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PREFACE, Within the whole range of human endeavor there has been no more brilHant accomplishment than that which has, in the course of scientific evolution, given to the world the beautiful and marvelous science of photography, and in a form so simple that the stu- dents of the art, with the exercise of a little pa- tience, application and ordinary intelligence, can more than share the laurels which in all ages have graced the brows of those illustrious masters of brush and palette, whose towering genius has trans- mitted to the civilization of our day an enduring record of every emotion of the human heart. With the fullest measure of recognition for the inestimable boon which the artists of the past have conferred upon our race, the fact can no longer be ignored that the art which has crowned them with a halo of enduring glory has been supplanted by another ART AND SCIENCE COMBINED, and one which is not only a science in itself, but an in- dispensable auxiliary to every other science, art, trade and profession. THIS CANNOT BE SAID OF ANY OTHER SCIENCE. Not only is photography a ranking profession which invites the best scientific talent within its fold, both as a consideration of advantage in the battle of life, in the sense of emolument and pro- fessional distinction, but it offers to the amateur of artistic taste a field of scientific research, coupled with heahhful and delightful recreation, which the nature of no other profession can possibly provide; The rapid evolution within the last few years 2 PRKFACK. in the manufacture of photographic apparatus has placed it within the power of every one to acquire this most interesting and fascinating art. With the advent of the hand camera all obstacles to the pursuit of photography as a pastime have been removed ; for the hand camera is a portable instru- ment of simple construction and for its successful operation requires only an intelligent comprehension and faithful compliance with the instructions given in this work. There is no profession which ofifers such oppor- tunities as photography ; first, because the avenues for its application are many-fold, and then again its simplicity, with reasonable diligence, insures rapid progress from the embryonic stage of the amateur to the highest plane of perfection attained by the full-fledged operator and expert. The professions and many lines of commercial business in which photography has become a necessity and the sciences to which it is now an indispensable aid and adjunct are too numerous to mention here; but a few cita- tions may tend to impress my readers with the im- portance of this science par excellence. In the practice of law it is a leading factor in the presentation of a certain character of evidence. In every department of engineering it is employed to record the progress of the work. In engraving and printing it has become a prime requisite. In the service of the police it is the mute agent which re- stores the missing to loving friends, and it brings the malefactor to the bar of justice. In every branch of commerce, on land and sea, the speechless camera heralds the steady progress of industrial development. It makes all the peoples of the earth familiar with the lives and habits of each other. It carries to the Icelander the warm scenes of the tropics, with their sunny skies and luxuriant flora, PREFACE. 3 and to the simple children of the Amazon it portrays the rugged, rock-ribbed shores of Labrador and the vast fields of ice and monster bergs, which rear their crystal peaks high into the dreary silence of the Arctic circle, while to the astronomer and to the microscopist it is his chief dependence for accurate registration. This volume has been written in the interests of the ambitious amateur, and in it the writer has en- deavored to impart such instruction as will enable the novice to avoid the pitfalls which beset the path of the beginner, and to make an encouraging start on the road to success. The endeavor has been made to give especially clear instructions on those points where the begin- ner is most likely to err. No amount of reading will enable the amateur to succeed, unless it be followed up by careful practical work. Successful photog- raphers gain their chief knowledge by practical ex- perience. In conclusion, the writer begs to impress upon the amateur's mind the imperative necessity for con- stant, earnest, watchful attention to all details. He has done all in his power to make photography sim- ple and popular; the result must remain with the amateur. CONTKNTS. CHAPTER I. Page Apparatus required 7-8-9 CHAPTER IT. Hand Cameras . . . . ; 10 Magazine Cameras 11 Folding Focusing Cameras 12-13 Fixed Focus Box Cameras 13-14 Kodaks 14 Remarks on Hand Cameras 15-16 CHAPTER III. Viewing Cameras 17-18-19 Features of Cameras 19 The Swing Back 19 The Rising and Falling Front 20 The Reversible Back 20-21 The Rack and Pinion 21 The View Finder 21 The Ground Glass Focusing Screen 21-22 CHAPTER IV. Lenses 23 Single Lenses 23-24 Rapid Rectilinear Lenses 24-25 Anastigmatic Lenses 26 Wlide Angle Lenses 26-27 The Portrait Lenses 27-28 The Telephoto Lenses \ 28-29 The Fixed Focus Lenses 29-30 Diaphragms or Stops 30-31-32-33-34 Uses of Stops 34-35 CHAPTER V. Shutters 36-37 Portrait Shutters 38-39 CHAPTER VI. The Plate Holder 89-40 The Film Holder 40 4 CONTENTS. 5 Page The Roll Holder 40-41 The Tripod ^ 41-42 The Focusing Cloth 42 The Carrying Case 42 CHAPTER VII. The Developing and Printing Outfit 43 The Ruby Lamp.. 43-44-45 Developing Trays 45-46 Toning Trays 46-47 'Scales * 47 Graduated Glass Measures 47 The Printing Frame. 48 CHAPTER VIII. Dry Plates 49-50-51-52-53 Cut or Sheet Films 53-54 Film Cartridges 54-55 CHAPTER IX. Loading the Film Camera 56-57 Loading the Plate Holder 57-58-59 Focusing 59-60 CHAPTER X. Landscape Photography, Lighting and Cam- position 61-62-63 Exposing 63-64-65-66 Architectural subjects 66-67 Use of the Swing Back 67-68 CHAPTER XI. Portrait Photography, Home Portraiture.... 69-70-71-72 Home Portraiture Illustrations 72-73-74-75-76 Outdoor Portraiture 77-78-79 CHAPTER XII. Photographing Interior, Lighting and Com- position 80-81-82 Exposing 82-83 Approximate Time Needed for Exposures 83-84 CHAPTER XIII. Flashlight Photography 85-86-87 Preparation for the Flashlight 87-88 Taking the Picture 88 The Powder 88 Flashlight Table 88 Flashlight Portraits 89 6 CONTENTS. Page Flashlight Groups .^r.- 89 The Background 89 When Using Flash Cartridges 89-90 When Using Flash Sheets 90 In General 90-91 Secondary Uses of the Flashlight 91-92-93-94 Warning ! 94 CHAPTER XIV. Snapshot and Instantaneous Photography 95-96 Photographing Moving Objects 96-97-98-99 CHAPTEH XV. Development and Completion of the Negative: Equipment and Arrangement of the Dark Room 99-100-101 The Choice of a Developer 101-102-103 Agents 103-104 How to Mix the Developer 104-105 How to Develop a Negative 105-106-107-108-109 How to Correct Over and Under Exposure.... 109-110-111 How to Intensify a Negative 111-112 How to Reduce a Negative 112 Drying Negatives 112-113 Varnishing Negatives 113-114 Retouching Negatives 114-115 Storing Negatives 115 How to Develop Film Cartridges 116 to 121 Useful Formulae for Developing and Fixing Negatives 122-123-124-125-126 CHAPTER XVI. Printing, Toning, Mounting and Finishing. Miscellaneous Papers 127-128-129 Printing 129-130-131 Toning 131-132-133-134 Directions for Toning with the Combined Bath. 134-135-136 Toning by the Separate Toning and Fixing Method 136-137-138 Printing on Developing Paper 138-139 Exposure of Developing Paper 139 Development of Developing Paper 139-140 Failures and Their Causes 140-141 Making Blue Prints 141 Making Sepia Prints 141 Mounting 142 Glossy Prints 143 CHAPTER I. THE APPARATUS REQUIRED. Cameras adapted for the amateur's use are di- vided into two classes : Hand cameras and view- ing cameras. These classes are again sub- divided into many styles and varieties of instru- ments. Before it is practicable to enter intelli- gently into a practical photographic training the amateur should provide himself with the neces- sary apparatus and he should, therefore, select one or the other of these two classes of instru- ments. This selection of an instrument should invariably be determined by the character of the work which the embryo photographer has in con- templation, i. e., whether his object is to provide himself with agreeable diversion and recreation or with a scientific art which may be employed as a profession to insure permanent occupation and revenue. Upon the selection of the first instrument much depends, and while advising the novice in this respect certain considerations should be borne in mind as tending to his ultimate success and these are his personality, tastes, environment and financial ability. Yet one rule can safely be laid down. If the camera is to be used by the traveler or by anyone not having access to a dark room, a film camera should be used. An exclusively plate camera is suitable for gallery work and viewing. For the amateur's use it is well to have an in- strument that will use film as well as plates. Films in light-proof rolls weigh only one-twen- 7 tieth as much as glass plates and the necessary plate holders ; they are non-breakable, are as easy to develop as plates and in rapidity and quality equal the best plates made. In every kind of amateur photographic work, where it is not desired to make a negative larger than 5x7, transparent film is rapidly becoming more popular and its use is increasing daily. The reasons are obvious. Film is a thin, light, roll- able and non-breakable substance. Plates are heavy, fragile glass. To the tourist, where the transportation problem is to be faced, the use of film frequently means success versus failure. Films and plates are, nevertheless, more nearly alike than those not familiar with the subject would imagine. Indeed, they are identical, ex- cept in the support upon which the sensitive ma- terial (emulsion) is coated. When this emulsion is coated on glass we have ''plates." When coated on a thin, flexible sup- port it is called ''film." Neither the glass nor this flexible, transparent material does more than furnish a support for the emulsion which is to take the picture. When exposed in the camera, the results are Identical, and when the pictures are made they are indis- tinguishable. Whatever style of instrument the amateur may select he will require the following articles to complete his working apparatus : Camera, complete with Plate Holder, Lens and Shutter and a Developing and Printing Outfit, consisting of Developing and Toning Trays, Graduated Measuring Glass, Printing Frame, Ruby Lamp, and if he should select the Viewing Camera, the above list must be augmented by the addition of a Tripod and Focusing Cloth. 9 Chemicals for making the developing and ton- ing solutions and paper and dry plates will also be required, particulars concerning which will be treated elsewhere in this work. The articles mentioned in the above list may be purchased separately or they may be bought in the form of a complete equipment. In addition there are many other pieces of apparatus, such as washing appliances, drying racks, plate lifters; but they are not absolutely essential, and their purchase may be deferred until the beginner has achieved some progress and feels justified in making the additional outlay. The cost of photographic apparatus varies considerably, according to qual- ity, but as the cost of the plates and papers used in both cameras of good and inferior quality is the same, it is more economical in the end for the beginner to provide himself with the best appar- atus that he can afiford. CHAPTER II. HAND CAMERAS. As indicated by its name, a ''hand'' camera is one that is intended primarily to be used when held by the hands, and, therefore, except on rare occasions, such an instrument does not require a tripod as in the case of the view camera. As it is practically impossible to hold a camera in the hand with sufficient steadiness to give an expo- sure of more than about the tenth-part of a sec- ond, all hand cameras are provided with a shutter so as to insure quick exposure. The most popular size for a hand camera is 4x5, though instruments of this kind are made to take much smaller pictures ; some users are not satisfied with so small a picture as 4x5, and pre- fer a 5x7 instrument or even 6^x8>^ or 8x10. As a rule, a 4x5 or 5x7 camera will be found quite large enough for all ordinary amateur work. It is not many years ago that a hand camera was re- garded as a toy rather than as an instrument for serious picture-taking; but this opinion no lon- ger exists, owing to the development of this most useful instrument from the original crude box to the present perfect apparatus. A hand camera is even better than its proto- type on a tripod, in depicting street scenes. In this class of work a tripod camera, erected in a busy thoroughfare, would not only obstruct traf- fic, but might in the case of some operators be objected to as rendering them disagreeably con- spicuous. With a hand camera the amateur can stroll about when and where he will and take a 10 II shot here and a shot there, without attracting undue notice. or inconveniencing anybody. For cyclists, too, a hand camera is most convenient, as it is compact, easily carried, and can be used at a moment's notice during a ride. Hand cameras may be divided into four classes, as follows : FIG. 1. MAGAZINE CAMERA. Class I. Magazine Cameras. (See Fig. i.) — Those in which a number of plates or cut films are stored in a chamber or magazine, the plates being changed after each exposure by means of mechanism. These are known as Magazine Cameras. In this class the plates are usually placed in metal carriers, and as a rule each camera holds twelve plates. Several forms of hand cameras are made on this principle. This class of camera possesses the advantage of enabling the user to make several exposures in quick succession, and in many cases this feature is a decided conve- nience. 12 FIG. 2. FOLDING FOCUSING CAMERA. Class 2. Folding Focusing Cameras. (See Fig. 2.) — Those which are so constructed that when not in use are self contained in a neat leather covered box, but when desired, by press- ing a concealed button one side of the box is caused to be lowered, forming a bed upon which the camera front containing the lens and shutter is drawn out, rendering the instrument adaptable for instant use. This style is known as the Folding Hand Camera. They are provided with ground glass screen, tripod sockets, and focusing scale and can be used either as a Hand Camera or upon a tripod as a regular Viewing Camera In them can be used either dry-plates, sheet films or films in rolls, the various holders required being interchangeable. 13 A camera of the class of style 2, with plate holders, is specially suitable when a varied range of work is to be done, as plates of different speeds can be carried in the holders and a fast or slow plate can thus be selected according to the needs of the subject to be taken. A plentiful sup- ply of plates is not always a blessing to the hand camera worker, for he is then often tempted to spend a plate on a subject of little or no interest, whereas, if only a smaller supply of plates was available greater care in the selection of the view would be expended. FIG. 3. FIXED FOCUS BOX CAMERA. Class 3. Fixed Focus Box Cameras. (See Fig"- 3-) — Those known as Fixed Focus or Box style, in which the plates are contained in plate holders. The cameras in this class are usually provided with space for three double plate holders, taking six plates. In some instruments there is space for carrying all three holders in the body of the 14 camera while in others there is only room for one holder, the other two being carried in the pocket. (See Fig. 3.) FIG. 4. NO. 3 FOLDING POCKET FIG. 5. FOLDING POCKET KODAK WITH B. & L. KODAK. AUTOMATIC SHUTTER. Class 4. Kodaks. (See Figs. 4 and 5.) — Cam- eras in which flexible films in rolls are used in- stead of glass plates, the film being wound on spools or rollers. The action of winding up the exposed portion of the film unwinds a fresh por- tion ready for the next exposure. The cameras in class 4 appeal perhaps most strongly to the tourist and holiday-maker as they enable material for a large number of exposures to be carried with very little weight. There are some most excellent instruments of this kind on the market, which are well worth attention. Many styles are made in such compact form as to permit of their being carried in any ordinary coat pocket. These are known as Folding Pocket Kodaks. 15 With a focusing camera the operator is en- abled to compose or arrange his view on the ground-glass focusing screen; but in a strictly hand camera this process is performed by means of a little appliance termed a view finder. All hand cameras using rectangular shaped plates should be provided with either two view findersorareversible finder, to enable the operator to compose both horizontal pictures and vertical pictures. Many hand cameras are of the *'fixed- focus'' type. This means that everything beyond a certain distance (usually about 7 to 9 feet) from the camera is in correct focus on the plate, and for the majority of snap-shot pictures a camera of this kind will do all that is required. If the amateur wishes to go in for portraits and figure studies, however, he should obtain a camera with a focusing arrangement so that nearer subjects can be successfully taken. Ap- paratus of this kind is described under class 2. This focusing can be performed by examining the picture on a focusing screen and then racking the camera in or out until it appears perfectly sharp, or by judging or measuring the distance at which the subject is placed from the camera and then racking the camera front out until it is set for that distance, as indicated on a small grad- uated scale termed the focusing scale. With portraits and figure studies the focusing adjustment is specially required so as to enable the figures to be taken of sufficient size. On the cheaper kinds of hand cameras single lenses are usually fitted, and, for landscape work such lenses are suitable, but one with a rapid rectilinear lens is to be preferred, if the extra cost can be afforded. i6 The shutters supplied with hand cameras are extremely varied in design. The shutter should be both set and released from the outside of the camera, and the latter operation should be per- formed without the necessity for undue move- ment or pressure. It should be capable of being adjusted for various speeds, and should have an indicator to show the various speeds at which it works. The range of adjustment should be from about one-tenth of a second to not less than one-fiftieth, and the shutter should also be ca- pable of giving time exposures if necessary. When it is desired to give a time exposure with a hand camera, it is usual to rest the instrument on a convenient fence or post, or else on a tripod. A further point with regard to the shutter is that it should not uncover the plate when being set. For ordinary snap-shot work a shutter speed of about one-twenty-fifth of a second is generally sufficient. The higher the speed of the shutter, the greater the danger of under-exposure. As far as possible, all the movements should be accessible from the outside of the camera and the various working parts should be easily acces- sible for cleaning, adjustment, and repair. A numerical indicator should be connected to the plate-changing mechanism, in the case of Maga- zine Cameras, to show how many plates have been exposed, and it should be possible to remove the exposed plates, at any time without interfer- ing with those which may still be unexposed. It is now almost a universal practice among Hand Camera makers to furnish their apparatus' complete with lens, shutter and plate holder, thus saving the prospective purchaser the trouble of selecting each item separately. CHAPTER III. VIEWING CAMERAS— FEATURES OF CAMERAS. Size of the Outfit. — Camera manufacturers have adopted a series of standard sizes for their instruments. Very large cameras may be left ^ FIG. 6. out of the question, as unsuited to the general requirements of amateur workers, and the fol- lowing sizes may be considered as those from which a selection should be made. The figures given are the dimensions of the largest picture which each camera is capable of taking: 5x7-in., 5x8-in., 6>^x8j^-in., 8xio-in. 17 i8 Of the foregoing sizes there are two the use of which largely preponderates. These are 5x7 and 6}^x8y2' If the reader wishes to keep both his initial and working expenses as low as possible, he should content himself with the smaller of these two sizes. When he has gained some ex- perience and is fairly proficient, he may perhaps feel tempted to employ a 6>4x8>l camera. All things considered, however, a 5x7 instrument is the best size for the beginner to commence with. By a simple contrivance known as a ''kit" smaller pictures can be taken with a 5x7 or larger cam- era, so that if the reader wishes to experiment in a small way at the start, it is a very easy matter for him to do so. The Points of a Good Viewing Camera. — A knowledge of the features which a good camera should possess will be of service to the reader when selecting an instrument. Since the camera has to be carried about from place to place it should be as light as possible, and it should fold up into a small compass. These qualities, how- ever, should not be obtained at the sacrifice of rigidity, for it is upon the firmness of the camera and its support, that the sharpness of the result- ant picture largely depends. The front of the camera should be provided with a rising and falling adjustment, so that the lens may be moved above or below the level of the center of the plate, though it should be exactly opposite this point when in its normal position. The bellows should be made of leather or bel- lows cloth, and m^y be either parallel or tapering in shape. The latter kind is known as a *'coxi- icar* bellows, and is generally preferred on ac- count of the saving in weight which their use allows. (See Fig. 6.) When a conical bellows is 19 fitted, the purchaser should satisfy himself that if the back of the camera is moved close up to the front, as is the case when using a short-focus lens, no part of the picture on the plate is cut off. It is essential for good work that the camera should be provided with what is termed a ''swing-back,'' and the amateur will also find it of great advantage to have a camera with a re- versing back, that is a back which will fit in both a horizontal and a vertical position. As will be seen from the foregoing list of standard sizes the plates are made oblong in shape, and the re- versing back enables the plate to be used either vertically or horizontally, as required. With a 6>2x8>^ camera, sufficient adjustment should be provided to enable an extension of not less than i6 or 17 inches to be made. The wood- work of the camera should be of well-seasoned mahogany. Features of Cameras. — In the foregoing pages the terms : swing-back, view-finder, etc., have been used and the reader will derive a full com- prehension of a definition of the meaning of these terms from the following detailed explanation : The Swing Back.-— ^In making pictures of buildings or of ahy subject other than purely landscape ones, the sensitive plate should be in a perfectly perpendicu- lar plane with the subject in order to obtain good results. The purpose of a swing-back FIG. 7. is to keep the place always ab- solutely perpendicular. (See Fig. 7.) To include the top of a tall building or church spire, or se- cure more of a subject than can be obtained with the camera in its normal position, it is often nec- 20 essary to tilt it, and under such conditions, with a rigid back, the lines of the resulting photo- graph will converge more or less at the top, as the plate will be at an angle with the subject. If, however, the back of the camera is made to move or ''swing'' independently, then, even though the camera is not level, the sensitive plate can be placed parallel with the subject and straight lines secured^ — or, in photographic par- lance, there would be no distortion, but a perfect rectilinear effect. A swing-back is not absolutely essential for hand work and in fact is not used to so great an extent with 4x5 cameras as with' larger sizes. Nevertheless it will be found very convenient for tripod exposures, and indispen- sable under conditions noted above. The Rising and Falling Front. — The purpose of a rising and falling front is to shift the lens Fig. 8. Rising and Falling Fig. 9. Double Sliding Front. Front. above or below the center of the sensitive plate — its normal position — in order to include more or less foreground. (See Figs. 8-9.) It will also be found an aid in securing the upper part of a building or similar subject, which could not be covered by the lens if at the center. The Reversible Back. — A reversible back cam- era, to the casual observer, does not differ in appearance from the ordinary type, but it has de- cided advantages. The back frame which carries 21 the sensitive plate can be placed either upright or horizontal at will — without changing position of the camera — a decided advantage, especially when making tripod exposure. Fig. lo shows the camera back with a plate in a horizontal posi- FiG. 10. Fig. 11. tion; a portion of the subject being cut oflf. By- reversing the back the plate will be vertical, as in Fig. II — the whole subject included, and often a ,more artistic effect obtained. Rack and Pinion. — This is a metal roller de- vice working in a milled track used on the bed for moving the front of camera, to which lens and shutters are attached, backward or forward, until the proper focus is obtained. In the cheaper apparatus this is accomplished by means of a lever or hook ; but this method is inconvenient as compared with the use of the rack. The View Finder is in reality similar to a min- iature camera, consisting of a lens and reflecting mirrors. Its purpose is to give an exact repro- duction, in miniature size, of the view as it will appear on the negative. Finders are made in various forms, adaptable to use upon either fold- ing or non-folding cameras, as the case may be. The Ground Glass or "Focusing'' Screen. — At the back of a tripod camera there is a frame in 22 which is fixed a sheet of ground glass. This glass is termed the ''focusing screen/' On this the picture to be taken is arranged and focused. When the camera is first set up and pointed at the object to be taken, the picture will probably appear very indistinct and fuzzy. The amateur may be surprised also to find that the picture appears upside down on the glass ; but this is the natural result of the action of the lens, and is a peculiarity to which he will soon get quite accus- tomed. The front of the camera is then moved in or out by means of a rack and pinion move- ment until the picture appears sharp on the ground glass. CHAPTER IV. LENSES: DIAPHRAGMS OR STOPS. Lenses.-^ — The next member of a complete pho- tographic apparatus to receive attention is the lens. Lenses of many names, mystifying in the extreme to the novice, are advertised ; but these may be divided into five classes, four of which are in general use. The fifth (the Tele-Photo) is at present but little understood. The four in general use are : First, the Single Lens (single combination) ; second, the Rapid Rectilinear Lens (Double combination) ; third, the Wide Angle Lens (Double combination) ; fourth, the Portrait Lens (Double combination). Single Lenses are made in two forms, meniscus (see Figs. 12-13) and piano convex. The menis- cus form is always employed ex- cept in the cheapest class of cam- eras. These lenses are always mounted behind the diaphragm Fig. 12. Fig. 13. which controls the amount of Plano- Menis- li^ht to be admitted through the CONVEX. cus. j^^^^ A Single Combination lens, as its name im- plies, contains but one ''combination,'' a com- bination being two or more glass elements cemented together with Canada balsam. The chief advantage which the single lens offers to amateur workers is that it is con- siderably lower in price than the other types 23 24 and is used in cameras making pictures 4x5 inches or less in size. For landscape photography and for figure studies, a good single lens will prove very satisfactory. To the amateur, how- ever, who wishes to do as great a variety of work as possible with one lens, the single type has a great disadvantage in that it is entirely un- suited for taking any subject where straight lines have to be included, such as in photographs of buildings, copying drawings, etc. ; for in such cases it distorts the straight lines into a more or less curved form, hence this type of lens is not suitable for making pictures larger than 4x5 inches. Fig. 14. A Rapid Rectilinear or Double Achromatic Lens is composed of two single achromatic lens combinations mounted one in each end of the lens tube, placed face to face. (See Fig. 14.) When a stop is placed in front of a single lens the image produced is ''barrel shaped,'' and when the stop is placed back of the lens the im- age is ''pin-cushion'' shape. The stop in the rectilinear lens being placed between the two 25 combinations is, of course, in front of the back, and back of the front combinations. It is very evident, then, that the distortion of the one would be counteracted by the distortion of the other, and hence the result — a straight line. This defect of the one being counteracted or corrected by the defect of the other permits of a large aper- ture being used in comparison with that of the single lens, hence the name Rapid Rectilinear. Undoub t e d 1 y the best kind of lens for all-round work is the rapid rectilinear, as the pictures taken with a lens of this type are absolute- ly free from dis- torted or curved lines. A further advantage of this lens over the single lens is that it is much quicker in working. A rapid rectilinear lens may be used with good re- sults for any of the following classes of work : Landscape, architectural subjects, copying, portraits, groups, and figure studies. It is also very suitable for instantaneous and snap-shot pictures. Rapid rectilinear lenses are made in many grades and of many types, and are marketed under various names, such as Rectilinears, Anas- tigmats, Symmetricals, etc., the double Anastig- mats being the highest grade. The Stigmatic and Anastigmatic Lenses (See I'ig"- 15)^ of which there are a number of different series manufactured, are a new form of lens of comparatively recent invention. They are cer- FiG. 15. 26 tainly of the highest plane to which the photo- graphic optician has obtained. They are made of the new Jena glass and the various series are composed of from two to eight lenses. They are of convertible form and they may be used with either front or back combinations sep- arately. By so doing three different focal lengths are obtained and the possessor of these lenses has in reality three lenses combined in one. FJQ. 6. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. The Wide Angle Lens is very similar in form and the same in principle as that of the Rapid Rectilinear; the chief difference being that the lens combinations are mounted closer together and the curvature greater in the same focal length of lens. Fig. i6 represents one of the most common forms of wide angle lenses. It will readily be seen by the construction of the lens-mount that it will permit of a very wide angle of view to pass through, to the plate, while in the Rapid Recti- i 27 linear (Fig. 17) the angle would be cut off by the length of the barrel. It must not be understood that because one is the possessor of a wide angle lens he will be able to obtain the angle desired on any size of plate he may wish to use. A wide angle lens is so called because its angular capacity is large in propor- tion to its focal length. But if we have a lens of, say, six inches focus, with an angular capacity of 100 degrees and a 4x5 plate be used, it will read- ily be seen that we do not utilize the full capacity of the lens, and hence #nly a comparatively nar- * Fig. 18. row angle of view is obtained. In Fig. 18 the lines ab and cd indicate the angular capacity of the lens. A 4x5 plate being used, the base line, or 5 inch side, H K represents the angle obtained, which is less than half the capacity of the lens. A wide angle lens is intended for use in con- fined positions, and for photographing high buildings in narrow thoroughfares, for interiors of small rooms, and for similar work, it is almost indispensable. A disadvantage attaches to its 38 use, however, in the fact that the perspective of the view so taken appears exaggerated and dis- pleasing to the eye; but since there is no means of taking many subjects except by the aid of such a lens, this alteration in the appearance of the perspective must be accepted. The Portrait Lens.— A Portrait Lens maybe considered one of the crowning'successes of the photographic optician. Although invented a number of years ago, no photographer's outfit of the present day would hp considered complete without one. They are specially designed for very short exposure, and are from four to six times as quick working as the ordinary rapid rectilinear lens. They cover a very small plate in proportion to their focal length, and conse- quently possess a narrow angle. The image pro- duced is very soft and pleasing to the eye and the most artistic results in portraiture are produced with them. The lenses of the back combination are separated by an air space which, together with their extremely large apertures, produce the fine soft effect. Lenses of this type are intended for Portrait work only and they are of little use for any other class of work. The Tele-Photo is a distinct type of lens of which a brief description is given on account of its distinction from the other lenses and its usefulness in the production of long- distance views. It is composed of two individual combinations; a collective or positive combination and a dispersive or negative com- bination. The office of the collective lens is to collect as many as possible of the rays of light which are reflected from the object to be photo- graphed, and to focus them within the radius of 29 the dispersive combination, which projects an enlarged image upon the plate. In this manner a large image of a distinct object may be ob- tained with a comparatively very short bellows draw. They are very useful in photographing distant mountain scenery, vessels far out at sea and various animals for the study of naturalists, pictures of which it would be impossible to ob- tain at close range. 4 Fig. 19. Fixed Focus Lens. — The repeated mention of this lens in catalogues and advertisements has created an impression that it is some distinct kind of lens, with the extraordinary power of focusing all objects near and far in one plane. There is no inherent quality in any lens that makes it ''fixed focus'' ; it is such when it is im- movable and that is all. Any lens can, therefore, be made ''fixed focus'' but the extent to which it will focus all objects in one plane depends upon its length of focus and size of stop or diaphragm used, and upon that only. The reason for this is that the rays of light from near and far objects do not focus at the same point. For instance, we will assume that B, in Fig, 19, is the point at which objects one hundred feet distant will focus and that A is where objects 10 feet distant will focus. Now the distance between A and B will vary in ratio to 30 the focal length of the lens. In a lens of 3 inches focus it is ascertained mathematically to be 3-16 of an inch and in one of 12 inches focus, inches. Hence if using a 3 inch focus lens the sensitive surface is placed between A and B the object at 100 feet and beyond (all objects beyond 100 feet come practically within one focus) and objects 10 feet distant will none of them be more than 3-32 out of focus, which, with the size of stop ordinarily used for snap work, creates so slight a blurring of the image that it cannot be detected. Experience has shown that the limit of focus for a lens which is to be em- ployed for snap shot work with the focus fixed is under 5J4 inches; in other words thata3^x4>^ plate is about the largest that can be used to advantage under such circumstances. It is prob- ably true that for cameras of this size and under, nothing can be gained by having the focus ad- justable and that, on the other hand, better aver- age results will be obtained with a fixed focus, owing to the fact that there is no adjustment that will allow the lens to be put out of focus by a mistake in measuring distances. Diaphragms or Stops. — All lenses are provided with ''diaphragms'' or ''stops," for the purpose of regulating the size of the aperture through which light can pass. There are three kinds of diaphragms fitted to lenses, viz. : Waterhouse diaphragms, Iris diaphragms and rotary or wheel diaphragms. A Waterhouse diaphragm is a small piece of sheet metal, having a circular hole made in the center. This is inserted in a slot cut in the brass lens mount and blocks out all the light except that which passes through the hole. A set of these is provided, having dif- ferent sized holes. An Iris diaphragm consists of a set of thin plates overlapping one another 31 and fixed inside the lens mount. These are so arranged that when a circular ring that is fitted to the outside of the mount is rotated, the plates move in or out and so vary the size of the open- in;^ in the center, the action being very similar to the action of the iris of the human eye. A Rotary diaphragm takes the form of a circular disc, with several different sized holes therein. This is pivoted on the lens mount, and as it is rotated one or the other of the various holes comes opposite the center of the lens opening. The two former kinds of diaphragms are those most commonly used, and for general conveni- ence the Iris pattern is greatly preferred. It has the advantage of being in one with the lens mount, so that it cannot be mislaid or left be- hind as is the case with the Waterhouse type. An Iris diaphragm is a little more expensive, but its extra quality justifies the investment. Ro- tary diaphragms are often used for hand camera lenses. A volume might be written on the subject of stops, but a few lines will suffice to give the amateur an idea of why they are necessary, and how they should be used. The best part of a lens is its center, i. e., those rays of light which pass through the lens at or near the center will be correctly refracted and will therefore give the image clear and sharp on the ground glass, while the rays which pass through the outer edges of the lens will not make such a clear and distinct image. It can thus be seen that the smaller the stop opening the sharper the picture, because the outside rays will be cut off. But it will be discovered that with a small diaphragm or stop opening the light 32 is to a great extent cut down. If the beginner has a camera with focusing glass it will be well for him to focus on some object on the ground glass, using the largest diaphragm and care- fully noting the lines to see if they are sharp. Then let him put a smaller stop in position, not- ing the increase in sharpness and the decrease in light. The better the lens the larger the stop opening which can be successfully used, and consequently the ''faster'' the lens. Suppose one lens of 8-inch focus is employed and that in a given light a clear, sharp picture is made in 5 seconds with a stop one inch in diameter, while with another lens of same focal length a stop only one-half inch in diameter must be used in order to get a sharp picture. How would they compare in speed? IsTine people out of ten will jump at conclusions and say that the lens with the half-inch opening must be given 10 seconds. In this case the first impression is not correct. Four times the time or 20 seconds must be given because the area of the one-inch stop is four times that of the half-inch stop. A simple little rule can be deduced from this, and if the correct exposure with one stop is known the correct ex- posure for the others can readily be ascertained. The time variation between two stops is in- versely as the square of their diameters. With most single-lens cameras there are stop- openings of three sizes, the largest, for ordinary snap shots, the second (which has about 2-3 the diameter of the largest), for snap shots on the water and in tropical or semi-tropical climates or for time exposures indoors, and the smallest, or- dinarily used for time exposures out of doors — never for snap shots. 33 With the double lenses there is a greater, num- ber of stop openings and they are arranged upon what is known as the Uniform System, com- monly abbreviated to ''U. S." Of course when in a general way it is said that the speed of a lens depends upon the diameter of the stop opening it is not meant, for instance, that a Pocket Kodak stop opening must be as large as the diaphragm in the lens of an 8 x lo camera in order to have the same speed, but it must be as large in proportion, and that propor- tion is based upon the length of focus (the dis- tance between lens and plate) of the lens. The proportionate size or the 'Value'' of the stop opening is designated by /, and is the quotient obtained by dividing the focal length of the lens by the diameter of the stop. For instance: a lens of 8-inch focus with a stop one inch in diameter gives 8->i=8. Hence, 8 is the / value of the stop and would be designated: /8. Suppose the stop is % inch in diameter, then 8--M=/32. For convenience the Uniform System of mark- ing stop openings has been adopted by nearly all manufacturers of Iris diaphragms and the fol- lowing table will help the amateur to understand the meaning of these markings by giving the / value for each one : U.S. 4 = / 8 U.S. 8 — /II.3 U.S. i6 = /i6 U. S. 32 = / 22.6 U.S. 64 = /32 U.S. 128 = / 45.2 The convenience of the U. S. system is at once apparent when it is understood that each higher 34 number stands for an opening having half the area of the preceding opening. Between each number, therefore, the time is doubled. If stop No. i6 is used twice is given or if No. 32 four times the time of the table, while with stop No. 4 only one-half the time of the table would be given. Ordinarily the appended table is a good one to follow in the use of the stops with a rapid rec- tilinear lens, but there are some exceptions: No. 4. — For instantaneous exposures in slight- ly cloudy weather and for portraits. Instan- taneous exposures on dark, cloudy days should not be attempted. No. 8. — For all ordinary instantaneous expos- ures when the sun shines. No. 16. — For instantaneous exposures when the sunlight is unusually strong and there are no heavy shadows ; such as views on the seashore or on the water, or in tropical or semi-tropical climates: also for interior time exposures. Nos. 32 and 64. — For interiors. Never for in- stantaneous exposures. No. 128. — For time exposures outdoors in cloudy weather. Never for instantaneous expos- ures. The time required for time exposures on cloudy days with smallest stop will range from Yi second to 5 seconds, according to the light. The smaller the stop the sharper the picture. If the smallest stop is used for instantaneous exposures, absolute failure will result. The No. 4 stop is not to be used when absolute sharpness is desired, as the opening is so large that few lenses will have a good ''depth of focus" with it — 1. e., only the objects at the exact dis- 35 tance focused will be sharp, those nearer by or farther away being more or less "out of focus." Sharpness is extremely desirable in a picture; but what is called ''roundness" and ''atmosphere" is perhaps fully as important. What is meant by these rather vague terms is sometimes puz- zling to the beginner and they are, perhaps, best explained as referring to that quality in a pic- ture which gives the proper idea of both distance and perspective — that quality which is the oppo- site of the silhouette; which makes every object appear in proper relation to every other object and gives life and character to the picture. "At- mosphere" and "roundness" are somewhat lost by using too small a stop. The largest opening which will give a sharp picture should therefore be used. CHAPTER V. SHUTTERS. If the reader wishes to take photographs of moving objects, a shutter must be obtained. For all ordinary work requiring exposures of ^ sec- ond and upward, such an article is not abso- lutely necessary. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. The shutter is usually attached to the lens, and in its most simple form may consist of a piece of wood or metal, in which an opening is cut, and which slides up and down in a frame supported by the lens. As the opening in the slide passes in front of the lens, the exposure is made, the duration of which depends on the size of the aperture and the speed at which the slide is moving. In most shutters of this type, the motion is obtained by allowing the sliding piece to fall by its own weight when released, though the speed thus obtained may be considerably in- 36 37 creased by using an extended India rubber band to exert a pull. In more expensive forms of shutters, such as the Thornton-Pickard, roller- blinds are used with excellent results, the shutter being set by simply pulling a cord and the re- lease being made by squeezing an India rubber bulb attached to a closed tube, this action re*- leasing the spring mechanism which actuates the blind. The characteristics of a good shutter are as follows : It should be light arrd not unwieldly in shape. It should work quietly and without imparting vibration or jar to the camera. It should be ad- justable for various speeds and for time and in- stantaneous exposures. It should be certain in its action and it should enable the operator to ef- fect the release without taking his eyes off the object to be photographed. A good, though not absolutely essential feature, is that the shutter should be capable of being set without the neces- sity of covering the plate during the operation. If the shutter does not admit of this being done, the difficulty can easily be overcome by setting the shutter before drawing the slide of the plate. When photographing children or animals, the best results are obtained with a shutter which works as noiselessly as possible. Excellent forms of shutters are those supplied with Iris diaphragm and which are provided with the mechanism for making instantaneous time and bulb exposures. There are several forms of these now on the market and all are provided with both finger and pneumatic bulb release, and work automatically for instantane- ous exposures from i-ioo to one second or over. Figs. 20 and 21 are illustrations of most popular forms. 38 Portrait Shutters. — In doing portrait work in the studio with the special portrait apparatus the lens used is generally a regular portrait objective and is too large in diameter to permit of its being fitted to any of the ordinary forms of shutters which are applied to viewing lenses. To overcome this difficulty and to permit of instantaneous work being done with lenses of this type, special portrait shutters, known as Lens Board Shutters (see Fig. 22) have been de- vised. These are designed to be fitted to the Fig. 22. back of the lens board of the camera, directly be- hind the lens. Because of their large size, how- ever, they are adaptable for use only in cameras having large lens (front) boards. Portrait shutters are also made to fit over the tube of the lens at the front but as this form is cumbersome their use is generally confined to cases where the photographer possesses a cam- era with too small a lens-board to permit the use of a lens-board shutter and a lens too large in diameter to be fitted with a diaphragm shut- tor. CHAPTER VI. THE PLATE HOLDER — THE ROLL HOLDER— THE TRIPOD— THE FO- CUSING CLOTH— THE CARRY- ING CASE. The Plate Holder. (See Figs. 23-24.)— The plate holder holds the plate for exposure and fits the camera-back between the ground glass screen and the camera body. It is not placed in position until after the picture has been focused on the ground-glass screen. Then when the plate holder is inserted and the slide drawn, the sensitive side of the plate Fig. 23. Fia. 24. Adjustable Plate Holder, occupies exactly the same position as the ground-glass screen. Plate holders are generally made to hold two plates back to back, with a fixed opaque-division piece of sheet metal or cardboard in between. This prevents the light which falls on one plate during exposure from injuring the plate behind. 39 40 When an exposure has been made on one of the plates the holder is removed from the cam- era, until it is necessary to make the next ex- posure. It is then replaced in a reversed posi- tion, thus enabling the second plate to be used. Most cameras as sold are provided with one double plate holder, but it is advisable to pur- chase at least two extra, so that when a day's photographic outing is made, enough plates for six pictures can be taken. If three holders are bought, they should be numbered consecutively on both sides — i and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, so that the exposures may be recorded as made and the plates subsequently identified in the dark room. The Cut Film Holder. — This holder is identical in external appearance with the plate holder. It, however, differs somewhat in internal con- struction. Cut films being much thinner than glass plates and being flexible the inner arrangement of the holder for them is made to suit their peculiari- ties. In loading holders with cut films and in ex- posing films in the camera the directions are exactly like those given for dry plates. The Cartridge Roll Holder. (See Fig. 25.)— This is a special holder in which is used film wound upon spools and known as film cartridges. These cartridges are light-proof and dust-proof and can be loaded into the roll holder and taken from same in broad daylight, thus rendering -ac- cess to a dark room unnecessary for these opera- tions. The cartridge roll holder is intended for use with hand cameras and when applied to a plate camera is interchangeable with the plate holders and cut film holders ordinarily used with the apparatus. .41 The application of a roll holder to a plate camera converts the instrument into a combina- tion plate and film camera, a most useful and desirable apparatus. The Tripod. (Fig. 26.) — In choosing a tripod the great point to study is rigidity, and also worthy of consideration, though of lesser im- portance, is the question of compactness and portability. The fewer the joints in a tripod, the Fig. 25. more rigid it is likely to be, and for this reason a two-fold is likely to be better than a three-fold one, though the latter can be packed into a more convenient form for carrying. The tripod is pro- vided with a top or head, of either triangular or circular shape, and to this head the baseboard of the camera is attached by means of a thumb- screw. Of all the pieces in the amateur's kit, there is not one which is so liable to get lost or left be- hind as this tripod screw, and therefore it should 42 be attached by means of a string or light chain to the tripod head. The tripod head should be covered with felt or leather, as the camera can then be screwed down without receiving scratches or other damage. Focusing Cloth. — A focusing cloth will be re- quired to shut out the light from around the ground glass screen when focusing, to enable the operator to see his subject on the glass to ad- vantage. A focusing cloth may be of gossamer, rubber or ladies cloth and be purchased ready- made. Carrying Case. — Having collected the various pieces of his outfit, the amateur will require a case to carry them. For ordinary traveling, a canvas case is sufficient, but if the case is to con- tain the entire apparatus, it should be provided with a broad strap and grip handle. Fig. 26. CHAPTER VII. THE DEVELOPING AND PRINTING OUT- FIT. The Ruby Lamp. — As will be explained in an- other chapter, the sensitive plates upon which the photographs are taken must not be allowed to re- FiG. 27. ceive the faintest trace of white light or daylight except that which reaches them when the expos- ure is made in the camera. They are, however, practically unaffected by a deep ruby-colored light, and, therefore, the operation of opening a packet of plates to fill the camera, and the later 43 44 operations of developing and fixing, must either be carried on in perfect darkness or by the aid of a lamp fitted with ruby-colored glass. An al- ternative method, when the above operations are performed in the daytime, is to cover the window of the room used for this purpose with a ruby cloth or fabric, but as this will be referred to again in the chapter on development, I will at present only consider the question of lamps. The cheapest form of ruby lamp has a metal top and bottom, the body being made of a square metal frame, covered with ruby cloth or fabric. The top and bottom portions of this lamp can be taken off, and the body folded up fiat, so that the whole thing can be packed in a shallow cardboard box. The light is obtained by placing inside the lamp a small night lamp or the end of a candle. This form of lamp is very useful for changing plates or for occasional developing when traveling, but it is hardly substantial enough for everyday work. It is better to buy a lamp with a good metal body and fitted with a burner for oil. It should be capable of holding a fair supply of oil and the device for raising the wick should be accessible from the outside of the lamp. (See Figs. 27-28.) Although the color of the glass in the lamp may be red, it does not necessarily follow that the light which passes through it does not affect the plate to some degree. In order to determine whether or not the light is actually safe, the fol- lowing plan may be adopted: Place a plate in the plate holder in the usual way. Then close the holder and draw the slide so that four-fifths of the plate are exposed to the rays of the lamp. Leave the slide in this position for, say, two min- 45 utes. Then push the slide in so that only three- fifths of the plate are exposed, and leave for an- other two minutes. Then again push the slide in so that only two-fifths are exposed, and leave for four minutes this time. Then push the slide so that it leaves only one-fifth of the plate ex- posed, and leave this open for another ten min- utes. Thus one portion of the plate has not been exposed at all, the next has had two minutes' ex- posure, the next four minutes, the next eight minutes and the last eighteen minutes. The plate should then be developed in the ordinary way, as explained in Chapter on Developing, and it will be readily seen by comparison with the appear- ance of the exposed part how far the light has af- fected the remaining portions of the sensitive surface. The actual time that a plate is exposed to the light of the lamp during an ordinary case of development is not above, say, two minutes, so that if this exposure to the lamp produces no in- jurious effect the light may be regarded as fairly safe. The process of developing and fixing of course takes longer than two minutes, but all careful workers make a point of keeping the plate carefully screened from the direct rays of the lamp, except when a close scrutiny of the image is necessary. Fig. 29. Developing Trays. — The smallest number of dishes which will be required for developing the 46 negative is two, one for the developing solution and one for the fixing solution ; but an extra dish should be procured, however, as in some in- stances an alum bath is required. These dishes are made in various materials, such as porcelain, fibre and rubber. It does not matter very much which of these materials is selected. Fibre dishes are, perhaps, as cheap as any, and they are also very light. The dishes chosen may be purchased stamped with the letters T, D and F, which mean: Toning, Fixing, Developing. (See Fig. 29.) This will make it easy to always keep the same dish for the same purpose — a pre- caution which should invariably be adopted. Fig. 30. Toning Trays. — The dishes employed for ton- ing should be deeper than those used for devel- oping, as it is usual to tone a number of prints together in the same dish, and there should be plenty of room for the prints to be always kept on the move. Perhaps rubber or fibre dishes are the best for this purpose, and to facilitate manip- ulation of the prints the dishes should preferably be a size or two larger than those used for de- 47 velopment. (See Fig. 30.) Two dishes will be required, one for fixing and one for toning. In thus stating the number of dishes required it is assumed that the amateur will be able to obtain the use of some large sized domestic dishes, which are very useful for washing plates and papers. If this cannot be done, a few large trays for this purpose should be purchased. Scales. (See Fig. 31.)— For the purpose of weighing out the various chemicals employed in mixing solutions, the amateur will require a small pair of scales. The chief point to be considered is that the pan in which the sub- stance to be weighed is placed should be made of glass. Glass is preferable to brass in that it is not likely to have any contami- nating effect on the Fig. 31. substance placed therein, and also it is much easier to keep clean. Graduated Glass Measures. — These are required for measuring and mixing s'olu- tions, and two of different ca- pacities should be obtained. Usually a two-ounce meas- ure and a four-ounce meas- ure are all that will be re- quired. FlQ. 32. 48 Printing Frame. — When a plate has been ex- posed and developed, it is termed a negative, and from the negative thus produced, paper pos- itives, or ''prints," are made by placing the sen- sitive surface of a piece of prepared paper in contact with the negative and expos- ing it to daylight. To facil- itate this operation a ''print- ing-frame'' is employed, made something like an or- dinary picture frame, but with a removable back. The back is pressed down by springs, and thus keeps the paper in close contact with the negative. In most print- ing frames the back is made in halves, so that one-half can be raised occasionally Fig. 33. during the printing pro- cess, to ascertain what progress the printing is making. (See Fig. 33.) Printing frames are generally made of some hard- wood, and that portion of the frame whereon the negative rests should be perfectly flat, otherwise the pressure of the springs may cause the glass to fracture. CHAPTER VIII. DRY PLATES — SHEET FILMS — FILM CARTRIDGES. Dry Plates and Celluloid Films. — A photo- graphic plate depends for its action upon the fact that the salt known to chemists as bromide of silver, when associated with some organic mat- ter such as gelatine, has conferred upon it by even a momentary flash of light the property of turning to metallic silver when subjected to the action of certain chemicals. That is to say, when a piece of glass, coated with bromide of silver and gelatine, is exposed in a photographic camera, all those portions upon which the light has fallen are, in some subtle manner, which no one understands, changed in nature, so that when treated with a chemical solution, called the "de- veloper,'* they are darkened, while those parts which have not been affected by light remain in their pristine whiteness. It should be pointed out here that red light has little power over a photographic plate. White light is composed of all the colors of the rain- bow, mixed in certain definite proportions, and also of a certain amount of light which is in- visible — light which is of such deep red color that to our eyes it appears simply black, and the light which is so highly violet, as it were, that we cannot see it at all. The violet rays and the ultra violet rays have the greatest effect upon the photographic plate, and the power of the rays diminishes as you get farther away from the violet end of the spectrum, until — ^except under 49 50 certain conditions, which will be explained later on — you come to the yellow, orange, red and in- fra red, where the effect is almost nil. A photo- graphic plate is not materially affected by red light, and this peculiarity gives the photographer an opportunity of conducting all those operations which would otherwise have to be gone through in the dark, by the aid of a light with which he is able to see what he is doing. The photographer should decide at the outset upon one, brand of plates and stick to it until he has mastered the initial stages of his art. He should not blame the results of his own faults upon the plate-maker and try his luck with an- other brand, for that leads to confusion. Each different kind has its peculiarities, which must be studied to be understood, and this un- derstanding will never be arrived at by changing from one brand to another in the hope of find- ing one upon which a careless photographer will be able to produce a good negative. The no- madic photographer — and most amateurs come under this head, for, in the practice of their art, they wander about the country in search of the picturesque — should decide upon a popular make of plate that he is reasonably sure he can pro- cure in any out-of-the-way town. When the photographic student sees for the first time a certain make of plates advertised un- der the name of ''Orthochromatic,'' he is quite at a loss to understand what particular peculiari- ties are implied by this curious title. Nor will he be much enlightened if he be told that the alter- native name for precisely the same thing is *'Iso- chromatic." The former word signifies ''correct color,'' while the meaning of the latter is "equal color," and as photography up to the present is 51 quite independent of color of any description, it being unable to reproduce any of the various tints and shades of nature by a direct photo- graphic process — it is difficult to see just where the application of these words comes in. The idea that these adjectives are intended to convey when applied to a photographic plate, is that it is capable of reproducing colored objects in their correct tone-relation to one another. Everybody knows who has had a photograph ta- ken that ordinary photography is not able to do this. Not only does it translate all color into sober monochrome, but the tints which it chooses in representing any given hue are generally of a very different shade from that which we would select as being of equivalent light-value. A lady who goes to the photographer to have her por- trait taken, in a bright red dress, finds, to her dismay, when the proofs come home, that, as far as that garment is concerned, she appears to be in deepest mourning, while her peacock-blue bonnet is represented as being nearly white. But if the photographer who has to depict so trying a subject were to use isochromatic plates the red dress would appear of an equivalent shade of gray instead of black, while the blue, instead of appearing white or nearly so, would be of a somewhat lighter shade of grey — in fact, the colors would be reproduced just as a painter would show them if told to translate the subject into black and white. This result is brought about by treating the plates in the course of their manufacture to a staining process with one of the yellow aniline dyes which gives to the bromide of silver emul- sion a much lighter degree of sensitiveness to yellow and red light. Still, the most highly 52 color-sensitized plates are far more susceptible to the action of what are generally called the actinic rays — those which form the blue and violet portions of the spectrum — and before such plates can be made to yield correctly-toned photographs, this super-activity of the blue and violet rays must be reduced to a proportionate potential by filtering out a great number of them and allowing only a suitable quantity to pass. A piece of what we call yellow glass only ap- pears to us to be yellow because it has the power of stopping all the rays of which light is made up, except those which produce the effect which we describe as yellow, and from these rays, which are the only ones to reach our eyes, we get the impression that the piece of glass is yellow. Now, if a piece of pale yellow glass, or stained gelatine be placed in the lens of the camera in such a way that all the light has to filter through it, a large proportion of the blue and violet light coming from the objects being photographed will be absorbed, and a very much smaller quan- tity will reach the photographic plate, while the red and yellow rays will pass unobstructed. Then, if a plate be used which has been rendered sensitive to the yellow rays in the manner al- ready mentioned, a photograph will be produced in which the various colors of nature will be rep- resented by different shades of grey of a tone- value which will appear to be equivalent to the tone-values of the original colors. This process refutes the charge that photog- raphy cannot produce colors in their equivalent shade of monochrome. By its aid all branches of photography are improved. Landscapes are ren- dered in a far more life-like and natural man- ner, for the bright green trees do not appeal in S3 the old photography. But it is more in photo- graphing flowers or copying paintings that the funereal aspect which was characteristic of orthochromatic process appears to best advan- tage ; for in these the colors are of a more lively nature and of a kind to aggravate the faults of the ordinary photography. ' The introduction of a yellow screen into the lens prolongs the necessary exposure to light to about twice to four times the time it would otherwise require, because it filters out many of the more active rays. This is one thing which is to be borne in mind when using the process, and the other is that the plates, being far more sensitive to red light than those of the ordinary kind, very much greater care is required in hand- ling them in the dark-room. Only a very small amount of light of the deepest ruby color obtain- able must be allowed to reach the sensitive sur- face at any time until after development is com- pleted, and this necessity for working in such deep gloom is certainly a great drawback to the process. But where paintings and flowers have to be photographed, or it is desired to reproduce special effects in nature where the colors are of a kind to be spoiled if ordinary plates are used, the disadvantages of the process are well worth braving. Celluloid Films are coated with the sensitive emulsion, as well as glass plates, and in many cases the traveling photographer will do well to employ them, for they have some advantages over plates. They are much lighter, and a gross of cut films occupies but little more space than a dozen glass plates. Glass plates and celluloid films can in many cases be procured from the same makers and may be treated exactly alike, both as regards exposure and development. 54 These films are put up in two forms, viz. : Cut (or sheet) films and film cartridges. The cut films are exactly like dry plates, ex- cept that as a support for the sensitive emulsion a sheet of celluloid is used instead of glass. These films are cut into standard sizes and are put up one dozen in a package in exactly the same manner as dry plates. They are used by means of cut film holders and are loaded into the holders and exposed in the camera in exactly the same manner as are dry plates. Film Cartridges. — These are adaptable for use only in that class of hand cameras generally de- scribed as Kodaks and in cartridge roll holders. It is upon the film cartridge that the success of the Kodak system is based. It is this that has made pocket photography practical and has made it possible to do away with the dark room in unloading the camera. A wooden spool with a flange on each end, between which flanges is wound a long strip of black paper, is the simple principle of the film cart- ridge. (See Fig. 34.) Attached to the inner side of the black paper is a Fig. 34. strip of film ; the film strip, however, is several inches shorter than the paper strip, and when all is wound on the spool no light can touch the film. When all the exposures in the cartridge have been made the exposed cartridge is removed in daylight without danger of injury. The black paper running the full length of the film, extending beyond each end and threading into the ''carrying spool" and into the ''winding reel/' takes all the tension. There is no strain 55 on the film (which is carried along by the black paper), and there are no joints of film and paper to give way under the pull of the winding reel. Cartridge films are procurable containing either two, four, six or twelve exposures, or ''double-two/' The *'double-two" cartridges, as the name implies, contain film for four exposures, but are so Avound that two exposures may be made and then removed in daylight and the re- maining two exposures threaded up for further use ; or, if preferred, the operator may make the entire four exposures with a single loading, and he has the option, until making ready for the third exposure, of handling the film in either way. Exposures with cartridge film are the same as given for plates and cut films. Development of the negative is practically the same as instruc- tions given for developing plates. However, some special instructions in regard to handling them are necessary, and these appear in Chapter on ''Developing." CHAPTER IX, LOADING THE FILM CAMERA AND ROLL HOLDER — LOADING THE PLATE-HOLDER— FOCUSING. Let it now be assumed that the embryo pho- tographer has provided himself with the various component parts of his equipment and is anxious to begin active operations. The first step is to Get Acquainted with the Camera. — ''How shall it be loaded?'' This is the first question which suggests itself to ninety-nine people out of one hundred, and the answer is, ''Do not load it — at least, not until its workings are fully under- stood/' The shutter should first be tried and worked several times for both time and instantaneous exposures, until perfect familiarity with its ac- tion is obtained. Careful note of the diaphragms or stops should be made, and the fact will be dis- closed that with the largest opening the greatest quantity of light will pass through the lens in a given time. This will demonstrate why the larger openings for snapshots and the smaller ones for time exposures are used. Having mas- tered the shutter and the focusing arrangement, if there is one on the camera v^ed, and having obtained a slight idea of the conditions neces- sary for successful picture taking, the instrument may be loaded. Camera (or Plate Holder) Loading. — With a kodak or cartridge roll holder this operation is performed in daylight and is very simple. The film is put up in light-tight rolls, and extending 56 the full length of the strip of film and several inches beyond each end is a strip of black paper, which, in connection with the flanges on the spool, forms a light-proof cartridge. After inserting the spool and threading up the black paper the camera is closed and the key- turned until the black paper has been reeled off and the sensitive film brought into place in the focal plane. The black paper runs with and be- hind the film, and at proper intervals is marked in white with the number of the section of film, I, 2, 3, etc. In the back of the camera is a small red window, through which the figures appear as the key is turned. These figures show just how far to turn the key and how many expos- ures have been made. After all the exposures have been made a few extra turns of the key entirely covers the film with black paper, and the camera may be unloaded in daylight. It is all very simple, and with each camera is a manual for the guidance of the student. The amateur must bear constantly in mind, however, that the black paper must be kept tightly rolled about the film all of the time until it is in place and the camera closed, for should the film be ex- posed to daylight for even a hundredth part of a second its ruin would be accomplished. Loading with Plates. — Assuming that the am- ateur is operating a plate camera, and has de- cided upon the brand of plates or films he will use, he should be reminded that the treatment for sheet films is precisely the same as that for plates, concerning loading and exposures, and the following instructions will there- fore apply to both unless otherwise stated. The first thing to do is to place the plate or film in the plate-holder. Remember, the 58 plate is very sensitive to light — sensitive in a way that few beginners can understand or cal- culate. Very great care should be taken that the dark room is safe, that no extraneous light is allowed to enter, for if it does all future ef- forts will be useless. The best test is for the operator to shut himself up in a dark room until his eyes have become accustomed to the gloom, and if he then detects no light filtering into the room he may consider it ''safe,'' but if any rays or gleams are observed entering under the door or through crevices around the blocked up window the apertures should be tightly closed. The lamp by whose light the operations are to be conducted must not necessarily be considered "safe" because it is glazed with red glass, but it must shed a particular quality of red light and ^ not too much of it. First dust out the inside of all the plate-holders, for every grain of dust that settles on the plates will leave a little white speck upon the finished negative. Then, as far away from the red light as practicable to see, open the packet of plates. Every pair will be face to face, with a piece of card at the edges to prevent them from actually touching one another. If there is any doubt as to which is the face, remember that the shiny side is the plain glass — or celluloid film, as the case may be — and that, of course, is the back. Put them in the plate-holder, one in each side. The sensitized side of the plate has to face the lens of the camera, so that the plate must be placed in the plate-holder with the dull side next the slide. All the holders having been charged in this manner and securely closed before leaving the shelter of the dark room, the photographer is 59 ready for work, and for a beginner the subject should be a landscape or something of that char- acter, as portraiture is the most difficult branch of photography. Focusing. — Before proceeding to compose the picture or to make the exposures it is necessary for the amateur to learn what this much used word ''focus" signifies. The term focus means bringing the rays of light forming the picture through the lens to a point where they are shown clear and distinct upon the ground glass or similar surface. In a scene or image slightly out of focus the lines will be blurred and run into each other, appearing to the naked eye some- what like a house seen in the distance through a very heavy fog. With a fixed focus camera the lens is constructed and adjusted in the camera by the manufacturer so that all objects that come within the range of the lens will be in focus where the plate-holder is placed. The adjust- able focus camera is constructed with a ground glass screen at the back of the camera and be- tween it and the lens is a flexible bellows which can be operated to bring the lens and ground glass nearer together or farther apart as the case may require. For instance, where the objects to be photographed are close at hand, the lens and ground glass should be extended; for ob- jects farther away the lens and ground glass should be brought nearer together. In making this adjustment it is necessary to examine the image or picture on the ground glass to deter- mine when it is clear and sharp. The image will appear to better advantage if the light is ex- cluded between the eye and the ground glass screen. This is accomplished by putting the camera on a tripod and placing a cloth over the 6o head and camera, excluding the light; this is commonly called a ''focusing cloth/' The opera- tion is called focusing. (See Fig. 35.) In order to get as sharp a negative on the plate as ap- pears on the ground glass it is absolutely neces- sary that the plate, when inserted in the camera box, be placed exactly the same distance from the lens to the ground glass as it was at the time of focusing. The squares of ground glass in frames and plate-holders are supposed to be ac- curately adjusted in harmony with each other to produce this effect; where such is not the case, as sometimes happens, it will be necessary to have the register between the two accurately re- adjusted. Fig. 35. CHAPTER X. LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY— ARCHI- TECTURAL SUBJECTS. Lighting and Composition. — The next pro- gressive step in the ama- teur's experience is the arrangement or composi- tion of his picture. Into this the proper lighting of his subject enters as a most important factor. A rule may be laid down and followed in re- gard to lighting. The principal source of light should come either from the upper right or the left of the scene. A scene photographed with the sun directly at the back of the camera will usually be flat or tame in photo- graphic effect, because no shadows are visible; nei- ther should the sun be di- rectly in front of the lens, as the scene would consist of~nearly all shadows. An exception to this rule can GBAND CANON OF AEizo»A. be applied to marine views ; the greatest amount of shadow obtain- able in these gives the boldest results. 6i 62 Painters say that the trouble ^ith photog- raphy is that it reproduces with perfect fidelity the unimportant details of nature, but fails to portray her strength and character, her subtle moods, her broad effects. But occasionally the camera falls into the hands of an artist who han- dles it with the master's touch, and painters and sculptors and critics must applaud. Too much detail is the weak point in nine out of ev^ry ten landscape photographs. The aim of the artistic photographer should be to pre- serve in his pictures that freedom from inappro- priate objects and superfluity of detail which, by detracting from their simplicity, destroy their real strength and value. A ''pretty bit" is always preferable to a ''gen- eral view.'' It centers the interest. A whole township on a single plate is inartistic unless the township consists of a towering peak which of itself is a picture. (See Figs. 36-37.) Avoid giving the pic- ture a mechanical look by breaking up, so far as pos- sible, the straight lines, yet preserving enough of them so that it will not be a jumble. Do not bring the horizon line, especial- ly if it be unbroken, across the center of the picture, but have it either above or below the center. On the other hand, to be success- ful, a picture must be well balanced in light and shade, or it will appear to be " lop - sided." Some Fig. 37. LOG TEAIN IN THE WOODS. 63 workers, and good ones, too, claim that in composi- tion certain geometrical figures must be followed — the triangle, the semicircle, etc.— but if the forego- ing hints be borne in mind they will suffice for the beginner, will start him in the right direction and later on, when he has had a itw lessons in the school of experience, he can if he likes, take up a more detailed study of the rules of composition. Exposing. — The first difficulty which presents itself is the length of exposure. How long shall the shutter be allowed to remain open? is the question, and it is a most difficult one to an- swer. Assuming that the photographer pos- sesses only one lens, that he has decided to keep to one size of stop for the present — say F-32 — and that he intends only to use one speed of plates, three of the several factors which govern the length of the exposure are fixed and the mat- ter is considerably simplified, but the chief fac- tors which remain are the nature of the subject and the quality of the light with which it is illu- minated. An old adage says that exposure should be made for the shadows and let the high lights take care of themselves. The darkest portions are to be found among the trees, and as a gen- eral rule it may be taken that the nearer the object is to the camera the longer will be the exposure it will require, for there is less of that ever-present haze between it and the lens, and that haze, often invisible, reflects into the camera a considerable quantity of the kind of light which affects the plate. Let it be assumed that a summer's day has been chosen, and the ex- posure is to be made somewhere towards noon. The stop is F-32, and the plate a slow one. An 64 exposure of three seconds should be about right, but there are so many things which have a modi- fying effect upon it that it is quite impossible to give more than the merest idea of its length. To expose correctly can only be learned by con- siderable experience, by repeated trials and care- ful comparisons of the results. Full directions will be given in the chapter in which develop- ment comes under consideration, by which the novice can tell whether he has erred on the side of over or under exposure, and he will soon learn to estimate pretty correctly the approximate ex- tent of the error. A few trials made with intelli- gence will speedily give him a very good idea as to the duration of the exposure for a given subject under given conditions, and from the knowledge thus gained he will be able to calcu- late the correct exposures for other conditions. This same view made the subject of a photo- graph at midday in the winter would require an exposure of longer duration, according to the quality of the light. Or, again, towards evening, even in the middle of summer, when the sun is in the west, and the whole landscape is bathed in the reddening rays of the setting sun, the three seconds' exposure may be multiplied with- out fear of the picture being overdone. It is im- possible to teach the art of correct exposure ; it will only come as the result of experience. The beginner should do his best to keep the condi- tions as invariable as possible ; that is to say, he should, just at first, keep to one class of sub- ject and one time of day, as well as to one lens and one plate. Then he can get his exposure right with very little trouble for that one set of factors. It is desirable that the finished photograph should show a fair amount of detail, but in secur- 65 ing this result care must be exercised in order not to over-expose the distant hills so that they become merged in the sky and get lost. If in the developed negative the landscape stands out almost white, while the sky is a dense black, and the hills much too plainly marked, the exposure has been too short, and the result is extreme con- trasts of black and white, with no delicate half- tones and an absolute lack of detail in all the deeper shadows. If, on the other hand, there is any amount of detail in the landscape, while the sky is a thin gray, with the hills invisible, and there is a general dullness and lack of contrast about the whole thing, it may be safely surmised that over-exposure is the fault. This matter will be more fully dealt with in the chapter on ''de- veloping.'' For the present I will confine myself to again hinting that it is better to over than to under expose, for this defect can often be com- pensated for in development, while for the other there is no cure, and we will imagine that the ex- posure of this particular subject has been mas- tered so that we can pass on to the consideration of others. In an open view, where there are no heavy shadows in the foreground, the necessary ex- posure will be much shorter, and where a land- scape is taken from the top of a hill or high building, the time should be very short, indeed, for all portions of the view are distant. In a view of this description, where there is already a great lack of contrast, full advantage should be taken of the fact that under-exposure, accom- panied by judicious ''forcing'' in development, tends to increase of contrast. Photographs taken in woods and wherever there are dense masses of foliage, will require a much longer exposure 66 than at first sight would seem necessar}^ owing to the fact that the green light which finds its way through the interstices of the trees is to a great extent robbed of its actinic power, and is no longer able to affect the sensitive plate to the same degree. Architectural Subjects. — Architectural sub- jects are deservedly great favorites with many photographers, for it is in the making of pictures that come under this heading that photography finds one of its most pleasing features. Its prac- tice is not attended with any particular difficul- ties, but it is one of those branches of the art which will reward, by conferring the ability to produce fresh beauties, the painstaking labor of the most highly accomplished photographer. Although the merest tyro may begin on archi- tectural work at once if he please, yet it is almost impossible to attain the highest plane of excel- lence, for very rarely is a photograph of a given building produced so perfect that, under certain conditions, a better one could not be made. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. These two views (Figs. 38-39) of the same building illustrate the importance of shadows. They were made from the same point of view. The one at the right was photographed at 10 a. 67 m., the camera pointing northeast. Observe the shadows, giving the proper projection to the architecture. The picture at the left was taken at i p. m., with the sun almost directly behind the camera. It is thus almost devoid of shadow, resulting in a flat and imperfect photograph. All architecture is full of straight lines ; there- fore it is necessary to use, when portraying it, more than in anything else, apparatus which will not give distortion. In the first place, a Recti- linear lens is a necessity for reasons already stated (see Chapter on ''Lenses''), and then again the rising front and the swing back with which the camera is fitted, but which, up to the present, has been somewhat of a mystery, be- comes an important adjunct. USE OF THE SWING BACK. Suppose it is desired to take a photograph of the exterior of a high building. In order to in- clude the upper portion in the picture it will be necessary to tilt the camera upwards. Now the upper parts will be farther away from the lens than the lower portions, consequently they will be reproduced smaller in proportion, and all parallel lines running upwards will follow the venal law of perspective and appear to converge. But artists do not recognize that parallel lines running upwards in a high building must appear in the eye of an observer stationed below to con- verge towards the top, and buildings are so often portrayed with the vertical lines drawn strictly parallel that a photograph in which they are shown convergent gives to the building a top- pling-down appearance which is not pleasing to 68 the artistic eye. It is the function of the swing back to overcome this defect. The back of the camera should always be kept strictly vertical when photographing architectural subjects, and the upright lines in the original will be pro- duced upright in the resulting picture. Another method by which the same result may be brought about to a modified extent is by the em- ployment of the rising and falling post. This method has the disadvantage, however, that in extreme cases it may be necessary to raise the lens to such an extent that the light passing through it cannot reach the lower portion of the plate, which is therefore left blank. As regards the actual length of exposure where architectural subjects are concerned, this is governed in much the same manner as in the case of landscape, but as a general rule the times should be shorter. A new white building will only require about half the time that would be necessary for a landscape view under similar conditions as to lighting, and so on, while one that is built of red brick or that has become blackened with age will neces- sitate a correspondingly longer exposure. CHAPTER XI. PORTRAIT PHOTOGRAPHY. Portraiture at Home. — There is no more inter- esting branch of picture making than portraiture, and the required acces- sories can be found in every home. To attain good results it may take a little patience and study, but for all this the amateur will be well repaid in the satis- faction brought by his first successes. The first element to be taken into considera- tion is the light. A north light is prefera- ble, and it should, if possible, be unobstruct- ed by trees or build- ings ; but where this cannot be avoided the disadvantage should be compensated for by ' giving additional time to exposure. The light should also be a top light — that is, it should be above the head of the sitter, a result easily ac- complished by opening blinds and shades to their full limit and then pinning a cloth over the lower half of the window. 69 A PEOFILE PORTEAIT. Photographed in an ordinary sit- ting room with arrangement of light, camera and subject ac- cording to illustration Fig. 40. 70 Cross Light to Be Avoided. — All light should come from one source, otherwise the shadows will be so cut up as to lend a disagreeable and unnatural appearance to the face. A room with a large window should be chosen as the place for operations, and a day when the sun is not shining through the window, but when its light is reflected in by a white cloud or a light- painted house opposite. Place the sitter about three or four feet from the window and slightly behind it, so that the majority of the light will fall upon his face from the front and from above. This will probably leave the other side of the face in deep shadow — a grave fault, which must be removed by the aid of a white screen, such as can be improvised by hanging a white sheet over a clothes-horse. This reflector should be placed beside the sitter, but slightly in front on the opposite side to the window, and its position may be varied and the quantity and direction of the light from the window modified by drawing the curtains from place to place, un- til that kind of illumination is obtained which is calculated to give the best effect to the sitter's particular style of features. In portraiture, as in most indoor photography, there is a tendency to very high contrasts in the resultant print. A face which is much more brightly lighted on one side than on the other, though not sufficiently so as to seem objectionable, will appear in the pho- tograph perfectly white and absolutely black — ^ like so much chalk and soot. Everything should be done to lessen the contrasts by carefully ar- ranging the light before exposure, and no haste should be made to put the cap on the lens or to close the shutter, for a full exposure will ma- terially help to get the desired effect. Of course, 71 it should not be overdone. There should be con- siderably more light on one side of the face than on the other, or it will appear perfectly flat and chalky, with many of the features invisible alto- gether. It is only necessary to remember that in indoor portraiture the contrasts are liable to exaggeration, and precautions should be taken against an undue hardness in the resulting print. How the sitter is to be placed depends largely upon the features. Care should be taken to have the eyes in an easy and natural position and looking very nearly straight ahead. If turned decidedly to either side they will give a disagree- able expression, a sort of caricature of slyness. The background should be appropriate and simple and should form a contrast with the sitter. A portiere hung against the wall makes a very satisfactory dark background, and where a light one is desirable a sheet will answer the purpose; but in case it is used the assistance of a third party should be called in to keep the sheet in mo- tion during exposure, so that it will be out of focus. A good light background may frequently be obtained by posing the subject in front of a lace window curtain, the shades, of course, being drawn down in such a case. As a rule, however, the dark backgrounds are more desirable, and prints from negatives made with them are more readily handled by the amateur than those with light backgrounds, which require vignetting. After the first experiments the student will learn to study his sitter's face critically and will become able to judge by a rapid scanning of the features whether a profile, a half or a full front will give the most artistic results. The largest stop that will cut the picture sharply should be employed, thus making a short 72 exposure possible, for the shorter the exposure the more natural will be the expression on the face of the sitter. No matter if the background is out of focus ; that is merely a necessary evil in the picture and will divert less attention from the subject if a trifle subdued by indistinctness. In the case of a portrait taken in the interior of an ordinary room, the larger lens aperture is a positive necessity, for the exposure necessary with a smaller one would be so inordinately long as to tire out the most patient sitter. It is difficult to give an idea of what would be the correct exposure for a portrait in an ordinary room ; there are so many vary- ing conditions to be considered that any at- tempt to take them into account in imagination would only be confusing. There is nothing for it but for the tyro to make a guess at its length and then to correct it according to results. Then, having ascertained what length of time will yield satisfactory results under a certain set of con- ditions, its estimation for varying cases is as much a matter of calculation as anything else. However, an approximate idea of the length of exposure necessary may be gathered from the table, given under the chapter, ''Photograph- ing Interiors/' Remember that when you double the diameter of the aperture of the lens you in- crease its size four-fold, so that it will pass four times as much light and the photograph taken with it will only require one-quarter the time of exposure. The length of the exposure is in- versely as the square of the diameter of the lens aperture. Illustrations. — The following illustrations (Fig. 40) will greatly assist the amateur to a 73 clear understanding of the arrangement of the room and the effect of light and shade on the sitter. This illustration shows a room 16x20 feet, containing two windows, both fronting south. The window at the right is completely covered by an opaque curtain, and. the other window has Fig. 40. its lower half covered by a black cloth, leaving the upper half open, thus admitting the light to make the portrait. Background and chair were placed as shown in illustration. The child's por- trait (Fig. 41) was produced as shown in Fig. 40. The black line on the floor shows the posi- tion of the reflector, which was three and one- half feet from the child. The chair in which she 74 was sitting was two and one-half feet from the window, and the background was three feet be- hind the child. The portrait shown in Fig. 42 was taken in a room with three windows. Two of these were closed, admitting no light. The window at the right of the child, and on the casing of which the child rests its hand, was closed by a dark Fig. 41. curtain up to a point even with the child's head. The light producing the portrait comes only from the upper part pf this window. The re- flector used to soften the shadow side of the face was a sheet of white cloth about five feet square tacked to the tops of two high-backed chairs about three and one-half feet from the child. It stood at an angle of about 45 degrees to a line 75 drawn between the child and the camera. The walls of the room served as a background. The portrait shown in Fig. 43 is that of a young lady taken in the same position as por- trait of child shown in Fig. 41, with no change of either background, reflector, light or camera- FiG. 42. The portrait shown in Fig. 44 was made under the same conditions, except that the background was moved nearer to the wall, the camera was moved farther over to the middle of the room, and the reflector was placed nearer to the sitter. A white background should not be used, for the reason that it reflects so much white light. 76 The silhouette (Fig. 45) was made by placing the sitter at an ordinary window, with the cam- era lower than the head. A snapshot exposure was made, the window or sky serving as back- ground. What is known as a Rembrandt lighting is often very effective and is obtained by photo- graphing from the shaded instead of from the lighted side of the face. The relative proportion of the shaded and lighted sides of the face can Fig. 43. Fig. 44. be changed by simply turning the sitter's head toward or away from the light. A slight change in position makes a wonderful change in the light- ing, and the sitter's face should be carefully studied to obtain the best effects. In *'A Rembrandt Portrait'' (See Fig. 46) we give a marked case of this lighting. In '*The Chorister" (See Fig. 47) the artist has used the Rembrandt lighting but a trifle. Between these two extremes many effects can be obtained that are also desirable. 77 Outdoor Portraiture. — Portraits can be taken very well in the open air, and, indeed, provided certain precautions be observed, this method is Fig. 45. Fig. 46. likely to give qmte as satisfactory results in the hands of an amateur who does not possess a regular studio as will indoor work. In open air portraiture, to cut off the light which comes in the directions in which it is not required in order to give value to that which falls in the right direction, the sitter should be placed in an angle of a wall so that the building shields him from the light on one side, and if there be any means of cutting off some of the top light, so much the better. As an idea of the exposure required in such a case, between five and six seconds may be quoted, where the F-32 lens aperture is retained with the slow plates on a fine day in summer. This should be only taken as a basis from which the exposure may be cal- culated; for in a general way it will be better to employ a larger lens aperture and faster plate 78 and give a proportionately shorter exposure. A stop of four times the diameter, which would be called F-8, would necessitate an exposure, as al- ready explained, only one-sixteenth as long, or Fig. 47. under half a second ; and in this time the sitter will have little chance of moving, while the pho- tographer has the opportunity of seizing that moment for exposure when the subject appears 79 at his best, without being obliged to run the risk of spoiling everything by giving warning that he is ready to take the picture. Portraits should not be made in the sunlight. However, where figures are merely accessories to a landscape, or a part of some interesting scene, there is no harm in snapping them in a bright light, but where the face is the central point of interest in the picture it must be in the shade. Strong sunlight destroys the expression of the eyes, while the heavy shadows cast by the nose and other features, or by the hat, if one be worn, will entirely distort the face, and while a likeness may remain, it will certainly be an unkind one. Outdoor portraits should, there- fore, be taken in the shade of a veranda or tree and made by time exposure. The time to be given must be learned by experience, depending largely as it does on the amount of reflected light, the hour of the day and the time of year. After a few trials the amateur will be able to properly judge the light and -time the exposure, but he should understand that it is easier to save an overexposed than an underexposed nega- tive, and he should therefore be sure to give time enough. Of one thing, however, he should be careful. Many a good portrait has been ruined by an in- appropriate background, and there is no more unsightly or more commonly used background than the clapboarded side of a house. The regu- lar lines crossing the picture are most trying to the eyes and are most inartistic. Backgrounds as a rule should form a contrast with the sitter and should not be a prominent feature of the picture. A trellis of vines, the dense shade of a grove back of the subject, or a grassy slope all make appropriate backgrounds. CHAPTER XIL PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS. Lighting. — In photographing interiors it is necessary to give greatly increased exposures, by plates specially prepared, called *'non-hala- tion,'' or ''double-coated," which admit of a wide latitude of exposure. When the exposure has been correct the most perfect and beautiful re- sults can be obtained by proper development. Photographing interiors and. portraiture in or- dinary rooms are closely allied, for in many re- spects there are marked points of similarity. For instance, there is a decided tendency to the ex- aggeration of the contrasts, which has to be over- come in the same manner in one case as in the other, by equalizing the illumination as much as possible, reducing the depth of the shadows and CORRIDOR OF CONGRES- SIONAL LIBRARY, WASHINGTON, D. C. varied, of course, accord- ing to the illumination, the color of the walls, fur- niture, etc. Even in well lighted rooms exposures should seldom be less than ten to twenty sec- onds, and others from twenty-five seconds to hours, as in the case of some churches with col- ored glass windows, where light is subdued by the glass. The best re- sults in this class of pho- tography are obtained 80 8i toning down the brilliancy of the high lights, and by giving exposures of amply sufficient length. As a general rule it may be taken that in the photography of interiors it is better to use a small stop in the lens and to give a correspond- ingly long exposure. This will tend to reduce the inordinate contrasts, and there is seldom any reason why the time should be unduly hurried, as is often required in the case of portraiture. The first thing to be considered in regard to interior photography, as in most other branches of the art, is the point of view from which the picture shall be taken. In the case of a small room it is impossible to take in anything but just one corner of it — unless a wide-angle lens is employed — and the difficulty which immediately presents itself is to make that one corner appear in the photograph as representative of the whole as possible. A wide-angle lens is an instrument which has been designed to overcome this dif- ficulty in connection with the small angle of view which the ordinary lens is able to embrace. It is a lens of very short focus in relation to the size of the plate which it will cover, and consequently it gives much smaller images and can throw a large quantity of them onto a plaCe of given size. However, the result is also very apt to be that the lines of perspective are very much distorted in a photograph taken in this manner, and a small room is made to appear like a long gallery filled with horribly disproportionate furniture. It is perhaps better to be contented with an in- complete but true representation of an interior than to produce a viev/ which shows more but shows it incorrectly. In a general way it is best to take up a position for the camera in one cor- ner of the room, for in a square room this gives 82 a greater distance, and the opposite corner has better pictorial possibilities than a flat wall would have. The camera should be placed as nearly as possible at the height of the eye, so that the resulting photograph will represent the view as it would be seen by a person standing at the point whence the photograph was taken. Again, as regards exposure, it is impossible to give any definite instructions, for it may vary to any extent from half a minute to half an hour, and under difficult conditions may easily reach half a day or even more. The only thing in the nature of a suggestion which I can give is that the beginner try an exposure about ten times as long as that which he would guess to be correct, and he probably will not be far out. Unless non- halation plates are used he should be very care- ful that no windows form any portion of the picture, unless it is absolutely impossible to leave them out of it, for these, being far more brilliant- ly lighted than the other portions, will be suffi- ciently exposed when the rest of the picture re- quires a hundred times as long. The result of including them would be that the extra exposure, as it were, would, by the action known as hala- tion, spread to the surrounding portions of the picture and fog them in that distressing manner sometimes seen in photographs of churches and other similar subjects. If the light from the window which must appear in the picture can be blocked out by such means as drawing a heavy blind or hanging a thick sheet outside — the interior course receiving its illumination from some other source — there is no reason why the result should not be satisfactory, and other- wise a great deal may be done by the use of some form of non-halation or ''backed'' plates. Care should also be taken that no polished metal 83 objects are allowed to reflect light directly into the camera, for if they do, except where the spe- cially prepared plates are used, such things will appear surrounded with a halo which will not add to their beauty. Approximate Time Needed for Interior Ex- posures. — The following table is an excellent guide for making interior exposures, and is based upon the time needed for exposures with the stop ordinarily used for snapshots in single lens cameras, and with the No. 8 stop in all rapid rec- tilinear lenses. When a smaller stop is used the time must be increased proportionately: White walls and more than one window — Bright sun outside, 2 seconds ; hazy sun, 5 sec- onds ; cloudy bright, 10 seconds ; cloudy dull, 20 seconds. White walls and only one window — Bright sun outside, 3 seconds; hazy sun, 8 seconds; cloudy bright, 15 seconds; cloudy dull, 30 sec- onds. Medium colored walls and hangings and more than one window — Bright sun outside, 4 sec- onds ; hazy sun, 10 seconds ; cloudy bright, 20 seconds ; cloudy dull, 40 seconds. Medium colored walls and hangings and only one window — Bright sun outside, 6 sec- onds; hazy sun, 15 seconds; cloudy bright, 30 seconds ; cloudy dull, 60 seconds. Dark colored walls and hangings and more than one window — Bright sun outside, 10 sec- onds ; hazy sun, 20 seconds ; cloudy bright, 40 seconds ; cloudy dull, i minute 20 seconds. Dark colored walls and hangings and only one window — Bright sun outside, 20 seconds ; hazy sun, 40 seconds ; cloudy bright, 80 seconds ; cloudy dull, 2 minutes 40 seconds. 84 The foregoing is calculated for rooms whose windows get the direct light from the sky from three hours after sunrise until tkree hours before sunset. If earlier or later the time required will be longer. CHAPTER XIIL FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY. Pictures by Flashlight, — The rays of old Sol, once an all-important factor in picture making, are no longer an essential for indoor work. For capturing the beauties of the landscape we still depend upon him, but for interior work, espe- cially at night, man's ingenuity has supplied a substitute for the sun's rays equally effective and more manageable. For many purposes, in fact, the flashlight is more desirable than sunlight. It can always be depended upon to shine when wanted and with just the proper brilliancy; it can always be so placed as to make the shad- ows fall in the desired direction, and, photo- graphically speaking, it turns night into * day. To the amateur ''bottled sunlight'' is an especial convenience, for his photographic work is fre- quently confined to the night time, to say noth- ing of the many times that he brings the flash- light into play in photographing his friends at evening gatherings. Indeed, it is as a means of photographing one's friends on such occasions that the flashlight is most commonly used, but the experienced amateur knows of many other ways in which to avail himself of its actinic powers. Frequently it is desired to take a photograph of an interior which, by reason of a lack of illu- mination, or because some window which can- not be covered comes within range of the cam- era, is impracticable by daylight. In such cases a charge of flash powder solves the problem. 85 86 Again, it is desired to photograph a very large room which is lighted from only one side by daylight. To get a full time exposure in the darkest corner of the room would cause a de- FiG. 54. cided overexposure near the windows. A flash of powder, concealed from direct line with the lens by some article of furniture or by a screen, illuminates the dark corner and gives a prop- 8; erly lighted exposure of the entire room. These are the ordinary uses of the flashlight, and by following the simple rules laid down the ama- teur can make pictures with as great an assur- ance of success as when making snapshots out of doors. For the production of unusual effects, however, one must study all the conditions, weighing carefully cause and effect, and must not yield to disappointment if success be not at- tained at first. There are many ways in which the flash may be made to co-operate with other artificial light, or with daylight, to produce a unique or artistic effect, and to the serious worker it offers another means to the end most desired by all photographic workers — pictorial effect. Flash powders are put up in three ways : In bottled form for use in the ^flash lamp, in cart- ridges having fuses and requiring no extras, and in flash sheets, which are used by simply pin- ning them up against a cardboard on the wall and igniting the lower corner. The same general rules will apply whether the lamp, the cartridge or the flash sheet be used. Preparation of the Flashlight. — The light should always be placed two feet behind and two to three feet to one side of the camera. If placed in front of or on a line with the front of camera, the flash would strike the lens and blur the pic- ture. It should be placed at one side as well as behind, so as to throw a shadow and give a little relief in lighting. The flash should be at the same height or a little higher than the camera. A piece of cardboard a foot square placed under the powder will prevent any sparks from the flash doing damage. A sheet of white cardboard 88 set up behind the flash will act as a reflector and increase the strength of the picture. Taking the Picture. — Having the camera and the powder both in position, the camera should be set shutter open, as for a time exposure, but the stop ordinarily employed for snapshots should be employed. When the powder is ig- nited there will be a bright flash, w^hich will in- stantly impress the picture on the Sensitive film. Then close the shutter. The Powder. — The amount of powder re- quired to light a room varies with the distance of the object farthest away from the camera and the color of the walls and hangings. TABLE. For lo feet distance and light walls and hang- ings, use I cartridge No. 2, i even teaspoonful ; I flash sheet. For 10 feet distance and dark walls and hang- ings, use 2 cartridges No. 2, 2 even teaspoonfuls ; 2 flash sheets. For 15 feet distance and light walls and hang- ings, use 2 cartridges No. 2, 2 even teaspoonfuls ; 2 flash sheets. For 15 feet distance and dark walls and hang- ings, use 3 cartridges No. 2, 3 even teaspoonfuls ; 3 flash sheets. For 25 feet distance and light walls and hang- ings, use 3 cartridges No. 2, 3 even teaspoonfuls; 3 flash sheets. For 25 feet distance and dark walls and hang- ings, use 4 cartridges No. 2, 4 even teaspoonfuls ; 4 flash sheets. Note. — The No. i cartridges hold 50 per cent more powder and the No. 3 about half as much as the No. 2, and should be used accordingly. 89 Portraits. — Place the sitter in a chair partly facing the camera (which should be at the height of an ordinary table), and turn the face slightly towards the camera. The proper distance from the camera to the subject can be ascertained by looking at the image in the finder. The powder should be on the side of the cam- era away from the face — that is, the sitter should not face the flash. Groups. — Arrange the chairs in the form of a semi-circle, facing the camera, so that each chair will be exactly the same distance from the cam- era. Half the persons composing the group should be seated and the rest should stand be- hind the chairs. In case any of the subjects are seated on the floor the limbs should be drawn up close to the body, not extended towards the camera. The Background. — In making single portraits or groups care should be taken to have a suit- able background against which the figures will show in relief ; a light background is better than a dark one, and often a single figure or two will show up well against a lace curtain. For larger groups a medium light will be suitable. The finder on the camera will help the oper- ator to compose the group so as to get the best effect. In order to make the image visible in the finder the room should be well lighted with ordi- nary lamplight, which may be left on while the picture is being made, provided none of the lights are so placed that they show in the finder, or if a focusing camera is used employ the ground glass screen in the usual manner. When Using Flash Cartridges. — Remove the cover from the cartridge and place it upon a cardboard. All being in readiness, as before de- 90 scribed, open the camera shutter, ignite the fuse while at arm's length, protecting the eyes in the meantime from the brilliant flash. Close the camera shutter. If two cartridges are to be used the contents of one of them can be poured into the other, care being taken, however, that if any of the powder spills over it does not lie in such a position as to practically shorten the fuse. Fuses used on these cartridges are very quick. When Using Flash Sheets. — Pin a flash sheet by one corner to a piece of cardboard which has previously been fixed in a perpendicular position. If the cardboard is white it will act as a reflector and increase the strength of the picture. All be- ing in readiness, as before described, open the camera shutter, stand at arm's length and touch a match to the lower corner of the flash sheet. Close the camera shutter. When two or more sheets are to be used they should be pinned to the cardboard, one above the other, the corners slightly overlapping. As a matter of precaution, place a piece of cardboard beneath as well as one behind the flash sheet, so that in case a piece of burning powder should fall it will do no injury. In General. — In portrait work it is always best to have the room well lighted when making the flash, if it can be done in such a way that none of the lights come within the range of the lens. If the room is darkened the sudden flash of the powder so strains the eyes of the sitters that it almost invariably gives them a staring look, whereas if the room is already well illuminated by gas or lamplight the strain is not great and the eyes will have a natural expression. Of course, where the room is brightly lighted the shutter should not be opened until the instant before the flash is made, and should be closed quickly after the flash is over. When more than one flashlight is to be taken the windows should be opened and time allowed between each flash to free the room thoroughly from smoke, otherwise all of the pictures after the first one are liable to have a ''foggy" effect. Good flash powders give a minimum of smoke, but the lens is even keener than the eye, and what will seem to be but little smoke in a room will oftentimes have a decided effect upon the picture. When, for any reason, it is necessary that the shutter remain closed until the instant the flash is discharged and be closed again instantly after- ward, it is well to use a flash lamp, as by so doing the shutter can be operated with one hand and the flash with the other, and their action thus made simultaneous. In using the flash sheets it should be borne in mind that they are not instantaneous, and in por- trait work the subjects should, therefore, be warned to remain still the same as if for a time exposure. For photographing young children or large groups these sheets are not recommended, owing to the fact that it is difficult to keep the subjects quiet during exposure. About one and one-half seconds are consumed in burning a sin- gle sheet, and the light is much less brilliant than is the instantaneous flash. This is a decided advantage where the subjects can be depended upon to keep quiet, as the eyes are not strained by the flash and do not have the staring effect so often seen in flashlight pictures. Secondary Uses of the Flashlight. — The ama- teur ambitious of securing pictorial effects will 92 often find an opportunity to use the flash in con- nection with some other light, either artificial or daylight. Fig. 54, at the beginning of this chapter, shows a picture taken in one of the Eastman Kodak Company's dark rooms by means of the flash in conjunction with the in- candescent lights. In the dark room these lights are covered with orange paper, but for this occa- sion the paper was removed from one side, so that a strong light would be thrown upon each operator as he stood at his developing tray. Two charges of flash powder of about one thimbleful each were then arranged, one near the camera and the other" behind a screen about half way down the room. The subjects being posed, two minutes' exposure was given by the electric lights, followed by the firing of two small charges of flash powder to bring out just a trifle of detail in the shadows. To the eyes of those familiar with the gloom of the dark room this picture is strikingly effective, especially when the lights and high lights are given an orange tint. The portrait of the well-fed monk, entitled ''Come We to This?" (See Fig. 55) is another illustration of what can be accomplished through a combination of artificial lights. After arrang- ing the subject and accessories a bicycle lamp, put inside a box which stood between the skull and scroll, was so placed that it threw a pow- erful light on the subject's face, and was in a line toward the candle. 'After two minutes' ex- posure the box and lamp were quickly removed, the candle lighted, a weak flashlight made and the shutter closed. These two illustrations are given merely to show the possibilities of producing pictorial re- 93 suits by a combination of the flash with other artificial lights. They will suggest to the ama- teur many ways in which this light can be util- ized in producing artistic effects — the light from Fig. 55. a reading lamp, or from the grate fire, the light from the moon — can all be made to work in such harmony with the flash as to produce photo- graphs which are not only unusual and novel 94 but have also a lifelikeness and fidelity to nature that make them pictures. The flashlight is one more agent that assists in making the photog- rapher the master of his camera. Having con- trol, not only of his lens, shutter and chemicals, but of the source and volume of his light, his v^ork becomes creative, and even the devotees of palette and brush must acknowledge, if his re- sults are pictorial, that he is an artist, not a *'mere copyist." Warning! Where Using a Flashlight Lamp always turn the burner away from the flash pan when the latter is being filled. Never fill the pan when the burner is lighted and toward the pan. Never light the burner when it is over the powder. Never pour the powder from the bottle di- rectly into the pan. Always use spoon or measuring cup. Never hold bulb in hand when turning burner over powder. An accidental squeeze of bulb would discharge the flash. Never use flashlight powder in magazine lamps. CHAPTER XIV. MISCELLANEOUS BRANCHES OF PHO- TOGRAPHY. Snapshots and Instantaneous Photography.— There is a great deal of misconception in the public mind with regard to what is called instan- taneous photography. Many people seem to consider that it is quite a distinct invention, and that it requires a peculiar set of apparatus. It is not so. If you possess a lens which is sufficient- ly perfect to enable you to use a large aperture without seriously impairing its defining powers, and you use a rapid plate, you will simply re- quire a mechanical contrivance to uncover the lens and cover it up again very quickly, in order to blossom out as a full-blown instantaneous photographer, only you must confine yourself to brilliantly lighted subjects. It is here that the difference lies. An instantaneous photograph can only be taken in a good light. There is a strong temptation towards indis- criminate snapshotting when using a hand cam- era, for a new plate is so easily brought into po- sition and exposed that the user is often inclined to waste it on an unworthy subject. Care and thought should always be bestowed upon every photograph that is taken, whether it be an 8xio landscape or a 4x5 snapshot, and the knowledge which has been gained in landscape and similar work should be applied to the apparently much simpler hand camera photography. A street scene can only be successfully taken in the 95 96 brightest hours near noon, because it contains all those elements — heavy shadows in the fore- ground, etc. — -which in landscape work necessitate a longer exposure, and as in this case the time cannot be drawn out because of the moving ob- jects in the picture, the other factor — light — must be increased in compensation. Out in the country, however, where the light is not partially absorbed by a heavy pall of smoke, those pleas- ing little studies of children and ''grown-ups'* and of pastoral life generally, of which the hand camera is such an excellent portrayer, may be successfully attempted in spring or autumn, while sea and sky effects — the brightest things in nature — can be photographed in midwinter, and even skating scenes, when the sun is shin- ing, and there is plenty of snow about to reflect its light, come just within the scope of the hand camera bearer. The two great things to bear in mind when contemplating instantaneous exposures are : Hold the camera perfectly still, for the least tremor is disastrous, and be quite sure there is sufficient light upon the subject. Then with rapid plates and a quick lens and an eye well enough trained to choose a good position, a good subject, and to seize the right moment for ex- posure, a satisfactory photograph can hardly fail to result. Photographing Moving Objects. — There is probably nothing in picture taking in which the amateur asks more unreasonable things than in the making of snapshots of rapidly moving ob- jects. If, for instance, he is an enthusiastic bi- cyclist, he takes his camera to the first race meet, secures a position alongside the tape, and as the riders finish, sprinting at a i 40 clip, he takes a 97 broadside of them from a distance of ten feet and is disappointed in the resulting blur, for he has nothing else. Now, let us see the reason for this. If he has a double lens instrument with pneu- matic shutter it has worked in approximately 1-50 of a second, an apparently very short space of time, but we find on figuring it out that a bi- cyclist riding at the rate of a mile in one minute forty seconds covers 52.8 feet in a second, or over twelve inches in 1-50 of a second, the time the shutter is open — a sufficient distance to ruin the image. The distance the image will move on the plate during exposure is to the distance the ob- ject moves, as the focal length of lens is to dis- tance from lens to object. In this case we will suppose the focus of lens to be six inches, and we know the distance from lens to object to be ten feet (120 inches) and the distance the ob- ject moves approximately twelve inches. We will let X stand for distance image moves on the plate and it gives us the following equation: X : 12 : : 6 : 120 — 6-10. Of course, the object moving 6-10 of an inch on the plate ruins the ^ picture. We find then that in order to take pictures of moving objects at right angles there are two factors of prime importance — the speed of shutter and the distance from the object. In the ordinary amateur outfit the shutter speed cannot be materially increased and he must there- fore take the picture from further away. Ex- periment has proven that in order to successfully take pictures of rapidly moving horses, etc., from a position near by and at right angles the shutter must work in from 1-500 to i-iooo of a second (Muybridge claimed to have used a shutter work- ing in 1-2000 of a second) and this extreme speed 98 necessitates a special camera and lens as well as a special shutter, and then the resulting photo- graphs are mere silhouettes, because with the present speed of plates and films there is not time to get any detail. But there are tricks in all trades and satisfactory pictures of rapidly moving objects can be readily made by photo- graphing them from partly in front as well as from a reasonable distance. The accompanying picture (Fig. 56), a railroad train moving at full speed, shows plainly what can be done in this Fig. 56. direction. It was made with a small kodak and is a good illustration of what can be accom- plished by taking the picture from a point at a considerable distance from the object and also somewhat ahead of it. By acting on this hint the amateur can soon learn to take pictures of rapidly moving objects, and in such a manner as to avoid materially the disagreeable effect of blurring. CHAPTER XV. DEVELOPMENT AND COMPLETION OF THE NEGATIVE. Equipment and Arrangement of the Dark Room.— As pointed out in a previous chapter, the process of developing the negative has to be carried on by the aid of the light from a ruby- lamp, and since all other light must be excluded the room w^hich is devoted to this work is usually termed the ''dark room." If the reader is for- tunate enough to possess a spare room at home, which can be set apart solely for photographic operations, his path of progress will be rendered considerably more comfortable than if he has to develop his negatives when and where he can. It is quite a mistake to imagine that any cup- board will do for the dark room, even if it is big enough for the photographer to get inside. Unless the work can be done comfortably, it is hardly likely to be satisfactory, and therefore it is much the best policy to select a room where both fresh air and elbow space exist in plenty. If the amateur has a room which he can devote en- tirely to photography, he will find the following items of furniture and fittings useful : A table on which to do the developing, though better still than this would be a specially-made developing sink ; a cupboard or chest of drawers, in which to keep his stock of plates, papers and various pieces of apparatus ; and a set of shelves fixed on the wall, close to the developing table or sink, on which should be placed bottles of the 99 100 various chemicals and solutions required for de- velopment. If gas is available, the burner bracket should be fixed just over the develop- ing table; and if the convenience of a continu- ous water supply is also to be had the tap should be in an equally handy position. If a continu- ous water supply is not available a small tank fixed to the wall above the sink may be made to answer the purpose. Failing this, a bucket or large jug of fresh water should be kept at hand. If a separate photographic room is not at the operator's command, the next best in order of convenience is the bathroom, and an excellent substitute it makes. In either case daylight may be excluded by a light structure of wood of such a size as to just fit into the frame of the window, and covered with some opaque material. I say opaque, for even in the daytime it is better to develop by artificial light, as daylight is continu- ally varying in intensity, and thus makes it dif- ficult to judge the density of the negatives. If, however, the reader prefers to work by daylight he can secure a fairly safe light by substituting for the opaque material two thicknesses of col- ored fabric, one thickness being a ruby color and the other a deep canary or orange. If this plan be adopted the screen thus made should be as little exposed to sunlight as possible, otherwise the color will rapidly deteriorate, and the screen will be thereby rendered unsafe. Such a screen should be tested from time to time. Having thus prevented the admission of white light through the window, attention should be paid to the door, and any stray light finding its way through the keyhole or crevices should be promptly checked by brown paper. While, how- lOI ever, the room should be made perfectly light- tight, it should not be air tight, for unless the bad air is permitted to escape and be replaced by pure air the atmosphere will soon become op- pressive and even injurious. In the event of neither of the above-mentioned rooms being available, the amateur must make the best of the accommodation afforded by one of the ordinary rooms of the house. In such case, of course, he must exercise especial care and cleanliness in handling his various solutions, so as not to damage the carpet or furniture. The Choice of a Developer. — A ''developer" may be defined as a chemical solution which, when applied to a plate which has been suitably exposed in the camera, will bring out or make visible the image produced by the action of the light on the silver bromide in the sensitive emul- sion with which the plate is covered. That image is invisible until the plate has been sub- jected to the action of the developer, so that when the amateur removes his exposed plates from the plate holder they will appear precisely the same as when first placed in the holder ready for exposure. In making the image visible, what the developer really does is to reduce the opaque metallic silver — those parts of the silver bromide which have been affected by the light — and to leave unaltered those portions upon which the light has not acted. When the plate has been developed, and the latent image has been brought out, it has to be "fixed'* before it can safely be allowed to make an appearance in daylight again. Immediately the plate has been developed it is subjected to a short washing in clean water and is then immersed in a ''fixing'' bath. After hav- ing been "fixed" the plate is unaffected in any 102 further way by exposure to light, and all that remains to be done is to thoroughly wash it and let it dry. But this explanation is carrying me ahead of my subject, for my present purpose is to indicate the nature and uses of the various developing agents commonly employed. This information may, perhaps, best be imparted in the following form : Amidol. — This developer is chiefly used for two classes of work; snap-shot negatives and devel- oping papers. It is very energetic in its action and is a good developer for bringing out detail. When used for bromide papers no clearing bath is required. Eikonogen. — Very suitable for snap-shots and for portrait negatives. It is, however, but slight- ly soluble in water, and is, therefore, usually made up in quantity. It is rather difficult to ob- tain full density with this developer unless very pure crystals are employed and the exposure of the plate has been reasonably correct. If com- bined with a density-giving developer, such as quinol, good results may be secured. Ferrous Oxalate. — This is a developer which at one time was very popular for negatives, but of late has been largely superseded by other substances. To secure the best results the ex- posure of the negative must be as nearly correct as possible. Glycin.— ^This is a slow developer, giving gray- black images free from fog. It is much used for negatives for photo-mechanical processes. Hydroquinone or Quinol. — This developer is a great favorite among amateurs on account of the cleanliness and ease with which it may be used. It gives blackish negatives and may be used I03 repeatedly until exhausted. It is liable to pro- duce harsh contrasts with an insufficiency of de- tail, and is slower in operation than some of the other developing agents. It is very suitable for bromide papers. Metol. — Metol is one of the most energetic of modern developers and with short exposures pro- duces negatives of extreme softness. A com- bination of metol and hydroquinone makes a very satisfactory developer. Pyrogallic or Pyro. — Of all developers this is the one which is most widely known and has the longest reputation. By suitably modifying the constituents of the solution employed, pyro enables excellent negatives to be obtained, even in cases where the exposure has been far from correct, and in the hands of an intelligent user this power becomes of considerable value and importance. Further than this, it is fairly rapid in its action, any amount of density can be ob- tained, and the resultant negatives are of good printing quality. As an all-round developer for negatives pyro is still without a superior. Rodinal. — Another name under which rodinal is sometimes sold is paramidophenol. It is chiefly used for developing hand camera nega- tives; but, while it brings out plenty of detail, there is occasionally trouble in obtaining satis- factory density. It is also a useful developer for bromide papers. Agents. — The chemical substances mentioned in the above list are termed ^'agents," and are not used by themselves to produce development, but are mixed in certain proportions with a substance termed the "alkali," and with a bromide termed the ''restrained'' The various portions of agent, alkali and restrainer are dissolved in a suitable ID4 amount of water to form the developing solu- tion. Where these are all mixed together the developer thus formed is termed a ''one-solution" developer. As, however, modifications in the relative proportions of the constituents will en- abl-e the operator to produce corresponding modifications in the character of the resulting negative, it is often a convenience to have two solutions mixed up, one containing the agent and the other the alkali. Then, by taking more of the one solution and less of the other, or vice versa, the development of the negative may be had more fully under control. Thus the rate of development may be hastened or retarded, and the contrasts in the negative accordingly in- creased or diminished. At the present moment the reader may not fully understand the sig- nificance of these facts, but the matter will be made clearer to him when I come to deal with the actual process of development. From the list of developing agents which I have just given the reader will see that he has a pretty wide field from which to choose. With a developer, as with the particular brand of plate, once the selection has been made it should be adhered to and its capabilities and peculiarities thorough- ly mastered. Now, different makers of plates recommend diflferent formulae for development, even though the same constituents may be em- ployed in each, and whatever the brand of plates selected, while the general facts will still hold good, the particular formulae recommended by the makers of those plates should be adhered to when mixing the developer. How to Mix the Developer. — ^The various chemicals of which the developers are com- posed are usually supplied in powders or crystals, I05 and they should be stored in glass bottles, with close-fitting corks. India rubber corks should al- ways be used in the case of potash or soda. Each bottle should be carefully and accurately labeled with the name of the substance contained there- in, and the label should be as far as possible in- destructible. That is, the inscription should be either sand-blasted onto the glass or should be written on a gummed label, which should be afterwards sized and varnished. No chemical or solution should be placed in a bottle which has previously contained another substance, unless the bottle has first been thoroughly washed out. On no account should any solution be poured into a labelless bottle, as the amateur will almost certainly forget just what the composition of the solution was, and when that is the case, it is useless to him. If space is limited, developers may be purchased in the form of powders. These developing powders are put up in small pack- ages, occupying very little room, and when a developing solution is required it is simply neces- sary to dissolve one or more powders in water, according to instructions. The dissolving of solid substances in water may be hastened by two methods: Firstly, by crushing the substance into a powder or very small pieces, and secondly, by using hot water instead of cold. The solution should, however, always be allowed to cool before it is used to develop with, otherwise the film of the plate will be injuriously affected. How to Develop a Negative. — I will now as- sume that the reader has exposed a plate in the camera, and that he is ready to make his first essay at development. I will further assume he has prepared the solutions required according io6 to the special instructions contained in the pack- age of dry plates that he has used, or according to some one of the formulae given in this chap- ter, or that possibly he has obtained his so- lution ready prepared from a stock dealer. He must then proceed as follows : Light the ruby lamp and place the developing dish about twelve inches in front, or at such a distance as you can just see what you are doing. Next open the plate-holder, take out the exposed plate, and after lightly brushing it with a flat camel's hair brush to remove any particles of dust place it film side uppermost in the developing dish. Then, with a steady, sweeping motion, pour the developer over the surface of the plate. It is absolutely essential that the developer should cover the whole plate and that no air bubbles should be allowed to remain, otherwise the negative will be disfigured by markings due to unequal de- velopment. No signs of the picture will appear for about a minute or so, but the dish should be gently rocked during this period to keep the de- veloper in motion. If the exposure has been about correct the plate will then gradually darken in places. Now watch^closely. The development of an exposed dry plate is a process which cannot fail to deeply interest the most careless person. As the first faint outlines appear, under the influ- ence of the developer, wonder grows into amaze- ment at the change going on under one's very eyes. Outlines of familiar objects come out, as first the mast, then the hull, then the rigging and the cords of a great vessel comes to us from out the dimness of a fog. In a portrait the white shirt front and collar will first appear, to be quickly followed by the face. The reader should remember 107 that in a negative everything is reversed — that is, a white collar comes out black, w^hile a black hat will show white, or rather almost clear glass, in the finished negative. This being clearly borne in mind, the reader will be better able to follow the progress of the development. After the whitest portions of a picture, or the ''high lights,'' as they are termed, have appeared, they will be followed by the half-tones, and ulti- mately by the shadows. If the picture appears gradually, in these successive stages, the develop- ment should be allowed to continue until all the details are fully brought out. If the plate is then held up to the ruby lamp and examined the high lights should be nearly opaque, while the deepest shadows should be transparent, but should clearly show the details. In a landscape, for example, the opaque part should be the sky, or the side of a whitewashed cottage, while the transparent part should be in heavy foliage on trees or bushes, but the leaves and branches visi- ble in the negative ; i. e., the deepest shadows should not appear as absolutely unaltered patches of the film. The edges of the plate which have been held by the rebate of the plate-holder will, of course, remain perfectly white, and it is a fairly safe rule to continue development until every part of the plate which has been exposed turns slightly gray, while the edges remain clear white. The moment these edges show any signs of becoming gray, the plate should be removed from the developer and washed. With most plates there is another means of ascertaining if development has been carried far enough, and this is to examine the negative from the glass side, or back, by reflected light. If the develop- io8 ment is sufficient the high lights and the less deep half-tones will be visible from this side. Until the development has been completed the dish should be rocked from time to time as men- tioned. After the plate has been developed it should be v^ashed under the tap, or in a dish of clean water, and should then be immersed in a fixing- bath, composed as follows: Hyposulphite of soda. . i6 ozs. or 20 parts Water up to 80 ozs. or 100 parts Hyposulphite of soda is commonly referred to as "hypo." The above quantity of solution will serve for fixing a large number of plates, and if only a small quantity is required for a few plates it can be easily mixed, provided the same propor- tions are maintained, viz., four parts of water to one part of hypo. The hypo bath does not take very long to pre- pare, and may be mixed, if preferred^ just before development is commenced. The plate should be placed in the fixing bath and left there until it is completely fixed. This may be readily judged by examining the back of the negative by reflected light. If any of the un- altered silver bromide is still undissolved, it will appear as a creamy white patch, and until the whole of this has been dissolved away and noth- ing but the picture on the clear glass remains, the fixing process should be continued. After the negative has been fixed it should be thoroughly washed, either in running water or in several changes, the period required to elimi- nate all the hypo being about one hour, provided a thorough and continual change of the water is arranged for. 109 When washed the negative may be allowed to dry. Heat should not be applied to effect this quickly, as the gelatine will be in great danger of becoming melted. The negative should be placed in an almost upright position in a dry, cool place, where no dust is likely to collect. How to Recognize and Correct Under- and Overexposure. — The foregoing description of the progress and development was based on the assumption that the exposure of the plate in the camera had been fairly correct. It is, however, extremely likely that the beginner will for some time, at any rate, make numerous mistakes in judging the correct exposure, and I will, there- fore, now proceed to explain how such mistakes may be compensated for by a modification of the development. The reader will remember that 1 said the high lights in the picture would first begin to appear about a minute after the com- mencement of the development, if the exposure had been approximately correct. We will now suppose, however, that at the expiration of that time no indication of the picture appeared, and that, in fact, two or three minutes had elapsed before the plate first began to darken. If, after this, the high lights and half-tones came up quickly, and yet, in spite of a prolongation of de- velopment, no detail appeared in the shadows, it is a pretty sure sign that the plate was under- exposed. The opposite case to this, viz., over- exposure, is indicated by the picture appearing considerably before the expiration of a minute, and, instead of coming out regularly and gradu- ally, it makes its full appearance in a very short space of time. In cases of gross overexposure the whole picture seems to flash out at once, almost directly the developer is poured over the 110 surface, and the film appears to go gray and foggy. Of the above faults underexposure is the more serious, as in many cases it is impossi- ble to bring detail out in the underexposed parts, no matter how the development may be modi- fied. With care all but very extreme cases of overexposure can be sufficiently controlled to enable a satisfactory negative to be obtained. If the negative appears to suffer from under- exposure, as indicated above, the following pro- cedure should be adopted: Pour the developer back into the cup or mix- ing glass, and replace it in the developing dish with clean water. The developer must then be weakened or diluted with about an equal bulk of water. Pour off the water from the dish and continue the development with the weakened developer. The developer should be allowed to act until the high-lights have become quite opaque, and probably by that time a good deal of the details in the shadows will have appeared. I may here give the reader a hint as to alter- ing the strength or proportions of the developer in use in the developing dish. This should never be done by adding the water or fresh solution to the developer while it is in the dish, as it is impossible for a thorough mixture to take place in this way, and unequal or patchy development of the plate will result. The developer should first be poured off into the mixing glass, and the requisite addition made. It can be then returned to the dish with comparative safety. The correction of overexposure will require more prompt attention than that of underex- posure, for in the former case the mischief is soon accomplished. As soon as there is an indi- cation that overexposure is the fault, the de-"' Ill veloper should be at once poured back into the graduate glass, and very greatly reduced in strength by adding water. Also put in a few drops of a strong solution of bromide of potassium. The development can then be con- tinued until the contrasts appear likely to be about normal, or until the action of the solution appears to be less vigorous. To Intensify a Negative. — ^The reader will sometimes find that a negative, after develop- ment and fixing, appears thin ; that is, there is plenty of detail and graduation, but the image is not sufficiently opaque to yield satisfactory prints. This may be due to one of several causes. For instance, it may be caused by overexposure ; by removal from the developer before sufficient density was obtained; or by the thinness of the emulsion with which the plate was coated. A negative of this kind may be considerably im- proved by the process known as 'Tntensifica- tion." The following is the method of proced- ure: After the negative has been fixed it must be thoroughly washed and then placed in a strong alum bath for about ten minutes. After a fur- ther washing it is placed in the intensifying so- lution, made as follows: Bi-Chloride of mercury. 3^ oz. or 5 parts Hydrochloric acid. . . .45 grains or i part Water 10 ozs. or 100 parts A note of warning with regard to bi-chloride of mercury : This is a strong poison and is some- times known as corrosive sublimate or mercuric chloride. It should not be allowed to come into contact with any cuts, etc., on the hands or fingers. 112 The negative should be kept in the above so- lution till it becomes a grayish white all over and then thoroughly washed and placed in a sec- ond bath composed of : Liq. ammonia (U. S. P.) i oz Water up to .20 ozs When the action of this bath is completed, as may be noted by the cessation of a visible change in the color of the negative, the latter is taken out and thoroughly washed and dried. To Reduce a Negative. — In contradistinction to the foregoing, a process called ''reduction'' may be necessitated, if the negative should be so dense as to make it difficult to obtain a print. This is usually caused by the development hav- ing been too prolonged. The following is the method of obtaining a reduction of this excessive density : The negative must be thoroughly washed after fixing, and should then be placed in a dish and covered with a clean solution of hypo. A solu- tion of potassium ferricyanide is then made, as follows : Potassium ferricyanide i oz Water up to 10 ozs Pour off the hypo from the dish into a measur- ing dish, add a few drops of the above solution and again pour over the plate. Reduction will at once commence and will proceed pretty rapid- ly, the rate depending upon the amount of fer- ricyanide added. As soon as the negative is nearly reduced enough take it out of the bath and thoroughly wash. The image will be re- duced a little more during washing. Drying Negatives. — Negatives should be dried as rapidly as possible ; this is most conveniently 113 done by having a regular negative-drying rack. (See Fig. 60.) The ideal way is to place this rack holding negatives three or four feet away from an electric fan in motion; where this is not possible, the rack of negatives can be placed in the best draft of air possible in the house; never in the sun, particularly in summer. When the negative is dried too slowly in a close, warm room it will be of a different character and when dry will be thickened and very heavy in high lights ; this is caused by the moisture on the plate being heated by the air up to 85 to 90 degrees Fahr., thereby dissolving some of the minute sacs of gelatine in the film, permitting several atoms of silver to come together and form one mass; this going on all over the plate makes what is called a coarse-grained negative. Varnishing Negatives. — All negatives should be varnished as a matter of protection. It is quite permissible to take prints from an unvar- nished negative, and, indeed, there are many workers who will not take the trouble to protect their negatives by a coating of varnish. As, however, there are many negatives obtained Fig. 60. 114 which, from the nature of the subject, it is im- possible to replace, I think the practice of var- nishing is not an extravagant precaution to take against possible injuries from stray splashes of liquids, or the effects of a damp atmosphere. All photographic dealers supply a clear hard varnish for this purpose, and the method of its appli- cation is as follows: First warm your negative by gently and evenly applying heat until it feels quite hot to the hand. Then hold the negative horizontally, film side upwards, on the finger tips, and pour a pool of varnish in the center. The negative should then be slightly tilted, first one way and then the other, until the varnish has traversed every por- tion of the surface of the film. Then tilt the negative up at a considerable angle and drain oflf the surplus varnish into the bottle. The negative may then be gently dried in front of a fire and allowed to cool. Retouching Negatives. — Retouching means im- proving the negative by mechanical methods, either with a lead pencil or sable brush. Land- scape negatives can be sometimes improved, es- pecially where the negative is thin in sky, by smoking the glass side 'over a candle flame or by printing through a yellow tissue paper ; this is not necessary in well-balanced negatives. Por- trait negatives can very often be improved by retouching, as the unretouched negatives show facial defects in greater prominence than they really are. This is done by using a fine-pointed lead pencil on the surface of the film to blot out, modify or remove them and the deep shadows, particularly those at the corners of the mouth, crowsfeet, freckles, etc. Retouching is a profes- 115 sion of itself and to become proficient in the same requires an instructor. Storing Plate Negatives. — When the amateur has made some progress in the practice of photog- raphy he will begin to accumulate a number of negatives of value and interest, and the question will arise as to how these may best be classi- fied and kept. A simple and inexpensive method is to place each negative inside a plain envel- ope, and on the outside of this inscribe the sub- ject and the circumstances under which the picture was taken. For example, one inscription might read thus: ''Lake steamer entering Chi- cago harbor. June 25, 1902. 's ' ' plate. Stop F-ii. Exposure, one-thirtieth sec/' De- tails such as these often prove of service for fu- ture reference. The negatives thus encased may be stored in ordinary cardboard boxes, and each box labeled outside with the nature of its con- tents, thus: ''Summer Holiday, 1902. Chicago and neighborhood." Some readers may prefer to buy negative boxes ready made, and these can be obtained at a comparatively small cost. They are provided with grooves into which the negatives drop, and each box contains space for from twenty-five to one hundred plates. If these are numbered and a list of the subjects pasted inside the box lid any desired negative can quickly be found. HOW TO DEVELOP CARTRIDGE FILMS. Film, to avoid curling, must always be devel- oped face down, otherwise it is handled in much the same manner as plates, except, of course, that it must be cut up before printing. For all cartridge rolls smaller than 4x5 devel- opment should be started in the strip, as this ii6 method removes the possibility of cutting* through the negatives. The same method may be used with the larger sizes, but owing to their length is, perhaps, not quite so convenient as to cut up the film before development is started. Having shut out all extraneous light from the dark room and lighted the dark room lamp, a. Unroll the film and detach the entire strip from the black paper. Fig. 61. b. Pass the film through a tray of clean cold water as shown in Fig. 6i, holding one end in each hand. Pass through the water several times, that there may be no bubbles remaining on the film. When it is thoroughly wet, with no air bubbles, place the strip of film in a tray of water, immersing it fully but not folding tightly so as to crack it. 117 c. Prepare the develop according to instruc- tions given in directions accompanying the Use of Films or according to one of the formulae given in this chapter. d. Now pass the film through the developer in the same manner as described for wetting it and shown in Fig. 63. Keep it constantly in motion, and in about one minute the high lights will be- gin to darken and you will readily be able to dis- tinguish the unexposed sections between the negatives. Fig. 62. e. With a pair of shears cut the negatives apart and place them face down in the tray of clear water. The negatives may now be immersed in the developer one section at a time, and developed and fixed according to instructions given for dry plates and sheet film. This method must always be followed with the cartridge roll bolder rolls, but they may first be ii8 cut in two at point where perforations occur in the middle of strip. Another Way. — i. Unroll the film and cut the exposures apart as shown in Fig. 62. In unroll- ing the film preparatory to development care must be taken that the end be not allowed to roll over the paper. The exposures should be cut apart with the paper on top. Fig. 63 shows a cartridge unrolled with the film on top. To correct this simply turn back the film as indi- cated by the dotted lines, thus bringing the film under the paper. 2. Fill a tray nearly full of water, and put into it the exposures, one by one, face down; put them in edgewise, to avoid air bells, and im- merse them fully. Cover the tray with a bit of brown paper to keep out the light from the lamp. 3. Prepare the developer. 4. Take one of the exposures from the water and immerse it face down in a second tray. Rock it back and forth to prevent streaks and air bub- bles; in about one minute the film will begin to darken in spots, representing the lights of the Incorrect Method. Fig. 63. 119 picture, and in about two minutes the operator will be able to distinguish objects in the picture. The developer should be allowed to act 5 to 10 minutes. The progress of the development may be watched by holding the negative, from time to time, up to the lamp. (See Fig. 64.) 5. Transfer the developed film to a third tray and rinse two or three times with water, leaving it to soak while the next film is being developed. Only one negative should be developed at a time until the operator becomes expert; then he can manage three or four in the tray at one time and the developer will answer for a dozen films be- fore being exhausted. As each successive nega- tive is developed it should be put, with the pre- ceding negatives, in the washing tray and the water changed twice to prevent the developer re- maining in the films from staining them. 6. Put two tablespoonfuls of hyposulphite of soda into a fourth tray, fill two-thirds full of water, and stir until dissolved. This is called the fixing bath. 7. Immerse the negatives one by one in the fixing bath until they are entirely clear of white spots and are transparent instead of milky by transmitted light. This will require about 10 minutes. Fig. 64. 120 8. The red or yellow glass can be removed from the lamp as soon as all the exposures have been fixed. 9. Pour off the fixing solution into the slop bucket and fill the tray w^ith clear, cold water; repeat this at intervals of five minutes, five or six times, keeping the negatives in motion or transferring them back and forth to tray No. 3, one by one, to ensure the water acting evenly upon them. The fixing solution must only be used in tray No. 4, and the negatives, after fixing, must not be put in either No. i or No. 2 trays. Neither must any of the fixing solution be al- lowed to touch the films through the agency of the fingers or otherwise, until they are ready to go into the fixing bath, otherwise they will be spotted or blackened so as to be useless. 10. When the negatives are thoroughly washed put one-half ounce of glycerine into one pint of water (four portions measured with the grad- uate glass), stir well and soak the negatives in the solution for 5 minutes; then remove them and wipe off the surplus moisture with a soft, damp cloth, and pin them by the four corners face up to a flat surface to dry. The glycerine solution may be used repeatedly. The trays and measuring glass should now be rinsed out and set away to drain and dry. When the negatives are dry they are ready for printing. By following closely the foregoing directions the novice can make seventy-five per cent or up- wards of good negatives. USEFUL FORMULAE FOR DEVELOPING AND FIXING DRY PLATES AND NEGA- TIVE FILMS ACCORDING TO INSTRUCTIONS ALREADY GIVEN IN PREVIOUS PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER. Pyro ABC Developer. BY WEIGHT. A. Water lo oz. Sulphite of soda crystals ^ oz. Add enough pure acetic acid to this to turn blue litmus paper slightly red, then add : Pyro I oz. B. Water i6oz. Sulphite of soda crystals 4 oz. C. Water 16 oz. Sal soda crystals 40Z. To develop take of A >^ oz. B I oz. C I oz. *Water 8 oz. Apothecaries' weights are intended to be used in the above formulas. More water gives softness, and less water con- trast. Use less water in cold weather. *For double-coated plates use 18 oz. of water. 121 122 PYRO ABC DEVELOPER — HYDROMETER TEST. A. Water lo oz. Sulphite of soda crystals ^ oz. Add enough pure acetic acid to this to turn blue litmus paper slightly red, then add : Pyro I oz. B. Sulphite of soda solution to test 60 C. Sal soda solution to test 40 To develop take of A oz. B I oz. C I oz. Water 8oz. Less of B will give a warmer tone to negative. If negatives are too yellow, use more of B. If it is found during the summer months and in the south that acetic acid softens the film too much, substitute sulphuric acid. The hydrometers referred to are often called actinometers, and were formerly much used to test the strength of silver baths. They are sel- dom accurate, and it is best for each operator to make up a set of the solutions according to weight, and then, noting the reading on his hy- drometer, making future solutions accordingly. EIKONOGEN-HYDROCHINONE DEVELOPER. No. I. Distilled or pure well water. . . 32 oz. Sodium sulphite (crystals) 40Z. Eikonogen 240 gr. Hydrochinone 60 gr. 123 No. 2. Water 32 oz. Carbonate of potash 4 oz. To develop take No. I 20Z. No. 2 I oz. *Water i oz. By Hydrometer : No. I. Sodium sulphite sorn to test 30. 34 oz. Eikonogen . 240 gr, Hydrochinone 60 gr. No. 2. Carbonate of potash solution to test 50 To develop take of No. I 20Z. No. 2 I oz. * Water i oz. More water gives less contrast and density. EIKONOGEN DEVELOPER. No. I solution: Eikonogen 40 gr. Sodium sulphite 40 gr. Water up to 10 oz. No. 2 solution : Sodium carbonate 200 gr. Potassium hydrate 25 gr. Water up to 10 oz. For developing, take equal parts of No. i and No. 2. HYDROCHINONE DEVELOPER. A. Hydrochinone i oz. Sulphite of soda (crystals).. . . 5 oz. *For double-coated plates use 5 oz. of water. 124 Bromide of potassium logr. Water (ice or distilled) 55 oz. B. Caustic potash i8o gr. Water looz. To develop take of A 40Z. B 1/2 oz. After use pour into a separate bottle. This can be used repeatedly, and with uniformity of re- sults, by the addition of one dram of A and 10 drops of B to every 8 oz. of old developer. In using this developer it is important to notice the temperature of the room, as a slight variation in this respect causes a very marked difference in the time it takes to develop, much more so than with pyro. Temperature of room should be from 70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. For flashlight exposures a normal developer is sufficient where sufficient powder has been used. A weaker developer is needed only when there is considerable distance between the subject and the light or where too little powd^ was used. FIXING BATH. A. Water 96 oz. Hypo 2 lbs. Sulphite of soda (crystals) 4 oz. B. Water 32 oz. Chrome-alum 2 oz. Sulphuric acid 54 oz. Pour B into A while stirring A rapidly. As the chrome-alum dissolves slowly a stock solution of B can be made up. 125 METOL DEVELOPER. No. I. Water 8 oz. Metol loogr. Sulphite of soda crystals i oz. No. 2. Water lo oz. Potassium carbonate i oz. Take equal parts of Nos. i and 2 and six parts of water. If more contrast is needed, take equal parts of Nos. i and 2 and three parts of water, with 5 drops to the ounce of a i-io solution of bromide of potassium. For Black-Tone Transparency and Lantern Plates. METOL-HYDRO DEVELOPER. A. Water . . ; i6 oz. Metol 30 gr. Hydrochinone 30 gr. Sodium sulphite (dry) 120 gr. B. Water 16 oz. Potassium bromide IS gr. Sodium carbonate (dry) 120 gr. If the crystalized sulphite and carbonate are used, take twice as much of each as the formula calls for. To develop, take equal parts of A and B. Developer should not be lower than 75 deg. F. in winter and not higher than 70 deg. F in summer, and can be used repeatedly, but should be discarded as soon as discolored, as it will then stain the film. Always develop to a good inten- sity, as plates developed with hydrochinone fix out somewhat. Rinse and fix. CHAPTER XVI. PRINTING, TONING, MOUNTING AND FINISHING OF MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS— VIGNETTING. The novice in the mysteries of photography has now been carried in imagination through all the operations necessary in the making of the nega- tive. He is the possessor of several first-class but imaginary negatives — pictures in which all those portions which should be white are black and those which should be black are represented by clear glass. He will recognize that this is mere- ly a means to an end, and that the way to produce a positive picture from a negative is to place a sensitive surface in contact with it, and to expose to the action of light so that the rays passing through all those portions of the negative which are transparent will turn the sensitive surface black in those places, while the dark parts of the negative will protect it from the darkening in- fluence, and so form a print which is positive — which has its lights and shades in the correct relation to one another. The process by which this result is obtained is known as Photographic Printing, and the resultant positives, made .on sensitized or printing papers, are called prints. Until quite recently Albumen Paper was used almost exclusively by the photographer, but while this paper yields most excellent and permanent results, it is extremely tedious and troublesome in manipulation, and of late years the field which it held so long has been almost entirely pre- empted by the ready prepared products. 126 127 These prepared papers are of many kinds, and are generally known as Emulsion or Aristotype papers. The word Aristotype, however, covers a very broad field, as nearly all the products are made after different formulae and each brand has little peculiarities of its own that require special treatment in manipulation. For this reason it is impossible to outline a method of operation that will exactly suit all kind^, and the instructions herewith given are but general. These various papers are known generally as Collodion, Gelatine, Bromide, Ferro-Prussiate, etc. They are divided into two great classes, known as Printing-Out papers and Developing papers. From the large number of brands on the market it is possible to obtain almost any grade or texture desired, such as smooth or glossy surface, mat surface, etc. The various manufacturers enclose with each package of their product specific instructions for manipulation, and the amateur will do well to follow same closely. By Printing-Out papers is meant those kinds on which all details of the negative are printed fully out, the paper afterward being subjected to the toning and fixing processes presentiv de- scribed. Developing papers are those with which the details of the negative, instead of being printed out, as with printing-out papers, are exposed in contact with a negative and after exposure are developed and fixed in a manner very similar to that in which a negative is produced. Platino- type and kindred papers partake of the nature of both Printing-Out and strictly Developing pa- pers, as in their use they are printed out to a dim outline and afterward developed. Develop- 128 ing papers are many times quicker than any Printing-Out paper. Those who have but little time in daylight for photographic work, instead of spending hours in printing, washing, toning, etc., can in a very few moments make all their prints by exposure to any artificial light, and in an equally short time develop and finish them, thus leaving all the sunshiny hours for other pur- suits. Of the many papers offered probably the most desirable, for the beginner at any rate, is a Gela- tino-Chloride (chloride of silver in an emulsion of gelatine) printing-out paper. In the negative we have learned that the image is latent until brought out by chemical action. In the printing- out paper the image ''prints-out" at once. Before it is toned and fixed it is in the same condition as a proof received from the photographer. The chemical action clears the high lights and shad- ows, gives the proper tone and ''fixes" the print, i. e., makes it permanent. The processes of toning and fixing may be combined in one bath or may be done separately. For convenience the combined bath can be used, but care should be exercised not to overwork the bath. Toning with an overworked bath will not yield permanent results and no attempt to economize by overworking the toning bath should be made, as disappointment will be the inevitable result. Printing. — In order to hold the paper in contact* with the negative during the operation of print- ing, a special frame is employed, with a hinged back and springs tohold it down,thisbeingknown as a printing frame. The back is hinged so that while one half of the print in progress is firmly held by one spring in its position behind the 129 negative, the other half can be turned back by the printer in order to see what progress has been made, with the full assurance that it will drop back exactly into position for further ex- posure, if that should be necessary. Though printing-out paper is sensitive to the action of the light, it is not so to anything like the same degree that a photographic plate or film or developing paper is. For instance, gas light has practically no effect whatever upon it, and all the operations of placing it in the printing frames and so on can be conducted in weak day- light with impunity instead of in the dark room. To make a print, the first thing to do is to re- move the back from the printing frame by shift- ing aside the two pressure springs and lifting it out, when, the frame being laid face downwards on a table, the negative to be printed is placed in it, with the film side uppermost. Then a piece of sensitized paper is placed in position on the negative, with its shiny side downward, so that the two films are in contact with one another, the back is replaced, the springs brought to bear upon it and the whole placed in some position where plenty of light will fall upon it. On an ordinary bright summer day printing frames placed on the window sill on that side of the house on which the sun is not shining will, with negatives of average density, yield prints of good quality at a fair rate of printing. Of course, the amount of exposure which a given print will re- quire depends not only upon the quality and brilliancy of the light, but also very considerably upon the density and color of the negative under which it is exposed. Moreover, the speed at which a print is made affects its ultimate quality to a marked extent, and a long exposure in a 130 poor light, tending to brilliancy in the resultant print, will give a more plucky picture, with higher contrasts, from the same negative than one in which the exposure has been a short one to a brilliant light. Extra brilliancy is not al- ways desirable, as, for instance, when the con- trasts in the negative are already as high as is at all necessary, and in this case a short exposure to a very bright light — even to direct sun- light, in extreme cases — will give the best re- sults. On the other hand, when the negative is unduly thin and weak, as when it has been over- exposed, a brighter plate than would normally result may be obtained by slow printing in a very weak light, or by allowing the light to filter through a piece of tissue paper placed over the printing frame. Prints upon printing-out papers should always be more deeply printed than it is desired that the finished picture shall be, for they always fade more or less in the subsequent toning and fixing operations. It is difficult to give definite directions for the exact extent to which this extra printing should be carried, especially as it varies for different papers and different toning solu- tions ; but a little experience will soon reveal the amount of fading which has to be guarded against with any particular materials and pre- cautions can be taken accordingly. Toning. — When the prints are taken from the frame they are of a bright red color, not alto- gether a displeasing hue, if it could be retained, but it can not, for the effect of the necessary fix- ing bath is to transform it into a horrible bilious brown. In order to avoid this objectionable fea- ture recourse is had to what is called the ''toning bath," a very dilute solution of chloride of gold, 131 fn which the prints are placed, the effect of which is to throw down on all those portions of the print in which there is already a deposit of silver a thin film of metallic gold, which imparts to it the proper tone. As the toning operation is a somewhat tedi- ous one, giving very nearly as much trouble where only two prints are concerned as for two dozen, it is expedient to postpone it until there are a sufficient number of photographs to be toned to make it worth while. Albeit, the treat- ment should not be put off for too long, as the prints deteriorate with the lapse of time. A week or so, however, will have no appreciable deter- rent effect if prints are kept in an absolutely dark receptacle. The formulae and treatment recommended hj the manufacturer — who, it is only natural to sup- pose, knows more about the peculiarities of his own products than any one else — should be strictly adhered to. In the sheet of instructions issued with every packet of paper there is given an extremely simple and excellent recipe for a toning bath, although it is generally pointed out that any of the recognized formulae for this class of paper may be used. All photographic chemicals may be very much deteriorated by accidental admixture with for- eign substances, but none are so sensitive to con- tamination as the toning bath. A separate dish should be reserved for toning, and never on any account used for anything else. Successful ton- ing can only be accomplished by observing the greatest cleanliness in all the operations and all the materials and vessels used, for the smallest quantity of hypo, for instance, will have a very detrimental effect upon the results. 132 Chloride of gold is a ^component part of nearly- all toning baths and it is advisable for the ama- teur to have always prepared a quantity of gold solution, ready for immediate use. This chemical (chloride of gold) being a very precious salt, and, moreover, being deliquescent — that is, liable to take up moisture from the air and become liquid — is sold for photographic pur- poses in tiny, hermetically-sealed tubes holding 15 grains apiece. This small quantity of the tiny crystals being practically unweighable by ordi- nary mortals, it v^ill be found convenient to mix it with water, which can then be conveniently measured. Procure a i6-ounce stoppered bot- tle, put 15 ounces of water in it, together with the tube of gold, from which the label must be previously washed with warm water, then in- sert the stopper and shake the bottle until the tube breaks. You will then have a solution of gold chloride in which every ounce contains one grain of the precious chemical, which can be easily measured out into the required quantities by means of a graduated glass. It will be found that some formulae require the use of a certain number of ounces of gold solution. Others state that a certain number of grains of gold must be used. These appar- ently conflicting requirements need not prove confusing to the amateur if he will remember that, when made up according to directions given above, each ounce of the gold solution con- tains one grain of pure chloride of gold. Hence, when the formula he intends following calls for, say, grains of gold he must use 73^ ounces of the gold solution. Having thus prepared his gold solution, the amateur is ready to make up his toning bath ac- 133 cording to the special instructions accompanying the particular brand of paper he is using or ac- cording to instructions herein given. DIRECTIONS FOR TONING WITH THE COMBINED BATH. Place prints without previous washing in the following combined toning and fixing bath : Stock Solution. A — Hyposulphite of soda 8 oz, ^ Alum (crystals) 6 oz. Sugar (granulated) 2 oz. Water 8o oz. Dissolve above in cold water and When dissolved add borax . 2 oz. Dissolved in hot water 8 oz. Let stand over night and decant clear liquid. Stock Solution. B — Pure chloride of gold 7^ grains Acetate of lead (sugar of lead). .64 grains Water 8 oz. Solution B should be shaken up before using and not filtered. To tone fifteen 4x5 prints take : Stock Solution A 8 oz. Stock Solution B i oz. Pour the toning solution into a suitable tray and immerse the prints one after another. Sev- eral prints can be toned at once if they are kept in motion and not allowed to lie in contact. Turn the prints all face down and then face up and repeat this all the time they are toning. The prints will begin to change color almost imme- diately from reddish brown to reddish yellow, 134 then to brown and finally to purple. The change will be gradual from one shade to another and the toning should be stopped when the print gets the shade desired. When the proper shade has been obtained in toning bath the prints should be transferred for five minutes to the following salt solution to stop the toning: Salt I oz. Water 32 oz. The extra fixing bath should be used to en- sure thorough fixing. After the salt bath give one change of cold water and fix for ten minutes in the Wash one hour in running cold water or in sixteen changes of cold water, when prints may- be mounted. The combined bath must be started cold, not above 50 degrees Fahr., and must not be allowed to rise to temperature above 60 degrees Fahr. This condition can be obtained by placing a piece of ice in the bath when toning. If the bath is too warm, you will get yellow prints with a greenish cast in the half tones. Use a thermometer and keep it in toning bath all the time. The combined bath is an acid solution. The borax neutralizes only the excess of acid in the alum. Any attempt to neutralize the bath will precipitate the alum. Extra Fixing Bath. Hyposulphite of soda Sulphite of soda (crystals) Borax Water .1 oz. 60 grains K oz. 20 oz. 135 The combined bath should not be used a sec- ond time. Clean trays once a week with nitric acid or sulphuric acid and water to prevent white spots or blotches on the prints. TONING BY THE SEPARATE TONING AND FIXING METHOD. The method of toning and fixing just described is by means of the combined bath. That is a solution in which the chemicals for toning the prints and those for fixing (rendering them per- manent) are combined in the one solution. The combined bath has as its chief claim to consideration the fact that when it is used the operations of toning, fixing and washing are ren- dered much less tedious than when the separate method is used. However, very few combined baths will produce permanent prints, hence the photographer has recourse to what is known as the separate method of toning and fixing, which, when properly used, will render absolutely per- manent prints. To use the separate methods mix as follows: Toning Bath. Chloride of gold i grain Water 40 oz. Alkali (saturated solution of borax or bicarbonate of soda) 10 drops To obtain warm tones use less alkali. To ob- tain cold tones use more alkali. Having mixed up the toning bath, put it aside while you give the prints their preliminary wash- ing. Place them one by one, taking care that each is submerged before the next is put in, into 136 a large basin full of clean, cold water and as soon as all are in transfer them one at a time to an- other similar bath of water and then again to the third and so on until all have been washed in several changes of water for at least ten min- utes. When the prints are ready for toning they should be removed from the washing water, for too much soaking is not good for them, and put in a heap to drain. Then one at a time they are placed in the toning bath and kept moving about in the solution until there are about a dozen under treatment. This is about as many as can be comfortably attended to, and by this time the first ones should be nearly toned. As soon as this stage is reached the print should be transferred to another dish of clean, cold water, to stop further action, and a fresh one can be put into the toning bath to take its place. Mean- while all the prints in the toning solution must be kept in constant motion to avoid unequal ac- tion, from which patchy pictures would result; the best plan is to keep continually drawing the bottom print out of the liquid and placing it on the top, taking each one from the bath as it is seen to be finished and replacing it with a fresh one from the heap. When all the prints have been through this operation the fixing bath should be prepared. The fixing bath is much weaker than that used for negative work, and should always be freshly mixed for each batch of prints. The following strength is recommended, though the propor- tions need not be very exactly measured: Fixing Bath. Hyposulphite of soda 3 oz. Water 20 oz. 137 Ten minutes will sufifice to complete the opera- tion and again care should be taken to prevent the prints sticking too closely to one another and so interfere with the action of the hypo. The final washing, whose duty, as in the case of the negatives, is to remove all trace of the hypo and which must, therefore, be most thoroughly per- formed, for upon its thoroughness the perma- nency of the prints almost entirely depends, takes at least fifty minutes, and is best accomplished in a print washer in running water, if possible, or, failing that, in continual changes, one print at a time. PRINTING ON DEVELOPING PAPER. For the amateur there is perhaps no more sat- isfactory printing process than that offered by the use of developing paper. There are many brands of this kind of paper on the market which are familiar to most users of the camera, viz.: Velox, Dekko, Argo, etc. Papers of this class are many times as rapid as printing-out paper. Prints made by this process give soft platinum effects with a minimum of trouble and expense. Printing may be done by either artificial light or daylight and the print then developed by sub- dued daylight or lamp light. If daylight be used the amateur should simply pull down all of the window shades and, having filled the printing frame in the usual manner, step to the window, raise the shade a trifle, give the required ex- posure, pull down the shade and proceed with development. If exposure is made by gas light he should turn up the jet to its full capacity for the required time and when ready for developing simply turn the gas low, so as to subdue the light, and then work directly under it. To the 138 amateur who has no regularly equipped dark room this feature of the paper is a great con- venience, as the bath room or kitchen can be readily utilized for the work either by day or night, without the necessity of pinning blankets over doors and windows to stop each stray ray of light. When filling the printing frame the paper not used should be promptly replaced in its envelope and put away in a dark drawer. Exposure. — As papers of this class vary in sensitiveness the instructions given, so far as duration of exposure is concerned, are but gen- eral. The special instructions inclosed in every package of paper must be accepted in preference to any general rule. To print from a negative of average density expose two minutes, six inches from an ordinary six-foot gas burner. A very thin negative will print in about one minute and a very dense one would require from four to five minutes, but the average exposures will be from two to three minutes by this light. If ex- posed to direct sunlight an exposure of from one to five seconds will suffice. As a general rule printing by artificial light will give better re- sults, and after the first two or three experiments it can be determined by the appearance of a negative just how much time will be required for printing. Development. — Developing papers do not print out, but the image is latent and must be devel- oped the same as with a negative or a bromide print. For your developer make up a stock solution as follows: 139 Hydro-Metol Developer. Water 12 oz. Metol 7>4 grains Hydrochinone 30 grains Sodium sulphite, crystals pure. 218 grains Sodium carbonate (crystals) . . . 163 grains Dissolve and add about 25 drops of a solution composed of bromide of potassium Yz oz., water S oz. This solution is to be used without dilut- ing. Olive green tones may be obtained by diluting developer with two or three ounces of water and adding 12 to 15 drops of the bromide of potassium. Soak for a few seconds in cold water, then place face up in tray and pour on developer. If the print has been properly exposed development will be very rapid. The instant print reaches the required density it should be transferred di- rectly (without washing) to the Hypo Bath. Hyposulphite soda I oz. Acetic acid (or alum J4 oz.) 4 drops Water 5 oz. Keep print moving during first few seconds of immersion. Wash thoroughly for one hour in at least twelve changes of water and hang up to dry. Four ounces of the diluted developer will an- swer for half a dozen 4x5 prints, then it should be thrown away and a new developer prepared from the stock solution. Failures and Their Causes. — Weak prints are caused by underexposure or weak developer. Overdark prints are the result of too long ex- posure or too strong developer. 140 Muddy whites are usually from lack of bromide in developer, but may be caused by paper being light-struck, by forcing development of under- timed prints or by failure to move prints in hypo bath. Greenish-brown tones are the result of too much bromide in the developer or of the use of old or weak developer. Yellow stains come usually from insufficient washing or fixing, but are sometimes the result of not completely immersing the print in de- veloper or of not keeping them moving for a few seconds when first put into hypo. Brown or purple stains sometimes result from incomplete fixing or from failure to keep prints moving in the hypo. The remedy is obvious. White spots are the result of bubbles on the paper while in the developer. Making Blue Prints and Sepia Prints. — Print making on Ferro-Prussiate (blue print) paper is simple in the extreme, no chemicals whatever be- ing required. Make prints in the same manner as described for making gelatine prints, but con- tinue until a shade darker than the finished print should be, then wash the print for ten minutes in clean water. The resulting picture is of a very agreeable, bright blue color on a white ground and is as permanent as the paper itself. Blue prints should not be burnished. The paper known under various names as Sepia matt is handled almost in exactly similar man- ner as the blue print paper and produces most beautiful matt surface prints of a warm sepia brown tone. Mounting. — After the prints are washed they are ready for mounting on cardboard, or, as usu- 141 ally called, card-mounts; this operation is very simple. Remove the prints from the water one by one, drain off all surplus water, and place in a pile, with faces down, on a clean sheet of glass. Apply a thin coat of paste to the back of upper print, using a bristle brush for that pur- pose ; place the print carefully on the card-mount, working from the center to the ends so as to be free from air bubbles. Place a piece of cheese cloth over the print to prevent it from becom- ing rubbed or torn, and rub the paper with the palm of the hand until the print lies perfectly smooth. If the prints are not required to be mounted at once on leaving the water, they should be dried, and when mounted subsequently they should be thrown into clean water until they lie flat, and then mount as usual. Do not try to mount them while dry. One of the best articles for making prints lie smooth is a small squeegee roller, which is sold by all dealers in photographic materials. After being properly mounted and thoroughly dried the prints should be burnished by running them through a Burnisher. Glossy Prints. — Few amateurs care to go to the expense or trouble of burnishing their own prints, but they can readily obtain a beautiful glace finish in a simple manner by drying prints on a ferrotype plate in the following manner : I. Clean the ferrotype plate with hot water each time it is used. Polish with a soft cloth until plate is absolutely free from dirt or specks of any description. Swab with a tuft of soft cloth or cotton batting, wet with a solution com- posed of benzine i oz., paraffine lo gr. Rub dry 142 with a clean cloth and polish with a chamois skin or very soft cloth. Use a soft brush to re- move particles of dust from plate. 2. Lay the wet print on the ferrotype plate. It must be in perfect contact to produce a uniform glossy surface. This contact is better secured by avoiding air bells in laying the print down than by endeavoring to expel them by heavy pressure — -light rolling with a print roller (with cloth between) is all that is required — heavy pressure being liable to make prints stick in spots. 3. When surface is dry brush over the back of print (while still on the plate) with a thin solution of white glue. 4. When ''bone" dry strip the print from the plate and lay the print on a mount, the face of which has been well moistened with a wet sponge. 5. Rub down with a dry blotter, then dry face up, free from dust. Note.— Prints finished by the above process can be kept very nicely unmounted if so desired, the glue on the backs preventing curling. UNIVERSAL LETTER WRITER Or, The Art of Polite Correspondence. Adapted for both sexes. This Is the best letter-writer published, either In Europe or America. It really tells how to write on any subject out of thm writer's own head; how to.composealirst-cIass/intelli^entBusiness Let* ter. Love Letter, or Friendly Letter. Just the book to refef to when you want to find something; that you can not find words to expreuu U gi^es as samples hundreds of letters of every kind; shows hoi« to carry on a long correspondence with lady or gentleman— lettert that never fail to penetrate the heart. No other book hab tha Mystery of Secret Correspondence. Only French booki have it. This book is worth its weight in gold to all who osf or expect to use the pen, enabling them to write on any topU with elegance and ease; how to write for the press; rules for spelling correctly; on punctuation; on directing letters; rules for conducting debates and meetings; the art of rapid writing by th« abbreviationof longhand; dictionary of abbreriations, andTa ffreaf amount of information of ralue to eTerybodj. 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