$ j t , ,.n ( l . , . A(CQe Hew ('Uvu'aaW i javi. 4<$U ^ cWU ■ 1 . ,; t : >r . p? /■> m \ i + U y^\ cw*'* 1 * * 1 ^ P' \5~l k|> V' • ~T" u> r* I ■ ‘" Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/theoryartofpenmaOOunse \ X \ S x X x $ ^ • N X * X X s X \‘ X • \ X $ X XX X X X \ 5$ X X \ X . X X V X X x X $ ■j X -X X X £ X X X \ \ X v: 4 •X . X X: X X X £ > X X X * X > X X V X X X X x X s V \ X X X X I X N X k X r X x ' s vN >* X k k k s V 1 X X x V X x X X X . X X X X X £ N. f X 1 •s. X v> X x \ X X X X X x X k X X X X X ■X THEORY AND ART PENMANSHIP A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS, CONTAINING A FULL STATEMENT OF PAYSON, DUNTON, AND SCEIBNER’S CELEBRATED METHOD OF TEACHING INCLUDING CLASS-DRILL, WRITING IN CONCERT, CRITICISM AND CORRECTION OF ERRORS, HINTS TOWARDS AWAKENING INTEREST, ETC. TOGETHER WITH A COMPLETE ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS OF SCRIPT LETTERS, AS DEVELOPED IN THEIR SERIES OF WRITING-BOOKS. FIFTH EDITION. BOSTON: WOOLWORTH, AINSWORTH & CO. NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & CO. 1869 . • • Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year lbffij, by CROSBY AND NICHOLS, la the Clerk’s Office »f the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. PREFACE *v TO THE SECOND EDITION. The first edition having been exhausted, an op¬ portunity is afforded us of adding one or two par¬ ticulars. One of the most eminent teachers in the city of New York has called our attention to the matter of seats. In some schools they are placed on the left of the pupil’s side of the desk. This renders them very inconvenient when the right side of the body to the desk is preferred; the only remedy seems to be to change them. If the seats are placed exactly in the middle of each pupil’s desk, they will be found convenient for any position of the body which may be selected. It would fur¬ ther be a great boon, if some one would invent a seat the height of which should be adjustable by some simple mechanism. We cannot insure equal ity ol corporeal longitude with mental attainments, therefore seats which could be raised or lowered at pleasure would be a great convenience generally ; for the writing-lesson they would be invaluable. As to the “ false cover,” we omitted to state, that it is desirable to place the pages under it, when the Oook is folded at the back, to bring the right page 11 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. nearer the front of the desk. The page which would otherwise be placed on the desk is thus kept clean. A valuable drill for the Capitals has been added on page 148. On page 108 will be found fuller directions for counting. We desire once more to urge the immense impor¬ tance of constant self-criticism on the part of the pupils, and immediate effort to correct the errors discovered. This alone will insure improvement. Only let this habit be formed, and the teacher’s work may be considered ended. We desire also to direct attention to the Lessons in Part II. They are very important for a thorough comprehension of our method. We have just made a very valuable addition to our system. It consists of a series of Chirographic Tablets, which are fac-similes of the Principles and Letters, thoroughly analyzed, as written of large size on the blackboard, containing besides useful Exercises for drill on the Capitals. By this means, the Teacher will be enabled to place perfect models before the whole class. In conclusion, we cannot but express the hope, that, seeking thus in every respect to meet th« wants of teachers from the resources of our com¬ bined experience, covering a period of more thaa thirty years , we shall continue to maintain the un paralleled popularity of our system, and to meriv the continued expression of approval contained ii* such testimonials as these. “ My pupils now wei- PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. ill come the hour for writing, and it is no longer a weary exercise. I can most heartily recommend the system and series of books.” Again : “ I think I can truly state that this system is the most philo¬ sophic ever used in my school in the past twenty- ^ five years.” From the Principal of one of the largest public schools in New York city: “Avery remarkable improvement has taken place in the writing of every individual of the class.” From a member of the Board of Education in Brooklyn : “ To me, whose school-boy days have long since passed away, the specimens on exhibition this day show an improvement almost too wonderful for belief, and testify, in stronger language than I can use, in favor of this system and method of instruc¬ tion.” From the City Superintendent of Brooklyn : “ This system is practised in several of the schools with astonishing results. I have never seen finer specimens of improvement in the best writing acad¬ emies or private seminaries.” TABLE OE CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. Aim of the Manual, 11. — It has Two Parts, Scope of each, 11. — Criti* cism of Style deprecated, 12. — Would be useful as a Class-Book, 13. — Description of our Series of Copy-Books, 14. PART I. INSTRUCTION. CHAPTER I. 'GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. What may reasonably be expected from the School Course of Writing? 19. — 1. What Writing is, 19. — 2. The Agents who produce it, 20. — 3. Their State of Cultivation at Commencement, 20. — 4. The Time devoted to it, 20. — Conclusion drawn, 21. — Which should be taught first, Knowledge of Form, or Command of the Pen? 21. — Both togeth¬ er, 21. — How this is to be managed, 21. — Can a bad Writer teach Penmanship successfully ? 23. — He can by Aid of this Manual, 23. CHAPTER II. REQUISITES. \ I. Good Copies, 25. — Good Copies should be Accurate, 25. — Objec¬ tion to inaccurate ones, 26. — Parallel from Drawing, 26. — In Ele¬ mentary Numbers Forms should be Simple, 27. — Should form a Pro- vi CONTENTS. gressive System, 27. — 2. Good Teaching, 28. — Makes Pupils see 29. — Instructs in Form and Execution, 29. — Annoyance from bad Copies, 29. — 3. Good Paper, 30. — Objection to Cost, 30. — Cheat¬ ing, 30. — Character of good Paper, 30. — Plea on its Behalf, 31. — 4. Good Pens, 31. — Their Qualities, 31. — To clean a new Pen, 32. — 5. Good Ink, 32. — Its Qualities, 32. — To keep Ink in Order, 32. — How to take Ink in the Pen, 33. — 6. Pen-Wipers, 33. — Hair, 33. — Clothes, 33. — Special, 33. — 7. Blotters, 34. — Their Use, 34.— 8. Covers, 35. — How to fold, 35 . — 0. Oblique Lines, 36. — Their Use, 36. CHAPTER III. ON SCRIPT AND PRINT. Comparison of Script and Print, 37. — Forms peculiar to Print, 37. — Italics, 37. — Change of Form in, 37. — Characteristics of Print and Script, 37. — On what Legibility and Facility of Execution respec¬ tively depend, 37. — Law of Change, 38. — Its Operation traced, 38. — Control of- Taste, 38. — Main Lines and Adjuncts, 39. — The Angles adopted for Slope, 39. — Apparent Exceptions explained, 39. — Origin of the present Form of s, 40. — Of r, 40. CHAPTER IY. LINES AND ANGLES. Want of Primary Education, 42. — Lines and Angles to be taught first, 42. — Definition of a Line, 42. — Straight Line, 42. — Curve, 42.— Crooked, 42. — Definition of an Oval, 43. — “Elliptical” explained, 43. — How to draw an Ellipse, 43. — An Angle, how formed, 43. — Definition of, 44. — Measurement of, 44. — Definition of a Perpendicu¬ lar Line, 44. — When Vertical, 44. — Parallels, 44. — Horizontal Line, 44. — Oblique Line, 44. — Angles to be practised, 45. CHAPTER Y. POSITION, RESTS, AND MOVEMENTS. Position of Body depends on the Use to be made of the Arm, 46 . —■ Three distinct Movements, 46. — How to decide which is best, 47. — CONTENTS. vii Conditions imposed by the Work to be done, 47. — 1. Long Continu¬ ance, 47. — 2. Freedom of Style, 47.-3. Line of Writing, Straight • and Horizontal, 47. — 4. Uniformity of Slope, &c., 47. — 6. Rapidity, 47. — 6. Boldness, 48. — How to fulfil these Conditions, 48. — The Rolling Rest, 48. — The Sliding Rest, 49. — Summary of Natural Po¬ sitions and Rests thus far obtained, 49. — Movements, 49. — The Slid¬ ing, 49. — The Comital, 60. — The Lateral, 60. — The Muscular, 60. — The Medial, 60. — Position of the Body, 61. — Sitting with Right Side to the Desk, 61. — Advantages, 61. — Objection, 62. — With Front to the Desk, 62. — Objections, 62. — Advantages, 62. — Pen-holding, 62. — Movements of Pen-fingers, 53. — Position of the Pen on the Paper, 64. — To discover if Pen is grasped, 64. — Summary of Positions, Rests, and Movements, 65. — Which Movements taught first, 66. — Shades, 66. CHAPTER YI. ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES. Words, how represented in Writing, 57. — Letters can be analyzed, 67. — And Principles, 67. — This Analysis has two Stages, 67. — Exam¬ ples, 67. — How name the Results? 68. — Propriety of the Terms Ele¬ ments and Principles, 68. — General Rule, 58. — Can they be referred to Standard Forms, 68. — The Straight Line, 69. — Analysis of the Oval, 69. — The Ideal Standard, 69. — Modifications, 69. — The Ovai Turn, 69. — The Angular Turn, 60. — Summary of the Elements, 60. — Analysis of the Principles, 60. — Principle 1, 60. — P. 2, 61. — P. 8, 61. — P. 4, 61. — P. 6, 62. — P. 6, 62. • CHAPTER VII. THE SCALE OF LENGTHS. Explanation of the Scale of Lengths, 63. — Rule for the Small Letters, 63. — For Capitals, 64. — Measurements made vertically, 64. CHAPTER VIII. ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. The Two Grammatical Divisions of Letters, 65. — Small Letters ana¬ lyzed first, 65. viii CONTENTS. Section I. — Analysis of the Small Letters. General Rules, 65. — The Small Letters analyzed in the Order of their Introduction, 66. — Analysis of the Numerals, 74. Section II. — Analysis of the Capitals. The Principles of the Capitals, 76. — General Rules, 78. — Thb Capitals analyzed in the Order of their Introduction, 79. CHAPTER IX. classification of letters. Introductory Remarks, 87. — Classes of Small Letters, 87. — Charac¬ teristics, 88. — Order of Introduction, 88. — Occurrence of Princi¬ ples and Elements, 89. — Classification of Capitals, 90. — Forms, why selected, 90. — Occurrence of Principles, 91. CHAPTER X. COMBINATION of letters. Definition, 93. — Requirements of Taste, 93. — On what Spacing de¬ pends, 93. — Commencement and Terminations of Letters, 98. — Rules, 94. CHAPTER XI. ON DRILL AND COUNTING. Importance of, 96. —Inattention of Children, 96.— Objection to Count¬ ing answered, 96. — Example of Military Drill, 97. — The Argument against is an Argument in Favor, 98. — Counting good for all, 98. — It saves Time, 99. — Testimony of Experience, 99. — Commencing and Closing, 99. — Time wasted in, 100. — Directions for, 100. CHAPTER XII. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. Schedule of Topics, 104. — Two Things necessary to be known, 10& — 1. The End to be aimed at, 105. — 2. The Successive Steps, 105. — CONTENTS. IX Two Branches of Latter, 105. — 1. In teaching Form, 106. — Knowl¬ edge of the System used required, 106. — Examination of our System, 106. — Elements, why not Exercises on, 106.— Groups of Principles and Letters, 107. — Capitals, on what Ground Selection made, 107. — Objection answered, 108. — Presumption failing, ridiculous, 108. — Current Capitals in advanced Books, 108. — Columns and Sentences, 109. — Order of teaching Form, its Successive Steps, 109. — 2. Steps in teaching Movement, 110. — Remarks on these Steps in Teaching, 111. — Selection of Books for Course, 112. — On teaching a Fresh Let¬ ter, 112.—Neglect of Elementary Books a fruitful Source of Bad Writing, 113.— How to interest a Class, 113. — Importance of Prac¬ tice on the Groups of Letters, 114. — Remarks on Teaching Capitals, 114. — On Teaching Words, 114. — Criticism, 114. — Care of Books, 116. — Accidents can be avoided, 116.—Assurance of Success, 116. PART II. LESSONS. L On Lines and Angles. ...... 119 II. On Movements ......... 126 HI. On Elements and Principles ...... 130 IV. On the First Copt .137 V. On the Small Letters .141 The Lesson, 143.— Schedule of Topics, 146. — Speci¬ mens of Primary and Secondary Analysis, 146. VL On a Capital .149 Schedule of Topics, 149. — Points requiring special Attention, 149. — The Lesson, 149. Plate I. Plates II. and III. M <4 * INTRODUCTION. In this little book we have aimed to supply a want that has long been felt. There have been many publications on the same subject, but they have been too abstract and theoretical. Our aim has been to state the results of our long and combined experience in such a form as should place the general teacher, who pleases to study them, in the position, so far as knowledge is concerned, of one who has made instruction in penmanship his specialty. From this aim certain peculiarities have resulted, which we state in order to avoid misapprehension. The book will be found to consist of two parts. The first contains direct instruction to the teacher. In it we have sought to give such information as should furnish him with mat¬ ter to bring before his class, directions as to the best method of teaching, the order in which the course should proceed, and cautions as to those general faults which will tend to make his labors futile. In doing this, we have endeavored rather to put it in such a shape as shall be con¬ venient for presentation directly to the class, than in that INTRODUCTION. sii which is due to the acquirements and mental culture of' the teacher. In a word, we have tried to put it in teach ing shape. It is instruction for a class with their imma¬ ture minds, instead of that proper for the teacher with his mature mind, but which, given in that form, he would have to think into the teaching shape for himself. Hence has arisen the occurrence of occasional repetitions, because we wished to make the different chapters — as so many separate divisions of the subject, which were to be brought before a class at intervals — complete in themselves. The second part consists of lessons before a class. It presents specimens of our method of teaching each of the different branches of the subject. They are intended as models of systematized and thorough instruction. We must apologize for any dogmatism which may ap¬ pear in our pages. May it be excused in consideration of our earnestness, and in the recollection that the adop¬ tion of our recommendations depends solely on the reader’s option. From unavoidable circumstances, our time for the preparation of this Manual has been limited. We have not been able, therefore, to give that attention to the graces of style which the culture of those to whom it is addressed rightfully demanded. In this respect we deprecate criti¬ cism, while to its ordeal we cheerfully submit the matter of our unpretending labors. Many very interesting topics have been passed by: we have paused to write no eulogies of this noble art; we have entered into no controversies with rivals, uninteresting to the reader and unprofitable INTRODUCTION. • •• Xlll to ourselves ; we have sought simply to make a plain, prac¬ tical book We only ask that what we have suggested may be submitted to the test of experiment, and unless the material operated on be of far more stubborn kind than any we have ever encountered, we are satisfied to abide the result. We have subjoined schedules of topics and summaries wherever we thought it would be convenient, and illustra^ tive plates will be found pp. 56, 64. We would throw out the idea that it might be advantageous to make this little Manual a class-book. It is especially well adapted to what is termed the sub-lecture method. The Table of Contents will, we trust, render reference to any point desired easy. This is perhaps the most convenient place for the de¬ scription of our Series of Copy-Books, to which this Course of Instruction is more particularly adapted. At its close we give the numbers of the books, in the order best cal¬ culated to promote the progress of the two divisions, boys and girls. Of our Series, it may not be improper to add, that since its first publication, as the pioneer in printing lithographed copies on dry paper, a process we have carried to its pres¬ ent perfection at a very heavy expense, it has been sub¬ jected to numerous revisions, embodying the results of the combined experience of its authors, the suggestions of practical teachers, and the conclusions of scientific thought, together with such modifications as became ne- XIV INTRODUCTION. cessary from the gradual advance in public taste. Wa trust that we shall not be deemed presumptuous, or pass¬ ing the bounds of a becoming modes^ it claiming that our system is a living growth. To say this is but an act of justice to the many thousands who have perfected or are now acquiring their penmanship from its pages. Still at its root, however, lies, as its p/inciple of life, that determined preservation of simple forms in the elementary numbers which drew from that celebrated educator, the Hon. Horace Mann, the flattering approval: “ This is the first common-sense system I have ever seen.” DESCRIPTION OF OUR SERIES. Book 1. Primary. Coarse Hand. First four Prin¬ ciples. Short letters, separate. To be written by the Finger Movement. Book 2. First four Principles. Groups of similar Principles and Letters, and of selected Letters. For Fore-arm and Finger Movements. Book 3. All the Principles. All the Letters, both Small and Capitals. Easy words beginning with Capi¬ tals. The ten numerals. Book 4. Review of No. 3. The same Capitals three times in combination with words, five on a page. Book 5. Longer words with Capitals, four on a page. Some current forms of Capitals are introduced. Book 6. Sentences, mostly Proverbs. Condensed Style. INTRODUCTION. XV Book 7. Mercantile Forms. Current Business Hand. Book 8. Ladies’ Book, fine hand, four words on a page. Book 9. Ladies’ Book, fine hand, sentences. Book 10. Sentences, very bold hand. Book 11. Sentences. Hand same size as No. 5. Numerous Capitals. Style free. Book 12. A collection of the handsomest current Capitals, with words. Course for Boys, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 7. Course for Girls, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9. We now commit our little venture to the chances of the voyage. Its mission is one of good-will. Whether welcomed to friendly harbors or rudely handled in its onward course, its motive-power will ever be the same, a sincere desire to aid our fellow-teachers in one depart¬ ment of their arduous and toilsome work. PART I INSTRUCTION, PART I. ‘INSTRUCTION. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. What may reasonably be expected from the school course of writing ? This is a very important question for superintendents, teachers, parents, and pupils. To arrive at a fair answer, we must consider the writing itself, the agents who are to produce it, their state of cultivation when they commence, the time devoted to it periodically, and the length of time through which the course extends. First, then, as to the writing itself. What is it? It consists of a varieiy of complex forms from sixty to sev¬ enty in number; for, while there are fifty-two letters, some variations arise from the necessities of combination. These forms are small and delicate, are to be written with the same slope, of unvarying size, on a straight line, by means of two sharp points, the extremities of springs, which are guided by the hand and fingers holding a slender stick to which the pen is attached; these points are filled with a black fluid, which leaves a permanent trace wherever the points move on the paper, and they are to describe lines of two kinds, light as touch can make them, or shaded by mod¬ erate and nicely graduated pressure. The letters are re¬ quired to be handsomely formed, free and bold, legible, and 20 INSTRUCTION. •written with rapidity. Here is evidently a tolerably diffi« cult task to be performed. From these considerations it appears, that, in order to write well, two things are ne¬ cessary, knowledge of form, and command of the pen, or facility of execution. Let us turn now to the agents. Suppose a class assem bled to take tneir first lesson in penmanship. They are usually, we suppose, about ten years of age. It is five hundred chances to one, thanks to our present system of primary instruction, that they know anything of form, not even what a straight line is; and that they have never learned to appreciate a form in order to transfer its like¬ ness to slate or paper. In a word, mind, eye, and hand are alike untrained. Well, at least there are no bad habits to unlearn. Granted, except it be a “ villainous ” style of holding a slate pencil about one inch and a half long. We have otherwise virgin soil to work on. Now call to mind what writing is as we have just de¬ scribed it, — that variety, delicacy, boldness, and accuracy of form required. It will surely be admitted that there is some work to be done. Look a little more closely. Con¬ sider those perceptive faculties undisciplined, those eyes untaught to observe, those arms and hands with muscles not yet trained to follow the mind’s dictates. All that is required can be done by patience, diligence, and attention, but it will not be done in an hour, — neither, perhaps, very soon in three half-hours per week. A great many of these children will not have more than two years at school. A great many will be present in winter only, absent throughout the summer. A great many of those who re¬ main at school longer and continuously, will have such a multiplicity of studies that very little time will be given to writing. What then may be reasonably expected from the GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 21 school course of penmanship ? Certainly not a finished business hand. That can only be attained by very consid¬ erable practice. What may reasonably be expected is, that such a foundation should be laid as shall place the desideratum within reach of all who are willing to give the necessary practice to it afterwards. The mind and eye ought to be trained to the appreciation and distinct percep¬ tion of the form of the letters, and the muscles should be in some degree trained to obedience to the mind in con¬ structing those forms on paper. In the majority of cases a formal style — what is called a school-boy’s hand — is all that can be hoped for. Another question of equal importance now arises. Which should be taught first, — knowledge of form, or command of the pen ? Some teachers have given preference to the one, some to the other. We think they should advance together. We give at first, in our copy-books, the simplest forms, un¬ combined, of such a size as to be susceptible of criticism by the yet untutored mind and eye, and yet not beyond the scope of a child’s hand to execute. We require them to be written by the finger movement only, which is the easi¬ est, and makes the fewest demands on the attention, which can thus be more entirely directed to the forms. But whilst we are satisfied, from our long experience, that this is the best method, to present it fairly we must describe it a little more fully. We will suppose the preliminaries gone through of position, pen-holding, placing of book, &c., which will be fout d described in another place, and that the pupils aie ready to write. Now is the time for the first lesson in Form. At the blackboard is the place to teach it. We place the form to be written there. We make it large, 22 INSTRUCTION. dwell on its parts, notice where it begins, where it ends, its length, its slope, its thickness. We compare it with other forms, show faults that are likely to occur, and require the pupils to criticise them. By every possible means do we strive to impress the form upon their minds. We next direct them to this form in their copy-books, and require them to tell us from that all the particulars we have given them. This is our first step to train the mind to the perception, and the eye to the judgment, of form. We proceed immediately to execution. Placed in the proper position, pen rightly held, &c., we require them to trace the copy with dry pens, ordering their movements by counting. This is continued whilst we watch their posi¬ tion and their movements. Their own attention to the instruction received is undisturbed by any dark record of their transgressions, since their pens as yet leave no traces of their course, and the pupils acquire some little control of their muscles, command of their pens, and courage for the coming event. What next ? They are furnished with waste paper, ruled like the copy: a book of the same kind, divided through the back, and given out a page at a time, is very convenient. On this they make their first formal essay with ink. The same deliberate movement by count¬ ing is enforced. They write about four lines down a col¬ umn, when a halt is called, for examination. Now, there lias been this great advantage in using the waste paper: the pupils have been relieved of all nervousness, — re¬ member those indispensable muscles are solely controlled by nerves ; they have felt no anxiety about spoiling that nice, new, clean copy-book, with the handsome copies, which is to fulfil the old adage, Litera scripta manet. The faults are again displayed on the blackboard, criticised by the pupils, and the form impressed anew on their minds. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 23 If the success has not been very great, a little more tracing may be desirable; then a few more lines on the waste paper, criticism, &c,, as before. They are at length pre¬ pared to write in their copy-books ; but, though the attain¬ ing of this privilege has been a great stimulus to their pi-evious endeavors, there is no novelty about it now to disturb their nerves from fear of failure in an untried en¬ terprise ; on the contrary, it is quite an old story. They want their books to look well, so they are going to do their best; but they are not at all nervous, — they know what they can do. If ten or a dozen lessons have been occupied as above, the time has been well spent; the copy-books may not have many pages tilled, but the pupils have not been idle. Such, in brief, is our method, — form first, then execution, but yet so continually interchanged that attain¬ ment in both advances simultaneously. We do not allow the writing to be too slow, or the form to be sacrificed to the speed. We say this in opposition to those who, on the one hand, advocate form without any regard to time, and those who, on the other hand, urge rapidity of movement, to the almost utter neglect of form. All handicrafts seem to support our view. Tools are used slowly at first, more rapidly as their use is better understood. What sort of proof would a tyro at the printing-case present, who should set his type as fast as an experienced hand ? We are satisfied that ours is the true method of teaching writing, — care to get the correct form first ; next, deliberate exe¬ cution ; finally, speed and freedom may be expected. I Gan a bad writer teach penmanship successfully ? This is another important question. We answer, un¬ hesitatingly, Yes. We believe that any teacher who will faithfully study this Manual, and carry out its plans, will 24 INSTRUCTION. certainly succeed. Especially can lie do so, now that, by means of a set of Tablets made to accompany the Manual, which we have just published, he can at all times suspend before his class a perfect representation of whatever re¬ quires explanation. The principles, letters, and exercises on these Tablets are fac-similes of large-sized blackboard writing. Being perfect in form and proportions, the pupils w ill have constantly before them a true model for analysis and criticism. When the Teacher has by these means shown the class what must be done, he has only to write upon the blackboard such errors and mistakes as he may discover in his examination of the scholars’ writing in the copy-books. By continually pointing out these errors, and comparing them with the printed model suspended above, he will be enabled to teach as thoroughly and successfully as the most experienced instructor. The reason that we have so few good writers in our schools is, that penmanship is not taught elaborately and thoroughly ; a few criticisms are made, perhaps, when the copy is finished, but it is then too late, the mischief is already done. It should be borne in mind, that the great point is to make the pupil really see the copy, to transfer the forms there to mental vision, so that he can actually see them on the paper to write over. Teachers have also been left without that information which the writing-master acquires by experience in his specialty. This want we hope the Manual and Tablets will supply. REQUISITES. 25 CHAPTER II. REQUISITES. What things are required for an exercise in writing ? Copies, teaching, paper, pens, ink, pen-wipers, blotters. Everything, too, should be good, — good copies, good teaching, good paper, good pens, good ink. Drawing can¬ not be taught upon writing-paper, or shading with a treble- II pencil. An artist would make little progress with a box of sixpenny paints. Even in map-drawing it pays well to buy three or four of the best colors instead of a few cheap ones. If we make up our minds to teach writing, we must consider the necessary requirements. Are we not in this branch of education engaged in developing the aesthetic faculty, and training it to a due appreciation of form and beauty, which the hand is to be taught to pro¬ duce ? And shall we by a niggardly parsimony render such production impossible, and quench all enthusiasm in the pupil, by depriving him of satisfaction with his work ? Consider only how delicate that work is, and there can be no further question about the necessity for the best instru¬ ments and materials with which to accomplish it. What are they ? 1. Good copies. Our idea of a good copy is that the letters should be of elegant form, and constructed on natu¬ ral principles. Every letter should be as perfect as it is possible, for human skill to execute, that wherever it occurs it may present an unvarying model to the pupil. I'he turns and slopes should be alike, the loops of the same 26 INSTRUCTION. length and width, the proper distances between the letters carefully observed, and shade duly distributed. The neg¬ lect of these points in the copy cannot fail of producing carelessness in respect to them on the part of the pupil. If they are not important in the copy, he will naturally argue that they cannot be important for him ; and that accuracy and severity of conception and execution which are so necessary for the discipline of his mind will be altogether wanting. We are not unaware of the idea entertained by some, that inaccuracy in the copies, since it makes them approxi¬ mate more jiearly to the general style of writing, is there¬ fore preferable. But what would be their opinion, if they wished to learn drawing, and the teacher placed before them for imitation studies in which lines which should have been straight were crooked, perpendiculars tumbling down, perspective not observed, and the rules he had given for their guidance everywhere neglected ? Would they feel altogether satisfied at his accompanying polite remark, that he gave them a pattern inaccurate in many par¬ ticulars, that they might find it more easy of imitation ? Change of circumstances sometimes begets change of ideas. We think it would be so in this case. Supposing them to venture a meek remonstrance, would they find further satisfaction in being assured that the pictures of many inferior artists were very commonly disfigured by such faults. Theii reply as sensible persons might not unrea¬ sonably be, that they would be willing to waive for a time the satisfaction of attaining to the excellence of the pattern, for the more important considerations of knowing what was really right, and impressing a faultless standard on their minds. Is not this a perfect parallel to the case supposed, and a complete refutation of the idea that imperfecUcopiea REQUISITES. 27 in teaching writing are desirable? It applies equally to the opinion held by some, that written copies are better tnan copies engraved. We have heard it gravely asserted, that the pupils make more rapid progress by such a course of instruction. Now what is this but to state, that pupils attain the excellence of a lower standard sooner than that of a higher one ? A fact that certainly no one will be lound bold enough to dispute. But it might, we think, be not unfairly asked, whether the pupils were not by this means receiving the impression of imperfect and constantly varying forms on their minds, whether their conceptions would not thus run the risk of being rather vague and indefinite, and consequently whether this was after all the best method of instruction. We have said nothing of the complete change resulting when the teacher is changed, nor of the impossibility of any accurate analysis, considera¬ tions which are not without their weight. We think the matter requires no further elucidation. Both views are fallacies. It is satisfactory to think that they are not popular. To resume our consideration of good copies, the forms u-sed should be through a considerable part of the course of the utmost simplicity, that the attention of the pupil may not be distracted from essentials, that he may be able to produce a handsome book from the outset, and, if we may be allowed to add it, receive his earliest impressions in favor of a plain, substantial hand. Curlicues, flourishes, and ornamental capitals, may delight an amateur in a show¬ case ; a thorough business man detests them in his corre¬ spondence. The course of instruction given in the copies should constitute a system, arranged in that order of progression which is indicated by a careful analysis of the forms of the 28 INSTRUCTION. letters and of the powers of the human hand, so that each advance may prepare the way for the next, and the steps not be farther apart than the necessities of the case compel. To this end, the simpler forms should precede the more complex ; the short, the long. Those that have similar curves and turns and identical parts should be together. Words should precede sentences. The columns should be first narrow, then broader, to accustom the hand by degrees to move easily on the given rests across the longest word. These columnar sections, intended to be written down, are the gradual preparation for the sentences, which occupy the width of the page. The selection of the words for the columns should be in accordance with the same principle of progressiveness, — first the easier, then the more diffi¬ cult combinations. In them the loops should so occur that when the copy is written they may be handsomely distrib¬ uted, and the general appearance of the page be harmo¬ nious. If it is objected that such an arbitrary arrange¬ ment is valueless, because in our general writing it does not obtain, we reply that there is a distinct object to be kept in view in teaching penmanship, which is to awaken and discipline the perception of beauty in the pupil’s mind, and to excite and quicken his love of it. Then in rec¬ ords and correspondence he will do the best that the case allows. His copy-book is an exhibition of his progress: why should any source of behuty be neglected in it ? A? a general rule, the greater the satisfaction with the pro¬ gress made, the more earnest the endeavor after higher attainment. Discouragement has blighted the growth of man} - a promising mind. 2. Good teaching. A standard of form being furnished •n the good copies, good teaching is next requisite to bring out their highest availability. The pupil wall look at those REQUISITES. 25j fonns, but he will not see them. There is great differ* ence between looking and seeing. To test this, draw an irregular figure on the board contained by seven or eight straight lines, bid a class look at it attentively, without tell¬ ing them what you wish them to do afterwards. Then cover it, and bid them draw one like it on the board or on their slates. How many do you think will have even the right number of lines, much more their right positions ? Try it. The good teacher will not leave a form till they all see it, and can describe it minutely. The next point for w'hich a good teacher is required is for the correct representation of what should now be the mental conception of that form on paper. To this end, he instructs in posi¬ tion, pen-holding, rests, and movements, and takes care that his instructions are obeyed. He handles his class as a good officer does a regiment, — the whole are drilled to act as a unit. He so furnishes his own mind that his pupils rely on his judgment, and are ready cheerfully to write in the number, or practise on the copy, he selects. Last, not least, his motto is, “ Always one thing at a time.” While thus faithfully performing his duties as a good teacher, he is not annoyed by his pupils constantly dis¬ covering in their copies a want of conformity to the stand¬ ard given by rules and analysis; for, under skilled and faithful teaching, their critical powers soon become won¬ derfully acute. They have no occasion for saying, “ Our teacher is too fussy about little things. He said the stem of the q was to be three spaces; and here in the copy, in one place, it is three and a half, and, in another, a whole space short. I guess Mr. Scribbler, the author of th.s famous Scribbletian system, knows how to write about as well as our teacher. It evidently isn’t worth while to take so much trouble about all these little things. The 30 INSTRUCTION. main point is freedom.” And thus the young reasoner is tempted to run before lie can walk, and, from the natural consequences of such procedure, to get a crippled hand for the rest of his life. 3. Good paper. Here we begin to tread on delicate ground. The pocket is touched. Good paper cannot be put into books at the same price as bad. Where there is so much competition as in copy-books, you may rest as¬ sured that, whatever may be the quality of the specimens shown, no one can much undersell his competitors without supplying an inferior article. Prices at present, owing to strong competition, are so low, that lower would yield no profit, and therefore, believers, as we may be, in the self- denying devotedness of humanity in this nineteenth cen¬ tury, we think it a little too tough for credence, that a business man will supply a school or city with books at a loss, for the mere pleasure afforded by such a generous act, — favored individual as the teacher or city so supplied may suppose itself to be. At a lower price, the article must be inferior. Now, if the inferior article is satisfac¬ tory because of its price, well and good. All we would caution you against is the idea that a good article in this line can be had as cheap as a bad one, and against those (Ji-honest persons who exhibit a paper of the same quality a> their neighbor’s, and, obtaining an order by the lowness of their rates, proceed immediately to fill it with that which is very inferior. A good paper costs more, but it is indispensable. It should be tolerably thick, well laid, with a smooth surface, moderately glazed; so that the ink will not show through when dry, and that there may be no roughnesses nor little hairs for the pen to pick up, and that the pen may glide along without jar on the muscles or nerves of the fin- REQUISITES. 31 gers and hand, — a very important consideration now that steel pens are used, as paralysis has in several instances resulted from their use, and their injurious effect must needs be greater on a rough surface. A white paper is generally to be preferred to a blue, indeed is almost inva¬ riably used. What is our plea for the use of such a paper as we have described ? The encouragement it gives to both teacher and pupil to be able to produce handsome work. How can they go on with any heart, when the copy on one side of a leaf is blurred by that on the other; when it is impossible to make a fine hair-line or a clean cut shade; when the pen is continually “ picking up sticks ”; when unglazed spots, anything but oases, for they are as absorbent as sand itself, are found every here and there; when the very whiteness of the page is a whity-brown? With such paper little enthusiasm can be expected. But give them a book with handsome copies and good paper, see how their eyes glisten as they pass their hands over the page, — a pleasure, by the way, in which it is not well to indulge very often, — and it requires but a superficial judge of the human heart to read their thought, “ This is a good book, — we must put good writing into it, and no blots.” Good paper, therefore, pays in the end. It also makes a considerable difference in the wear of pens. 4. Good pens. Very little need be said on this point. The pen should be fine-pointed, so that a good hair-line can be made, and have a good springy nib, that the shades may be cleanly cut, and that the writing may not be ren¬ dered stiff, a result inevitably following the use of a “hard” pen. They should be of a uniform character as much as possible, — not one very hard and another ' very soft. Slight differences cannot be avoided; those that vary least are the best, if they are right in other respects. We have 32 INSTRUCTION. found no pen equal to Gillott’s 303. Other pens we know can be bought cheaper. But his are very durable, and it is a question worthy the consideration ot a debating-soci¬ ety, “ Which is preferable, three poor pens for a penny, oi one good one for the same price, which alone will last as long as the three together ? ” Many, perhaps, without de¬ bate, would declare in favor of the good one, notwithstand* ing its singularity. A new pen is often greasy, owing to a certain process in the manufacture, and will not retain the ink. Dip it and raise it from the ink slowly, then wipe it; repeat this two or three times and the trouble will be removed. 5. Good ink. This is a very difficult thing to procure. It should be sufficiently fluid to flow easily from the pen, dark enough to enable the pupil to see at the time what he is writing, and to judge of hair-strokes and shades. It must not evaporate rapidly from the inkstand, nor leave a layer of mud in it; neither should it mould. Frost should not affect it. Some inks, when frozen, an accident which will happen occasionally in country schools, are completely spoilt. No chemical analysis ever more completely sepa¬ rated solid from fluid, leaving them in a state never more to be usefully reunited. In instances which have come under our notice, one might as well attempt to write with charcoal and water. Does any one question why the lat¬ ter mixture would not answer ? The reply is simple, the black would rub off or wash out. Ink should stain the oaper in order to be permanent. Its color when thor¬ oughly dry should be a deep black, which neither time noi exposure to the sun can change. The teacher will find it necessary to give attention to keeping the ink in good order. If it becomes too thick, a little soft water may be added by means of a sponge, and REQUISITES. 33 the ink stirred up, only taking care not to make it too pale. Pupils often complain of their pens, when the real fault is in the ink or the paper. Teach them how to take ink. Let them learn by ex¬ periment, that, if they raise the pen from the ink suddenly, it will be too full, and apt to blot; if very slowly, the attraction of the fluid will leave none in the pen ; and, therefore, a moderate motion must be used. One experi¬ ment is worth hours of talking. Attention to this will save many a blot. 6. Pen-wipers. Cleanliness is as absolutely necessary for the well-being of the pen, as for our own. The ap¬ plying things to their right uses is a habit as important for the child as for the man. Not being acquainted, how¬ ever, with the physiological value of hair, the youth is apt to regard the covering of his pericranium, indifferent to the oil with which nature has supplied it, even when he has not made artificial additions, as a most convenient pen¬ wiper, possessing the inestimable property of never being mislaid. When this use of it is forbidden, the pen is very apt to find its way into his mouth, an instrument certainly most admirably adapted, from its internal arrangements, to the end he has in view ; but there are several objections in addition to this slight one, that the best inks are poison¬ ous, and so little agreeable generally to the taste, that the emptying of the mouth becomes immediately necessary, and spittoons are not always handy. Parts of the garments are the next resource: if they were always dark-colored and of cloth, they might answer very well; but, the habit once being formed, a rather unsightly mark may be placed upon the light colors of summer wear. It seems, there¬ fore, desirable to have something specially set apart for this use. Two or tlcee different-sized circles of dark 2* a 34 INSTRUCTION. cloth, cut from some old garment, with a small mother-ol pearl button sewed on the top, through the centre, makes a cheap and suitable pen-wiper. Each pupil should be re¬ quired to bring one, or something of the same kind. It should be mentioned that they are to go into a common stock, and that, since to insure their presence at the exer¬ cise, and to keep them free from grease, they will be col¬ lected, there will not be time when they are given out to select his own for each pupil. There will be no dissatis¬ faction at this arrangement, if it is understood beforehand. Otherwise, some might bring very handsome ones, and feel annoyed that they should receive in the distribution shabby ones instead. They should be also encouraged to have an¬ other for private use, distinctly marked, which can be kept in their desks. The pen-wipers may be collected and dis¬ tributed as directed in the chapter on Drill. They should be used whenever the pens are laid down for instruction, or once in the middle of the time of writing, if there is no interruption. Of course, the pens should be carefully cleaned at the close of the exercise. Always dip and wipe a new pen two or three times before it is written with, or it will be very likely to make a blot. To avoid the same mishap, the pen should never be wiped on the outside of the pen-wiper, but always between the leaves of it. Should the pen-wiper then happen to get on the book, no damage will be done. 7. Blotters. A stiff one will last the longest, and is very cheap, but common blotting-paper, or a piece of white paper or any paper, will answer, not indeed for blotting, but for the use we now designate. The copy-book must be kept perfectly clean, and the blotter is to be used for that purpose. The right hand does not soil the book, for it rests on the nails of two fingers and only touches the REQUISITES. 35 page with them. It is the left hand that does the mischief. To obviate it, place the blotter so as to cover each column as soon as it is dry after being written, and rest the left hand on that, and not on the page. Do not use it to absorb the ink, it is apt to spoil the appearance. Let the same side always be on the page, so that the grease it derives from the hand may not be transferred to the book. Let the pupils understand the reasons, and that there is a natural greasiness in perspiration, which renders soap ne cessary in washing, to neutralize it by its excess of alkali. Caution them against placing their hands on any paper to be written on, as the grease will repel the ink, and the pen will not mark. When this is the case, they always blame the pen, but it is caused by their own fault. 8. Covers. Every book should have a cover. Toler ably stiff brown or white paper is the best, but have all alike. Since there is no thickness to the cover or back of the copy-book, it is a very easy matter to put on the pro¬ tecting cover neatly. Take the piece of paper to be used and double it, so that the crease may be for the back, and then, laying the book on it, cut it about four inches larger than the book on each of the three edges ; a less margin is apt to be troublesome, from not keeping the limber cover in its place. Then, from the top and bottom of the book at the fold cut off from the paper right-angled triangles, this piece should be cut off, because there is no breadth to the back, and consequently no edge to protect, and we do not wish to have the cover thick and uneven. The book being now placed within, the cover is folded at the end first and then at the top and bottom. If preferred, the paper at the top and bottom may be turned in between the cover and leaves without cutting off the. piece mentioned. The name of the owner should be written on each book in 36 INSTRUCTION. the proper place before it is covered, and again written on the false cover, in the same place for all. This saves much trouble. Remember that even such an apparently trifling matter as this covering the book produces an im¬ pression on the pupil’s mind. It is a strong incentive to keep it nice. He sees that you care about it, and are willing to take some pains to effect it. 9. Oblique lines. We have published a page ruled with oblique lines for teaching uniformity of slope. Across the middle is a horizontal line, by which it is adjusted to one of the lines of the book. The slant ruled in it is the main slope of the writing, and the lines are about a quarter of an inch apart. This is not an absolute requisite, but it will be found a great convenience. The children are guided and trained in the true slope by the lines showing through the page, and they hre thus ena¬ bled to direct their attention more entirely to form and movement. ON SCRIPT AND PRINT. 37 CHAPTER III. ON SCRIPT AND PRINT. It will be found of much interest to the pupil to com¬ pare the script letters with those used in printing. Some nseful suggestions result. The straight line and the circle are predominant in type, while the letters are perpendicular to the base line. The general termination is a straight line, finished by a horizontal hair-line, as in b, d, h, i, &c. If an experiment is made in printing a sentence with a pen, it will be seen at once how ill adapted these forms are for the purpose of what we term writing. The Italian hand, similarly tested for the sake of comparison, presents some interesting features for reflection. It can be written much faster than the Roman. Why ? Evidently because of the slope avoiding the difficult perpendicular, and the substitu¬ tion of curves for the finishing horizonal lines. Here is clearly the first step towards our present script hand. The main hinderance to speed remaining is the isolation of the letters. Each is still made separate. And, although the pen is raised less often in the formation of a letter, —■ compare b, b , for instance, — yet improvement is evidently possible in this direction. Let us pause, a moment to reflect on what should be the distinguishing characteristic of print, as compared with writing. We shall not err in saying, that of print should be legibility, — it is to be read ; that of writing, facility of execution, — it is to be written. Now, there can be no question that the isolation of the letters in type, and theii 38 INSTRUCTION. vertical direction, give the highest available legibility, whilst these peculiarities are the greatest hinderance to rapidity of execution with the pen. Slope and union of the letters, so as to avoid lifting the pen and to enable a whole word to be written continuously, would overcome these difficulties, and give us the facility of rapid execution required, without interfering in too great a degree with legibility. We have thus discovered the natural law which would control the change from type to script letters. It is very interesting and instructive to mark its operation, and to observe the influence of the instinctive demand for har¬ mony and beauty arising from the aesthetic faculties of the mind. The broad features of the change were the intro¬ duction of slope and the union of the letters, as has been already noticed. As to the former, taste demanded that the slope should be uniform, while legibility protested against too acute an angle. As to the latter, it may be well to tjjke a few examples. Consider the printed letter m. The idea is evidently three straight, vertical lines. It is not to be joined to any other letters, though it may “stand up” beside them. The first part, therefore, is left a straight line with its formal boundaries. The next line is to be joined to the first as part of the letter; this is effected by means of a circular turn, or hook, at its -top. This is eminently sug¬ gestive. The same remark is to be made of the third part; but as, like the first, it shares the same doom of hope¬ less celibacy, it ends as a straight line with a similar hori¬ zontal limit. When this letter is transferred to the flowery land of script, certain natural changes take place in its constitution. It loses its stiff, formal character. All its lines become graceful and flowing. The “ bolt-upright ” is exchanged for the gentle slope. The circular turns ap/< fj.j , ///•/////!// \ /\//// /-///.»•. / y •¥ / Art //>rt/j /> . / 2 (>/ ■ / / / / /.< iVr/:y. // / ' // / y J / y ' / J / ^ y / /*•■■/// % y // / I / A / ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. 6fl CHAPTER VIII. ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. There are two grammatical divisions of letters, distin¬ guished by their forms ; the small letters, which fimn the main body of writing, and the capitals, which are used on special occasions. We shall begin with the analysis of the small letters, because they occur oftenest and because their forms are simpler. We shall not take them up in their alphabetical order, but in that which gives the easiest first, and shows their similarity, arising from the possession of common principles. This is the method adopted in our copy-books, in order to render our system of teaching gradually progressive. An index is given after the general rules for email let¬ ters, so that any letter can be immediately found in the analysis. SECTION I. ANALYSIS OF THE SMALL LETTERS. General Rules. Rule 1 . Letters are constructed from principles, ele¬ ments, and a few exceptional forms. They consist of main and connecting lines. Rule 2. The slope of the main lines is 50° from the base; the slope of the connecting lines is 35° from the base. The latter is modified, as occasion requires, in 66 INSTRUCTION. joining one letter to another according to tie rules for combination. Rule 3. Every letter begins and ends with a con¬ necting line. Rule 4. The introductory connecting line starts from the base line on which the letters are written ; the closing connecting line ends at the head line. Rule 5. A connecting line is joined to a main line by a turn, as in Principle 1 ; by an angle, termed a connec¬ tion, as in u; or by a coincidence, as in o. In a connection or a coincidence, it touches the main line one fourth of its height, as in i, a ; except in t, which it joins in the middle, and p , which it joins at the top. Rule 6. A connecting line crosses a main line at one third of its height, as in h, e. Rule 7. Dots or bulbs are always made on the main slope. Remark .—Where examples are given, reference is in¬ tended to the written forms, which may be found in the Plates. THE SMALL LETTERS. In teaching, it will be well to analyze every letter, not only by principles, but by elements. See Lesson V. on Small Letters. Index, a, 9 — b, 21 — c, 11 — d, 10 — e, 12 —f 26 — g, 23 — h, 18 — 7, 1 —j, 22 — k, 19 —l, 20— m, 4 — n, 3 — o, 8 — p , 15 — q, 16 — r, 13 — s. 14 — t, 17 — u, 2 — v, 5 — w , 6 — jc, 7 — y, 24 — z, 25 — long s, 27. E. stands for Element, P. for Principle, and c. 1. for connecting line. 1. — i — E. 3, c. 1. -j- P. 1 -j- dot. The dot is made on the main slope, one space abova Eor the connection, see Rule 5. Observe R. 4. ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. 67 2. — u= E. 3, c. 1. -{- P. 1 P* 1* The width is one space. The two main lines and the three connecting lines respectively are parallel. The turns are alike. There are two connections. See R. 5. Attend also to R. 4. Remark. — When teaching, see that the pupil begins and ends in the column where the copy begins and ends, makes the same number of letters as in the copy, keeps the spaces and widths right, an accurate slope, and the same height through¬ out. 3. — n = P. 2 -j- P. 3. The width is one space. Observe the parallelism. Analyze by the elements. Note that the last c. 1. is different from the first two. Show that the three turns are exactly similar. 4. — m = P. 2 -j- n = P. 2 -j- P. 2 P. 3. The width is two spaces. Analyze by elements. Notice the difference between the commencing and the closing line. Let the four turns be exactly alike, and the two connections; and let the three main lines and the four con¬ necting lines be on the same slope, respectively. 5 . — v = P. 3 -(- dot -f- horizontal connecting line. The width is half a space. The last up-stroke is not a connecting line, but a main part, as may be seen by com¬ parison with the printed letter. (See Chap. III.) It has a little more than the main slope, and the width between the two sides of the letter increases gradually upwards. The dot is merely a neat finish, and a starting-point for the connecting line. It requires some care to make it neatly. Adopt this method. When the third element has been carried to the height of the letter, the pen is stopped and a slight pressure is made, returning on the line, and 68 INSTRUCTION. immediately suspended; then a very slighuy curved line is carried, nearly horizontally, to the right, for connection with the next letter. Take care that the dot is made very small, and that the line does not sag down in a clumsy manner; it is to be nearly straight. 6. — w = P. 3 -}- P. 1 -j- dot and horizontal c. 1. The width is a space and a half. The remarks made on v apply here. The second up-stroke is not a connecting line ; it is parallel to the third up-stroke. It will be ob¬ served that the second part of the letter is a little narrower than the first. 7. — x = P. 3 -j- E. 1 crossing it. The third principle on the main slope is crossed through the middle by the first element made on the slope of the connecting lines. Observe, therefore, that the three hair lines are parallel. 8. — o — E. 4, c. 1. -f- oval -(- dot and horizontal connecting line. To write this letter, when preceded by the connecting line on the usual slope, carry the c. 1. well up to the top, increasing its curve to fit the oval, return on this line to one fourth of the vertical height of the letter, and form the oval. To close the top, we direct a very small dot to be made, and the connecting line is added as in v. It is optional whether the dot should be added or not. We have adopted it to insure the neat closing of the top. When used, it must be very small. Take care that both sides of the oval are evenly curved. The most common faults are making the left curve too straight, and leaving the letter open at the top. The latter must be avoided by carrying the connecting line well over. 9. — a = E. 4, c. 1. + P. 4 -|- P. 1. In writing this letter, the connecting line must be carried ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. 69 over further than for the o, namely, to the exti*eme right of the fourth principle, to the top of which it must conform in shape, for it is retraced by the pen when that principle is made. The coincidence extends through half of the whole length of the left side measured from the tip of the nose; this coincidence is one fourth of the vertical height. The first principle coincides through one half the height with the right side of the fourth. Much attention will be needed to see that pupils do not leave the top of this letter open, a very common fault, and one most annoying to the reader, for it causes the letter to look like u. To avoid it, the connecting line must be swung well over. 10. — d = E. 4, c. 1. -f- P. 4 -|- P. 1 with the First Element lengthened. The remarks on a apply here; the only difference is in the height of the first principle. In writing this letter, the up-stroke of the fourth principle is continued to the height of the stem, two and a half spaces, and retraced. This stem is generally shaded. To make it look hand¬ some when done, stop when the proper height is attained by the up-stroke, and split the pen to form a square top; then descend with a fair even stroke till the turn is reached ; then the pressure is released and the turn made. By this means only can a square top, whose upper edge is parallel to the base line, he formed with well defined sharp corners. Guard against having a short club at the top. 11. — c = E. 4, c. 1. dot -f E. 5 + E. 4 -f- E. 2 4~ E. 3, c. 1. The width is half a space, the same as o. The fourth element is carried up and over, just as if the second prin¬ ciple was to be written. Then, instead of continuing down the right side, a dot is made on the main slope, in shape 70 INSTRUCTION. like a pear suspended by the stalk. Next, we retrace the dot and the connecting line as in o, and conclude with the turn and c. 1. Take care that the back of the c is curved like the left side of an oval, which it is. Be very par¬ ticular about the dot; its length should not be more than one fourth the height. 12. — e = E. 3, c. 1. -f- E. 5 -f- E. 4 -f- E. 2 -J- E. 3, c. 1. Observe that the third element crosses the fourth at one third the height, see R. 6, to form the loop. And the Fifth is narrowed by the direction of the Third in com¬ bining with its right side. The rest of the letter is like c. Take care that the back of e is made neither too round nor too straight. It should be curved exactly like o and c. 13. — r = E. 3, c. 1. -(- dot and shoulder -j- P. 1. The third element is carried one fourth higher than usual, then the dot is made on the slope, as in v (see v, No. 5). At the bottom of the dot, the pen descends per¬ pendicularly one fourth of the height, and joins this line, by means of a slightly curved shoulder, to the first prin¬ ciple. Let the little perpendicular hair line, which joins the dot to the first principle, be made without effort. It will be found to arise naturally from the spring of the pen after closing the dot. Take care to avoid a clumsy shoulder and crooked first principle. 14. — s = E. 3, c. 1. + E. 3 + E. 2 -f dot -f E. 3, c. 1. In this letter, also, the first connecting line is carried one fourth higher than the space; it is retraced by the down- stroke, which on leaving it curves slightly to enable it to combine gracefully with the Third and Second Elements, the right side of an oval. The dot is made at the con¬ necting line on the main slope, one fourth of the space ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. 71 in height; the curve at the bottom is then retraced, and the third element added for connecting line. Observe that the two connecting lines are parallel at the slope of 35°, and the down-stroke has the main slope. The first up-stroke, E. 3, is often made too straight, and E. 2 is not drawn sufficiently low to make a good turn. 15. — p = E. 3, c. 1. -f E. 1 + P. 3. The third element is carried up three spaces from the base line, the pen is stopped, and the straight line written to two spaces below the base line. The shading begins one third from the top, and is gradually increased throughout, the lower end the heaviest. See that the edge at the bot¬ tom of the shade is parallel to the base line, and that the corners are well cut. This is a very difficult stroke, and will require much practice. The pen is raised at the bot¬ tom of this part, and replaced on the paper at the base line to form the third principle. It will be noticed that the stem is carried as far above the first space as it is below it. When the handwriting is very large, this stem should be shorter. 16. — q — E. 4, c. 1. P. 4 -)- E. 1 -(- E. 2 E. 1 -j- E. 4,c. 1. The first part of q is made as that of a (see No. 9). In the last part, the down-stroke is the first element. The shading begins from the base line. The turn is narrower than in the letters. The up-stroke is carried to the base line with a very slight curve nearly parallel to the down- stroke, and branches off into the fourth element, to join u , which always follows q in words. The usual connecting line of u gives place to that of q. In this stem, the last up-stroke is, in fact, merely the return of the pen at the side of the down-stroke, instead of retracing it, as is often done. A similar stem is often used for the p. 72 INSTRUCTION. 17. — t — E. 3, c. 1. P- 1 -f- cross. The connecting line is carried up from the base line twa and a half spaces, the height of the stem; it is to be so curved that it can be retraced half the height of the letter Since the stem is generally shaded, the difference between the curve and the straight line, as to coincidence, is lost. The stem is crossed at one third from the top by a hori¬ zontal line. The directions for making the stem of d (see No. 10) apply here. 18. — h = P. 5 -f P. 3. These principles have both been fully described. There is nothing new arising from their connection. Caution. — A good deal of care will be needed, when this class of letters is begun, to see that the pupils do not make them crooked in the back, of the wrong slope, the sides of the loop dissimilar, the loop swayed over at the end, the slope of the third principle different from that of the fifth. 19. — k — h -{- loop = P. 5 -f- loop -]- P. 3. This additional loop is written above the third principle and projecting beyond to the right, so that this part is one fourth of a space higher. To write this second part, begin with the fourth element as in h, carry it up and over one fourth higher than the space, and beyond to the right to form the loop, which is an incomplete, inverted oval, nearly horizontal. When the top of the third principle is reached, \ Id it, and the letter is complete. 20. — l = P. 5 -f- P. 1. Each principle is shortened half a space, so that the first connecting line crosses according to the rule at one third of the height; and the whole height is four spaces. See Scale of Lengths in the plate. Take care that the turn is not made broad and clumsy. See Caution, No. 18. ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. 73 21. — b = l - j- termination of v. The remarks on the close of v apply here so exactly, that it is unnecessary to repeat them. 22. —j = E. 3, c. 1. + P. 6 -f dot. Principle 6 has already been fully described. Great care must be taken in writing this letter, that it is not too much sloped, too short, too much curved, or too much twisted under to the left. The dot is placed on the main dope, one space above. 23. —g = E. 4, c. 1. + P. 4 + P. 6. This letter begins like a (see No. 9), and the sixth prin¬ ciple is added. Observe the cautions under j, No. 22. 24. — y = P. 3 -j- P. 6. The same remarks apply in way of caution as in No. 22. 25. — z = P. 2 —J— shoulder -j- P. 6. This letter is formed from the union of the second and sixth principles by means of a shoulder. The top of the sixth principle is slightly curved to enable it to join grace¬ fully with this. The length of the loop is two thirds, as in y. See cautions in No. 22. 26. — f — P. 5 -j- lower loop and cross. The lower loop is peculiar to this letter. The first ele¬ ment of the fifth principle is continued two spaces below the base line; the turn is made to the right by the second element occupying one more space in descent, so that the part of the letter below the base line is three spaces. The line is then carried up, making the loop below the same breadth as the upper one, crosses the main stem at the base hue for a very short distance at the same curve, then turns directly to the right, and is carried horizontally for the sec¬ ond connecting line. 4 74 INSTRUCTION. 27. — Long s = P. 5 -f- P. 6. Each principle has the first element shortened half a space. It must be especially noticed that the line between the two loops is a little less oblique than the main slope, in order that the whole letter may be properly adjusted to the 6lope. ANALYSIS OF THE FIGURES. Rule. — The size of the figures is one space and a half. Except 6, 7, 8, 9, which are two spaces, the even numbers 6 and 8 extending half a space above, and the odd numbers 7 and 9 half a space below the rest. 1. The right curve beginning on the base line, written upwards to the height of one space and a half. The down-stroke touching at the point, a straight line on the main slope, gradually increasing in shade to form a square base on the line of writing. 2. Inverted oval on the main slope, shaded on the inner curve, two thirds the height, terminated with the L-foot, of which the hair-line is carried up one third the height. A line on the slope should touch the front of the oval and the left end of the horizontal loop. Height, one space and a half. 3. Small inverted oval, shaded on the inner curve, one third the height, carried under to form a little above the middle of the figure a knot, or separating loop, slanting downwards to the left, to conform to the lower oval. The lower inverted oval incomplete, shaded on the right side, occupying between hall’ and two thirds the height. Each oval on the main slope. Height of the figure one space and a half. If preferred, it may end with a dot on the line of the oval. 4. Right curve very slight, having a little more than ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. Tb the main slope,.and written downwards, a hair-line through¬ out. Bottom curve slanting upwards to about one fourth the height, a hair-line, crossed by a straight line, half the height, gradually shaded, on the main slope. In a well formed figure the points of the three fines will be in the same straight fine. Height, one space and a half. 5. Straight hair-line, half the height, on the main slope. Inverted oval incomplete, shaded on the right side, at¬ tached to the right side of the straight fine ; its height between one half and two thirds of the whole. Height of the figure, one space and a half. If preferred, it may end with a dot on the fine of the oval. 6. Height, two spaces above the base fine. Left curve, a hair-line, terminating in a direct oval, half the height, shaded on the inner curve; both on the main slope. 7. Height, two spaces. The top at one space and a half above the base fine; the tail extending half a space below it. The head, like the dot and curve at the close of v. See No. 5, v. Down-stroke, a straight fine, gradually shaded, touching at the top, on the main slope. 8. Height, two spaces above the base fine. Double curve bent over at the top, written downwards, shade grad¬ ually increasing, heaviest in the middle of the lower curve, which is less intense than the upper; turn at the bottom, and left curve continued, crossing at the centre and ter minating a short distance from the commencement of the first curve. The left sides of the two sections are on the main slope. 9. Height and position like 7. First part, Principle 4, half the height, its bottom one third from the base line, shaded on the left side. Down-stroke, a straight line, gradually shaded; coincides half the height of the Fourth Principle ; extends half a space below the base fine. Both on the main slope. 70 INSTRUCTION. 0. A direct oval, simple, closed at the top, shaded on the left side. Height, one space and a half. No connecting line unless joined to another, then like o. SECTION II. ANALYSIS OF THE CAPITALS. The Principles. The Principles of the Capitals are three in number. See Plate I. The first of these, which we shall call the Seventh Principle, there being six of the small letters, is known by several names, — the Line of Beauty, the Dou¬ ble Curve, and the Capital-Stem. The next, that is, the Eighth, is the Direct Oval. The last, or Ninth, is the Inverted Oval. The Seventh Principle is a compound form, and is de¬ rived from two similar ovals, placed side by side. See Plate I. The upper and lower curve are similar, and each occupies half the length. Remark. — This is the ideal Double Curve. It is modified ; n different letters. In some, the upper curve almost approaches a straight line; in others, the lower curve is intensified. In some letters the slope is changed. The reason of this is, that the letter of which it is a part has to be considered as a whole, and an adjustment made to suit the laws of beauty and maintain the symmetry of the letter. The Eighth and Ninth Principles are compound forms, and are derived from two similar and equal ovals, whose width equals half the height, intersecting one another, so that the spaces, measured on the common short diameter, between the sides of the ovals, the sides and the diameters, ANALYSIS OF THE LETTERS. 77 and the diameters, shall all be equal. See Plate I. Draw the diameters to show these equal spaces, and the lines par¬ allel to the shorter diameter to show the parallelism of the position of the two ovals. The two left curves are not parallel. To prove that they are not, draw two concentric circles. It will be seen at once, that, in order to have two arcs of circles parallel, one of them must be the arc of a smaller circle. Draw two similar ovals, one within the other, and the same law evidently holds good. Observe that the lines on which the equal distances of the curves are measured, are at right angles to the tangents of the curves at any point, and not parallel to one another. Now, as the com¬ pound form of the oval, which constitutes the Eighth Prin¬ ciple, is derived from two similar and equal ovals, it is evident that the left curves cannot be parallel. The divergence increases in both directions from the middle of the curve, though the difference is very slight. Do not be deceived, because the lines drawn between the two curves parallel to the shorter diameter are equal. They are not in the right direction to have the distance between the curves measured on them. If any doubt is still enter¬ tained, draw two equal circles intersecting one another, and the divergence of the curves from parallelism will be im¬ mediately manifest. In the Eighth and Ninth Principles the left curves are precisely similar, and therefore not 'parallel. The Eighth Principle, or Direct Oval, Plate I., begins at the top of the left-hand oval, descends and follows the same to the upper point of intersection, and there runs into the left curve of the other oval. The distance between the left curves is one fourth the width of the oval in the letter 0; in all other letters, one third. INSTRUCTION. 7ft The Ninth Principle, or Inverted Oval, is derived from the same intersecting ovals. See Plate I. It begins at the bottom of the left side of the first oval, ascends and follows the same to the lower point of intersection, and there runs into the left curve of the other oval. Modifications will be noticed in the analysis of the letters. THE CAPITAL LETTERS. General Rules. Rule 1 . The height of the capitals is four spaces, the same as the loop letters. Rule 2. The Seventh Principle as Capital-Stem in fourteen letters, A, B , F, G, I, K, M, X, P, P, S, T, X, Y, is ended with a dot in our elementary books. The turn is the bottom of the oval from which the lower curve of the stem is derived. The dot is half the height of a space, and is always made on the main slope. See Plate II. Rule 3. The Third Principle of the small letters begins F, //, K, T, V, W, Z. It starts one third the height of the letter from the base line, its centre is one third from the top of the letter, and the distance of its main stroke from the stem is the same as its height, which is one space. Rule 4. The Eighth Principle, or Direct Oval, is in the 2 The horizontal loop, or Z-foot, is found in four letters, Z, D, Q, Z. The first element, very slightly curved to one third from the top, is found in A, iV, M, W; straight throughout, and closed by a turn, in V. COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 93 CHAPTER X. COMBINATION OF LETTERS. Combination treats of the arrangement of letters in words at proper distances. This is generally spoken of as Spacing. It is effected by the connecting lines of the two letters running into one another, and thus forming one line, which may be distinguished as the Combining Line. Good taste requires that the letters in a word should look about the same distance apart; in other words, that the space on the line which the word occupies should be evenly filled. If this is neglected, the writing will look “ patchy,” — crowded in one place, scattered in another. We propose, therefore, to give rules for these distances, and to point out the reasons on which they depend. The controlling influences which govern them are the nature of the lines to be combined, and the means by which the combination is made. Sometimes it will be seen that increase of distance is merely nominal, depending on the situation of the side to or from which the measurement is made. The points for the measurements are the centres of the adjacent sides of the letters. Every letter ends with a straight line, having a diagonal connecting line with a turn, as u. or without a turn, as j, q ; or is an oval with a horizontal connecting line; or is open on the right side, as c and e. Every letter begins with a straight line, having a diagonal connecting line with¬ out a turn, as u, h, p, or with a turn, as n, y; or is an oval, as o, a ; or is open on the left side, as s, in which the <>6 INSTRUCTION. CHAPTER XI. ON DRILL AND COUNTING. [n teaching writing it will be found of the highest im¬ portance to have the class under perfect discipline. As the mind is very materially influenced by the body, accuracy of position and precision of movement tend greatly to pro¬ mote if. The class should be drilled to act as a unit. Re¬ peat and repeat, till something like perfection is reached. Then the class will take a pride in it. There is something fascinating in the simultaneous movement of every mem¬ ber of a body. It is the charm of all military manoeuvres. Now, if we consider, on the one hand, to how many small things attention is necessary to have good writing, or at any rate rapid progress, and, on the other hand, the natural inattention of children, how their eyes look without seeing, how their ears admit sonorous vibrations but convey no intelligence to the mind, how soon they can bring their hands to act mechanically without the supervision of active thought, we shall not hesitate to admit, that any means which will aid in awakening their attention and keeping it fixed will be of immense value. The best means we have found by experience to be writing in concert; the various parts of the letters or principles being written to the count of numbers, audibly sounded by the teacher or the class Every pupil must, of course, have the same book, and write the same copy. It has been objected to this, that we cannot expect those who are full of nervous excitement to write at the ON DRILL AND COUNTING. 97 same rate as those whose temperament is dull and lym¬ phatic; that it is not right thus to retard the rapid, and urge on so fast the slow; that nature has established certain differences which we ought to respect. In order to form a correct judgment, let us examine the point in question in the light of what wisdom has devised in other exercises, upon perfecting which the utmost attainments of science have for centuries been concentrated. We mean military drill. Here is a body of men with every variety of tempera¬ ment and with legs of different lengths, — we do not mean in the same individual, — and they will have to march, as their ordinary means of locomotion. How shall it be man¬ aged ? A certain length of step is fixed upon, and a given time, and they are all, whether long-legged or short-legged, whether nervous or lymphatic, taught this step and time. “ 0, but,” says our follower of nature, “ this is all wrong, very wrong.” But how, then, shall we manage ? How can we keep them in order, or pei’form a single evolution, if each man chooses his own length of step and his own time for performing it? He answers, that in this case we must submit to the stern requirements of necessity; that during the time of instructing the men, or when in face of the enemy, it may not be so very objectionable; but adds, as his eyes brighten with anticipated triumph, that the officers do not keep the men in the ranks during a long march. We reply, that our method is precisely the same; we use counting and a given time for purposes of instruction; when the course is completed, and their pen marches over the ample pages of the folio or the ledger, each one may adopt that rate of speed which best suits his natural endowments. But we are not yet satisfied with this argument. We go 5 G 08 INSTRUCTION. further, and claim that the objections urged against the use of counting are the strongest arguments in its favor. We hold that it is precisely this restraint that the nervously irritable need, this urgency that the lymphatic require. The very fact that it tempers the impatience of the one, and stimulates the inertness of the other, proves its ex¬ cellence. Again, the manner in which these two ends are gained is worth consideration. The restraint operates on the individual as part of a whole. The irritability^ aroused by personal restraint is unfelt in the concerted action. It is not as if his pen must be kept to a slow pace; it keeps that pace almost naturally, from the very sympathy of united movement. He loses, so to speak, the individuality of himself and pen. He is part of an acting body. He is not directing an independent pen, but one out of a num¬ ber. Give a pupil of this temperament a lesson by him¬ self. Keep him only so far restrained as is absolutely necessary for attention to the proper formation of the let¬ ters, and you will soon see at how great a disadvantage you are working. The same line of reasoning applies to those pupils who are naturally slow. There is an im¬ mensely powerful and tranquillizing effect upon each mem¬ ber of a disciplined body, owing to the very massiveness of united action. It is more strikingly manifested in a large class than in a small one. So far our argument may seem to apply to two extreme cases, rather than to the whole class. Is writing in conceit equally advantageous for the far larger number of ordinary temperament and disposition? We think it is. It com¬ pels them to the observance of sufficient time to form the close of a letter with the same accuracy as the beginning. What teacher of writing has failed to notice how prone scholars are to make the third section of the letter rn slope ON DRILL AND COUNTING. 99 the wrong way, owing to the hurried movement with which they finish it ? It is just the same with the close of other letters and words. In fact, time for thought is required for every part of the letter, and the movement should be equally maintained throughout. This is effected by count¬ ing. Another great advantage is, that the teacher can save a great deal of time by addressing his instructions to the whole class at once, and can best secure their attention from the immediate bearing of it upon the exercise to fol¬ low. Whereas, if each pupil has been allowed to write at his own rate of speed, though the writing may be stopped and the instruction addressed to all, what interest will those feel in it who have already finished the copies to which it refers ? What benefit will they derive from it, since its advice and warnings are no longer available ? In every point of view, theoretically, the method of writing in con cert would seem to offer great advantages ; the testimony of actual experience abundantly confirms it. We have seen classes of all sizes, from twelve to three hundred, making use of it with the happiest effect. It must, of course, be borne in mind that it is intended for the earlier part of the course, and not for continuance through the whole. When its ends have been answered, and the pupils write every part of a letter or combination with an equable movement, without hurried terminations, its end is answered, its object accomplished. It is no longer needed. All that remains to be added on this head is, to urge the teacher to see that it is faithfully carried out, especially in tracing, and that the pupil thinks what each part of the letter is to be, before lie writes it. Connected with this branch of the subject is the com¬ mencing and closing of the exercise, inasmuch as concerted 100 INSTRUCTION. action is necessary. It is a matter of importance, because, if not well managed, an immense amount of valuable time is lost. We one day saw a teacher engaged in distributing books to a class, which numbered about fifty. They were seated at desks of the modern style. The teacher, having the pile of books, took up one, looked at the name on it, mentioned it not very loud, and handed it to a bright little scholar, who started off at a swift walk to hunt out the pupil to which it belonged, and to deliver it; then, back again to the teacher. The same plan was followed through¬ out. As there were fifty books to be delivered, as they had been collected without any regard to order, or the class were seated in different places, the journeys of the messenger wei*e very agreeably diversified; and as no sign was made by the pupil whose book was in the hands of the express, a voyage of discovery was sometimes made in the remotest regions, before the owner was discovered in one of the front rows. The messenger, during one whole quar¬ ter of an hour , took a very fair amount of exercise, and the class was kept in a pleasing state of excitement as to whose book would come next, and whether the messenger would find the proprietor at the end of a straight course, or after making repeated tacks. Some may think that this time would have been more profitably spent in writing. For the use of such, we append the following method of opening and closing the a rcise, which we have used in large pub¬ lic schools. It will be found very economical in point of time, and is susceptible of any modifications which may be thought desirable. Commencement of an Exercise. Remembering that the books are always collected in the teverse order to that in which they are given out, the moni* ON DRILL AND COUNTING. • 101 tor goes down the aisle and places on the desk at the right* ha *d end of each row, in front of the boj, with the backs tu his left, the number of books which belong to the row, taken from the top of the pile he carries. A second monitor, following, places the same number of pens above the books, with their points to the right of the pupil, seated. A third does the same with the pen-wipers. When this is done the teacher gives the following words of command : — “ Take Books.” The pupils to the right (the teacher’s left) insert their left hands above the back of the lowest book, and grasp those above with the thumb, lift them, and take hold of the other side of the books with their right hands. At a wave of the teacher’s hand they place them in front of the pupils on their left, who immediately insert their hands, lift, &c., and at the next wave of the hand pass as before, and so on till each pupil has his own book left before him. If there are any vacancies, caused by the absence of pupils, the nearest pupil moves to the va¬ cant place and officiates, then immediately resumes his own seat, and all goes on as before. “ Take Pen-wipers. ” The pupils to the right pass all but one, at a wave of the teacher’s hand ; the next all but one at the next wave, and so on. “ Take Pens. ” The pupils to the right take up the heaps of pens in their right hands, with the points down¬ wards, and transfer all but one to their left hands. At a wave of the teacher’s hand, they pass them to the pupils on their left, who receive them with their right, transfer and pass at the next wave as before, and so on till each pupil has his pen in his hand, point down, and held at the level of the breast. Vacancies are provided for as before. The teacher now makes a downward motion of the hand. All lay their pens on the back of the de;--k, with the points to the right. 102 INSTRUCTION. The teacher gives numbers for the rest jf the drill. 1. Take Position. (See the chapter on Position and Movement for this and the following orders.) 2. Adjust Books. 3. Adjust Arms. 4. Right hand finds place in the books at upper corner. 5. Books are opened at page. Left hand replaced. Right hand to be just below the lower edge of the book. 6. Right hand of each pupil seated to the right on the inkstand lid. 7. Open inkstands and right hand as before. 8. Take pens with points down¬ wards, and adjust for writing without moving the left baud. 9. Dip the pen in the ink and keep it there. “ Ready.” Pen placed on paper, where commencement is to be made. “ Write. ” The pupils begin and count as directed, 1,2, —• 1, 2, &c. At the end of the column-line, “ Back, ” “ Ready, ” “ Write,” 1, 2, &c. After two or three lines of the column are written, give the order “ Ink, ” as in 9. This keeps the ink from clogging the nibs. If the pupils sit fronting the desks, at the close of every fourth line the order should be given, “ Move up Books, ” or the arm will get off the desk. If the pupils are to trace, omit 9, and say “ Trace, ” to instruct them what to do, “ Ready,” as above, and “ Trace the Copy, ” to begin. Closing the Exercise. 1. Wipe Pens. 2. Position. 3. Pass Pens, beginning in reverse order to the giving out. 4. Hands of boys to the right on lids of inkstands. 5. Close inkstands. 6. Books; they have now had time to dry. 7 . Pass books; each boy at the successive w r aves of the hand, places the book or books before him, on the top of that before the boy on his right. 8. Pass pen-wipers. The teacher gives the Dumbers only. ON DRILL AND COUNTING. 103 The monitors then collect the books, the pens, and the pen« wipers. To keep the heaps of books apart, a piece of paper is placed on each heap as it is collected. The monitor in giving out the books leaves the paper on the desks. In giving out, he takes from the top of the pile, beginning in front of the room ; in collecting, he places on the top, be¬ ginning at the back of the room. This drill is strongly recommended as one of great beauty and utility, when accurately executed. The class can by this means be pre¬ pared for work in a third of the time required by any other method. On Counting. The *, e, x, t, l,j, and long s require three motions, and are counted 1, 2, 1, — the odd numbers up, the even down, The c, r, s, z, and /have four motions, and are counted 1 ; 2, 3, 1. The u. n, v , o, a, d, p, q , h, b, g , and y require five motions, and are counted 1, 2, 3, 4, 1. The k has six motions, counted 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1. The m and w have seven motions, and are counted 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1. Cross the t and x, and dot the i and j after the group or word is finished. Cross the x upwards to insure a hair line. For small children, fer c, r, z, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, may be counted if preferred. It will be found important, also, to show on the board precisely how much cf the is made at each count. 106 INSTRUCTION. proposed, — What are the successive steps by which these two branches, comprising the end to be aimed at, are to be prosecuted? They run in parallel lines, teaching the form and teaching the execution. First, as regards the steps in teaching form. The teacher should begin by acquiring an intelligent appre¬ ciation of the System of Penmanship he intends to use. He must understand the plan on which it is constructed, that is, if it have one. We proceed to the discussion of our own, as that in which we are more particularly in¬ terested. Though other systems boldly claim perfection, some of them in as many as twenty different particulars, yet we hope to be excused for a natural partiality towards our own offspring, whose origin and growth are the expressed result of years of patient thought and practical experience. It will be noticed that the principles are introduced first; the reason is, that they are the component parts of let¬ ters. Why, then, should not the elements, which are still simpler forms, be given for separate practice ? Because they are too small and fragmentary. Our system, there¬ fore, begins with the principles, though in No. 1, the first element, which is the straight line,-is given, because every letter, except c, e , o, s, has this element written down wards for one or more of its main lines. If now we add at the bottom of it a turn and connecting line, we have the first principle, and can readily perceive why it has this precedence; namely, because it is written downwards, like Element One, and is formed by an addition to it. The next modification of the straight line arises from uniting the connecting line to it by a turn at the top; this is the second principle. The third has two connecting lines joined to the straight line by turns both at the top and bottom. The fourth principle is the oval and its modified COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 10 ? form as used in combination. All the short letters result from connectiops of these four principles; hence two kinds of exercises are given, viz. groups in which a principle is repeated several times, and similar combinations of a single letter. The principles are thus introduced in order, and the short letters, the simplest forms always having the precedence. Next, we have the stem-letters, and then the loops, which are the most difficult of all. Suitable ex¬ ercises accompany them. The capitals come last. In the small letters the forms are fixed, but those of capitals are so varied that a selection has to be made What principles should guide us ? Capitals are a very difficult part of the work. They are large, and, from the very nature of their use, stand out prominently and attract attention, so that any fault in them is very easily perceived. Few persons will hesitate, then, to concede, that there should be but one set for beginners, and those of the simplest form. This is a very important point, and claims the teacher’s earnest consideration in the choice of a sys¬ tem. Fancy capitals are very beautiful, and catch the eye, but let the judicious teacher reflect as to whether they are characterized by that simplicity and facility of execution which are so necessary for elementary instruc¬ tion. Are they the best adapted, nay, are they in the least adapted, to fix the pupil’s mind upon the elementary principles of form, and are they easy enough for his un¬ skilled hand to execute? For ourselves, we are satisfied that they are utterly unfit for the former purpose, and that they are far too difficult for the latter. The pupil has not yet advanced far enough to strike them with a free hand ; they cannot be even tolerably written in any other way. This has led 's to decide upon very plain and simple, though elegant ffirms. “ But,” said a teacher to 108 INSTRUCTION. one of our agents, “ I do not like your capital-stem ending in a dot. I very much prefer that it should terminate with • a curve gracefully swung round.” Said our friend, “ Which is easiest ? ” “ O,” replied the teacher, “ I suppose the dot.” “ Which is most interesting,” resumed our friend, “ a story or the ABC?” “A story of course.” “ Then,” replied he, “ why do you not set a class to read on the story before they know their ABC? In writing it is just the same, the ABC before the story, the dot before the graceful oval.” It may not appear at first sight why the fancy capitals, when only indifferently made, should look so much worse than the plain ones though even badly made, but the fact is unquestionable. The reason is very simple. It is because the former are more pretentious. When a child presumes to do a man’s work and fails, he becomes ridiculous, whereas a man failing in the same work is not ridiculous at all; it is on account of the presumption displayed by the former. Take an instance from skating. An awkward fellow, who might escape notice and pass muster, if he could rest contented with plain running, becomes grotesque and a laughing-stock when he attempts the graceful figures of the finished skater and fails of success. But one thing can palliate presump¬ tion, — that is, success. Our capitals will be found, for the above reasons, reduced to the simplest forms and susceptible of accurate measurement. They cannot be ex¬ pected to have the grace and beauty of the others, but we claim that they are the best adapted to the end for which they are designed. In No. 12, we have given what are termed the current forms, and they are practically ap¬ plied in mercantile forms in No. 7, which should follow No. 12. When the pupil, having pursued our method faithfully, arrives at these, he is qualified, both as to eye COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 109 and hand, to “ strike ” them with good prospect of success. In our elementary books we adhere to one form, and that the simplest. The next point to be noticed in pur system is the gradual introduction of longer words, so that the hand is trained by degrees to use the comital and sliding movements in writ¬ ing across the longest without difficulty. This is an abso¬ lutely essential point, and one of the special reasons why columns are given and directed to be written downwards. Another reason for writing them downwards is, that the word at the head of each has been selected with a definite purpose, — to introduce some particular combination, &c. To write across the line, then, instead of down the column, would be opposed to our plan of one thing at a time; it would present a variety of combinations for practice, in¬ stead of fixing the attention on one, and practising that till it can be written well. The sentences are to be written across the page. If written downwards, a word at a time, the object for which they are designed is defeated, namely, the final training of the hand to write across the page, which brings the lateral movement into practice. The more difficult combinations of letters in words are gradu¬ ally introduced. Some of the books will be found to be especially de signed for girls, the hand being finer. No. 7, as we have said, contains mercantile forms, and should be preceded by No. 12, in which different forms of current capitals are given. By a slight examination of the different numbers, the intelligent teacher will now fully comprehend the ar¬ rangement of our system and the principles upon which it is constructed. The particular character of each of the different numbers will be found in the Introduction. Having thus considered the plan of the copy-books, we 110 INSTRUCTION. proceed to the more particular development of the course of instruction which should accompany them. The first point, after giving out the copy-books, is to teach what is needed to be known as^to lines. A chapter and a lesson will be found devoted to them. The teacher should begin with thoroughness here. He should determine that every pupil shall know the lines familiarly by their names, and, it might be added, know his right hand from his left. Next in order comes position of the body, arms, and hands. Then, pen holding Next, rests. Then, movements. After these, which will be found fully treated of, either in chap¬ ters or lessons, sometimes in both, let the first copy be ex¬ plained. A lesson on it will be found in Part II. Then may follow the lesson on the principles and elements, in which is shown h>_.w we seek to impress the forms on the minds of the oupits. If preferred, this lesson may form part of the instruction to accompany chi- preceding from day to day. When a mental conception has been thus obtained the order of practice is, tracing the copy, writing it on waste paper, ruled like the book both as to horizontal lines and columns, and finally m the copy-book, each of which exercises is performed in concert. All practice should be subjected to constant criticism. Secondly. The order of the successive steps in teach¬ ing execution is, — first, the finger movement to form the letters, combined with the sliding movement of the hand, and the comital of the fore-arm, to keep the pen in the same relative position to each succeeding letter When this combined movement is perfectly familiar, the muscular and medial may be added to give freedom and boldness. When sentences are written extending across the whole page, the lateral, whereby the whole fore-arm and hand is moved to the right, will bee nne necessary. It is used to COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. Ill place the rolling-rest in such advanced positions as will render the limited scope of the comital movement always available. A common and excellent movement for a business hand is to allow the sliding rest to participate in the medial movement, and to form all the short letters by the muscu¬ lar movement, the huger movement being used only for loops and stems. We propose now to make a few remarks upon some ol these steps. Speaking generally, we would urge upon the teacher to confine his attention during each lesson to one or two things only. For instance, one of the authors of this system occupied the whole time of one lesson with a class, who were writing their first copy in No. 2, in getting them to begin and end the group like the copy. All that appeared written in the copy-book at the close of the exer¬ cise was one column. But what a difference between the last line and the first! The first, crowded together, filling only half the width of the column, and of course all the turns and combining lines wrong; the last beginning and ending right, the principles disposed at equal spaces, and a marked improvement in the turns and combining lines. The improvement in a single lesson was astonishing. “ One thing at a time ” is the true secret of success. A 11 the energy of the will should be directed to the one point selected, and thus a thorough impression made on the children’s minds. The points, for instance, that may be taken up separately in the first copy of No. 1 are, that the number of straight lines should be the same ; that they touch the top and bottom lines; that they be the same distance apart; that they occupy the width of the column; that the top and bottom be made square; that they he of uniform shade throughout, both individually and in the 112 INSTRUCTION. group; that they slope alike. Again, in the first copy of No. 2, in addition, that the turns be similar; the connec- tions one fourth the space; and the connecting lines at the beginning and close touch the base and head lines. In No. 4, that they be all of uniform height, &c. We are led to be thus minute from several instances we have met with. A teacher showed us, one day, the copy of a pupil, remark¬ ing on the improvement. It happened to be the first copy of No. 1. We said, “ The child was not taught to write so, was it?” “Why not?” “You surely did not teach it to make twenty-one straight lines, when there are only twelve in the copy.” What was the exclamation in re¬ ply ? “I never thought of that! ” The “ waste paper ” should be ruled like the copy, and of good quality, since it is to be used preparatory to writ¬ ing in the book. Perhaps the most convenient plan is to cut up the same number, or to let the pupil have a dupli¬ cate book. As to selecting books for a course of instruction, for a primary class, and for older pupils, where their hands have been accustomed to hard work, we should recommend No. 1. If they can already write, and the teacher wishes to adopt our method of teaching, he had better take up No. 2. Then No. 3. They have both been newly revised and re¬ written. No. 2 is very thorough in its course on the prin¬ ciples, and gives a fine preparation for No. 3. The latter contains the principles, small letters, and capitals with words. These two numbers are essential to our course of instruction. In teaching the principles of any new letter, always be¬ gin by a thorough analysis on the board, and by impressing the form on the mind in every possible way. Then require a minute description in all the particulars from the copy. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 113 Determine to have the principles nearly as well written as the copies, in slope, straight lines, curves, turns, and width, before you leave them. The pupils, now commencing a new study, are docile. They have not yet got any knowledge to set up against yours. Therefore begin your course cf in¬ struction at once, and let it be so thorough that they shall throughout be satisfied with it. One of the most sure E. 1 + i, E. 2 + f, E. 3). Height = 1 space. ON THE SMALL LETTERS. 147 m = P. 2 + P. 2. + P. 3 = (f,E.4 + ^,E.5 + f,^.l) + (f, E.4 + *, E. 5 f, E. 1 ) + (f, E. 4 + i, E. 5 + E. 1 + *, E. 2 + f, E. 3) Height = 1 space. a = (E. 4 -f P. 4) + P. 1 . = i E. 4 4~ (f, E. 4 -f- E. 2 -j- 3 -}- E. 1J 4“ (h E- 1 + E. 2 -f- f- E. 3). Height = 1 space. b = P. 5 + (P. 1 + dot -f c. 1.) = (4 E. 3 -f- |) loop —|— E. 1) —|— (P. 1 -}- dot -|- c. 1.) = \i, E. 3 + f, (E. 3 + E. 5 + E. 4) + EIf -f (E. 1 + l, E. 2 + f, E. 3 + dot -j- c. L). Height of 1st part = 4 spaces. Height of 2d part = 1 space. k = P. 5 -f (loop + P. 3) = \b E- 3 + f, (E. 3 + E. 5 + E. 4) + b E. If 4~ E. 4 loop — E. 1 -j- j, E. 2 j, E. 3). Height of 1st part = 4 spaces. Height of 2d part = 1^ spaces. p = (E. 3 + E. 1 ) + P. 3 = (3, E. 3 + 5, E. 1 ) -f- f» E. 4 -|- b E. 5 4~ b E. 1 -j- ¥’ 2 •-(- f> E. 3). Length of 1st part = 5 spaces. Height of 2d part = 1 space. 1 = (E. 4 -f P. 4) -f (E. 1 4 - E. 2 -j- E. 1 + E. 4) = \ 1 , E. 4 4 - ( E. 4 -p i , E. 2 4 - i , E. 3 4 - b E. 1) i -j- (3j, E. 1 4~ E. 2 4~ 2j, E. 1 4~ I? E. 41. Height of 1st part = 1 space. Length of 2d part = 3£ spaces 148 LESSONS. y = P. 3 -f P. 6 = i , E. 4 4- i, E. 5 + i, E. 1 + *, E. 2 + f, E. 3) + Kl+b(K3 + E.2 + E. 4) + £, E. 4|. Height of 1st part = 1 space. Length of 2d part = 4 spaces. Drill on the Capitals. With book No. 3, begin to practise frequently Ps. 7, 8, 9, on waste paper, between two lines , using these steps : — P. 7. (1.) Hair line and dot; (2.) The variations in Plate III. — P. 8. (1.) Simple oval, hair line, closed at top; (2.) Left curve shaded; (3.) Begin as (2), but at the top run down inside (see P. 8, p. 77, and 0, p. 79. 1) ; (4.) Inner curve shaded. — P. 9. (1.) Simple oval, hair line, up left side first, begin at the bottom and close there ; (2.) Right curve shaded; (3.) Write (1), beginning one third from bottom line, oval two thirds; (4.) Right curve shaded; (5.) Begin as (4), at the bottom, run up inside one third the width from the left and below the upper curve, cross the right curve, descend at same distance from it to the middle, then end with straight line on main slope; (6.) Change shade to the straight line. Let these be written in concert, by count at first, after¬ wards by six at a time. Criticise each fresh batch, and insist upon the immediate correction of errors and upon constant improvement. At a later period, see how many of each different kind they can make handsomely in a minute, taking one kind at a time. They ought to make about seventy or eighty of Ps. 8 and 9, — more of P. 7. ON A CAPITAL. 149 LESSON VI. ON A CAPITAL. Topics. 1. The Principles | 2. Proportions | 3. Slope { 1. Conformity to. 2. Deviation from. 1. On the slope. 2. On the short diameter, or across. 1. General, of the whole. 2. Special, of the parts. 4. Shading. 5. Description of the letter. Especial attention must be given to the following points. 1. The rounding of the oval. 2. Its proportions. 3. The similarity of its curves. 4. The lateral curves being all on the main slope. 5. The elegance of the stem. 6. The formation of its curves. 7. The turn and dot. 8. Its slope. 9. Its shade. 10. The shape of the other parts of the letters. 11. Their proportions. 12. The combining of the muscular movement with that of the fingers in their ext-cution. T. We are now going to write the letter B. It consists of two parts,—the Stem and the Cap and Lobes. What is the stem ? C. The seventh principle or double curve ter¬ minated with a turn and dot. T. Is it the pure double curve ? C. Yes. T. What did I mean by that question ? C. Whether the upper and lower parts had the same curve. T Is it much curved ? C. No. T. What is the 150 LESSONS. turn ? C. The turn of the lower oval. T. What of tha dot ? C. Its he.ght is half a space, and it is made on the main slope, Rule 2. T. Is it made on the curve of the oval ? C. No, it cuts into the oval, because of its slope. T. What is the front or head of the B? C. The inverted oval. T. What is the rule for it? C. Rule 5. Its height is two thirds. T. How many right and left curves in it? C. Three. T. What is their slope ? C. They all have the main slope. T. How many in the left side of the let¬ ter ? C. Three. T. And their slope ? C. All have the main slope. T. Which is the highest part of the cap ? C. The middle point between the section of the oval and the stem. T. Describe the cap after the highest point. C. It descends, crosses the stem at right angles, and forms a lobe with the right curve, which passes under to form the horizontal separating loop at one third from the top, and terminates with the inverted oval, half the height, accord¬ ing to Rule 5. T. How long is the upper lobe ? C. One third. T. How long in P ? C. One half. T. Through what would a line drawn, touching the second curve of the front oval, pass ? C. Through the dot. T. And a line touching the upper lobe ? C. Through the middle of the inverted oval which forms the lower lobe. T. (Drawing the short diameter of the first oval through to the stem.) What equal spaces? C. Between the left sides of the oval, one; in the next section of the oval, two; between the oval and the stem, one. Four in all. T. In the same way in the lower lobe ? C. Three, — one between the stem and the oval, two in the oval. T. Supposing the first oval completed, what is its width ? C. Half the length. T. Which is the highest part of the letter ? C. The upper curve of the first part of the oval. T. What shades are there ? C. There is a shade on the right curve ON A CAPITAL. 151 in each of the two ovals. T. Where is it heaviest ? C. In the middle of the curve. T. Do you see the good taste of thus placing it ? C. Yes, sir; the upper balances the lower, and there are two light curves before each. T. Describe the letter as it should exist in your mind when you write it. C. The capital-stem with similar and equal curves on the main slope, turned on the lower turn of the oval from which the lower part of the stem is derived and finished with a dot or bulb, half a space high and on the main slope. The inverted oval, two thirds high and shaded on the right side, making with its curves, diameter, and the stem, four equal spaces measured on the short diameter; the curve ascends till the highest point of the cap is reached, half-way between the section of the oval and the stem ; then descends, crossing the stem at right angles, and forms the upper lobe, one third high, passes under to form the small horizontal separating loop, reissues to descend and form the lower lobe, which consists of the inverted oval, half the height, and shaded on the right side, making with its curves, diameter, and the stem three equal spaces, measured on the short diameter. T. Tell me how you shall write the first oval ? C. I must measure with my eye two thirds of the height and the four spaces, taking care that the slope through the point between the first and second and the dot of the stem is the main slope, then, left curve ascending, over, right curve shaded beginning below the crossing, under, left curve similar to the first, cross, and ascend to highest point of the cap. (Reader. — What a long rigmarole ! Teacher. — My good friend, we pro fess to teach writing, and not merely to let it grow.) T. You must think of all these points as you first trace and then write the letter. Write slowly at first, with the fin¬ ger movement, till your eye and hand become familiar 152 LESSONS. with the form. Then make use of the additional muscular movement, and write it freely, boldly, and rapidly. Re¬ member that the inverted oval occurs as a commencement in seven letters, so that in learning to make it perfectly here, you learn it for all of them. 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