THE SCIOPTICO^f MAl^UAL. EXPLAINING MARCY'S NEW MAGIC LANTERN, AND LIGHT, INCLUDING MAGIC LANTERN OPTICS, EXPilRIMENTS, PHOTOGRAPHING AND COLORING SLIDES, ETC. By L. J. MAECY, Optician, No. 13*) CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, PENNA. FIFTH EDITION. SHEEMAN & CO.. PRINTEKS. 1 874. Entered, according to Act of Congress, iu the year 1874, By L. J. MARCT, the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, T>. PREFACE. Visible illustrations are so highly esteemed among educationalists of the present day, that the announce- ment that a greatly improved form of Magic Lantern has made its appearance is very favorably received. Between a desire for such an instrument, and the lack of definite information concerning it, many very natu- rally manifest both their interest and their caution by searching letters of inquiry. The inventor has en- deavored, in hasty epistles, to state all the possibilities and impossibilities of the Sciopticon, and of lights, lenses, lantern slides, and tanks; but he finds it increasingly difficult to give each correspondent, individually, a full philosophical exposition. For such, therefore as desire a more detailed account than can be given in a hasty letter, or than is contained in the circular, which it is always a pleasure to forward on application, a Sciopticon Manual has been prepared, to serve as a guide-book to iv P R £ F A 0 E. the various interesting portions of the Magic Lantern field in general, as well as to the Sciopticon in particular. It treats of the Optical Image — without a lens, with a lens, in the camera obscura, in the eye, in the photo- graphic camera, and on the screen ; of the peculiarities of lenses, and the corrections required by lenses ; of the peculiarities of the Sciopticon, and its construction and management ; of dissolving views, phantasmagoria, and the ghost ; of lantern slides in all their variety ; of photo- graphing slides by the wet-plate process, by the dry-plate process, by Marcy's Photographic Printing Apparatus, by the Sciopticon, and other processes ; of how to paint slides, and of how to perform chemical experiments, &c. ; to which is appended a catalogue, arranged to assist purchasers in making satisfactory selections. Thus this Manual may take the place of private cor- respondence to a considerable extent, allowing in let- ters more space for business, and for an interchange of new ideas, with a view of making the Manual in subse- quent editions more interesting, and the Sciopticon more useful. It was at first my intention to give space to the sub- ject of chemical lights, but reflecting that in this direc- tion there is no lack of printed matter, and that the in- terest felt in the Sciopticon is owing mainly to its giving P R E P A 0 E. V good results with little trouble, I have concluded to omit the gas, which would increase the bulk of the Manual, without a corresponding addition to its usefulness. PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION The lime light, in an improved form, having been in- troduced into the Sciopticon, it has become expedient to append to the Sciopticon Manual, a description of the apparatus and directions for its use. The demand for Lantern projections is steadily on the increase. A fine photograph (and what can be finer?) projected upon a large screen, before a thousand spec- tators, gives, it is safe to say, ten thousand times the satisfaction that one alone with his stereoscope receives from it. The appreciation is cumulative. " The more the merrier," is the philosophy of it. The Sciopticon with its oil lamp, rather than with its lime light, continues to be the choice of the many, be- cause its use is convenient and inexpensive. There are purposes and occasions however for which the lime light is a necessity. The gas therefore has now received its full share of attention. Much of the added matter is intended to assist those who have a Sciopticon, to pro- vide themselves with interesting objects for exhibition, without resort to a large assortment of expensive slides. CONTENTS OF MANUAL. Ilntroduction, CHAPTFR I. TThe Camera Obscura TThe Inverted Image, CColor and Shading, Mlotion, ^ize, SSize on the Retina, Ssize in the Photographic Camera, Magnified Image, Ilnferences, Bilxperimental Verification, Ilndistinctness C3onvex Lens, SStops, CHAPTER II. TChe Corrections required by Lenses, Trhe Form of Lenses, P:*encils of Rays S^pherical Aberration, D)istortion, C'urved Field, C^hromatio Aberration, TJJnequal illumination, Ct'orrections in the Eye, TIhe Landscape Lens, Trhe Portrait Objective, CHAPTER IIL PAGI The Construction of the Sciopti- con, 24 No Loss of Light from using an Objective of Low Power with a Concentrated Light 24 Advantages of Concentrated Light 25 The Condenser, 26 The Reflector 26 Various Modes of Lantern Illu- mination, 27 The Size proper for the Illumin- ated Disc, 28 Analysis of the Sciopticon 29 Packing, 32 Rules for Operating the Sciopti- con 33 Recapitulation, 36 The Screen, 37 Dissolving Views, 39 Directions for Producing the Dis- solving Effect, 41 The Phantasmagoria, 44 Ancient Magicians, 45 CHAPTER IV. Picture Slides 50 The Standard Size for Lantern Slides, 51 The Sealed Picture 52 Statuary, , 53 (Yii) Vlll CONTENTS OP MANUAL. The Slip Slide, 54 The Lever Slide, 55 Revolving Figures, 55 The Chromatrope, 56 Eidotrope, 57 Moving Waters, 57 Long Slides, 58 Dioramic Painting, with Moving Figures, 58 The Ghost 58 The Tank, 59 Precautions about Slides, 60 CHAPTER V. PHOTOGUAPHY. Glass Positives for the Magic Lantern, 61 Dry Plate Process, 67 CoUodio-Chloride Process, 71 Marcy's Wet Plate Process 72 The Sciopticon Process 74 Woodbury Photo-Relief Slides,.. 76 CHAPTER VL COLOKING SLIDES. Water Colors, etc. , 78 Statuary, 82 CHAPTER VII. CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. Chemical Reactions, 85 Crystallizations, 86 Miscellaneous Experiments, 87 CHAPTER Till. DESCRIPTIVE LECTURES. Bible Pictures, 95 Bible Lands, 103 Views in all parts of the World, 119 Nursery Tales, 119 Composition Pictures, 121 Scientific Slides, 123 CHAPTER IX. THE SCIOPTICON AND ITS USES. PAOK Description of the Sciopticon, — 125 Magic Lantern from 1650 to 1870, 126 Travelling by Magic, 128 Sciopticon for Sunday-Schools,. 130 Science at Home, 130 CHAPTER X. THE TEACHER HIS OWN ARTIST. A Process of Drawing and Paint- ing Magic Lantern Slides, 135 List of Apparatus and Materials, 135 A New Copying Camera, 139 Transfer Pictures, etc., 142 CHAPTER XL NOVELTIES. Novelties in Apparatus, 144 A New Departure, 146 Dancing Skeleton, etc., 147 Effect Slides 149 CHAPTER XII. THE LIME LIGHT. Flame Illumination, 151 Alcohol Burner, 152 House Gas Burner, 153 Drummond Light, 154 Mixed Jet, 155 Marcy's Triple Jet, 158 Sciopticon with Triple Jet, 160 Peculiar advantages of the Triple Jet, 161 Dissolving Cock, 163 Preparation of Oxygen Gas, 164 Preparation of Hydrogen Gas,... 166 Pressure Boards, 169 Edgerton's Self-condensing Gas Cylinders, 170 Multum in Parvo, 173 Microscopes for Projection, 174 Magic Lantern Kaleidoscope, ... 177 Oxy-hydrogen Polarisoope, 178 CONTENTS OF CATALOGUE. PAGE Notice to Purchasers 3 The Sciopticon and Dissolving View Apparatus, 5 Marcy's Photographic Printing Apparatus, 6 MAGIC LANTERN SLIDES. Class I. — Old Testament Illustrations, II. — New Testament Illustra- tions, S III. — Holy Land and Egypt 9 IV. — Ancient Greece and Rome, 11 V. — Complete Illustration to the Text of the Holy Bible 12 VI— Views of Interest in Differ- ent Parts of the World, 17 VII. — American History 20 VI II. — Franco-German War,.... 21 IX. — Views In Sots, conveying Moral Lessons 22 1. The Pilgrim's Process 22 2. Christiana and her Children, 22 3. The Drunkard's Progress,... 22 4. The Bottle (Cruikshank), .. 23 6. The Bottle (Comic), 23 PAGE 6. Stomach of the Drunkard in its Different Stages of Dis- ease, 23 7. The Gambler's Career, 23 8. The Ten Commandments,... 23 9. The Lord's Prayer, 24 10. Four Scenes from the Life of a Country Boy, 24 n. Shakspeare's Seven Ages of Man, 24 12 Masonic, and other Lodge Pictures, 24 13. Tarn O'Shanter, 24 14. New Tale of a Tub, 24 15. Benard, the Sly Fox, 25 16. Fables of Lafontaine, 25 17. The Crusaders, 25 18. The Ill-Fated Ship 25 19. Schiller's Song of the Bell, 25 20. Rip Van Winkle 26 Class X — Miscellaneous Pictures 26 XI — Dissolving Views 23 XII — Chromatropes, Ac, 30 XIII— Original Leaf Designs,... 32 XIV — Statuary and Bas Reliefs,.. 32 XV— Select Painted Comic Slip Slides, 33 (ix) X CONTENTS OF CATALOGUE. XVI — Paintings with Levers, Comic, 34 XVII — Dioramic Paintings, with moving Figures 35 XVIII — Paintings illustrating Nursery Tales, 35 XIX — Fine Engravings, 36 SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT. Class XX — Mammalia, 37 XXI— Birds, 38 XXII — Reptiles and Fishes, 38 XXIII— Insects, 39 XXIV — Arachnida, Crustacea, et Csetera, 39 XXV— Botany, 40 XXVI— Flowers and Plants 41 XXVII — Physical Geography, ... 42 XXVIII — Astronomy, 42 XXIX — Geology, 44 XXX — Natural Phenomenon, 45 XXXI — Anatomy and Physiology 45 XXXII — Microscopic Anatomy, 45 XXXIII— Optics 46 XXXIV — The Microscope and its Revelations 46 XXXV — Crystallography 47 XXXVI — Spectrum Analysis 47 XXXVII— Statuary and Bas Reliefs, 49 XXXVIII — American Views 50 XXXIX — Hymns, 52 XL— "Woodbury Slides, 53 0 INTKODUCTION. The Soiopticon (pronounced Si-op-ti-con), is by far tthe most convenient and easily managed of any form of Magic Lantern. Its ridge of wide, intensified double fflame, lying lengthwise in the axis of the condensing llenses, gives it much greater efficiency than any other 11 amp-illuminated lantern. All who have become acquainted with this new in- estrument, see in it the accomplishment of what has long Ibeen greatly desired by those who appreciate the value (of visible illustrations as a means of imparting instruc- ttion and of affording rational amusement. Confessedly, the medieval magicians with their lan- iterne magique effected little good by their incantations J and ghostly spectres. But modern educators have Jhigher aims and better means at hand. Their lenses J are greatly improved in form and quality. The pho- Uographer secures images of all that is interesting or (xi) xii INTRODUCTION. beautiful in nature and art. Literature and the sciences teem with pictorial illustrations, from which choice se- lections can be easily copied for lantern slides. And now the Sciopticon, with its own peculiar light for all ordinary occasions, and with the oxy-hydrogen light for occasions extraordinary, comes in to show up what is thus made ready. In form and construction the Sciopticon is very unlike that relic of the middle ages, the old magic lantern. Those who are interested in the philosophy involved in it, in the peculiarities pertaining to it, in the practical management of it, in making and selecting slides for it, in performing scientific experiments with it, and in pro- moting the interest of education by it — will do well to inquire within. SCIOPTICON MAifUAL. CHAPTEE 1. THE CAMERA OBSCURA. A picture formed ■ by rays of light from the several parts of an object as seen at A (Fig. 1), is called an image; and the cham- ber in which it is formed, and from •which all light is ex- cluded, except what enters a small hole as at S, is called a camera obscura. This dark chamber claims attention here because its properties, which are common to the eye, the Sciopticon, and all forms of the camera, are seen on a broad scale, and may be readily verified by inexpensive experiments. To avoid confusion the pencils of light are represented in Fig. 1 without marginal rays need- ing to be focused by a convex lens. Explaining the fol- lowing properties in connection with a diagram without . 2 10 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. a lens, may help to correct the common impression that these properties and a convex lens are inseparable. TB[£ INT£BTi:]> IMAGE. Of the rays of light proceeding in all directions from every point in the object B, as from all illuminated objects, just an assortment, that is to say a pencil from each point will enter the hole at just in line to fall in reverse order upon the screen A, forming an inverted image. The picture results from admitting just an assortment and excluding all the rest. COIiOR ANB SHAMNO. Light from each of the several parts of the object B illuminates with its peculiar color and relative intensity each corresponding part of the image, so that it is seen in natural light and shade, and in natural colors. The photographer can fix the relative shading, but he cannot, as yet, fix the colors. MOTION. If, for example, the bird moves to a higher perch, the pencils of light will fall to a lower place on the screen, and so any movement of the object which alters the direction of the pencils of light, will give a reverse movement to the image. sizi:. By inspecting the angle of extreme rays it will be seen that the image in this case is smaller than the ob- ject, because it is nearer the aperture; so in all cases,, the relative size of the image depends on its relative distance from the aperture. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 11 SIZE our TSE RETINA. A A (Fig. 2) represents the visible portion of the sclerotica of the human eye, which is a camera obscura in perfection. 1 I represents the iris (or window shutter), in the middle of which is the pupil (or aperture). As the retina is only about half an inch behind the optical centre, it follows that the images of distant objects upon it must be ^c- ^• very minute. For example, the figure of a man 6 feet high, seen at a distance of 40 feet, produces an image upon the retina the height of which is about j^th part of an inch. The face of such an image is included in a circle whose diameter is about yjth of the height, and therefore occupies on the retina a circle whose diameter is about the yl^yth part of an inch ; nevertheless within this circle, the eyes, nose, and lineaments are distinctly seen. The diameter of the eye is about j'^th of that of the face, and therefore, though distinctly seen, does not occupy upon the retina a space exceeding -f Q-Q^^jfuth. of a square inch. How infinitely delicate must be the structure of the retina or canvas on which this exquisite miniature is delineated to receive and transmit details so minute with such marvellous precision ! SIZE IN TBE PMOTOOBAPHIC CAMERA. A man 6 feet high, standing for his picture 10 feet from a camera tube whose lenses require the screen of ground-glass adjusted to 5 inches, gives a 3 inch picture. For we have (in inches) 120 : 5 : : 72 : X hence x= S'^y ^ 3. 12 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. This rule works both ways ; for suppose a screen to be suspended in place of the man, the space being dark- ened, and suppose the three-inch inverted image to be "fixed" and highly illuminated, then a secondary image will be projected upon the screen ten feet from the lens, corresponding to the original object in size and position. A good portrait objective for the camera is also suitable for a lantern objective ; for the lines of light and the angles are in both cases the same. INFEREHrCIl 2. The light, if reflected from the three-inch picture, radiates so as to cover 100 times as much surface on the magnified image. Now, as a very small fraction of this reflected light is re-reflected to the eye of the observer, it seems a hopeless undertaking, to make the opaque lan- tern practically useful in showing the images of small paper photographs, on a large scale, with any ordinary flames, however well arranged. INFERENCE 3. With an intense light at a point behind the three-inch transparency, converged by a condenser, so as to enter the objective through all points of the picture, the mag- nified image is illuminated with incident rays concentra- ted, and its exhibition becomes a success. ISTFERENCE 4. Additional light outside this point (as some recom- mend), would not fall in line with the objective so as to improve the illumination; while the additional heat and diffused light would be very objectionable. SOIOPTICON MANUAL. 18 SXPERIMENTAIi VBBIFICATION. These properties of the camera obscura, thus far con- sidered, may receive more lively illustrations by actually darkening a room and admitting light through, say an inch hole. A room with but one window, and that looking from the sun, and towards objects illuminated by sunlight, is to be preferred. A lens, if one is used, of long focal distance (nearly flat) gives more room for spectators before the screen. The images, if the lens has short focus, may be better seen on the back of a semi-transparent screen by transmitted light, as they are seen on the ground-glass in a photographic camera. These moving pictures of busy life and wavy trees, of curling smoke and floating clouds, are peculiarly pleasing and beautiful, as well as suggestive of im- portant principles in optics. Pig. 1 fails of showing the divergence of each pencil of light to the size of the aperture as seen at c (Fig. 3) j a: I c C) Fig. 3. a property which renders the image indistinct, from the consequent overlapping of the blunt ends, so to speak, of innumerable pencils. coNTEX Incurs. In accordance with the law of refraction, rays as from d (Fig. 4) are bent towards a perpendicular in entering the convex lens I, and from a perpendicular in 14 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. emerging from it. As the result of these refractions they meet at /. The converging power of lenses, of uniform substance and density, is in proportion to their Fig. 4. degree of convexity. For a lens to sharpen the image, the screen must be adjusted to the focal distance. STOPS. To get on the same plate something like distinct images of objects at various distances, a " stop " is used by the photographer, which, though it necessitates long exposure, secures " depth of focus." This expedient of having a small aperture is also resorted to for lessening the defects or aberrations of lenses, just as the aperture h (Fig- 3) is made small to lessen the greater defect of having no lens. Stops are not used in the Sciopticon objective, because all portions of the picture-slide are in the same plane, and because sharpness produced by stops is always at the expense of light. CHAPTBE II. THE CORRECTIOirS RI:Q,VIRE]> by liENSES. The corrections required by lenses (as well as every- thing photographic), is well set forth in Dr. Yogel's Handbook of Photography. The use of such diagrams, as are here appropriated, is kindly allowed by the Ameri- BCIOPTICON MANUAL. 15 can publishers, Benerman & Wilson. Of course one may successfully operate the Sciopticon, or even excel in photography, without a critical knowledge of lenses; but a very short, connected showing of their properties, with diagrams, will doubtless prove acceptable to many who use the Sciopticon, or who are interested in pho- tography. THE FORM OF liENSEN. The convex, or converging lenses. 1, 2, and 3 (Fig. 5), called biconvex, plano-convex, and meniscus, are thicker 12 3 4 5 0 Fig. 3. in the centre than on the margin. The concave, or dis- persing lenses, 4, 5, and 6, called biconcave, plano-concave, and concavo-convex, are thinner in the centre than on the margin. A line through the centre of these lenses, from side to side, would show the axis of each lens. PFNCIIiS OF BATS AND THEIR II.IiUSTRATIONS. A pencil of rays considered in reference to its direction and the points in the image which it illuminates, may be represented by a simple straight line, as in Fig. 1 ; but in most cases, when the action of lenses on its rays is considered, it must be shown as a bundle of rays, as in Fig. 4. The pencil in Fig. 6 differs from df in Fig. 4, in having middle rays represented as well as marginal, and 16 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. in having thorn proceed from a point too distant to be shown. The rays of a pencil from a point 100 times further from the lens than is the image, are about paral- lel, and their focus is called the focus of parallel rays, or principal focus. A real pencil is composed of innumerable rays, and such pencils from innumerable points in the object meet and cross at the lens on their way to cor- responding points in the image, and wonderful to tell, no one is switched from the track for another, and there are no collisions. An explanation of one answers for countless millions. SPHEBICAIi ABERRATION. It is seen (Fig. 6) that the marginal rays d d must be more refracted, or bent, than the more central rays / /, Fig. 6. in order to meet the axial rays at f^, and so it is seen that the margin of the lens C D has a greater refracting angle than the more central portions. But the trouble is, the refracting at the margin is overdone, so that the rays d d meet the axial ray at/g instead of at/^. Hence if a ground-glass has been placed at/^, the marginal rays which have intersected the axis at /g will form a circle of dispersion about f^. The diameter of this circle is called the lateral aberration, and the distance between /g and is called the longitudinal aberration. As a con- 8CI0PTIC0N MANUAL. 17 sequence of this want of coincidence between the foci of the central and marginal rays the picture on the screen, or ground-glass, will appear blurred and ill defined. We can conceive of a lens with a gradually lessening degree of convexity towards the margin, causing the foci to coincide, but lenses cannot well be ground in this form. The crystalline lens in the eye is supposed to cause the foci to coincide by an increase of density towards its centre, but such an arrangement of matter would be impracticable in art. Much is gained by re- versing the lens, for spherical aberration is four times as great when the parallel rays enter its plane surface, as when they enter its convex surface. Much is gained by a combination of lenses so that the refracting angle may be less in each. "Were the mar- ginal rays d d cut off by a stop, the aberration would be less, as we can see by tracing them in the diagram, but the illumination would also be less by so much. DISTORTION. When we focus with a single lens with a front stop A B C sharply on a square, A (Fig. 7) the resulting picture will not appear square, but barrel-shaped, as at B, When we 18 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. substitute a lens with the stop in the rear, the curves will be reversed, as at C. This property is based on the fact that the marginal rays of the field of view strike the lens under a larger angle than the central rays, and consequently suffer a greater refraction. Of the simple form Of lenses, the meniscus, with its concave side to the object, shows it the least. But it is best overcome by a combination of lenses with central stops. This error is not caused by spherical aberration, for it occurs with all perfectly aplanatic lenses, but by the curve of the image, as is shown by the arrow, Fig. 8. mg. s. When the ground-glass is placed at a a, only the central part will appear sharp ; when at h b, only the points of the arrow will appear well defined. This error is avoided by combination of lenses with suitable curves, and by stops. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 19 CKROMATIC ABERRATION, OR DISPERSION OF COIiOR. White light is separated by a prism into the seven primary colors; violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow^, orange, red. As a lens is analogous to a system of prisms, and as violet is more refrangible than red, the violet rays v v (Fig. 9) will intersect the axis closer to the lens than the red rays r r. This error is corrected by combining a concave lens of flint-glass with a convex lens of crown- glass, so as to neutralize their contrary dispersions. The concave flint-glass lens / (Fig. 12), which has great dispersive power in proportion to its curves, diverges the violet more than the red, while the convex crown-glass lens converges the violet more than the red, so we have in both combined an achromatic convex lens. As the chemical rays are in the violet end of the spectrum, the photographer may succeed with an im- perfectly corrected lens by having the sensitive plate a little nearer the lens than the focus of luminous rays on the ground-glass would indicate. Lenses without chro- matic aberration are called achromatic. The term aplanatic means without wandering, and may apply to lenses corrected of both spherical and chromatic aber- ration. 20 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. UNES;S/S proceed from an object com- paratively large and distant, forming a small image in the camera. Considering the diagram as representing a lantern objective, the order is reversed. A small transparency is in place of the curved line, which in its turn becomes the focus of incident rays, projecting upon a screen a comparatively large and distant image where the pencils S S S, if extended, meet in a focus of re- fraction. B is called the back lens in either case, as it is back next to the instrument to which the tube is attached. 24 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. CHAPTEE III. THE COHrSTRUCTIOHr OF THE SCIOPTICON. The Portrait Objective. — This objective (Fig. 13 or 15) is made for the camera, and is known mostly in its relations to photography. An objective, however, that with large opening, will give proper direction to rays from a large object to a small image in the camera, will answer equally well in giving direction to rays from the small picture in the Sciopticon back to life-size on a screen; both object and image being in the conjugate foci in either case. The Plain Lantern Objective. — This objective, like the achromatic portrait objective (Fig. 13 or 15), has the advantage of a front and a back lens, A B (Fig. 14), so far apart that the tube serves as a stop for marginal rays with comparatively small loss of light. The front lens J. is a meniscus of crown-glass, whose tube slides into a larger tube which holds the plano-convex crown- glass lens B. Arranged as in the diagram, the effect is scarcely inferior, so far as common observation goes, to that of the most expensive combinations. With the front tube reversed, so as to bring A near to B, the image is larger but less distinct. With only one lens the image is smaller. These different arrangements give the three powers commonly attributed to lenses mounted in this form. 3fO liOSS OF I.I»HT FROM USISTO AN OBJECTIVE OF EOW POWER WITH A CONCENTRATED MCiHT. Were the picture p (Fig. 14) made luminous by light shining upon it, as in an opaque lantern, the light would radiate in all dire-)tions, and in accordance with the law SOrOPTICON MANUAL, 25 of radiation would lose intensity with distance, and so a lens of short focus, being nearer, would bring more light Vig. 14. to bear on the image. But the light in fact proceeds from Z, and what passes through the condenser and picture becomes a cone of light, with its apex in the objective. This cone of light must be regulated by the position or power of the condenser so as to fall within the compass of the objective. Except for some reflections from the surfaces of the glasses, the light would not illuminate the room at all in its passage, and there would not be even the small need there is of the hood i (Fig. 15). ADTASTTAGES OF A CONCENTRATED lilOHT. Could the light proceed from a mathematical point behind a faultless condenser, the pencils a' h' d (Fig. 14) would be without marginal rays, and there would be nothing for the objective to do, for its office is to bring the marginal rays of each pencil to coincide with the axial ray. Were we to adjust the aperture of our window shutter (Fig. 1), to the apex of the cone, there would be no rays for the shutter to cut off. The image would be formed anywhere within reach of the light, either with or without lens or stop. But in reality even the most concentrated light occupies some space with countless radiant points, so near together however that % 26 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. their radiations cross at a very small angle. The rays which meet and cross at each point in the picture become a pencil of diverging rays to be focused on the screen by the objective. We conclude, therefore, that the more concentrated the light, the nearer in each pencil will the marginal rays coincide with the axial ray, and the less will the imperfections of lenses become manifest. THE COIffDENSER. The condenser is formed of combined lenses, because the refracting angles would be too great in a single lens of sufficient diameter and short focal distance. The simplest arrangement is where two plano-convex lenses are combined, with their curved surfaces inwards, as in Fig. 14, or at p in Fig. 15. The shorter the focus of the condenser, the shorter, with a given objective, must be its distance from the light; it will collect more light, but it will be in more danger of breakage from the heat. In the Sciopticon the space between the lens ^ (Fig. 15) and the front of the flame is only about two and a half inches, but the glass G, and the air between it and q rising up and out at A, makes it perfectly secure. The condensing lenses in the Sciopticon are usually each 4 inches in diameter; but a 4 J inch front condensing lens, p, is used to advantage for slides larger than the standard size, and to show fully the corners of some of the ordinary square transparencies. THE BEFEECTOR. The reflector r (Fig. 14) is so adjusted that the light is in the centre of concavity. Each ray is reflected back to its starting-point, and continues in line with SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 27 the incident rays a h c. Some advocate a larger reflec- tor, a parabolic reflector, or reflectors at the sides ; but unless the reflected light coincides with a h c, or nearly so, it is not transmitted by the objective lens. With proper adjustments, the light ?, with that from the reflector, is focused at the objective tube, of a com- parative size proportionate to its relative distance from the condenser; and the picture p is focused upon the screen at i of a comparative size proportionate to its relative distance from the objective. As represented in Fig. 14, the smallest diameter of the cone of light in the objective A B would be twice that of the point of light I, and the height of the image i would be twice that of the picture^. To project a picture to a great distance without too much enlargement, the objective must be of low power and carried forward ; and the light should be from a point (as in the calcium light) to avoid loss, and should be carefully adjusted to secure even illumination. The longitudinal ridge of light E (Fig. 15), with a medium objective gives uniformly good results without perplexing experimental adjustments. TARIOrS) MODES OF I-ANTERN lEEFMIXATION. The Hydro-Oxy-Calcium light, or lime made incan- descent by a jet of hydrogen and oxygen in flame upon it, is the most brilliant available light. Its concentrated form adds greatly to its value for the lantern. The Oxy- Calcium light produced by a jet of oxygen on to lime, through an alcohol flame, is much inferior to what is produced by the mixed gases. It is much used, because one gas is easier to manage than two, and it is counted 28 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. safer. A lantern with a calcium light of either kind is commonly called a Stereopticon. The Magnesium light is excellent in photography, but it gives off troublesome fumes, and for a continued lantern exhibition is too liable, even with well-regulated clockwork, to leave the lookers-on in sudden darkness. The Electric light is intense and concentrated, but it requires too much apparatus to be available. The above so-called chemical lights, are, if well man- aged, much brighter than flame, even at its best. The Sciopticon has a double flame, which is not only very bright, but gives much more distinctness to the image, by its standing edgewise to the condenser instead of broadside, as a single flame must, to prevent its casting a dark shadow on the disk. No lantern of any sort can compare with the Sciopticon in point of convenience. We may conclude that the Hydro-Oxy-Oalcium light is best for exhibitions on a large scale, and as for the rest, the Sciopticon is desirable as combining efficiency and great convenience. THE SIZE PROPER FOR THE IliEUMINATED DISK. The image enlarges in area, and diminishes propor- tionately in brightness, as the distance of the lantern from the screen increases. A disk of six or seven feet is about right for figures, statuary, &c., to give bright- ness and not an unnatural size ; while landscapes, &c., appear better on a disk of eight or ten feet, or more. With an objective of about four inches back focus, as is most used on the Sciopticon, a distance of about sixteen feet from the screen gives a disk of about eight feet. The arrangement can be varied to suit circumstances. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 29 ANAIiTtSIS OF TSi: SCIOPTICON. The lenses, mountings, &c., Fig. 15, are shown in sec- tion. "What is left of the frame and cylinder, the lamp, chimney, reflector, &c., are shown in perspective. The parts are as follows : a h — Front combination of the objective cemented together. c d — Back combination separated by a ring. If the cells holding these combinations are unscrewed and the lenses removed, they must be returned in the same order and position as seen in the dia- gram. There is no need of removing them. Even the outer sur- faces of a and d will seldom need dusting if kept in a clean place with the caps closed. They should not be fingered, and the brush or fabric used for dusting them should be clean and soft. e — Milled head for adjusting the focus. // — Flange attached to the projecting wooden ring g g. The tube here represented is a quarter-size portrait camera tube of A\ inches back focus, requiring an aperture in ^ A of 2f inches in diameter. If a larger tube is used, the aperture in g h has to be enlarged. If the back focus is more than 5 inches, the extension front h k must be drawn out more or less from the main body, as is shown in the diagram. If the focus is shorter than 3J inches, the ring g g is removed, letting the flange/ back to h. h h — Wooden frame of the extension front ; h ' sliding in a groove within the body-frame I I. i — Top of the hood covering light dispersed by reflection. The near side is cut away to show the screen k ; the edge of the remain- ing side is seen beyond k. k — Is now modified into a horizontal lid, which shuts up over the lens d, darkening the picture on the screen like a falling curtain. I I — Portion of the wooden frame, the rest being mostly cut away to show the lamp, and how the extension front slides in its groove. m — Claw attached to the front foot. n — Flange under the back foot. On the top of the Sciopticon case, or box in which it is carried, and which can be placed upon a stand or table to elevate the instrument to proper height while in use, are two round-headed screws, slightly raised, and at the dis- tance apart of to n ; m clings to one, and n slips under the other, mi I 30 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. thus holding the instrument firmly in place. When a pair is used for dissolving views, the fronts are thus held in a fixed position, while the rear ends may he spread apart till the disks on the screen coincide. 0 o' — Stage and spring for wooden-mounted pictures. The opera- tor standing hehind, slides a picture horizontally in at o, letting it bear against the condenser mounting, and letting it project equally mg. 15. both sides of the cylinder. The picture is drawn out with the left hand, while with the right hand another is made to follow in its place, so as not to show the white disk on the screen. p q — Condensing lenses. Lenses when taken from a damp or cold place are apt to become covered with moisture, which shades the pictures. It is better when this is likely to be the case, to let the instrument stand in a warm room awhile, or else to draw the lenses apart and dry them before beginning an exhibition. r — Brass ring, holding the condenser cells suspended in the cylin- SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 31 der, so as not to "be anywhere in contact with it. The ring shuts over the end of the cylinder like the cover of a tin pail. To re- move the condenser, the extension front is drawn off, and the stage 0 is lifted out of its place. s — Lamp cup for kerosene oil. It holds three gills, or enough to last about 4 hours. When it has to be moved about much, it is better not to fill it more than two-thirds full, for if any oil gets out- side, it gives off its offensive smell ; while if there is no oil outside there is no smell from it in the least. "When packed for transpor- tation, the oil should be thoroughly drained off. t — Nozzle to admit the oil. It is large, so that if a wick is care- lessly turned down into the cup, it can be fished out with a bent wire. u — Side of one of the two tubes, showing how the conduction of heat downwards is counteracted by breaking the connection in the metal. It is made of tin, for the reason that it is a slower conductor than brass. V V — Tops of the two tubes. They carry No. 3 wicks, which are an inch and a half wide. The lamp being taken out, the wicks are pushed down the tubes till they are caught by the ratchet-wheels and drawn down. Should a loose thread of the wick get clogged in the wheels it must be drawn out and cut off. The ratchet-wheels could be made to bear tighter on the wicks by pounding gently along the bottom of the tubes, but such a necessity is not likely to happen. w w — Buttons for adjusting the wicks; both are turned inward to raise the wicks, and outward to draw them down. X — Spring for holding the lamp, z — Stop, preventing the lamp from sliding in too far. A B — Portions of the cylinder not cut away, seen beyond the condenser and flame-chamber. C — Portion of the cylinder turned up, to give free ventilation all about the flame-chamber. D — Portion of the cylinder turned down and supported by the wooden frame. E E" — Bottom of the flame-chamber. It is not supported by contact with the lamp, thus avoiding the conduction of heat down- wards. The slot through which the flame ascends is two inches long by half an inch wide. E' answers to the deflecting cap of a 32 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. common lamp. E'^ is level, to allow the lamp [the wicks being turned down) to slide in and out. E slopes so as not to shade the light from the condenser. F — Narrow strip of glass, quarter of an inch wide, held in a socket before the flame, to give upward direction to heated air. . It will not crack from heat because it is so narrow, and without ob- structing light it takes from the glass G its liability to crack. Q — Front of flame-chamber glass. It is now held in a tin frame by a wire ring, so that should it crack, it is still kept in place with- out harming the effect on the screen. — Back flame-chamber glass. The lamp is lighted by remov- ing this glass, and reaching the wicks with a lighted match. G G' must be in place to secure the draft. F, especially since the intro- duction of the tin frame for is scarcely necessary. jGT— Reflector, used also to close the rear of the cylinder. The centre of concavity is at E' ^ so that reflected rays are thus made to coincide with incident rays from E' to the condenser. 7 — Chimney, giving large outlet to heated air. /—Chimney cap, for darkening the outlet. It may be raised to increase the draft, when the lamp gets to burning freely enough to bear it. PACKING. No instrument is forwarded without being first proved by careful trial. The oil is then poured off, and the lamp burned awhile afterwards, to prevent any further drainage should it be shipped wrong side up. Let this precaution be taken by all who pack the instrument for transportation^ that there may be none of the offensive smell of oil when the instrument is unpacked and used. The wicks are left in the tubes, ready for use. Four extra wicks, with the narrow glass, J^, are tied together, which with a dozen flame-chamber glasses, G G', are sent with each instrument. F is removed, as it is liable to fall out if inverted. For the most part G G' are left in j)lace. Packing is placed between G and q, to pre- SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 33 vent their getting out of place and scratching against each other; also between G-' and H, and between the condensing lenses. The cap J is removed and placed behind the chimney. The whole is snugly packed in a box with stuffing, and the cover fastened on with screws. These particulars may be advantageously referred to in case of repacking by the purchaser or borrower. RUI^KiS FOR OPEBATIJfG THE SCIOPTICOJT. In unpacking a new instrument the parts must be separated, to remove the packing papers. Dust them if necessary. For the lenses and reflector use a duster that is soft and clean. Warm and dry the condensing lenses if inclined to fog. Adjust jP, G', J, and the lenses, as seen in Fig. 15. Shut the extension front back to its place. Fill the lamp about two-thirds full with standard kerosene oil. The fire test should be 110° at least ; that of Pratt's astral oil is 145°. Avoid carelessly tilting the lamp when it is very full, and so avoid the smell of oil evaporating from the out- side surface. Turn down the wicks, so they will not rub against the deflecting plate while withdrawing or inserting the lamp. It is convenient J:.o stand the instrument so as to be about breast high. The image enlarges as the distance of the instrument from the screen increases. With a medium objective, a distance of sixteen feet gives a disk of eight feet, &c. Exhibitions of this sort appear to the best advantage 34 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. in the evening; shutting out dayhght is not only trou- blesome, but the eye is not prepared for the contrast. Lights should be turned down near the screen, but may be left dimly burning in the distance, or out of range of the screen. Light the lamp in the instrument, as it stands in the diagram, by removing the back glass, G', turning up the wicks by a turn inward of the buttons w w, and reach- ing the wicks V V through E with a lighted match. To avoid smoke, turn the wicks almost down again till the glass is replaced. Turn up the flames evenly about half an inch at first; they will rise a little after the wicks are warm, when they may need looking to again, after which they will stand steady without requiring further attention. Put out the light by drawing the wicks down with a turn of the buttons outward, and then blowing under the reflector. The wicks may be trimmed when the lamp is taken out to bo filled; cut them level; it may be done more evenly by only removing the black part. If kept in a dry place the reflector will keep its polish for a long time; it is protected by a film which should not be rubbed. While exhibiting, the operator should stand behind the instrument, having the slides arranged at his right, in the proper order and inverted position required for exhibition. If the instrument is in front of the screen, the wire ring fastening the double gl^s into the wooden mounts should be towards the condenser, in order to show the views in a right-handed position. Some oper- ators mark what should be the upper right hand corner of each picture, with a piece of white paper, or a notch. Pass the slides in with the right hand, level and true. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 35 ■without jumping them about. The stage o slants down to the condenser, to keep the slides down close to it. Take the slides out with the left hand as others are pushed into place, so as to leave none of the white disk visible, and put them in their box as before. A slide standing endwise between those which have been used and those which have not, will keep them apart. As photographers are giving increasing attention to preparing slides, there is an increasing proportion in the market of the size of half a stereoscopic view, or 3i inches square^ bound with narrow binding. For these a wooden stage 9 inches long is attached to o o', so that, without crowding a picture out at the end, its successor may be pushed into its place, by the finger following to where the cylinder and stage intersect; with the left hand at the button attached to the back stop we may : 1. Close stop. 2. Slide in the picture. 3. Uncover — so that in the time of counting three we have changed the scene without any visible movement. This, well man- aged, is better than dissolving views poorly managed. Tanks for insects, fish, chemical experiments, &c., &c., slide into the stage as easily as pictures. The stage being open at the top, with no bulky lantern case to ob- struct it, is peculiarly suited*to all such operations. A slender wire in the direction r o', answers the pur- pose of a long rod pointing upward on the screen to explain the representations. The simplicity and completeness of the Sciopticon are more evident in practice than may seem while consider- ing so wide a range of details and contingencies. The advantage of having an instrument so completely under one's hand is not only felt by the operator, but the smoothness it gives to the exhibition is appreciated by spectators. 36 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. Beginners who wish to understand and operate the Sciopticon by explanations and directions which can be seen at a glance, may examine in connection with Fig. 15, the following BECAPITUIiATION. The front, h h A', with its attachments, draws apar.t from the body of the instrument. The stage o o' lifts out. The condenser, f is drawn out by laying hold of the ring r. The cells holding p and q draw apart. The front flame-chamber glass G is held in place by the spring J., which can be reached through the open- ing over A. With h 0 p q G removed, the narrow glass F (found packed with the extra wicks) is reached to position, and needs no further attention. The portion of chimney attached to the cap J, tele- scopes into /. The lamp S slides out horizontally, by raising the spring JC. With packing removed, glasses clean^ lamp filled two- thirds full of standard kerosene oil, and all parts in place as seen in the cut, remove the back glass G', and reach the wicks v v with a lighted match. Eeplace G', and let the flames stand about one inch high. See, specially, that an oil so inflammable as to light at the safety slit u is not used — that no oil is left outside the lamp-cup, to give off an offensive smell — that the wicks nt V V are not raised to rub against the plate E'^ when the lamp slides in and out — that the flame-chamber glasses G G' are in place to secure draft, and that the SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 37 Oil is thoroughly drained out of the lamp-cup should the instrument have to be repacked for transportation by public conveyance. Standing behind the instrument, placed about breast high — as upon its box on a stand or table — close down the reflector pass in the slides at o o' with the right hand, taking them out with the left as other slides take their places. Focus the picture by the milled head e, upon the screen, which may be distant sixteen feet, more or less, as it is desired to have the scenes on a larger or smaller scale. k (unlike the cut) is horizontal, and turns up to give the appearance of a falling curtain on the screen. THE SCREEN. There can be nothing better for the projected pictures than the white-finished, whitewashed, or white-papered walls of many a lecture-room or dwelling. An appro- priate space specially set apart and papered with white wall paper, having an outline, say of a wide recess or niche for statuary, is an inexpensive and not inelegant fixture, on which to display before the assembled house- hold, without waste of room or trouble in arranging, the richest treasures of all the art galleries in Christendom. The time is coming, when for purposes of demonstra- tion and illustration in the lecture-room, this whiteboard will rival the blackboard. The best material in the market for a movable screen of good size, seems to be bleached sheeting of close texture, but not very fine, twelve-quarters wide. This gives us the material, nine feet square, for about two dollars. It has the advantage of being available whether the instrument is placed before or behind it. As, however, every pencil of light falling between the 38 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. open threads of the texture is lost, it is better, when the instrument is invariably to be placed in front, to cover the surface with whiting or paper, keeping it smooth by mounting it on a roller. When illumin- ated from behind, the screen should be wet, to tighten its texture and to make it translucent, and consequently luminous on the side towards the spectators. It can be wet and then stretched upon a frame, or first mounted and then sprinkled to saturation. For home use, a sheet may be stretched across the frame upon which the fold- ing doors of most modern houses are hung, the doors being thrown open at the commencement of the exhibi- tion. A waxed screen is often recommended, but it is little used on account of the difficulty of keeping it smooth and clean. An unmounted screen can be quickly put up in any room by procuring two strips of wood about two inches square, and long enough to reach from the floor to the ceiling ; a side of the screen is tacked to each one of these strips, which are then stretched apart; and wedged up tightly between the floor and the ceiling. To widen the screen to more than nine feet, join the added width to each side, rather than bring a seam into the centre of the views. A fine picture from within, upon oiled muslin, stretched upon a frame, made to fit a show window, is always greatly admired by all the passers-by. Such a framed oiled screen, on a small scale, can also be conveniently used in parlors, or in the doorway leading out from the company. Working behind the screen has in many cases decided advantages, but the images can hardly be as bright by transmitted light, and other things being equal, it is better for the instrument to be in front. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 39 DISti^eiiTINO VIEWS. The Stand. — The peculiar stand represented in Fig. 16, is mostly the one used with Sciopticon dissolving apparatus, and so can better be described with it, but it is not necessarily a part of it. It consists of a well-made walnut box, mounted on two pairs of adjustable legs, attached by fixed thumb- screws and nuts. The back legs are an inch or so shorter than those attached to the front at J., to elevate the range of the lanterns. The back of the stand may be known by the match-lighter G, and by its being nec- essary for the operator from behind to have the open- ing and the box of slides B at his right hand. The slide D stands on end, to separate the used from the unused slides. When the apparatus is taken down, the legs swing together on their hinges, and are tied in a bundle ; the open side of the box becomes the top ; the instruments occupy the stalls E and F; the dissolver is drawn apart and placed alongside ; the caps are removed from the chimney, and placed in the rear; the box of slides occu- pies the space in front; the swing shelf G becomes the lid and is locked down; the strap S and its mate, now hidden under the instruments, meet over the top for one carrier, or serve like the ears of a basket, for two. But as a stand, as seen in the diagram, the front of the box becomes the baseboard, and like any other 13 by 17 inch board, aflfords suitable standing-room for the apparatus; it is more likely to keep it level than a sep- arate board, as it is dovetailed and firmly fastened in place. Dissolving Apparatus Arranged. — The fronts of the sciopticons R and L, hold firmly by claws to two SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 41 screw-heads 7i inches apart; the flanges in the rear slide, under two similar screw-heads, holding the instru- ments down, but allowing them to spread till their disks coincide on the screen. The construction of the dissolver is shown in Fig. 17, in its three parts. The crescent-shaped dissolver a is mounted on the arm 6, as seen in Fig. 16, so as to cover alternately the tubes on B and L, as it swings from side to side. The horizontal part of h slips into c till the length of the united axle just allows the dissolver to swing clear of the tubes, and the whole is held in place by a socket-spring at each end of the baseboard. The dissolver is operated by the handles at c, which are adjusted at the proper angle to limit the lateral movement of a to the distance between the tubes. Light the lamps in their place by reaching the wicks with a lighted match, and attend to them at first to see that they burn steadily and evenly. Focus a picture in -K, for example, while L is covered by the dissolver, and Fig, 17. in L while It is covered ; this reduces the disks to equal size on the screen. With the slides removed, and the dissolver in the position as shown in Fig. 16, spread the lanterns till the disks coincide. Directions for Producing the Dissolving Effects. — With the lanterns lighted, and arranged as shown in Fig. 16, and a slide placed in each, then the gradual 4 42 SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. moving of the dissolver will very mysteriously dissolve one view into another. This effect is commonly produced with slides not spe- cially arranged for the purpose, but it is desirable that they should be of similar size and shape, and that they should be put in evenly, so as to cover the same space on the screen. Many slides are, however, selected and executed with special reference to their producing charming effects in dissolving. They are mostly arranged in pairs, as some view in summer and the same in winter, by day and by night, interior and exterior, in sunshine and in storm, or hu- manity in opposite moods. Sometimes the series are more extended, as the Seasons, the Voyage of Life, &c., and sometimes they are in connection with chroma- tropes to represent volcanic action, conflagrations, fire- works, turning mills, &c. Suppose, for example. Saint Peter's, at Eome, is thrown upon the screen from J2, and a night view of the same is placed in L; then as the dissolver is changed. Saint Peter's with its surroundings continues on the screen, but an appearance of night comes over it; the windows glitter with a thousand lights, and the moon makes its appearance in the heav- ens. Now, suppose a chromatrope, suited to the pur- pose, is placed in JS, then as the change proceeds fire- works will rise from the darkness, and illumine the sky. The snow effect is produced by a strip, usually of silk, with pin-holes all over its surface, mounted on roll- ers within a slide, so that when the silk is rolling up, snowflakes appear on the screen to be falling. Let, for example, a farm-house scene be projected from R upon the screen, amid all the glory of summer vegetation ; place the snow slide in L, and let an assistant slowly SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 43 roll it up while the dissolver passes over; the snow- shows plainer and plainer, till nothing but the falling snow appears. Now place in It the same view in winter and turn back the dissolver; the storm subsides, and the farm-house scene again appears in the morning light, covered with the newly fallen snow of the win- ter's night. To bring out statuary on a blue ground, a slide of blue glass, and usually one of red glass also is used. Change any scene, first into a red disk, then the red into blue, and then let a piece of statuary slowly come out into the blue ground, while the blue becomes darker and darker, till it ends in a blackness which seems to add vigor to the representation. A beautiful eifect is produced by a wheel chromatrope, used continuously in one of the lanterns, while a series is shown in the other, turning it inward and outward alternately, as the dissolving proceeds. It thus seems to suck up the vanishing scene as in a maelstrom, and to bring out its successor with scintillations of colored lights. A pleasing effect is produced by showing a series of views in one lantern, and a veranda, or some appropriate design with opaque centre, with the other. If in adopt- ing this suggestion, the veranda be focused for the edges of the field, and the view focused for the centre, a flat field is obtained over the entire disk. In this case, and in all cases when light from both lanterns is to appear, the dissolver is slipped up an inch higher, and kept in position as in Fig. 16. The slow or dissolving process may become monoto- nous, and it is not always appropriate. We hardly like to see "Pilgrim" in his "Progress" fading away, while his double by his side is slowly growing in strength and 44 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. vigor. It is better to allow the axle of the dissolver to turn at once, flashing the change upon the disk. Much use can be made of this expedient, as it is so easily effected in the apparatus represented. A dupli- cate picture placed in B and Jj in reverse order, the dissolver being changed back and forth with a sudden movement, will show an " about face " as of a person bowing to the company, a lion uneasy in his cage, &c. Lightnings may thus be made to flash upon scenery, especially when the view is darkened somewhat by turning down its light a little, giving the appearance of a rising tempest. Discretion and good taste should be observed in ar- ranging the slides for an exhibition, so as not to mar beauty with caricature, or sacred scenes with what is ridiculous; yet it is well to avoid monotony, for "variety is the spice of life." Dissolving views, it must be confessed, are usually treated in a somewhat florid style by opticians, so it may be safe to make some abatement in anticipating the effects, especially of high-priced mechanical slides, lest when they chance to fall below the " Eoyal Polytechnic Institute in London," there should be a feeling of dis- appointment. In the Sciopticon enterprise, it has been kept steadily in mind, to produce beautiful and useful results by the simplest means; and the desire is felt, not to make as large sales as possible, but to have every purchaser realize his highest expectations. THE PHANTASMAGORIA. To produce this effect, the operator should be on one side of the wet screen, and the spectators on the other. 8CI0PTIC0N MANUAL, 45 Taking the instrument under his left arm, he should go up pretty close to the screen, and adjust the focus with his right hand ; the image of course will be very small; he must then walk slowly backwards, at the same time adjusting the focus. As the image increases in size, it will appear to the spectators to be coming towards them; and then again let him walk up towards the screen, thus diminishing the image, and it will appear to them as if receding. The screen not being seen, the image appears to be suspended in the air, and the de- ception is complete, even to those accustomed to the exhibition. The focusing is most evenly and easily effected by prying the extension front out and in with the thumb and fingers of the right hand. Slides producing the best phantasmagorial effect are those containing but one or two figures with a black background. In ancient times, the images from the phantasmagoria were thrown on the smoke arising from a chafing dish in which odors and drugs were burning, and by means of which many surprising and apparently supernatural effects were produced. As a relief from so closely following practical details, let us advert to the probable use made by ancient magicians, necro- mancers, and sorcerers, of these optical contrivances for producing supernatural illusions. In this we cannot do better than to quote from that eminent authority on optical science. Sir David Brewster : " In the imperfect accounts which have reached us of these rep- resentations, we can trace all the elements of optical illusion. In the ancient temple of Hercules, at Tyre, Pliny mentions that there was a seat made of consecrated stone, ' from which the gods easily arose.' Esculapius often exhibited himself to his worshipers in the temple at Tarsus ; and the Temple at Enguinum, in Sicily, was 46 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. celebrated as the place where the goddesses exhibited themselves to mortals. Jambliches actually informs us that the ancient magicians caused the gods to appear among the vapors disengaged from fire. ' ' The character of these exhibitions in the ancient temple is so admirably depicted in the following passage of Damascius, quoted by M. Salverte, that we recognize all the optical effects which have been already described. ' In a manifestation,' says he, ' which ought not to be revealed, .... there appeared on the wall of the temple a mass of light, which at first seemed to be very remote ; it trans- formed itself in coming nearer, into a face evidently divine and supernatural, of a severe aspect, but mixed with gentleness, and extremely beautiful. According to the institutions of a mysterious religion the Alexandrians honored it as Osiris and Adonis.' " These and other allusions to the operations of the ancient magic, though sufficiently indicative of the methods which were employed, are too meagre to convey any idea of the splendid and imposing exhibitions which must have been displayed. A national system of deception, intended as an instrument of government, must have brought into requisition not merely the scientific skill of the age, but a variety of subsidiary contrivances, calculated to astonish the beholder, to confound his judgment, to dazzle his senses, and to give a predominant influence to the peculiar imposture which it was thought desirable to establish. The grandeur of the means may be inferred from their efficacy, and from the extent of their influence. " This defect, however, is to a certain degree supplied by an ac- count of a modern necromancy, which has been left us by the cele- brated Benvenuto Oellini, and in which he himself performed an active part. " ' It happened,' says he, ' through a variety of odd accidents, that I made acquaintance with a Sicilian priest, who was a man of ge- nius, and well versed in the Latin and Greek authors. Happening one day to have some conversation with him when the subject turned upon the art of necromancy, I, who had a great desire to know something of the matter, told him, that I had all my life felt a curiosity to be acquainted with the mysteries of this art. " ' The priest made answer, "that the man must be of a resolute and steady temper who enters upon that study." I replied, "that I had fortitude and resolution enough, if I could but find an oppor- SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 47 tunity." The priest subjoined, " If you think you have the heart to venture, I will give you all the satisfaction you can desire." Thus we agreed to enter upon a plan of necromancy. The priest one evening prepared to satisfy me, and desired me to look out for a companion or two. I invited one Vincenzio Romoli, who was my intimate acquaintance ; he brought with him a native of Pis- toia, who cultivated the black art himself. We repaired to the CoUosseo, and the priest, according to the custom of necromancers, began to draw circles upon the ground, with tlie most impressive ceremonies imaginable ; he likewise brought hither asafcetida, sev- eral precious perfumes, and fire, with some compositions also, which diffused noisome odors. As soon as he was in readiness, he made an opening to the circle, and having taken us by the hand, ordered the other necromancer, his partner, to throw the perfumes into the fire at a proper time, intrusting the care of the fire and perfumes to the rest, and thus he began his incantations. This ceremony lasted above an hour and a half, when there appeared several legions of devils, insomuch that the amphitheatre was quite filled with them. I was busy about the perfumes, when the priest, perceiving there was a considerable number of infernal spirits, turned to ma and said, " Benvenuto, ask them something." I answered, "Let them bring me into the company of my Sicilian mistress, Angelica." That night he obtained no answer of any sort ; but I had received great satisfaction in having my curiosity so far indulged. The necromancer told me it was requisite we should go a second time, assuring me that I should be satisfied in whatever I asked ; but that I must bring with me a pure immaculate boy. " ' I took with me a youth who was in my service, of about twelve years of age, together with the same Yincenzio Eomoli, who had been my companion the first time, and one Agnolino Gaddi, an in- timate acquaintance, whom I likewise prevailed on to assist at the ceremony. When we came to the place appointed, the priest hav- ing made his preparations as before, with the same and even more striking ceremonies, placed us within the circle, which he had like- wise drawn with a more wonderful art, and in a more solamn man- ner than at our former meeting. Thus, having committed the care of the perfumes and the fire to my friend Vincenzio, who was assisted by Agnolino Gaddi, he put into my hand a pintaculo or magical chart, and bid me turn it towards the places that he should 18 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. direct me ; and under the pintaculo I held the boy. The necro- mancer, having begun to make his tremendous invocations, called by their names a multitude of demons who were the leaders of the several legions, and questioned them, by the power of the eternal uncreated God who lives forever, in the Hebrew language, as like- wise in Latin and Greek ; insomuch that the amphitheatre was almost in an instant filled with demons more numerous than at the former conjuration. Vincenzio Komoli was busied in making a fire, with the assistance of Agnolino, and burning a great quantity of precious perfumes. I, by the directions of the necromancer, again desired to be in the company of my Angelica. The former thereupon turning to me, said: " Know, they have declared, that in the space of a month you shall be in her company." '"He then requested me to stand resolutely by him, because the legions were now above a thousand more in number than he had designed ; and besides, these were the most dangerous ; so that, after they had answered my question, it behooved him to be civil to them and dismiss them quietly. At the same time the boy under the pintaculo was in a terrible fright, saying that there were in that place a million of fierce men, who threatened to destroy us ; and that, moreover, four armed giants of enormous stature were en- deavoring to break into the circle. During this time, whilst the necromancer, trembling with fear, endeavored by mild and gentle methods to dismiss them in the best way he could, Vincenzio Ko- moli, who quivered like an aspen leaf, took care of the perfumes. Though I was as much terrified as any of them, I did my utmost to conceal the terror I felt, so that I greatly contributed to inspire the rest with resolution ; but the truth is, I gave myself over for a dead man, seeing the horrid fright the necromancer was in. The boy placed his head between his knees and said, " In this posture will I die, for we shall all surely perish." I told him that all these demons were under us, and what he saw was smoke and shadow ; so bid him hold up his head and take courage. No sooner did he look up than he cried out, "The whole amphitheatre is burning, and the 4re is just falling upon us." So covering his face with his hands, he exclaimed, " that destruction was inevitable, and desired to see no more." The necromancer entreated me to have a good heart, and take care to burn proper perfumes ; upon which I turned to Eomoli, and bid him burn all the most precious perfumes he had. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 49 At the same time I cast my eye upon Agnolino Gaddi, who was terrified to such a degree that he could scarce distinguish objects, and seemed to be half dead. Seeing him in this condition I said, " Agnolino, upon these occasions a man should not yield to fear, but should stir about and give his assistance, so come directly and put on some more of these." The effects of poor Agnolino's fear were overpowering. The boy hearing a crepitation, ventured once more to raise his head, when, seeing me laugh, he began to take courage, and said "that the devils were flying away with a ven- geance." " ' In this condition we stayed till the bell rung for morning prayers. The boy again told us that there remained but few devils, and these were at a great distance. "When the magician had per- formed the rest of his ceremonies, he stripped off his gown and took up a wallet full of books which he had brought with him. " ' "We all went out of the circle together, keeping as close to each other as we possibly could, especially the boy, who had placed him- self in the middle, holding the necromancer by the coat, and me by the cloak. As we were going to our houses in the quarter of Banchi, the boy told us that two of the demons whom we had seen at the amphitheatre went on before us leaping and skipping, some- times running upon the roofs of the houses, and sometimes upon the ground. The priest declared, that though he had often entered magic circles, nothing so extraordinary had ever happened to them. " ' Whilst we were engaged in this conversation, we arrived at our respective houses, and all that night dreamed of nothing but devils.' " Although Cellini declares that he was trembling with fear, yet it is quite evident that he was not entirely ignorant of the machi- nery which was at work, for in order to encourage the boy, who was almost dead with fear, he assured them that the devils were under their power, and that ' what he saw was smoke and shadow.' " Mr. Koscoe, from whosalife of Cellini the preceding description is taken, draws a similar conclusion from the consolatory words addressed to the boy, and states that they ' confirm him in the belief that the whole of these appearances, like a phantasmagoria, were merely the effects of a magic lantern produced on volumes of smoke from various kinds of burning wood.' If we suppose that the necromancer either had a regular magic lantern, or that he had 50 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. fitted up his concave mirror in a box containing the figures of his devils, and that this box with its lights was carried home with the party, we can easily account for the declaration of the boy, ' that as they were going home to their houses in the quarter of Banchi, two of the demons whom we had seen at the amphitheatre went on before us leaping and skipping, and sometimes running upon the roofs of the houses, and sometimes upon the ground.' " We could hardly, in this enlightened age, attain to the brilliant success of frightening a "pure immaculate boy" out of his senses with "smoke and shadow," even were it a laudable undertaking. The delirium tremens, in a somewhat similar way, will doubtless continue to be hard on older and wayward boys who take to their cups, but be it ours to please and instruct, and that, in a more excellent way. A jet of steam could be con- veniently arranged for the "ghost" experiment, but for the most part, a wet screen is better than smoke, and effects, not only startling, but truly beautiful, can be pro- duced in the way described. CHAPTEE lY. PICTVBE ISIilDEfii. A LARGE number of movable slides, and some others of value, are still painted entirely by hand, but the great part of simple slides now in market are produced by photography. There are two classes of photographic transparencies for the lantern, viz.: instantaneous and other views direct from nature, and reproductions of ancient and modern engravings, or paintings. A great part, espe- cially of the latter, are beautifully colored by skilful artists, and mounted in a round form in wooden frames. SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 51 Some idea of the value of photography, associated with the magic lantern, as an educational instrument, may be gathered from the fact that as the camera has now penetrated to almost every habitable part of the globe, the physical peculiarities of every country, to- gether with lifelike portraits of their inhabitants, and the form and arrangement of their dwellings, may be obtained in miniature, and reproduced as large as life. Photographs of the sun and moon in various phases, and partially and totally eclipsed, also the fixed stars and nebulae, have been obtained and employed for lecture illustrations. Enlarged photographs of microscopic ob- jects have also been obtained, and these again still further enlarged to 8 or 10 feet in diameter, so that, in fact, a diatom no larger than a grain of sand may be shown of such a size in the lecture-room that a lai'ge audience may together examine its details with perfect comfort. The productions of the most celebrated painters and sculptors may be shown with equal facility, as well as maps, hymns, music, &c., so that an entire school may learn or sing together. THE SiTASTDAItD SIZE FOR EANTEBJT SEIDES. The ordinary wooden frame for the lantern picture is 7 inches long, 4 inches wide, and | of an inch thick, with a circular opening of 3 J inches to admit the picture- glass and its protecting glass cover, and 3 inches in the clear. Pictures 3i inches square are also mounted in frames of the same size, leaving 3 inches square in the clear. Pictures 3i inches square, with their protecting glass covers, are also bound with narrow binding, and may be slid along into place in the grooves of a station- ary frame, so as to show 3 inches square. 52 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. The new "Woodbury slides are exactly quarter plate size (3i X 4i), which gives room at the sides for naming and for handling, and which in turn gives assurance of their being inserted in proper position. Fortunately each half of a stereoscopic view is 3 inches square, so that lantern slides, of standard size, can be printed by contact from stereoscopic negatives. Although the demand for lantern slides has never warranted ex- tensive travel for desirable negatives, yet the stereoscope has sent photographers "viewing^' high and low, and everywhere; on the Alps, in the Yosemite, in the valley of the Nile, on open Polar Seas, and often (as intimated by one of their own number) into distressingly narrow straits. Grlass transparencies made for the stereoscope, when cut in two, with clear glass covers instead of ground- glass, are extensively used for lantern slides. Many of these, especially of the imported views, are very fine, and leave nothing to be desired when used in the Sciop- ticon. But as a heavy deposit of silver is not particu- larly objectionable in the stereoscope, many of these pictures can only be satisfactorily shown upon the screen, with an intense chemical light, if with that even. When the demand for these fine views for the lantern is suffi- cient to turn the attention of photographers to their production, we may look for more good pictures, and we hope at a cheaper rate. THE SEAIi£I> PICTURE. A drop of Canada balsam between two disks of plate- glass, on one of which is a beautifully colored photo- graph, is skilfully managed so as to allow the plates to come almost in contact, with a film of the balsam filling all the space between ; this makes the picture beautifully SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 53 clear, and protects it from dust, and especially from any fluid that might accidentally reach the edges of the glass. AH the circular pictures, except the movables, at a price of over two dollars, are sealed. STATUARY. This class of pictures should be photographed directly from the statuary, or bas-relief, by a skilful artist, who mg. 18. understands lighting and how to secure the proper degree and gradations of shading. It appears to the 54 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. best advantage when the rest of the slide is made opaque, so that we may seem to lose sight of the screen, and see the figure standing out in open space. The circle, including Thorwaldsen's Night (Fig. 18), shows the size of the round glass, and also the appear- ance of one of the most popular slides of this class. A female figure is seen floating down to earth; around her forehead is a wreath of poppy, indicating sleep ; in her arms are two sleeping children (Sleep and Death) ; and in their company is the symbolic owl. THE ISI.IP SlilBE. Fig. 19 represents a class of movable slides most in use for amusement; being cheap, easily operated, and in shape to pack with ordinary slides. In the slide represented, a peacock without a tail is painted on the immovable glass, and two tails are painted JB^. 19. on the slip. Both glasses are blackened except where the picture is to show; when the slip is pushed in, the bird appears with a drooping tail; when the slip is drawn out, then you will see him spread. In some of these there is a slip each side of the fixed glass. In the popular slide called the rat-eater, a man SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 55 rieclining on a bed is painted on the fixed glass, a lower jaw on one slip, which works up and down, and a rat on the other, which, as the slip is drawn, has the appearance of running down the man's throat. With tlie Sciopticon, the operator has hold of a slip with each hiand, so he can jerk the rat back with a sudden move- ment of the forefinger, when he is all ready to make his appearance again as a new individual. In politics he might be called a '^repeater." Fig. 20 represents another popular, but a more expen- sive, mechanical effect. The horse having approached the water with his head up, the lever to the right is raised, and the horse is '^made to drink" (the old adage to the contrary notwithstanding). The head and neck Mg. HO. being painted on the glass moved by the lever, works up and down as on a pivot at the shoulders. RETOIiTINQ FIGURES. A movable disk corresponding to the one moved by the lever in Pig. 20, may be revolved by means of a rack and pinion ; of this class is a variety of chromatropes, 56 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. mill-wheels, the movable astronomical diagrams, &c. Suppose a mill and the surrounding landscape painted on the fixed disk, and the sails on the disk revolved by- rack and pinion, then on turning the handle, the mill appears in operation. THE CHROMATROPE. Fig. 21 represents the pulley form of the chromatrope, but can give no idea of the dazzling brilliancy of the effects it produces on the screen. There is nothing it resembles so much as the kaleidoscope, with the addition of constant motion and rapid change. It consists of two disks of glass, painted with an almost endless variety of geometrical and other designs in brilliant colors. By turning the handle shown in the figure, the multiplying band causes the rapid revolution of one disk over the other, producing two apparent motions; and with good designs the result " beggars all description.'' Fia. 21. In another form the motion is accomplished by means of a double rack and pinion, instead of a band. As there are two disks, revolving one over the other, each I is necessarily furnished with a toothed rack, and the one pinion works both. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 67 TSE EIOOTROPE. This valuable accessory to the magic lantern consists of two perforated metal disks, which, by an arrangement precisely similar to the chromatrope, are made to re- volve one over the other. The effects are so beautiful as to excite surprise that they should be obtained by a mechanical contrivance of such extreme simplicity. By slow revolution, hexagonal, octagonal, and other geo- metrical figures are obtained, with delicate gradations of shaidow; while a more accelerated motion produces the effect of stellate flashings, or scintillations of light. Color may be imparted by the use of tinted films of gelatine. Larger disks can be pivoted to a frame above the condenser so as to give an upward and outward movement to the scintillations as from a lower fountain. Stiff paper disks turned contrary ways by the hands at their edges will answer for practical experiments. MOTINO WATERS. Under this title two forms of slides are sold; by means of which, in a single or double lantern, very pleasing effects may be produced. In the simplest form a moon- light scene is painted on a fixed disk, and the " rippling waters" on a piece of glass attached by one corner only to the framework of the slide, which being moved up and down causes the appearance of a ripple on the water. Another more expensive, but more truthful effect, is produced by a slide having two movable and one fixed disk of glass, and known as the " moving water with eccentric motion." In this slide, not only is the ripple produced, but the heaving of a boat upon the waves, the "rolling" of the sea, and the "hovering" motion of birds is imitated with surprising closeness to nature. 5 58 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. A very large class of paintings, on strips of glass 12 or 14 inches long, have come down to us from a former generation. Many of them hardly deserve attention, but some Nursery Tales, Natural History, &c., are fair, and the Astronomical set, in particular, is excellent. This set of ten astronomical slides, with forty-one illustrations, together with a set of astronomical dia- grams with rack-work motion, makes a very complete outfit for a series of astronomical lectures. BIORAMIC PAINTINGS WITH MOTINO FIGURES. In the middle of a glass strip (shaped and framed as in Fig. 22), a scene is painted, the rest being made opaque. Another glass strip, of similar size and shape, on which is painted along its whole length whatever is befitting, as figures, boats, &c., is made to pass in front in grooves, so as to represent a long procession j of this class, the children of Israel passing through the Red Sea is an ex- ample ; or, the enterprising smugglers secreting contra- band goods in the smugglers' cave. A description of the modern "ghost" may be looked for here, but it is not strictly a magic lantern production. Mg. 22. TSE OKOST. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 59 A large plate of glass leans forward on the front of the stage, but its edges are so hidden by the curtains that its presence is not suspected. A *' woman in white" stands down in front, concealed from the spectators by the usual board near the orchestra, and is highly illuminated by the light from a magic lantern. The spectators, in the darkness and distance, see the actors upon the stage through the glass, and also the ghost reflected from the glass so as to appear on the stage with the rest. The actors do not see the spectre, but they put on the ap- pearance of fright for the benefit of the spectators. The apparition vanishes as the light is withdrawn from «' the woman in white." The lantern is used because it illuminates an object without diffusing light in other directions. On this principle we may see people in a room through a window, with the reflected images of parties outside standing among them. It seems not a little surprising to see one person cutting through the space occupied by another. THE TANK. An excellent and cheap tank (similar to the one shown in Fig. 26), but with permanent clamps without screws, is now shaped so as to slide into the Sciopticon stage without drawing forward the extension front. As the space at the top is unobstructed, all sorts of experiments with it are easily managed. Living creatures encaged in it, in air or water, figure upon the screen in huge pro- portions, and with wonderful activity. Some fish and parts of many insects are so transparent as to show in- ternal structure. Even opaque objects, when their out- lines are sharply focused, appear in relief unlike a mere shadow. With almost every object thus shown, except 60 SCIOPTICONMANUAL. fish, up and down is a matter of indifference ; so that inversion is no disadvantage. With this tank for the exhibition of living objects, chemical reactions, &c., a large assortment of slides is less of a necessity. PRECAUTIOirSi ABOUT StlilDES. The lantern exhibition has to be conducted in so ob- scure a light that the operator has to depend more on the sense of feeling than sight; it is therefore important that the slides should be in good condition and properly- arranged beforehand, and that their titles and descrip- tions should he well fixed in memory. A convenient box for carrying the slides, for arrang- ing them in, and for showing them from, is constructed as follows: Two boxes of any desirable length, 7i inches wide and 4i inches deep, are hinged together, so that each serves as a cover to the other. This double box will hold the ordinary wooden mounted slides without waste of room, and when open will show their labelled edges in proper position and order. In social gatherings, the exhibitor is often urged to bring out certain favorite pictures on call, which, in the hurry and darkness, is apt to disarrange the slides, so as to perplex the operator, and mar the beauty of the entertainment. With careful management the box may close on prop- erly arranged slides, at the close of the exhibition. SOIOPTIOON MANUAL. 61 CHAPTEE Y. OIiASS POSITIVES FOR THE MAGIC liANTERlTo By John O. Bkownie. Few entertainments for the amusement of children, as well as persons of mature years, give more real pleas- ure than exhibitions of the magic lantern. It is a never- ending source of pleasure, and doubly valuable to the disciple of photography, who by the aid of a few chem- icals and very simple apparatus, can prepare interesting slides of local Interest that will delight the home circle, and fully repay the small expenditure of time required for their manufacture. Every photographer has among his negatives many subjects, both portrait and landscape, that when printed upon glass will prove effective pic- tures for exhibition. The object of this paper is to give in as few words as possible, plain directions for making positives on glass, suitable for the magic lantern. Either the wet or dry process can be used. The for- mer is more applicable in cases where it is necessary to reduce a negative to the proper sized positive required for the lantern. The dry method is used to advantage when the negative is of small size, and can be printed in contact. As all photographers are familiar with wet manipulations, we will consider that process first. The only apparatus actually required, is an ordinary camera and lens, placed upon a board six feet long, in front of which a negative is fastened. This negative is simply copied upon a sensitive collodion plate, that is 62 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. exposed in the camera, carried into the dark-room, and developed, fixed, and toned. If many positives are to be made from negatives of different sizes, it will be found convenient to arrange two cameras front to front (as will be seen in Fig. 23), Fig. 23. one camera having a lens in position with ground-glass No. 1 ; the other having the lens and ground-glass re- moved, and the negative that is to be copied placed in the position of ground-glass No. 3. The cameras, for convenience, can be closely joined together by screwing strips of wood upon each, which prevents any change of position when focused. By turning the rack-work upon each box, the picture upon the ground-glass can be made of any size. This plan of using two boxes will be found to give perfect satisfaction; the negative and sensitive plates are always on the same plane, and the adjustment for difference of size made in a moment. It is only for convenience of manipulation, that the writer advocates this arrangement, for excellent positives can be obtained by using one camera, and placing the negative to be SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 63 copied in proper position in front of the lens, with noth- ing to shut off the diffused light between the lens and negative. In selecting a position for operations, a north light will be found the best suited for the purpose. The upper window sash should be lowered, and the board upon which the cameras are arranged rested one end upon a table, the other upon the lowered sash, so that the negative will have the sky for a background. This is easily determined by focusing upon the ground-glass. It is advisable not to allow the direct rays of the sun to illuminate the negative. Should a north light not be obtainable, cover a frame with white tissue-paper, and let that be the background for the negative. The tis- sue-paper can be illuminated with the sun's rays, or by any artificial light. It may seem to the reading photographer, unneces- sary to burden this article with a complete chemical formula for making glass positives, but as it is prepared expressly for the uninitiated, it would be unintelligible without a formula. To make 8-02. Sensitive Collodion. — Alcohol 5 oz., ether 3 oz., iodide of ammonium 44 grs., bromide of magnesi- um 20 grs., cotton (Parys') 35 grs. Before using, filter several times through cotton soaked in alcohol. It is a good plan to keep a supply of plain, unexcited collodion on hand, as a stock-bottle; also, a bottle of exciting solu- tion, made in the proportion of iodide of ammonium 5 grains, bromide of ammonium 2h grains, to the drachm of alcohol. By adding 1 drachm of the solution to 1 ounce of plain collodion, it will be excited to the proper condition. Nitrate Solution. — Water 1 ounce, nitrate of silver 40 grains; make slightly acid with nitric acid, C. P. Iodize 64 -CIOPTICON MANUAL. the solution by allowing a plate coated with excited col- lodion to remain in it over night. Filter. Developing Solution — Make a saturated solution of ammonia, sulphate of iron (in water); filter. To every ounce of this solution add glacial acetic acid, 1 drachm. This can be used as a stock solution, and will keep an indefinite length of time in good condition. Crystals will form in the stock-bottle, after standing some hours, but that is of no consequence, as the strength of the solution is correct. In developing a plate, use 5 drachms of water to 2 drachms of ammonio-sulphate of iron from the stock- bottle. During hot weather use ice-water to retard the action of the developer. Fixing /SoZm^ww.— Cyanide of potassium or hyposul- phite of soda; either will answer, but the action of cyanide appears to make a somewhat brighter picture. These solutions being carefully prepared, the picture accurately focused, the negative (collodion side towards the lens) covered with a dark cloth, prepare the plate in the dark-room in the usual manner, place it in the dark-holder, in the position of the ground-glass, draw the slide (the lens is always uncovered), remove • the cloth from the negative for a few seconds. The expo- sure will then be made. Cover the negative, shut the slide, and remove to the dark-room for development. The picture should appear slowly; not flash out upon the first application of the iron solution. Over-expos- ure, as well as over-development, are both fatal to trans- parencies. No trace of fog should be visible. From five to fifteen seconds will be found suflScient, on a bright day, with a negative of ordinary strength, and the chemicals in good order. The ]Slegative—K\x.e,t be sharp, of good printing densi- SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 65 ty, and as free as possible from all defects. As the magic lantern slide is generally 3} x 3J, it is not desir- able to employ a very large negative. 6i x 8J will answer the purpose better than a larger size. But neg- atives upon smaller glass will be found to give even finer results. On the other hand, it is very bad policy to attempt to enlarge a positive to double or treble the size of the original negative. The negative should not be smaller than the positive. The Lens. — Any good portrait combination, of six to eight inches focus, quarter-inch stop, will work to ad- vantage. Lenses of very short focus and very small opening, are not recommended. The Development — Should be conducted with great care and judgment, as it is the most important part of the whole process. Eather underexpose and underde- velop, and as soon as the detail is visible, flood the plate with water, and check further action. Avoid an excess of light during development, and dread the appearance of the slightest fogging as the worst enemy to be en- countered. Fixing Solution. — Cyanide of potassium, after which wash well in running water. Toning. — It is frequently of benefit to the positive that it should be toned, and at the same time slightly strength- ened, to give contrast to the picture when projected upon the screen by a powerful light. Many chemical solutions may be used to accomplish this purpose. A weak solu- tion of gold gives good results ; also, a dilute solution of bichloride of palladium can be recommended. In either case the solution is flowed over the plate, after fixing. The positive is then dried and varnished. The Finished Picture — Should be free from the slight- est appearance of fog; the high-lights, the sky in land- 66 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. scapes (except when clouds are present), perfectly clear glass. The particular tone requisite to suit the positive, is a matter of taste. A warm sepia will be found suit- able for most transparencies; but each operator must exercise his own peculiar feeling in this matter. In making positives to be exhibited by the magic lan- tern, it is well to consider the variety of light to be used in projecting the picture upon the screen. Where pow- erful illumination, such as the oxy-hydrogen or magne- sium lights are used, positives may be made slightly stronger, showing more contrast than where a weaker form of illumination is employed. The slides should be protected from scratches and dust, by a piece of clear glass of the same size, neatly pasted on the edges with muslin. Positives on glass can also be made by the wet pro- cess, from negatives of the proper size, by pasting a thin strip of cardboard upon two edges of the negative (col- lodion side). The sensitive plate is prepared as usual, and is placed, while in the dark-room, in close contact with the negative, separated only by the cardboard. It is then exposed behind the negative, to diffused sunlight or artificial light, for a few seconds, returned to the. dark- room, and developed. This plan admits of no change in the size of the negative. Mr. L. J. Marcy's appara- tus for printing wet plates by lamp-light, has given sat- isfaction to many who have not an opportunity of mak- ing experiments by daylight. The proper size for glass pictures to be used in lan- terns of convenient proportions, is a debatable subject. Glasses of 3J x 3i being generally used, but advantages are claimed for a slide 3i x 4i, that have some weight. In placing this slide in the lantern, the additional length of the glass allows the corners to be held by the thumb SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 67 and forefinger, without being visible upon the screen, as is sometimes the case with the square slide. Then again, it is easier to place in its proper position (right side up), having only one chance of error instead of three. A ©BY PI.ATE PROCESS FOB EANTEBN SUDES. TANNO-GALLIC PKESERVATITB.* In considering the dry process, it is but proper to say that a large number of different formula have been published; in fact, scarcely half a dozen photographers think alike on this subject. It is, therefore, impossible to give a formula that will give universal satisfaction. In preparing this paper for publication, it must be dis- tinctly understood that nothing new in the way of pre- servative or development is claimed; it is simply one of the many methods for preparing dry plates that has given reliable results. The dry-plate photographer must be prepared for many and great failures, and be possessed of the greatest amount of patience and nicety of manipulation, for other- wise time is wasted, and the best process voted a failure. Commence with reliable chemicals, and follow up the process with a lavish expenditure of water when wash- ing is mentioned, not only on the collodion plate, but thoroughly rinse the various glasses and dishes, and particularly the fingers, between each operation. Use as little light as possible when making or developing dry plates, and be careful that the light is yellow. Probably more dry plates are ruined, and the par- ticular process used condemned as worthless, by the use '*lamgreatly indebted to my Mend, Mr. E. Wallace, Jr., for his kindness in fumishmg me with the formula, and showing, by his own e^P^"'^^^^; valuable results to be obtained from this process. J • iSRowiNis. 68 SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. of white light than from any other cause. A square- sided lantern, having the white glass removed, and yel- low substituted, will be found very convenient ; either gas, a candle, or kerosene can be used for illumination. To prevent the collodion film slipping from the plate during the process, it is absolutely necessary that the glass plate should be albumenized. Wash the glass (having previously roughened the edges), drain, and while wet flow over it the following solution : Albumen (the white of an egg), . . . . l egg. Water, 1 pi^^^ Concentrated Ammonia, IQ drops. Put the albumen in a clean bottle, then add the water. Shake a little, and add the ammonia; filter through a sponge ; dry in a rack. COLLODION. Any reliable collodion will answer ; it is best to have it quite thick. No backing is necessary. NEGATIVE BATH. Nitrate of Silver, 45 grains. W^*®''> 1 ounce. Made slightly acid with nitric acid, CP. Dip the collodionized plate in the bath, and when properly ex- cited, remove the plate, and dip in a bath of pure water ; then wash under a tap with running water. While wet apply the PRESERVATIVE SOLUTION. Tannin, 10 grains. Gum Arabic, 6 " Sugar, 4 (£ Water, 1 ounce. Filter, and add one drachm per ounce of Gallic Acid, 24 grains. Alcohol, 1 ounce. SOIOPTICON MANUAL. 69 The preservative must be fresh. Three ounces of this mixture will prepare half a dozen 6^ x 8^ plates. If the preservative is poured over the plate, apply twice, working it well into the film ; throw the first dose away, and use the second flowing for the first applica- tion to the next plate. The plates must be carefully dried, either by natural or by artificial heat ; a hot-water bottle will be found useful for that purpose should artificial heat be thought best. THE EXPOSURE "Will depend upon the strength of the negative, and the nature of the light ; a few seconds will generally be enough. Close contact is absolutely required to produce sharp positives. An ordinary printing-frame can be used. TO DEVELOP In a dark-room, remove the dry plate from the frame, place it in a dish, and flow over it Alcohol, ■) Water, j equal parts. Then wash in running water. DEVELOPING SOLTTTIONS Pyrogallic Acid, Water, Made from a stock-bottle of Alcohol, 1 ounce. Pyrogallic Acid, 96 grains. Five minims of this solutions contains one grain of pyro. 2 grains. 1 ounce. 70 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. ALKALINE SOLUTIONS. Carbonate of Ammonia, 64 grains. Water 1 ounce. Bromide of Potassium, 4 grains. Water, 1 ounce. Mix together. After the plate is well washed, flow over it a solu- tion of PyTogallic Acid, 2 grains. Water, 1 ounce. Then pour back again into the measure. Should the image be developed by this solution, proceed very cau- tiously, and add a few drops of the alkaline solution of carbonate of ammonia and bromide of potassium. If the picture comes out slowly, add more of the alkaline solution up to thirty drops, if necessary, and also a suf- ficient amount of stronger pyro to bring out all the detail. When the image is out, wash with water, and intensify with Pyrogallic Acid, 2 grains. Water, 1 ounce. To which is added ten drops of citric acid and nitrate of silver solution. Citric Acid, 30 grains. Nitrate of Silver, 20 " Water, 1 ounce. This is a stock-bottle. Mix in separate glasses ; add together and filter; wash. FIXING SOLUTION. Hyposulphite of soda. TONING SOLUTION. The same remarks applied to wet positives will answer for toning dry plates. 8CI0PTIC0N MANUAL. 71 THCE COIiLODIO-CHIiORIDE PROCESS. (From Humplirey's Journal.) The following formula is not only used for opal pic- tures, but to some extent for transparencies also. 1. Take the whites of two eggs and two ounces of water, beat well to a froth, and let it settle for two hours and pour off the clear solution. 2. Coat your white plate with this solution (as you would with collodion), and set away to dry. When dry take in your dark-room and coat the plate with the " opal solution," which is made thus: Plain collodion 8 oz. (thinner than you would use for iodizing), then dissolve in as little water as possible 60 grains nitrate of silver, and add this to the collodion and shake well. Then dissolve 16 grains of strontium in as little water as possible, and add this to the collodion and shake well. Then dissolve 10 grains citric acid in as little water as possible, and add to the collodion. Shake well, and you have the opal solution. When dry, put your negative in the printing-frame, lay the opal-prepared plate on the negative, and print from 10 to 15 minutes in the sun, and print much darker than you would a photograph. Tone and fix as you would a photograph, only you need not wash before toning — and wash but little before fixing. The opals" tone in one-tenth the time of a photograph. Keep the opal preparation in a dark-room. Have your toning bath a little alkaline, and not as strong as for toning photographs. 8CI0PTIC0N MANUAL. MARCT'S PHOTOGRAPHIC PRISTTIJIO APPARATUS FOR PRINTING WET PI.ATES BY L,AMPIiIGHT. This apparatus is intended to simplify the process of printing lantern transparencies. Its rationale will be seen at a glance. Sharp photographic printing without a camera, can be eifected, either hy having the negative in actual contact with the sensitive 'plate, however widespread the light, or else hy having an intense light proceeding from a single point, though the plates may be wide apart. In the latter case the point of light should be distant compared with the space between the plates, to avoid enlargement. A sharpness above criticism is produced by this printing apparatus, not by an absolute compliance with either condition, but by an approximate observance of both. Fiff. H4. It consists of an upright frame in which the sensitive plate is held slightly separate from the negative, and a coal oil lamp, from which the light of a wide flat flame is emitted through a narrow horizontal slit — small and at considerable distance from the frame to produce a sharp print, and in range with the long diameter of the SCIOPTICON MANUAL, 73 flame to get intensity from a single point. A narrow- strip of glass sets into this slit as between two lips. The thickness of the flame gives the horizontal diameter of the point of light. Only the front of the lamp is shown at the right of Fig. 24, but it can be seen how the light from the whole width of the flame reaches the printing- frame through the narrow aperture. At the left, we see how the negative is held over the opening in the frame by four springs ; the long spring on the opposite side holds the sensitive plate in the frame. The operator, standing on the opposite side, with the upper, corners of a quarter plate, just from the bath, between his thumb and finger, and shading off direct rays with his left hand, places it in its silver bearings j this brings the two films almost in contact. The lamp and frame stand from 16 to 26 inches apart, or so far as to require about two minutes for the print- ing, or the time it takes for a round of the other manipu- lations and changes; so a picture is finished and dropped into grooves in a trough of water as often as one has had time to print. All that is said in the previous article on the wet- plate process, in regard to development, &c., applies here. Any drops of silver bath that may have come in contact with the negative must be washed off before it is put away. Like dry-plate printing, the negative must be of the exact size required for the lantern slide. Some of the advantages of this method are : 1. It can be practiced evenings or in cloudy weather. 2. The light is inexpensive. 3. Plate glass is not a necessity. 6 74 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 4. The apparatus may stand within reach of the operator. 5. It requires no previous preparation more than having clean glass, and chemicals in good working order. 6. The albumen coating is not required to make the film adhere. 7. The amount of exposure can be definitely gauged. ■ 8, The illumination is confined to a narrow cone, so as not to fog the picture by diffused light. 9. The exposure is so immediate and uniform as to escape many accidents, 10. It is so easily done, that many causes of failure involved in a long process are not encountered. 11. The negative is not marred by use as in contact- printing. 12. This apparatus complete costs but seven dollars. Thus we have in it advantages by the dozen. THE SiCIOPTICON PROCESS. By placing the Sciopticon near a wall, in a dark room, and drawing forward its extension front, an image of a negative may be projected into a three-inch circle. First focus sharply on a paper-covered glass, and then expose a wet plate in the same place a minute, more or less, developing and fixing as usual, and we have a glass posi- tive photographed by the Sciopticon for the Sciopticon. The objective is always used with full opening, because all the light is needed, and because it will not give an evenly illuminated disk with a small stop; so we cannot secure perfect sharpness to the very edges. It answers well, however, for central figures, and the photographer can easily produce unexceptionable positives fpom his SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 75 portrait negatives. There seems no reason why enlarge- ments made in this way, for ornamental transparencies, to be hung in the window, or set in a frame, should not become a profitable branch of photography. The toning of glass positives, to be used for orna- mental purposes, involves some thought as to the par- ticular color, or shade of color, that will suit the picture best; and it is impossible to give one process that will suit all tastes alike; some having a preference for black tones, others for blue-black, brown, or the various shades of gray. A detailed description of the manner of pro- ducing these various tones would require too much space, and is so simple that no one can go astray. The principal chemicals required are: Chloride of gold, bichloride of platinum, bichloride of palladium, sulphide of potassium, and permanganate of potassium; in all cases use singly and very dilute. I am disposed to consider chloride of palladium as the most reliable chemical that has come under my notice. Its action is perfectly manageable, easy to prepare, will not stain, and gives uniformly good results. The toning solution that I use is made as follows : Add six drops from the stock-bottle of chloride of palladium to each ounce of water; this solution should be of a delicate straw color. No other manipulation is required. After the plate has been developed and fixed, wash as usual, then apply the toning solution by flowing it over the plate similarly to the developer. Its action will be quick, giving a black tone to the positive. Wash well, dry, and varnish if desirable. These transparencies are covered and bound with an opal or ground-glass, or they may be flowed with a var- nish containing a little fine zinc paint, ground in varnish. It may be mentioned in this connection, that artists 76 SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. find the Sciopticon very useful in sketching their pictures. Having first obtained a glass positive or negative of the subject to be painted, it can be thrown upon the canvas of the size desired, and expeditiously and accu- rately traced. It saves valuable time to the good artist, and it prevents the poor artist from producing distor- tions. WOODBURT PHOTO-REIilCF EXCEIiiSIOR liANTERN By John C. Browne. While it is a comparatively easy matter to produce fine positives by either the wet or dry process of pho- tography, yet the results are liable to vary somewhat even in the hands of the most careful manipulator. The Woodbury photo-relief process, as now worked in Phila- delphia, has the merit of distancing all competition in the uniform excellence of its lantern slides. It would be a pleasure to give in detail a description of this won- derful process, did space permit, commencing with the sensitive gelatine tissue, resembling in appearance a piece of patent leather, and following it in its exposure to light under a negative, the light's action rendering insoluble those parts reached through the negative; its subsequent immersion in hot water dissolves out those parts not rendered insoluble, producing a relief as thin as writing paper, which when dry is pressed into a piece of soft metal by a hydraulic press of fabulous power, forcing this delicate substance into the smooth metal, and leaving upon its surface a counterpart or mould of all its finest lines and half tones. Strange to say this flimsy gelatine relief is not crushed to atoms by this SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 77 treatment. It is not damaged in the least, but ready to make its mark again as often as it is necessary. This leaden mould is the type that prints the picture, a solution of gelatine and India-ink being poured over it before the glass is placed in position. A slight pressure is given in a press of peculiar con- struction, squeezing out the surplus ink; a few minutes is allowed the ink to set, when the glass, being removed, brings with it the delicate gelatine picture, which is well named " Excelsior." CHAPTBE YI. COIiORINO SlilDES. WKITTBN FOB THE SCIOPTICON MANUAL. The magic lantern has caused much astonishment and delight from its origin to the present time. The pictures or slides for it were formerly drawn or painted on glass, and when magnified by the lantern lens, even the most minute lines looked coarse, and every imper- fection was brought out. Much time and care, therefore, were requisite to make fine pictures, so that they were comparatively rare and expensive, while the coarser ones abounded ; thus the lantern came to be regarded as a toy, fit only for the amusement of children. An instrument, however, so well calculated to aid in the advancement of science and education, on account of the size of the diagram that may be represented on the disk, and the fact that the attention of an audience is better secured when the only object visible is the dia- 78 SOIOPTICON MANUAL. gram under explanation, was not to be thrown aside as a toy. Photography, by its wonderful sun paintings on glass, reproduces the works of the old masters, furnishes views of every land and clime, of customs, manners, works of art, and pictures, or diagrams, to illustrate every science, the beauty of which, when colored and thrown upon the screen, however great the magnifying power used, is not diminished, as was the case with the paintings formerly used. "With beautiful and desirable pictures, and with improved lights and instruments, the lantern now takes a front place in Sunday-school work, in the school, the lecture-room, and the home, and is gladly welcomed wherever visible illustrations are used, or beautiful pic- tures prized. While the stereoscope presents the life- like photographs to the individual observer, the lantern enlarges the same views, so that many may see and enjoy at the same time the same beautiful scenes together, making it well suited to the social gathering and enter- tainment of friends. Families may have slides prepared containing pictures of family residences, of members of the family, of favorite dogs, horses, &c., thus increasing the pleasures of home, and social intercourse. The coloring or painting of slides for the magic lan- tern has been confined to comparatively few artists, the great care and nicety of execution required, making it a difficult art to attain, while the old preparation of varnish colors placed difficulties in the way of even the most practiced artists. Water colors are now prepared expressly for painting on glass, so that any one possessing a moderate knowl- edge of drawing, with some skill in the use of colors, may succeed. None but transparent colors, or those through which light is transmitted, can be used, making SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 79 the number of colors available for painting on glass necessarily limited. The most valuable for this purpose are the moist water colors procurable in metallic collaps- ible tubes : for yellow, Indian yellow, Italian pink, and yellow lake ; for blue, Prussian blue and indigo ; for red, madder lake, crimson lake, and scarlet lake j for orange, burnt sienna; for brown, madder brown,Yandyke brown, sepia, and burnt umber; for black, India-ink and lamp- black; for purple, purple lake, or red and blue mixed; for green, mix yellow and blue; for scarlet, red and yellow. A white porcelain palette, free from specks and grit, is the best upon which to mix and arrange the colors. Use soft water for mixing the tints. For cake colors, use a weak gum water, taking care to have it quite dilute to prevent the colors cracking or peeling off; place each tint on a separate slab or saucer. A suitable easel for holding the glass to be painted, is shown in the diagram (Fig. 25); this is a sloping frame, holding a,, sheet of glass, so arranged that it can be placed at any angle, and any convenient height for the artist. The glass or photograph to be painted, should be placed upon the clear glass in the frame (as shown at B'). Upon the base board (J.) is spread a sheet of pure white paper to reflect up the light through the painting ; the light should fall on it from the left hand, and is best obtained Fig. as. 80 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. from a window facing the north sky. Glass has a smooth and a rough side ; the smooth side is that on which the drawing is to be made ; it may readily be determined by drawing the finger-nail over the surface. The glass should be carefully cleaned with water, to which a solu- tion of ammonia has been added. A fine brush, or cheap gold pen, may be used for drawing outlines, which should be made with colors suited to the part of the painting for which they are to be used; the foreground being drawn with bolder lines than those more remote. One of the most difficult things to accomplish in trans- parent painting on glass, perhaps, is to lay on a uniform tint, free from lines or specks ; as a clear blue sky with- out clouds. The brush should be well charged with the blue tint, and the color spr-ead or floated upon the glass as evenly as possible, and afterwards equalized by a careful application of the brush dabber : that is a camel- hair brush cut down (as shown in Fig. 25), the edge of which being afterwards passed through a flam^ so as to remove any straggling hairs. The finger, also, may be used as a dabber, and when used with dexterity, is very effective. To take out the necessary lights, as those of clouds, and to soften the edges, a stump made of leather or paper may be used. In coloring photographs the out- line and shading are provided; so that flat washes of color are to be laid on, and then retouched and improved ; avoid covering the deepest shadows, thus destroying their transparency. Breathe on it sufficiently to moisten the colors, and carefully blend and harmonize the tints; commence with the sky, then the middle distance should be worked out, lastly the foreground. As the pictures are necessarily small, a magnifying hand lens, such as is used by artists for fine work, is desirable to assist one in coming close to the lines with washes of color. SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 81 The brushes should be sable, of moderate size, and soft to the touch, and when charged with water, come to a good point without straggling hairs; some prefer a flat brush instead of a round one. It is well to have a sufficient number of brushes, and to use a diiferent one for each tint. A piece of cloth should be used for clean- ing brushes and dabbers, as neatness is very essential to success. An ordinary round-pointed pocket knife will be found useful for removing color. Etching-needles may be used for making minute touches of light, as on spears of grass; winter, snow, spring, and moonlight effects are produced chiefly by the skilful, use of the knife and needle-points, to remove the color and produce strong white light in the picture. As pictures vary much in style, it would be difficult to give directions which would apply to all. Beginners should copy well- painted lantern slides at first, as this would guide in the colors to be used. Practice on waste pieces of glass and noting the effect in the lantern, would also prove beneficial and accustom the artist to regulate the tones of the picture in the best manner. When the picture is finished, it should be protected by a thin transparent varnish, such as photographers use, or a thin coat of Canada balsam. To prevent scratching, a glass, the same size as the picture, should be laid over it ; and to prevent injuring from contact, a narrow rim of paper should be interposed between the glasses; they can then be bound or framed. " Aniline colors have been used for photographic views with some success. They are brilliant and transparent, but require careful use to prevent the tints running one into the other.'' Comic slides are often painted in a coarser manner, and oil paints are used. The method is very similar to 82 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. that given for water colors : the same kinds of brushes, dabbers, and the same list of colors are used. The paints employed are sold in tubes ; mastic varnish diluted with turpentine is used as a vehicle, sugar of lead as a drier. Comic or slip slides are generally painted on two pieces of glass, one of which is firmly fixed in the frame, the other movable; these glasses are so adjusted, that when the sliding glass is pulled out, an effect is produced which differs entirely from that shown when the glass is pushed in; as, for example, "The Windy Day;'' the lady is seen passing along, fashionably dressed and equipped; the slip being drawn, she is shown in sad plight by the turned parasol, loss of false hair, bonnet, &c.; or a beautiful lily or tulip is seen ; the slip is drawn, and a lovely fairy seems to float up from the flower. Chroma- tropes are constructed of two circular pieces of glass painted from the centre to the circumference of the circle with variously tinted rays and patterns, these are framed in brass frames, having grooves around them turned face to face, and when made to revolve reversely throw out beautiful and brilliant hues ; according to the way in which they are made to turn, they expand or contract. Statuary gives a much better effect, if the glass around it is covered with some opaque paint. Lampblack ground very fine with mastic varnish, a few drops of oil of cloves, and then brought to the right consistency with turpentine, is perhaps the best, as it does not rub off. "Opaque," an article manufactured by Mr. Grihon, of Philadelphia, is more easily applied, being used with water, and answers every purpose. Figures which appear on the screen as black shadows, may be painted on the glass with these materials; or, to produce the same effect, designs may be cut from paper SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 83 and pasted on the glass. Glass may be smoked or cov- ered with opaque paint, and diagrams scratched upon it with a needle-point or sharp knife; the light passing- through these lines appearing on the screen as a white chalk diagram on a blackboard. Still another way of prepai'ing diagrams is to dissolve gelatine, such as is used in cooking ; strain, and pour it over the glass, form- ing a thin film on its surface. When this is dry, the dia- gram is scratched on as before, and soft lead rubbed over the lines. Mottoes may be photographed on glass, and then colored, or the designs drawn with the pen or brush, and colored. The Sciopticon is extremely well adapted for experi- ments and amusements, as its front lens can be drawn out, giving ample space for the introduction of figures and such like. Small china and wooden dolls, with but slight tissue-paper dress, may be made to twirl or move about in many curious ways; those with perfect faces are the best. They of course must be suspended by a silk or wire attached to the feet ; but a hint is sufiicient. Lizards, fish, and insects in the tank are always pleasing because they move. When one has but few slides, the entertainment may be varied by introducing some of the home-made objects, thus affording much amusement, with but slight expense and trouble. CHAPTEE YII. CHEMICAIi £XPEBI1I£NTS. CONTRIBUTED BY PSOF. HENRY MORTON, Ph. D. President of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Soboken, N. J. In addition to the use of the magic lantern in its original office of exhibiting pictures, it will admit of a great variety of applications which enable the operator 84 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. Fig. 26. to produce countless variations in the effects developed, by which an endless variety and constant novelty can be secured. For this purpose there is needed in the first placed the simple apparatus shown in our wood cut, consisting of a small tank, made by securing two plates of glass, about 4x5 inches, with four clamps, against a strip of rubber about J inch thick, bent into the three sides of a rectangle and notched at the corners to facilitate its bending. We then require one or more glass pipettes provided with elastic balls, such as are made by the rubber manu- facturers. This little apparatus is shown in Fig. 27, where A is the rubber ball, B the glass globe of the pipette, and C its point drawn to a moderately fine orifice. A few small pipettes made by simply draw- ing short pieces of glass tube to a fine point, are also useful. In addition, a few bottles with such ordi- nary chemicals as will be mentioned further on, will complete the outfit. Having placed the tank, three-quarters full of water, as an object m the lantern, a num- ber of chemical reactions can be shown, aa " follows: Experiment Ist. Pour in a little solution of sulphate SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 85 of copper, and mix it well with the water of the tank, then with the pipette run in, with more or less force, some diluted ammonia, pausing from time to time to observe the progress of the effect. On the screen will be observed the gathering of a tempest of black storm- clouds, which twirl around in violent commotion, as if urged by a tornado of wind, but as the action continues, these clouds will melt away, and leave the entire field of a serene and beautiful sky-blue. By now throwing in some diluted sulphuric acid, the same changes can be reproduced, and so on alternately for a number of times. Then when the tank is clear, with an excess of acid, let fall a few drops of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium from a small pipette, and rich red curdled clouds of ferrocyanide of copper will form with a beautiful appearance. Experiment 2d. Having rinsed the tank, or taken a fresh one with water in it as before, add to this some solution of litmus, until the whole acquires a purplish- blue tint. Now throw in very gently a little very dilute acid, and allow it to diffuse. On the screen will appear the image of a beautiful sunset sky, with its changing tints of drifting clouds. When all has changed to red, add ammonia, and so reverse the change, which may then be repeated. Experiment 3d. Proceed exactly as in the last case, but with a solution of cochineal in place of litmus. The red color will then be changed by the acid to a brilliant yellow, and by ammonia to a rich purple. Experiment 4th. Into a tank of water drop slowly a strong solution of the acid perchloride of tin. This on the screen will resemble the eruption of a submarine volcano. When a pretty strong solution has thus been made in 86 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. the tank, put in it a strip of sheet zinc, and long leaf- like blades of metallic tin will at once be seen to shoot out in all directions. Experiment 5th. Make a concentrated solution of crystals of urea in alcohol of about 95 per cent. (The common 85 per cent, alcohol will not answer.) Let a few drops of this fall on a glass plate, and with the finger spread it rapidly over the surface, and then at once place it as an object in the lantern. After about a minute, blow gently on the plate with a bellows (not with the breath), and at once on the screen will be seen the growth as of frost crystals shooting over the field in all directions. Experiment 6th. If sulphate of copper in solution is mixed with enough gum-arabic water to make the solu- tion form a continuous film, when flowed like collodion on a clean glass, and such j^lates are allowed to dry slowly in a nearly horizontal position, a very beautiful crystalline vegetation will set in, which varies in its character with the proportion of gum used, and will make objects well fitted for exhibition with the lantern. In place of sulphate of copper, we may use nitre, or ferrocyanide of potassium, with the production of an entirely new class of forms. By placing the plates so covered with crystals over a leaden dish, in which is a little fluor-spar, moistened with sulphuric acid, and warmed slightly (giving off fumes of hydrofluoric acid), permanent etchings may be prepared, which are also very beautiful objects for the lantern. These are only a few of the experiments of this char- acter which can be performed with the lantern, but they will indicate the direction in which each one can be a discoverer and inventor for himself. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. m EXPERIMENTS. The Sciopticon tank (Fig. 28) is free from projecting clamps and so passes freely upon the stage in front of the condenser. It serves as a dry cage for insects, &c,, a cell to show liquids and life in water, a tank for the exhibition of chemical reactions, and with wires pro- tected and bent over the ends it can be used in connec- tion with a galvanic battery. It is the most convenient for the preceding experiments, as well as for these which follow. Fiff. 28. Cohesion Figures. — The cohesion figures known as Tomlinson's are both interesting and beautiful, and can be shown as follows : Fill the tank to within half an inch of the top with alcohol and slide it into place upon 88 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. the stage ; now with a glass rod, or small brush, dipped in any of Judson's aniline dyes, touch the side of the tank gently, so as to leave a drop on it. This drop, di- rectly as it touches the alcohol, will go straight down for half an inch or so, and then break out into two branches; these again will break in four, and so on, until by the time the dye gets to the bottom of the tank it will have formed some hundreds of delicate branches. As this action is reversed on the screen, the branches appear- ing to shoot upwards, the effect is much heightened. A (Fig. 28), shows the form assumed. By placing at in- tervals of half an inch drops of different colors, as their branches commingle, the effect reminds one of a shower of different colored rockets. If we now take another tank, and fill it with coal oil, and put a drop of fusel oil into it, we get an entirely different figure, as shown at B. The fusel oil is best colored. Capillary Attraction can be strikingly shown to a large audience. A series of glass tubes of different sizes are fitted into a piece of wood which rests on the top of the tank, and dips down to near the bottom ; when the tank is filled with water, which is best tinted, the dif- ferent heights of the water, according to the fineness of the tubes, will be shown clearly on the screen. The curve shown by the liquid rising between two pieces of glass can be shown in the same manner, the colored water forming a pretty gradation of color between the highest and lowest part. Crystallization. — By filling the tank with a satu- rated solution of Glauber's salts, and allowing it to cool, it will appear transparent on the screen, but by dropping one small crystal into it the whole mass -will be seen to shoot out into beautiful crystals. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 89 The crystallization of many other substances, such as bichromate of potash, alum, &c., and the precipitation of iodides of silver, mercury, and other salts, all form beautiful objects on the screen. The Development of a Photograph on the Screen. — For this we require a tank with one of its faces of yellow glass, which side should be next the condenser. Place a small statuette in the rays of the lantern, and having prepared a small plate with collodion and sensi- tized it, expose in the camera for about a minute ; then, having filled the trough with developing solution, place in it the slide, and as the development proceeds the image will gradually appear on the screen. A trans- parency might then be made from this, and, after drying, shown on the screen, thus illustrating the formation of a photographic lantern slide. Changing Colors. — A glass coated with a mixture of gelatine and chloride of cobalt, when placed in front of a slide, will give a rosy effect to the picture, which, however, from the effect of the warmth of the lantern, will gradually change to purple and then to blue. On ' becoming damp again it will resume its red color, and can be used over and over again. Complementary Colors. — A number of beautiful ef- fects, showing complementary colors, may be obtained with the Sciopticon. If we insert a piece of green glass, having any design cut out of black paper and pasted on it, we shall see on the screen a black design on a green ground ; but by bringing another light into the room or turning up the gas, the black design will at once appear to the eye as a brilliant pink. By making apertures in a card slide, as circles, squares, 7 90 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. or diamonds, say a fourth of an inch in diameter, and covering them with bits of colored gelatine, or by simply using the tinters of the Scioptieon, many curious effects in complementary colors may be obtained. Fairy Fountain. — The effect of what is known as the " Fairy Fountain " can be prettily illustrated in the fol- lowing manner : A small table fountain is placed at a distance of about four feet in front of the lantern ; by curtains or otherwise the lantern is then hidden from the spectators, so that they see only the fountain illumi- nated by the rays coniing from the lantern. When the fountain is made to play, every drop seems transformed into a diamond, and bypassing colored glass in front of the lantern the effect is striking and beautiful; but when the rays from a bisulphide of carbon prism are allowed to fall on it, then is the best effect produced. The Eainbow. — A card with a curved slit, one-six- teenth of an inch (Fig. 29), will throw on the screen a simple semicircle of white light; but when a prism is held in front of the ob- jective, the bow at once assumes all the natural colors of the rainbow. As the direction of the rays is changed, the range of the instrument has to be elevated, to bring the bow upon the screen. By using two lanterns, projecting a view with one and the bow with the other, a very natural effect may be produced. A Magnet and Iron Filings. — Fix a small magnet to a glass slide, and carefully arrange a funnel opening SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 91 above the poles in the lantern ; then allow iron filings to fall gently down the funnel, which will appear like large blocks attracted upward by a huge magnet. Astronomical Cards. — The cards may be cut to the size of the crystal slide, that is 3i by 4;^ inches, so as to be used in the grooved frame, like an ordinary glass slide. After correctly dotting a constellation of stars (which may be done by the use of theorem paper and a good map of the heavens), pierce the card at the several points, say with a darning needle, which may be made to show stars of different magnitudes by gauging the depth of the insertion. To illustrate the Solar System, punches of different sizes might be used and bits of colored gelatine, covering the aperture, might indicate the tints attributed to each member. Pinhole Outlines. — Cards in shape of glass slides and just thick enough to be sufficiently stiff, may be pricked to show maps, mottoes, figures, diagrams, or any simple illustration. They require but little skill and show very distinctly. Perforations. — Two pieces of perforated paper or tin made to slide little by little over each other, in front of the condenser, and modified more or less by the tinters, produce beautiful symmetrical forms in great variety. Persistence of Yision. — Apertures, as in a paper card, when moved rapidly in all directions in the plane of the slide, appear as lines of light on the same principle that a lighted stick waved about produces lines of light. A new slide, called the kaleidotrope, is constructed and hung to exhibit this curious effect. 92 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. The Photodrome. — The photodrome, as shown at the Polytechnic, may be made at a very small expense. To produce this effect we require a rapidly moving disk (having one or more slits cut in it) revolving in the place where the slide is placed, and also a larger one placed at some distance — the latter representing a wheel, the spokes of which are painted in black on a sheet of white cardboard. When this is made to revolve rapidly in the rays coming from the lantern, all trace of the spokes will be completely lost ; but on causing the small disk to revolve at nearly the same speed as the larger, the latter will appear to be moving slowly, although moving rapidly, and by increasing the speed of the smaller wheel, the larger will gradually appear to slacken in speed until it appears to be motionless, and then appa- rently begin to move in an opposite direction to which it is really revolving. Silhouettes, &c. — Paper patterns, silhouettes, &c., suspended by a thread attached to the feet, and twirled before the condenser, give a very amusing and curious effect. Galvanic Action. — Fill the tank with a solution of nitrate of silver, and introduce at each end two wires from a small battery ; from one of the wires a beautiful silver tree will immediately begin to grow. The experi- ment may be varied by substituting acetate of lead for a lead tree. Litmus solution, neutralized, will gradually redden around one point, while around the other it will assume a blue tint. With a solution of cochineal, the red color will be changed by the acid to a brilliant yellow, and by the ammonia to a rich purple. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 93 Natural Objects, as leaves, plants, fibres, texture of cloth, thin sections of wood, bone, &c., appear in dis- tinct outline upon a white ground. Live animals in the tank, as insects, larvae of gnats, shrimps, worms, lizards, &c., appear as huge monsters upon the screen, and excite a lively interest by their eccentric movements. Yertical Lantern. — Some very interesting experi- ments require the slides to lie in a horizontal position. This is commonly effected by reflecting the light up through the glass plate and the objective lens, and then by another mirror reflecting the image horizontally to the screen. A lantern appendage of this sort in now in the trade, at $20. But this is equivalent to placing the slide at least four inches from the face of the condenser, which, at best, puts it at great disadvantage, and then there is the loss of light by two reflections. The oil light cannot well bear these drawbacks, the lime light is better ; but with the lime light the Sciop- ticon may be placed on end, as shown at Fig. 30. When attached to its carrying box, in the ordinary way, it may be held in this position over the edge of a table, so as to be con- veniently operated. The front flame-chamber glass will protect the condenser from its greater liability to become heated. A glass disk, clean cut, and slightly larger than the condenser, answers for the slide plate; and if a rubber band be stretched about its periphery, like the tire of a wagon wheel, it will become a tank for fluids. With this arrangement, a mirror at an angle of 45° above the objective will throw the effect upon the screen without appreciable loss of light. 94 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. EippLE Waves. — Fill the tank, as it rests on the ver- tical lantern, with clear water, when taps on the edge of the glass will start ripple waves, which will be seen on the screen in varied harmonious arrangements of form. Touching the surface with the point of a fine wire will start the waves in circles. Vibrations effected by- drawing a fiddle bow across the edge are seen to vary- according to the different tones produced. Adhesion Figures. — Drops of various oils upon the surface of the water, essential oils for instance, will ex- hibit various interesting adhesion figures, each oil as- suming some peculiar form of outline. Magnetic Curves. — A thin bit of magnetic steel, say three-fourths of an inch long by one-eighth wide, ce- mented on the under side of a glass plate, will attract fine iron filings scattered upon the plate into curves, illustrating the deviation of the magnetic attraction at either pole and the neutral axis in the centre of the magnet. A few taps oh the glass will assist the arrange- ment. CHAPTER YIII. CONCERT EXERCISES. The value of visible illustrations as a means^of im- parting instruction, and of affording rational entertain- ment, depends much on the accompanying oral explana- tions. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 95 Except to a very limited extent, it is not practicable (as many seem to suppose it is), to forward with a mis- cellaneous selection of magic lantern slides a printed lecture. In the absence of special provisions for supplying this demand, some general hints in this direction may here prove acceptable. In some assemblages (possibly in some Sunday-schools), very little can be said to advantage on account of the prevailing noise and confusion. The exhibitor having (for love or money) accepted the situation, the question arises as to how to make the best of it. In such cases in particular it is politic, as well as proper, to select slides unexceptionable in their influence. Grotesque and ridiculous representations gratify a de- praved taste, and render a demoralized company still more unruly. It is better to please by what is strikingly excellent and beautiful. Without assuming the attitude of a reformer, one may take advantage of the lull of expectancy preceding a change of scene to give in a natural voice some interest- ing particulars of the forthcoming picture. " Your mystical lore, As coming events cast their shadows before," will be respected, and you may be able, by judicious management, to strengthen your position on vantage ground. Even in a civilized assembly (and we may well hope to find ourselves in no other), some tact is needful, as well as agreeable speech and faultless manipu- lation. BIBLE PICTURES. Among standard colored lantern slides, Bible pictures properly take the lead. They embody the genius of the 96 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. most gifted artists, in connection with subjects of the most thrilling interest to mankind. We may name the picture, particularizing when nec- essary its several parts, and then repeat the Scripture which is illustrated. Take, for example, Adam and Eve in Paradise; the luxuriant foliage, the lion, the ox, the horse, the birds, and alas! the subtle serpent. " In tlie beginning God created the heaven and the earth. " And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our like- ness ; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowls of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. " So God created man in his own image; in the image of God created he him ; male and female created he them. " And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden ; and there he put the man whom he had formed." — Gen. 1 : 1, 26, 27; 2: 8. Or take the scene where Joseph presents his father to Pharaoh. Mark the postures of each, and consider the manners of the times. "And Joseph brought in Jacob his father, and set him before Pharaoh; and Jacob blessed Phtiraoh. And Pharaoh said unto Jacob, How old art thou? And Jacob said unto Pharaoh, The days of the years of my pilgrimage are a hundred and thirty years : few and evil have the days of the years of my life been, and have not attained unto the days of the years of the life of my fathers in the days of their pilgrimage. And Jacob blessed Pharaoh, and went out from before Pharaoh." — Gen. 47 : 7, 8, 9, 10. Thus Scripture, to any desired extent, may be readily selected appropriate to any Bible picture, from Adam and Eve in Eden to St. John's vision of the Celestial City. So the exhibitor has ample material at hand for shaping an effective and charming discourse, suited to any series of Bible pictures which he may have to show. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 97 The Bible is, par excellence, the storehouse of un- failing supplies for the SUNDAY-SCHOOL. In this modern institution, as elsewhere, there are many duties to be performed, and more ways than one of doing each of them. We will indicate, in this con- nection, one way of using the Sciopticon. Each member of the school takes a small moneyed interest in the con- cern at the outset, which insures his taking a more lively interest in the success of the enterprise afterwards. The apparatus is strictly in the hands of an authorized keeper, because lax regulations suppress all genuine enthusiasm. The operator arranges his slides in proper order and position, and so is able to avoid ridiculous blunders. His characters are introduced on time, steady and up- right, and his scenery glides into place as if seen from the deck of a moving steamer. It is good policy to enlist as many pupils as possible into active service, thus incidentally enlisting the sym- pathies of as many circles of relatives and friends. Suppose repentance is the theme, and the " Prodigal's Eeturn " is illustrated upon the screen. A pupil, fully prepared, stands in his place and recites the whole para- ble as found in Luke 15. Another pupil, rising in his class, recites : " Therefore also now saith the Lord, Turn ye even to me with all your heart, and with fasting, and with weeping, and with mourning. And rend your heart, and not your garments, and turn unto the Lord your God ; for he is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness, and repenteth him of the evil." — Joel 2 : 12, 13. A third voice rings out clearly : " Let the wicked forsake his way, and the unrighteous man his 98 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. thoughts ; and let him return unto the Lord, and he will have mercy upon him; and to our God, for he will abundantly pardon." — Is. 55 : 7. Passages bearing on repentance and forgiveness are very numerous, from which selections can be made to any extent desired. Illustrations with fewer relations to parallel passages may be coupled with others to ex- tend the exercise to proper length. Selections also from modern writers, well rendered, give pleasing variety and artistic effect to the perform- ance. The sacred poems of N. P. Willis, for example, are very appropriate. The following extracts may serve as specimens : ABRAHAM'S SACRIFICE. . . . . He rose up, and laid The wood upon the altar. All was done. He stood a moment, and a deep, quick flush Passed o'er his countenance ; and then he nerved His spirit with a bitter strength, and spoke — " Isaac ! my only son !" The boy looked up . " Where is the lamb, my father ?" Oh, the tones, The sweet, familiar voice of a loved child ! What would its music seem at such an hour ? It was the last deep struggle. Abraham held His loved, his beautiful, his only son. And lifted up his arm, and called on God, And lo I God's angel stayed him — and he fell Upon his face, and wept. HEALING OF THE DAUGHTER OP JAIRtJS. . . . . The Saviour raised Her hand from off her bosom, and spread out The snowy fingers in his palm, and said — ^'Maiden! arise/" — and suddenly a flush Shot o'er her forehead, and along her lips, SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 99 And through her cheek the rallied color ran ; And the still outline of her graceful form Stirred in the linen vesture ; and she clasped The Saviour's hand, and fixing her dark eyes Full on his beaming countenance, arose I CHKIST "WEEPING OVER JERUSALEM, . . . How oft, Jerusalem ! would I Have gathered you, as gathereth a hen Her brood beneath her wings, but ye would not I He thought not of the death that he would die — He thought not of the thorns he knew must pierce His forehead — of the buffet on the cheek — The scourge, the mocking homage, the foul scorn I Gethsemane stood out beneath his eye Clear in the morning sun, and there he knew While they who "could not watch with him one hour " Were sleeping, he should sweat great drops of blood, Praying the " cup might pass." And Golgotha Stood bare and desert by the city wall, And in its midst, to his prophetic eye, Eose the rough cross, and its keen agonies Were numbered all — the nails were in his feet — The insulting sponge was pressing on his lips — The blood and water gushing from his side — The dizzy faintness swimming in his brain — And, while his own disciples fled in fear, A world's death-agonies all mixed in his I Ay — he forgot all this. He only saw Jerusalem — the chosen — the loved — the lost ! He only felt that for her sake his life Was vainly given, and, in his pitying love, The sufferings that would clothe the heavens in black Were quite forgotten. Was there ever love, In earth or heaven, equal unto this ? Longer or shorter extracts may be used as occasion requires. The following are titles of others, equally 100 SOIOPTICON MANUAL. beautiful, and descriptive of subjects illustrated by lan- tern slides ; Hagar in the Wilderness," " The Shuna- mite/' " Jepthah's Daughter," " Hannah and Samuel," "Absalom," " Eispah with her Sons," "Baptism of Christ," " The Widow of Nain," " The Eaising of Laza- rus," "Christ's Entrance into Jerusalem," and "Scene in Gethsemane." The following poem, by an author unknown to us, will be inserted entire, as it so vividly portrays the mind of the parent and the love of the Saviour for children, and so graphically describes the picture of "Christ Bless- ing Little Children :" " The Master has come over Jordan," Said Hannah, the mother, one day; " Is healing the people who throng Him, With a touch of his finger, they say. " And now I shall carry the children, Little Eachel, and Samuel, and John ; I shall carry the baby Esther, For the Lord to look upon." The father looked at her kindly, But he shook his head, and smiled ; — " Now, who but a doting mother "Would think of a thing so wild ? " If the children were tortured by demons, Or dying of fever, 'twere well ; Or had they the taint of the leper, Like many in Israel." " Nay, do not hinder me, Nathan, I feel such a burden of care. If I carry it to the Master., Perhaps I shall leave it there. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 101 " If He lay His hand on the children, My heart will be lighter, I know, For a blessing forever and ever Will follow them as they go." So over the hills of Judah, Along by the vine-rows green, With Esther asleep on her bosom, And Eachel her brothers between ; 'Mong the people who hung on His teaching, Or waited His touch and His word, Through the rows of proud Pharisees listenings She pressed to the feet of the Lord. "Now why shouldst thou hinder the Master," Said Peter, " with children like these ? Seest not how from morning till evening He teacheth, and healeth disease?" Then Christ said, " Forbid not the children : Permit them to come unto Me," And He took in His arms little Esther, And Eachel He set on His knee. And the heavy heart of the mother Was lifted all earth-care above, As he laid His hand on the brothers. And blessed them with tenderest love. And He said of the babe in His bosom, " Of such is the kingdom of heaven," — And strength for all duty and trial, That hour to her spirit was given. A little poem published by the American Tract Society, called the " Old, Old Story," could be used in connection with a series of six slides. The « Song of the Pilgrimage," and " Christiana and 102 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. her Children," are much used in connection with the corresponding slides. These published exercises afford practical hints, applicable also to Bible slides. Singing should be introduced at every convenient opportunity, not only for its general good effect, but that each individual may participate directly in the exercises. Texts of Scripture, and other selections, recited in this way at the rehearsals, and at the concert, become fixed in the memory of all. Who cannot remember such recitations heard in childhood, even to the tones and inflections of the voice — of voices, maybe — not now heard among the living ? These modest recitations require no parade upon an illuminated rostrum; an occasional omission is not very noticeable. The exercises can be arranged by the superintendent, divided among the teachers, assigned to the pupils, and committed to memory by them with- out severe labor on the part of any. One or two slides for the concert exercise, with, say a dozen or so for subsequent recreation, answers the purpose. Such a concert exercise, well gotten up, may be several times repeated with growing interest. It often occurs in schools, where the burdens and duties are monopolized by the few, that the many be- come impatient of control and hard to please, A hun- dred pictures in such cases hardly suffices, and a repeti- tion of the same is scarcely tolerated. An earnest worker in the Sunday-school, therefore, can accomplish more good, not by trjnng to do every- thing himself, but by skilfully assigning work for others, and seeing that it is properly done. After all, there will be enough left for pastor and superintendent to do and say, especially when it comes to slides selected from SCIOPTICON MANUAL. lOB « Class III or Y of the appended catalogue, which will require a lecturer well informed in relation to BIBIiE liAITDS. The following descriptiona are selected from the " Bible Dictionary," " Bible Lands," " The Land and the Book," " Bayard Taylor's Travels," &c., to suit the slides in Class III. As works on Egypt are less common than the Bible Dictionary, a description of each of the twenty Egyptian views is given. JERUSALEM. (For description of the City, and view from Mount of Olives, see Catalogue, Class III.) The Temple Abea. — The Temple Area, the precincts known to Christians as the Mosque of Omar, but called by the Moslems the "Dome of the Kock," the harem more sacred to Moslems than any spot on earth, except Mecca, is jealously guarded by the Turks. It con- tains about thirty-five acres, a large portion of which is sprinkled with pomegranates and cypresses, with here and there a shrine. Above this space rises the platform of the great mosque, paved with marble, and ascended by a flight of white marble steps, surmounted by a beau- tifully carved screen or open gateway, also of white marble. The edifice is an octagon of about one hundred and seventy feet diameter. There are four doors at the oj^posite cardinal points. The dome is sustained by four great piers, and has twelve arches, which rest on columns. The mosque is very beautiful with a kind of Moorish beauty. The octagonal walls below the dome are cov- ered with porcelain mosaic ; the roof inside is of the richest woods, inlaid and carved; the floors of marble 104 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. mosaic; the windows like jeweliy, of small pieces of Yenetian stained glass. Beautiful columns, and an elaborately worked balustrade, surround the holy stone (Es Sakrah, the rock), which Moslems believe to be the centre of the world, suspended from heaven by an invisi- ble golden chain. It is a mass of the native rock of Moriah, the sloping summit or peak of the hill; all the rest of the ridge was cut away when levelling the plat- form for the temple and its courts. The Tower op Hippicus. — The only castle of any particular importance is that at the Jaffa Grate, com- monly called the " Tower of David." The lower part is built of huge stones, roughly cut, and with a deep bevel around the edges. It is believed by many to be the Hippicus of Josephus, and to this idea owes its chief importance, for the historian makes that the point of departure in laying down the line of the ancient walls of Jerusalem. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre. — The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is now in the joint possession of all the Eastern Christian sects. Greeks, Latins, Arme- nians, and Copts have each a chapel within its inclos- ures, which embrace the alleged sites of the place of the crucifixion and the tomb of the Eedeemer. It has been built at many different periods, and under various cir- cumstances. " The front is a fine specimen," says Lord Nugent, "of what is called the later Byzantine style of architec- ture." As lately as 1808, the whole of the principal cupola, and a great part of the church, were destroyed by fire. But some parts, and especially the Greek chapel, occupying the whole of the eastern end of the nave, have been restored with good taste and judgment, and SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 106 are magnificent in their proportions and decorations. The sepulchre looks very much like a small marble house. It stands quite alone, directly under the aper- ture in the centre of the dome. The Jews' Place or Wailing. — No sight meets the eye in Jerusalem more sadly suggestive than the wailing- place of the Jews, in the Tyropean, at the base of the wall which supports the west side of the Temple Area, where some ancient stones still mark the old walls of the temple. In past ages the Jews have paid immense sums to their oppressors for the miserable satisfaction of kissing these stones, and pouring out lamentations at the foot of their ancient sanctuaiy. With trembling lips and tearful eyes they sing : " Be not wroth very sore, O Lord, neither remember iniquity forever; behold, see, we beseech thee, we are all thy people. Thy holy cities are a wilderness; Jerusalem is a desolation. Our holy and beautiful house, where our fathers praised thee, is burned up with fire, and all our pleasant things are laid waste." The Golden Gate at Jerusalem. — In former days the gates of towns were of the utmost importance; they were the means of ingress and egress, and usually had rooms over them, and, above these, watch-towers, so that the approach of an enemy might be seen before- hand. The Golden Gate, in the east wall of the Temple Area, is ancient, and the interior of it ornamented with rich and elaborate carving in good Grecian style. It is now walled up. Garden of Gethsemane. — "Then cometh Jesus to a place called Gethsemane, and saith unto the disciples, Sit ye here, while I go and pray yonder." — Matt. 26 : 36. 8 106 OPTICON MANUAL. Across the brook Kedron, probably at the foot of Mount Olivet, was the "place" or "farm" of Gethsemane. There seems to have been a garden, or rather orchard, attached to it, and to its grateful shade we read that our Lord often resorted with His disciples. At present a modern garden marks the site of the ancient one with eight venerable olive trees, which some claim grew there in the Saviour's time. It has been argued that Titus cut down all the trees about Jerusalem, The probability would seem to be that they were planted by Christian hands to mark the spot; unless, like the sacred olive of the Acropolis, they may have reproduced themselves. Bethlehem. — Bethlehem was in existence when Jacob returned from his long sojourn in Padan Aram. Here Eachel died. It was in the neighboring fields, in later times, that Kuth, the Moabitess, went gleaning when she came with her mother-in-law, Naomi, to dwell in the land of Israel. It was the birthplace of David, but is best known to us as the birthplace of the Redeemer, great David's greater son and Lord. *' On the plains near were the shepherds abiding in the fields, and keep- ing watch over their flocks by night, when lo ! the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them, and they were sore afraid. And the angel said unto tliem. Fear not, for behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people ; for unto you is born this day, in the city of David, a Saviour which is Christ the Lord." — Luke 2 : 8-14. Hebron. — Hebron is one of the most ancient cities in the world still existing. "It was built," says a sacred writer, " seven years before Zoan in Egypt."-]Srum. 13 : 22, and was a well-known town when Abraham entered SCIOPTICON MANUAL. lOT Canaan 3780 years ago. Sarah died at Hebron, and Abraham then bought from Ephron, the Hittite, the cave of Machpelah, to serve as a family tomb. Jacob gave commandment to his sons, " Bury me with my fathers in the cave that is in the field of Ephron, the Hittite. There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife. There they buried Isaac and Eebekah his wife, and there I buried Leah." And his sons did unto him according as he commanded them, and buried him in the cave of Machpelah. The massive walls of the harem or mosque, within which the cave lies, forms the most remarkable object in the whole city. Hebron now contains about 5000 inhabitants, of whom some fifty families are Jews. It is picturesquely situated in a narrow valley, sur- rounded by rocky hills. " The Pool op Siloam " is one of the few undisputed localities in Jerusalem, still retaining its old name. It is of no considerable size, being eighteen feet broad and nineteen deep. It is, however, never full, having in it usually about four feet of water. It is a complete ruin. It was to this pool that our Lord sent the blind man, after he had anointed his eyes with clay. It was to Siloam that the Levite was sent with the golden pitcher on the last day of the feast of Tabernacles, and from it he brought the water which was then poured over the sacrifice, in remembrance of the water that flowed from the rock Eephidim. Genesaret, or Sea of Galilee. — This view exhibits a portion of that large inland sea through which the Jordan flows from north to south. It is some thirteen miles long and six broad, and is remarkable for the low- ness of the basin in which it lies, being about seven hundred feet below the level of the ocean. No less than 108 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. nine cities stood on the very shores of the lake. A great part of our Lord's life was spent near it. Here he taught the people out of Peter's ship, and wondrously filled the nets, so that they brake; walked on the waves, rebuked the winds, and calmed the sea. From the castle Saphet a vast panorama, embracing a thousand points of historic and sacred interest, is presented to the eye. Saphet is truly a high tower. Here are beveled stones, as heavy and as ancient in appearance as any ruins in the country, and they prove that this has been a place of importance from a remote age. Baths and City op Tiberias. — The sea of Galilee is also called the sea of Tiberias, from the celebrated city of that name. About a mile south from the original site of the city, along the shores, are the celebrated warm baths, which the Eoman naturalists reckoned as among the greatest known curiosities of the world. The water of these springs has a sulphurous and most dis- agreeable smell, and is so nauseous that it cannot be drank, and is not used internally. The baths, however, have a great medicinal reputation. There is but one com- mon bathing cistern, where the water is hot enough to cook an egg— from 130° to 140" Fahrenheit — yet it is always crowded with the lame, the halt, the withered, and the leprous. Nazareth. — Nazareth is situated among the hills which constitute the south ridges of Lebanon, just be- fore they sink into the Plain of Esdraelon. It derives its celebrity from its connection with the history of Christ. The "Fountain of the Yirgin'Ms situated at the northeastern extremity of the town. The brow of the hill is still called the Mount of the Precipitation (Luke 14: 29), and is half a league southward of Nazareth. 8CI0PTIC0N MANUAL. 109 The Yalley of Jehoshaphat. — The Yalley of Jehosh- aphat was the favorite burying-plaee of the Jews from the earliest times ; accordingly we find in it a number of remarkable tombs. The monolith of Zachariah is a cubical block of about twenty feet every way, and sur- mounted by a flattened pyramid of at least ten feet elevation. It is one solid mass hewn out of the moun- tain, the adjacent rock being cut away, so that it stands entirely detached; there is no known entrance. The tomb of St. James shows a fine front to the west. The cave extends forty or fifty feet back into the mountain. Some two hundred feet north of this is the tomb of Absalom. The entire height of this very striking "pil- lar" cannot be less than forty feet. Believing it to be Absalom's tomb, the natives throw stones against it, and spit at it as they pass by. Close to this monument, on the northeast, is the reputed tomb of J ehoshaphat. "The Dead Sea," says Dr. Thomson, "without any reference to what others have said, I can testify to the following facts : The water is perfectly clear and trans- parent. The taste is bitter and salt, far beyond that of the ocean. It acts upon the tongue and mouth like alum, smarts in the eyes like camphor, produces a burn- ing, pricking sensation, and it stiffens the hair of the head much like pomatum. The water has a much greater specific gravity than the human body, and hence I did not sink lower than to the arms when standing perpendicularly in it. We saw no fish nor living animals in the water, though birds were flying over it unharmed. All of us noticed an unnatural gloom, not upon the sea only, but also over the whole plain below Jericho. It had the appearance of Indian summer in America, and like a vast funeral pall let 110 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. down from heaven, it hung heavily over the lifeless bosom of this mysterious lake/' Its area is about two hundred and fifty square geographical miles. At its northern end it receives the stream of the Jordan. The depression of its surface, and the depth which it attains below that surface, combined with the absence of any outlet, render it one of the most remarkable spots on the globe. The Fords or the Jordan.— The reach of the Jor- dan here shown is the place to which pilgrims of the Greek Church resort every year, in Holy Week^ to renew their baptism by bathing in the Jordan, and it is the spot which tradition points out as the place where our Saviour was baptized. The Jordan is a rapid and tor- tuous stream, interrupted by many rapids, and annually " overflows his banks all the time of harvest." So far as this overflow extends there is a belt of luxurious vegetation, but beyond it the ground is barren. EGYPT. From time immemorial Egypt has been an object of interest to the rest of the world. Almost the dawn of Scripture light breaks upon the rocks and sands of this wonderful valley, whose vast river diffuses fertility wherever it flows. Here the children of Israel served the Pharaohs four hundred and thirty years and grew into a great nation. From the banks of the JSf ile they set out on that marvelous pilgrimage to Sinai and Zion, those two rocky pinnacles whence the splendors of the Law, and the mild and beneficent radiance of the Gospel, beamed forth upon mankind. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. Ill A Traveler's Nile Boat, or " Dahabeek."— The traveler who visits Egypt can avail himself of public conveyance as far as Cairo, but if he desire to visit the remains of ancient grandeur that lie to the south, he must engage a Nile boat, which becomes, for the time being, both the means of locomotion and his home j and as all the points of interest ai'e near the river, a more commodious plan for visiting them could hardly be de- vised. As there are no towns above Cairo everything in the shape of comforts and luxuries must be provided before setting out. Street in Cairo. — The streets in Cairo, like those of most Oriental towns, are narrow, being some eight or ten feet wide. The houses are mostly three stories in height, each story projecting over the other, and the plain stone walls are either whitewashed or striped with horizontal red bars, as seen in the picture. The beautiful latticed windows, " masbarobeahs," are the chief ornament of the old Mameluke houses in Cairo. The wood seems rather woven in the loom than cut with the saw and chisel.* Through these lattices of fine net- work, with borders worked in lace-like patterns, and sometimes tipped with slender turrets, the Cairo ladies sit and watch the crowd passing to and fro, themselves unseen. " The mother of Sisera looked out at a window and cried through the lattice, Why is his chariot so long in coming?" — Jud. 5 : 28. Donkey-riding in the streets, and bazars, is almost universal. The animals are small but strong. The driver runs behind, gives the donkey a punch, cries "O man, take care! O boy, get out of the way \" and the rider is hurried into a confusion of other donkeys, loaded camels, water-carriers, and foot- men. To one unaccustomed to donkey-riding it seems 112 SOIOPTICON MANUAL. as hazardous as going on foot. The streets of Cairo are watered several times a day, and are nearly always cool and free from dust. Ferry at Old Cairo. — Old Cairo is situated about two miles from modern Cairo, The wonderful clearness and brilliancy of the Eastern atmosphere; the absence of smoke, charcoal alone being burned; the picturesque eifect of the ruin into which many of its great monu- ments are falling; the rich, green valley of the Nile; the river; the Pyramids in the distance; and the fading of the landscape into the boundless haze of the Lybian desert, constitutes a scene which, for splendor and inter- est, is perhaps unequaled in the world. The taste for gaudy and fantastic coloring has been for ages a distin- guishing feature of Eastern embellishment. The alter- nate red and white stripe is conspicuous on the sails of the ferry boats, which are constantly passing back and forth between Cairo and the island of Ehoda opposite. Here we have a group of Arabs from the desert, with their camels, dealers in oranges, vegetables, sugar-cane, &c. For picturesqueness of costume, there is nothing like the East; the flow of the drapery so simple and natural, the coloring so deep and brilliant. Tombs op the Memlook Kings at Cairo. — These tombs are fine specimens of Saracenic architecture, and were erected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Pyramids. — The Pyramids of Gizeh, three in number, are situated about eight miles from Cairo, and should be visited by the tourist before entering on his river cruise. They stand on a ridge of stone, which has been so cut as to form part of the basement. The great Pyramid is mainly composed of blocks of limestone brought from the SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 113 quarries on the other side of the Nile, about sixteen miles off. It covers about 13 J acres; its present height is 456 feet ; it must formerly have been about 480 feet high. Its sides now present the appearance of irregular steps, varying from four feet eight inches to one foot eight inches ; but it appears to have been covered originally ■with a casing of polished granite; a portion of the cover- ing still remains on the second Pyramid. Herodotus tells us that 100,000 men were employed twenty years in building this Pyramid, which appears to have been chiefly intended as a mausoleum of its founder. The granite covering on the second Pyramid makes its ascent more dangerous than the first, which presents no other difficulty than the ascent of a rugged staircase, about four hundred feet in height, in which the steps vary from two feet to a little more than four. 114 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. IsTear the Pyramids, more wondrous and more awful than all else in the land of Egypt, there sits the lonely Sphinx. This monument, so imposing in its aspect, even in the mutilated state to which it has been reduced, has always excited the admiration of those who possessed sufficient knowledge of art to appreciate its merits at a first glance. The contemplative turn of the eye, the mild expression of the mouth, and the beautiful dispos- ition of the drapery at the angle of the forehead suffi- ciently attest the admirable" skill of the artist by whom it was executed. Heliopolis. — Heliopolis,the sacred city, the On, where J oseph's wife, Asenath, lived. A few scattered blocks, a solitary obelisk covered with hieroglyphics, these, with some mounds of sand and rubbish, are all that is left to mark the site of the once priestly city. *a The Simoom. — In crossing the desert travelers are frequently exposed to the Simoom or sand storm. Its approach is indicated by a redness in the air, the sky is suddenly overcast, clouds of hot sand obscure every- thing, and often render further progress for the time impossible. The whole caravan, camels and men, then lie prostrate on the ground till it passes over. Colossal Statues of Thebes.— The Colossi of the plain. These immense sitting figures, fifty-three feet above the plain, which has buried their pedestals, were erected by Amunoph III, and were originally in front of a large temple, of which only the ground-plan remains. The more distant statue is the vocal, Memnon of history. An inscription made by one of the Eoman emperors records the hearing of musical sounds. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 115 Obelisk and Propylon Luxor.— Part of the ruins of Thebes shows the arrangements that the Egyptians adopted in their temples. The entrance by a doorway between two immense moles of stonework, termed pylse. The victories of Rameses are sculptured on the face of the pylon; but his colossi, solid figures of granite, which sit on either side of the entrance, have been much de- faced. The lonely obelisk, seen a little in advance to the left, is more perfect than its mate, which now stands in the Place de la Concorde, at Paris. Colossal Statue Remeses.— The mutilated statue in this view was the largest monolithic figure transported by the Egyptians from the place where it was quarried. Its weight when entire was nearly nine hundred tons, and this statue now lies in enormous fragments around its pedestal. The statue in its sitting position must have been nearly sixty feet in height, and is the largest in the world ; one of its toes is a yard in length. The Turks and Arabs have cut several mill-stones out of its head without any apparent diminution of its size. Approach to the Temple at Karnak.— From the entrance of the temple at Luxor to the pylon at Karnak, a distance of a mile and a half, an avenue of colossal sphinxes once existed. The sphinxes have disappeared and an Arab road leads over the site. On reaching the vicinity of Karnak the camel path drops into a broad excavated avenue, lined with fragments of sphinxes. As you advance the sphinxes are better preserved and remain seated on their pedestals, but they have all been decapitated. Though of colossal proportions, they are seated so close to each other that it must have required nearly two thousand to form the double row to Luxor. The avenue finally reaches a single pylon, of majestic 116 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. proportions, built by one of the Ptolemys and covered with profuse hieroglyphics. Passing through this, an^ other pylon, followed by a pillared court, and a temple built by the later Eemisides. Hall of Columns at Karnak. — Three thousand years ago and this forest of columns was standing. Here Cambyses stayed his chariot-wheels to gaze in wonder at the triumphs of architecture. Here Sesostris was wel- comed back with the loud acclaim of millions from his conquests. The Csesars were awed into humility when they trod these aisles, and even the Arab hosts, as they swept by on the tide to victory, paused to admire; and the armies of France, as they rushed in pursuit of the flying Memlooks, were so struck with amazement at the ruins that they fell upon their knees in homage and rent the air with their shouts of applause. The main aisle is composed of an avenue of twelve pillars, six on each side, each thirty-six feet in circum- ference and nearly eighty in height. Ponderous masses of sculptured stone. The spreading bell of the lotus blossoms crown them with an atmosphere of lightness and grace. On each side of the main aisle are seven other rows of columns, one hundred and twenty-two in all, of immense size, and so close as sometimes not to allow a column that has lost its erect position to fall to the ground. They date from the time of Eameses III, the Sesostris of Greek writers. These columns are a good illustration of the way in which the Egyptians covered all parts of their buildings with inscriptions. The Obelisks at Karnak.— These obelisks, the most ancient now standing in Egypt, date about 1800 B. C. Thoy are granite, and retain the sharpness of their angles in a wonderful manner. This view shows in a SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 117 striking manner the desolation that prevails over all these Egyptian ruins. The total circumference of Kar- nak, including its numerous pylse or gateways, is a mile and a half The row of columns seen in the picture are part of the Hall of Columns. The Approach to Phil^. — Philse, the "Jewel of the Nile," is situated a short distance from those rapids of the Nile, known as the first cataracts. These cataracts are formed by the bed of the river being crossed by a formation of granite, through which it has cut its way, producing a series of rapids. Opposite to these cataracts stood the ancient city of Syene. It was from the quarries at Syene that the Egyptians obtained their monoliths, whether obelisks or statues. These were sculptured on the spot, and then transported by the labor of men to the places where they were to be erected. The island of Philffi contains about fifty acres, and is covered with ruins of temples and palaces, all of which belong to the Ptolemaic period. The basin of black jagged mountains folding it in on all sides, yet half disclosing the avenues to Nubia and Egypt; the clusters of palms, with here and there a pillar or wall of a temple, the ring of the bright river, no longer turbid, as in lower Egypt; of these it is the centre, as it was once the focus of their beauty. YiEW ON THE Island of Phil^.— The temple which belongs to the era of the Ptolemys, and is little more than two thousand years old, was built by various mou- arehs, and is very irregular in its plan. The columns of the temple are very different from those of Luxor and Karnak, indicating the result of the contact of Greek and Egyptian systems of architecture. Above the true capi- tat is a square block that bears on its four sides the head 118 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. of Osiris, under the form of a bull. It was into this form of idolatry that the Israelites were so constantl}^ lapsing, termed in Scripture, the Worship of the Grolden Calf Pharaoh's Bed, Phil^. — This temple is almost per- fect ; it never had and never was intended to have a roof It is one of that class termed Hyjjoethral temples, from their being open to the sky. Its name, Pharaoh's Bed, is derived from a tradition that Osiris was buried at Philffi, and from this it was that the Egyptians were in the habit of swearing by him who lies at Philge. Sculptured Gateway. — This is a good illustration of the way in which almost all parts of the buildings were covered with inscriptions. The large figures on this doorway were originally painted in bright colors, and on some of these, patches of the original paint still re- main. Temple Edpou. — This is perhaps the best specimen extant of the pylon of the Egyptian temples; it is up- wards of one hundred feet in height, but a considerable part of the base is covered up with sand, which has also almost filled up the area of the temple. In this part the valley of the Nile is wider than in many places; it varies from about ten miles in width to only enough to allow of the. passage of the river. Many of the temples are built close to the waters of the sacred river. . Temple op Kalabshe, Nubia. — The space inclosed within the ruins of this temple is covered with sculp- tured figures, among which the most remarkable is the representation of a human sacrifice, where the victim, whose whole clothing consists of a scanty waist-cloth, is on his knees with his hands tied behind his back. SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 119 Behind him stands a priest with lofty mitre, who with one hand holds him by his long hair, while in the other he brandishes a small axe, ready to strike off his head. This horrid scene takes place in the presence of Osiris Hierax, who is seated on his throne enjoying the spec- tacle. The SHADOor. — This view presents a scene on the Nile. A group of stately palm trees, tall and slender, with feathery plumes on their proud heads, and large clusters of golden fruit. The shadoof is a simple con- trivance for raising water; a method very common both in ancient and modern Egypt. It consists of a lever moving on a pivot, which is loaded at one end with a lump of clay, or some other weight, and has at the other a bowl or basket, as seen in the picture. "Wells have usually troughs of wood or stone, into which the water is emptied for the use of persons or animals coming to the well. VIEWS OF INTEREST IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORIiD. These are described in gazetteers, and to some extent in school geographies. Some lecturers appear as very accoinplished travellers by using well-written guide-books. For an acquaintance with historical pictures, we may consult the histories of the times. With i-egard to " views conveying moral lessons," the name of each slide affords a text upon which the lecturer may base what remarks he may have to offer. NURSERT TAIiES. English catalogues contain many familiar poems and stories, particularly the nursery tales, which are illus- trated by lantern slides. Not having room to reprint 120 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. these here, we would refer to the toy books everywhere sold for these wonderful specimens of English literature. At the risk, however, of making the rest of our matter seem prosy by contrast, we will copy just the closing part of the description of a long slide of animals, to indicate how much is made to depend on words and music, and how little on the merits of the slide. [Sound of Horn. Music. Last tune of the " Lancers."] Yes, here we are in full cry ! The real thing, too ! I " Old Mother Slipper Slopper jumped out of bed, And out of the window she poked her head ; Husband ! O husband ! the gray goose is dead, And the fox is gone out of the town, 01" Yes, there he goes, and the old lady after him, and she has called up John, the servant, and he joins in the chase, and old Mr. Slipper Slopper comes next ; but he's rather behind, as he's been to call " Bumble," the parish con- stable, who has come out with his staff to catch the thief. Tally ho ! And now, my children, recollect I told you that the lion was the king of the beasts, and so, as a conclusion to this entertainment, I shall show you how he kept his court. (Music.) There he is, sitting in full state ; and now, if our kind friend at the piano will play a " March," you shall see a grand procession, and all the animals passing in order before him. [" Grand March," during which the slide is moved slowly. J Good Night. Tune and Motto, " GoD Save the Queen." SOIOPTIOON MANUAL. 121 COMPOSITION PICTURES. The miscellaneous views in Class X are mostly com- position pictures, suggesting their own descriptions. Take, for example, this picture of the milkmaid. The cow, so gently submitting to the maiden's manip- ulations, evidently feels quite at home. Appearances indicate that she is capable of giving a pailful of milk. She has taken the position convenient for the milkmaid, who, for the time, has suspended operations for a social chat with the young farmer who is resting upon the barn- yard gate. We may not hear what they say, but little sister, doubtless, is verifying the old adage, that "little pitchers have large ears." The two reclining animals may have borne the yoke seen at the left, during working hours, and are now wooing " Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep." The animal at the right is too young for active service, and has not yet experienced the ills of a laborious life, of which the harrow near by is a suggestive emblem. 9 122 SCIOPTICON MANUAL. The old hen in front cannot boast a very numerous hrood, but the fewer mouths the better cheer. " Throw some crumbs and scatter seed, And let the hungry chickens feed." The farmhouse on the rising ground, nestled among the trees, has an imposing apjDearance, but it is nothing to be compared to the elegant castles built in the air by that admiring young farmer and the loving maiden. May the course of their true love ever run smooth. STATUART. Statuary and many other pictures may also be an- nounced, and then described by what the picture itself shows^ as in the example following : The Council of War, by John Eodgers. — President Lincoln is seated and holding before him a map of the campaign. Secretary Stanton stands behind his chair, wiping his glasses and listening to General Grant, who is explaning his plan, which he is pointing out on the map. The Seasons, by Thorwaldsen. — Four circular bas- reliefs, viz. : Spring. — A female figure, attended by two genii bear- ing baskets of flowers. Summer. — A harvest scene, with a group of reapers. Autumn. — A hunter returns to his home bearing game; a woman and child (seated beneath a grape vine) receive him. Winter. — An old man warming his hands over a brazier, while an old woman lights her lamp. " Behold, fond man I See here thy pictured life ; pass some few years, Thy flowering spring, thy summer's ardent strength, SCIOPTICON MANUAL. 123 Thy sober autumn fading into age, And pale concluding winter comes at last And shuts the scene." MOTABIiE SlilDES. These of course tell their own story. Now and then, an appropriate recitation can be found for them. The swan floating upon the moving waters, for in- stance, may be assumed as illustrating the legend that her first and only song is sung as she floats down the river on her dying day. " 'Tis the swan, my love, She is floating down from her native grove, No loved one now — no nestling nigh — She is floating down by herself to die. Death darkens her eye and unplumes her wings, Yet the sweetest song is the last she sings, Live so, my love, that when Death shall come, Swan-like and sweet, it may waft thee home." Spectators, in the limited time given them, can hardly be expected to take in all the details of a complex view, without more or less of this particularizing, which can be resorted to as occasion requires, therefore, in connection with a wide range of subjects. SCIENTIFIC SlilDESt, dee. The illustrations enumerated in the Scientific Depart- ment, of the appended catalogue, are suited to the text- books in common use. Works on natural history afford descriptions of beasts, birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects. Botany describes plants and flowers. The explanations in Wells's G-eology, Cutter's Physi- ology, &c., are just as well suited to the corresponding 124 8CI0PTIC0N MANUAL. classes of lantern slides, because they are mostly after the same designs. The set of long astronomical slides has from time immemorial been accompanied by a printed lecture, which, though somewhat antiquated, still answers a pretty good purpose. Could a suitable lecture of similar shape accompany each of the forty sets of scientific illustrations, it would prove advantageous to many, and it would do no harm to any; so we are looking for something of the sort in the near future. But these sets of scientific slides them- selves leave scarcely anything to be desired in the way of fitness and excellence; and we have, moreover, in the Sciopticon an instrument unrivaled for convenience combined with efficiency. As before intimated, little has been attempted in this chapter but to indicate some of the ways of finding descriptions. When the use of the magic lantern was very limited, its slides could be described in small compass ; but now, a work that should describe all the slides in use, would hardly be less voluminous than the Encvclopedia Bri- tannica. SCIOPTIOON MANUAL. 125 CHAPTER IX. Slti f d