Tuebingen school as incontestable and therefore uncontested. (See “ Foreword.”’) CHAPTER XIX THE FIRST CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP OF Ber Ero bites I and II Thessalonians Literature: Consult the literature in Chaps. 1 and 14. First Thessalonians To Whom Written. “Unto the Church of the Thessalonians” (1: 1).—(1) The city, situated at the Thermaic Gulf, near Mount Olympus, was the capital of Macedonia, containing a large in- dustrial population, thousands of which were Jews who had a synagogue there.—(2) The Church was planted by Paul on his second missionary journey, in 52 A.D. (Acts 17: 1-11). His stay was short; for, because he preached the kingship of Jesus (Acts 17: 7), he was driven from the city and went to Bercea—(3) The majority of the mem- bers were Gentiles (I Thess. 1: 9; 2: 14), but Jews, proselytes and “ chief women ”’ are also mentioned (Acts 17: 4). Occasion. Hearing of their persecution and religious perplexities, Paul sent Timothy (and possibly also Silas) back to Thessalonica from Athens (I Thess. 3:2; Acts 18:5) to comfort them. At Corinth these messengers joined Paul 143 144 The Writings of the New Testament (Acts 18:5; I Thess. 3:6), reporting that pagan vices survived in the Church; that Paul’s character and motives had been attacked; and that they were disconcerted by the death of some members, ap- parently having understood Paul to teach that Christ’s return would occur before the death of any.—The object of this letter, therefore, was to vindicate his own character (2: 3-9); encourage them to loyalty in spite of persecution (2: 13-16) ; exhort them to holiness of life (4: 3-8); and to relieve them from the perplexity occasioned by the death of some members (4: 18-5: 11). When and Where Written. At Corinth, dur- ing Paul’s first visit, early in 53 A. D., soon after Timothy’s return from Thessalonica, as a com- parison of I Thess. 3: 1-6 with Acts 18: 5 implies. Contents in Detail. I Thess. contains five chapters. I, Epistolary Introduction—1: 1-10.—Address, greeting, thanksgiving. Il. The spirit and manner in which Paul conducted his ministry at Thess.—A refutation of charges against him and his co-workers (2: I-12). The way in which the Thess. received the Gospel.— 2:13-16. You considered our message as the word of God. You remained firm in persecution as did the Jewish Chris- tians in Judea. IV. Paul’s loving interest in the Thess.—2: 17-3: 13.— Manifested in his desire to revisit them, in sending ‘Timothy to strengthen them, in Paul’s joy over Timothy’s good re- pot in Paul’s prayer that God may enable him to revisit the ess. V. Exhortations to special duties —4:1-12.—To Chris- tian consecration, to purity in sex relations, to brotherly love, to humility, honest work and becoming conduct toward non- Christians. Ss First Group of Paul’s Epistles 145 VI. Detailed instructions concerning the second coming of Christ—4:13-5:11.—The Christians dying before the second advent are under no disadvantage compared with saees alive at that time, as the order of the coming events shows. VII. Exhortations concerning Church life.—5; 12~22. VIII. Conclusion.—s5 : 23-28. Second Thessalonians When and Where Written. At Corinth, in 53 a. D., soon after First Thessalonians, as may be inferred from the following considerations: (1) Silas and Timothy are still with Paul (1:1). —(2) The words of 3:2 seem to point to the events described in Acts 18:12-17;—(8) the occasion demanded a speedy answer. Occasion. ‘l'o clear up their misunderstand- ing of the term “sudden” in I Thess. 5:38, re- ferring to the return of Christ, as if it meant “immediate,” in consequence of which some of them neglected their daily work and led a dis- orderly life. This error gained strength by toeceditetters' (2223.55.17). The object of Second Thessalonians, there- fore, was to reassure them of Christ’s coming to vindicate their cause (1: 5-12); to warn them against millennial fanaticism and emotionalism (2:1-2); to explain that Christ’s coming was not “ imminent,’ as certain events must first come to pass (2: 3-12); to exhort them to lead a quiet, sober and industrious life (3: 6-15). Contents. Second Thessalonians contains three chapters. The sections flow into each other with little marked separation. 146 The Writings of the New Testament I. Introduction (1: 1-4). II. Commendation of their steadfastness and assurance of prayer for further progress (1: 5-I2). III. Instruction regarding Christ's second advent (2:1- 12).—It will not be immediate, for the false Messiah must first appear and the power checking his evil work removed. IV. The Practical Part (3:15).—Renewed thanksgiving, a prayer for strength, request for their prayers, confidence in the Thess., rebuke of lazy fanatics. V. Conclusion (3: 16-18) —Benediction, autographic au- thentication. CHAPTER XX SECOND CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP OF PAUL SIEPISTERES I and II Cor., Romans, Galatians Literature: Consult bibliography of Chaps. 1 and 14. Godet, “The Epistles to the Corinthians.” First Corinthians Intervening time.—An interval of about four years (538-57) separates the second from the first group of Paul’s epistles. After writing I and II Thess., in 538 a. D., at Corinth, Paul returned to Antioch, making short stops at Ephesus, Czsarea and Jerusalem (Acts 18: 18-22). After “some time,” he left Antioch going on his third mission- ary tour (54-58), spending about three years at E\phesus. To Whom Written. ‘“ Unto the Church of God which is at Corinth” (1:2).—(1) The city was situated on the isthmus between the Ionian and the AXgean seas; a commercial center of great wealth, with a population of over half a million, drawn from many nations; the capital of Achaia; notorious for vice and corruption; famous as a seat of Greek learning; known for its pretensions to philosophy and literary culture and its fondness for polished and cultivated speech; famous for its 147 148 The Writings of the New Testament peculiar style of architecture and for its Isthmian games (I Cor. 9:24). The Church was founded by Paul during an eighteen months’ visit, about 52-54 A. D., on his second missionary journey (Acts 18: 1-18). After Paul’s departure Apollos worked in Corinth~ (Acts 18: 27-19:1). The majority of the members were Gentiles (1 Cor. 12:2); yet there were also Jews and proselytes. Most of the members were from the lower walks of life (1 Cor. 1: 26), though there were also a few wealthy and cultivated persons (Chloe, Aquila and Priscilla, Crispus, Erastus, Tertius ).—Ac- cording to the two epistles, the Church was large and very active; but characterized by Greek intel- lectual pride (1: 17-8: 4); restless partisanship and proneness to sensuality and Greek scepticism UiCoruao). When and Where Written. At Ephesus (16: 8-10 ct, Acts 1920-26; 16:19. cf: Aets 18-26; and 15: 82); im 57 A. D., that is, on the eve of a second visit to Corinth (4: 17-19 and 16:5), which was made after his three years’ stay at Ephesus (54-57), as recorded in Acts 19: 8-10; 20: 1-8, 81; allusions to the seasons (5: 7-8 and 16: 6, 8) point to the period between Passover and Pentecost. Occasion. While at Ephesus (54-57), dis- turbing reports reached Paul concerning moral laxity among the members of the Church at Cor- inth. Paul wrote them a sharp letter, demanding withdrawal from licentious ‘‘ brothers.” ‘The fact, Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 149 subject and spirit of such a letter is alluded to in I Cor. 5: 9, and the passage in II Cor. 6:14-7:1 may be a fragment of it, because the subject of this passage would fit the description, while it does not fit into its present context. This letter did not improve conditions at Corinth. Later three depu- ties from Corinth arrived at Ephesus (16: 17), delivering a letter from the Corinthian Church (7: 1), asking Paul questions on marriage, meat offered to idols, the use of spiritual gifts, the col- lection for Jerusalem, etc. In addition, visitors from Chloe (1:11) brought Paul news about party divisions, gross immorality, litigation, in- decorous conduct by some women, selfish conduct at the agape and the denial of the resurrection (Chaps. 1, 2, 5, 6, 11, 15).—-In answer to these reports, Paul wrote our I Corinthians, carried probably by the delegation. He also sent Timothy to straighten out difficulties (4: 17; 16: 10; Acts 19: 22). The object of this great letter was to answer their questions and to emphasize the true nature of the Gospel, the function of the Christian minister, the need of purity in the Church, etc. The value of I and II Corinthians is great. First they are rich treasures of information con- cerning the practical side of congregational life,and of the real conditions of the Apostolic churches. They set the Apostle vividly before us as a teacher and governor, confronted with the dangers and perplexities, the errors and corruptions of the 150 The Writings of the New Testament times. Here we witness the earliest conflict of Christianity with the culture and the vices of the ancient classical world. We get an insight into the principles which regulated Paul’s acceptance or rejection of the customs of that vast fabric of heathen society, called “the world.” Wecan trace the mode in which he combatted the false pride, the false philosophy, the false liberty of a declining age. In form, First Corinthians is orderly and logical, taking up one point after another in reg- ular succession ; in style it is more simple and direct than most of Paul’s letters, rising at times into the sublimest eloquence, as in I Corinthians 13. Contents. I Corinthians contains 16 chap- ters. I. Epistolary Introduction (1: 1-9)—Address and greet- ing.— Thanksgiving and commendation. II. Four defects in the Church at Corinth (1: 10-6: 20). A. Party-Spirit (1:10-4:21). The two principal reasons for your dissensions are: (a) Your misconception of the true nature of the Gospel, regarding it as a system of philosophy (1: 18-3: 4). (b) Growing out of this, your wrong view of the Chris- tian ministry (3: 5-4: 21). B. Second defect: neglect of Church discipline (5:1- 13).—An exceptionally flagrant case of immorality. C. Third defect: litigation before pagan courts (6: 1-11). D. Fourth defect: Defence of fornication (6: 12-20). Ill. Reply to questions asked by, the Corinthians in their letter to Paul Ge Gop i tt On marriage and its problems (Chap. 7). B. The proper attitude toward food omered to idols (8: 1-11:1). 8: 1-13.—General principles—Not knowledge of the non- existence of pagan gods, but love to the weak must settle these questions.— Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 151 9: 1-27.—The principle of forbearance illustrated by Paul’s example. 10: 1-13.—The principle of self-denial enforced by the example of the fathers. 10: 14-11: 1.—Avoid sacrificial feasts, because it means communion with the demons (14-24); do not offend the weak brother by buying and eating idol-meat. IV. Disorders in connection with public worship (11: 2- 14:40). I1:2-16.—The veiling of women. 11: 17-34.—Selfishness displayed at the agape and the Lord’s Supper. V. Spiritual gifts and their right use (12: 1-14: 40). 12: 1-31.—The spiritual gifts are various in their mani- festations, but they have one source—-God’s Spirit, and one purpose, serving the whole Church. 13: 1-13.—The one indispensable gift is love. All other gifts are valueless without it. 14: I-40——Comparative value of the two gifts of prophesy- ing and speaking with tongues. . I. Reply to questions concerning the resurrection (Chap. 15). ‘ 1—The resurrection of Christ is an essential article of the Gospel (15: I-11). Tie Christ is risen, all dead in Christ will rise (15: 12- 34). 3—The nature of the resurrection body (15: 35-58). VII. Conclusion (Chap. 16). Second Corinthians Interval Between First and Second Co- rinthians. The following movements of Paul are based partly on recorded facts and partly on inferences or conjectures. Some time after send- ing our First Corinthians, unfavorable reports reached Paul from Corinth, probably through Timothy on his return, which induced Paul to make a flying visit from Ephesus to Corinth on which occasion he may have personally excommunicated the incestuous person, denounced in I Cor. 5: 1-6. 152 The Writings of the New Testament Such a visit is clearly implied in II Cor. 12: 14, 21 and 13: 1-2, but not recorded in Acts. After his return to Ephesus, Paul learned that the Corin- thians had refused to carry out his arrangements, and that the Judaizers were very active against him. Therefore, Paul wrote them a very severe letter, which is supposed to be Chaps. 10-13 of our Sec- ond Corinthians, and also sent Titus to Corinth. After this Paul left Ephesus for Troas (II Cor. 1: 8-10; 2:12, 18), Macedonia and _ probably Illyricum, waiting for Titus to return. At last Titus meets Paul in Macedonia (II Cor. 7: 6, 13) with good reports about conditions at Corinth. Then Paul writes another very conciliatory letter, consisting of Chaps. 1-9 of our Second Corin- thians, which Titus carried back. Soon thereafter, Paul himself goes to Corinth for the three months’ visit, recorded in Acts 20: 2-38, during which he wrote Romans and Galatians. Note—The “two or three letter theory” of our Second Corinthians is held by many scholars, (1) because they regard the passage IT Cor. 6: 14-7: I as an interpolation con- sisting of a fragment of Paul’s real “ first” letter to the Corinthians, since its subject and tone would suit such a letter as alluded to in I Cor. 5:9, while it does not fit the context in its present place—(2) because Chaps. 10-13 of II Cor., as to tone and subjects, form an entire contrast to Chaps. 1-9.—(3) Scholars believing that our II Cor. was written exactly as it stands, explain the sudden change at 10:1, by supposing that its first part, Chaps. 1-9, was ad- dressed to the loyal part and the second, Chaps. 10-13, to the opposing faction; or that while he was writing under the impression of the good reports by Titus, new distressing reports from Corinth reached him, which induced him to change tone and subject. (This would imply that Titus had been deceived, or that the old feuds had broken out again.) Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 158 —These critical views are quite unimportant for the study of the material for practical, devotional and theological pur- poses. To Whom Written. ‘‘ Unto the Church of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints which are in the whole of Achaia” (1: 1), implying that Churches existed also outside of the city (Rom. Le)". Where and When Written. Considered as one letter, IJ Corinthians was written in Mace- donia, probably at Thessalonica or Philippi, in 57 A. D., a few months after our I Cor., as Paul’s movements after leaving Ephesus imply. Contents. IT Cor. in its present form contains 13 chapters. It is the least orderly (due perhaps to its composite character), but the most autobi- ographical and interesting of Paul’s letters. Five general divisions stand out quite clearly. I. Epistolary introduction.—1 : 1-16.—Salutation, Thanks- giving for divine comfort in afflictions, II. Affectionate review of Paul’s recent relations with the Corinthians. 1:1-7:16.—Defence against the charge of vacillation; the glory of the Apostolic office (3: 1-6: 10); appeal to treat him with affection and candor (6: 11-7:4); Mission of Titus (7: 5-16). Ill, Directions concerning the collection for the poor Christians at Jerusalem. Chaps. 8 and 9. IV. Paul’s defence of his Apostolic authority. 10: 1-13: 10.—The field of his mission, reply to the charge of weak- ness, his embarrassment at having to compare himself with others, about self-maintenance, his visions, infirmities and approaching visit. V. Conclusion. 13:11-14—Greeting and the N. T. benediction. 154 The Writings of the New Testament The Epistle to the Romans Literature: Consult the literature in Chaps. 1 and 14 on the various topics regarding this great epistle. Godet, “ Commentary on Romans,” (2 vol). Hodge, Ch., “ Commentary on Romans.” Zahn, “ Kommentar des Romerbriets.” Barth, Karl, “ Der Romerbrief.” Feine, ‘‘ Der Romerbrief.” Interval. Soon after writing II Cor., Paul arrived at Corinth, for a three months’ visit (Acts 20: 1-3), during which he straightened out diffi- culties, assembled the Committee to carry the col- lection to Jerusalem (I Cor. 16: 1-2; II Cor., Chaps. 8 and 9), perfected plans for future work, and wrote Romans and Galatians. To Whom Written. “To all that are in Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints” (1: 1-2).—(1) The city in Italy on the Tiber, founded 754 B. C., was the capital of the Roman empire, Nero being on the throne; the home of poets, orators, philosophers and artists. Among its cos- mopolitan population were 30,000 Jews who as a race were despised by the Romans (Ovid, Juvenal, Tacitus). Under Claudius (41-54), they were expelled (Acts 18: 2, and Suetonius, Vita Claudii: “Impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes,” be- cause under the instigation of Chrestus they con- stantly raised disturbances).—(2) The origin of the Church is unknown. Neither Paul is the founder, for he had not seen Rome before writing his letter (1: 8-11), nor Peter (15:20). It probably was planted by “the sojourners from Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 155 Rome” at Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and by Chris- tian travellers from Paul’s congregations, as Chap. 16 seems to suggest. Rom. 1:8 and 16:7 imply that the Church had existed for a long time. But see Acts 28: 17.—(38) The majority of the mem- bers seem to have been Gentiles (1:5, 6, 138-15; Iimelo—p4 £5015, 16), while?) 173) 7513 16: 7 point to a Jewish minority.—(4) The prevailing type of Roman Christianity was, therefore, “ Gen- tile-Christian,” as appears also from Chap. 14, where the “strong” brethren are exhorted to bear with the “ weak” brethren, advocating the Jewish type-—(5) While 1: 7,8 and 15: 14 suggest favor- able spiritual conditions, the existence of “ weak- ness,” disagreements and lack of missionary zeal may be inferred from Chap. 14 and Phil. 1: 14— 18.—(6) The fact that no Church officers are men- tioned, nor the word “ Church” used, as well as the remark in Acts 28: 15 has led some scholars to suppose that there was no formally organized Church in Rome, but merely unorganized groups of believers, meeting in the synagogue or in private houses (16: 5). When and Where Written. At Corinth, during Paul’s second recorded visit, early in 58, as appears from 15: 22-26, viewed in the light of Actsy20:1-3- 24-17-19: 1 Cor./16: 1-4: 1F Cor. 8: 1-4; 9: 1-2. Integrity. While Chaps. 15 and 16 are held to be of undoubted Pauline origin, many suppose that they were not in their present form a part 156 The Writings of the New Testament of the original copy of Romans, for the following reasons:—(1) In Chap. 16, a great number of people are greeted in a Church which Paul had never visited, some of the names, moreover, point- ing to Ephesus (16: 3 cf. I Cor. 16: 19 and Acts 18: 18, 26; II Tim, 4: 19; also Rom. 16: 5).—(2) Romans has three endings (15: 83; 16:20; 16: 27).—(38) The final doxology (16: 25-27) ap- pears in various places in the different Greek manuscripts. (See note in American Standard Bible, to 14:23 and 16:25.) Solutton:—(1) Chap. 16 is a fragment of a Pauline letter to the Ephesians, the rest of which is lost ;—-(2) Paul had copies of Romans made for several Churches, each with a different ending to suit each Church. A later copyist pieced the different endings together ; —(3) Romans was written exactly as we have it; the different endings mark postscripts, and the peo- ple mentioned in Chap. 16 were travellers from Churches in the East. Occasion. ‘To prepare the Romans for his long contemplated visit (1:18; 15:9, 23; Acts TO cue Lys Purpose. What determined the rich con- tents of this great letter? Various views:—(1) As Paul intended to make Rome the center of more aggressive evangelization in the west, he thought it wise to acquaint the Roman Christians with his type of the Gospel;—(2) To give the Romans a truer conception of the Gospel, as he knew them to be in danger of regarding Christianity as a new Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 157 law, just as the Corinthians misconceived it as a new philosophy.—(8) A defense of Paul’s preach- ing to the Gentiles (15: 16), and to show them the applicability of the Gospel to all nations;—(4) A connected statement of Paul’s peculiar system:— (5) A polemic against the Judaizers. Value and Importance. Romans has ever been regarded as Paul’s masterpiece. Luther calls it “ truly the chief part of the N. T., and the purest Gospel.’”’—Calvin: ‘‘ It opens the door to all treas- ures in the Scriptures.’——-Zwingli learned it by heart in Greek.—Romans has exerted a tremendous influence on the development of Christian thought in all ages.—It is usually regarded as Paul’s text- book on his peculiar type and system of theology. Its chief divisions have been adopted by the earliest text-books on Protestant theology, as e. g., Me- lanchthon’s “‘ Loci Communes” and the “ Heidel- berg Catechism.” Contents. Romans comprises sixteen chap- ters. In form, the letter is strictly systematic, an- nouncing and carrying through a definite theme from beginning to end. I. Epistolary Introduction (1: 1-17): 1. Address and greeting (1-7). 2. Thanksgiving and commendation (8-15). 3. Theme: Righteousness from God on the sole con- dition of faith (16-17). Il. The Necessity of a righteousness by faith, proved by the universal sinfulness of mankind which makes sal- vation by man’s own efforts impossible (1: 18-3: 20): 1. Proved from history and present experience in the case of the Gentiles (1: 18-32). 158 The Writings of the New Testament 3. a. Their guilt (18-23). b. The penalty (24-32). Proved by history and experience in the case of the Jews (2: 1-3:8). a, Details of proof (2: 1-16). b. Jewish blood will not exempt them (2: 17-24). c. Circumcision is no protection (2: 25-29). d. Jewish privileges are still important (3: 1-4). e. Paul’s defénce of his doctrine (3: 5-8). Proved from Scripture that Jews and Gentiles are steeped in sin and cannot save themselves (3:9- 20). Ill. The Nature of Faith-Righteousness—its subjective and objective basis (3: 21-31): I. 2 The subjective condition is man’s sincere trust in Christ (3: 21-22). The objective condition is the ransom paid by Christ through his sacrificial atoning death (3: 23- 25)% Two consequences; boasting is excluded; Jews and Gentiles are accepted on the same conditions (3: 26-31). IV. The Scripturalness of Faith-Righteousness, proved by the decisive case of Abraham (Chapter 4): i; 2.